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MANS Tete gene \ ‘ te FR NR tae ag mn ware, be he ee Dott Se eee tee DTH Pe tere 9 a BER 20) FROIN 4 Me ie Se Mam eng ms agen me, Pe OAM mee ee ee ; Se ie See) Se re foe Tan ean ee MTN ee ee ener se Ree mee A: AT eee es Wee See teh ee ee uw hope Seca ical 5. dey ee ee ee PoP e mney Os * pce 00 te Meee ye Re ee trem Whe MT Ae ATS ND,» Ne Ame eee ein Stet: ee re ee ee Mr Se Swe ae cea miter s age se ee et) ee a Ph ys a ieee he Re ete poe nae nein 5 AN et es ee ban ae ona LUA An ON e ante n - Vite Rene tee See vee 8 te woe etre * q ; ua se } ; i } 3 ¥ ~ ’ de. 7 , , A Li ‘ " j x \ ; R = 1 art ' Re ba % ¢' C ‘ fa * ant f { i pod at } 2 4 A “ ah e CS ee 7 : ISSN 0303-2515 > ’ > yh ; fe sar . Ne «f a" eer at Sn tae a = $5 < 5 EB c < a ." om oOo Ww : ea 2 rr = * S) <2 rr a Tod ~ CAPE TOWN - VOLUME 100 PA INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS 1. MATERIAL should be original and not published elsewhere, in whole or in part. 2. 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For books give title in italics, edition, volume number, place of publication, publisher. For journal article give title of article, title of journal in italics (according to the World list of scientific periodicals. 4th ed. London: Butterworths, 1963), series in parentheses, volume number, part number in parentheses, pagination (first and last pages of article). Examples (note capitalization and punctuation) BuLLouGu, W. S. 1960. Practical invertebrate anatomy. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. FiscHER, P. H. 1948. Données sur la résistance et de la vitalité des mollusques. Journal de conchyliologie 88 (3): 100-140. FIscHER, P. H., DuvaL, M. & Rarry, A. 1933. Etudes sur les échanges respiratoires des littorines. Archives de zoologie expérimentale et générale 74 (33): 627-634. Koun, A. J. 1960a. Ecological notes on Conus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Trincomalee region of Ceylon. Annals and Magazine of Natural History (13) 2 (17): 309-320. Koun, A. J. 19606. Spawning behaviour, egg masses and larval development in Conus from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Yale University 17 (4): 1-51. THIELE, J. 1910. Mollusca. B. Polyplacophora, Gastropoda marina, Bivalvia. In: ScHuLTZE, L. Zoologische und anthro- pologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Stid-Afrika ausgefiihrt in den Jahren 1903-1905 4 (15). Denkschriften der medizinisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena 16: 269-270. (continued inside back cover) ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM Volume 100 Band February 1991 Februarie Part 1 Deel LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA (MOLLUSCA, BIVALVIA) FROM THE ALGOA BASIN, WITH A REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORDER By MICHAEL R. COOPER Cape Town Kaapstad The ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM are issued in parts at irregular intervals as material becomes available Obtainable from the South African Museum, P.O. Box 61, Cape Town 8000 Die ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM word uitgegee in dele op ongereelde tye na gelang van die beskikbaarheid van stof Verkrygbaar van die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum, Posbus 61, Kaapstad 8000 OUT OF PRINT/UIT DRUK 1, 2123) 58), S22) 42s Bat pio oo) 6(1. (=p) 704), 8, OU-25 7s 103), ese pn: 14(1=2),15(4=5) 245). 27, S32 Go 36(2), 43(1), 45(1), 67(5), 84(2) Copyright enquiries to the South African Museum Kopieregnavrae aan die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum ISBN 0 86813 118 0 Printed in South Africa by In Suid-Afrika gedruk deur ihe (Rustica Press; Ptyemaletar Die Rustica-pers, Edms., Bpk.., Court Road, Wynberg, Cape Courtweg, Wynberg, Kaap D43 LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA (MOLLUSCA, BIVALVIA) FROM THE ALGOA BASIN, WITH A REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORDER By MICHAEL R. COOPER Department of Geology, University of Durban-Westville, Natal (With 25 figures) [MS accepted 8 October 1989] ABSTRACT The diversity of trigonioid bivalves makes their assignment to a single family inappropriate. On phyletic grounds it is proposed to recognize the suborders Trigoniina and Myophorellina nov. to include the superfamilies Myophoriacea Bronn, Trigoniacea Lamarck, Myophorellacea Kobayashi, and Megatrigoniacea van Hoepen. In addition, the following new taxa are introduced: family Gruenewaldiidae, subfamily Steinmanellinae, tribe Heterotrigoniini, and genera Skwarkoella and Lambertiella. The late Valanginian trigonias of the Sundays River Formation, last reviewed as a group in 1908, are revised and shown to comprise 11 species in seven genera (Trigonia, Myophorella, Steinmanella, Iotrigonia, Megatrigonia, Pisotrigonia and Pterotrigonia). These taxa represent six subfamilies in four families. CONTENTS PAGE JURIST ROYCHULCN SION es cece Minnetnrcer usa Sane cunt Mteute ns agin bn oe aint nas ca eee 1 Gc Ol ORN eae a rr ee alent, A oaths o oeeuminnty GER the a SrA ae oe tue Ca) gf Pet 2 Systematicmalacontolopyi eee cece oo fuente tonal cme eee 3 SupentamilyiViyophorace ar... 3 qacine sn rican en dee se + SUpeElanmulyslnisOnidcedwi wen aa ee eee: «Rr ne oe vests 4 Supentannly;Wiyoplorellaccar. es: Goes tiie Micka oe een ee ee 9 SupeniamuiulyaWlegatnigomiacean 0 4.)92.00 4. 9) aes ei ance a ed 24 ENCKNOWICE SEMEN ae er euN teehee Cantos.) Sache lela towmuidhartees 48 I PNSWSIRETINS Sip aya pene me ae tees st re wen aie. BABE gle 48 INTRODUCTION The trigonioid bivalves comprise a generally highly ornate group of infaunal burrowers that dominated Mesozoic shallow-marine environments. They display a bewildering and unsurpassed diversity of morphology that, because of a strong substrate control, involves rampant homoeomorphy and parallel evolution. Relationships have been further obscured by a general failure to appreciate that in each region evolution occurred in isolation for long periods of time, punctuated by periodic regional interchange (at times of high sea-level) and 1 Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100 (1), 1991: 1-52, 25 figs. Z ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM faunal replenishment. As a result, although there are general similarities between the trigonioid faunas of different regions, species are almost invariably endemic and are descended from and most closely related to species from the same region. Consequently, a conservative taxonomy (cf. Cox 1969) and attempts to apply a few well-established names to taxa from different regions has served merely to obscure and confuse the phylogeny of the group, and to mask one of the great radiations in the animal world. Trigonioid bivalves are particularly well represented in the Sundays River Formation of the Uitenhage Group (Goldfuss 1837; Krauss 1843; Sharpe 1856; Holub & Neumayr 1881; Kitchin 1908; Pringle 1960; Cooper 1979a). This fauna was last revised as a group in 1908, when only the genus Trigonia was recog- nized, and it is now in need of modern revision. This is all the more desirable given the major changes in trigonioid classification and nomenclature over the past 20 years. The South African Museum holds large collections of trigonias from this formation. These include the material described by Kitchin (1908), the early Geological Survey collections, and subsequent collections made by the late E. C. N. van Hoepen and the writer. There are also small collections in the Port Elizabeth Museum, the Albany Museum, and the University of Zimbabwe, which the writer has studied. . The repositories of material cited herein are as follows: AM = Albany Museum, Grahamstown PEM = Port Elizabeth Museum, Port Elizabeth SAM = South African Museum, Cape Town. GEOLOGY The Cretaceous deposits of the Algoa Basin are assigned to the Uitenhage Group. At the base are fanglomerates and coarse fluviatile clastics of the Enon Formation. These grade vertically and laterally into finer clastics of the Kirk- wood Formation, deposited by high-sinuosity streams in a marginally marine environment. A marine tongue of the Infanta Shale, known as the Colchester Member, is intercalated within the Kirkwood Formation and reflects earliest | Cretaceous transgression. The occurrence of the Berriasian belemnite Belem- nopsis gladiator Willey, in the Algoa Basin (Willey 1973; Cooper 1981) may serve to date this intercalation. The Sundays River Formation rests with toplap relationship and basin-margin disconformity on the Kirkwood. It is a strongly transgressive marine unit of richly fossiliferous mudstones, siltstones and fine- grained sandstones deposited in an intertidal to littoral situation (Shone 1976). The ammonite fauna, dominated by Olcostephanus, with occasional Distoloce- ras, Neohoploceras, Partschiceras, Eodesmoceras, Bochianites and Umgazani- ceras (Cooper 1981, 1983), indicates a latest Valanginian age for surface exposures, though Hauterivian microfossils are reported from the subsurface (McLachlan & McMillan 1979). LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 3 SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY Order TRIGONIOIDA Dall, 1889 Discussion If taxonomy is to reflect phylogeny, it is clear that the current subdivision of the Trigoniidae into as many as 19 subfamilies is inappropriate. It implies that this evolutionary radiation is devoid of phyletic lines and that no two subfamilies are more closely related to each other than to any other subfamily. This is spurious. On phylogenetic grounds these subfamilies are here distributed among two suborders and four superfamilies (Fig. 1). Myophorellacea Megatrigoniacea Myophoriacea Trigoniacea Fig. 1. Hypothesized relationships among the proposed superfamilies of Trigonioida. Charac- ter states: 1 = prominent marginal carina,« myophorian hinge, radial ornament to area subordinate to transverse ornament; 2 = hinge trigonian, radial ornament to area predominant; 3 = marginal carina relatively fine, nodate, area with transverse ornament, flank costae predominantly nodate, mostly oblique or V-shaped; 4 = escutcheon carina generally obsolete and marginal carina commonly restricted to umbonal region, shell often pyriform or posteriorly rostrate, also somewhat produced and often inflated anteriorly. Suborder TRIGONIINA Dall, 1889 Discussion Since strict application of the phylogenetic principles of Hennig (1966) leads to almost as many supraspecific taxa as there are species, the writer prefers a more utilitarian approach in which paraphyly is preferred to a burgeoning and unwieldy higher taxonomy. Consequently, the suborder Trigoniina is here held to comprise the superfamilies Myophoriacea and Trigoniacea. 4 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Superfamily MYOPHORIACEA Bronn, 1849 (nom. transl. herein ex family Myophoriidae Bronn, 1849) Diagnosis | Generally small to medium-sized trigonioids with prosogyrous beaks, rarely orthogyrous or opisthogyrous. Dentition myophorian or schizodian, with smooth or weakly ribbed teeth. Main tooth of left valve opithsocline, simple or bilobed; two main teeth of right valve asymmetrical, posterior one generally longer and narrower. Additional teeth may be present in left valve, on one or both sides of main tooth, whereas additional relatively weak teeth may also be present anteriorly in right valve. Myophorous buttress generally weak or absent; pallial line distinct, mostly entire. Area not usually discriminated ornamentally from flank. Age: Upper Silurian—Triassic. Discussion Although Myophoriacea are absent from the present fauna, they are dis- cussed because of their relevance to the revised classification presented here. The superfamily comprises the following taxa: Schizodidae (Schizodinae and Eoschizodinae), Scaphellinidae, Myophoriidae, Pachycardiidae (Pachycardiinae and Eoastartinae), and Minetrigoniidae (including Costatoriidae). Superfamily TRIGONIACEA Lamarck, 1819 Diagnosis Umbones orthogyrous to opisthogyrous, rarely prosogyrous; escutcheon usually present; bipartite area and flank differently ornamented in most genera; respiratory margin obliquely truncate or subtruncate; left valve with broad median tooth, strongly concave to deeply emarginate below in most genera; posterior left tooth marginal, weak or obscure; anterior left tooth moderately strong; right valve with two subequal, more-or-less symmetrically divergent teeth not borne on hinge plate; anterior marginal tooth very obscure in some species; main teeth with strong transverse ridges except in a few primitive forms; anterior myophorous buttress generally well developed. Discussion At present this superfamily comprises the families Gruenewaldiidae fam. nov., Trigoniidae (Pleurotrigoniinae and Trigoniinae), Neotrigoniidae (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Neotrigoniinae Kobayashi) (Nototrigoniinae and Neotrigoniinae) and Prosogyrotrigoniidae (Praegoniinae and Prosogyrotrigonii- , nae) (Fig. 2). The most primitive trigoniaceans are assigned to the family Gruenewaldii- dae nov., in which the hinge is myophorian, with only partially striated teeth, and the areal ornament is predominantly transverse (Newell & Boyd 1975). At LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 5 Gruenewaldiidae Neotrigoniinae Nototrigoniinae Pleurotrigoniinae Prosogyrotrigoniinae Trigoniinae » ie Praegoniinae x Fig. 2. Hypothesized relationships within the superfamily Trigoniacea. Character states: ‘1 = shell trigonal with prominent marginal carina and escutcheon, flank costae concentric, radial ornament to area subordinate to transverse ornament, hinge myophorian; 2 = hinge tri- gonian, area with radial ornament, at least in nepionic stages; 3 = shell ovate, marginal carina obsolete, beaks prosogyrous; 4 = area with concentric ornament; 5 = antecarinal sulcus very broad, shallow; 6 = area very broad, flanks wholly or partly with radial costae; 7 = marginal carina and ornament to area restricted to nepionic stages, flank costae terminate at antero- lateral shoulder in prominent tubercles. present only Gruenewaldia and Lyriomyophoria are assigned here and both are very small. The trigonian hinge (Newell & Boyd 1975) first appeared in the mid-Triassic, derived from the gruenewaldiid condition. Almost immediately there was a fundamental dichotomy into the Trigoniidae and Prosogyrotrigoniidae. Whereas the latter taxon preserves the primitive condition of prosogyrous beaks, a pre- dominantly transversely ornamented area (in all but Praegonia), and a weak hinge with the main tooth of the left valve ungrooved, the loss of the prominent marginal carina and the generally trigonally ovate to suborbicular shape, with rounded respiratory margin, are derived characters. The Trigoniidae, on the other hand, preserve the pronounced marginal carina of Gruenewaldia while accentuating the radial costation of the area. Their conspicuously striated main teeth and orthogyrous to opisthogyrous beaks are derived characters. The Neotrigoniidae evolved from the Trigoniidae in the late Jurassic (Nakano 1970) by broadening and shallowing of the antecarinal sulcus. The 6 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM primitive subfamily Nototrigoniinae Skwarko, 1963 (including the Austrotrigo- niinae Skwarko, 1968), is widely distributed in the Australasian Realm and is descended from Opisthotrigonia. The link between the Nototrigoniinae and Neotrigoniinae is provided by the late Cretaceous Mesotrigonia (Freneix 1958; Fleming 1964). Even should Mesotrigonia prove to be based upon juvenile Paci- trigonia (Nakano 1961), its ornament is sufficiently similar to that of Eotrigonia to support a phyletic relationship. Additional evidence is the predominantly Australasian distribution of both the Nototrigoniinae and the Neotrigoniinae. Darragh (1986) has recently suggested derivation of Eotrigonia from Neocomian species such as Trigonia vertistriata Skwarko and T. marumbiana Skwarko, via the late Cretaceous T. miriana Skwarko. The writer is unaware of any Senonian Trigonia s.s. and the long time gap between the last appearance of Trigonia (?Cenomanian) and the first appearance of Eotrigonia (Palaeocene) makes such a phylogeny untenable. Trigonia miriana differs substantially from all other 77i- gonia species in its small, inflated, quadrate shell with subterminal umbones, its steeply inclined, shallowly excavate escutcheon with faint radial costellae, its broad area that is wider than the flank, and in having pustulose flank costae that terminate posteriorly in a low node at the smooth antecarinal sulcus (Skwarko 1963). These differences warrant generic separation and 7. miriana Skwarko is here designated type species of Skwarkoella gen. nov. It is believed to be a member of the Nototrigoniinae. : Contrary to Newell & Boyd (1975), the writer believes that radially orna- mented Permo-Triassic forms such as Costatoria, Procostatoria and Minetrigonia are unrelated to Neotrigonia, and that the similarities are due to convergence. This is supported by the long time gap between the last appearance of Minetri- goniidae and the first appearance of Neotrigoniinae. Family Trigoniidae Lamarck, 1819 Diagnosis Trigonal to rhomboidal, very inequilateral trigoniaceans; dentition trigo- nian, with conspicuously striated main teeth; escutcheon prominent; broad area with obliquely truncate respiratory margin; posterodorsal margin straight; flank ornament nontuberculate, subconcentric; carinae prominent, generally persist- ing to maturity, with prominent antecarinal sulcus; area typically with radial ornament, but in some may become smooth in maturity. Discussion As restricted here, the family Trigoniidae comprises only the nominate sub- family and the Pleurotrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929, in which the very narrow escutcheon is unornamented, the marginal carina becomes obsolete in maturity, the radial costellae to the area are restricted to the nepionic stages, and the flank costae bear a tubercle at the anterolateral shoulder. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN i! Subfamily Trigoniinae Lamarck, 1819 Diagnosis | Small to moderately large trigoniids; umbones well developed; carinae and radial costellae to area persisting to maturity; marginal carina corded; antecari- nal groove variable, often restricted to left valve. Genus Trigonia Brugiére, 1789 Type species. Venus sulcata Hermann, 1781; ICZN Opinion 327 (1955). Diagnosis Escutcheon with radial ornament; flank costae terminating at the antecari- nal sulcus or marginal carina. Discussion Neuquenitrigonia Leanza & Garate (1987) has transverse costellae to the escutcheon, whereas Guineana Skwarko, 1967, has flank costae that continue on to the area to produce cancellate ornament. The Upper Triassic Heslingtonia, which is here elevated to generic status, differs from Trigonia in the effacement of costae from the posterior part of the flank, and in the fine radial sculpture of the area and narrow escutcheon (Fleming 1987). Given the vast number of Tri- gonia §.8. species now known, if taxonomy is to reflect phylogeny, current perceptions of the genus are too broad and this taxon requires further phylo- genetic subdivision. Trigonia tatei Neumayr, 1882 igse3 Trigonia cassiope d’Orbigny. Tate, 1867: 158. Lycett, 1877: 172. Trigonia tatei Neumayr (in Holub & Neumayr), 1881: 275, pl. 2 (fig. 3). Kitchin, 1908: 125. Lambert, 1944: 371. non Trigonia (Trigonia) aff. tatei Neumayr. Rennie, 1947: 58, pl. 2 (figs 11-13) (= Trigo- nia sp.). Type By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by Neumayr (in Holub & Neumayr 1881, pl. 2 (fig. 3)). Material A total of 22 specimens were examined: SAM-—4646, D1876 (2 specimens), D1881-—82, D1893 (9 specimens), D1896, D1932 and D1973 (2 specimens), as well as 4 unnumbered specimens also in the South African Museum collections. Description Shell medium sized (maximum length about 70 mm), trigonally ovate, elongate (H/L = 0,71-0,73), with moderately elevated umbones situated about 8 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 3. Trigonia tatei (Sharpe). A-C. Dorsal (x 1 and xX 2) and lateral views of an unnum- bered right valve in the South African Museum. Note the absence of an antecarinal sulcus. D-E. SAM-D1876, a right valve. D. Lateral view showing obliquity and crowding of flank costae anteriorly. E. Dorsal view of umbonal region, x 2. Note the beaded radial costellae to the escutcheon which curve to meet the dorsal commissure. F. Lateral view of an unnumbered left valve in the South African Museum, xX 1. Note the distinct antecarinal sulcus. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 9 one-quarter of the shell length from the anterior and weakly inturned, opistho- gyrous beaks. The valves are moderately weakly inflated (W/H = 0,28-—0,33), with an almost straight posterodorsal margin at right angles to the broadly convex anterior margin. The ventral margin is broadly convex and the moder- ately short respiratory margin obliquely truncate. The escutcheon is lanceolate, slightly more than half the shell length, and is ornamented with radial rows of fine tubercles that, on D1876, curve inward to meet the commissure. The trigonal area is relatively narrow and almost flat. It is ornamented by finely beaded radial costellae, one of which corresponds to the escutcheon carina. There is no median groove to the area. The marginal carina is marked by a prominent rib that thickens posteriorly and is crossed by growth lirae that give it a scaly corded appearance. The flanks are ornamented with up to 28 pronounced, subconcentric costae that are slightly narrower than the interspaces on the posterior half of the shell. In maturity, the ribs flex slightly upwards anteriorly, becoming slightly oblique, crowded and broader than the interspaces. Posteriorly the ribs terminate against the marginal carina of the right valve, but there is a narrow antecarinal sulcus to the left. Discussion Rennie (1947) compared material from the Lower Aptian of southern Mogambique with this species, but it differs in being slightly more elongate, with a more convex anterior margin, and in having maximum downward convexity of the flank costae more anterior than in Uitenhage material. It probably rep- resents a new species. Occurrence Trigonia tatet Neumayr is known with certainty only from the Upper Valanginian of south-east Africa, where it is an uncommon element of the faunas. Suborder MYOPHORELLINA nov. Discussion This monophyletic suborder is here held to comprise the superfamilies Myo- phorellacea and Megatrigoniacea. Superfamily MYOPHORELLACEA Kobayashi, 1954 (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Myophorellinae Kobayashi, 1954) Diagnosis Small to very large trigonioids, suborbicular to ovate, trigonal and subquad- rate; strongly inequilateral; posteriorly produced, with subterminal umbones; marginal and inner carinae prominently nodate, generally persisting to maturity; 10 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM area broad, typically with transverse ornament and longitudinal groove often marked by row of nodes; respiratory margin generally broadly truncate; escut- cheon smooth, nodate, or with transverse ornament; flank ribs primitively subconcentric and entire but mostly strongly oblique and nodate, in derived forms may form chevrons. Discussion This superfamily comprises the families Frenguelliellidae (Frenguelliellinae and Laevitrigoniinae) with subconcentric, more or less entire, flank costation, Myophorellidae (Myophorellinae and Steinmanellinae subfam. nov.) with obliquely nodate flank costation, and the derived Vaugoniidae (Vaugoniinae and Quadratotrigoniinae) with nodate, V-shaped flank costae. The Frenguelliel- linae (Fig. 4) preserve the primitive condition of subconcentric flank costae and \ Soe Steinmanellinae 0) Laevitrigoniinae a Frenguelliellinae Myophorellinae Vaugoniinae Quadratotrigoniinae Fig. 4. Hypothesized relationships within the Myophorellacea. Character states: 1 = flank costae subconcentric, beaded inner and marginal carinae which persist to maturity, escutcheon smooth, area with fine transverse ornament; 2 = antecarinal sulcus virtually obsolete; nodose flank costae oblique, escutcheon sometimes with transverse costellae, longitudinal furrow to area often delimited by row of nodes; 3 = flank costae form chevrons near umbo; 4 = large, . massive, carinae breaking up into rows of nodes or becoming obsolete in maturity, area often with transverse growth rugae in maturity; 5 = large, massive, carinae replaced by prominent nodes, longitudinal furrow delimited by prominent nodes, escutcheon with radial rows of nodes, area with transverse growth rugae in maturity, comprises Quadratotrigonia homoeo- morphs; 6 = shell ovate, very broad antecarinal sulcus shallow and unornamented, weak irregular flank costae commonly pustulose or with oblique rows of pustules. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 11 prominent antecarinal sulcus, linking it to ancestral trigoniaceans, but have the myophorelline synapomorphies of nodate marginal and escutcheon carinae, smooth escutcheon and transversely ornamented area, whereas the ribs in some, e.g. Jaworskiella, show a tendency to become nodate. The Laevitrigoniinae Saveliev, 1958, are frenguellielline descendants in which the subconcentric flank costation is irregularly nodate and the antecarinal sulcus is very wide and - shallow. The Myophorellinae are frenguelliellid descendarits in which the flank costae are oblique in maturity and ornamented with conspicuous nodes. Jaworskiella is an intermediate stage. The Steinmanellinae subfam. nov. are myophorelline descendants that evolved in parallel with the Quadratotrigonii- nae. The latter are derived from Vaugoniinae that evolved from Myophorellinae by the development of V-shaped flank costae in the early and middle growth stages. Family Myophorellidae Kobayashi, 1954 (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Myophorellinae Kobayashi, 1954) Diagnosis Myophorellaceans with generally conspicuously nodate flank costae that are subconcentric near the umbo, commonly becoming strongly oblique in maturity. Subfamily Myophorellinae Kobayashi, 1954 Diagnosis Small to moderately large myophorellids; trigonally ovate to suborbicular; escutcheon smooth or transversely ornamented; area with fine transverse costel- lae; costae oblique over much of flank, often discontinuous anteroventrally or joined by intercalatories. Discussion Morphologically the most primitive myophorelline is Jbotrigonia Kobayashi (in Kobayashi & Tamura, 1957), which preserves subconcentric flank costae that are broken up unevenly into tubercles, and with an irregularly serrated marginal carina. Although it has been included (Poulton 1979) in the synonymy of Myo- Phorella, Cox (1969) and Hirsch (1980) are followed in regarding it a valid taxon. Pseudomyophorella Nakano, 1961, stands in the same relationship to Myo- Phorella as Paranditrigonia does to Anditrigonia and Arabitrigonia to Scabro- trigonia. It is here considered a valid genus within the Myophorellinae characterized by radial costellae to the area. Scaphotrigonia Dietrich, 1933, is a widely recognized genus within the Myophorellinae, characterized by its nearly straight flank costae, enlarged nodes to the anterolateral shoulder, and short subhorizontal costae to the flat anterior face. 2 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Genus Myophorella Bayle, 1878 | Type species. Trigonia nodulosa Bayle (= T. nodulosa Lamarck, 1801); by the subsequent designation of Crickmay (1932). Diagnosis Escutcheon smooth; area relatively broad, with or without nodes demar- cating the longitudinal furrow; marginal carina persisting to maturity; flank costae evenly curved, nodes predominating, without greatly enlarged nodes or intercalatories anteriorly. Discussion Within Myophorella it is possible to recognize several subgenera: M. (Myophorella)—escutcheon smooth; flank costae distinctly curved, essen- tially uninterrupted, with prominent nodes. M. (Promyophorella)—\ike Myophorella, but with ribbing dominant and fine tuberculation. M. (Scaphogonia)—like Promyophorella, but with a vertical row of enlarged nodes on the anterolateral shoulder and anterior ribs that are separated by a gap from the flank ribs; apparently endemic to North America. M. (Clavotrigonia)—like Myophorella but relatively large, subtrigonal; anterior face almost straight, with subangular anteroventral margin; flank costae distant, weakly curved, not crowded dorsally, meeting the marginal carina almost at right angles, or with a very short, strongly upcurved taper; a predominantly Tethyan subgenus. Although Scaphogonia was treated as a strict synonym of Myophorella by Cox (1969) and Poulton (1979), the latter worker observed that its diagnostic characters serve ‘. . . to distinguish these (North American) species from nearly all otherwise similar Middle and Late Jurassic European Myophorella species’ (p. 27). On this basis Scaphogonia is retained as a valid subgenus of Myopho- rella, apparently endemic to North America. Similarly, there are a host of European Myophorella species that are closer to the type of Clavotrigonia (of which Clavitrigonia Leanza, 1942, is a junior objective synonym) than they are to the type of Myophorella s.s. The subgenus M. (Clavotrigonia) is here applied — to this predominantly Tethyan group. Although Haidaia Crickmay, 1930, has been rejected (Cox 1952, 1969; Poulton 1979) as a junior objective synonym of Myophorella, it was regarded as subgenerically distinct by Leanza (1981) and Leanza & Garate (1987). The type species, M. dawsoni (Whiteaves) was redescribed by Poulton (1979: 33, pl. 1 (figs 12-21), pl. 2 (figs 1-4)) and the writer concurs that its features are essen- tially those of Myophorella s.s. The taxonomic position of the mid-Jurassic Awadia Hirsch, 1980, is cur- rently uncertain. It is assumed to be a myophorellacean that, in its broad, radial, nontuberculate flank costae and smooth area, is convergent toward the Pterotri- goniinae. ks ee eT Ne ne as LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 13 There are, however, still many species of Myophorella that do not fit com- fortably into any of the above taxa (cf. Leanza & Garate 1987) and the species to be described below is one of these. Until a major phylogenetic study of the Myophorellinae is undertaken, the writer hesitates to apply a new subgeneric name to the present species. Myophorella first appeared in the Lias and attained a cosmopolitan distri- _ bution in the later Jurassic, becoming extinct in the Hauterivian. Myophorella oosthuizeni Cooper, 1979 Fig. 5 Myophorella (Myophorella) oosthuizeni Cooper, 1979a: 22, fig. 1. Types The holotype, SAM—PCU5941 (RO-300), together with four paratypes, all of which are in the South African Museum, Cape Town, as well as SAM—D1875 (2 specimens). Description Shell small (maximum length about 60 mm), trigonally ovate, longer than high (H/L = 0,79), moderately inflated (W/H = 0,42), and somewhat produced posteriorly. Umbones subterminal, elevated, with moderately inturned, opistho- gyrous beaks. Posterodorsal margin shallowly concave, anterior and ventral margins broadly rounded forming a semi-circle, respiratory margin obliquely truncate. The sunken escutcheon is large, lanceolate, smooth, and extends almost the entire posterodorsal length of the shell. The marginal and escutcheon carinae are marked by rows of large, regular, obliquely clavate tubercles that increase in size posteriorly; those of the escutcheon carina are elongated anteromedially and those of the marginal carina posteromedially. Each tubercle of the marginal carina corresponds with a flank costa. The area is trigonal, rather narrow and Ornamented with uniform, fine, transverse costellae that show no sign of strengthening posteriorly. There is a well-developed longitudinal groove that is situated close to the escutcheon carina. The flank ornament of the nepionic stages comprises subconcentric ribs that pass with an inflexion across the marginal carina on to the area. The remaining flank costae are strongly oblique, posteriorly meeting the marginal carina at an angle of c. 30°. Except for the posterior few ribs, most flank costae curve strongly forwards to meet the anterior and anteroventral commissures almost at right angles. All flank costae bear rather sharp, pointed tubercles and nodes that, on the anterior part of the valve, are concentrically elongated. There is a gap in some of the ribs terminating along the anteroventral margin, with some irregularity of tuberculation, in Scaphotrigonia fashion. The entire flank surface is ornamented with conspicuous growth lirae that are continuous with the costel- lae of the area. 14 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 5. Myophorella oosthuizeni Cooper, X 1. A-C. Lateral, dorsal and anterior views of the holotype, SAM—PCU5941. D. Left valve of a paratype in the South African Museum. E. Left valve of a paratype in the South African Museum. Occurrence Myophorella oosthuizeni Cooper is known only from the Upper Valangi- nian of south-east Africa, where it is a very rare element of the faunas. Subfamily Steinmanellinae subfam. nov. Diagnosis Generally very large, massive, trigonally ovate to quadrate and elliptical myophorellids; escutcheon narrow, lanceolate, with irregular, radially elongated tubercles; median groove to area marked by rows of coarse nodes; area of early and middle growth stages with transverse growth striae, later remaining smooth or with coarse, irregular growth rugae, which may extend on to the flanks; flank costae tend to become crowded ventrally, where they may bend sharply for- wards and coalesce to form irregular concentric growth rugae. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN - ey Discussion Poulton (1977, 1979) included Steinmanella in the synonymy of Myophorella but such treatment cannot be justified morphologically or phyletically. As here interpreted, the Steinmanellinae arose from a myophorelline ancestor late in the Jurassic by an increase in size, with the shell becoming massive and robust, losing its delicate gracile character. The longitudinal groove to the area is - marked by a row of conspicuous nodes, of similar strength to those forming the marginal and escutcheon carinae, whereas the transverse growth striae of the area are replaced in maturity by coarse, irregular growth rugae. The earliest genus in the subfamily is Steinmanella itself, which first occurs in Tithonian rocks of South America (Leanza & Garate 1987). Simply by failure to produce coarse irregular growth rugae across the mature area, Steinmanella gave rise to Yaadia, a predominantly North Pacific genus (Saul 1979). The latter lineage persisted into the Upper Cretaceous with the replacement of Yaadia by its subgenera Yeharella and Setotrigonia, both of which have been interpreted previously (Cox 1969) as subgenera of Steinmanella. Although Saul (1979), Tashiro (1988) and Tashiro & Kano (1989) included Yeharella within the strict synonymy of Yaadia, it seems to be phyletically important and is here retained at the subgeneric level. Significantly, Tashiro & Kano (1989, fig. 4) showed the Japanese species of Yaadia as having evolved in parallel with their North American counterparts. Yeharella differs from ancestral Yaadia in the early effacement of the radial rows of nodes from the area, leaving the latter smooth for most of its ontogenetic development. In addition, the flank costae of Yeharella are not interrupted anteroventrally or accompanied by enlarged tubercles at the anterolateral shoulder (Saul 1979). Setotrigonia was said to differ from Yaadia (Yeharella) in that the flank costae are broken into segments of various lengths and continue on to the area as narrow, wavy, transverse ridges (Cox 1969). Tashiro & Moro- zumi (1982) questionably included it in the synonymy of Yaadia. As here envis- aged, the Steinmanellinae comprise Steinmanella, Yaadia s.s. and Y. (Yeharella). The suprageneric placement of Mediterraneotrigonia Nakano, 1974a, is uncertain. The morphologically similar Quadratotrigoniinae are a convergent, pre- dominantly Tethyan group; they are phyletically distinct and can be dis- tinguished from the Steinmanellinae nov. by the V-shaped costae of the umbonal region and their conspicuously ornamented areas (Nakano 1968). Genus Steinmanella Crickmay, 1930 Type species. Trigonia holubi Kitchin, 1908; by original designation. Diagnosis Steinmanellines in which the escutcheon is ornamented with radial rows of irregular nodes, which may be continuous with the coarse growth rugae of the posterior part of the area; flank costae generally weakly curved, uninterrupted, and coarsely nodate. Age: Tithonian—Neocomian. 16 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin, 1908) Figs 6-8 Trigonia sp. 2 Sharpe, 1856: 202. Trigonia holubi Kitchin, 1908: 103, pl. 4 (fig. 2). Stoyanow, 1949: 68. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin) Crickmay, 1930: 50. 1932: 458. Cox, 1969: N487, fig. D74.6. Levy, 1969: 66: Cooper, 1979b: 63, fis: 12: Saul, 1979: 6; fig: 2. Steinmannella holubi (Kitchin) Kobayashi & Amano, 1955: 195. Trigonia (Steinmanella) holubi Kitchin. Rennie, 1936: 346. Yaadia holubi (Kitchin) Cox, 1952: 57. Pringle, 1960: 89. Myophorella (Steinmanella) holubi (Kitchin) Poulton, 1977: 9. Steinmanella cf. holubi (Kitchin) Cooper, 1983: 63. Type | By lectotype designation of Rennie (1936: 350), the original of the specimen figured by Kitchin (1908, pl. 4 (fig. 2)), SAM—PCU3981 (Fig. 6). Material A total of 59 specimens were available for study in the South African Museum; SAM-D1881 (25 specimens), D1977 (3 specimens), D1979, D1989, D2541, and 28 without catalogue number. Fig. 6. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin), x 1. The lectotype, SAM—PCU3981, in lateral view. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 17 Fig. 7. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin), x 1. Lateral view of an unnumbered topotype in the South African Museum. Description The shell is large (maximum length 128 mm), massive, quadrate, somewhat longer than high (H/L = 0,59-0,78), with inconspicuous terminal umbones and an abruptly truncate anterior face. The dorsal and anterior margins are straight, the ventral margin broadly rounded, and the broad respiratory margin subtrunc- ate. The valves are weakly inflated (W/H = 0,27-0,34) and the inturned beaks orthogyrous to slightly opisthogyrous. The escutcheon is very narrow, lanceolate, and ornamented with irregular rows of bullae that follow the growth lines and are continuous with the growth rugae of the area. There is a narrow lunule, about one-third of the shell height. The ligament pit is well developed, lanceolate, and may extend 40-50 per cent of the length of the escutcheon. The positions of the escutcheon and marginal carinae are marked by rows of prominent nodes, as is the dorsal edge of the longitudinal groove to the area. In maturity the tubercles of the escutcheon and marginal carinae are drawn out and eventually coalesce to produce irregular transverse ridges that parallel the growth lines. The longitudinal groove to the area persists to maturity, and is closer to the escutcheon than the flank. The broad trigonal area is essentially flat; in the nepionic stages it is crossed by sub- concentric flank costae but in the middle growth stages is ornamented only by 18 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 8. Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin), < 1. A-—B. Lateral and dorsal views of an aberrant individual in which the flank costae are interrupted anteroventrally. C. Lateral view of a frag- mentary left valve from the Mngazana Formation of Transkei, in the South African Museum. D-E. Dorsal and lateral views of a juvenile, PEM-—1208c. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 19 growth striae and the median row of tubercles. These are replaced by irregular, transverse growth rugae in maturity. Flank ornament comprises c. 16 distant rows of prominent nodes that curve slightly to the anterior, the nodes becoming more crowded ventrally with an occasional intercalated row along the anteroventral margin. The interspaces are slightly narrower than the rows of nodes. Along the ventral margin of mature shells, the tubercles tend to become elongated and may coalesce to form concen- tric growth rugae. In many individuals, the distal terminations of the ribs curve strongly to the anterior. Ornamentation does not extend on to the flattened anterior face and the latter is ornamented only by deep grooves and ridges par- allel to the growth striae. Occurrence Steinmanella holubi (Kitchin) is endemic to the Upper Valanginian of south-east Africa. It abounds in the more argillaceous units of the Sundays River Formation and also occurs in the Mngazana Formation of Transkei (Cooper 1983). Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss, 1837) Figs 9-12 Lyrodon herzogii (Hausmann MS) Goldfuss, 1837: 193, pl. 137 (fig. 5). Krauss, 1850: 453, pl. 48 (fig. 3). Trigonia herzogi (Goldfuss) Steinmann, 1882: 220, pl. 7 (figs 1-2), pl. 9 (figs 1-2). Paulcke, 1903: 309. Kitchin, 1903: 102; 1908: 8, pl. 5 (fig. 1). Hatch & Corstorphine, 1905: 245, fig. 66 (left-hand side). Stoyanow, 1949: 68. Levy, 1969: 66. Trigonia (Steinmanella) herzogi (Goldfuss) Rennie, 1936: 346. Steinmannella herzogi (Goldfuss) Kobayashi & Amano, 1955: 195. Reyes et al., 1981: 35, pl. 1 (fig. 13). Yaadia herzogi (Goldfuss) Pringle, 1960: 89. ?Steinmannella (Steinmannella) herzogi (Hausmann) Reyes, 1970: 15, pl. 3 (fig. 2), pl. 4 (figs 1-3). Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss) Cooper, 1979b: 63. Type The whereabouts of Goldfuss’ (1837) type material is unknown; it may prove necessary to designate a neotype. Material In addition to 106 specimens in the South African Museum, SAM-4416, 4994, 5035-36, 7498, 7520, D164, D1840, D1881, D1892 (13 specimens), D1911 (40 specimens), D1914, D1916, D1940 (3 specimens), D2541 and 41 specimens without number, PEM-—1463/52-3 and AM-2428 were also available for study. Description Shell very large (maximum length 150 mm), massive, posteriorly very elongate (H/L = 0,52-0,63), with moderately inflated valves (W/H = eT me db A 8 eat een ete hee eee ; ‘OLpPNOd-WVS ‘edAjoou Jeuorstaosd oy) Jo MaIA [e1o}eT ‘T x ‘(ssnjypjoD) 180Z4dY DJaUBWUIAIS ‘6 “SIA ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 20 ju “CS/EMVI-Wd JO MalA [e19}B JT “6°09 x ‘(SsNJp[oH) 180z4ay vjjauDUMIaIS “QT ‘S14 LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 2D ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 11. Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss), X 1. A-B. Lateral and dorsal views of a specimen in the Port Elizabeth Museum. C. Lateral view PEM-1463/53. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 23 Fig. 12. Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss), x 1. Lateral, dorsal and anterior views of AM—2428 in which the tubercles are diagonally elongate. Note the lack of tubercles to the anterior face. 24 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 0,29—-0,36). The straight dorsal and weakly curved anterior margins form an acute angle, with terminal umbones and weakly inturned, orthogyrous to slightly opisthogyrous beaks. The ventral margin is very long, weakly convex, and the broad respiratory margin subtruncate. The escutcheon is fairly narrow, and about two-thirds the length of the shell. It is ornamented by irregular oblique rows of elongate tubercles that vary in size and follow the growth striae. Posteriorly these tubercles are continuous with the growth rugae of the area. There is a very narrow lunule, about 40 per cent of the shell height. The ligament pit is moderately developed, lanceolate, and about 40 per cent of the length of the escutcheon. There are three rows of tubercles to the area, corresponding to the escutcheon and marginal carinae and the dorsal margin of the longitudinal groove. The number of tubercles in the marginal row approximates the number of flank costae. At lengths of 50-100 mm the tubercles of the area become elongated transversely to form coarse, irregular, growth rugae. The concentric flank costae of the nepionic stages pass on to the area, whereas the longitudinal furrow persists almost to maturity and is situated closer to the escutcheon than the flank. The flanks are ornamented with coarse nodes that form almost straight rows directed posteroventrally over much of the shell surface. Anteriorly the tubercle rows are narrower than the interspaces but posteriorly they are as wide as, or slightly wider than, the interspaces. There may be some irregularity in the tubercle rows anteroventrally, with a few tubercles intercalated between rows. Occurrence Steinmanella herzogi (Goldfuss) is abundant in the Upper Valanginian of the Algoa Basin. It may also occur in the early Hauterivian of southern Chile. Superfamily MEGATRIGONIACEA van Hoepen, 1929 (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Megatrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929) Diagnosis Small to very large myophorellines, commonly pyriform to very produced and rostrate posteriorly, frequently strongly inflated anteriorly; carinae obsolete, or entire and restricted to umbonal region; antecarinal sulcus lacking; area narrow, bipartite, with ridge marking longitudinal groove internally; area com- monly smooth but in some with transverse, oblique or radial ornament; flanks variably ornamented, with subconcentric, V-shaped or strongly oblique costae, which may be entire, weakly nodate or strongly tuberculate; posteroventral shell margin generally crenulated internally. Discussion As here interpreted, the superfamily Megatrigoniacea comprises the famil- ies Megatrigoniidae (Megatrigoniinae, Apiotrigoniinae and Pterotrigoniinae), Rutitrigoniidae and Iotrigoniidae (Fig. 13). SYN 28 LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN J) ‘ lotrigoniidae Apiotrigoniinae Megatrigoniinae Pterotrigoniinae Rutitrigoniidae a Fig. 13. Hypothesized relationships within the Megatrigoniacea. Character states: 1 = escut- cheon carina obsolete or restricted to nepionic stages, marginal carina often restricted to umbonal region, anteriorly produced so that umbones are generally not subterminal, area rela- tively narrow with concentric ornament in nepionic stages later smooth, flank costae subconcentric; 2 = beyond nepionic stages flank costae V-shaped, with tendency to form nodes at anterolateral shoulder; 3 = posterior part of flank with straight, steeply inclined, finely crenulated and often crowded costellae, inner margin of shell crenulated posteroventrally; 4 = escutcheon with transverse costellae; 5 = posteriorly produced to rostrate, often inflated anteriorly, in some with subterminal umbones, flank costae strongly oblique varying from finely crenulated to spinose, respiratory margin generally rounded, escutcheon with transverse costellae. Family Megatrigoniidae van Hoepen, 1929 (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Megatrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929) Diagnosis Commonly pyriform to subovate megatrigoniaceans that are generally weakly inflated anteriorly; carinae lacking or generally restricted to the nepionic stages; escutcheon smooth or with transverse costellae; area smooth or with transverse or radial costellae; flank costae V-shaped or oblique, weakly nodate, entire or tuberculate. Discussion As interpreted here, the family comprises the nominate subfamily, the Pte- rotrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929, and the Apiotrigoniinae Tashiro, 1979. 26 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM _ Anditrigonia is the earliest megatrigoniine (Levy 1967b; Reyes & Pérez 1982); its diversity and abundance in South America leaves little doubt as to its Gondwanic origin. Megatrigonia is descended from Anditrigonia by a straighten- ing of the flank costae from V-shaped to strongly oblique. Although Columbitrigonia Poulton, 1977, can be assigned to the Megatrigoniidae without difficulty, its subfamilial placement is more problematical. It was placed in the Megatrigoniinae by Poulton (1977) and the Apiotrigoniinae by Tashiro (1979). Contrary to Tashiro (1979), however, it lacks the fundamental apiotrigoniine characters of relatively small size, weak inflation, V-shaped flank costae and transversely costellate escutcheon. On the other hand, Columbitrigonia is strongly reminiscent of Megatrigonia in its large, robust shell, oblique flank costae, and smooth escutcheon, while resembling Pterotrigoniinae in its strong anterior inflation and posteriorly rostrate valves. Until its phylogeny is better understood, Poulton (1977) is followed in assigning it to the Megatrigoniinae. Heterotrigonia and its allies are included in the Apiotrigoniinae by Tashiro (1979), but from virtually the first appearance of the subfamily there are two dis- tinct phyletic lines (cf. Tashiro 1979, figs 17-18). Skwarko (1970), Nakano (1971) and Tashiro (1979) consider Trigonia calderoni Castillo & Aguilerae from the Oxfordian—Tithonian of New Mexico and Arizona (Stoyanow 1949; Reyes & Pérez 1982) to be the earliest apiotrigoniine. Whereas Skwarko (1970) and Tashiro (1979) referred this species to Apiotrigonia, Nakano (1971) assigned it to Heterotrigonia, Reyes & Pérez (1982) questionably included it in Anditrigo- nia, and Pérez & Reyes (1983) placed it in Anditrigonia (Paranditrigonia). Given the smooth escutcheon and fine radial costellae to the area of T. calde- roni, the latter assignment is followed here. Anditrigonia (Paranditrigonia) calderoni is thus the common ancestor to two phyletic lines that persisted until the close of the Cretaceous (Tashiro 1979). Since treatment of Paranditrigonia as a subgenus of Anditrigonia emphasizes primitive characters, when it is the derived characters (radial ornament to the area) that are phyletically important, Paranditrigonia is elevated to generic status and included as the most primitive representative of the Heterotrigontini new tribe. As such, the subfamily Apiotri- goniinae is divided into the nominate tribe Apiotrigoniini (comprising Apiotrigonia, Dampietrigonia, Turkestanella and Microtrigonia) and the tribe - Heterotrigoniini nov. (with Paranditrigonia, Heterotrigonia and Nakanotrigonia). The origins of the Pterotrigoniinae are more cryptic. The subfamily first appeared in the Lower Tithonian of India (Spath 1935; Kobayashi & Amano 1955; Cox 1961) and rose to dominance in the Cretaceous. Although widely interpreted as descended from the Myophorellinae (Kobayashi & Nakano 1957; Nakano & Numano 1961; Nakano 1974a; Tashiro & Matsuda 1986), this view is based upon a comparison with relatively derived members of the Pterotrigonii- nae, viz. Pterotrigonia and Ptilotrigonia, when it is the characters of the most primitive representatives, i.e. Pisotrigonia, that must carry the most weight phy- logenetically. Some individuals of Megatrigonia (cf. Figs 15B, 16B) closely approach the Pisotrigonia condition, differing mainly in being larger, less- LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN . 27 inflated anteriorly and pyriform in outline, with a strongly convex anterior margin. Subfamily Megatrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929 _ Diagnosis — eS Shell generally large, massive, pyriform; respiratory margin rounded and anterior margin convex; escutcheon carina lacking, marginal carina restricted to nepionic stages; bipartite area initially with concentric ribs, later smooth; flank costae primitively subconcentric anteriorly and subvertical and crowded pos- teriorly, hence V-shaped; later strongly oblique anteriorly and weakly nodate. Discussion Megatrigonia is known with certainty only from Tithonian and Neocomian rocks of the east coast of Africa. However, its close morphological resemblance to Anditrigonia Levy, 1967b, many species of which have been included (Nakano 1965) in Megatrigonia, leaves no doubt as to its ancestry. Although Tashiro (1979) included Columbitrigonia and Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) in the Apiotrigoniinae, their unornamented area and escutcheon sug- gests better placement in the Megatrigoniinae. Genus Megatrigonia van Hoepen, 1929 Type species. Megatrigonia obesa van Hoepen, i929; by original desig- nation. Diagnosis Very large, robust megatrigoniids with nontuberculate flank costae that pinch and swell irregularly without forming discrete nodes. Anterior flank costae strongly oblique, distant. Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss, 1843) Figs 14, 1I5SA-C, 16 Lyriodon conocardiiformis Krauss, 1843: 130. Lyrodon conocardiiformis Krauss, 1850: 454, pl. 49 (figs la—d). Trigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) Lycett, 1879: 210, 211, 230. Paulcke, 1903: 309. Kitchin, 1908: 119, pl. 7 (figs 2-4). Lambert, 1944: 392. Stoyanow, 1949: 80. Reyes, 1970: 9. non Trigonia aff. conocardiiformis (Krauss) Burckhardt, 1903: 72, pl. 13 (figs 1-2) (= Anditri- gonia eximia (Philippi)). non Trigonia conocardiiformis Lange (non Krauss), 1914: 235, pl. 19 (figs la—b) (= M. staffi - (Lange)). Trigonia (Megatrigonia) conocardiiformis (Krauss) Rennie, 1936: 332. Leanza, 1941: 232. Megatrigonia (Megatrigonia) conocardiiformis (Krauss) Cox, 1952: 58. Da Silva, 1966: 68, pl. 4 (fig. 2); Levy, 1967b: 136. Nakano, 1965: 17. Cooper, 1979b: 58. Apiotrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) Tashiro, 1979: 183. ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ‘016INOd-WVS ‘adKjo0u JeuoIstAold oy} JO META [eIO}e] YOT “TX ‘(ssnery) siumtofipavd0uod LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 29 Type | The whereabouts of Krauss’ (1843) type material is unknown; it may be necessary to designate a neotype. Material A total of 75 specimens were available for study, 70-in the South African ~ Museum, SAM-—4642-3, 4644, 4649, 5033-4, 5042, 7107, 7492, 7524, 7494, 7591, 9841-3, 12444-5, D1897, D1898 (11 specimens), D1910 (23 specimens), D1934, D1937, D1939 (3 specimens), D1991, and 12 unnumbered specimens, as well as 5 in the Port Elizabeth Museum, PEM—1464/72, 1463/51 and 3 unnum- bered specimens. Description Shell very large (maximum length about 165 mm), massive, pyriform, inequilateral, strongly produced posteriorly (H/L = 0,50-0,61). Umbones fairly prominent, rounded, situated about 30 per cent of the shell length from the anterior, with moderately inturned, slightly opisthogyrous beaks. Valves moderately inflated anteriorly (H/W = 0,40-0,57). Anterior margin strongly convex, passing imperceptibly into the broad, gently convex ventral margin; the posterodorsal margin is shallowly concave and the respiratory margin rounded. The very elongate, lanceolate escutcheon is sunken and smooth. There is a very narrow but rather deep lunule that extends about one-third of the shell height. An escutcheon carina is lacking whereas, beyond about 8 mm from the umbo, the marginal carina passes into a rounded umbonal ridge. The area is narrow, unornamented beyond the nepionic stage, with a prominent longitudi- nal groove that is closer to the escutcheon than the flank. The nepionic stages show crowded, simple, subconcentric ribs running from the anterior commissure to the marginal carina, where they flex strongly forwards, forming an acute angle with the flank costae, to cross the area obliquely and pass weakly on to the outer part of the escutcheon. Later flank costae are discrepant, with a coarse, robust, distant, strongly oblique anterior set of about 10—13 ribs that pinch and swell irregularly but do not form true nodes. These costae curve strongly upwards posteriorly to become subvertical, whereas anteriorly they may zigzag or break up into pustules; in large specimens they become effaced anteroven- trally. Then follow about seven similar ribs that are subvertical and only weakly curved. The posterior set of c. 18 costae are narrow, crowded, somewhat undu- latory, broader than the interspaces, almost straight, and inclined postero- ventrally. Ribbing is effaced posterodorsally, just before reaching the area, to leave a small portion of the flank smooth. Occurrence Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss) is reported from the Upper Titho- nian of northern Mocgambique, the Upper Valanginian of the Algoa Basin, 30 = 5 fA 2 = 4 S pe oy < 2 3) fe) 22) aa S ee e) 4 < E Z 2 of Note lateral view beth Museum. A. Left iza the Port El (Krauss) in d imen . A) conocardiiform PEM-1463/51, x 1. B. Left lateral view of a spec igonia Megatr A-C. Fig. 15. the more rounded ing fference be i in anterior and lack of anterior inflation. C. Right valve of an unnumbered spec f this individual to Pisotrigonia, the ma imilarity o the s the Port imen in le, juveni Left valve of a D. Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin), X 1. Elizabeth Museum. SAM-PCU7623. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN BI! Fig. 16. Megatrigonia conocardiiformis (Krauss), X 1. A-—B. Dorsal and lateral views of a juvenile, PEM-—1464/72. C-—D. Right lateral views of two unnumbered topotypes in the Port Elizabeth Museum. where it is a moderately common element, and from the Robberg Formation, the age of which is under debate but probably late Valanginian. Subfamily Pterotrigoniinae van Hoepen, 1929 Diagnosis Small to moderately large megatrigoniids, ovate to club-shaped and posteriorly rostrate; umbones prominent, often with strongly incurved, opistho- gyrous beaks; escutcheon sunken, lanceolate, with transverse costellae; escutcheon carina obsolete; marginal carina generally restricted to umbonal region; area crossed by concentric ribs in nepionic stages, later ribbing effaced, oblique, V-shaped or radial; flank costae oblique, prominently tuberculate or finely crenulated, often differentiated into anterior and posterior sets. 32 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Discussion The earliest representative of the subfamily is Pisotrigonia which, at the beginning of the Cretaceous, gave rise to Pterotrigonia. The latter, in turn, is believed to have given rise to the Scabrotrigoniini Cooper, 1989, which rose to dominance in the Upper Cretaceous. The Scabrotrigoniini comprise the weakly inflated and lunate pterotrigoniines such as Ptilotrigonia, Scabrotrigonia, and Acanthotrigonia, culminating in Linotrigonia in which tuberculation is reduced and the ribs are finely crenulated. Arabitrigonia is similar to Scabrotrigonia but with a straight dorsal margin, an obliquely truncate respiratory margin, and radial costellae to the nepionic stages of the area. Its relationship to Scabrotrigo- nia is the same as that between Anditrigonia and Paranditrigonia. Although there are marked similarities between Apiotrigoniinae and Ptero- trigoniinae, including transverse costellae to the area and escutcheon, finely tuberculate costae in some, and an internally crenulated posteroventral margin, the phylogeny depicted by Tashiro (1979) suggests the similarities are the result of convergence. Genus Pterotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929 Type species. Pterotrigonia cristata van Hoepen, 1929; by original desig- nation. Diagnosis Club-shaped pterotrigoniines, much longer than high, with a concave posterodorsal margin; valves strongly inflated anteriorly, rostrate posteriorly; area smooth in maturity; flank costae conspicuously tuberculate, poorly discrimi- nated into anterior and posterior sets; those to the anterior are curved whereas those to the posterior are straight, inclined, and finely crenulated. Discussion The above diagnosis of Pterotrigonia is more restricted than that of Cox (1969), since it excludes Scabrotrigonia, Acanthotrigonia, Ptilotrigonia and Piso- trigonia, which are regarded as generically distinct. Differences with Pisotrigonia are noted below. Like the genera Trigonia and Myophorella, there are numerous species of ‘Pterotrigonia’ that only vaguely approach the type species and which must, in the future, be assigned, on phyletic grounds, to other taxa. Several represen- tatives in the present fauna fall into this category but, until a more thorough phylogenetic analysis of the genus is attempted, no new names are introduced. Subgenus Pterotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929 Diagnosis Small to large, generally much longer than high; flank ornament discrepant, with tuberculate anterior set and finely crenulated, straight posterior set. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN 33 Pterotrigonia (?Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle, 1960) Figs 17-18 Trigonia knighti Pringle, 1960: 90, pl. 1 (figs 1-3). Pterotrigonia (Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle) Cooper, 1979b: 55. Types The holotype is in the Port Elizabeth Museum (Figs 17-18). There are two paratypes in the British Museum (Natural History), and a third in the Natal Museum (Pietermaritzburg). The whereabouts of two other specimens referred to by Pringle (1960) is uncertain. Description The shell is large (maximum length at least 109 mm), club shaped, as high as long (H/L=0,99-1,01), massive, strongly inflated anteriorly (W/H= 0,37—-0,43) and rostrate posteriorly. The very prominent umbones are subtermi- nal, with strongly inturned, opisthogyrous beaks. The straight, subvertical anterior margin passes evenly into the almost straight ventral margin. The posterodorsal margin is broadly concave and the respiratory margin seems to have been narrowly rounded. The oval, flattened anterior face meets the flanks at prominent anterolateral shoulders. The escutcheon is very broad, sunken, and extends almost the entire postero- dorsal length of the shell. It is ornamented with numerous, finely beaded, transverse costellae that are narrower than the interspaces. The area is narrow, unornamented beyond the nepionic stages and has a persistent longitudinal groove. As in P. tocaimaana (Lea), there is a prominent marginal carina that per- sists to the middle growth stages. Flank ornament is moderately discrepant. It comprises a flexuous set of about 12, rather coarse, flared anterior costae that curve strongly upwards and extend to the anterior commissure. These ribs are irregularly tuberculate, with 3—4 large tubercles on the anterolateral shoulder. The ten or so costae of the posterior set of ribs are finely crenulated, subparallel, narrower than the inter- spaces, and meet the posteroventral margin at right angles. Occurrence Pterotrigonia (?Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle) is known only from the Upper Valanginian of the Algoa Basin, where it is a very rare component of the faunas. Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin, 1908) Figs 19-20 Trigonia rogersi Kitchin, 1908: 99, pl. 3 (fig. 3), pl. 4 (fig. 1), pl. 5 (fig. 2). Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) Pringle, 1960: 89. Cooper, 1979b: 57, fig. 7. Megatrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) Nakano, 1965: 17. ? Megatrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) Reyes, 1970: 8, pl. 1 (figs 1-2), pl. 3 (fig. 1). ‘UNaSN] YISQeZI[_ WoOg oy} ut odAjofoY Oy} Jo SMOIA JOLIO\Ue puR [elo}eT “[L‘O x ‘(e[sULId) NYsiUy (DIUOSI4NOJaj}q {) DIUOZINOLAIg LT Ly ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN. aS Type By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by Kitchin (1908, pl. 3 (fig. 3), pl. 4 (fig. 1)), SAM-—3974 (Fig. 19C). Material A total of 108 specimens in the South African Museum, SAM-—5088, 12950- 53, 12955-58, 12960-—62, D1882 (73 specimens) and 22 without number, as well as PEM-1465/61. Description Shell moderately large (maximum length 135 mm), strongly inequi- lateral, moderately inflated anteriorly (W/H = 0,35-0,44), longer than high Fig. 18. Pterotrigonia (?Pterotrigonia) knighti (Pringle), X 1. Dorsal view of the holotype. 36 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 19. Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin), x 1. A-B. Dorsal and lateral views of PEM-1465/61. C. Lateral view of the lectotype in the South African Museum. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN Sy) (H/L = 0,63-0,71) and posteriorly produced. Umbones prominent, broad, strongly incurved, situated about one-quarter of the shell length from the anterior, with slightly opisthogyrous beaks. Anterior margin broadly convex, flattish, passing into the very broad, gently convex ventral margin. The postero- dorsal margin is shallowly concave, and the respiratory margin subtruncate with a distinct posterior gape. The ligament pit is about 17 per cent of the shell length. The sunken escut- cheon is very broad, conspicuous, lanceolate, with fine, beaded, obliquely transverse costellae that become obsolete before reaching the commissure. In the nepionic stages, the costellae of the escutcheon extend to the median longi- tudinal groove of the area, giving the inner area a beaded appearance for up to 15 mm from the beak. A beaded marginal carina may extend for the same dis- tance, becoming rounded theseafter. The area is narrow, with a prominent longitudinal groove that persists to maturity and is positioned slightly closer to the escutcheon than the flank. In the nepionic stages it is ornamented by fine, oblique costellae that are more numerous than the flank costae, which they meet at the marginal carina in an anteriorly directed chevron. Beyond 15 mm from the umbo, the area is unornamented. Fig. 20. Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin), X 1. Left valve of a topotype in the South African Museum. In the nepionic stages the distinctly tuberculate flank costae are subconcen- tric. Later flank costae are strongly oblique but not sharply discrepant and extend to the anterior commissure. The anterior 12 or so costae are narrower than or as broad as the interspaces, finely but prominently tuberculate, and weakly curved until they reach the anterior face where they curve strongly upwards to meet the anterior commissure almost at right angles. On the pos- terior half of the flanks the costae are straight, rigid, and inclined slightly to the posterior, with slightly narrower interspaces. 38 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Discussion ~ The side-by-side occurrence of two species of Pterotrigonia, Pterotrigonia (?Pterotrigonia) knighti and P. rogersi points to an early Neocomian radiation of the Pterotrigoniinae. Although P. rogersi does not fall easily into any of the available genera and subgenera, it is referred to Pterotrigonia pending further phylogenetic study. Occurrence Pterotrigonia rogersi (Kitchin) is a common element in the Upper Valangin- ian faunas from the Algoa Basin. It may also occur in the Lower Hauterivian of southern Chile. Genus Pisotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929 Type species. Pisotrigonia salebrosa van Hoepen, 1929; by original desig- nation. Diagnosis Like Pterotrigonia but as high as long, often extremely inflated anteriorly and with broadly flattened anterior face. Posterodorsal margin deeply excavate. Umbones very conspicuous, subterminal, with beaks exceptionally incurved, opisthogyrous; escutcheon with transverse costellae, which may be very weak or absent in early representatives; area smooth except in nepionic stages; flank costae markedly discrepant, with generally thick, robust, distant, coarsely tuber- culate, anterior costae and narrow, straight, crowded, finely serrated posterior costae. Age: Tithonian—Cenomanian (?Maastrichtian). Discussion Although most workers have rejected Pisotrigonia as a junior subjective synonym of Rinetrigonia (Kobayashi & Nakano 1957; Skwarko 1963; Nakano 1974b), the former genus has page priority (Cooper 1988, 1989). Pisotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss, 1843) Fig. 21 Lyriodon ventricosa Krauss, 1843: 130. Lyrodon ventricosus Krauss, 1850: 456, pl. 49 (figs 2c—f only). Trigonia ventricosa (Krauss) Stoliczka, 1871: 315, pl. 15 (figs 9, 9a). Lycett, 1875: 119, plus text-figure. Miller, 1900: 543, pl. 19 (figs 4-5). Paulcke, 1903: 308. Rogers, 1905: 291, fig. 25,2. Kitchin, 1908: 91, pl. 3 (fig. 1). Woods, 1917: 21. Spath, 1931: 542; 1933: 798. Dietrich, 1938: 97. Stoyanow, 1949: 88. Reyes, 1970: 9. Rinetrigonia ventricosa (Krauss) van Hoepen, 1929: 22. Pterotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss) Cox, 1952: 59; 1961: 23. Pringle, 1960: 89. Pterotrigonia (Rinetrigonia) ventricosa (Krauss) Crickmay, 1932: 461. Kobayashi & Nakano, — 1957: 230. Skwarko, 1963: 20; 1966: 99; 1968: 173. Levy, 1967a: 102. non 7rigonia ventricosa Kitchin (non Krauss), 1903: 104, pl. 10 (figs 4-8) (= P. parva van Hoepen). non Trigonia ventricosa Etheridge (non Krauss), 1907: 76, pl. 1 (figs 7-8) (indeterminate pterotrigoniine). LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN _ 39 Type | The whereabouts of Krauss’ (1843) type material is unknown; it may be necessary to designate a neotype. Material Hundreds of specimens in the South African Museum, many unnumbered ‘or with the Van Hoepen number D1841. Description Shell medium sized (maximum length 50 mm), strongly inequilateral, as high as long (H/L = 0,91-1,13), anteriorly extremely inflated (H/W = 0,47—0,54) and rostrate posteriorly. Conjoined valves are wider than long. Umbones very prominent, extremely incurved, with opisthogyrous beaks. Anterior margin weakly curved to almost straight, very high, with broad, flattish anterior face, passing rather sharply into the broad, straight to slightly concave ventral margin. The posterodorsal margin is deeply concave and the narrow respiratory margin rounded. The escutcheon is broad, deeply sunken, lanceolate, with weak oblique costellae along its outer margin, the inner margin being smooth. In some individuals the escutcheon is entirely ribbed or entirely smooth. Carinae are restricted to the nepionic stage. The area is narrow, bipartite, with oblique -costellae in the umbonal region but later smooth. The flank costae of the nepionic stages are subconcentric, with fine trans- verse ridges. Later costae are markedly discrepant, divided into a coarse, distant anterior set that curves markedly only on the anterior face to meet the com- missure at right angles, and a fine, crowded posterior set. The anterior costae are as wide as or narrower than the interspaces; those closest to the umbo are coarsely tuberculate throughout. Posteriorly, however, the coarse rounded tuberculation is increasingly restricted to the ventral part of the costa, leaving the dorsal extension as a thin, wavy, vertical, finely crenulated costella. It is with final loss of coarse tuberculation that the change to the posterior set occurs in which the wavy, crowded, subvertical costellae are finely crenulated throughout. There are about 10—12 costae in the anterior set and 8-12 in the posterior set. Discussion Kitchin (1903: 104, pl. 10 (fig. 4)) identified material from the Tithonian of Cutch with 7. ventricosa (Krauss). Van Hoepen (1929: 38), however, considered the anterior ribs of the Cutch species to be too coarse, with larger and more prominent nodes, and the posterior ribs too uneven for assignment to 7. ventri- cosa. Consequently, he renamed the Cutch species Pisotrigonia parva (Fig. 22). Although Rennie (1936) was highly critical of Van Hoepen’s (1929) taxonomy, the writer has—through the courtesy of Drs N. J. Morris and R. J. Cleevely, studied topotype material of P. parva van Hoepen and concurs that it is a dis- tinctive Tithonian species. Also closely allied is Pisotrigonia tuberculifera 40 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 1 ep ee pel in Fig. 21. Pisotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss), X 1. A-D. Lateral, posterior, anterior and dorsal views of the provisional neotype. E-F. Dorsal and lateral views of a topotype. G—H. Lateral and dorsal views of a topotype. I-J. Internal and external views of a left valve. All the speci- mens are in the South African Museum. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN | 41 Fig. 22. Pisotrigonia parva van Hoepen, X 1. The holotype (after Kitchin 1903). (Stoliczka) (1871: 315, pl. 15 (figs 10-12)), which was said to differ ‘... by being of a more regularly rounded triangular shape, less attenuated and pro- duced posteriorly, and possessing a narrower and not so deeply excavated area’ (Stoliczka 1871: 315). Occurrence Pisotrigonia ventricosa (Krauss) abounds in the Upper Valanginian of south-east Africa. It questionably also occurs in the Tithonian of India (Cutch) and East Africa (Tanzania). Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin, 1908) Figs 15D, 23 Lyrodon ventricosus Krauss, 1850, pl. 2 (fig. 2a—b only). Trigonia kraussi Kitchin, 1908: 95, pl. 3 (fig. 2). Rinetrigonia kraussi (Kitchin) van Hoepen, 1929: 22. Pterotrigonia (Rinetrigonia) kraussi (Kitchin) Kobayashi & Nakano, 1957: 230, fig. 1. Skwarko, 1968: 174. Type The holotype is, by monotypy, the original of the specimen figured by Kitchin (1908, pl. 3 (fig. 2)) (Fig. 23), in the South African Museum. Material In addition to the holotype (SAM-—3999), there are three other specimens in the South African Museum, SAM-—D1942 and D1883 (2 specimens). Description Shell large (maximum length about 90 mm), higher than long (H/L = 0,82), strongly inequilateral, extremely inflated anteriorly (H/W = 0,54) and rostrate 42 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM posteriorly. Umbones very prominent, massive, subterminal, with extremely incurved, opisthogyrous beaks. The anterior margin is very high, weakly convex, and with a very broad, flattened anterior face. It passes rather abruptly into the straight to shallowly concave ventral margin. The posterodorsal margin is mark- edly concave and the respiratory margin presumably narrowly rounded. The anterolateral shoulders protrude significantly beyond the anterior commissure. The escutcheon is relatively broad and deeply excavate, without oblique costellae. The marginal carina is restricted to the nepionic stages, quickly becoming rounded and indistinct. The area is very narrow, with a prominent longitudinal groove, and lacks ornament for much of its growth. . On the nepionic stages the flank costae are subconcentric. Later they become strongly oblique and markedly discrepant. The eight ribs of the anterior series are very robust, exaggerated, narrower than the interspaces, almost straight, but curving upwards on the anterior face. They are generally coarsely tuberculate but on SAM-—D1942 the anterior costae seem to be nontuberculate. These anterior ribs approach the anterior commissure obliquely but pinch out before reaching it; the anteroventral ribs are the first to reach the commissure, which they contact at right angles. The finely crenulated, crowded costellae of the posterior series are initially subvertical, but become increasingly inclined to the posterior, and are about as narrow as the interspaces. Fig. 23. Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin), x 1. Lateral and anterior views of the holotype in the South African Museum. a he a LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN | 43 Occurrence Pisotrigonia kraussi (Kitchin) is a very rare component in the Upper Valanginian faunas of south-east Africa. Family lotrigoniidae Saveliev, 1958 (nom. transl. herein ex subfamily Iotrigoniinae Saveliev, 1958). Diagnosis Medium to large megatrigoniaceans; pyriform to subovate; posteriorly strongly produced, inequilateral; respiratory margin narrowly rounded to obliquely truncate; escutcheon crossed by weak transverse costellae in nepionic stage, later smooth; carinae generally restricted to nepionic stage; area narrow, bipartite, smooth except in earliest growth stages; flanks with generally fine sub- concentric costae anteriorly meeting fewer, broader, subvertical posterior costae in a chevron; ornament may be replaced by concentric growth rugae in maturity. Discussion Although this taxon is included by many within the synonymy of the Mega- trigoniinae, the subfamily is present already in the Upper Bajocian of Argentina, contemporaneous with the most primitive megatrigoniines, 1.e. Andi- trigonia kiedeli (Weaver) (Leanza & Garate 1987). Since Jotrigonia persists into the Maastrichtian of New Zealand (Fleming 1964, 1987) it is an important phy- letic line that merits recognition. Its origins are cryptic. Saveliev (1958) suggested derivation from Vaugoniidae of the Myophorellacea, but the writer follows Kitchin (1903) in regarding the similarities as due to convergence. The importance of V-shaped flank costae to primitive Megatrigoniinae, together with a smooth escutcheon and impersistent carinae, suggests a common ancestry for the Iotrigoniinae and Megatrigoniinae. Genus Jotrigonia van Hoepen, 1929 Type species. lotrigonia crassitesta van Hoepen, 1929; by original desig- nation. Diagnosis Area unornamented beyond the nepionic stages and with a rounded respir- atory margin. Anterior flank costae often irregular, zigzagging, pinching and swelling, and forming prominent tubercles at the anterolateral shoulder in some; anterior face smooth; chevrons persist to large size but may become effaced in maturity when they are replaced by concentric growth rugae. Discussion The earliest species to be assigned to Jotrigonia is I. radixscripta (Lambert) (1944: 369, pl. 1 (figs 7-8), pl. 6 (fig. 1); Leanza & Garate 1987: 225, pl. 2 44 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM (fig. 7)) from the mid-Bajocian to early Callovian of Argentina. This species differs in several noteworthy aspects from typical Jotrigonia, notably in its straight posterodorsal margin, obliquely truncate respiratory margin, relatively prominent marginal carina, and the presence of a carina marking the longitudi- nal furrow to the area, as well as conspicuous growth rugae to the adult area. These differences are here considered to warrant generic separation and the name Lambertiella is proposed, with Trigonia radixscripta Lambert as type species. Jotrigonia attained a near-cosmopolitan distribution in the Tithonian— Neocomian. In the Australasian province it gave rise to Zaletrigonia Skwarko, 1963, which is distinguished by the rapid replacement of chevrons by two sets of oblique ribs that converge ventrally but do not meet. | Totrigonia vau (Sharpe, 1856) Fig. 24 Trigonia vau Sharpe, 1856: 194, pl. 22 (fig. 5). Tate, 1867, pl. 7 (fig. 8). Paulcke, 1903: 309. Kitchin, 1903: 67; 1908: 110, pl. 6 (figs 1-3). Stoyanow, 1949: 79. Skwarko, 1963: 17. Reyes, 19702312. Totrigonia vau (Sharpe) van Hoepen, 1929: 9. Nakano, 1965: 19. Trigonia (Iotrigonia) vau Sharpe. Rennie, 1936: 343. Megatrigonia (Iotrigonia) vau (Sharpe) Cox, 1952: 58. Pringle, 1960: 89. Totrigonia cf. vau (Sharpe) Cooper, 1979b: 52, fig. 2. Type By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by Sharpe (856. ple 22 (fig >): Material In addition to 25 specimens available for study in the South African Museum, SAM-—653, 4645, 4650-2, 4655, 5039-40, 5089, 7454, 7567, 7569, 7571, 7572 (2 specimens), 7573-74, 7575 (2 specimens), 7595, 12776, D574, D1944 and two unnumbered specimens, there are also several unnumbered specimens in the Port Elizabeth Museum. Description Shell medium sized (maximum length about 65 mm), trigonally ovate, elongate (H/L = 0,52-0,61), with the moderately elevated umbones situated about one-third of the shell length from the anterior. The posterodorsal margin is shallowly concave, the anterior margin strongly convex passing imperceptibly into the broadly convex ventral margin, and the respiratory margin narrowly rounded. The valves are moderately inflated anteriorly (H/W = 0,33-0,36). The sunken escutcheon is narrow, lanceolate, smooth, and extends about 50 per cent of the posterodorsal shell length. It rises shghtly at the commissure. The area is narrow, smooth beyond the nepionic stages, and with a longitudinal groove that weakens and may become obsolete posteriorly. Inner and marginal LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN — 45 Fig. 24. Jotrigonia vau (Sharpe), X 1. A. Lateral view of the specimen in the South African Museum figured by Kitchin (1908). B-—C. Lateral and dorsal views of a right valve in the Port Elizabeth Museum. D. Right valve of a posteriorly elongate individual in the Port Elizabeth Museum. E-F. Lateral and dorsal views of a left valve in which the posterior branches of the flank costae are unusually swollen. carinae are lacking. The area is ornamented by transverse costellae for about 7 mm from the beak, after which the ribs are restricted to the angulation separ- ating the area and escutcheon. The flank ornament of the nepionic stages, up to a distance of 10 mm from the umbones, comprises fine concentric ribs, about as wide as the interspaces. These pass obliquely across the area with a slight inflexion at the position of the marginal carina, and continue weakly on to the outer edge of the escutcheon. 46 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Beyond this stage the adult ornament is developed abruptly, with the flank costae forming deep chevrons whose axial trace is inclined to the posterior. The broad, low, ribs of the posterior branches are much wider than the interspaces and, except perhaps at the extreme posterior, are directed anteroventrally. The much finer oblique ribs of the anterior branches meet the posterior ribs almost at right angles in a ratio of 3 : 2 in the later growth stages. Anteriorly the ribs bend sharply upwards and become sinuous, with irregular zigzags, but become obsolete on the anterolateral shoulder, leaving the anterior face impressed only by growth striae. The flank chevrons become obsolete at the largest growth stages, when the anterior branches form coarse concentric growth rugae that interfere with and crenulate the posterior ribs, giving them a nodate appearance. Anteroventrally the ribs become irregular, zigzagging and pinching and swelling. Occurrence Iotrigonia vau (Sharpe) is a common element in the late Valanginian faunas of south-east Africa. It is probably also present in the Robberg Formation, and has been reported from the Tithonian of East Africa. Totrigonia stowi (Kitchin, 1908) ‘Fig. 25 Trigonia sp. Kitchin, 1903: 74. Trigonia stowi Kitchin, 1908: 115, pl. 6 (figs 4-5), pl. 7 (fig. 1). Totrigonia stowi (Kitchin) van Hoepen, 1929: 8. Nakano, 1965: 19. Cooper, 1979b: 52, fig. 4. Trigonia (Iotrigonia) stowi (Kitchin) Rennie, 1936: 343. Megatrigonia (Iotrigonia) stowi (Kitchin) Cox, 1952: 58. Pringle, 1960: 89. ?Totrigonia stowi (Kitchin) Reyes, 1970: 11, pl. 2 (fig. 3). ?Totrigonia stowi var. aisenensis Reyes, 1970: 13, pl. 2 (figs 1-2). Type By lectotype designation herein, the original of the specimen figured by Kitchin (1908, pl. 6 (fig. 5)), SAM—PCU3979 (Fig. 25A). Material Two unnumbered specimens in the South African Museum, as well as PEM-1465/62 and AM-721. Description Shell moderately large (maximum length about 110 mm), very elongate (H/L = 0,52), variable in outline, but typically subtrapezoidal, with weakly inflated valves (H/W = 0,16). The fairly prominent umbones are situated between one-quarter and one-third of the shell length from the anterior, and the beaks are weakly incurved and slightly opisthogyrous. The posterodorsal margin is shallowly concave, almost straight and forms an obtuse angle with the straight, strongly produced anterior border. The long ventral margin is gently convex and the siphonal margin narrowly rounded. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN | 47 Fig. 25. Jotrigonia stowi (Kitchin), x 1. A. Lateral view of right valve figured by Kitchin (1908). B-C. Dorsal and lateral views of a specimen in the Port Elizabeth Museum. Note the swollen tubercles near the anteroventral margin. 48 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM The escutcheon is relatively long, lanceolate, shallowly concave, and smooth. The ligament pit is relatively short and broad. The area is narrow, convex, and with a pronounced longitudinal furrow that persists to maturity. Marginal and inner carinae are lacking at all observable growth stages. The flank ornament of the nepionic stages comprises fine concentric ribs that cross the line of the marginal carina with an inflexion and continue across the area and escutcheon. The adult flank costae form deep acute chevrons whose axial trace curves posteriorly, the anterior branches being fine and oblique whereas the posterior branches are broad, low, and directed anteroven- trally. The number of ribs in the two branches are approximately equal, although an occasional rib may be intercalated anteriorly. In maturity the anterior costae become relatively broad, swollen, and irregular, zigzagging and forming upwardly directed chevrons, or breaking into weak nodes. In some indi- viduals ribbing becomes obsolete anteroventrally. Close to the ventral border the posterior ribs are intersected by deep, irregularly developed growth striae causing them to break up into weak nodes. Large specimens show exaggerated swollen tubercles anteroventrally that replace the zigzagging costae. Occurrence lotrigonia stowi (Kitchin) is a rare element in the Upper Valanginian faunas of south-east Africa. It may also occur in the Lower Hauterivian of southern Chile. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Drs M. A. Cluver and H. C. Klinger for access to the collections of the South African Museum, Mr W. Holleman for allowing me to study the col- lections of the Albany Museum, Grahamstown, and Mr Barney Newman for assistance with the collections of the Port Elizabeth Museum. Drs E. Pérez d’Angelo (Santiago) and M. Tashiro (Kochi) critically reviewed the manuscript, for which I am grateful, and Betsie Greyling provided general assistance. REFERENCES BuRCKHARDT, C. 1903. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Jura- und Kreideformation der Cordillere. Palaeontographica (B) 50: 1-145. Cooper, M. R. 1979a. A new species of Myophorella (Bivalvia, Trigontidae) from the Sunday’s River Formation, South Africa. Annals of the South African Museum 78 (3): 21-27. Cooper, M. R. 19796. Cretaceous Trigontidae (Mollusca, Bivalvia) from the Brenton Forma- tion, Knysna. Annals of the South African Museum 78 (6): 49-67. Cooper, M. R. 1981. Revision of the late Valanginian Cephalopoda from the Sundays River Formation of South Africa, with special reference to the genus Olcostephanus. Annals of the South African Museum 83 (7): 147-366. Cooper, M. R. 1983. The ammonite genus Umgazaniceras in the Sundays River Formation. Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa 86 (1): 63-64. Cooper, M. R. 1988. A new species of trigoniid bivalve from the Lower Cretaceous (Albian) of Zululand. South African Journal of Geology 91 (3): 326-328. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN | 49 Cooper, M. R. 1989. The Gondwanic bivalve Pisotrigonia (family Trigoniidae), with a description of a new species. Paldontologische Zeitschrift 63 (3/4): 241-250. Cox, L. R. 1952. Notes on the Trigoniidae with outlines of a classification of the family. Pro- ceedings of the Malacological Society of London 29 (2-3): 45-70. Cox, L. R. 1961. The molluscan fauna and probable Lower Cretaceous age of the Nanutarra Formation of Western Australia. Bulletin. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia 61: 1-39. Cox, L. R: 1969. Trigoniacea Lamarck, 1859. In: Moore, R. C. ed._Treatise on invertebrate paleontology. Part N, Mollusca 6 (1): N471-N489. Boulder: Geological Society of America; Lawrence: University of Kansas. Crickmay, C. H. 1930. The Jurassic rocks of Ashcroft, British Columbia. University of Cali- fornia Publications in Geological Sciences 19 (2): 23-74. Crickmay, C. H. 1932. Contributions toward a monograph of the Trigoniidae. American Journal of Science 24 (5): 443-464. DarraGH, T. A. 1986. The Cainozoic Trigoniidae of Australia. Alcheringa 10 (1): 1-34. DierricH, W. O. 1933. Das Muster der Gattung Trigonia (Moll. Lam.). EEE MTS CVICIEE der Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin 1933 (2): 326-332. DietricH, W. O. 1938. Lamelibranquios cretacicos de la Cordillera Oriental. Estudios geolo- gicos y paleontolégicos sobre la Cordillera oriental de Colombia 1934 (3): 81-108. ETHERIDGE, R. 1907. Cretaceous fossils of Natal. Part Il. The Umsinene River deposits, Zulu- land. Report of the Geological Survey of Natal and Zululand 3: 67-90. FLEMING, C. A. 1964. History of the bivalve family Trigoniidae in the south-west Pacific. Aus- tralian Journal of Science 26 (7): 196-204. FLEMING, C. A. 1987. New Zealand Mesozoic bivalves of the superfamily Trigoniacea. Palae- ontological Bulletin. Geological Survey 53: 1-104. FRENEIX, S. 1958. Contribution 4 l’étude des lamellibranches du Crétacé de Nouvelle-Calédo- nie. Sciences de la terre 4 (3/4): 153-207. Go.tpFuss, A. 1826-44. Petrefacta Germaniae tam ea, quae in museo universitatis regiae Borussicae Friedericiae Wilhelminae Rhenanae servantur quam alia quaecunque in museis Hoeninghusiano Muensteriano aliisque extant, iconibus et descriptionibus illustrata. Abbild- ungen und Beschreibungen der Petrefacten Deutschlands und der angrdnzenden Ldnder unter Mitwirkung des Herrn Grafen Georg zu Minster. Part 2: 1-312. Disseldorf: Arnz & Co. Hatcu, F. H. & CorstorPHINE, G. S. 1905. The geology of South Africa. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. HENNIG, W. 1966. Phylogenetic systematics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. HirscuH, F. 1980. Jurassic bivalves and gastropods from northern Sinai and southern Israel. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 28 (4): 128-163. Hoxus, E. & Neumayr, M. 1881. Uber einige fossilien aus der Uitenhage-Formation in Siid- afrika. Denkschriften der Akademie der Wissenschaften (Math.-nat. Klasse) 44: 267. KitcuHin, F. L. 1903. The Jurassic fauna of Cutch. The Lamellibranchiata. Genus Trigonia. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Palaeontologica indica (9) 3 (2): 1-122. KitcHin, F. L. 1908. The invertebrate fauna and palaeontological relations of the Uitenhage Series. Annals of the South African Museum 7 (2): 21-250. KosBayASHI, T. 1954. Studies on the Jurassic trigonians in Japan. Part I. Preliminary notes. Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography 15 (1/2): 61-80. KosBayASHI, T. & AMANO, M. 1955. On the Pseudoquadratae Trigonians, Steinmannella, in the Indo-Pacific Province. Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography 26 (3/4): 193-208. KosayasHl, T. & NAKANO, M. 1957. On the Pterotrigoniinae. Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography 28 (4): 219-238. KosayYASHI, T. & TAMURA, M. 1957. Additional new genera and species of trigonians from the Jurassic of Soma, North Japan. Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography 28 (1): 35-42. Krauss, F. 1843. Uber die geologischen Verhaltnisse der dstlichen Kiiste des Kaplandes. Amitlicher Berichte der Gesellschaft fur Deutsch-Naturforschungs der Aertze 1843: 126. Krauss, F. 1850. Uber einige petrefacten aus der untern Kreide des Kaplandes. Nova Acta Acadamiae Caesareae Leopoldino Carolinae germanicae naturae curiosorum 22 (2): 439-464. 50 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM LaMBERT, L. R. 1944. Algunas Trigonias del Neuquén. Revista del Museo de La Plata _(Paleontologia) (n.s.) 2 (14): 357-397. Lance, E. 1914. Die Brachiopoden, Lamellibranchiaten und Anneliden der Trigonia schwarzi-Schicht, nebst verleichender Ubersucht der Trigonien der gesamten Tendaguru- schichten. Archiv fiir Biontologie 3 (4): 193-289. LEANZA, A. F. 1941. Dos neuvas Trigonias en el Titonense de Carrin-cur4, en el territorio del Neuquen. Notas del Museo de La Plata (Paleontologia) 3 (31); 225-233. LEANZA, A. F. 1942. Los Pelecipodos del Lias de Piedra Pintada en el Neuquén Instituto del Museo de la Universidad Nacional de la Plata. Revista del Museo de la Plata (Palaeontolo- gia) (n.s.) 2 (10): 145-206. LEANZA, H. A. 1981. Una nueva especie de Myophorella (Trigoniidae—Bivalvia) del Cretacico Inferior de Neuquén, Argentina. Ameghiniana 18 (1/2): 1-9. LEANZA, H. A. & GaraTeE, J. I. 1987. Faunas de Trigonias (Bivalvia) del Jurasico y Cretacico Inferior de la Provincia del Nequén, Argentina, conservadas en el Museo Juan Olsacher de Zapala. In: VOLKHEIMER, W. ed. Bioestratigrafia de los Sistemas Regionales del Jurdsico y Cretacico de América del Sur 1: 201-255. Mendoza. Levy, R. 1967a. Revision de las Trigonias de Argentina. Parte III. Los Pterotrigoniinae de Argentina. Ameghiniana 5 (4): 101-107. Levy, R. 1967b. Revision de las Trigonias de Argentina. Parte IV. Los Megatrigoniinae de Argentina y su relacion con Anditrigonia gen. nov. Ameghiniana 5 (4): 135-144. Levy, R. 1969. Revision de las Trigonias de la Argentina. Part V: El grupo de las pseudoqua- dratae. Ameghiniana 6 (1): 65-68. Lycetr, J. 1872-79. A monograph of the British fossil trigoniae. Monograph of the Palaeonto- logical Society: 1-52 (1872); 53-92 (1874); 93-148 (1875); 149-204 (1877); 205-245 (1879). McLAcuLan, I. & McMitian, I. 1979. Microfaunal biostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy and history of Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits on the coastal margin of South Africa. Special Publications. Geological Society of South Africa 6: 161-181. MU ier, G. 1900. Versteinerungen des Jura und der Kreide. In; BoRNHARDT, W. ed. Zur Oberflachengestaltung und Geologie Deutsch-Ostafrikas. Deutsch-Ost-Afrika 7: 514. NAKANO, M. 1961. On the Trigoniinae. Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University (C, Geology and Mineralogy) 4 (1): 71-94. Nakano, M,. 1965. On the Megatrigoniinae. Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University (C, Geology and Mineralogy) 5 (1): 13-20. Nakano, M. 1968. On the Quadratotrigoniinae. Journal of Science of the Hiroshima Univer- sity (C, Geology and Mineralogy) 39 (1): 27-41. NAKANO, M. 1970. Notes on the Trigoniinae and the Nototrigoniinae. Research Bulletin. Hiroshima Institute of Technology 4 (1): 91-108. Nakano, M. 1971. A note on Trigonia calderoni Castillo & Aguilerae. Research Bulletin. Hiroshima Institute of Technology 6 (1): 11-13. Nakano, M. 1974a. A new genus Mediterraneotrigonia nov. Research Bulletin, Hiroshima Institute of Technology 9: 77-80. Nakano, M. 1974b. Rinetrigonia and its allies. Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University (C, Geology and Mineralogy) 7 (2): 101-111. NaKANo, M. & NuMANO, K. 1961. On some Gyliakian Pterotrigoniae from Kyushu and Hok- kaido, Japan. Transactions and Proceedings of the Palaeontological Society of Japan (n.s.) 43: 89-98. NEWELL, N. D. & Boyp, D. W. 1975. Parallel evolution in early trigoniacean bivalves. Bull- etin of the American Museum of Natural History 154 (2): 53-162. PAULCKE, W. 1903. Ueber die Kreideformation in Sidamerika und ihre Beziehungen zu anderen Gebieten. Neues Jahrbuch ftir Mineralogie, Geologie und Paldontologie. Beila- gebdnde 17: 252-312. P£REz D’A., E. & Reres, B. R. 1983. Paranditrigonia, subgénero nuevo de Anditrigonia Levy (Mollusca; Bivalvia). Revista Geoldgica de Chile 19-20: 57-79. PouLton, T. P. 1977. Early Cretaceous trigoniid bivalves of Manning Provincial Park, south- western British Columbia. Geological Survey Paper. Mines and Geology Branch, Canada 76-9: 1-25. PouLton, T. P. 1979. Jurassic trigoniid bivalves from Canada and the western United States of America. Bulletin. Geological Survey of Canada 282: 1-82. LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA FROM THE ALGOA BASIN | Sh PRINGLE, J. A. 1960. A new species of Trigonia from the Sundays River Beds of the Uiten- hage Series, Cape Province. Annals of the Natal Museum 15 (8): 89-92. Rennie, J. V. L. 1936. Lower Cretaceous Lamellibranchia from northern Zululand. Annals of the South African Museum 31 (3): 277-391. Rennig, J. V. L. 1947. Aptian fossils from Chalala near Lourenco Marques. Boletim. Servi- cos de (Industria), Minas e Geologia. Colonia de Mocambique. Lourengo Marques 9: 1-81. Reyes, B..R. 1970. La fauna de Trigonias de Aisen. Boletin. Instituto-de Investigaciones Geo- logicas, Chile 26: 5—40. Reyes, B., R. & Pérez D’A., E. 1982. El género Anditrigonia Levy, 1967 (Mollusca; Bival- via) en Chile. [JJ Congreso Geoldgico Chileno, 1982, Concepcion: A289-A301. Reyes, B. R., SEREY, E. T. & PEREZ D’A., E. 1981. Estudio sistematico y filogenético de las especies sudamericanas del género Steinmannella (Trigoniidae; Bivalvia). Revista Geo- logica de Chile 12: 25-47. Rocers, A. W. 1905. An introduction to the geology of the Cape Colony. With a chapter on the fossil reptiles of the Karroo Formation by R. Broom. London: Longmans, Green & Go: SauL, L. R. 1979. The North Pacific Cretaceous trigoniid genus Yaadia. University of Califor- nia Publications in Geological Sciences 119: 1-65. SAVELIEV, A. A. 1958. The Lower Cretaceous trigoniids of Mangyschlak and western Turkme- nia. Trudy Vsesoyuznogo Neftyanogo-Issledovatel’skogo Geologicheskikh Instituta (VNIGRI) 125: 1-516. (In Russian.) SHARPE, D. 1856. Description of fossils from the secondary rocks of Sundays River and Zwart- kops River, South Africa. Transactions of the Geological Society. London (2) 7: 193-215. SHONE, R. W. 1976. The sedimentology of the Mesozoic Algoa Basin. Unpublished M. Sc. thesis, University of Port Elizabeth, South Africa. SitvA, G. H. DA. 1966. Sobre a ocorréncia do Jurassico marinho no norte de Mocgambique. Revista dos Estudios Gerais Universitarios de Mocambique(6) 3: 61-68. SKWARKO, S. K. 1963. Australian Mesozoic trigoniids. Bulletin. Bureau of Mineral Resources, _ Geology and Geophysics, Australia 67: 1-55. SkwWARKO, S. K. 1966. Cretaceous stratigraphy and palaeontology of the Northern Territory. Bulletin. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia 73: 96-104. SKWARKO, S. K. 1967. Mesozoic Mollusca from Australia and New Guinea. 2A. First report of Upper Triassic and ?Lower Jurassic marine molluscs from New Guinea. Bulletin. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia 75: 39-82. SKWARKO, S. K. 1968. Lower Cretaceous Trigoniidae from Stanwell, eastern Queensland. Bulletin. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Australia 80 (Palaeonto- logical Papers, 1965): 167-180. SKWARKO, S. K. 1970. An Upper Jurassic Apiotrigonia from Mexico. Boletin de la Sociedad geologica mexicana 31 (2): 75-78. SpATH, L. F. 1927-1933. Revision of the Jurassic cephalopod fauna of Kachh (Cutch), 1-6. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Palaeontologia indica 9 (2): vii, 1-955. SPATH, L. F. 1935. On the age of certain species of Trigonia from the Jurassic rocks of Kachh (Cutch). Geological Magazine 72 (850): 184-189. STEINMANN, G. 1882. Die gruppe der Trigoniae pseudoquadratae. Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mine- ralogie, Geologie und Paldontologie 1: 219-228. 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Memoirs of the Faculty of Science, Kochi University (E, Geology) 7: 1-18. TasHirOo, M. & Morozumi, Y. 1982. Late Cretaceous knobby trigonians from the Izumi Mountains, southwest Japan. Bulletin of the Osaka Museum of Natural History 36 (260): 1-8. TaTE, R. 1867. On some secondary fossils from South Africa. Quarterly Journal of the Geo- logical Society of London 23: 139-174. WILLEY, L. E. 1973. Belemnites from south-eastern Alexander Island: II. The occurrence of the family Belemnopseidae in the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous. Bulletin. British Antarctic Survey 36: 33-59. Woops, H. 1917. The Cretaceous faunas of the north-eastern part of the South Island of New Zealand. Palaeontological Bulletin. New Zealand Geological Survey. Wellington 4: 1-41. VAN Hoepen, E. C. N. 1929. Die krytfauna van Soeloeland. 1. Trigoniidae. Paleontologiese Navorsing van die Nasionale Museum van Bloemfontein 1 (1): 1-38. "wee eS ee eee ee ee ee: 6K Se ey 6. SYSTEMATIC papers must conform to the Jnternational code of zoological nomenclature (particu- larly Articles 22 and 51). . Names of new taxa, combinations, synonyms, etc., when used for the first time, must be followed by the appropriate Latin (not English) abbreviation, e.g. gen. nov., sp. nov., comb. nov., syn. nov., etc. An author’s name when cited must follow the name of the taxon without intervening punctuation and not be abbreviated; if the year is added, a comma must separate author’s name and year. The author’s name (and date, if cited) must be placed in parentheses if aspecies or subspecies is trans- ferred from its original genus. The name of a subsequent user of a scientific name must be separated from the scientific name by a colon. Synonymy arrangement should be according to chronology of names, i.e. all published scientific names by which the species previously has been designated are listed in chronological order, with all references to that name following in chronological order, e.g.: Family Nuculanidae Nuculana (Lembulus) bicuspidata (Gould, 1845) Figs 14-15A Nucula (Leda) bicuspidata Gould, 1845: 37. Leda plicifera A. Adams, 1856: 50. Laeda bicuspidata Hanley, 1859: 118, pl. 228 (fig. 73). Sowerby, 1871: pl. 2 (fig. 8a—b). Nucula largillierti Philippi, 1861: 87. Leda bicuspidata: Nicklés, 1950: 163, fig. 301; 1955: 110. Barnard, 1964: 234, figs 8-9. Note punctuation in the above example: comma separates author’s name and year semicolon separates more than one reference by the same author full stop separates references by different authors figures of plates are enclosed in parentheses to distinguish them from text-figures dash, not comma, separates consecutive numbers. Synonymy arrangement according to chronology of bibliographic references, whereby the year is placed in front of each entry, and the synonym repeated in full for each entry, is not acceptable. In describing new species, one specimen must be designated as the holotype; other specimens mentioned in the original description are to be designated paratypes; additional material not regarded as paratypes should be listed separately. The complete data (registration number, depository, descrip- tion of specimen, locality, collector, date) of the holotype and paratypes must be recorded, e.g.: Holotype SAM-—A13535 in the South African Museum, Cape Town. Adult female from mid-tide region, King’s Beach, Port Eliza- beth (33°S1’S 25°39’E), collected by A. Smith, 15 January 1973. Note standard form of writing South African Museum registration numbers and date. 7. SPECIAL HOUSE RULES Capital initial letters (a) The Figures, Maps and Tables of the paper when referred to in the text e.g. ‘. . . the Figure depicting C. namacolus ...’: ‘. . . in C. namacolus (Fig. 10) .. .” (b) The prefixes of prefixed surnames in all languages, when used in the text, if not preceded by initials or full names e.g. DuToit but A.L. du Toit; Von Huene but F. von Huene (c) Scientific names, but not their vernacular derivatives e.g. Therocephalia, but therocephalian Punctuation should be loose, omitting all not strictly necessary Reference to the author should preferably be expressed in the third person Roman numerals should be converted to arabic, except when forming part of the title of a book or article, such as ‘Revision of the Crustacea. Part VIII. The Amphipoda.’ Specific name must not stand alone, but be preceded by the generic name or its abbreviation to initial capital letter, provided the same generic name is used consecutively. The generic name should not be abbreviated at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph. Name of new genus or species is not to be included in the title; it should be included in the abstract, counter to Recommendation 23 of the Code, to meet the requirements of Biological Abstracts. MICHAEL R. COOPER LOWER CRETACEOUS TRIGONIOIDA (MOLLUSCA, BIVALVIA) FROM THE ALGOA BASIN, WITH A REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORDER 232 VOLUME 100 PART 2 Te) Lo c ) © ° = “ ” MAY 1992 OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN WAG) SAY CAPE TOWN 1. MATERIAL should be original and not published elsewhere, in whole or in part. 2. LAYOUT should be as follows: (a) 3. MANUSCRIPT, to be submitted in triplicate, should be typewritten and neat, double spaced with 3 cm margins all round. First lines of paragraphs should be indented. Tables and a list of captions for illustrations should be typed separately, their positions indicated in the text. All pages should be num- bered consecutively. Major headings of the paper are centred capitals; first subheadings are shouldered small capitals; second subheadings are shouldered italics; third subheadings are indented, shouldered italics. Further subdivisions should be avoided, as also enumeration (never roman numerals) of headings and abbreviations. Footnotes should be avoided unless they are short and essential. Only generic and specific names should be underlined to indicate italics; all other marking up should be left to editor and publisher. 4, ILLUSTRATIONS should be reducible to a size not exceeding 12 x 18 cm (19 cm including caption); the reduction or enlargement required should be indicated (and preferably uniform); orig- inals larger than 35 x 47 cm should not be submitted; photographs should be rectangular in shape and final size. 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All illustrations, whether line drawings or photographs, should be termed figures (plates are not printed; half-tones wiil appear in their proper place in the text) and numbered in a single series. Items of composite figures should be designated by capital letters; lettering of figures is not set in type and should be in lower-case letters. If Letraset is used authors are requested to use Helvetica-style letter- ing, if possible. The number of the figure should be lightly marked in pencil on the back of each illustration. 5. REFERENCES cited in text and synonymies should all be included in the list at the end of the paper, using the Harvard System (ibid., idem, loc. cit., op. cit. are not acceptable): (a) Author’s name and year of publication given in text, e.g.: ‘Smith (1969) describes. . .’ ‘Smith (1969: 36, fig. 16) describes...’ z ‘As described (Smith 1969a, 1969b; Jones 1971)’ ‘As described (Haughton & Broom 1927) .. .’ ‘As described (Haughton et al. 1927)... .’ Note: no comma separating name and year pagination indicated by colon, not p. names of joint authors connected by ampersand | et al. in text for more than two joint authors, but names of all authors given in list of references. (b) Full references at the end of the paper, arranged alphabetically by names, chronologically within each name, with suffixes a, b, etc., to the year for more than one paper by the same author in that year, e.g. Smith (1969a, 1969b) and not Smith (1969, 1969a). For books give title in italics, edition, volume number, place of publication, publisher. For journal article give title of article, title of journal in italics (according to the World list of scientific periodicals. 4th ed. London: Butterworths, 1963), series in parentheses, volume number, part number in parentheses, pagination (first and last pages of article). Examples (note capitalization and punctuation) , BuLLouaH, W. S. 1960. Practical invertebrate anatomy. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. FiscHER, P. H. 1948. Données sur la résistance et de la vitalité des mollusques. Journal de conchyliologie 88 (3): 100-140. FiscHER, P. H., Duvat, M. & Rarry, A. 1933. Etudes sur les échanges respiratoires des littorines. Archives de zoologie Koun, A. J. 1960a. Ecological notes on Conus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Trincomalee region of Ceylon. Annals and Koun, A. J. 1960b. Spawning behaviour, egg masses and larval development in Conus from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of THIELE, J. 1910. Mollusca. B. Polyplacophora, Gastropoda marina, Bivalvia. In: SCHULTZE, L. Zoologische und anthro- expérimentale et générale 74 (33): 627-634. Magazine of Natural History (13) 2 (17): 309-320. the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Yale University 17 (4): 1-51. pologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Stid-Afrika ausgefiihrt in den Jahren 1903-1905 4 (15). Denkschriften der medizinisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena 16: 269-270. (continued inside back cover) ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM Volume 100 + £4Band May 1992 Mei Part 2 Deel THE BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA PART I TECHNOLOGY By E. M. SHAW Cape Town Kaapstad The ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM are issued in parts at irregular intervals as material becomes available Obtainable from the South African Museum, P.O. Box 61, Cape Town 8000 Die ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM word uitgegee in dele op ongereelde tye na gelang van die beskikbaarheid van stof Verkrygbaar van die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum, Posbus 61, Kaapstad 8000 OUT OF PRINT/UIT DRUK 15 2053, 528), 325 Sti) SOON EO 6, tpi), 70-4). 8. 9-2), LOS) IOS eens 14(1=2), 15425) 240s sy sia aeo Gy rcae 36(2), 43(1), 45(1), 67(5), 84(2) Copyright enquiries to the South African Museum Kopieregnavrae aan die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum ISBN 0 86813 125 3 Printed in South Africa by In Suid-Afrika gedruk deur ithe Rustica seress me btvas letden Die Rustica-pers, Edms., Bpk., Old Mill Road, Ndabeni, Cape Old Mill-weg, Ndabeni, Kaap D839 THE BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA PART 1 TECHNOLOGY By E. M. SHAW % Department of Ethnography, South African Museum, Cape Town (With 110 figures and 1 table) -[MS accepted 30 September 1988] ABSTRACT This account of the indigenous basketwork of southern Africa is the result of some years of study of basketwork specimens in collections in southern Africa and overseas, and of investi- gation in the field. The literature has been searched and records have been made of some 2 500 specimens, and of information gained in the field. The study is confined to southern Africa, that is, Africa south of the line made by the Cunene, Okavango and Zambesi rivers. There are several modern political divisions within the area, but they are only indirectly relevant to the study. Part 1 is a study of the techniques and materials that have been recorded throughout the area. The objects made, their names when these are known, the techniques and materials that are used, and the division between the sexes in the type of object made, will be studied ethno- graphically in subsequent parts. CONTENTS PAGE GROG LO ties eee Tey Se Teen ee anon PAN Ee mE Te eee SPT Oe ad. oh 54 HC EhinGlO pyr meena ete eee oe teen oe en, Reem eee et TM aS 5D Evel ipl Capea ok ein ante MAG Pie RCUB Near Va Tne er eee e MOe eS 55) |B Sa NAITO Oat, Ac ee al Rane hia as REAL IRR GA ane ae RC oe 87 SUEY DUAR BOSE Saale, Mee caudate acl © EMA ical SUeNe Shiga Agere Pel ua ant ae 102 IBGIIEG: suite... santorltany cor Ga VEAt capes a Rae aa ibe i AB heal A te Rt ll i ea ean ae dae ne 106 | PUGS) OVI, ooo 8 2 conan Lt che reeks mata centaterenahy. >. Chel. Uh mad idl ane Se te ra 139 DECOM Ae Piety on WE ghee ee net rc eee Re Us a eee wee eee 146 (ONAMEY TSA TE COTO RE, eRn ere ote Ata 3 BiB ekohegie Ok eaten Ae ok Wah orn Sok ea era 164 Sia PES mney me PetemP nn hn ech inr Haake ome me Ms Le kN 168 Roo lShiees ar aera a ecient rer coger ici Ae: fica ge Nar ee See 181 IWAIGHISTO Rais Saas Clara ar rales. cht SDT bs Beci cess Kr fo hata RA erate an SR OE 183 | ORWS SE a Besa a Seas beta oF iy MRA aM Fa Ale Ay a 8 a ed Al 202 Giri SlUistomere i, teehee ee eae ce Ma Um Ce hee Meiers ee Pie adits 208 /S16] SFUON PME IEREN TUTTO IS Be eps A ei Ug er a at 208 NCTC RENCE Se materi mr Snedeker Maho Maem se Aree cerimla Vide aM os Oe ee 209 GIGS Say ea weess Mees ate PE ee Oey hn Mec a de Uae A) Soils, igue dw Siw whch Qas 210 Appendix 1: Summary and index of basketwork techniques.............. 214 Appendix 2: Summary and index of materials used in basketwork......... 246 MC TCO Ree EME INT Lenser s IEE Gs ROM Ate tdci, Ne Wier enw od aes 247 5 Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100 (2), 1992, 53-248, 110 figs, 1 table. 54 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM INTRODUCTION The account does not claim by any means to be exhaustive. For one thing the coverage is very uneven. For another, as was made clear by visits to overseas museums where the collections tend to be older, many styles have died out and the account is, therefore, likely to be inadequate with regard to the earlier types of basketwork used in southern Africa and, most of all, in any attempt to indi- cate the styles brought into the sub-continent by the various peoples when they first arrived. The gaps are, however, likely to be more numerous in subsequent parts—the sections on ethnography—than in Part | on technology, because the number of techniques, though extensive, is not unlimited, and many of them are found consistently enough to seem to form a basic pattern. The term basketwork is taken here to include all such objects as are made by the interlacing of two or more sets of elements, usually both flexible, and in addition, plaiting which interlaces only one set. It is differentiated from netting and knitting by the use, except in plaiting, of more than one set of elements, and from other weaving by the use of coarse and unspun material and the absence of a loom. In southern Africa, the number of objects to be included under basketwork as defined above is very large and varied. Besides actual baskets, there are mats for several purposes, hut-doors, hut-walls, roof-frames, fences, sledges, traps, grain-bins, strainers, spoons, trays, hats, bags and personal clothing and orna- ments. These are not all made everywhere. Their distribution belongs to ethnography rather than technology, and will be considered under the headings of the peoples by whom they are made. There may be some surprise at some of the work included, but a close consideration of the technique will, it is sug- gested, justify the decision that it was reasonable to include the use of basketwork techniques in objects other than baskets. There are certain qualities to basketwork that are probably responsible ior the wideness of its use, and for the strength of its resistance to ready-made store-goods. It is usually light to carry and does not add greatly to the weight of its load; it is light for wear as hats or ornaments; and it is light and airy for roofing. It can be made close enough to hold liquids or open enough to strain them. It allows great variety of size and shape, from small bags to hold a snuff- box or pipe, to large grain-bins to hold part of the season’s harvest. By its tough- ness and, in some cases, flexibility, it is durable, wears slowly, and does not break if dropped. It is in no danger, when being made, of being ruined at the last moment, like pottery by bad firing, or woodwork by an unfortunate cut of the knife. Lastly, except in actual desert, it is hard to imagine a stretch of country that would not furnish at least some suitable materials, however sparsely, so that, given the knowledge of making, it would be available to all. Latterly, however, and with increasing speed since this study was com- menced, other containers, mainly plastic, with similar useful qualities, have become available, and the practice of basketwork has declined. “The young people are not interested’ say the mothers and grandmothers. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 55 On the other hand, an even more recent trend, is the very widespread desire among industrial societies for hand-made articles, which has stimulated the growth of home industries where baskets are made not for use but for sale. The extent to which this particular cultural trait can, at this stage, be expected to show relationships, other than those of recent proximity, between the various groups of people, or their former movements, is limited by present- ‘day ease of movement of individuals, and by the increasing rate of change in the old societies. Nevertheless, basketwork is a conservative craft and some indica- tions of these things can be seen. TECHNOLOGY In basketwork there are two main techniques, which may be called woven and sewn, and these differ according to the way in which the elements are put together. In woven work the sets of elements are interlaced by crossing over and under each other. Plaiting is included here because the interlacing is essentially the same, although with only one set of elements. In sewn work one set of elements is sewn together by the other. Attempts have been made (summarized by Balfet 1952 and translation 1957) to cut across these two simple categories so as to class the warps of woven work and the foundation of sewn work together as the passive elements or ‘stan- dards’ (‘montants’) and the wefts of woven work and the sewing strand of sewn work as the active elements or ‘threads’ (‘brins’). While one follows the logic, this seems to me to remove the classification from the reality of how the work is done, the technique in fact. Accordingly, each of the techniques classified here relates back to one or other of the two major techniques, woven or sewn. As far as possible vernacular terms—whether European or African—for a particular technique, have been avoided in favour of descriptive terms. Only those techniques recorded so far in southern Africa are described below. FABRIC The following are the techniques of the body of the work. The descriptions are given as viewed by the maker, who generally works from left to right with the outside of the work towards the body, except when making shallow baskets in which the inside is the side seen. WOVEN Woven work may be flat, cylindrical or ascending. The two sets of elements are, by analogy with weaving, called warps and wefts, the warps being the straight, sometimes taut, passive elements, whether vertical or horizontal, and the wefts those elements that are woven across the warps. The same techniques can be used whether the work is flat, cylindrical or ascending and the main dif- ferences in technique are in the way the wefts proceed to cross the warps. 56 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Check or chequer This is the simplest form of all, in which the warps and wefts pass over and under each other singly, as in darning or plain woven cloth. In many cases, both are the same width and thickness, which gives the true close chequer effect. The work is usually straight (la, Figs 1A, 2) but a few examples of pouches were seen in which it proceeded diagonally (1b, Fig. 1B). The chequer stitch may also be used at wide intervals in mat-making. This is called open chequer (Ic, Fig. 1C). Chequer weave has a great variety of uses but, although widespread in southern Africa, is less commonly used than some other weaves. Twilled Each element passes over and under two or more of those of the other set, but in each successive row the element goes under one element further on. This gives a herringbone effect (Fig. 3). By varying the number passed over, and by introducing a different colour or width of element into one set, an endless variety of decorative effects can be produced. The work may be straight (2a, Fig. 3A) or diagonal (2b, Figs 3B, 4). Twilled weave is very common in south- ern Africa. Its most frequent use is for winnowing trays (straight) in the northern and central regions, where the elements are thin, flat strips of wood or reed, and for beer-strainers (see Fig. 107) and pouches (diagonal) among the eastern people of the coastal palm-belt, where the elements are strips of palm-leaf. Wrapped Very flexible wefts are wrapped once right round each warp in passing. Plain wrapped weave (3, Figs 5, 6) has been seen on a variety of objects but is very uncommon in southern Africa. Twined In each row two or more wefts pass alternately one in front of and one behind each warp, taking a half-twist round each other between the warps. A warp may consist of one strand or two taken together, or of a bundle of strands; it may thus be described as single, double or multiple warp. This is the common- est variety of the woven technique in southern Africa and, in addition to forming the main fabric, it is often used ornamentally or as a strong edging. Its distribution shows, however, that it is favoured particularly by the south-eastern people, the Nguni and Tsonga, and those who have been in contact with them. Several styles are known. Plain. (i) Close. When only two wefts are twined at a time and the warps are straight and the rows of weft are placed immediately next to each other. Warps may be single (4a, Fig. 7A) or multiple (4b, Fig. 8). (11) Open. In which the rows of twining are separated so that the warps, which are generally single, are left uncovered for a certain space. Warps may be single (4c, Fig. 7B) or multiple 5 BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA A. Straight close chequer weave, Ja. B. Diagonal close chequer weave, Jb. C. Open chequer weave with twined edge, /c. Fig. 1. 58 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 2. Straight close chequer weave basket of palm-leaf; reinforced selvedge and additional ornamental reinforcement; stiff handle. Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-—6126). Height 205 mm. (4d, Fig. 7C). (ii) Chain. Plain close twine in which the direction of twine is reversed at each row, thereby making a chain-stitch effect over the whole fabric. The warp may be single (4e) or multiple (4f, Fig. 7D). Twilled. Close twine in which the wefts go over and under two warps but in each successive row move one warp further on to make a twilled effect (4g, Fig. 7E). The warps may be single or multiple. Only one example was seen. Split warp. A double or multiple warp may be divided after each row of the twining and the two sections joined to sections from the adjoining warps for the next row of twining. There seem to be two ways of doing this. (1) Zigzag. When the warp is divided equally and the two sections, together in one row, part to right and left in the next, and come together again in the third row, in such a way that each section follows a vertical zigzag line. The weaving may be close (4h, Fig. 9A, B)—with the twining rows next to each other, or open (4, Fig. 9C)—with twining rows at wide intervals. (ii) Diagonal. When the left section of the warp goes off to the left, but the right section remains vertical and receives the left of the adjoining warp; then having become the left section itself, goes off to the left to rejoin its former mate, so that each warp section follows a stepped diagonal line across the work. The weaving may be close (4j, Figs 9D, E, 10), or open (4k) and the warps equally or unequally divided. When the weaving is close, the difference between zigzag and diagonal split-warp 5 5: “alk red tiench ipeheats agen Enechineividiideinee’ oxdh- ote de one anata eat acl nceke aie ee ee 59 BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA B. Diagonal twilled weave, 2b. Fig. 3. A. Straight twilled weave, 2a. ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 60 Venda, Louis th dyed elements of same material. ion wi Trichardt, 1962 (SAM-12084). Height 289 mm. coloured decorat b) Fig. 4. Diagonal twilled weave basket of wood slivers, shaped by moulding and holding edges between hoops Sa: b) d outer appearance inner an b) d weave in wrappe 5. Plai 1g FE BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA | | 61 Fig. 6. Plain wrapped weave bird cage of withies and bark strands, shaped by tension. Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-6176). Height 430 mm. twining can scarcely be seen on the finished surface of the object unless, as has been recorded in the Transkei in the diagonal style, the warp is divided unequally (4/, Fig. 9F), which gives a twilled appearance. The difference may be very noticeable in this case when the warp consists of a bundle of grass, and only a small section is carried to the left each time. This can give the superficial appearance of a diagonal strand having been run through the work afterwards. Split-warp twine seems to have been characteristic of the eastern Southern Nguni and the southern Transvaal Ndebele. Latterly the technique has been seen a little in the western Transkei. Lattice. When there is a horizontal as well as a vertical set of warps, single (4 m) or (Figs 9G, H, 11) double (4 n), and one or more wefts that twine at the crossings of the warps. This technique, with all flexible elements, is very rare. Wickerwork Wickerwork is distinguished by the fact that the warps are rigid whereas the flexible wefts bend in and out. The weave may be chequer, wrapped or twined. 62 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM LZ, 4 Wir Q eee Sanwa: eeeses “AA t ee See & S wma pf i Lil, Satyeiag ul Ainge phage RENE Dee Says mS Tl see 7 Th Mele = tite TM Z As ad aN Ohne ut gal Pty, lo — Ny Tx] XIX psp = = UE cling le WU ile “exe ete ~ 2p Simply yplige ogc (| | 2 es | ~ Si AP Lee me | Adnan Gadd dags L eS Bites 44 pis atti a ae be ma me a lm SAPP Ae E ) > ———" Bp Ps »— p-f- §-$- g- os ye $-p- g- eee a a a ee ae —@, Bi--8 =e 6- Br &ee 86-8 P-P-- is f- . aS es IS, . oer *s ee __ “Gi, @ > —-@ p< ee pr > a es — ob ‘ee b Aplistulatstatetslslstgtstc= See ei hei te Fig. 7. A. Close plain twined weave, single warp, 4a. B. Open plain twined weave, single warp, 4c. C. Open plain twined weave, multiple warp, 4d. D. Plain chain twined weave, mul- tiple warp, 4f. E. Twilled twined weave, single warp, 4g. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA | 63 Fig. 8. Food-mat of close plain twined weave, multiple grass warp, sedge weft; scalloped sel- vedge; looped warp beginning; added warps for shaping; decoration—same material dyed. Mpondo, Mevana, Libode, 1969 (SAM-—9564). Diameter 330 mm. Twilled wickerwork has not been recorded in southern Africa. By its nature wickerwork is suited to heavy articles, such as hut doors and traps, but it is also used in lighter form for baskets and fish traps. It is therefore widely distributed. It is not very common, however, and for actual baskets is seldom used except by the Shona peoples of the north-east and the southern Tsonga of Mozambique. (The wicker influence seems to come from the north-east.) The following varieties have been recorded: Chequer. Plain straight chequer (5a, Figs 12A, 13) is the most common variety recorded. ‘Wrapped. (i) Plain (5b); (ii) Lattice wrapped with one (5c) or two (Sg) lat- tices, is a second, more common variety in which there is a horizontal as well as a vertical set of warps, one or both of which is generally rigid, and the weft is wrapped round the crossing of the two warps. As far as recorded, in southern 64 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM it uf ( UL s i } AR “y 7 i ey DY QRS os= LS Zi : Zh ~Q.— “N23 oe BEX SS \ ==\77 > Hs 4s ~ Yo Z Z S ZV =x : > SS SS » = re Ls z S < " = = 7 WW Bh i lana YY A ATTY Xi OUT AI KTR ATID F AISI rin SSIS OL AO AOI | Fig. 9. A-B. Close zigzag split-warp twined weave, double warp, 4h. C. Open zigzag split- warp twined weave, double warp, 41. D-—E. Close diagonal split warp twined weave, double or multiple warp, 47. F. Diagonal split-warp twined weave, multiple warp unequally divided, 4. G-H. Three-strand lattice twined weave, single lattice, outer and inner appearance, 4m. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 65 Fig. 10. Basket of close diagonal split-warp twine; multiple warp; both elements of sedge; dec- orative band of plain twine, one of the strands same material dyed; scalloped selvedge. Mpondomise, Tshixo, Tsolo, 1969 (SAM-—9579). Height 365 mm. Africa at least, the vertical set of warps is straight and the horizontal set may be single (Sc) or double (5g), one on each side of the upright. In the latter case the wrapping may enclose a row of plain twine (5h, Fig. 12F). In chain lattice wrapped the wrapping strand is hitched in loops that make a chain stitch effect. It has been seen with one lattice (Sd, Fig. 12B, C). In figure-of-eight lattice wrapped, the wrapping strand makes a figure-of-eight (Se, Fig. 12D); and in hitched lattice wrap the weft, after wrapping and emerging to the front, hitches under the stroke below before proceeding, thereby holding the lattice (5f). This was seen among the Ndau with a circular grass lattice and gave the impression of sewn coiled work, but there is no stitching. Twined. (i) Plain twine, close or open (Si and 5/). (ii) Lattice twine, with one lattice and one or more twining strands (5k, 5/, Fig. 14). (111) Lattice twine, with two lattices and one or more twining strands (5m, Fig. 12E; 5n). (iv) A combination of (i) and (ii1) in which a row of double lattice wrap is placed over a row of plain twine (So, Fig. 12F). Wattlework This is a form of wickerwork in which the warps are stakes that are planted in the ground or in a heavy base. It is used for fencing and for the framework of 66 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN. MUSEUM Fig. 11. Basket of lattice twine, single lattice, all elements palm-leaf; reinforced selvedge. Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-6129). Height 205 mm. huts and sledges, and is found for these purposes over most of southern Africa. In wattlework the varieties so far found are chequer (6a), plain lattice wrapped, with one or two lattices (6b, 6c, Fig. 15), hitched lattice wrapped (6d) (when the strand takes a turn round itself at each crossing), figure-of-eight lattice wrapped (6e), and varieties of lattice twine (6f—6k). Lattice wrapped wattlework is used on hut walls in the north and east, and there may be two sets of horizontal lat- tices holding one set of vertical warps, or two sets of vertical warps with one set of horizontal lattices between them. The latter demands a different way of wrap- ping the weft, which takes a figure-of-eight instead of a simple course. Plaiting Plaiting is the process by which three or more strands of a single set of ele- ments are interlaced to form a flat, round or square braid. It is used mostly for ornaments or hanging loops for articles and for decorating other basketwork, and is found mainly in the east and south. There are several sorts of plaiting: Simple plaiting (7a, 7b, Fig. 16A, B). When three or more strands are interlaced in a diagonal chequer weave to form a flat braid. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 67 if li =a hes Dsl | ea ae \ Wo ae iit oat x AIA E ra sy be si | B = ACEO. NI bes — xl ea Be ed = ——} feos sf | T ae NT Wu \ = al may i 17 =| u A \y Wy } } SS >) — < UT bed lel a} ame Ee Og ees ee ee eee dale —_ 4 F Fig. 12. A. Chequer wickerwork, 5a. B-C. Chain lattice wrapped wickerwork, single lattice, 5d. D. Figure-of-eight lattice wrapped wickerwork, lattice between two sets of warps, Je. E. Double lattice one strand twined wickerwork, 5m. F. Double lattice wickerwork, one strand twine over plain twine, So. 68 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 13. Basket of chequer wicker weave, warp wood slivers, weft split creeper stems; stapled edge. Mari, Chibi, Zimbabwe, 1963 (SAM-8952). Height 176 mm. Extended plaiting (7c, 7d, 7e, 7f, 7g). When a simple plait of three, four or more strands is continued in a flat or ascending coil to make a fabric. Each round of the coiling is joined to the next by bringing in a new strand at the beginning of each plaiting movement in the first round (and later at intervals to increase the size), and letting it continué in the braid, while the strand whose place it is taking goes out at the end of the movement, and in the next round is picked up as a new strand. The two adjoining rounds may be drawn close (7c, Fig. 16C), or an open space may be left between them (7d, Fig. 16D, E). A dif- ferent appearance may be given to the latter by tightening the strands unevenly (7e) but, in the only instance recorded, the decorative effect was on the wrong side and not exploited as decoration. The same varieties of plait may be used with more than three strands (7f, 7g, Fig. 16F). Twilled plaiting (7h, Fig. 17A). Similar to simple plaiting, but the strands go over and under two or more strands instead of one. Multiple plaiting (71, 7j). A flat braid formed of any number of strands divided into groups. Each strand is treated singly at the edge, but the groups are interwoven as a so-many-strand plait. If the groups of the strands cross at the centre a plain plaited effect is obtained (77, Fig. 17B). By having an unequal number in the groups they can be made to cross at the edges and a zigzag effect is obtained (77). Herringbone (7k, Fig 17C). A flat braid formed of any number of strands divided into two groups which start in opposite directions. Each strand is treated BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 69 Fig. 14. Fish trap of open lattice twined wickerwork, 5/, warps and lattices withies, two wefts of bark; shaped by tension; to finish, warps gathered into a bound bundle, held by figure-of- eight seizing. Ambo, Odibo, Ovambo, 1940 (SAM-6124). Height 710 mm. singly at the edge, and goes under the opposite strand at the centre. This pro- duces a herringbone effect. Open (71). A flat braid formed from a number of strands which instead of crossing at the centre, plait only at the edge, which gives the appearance of one group always on top and the other underneath. Angular. (i) A flat braid in which the elements are interlaced only at the edges where they turn at a sharp angle to make an angular product, in a manner best indicated by the figure (7m, Fig. 17D). (ii) A rounded braid in which the elements are interlaced in a regular but uneven rhythm and take a sharp turn at each side (7n, Fig. 17E). Round (7o, Fig. 17F). Four strands are plaited simply to make a round braid. Those on the left go under two to the right and over one to the left, whereas those on the right go under two to the left and over one to the right. 70 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 15. Sledge of plain lattice wrapped wattlework, single strand, warps and lattices withies, wefts bark. Ndebele, near Empandeni, Zimbabwe, 1967. (Mrs Masuku standing.) Height c. 1 780 mm. Square (7p, 7q, Fig. 17G, H). Seven or more strands are plaited simply, to make a square (four edged) braid, each side of which looks like a simple three- strand plait. Hitched (7r, Fig. 171). Each of a number of strands, usually four, is hitched round a central strand, proceeding in turn for the desired length to make a round cord. Three- or more strand spiral (7s, 7t). Three or more strands are plaited across and surrounding a central strand to make a round plait with a spiral twist and ridge. SEWN In sewn work the two sets of interlacing elements may be called the foun- dation and the sewing, and the major division is according to whether the foundation is straight or coiled. Each division has further varieties, according to the type of foundation and, in coiled work, the manner of sewing as well. Straight foundation: flat or cylindrical In straight work a number of separate foundation strands is laid side by side longitudinally and the sewing strand, which joins them together, passes through BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA __ 7 71 Qa SY RIIITIS WTS —-, eS Se SSS C me m x oy e M SIS/SS /S/8]5/S/s/—18 LI LLL DIL A. Fig. 16. A. Three-strand simple plait, 7a. B.Many-strand simple plait, 7b. C. Four-strand close extended plait, 7c. D-—E. Outer and inner appearance four-strand open extended plait, strands tightened unevenly, 7d. F. Many-strand open extended plait, 7g. WZ ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ‘dz ‘ywejd poyouy ‘] “bz ‘wed orenbs puesjjs-jysiq “Y-H “o7 ‘veld punoy “4 ‘uz ‘\ejd ejnsue punoy “q “wz ‘weld sejnsue yep -q ‘yz ‘Weld ouog-suIeY ‘OD 1Z ‘uejd ojdnjnw urejg “g “YZ ‘IWeId pony “Vv I ESEEEREER EERE an wie I ‘31 qd BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA | ) i Fig. 18. A. Straight sewing, single foundation, 8. B. Straight sewing through each twist of a two-ply twisted cord foundation, 9a. C. Straight sewing through each twist of a three-ply twisted cord foundation, 9c. 74 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 19. Straight sewn cylindrical beer-strainer, foundation of three-ply cords of twisted sedge; sewing sedge, edge fringed above knots. Mpondomise, Tsolo, Transkei, 1936 (SAM-5564). Length 521 mm. them horizontally at intervals. The work may be flat or cylindrical. When the work is flat, the sewing strand may cross it only once and then be fastened off, or may turn back and re-cross it once or several times, according to the width of the fabric. When the work is cylindrical, the sewing strand travels in a continu- ous spiral. It is possible to join the straight foundation strands by oversewing, but this technique does not commonly occur in southern Africa. One poorly authenticated example was seen. There are two sorts of straight foundation: Single. When the foundation strands are single and simple. Very commonly smooth sedge stems (8, Fig. 18A) are used, but in Zimbabwe split and flattened reed stems are used. This is only known in flat work. It is a common foc unignie for sleeping-mats and is widely distributed. Composite. When each foundation strand is composed of a number of twisted elements. These may be two- or three-ply twisted cords, between the strands of which the sewing strand, which may also be twisted, passes. Only cyl- indrical work is known. When two-ply cord is used for the foundation the sewing strand passes over one and under one strand, generally through each twist of the cord (9a, Fig. 18B), although in examples from the Transvaal Tsonga it only passes through every fourth or fifth twist (9b). When three-ply cord is used the sewing strand passes through each twist of the cord, under two and over one strand (9c, Figs 18C, 19). This technique is used for one of the two most common sorts of beer-strainer made in this country. Coiled foundation Coiled work is circular and may be flat or ascending. A continuous foun- dation is sewn together in a flat or an ascending coil and, in all but the two sorts of flat work seen, the sewing strand passes right round the new coil foundation at each stitch. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 75 See” tees Fig. 20. A-—B. Straight sewing through flat coiled plaited foundation, /0a. C, D, E. Tacking through flat coiled plaited foundation, /0b. 76 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM i | i ——S ea & = = = = SS == =| — = —— & &- = —— = —S— Si I = = S| = | -S —— ——| SS | Ee = = = — == =——_Lb AEE =e ew y i y i il SS SS SS ————SSE —————— = SSS EEE SSeS SSS ———$—$—$—$—$—$————————— Fig. 21. A. Simple oversewing over simple coil foundation, //a. B. Simple oversewing over one coil of multiple coil foundation, 1/6. C-D. Corded oversewing over simple coil foun- dation, diagram and finished effect, 12a. E. Plain beeskep oversewing over multiple coil foundation, /7a. F. Diagonal beeskep oversewing over multiple coil foundation, /7b. N BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Wy i i iy TI, ABB EESSVESS VEIRIG) By, ai Shs j Ye; | He ws ey Fig. 22. A. Basket, simple oversewing over one coil of multiple foundation; chequer square Start; triple oversewn edge; foundation grass, sewing palm. Zulu, Eshowe, Natal, 1961 (SAM-8397). Diameter 210 mm. B. Basket, corded oversewing over two coils of multiple foundation; diagonal oversewn edge; foundation grass, sewing twisted sedge. Kgatla, Mochudi, Botswana, 1933 (SAM-4799). Diameter 400 mm. 78 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 23. Grain-bin, diagonal beeskep sewing over one coil of multiple foundation; foundation grass, sewing plaited grass. South Sotho, HaSouru, Lesotho, 1978. Height c. 1 200 mm. Coiled foundation: flat This is only known with a single composite foundation of plaited grass. The plaits are laid face to face and joined in one of two ways: (a) By sewing right through as in straight sewn work. The use of this technique has only been recorded for personal ornaments of the south-eastern area and Lesotho (J0a, Fig. 20A, B). (b) By tacking with a running stitch that passes only through the new coil and the one before, a stitch which seems to be of recent origin, prob- ably in Zululand, and is becoming increasingly used, especially for floor mats (10b, Fig. 20C-E). ee BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA | | 19 =| j= | == | eal oat) a ASA SAS ASERE sees SA RASS LSS EE SARS SANSA SEATEASS Fig. 24. A-—C. Stages in ribbed beeskep oversewing over multiple coil foundation, /7c. D. Basket, ribbed beeskep sewing over multiple foundation; neck simple oversewing with decoration of columns of lengthened stitches over two coils; foundation and sewing palm-leaf. Natal, isichuma, (British Museum 337a). Height c. 170 mm. 80 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM awe ANN fe > | 2 SG AN NY KZ A\ CC lees al [4 KOO ees J SL ANNARANAN <4 BETTE >» —— AAA ANT AN BN 2 ll | AM Sri AM Sn sii ei | A | a ear Laney) yes, | p ay | s INN wr P = alliliit Ile | } — mM & Ew BA) Bry 2 = et =| | se = C- SS), 5) FS). SS eS || —— = ra Ne anil ea | pore lie — | ce ty ——3 I ee Shap Sahay az S| EN EE ele =I =| = eed Rect aw WE eS = -—F — = -— ——— == Sh =H === = Bix — rig. Dy, A. Close interlock sewing over simple coil foundation, /3a. B. Close interlock sewing over multiple coil foundation, piercing foundation, J3c. C. Close interlock sewing over mul- tiple coil foundation, round two coils, 13d. D-—E. Open interlock sewing over multiple foundation, stitch passing between the coils, /3g. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 81 Fig. 26. Basket, close interlock sewing over two coils, single foundation; foundation root stem, sewing split root stem; herringbone edge. Lobedu, Duiwelskloof, Transvaal, 1936 (UCT 38/70). Diameter 341 mm. Coiled foundation: ascending The ascending oversewn coiled work is probably the most widespread bas- ketwork technique in southern Africa and it would seem to be the main technique for all except the Shona, who use wickerwork, and the Southern Nguni, most of whom nowadays use split warp twine. The varieties of the work may be differentiated according both to the foundation and the sewing. In southern Africa only two sorts of ascending coiled foundation have been noted—a simple foundation, consisting of a single rod, and a multiple foun- dation, consisting of numerous thin strands or even a soft plaited element. There are several methods of oversewing. To a certain extent they depend on the type of foundation used. In each method of oversewing the stitches may be close together so that the sewing covers the whole foundation, or widely spaced so as to show the foundation. Many different effects can thus be produced by using essentially the same technique. The sewing strand may be flat, single or mul- tiple, twisted or a plaited strand, and this too produces different effects with the same way of sewing, but some of the stitches limit the choice of strand. It should be noted that most workers in most areas proceed from left to right and the fol- lowing descriptions are based on this fact, but it should be borne in mind that some do work from right to left. Whether the worker faces the right or the wrong side of the work is a matter of convenience and depends on the object being made. ? The following methods of sewing and the foundations on which they are used have been recorded: ~ On simple or multiple foundation Simple oversewing: each stitch, coming out at the back of the work, i.e. away from the worker, passes over the new portion of the foundation slightly 82 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM _ : A Sraratatadah FEEEEEE 2 (ZILT4 TL Sig) ae: ae oe pees | WIN t Ni ar Stoascaratctuis ae Cpe Fig. 27. A. Openwork sewing over multiple foundation, /4b. B—C. Knot stitch over simple coil foundation; outer and inner appearance, /5a. D. Knot stitch over multiple foundation, 15b. diagonally, goes in at the front ahead of the stitch below, i.e. in the direction the work is proceeding, and passes straight under or through the previous coil. This is perhaps the most widely used of all the sewn techniques. When a simple foundation of a single rod (/la, Fig. 21A), generally the pliable stem of a creeper or a root, is used, the sewing must of necessity pass round the previous coil since it cannot pierce it. This technique is used mainly in the eastern Transvaal and Mozambique. If the simple foundation is soft, or when the foundation is multiple and con- sists of a bundle of thin strands of, for example, grass or shredded palm-leaf, the sewing, after passing round the new coil, pierces only a small portion of the top of the last coil (J1b, Figs 21B, 22A). This latter is by far the more common type of foundation of the two in southern Africa. Sometimes, however, the stitch passes right round the last coil as well as the new (//c), and the effect 1s then the same as when a single rod foundation is used. Simple oversewing gives no special decorative effect to the finished surface, whether closely or openly worked. | Corded. When the stitching is markedly diagonal and the stitch is put in ahead of or behind (i.e. either to right or left) the one below it and goes straight through to the back without interlocking and when a thick or twisted sewing strand is used, a vertical corded effect is obtained that is often exploited for dec- oration. The foundation may be simple (12a, Fig. 21C, D), in which case the BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 83 Fig. 28. Basket, openwork sewing with palm-leaf over multiple foundation of palm-leaf; no edging, herring-bone finish. Ndebele, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 1939 (SAM-—5998). Height 77 mm. sewing is over two coils, or multiple, where the stitch may go over one (/2b) or two coils (2c, Fig. 22B), and for purely decorative purposes over more. The sewing may be close or widely spaced. This technique seems to be favoured especially by Natal Nguni, Central Sotho, Venda and Tswana. Interlock. When the new stitch is brought straight over the new coil and passes diagonally through the loop of the stitch below. On a simple foundation it must also go round the coil below (/3a, Figs 25A, 26). The sewing may be close or open (1/35). On a multiple foundation the stitch generally, but not always, pierces the top of the foundation below (J3c, Fig. 25B) but it may go round it (13d, Fig. 25C). On either foundation it may go between the two coils (/3g, Fig. 25D, E). Open stitching of this sort gives the effect of a series of diagonal lines across the work; close stitching gives a checked effect of stitches and spaces alternating in adjoining coils. This technique was rarely found. Openwork (14a, 140, Figs 27A, 28). When the sewing strand, after passing round or through the top of the preceding coil, is wound round the new coil once or several times between stitches. The stitches and the windings are gener- ally regulated to make a pattern. This would seem to be an introduced stitch, though the Zimbabwe Ndebele deny this, and claim that it is the first stitch taught to children, which may be, but several generations have passed. Knotstitch (15a, 15b, Fig. 27B—D). In this method, the sewing passes round both coils, but breaks its journey up the back to come out to the front between the two coils—either to the left or to the right of itself depending on whether the work is from the left or the right—crosses over its own last stitch and goes through to the back again to continue diagonally its journey upwards. The work is done closely and gives the appearance of a row of knots between the coils. ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM \ y sWnillS YY, : ( ee y/ \ NUL ay N ou Cy “ | eaee es é | oY N N Nap Aa \ SW, J ; | ( NLD N ,§EZ N ty j y h Lt Ny N N > oO || p> —— a F-G. Outer 18c. v) 84 C. Close furcate split-stitch oversewing on multiple coil foundation, /8a. rcate sewing, twice into one hole, on multiple coil foundation appearance of open split-stitch furcate sewing on multiple coil foundation, 18d. E. Close fu and inner Fig. 29. A-—B. Inner and outer appearance of three-strand sewing over multiple coil foun- dation, J6b. D BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 85 was But RASS the oh Fig. 30. Basket, close furcate sewing with sedge, over multiple foundation of grass or stripped sedge, twice into one hole. (Lid is of hide.) ?Lesotho, early twentieth century (SAM-6536). Height 153 mm. Often, however, an extra encircling of the foundation of the new coil separates the knots. This does not seem to be a southern African technique and was prob- ably first taught in schools, as it still is. Three-strand. Oversewing done diagonally with three separate strands, each stitch of each strand missing two stitches of the previous coil. In the only example recorded, a Southern Sotho hat (SAM-—2261), the sewing is interlocked and over a multiple coil (6b, Fig. 29A, B). On a multiple foundation only Beeskep. The stitches are like simple or corded oversewing, but widely spaced with each stitch placed just behind (/7a, Fig. 21E), or just in front of, the stitch of the coil below (7b, Figs 21F, 23). The effect of the latter is often of radial lines on the fabric. Comparatively few examples have been recorded, from widespread localities, and only with a multiple foundation. The technique may not be indigenous. A variety seen on a basket from Natal (an isolated example) has the stitch coming out and going over an external semi-circular rib of grass before going in again (/7c, Fig. 24A—D). Furcate sewing. When the new stitch splits the stitch below it of the pre- ceding coil, (18a, Figs 29C, 30) or when the successive stitch is sewn into the same hole (JSc, Fig. 29D, E), it gives a forked effect. This is often done inadvertently in simple oversewing, but when done systematically a vertical chain-stitch effect is produced, which is the more marked when the stitches are widely spaced (J8d, Fig. 29F, G). Closely sewn modern work is not very ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 86 B-C. Outer and inner A. Plain cross-stitch sewing on multiple foundation, 19a. 4 L lao) le foundation, 19D. appearance of interlock cross-stitch sewing on multip BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 87 remarkable, but on some old examples of Xhosa and Thembu baskets, of a type no longer made, the work is so fine as almost to look like another technique (Fig. 29E). This latter has not been recorded from any other area in southern Africa. Cross-stitch. When the sewing strand is so stitched as to form a plain cross- stitch or herring-bone effect, the same on both sides. The stitch passes diag- onally forward over to the front from the last stitch, through straight between the coil from front to back, returns diagonally over to the front, crossing its first stitch, through the previous coil and first part of the stitch below from front to back, and diagonally forward to commence the next stitch (19a, Fig. 31A). Ina variety of this the sewing strand passes through the old coil and interlocks with _the stitch below in its first wrapping, and either round or through the new coil in its second wrapping. This gives a rather different effect and is different on each. side (19b, Fig. 31B, C). This has been seen only on baskets from Ovambo and it too may have been introduced, possibly by the Finnish missions. BEGINNINGS Beginnings are to a certain extent influenced by the eventual shape of the object. FLAT AND STRAIGHT WORK Woven or sewn The manner of beginning scarcely needs description. In twined or wrapped woven work or in straight sewn work, the warps or foundation strands that are to be used are laid out first and joined together by the first row of weft or sewing. The weft strand may start with a knot (20a) or be doubled over in a loop (20b). The latter may start several foundation strands from the edge, go to the edge, and then turn back (20c, Fig. 32). A sewing strand starts with a knot. This is the way of beginning mats and also some brooms, where small bundles of the grass are taken separately, bent over for about 25 mm at the root end (which is to be the handle) and held so by twining, each bundle being added on separately until a long fringe of grass is formed, held by one twined row. The fringe is then rolled to form a broom. In the case of sleeping-mats, the first row of weft or sewing is generally at one edge but certain practitioners were seen to start at the centre of the mat. In the isolated instance of the Northern Nguni skimming spoons (Fig. 106), the midrib of a palm foliole is bent at its centre to form the bowl and held in shape by twining. . In all other flat woven techniques except plaiting, the work is generally started at one corner with one warp and one weft, and others are added alter- nately (27). A Tsonga maker of twilled winnowing baskets, however, first twined six warps together for the start, in a corner that was subsequently cut off. ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM | 88 ay Fig. 32. Loop start to flat open twine, some distance from the edge, 20c. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 89 Plaiting In plaiting, all the strands are taken together at the start and may be knotted to hold them in place (22); sometimes the knot is left on as a decoration. CYLINDRICAL WORK ; For cylindrical work, that is work with open ends unless closed by other means, the following beginnings have been noted. Woven Chequer weave (a) The warps are bound tightly in position at the base of a cylinder and the binding string continues as the weft to weave in and out (23). This is the begin- ning of a chequer covering to a stick. It is also the beginning for a spoon-bag, which is woven on a form, nowadays a bottle, that is removed when the weaving is complete. (b) Another way of beginning chequer work is to lay the warps out and, after the first row of weft, bend into a cylinder so that the edges meet and the weft continues in a spiral (24). (This was seen on one example of the flat- bottomed seroto with wicker sides made by Kalanga in Serowe.) (c) Zulu spoon-bags were.seen with the warps and wefts knotted in pairs to begin, and a diagonal chequer weave continued (24 bis). Twilled weave There are several ways of beginning a cylindrical twilled weave, but the most common is to knot the strands together in pairs of one warp and one weft at a slightly obtuse angle (25, Fig. 33A). The pairs are then twilled together in a row and either then, after one row, or later, when a good bit of the fabric has been woven, bent round so that the two ends or edges meet and are woven together to make the circlet or cylinder. Alternatively, the warps and wefts may be knotted together as a bundle and then woven (26). This is used for twilled beer-strainers or pouches. Another method is that, instead of knotting two strands, one wide strand may be folded diagonally to make the warp and weft pair and then each split into two or more (27, Fig. 33B, C); this makes a pleas- ing flat edge. The work then proceeds as above. This is seen on a Manyika fez- shaped cap. Twined weave _ The warps are joined by the first row of weft, which starts with a knot. The work is bent round so that the edges meet and the weft continues in a spiral (28, Fig. 33D). Or, as in chequer weave, the warps may first be bound round a mould of the desired diameter. 90 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ry on > 2 CONE iB 24 2 oy Vi 4 AX NC << On \\ SS S aS D = Unb eri Bai oa Fig. 33. A, Start to cylindrical twill, warps and wefts knotted in pairs, 25. B-C. Start to cyl- indrical twill, warps and wefts split from folded wider strand, 27. D. Start to cylindrical twine warps joined by first row of weft; work curved so that edges meet and wefts continue in a BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 91 Fig. 34. Garden basket, lattice twined wicker—one lattice, two wefts, start at open base later covered with a small mat; all elements palm. Ronga, Lebombo, 1954 (UCT 54/15). Height 285 mm. Sewn Straight foundation The beginning is as for a flat object but at the end of the first row of sewing the work is bent round so that the two edges meet. The sewing strand then starts the second row and continues in a continuous spiral (29, Fig. 35). This is the beginning of one type of beer-strainer in which the foundation elements are two- or three-ply cords. The cords are knotted at one end and the knots are left on to form an edge. The work is begun by threading the sewing strand through the cords just above the knots (from the worker’s point of view) and, finally, through the first foundation element to make the circle. It then continues in its spiral course. Sometimes an end is left to be joined by the ends of the cords to make a fringe (29b, Fig. 35). Sometimes the end of the sewing strand is knotted (29a, Fig. 35A) but more often it is left long and turned up to become a cord in the fabric (29c, Fig. 35B). Very rarely the sewing starts from a decorative feature at the narrow end (29d). The foregoing beginnings are in no way notable; they are merely the most obvious ways of beginning the work and do not influence the rest of the body. CIRCULAR WORK: FLAT OR ASCENDING For circular work, however, the beginning is more important because it is the point from which the rest of the work radiates and it must be equally avail- able to all sides. There is not a great deal of variety in these beginnings. Ce S SSS en GEE: ae a LESS ELS me oe = SEEN PSS SSS = SBS cael ae Rares TESS Ve | | “N j iy [| y : M/s ( i yet f 1 / L} WL) Y NARA INS a= SES Ft p> mo ma i ( NK . | SS SEE — Li =TAS, (A Tid mW ACL) ey IN ‘ \ Ne aia \ NN D en { \ \ Ts y + | | \) fi p : x : ah ‘ we =a D> Ly 5 ge iN [x be am Nem\ a r ft work. A. End of sewing strand i B. Sewing strand left long and worked in with foundation, 29c. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 93 Woven work In woven work it is necessary to commence at the centre of a number of warp strands, which then radiate. Other strands can be inserted between them to increase the size. The following woven beginnings have been recorded in southern Africa: Crossed warp A few warps are taken, fewer than are necessary for the completion of the basket, and crossed at their centres (30, Fig. 36A). They are held together by one or two rows of the weft and then made to radiate, and other warps are inserted. It is essential that for chequer weaving the final number of warps be _ odd. One recorded type of this is on the wicker baskets of the Shona. Two warp elements (each of which will make two warps) are crossed, then two more added on top and held by two rows of weft; two more pairs are added in the same way and then a single one, to make the odd number seventeen. Each of these is doubled by adding another to it after 25 mm or so of weaving and, as they turn up for the sides, all but the odd one are divided and redoubled by the addition of further warps, thereby making thirty-three double warps. (This doubling and re-dividing is a common way of increasing circular woven basketwork.) A similar beginning is seen on an Ambo granary, which is lattice twined; two lots of five vertical warps are crossed and then held by the first ring of the horizontal warp. This beginning is suitable for any type of weaving and has been recorded on chequer, twine and, especially, wicker. It is mainly seen among the Shona, where woven work predominates. Bound warp A few warps are taken and bound together at their centres by the weft strand, which then commences to weave in and out. The warps radiate and others are added as the work progresses (31, Fig. 36B). This is the usual com- mencement of the circular twined work of the peoples of the south-east and seems only to be used there. Wrapped bird-cages also begin in this way, but the correct number of warps is used from the start. Looped warp As a variation of the above, the warps, instead of being bound together straight, are looped (32, Fig. 36C). Twined warp The warps are laid side by side and joined by one or more rows of twining at their centre. They are then bent about their centre and the twining continues spirally to make a round or elliptical bag (33a, 33b, Fig. 36D). Square mat Sufficient warp strands to make the basket are chosen and woven together at their centres into a square mat, which forms the base of the basket. In its sim- 94 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM A ZisaEON B \) A y y » S Ys Ss %, LS mie BING i] ye NY \ Zz mB | 2 \\ “eZ “ Z W Be HELBJaL iain, 8 SSS eS eee Fig. 36. A. Crossed warp beginning, 30. B. Bound warp beginning, 31. C. Looped warp beginning, 32. D. Twined beginning to elliptical container, 33b. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 95 plest form it is of single thickness (34a—d, Fig. 37A, B). Any type of weave would serve but only chequer, twill, twine and lattice twine have been noted. The strands are then turned up and become the warps of the sides, and a new continuous weft is woven through them. It is essential for circular chequer weaving that there be an odd number of warps, so that an extra one must be inserted at the base or one of the basal warps must be bent up on one side only. The basket could be kept square in section but, in the only examples seen in southern Africa, it is allowed to become round, except in the case of lattice twine baskets. There, a few strands of two sets of warps, each set held by a double row of twining, are laid across each other at right angles and other warps are added, tucking under each other singly, in such a way as to form increasing squares, making a square base of double thickness (34d, Fig. 37C). These begin- nings are used only by Ambo and Kavango people. An alternative method is that two sets of warps are taken (in the example seen there were eight strands in each set) and in each set the strands are laid side by side and held together by enough rows of twining to make a small flat square. The two squares are super- imposed, with the warps at right angles, and the twining is continued over the free part of all the warps to make the sides of the basket, new warps being added where necessary for width (34e, Fig. 37D). This is used only by immi- grants to the Kavango territory. Finally, one set of warps is held in groups between a double set in the opposite direction to make triple thickness (34f). They are held together by a row of twining between the groups in the same direction. The twine starts with a loop and the free end, when the base is formed, continues as the weft of the sides. The base may be strengthened by rods tied to it. This has only been seen in Mozambique and may not be indigenous. Open base Ronga lattice twined garden baskets flange from an open base (Fig. 34) begun in the same way as twined cylindrical work (Fig. 33D), and covered later. Extended plait For the start of the extended plait, the first four elements are looped and plaited together in a way that cannot be described (35, Fig. 38). Fancy Fancy starts to South Sotho hats: a bundle of warps is taken and divided into groups. At one end of each group the elements straight away become the multiple warps of the hat, and at the other end of each group they are plaited or bound (figure-of-eight) into braids that are looped over to make an ornamental top-knot, before re-entering the fabric of the hat as extra warps (36, Fig. 39). Sewn work There is no record of sewn circular work on a straight foundation, which would be very impractical. In sewn work in which the coiled technique is used, . 96 l UN THe \ ia INA Lec la Lrdls WL IN ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM wh / ges 47 J 7, AS A 7 NN | SX | FRR: a PRK ft soy, q d) OS €é C C Fig. 37. A. Square mat start to chequer, 34a. B. Twilled square mat start to twine, 34b. C. Lattice twined square mat start, 34d. D. Superimposed square mat start, 34e BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA oF 2 on Ui = U | ult | = i 3 Zealegel ao oe Zoe ae gaa 2 ie aE, Sea i EE rE EE oo Se ee ee ote OEE SS — SS ODI EET oe ae eS Se eS < SS SSS NSS SO hs | - = I ee $e ee ee ee Ae ee a we BP: Ss a oa oo SS ES ttl ee inl I pi <—S <> Fo epee Y gg ———) ———————} ———— ws ——| —— ————— ——_—— ———S —- = — = ———————t = _————— ———————— ——————— SSS ————s SS —— ed —— ——— SSS — — —— — SSS _——— A — See —— ————— \_——$—$_$_____ —— ——— ———;—~>yEEE aoa ———— —— SS SS —— —— —— EE, ———— Se See —— ; — _—_—————" SS Se — — et SSDS LL IFS SSSR ESSEC POPOS WSU SU SU. s SIRO yt — DPI SONS Ji, ZA MM MM Mh Y g Lb LAD ADDL AAAI IS TIS SSS Fig. 51. A. Selvedge on lattice twine; warps turned back on themselves, holding, and then held by single twining strand, 69a. B. Selvedge on lattice twine, holding, and then held by one or more lattices; extra lattices added later, 69c. C. Selvedge on extended plait, 7/. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 117 €¢ COVECECREEEEUAOEL CE CCELERER CHK ETEOEE PIT ARALALALALA ALLL AA crcadrcercceetegete? CHET ACELCEEREEET LOOKER OE TOCOLECOMT EOF RURATAAR ALAA CHALCENFEREELN CE TE 4 Paha ap ahh I PERL di ecereeet eral fq) J Fig. 52. Corner of twined food-mat. Scalloped selvedge, multiple warp back to front and cut, 68k (right), and wrapped weft edge on twine, 86d (below). _ Oversewing An oversewn edge, similar to that on coiled work, is sometimes used, mostly in the east of the area. The sewing may be direct (78a, 78b) or over additional wefts (78c, 78d), in plain or fancy stitch or over one or more thick- ened coils added above the last wefts (78e, 78f). This latter is commonly sewn with a three-strand plait (78e, Fig. 59A, B) or with plain bark (78f). An over- sewn edging on chequer wicker with widely spaced warps, is made by bending the remaining warps sideways and twisting them round the edge, where they are held in place by oversewing at intervals (78g). This is seen more commonly than elsewhere in the extreme north-east of Zimbabwe. Oversewing on wicker may be over and into the warps only (78h), and sometimes only into alternate warps (78i, Fig. 59C), or the edge may be reinforced and oversewn at intervals (787), or all round (78k). The reinforcing may be with one or more lattices on each side (781, Fig. 59D). Knotted edge Beer-strainers, whether sewn or woven, usually have a knotted edge. This generally results from the manner of starting. The varieties are: a plain knotted edge (79a, Fig. 60B); a fringed edge in which either the knots are between fringe and fabric (79b, Fig. 60A, 107) or the fringe is between knots and fabric (79c, Fig. 60D). In the latter, the fringe may be twisted (79c, Fig. 60D) or plaited iV ii / “ll se LLE ey ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM << 118 1 UNIAN ce | \ Fae = Oo Fig. 53. A. Tucked selvedge on straight sewn work, 72a. B. Chequer edge on lattice twine, 73. C. Whipped warp edge on twine, 74. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA ae 2 SS Sa y Pica Kp fap = Se SOR é a an Keg Be == 3 = NY, N TT ig Wi MV A\/ mai 119 120 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 55. A-B. Outer and inner views of plain wrapped warp edge to twine, with single strand over two double warps and under one, 76a. C-—D. Inner and outer views of warp edging of hitched wrapping with single strand on straight sewn, 76b. E-—F. Outer and inner views of edging of wrapped twining on straight sewn, 76d. ipl BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 127 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM (79d), and an edge on which the knots are tucked under the last sewing strand and may be cut off plain or end in a fringe too (79e, 79f, Fig. 60C). Stapled edge For wickerwork, a purely utilitarian type of edging seen on Shona garden baskets and Mpondo meat trays is the insertion of a hoop of the same material as the wefts, between each pair of warps, crossing the cross of the wefts (80, Fig. 61A). Fig. 56. A. Lattice wrapped edge on straight sewn, 76g. B. Hitched lattice wrapped edge, 76h. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 123 Rims Flat twilled work that is cut to a round after weaving is edged in a similar way throughout the centre, east and north-east of the country, and the edge is as important for determining the shape of the object as for giving it strength (Fig. 63). One or more thin hoops of wood or reed are fixed on one or both sides ofthe edge of the fabric in such a way that the fabric has to turn up to fit the size of the hoop and the whole is oversewn closely with a strong material (81a, 81c, Fig. 61B—D). Sometimes another hoop is placed on top before the oversewing (8/6). Winnowing trays, both twilled and chequer weave, are edged like this. As a variation of this, occurring only in the north and in Mozambique, an extra upstanding rim, wide or narrow, and of wood or bamboo, may be sewn on in addition to the hoops, (S/d, Sle, Figs 62A—B, C—D, 63). In one example seen, two outside hoops are projected as a ridge (8/f, Fig. 62E). Sometimes deep, lidded baskets are made in this way. Hems and flat bindings Edgings to twilled work that seem to point to external influence are a turned down hem (82) stitched with fine string, and a flat binding (83) sewn on with string. Weft or sewing edges The weft edges are rather different, since for the most part their finish depends on the fact that the wefts or sewing strands have to be carried back to continue the weaving or sewing along the next row. The main difference depends on whether wefts or sewing strands are close together or far apart. In some cases, the last warp on each end is either reinforced or made of a thick stick, e.g. sieves of the San of northern Cape. Sometimes, however, the wefts are not taken back, but are cut off at the end and secured in various ways. Wefts or sewing strands end off singly The simplest of the weft edge techniques is for wefts or sewing strands to end off when they reach the edge. They may be knotted at the edge and cut off Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 SG SSS Se ee Wa a A : Owe EX Ve es a Sok = = = S UJ tl N RNY Xt 6 nit SSE Fig. 75. A-—B. Spiny cone on straight sewing, //0b. C. Spiny band on central core of straight sewing, //0e. D. Spiny finishing plus whipping, on central core of diagonal twill, //0f. E. Seiz- ing on sewn beer-strainer, //7. F. Whipping and spiny cone on straight sewn beer-strainer, ILE, BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 143 Seizing and whipping Great use is made of various types of wrapping—seizing (J/1, Fig. 75E), whipping (112, Fig. 75F), and woven figure-of-eight seizing (113, Fig. 76A). This may be seen on broom-ends, spoon handles and beer-strainers. Sometimes two methods of finishing are combined (Fig. 75D, F). Ng BLEEP PLL A DL) eo fe Sea 1 Cx UES See — Bes SS INS : qj NN S < < P , Big. 76. A: Figure-of-eight seizing round end of broom, 7/3. B. Elements of twilled beer- strainer turned inside and knotted together, 7/4. C. Invisible sewing on cylindrical twilled work, J/5a. D-E. Two views of double tacking to join two edges of flattened cylindrical twill, 117b. 144 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Elements turned inside While the base of most sewn beer-strainers is bound several times in one of the foregoing styles, with a cord similar to those that form the foundation, the woven beer-strainers and some sewn ones are finished at the bottom, by turning the elements inside and knotting them, or knotting them first and pushing them inside (114, Fig. 76B). Generally the hanging loop is knotted in with them. | Sewing on twilled work One of the most ingenious finishings is used on nearly all twilled palm-leaf pouches, from whatever part of the country they come. When the weaving is finished, the cylinder is pressed flat and the knots with which the work was.com- menced (see p. 90, Fig. 33A) are turned under inside to form the lower end. A strong thread is then sewn through from the outside, picking up one of the bent strands on each side alternately, in such a way that when pulled tight the thread is invisible and the twill appears to be uninterrupted (//5a, Fig. 76C). An Ndau example had the knots cut off and the ends woven back on themselves before the thread went through, thus making a neat ridge inside. This invisible method is also used to join twilled edges on a sleeping-mat from Mozambique, which is made up of a great number of twill-plaited strips, 50 mm wide. The whole appears to be a continuous twill with horizontal ridges. This appears to be a technique that has spread south down the East African coast. It is found mainly at the coast. 3 The Tsonga do not always use this method on cylindrical work, but leave the sewing visible (115b) or oversew (116) or tack twice (117a, 117b, Fig. 76D, E) on the outside with bark fibre thread. A Ronga specimen used by diviners has the closed ends folded and sewn together in three points instead of two. On cylindrical work . At the base of Zulu cylindrical spoon-bags, the warps of the chequer fabric are knotted together in twos and threes to join the two edges made by flattening the cylinder (J/8a); this is often followed by a row of twining (J/8b). Alter- natively, the warps are crossed, sometimes after an initial row of twining, and a row of twining holds each edge separately (//8c—/18g, Fig. 77A, B). In this case the edge is sometimes sewn together with fancy stitching or beadwork, or each side of it may be bound (1/8h—118i). Sometimes the warps are simply knotted in pairs after crossing. Open base A cylindrical basket made with the base open may have it closed by a round of hide (119a), or a square of matting sewn or woven on (//9b, Fig. 77C, D). Closed base Baskets with closed bases, particularly conical baskets, often have a round of dressed skin, bark, palm midrib, wood or, latterly, cloth or even cardboard, BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA OSs IS §, is i ad . Ew Ss zi Cones | p+ each Ct Ay Wo" Fig. 77. A-—B. Finishing of crossed warps held in position by twining after the crossing, /78c. C-D. Open base covered with twilled mat, attached by half hitches of each element around the lowest warps of basket, //9b. 146 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM plastic or inner tubing, sewn on the outside of the base to protect it from wear (120a—120g). This is very much Tswana practice. Side edges joined by half-hitches The two cones that are fitted one inside the other to make a fish trap are joined together by half-hitches (121). Fig. 78. Herring-bone finish to sewing of coil. Ndebele, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 1939 (SAM-5998). DECORATION This section deals with decoration in the body of the work, exclusive of the often decorative body techniques and decorative as well as utilitarian edgings already described. It should be noted that decoration takes place during the work as a modification of the fabric and, further, that ornamental adjuncts (see below) may themselves be made in one of the main techniques. South African basketwork is not highly decorated. A good deal of it is quite plain, but the majority does show a simple line decoration or some geometrical pattern. The latter is more common in the extreme north, where there is influ- ence from Angola or Zambia. Naturalistic patterns do not occur south of the Zambezi, except as a result of foreign influence. It is interesting to note that basketwork differs from many other crafts in that the decoration, bound as it is by the technique, is based on the accentuation and enhancement, rather than the disguising or obliteration, of the technique of making. In many cases, the technique itself is decorative and always it is the actual strokes or stitches of which the work consists that are used, with or without the addition of colour, to form patterns on the surface. The choice of decoration is therefore largely dictated by the stroke or stitch being used and may either be planned beforehand or as the work proceeds. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 147 Decorative patterns may be produced either in self-colour by a change in the weave or stitch or even in the material, or by the introduction of a contrast- ing colour. Sometimes these are combined. CHANGE OF WEAVE OR STITCH Woven work On chequer Chequer weave does not lend itself easily to decoration in the weave unless colour is used. The following methods of introducing decorative bands or pat- terns, often in relief or diaper, have, however, been recorded: by changing to a different technique—twill or twine (122a, Fig. 79A), by changing the width of one set of elements (122b), which can be done only if the elements are soft; by lengthening certain strokes (122c); or by twisting warps across each other (122d). Only isolated examples of these styles have been recorded. Twill The weave itself is very decorative and gives infinite opportunity for variety in pattern, by altering the apparent direction (123a, Fig. 79B) or width of the twill, i.e. by going over more strokes (/23b, Fig. 79C) or by altering the width of the elements (123c). (In one of the few examples of the latter that has been recorded, a separate band made with narrower elements was added.) Compara- tively little use is, however, made of this opportunity, and the examples so far recorded come from Mozambique or its neigbourhood, and from the eastern Okavango, where decorative bands of a different twill from the body of the work are used on palm-leaf pouches. In one isolated example from Natal, a dec- orative band was made by a change of weave, i.e. by a few rows of twining over crossed twill elements (/23e). In another isolated example from Natal, one set of elements is overlaid and the overlay twisted at the intersections to give a spiny effect (123d). Wicker There is little opportunity for this sort of decoration on wickerwork and the only examples that have been recorded were made by the Vazezuru, who in general show a great deal of outside influence. In these examples a band was made of several rows of twining on chequer (/24, Fig. 79D). Twine Most twined work has some form of decoration, although the types of pattern are fairly uniform and consist most commonly of bands. As in chequer, it would be possible to introduce a band of a different weave but this has so far not been recorded. The use of a different sort of twine is, however, very common. This may be a plain band on a fancy ground (/25a) or vice versa, or a pattern on a plain 148 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM \ N \ NN \ Ns a iN i > ! E i I Fr | i ee F So : Qe! & LL, . ay = | ae —S ——_ = = — Se =o aoe (ase | (ee SSS ss =! a SS DO ee a —_ Fig. 79. A. Change of weave on chequer, 122a. B. On diagonal twill, altering length of strokes gives band of apparent change of direction, 123a. C. On straight twill, a pattern is made by changes in the width of the twill, 723b. D. Change of weave from chequer to twine on wicker chequer, 124. (In B and C shading is used here merely to show up the pattern). BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 149 ground (125b). The Southern Nguni split-warp technique is decorative in itself (4h—41). Sometimes the whole work is carried out in this and sometimes alter- nate bands of plain and split-warp twining are used for decorative effect, or bands (125c, Fig. 80A) or geometric patterns (125d) of split-warp are used on the plain twine. Another decorative effect, frequently seen on food-mats, is obtained by twining alternately in the opposite direction (of twine, not of row) thereby ‘giving a chain-stitch effect. This is sometimes used all over (4f), or in bands (125e, Fig. 80B) or patterns (125f). Sometimes several styles are used in one piece of work (125h, Fig. 80C). The above twine decorations are very characteristic of the eastern Cape, Natal and Lesotho, and are also found among the Zambian immigrants. Bands of lattice twining (one strand) are put on to Fue plain twined baskets. By putting the lattice on the outside the bands are raised (125g). Very commonly the decoration is achieved by the manipulation of one or other of the sets of elements. The diaper patterns so frequently worked on twined food- and grain-mats are made by lengthening the stroke, i.e. by putting the wefts over two or three warps instead of the usual one and even crossing these wefts. Very often these patterns consist of bands (125i, Fig. 81C) or merely of regular or haphazard lines in any direction but, on finely worked specimens, regular patterns of chevron, zigzag, herring-bone or triangles are made (125), Fig. 81A). On circu- lar ascending woven basketwork, this type of diaper pattern does not seem to have been used. Decorative lines, bands and, less commonly, patterns may be made by introducing a third weft strand into the twine, in which case each weft goes over three warps on the front and one on the back and makes a raised line on the front (125k, Fig. 81C). By introducing two extra wefts or one looped to work as two and threading them in and out of the twining, a line or a pattern (125n, Figs 81B, 82) of raised chain stitch effect is formed. The appearance of a line of knots may be given by interrupting the twine to wind the back twining weft round the front one and through to the back again (1250). The ornamental bulbs on top of South Sotho hats sometimes show a decor- ative change of stitch and the ridge at the widest circumference may be accentuated by tucking each warp under the next before moving each of them one or two warps to the left or right (55, 125p, Fig. 44). Close twined work may have open bands with the warps crossed (/25r, Fig. 81D). Sleeping-mats composed of long warps held together by rows of open twining, allow of decoration by alternating bands of twining with free spaces (125q), by bands of crossed warp (125s), or by twining a pattern in between two pairs of straight rows (125t). In one example from Natal, the fabric has been doubled in thickness by overlaying the warps. But this is hardly a decoration. 150 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM DAWAALAGARUITOTE TAURI temersnemenr ce LB Ped ee ee My GSE ee 4 PelEc ee py Ro Pepe psy Ded sadn eg Pe oe TS A Soe — LU | lay H — a my) hen | eK | je Y ae, HA WY = (aaa Ei H Ey ae Hi iD if fl ifs =i i ear, ae eS eee eee ee Unk eral — > _> —, oOo = oO 4 —, a i 4 —“ = Ss SSeS Bo SSE EEE REESE ee ee gee Rees > SSS 3S SSS epee q =, = Sa d=d=q Sqsasqmts Cana as — Tht kr Bs SS C fi ee ee ee ee SSS SSS SS> EEC EE EE EEE EEL TSS DSS SSSSSSSSSS ASS Fig. 80. A. Band of split-warp twine on plain twine, /25c. B. Band of chain stitch twine on plain, /25e. C. Band of several twined weaves on plain, 125h. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 151 Alp 1 d i, i ) if 5 SSE SER ES REE PE TIEN SESS SE pp} EEG (= i Ae \— aN NY) AYA Uy, ENEXE : zw: === o>! aS Ae y it Zt) 7) i N\ r\ i i: h (fp fi sae f if f i y LOT Adal yr V? Atty aah, S i Ke IINA Wd i dil YAU L S NS f Lf Yi H ich CG 7 _\ KA y f( SIN THT AN S I wT} b 4 ry VY a, T\ la ad au S Wy ep VA Ub ; aif fifa, (4 if NA, baad, lar vA af wenn adi: a as ims =D > (Hyd g ¢{ fy P| = — a te & aq AY R= rT] pS ou ES 1 qs syst pty Soy — Ce EVeS — = z AS Pt tot erg pstl lla Fn 5 FE So gia ses a \ Wh} \\ 77 SaI\. A = L ee ae ' i ri Spe ee So So = < , Ati «tits $ tl 0 ae 1 BS ol Sie pS ye am Hepple pA i tS i te + mo ib MS HIN ti | p D Fig. 81. A. Decorative pattern by lengthening the stroke on twine, /25j. B. Raised chain pattern on twine, /25n. C. Decorative band on split-warp twine by lengthened stroke and an extra weft, 125i, 125k. D. Crossing warps in spaces of open twine, /25r. (52 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM z wBszeee pSceeteerescess eee SS. pssst ead ewer : a wan Oe eee = te Se Pe Ce ae ee a a = i am So GLC 5 EE 4, an Er oenem 35°, Fig. 82. Food-mat showing pattern of raised chain on twine; warp and weft of sedge. South Sotho, Leribe, Lesotho, 1958 (SAM-—7995). Width 382 mm. Lattice twine On lattice twine decorative bands and patterns may be made by introducing a third weft (126). Plaited work In straight plaited work there is no opportunity for further decoration beyond that of the type of plait itself. In open extended plaited work, which is more or less confined to Lesotho, a more decorative effect may be obtained by lengthening and/or crossing the extensions (127a, 127b, Fig. 83A). A different appearance may be given to both of these by tightening the strands unevenly (/27c). Plain close extended plaiting may be decorated with a band of extended multiple plaiting (127d). Sewn work Straight sewn In straight sewn work with single foundation strands the only recorded dec- orations are: BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 153 ‘s ISGLLLILLIE Q sEgSe & aa ARR KEE SER lala AL ns nN a | Hf Aibite cine A i LP Clolag POGLELLLELLT A O XN YAW AYN = aA SACS NW va WS YT we z ENN SN wes ACE BANA WON We : ANN Fig. 83. A. Crossed elements on open extended plait, 127b. B. Decorative chain-stitch stripe on straight sewing with composite foundation, 29a C. Decorative stripe by changing direction of twists of composite foundation in straight sewing, 129d. D. Vertical lines by change of stitch in coiled sewn work, 130. 154 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM by crossing the foundation strands between the lines of sewing. This is done on sleeping-mats, especially in Lesotho and also on South Sotho bale masks (for girl initiates), which are exactly similarly made (/28a). by putting a 25 mm depth of /attice wrap at each end of a straight sewn mat (an isolated instance from the Northern Transvaal Ndebele) (/285). by arranging in a design the nodes of the split reeds used as straight sewn foun- dation by the Shona (/28c) (this may be accidental). In straight sewn work with composite foundation strands, the only decor- ations recorded are on beer-strainers with foundation strands of two-ply or three-ply. Stripes may be made at fairly equal intervals by lengthening the twist of two or three strands (129b), or by twisting them in the opposite direction from the prevailing one (129d, Fig. 83C), or by doing this with alternate strands of two-ply cords only, which gives a chain-stitch effect (J29a, Fig. 83B), or by putting in one or more strands of a different ply (J29c). These styles are found mainly among the Sotho-Tswana. Coiled sewn In these techniques there is considerable opportunity for decoration through stitching. The most common is a series of vertical or radial lines, gener- ally fairly evenly spaced on the surface of the basket, but open lines (by missing one stitch), spiral lines, concentric bands and geometrical patterns equivalent to the diaper patterns of woven work, or an irregular mottled effect, may be made. The following methods have been recorded; with the exception of the lengthened stitch none is very common, but all are widespread: by change of stitch, e.g. vertical furcate stripes on simple oversewing (/30, Fig. 83D). by sewing one or more stitches at the required intervals in each coil over an extra coil, thereby making a Jong stitch, which may also be in a different stitch from the main body (131, Fig. 84A). A decorative effect seen only on a Mpuku- shu coiled basket of simple oversewing is obtained by sewing a stitch over two coils at frequent but irregular intervals. There is no pattern but the mottled effect is very pleasing. The long-stitch method is very commonly used for radial stripes, which may be solid, by lengthening successive stitches, or open, by making a short stitch between two long stitches. This technique is very typical of Natal, but it is widespread and by far the commonest form. by splitting the stitch with the new stitch unevenly, but always in the same place, which gives the appearance of a little stripe going off at an angle (/32). by doubling the stitch on single rod foundation, i.e. by sewing twice instead of once round the foundation into the space left (/33). by. wrapping a series of stitches each round its neighbour in a half hitch (/34a, Fig. 84B) seen on a Mpondo beer basket where the motifs so made are spaced between vertical lines of lengthened stitches. An openwork pattern may be BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 155 {uo wl eaten ear mits eae malt APEC E aN Nl on aos =eat pocern seis rah == Heth, | vairaieetoat s\n nN eat <= “Tt Num = ehhh nt rt TE TESTU Eee wt Se yaaa scan C Fig. 84. A. Open stripe on sewn work by lengthening stitch, 737. B. Pattern by half-hitching, 134a. C. Beading, 135. made by wrapping the sewing round the foundation strands for a space and bending them into openwork patterns, which are held between two plain coils (134b). This is surely a modern innovation. by beading, i.e. by allowing a flat strand to weave in and out of the sewing stitch, which gives a chequer effect (135, Fig. 84C). It is a. seen and 1 pected to be of foreign influence. by overlaying, i.e. by laying a flat strand over the foundation before the sewing, so that the foundation shows through particularly smoothly (/36). 156 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM In addition to these specific patterns, the sewing itself is often decorative and by judicious spacing can be made more so (137). Furcate sewing, particu- larly, is often widely spaced to make a pretty radially or spirally striped effect. A very slight decoration seen on an Ambo basket was made by ending the sewing strand in the same place in each row and cutting it off not quite close to the surface, thereby making slight radial lines (138). If the sewing is done with tapering strands the effect is decorative (139). CHANGE OF MATERIAL, SAME COLOUR Woven and sewn work This is not common. It has been recorded in twined woven work on a Mpu- kushu coiled basket, where concentric bands of a different, twisted material were used on a plain ground (/40); on a Huruthse coiled sewn basket, where concentric bands (141a) of untwisted different material were used on a ground of twisted material, and on an Ambo coiled basket, where a radial pattern (141b) was made by sewing with two-ply twisted cord of the palm fibre that is used plain for the rest of the sewing. INTRODUCTION OF COLOUR Coloured patterns are not very common, except in recent work where there has been foreign inspiration. Coloured patterns, which generally gain their effect by accentuating some aspect of the technique of the work, may be obtained either by using materials naturally different in colour or by turning the material inside out when the two sides have different colours, for example bark, or by dyeing the strands before use. In a specialized case, coloured beads may be introduced. The pattern is worked into the fabric and it is interesting to note that colour is nearly always introduced in the weft or sewing and not in the warp or foundation, but there are exceptions. Baskets that have a flat wooden mm may have a pattern branded on the rim, but there is no painting or stencilling of patterns in southern African basketwork. Frequently there are slight variations in shade in the same lot of material and these may be used to make some simple patterns or may do so accidentally. One interesting example of this is on a South Sotho coiled grain basket, where one end of each piece of sewing strand is considerably lighter than the other, so that in each ten or twelve centimetre section of each coil, there is a shading from light to dark and then a sharp recommencement at light (Fig. 88). The introduction of naturally different coloured materials is confined in this country to various reddish brown barks very common in the central area, a brown sedge, a light yellow reed as a contrast for brownish wood, occasionally ox- or horse-tail hair, or two slightly different shades of the same material as the ground-work. The colours obtained by dyeing are black, various shades of brown, yellow, mauve and red (see Materials). BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 157 Woven work Fabric In woven work the decoration may be either by having the two sets of ele- ments of different colours, which makes a decorative effect over the whole surface, or by the introduction of only a few coloured strands to make linear designs.. a ; In chequer work most of the examples so far recorded have a check effect over the whole surface and most of them come from KwaZulu (/42a). In each case, except one, the warp and weft are of different materials as well as different colours. In Zulu purses or spoon-bags, the weft is often of fine cord and the warp wider sedge or grass stems. A few examples with decorative bands (142b) have been seen, for example, Zulu spoon-bags, a Chopi mat, and a Mari basket. An isolated example from KwaZulu has an open diamond pattern made by whipping the warps with different material and colour for a distance at the requisite places (142c). In twilled work there is endless scope for pattern by introducing coloured strands in place of a certain number of others. Nevertheless, it is not very much used, and most of the examples, both of all-over pattern (143a, Fig. 85A) and of designs (143b), come from the Tsonga and Chopi, who use it particularly on pouches and sometimes on winnowing baskets, from the Venda, who use it on the mufharo baskets, and from the Okavango immigrants, who use the all-over pattern on winnowing baskets. In recent examples of this, coloured plastic has been used. In wickerwork only one example of a coloured pattern has been recorded, except among the Vazezuru of Botswana, where it is almost certainly intro- duced. The one example is a band of the same material dyed black on a Mari chequer wicker garden basket (144, Fig. 85B). In twined work very simple colour decoration has been noted— generally a solid or broken line made by introducing a pair of coloured strands or one in a pair or three. Decoration of the whole surface by using one or both wefts of a different colour has been recorded only from Natal and the Okavango (/45a, 145b). In circular work concentric rings or bands may be made in this way (145c). If both of the pair of wefts or each of three wefts are coloured, and several rows worked, a solid band is made (145d, 145e). In the Transkei ox- or horse- tail hair or a dark brown sedge is used, and, for solid bands, slightly different shades of the same material as the ground work. Sometimes the stroke is altered as well as the colour (145f, Fig. 85C). Twining is a quite suitable medium for squares or geometrical patterns in colour of one or both wefts, as the wefts can be finished off and need not com- plete a row (145c, 145d, Fig. 86A). This is often seen on Zulu food-mats. One isolated example from KwaZulu has a pattern made by overlaying one of the pair of wefts with different coloured material (145g, Fig. 86B). > 7 o KAS Via A ° “7 oe ° A \2 ‘2 o o 4 4s SLT. v4 - ° ° 5 ° > S ° > > > \4 . 7 7 ~ ¢ 7 7 Ww . .) > .) o A) ‘4 2 oO ‘a o oe ° NS A NS 4. yA 4 ¢, VA SS > 7 ° O O OO 7 a < Y + >" @ » \2 444K , o 6 \2 oe 2 o ‘a ) N 2 o ‘2 \2 o eo 4 > / yy 5 Q o ' 5 or o eo - o S eS ) o SS S ¢ 3 / » / >. 7 Ny 2 >. / of. ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 7 S ‘ 2 - e > z O > >) ? RS ? pg > 4 7 >; A VA o , 158 4 G4 mA ae “SSS B. Band of colour in chequer wicker, 144. C. Decorative band of different colour and material, and lengthened A. Introduction of colour over whole surface of twill, 143a. ig. 85. on stroke on twine, 145f. 159 BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA O SS ; boy b aaa - [i ‘ ap my NOG MLS SOL mo 07 oY IS TSA LAW Begin Begin brown white Wil, a @\\ mua s ‘ ee Ie eG I ts WE t lh Sie tk ) wine with two different coloured wefts, 145d. B. Overlaying in colour on twine, 145g. Fig. 86. A. Geometric design on t Warps may also be whipped with a strand of a different colour, to make a design (145h). In plaited work chevron patterns in either direction could be made by the introduction of coloured strands. This has, however, not been found. The only example found of decoration in a plaited fabric is on the sleeping-mat from plaits are joined together to form the whole, horizontal stripes of plain colour Mozambique already described (p. 144). In this special case, where separate can be made by making some of the plaits entirely coloured (1/46). - In three-strand lattice twined work, bands and patterns are made by having one or more of the strands in a different material dyed. This was recorded among the Subia of the Okavango (/47a-c). 160 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Coloured edges on woven work The only example recorded is from the Lala of Natal where the edge of a food-mat is oversewn in blanket stitch with a material of different colour (148). Sewn work In the fabric of straight sewn work there is little scope for the introduction of colour, either in foundation or sewing. The only instances of coloured foun- dation recorded are on beer-strainers from the Nguni, Tsonga and Sotho, where a series of stripes is made by using coloured foundation strands (/49a, Fig. 87A). The examples look influenced. There is no instance recorded of coloured sewing. In the south, however, certain belts and headbands, in which the technique is straight sewn with composite foundation of twined cords or plaits and only two or three foundation strands, have the sewing strand dec- -orated with beads that hold the foundation strands widely apart (/49b, Fig. 87B). The narrow headbands may have an edging of beads made by thread- ing one bead on the sewing strand whenever it emerges at the edge (Fig. 87B, C). Patterns are introduced by means of the colour of the beads, generally alter- nating stripes or blocks of different colour. On a Zulu mat, a decoration that seems to be modern is the wrapping of the end foundation strands with material of a different colour—in the only instance recorded this is brown cord (149c). In coiled work there is ample scope for coloured bands and radial patterns, or all-over light and dark patterns. In most cases the colour is introduced by making a certain number of coloured stitches in every coil or every few coils, according to plan. The following are the ways so far recorded of introducing colour in coiled work—each way naturally allows of numerous variations. Foundation: concentric bands may be made by changing the colour of the foundation for one or more coils. The sewing must then be spaced to let the foundation show through (/50a). Only two examples of this were seen, from the Thembu and the Tshangana-Tsonga, and these may well have been influenced by overlaying—that is, the laying of a coloured strand over the foundation before the stitch, which thus goes over it. This is suitable for bands or designs, but has only been recorded on two hats, one Southern Sotho and one Tswana (150b, Fig. 87D, 150c). Sewing: by sewing the whole basket with a strand of colour that contrasts with the foundation and by spacing the stitches widely. This is often used with a furcate stitch, which lends itself well to striped effects. So far this has been recorded among the Natal Nguni and Swazi, the Tsonga, Tswana, Venda and Mpukushu (/5/a). The Sarwa near Serowe were making similarly decorated baskets, but these were Ngwato style and made for sale to the Ngwato. by using a sewing strand that varies in colour from one end to another. This makes a natural mottled effect, with a change of colour at the beginning of each BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 161 ’ ¥) E Y Z: g ty me f Yiig J l-§s Wf APA a | ot ER Y Ze of ZZ AE 47 Z t, SSS WN irnttren tg ee . \ —~ Laat Kanne AAR SSS var! \ SYAY Th AN ny = AY un SSS S AY \ WY TaN At Ty = SSSS — bg, SS SSSA ROT YR UTRAL Tati et geet ey al W aLt MANY Wik; SS NET nl uw ITN eth ~ oie =, Wu WA Ae: \ = pension OT Sake ue Se UREN yy Sy OK Se AK CKECCUNW YN > MOS Fig. 94. A, C. Lids on twilled baskets, 164. B, D. Cross-sections illustrating fit. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA CG @ ' OCG nD» AN WU > > OS = At ) \ ) A iy SS" Sy) , —— at 7 LV} Le YA a ae CLA\8 eae aero ig og oe coe ee eek eee Hee RY “WG. Wy) = PEG Neer Al pee SOS Sy 4) ae 7 eee rotate Ua result ee hr say see | | ee =\ RAR Re wee SLA =" - f aN AN \ I rh | a yvesisunut : : 3 & _—<— — ~~ — —— — — en Fig. 95. A. Cord handle on pouch, knotted outside, runs inside, /66a. B. Stiff handle on woven work, /67a. C. Stiff handle on sewn work. /67b. 171 172 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 4 Y we @, d 4D SKS PL rl A AA, — F- ap WLA q 4) 353 SPL PLL LESS = ; “ mm NN} ‘ EES ey ma ae el r A) iz ue Ni a JES |: NSEC ew iN SZ A) ~ \ cal ‘ Wie L WANS a YN Fig. 96. A-B. On twined work, lid hinged by three strands, 168. C. On sewn work, lid hinged by corresponding loops and a ring, 169. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 173 loop in corresponding positions on each and fastened with a ring (169, Fig. 96C). In the latter case, as used by the Ronga near Maputo, the loops are made of the ordinary grass or split palm-leaf foundation, closely bound round in chequer weave with palm-leaf. They are decorated with beading in black. Rims Rims consisting of flat wooden hoops have already -been discussed under ‘edges’ (80). They may be termed ornamental if they are ornamented or if they are made wider than is functionally necessary, to give an ornamental effect (170, Fig. 63). Feet An addition that may be modern and is fairly rare is a foot or stand, seen occasionally on small baskets in the Kavango territory. It is coiled, like the rest of the basket and is, in effect, a straight or slanting rim at the bottom of the basket (171). It seems to be a foreign element from north of the Okavango. In KwaZulu, three small pieces of wood may be sewn on to the bottom of a small basket to act as feet when it stands on its own, or as a handle when it is used as a lid (172, Fig. 97A). Or a solid ring of wood (173, Fig. 97B) or a thick plait may be attached (174, Fig. 97C). BASKETS Garden baskets Throughout the southern African region, these are small at the base and wide at the top, thus allowing a good load to be packed in, and helping to balance the basket on the head (/75, Fig. 98). They may be conical, flanging or bowl-shaped. They frequently have a concave base to fit the head. This base is commenced as it were inside out and, when deep enough, the warps are turned up or the sewn coils similarly placed, so that the cone is inside. Other utensils and containers Food bowls are shallow and wide-mouthed. Beer baskets, for drinking beer, are fairly straight-sided and wide-mouthed (176, Fig. 99); containers (/77) for storing beer, like bins for storing grain, close in at the top to a small mouth (Fig. 100), and usually have a lid. Otherwise, the only baskets in which the shape is not entirely conditioned by the use are the Venda and Lobedu twilled carrying baskets, where the waist is ornamental, but at the same time not unconnected with the technique—there would have to be a join somewhere (Fig. 4). Certain shapes have been adopted from the fashions of other cultures with which the people have come in contact. Examples of this are rectangular baskets, baskets with hinged lids, and the addition of handles. 174 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 97. A. Small pieces of wood at base of basket, as feet or handle, 772. B. Wooden ring sewn on base of basket as a foot, 173. C. A plaited ridge as foot on a basket, 174. 175 BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA “WIL SCZ IYSIOHY *(S668-INVS) €96[ “OSuRARYO ‘OFMIG ‘q ‘Ww OZ IYSI9H, “(ES/8E LON) SEI ‘XAURY ‘eUeMST “D “UU Cgz IYsIOHY “(TSOLI-WVS) 8261 ‘nnyuezey ‘esuos], “gq “WU Cg¢e IYSIOH] “(SZLZI-INVS) P86 “OLISIP spoqry ‘opuod|] “vy “CZ] ‘s}oyseq UdpIeH °g6 “BIA 176 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 99. Utensil, 176. Beer-beaker, Mpondo, Flagstaff district, Transkei 1932 (UCT 32/41). Height 292 mm. OBJECTS OTHER THAN BASKETS Bags Bags (178, Fig. 101) are of different sizes, but differ in shape only acCOneie to the ratio between length and width. Bracelets Bracelets (179, Fig. 102) are straight bands and differ only in width. Birdcages Birdcages (180, Fig. 6) have no special shape. Fish-traps Fish-traps (J81, Fig. 14) are nearly always conical in shape, but there are some like little fences. Food- and grain-mats These (182, Figs 8, 82; 183) may be round, half-oval, rectangular—which is most common—square, or apron-shaped. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 7 Fig. 100. Containers, 177. A. Small lidded basket, Natal Nguni, Nkhandla, 1941 (SAM-6201). Greatest diameter 160mm. B. Large container, Zulu, Melmoth, 1965 (SAM-9215). Height c. 550 mm. 178 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 101. Bag for spoons, 178, decorated with white beads, /63a, Zulu, no locality, 1938 (UCT 38/19). Length 255 mm. Fig. 102.) Bracelet. 170: “Mpondo, Flagstaff, Transkei, 1901 (SAM-249). Width of fabric 30 mm. Hats It used to be said that the shape of South Sotho hats (154, Fig. 103) was dic- tated to some extent by whether they were to be worn in sunshine (in which case they were wide brimmed) or rain (in which case they were conical), but this seems to be no longer the case, if ever it was, and the conical hat has become a national symbol. In other groups, hats are mainly wide-brimmed. Huts Before the spread of mud walls, the frames of walls and roofs of huts were, with some exceptions, wattlework (185, Fig. 104). In some places there was a woven top-knot on the roof. Sledges Sledges (186, Fig. 15) have wattlework walls built on to the V-shaped wooden base. Sleeping-mats Sleeping-mats (187, Fig. 105) are rectangular, although some Xhosa some- times make one end rounded. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 179 Fig. 103. Hat, 784, Southern Sotho, Leribe, 1958 (SAM-7987). Height 320 mm. Fig. 104. Framework of hut, 785, Karanga, Great Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe, 1967. 180 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 105. Sleeping-mat, 787, Tswana, Thaba Nchu, 1978. Fig. 106. Skimming-spoon, /88, Zulu, Eshowe, Natal, 1961 (SAM-8398). Diameter of bowl 100 mm. Spoons The basketwork spoons used as skimmers for beer (/88, Fig. 106) are gen- erally rather more ornamental in shape than is strictly necessary for their purpose. Strainers Strainers are tubular and their shapes differ only at the narrow base (189, Figs 19, 107), which may be tucked in, bound or sewn into a straight projection. They are used mainly for straining beer, but small examples for straining por- ridge have been seen. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 181 Fig. 107. Beer-strainer, 189, Xolo, Port Shepstone, 1939 (SAM-—6010(3)). TOOLS Basketwork is done by hand and very few tools are used. PREPARATION In preparation of the materials, a Anife (nowadays often a penknife) or spear blade is necessary to cut them and split them ready for use. For heavy stakes that are the warps of wattlework hut frames or sledges an axe or an adze is needed. The splitting of small strands may be done with an aw/ (Fig. 108A) or, nowadays, even a pin may be used. Where reeds have to be flattened before use, they are cut once down the length and opened out and, at least among the Mpukushu and Kuangari, hammered flat with a mallet (Fig. 108C). A mallet or a piece of wood is used by Tsonga to flatten the ridges made by sewing plaited strips together to make a mat or basket. 182 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM yy — Yj; es WW§ oes : Fig. 108. Tools. A. Awl, Lobedu, Duiwelskloof, 1936 (SAM-9742). Length 147 mm. B. Core of grass for beer-strainer, Zulu, Nongoma, 1970. C. Mallet, Kuangari, Lupala, Kavango, 1961 (SAM-8512). Length 384mm. D. Needle, Nama, Fransfontein, Namibia, 1923 (SAM-UCT 23/138). Length 255 mm. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 183 WORKING Woven work In the actual work, woven techniques need no tools, but a knife or blade is used for cutting off the loose ends. A core of grass is used for shaping woven beer-strainers (Fig. 108B) or Zulu chequer weave spoon-bags; latterly a bottle has been used for this purpose. Sewn work Sewn techniques, however, need an awl or needle (Fig. 108A, D) for the actual sewing. In straight work, a needle may be used to pierce the foundation strands; it has an eye through which the strand is passed and by means of which it is drawn through the foundation strands. It is recorded of the Khoi that a needle and an awl were used, the latter to pierce the foundation strands and then turn on its side to hold the hole open while the needle was pushed through. This method was seen among the Hlubi too. Sewn beer-strainers are made on a core of grass (Fig. 108B), at least in Lesotho and Transkei. In coiled sewn work, the choice of an awl or a needle depends on the close- ness of the work. If it is loose and the foundation is of grass, a needle may be used to pull the sewing strand through. If it is close sewing of hard materials, an awl will be used to make a hole through the foundation and the stiff sewing strand will be inserted through the hole. Sometimes the forward end of the sewing strand will be cut to a point to facilitate this, or the stiffer root portion of sedge left on for this purpose. Both straight and coiled work have to be trimmed when finished and a knife is used to cut off the loose ends. Latterly the Thembu have used shears for this purpose. The material of which awls and needles are made varies. Most awls are of iron nowadays, but wood, bone and thorn, especially the sharp point of an aloe leaf, or the sharp spike of a palm-leaf, are used. Some have handles, some not. Nails are often put into handles for use as awls. Umbrella spokes, flattened and pointed at one end, make very good needles. MATERIALS The materials used in Southern African basketwork are as numerous and varied as the tools are few, and are obtained almost entirely from plants. Dressed skin is sometimes used for bindings or for bases, sinew thread is some- times used for sewing, and ox- or other tail hair, brass buttons and beads are sometimes used for decoration and ornamentation, but the bulk of the materials come from plants. In many cases the materials are available near or not impossibly far from the maker’s home, but many areas are being over-exploited and the need to import from another part of the country is sufficient to encourage some people in the suitable environments to grow material for sale. 184 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM The preparation of each type of material varies but, in general, most of them, before use, are soaked in water for a certain time; this varies according to material and custom. The materials are used damp, to prevent splitting or crack- ing. In addition, the worker usually has a container of water nearby and keeps wetting the hands. Thin material is often kept in this water until used, or wrapped in something to keep it damp. One woman was seen to warm the water for the start of the basket. Record of the materials used is far from complete, for which reason it has been thought best to list them according to the parts used rather than to make an alphabetical list of the botanical names of the plants so far identified. Materials collected in the field are marked by the place name, and were identified by the National Botanic Gardens, Kirstenbosch. The names listed under ‘Author’ are those of other informants or sources. STEMS Grass: family Gramineae—various genera True grass stems are comparatively seldom used for either element in woven work; there are few objects for which the majority of grasses would be strong enough. However, grass stems, that is the stems of the inflorescence, are used for the plaited grass bracelets and necklets popular throughout the country. For these a shiny yellow-stemmed grass is preferred. Thin tough grass stems are used for South Sotho sun-hats of extended plait technique. By far the most common use of grass is as a coil foundation for coiled bas- ketry. When the foundation is to be completely or almost completely covered, the choice of grass need not be so particular, but on hats of boater shape and on certain baskets shiny stems are carefully selected for the foundation, so that in showing through the stitches they add to the decorative effect. Fine grass stems may be plaited as a sewing strand for coiled work. Stronger grass is plaited to make ropes. Grass stems need little or no preparation. They are sometimes used green, particularly for ornaments or hats, and sometimes dried first and dampened for use. : The following grasses have been identified: Species Use Group Place Author * Andropogon amplectans Nees sewing of coiled work Zulu Melmoth * Andropogon cymbarius L. sleeping-mats Zulu Natal Gerstner Aristida sp. coil foundation; weft of Zulu Melmoth grain-bin Hlabisa warps Biyela Nkhandla broom Zulu Babanango coil foundation Ambo Oshikango Aristida congesta Roem. & baskets, food-mats Zulu Grossert Schult. (1967) *_See Appendix 3 for current name. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Species Aristida junciformis Trin. & Rupr. *Crinipes gynoglossa Goossens Cymbopogon sp. Cynodon sp. Digitaria‘eriantha Stend. * Digitaria littoralis Stent. Digitaria milanjiana (Rendle) Stapf. Eragrostis curvula Nees Eragrostis gummiflua Nees Eragrostis pallens Hack Eragrostis plana Nees Festuca costata Nees Hyparrhenia sp. Hyparrhenia filipendula Stapf Hyparrhenia hirta Stapf Use brooms sewing strand for coiled work coil foundation of bin for groundnuts bangles ornaments sewing of coiled work baskets, beer-strainers sewn beer-strainers sewing of coiled work ornaments plaited bangles ropes and grain-bins baskets, ornaments, grain- bins, plaited rope coil foundation coil foundation coil foundation coil foundation coil foundation ropes, mats coil foundation sewing sewn baskets grain-mats coil foundation coil foundation warp of grain-mats coil foundation sewing for grain-bin roof mat part of initiation costume large grain-bin grain-bins, bangles bangles bangles *—See Appendix 3 for current name. Group Swazi Swazi Lenge Hlengwe Zulu a Zulu Zulu Thulini Tembe Thembu Ndebele Zulu Zulu S. Sotho S. W. Tswana Ngwato general Sarwa Zulu Zulu Zulu Zulu Swazi Ndebele Swazi Swazi Hlubi Venda Zulu Lobedu Venda Zulu Tlokwa N. Sotho Place Pigg’s Peak Pigg’s Peak Masiyene Sabi-Lundi Natal Hlabisa Appelsbosch Sodwana Zimbabwe Melmoth Lesotho Botswana Serowe Botswana Nata R. Melmoth Nongoma Mahlabatini Ohlangotini Esigodini (Essexvale) Pigg’s Peak Pigg’s Peak Sigogo Ndzehele Duiwelskloof Ndzehele Natal Bochum Lydenburg 185 Author Earthy (1933) Gerstner (1938: 223) Grossert (1967) Beukes . (4937) Gerstner (1939: 58, 1941: 381) Grossert (1967) Campbell (pers. comm.) Ebert (1978) Grossert (1967) McCalman (pers. comm.) Grossert (1967) Davison (1984) Grossert (1967) 186 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Species Use Group Place Author Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf grain-bins Zulu Grossert (1967) Ischaemum fasciculatum plaited rope Zulu Natal Brongn. *Ischaemum arcuatum (Nees) _ baskets, beer-strainers Zulu Grossert Stapf (1967) Loudetia simplex (Nees) C. E. _ plaiting bangles Ndebele Zimbabwe Hubbard *Miscanthidium capense Stapf rough mats Xhosa Umtata Oplismenus sp. ‘baskets’ Zulu Natal Gerstner (1938: 314) food-mats, baskets Zulu Natal Grossert (1967) Pogonarthria falcata Rendle garden baskets S. Sotho —_ Lesotho Pogonarthria squarrosa (Licht.) coil foundation Ndebele Esigodini McCalman Pilger (Essexvale) (pers. S. Sotho Teyateyaneng comm.) Rhynchelytrum repens C. E. coil of nest for hens Lobedu Duiwelskloof Hubb *Rhynchelytrum setifolium baskets Zulu Grossert Chiov. (1967) “Sporobolus indicus Stapf coil foundation Zulu Nongoma Zulu Hlabisa Sporobolus pyrimidalis Beauv. coil foundation of hats, S. Nguni ‘Transkei coil foundation of baskets Hlubi Sigogo with plaited sewing coil foundation Ximba Mahlabatini coil foundation Koni Northern Transvaal Themeda triandra Forsk. grain-bin Zulu Grossert (1967) *Tricholaena setifolia Stapf coil foundation; wefts of Zulu Melmoth grain-bins *See Appendix 3 for current name. Reeds: family Gramineae—genera Phragmites and Arundenaria The stems of river reeds (Phragmites australis (Cuv.) Trin. ex Steud.), the indigenous bamboo (Arundenaria tesselata Munro), and the introduced bamboo (Bambus vulgaris Schreb.) are used in various types of basketwork, especially in the north. Thin reed stems were used by the Naron of Sandfontein for the warps of the reed sieves that they used for sieving white ants’ larvae, and are said to have been used by the Southern San for fish traps. Reed stems are split and flattened out for weaving coarse twilled matting in the north-west. This seems to be an Angolan style and is found among people with Angolan affinities: Kuangari, Bunja, Sambiu, Diriko, Mpukushu. The matting may be used for sleeping mats, roofing mats, screens, grain-bins and sledges. Reeds are used for another type of sleeping mat, made in Zimbabwe, in which the reeds are flattened out, but are sewn through side by side instead of being woven. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 187 Strips of split reed are used quite extensively for baskets—generally in check or twilled weave—in Zimbabwe, Mozambique and the north of Botswana, where influence from Zimbabwe and Angola is apparent. Winnowing baskets and similar shapes, which further south are always twilled of slivers of wood, are there frequently made of reed strips, which are also used for strengthening rims. Reeds and bamboo are prepared by drying, cleaning, sorting, and splitting or slitting and beating flat. They are used whole, especially for one or more ele- - ments of doors, or for filling in walls in the north and east, and also as the warps of fish traps. Their shiny yellow surface is very decorative. The following species have been identified so far: Species Use Group Place Author Pennisetum purpureum warp and weft of twilled Ndau Ngorima, Schumach baskets Chimanimani (Melsetter) Phragmites mauritanus Kunth. Zimbabwe Sedges: families Cyperaceae (Fig. 109) and Juncaceae These are probably the most fruitful source of material for basketwork in southern Africa—particularly so in the south where in some parts they are used almost exclusively. The long, smooth, tough stems of the inflorescence are emi- nently suited to many types of work. Many species of both families are used. So important are they that they form an item of trade to areas where they do not naturally grow. For this purpose they may be collected or actually cultivated. Sedge stems are used whole, most commonly for sleeping mats or for the roofing mats of the San and Khoikhoi. They form the single warps or the foun- dation elements, with twined wefts or straight sewing through. The material is used in the same form and technique for the veils worn by girls at their initiation ceremonies in Lesotho. Less commonly, and in twined work only, several sedge stems go to each warp. Whole sedge stems also furnish the warps for most of the woven baskets and bags in the south-east, and for many of the food- and grain-mats wherever these are made. Sedge stems are used practically exclusively for the wefts of these woven baskets, bags and mats, but it varies according to the thickness of the stem and the taste of the maker, whether they are used whole, split in half, or split in half and the pith removed. Split and de-pithed sedge stems are used in various parts of the country for oversewing in coiled basketwork, including hats, where a flat stitch is wanted. They are also plaited into braids for certain types of ornament. A Shona bag is twilled of split, de-pithed and flattened sedge stems, and so is a Pedi beer- strainer. Stems of thinner smaller sedges are greatly used in the centre and north and are twisted into one- or two-ply cords for oversewing in coiled work. Sedge stem 188 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 109. Sedge (Cyperus textilis Thunb.), Cape. cords of rather stronger species furnish the material for the beer-strainers of the straight sewn type. The sedges are generally cat and carried home in bundles, then laid out in the sun to dry, sometimes on the roof of a hut. The Nama soak the stems in water to draw out the tannin and make them more durable. When dry, the unsuitable stems are sorted out. It depends on the use to which they are to be put whether they are then used as they are, split, beaten flat, de-pithed or twisted into cords. They are dampened before use. The species so far recorded are: Species Use Group Place Author Cyperus alternifolius L. subsp. __ warp of sleeping-mats, Ndebele Zimbabwe McCalman flabelliformis (Rottb.) warp and weft of food- (pers. Kikenth. mats, sewing of coiled comm.) baskets “Cyperus compactus Lam. ornaments Naron Sandfontein Bleek (1928) Cyperus corymbosus Rottb. beer-strainers Lobedu Modjadji, Duiwels- kloof *—See Appendix 3 for current name. Species Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperus fastigiatus Rottb. Cyperus immensus C.B. CL Cyperus latifolius Poir Cyperus margaritaceus Vahl Cyperus natalensis Hochst. Cyperus papyrus L. Cyperus sexangularis Nees Cyperus textilis Thunb. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Use sleeping-mats, food-mats, baskets sleeping-mats mats baskets baskets food-mats sleeping-mats girls’ ritual dresses sleeping-mats sleeping-mats baskets sleeping-mats sleeping-mats ~ food-mats, sewing of coiled baskets, grain-bins sleeping-mats sleeping-mats roofing mats weft of garden baskets baskets sewing of grain-bins warps of sleeping-mats warp and weft of food- mats beer-strainers warp and weft of shrimping basket sleeping-mats baskets sewing of garden basket foundation of beer-strainer sleeping-mats sleeping-mats Group Zulu Ndebele Zulu Tsonga S. Tsonga Natal Nguni Xhosa Mpondo Zulu Zulu Zulu Venda Zulu Zulu Zulu S. Tsonga Mbukushu Mpondo Mpondo Koni Tlokwa Lobedu Venda Khoikhoi Fingo S. Nguni Hlubi S. Nguni S. Nguni S. Nguni Mpondo Swazi West Tswana Rolong Huruthse Thlaping Ngwato East Tswana Tsonga Place Zimbabwe Eshowe _ Gazankulu *Sodwana Natal Willowvale Umvume Springs Eshowe Hlabisa Mahlabatini Nzhelele Manguzi Botswana Pondoland Pondoland Sekhu- khuneland Bochum Modjadji Nzhelele Transkei Sigogo Umvume Springs, Pondoland Nelspruit Tlhakgameng Moshane Moretele Serowe Gazankulu 189 Author Grossert (1967) McCalman (pers. comm.) Marianhill (1900- 1910) Bryant (1949) Bryant (1949) Mayr (1906- 1907) Campbell (pers. comm.) Velcich (pers. comm. ) 190 Species Kyllinga alba Nees Mariscus sp. *Scirpus inclinatus (Del.) Aschers & Schweinf. Scirpus nodosus Rottb. *Scirpus paludicola Kunth. Scirpus rogersii N. E. Br. *Scirpus tegetalis Burch. Juncus effusus L. *Juncus maritimus Bak Juncus punctorius L.f. Use small baskets foundation of mats part of initiation costume warps of sleeping-mats, baskets sleeping-mats ornaments beer-strainers belts sewing of doormats sleeping-mats beer-stirrer beer-strainers beer-strainers warps of grain-bins sleeping-mats - sitting-mats ?spoon-bags, sleeping- mats, food-mats sleeping-mats stirrers warps of sleeping-mats baskets *__See Appendix 3 for current name. Rushes: family Typhaceae Group Zulu Nama Lobedu Ndzundza Tlokwa Naron Ximba Thulini Ndebele Cape Khoikhoi Zulu Zulu Ngwane Zulu Zulu Ngwane Zulu Zulu Zulu Zulu Zulu Swazi Swazi ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Place Author Grossert (1967) S. Kalahari Schultze (1907) Duiwels- Davison kloof (1984) Bronkhorstspruit Silwerkrans Sandfontein Bleek (1928) Mahlabatini South Natal Zimbabwe Burchell Fraserberg (1824) Tugela Ferry Mahlabatini Bergville Melmoth Dept. Agric. (1940) Tugela Ferry Bergville Mahlabatini Gerstner (1938: 323) Nongoma Gerstner (1938: 228) Melmoth Tugela Ferry Pigg’s Peak Mbabane Rush stems, when used, are cut and dried in the same way as sedge stems. They are used as warps for a common type of sleeping-mat in Natal and for a tobacco-mat in Mozambique. The Southern San are said to have made a cord for fish traps from them, but the word ‘rush’ is very loosely used in the literature. The only rush identified is the bulrush: Species *Typha latifolia subsp. capensis Rohrb. Use sleeping-mats sleeping-mats *—See Appendix 3 for current name. Group Zulu Tswa Place Author Natal Gerstner (1938: 228) Mozam- bique BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 191 Creepers The stems of creepers are used extensively in the northern and eastern Transvaal, Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe, either as foundation rods for coiled basketwork or split for use as the sewing strand. They are also used, in the same areas, as strengthening rods for the rims of woven baskets. Thicker creeper stems are used as wefts over rigid warps for meat trays and hut doors by Mpondo and Zulu. “, | The creeper stems are generally stripped, dried and soaked in water for use, but in some cases, for example the meat trays, they are used green and untreated. The following species have been recorded: Species Use Group Place Author Combretum zeyheri Sond. warp and weft of conical Manyika Mutare basket (Umtali) Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels oversewing edge of Tsonga Gazankulu winnowing basket sewing strand Lobedu Duiwels- kloof Dalbergia obovata (E. Mey) basketwork Zulu Natal Gerstner (1941: 291) Dioscorea sp. coil foundation and sewing Venda Venda Flagellaria guineensis Schumach _ hut doors and baskets Zulu Natal Jasminum streptopus E. Mey. _ coil foundation; edge of Venda Mpephu woven basketwork Menispermaceae sp. coil foundation Tswana Botswana Campbell (pers. comm.) Pharnacium sp. warp Ambo Ovambo Rhoicissus rhomboidea (E. oversewing edge S. Nguni ‘Transkei Mey) Planch. Xesibe East Griqualand Bhaca East Griqualand “Salacia zeyheri P\. oversewing edges Ndau Chipinge (Chipinga) Smilax kraussiana Meisn. hut doors Zulu Natal Tecomaria capensis Spach. coil foundation Lenge Masiyene *Xylopia antunesii Engl. & oversewing winnowing Budjga Mutoko Diels baskets (Mtoko) *—See Appendix 3 for current name. LEAVES OF PLANTS Leaves of various plants are dried and split into strands of suitable width for various sorts of basket work. Palm: family Palmae (Fig. 110) The most widely used leaf is the palm-leaf. Wherever the palm grows it is used; the most commonly used are the two species of the fan palm Hyphaene 192 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM natalensis Kunze (= *H. crinita Gaertn.) and *H. ventricosa Kirk. Among the Nguni speakers the fan palm is called ilala, and elsewhere by various forms of the same root word, but in Botswana it is known as mokola, mokolane and mo- kolwane. In the south-east, the wild date Phoenix reclinata Jacq, known as isundu (Xhosa, Thembu, South Tsonga), is used. Along the east coast, where the coconut palm has been introduced, its leaves are used. For certain purposes the palm-leaf is used whole, in which case the leaf folioles are merely separated and woven on the midrib. Such is the cover made for covering the cups in which palm sap is collected, made of a small leaf of a fan palm with the folioles woven chequer. This may be done while the leaf is still green. | For the most part, however, palm-leaves are dried, then the folioles are stripped off the midrib, which is also kept for use. The folioles may be used whole or split, if necessary, and sorted. Before use they are soaked in water. *—See Appendix 3 for current name. a a a 7 2 x CA ae Ky ea ae oy “4 % 5 : ee, 4 - 2 oe od On . | eae r : eas 2 : my — : g ee Fig. 110. Palm (*Hyphaene ventricosa Kirk), Ovamboland. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 193 The initiation costumes of the Southern Nguni are made of whole Phoenix re- clinata folioles taken off the midrib and secured with lattice wrapping over a cord. Far more commonly, and particularly those of Hyphaene spp., the folioles are split to the required width for use. In woven work, strips 5—25 mm wide are used for weaving chequer or twilled baskets (Ambo), mats (Ambo, Tsonga), winnowing trays (Tsonga and Chopi), ankle rattles (?Mpondo), and especially for the pouches that are found all along the east coast and in the Kavango territory. For twilled beer-strainers that are found in the south-east, the strips are split to follow the natural decrease of the leaf and their use provides the required decrease in the beer- strainer. Stripped leaves of Hyphaene are said to have been used sometimes as wefts of Zulu grain-bins. The only instance recorded where the midribs of folioles are used in woven work is in the skimming spoons for beer, which are used in Natal and neighbour- ing territories. The midribs are used both for warp and weft, but sometimes for warp with a weft of another material—sedge or fibre or modern string. In coiled sewn work palm-leaf is very largely used throughout a large part of the country for sewing strands and for the oversewing of edges. The folioles are dried and split into strips 1-5 mm wide. Generally, the best strands are used for sewing and the remainder used with the midribs for the coil foundation; some- times they are mixed with grass for this latter purpose, which is frequently made of grass entirely. More rarely, for example among the Valenge, palm-leaf strands are used for sewing over a single foundation of the stem of a creeper. Family Iridaceae Second in importance to palm-leaf are the leaves of numerous species of the family Iridaceae. Many members of this family have long, tough, fibrous leaves, like shoe laces, which make very suitable material for sewing strands in coiled work. No woven work using these plants has been recorded so far, except plaited cords for various purposes. The following have been identified: Species Use Group Place Author *Cyanotis nodiflora Kunth ~° _ wefts of grain-bins Natal Dept. Nguni Agric. (1940) Hypoxis spp. ornaments Fingo Kawa (1929) cords, ropes Natal Gerstner (1939: 323) cords, baskets, ropes for Natal Grossert thatch (1967) *See Appendix 3 for current name. 194 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Other plants The Venda, particularly, use the leaves of a Strelitzia or Ensete sp. for over- sewing the join in the centre of their mufharo baskets. The leaves are dried and split into wider strips than palm. They give only a short strand. The smooth folded leaves of one of the Amaryllidaceae— Vellozia retinervis Bak (bobbejaan-stert), are split in half and used by the Lobedu of the Transvaal to weave twilled beer-strainers, like the palm-leaf strainers elsewhere. The Pedi plait them into cord. The following other plants of which the leaves are used have been iden- tified: Species Use Group Place Author Anthericum sp. baskets Zulu Grossert (1967) Dicoma zeyheri Sond. girls’ skirts Zulu Krige (1950) bridal veils Zulu Krige (1950) Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. for sewing delicate baskets Ndebele Zimbabwe Ensete ventricosum Cheesm. sewn beer-strainer Lobedu Duiwelskloof sewing together parts of Venda Ndzehele twilled basket Strelitzia augusta Thb. penis sheaths Zulu Mahlabatini penis sheaths Zulu Natal Gerstner (1938: 326) rope for hut building Zulu Natal Gerstner (1938: 218) Strelitzia sp. sewing together parts of Venda Ndzehele woven baskets Zea sp. (maize) sewing strand in coiled Ndebele Zimbabwe ___ Davies work (1934) WHOLE PLANT Rather more rarely the whole plant is used, but only in the case of grass and reeds. The whole tuft of grass, stripped of its roots, may be used as a warp element in woven work. This occurs more especially in twined work, where the weft is of some other material, as for example, in the Mpondomise and Bhaca garden baskets and South Sotho grain-mats. Whole grass plants are used for the plaited ropes with which South Sotho and Nguni tie down the thatch of their huts and which are used generally for many purposes. Similar to this is the plaited grass cord with which loose-coiled grain-bins are oversewn. Whole grass plants may also be used as a coil foundation. This is seen particularly in the soft granary baskets. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 195 The following plants have been identified: Species Use Group Place Author Aristida sp. coil foundation Ambo Oshikango *Crinipes gynoglossa Goossens __ plaited coil foundation Swazi Pigg’s Peak Cymbopogon sp. rope Bomvana_ Elliotdale Eragrostis curvula Nees grain-bins Zulu Natal Gerstner : : (1938: © 337) Ischaemum fasciculatum Brongn. plaited Zulu Natal *Oplismenus africanus P. Beauv. coil foundation Zulu Natal Pogonarthria squarrosa Pilger coil foundation Ndcbele Zimbabwe Sporobolus pyramidalis Beauv. coil foundation Hlubi Herschel Mpondo Transkei Ximba Mahlabatini S. Sotho Matatiele Koni Transvaal *—See Appendix 3 for current name. BARK Thin bark is widely used for basketwork in many areas. It is stripped from the stem and dried; it may be boiled to toughen it. The Chopi finally rub the bark of Brachystegia with Trichilia emetica seeds to make it soft. Natural coloured bark may be used as a weft element, especially over stiff warps, and is very frequently used as the ordinary sewing element in coiled sewn work. It is also much used for oversewing of rims and edges and for sewing joins. Coloured barks, generally reddish brown, are frequently used for the intro- duction of colour. Very thin strips of bark may be twisted to a single- or two-ply cord and used for sewing or twining sleeping-mats, for twining open fish baskets, for sewing coiled baskets, or as both elements in a woven cloth made in Zimbabwe. Wide strips of bark are used especially in Mozambique to cover and protect the base of conical baskets. The following species have been identified: Species Use Group Place Author “Acacia capensis Burch. soft outer bark for sewing Khoikhoi Riet River Burchell . mats (1824) Acacia polycantha Willd string for sewing mats Nama Fransfontein Hoernlé (1913- 1922) Acacia sp. inner bark for sewing mats Nama Andersson (1854) Annona senegalensis Pers. sewing hoop to basket Ndau Chimanimani (Melsetter) Bauhinia galpinii N. E. Br. oversewing coiled baskets Swazi Hlatikulu *—See Appendix 3 for current name. 196 Species Boscia albitrunca Gilg. et Bened. Brachystegia boehmii Taub. Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. Bridelia micrantha Buill. Colophospermum mopane (Kirk & Benth.) Kirk ex J. Leonard *Dombeya natalensis Sond. Ficus sp. “Ficus capensis Thunb. Grewia bicolor Juss. Grewia flava DC. Grewia monticola Sond. Grewia subspathulata N. E. Br. *Pouzolzia hypoleuca Wedd. Pterocarpus angolensis DC. Salix capensis Thunb. *Sclerocarya caffra Sond. Sterculia rogersii N. E. Br. Terminalia sericea Burch. Use oversewing coiled baskets weft of food-mats 2-ply cord of inner bark base of basket outside supporting bands protecting base of basket weft of fish trap sewing hoop to basket weft of fish basket weft of grain-bin oversewing edge of baskets sewing coiled baskets oversewing edge decorative-sewing weft for mats bark for whipping handle of bag sewing coiled basketwork sewing of hats oversewing winnowing basket decoration of basket oversewing of basket wefts of thatching mats; oversewing edge of baskets oversewing edge of baskets sewing coiled baskets cover to base of basket sewing of mats sewing (pattern) sewing of coiled basket sewing of coiled baskets “See Appendix 3 for current name. Group Huruthse Ngwato S. Tsonga Manyika Tsonga Lenge Chopi Karanga Ndau Ndau Kwanyama Kwanyama Zulu Swazi Zulu Zulu Zulu Tsonga Sarwa Korana Thlaping Rolong Huruthse Ndebele Ndebele Tswana Ndebele Chopi Nama Ndebele Koni Tswana ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Place Author Mangodi New Town, Serowe Manguzi Mutare (Umtali) Manjacaze Masiyene __ Earthy (1933) Makupulane Mberengwa (Belingwe) Chimanimani (Melsetter) Chipinga (Chipinge) Oshikango Oshikango Rodin (1985) Rodin (1985) Natal Gerstner (1938: 236) Hlatikulu Oswatini, Natal Hlabisa Melmoth Sodwana north and west of Serowe Bloemhof Ebert (1978) Engelbrecht (1936) Moretele Stad Mafikeng Dinokana Zimbabwe Zimbabwe McCalman (pers. comm.) Botswana Zimbabwe Zavala Keetmans- hoop Tjolotjo, Zimbabwe Sekhukhune- land Botswana Schinz (1891) Campbell (pers. comm.) BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 197 FIBRES Except for one instance in Sekhukhuneland, where the root fibres of Vello- zia retinervis are used in their natural state as a coil foundation, the vegetable fibres so far recorded are used twisted into two-ply string. The fibres are separated by scraping and may be softened in water, or very often by chewing, before being rolled on the thigh, first into two one-ply cords, then into one two-ply cord, in a continuous movement. Fibre cord has many uses. In basketwork it is mostly used for sewing or twining sleeping-mats, and also for twining fish traps and for oversewing edges of baskets. The most common source of fibre is the Sansevieria plant (wild sisal), which is indigenous to many parts of the country. Where it is not available, some sort of aloe usually is and for the last century or so the agave (sisal) has been planted in many areas. The inner bark (bast) of the acacias is also a very good source of fibre. Latterly, the threads of grain-bags have been twisted into cord for sewing. The following species have been identified: Species Use Group Place Author *Acacia capensis Burch. sewing mats Khoikhoi Riet River Burchell (1824) “Acacia horrida Willd. sewing mats Nama — Schapera (1930) Acacia zizyfolius oversewing edge of baskets Mpukushu Andara Agave americana L. oversewing of edge of Vundla Quthing baskets weft of sleeping-mats Zulu Natal weft of sleeping-mats Swazi Ingwavuma wefts of mats Ndebele Zimbabwe sewing strand of mats Chopi Makupulane sewing strand of beer- widely strainers and mats used Aloe sp. binding; brooms Ximba Mahlabatini foundation coil Ngwaketse Kanye Brachystegia boehmii Taub. sewing for mat Ndau Mutare (Umtali) Roswi Rusape Ficus sp. sewing or twining mats Bhaca Matatiele *Ficus vogelii (Miq.) Miq. oversewing hoops Tembe Sodwana sewing bands on baskets Lenge Masiyene Earthy (1933) Grewia flava D.C. inner bark for wefts or Rolong Ganyesa sewing of mats Hibiscus canabinus L. sleeping-mat Venda Mpephu *Hyphaene crinita Gaertn. = rope Zulu Natal Gerstner H. natalensis Kunze (1941: 277) Rhus sp. warps of fish traps S. San Orange R. Barrow (1801) Sansevieria aetheopica Thunb. sewing edge of baskets Kwanyama Ovambo Rodin (1985) sewing baskets Mpukushu Andara *—See Appendix 3 for current name. 198 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Species Use Group Place Author Sansevieria aetheopica Thunb. sewing mats Lobedu Duiwelskloof (cont. ) sewing beer-strainers Pedi Sekhukune- land weft of mats Ndebele Zimbabwe twining sieves Naron Sandfontein Drury (1935) *Sansevieria desertii N. E. Br. binding (?sewing) of coil Tswana Botswana Campbell (pers. comm.) Sansevieria pearsoni N. E. Br. sewing edge of basket Kwanyama Ovambo Rodin (1985) *Sclerocarya caffra Sond. coil foundation Ndebele Tjolotjo Vellozia retinervis Baker coil foundation Pedi Sekhukune- land sewing basket Pedi Schoonoord sewing mats Pedi Schoonoord brooms Ndebele Zimbabwe beer-strainer Lobedu Duiwelskloof Davison (1984) | beer-strainer Venda Ndzehele Vigna sp. root fibres used for making Zulu Natal—in string many places, especially in south *See Appendix 3 for current name. - WOOD Three sorts of wood are used in basketwork—thin withies (or stems of creepers) used whole or split in half, timber cut as required, and thin root stems used whole or cut in half. Withies These are stripped, dried, and soaked. Thin stems may be used as foundation rods for coiled basketwork, in which case they may be used whole or split in half. They are also used in the northern Transvaal and Mozambique par- ticularly, as strengthening hoops for woven work, and are split for use as the pliable wefts in the wicker baskets of the Shona. Thin twigs are used as warps for fish traps (Southern San, Tsonga, Ambo), sieves (Southern San), beer- strainers (Ambo), grain-bins and other baskets. The species recorded are: Species Use Group Place Author Acacia sp. basket coil foundation Tsonga Acalypha glabrata Thunb. warps of fish traps Tsonga Palmer & Pitman (1972) BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 199 Species Use Group Place Author Colophospermum mopane coil foundation Ambo (Kirk & Benth.) Kirk ex J. Leonard. lattice of grain-bin Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin (1985) Combretum parvifolium Dinter reinforcement of basket Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin af rim - (1985) Combretum engleri Schinz reinforcement of basket Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin rim (1985) *Grewia deserticola Ulbr. warps of fish traps Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin (1985) Grewia flava DC. coil foundation Tlaping rim of winnowing basket Rolong Stad Mafikeng Grewia flavescens Juss. warps of smoking frames Herero Ghanziland, Campbell Ngami- (pers. land, comm.) Botletli, Mahala- pye Rhus lancea L.f. oversewing edge Huruthse Duiwels- kloof Terminalea sericea Burch. ex _ warp and lattice of grain- Kwanyama Oshikango Rodin DC. bin (1985) Triomfetta sp. beer-strainer Lobedu *__See Appendix 3 for current name. Timber Timber may be used as thick stakes for warps in wattlework, for example, doors, fences or the sides of sledges. Or it may be cut from branches into thin slivers of wood about 6-10 mm wide and 2 mm thick and used for both warp and weft in check or twilled woven work—mostly twilled. It is particularly com- monly used for shallow winnowing trays in the central area and the rather deeper trays that are commonly used for various purposes throughout Zim- babwe. Thin slivers of wood are also used as warps for wicker baskets in Zimbabwe. The Venda and Lobedu of the Transvaal make a special sort of carrying basket (see Fig. 4) of this material. Rather thicker slivers are used for the strengthening rims of baskets of this type that hold the work together for the Oversewing. Wider pieces (2—8 cm wide) are sewn on to the body of baskets of this type as rims for the edges. The following species have been recorded: Species Use Group Place Author Acacia ataxacantha DC. fabric of winnowing Nkuna Tzaneen baskets fabric of winnowing Tsonga Hans baskets Merensky Reserve 200 Species Acacia ataxacantha DC. (cont. ) *Acacia detinens Burch. Acalypha glabrata Thunb. Brachylaena discolor DC. Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. *Caesalpina sepiaria Roxb. Cassine crocea (Thunb.) Kunze “Commiphora fischeri Engl. Craibia brevicaudata (Valke) Dunn Grewia flava DC. *Hyphaene ventricosa Kirk Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC. Macaranga mellifera Prain Oxtytenanthera abyssinica (A. Rich) Munro Rhus lancea L.f. Rhus pyroides Burch. Trichilia emetica Vahl Use fabric of winnowing baskets fabric of winnowing baskets fabric of winnowing baskets fish-trap hoop of winnowing baskets hoops of baskets warp and weft of conical baskets winnowing baskets winnowing baskets warp and weft of baskets winnowing baskets warp and weft of conical basket winnowing baskets winnowing baskets midribs for building huts; rafts hoop and slivers of winnowing baskets hoop of basket winnowing basket warp and weft of conical basket winnowing basket winnowing baskets hoops of winnowing baskets warp and weft of winnowing basket hoops *“—See Appendix 3 for current name. Group Lobedu Venda Ngwato Tsonga Venda S. Tsonga Manyika Chibi Mari Lobedu Ndau Ndau Karanga Rolong Manyika Manyika Ndau Mari Ndau Huruthse Kgatla S. Tsonga Tsonga Lenge Tsonga Chopi ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Place Author Duiwelskloof Sibasa and Louis Trichardt New Town, Serowe Palmer & Pitman (1972) Sinthumule Manguzi Inyanga Victoria, Zimbabwe Mahango, Victoria, Zimbabwe Duiwelskloof Ngorima, Chimanimani (Melsetter) Chipinge (Chipinga) Charter Tlihakgameng Inyanga Kosi Bay Palmer & Pitman (1972) Mutare (Umtal1) Ngorima, Chimanimani (Melsetter) Victoria Reserve Gondola, Mozambique Marico Mankwe Manguzi Makupulane Masiyene Earthy (1933) Chibuto Makupulane BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 201 Root wood Thin root stems, stripped and dried, are used extensively in the north for coil foundations. Split in half they are used for oversewing in coiled work, for oversewing of edges, and for weaving the necks to the skin vessels of the Korana. Thicker roots, split into flat pieces, are used for woven work (winnow- ing baskets) by Ndebele of Zimbabwe, and Chopi, Tsonga and Shona. Species recorded are: Species Use Group Place Author Asparagus laracinus Burch. oversewing edge of win- Huruthse Dinokana nowing basket Boscia albitrunca Gilg. & Ben. warp and weft of winnow- Tswana between ing baskets Mochudi and Kwarape Pan Combretum zeyheri Sond. wefts of wicker basket Roswi Rusape wefts of wicker basket Karanga Charter Mberengwa (Belingwe) wefts of wicker basket Govera Charter Grewia flava DC. oversewing edge of win- Rolong Tlhakgameng nowing basket Lannea discolor (Sond.) Engl. warps of wicker basket Budjga Mutoko (Mtoko) warps of wicker basket Roswi Rusape Lycium hirsutum Dunal. foundation and sewing of Korana Bloemhof Engel- (‘katbos’) basketwork neck brecht (1936) Rhus lancea L.f. fabric of winnowing Rolong Stad Mafikeng baskets fabric of winnowing Tlharo Gadiboyi baskets Rhus tenuinervis Engl. & Gilg. frame of winnowing Sarwa Nata R. Ebert baskets (1978) ANIMAL MATERIALS Animal sinew Animal sinew is comparatively little used and almost exclusively as a sewing element. It may be first twisted to a two-ply cord or used as it is. Stow (1907) mentioned San use of it for sewing sleeping-mats; specimens of San sieves in the South African Museum have unspun sinew as wefts. Where articles are orna- mented with beads the latter are usually sewn on with sinew thread. Animal hair _ Ox, horse or other animal tail hair is sometimes used to introduce decor- ative patterns in twined, woven and coiled sewn work, or to oversew an edge. It may be rolled into a two-ply cord, plaited, or used as it is. This has only been 202 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM recorded among the Southern Nguni, the Southern Sotho and the Western Tswana. Ndebele in Zimbabwe use elephant or giraffe tail hair for sewing coiled hats. Leather or dressed skin Leather is seldom used in the actual fabric of basketwork. In some South- ern and Central San wicker mat sieves, the wefts are strips of leather, as may be the wefts of Herero smoking-frames. In one recorded example from Lesotho a thin thong was used as the sewing for a beer-strainer. A round or a square of leather or dressed skin is, however, very commonly sewn to the bottom of conical grain baskets of the Sotho, Tswana and others to strengthen them and make them less slippery on the head. The entire base of a certain type of Kalanga basket (Fig. 45) is leather. Leather thongs are frequently used for adding straps or handles to baskets. IMPORTED MATERIALS It was inevitable that imported material should have found its way into indigenous basketwork to a certain extent, but so far comparatively little has been used. : String is often used as the weft-in mat-making and for finishing off edges of mats. As early as 1772, pack-thread was being used (Sparrman 1785: 209). String has also been recorded as used for the weft element on a skimming spoon, which is generally made entirely of palm-leaf. The woven cylindrical spoon-bags or purses of the Zulu usually have cotton or fine string for the weft, and have latterly come to be decorated with coloured wools or beads. Coloured wools are much used for the decoration of mats. Conical baskets sometimes have a piece of cotton material sewn over the bottom in place of the usual leather or bark. Beads are used for decoration and ornamentation. Grain-bag fibres are very much used for making a two-ply sewing strand, where sinew, plant fibre or a thong would have been used before. DYES The subject of dyes is as yet far from being fully investigated— most of those known seem to be vegetable. The question of mordants, in particular, needs investigation. Strands of material are dyed before use, to provide colour where no suit- able naturally coloured materials exist. What information has been recorded so far is presented in Table 1. 203 BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA }I JIM spurns SsiInoO]OS JUDIOIJIP DAIS SOTOLIVA “OWeU judLINd Jo} ¢ xIpusddy s0g—, osyININY pejyssuidng suIMoas [10g Udy) ‘pouleip ‘payioq yUdIOJJIp juejd sjoym ‘J VIVINIULOD SIVXQ “ZI epesy oMyuUr/ VAYOLL SUBIYIONTIS [elIo}eW YIM poyiog uUMOIQ YysryuId jueld sjouM ‘ds puafosipuy ‘{IT (Od vssaiduod ‘CG =) osy nny OOLILA] pinbi ul poyeos [euojeur = ejuaseu [np soyouriq yory “VW vaiuuiskqv sudsC, ‘Ol (‘WIWOS ‘s1ad) : jjeqdues / euRMS}Og YON [el19}eU YIM poJOWIUITS yuid syed SUID}S oquy OquIeAC pol |jnp SUIO}S equirKy luneqeye peyioqg uooIeU SARs] «= Ava ‘gq winsoaffvd winys105 6 esuos |, nynyuezey [e119}eW YUM poyloq ysIppol SOARZ] ‘Iq sisuajosuv sndivz0Aa1g_*8 (Te ‘ou JO} 9ynINsSqQns) ajdood o3due10 ‘[3uq Jesvoo [[Y suo\sdoys 10g UddIB UDYM poaloq JO UMOIG 14ST] SOARO] (‘yuIog) vyofisuo] snysojoig *L syoom onbiquiezofy =—d OA}. JO: 9ZOO YSIeUWI UI Poyeos (L761) poung esuoYy yinos AJSNOTASI [elI9}eW YUM pojlog yor]q JURA SOAR] poynusp! jou (uynqvsdu) 9g osynInY OOLIe IAI ojdind SOAR] eBSOUA, °C JYSII SyOo] osyynIny eURYSOJY INO]OS [UN jeLIA}eW YUM pojiog uUMOIQ YsTyuUId SOABD] ‘ds nuafosipuy ‘hp opeys polisop (‘Www09 94} 0} HI YIM poylog Jeoj}ew ‘s1od) Udy} ‘sisuajvIvU vajon| 10 sisuadvo TUeynA NINZ eulesUON DIJO JO SJOO1 YUM poylog n[nz YJOUWI]OYAI [el1o}eUl YIM pojlog UuMOIG Yep SOABO] ‘\SYOOH] VJIa4dv vAafosipuy °¢ IMSOXY odesny peyioq pol SOABO] ‘AIRF VUSIVS VaAND “7 oquid |, BUBMPOS [el1oyeUl YIM poyiog SARI] B19g “YW 1yjopAvu aojpy plat uvyj pasn 4ayjo aoanog = woym kg DIAY quUaUvad J 4nojo) _—s pasn avg jv1ajvpy ON ‘soAp SUTYeUI IOJ pasn [eLIa}eW IOyI0 puke soldeds jueyd jo Ist] ‘| aTav 22. 2B) 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. TABLE | continued Bridelia micrantha Baill. Colophospermum mopane Leon. Commiphora sp. *Lannea stuhlmanni Engl. Mangrove (probably Rhizophora mucronata Lam. Piliostigma thonningi (K. Schum.) Milne-Redhead *Rhamnus zeyheri (Sond.) Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich) Hochst. Trichilia emetica Vahl Euclea divinorum Hiern Pterocarpus angolensis DC. Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. Aeschynome nodulosa (Bak.) Bak. f. *Elephantorrhiza burchelli (Benth.) Euclea natalensis A. DC. root bark bark bark bark bark bark bark bark bark bark root bark inner bark of root heartwood of root wood root root *—See Appendix 3 for current name. reddish brown dark brown (the most common dye) red brown red red brown reddish brown red bluish black dark brown red, maroon, tan purple brown red dark brown red brownish red brown, purple red black dark brown . Material Part used Colour Treatment *Acacia decurrens var. mollis bark red, red brown boiled first, then material boiled Lindl. or mauve with it Acacia sp. (‘wattle’) bark brown Berchemia discolor (Klotsch) bark red, brown, Hemsl. (formerly Phyllogeiton purple discolor) bark reddish brown bark near root simmered with material crushed and boiled with material and allowed to stand for several days boiled with material boiled with material boiled with material ?boiled with material made into varnish for coating certain baskets material simmered in it boiled, dried and powdered; powder added to boiling water and material placed in it boiled with material boiled with material boiled with material boiled with material boiled with material boiled with material boiled with material simmered with material crushed or chopped fine before boiling to make colour pounded and boiled Area Port Shepstone Mahlabatini Ovambo Odibo Namibia Kavango Oshikango Chimanimani (Melsetter) Gazankulu Louis Trichardt Gazankulu Maputo Ovamboland Northern Botswana Zimbabwe Mahlabatini Sodwana Bushbuck Ridge Gazankulu Pigg’s Peak Sibasa Chibuto Kavango Ovambo Kavango Oshikango Mberengwe (Belingwe) Senthumule, Louis Trichardt Bergville Zululand stamped then boiled with material Hlabisa until desired colour By whom used All coastal people Ximba Ambo Kwanyama Kwanyama Ndau Tsonga Venda Tsonga Tsonga Ambo Ndebele Ximba Tembe Nhlanganu Tsonga Swazi Tsonga Tsonga Ambo Mpukushu Kwanyama Karanga Venda Zizi Zulu Zulu Source other than field Loeb (1962), Palmer & Pitman (1972), Rodin (1985) Palmer & Pitman (1972) Campbell (pers. comm.) Rodin (1985) Palmer & Pitman (1972) Campbell (pers. comm. ) Campbell (pers. comm.) Palmer & Pitman (1972), Rodin (1985) Palmer & Pitman (1972) Rodin (1985) Palmer & Pitman (1972) Vukani (pers. comm.) 407 WNaSAW NVOIAV HLNOS AHL dO STIVNNV VOINAY NYFHLNOS JO YAOMLANSVA S02 TABLE 1 continued By whom Source other No. Material Part used Colour Treatment Area ne a eee root black brown skin scraped off, root chopped up, Sodwana Tsonga boiled with material 31. Euclea schimperi (A. DC.) root dark brown boiled, then material boiled Port Shepstone All on : : : “aL people Dandy in it 32. Eucleas root red roots chopped and boiled with Sodwana Tembe j P- material 1 boiled, material put into boiling Hlabisa Zulu Vukani 33. Harpephyllum caffrum Bernh. root purple ave P (pers. comm.) 34. Hypoxis sp. root Sodwana Tsonga : : +]. Vukani , root brown boiled with material; some say Nongoma Zulu SB, HAG GATT Wee pounded and boiled for 3 days (pers. comm.) Hlabisa Zulu Vukani (pers. comm.) Mahlabatini Zulu Mvula Zulu ; : F P ; Venda 36. Peltophorum africanum Sond. root black boiled with material Seale e Trichardt 5; be * d. root brown dried, cleaned, stamped and Sodwana Tem 37. *Sclerocarya caffra Son NGAI EEE t 38. Acacia karoo Hayne gum red ; ; Ssrowe Nee in (1985 39. Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) _ fruit orange crushed and boiled with material Oshikango Kwanyama Rodin ( ) : left to stand Hemsley and : ; : 40. Euclea divinorum Hiern fruit purple boiled to make dye, and material Oshikango Kwanyama Rodin (1985) : (not fast) stood in it 41. Indigofera sp. fruit, leaves pinkish brown boiled with material until colour © Moshana Huruthse : or whole looks right Plant Silwerkrans Tlokwa Mankwe Kgatla 42. Piliostigma thonningii pods and bluish black Botswana Tswana Campbell (K. Schum.) Milne-Redhead seeds (pers. comm.) Namibia Palmer & Pitman (1972) 43. Pterocarpus angolensis DC. fruit yellow (the mashed, with sorghum as mordant Ovambo Kwanyama Rodin (1985) preferred dye) 44. *Phyllogeiton zeyheri (Sond.) Zimbabwe Ndebele Suesseng. brown boiled, dried, powdered and added to boiling water, fibres placed in it 45. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. brown Bergville Zizi 46. “Indigofera pretoriana Harms purple Sodwana Tembe 47. Carbon paper boiled with material Inhambane Chopi 48. Dye from store boiled with material Eshowe Zulu Nongoma Zulu 49. Indelible pencil purple broken into small pieces and Mokgola Huruthse boiled with material Gopane Huruthse Ha Popolosi, Taung Lesotho Serowe Ngwato 50. Ink blue/black Malaissa Chopi 51. Permanganate of potash Mahlabatini Ximba 52. Typewriter ribbon blue boiled with material Maputo Ronga Makumbe Tsonga 53. Water black soak material overnight Venda Stayt (1931) Chibi Mari 54. Wet manure dark brown soaked in water with material Louis Trichardt Venda 55. Wet sand or kraal soil material buried in it Nzhelele Venda 56. Rusty iron (car springs or red brown soaked with material Kavango Campbell building rods) (pers. comm.) *—See Appendix 3 for current name. 902 WAASAW NVOIWAV HLNOS FHL JO SIVNNV VOINIV NYAHLNOS AO WAOMLAASVA LOC 208 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM CONCLUSION _ The main factors that govern the distribution of the techniques described are the type of material available in different parts of the country and the tra- ditions of work of the respective groups. Some quite striking differences in technique have been noted, for example, the split-warp twine with sedge wefts that is characteristic of the eastern Transkei, the coiled sewn work that is used throughout southern Africa but in which the different materials available modify the style, and the influence of the palm-belt on both woven and sewn tech- niques. The materials used for dyes have not yet been researched thoroughly and it is suspected that, with the rise of the new basketwork, experiments are being made to find and use new dye materials and this may make it difficult to isolate those that were used earlier. Considerable influence has been exercised by contact with people of several different cultures. An attempt will be made in the following parts of this series to plot the distribution of techniques and materials and to note the extent of foreign influence. The rapid rise of basketwork as a commercial craft or home industry is now causing anxiety about the depletion of the local material resources on which it depends (Cunningham 1987a, 1987b). In the early 1970s, when the craft began to be encouraged as a home industry, one of the advantages was that the plant materials were close at hand; now practitioners are having to go quite far afield for their needs, or to import matertals. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Acknowledgement is made with thanks for the financial assistance of the Human Sciences Research Council towards the field research for this study and the Centre for Science Development towards the publication of this work. Opinions expressed or conclusions reached are those of the author and should not be regarded as representative of those of the HSRC or CSD. In a survey of this kind, where a study of other people’s property is involved, one is dependent on the goodwill and helpfulness of many people. It would be invidious to single out any among the numerous individuals— museum and herbarium officers, government officials, missionaries, guides and interpret- ers, owners of basketwork, craftsmen and craftswomen—whose assistance has made the work possible. I am deeply indebted to them all. The contribution of the late Miss Leonie Phillip who gave much of her spare time to illustrating the techniques, is gratefully acknowledged, as is that of Mrs A. C. Lawton (van Jaarsveld)—who was involved in the early stages of the study, and of Mr Cedric Hunter and Mr V. Branco for compiling the figures. Mrs M. Carey and Mr A. C. Campbell gave advice on the text. BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 209 REFERENCES ANDERSSON, C. J. 1854. Lake Ngami or explorations and discoveries during four years’ wan- derings in the wilds of South West Africa. London: Hurst & Blackett. Ba.reT, H. 1952. Vannerie: Essai de classification. L’Anthropologie 56: 256-280. (Trans- lation: BAUMHOFF, M. A. 1957. Basketry: a proposed classification. Papers on Cali- fornian Archaeology 47-49: 1-21.) BeEuKEs, W. T. 1937. Ethnography Collections, Transvaal Museum. BLEEK, D. F. 1928. The Naron, a Bushman tribe of the central Kalahari. Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press. BriITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 1929. -,Notes and queries in Anthro- pology. 5th ed. London: Royal Anthropological Institute. BrYaANnT, A. T. 1949. The Zulu people. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter and Shooter. BURCHELL, W. J. 1824. Travels in the interior of Southern Africa. 2 vols. London: Batch- worth Press. (Reprinted in 1953.) CARSTENS, P., KLINGHARDT, G. & WEsT, M. (eds.) 1987. Trails in the thirstland. The anthro- pological field diaries of Winifred Hoernlé [1913-1922]. Communications of the Centre for African Studies, University of Cape Town 14: 1-198. (See also HOERNLE, A. W.) CUNNINGHAM, A. B. 1987a. Commercial craftwork: balancing out human needs and resources. South African Journal of Botany 53 (4): 250-266. CUNNINGHAM, A. B. 1987b. Effects of basket-weaving industry on Mokola palm and dye plants in north-western Botswana. Economic Botany 41 (3): 386-402. CUNNINGHAM, A. B. & Gwata, B. R. 1986. Building methods and plant species used in Tembe-Thonga hut construction. Annals of the Natal Museum 27 (2): 491-511. Davies, C. S. 1934. The Amandebele habitat. Nada 12: 74-79. Davison, P. J. 1984. Lobedu material culture. Annals of the South African Museum 94(3): 41-201. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1940. Survey of native methods of storing grain. Report. Department of Agriculture and Forestry (Entomology). Unpublished MS. Drury, J. 1935. Preliminary report on the anthropological researches carried out in South West Africa. Annals of the South African Museum 24 (2): 89-109. Eartuy, E. D. 1933. Valenge women. London: Oxford University Press. Expert, M. 1978. Patterns of manufacture and use of baskets among the Basarwa of the Nata River region. Botswana Notes and Records 9: 69-83. ENGELBRECHT, J. A. 1936. The Korana. Cape Town: Maskew Miller. GRAUMENT, R. & HENSEL, J. 1946. Encyclopedia of knots and fancy rope work. New York: Cornell Maritime Press. GERSTNER, J. 1938. Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 12 (3): 215-236; (4): 321-342. GERSTNER, J. 1939. Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 13 (1): 49-64; (4): 307-326. GERSTNER, J. 1941. Zulu names of plants. Bantu Studies 15 (3): 277-301; (4): 369-384. GrBBs RUSSELL, G. E., REID, C., VAN Rooy, J. & SNook, L. 1985. List of species of southern African plants. Part 1. (2nd ed.) Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa 51: 1-152. Gripes RUSSELL, G. E., WELMAN, W. G., RETIEF, E., IMMELMAN, K. L., GERMISHUIZEN, G., PIENAAR, B. J.,. VAN Wyk, M. & NicHoias, A. 1987. List of species of southern African plants. Part 2. (2nd ed.) Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa 56: 1-270. GrosseErT, J. W. 1967. Zulu names of grasses and grasslike plants. Unpublished MS. HoerNLE, A. W. 1913-1922. Diary (Unpublished MS). University of Witwatersrand Archives. (See also CARSTENS, P. et al.) Junop, H. A. 1927. The life of a South African tribe. 2 vols. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. Kawa, R. T. 1929. I Bali lama-Mfengu. Lovedale: Lovedale Press. peer E. J. 1950. The social system of the Zulus. 2nd ed. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter & ooter. Logs, E. M. 1962. In feudal Africa. Publications. Research Center in anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, Indiana University 23: 1-383. MARIANNHILL. c. 1900-1910. Photographs. Mason, O. T. 1904. Aboriginal American basketry: studies in a textile art without Saeraaes Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insitution 1902 (2): 171-548, pls. Mayr, F. 1906-1907. The Zulu Kafirs of Natal. Anthropos 1: 453-471 (1906); 2: 392-398, 633-645 (1907). Naunaus, G. 1881. Ethnographische Gegenstande aus Siid-Afrika. Zeitschrift fiir Ethno- logie 13: 343-344. Notes & QUERIES IN ANTHROPOLOGY—SEE BRITISH ASSOCIATION PALMER, E. & PITMAN, N. 1972. Trees of southern Africa. Cape Town: Balkema. 210 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Quicoin, A. H. 1912. Textiles. Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to the Torres Straits 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ropin, R. J. 1985. The ethnobotany of the Kwanyama Ovambos. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 9: 1-164. ScHAPERA, I. 1930. The Khoisan people of South Africa. London: Routledge. ScHINZ, H. 1891. Deutsch-Sitidwest-Afrika. Oldenburg und Leipzig: A. Schwartz. SINGER, C., HOLMYARD, E. J. & HALL, A. R. (eds.) 1954. History of technology 1: 418-424. Oxford: Clarendon Press. SPARRMAN, A. 1785. A voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. Dublin: White, Cash & Byrne. StayT, H. A. 1931. The Bavenda. London: Humphrey Milford. Stow, G. W. 1907. The native races of South Africa. London: Swan Sonnenschein. GLOSSARY Definitions as used by: M—Mason (1904); N—Notes & Queries (1929); Q—Quiggin (1912); S—Shaw. S Q,S ASCENDING BAND BASKET BASKETRY BASKETWORK BEADING BEESKEP BINDING BLANKET STITCH BORDER BRAID BRAND BUNDLE CHAIN STITCH CHECK CHEQUER CHEQUER-WORK CHEVRON COIL FLAT COIL ASCENDING COIL Raised up as distinct from flat. A flat line of colour, change of weave or other material, arranged concentrically on a circular object (as opposed to stripe on flat or straight objects). A vessel (or receptacle) made of interlaced flexible material. The process or art of making baskets and allied products. (Synonymous with basketwork.) 1. The technique, strokes or stitches used in making baskets or other objects. 2. A collection of finished baskets or objects made in the same technique. An element run in and out through the spaces in woven, or the stitches in sewn, basketwork. Widely spaced oversewing in coiled work, each stitch passing just behind the stitch below. A strip of material sewn over the edge of the work to secure it. Oversewing in which the thread is caught once behind each new stitch, i.e. half-hitched. A decorative band or stripe near the edge of the work. A narrow strip formed by plaiting. To mark by burning. A number of things bound together loosely. A type of stitch in which the thread, having passed to the back of the material, passes through a loop in itself as it re-emerges in front. In a series this gives the effect of a chain stretched across the surface of the material. A single square of a pattern in squares; where warp and weft cross in chequer work. Technique of woven basketry in which the warp and weft pass over and under each other singly. Work made in the above technique. Geometrical motif in which two lines meet at an angle to make a V or inverted V. (v) To wind into a circle or spiral. (n) A continuous element wound into a spiral. When the element is wound in the same plane so that the work remains flat. When at each turn the element is put above the turn below, so that the work ascends and the object becomes hollow and circular or cylindrical. s le) 2D pe ee ZZoe Oo ZASCAD OAa7e Zann ee N N Z © n nN N Zz ~ nN N BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA DA COILED BASKETWORK COIL FOUNDATION COMPOSITE ELEMENT CONCENTRIC CORD CROSS-STITCH CROSSED WARP CYLINDRICAL DARN DECORATION DESIGN DIAGONAL WEAVING DIAPER EDGE ELEMENT EMBROIDERY END EXTENSION FABRIC FIBRE FIGURE-OF-EIGHT FINISHING FOOT FOUNDATION FRINGE FURCATE HALF-HITCH HALF HOOP HEM HERRINGBONE HITCH HOOP INTERLACE INTERLOCK INTERSTICE Type of basketwork in which a foundation of hard or soft material, arranged in a flat or ascending spiral, is held to- gether by means of oversewing. The element which is coiled in coiled basketwork and round which the stitches pass. Element made up of distinct parts. Having a common centre. A string composed of several strands twisted together, in the same direction. Two stitches crossing each Other to make an X. When the warp is crossed between strokes of the weft. In the shape of a hollow tube. To sew or embroider with interweaving stitches. The embellishment of the surface of the work, made during the work. (i) By the addition of elements that are not essential to the construction but which are worked into it. (ii) By special treatment of elements that are essential to the construction. é An item of decorative work or the general effect of such items. Running the weft and warp at an angle. A raised pattern in the weave. The extreme margin of anything. One of the simple constituent parts of anything, in this case the wefts, the warps, the coil foundation, or the sewing strand. Embellishment with needlework after the basket is finished. The extreme point of anything that has more length than breadth. An enlargement in breadth or a continuation in length. An interlaced texture; the work. A filament in plants or animals; a substance composed of a collection of such filaments. A stitch the outline of which makes an eight. Securing of the loose ends in woven or coiled work. The lower part, on which an object rests. The base or ground work; the element in sewn basket- work which the sewing penetrates, and which controls the shape. A border composed of separate loose strands. Forked, used of stitches in coiled sewing intentionally and symmetrically split or sewn twice into one space to give a forked or chain effect. A half interrupted movement in stitching. A strip of wood or other solid material bent into half a ring, round or oval. A border or edging made by turning an edge over on itself to strengthen it. A series of parallel chevrons. A full interrupted movement in stitching. A strip of wood formed into a ring. To lace together; to insert one thing with another, to cross and intertwine elements. To hold two elements together by looping one through the other. A small space between things closely set. 22 <0 DAA IATA WA N N NN DZ Ze BS OPT OZ Z, ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM KNOB KNOT STITCH LATTICE LATTICE WEAVING LOOP MORDANT NODE MOTIF MOTTLE MOULD MULTIPLE ORNAMENTATION OVERLAY OVERSEW PATTERN PIERCED WARP PLAIT PLY RADIAL RIM ROD SCALLOP SEIZING SELVEDGE SEWING SIDE SIMPLE ELEMENT SLIT SLIVER SPACING SPINY SPIRAL SPLINT SPLIT SPLIT WARP A small rounded protuberance on the surface of the work. Sewing of coiled work when the sewing strand comes out between coils, crosses the last stitch and goes round a former stitch to give the appearance on one surface of a tied knot. A strip of wood or other firm material added to the inner or outer surface of the fabric, most frequently in the same direction as the weft. Work in which two sets of rods cross at right angles and are held together by wrapping or twining one or more strands round the intersections. A doubling of flexible material; a bend. A substance that has a chemical affinity for colouring matter and serves to fix dyes. The point of a stem from which the leaves spring. The distinctive feature of an ornamental design. One of a number of spots by which a surface is vari- egated; to mark or cover with spots. To bend into shape. Consisting of many components, e.g. stems of grass. The embellishment of objects by the addition of separable elements after the work is completed — as distinct from decoration. To place over certain elements a decorative element. To sew over the edge of an object or round a foundation; to sew one round of foundation to the next in coiled bas- ketwork. The surface effect produced by various strokes. The form of weaving in soft materials where the wefts pass through the warps. To interlace three or more continuous strands in the same ultimate direction, to form a narrow strip of material so interlaced; a braid. A strand of a twisted cord. Moving outwards from a centre. An extended, raised or projecting margin. A long slender twig. : One of a series of rounded projections on the edge of an object; to trim the edge with such. To fasten together by binding round with a thin strand. Edge of woven work on which the ends of the warp are turned back into the fabric. The fastening together of elements with a thread or strand. The broad part of a thing; an edge. One of the two longer (usually vertical) edges of an object. An element consisting of one part. Cut open lengthwise. A piece cut or split off lengthwise. Division into sections. Having stiff processes sticking out from the surface. A curve which continually recedes from a centre round which it revolves. A thin piece of wood split off. Divided lengthwise. When the warps are divided lengthwise into two or more parts which are treated singly. STAPLE STITCH STRAND STRING STRIP STRIPE ~ OPEN STRIPE BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA ZA3 A short rod or twig bent into the form of an inverted U. The complete action of a (needle and) thread or strand when sewing. A completed movement in coiled basket- work corresponding to ‘stroke’ in woven work. A thin simple flexible element. A thin twisted line or cord of two- or more ply; used for fastening anything. A long narrow piece; to pull or tear off. A line or long narrow division of anything of different colour or texture from the groundwork. A narrow division made by two parallel lines different from the groundwork, with the groundwork showing in between. S STROKE A complete movement in woven work. S TACKING A long slight stitch used in fastening elements together. S TECHNIQUE Method; manner of work. S TENSION The action of stretching or condition of being stretched. N THREAD A thin line used for sewing; a twisted filament; any thin filament. N TIMBER Wood—the body or stem of a tree. N, Q,S_ TWILy A woven technique in which each weft passes over and then under two or more warps, starting alternately over one or over two, so that the crossings make diagonal lines across the fabric. Q,S TWINE Twist two or more elements together in the same direc- tion. In basketwork, a woven technique in which two or more wefts are twisted together in the same direction so that they enclose a warp at each half turn by passing alter- nately in front of and behind it. S WAIST A narrowing of the body. S,Q,M warp Group name for the elements in woven basketwork which are vertical and more or less passive and about which the wefts are woven; also a single one of these elements. N,Q WATILING, WATILEWORK A Special type of woven basketwork in which the warps are rigid stakes planted in the ground, or in a frame. © N,S WEFT One of the elements that cross the warp in woven basket- work; the actively woven element; the horizontal ele- ments; group term for these elements. S WHIP To bind round; to cover with a cord or the like bound closely and regularly round and round. N, Q, M wickKERWORK Woven basketwork with strong rigid or almost rigid warps, between which the flexible wefts bend in and out. N WIND To turn round some fixed object. N WINDING A turning. N,S WITHY A twig; a flexible twig. N, Q, S WOVEN BASKETWORK Made by the interlacing by crossing of two or more sets of elements. N,S WRAP To wind something round. N,S WRAPPED A type of woven work in which a single weft element wraps right round a warp element before continuing. N,M,S = ziGzac A line having short sharp turns, generally of equal length and equal angular proportions. A series of short lines inclined at angles in alternate directions. A line or course having sharp turns of this kind. WOVEN 1 Chequer 2 Twilled 3 Wrapped 4 Twined 5 Wicker 6 Wattlework 7 Plaiting a close b open a straight b diagonal plain a plain b twilled c split-warp d lattice a chequer b wrapped c twined APPENDIX 1 SUMMARY AND INDEX OF BASKETWORK TECHNIQUES FABRIC i straight ii diagonal i close a single warp b multiple warp il open a single warp b multiple warp ili chain a single warp b multiple warp i zigzag a close b open ii diagonal a close b open c unequal divisions i single lattice ii double lattice i plain ii lattice a single plain b single chain c single figure- of-eight d single hitched e double plain f plain over twine a close b open a one strand i plain ii one lattice a chequer b wrapped c twined a simple b extended c twilled d multiple e herring-bone f open g angular h round i Square j hitched k spiral b more than one strand a one strand b more than one iii two lattices strand iv combination of i and iii lattice a plain i one lattice il two lattices b hitched c figure-of-eight i plain ii One lattice a one strand twine b more than one strand ill two lattices a one strand wrap b more than One strand iv open i three strand ii more strands i four strands a close b open c uneven tension ii more strands a close b open i plain il zigzag i flat ii round i seven strand ii more strands i three strand ii more strands 12F PIC WNASAW NVOIWdAV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV VOINAY NYAHLNOS JO YUOMLANSVE CI? SEWN 1 Straight a single foundation (flat or cylindrical) b composite 2 Coiled plaited foundation (flat) 3 Coiled a simple or foundation multiple (ascending) foundation b multiple foundation only ON FLAT STRAIGHT WORK 1 Woven or a all warps straight laid out sewn work first and Joined by first row of weft or sewing strand S> start with one pair and add alternately 2 Plaiting all elements start together, maybe with a knot to hold them in place ON CYLINDRICAL WORK 1 Woven a chequer FABRIC (continued) i twisted a two ply b three ply ii plaited i straight sewn ii tacked i simple a simple oversewing foundation b multiple foundation ii corded a simple b multiple ili interlock a simple 6 multiple iv openwork a simple b multiple Vv knot-stitch a simple b multiple vi three-strand a simple b multiple i beeskep a plain —_—_ > & aiagonar ' c ribbed ii furcate a split stitch b twice into one lii cross-stitch a plain b interlock i with knot ii with loop a at edge b further in i warps bound round cylin- der and the binding con- tinues as the weft i sewn every twist ii sewn less often i Over one ii over two i Over one ii Over two i close ii open i close a pierced b round il open a pierced b round c between i close ii Open 1 close ii open BEGINNINGS Tech 10a 10b Ila 11b IIc 12a 12b 12c 13a 13b 13c 13d I3e 13f 13g 14a 14b 15a 15b l6a 16b 17a 75 17c 18a 18b 18c 18d 19a 19b 20a 20b Fig. 18A 18B 18C, 19 20A-B 20C-E 21A 21B, 22A 21C-D 22B 25A, 26 25B 25C 25D-E 27A, 28 27B-C 27D 29A-B 21E aireesn 24A-D 29C, 30 29D-E, 30 29F-G 31A 31B-C Page 82 87 89 89 917 WAASAW NVOIddV HLNOS AHL AO SIVNNV VOINAVY NYAHLNOS JO MAOMLAASVA LIZ 2 Sewn CIRCULAR WORK BEGINNINGS (continued) ii warps laid out, joined by first row of weft, work curved so that edges meet and weft con- tinues in a spiral to make an open cylinder ili warps and wefts knotted in pairs b twilled i warps and wefts knotted in pairs at obtuse angle ii warps and wefts knotted in bundle, knots turned inside iii warps and wefts split from folded wider strands c twined warps joined by first row of weft which may be knot- ted, work curved round so that edges meet and weft con- tinues in a spiral Straight —« foundation a sewing strand foundation elements starts with knotted one knot end and joined by first row of sewing; work bent to a circle, sewing continues in (flat or ascending) 1 Woven a spiral b sewing strand left as part of fringe c sewing strand worked in with foun- dation d sewing starts at narrow end a crossed warp b bound warp c looped warp d twined i true circular ii elliptical e square or i single a chequer rectangular mat base; warps and wefts become warps of sides with one added to make an odd number b twill c twined d lattice Tech. 24 24 bis 25 29b 29c 29d 30 3] 32 33a 33b 34a 34b 34c 34d Fig. 33A 33B-C 35A 35B 36A 36B 36C 36D 37A 37B 37C Page 89 89 89 89 89 89 91 91 91 91 93 93 93 93 93 95 95 95 95 81z WAGSAW NVOINdV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV VOIddV NYAHLNOS JO WAOMLANSVA 617 2 Sewn (coiled foundation) BEGINNINGS (continued) ii superimposed ili triple f extended plait g South Sotho hat a foundation i plain bent ii bound ili knotted iv plaited b foundation i closed bent to a ring ii open c end of foundation knotted d end of sewing knotted e beginning with sewing strand, foundation introduced f stitched start- i of foundation ing pad ii of sewing g chequer i double square of sewing strand ii multiple SHAPING INCREASES AND DECREASES 1. Woven and straight sewn work 2. Coiled sewn a natural increase or decrease in width of elements oat — = a decrease in width of elements c dividing exist- ing warps or pairing one or both elements d adding new warps or taking warps out, knotting and cutting off or adding new wefts e decrease by removal of foundation elements f thickening or thinning of multiple warps g slackening or increasing tension a placing coil to widen or narrow the diameter b thickening or thinning the coil foundation MOULDING OR CUTTING Woven a moulding fabric and holding between hoops Tech. Fig. 34e 37D 34f 35 ~ 38 36 39 37a 40A 37b 40B 37c 40C 37d 40D 38a 40E 38b 40F 39 40G 40 40H 4] 401 42a 40J 42b 40K 4a 41 43b 44a 44b Se LVN 46a 46b 42B 47a 47b 42C 47c 48 42E 49a 49b 50a 5S0b 14 5la 51b 42D 52a 52b 53 4, 43 Page 95 95 95 95 97 97 97 97 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 104 104 104 OCC WNdasAW NVOIddV HLNOS FHL JO STVNNV VOINAVY NYAHLNOS 4O AUOMLAASVA Wa6 b gathering into a knot or bound bundle c moving warps to right or left to shape bulb d bending warps to shape during weave e bending to shape after weave f binding handle to shape g cutting woven fabric to shape h shortening wefts and trimming to shape JOINING SEPARATE PIECES ON WOVEN OR STRAIGHT SEWN WORK 1. Warp or a no edging foundation edge b changed weft © seivedge (warps tucked in) i on chequer ii on twine iii on wattle Ton-strargne chequer ii on diagonal chequer iii on straight twill iv on diagonal twill Vv on twine SHAPING (continued) @ piam b reinforced end tucked Straight a single edge b front edge c double edge d raised edge e reinforced edge f thin edge a bent warps b scalloped EDGES Pr straight back ii into next gap i held by single row of twine ii held under a strand made by twisting a few warps to continue one after the other i multiple warp a full warp from back to front to back and cut b part warp c alternate warps ii as above a full warp but warps threaded up to edge before cutting b part warp c alternate warp i near side il far side EE Tech. Fig. Page 54 14 104 55 44 105 Z 56 105 a Ie n 57 45 105 cS =| 106 105 u 58 g Se = 59 43 105 & te 9) a i) 106 > 60 z = c n m eS = 61 4, 45 106 62a 107 62b 107 62c 107 63 107 ” oFa = You = 64b 107 64c 46A 107 65 107 66 107 67a 107 67b 47A 107 67c 47B 107 67d 107 67e 107 67f 107 @ n 68a 108 a 68b 48A 108 2 eo} v2) A ° i] n [e) S 68c 48B-—C 108 z= v2) Z > ie) co 68d 49A-B 108 g 68e 108 68f 108 68g 108 68h 49C-D 108 S) 681 108 wo vi on lattice twine vii on wicker viii on extended plait d tucked edge on straight sewn EDGES (continued) c plaited d reinforced e wrapped iii single warp from back to front and cut iv multiple warp from back to front and cut v single warp from front to back and cut a each warp b alternate warps vi multiple warp from front to back and down through one or two rows of twine at back and cut vii single warps twisted together in pairs and pushed through last twine from front to back i over and a full warp under two b alternate or part warp ii over and under two a full warp b alternate or part warp Y v v iii (S. Sotho hat) iv twilled plait v simple plait a warps back on 1 plain themselves holding then held by a single twine strand ii reinforced b warps back i plain on themselves holding then held by one or more lattices il reinforced warps bent side- ways and tucked in next to following warp a single foundation elements bent from back to front diagonally and back under last sewing strand between 2nd and 3rd elements further on and cut Tech. 68] 68k 681 68m 68n 680 68p 68q 68r 68s 68t 68u 68v 68w 68x 69a 69b 69c 69d 70 71 72a Fig. 48D-E, 52 49E-F 50A-B 50C-D SIA SIB 46B 51C 53A Page 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 VCC WAasAW NVOIddv HLNOS AHL 4O STIVNNV VOINdVY NYAHLNOS JO AUOMLANSVE St e chequer edge on lattice twine f whipping g twined h wrapped on twine i plain twine on body of fancy, or on chequer or straight sewn ii close plain twine in opposite diagonal on plain or fancy ili two-strand fancy on body of plain or fancy twine iv three-strand fancy twine on body of plain or fancy v extra row of a same direction twine through first and last row vi lattice twin- ing; string lattice in front and behind, twined to foundation on straight sewn mats i plain wrapping with single strand over two (three or four), under one (or two) ii hitched wrapping with single strand ili twined wrapping, strands twine as well as wrapping EDGES (continued) b single foundation elements bent over from front to back behind elements on right and through to front c elements held in pairs by twining and tucked in diagonally to right d single or double row of twining with elements bent over and caught into next twine a over two, under one b chain effect b opposite direction a one strand i singly ii one of pair, the other cut off ili pair twisted together i singly ii in pairs Tech. 72b 72c 72g 73 74 75a 75b 75c 75d 75e 75f 758 75h 76a 76b 76c Fig. 53B 53C S4A 54B 54C 54D, E SSA-B Page 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 113 113 113 113 113 113 113 97 WNASAW NVOIdsV HLNOS AHL tO SIVNNV VOINAV NYAHLNOS JO WUOMLAASVE LC " 2 i plaited j oversewn e 6 a k knotted 1 stapled—on wicker- or wattlework m rim EDGES (continued) b both strands iv tied a one b both v lattice- a plain wrapped b hitched vi figure-of- eight vii chain effect i three rows of twine with warp twisted in and finished off with a plait ii double edge iii hanging plaits of thinned warps i direct a plain b fancy ii over a furcate additional wefts b simple with three-strand plait iii over thick a with plaited multiple weft strand coil b with bark iv at intervals over warps bent sideways and twirled round mouth vonchequer a each warp wicker, over, and into warps only S > Md o - b alternate warps c reinforced i sewn at intervals ii sewn all round vi edge reinforced above weaving by one or more lattices on each side, and oversewn all round but through the warps as well i plain ii fringed a above knots b below knots __i twisted ii plaited ili knot tucked a plain round last sewing strand b fringed i one or more hoops on one side, oversewn ii same with extra hoop on top, oversewn iii One or more hoops on each side, oversewn iv one or more wooden bands and hoop outside, and hoop inside Tech. 76d 76e 76f 76g 76h 76 76) 77a 77b 77¢ 78a 78b 78c 78d 78e 78f 78g 78h 79a 79b 79c 79d 79e 79f 80 8la 81b 8Ic 81d Fig. Page S5E-F 113 113 113 56A 113 56B 113 113 113 Si/ 113 113 58A, B 113 117 117 117 117 S9A-B 117 117 117 117 59C 117 117 117 59D 117 60B 117 60A, 107 117 60D 117 122 122 60C 122 61A 122 61B-C 123 123 61D 123 62A-B 123 877 WNdasnaW NVOIdV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV VOINAV NYAHLNOS JO WUOMLANSVA 677 y wide wooden band with or without hoop outside and hoop inside vi one or more hoops outside wide band, making projecting rim n hem o flat binding 2 Weft or a wefts or sewing i knotted sewing edges _ strands end off and cut singly ii oversewn iii wound round last warp before knotting iv threaded back v twined, sewn or darned back parallel to last row vi sewing strand wrapped round last element, threaded up and cut vii fancy knot b wefts or i straight sewing strand back taken back ii carried down to next row in open work, and then back iti half-hitched, carried down and half- hitched again iv wound round last warp to next Starting place V straight back diagonally EDGES (continued) a plain b with extra twist c wrapped round last three foundation elements a taut b left slack as loop a single sewing strand b both wefts c one weft, other taken straight down d twined back and forth between half- hitches a over last i both strands warp il one strand, other straight b over extra i at edge warp il a few warps back a plain b with extra twist to weft c reinforced last warp Tech. 8le Sif 82 83 84a 84b 84c 84d 84e 84f 84g 85a 85b 85c 85d 85e 85f 85g 85h 851 85j Fig. 62C-D, 63 62E 64A 64B 64D 64C 65A 65C 65D 66 Page 123 123 123 123 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 129 0E7 WAASAW NVOIWdVY HLNOS AHL JO SIVNNV VOINAV NYAHLNOS JO WYOMLANSVA TEZ c wefts wrapped— one weft is wrapped once or more round last warp which may be thickened; the other weft goes back into the next row vi twined back and forth for short distance, then continues across work vii twined down outer warp i back weft ii front weft ili each weft wraps last warp with double or triple row of half-hitches between 3rd and 2nd, and 2nd and final warps. The appearance is of two or three knots in alternate rows. EDGES (continued) a across front weft and behind second warp Ss across front weft and in front of second warp over returning weft c across front weft and between 2nd and 3rd warps, over returning weft d half-circle i front weft across front wrapped back and returning to front wefts to back between Ist and 2nd warps ii front weft wrapped front to back e circle; loop i between first made front to and second back round warps other weft going and coming, then behind into next row ii between second and third warps a across 2nd warp over returning weft between Ist and 2nd warp b one and a half circles through to back encircling back weft going and coming and then forward to next row between 2nd and 3rd warp Tech. Fig. 85q 85r 86a 67A 86b 67B 86c 86d 67C, 52 86e 86f 86g 67D 86h 67E 861 67F 86] Page 132 129 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 CET WNASAW NVOIddV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV VOINAV NYAHLNOS 40 WUOMLANSVA €€7 d oversewing i plain over last warp ii fancy e lattice wrap over two and under one, back along row at each end of straight sewn row ON COILED SEWN WORK 1 No change of a coil i multiple stitch unchanged foundation ii simple foundation b coil thinned c coil thickened d material changed e coil reinforced and material changed 2 Change of a oversewing i close stitch (with same or different material, with coil unchanged, thickened or thinned) ii alternately piercing and encircling coil b blanket stitch i plain li fancy cherring-bone i round coil il on top of coil iii once round upper coil and once through iv two-coil Vv raised Vi cross-stitch d diagonal i round coil ovérsewing il on top of coil ili in Opposite direction making cross- stitch e triple oversewing 3 Added edge a extra coil i no change of added on top _ stitch of or at side of last coil ii change of stitch b one or more i no change of complete rings — stitch of foundation sewn on separately after last coil ii change of stitch EDGES (continued) FINISHINGS a multiple i close foundation il Open b round one single foundation c round two single foundations a upper and lower coil b lower coil a flat b raised a through coil b round coil Tech. 87a 87b 88 89a 89b 90 9] 92 93 94a 97e 98 99a 99b 99c 99d Fig. 68A 68B 68C 68D-E 70C 70D T0E TIA 71B 71C 71D TIE 72 Page 132 132 132 135 135 135 135 135 135 135 138 138 138 138 138 138 139 139 139 139 139 VET WNaASAW NVOIddV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV VOIdNdY NYFHLNOS JO XYYOMLANSVA SET c one or more hoops d withy added e binding 1 No special a ends simply cut finishing off b ends threaded into work and cut 2 oversewn a simple b figure-of-eight c herring-bone 3 knotted a together b separately c plaited and knotted 4 ends taken back diagonally, threaded and cut off 5 Strands back on tracks to make two edges, with fringe between 6 Lay ends a same direction together and bind b opposite i old strand ii new strand c half hitched i on plaiting ii on straight sewing 7 spiny finish a cone ili on diagonal twill iv as fastener in itself b band on i straight central core sewn ii twilled 8 Seizing on sewn beer- strainers and brooms 9 Whipping on sewn beer- strainers and brooms 10 Woven seizing 11 Elements turned inside and knotted together 12 Sewing on a invisible twilled work b visible 13 Oversewing to join edges on cylindrical work 14 Double a folded tacking to join edges on cylindrical work b flattened 15 On cylin- drical work, bag flattened and warps joined to make base a knotted in 1 plain pairs and threes FINISHINGS (continued) Tech. 100 101 102 103 104 105a 105b 105c 106a 106b 106c 107 108 109a 109b 109c 109d 110a 110b 110c 110d 110e L0f 111 112 113 114 115a 115b 116 117a 117b 118a Fig. 73 T4A 78 74B 74C 74D-E 74F 75C 75D 76B 76C 76D-E Page 139 139 139 139 139 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 143 143 144 144 144 144 144 144 144 9ET WNasSAW NVOIdAV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV VOIddV NYAHLNOS JO WAOMLANSVA LET Al al OVI orl A orl al 9r1 bri bri brl bri brl vv vr ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM vr vv byl 230d 238 Gi Oyee a-VLL ‘Sho 9611 D6TT ISTT Y8TT 39TT {SII 98 TT P8TT 9S TT q8IT RAT, dUl}}0Uy Jayye pue a10Jaq pue SUISSOIO 19}Je P 3ul}JOUy pue ‘SUISSOID 19]Je 9 SUISSOID 19}Je pue d10jaq gq SUISSOIO TOJe VD (panunuod) SONIHSINIA ylompeaq JO yo}s Aouey YIM SUIMAS AI aspo yore SUIpUIq II sired ul 8uj0Uy TI SUIUIM) I SUIUIA} Aq pjey spua it SsuIgn}-JouUl 3 preoqgpies f Yoyo 2 Ppoom p wyed 9 yreq q UIYS passaip v yew punol Jo arenbs q apry JO punol v :Aq uontsod ur ploy pue passols q suTYyoyY “yey Aq poutol Sa8po OPIS 8] UJIM PdIOA09 SAO) |BIIO|) (Ll YIM poidA0d aseq uadg OT poidniojut 2 sustoyed g spueg p UlevYd pastel I suiayjed g spueg v spue.ns 9011} I spues exo g “** 9¥01]S oY} S}UDSUIO]O JO Ssuluoy) sus] Y UOTye[NdiueUw I oUIM} UO Pp UdAOA\ | HOLILS YO FAVAM JO FODNVHO (6¢7 e8ed Jo WO} Je WSSUT) NOLLVUYOOAA -ADOTONHOSL I LUVd VOIMAV NYAHLNOS JO WUIOMLANSVE AHL ¢ LaVd 001 ANNTIOA ‘dl1IS WOLVaUa r 6rl Zao 6rl 6rl 6rl 6rl 6rl 6rl 6rl 6rl Lvl Lvl Lvl Lvl Lvl Lvl BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Lvl Lvl Lvl Lvl Lvl VI8 OI8 O08 08 V08 d6L O6L a6L V6L suioq}jed 1 spurq | susaqjed i spuegq | suiojjed i spueq | sulojjed i spueq | NOILVYOOAd dYONS 34} SJUSUII]9 JO SsuIUdY\sUS] Y UOTe[NdiweU I SOABOM poylosse I S9TIe] P yo}t}s-ureyo 9 diem-yyds g ouIMy ured p JUSIOFJIP 1 dAPOM JO OsURYO dAvOM JUSIOFJIP A SUTISIM} pur SUIAPTIOAO AT JUDO JOUIPES UI odURYO II [14s JO prs Ul adueYO I UOT}ONIIP UI aduUeYO 1 Joyo yoes IdA0 sdiem SUIjSIM) AI dyOI}s SUISUN] Aq Joderp im 19S 9uo JO WIpIM UI d3ueYO TI dYO.I}s JUSIOFIP | QUIM)} UO Pp IOYOIM UO I 111M} uo q ranbayo uo v UdAOM T HOLLLS YO AAVAM AO ADNVHO e on lattice extra strands twine f on plaited i straight work ii extended 2 Sewn a straight i single foundation ii composite foundation b coiled - ® © ° . ° « CHANGE OF MATERIAL, SAME COLOUR 1 Woven concentric bands 2 Sewn i concentric bands ii radial patterns INTRODUCTION OF COLOUR 1 Woven a fabric i chequer ii twill iii wicker iv twined DECORATION (continued) d twisting warps across each other e spacing of groups f crossing warps in spaces g twining a wavy pattern none a open extended b open crossed c uneven tension d extended multiple a crossed strand b lattice wrap c arrangement of nodes a chain stitch b lengthening twists c changing ply d change of direction of twists a change of stitch > - * b lengthening stitch c split stitch d doubling stitch e wrapped f beading g overlaying h spacing i cutting off sewing strand long j tapering sewing strand a over whole surface b designs or bands c whipping warps a over whole surface b designs or bands designs or bands a over whole surface b designs or bands i half-hitched ii openwork a close twine b open twine 130 131 132 133 134a 134b 135 136 137 138 139 140 14la 141b 142a 142b 142c 143a 143b 144 145a 145b 145c Fig. 81D 83A 83B 83C 83D 84A 84B 84C 85A 85B Page 149 149 149 149 149 152 152 152 152 152 152 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 155 155 155 156 156 156 156 156 156 157 157 157 157 157 157 157 157 157 Ove WNdasSAW NVOIdV HLNOS AHL dO SIVNNV VOIdsV NYAHLNOS JO WUOMLANSVA Wwe 2 Sewn * & ALTERATION OF SHAPE 1 Colouring 2 Embroidery 3 Carving 4 Branding 5 Adding bands or lattices outside 6 Brass buttons 7 Beads b edges a fabric v v . v plaited vi lattice- twined i straight ii coiled . § i straight ii coiled a raised bands of knots b tying on coloured wool c whipping, wrapping or twining d sewn embroidery a on utensils b on ornaments UTILITARIAN ADDITIONS 1 Lids 2 Handles a loops b cords i knotted outside, runs inside ii knotted inside, runs outside ili continuous loop outside and inside DECORATION (continued) ii two wefts ili three wefts iv different stroke v overlaying c whipping sewing different pieces of fabric together designs or bands i one weft ii two wefts ili three wefts a foundation strand b beads c wrapping end foundation strand a foundation i concentric bands of normal coil ii overlaying a bands b motifs b sewing i whole ii mottled iii concentric a close bands b spaced iv radial stripes v geometric a concentric motifs b spaced c beading i bands ii designs d introduction of beads v v7] g y 9 Y g wrapped oversewn ORNAMENTATION SHAPES a plain 158a 158b 158c 158d 159 160 161 162 163a 163b 164 165 166a 166b 166c Fig. 86A 85C 86B 87A 87B-C 87D 88 89A 89B 89C 90A, C 90B 91A 91B 92A 92B, 101 92C-D 93, 94 95A Page Si 157 157 157 159 159 159 159 159 160 160 160 160 160 164 164 164 164 166 166 168 168 168 168 169 169 169 (G%6 WOASAW NVOINAV HLNOS AHL JO STVNNV VOINAV NYAHLNOS JO AAOMLANSVA €V7 c stiff handles 3 Hinges a strings b loops 4 Rims 5 Feet a woven ridge b small pieces of Wood c wooden ring d plait BASKETS 1 Garden baskets 2 Other utensils 3 Containers OBJECTS OTHER THAN BASKETS 1 Bags 2 Bracelets 3 Bird cages 4 Fish traps 5 Food-mats 6 Grain-mats 7 Hats 8 Huts 9 Sledges 10 Sleeping-mats 11 Spoons 12 Strainers PREPARATION a cutting b splitting c flattening WORK 1 Woven a trimming b shaping 2 Sewn a sewing b shaping c trimming SHAPES (continued) b through strip of wood on top of lid iv sewn round sides and/or base of pouch, inside lid v cord made of twill elements near edge of pouch a on woven b on sewn TOOLS i spear ii knife ill axe i spear ii knife ili awl mallet knife core i awl ii needle core a bundle of grass b bottle i knife il shears Tech. 166d 166e 166f Fig. Page 169 169 169 95B 169 95C 169 96A-B 169 96C 173 63 173 173 STA 173 97B 173 97C 173 98 173 99, 11 173 100, 2, 4, 30 173 101 176 102 176 6 176 14 176 8, 82 176 176 103 178 104 178 15 178 105 178 106 180 19, 107 180 181 181 181 181 181 108A 181 108C 181 183 108B 183 108A 183 108D 183 108B 183 183 183 183 vee WNaSAW NVOIAV HLNOS AHL SO SIVNNV VOINAV NYAHLNOS JO WAYOMLANS VA Sv 246 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM APPENDIX 2 SUMMARY AND INDEX OF MATERIALS USED IN BASKET WORK Material Figure no. Page no. STEMS 1 Grass 184 2 Reed 186 3 Sedge 109 187 4 Rush 190 5 Creepers 191 LEAVES 1 Palm 110 191 2 Iridaceae 193 3 Other 194 WHOLE PLANT 194 1 Grass 2 Reed _ BARK 195 PLANT FIBRES 197 WooD 1 Withies 198 2 Timber 199 3 Root wood 201 ANIMAL MATERIAL : 1 Sinew 201 2 Hair 201 3 Skin 202 IMPORTED MATERIALS 202 DYES (Table 1) 1 Leaves/stem 203 2 Bark 204 3 Root/wood 205 4 Fruits 206 5 Synthetic materials 207 BASKETWORK OF SOUTHERN AFRICA APPENDIX 3 The names of some of the plant species mentioned in the text differ from the currently accepted names. An alphabetical list of those names names and their current equivalent, according to Gibbs Russell et al. (1985, 1987), is provided below. Name used in text Acacia capensis Burch. Acacia detinens Burch. Acacia decurrens var. mollis Lindl. Acacia horrida Willd. Andropogon amplectans Nees Andropogon cymbarius L. Caesalpina sepiaria Roxb. Commiphora fischeri Engl. Crinipes gynoglossa Goossens Cyanotis nodiflora Kunth Cyperus compactus Lam. Digitaria littoralis Stent Dombeya natalensis Sond... _ Elephantorrhiza birchelli (Benth.) Ficus capensis Thunb. Ficus vogelii (Migq.) Miq. Grewia deserticola Ulbr. Indigofera pretoriana Harms Ischaemum arcuatum (Nees) Stapf Hyphaene crinita Gaertn. = H. natalensis Kunze Hyphaene ventricosa Kirk Juncus maritimus Bak. Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC. Lannea stuhlmannii (Engl.) Engl. Miscanthidium capense Stapf Oplismenus africanus P. Beauv. Osyris abysinnica A. Rich = O. compressa DC. Phyllogeiton zeyheri (Sond.) Suesseng. Pouzolzia hypoleuca Wedd. Rhamnus zeyheri (Sond.) - Rhynchelytrum setifolium (Stapf) Chiov. Salacia zeyheri Pl. Current name Acacia karroo Hayne Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth. subsp. detinens (Burch.) Acacia dealbata Link Acacia karroo Hayne Diheteropogon amplectans (Nees) Clayton | Hyparrhenia cymbaria Stapf Caesalpina decapetala (Roth.) Alston Commiphora mossambicensis (Oliv.) Engl. : Styppeiochloa gynoglossa (Goossens) de Winter Cyanotis speciosa (L.F.) Hassk. Cyperus obtusiflorus Vahl Digitaria natalensis Stent Dombeya tiliacea (Endl.) Planch. Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch. ) Skeels Ficus sur Forssk. Ficus lutea Vahl Grewia retinervis Burret Indigofera setiflora Bak. Ischaemum fasciculatum Brongn. Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn. Hyphaene petersiana Klutzsch Juncus rigidus Desf. Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl. var. stuhlmanni (Engl.) Kokwaro Miscanthus capensis (Nees) Anderss. Oplismenus hirtellus (L.) Beauv. Osyris lanceolata Hochst. Berchemia zeyheri (Sond.) Grubov Pouzolzia mixta Solms Berchemia zeyheri (Sond.) Grubov Rhynchelytrum nerviglume (Franch. ) Chiov. Cassine crocea (Thunb.) Kuntze 247 248 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM APPENDIX 3 (continued) Name used in text Sanseveria desertii N. E. Br. Scirpus inclinatus (Del.) Aschers & Schweinf. Scirpus paludicola Kunth Scirpus tegetalis Burch (= S. spathaceus Hochst.) Sclerocarya caffra Sond. Sporobolus indicus Stapf Tricholaena setifolia Stapf Typha latifolia subsp. capensis Rohrb. Xylopia antunesii Engl. & Diels Current name Sanseveria pearsonii N. E. Br. Schoenoplectus corymbosus (Roth. ex Roem. & Schult.) J. Raynal Schoenoplectus paludicola (Kunth) Palla ex J. Raynal : Scirpus inanis (Thunb.) Steud. Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. caffra (Sond.) Kokwaro Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay Rhynchelytrum nerviglume (Franch. ) Chiov. Typha capensis (Rohrb.) N. E. Br. Xylopia odoratissima Welw. ex Oliv. ; e ci y - " - ny = - ‘ = ‘ iF < = \ 5) , \ - ia —s = 1 a Ta 6. SYSTEMATIC papers must conform to the Jnternational code of zoological nomenclature (particu- larly Articles 22 and 51). Names of new taxa, combinations, synonyms, etc., when used for the first time, must be followed by the appropriate Latin (not English) abbreviation, e.g. gen. nov., sp. nov., comb. nov., syn. nov., ete, An author’s name when cited must follow the name of the taxon without intervening punctuation and not be abbreviated; if the year is added, a comma must separate author’s name and year. The author’s name (and date, if cited) must be placed in parentheses if a species or subspecies is trans- ferred from its original genus. The name of a subsequent user of a scientific name must be separated from the scientific name by a colon. Synonymy arrangement should be according to chronology of names, i.e. all published scientific ~ names by which the species previously has been designated are listed in chronological order, with all references to that name following in chronological order, e.g.: Family Nuculanidae Nuculana (Lembulus) bicuspidata (Gould, 1845) Figs 14-15A Nucula (Leda) bicuspidata Gould, 1845: 37. Leda plicifera A. Adams, 1856: 50. ~ Laeda bicuspidata Hanley, 1859: 118, pl. 228 (fig. 73). Sowerby, 1871: pl. 2 (fig. 8a—b). Nucula largillierti Philippi, 1861: 87. Leda bicuspidata: Nicklés, 1950: 163, fig. 301; 1955: 110. Barnard, 1964: 234, figs 8-9. Note punctuation in the above example: comma separates author’s name and year semicolon separates more than one reference by the same author full stop separates references by different authors figures of plates are enclosed in parentheses to distinguish them from text-figures dash, not comma, separates consecutive numbers. 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REFERENCES cited in text and synonymies should all be included in the list at the end of the paper, using the Harvard System (ibid., idem, loc. cit., op. cit. are not acceptable): (a) Author’s name and year of publication given in text, e.g.: ‘Smith (1969) describes. . .” ‘Smith (1969: 36, fig. 16) describes...” ‘As described (Smith 1969a, 1969b; Jones 1971)’ ‘As described (Haughton & Broom 1927)...’ ‘As described (Haughton et al. 1927)...” Note: no comma separating name and year pagination indicated by colon, not p. names of joint authors connected by ampersand et al. in text for more than two joint authors, but names of all authors given in list of references. (b) Full references at the end of the paper, arranged alphabetically by names, chronologically within each name, with suffixes a, b, etc., to the year for more than one paper by the same author in that year, e.g. Smith (1969a, 1969b) and not Smith (1969, 1969a). For books give title in italics, edition, volume number, place of publication, publisher. For journal article give title of article, title of journal in italics (according to the World list of scientific periodicals. 4th ed. London: Butterworths, 1963), series in parentheses, volume number, part number in parentheses, pagination (first and last pages of article). Examples (note capitalization and punctuation) BuLLouGH, W. S. 1960. Practical invertebrate anatomy. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan. FiscHER, P. H. 1948. Données sur la résistance et de la vitalité des mollusques. Journal de conchyliologie 88 (3): 100-140. FiscHer, P. H., DuvaL, M. & Rarry, A. 1933. Etudes sur les échanges respiratoires des littorines. Archives de zoologie expérimentale et générale 74 (33): 627-634. Koun, A. J. 1960a. Ecological notes on Conus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in the Trincomalee region of Ceylon. Annals and Magazine of Natural History (13) 2 (17): 309-320. Koun, A. J. 1960b. Spawning behaviour, egg masses and larval development in Conus from the Indian Ocean. Bulletin of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, Yale University 17 (4): 1-51. THIELE, J. 1910. Mollusca. B. Polyplacophora, Gastropoda marina, Bivalvia. In: ScHuLTzE, L. Zoologische und anthro- pologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Siid-Afrika ausgefiihrt in den Jahren 1903-1905 4 (15). Denkschriften der medizinisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena 16: 269-270. (continued inside back cover) ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM Volume 100 °+#£4Band April 1992 April Part 3 Deel THE ALCYONACEA OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS AND SOFT CORALS (COELENTERATA, ANTHOZOA) By GARY C. WILLIAMS Cape Town Kaapstad The ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM are issued in parts at irregular intervals as material becomes available Obtainable from the South African Museum, P.O. Box 61, Cape Town 8000 Die ANNALE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE MUSEUM word uitgegee in dele op ongereelde tye na gelang van die beskikbaarheid van stof Verkrygbaar van die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum, Posbus 61, Kaapstad 8000 OUT OF PRINT/UIT DRUK i, 200-3, 5-8) 32s 45S nin ose Oe 6(1, t=p.i-), 7-4), 8. 9=2)"7) 10 G3) 1s See Soni 14(4=2), 15(4=25), 240 5), 27, S1das) 326) ose 36(2), 43(1), 45(1), 67(5), 84(2) Copyright enquiries to the South African Museum Kopieregnavrae aan die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum ISBN 0 86813 127 X Printed in South Africa by In Suid-Afrika gedruk deur The “Rustica vPress nabtye leider: Die Rustica-pers, Edms., Bpk., Old Mill Road, Ndabeni, Cape Old Mill-weg, Ndabeni, Kaap D1027 Fig. 1. Living soft corals of southern Africa. A. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921) (Alcyoniidae); purple and orange colour morphs. B. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910 (Alcyoniidae); purple and orange colour morphs. C. Malacacanthus capensis (Hickson, 1900) (Alcyoniidae). D. Anthelia sp. (Xentidae). E. Alcyonium valdiviae Kikenthal, 1906 (Alcyoniidae). F. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a (Alcyoniidae). G. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988) (Nidaliidae). H. Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865) (Nephtheidae). I. Capnella thyrsoidea and Alcyonium fauri (white morph). THE ALCYONACEA OF SOUTHERN AFRICA. STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS AND SOFT CORALS (COELENTERATA, ANTHOZOA) By Gary C. WILLIAMS* Department of Marine Biology, South African Museum and Department of Zoology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch (With 45 figures and 1 table) [MS accepted 28 July 1989 | ABSTRACT Of the eleven families of stoloniferous octocorals and soft corals recognized worldwide, seven are represented in southern Africa. These are the families Clavulariidae, Tubiporidae, Coelogorgiidae, Alcyoniidae, Nidaliidae, Nephtheidae, and Xeniidae, which are recorded from African coastal waters south of the 20°S. Twenty-five species representing twelve genera are illustrated and described in detail from material housed in the collection of the South African Museum, Cape Town. The majority of this material has been collected since 1983 using dredges and SCUBA diving. This has allowed for many observations of living material in situ and in aquaria. Thirty-three additional species are mentioned that appear in the literature but for which satisfactory material is presently not available for examination. Presently undetermined species representing 15 genera are also mentioned. Four soft coral genera are here considered southern African endemics: Acrophytum, Malacacanthus, Pieterfaurea, and Verseveldtia. Six genera are here recorded from southern Africa for the first time: Sarcodictyon, Telestula, Carijoa, Minabea, Siphonogorgia and Nephthea. ~ Scanning electron micrographs of sclerite form accompanies the descriptions of almost all species. New information has allowed re-evaluation of several species and the alteration of their taxonomic status. This includes recent observations on intraspecific variation. A key to all iden- tified genera and species presently known to occur in southern Africa is provided. This account of the regional soft coral and stoloniferous octocoral fauna comprises seven families, 32 genera and 78 species, which includes 28 genera, and 26 identified species that are here considered valid and to occur in southern Africa. At least 12 additional species have recently been collected that represent undescribed species; these have not been included in the present study. From an assessment of all collected material and literature sources, as well as the numbers of new records and new species recently obtained by dredging and diving surveys, it is esti- mated that at least 90 species of soft corals and stolonate octocorals occur in southern Africa. CONTENTS PAGE RTO RCLGNUNG INCHES eer roan eee cee hohe eM Rennes Sa dn ane oeusise baat asset veeseee 250 Meier eMC NOS. ines ten oot cteatGe ss ae'scienle cs esicbaase steams vnesstatlseeassaves 251 SN USUD EME EIS TIN a eT OR ace ane, ea Nee eo 252 Key to the families of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals in southern MULE ALM ERAS AUN VEU TG Meek te eyir eee tha ae eds eis ce picis Feel votive dokee ts savosane ves ovat eis 252 DV CSC rR eres Pte, Oe eS season Ruka ty cub lrac ees lupe deed dasdeveseede aces 253 ea mil ip Oa AUT SELIL CNS ae SP icleiinatih «cede Saeed Sadoe'us wap Raina cles ol abac sat cedevens 255 SUPE MN UA EAI TOTINGLAG tected cre mic 2h, seis orc Ate Orie We Scie Hors oe cin weed dec tins dune eeceeness 265 * Present address: Department of Invertebrate Zoology, California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California 94118, U.S.A. 249 Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100 (3), 1992: 249-358, 45 figs, 1 table. 250 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM PAGE Family Coclogorendacc.cose ice acaccre odsecnas “Leen eC eee 265 Family Alcyomiidacicc 2 snc. : ane qose soem one ere eee 266 Family Nidalitdae si c.cgras.c ccs. ae sccae tee nee acc ee ere ee eee ee 323 Family Nephtherdae 2. 5005s. ccon eee es eee 328 Family Xemitdae sa oc 5 Soca seen ech ee ee 340 Key to the soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals of southern Africa..... 345 List of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals recorded from southern ATTICA. sie osc the e abione ec Saeed coe cag heer estate ee a as Seen Oa aera 350 Summiary and conclusiOm'.4.. 2.00: «seen esaceene oe saeee acer eee ne eer ener 352 Acknowledgeme mts is. :25..02 ce seek. «0s coment quasar eae aie eee eee 555 ISAS) ie) ol 86: oh re ee rR roe NORM AA Cc Warr Shir dbiacnaasceisade Soca suyscodesocadsde 354 INTRODUCTION Coastal southern Africa, from the Skeleton Coast of Namibia to the region of Beira in Mozambique, has a remarkably rich and diverse benthic fauna. The octocoral cnidarians are no exception, as at least 200 species may be present, with an extremely high percentage of endemism, perhaps 60-70 per cent. Many species are restricted to the region between the Cape of Good Hope and Natal, whereas the extensive Agulhas Bank is probably a centre of adaptive radiation for the region. The regional fauna has one other primary component in addition to this endemic constituent: the Indo-Pacific element. This component, along with Atlantic, cosmopolitan, widespread, or scattered species, account for the remainder of the fauna (30-40 per cent). The present survey represents the second paper in a series of three covering the octocorals of southern Africa that have been identified and recorded to date. The pennatulaceans have been described in a previous paper (Williams 1990a). Stoloniferans and soft corals are dealt with in the present paper. Gorgonian octocorals will be dealt with in a subsequent paper. The stoloniferans (families Clavulariidae, Tubiporidae, and Coelogorgiidae) are relatively simple octocorals characterized by having low and rounded or cy]l- indrical to tubular polyp calyces that are separate and individually placed. These arise from a thin ribbon-like or reticulating stolon that adheres to the sub- stratum. Colonies have separate or fused sclerites. The soft corals (families Alcyoniidae, Nidaliidae, Nephtheidae, and Xeniidae) are characterized by having polyps aggregated or concentrated into polyparies. The colonies are fleshy and the gastric cavities of the polyps extend to near the base of the colony through soft coenenchymal tissue which may or may not be impregnated with sclerites. An internal medulla or axis is absent. The stoloniferous families Taiaroidae, Cornulariidae and Pseudogorgiidae, and the soft coral families Paralcyoniidae and Asterospiculariidae, are not known to occur in southern _ Africa and are therefore not included in the present study. The old ordinal names ‘Stolonifera’ for the stoloniferans and ‘Alcyonacea’ sensu stricto (i.e. reserved for soft corals) are considered by Bayer (1981b: 943) to be of no taxo- SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Ds nomic value. The ordinal name Alcyonacea, as used here, follows the proposal of Bayer, and includes all non-helioporacean and non-pennatulacean octocorals. The first large-scale collecting of South African octocorals was made by the S.S. Pieter Faure during dredging and trawling surveys between 1898 and 1907. The most important literature sources describing species from the regional soft coral and stoloniferous octocoral fauna include Hickson (1900, 1904), Kiikenthal (1906), Thomson (1910, 1921, 1923), Molander (19296), Broch (1939), and Tixier-Durivault (1954, 1960). Day et al. (1970) and Day (1974) listed the distri- butions of many common species; Branch & Branch (1981) provided colour and black-and-white photographs of a few of the most common intertidal and shallow subtidal species; and Williams (1986a, 1986b, 1987a, 1987b, 1988, 1989b, 1990b) gave detailed descriptions of several species. The benthic environment of southern Africa is extremely varied. A very high percentage of endemism is evident. Day et al. (1970: 2) reported that approximately 66 per cent of the benthic invertebrate species from False Bay are South African endemics. Millard (1978: 182) concluded that, with regard to the hydroid fauna, zoogeographical characteristics point to an active centre of evol- ution in the South African region. This can be applied to other invertebrate groups as well. Williams (1986), in press a, in press b) provide a more detailed account of the regional zoogeography and geographical definition, particularly regarding the octocoral fauna. Species of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals in this study have been collected from the littoral (e.g. Alcyonium fauri) to a depth of 468 m on the edge of the continental shelf (e.g. Anthomastus gigan- teus). Areas of concentrated collecting with regard to recently procured material include (from west to east): the Atlantic coast of the Cape of Good Hope Penin- sula, False Bay, the Danger Point—Dyer Island region, Cape Agulhas and the Agulhas Bank, Algoa Bay, the offshore region between East London and south- ern Natal including Transkei, the Durban area, and Sodwana Bay. Older records include scattered localities along the west coasts of the Cape Province and Namibia, many south and east coast localities, Inhaca Island, and southern Mozambique. The classification system used in this study at the ordinal and familial levels conforms to Bayer (19815). Nomenclature conforms to the trilingual glossary of Bayer et al. (1983). The abbreviation SAM refers to the South African Museum. MATERIALS AND METHODS Recently procured material was collected by means of intertidal collecting, snorkelling, SCUBA diving, or dredging from the littoral zone to 500 m in depth at many localities between Cape Columbine on the west coast of South Africa to Sodwana Bay, northern Natal. - Live material was relaxed in a solution of magnesium chloride and sea- water, then preserved in 70 per cent ethanol. Some particularly delicate colonies were first fixed in buffered 10 per cent formalin before transfer to ethanol. Dy) ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Sclerites were isolated by excising a small piece of tissue (<10 mm?) and placing it in a small vial with a few drops of concentrated sodium hypochlorite to disassociate the sclerites from the tissue. Sclerites were then washed repeatedly in water, and finally transferred to ethanol. The sclerite and alcohol suspension was then pipetted on to microscope slides. Canada balsam was used as a permanent mounting medium, whereas glycerine was used for temporary purposes. Draw- ings from dissecting or compound microscopes were made using a camera lucida. Scanning electron micrographs were made with a Cambridge S180 or S200 SEM. Alcohol suspensions of minute sclerites were pipetted on to circular pieces of exposed and developed black-and-white photographic paper, which were glued to the surface of a stub. Larger sclerites were arranged individually on a stub with a fine camel-hair brush and SEM glue. | SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS AND SOFT CORALS IN SOUTHERN AFRICAN COASTAL WATERS 1A. Colonies attached to substrata by narrow basal stolons, or stolon reduced to a spreading holdfast, or stolons form multi-layered platforms (Figs LDS. 7A): + ake eee Pe errr ee ye oes boy oo a eo « 2 1B. Colonies without true stolons. Colonies attached to substrata by basal hold- fast or membranous sheets: (Eig. WOA), 2520 ye + 2A. Colonies with stolons forming multi-layered platforms above the sub- SCP AGW oe. ot Re © coe ae ee Tubiporidae 2B. Colonies arborescent with a spreading holdfast or colonies forming a single layer with separate polyps arising from a basal stolon.................. 5 3A. Colonies arborescent, polyps not retractile, distinct anthosteles not present. Stolon reduced toca spreading holdiast-e 2) 4- 4s eee Coelogorgiidae 3B. Colonies composed of separate polyps arising from a basal stolon, anthoco- diae retractile into distinct anthosteles or into base of polyp. Stolons well developed, rounded, flattened, ribbon-like or reticulate..... Clavulariidae 4A. Mesenterial filaments two. Sclerites, if present, are reduced to minute cir- cular or oval platelets (<0,05 mm in diameter). Shallow water, usually littoral to 30 m; Indo-Pacific, central Transkei to Mozambique .. Xeniidae 4B. Mesenterial filaments eight. Sclerites usually present, conspicuous, densely distributed, and of variable form. Littoral to 500 m; entire coastline..... 5 5A. Polyps grouped together in clusters or catkins, adjacent polyps sharing a common base. Polyps with a non-retractile base (a stalk) composed of dense sclerités.. 0... nos a ee ee re ee Nephtheidae 5B. Polyps separate, not grouped together into clusters or catkins. Polyps some- times with a basal calyx composed of sclerites, but often totally retractile into.coenenchyme-ofcolomy 23 ya 2 7) eee nae ea 6 SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA DSS 6A. Colonies usually fleshy, sclerites usually <1 mm in length and not generally longitudinally disposed, sclerites sometimes reduced or absent. Calyces RCSeH OG AOSCMUR er ets ce lle eee ERO ae ee Alcyoniidae 6B. Colonies with a rigid consistency, outer surface rough, containing large tuberculate sclerites, longitudinally placed, permanent calyces present...... oy lente ele & Ale caps cue cea "lege Pil (Rae ae cnr Cs Eis aN ARS a ree ae ee a ae Nidaliidae DESCRIPTIONS Family Clavulariidae Hickson, 1894 Stoloniferous octocorals that encrust hard or firm objects such as rock, mollusc shells, coral fragments, sponges and worm tubes. Anthocodiae retractile into low conical, cylindrical, or tall tubular anthosteles. In addition to basal stolons, polyps may be linked laterally by some elevated stolonic bars but not by an elevated series of transverse calcareous platforms. Sclerites numerous; usually thorny or tuberculate rods, spindles, or needles; sometimes fused. Three subfamilies are currently recognized with 14 genera of cosmopolitan distribution. Subfamily Clavulariinae Bayer, 1981la Anthosteles longer than wide; cylindrical, tubular or slightly clavate. Polyps usually solitary; secondary, lateral polyps rarely if ever bud from main polyps. Sclerites tuberculated rods, spindles, and crosses; sometimes fused. Four genera. Genus Clavularia de Blainville, 1830 Clavularia de Blainville, 1830: 464. Bayer, 1956: F184. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 19. Weinberg, 1978: 143. Diagnosis Calyces cylindrical, arising from band-like or spreading stolons. Sclerites numerous, usually spiny spindles, rods, or needles. Approximately 40 described species; widespread, Atlantic and Indo-Pacific. Type species. Clavularia viridis Quoy & Gaimard, in Milne Edwards & Haime, 1850; Indo-Pacific. Clavularia cylindrica Wright & Studer, 1889 Clavularia cylindrica Wright & Studer, 1889: 258, pl. 43 (figs 9-10). Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 124. Day et al., 1970: 16. Remarks Tixier-Durivault (1954) merely listed this species, without description or figures, from south of Cape Point at 547 m. Day et al. (1970) listed the same without description along the south coast from Cape Point to Jeffrey’s Bay up to 20 m depth. Wright & Studer (1889) originally described the species from 254 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Tristan da Cunha at 183-274 m. Because of the lack of descriptions and lack of material for examination, it is impossible to determine if the subsequent records actually pertain to this species. According to Wright & Studer, the cylindrical calyces are 4-6 mm in height with 8 longitudinal ribs. The calyx sclerites are stout thorny spindles up to 0,43 mm in length. Tentacle sclerites are blunt, straight, spiny spindles up to 0,2 mm long. Colour yellowish-white. I consider the presence of C. cylindrica in southern Africa to be dubious. Clavularia diademata Broch, 1939 Clavularia diademata Broch, 1939: 5, figs 2-5. Remarks This species was described from a single small colony from Table Bay at 20 m depth, and has not been recorded since the original description. Broch (1939) assigned this material to the genus Clavularia with hesitation and dis- tinguished the species by the presence of 16 points in the anthocodia— 8 tentacular (or primary) and 8 inter-tentacular (or secondary) ones. The 8 primary points are joined proximally by a transverse band of tuberculate needles or slender spindles up to 9,4 mm long. The tentacles have a few rod-like sclerites arranged longitudinally. The stolons and calyces have numerous needle- like tuberculated sclerites 0,5—0,6 mm long. Clavularia elongata Wright & Studer, 1889 Clavularia elongata Wright & Studer, 1889: 257, pl. 42 (fig. 11). Clavularia elongata var. africana Thomson, 1921: 153. Remarks Thomson (1921) named a new variation of this species, C. elongata var. africana from Cape Infanta at 77 m, without description or figures. Wright & Studer (1889) described the type locality as 1829 m off the Azores. It is not possible to determine if Thomson’s specimen is in fact C. elongata without a comparison of material. According to Wright & Studer, the species is distinguished by having tentacles strongly beset with sclerites, and the calyx wall flexible but with numerous large spiny spindles, which are often curved and somewhat club-shaped. I consider the presence of C. elongata as a dubious record for southern Africa. Clavularia parva Tixier-Durivault, 1964 Clavularia parva Tixier-Durivault, 1964: 46, figs 7-8. Remarks This species was described from Ponta Zavora, southern Mozambique, at 590 m depth. Tixier-Durivault (1964) distinguished the species by the low SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 235 rotund anthosteles with eight longitudinal ridges, long tubular anthocodia and neck zones strongly impregnated with sclerites of tuberculated spindles, some curved and up to 0,26 mm long. Some sclerites of the stolons may be club- shaped. The species has apparently not been recorded since the original description. Clavularia spp. ~ Remarks Material assignable to the genus Clavularia, representing perhaps two or three species, has recently been collected in False Bay (western Cape), Algoa Bay (southern Cape), off the Transkei Coast, and Sodwana Bay, at 6-490 m (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b). Because of the uncertain status of many of the species described in this genus and the present unavailability of. certain specimens for examination, it is not possible to identify this material to species level. Part of the material may be conspecific with species already described for southern Africa and part may represent undescribed species. Tixier-Durivault (1954: 124, figs 1-2) identified material from a shore station at Port St Johns (Transkei coast) as Clavularia capensis (Studer, 1879). Examination of Tixier-Durivault’s material has shown that this material actually represents an undetermined species of Clavularia and cannot be aligned with Studer’s Anthelia capensis. Material conspecific with that of Tixier-Durivault has recently been collected from the sublittoral coral reefs of Sodwana Bay, 12—20 m in depth (Williams 1989a, in press 5). Remarks on the genus Clavularia Approximately 40 species have been described world-wide. Many of the original descriptions lack sufficient detail to clearly assign diagnostic features. Thus accurate determination of material to species is very difficult. A revision of the genus, involving a detailed comparison of available type material, is needed. Genus Bathytelesto Bayer, 1981a Telesto (Telesto) Wright & Studer, 1889: 260 (part.). Telesto Laackmann, 1908: 41 (part.). Kikenthal, 1913: 229 (part.). Deichmann, 1936: 40 (part.). Bathytelesto Bayer, 1981a: 884. Williams, 1989b: 622. Diagnosis Secondary polyps sometimes arise from walls of primary polyps. Antho- steles long and slender, flaring slightly toward distal ends; walls composed of inseparably fused tuberculate sclerites. Proximal portion of anthostele cavity may or may not be filled with spiculiferous mesogleal intrusive material. Base of anthostele without calcareous lattices. Two species, one from the northern Atlantic and one from the south- western Indian Ocean. 256 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Type species. Telesto rigida Wright & Studer, 1889, by subsequent designation; Azores. Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 1989b Figs 2-3 Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 1989b: 622-632, text-figs 1-5, pls 1-3. Material SAM-H3747, off Sandy Point, Transkei (32°39,2'’S 28°45,2'E), 450 m, 14 July 1984, many polyps attached to sponge and dead coral, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). H3748, off Rame Head, Transkei (31°50,0'S 29°22,7'E), 65-70 m, 15 July 1982, several polyps attached to bits of shell, dredge, coll. Natal Museum (R.V. Meiring Naude). H3749, off East London (33°10,3’S 28°06,2’E), 100 m, 17 July 1984, several polyps attached to rock, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). H3750, off Sandy Point, Transkei (32°39,2’S 28°45,2'’E), 450 m, 14 July 1984, many polyps attached to sponge, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description The polyps examined range from 5—13 mm in length, 1 mm in width at the base and 1,5—2,0 mm in width at distal end. Anthosteles are clavate or trumpet- shaped, straight, curved or bent. Primary polyps with or without secondary polyps budding from anthostelar walls. Stolons flattened, encrusting surface of rocks sponges, dead corals, or shells. Wall of polyp tube brittle and inflexible; composed of inseparably fused sclerites that do not disassociate in concentrated sodium hypochlorite. Free and partially fused sclerites are highly irregular in shape and variously tuberculated, mostly rods, spindles, and antlers. Antho- codiae are capable of complete retraction into anthosteles and have 8 strong interseptal points, and slender and sparsely thorny spindles arranged more-or- less longitudinally; no crown is developed. Free sclerites up to 0,3 mm in length. Basal region of polyp tube filled with a matrix of intrusive mesogleal material containing partially fused, branched sclerites; no calcareous tubules or canals present. Colour of colonies white or greyish-white to brownish-white. Distribution Presently known only from the eastern Cape, Transkei, and Natal coasts of South Africa, depth 65—450 m. Type locality is Transkei. Remarks The species differs from Bathytelesto rigida (Wright & Studer, 1889) and Rhodelinda gardineri (Gohar, 1940) by the following combination of charac- teristics: highly irregular form of the free sclerites, possession of spiculiferous mesogleal matrix in the proximal region of the gastric cavities, possession of secondary and tertiary polyps in some colonies, and anthocodia with 8 strong SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 257 interseptal points, sclerites arranged longitudinally, crown not evident. Bathytelesto rigida is known from west of the Azores at 3 064 m, whereas R. gardineri has been collected from Subantarctic islands (Tristan, Gough, and Macquarie), 40-180 m in depth. See Williams (1989) for a discussion of problems in distinguishing the several genera related to Bathytelesto. Fig. 2. Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 1989b. A. Colony growing on a dead coral fragment; total length of figure 20mm. B. Single anthostele with anthocodia retracted, proximal portion of anthostele cut longitudinally to reveal internal structure; total length of figure 10 mm. C. Transverse section through base of anthostele showing a non-partitioned gastric cavity filled with spiculiferous mesogleal matrix; total diameter of figure 1 mm. D. Three sclerites from the spiculiferous mesogleal matrix. E. Free and partly fused sclerites from the anthostele .and interior of stolon. Scale bar for D-E=0,2 mm. F. Two anthocodial sclerites; scale bar=1,0 mm. Abbreviations: aw—anthostelar wall, g—gonad, gc—gastric cavity, mf—mesenterial filament, ph—pharynx, s—stolon, smm-—spiculiferous mesogleal matrix. 258 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Genus Scyphopodium Bayer, 1981a non Cyathopodium Verrill, 1868: 415. Cyathopodium Madsen, 1944: 11. Scyphopodium Bayer, 1981a: 880. Remarks The genus was named by Bayer (1981a: 880) to accommodate the species Cyathopodium ingolfi Madsen (1944: 12), since Cyathopodium Verrill, 1868, applies to a different genus. Apparently monospecific and widespread, known from the North Atlantic, Mediterranean, and South Africa, from 500 m to over 1 000 m in depth. Scyphopodium ingolfi (Madsen, 1944) Cyathopodium ingolfi Madsen, 1944: 12, figs 9-14. Scyphopodium ingolfi Bayer, 1981a: 881, fig. 2. Material SAM-—H3795, off Leven Point, northern Natal (27°59,5'S 32°40,8’E), 550 m, 22 May 1976, heavy dredge, coll. S.A. Museum (R.V. Meiring Naude). Determinations by F. M. Bayer and H. Zibrowius. Description According to Madsen (1944) and Bayer (1981a), the species is characterized by rigid encrusting stolons and cylindrical anthosteles usually less than 5 mm in height with rigid body walls composed of fused, branching sclerites. Basal portion of anthostele with 8 longitudinal canals formed by thin calcareous septae. Canals filled with intrusion of fused sclerites. Upper part of anthostele and anthocodia with free sclerites of tuberculated rods and crosses less than 0,1 mm in length. Colour white. Distribution The species is reported from the Azores, Crete, Iceland, Agulhas Bank south of Knysna (Cape Province), and northern Natal, South Africa (Bayer 198la: 883; Williams in press a). Type locality is south of Iceland. Remarks _- The proximal portion of a single anthostele and part of a stolon (SAM-—H3795) attached to the base of a dried skeleton of the solitary sclerac- tinian coral, Trochocyathus rawsonii (sensu Gardiner 1904, non Pourtales, 1874) (SAM-—H3191), is held in the SAM collection. This partial specimen is insuffi- cient material to give an adequate description of the species. (See Bayer (1981a: 881) and Madsen (1944: 11) for detailed descriptions and figures.) SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrographs of Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 1989b. A. A single anthostele, 3,0 mm in length, with anthocodia removed. B. Same, showing under- view of stolon. C. Another anthostele, 4,6 mm in length. D-H. Free anthostelar sclerites. D. 0,15 mm. E. 0,054 mm. F. 0,10 mm. G. 0,15 mm. H. Both 0,13 mm. 260 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Subfamily Sarcodictyinae Bayer, 198la Polyp calyces low, often retracting almost completely into stolons; or calyces non-retractile, conical to tall cylindrical. Polyps do not bud secondary lateral polyps. Sclerites often slightly flattened to plate-like. Five genera. Genus Sarcodictyon Forbes, in Johnston, 1847 Evagora Philippi, 1842: 36. Kikenthal, 1916: 458. Molander, 1929a: 40. non Evagora Péron & Lesueur, 1810 (Hydrozoa). Laporte & Gory, 1839 (Coleoptera). Sarcodictyon Forbes, in Johnston, 1847: 179. Hickson, 1930: 210 (part.). Deichmann, 1936: 37. Bayer, 1956: F184: 198la: 885. Manuel, 1981: 36. Rolandia Lacaze Duthiers, 1900: 424. Weinberg, 1978: 166. Diagnosis Polyps retractile into stolons forming rounded or conical protuberances. Stolons narrow, often forming reticulating network. Sclerites often somewhat flattened six-radiates or tuberculated rods and crosses. Anthocodial sclerites sparse or absent. A genus of perhaps 7 species, Atlantic and Indo-Pacific. Type species. Sarcodictyon roseum Philippi, 1842 (by subsequent desig- nation); Europe. z Remarks Several examples have recently been collected off the Transkei coast between 240 m and 360 m depth. The reticulating stolons encrust hard objects such as shells, coral rubble and rock. Expanded polyps up to 5 mm in height, cylindrical. Sclerites are six-radiates and rods, very few crosses present. Colour reddish-orange. The southern African species is indeterminable at present as pertinent titer: ature sources are unavailable. It differs markedly from S. catenatum of the Atlantic and S. roseum from the Mediterranean by possessing a very low pro- portion of cross-shaped sclerites. This study establishes the first record of the genus for southern Africa. Genus Scleranthelia Studer, 1878 Scleranthelia Studer, 1878: 137. Molander, 1929: 29. Aurivillius, 1931: 33. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 19. Bayer, 1981a: 890. Skleranthelia Studer, 1879: 634. Bayer, 1956: F200. Diagnosis Calyces rigid non-retractile; conical, cylindrical, or tubular. Anthocodia completely retractile. Stolons often reticulate or membranous. Stolons and calyces covered with large pavement-like layer of contiguous, often flattened, plate-like sclerites. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 261 Two species of the Mediterranean, north Atlantic, and south-western Indian oceans. Type species. Sarcodictyon rugosum Pourtales, 1867 (by subsequent desig- nation); Cuba, 494 m in depth. Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a | Figs 4—5 ; non Skleranthelia musiva Studer, 1879: 634. Bayer, 1956: F200. non Scleranthelia musiva (Studer, 1879) Thomson, 1921: 153, text-fig. 1, pl. 5 (fig. 1). Scleranthelia sp. indet. Molander, 1929a: 29. Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a: 207-218, figs 1-8. Material SAM-—H3687, off East London, eastern Cape Province (33°10,3’S 28°06,2'E), 100 m, 17 July 1984, many polyps attached to coral and sponge rubble, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Mature colonies consist of many crowded polyps arising from band-like or spreading stolons. Calyces rigid, conical, cylindrical, to elongate-tubular, up to 15 mm in length and 3 mm in width. Anthocodiae completely retractile into calyces. Surface of calyces covered with a mosaic of close-fitting (but not fused) plate-like sclerites, 0,5—1,6 mm long. Abcalicular surface usually with rounded protuberances <0,1 mm in diameter. Calicular surface usually densely covered with minute prickly tubercles. Anthocodiae possess narrow rod-like sclerites with sparse rounded tubercles; sclerites 0,20—0,45 mm long. Proximal region of gastric cavities contain a matrix of mesogleal material and numerous unfused irregular and thorny sclerites 0,16—0,32 mm long. These sclerites may be found sparsely impregnating the gastric cavity wall of the calyx and underlying the pavement-like plates of the stolons. Entire surface of calyces and stolons covered with a thin, brownish, horn-like cuticle. Colour of colonies dull yellow- ish to pinkish-tan or brownish or greyish-white. Distribution East London to Durban, 85-340 m in depth (Williams in press a); probably endemic to southern Africa. Recorded from Tulear, Madagascar by Tixier- Durivault (1966, 1972): an examination of this material is necessary to validate its status. Type locality Gonubie, eastern Cape Province. Subfamily Telestinae Bayer, 198la Primary polyps tall and cylindrical, often with secondary polyps budding laterally; with monopodial branching. Sclerites are thorny, slender rods and spindles or robust, coarsely tuberculated spindles. Four genera. 262 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Genus Carijoa F. Miller, 1867 Carijoa F. Miller, 1867: 330. Diagnosis — Axial region of colony interior hollow. Primary polyp long and thin with many lateral secondary polyps. Sclerites are thorny, slender rods and spindles, often branched. Some sclerites may be fused forming clumps. Colour whitish. Several species of primarily tropical distribution. Type species. Carijoa rupicola F. Miller, 1867 (by original designation). Remarks Telesto arborea Wright & Studer, 1889, has been recorded by Tixier- Durivault (1954: 126; 1960: 359) from southern Natal to Inhaca Island, Mozam- bique, and by Day (1974: 33) from Port Shepstone, Natal, to Inhambane, Mozambique. However, recently collected material from 52 m depth off Dur- ban, and other material labelled Telesto arborea and T. trichostemma (Dana, 1846) in the South African Museum collection, all possess characteristics common to the genus Carijoa (as defined by Bayer 19816: 906): slender, branch- ing sclerites of the calyx body wall with some sclerites fused forming clumps; sclerites with thorns or prickles; colony colour white. . The two generic names Telesto_and Carijoa, have often been applied to the same species by various authors, whereas Wright & Studer (1889: 262) consid- ered Carijoa as a subgenus of Telesto. According to Bayer (19816: 906), Telesto differs from Carijoa by having robust, blunt spindles, often with ornamentation of outer surface rounded or smooth, and with coarser tuberculation on the opposite surface; walls of axial polyp with one ring of solenia; colony colour reddish to orange. Because of the need for a revision of these taxa, it is at present not tenable to identify this material to species. The present study establishes a new record of the genus for southern Africa. Genus Telestula Madsen, 1944 Telestula Madsen, 1944: 16. Bayer, 1956: F186. Diagnosis Polyps long and tubular. Base of calyx interior filled with mesogleal intrusion material mixed with sclerites. Polyps commonly solitary but may bud lateral secondary polyps. Stolons may form multi-layered platforms or sheets. Four species of northern Europe, West Indies, and Indo-Pacific. Type species. Telestula septentrionalis Madsen, 1944 (by original desig- nation); Iceland. Remarks Material recently collected from the Transkei coast at 460 m depth is assignable to this genus. The largest anthostele is 25 mm long and 2,5 mm OO ——— L/S SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 263 wide. The stolon encrusts the surface of a rock and forms a broadened expansion 6 mm in width from which four cylindrical anthosteles arise. The interior of the base of one polyp examined is densely filled with a spiculiferous mesogleal matrix. Sclerites of the body wall are slender to broad spindles or oval plates 0,12-0,54 mm in length, thickly set with coarse tubercles. Colour of colony brownish. Fig. 4. Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a. A. An entire colony; scale bar=10mm. B. A single anthostele with anthocodia retracted, 12 mm length. C. Three anthocodial sclerites. D. Four sclerites from the spiculiferous mesogleal matrix contained in the basal interior of the polyps. C-—D. Scale bar =0,2 mm. E. Five plate-like sclerites from anthostelar wall, sclerite at left shows outer surface, other four sclerites show inner surface; scale bar = 0,5 mm. 264 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrographs of Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a. A—C. Three plates from the calyx wall showing the inner surface. A. 0,95 mm. B. 1,14 mm. C. 0,9 mm. D. Detail of inner surface from a calicular plate; total length of micrograph = 0,22 mm. E. A calicular plate showing the outer surface; 0,9 mm in length. F. Detail of outer surface of a calicular plate; total length of micrograph = 0,165 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 265 This study represents the first record of the genus to the southern African region. The material has at present not been identified to species as not all pertinent literature sources are presently available. Family Tubiporidae Ehrenberg, 1828 Polyps with lateral connections of multi-layered stolons or transverse _ platforms, placed at regular or irregular intervals. Anthocouia retractile. Two genera of the Indo-Pacific. Genus Tubipora Linnaeus, 1758 Tubipora Linnaeus, 1758: 789. Bayer, 1956: F184. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 22. Diagnosis Anthocodia retractile into calcareous, tubular anthostele. Anthostele walls form rigid tubes of solidly fused sclerites. Polyp tubes joined laterally by an elevated series of transverse platforms that contain solenia. Sclerites of antho- codia free to partly fused; mostly tuberculate spindles. Colonies form rounded clumps. Colour red to reddish-violet. A monotypic genus of the Indo-Pacific. Type species. Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758 (by monotypy); Indo- Pacific. Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758 Fig. 6 Remarks Characters of the genus. A variable species. Beach-worn skeletons of the organ-pipe coral may be encountered washed ashore in Mozambique and possibly Natal. Living material has been observed at Santa Carolina, Mozam- bique (G. M. Branch pers. comm.). The diameter of the tubes ranges from 0,7 to 2,0 mm. Distance between adjacent platforms may vary from 5 to 10 mm. Branch & Branch (1981: 151) reported the species as being commonly washed ashore on southern African beaches. Family Coelogorgiidae Bayer, 1981a Polyps contractile, but not retractile. Polyps not divided into delimited anthocodia and anthostele. Stolon reduced to a spreading holdfast. Colour white. Monogeneric. Genus Coelogorgia Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857 Coelogorgia Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857: 191. Bayer, 1956: F186. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 24. 266 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Diagnosis Colonies bushy, arborescent. Axial polyps very long. Lateral polyps short and numerous. Axial regions of colonies hollow. Primary polyp wall thickened and penetrated by numerous solenia. Sclerites are tuberculated spindles, some club-shaped. Presumably a monotypic genus; western Indian Ocean. Type species. Coelogorgia palmosa Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857 (by monotypy); Indian Ocean. Coelogorgia palmosa Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857 Remarks Tixier-Durivault (1960: 359) recorded this species from Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique. Tixier-Durivault (1972: 17) listed it from Zanzibar, -Inhaca, Aldabra (Seychelles), and Madagascar. The species is not known from any Other southern African locality. Family Alcyoniidae Lamouroux, 1812 Colonies membranous or fleshy and upright. Polyps monomorphic or dimorphic; placed singly, not joined into catkins or clusters. Sclerites usually present; most commonly spindles although radiates, capstans, rods, needles, and clubs also occur. About 15 genera of cosmopolitan distribution, very common in the Indo- Pacific. Genus Acrophytum Hickson, 1900 Acrophytum Hickson, 1900: 74. Bayer, 1981b: 913. Diagnosis Colonies digitiform: unbranched, finger-like. Stalk length usually less than one-half of total length. Polypary conical, elongate, tapering distally with rounded terminus. Polyps dimorphic. Sclerites are primarily tuberculated clubs, or club-shaped spindles, coarsely warty, up to 0,35 mm long. Sclerites dense in surface coenenchyme of polyparium and stalk, sparse or absent in the interior. A monotypic genus of the southern and eastern coast of South Africa. Type species. Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900 (by monotypy); South Africa. Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900 Figs 7-8 Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900: 74, pl. 4 (figs 4, 4’). Thomson, 1921: 170; 1923: 47, 69. - Broch, 1939: 11. Bayer, 1956: 188. Alderslade, 1985: 105, figs 1-6. Metalcyonium natalensis Thomson, 1910: 559, pl. 1 (fig. 2), pl. 3 (figs 15, 18), pl. 4 (fig. 39a—c). SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Fig. 6. Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758. A. Lateral view of a beach-worn skeleton of a colony; length of photograph=105 mm. B. Dorsal view of same; length of photo- graph = 95 mm. 268 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Material SAM-H967 (paralectotype), Algoa Bay (33°53'15"S 25°51'43"E), 47 m, 6 December 1898, 1 colony, coll. not known. SAM-—H910, off Great Fish Point, eastern Cape Province (33°30'S 27°10’E), 64 m, 20 May 1905, 2 colonies, large trawl, coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18703. SAM-—H911, off Cove Rock south-west of East London (33°06'S 27°49’E), 36-55 m, 6 June 1905, 1 colony, large trawl, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18706. SAM-—H1039, off Great Fish Point (33°30'S 27°10'E), 64 m, 20 May 1905, 1 colony, large trawl, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18703. Description Colonies examined are up to 150 mm in length. The stalk varies from one fourth to one-half total colony length, but commonly less than one third. Col- onies digitiform, tapering distally, apex rounded. Sharp demarcation between -polyparium and stalk. Polyparium elongate-conical or finger-like. Polyps dimorphic although siphonozooids may not be apparent in smaller or tightly contracted colonies <70mm in length. Autozooids completely retractile. Calyces absent. Extended autozooids approximately 6 mm in length. Siphono- zooids between two adjacent autozooids often about five in number in colonies >70 mm, and often up to 1,0 mm in height. Polyps numerous and completely covering polyparium, evenly distributed. Anthocodial sclerites apparently absent. Oral surface of tentacles covered with several rows of pinnules, appearing clustered in contracted specimens. Surface of colony densely spiculated. Interior coenenchyme with very few irregularly-shaped rod-like sclerites and spindles, or internal sclerites totally absent. Sclerites of the polyparium are tuberculated clubs, 0,17—-0,35 mm in length. Tubercles mostly large, prickly to rounded and almost smooth. Sclerites of stalk are also mainly clubs but are more pronounced with spheroid heads, 0,20—0,35 mm long, tubercles numerous. Colony colour in life light mauve-purple with flesh-coloured polyps and brownish stalk. In alcohol, colour fades to dull brownish. Distribution Apparently endemic to South Africa; Cape St Francis and Algoa Bay to Port Durnford, Natal; depth range 30-146 m (Williams in press a). Type locality is Algoa Bay. Remarks | The genus Minabea Utinomi, 1957, is known from the western Pacific (Japan and the Australian Great Barrier Reef). Two species are described at present. Species of Minabea are also digitiform and dimorphic. The genus differs from Acrophytum by possessing surface sclerites of double heads or double stars and capstans, and interior sclerites of capstans and narrow spindles. | SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 269 E ae fe = & i Fig. 7 Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900. A. Colony with exerted autozooids. B. Colony with retracted autozooids. A—B. Scale bar = 30 mm. C. Detail of polyparium surface showing autozooids, siphonozooids, and sclerites; scale bar = 2 mm. D. Sclerites from the polyparium. E. Sclerites from the stalk. D-E. Scale bar=0,3 mm. Abbreviations: a—autozooid, s—siphonozooid, sc—sclerite. 270 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ee GEE LOTT By Y Yui Lg Ly Fig. 8. Scanning electron micrographs of Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900. A—G. Clubs from the surface of the polyparium. A. 0,58 mm. B. 0,42 mm. C. 0,3 mm. D. 0,27 mm. E. 0,39 mm. F. 0,36mm. G. 0,37 mm. H-I. Clubs from the surface of the stalk. H. 0,22 mm. I. 0,17 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA PFA Dimorphism in smaller colonies of Acrophytum claviger is usually not apparent. It may be that siphonozooids are present only in large colonies, where greater facility of internal water circulation is needed, or that siphonozooids develop in large breeding colonies only. Colonies less than 70 mm in length that are apparently monomorphic are distinguished by the lack of non-retractile calyces, sclerites that are clubs (<0,35 mm long) densely distributed in the surface layer of the polyparium, and stalk and internal sclerites very sparse or altogether absent. : | Genus Alcyonium Linnaeus, 1758 Alcyonium Linnaeus, 1758: 803. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 28. Manuel, 1981: 40. Parerythropodium Kikenthal, 1916: 461. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 101. Manuel, 1981: 44. Diagnosis Colonial growth form highly variable: colony may be upright, with a definite basal stalk, and with a multi-lobed, digitate, capitate, digitiform, or disc- shaped polyparium; or colony prostrate, without a definite stalk, with a membranous to encrusting or globular polyparium. Polyps monomorphic. Sclerites are often tuberculate spindles; capstans, rods, clubs, and needles also common. | A cosmopolitan genus of many species. Type species. Alcyonium digitatum Linnaeus, 1758. Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988 Figs 9-10 Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988: 2-7, figs 1-4. Material SAM-—H3910, off Cape St Francis, Cape Province (34°16’'S 24°50’E), 35 m, 15 January 1986, one whole colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM-—H3909 (paratype), same data as SAM-3910. SAM-—H3911, off Cape Agulhas, Cape Province (34°52’S 20°05’E), 54m, 23 February 1985, single colony cut longitudinally into two halves, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved (Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey). Description Colonies examined measure 30-50 mm in height and 30-60 mm_ in diameter. Colonial growth form is lobate. Stalk short and thick (10-15 mm in height and 30-40 mm in diameter). Polyparium with 2—5 main branches that further ramify distally to produce rounded, swollen or spheroid terminal lobes (5-12 mm long). Polyps concentrated on lobes, sparse on surfaces of branches. Polyps usually preserved exerted (1-2 mm in length), but capable of total retraction into polyparium. Calyces absent. Sclerites restricted to the surface region of the stalk, absent from all other parts of colony. Sclerites are DID ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM tuberculate spheroids, some approaching barrels or eight-radiates, 0,08— 0,15 mm in length. Colony colour vivid purple in life, fading to cream or brownish-white in alcohol. Distribution The species is known only from the south coast of South Africa—Cape Agulhas and Cape St Francis, 35-54 m in depth (Williams 1988; in press a); apparently endemic to southern Africa. Type locality is Cape St Francis. Fig. 9. Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988. A. An entire colony, 46 mm in height. _B. Paratype specimen cut longitudinally to reveal internal structure; height of specimen 52 mm. C. Four sclerites from the surface of the stalk; scale bar = 0,1 mm. Abbreviations: gc—gastric cavity, s—sclerites. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Fig. 10. Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. A. 0,13 mm. B. 0,13 mm. C. 0,10 mm. D. 0,10 mm, 0,14 mm and 0,11 mm. E. 0,09 mm. F. 0,14 mm. 274 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Remarks _ This species is distinguished from other southern African Alcyonium species by the possession of lobate growth form and the restriction of sclerites to the surface region of the stalk. Alcyonium elegans (Kikenthal, 1902) comb. nov. Figs 11-12 Anthomastus elegans Kikenthal, 1902: 301; 1906: 64, pl. 2 (figs 6-7), pl. 11 (figs 63-66); 1910: 8. Thomson, 1921: 169; 1923: 48, 70. Jungersen, 1927: 13. Material SAM-—H3802, Shixini Point, Transkei (32°31,2'S 28°52,2’E), 300 m, 11 July 1984, several colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM—H3803, Mendu Point, Transkei (32°21,8’S 29°00,0’E), 300 m, 12 July 1984, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H3804, Stony Point, Transkei (32°38,9'S 28°45,0’E), 360 m, 12 July 1984, several colonies, dredge coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-—H3805, Qolora River, Transkei (32°47,2’S 28°36,2'E), 290-300 m, 14 July 1984, several colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). - Description Colonies examined range in length from 4 mm to 18 mm. Colonies are attached to pieces of coral rubble, small stones, or shell fragments by flattened lobate extensions of the proximal region of the stalk, forming an often elaborate holdfast. Stalk broad and often compressed, giving rise to the distal polyparium. Polyps restricted to distal terminus of colony. Polyps large, conspicuous, up to 6 mm in length and usually numbering <12 per colony. Calyces absent. Polyps capable of total retraction into polyparium. Polyps heavily impregnated with finely tuberculated sclerites. Anthocodiae with crown and points of slender spindles or needles <0,30 mm long. Shorter rod-like sclerites are also present. These are often curved with ends drawn out to needle-like points. Sclerites of polyparium and stalk are capstans and some double stars, usually <0,11 mm long. Gastric cavity walls impregnated with stout capstan-like spindles and also slender spindles approximately 0,10 mm in length. Stalk white or rose, polyps rose to deep red; colour due to permanent pigmentation of sclerites. Distribution Apparently endemic to southern Africa—Agulhas Bank, Transkei and southern Natal, depth 126-360 m (Williams in press a). Type locality is the region of the Agulhas Bank, south-east of Cape Agulhas. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 2D SNE SABES DUS EDS ee Fig. 11. Alcyonium elegans (Kikenthal, 1902). A. Colony growing on a stone; total height of figure 15,5 mm. B. Polyp-bearing distal region of a colony cut longitudinally to reveal internal structure; total height of figure = 6,2 mm. C. Sclerites from crown and points of anthocodia. D. Stalk sclerites. C-D. Scale bar =0,1 mm. Abbreviations: a—anthocodia, c—crown, g—gonad, gc—gastric cavity, ic—interior coenenchyme, mf—mesenterial filament, p—points, ra— retracted anthocodia, sc—surface coenenchyme. ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Yate y ihe ey SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA DTT Remarks Kikenthal (1902) originally described this species in the genus Anthomastus in spite of the fact that he did not detect the presence of siphonozooids, believing his material to be young colonies. Anthomastus is characterized by having dimorphic polyps and capitate colony shape with capitulum sharply delimited from stalk. The present species is neither markedly capitate nor _ dimorphic. Jungersen (1927: 13) first pointed out that this species was wrongly placed in the genus Anthomastus since siphonozooids are absent and because the body shape differed significantly from other members of the genus. He also pointed out that in very young colonies of Anthomastus grandiflorus, distinct siphonozooids are evident. Jungersen therefore suggested that Kukenthal’s species be excluded from Anthomastus but did not propose an alternative. I have examined several whole specimens and sectioned colonies and have found no indication of siphonozooids either externally or internally. I therefore believe them to be monomorphic. At least two members of the genus Alcyonium possess polyps restricted to the distal terminal regions of unilobate, unbranched colonies: A. complanatum Verseveldt, 1977, and A. planiceps Williams, 1986a. The nature of the sclerites (capstans in the coenenchyme and needles in the polyps) are similar in shape and distribution to those of other Alcyonium species such as A. variabile (Thomson, 1921). I therefore believe that the present species can be accommodated in the morphologically diverse genus Alcyonium. Superficially A. elegans most closely resembles A. clavatum Studer, 1901, which was originally described from 318 m depth off the Azores. However, the latter apparently lacks sclerites of eight-radiates (capstans) in the stalk, which are common in A. elegans. Alcyonium elegans differs from other southern African Alcyonium species by the restriction of polyps to the distal terminus of the colony, anthocodial sclerites that are mostly spindles, and stalk sclerites that are mostly capstans. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910 sensu lato Figs 1B, I, 13-15 non Alcyonium purpureum Lamarck, 1836: 608. Alcyonium purpureum (non Lamarck, 1836: 608) Hickson, 1904: 215, pl. 7 (fig. 1), pl. 9 (fig. 18). Thomson, 1921: 156; 1923: 47, 68. Day et al., 1970: 15. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910: 568, pl. 1 (fig. 5), pl. 3 (figs 16, 24, 25), pl. 4 (fig. 44); 1923: 47, 68. Liittschwager, 1922: 535. Broch, 1939: 8. Alcyonium fallax Littschwager, 1922: 534 (nom. nov). Parerythropodium purpureum: Day, 1974: 34, fig. p. 34. Branch & Branch, 1981: 152, pls 34, 37. Parerythropodium wilsoni (non Thomson, 1921: 160): Day, 1974: 34. Parerythropodium wilsoni (non Thomson, 1921: 160): Branch & Branch, 1981: 152. Fig. 12. (see opposite.) Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium elegans (Kiikenthal, 1902). A-F. Anthocodial sclerites. A. 0,14 mm. B. 0,215 mm. C. 0,27 mm. D. 0,09 mm. E. 0,135 mm. F. 0,31 mm. G-—J. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. G. 0.06 mm. H. 0,065 mm. I. 0,09 mm. J. 0,05 mm. 278 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 13. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910. A. Two membranous colonies growing on axes of dead gorgonians; longest linear dimensions of figures 48 mm (left) and 75 mm (right). B. Digitate colony, 52 mm in height. C. Lobate colony, 33 mm in height. D. Two capitate colonies, 12 mm in height (left) and 4mm in height (right). E. Globular colony, 11 mm in height. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 279 Fig. 14. Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910. A-C. Variation in sclerite content of anthocodiae from three different colonies; all anthocodiae 2mm in _ length. A. Sclerites dense. B. Sclerites sparse. C. Sclerites absent. D. Coenenchymal sclerites; scale bar = 0,3 mm. 280 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Material SAM-—H3712, Algoa Bay near Port Elizabeth (33°50'S 25°41'E), 15-16 m, 16 August 1980, large colony encrusting dead gorgonian axis, trawl, coll. W. R. Liltved (R.V. T.B. Davie). SAM-—H3328, Algoa Bay (33°0'S 25°40’E), 11 m, 20 May 1984, 3 colony fragments encrusting hard objects, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM—H3330, Algoa Bay (33°50’S 25°40’E), 11 m, 15 May 1984, several fragments, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-—H3168, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S 18°21’E), 13-16 m, 18 August 1983, one large colony, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM—H3772, Malgas Island (33°03'S 17°56'E), intertidal rock pools, 26-29 September 1983, one small colony, coll. S. L. Burke. SAM-—H3773, Buffels Bay, False Bay (34°19’S 18°28’E), 6-10 m, 17-18 March 1984, several colonies on dead gorgonian axis, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-—H3774, Sunny Cove, False Bay (34°09’S 18°27'E), 7 m, 17 February 1985, 2 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. Description Growth form highly variable; colonies may be membranous, globular to capitate, or lobate; often asymmetrical. Entire colony often covered with polyps. Sometimes there is a clear demarcation between base and polyparium, distinct stalk rarely well defined. Polyps generally <8 mm in length, completely retractile into coenenchyme. Sclerites numerous and dense in surface coenen- chyme, sparse to dense in between gastric cavities of the interior. Sclerite distri- bution in polyps highly variable. In some colonies polyp sclerites are very scarce or totally absent. Other colonies have polyps with dense sclerites in the proximal region forming eight contiguous longitudinal bands resembling a calyx. Amount of sclerites in the anthocodiae also varies greatly: some may be devoid of sclerites, whereas others may contain numerous sclerites of the neck zone and bases of tentacles, forming eight points. Sclerites are tuberculated to thorny spindles and capstans with varying numbers of globular or ovoid spheroids and radiates. Some spindles may be distinctly clubbed. Most sclerites do not exceed 0,25 mm in length. Colony colour extremely variable; often vivid purple, but can be pink, white, golden yellow, orange, or dark smoke-grey to dark brown. Sclerites are white or somewhat translucent. Some colonies may be mottled with two colours such as purple and white. The purple pigment is alcohol-soluble and varies from magenta or red-purple to blue-purple. Distribution Endemic to southern Africa; known from Saldanha Bay on the west coast, to Richard’s Bay in Natal; littoral to 90 m in depth (Williams in press a). This is one of the most common and conspicuous octocorals of the rocky intertidal and shallow sublittoral of southern Africa. Type locality Cape St Blaize near Mossel Bay. Remarks Hickson (1904) erroneously determined Alcyonium purpureum from Mossel Bay, South Africa. Thomson (1910) described A. fauri from Cape St Blaize, SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Fig. 15. Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910; coenenchymal sclerites. A. 0,17 mm. B. 0,18 mm. C. 0,28 mm. D. 0,175 mm. E. 0,21 mm. F. 0,24 mm. G. Detail of surface tuberculation from a single sclerite; total length of graph = 0,052 mm. H. Detail of surface tuberculation from sclerite shown in F; total length of micrograph = 0,054 mm. micro- 282 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM South Africa. However, Liittschwager (1922), not recognizing that Thomson’s and Hickson’s material were conspecific, applied the new name, A. fallax, since A. purpureum was found to be used previously by Lamarck (1836) for a species from Australia. Broch (1939: 8) observed many intergrading features and considered A. purpureum of Hickson and A. fauri to be conspecific, thus eliminating the need for the name A. fallax. I agree with Broch and consider A. purpureum of Hickson and A. fallax as synonyms of A. fauri. The genus Parerythropodium was described by Kikenthal (1916) for membranous or encrusting forms. Day (1974) and Branch & Branch (1981) used the name P. purpureum for the South African species. Groot & Weinberg (1982) showed the type species of the genus Parerythropodium to be inseparable from Alcyonium, therefore the former must be considered congeneric with the latter. Alcyonium fauri is perhaps the most highly variable soft coral species in southern Africa. Groot & Weinberg (1982) described the extreme degree of variability found in Alcyonium coralloides from Europe. Like A. coralloides, A. fauri is highly variable not only in regard to colour but also in colonial growth form, size, and sclerite distribution. Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921, and A. wilsoni Thomson, 1921, are superficially similar species (see remarks for A. wilsoni). Membranous colonies may grow on a variety of hard or soft substrata—the axes of dead gorgonians, rocks, coral rubble, worm tubes, sponges, or algal stipes and holdfasts are common. Lobate colonies may be erect and upright or with lobes lying prostrate adjacent to substratum. Globular or capitate colonies may be attached to the surfaces of a variety of hard or firm objects. In February 1984, off Cape Agulhas at 26-36 m depth, SCUBA divers observed the purple membranous form of Alcyonium fauri growing upon the bared axis of living gorgoniids, Eunicella tricoronata Velimirov, 1971. Hughes (1983: 46), in referring to corals of tropical reef regions, stated that colony death can result if naked areas of coral axis are colonized by fouling organisms. In this case, A. fauri appears to act as a fouling organism. Some living colonies of E. tri- coronata were observed to be almost entirely covered by purple, encrusting to lobate growths of A. fauri (W. R. Liltved and A. Penny pers. comm.). Alcyonium fauri is distinguished from other southern African Alcyonium species by the possession of robust, ovoid to subspheroid spindles with coarse tuberculation. Some of the spindles may be slightly clubbed. Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921 Figs 16, 17A-E Alcyonium (Erythropodium) foliatum Thomson, 1921: 158, fig. 2; 1923: 47, 50, 69. Material SAM-HS561 (holotype), off Cape Morgan, border of Cape Province and Transkei (32°45’S 28°20'E), 82 m, 13 August 1901, 1 colony on sponge, dredge, SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 283 coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 13364. SAM-—H3690, off Gonubie, eastern Cape Province (33°04,7'S 28°07,2'E), 90 m, 17 July 1984, 3 colonies on separate sponges, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-—H840, off Umtwalumi River mouth, Natal (30°30’S 30°40’E), 91m, 11 March 1901, 12 colonies on sponges, dredge, coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 12282. Description 2 Colonies membranous on external surface of an unidentified species of clavate sponge. Base of colony often thin (<0,3 mm), and sheet-like. Fig. 16. Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921. A. Colonies growing on two clavate sponges; length of figures = 75 mm (left) and 67 mm (right). B. Coenenchymal sclerites; scale bar = 0,1 mm. 284 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Aggregations of polyps form globular or somewhat digitate polyparies up to 5mm in height and diameter. Some individual polyps arise directly from the membranous base. Retracted polyps <1,0 mm in diameter. Membranous base may form stolon-like bands joining polyparies, or base may form a continuous sheet with swollen aggregations of polyps forming polyparies. Coenenchyme sclerites of the membranous bases and polyparies are predominantly leaf clubs and double heads, 0,07—0,12 mm long. Anthocodiae with crown and points of slender tuberculated spindles, 0,06—0,12 mm in length. Colour of colonies in life: polyparies vivid pinkish-magenta, with membranous bases white to pinkish. Colour fades to cream or brownish-white when preserved. Pigments are alcohol soluble. : Distribution Known only from the above material—the border region between Cape Province and Transkei to the Natal south coast; 82-91 m in depth. Apparently endemic to southern Africa. Type locality is Cape Morgan, border of Cape Province and Transkei. Remarks The host sponges are clavate, upright, unbranched, 45-100 mm in length, with a smooth external surface, and yellowish-grey to tan in colour. Spicules are styles and isochelas. Alcyonium foliatum differs from other southern African members of the genus by the possession of many sclerites that are leaf clubs and double heads. Alcyonium moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954) comb. nov. Figs 17F—H, 18 Nidalia morifera Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 128, figs 3, 4. Eleutherobia rotifera (non Thomson, 1910): Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 36 (part.). Material SAM-H1271, Umhloti River mouth, Natal (29°50’'S 31°15’E), 73 m, 18 December 1900, large dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 10863. SAM-H1581, east of Durban (29°50'S 31°15’E), March 1963, dredge, coll. not known. SAM-—H3826, Park Rynie, Natal (30°20'S 30°51’E), 96 m, 10 July 1984, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-—H3827, Umlaas River, Natal (30°01'S 31°03’E), 100 m, 10 July 1985, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Colonies are digitiform, 3—22 mm in length. Stalk and polypary clearly differentiated, each of approximately equal length. Polyps relatively few and large: <25 per colony and calyces 1,5—2,0 mm in diameter. Polyps uniformly covering surface of polypary, completely retractile. During polyp retraction, SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 285 Fig. 17. Scanning electron micrographs. A-E. Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921; coenen- chymal sclerites. A. 0,1mm. B-D. 0,75 mm. E. 0,12 mm. F-H. Alcyonium moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954); sclerites from the surface of the polyparium. F. 0,09 mm. G. 0,07 mm. H. 0,09 mm. 286 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM calyces may form prominent rounded protuberances on the surface of the polypary, but these are also capable of total retraction into the polyparium, becoming flush with the external surface. Sclerites are dense and numerous in the surface of the polypary, stalk and calyces. Sclerites are present throughout the colony, dense on the surface, fewer and sparser in the interior. All sclerites are globular, tuberculate spheroids resembling the shape of fruits of the mulberry tree (genus Morus, family Moraceae), hence the specific epithet, A. moriferum; they are 0,04—0,09 mm in diameter. Colony colour is yellow or orange with yellow, orange, or red calyces. Distribution Known only from Durban to Cape St Lucia along the Natal north coast, 27-100 m in depth (Tixier-Durivault 1954: 128; Williams in press a); commonly encountered in the Durban region; apparently endemic to the southern African east coast. The collected colonies are attached to pelecypod shells, dead coral fragments, and small stones. Type locality is off St Lucia, northern Natal. Remarks Because the entire polyp including the calyx is capable of complete retraction into the polyparium, this species must be allocated to the genus Alcyonium, as Nidalia possesses firm, projecting calyces. It differs from other southern African Alcyonium species by digitiform growth habit, prominent stalk, and sclerites of tuberculate spheroids. Verseveldt & Bayer (1988: 36) maintained that Nidalia morifera is synonymous with Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910). However, the two species can be differentiated as follows. In the former, the colonies are digitiform, the polyps are capable of complete retraction into the polyparium without retaining permanent calyces, and the sclerites are predominantly tuberculate spheroids without medial waists. In the latter species, the colonies are digitate, the polyps retract into permanent calyces, and sclerites are mostly compact radiates with medial waists. Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988 Figs 19, 20A—D ?Metalcyonium molle (non Burchardt, 1903: 31) Thomson, 1921: 162. Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988: 14-19, figs 11-14. Material — SAM-—H3716, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59’S 18°21’E), 15-18 m, 11 November 1984, 4 whole colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. Description Colonies upright, unbranched, up to 40 mm in length; digitiform when expanded, capitate when contracted. Polyp-bearing distal portion arising from SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 287 prominent stalk. Stalk approximately one-half length of expanded colony. Polyparium and stalk distinctly delimited. Stalk covered with a thin cuticle. Polyps monomorphic, capable of retraction into polyparium. Calyces absent. Sclerites few; thin, flattened rods with little surface ornamentation; 0,06— 0,26 mm long; restricted to neck region of polyps and portion of polyparium Fig. 18. Alcyonium moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954). A. Entire colony with anthocodiae retracted into basal portions of polyps; total colony length 15 mm. B. Entire colony with polyps completely retracted into polyparium; total length of colony 20 mm. C. Coenenchymal sclerites; scale bar = 0,1 mm. 288 | ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 19. Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988. A. Entire colony, contracted, preserved, 12 mm in height. B. Single polyp showing placement of sclerites, length of polyp 1,5 mm. C. Entire colony, expanded in life, 25 mm in height. D. Polyp sclerites; scale bar = 0,2 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 289 surrounding polyps; usually sparsely scattered. Colour of colonies rust-orange in life, reddish-brown in alcohol. Distribution Presently known only from the Atlantic coast of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula, 15—21 m depth (Williams 1988, in press a). a Remarks See Williams (1988) for a discussion of material identified by Thomson (1921) as Metalcyonium molle Burchardt, 1903. Alcyonium mutabiliforme differs from other southern African species in the genus by having only a few thin rod-like sclerites restricted to the regions of the anthocodiae. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a Figs 1F, 20E—J, 21 Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a: 53-63, figs 1-7. Material SAM-—H3280, off Llandudno, Atlantic side of Cape Peninsula (34°01’S 18°20’E), 21 m, 24 January 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-—H3713, off East London, eastern Cape Province (33°06,8’'S 28°04,9’E), 90 m, 17 July 1984, 2 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Colonies examined range in length from 12 to 30 mm. Colonies clavate to . subcapitate, upright and unbranched. Stalk prominent, expanding distally and giving rise to a more-or-less flattened, disc-like polyparium. Polyps completely retractile, and restricted to this terminal disc; <10 mm in length preserved, <20 in number. Calyces absent. Sclerites dense and usually confined to outer coenenchyme of stalk and sides of capitulum; a few may be scattered in surface of polyparium and in the interior coenenchyme at base of stalk. Sclerites are large robust spindles (1,0—2,5 mm in length), finely to coarsely tuberculated. Sclerites evident through transparent cuticular epidermis of stalk. Stalk covered with a rough cuticular envelope upon which epizoic organisms and foreign particles may be attached. Colour in life: polyparium and bases of some polyps rose-purple, magenta, or vivid red-purple; polyps white to cream with bright golden-yellow tentacles; stalk brownish. Pigments are alcohol soluble; preserved colonies fade to greenish-grey or yellowish-brown. Distribution Presumably endemic to southern Africa; known only from the type locality on the Atlantic coast of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula, off Cape St Francis, 290 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 20. Scanning electron micrographs. A-D. Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988; polyp sclerites. A. 0,16 mm. B. 0,18 mm. C. 0,17 mm. D. Detail of surface from a polyp sclerite; total length of micrograph = 0,022 mm. E-J. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a; sclerites from surface of stalk. E. 1,1 mm. F. 1,0 mm. G. Detail from surface of a sclerite with thorny tubercles; total length of portion of sclerite shown=0,185 mm. H. 1,3 mm. I. 1,7 mm. J. Detail from surface of a sclerite with simple tubercles; total length of portion of sclerite shown = 0,25 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 291 and off East London, in the eastern Cape Province; depth range 21-90 m (Williams in press a). Remarks Alcyonium planiceps differs from other southern African members of the genus by the restriction of polyps to the flattened distal terminus of the colony and sclerites that are large robust spindles with varying tuberculations; anthocodial sclerites are absent. ; | PR oe Fig. 21. Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a. A. Entire colony, 30 mm length. B. Sclerites from surface of stalk; scale bar = 1,0 mm. 292 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Alcyonium valdiviae Kikenthal, 1906 Figs 1E, 22-23 Ae valdiviae Kikenthal, 1906: 42, pl. 3 (fig. 11), pl. 8 (figs 39-41). Verseveldt & Williams, 1988: 316, figs 1, 2A, C—D, 3. Alcyonium pachyclados (non Klunzinger, 1877) Hickson, 1900: 72. Thomson, 1910: 570, pl. 2 (fig. 14), pl. 4 (figs 33, 34); 1921: 155-156, pl. 5 (figs 6-8); 1923: 48. Lobularia rutila Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 261, figs 1-3. Material SAM-—H3249 (holotype of Lobularia rutila), off Cape St Lucia, Natal (28°28'S 32°26’E), 27m, 15 May 1948, 1 colony, dredge, coll. University of Cape Town Ecological Survey. SAM—H3732, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Penin- sula (33°59’S 18°21’E), 14m, 22 March 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM—H3822, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S 18°21’E), 23m, 15 June 1983, 5 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM-—H3832, off Cape Agulhas (34°55'S 20°20'E), 54m, 23 February 1985, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved (Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey). SAM-—H3349, off Port Elizabeth, Algoa Bay (33°50’S 25°40’E), 15 m, 14 May 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM—H4201, off Port Durnford (28°58,7'S 32°08,0'E), 52 m, 13 June 1988, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-—H4202, off Jesser Point (Zululand, northern Natal) (27°35,0’S 32°41,8’E), 70 m, 9 June 1987, 1 colony, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Colonies examined are 12-100 mm in diameter and 15-110 mm in height. Stalk conspicuous, relatively thick, variable in length. Tightly contracted col- onies with terminal lobes globular or conical, 4-5 mm in length. Expanded colonies with terminal lobes finger-like, 2-4 mm in diameter and up to 15 mm in length. Terminal lobes numerous, arising from several branches that diverge from distal region of stalk. Polyps numerous and crowded; retracted polyps often form small rounded protuberances on the surface of the polyparium, expanded polyps mostly 0,5 mm in length and diameter preserved. Polyps without conspicuous or permanent calyces but may form hemispherical pro- trusions on the surface of the polyparium when retracted. These protuberances are capable of retraction into the polyparium. Sclerites from surface of lobes are predominantly compact eight-radiates (capstans), 0,040-—0,065 mm in length, with angular or thorny tubercles. A few sclerites are triradiates or modified capstans, approximately 0,035—0,040 mm long. Sclerites of the stalk are also primarily capstans, 0,03—0,05 mm in length, with tubercles markedly angular to deltoid. Colony colour highly variable: white, yellow, pink, orange, orange-red, reddish-brown, deep cherry red or brick red. Some colonies may be bicoloured. Polyps white. Colour is permanent due to sclerite pigmentation, restricted to surface of colony, interior white. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 293 BE OGe Fig. 22. Alcyonium valdiviae Kikenthal, 1906. A—C. Lateral views of three entire colonies. A. 38 mm in height. B. 37 mm in height. C. 55 mm in height. D. Coenenchymal sclerites from the polyparium. E. Stalk sclerites. Scale bars = 0,1 mm. 294 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 23. Scanning electron micrographs of Alcyonium valdiviae Kikenthal, 1906; polyparium sclerites. A. 0,046 mm. B. 0,042 mm. C. 0,04 mm. D. 0,057 mm. E. 0,05 mm. F. 0,045 mm. 'G. 0,059 mm. Distribution Apparently a southern African endemic; known from the west coast of the Cape Peninsula to Boteler Point (northern Natal); 10-100m in depth (Verseveldt & Williams, 1988; Williams in press a). Type locality is the Agulhas Bank, south-east of Cape Agulhas. Remarks This is a highly variable species with regard to coloration. Colonies from the west coast of the Cape Peninsula are commonly bright orange, less frequently yellow, and some colonies exhibit both yellow and orange colour. They form a SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 295 common constituent of subtidal rock walls and reefs at 14-18 m depth. Colonies from the Cape Agulhas region are white, pink, or yellow. Colonies from Algoa Bay are vivid orange-red, common at 10 m depth. Colonies from the eastern Cape Province near East London are mostly white or yellow, sometimes reddish-brown with yellow-tipped lobes, frequently encountered at 30-40 m. Colonies from northern Natal are commonly bicoloured with stalks brick red and polyparia golden yellow. Some are red with only the terminal tips of the lobes yellow. Some colonies from the western Cape Province are orange with yellow-tipped lobes. Alcyonium valdiviae differs from other southern African Alcyonium species by having lobate growth form and sclerites of capstans approximately 0,05 mm in length. Common at depths of 30-78 m. Hickson (1900) and Thomson (1910) misidentified material from the Cape Province as Alcyonium pachyclados. According to Tixier-Durivault (1966: 52) and Verseveldt (1971: 10), sclerites of this species have rounded to slightly angular, tubercles and are large dumb-bells (double stars) up to 0,12 mm in length. The species was considered by them to belong to the genus Cladiella, and has a widespread Indo-Pacific distribution, from the Red Sea and Madagascar to the south-western Pacific. I believe that Hickson’s and Thomson’s material can be considered conspecific with Alcyonium valdiviae, as their descriptions agree well with characteristics of this species. At present, I do not consider Cladiella pachyclados as a constituent of the South African fauna. Lobularia rutila was described by Tixier-Durivault for a specimen from off St Lucia (27 m in depth). The specimen can easily be included within the wide range of colour variants in Alcyonium valdiviae. The genus Cladiella (Lobularia, Microspicularia, and Sphaerella are synonyms) possesses sclerites of double heads or double stars, not capstans (eight-radiates). Since Tixier-Durivault’s specimens contain capstans rather than double heads, the correct generic name is Alcyonium. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921) Figs 1A, 24, 25A-E Alcyonium antarcticum (non Wright & Studer, 1889) Hickson, 1900: 73, pl. 4 (fig. A, A’). Alcyonium (Metalcyonium) patagonicum (non May, 1899) Kikenthal, 1906: 47 (part.). Metalcyonium patagonicum (non May, 1899) Thomson, 1910: 562, pl. 1 (fig. 8), pl. 2 (fig. 12), pl. 3 (figs 22, 26-29), pl. 4 (figs 30-32). Metalcyonium variabile Thomson, 1921: 152; 1923: 47, 69. Metalcyonium variabile var. molle Thomson, 1921: 162, pl. 5 (fig. 2), pl. 6 (figs 1-3); 1929: 47-69. Metalcyonium variabile var. durum Thomson, 1921: 165, pl. 5 (figs 3, 4); 1923: 47, 69. Alcyonium paessleri (non May, 1899) Molander, 1929b: 4. Alcyonium fungiforme Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 385, figs 1-3. Alcyonium luteum Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 388, fig. 4. Alcyonium variabile Williams, 1986b: 241-270, figs 1-15. 296 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Material SAM-H3166, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59’S 18°21'E), 23 m, 15 June 1983, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM—H3167, Hotten- tots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59’S 18°21’E), 13-16m, 18 August 1983, 10 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM-—H3770, off Hout Bay, Cape Peninsula (34°05’S 18°20'E), 39 m, 27 April 1985, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. Fig. 24. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921). A. Entire colony, 40 mm length. B. Single polyp, 12 mm length. C. Sclerites from the capitulum. D. Sclerites from the stalk. E. Sclerites from the anthocodia. C—E. Scale bar = 0,2 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Fig. 25. Scanning electron micrographs. A-E. Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921); sclerites from surface of capitulum. A. 0,066mm. B. 0,055 mm. °C. 0,072 mm. D. 0,096 mm. E. 0,115 mm. F-I. Alcyonium wilsoni, coenenchymal sclerites. F. 0,21 mm. G. 0,24 mm. H. 0,15 mm. I. 0,23 mm. 298 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Description Colonies examined are 20-50 mm in length. Colony mushroom-shaped, unbranched, capitate; a spherical capitulum arises from a conspicuous stalk. Polyps covering entire surface of capitulum. Stalk and capitulum strongly delineated. Polyps completely retractile into capitulum. Polyps with proximal region strongly impregnated with sclerites forming a calyx-like base. Sclerites dense and varied. Polyps with crown and points in neck region, slender spindles and rods in tentacles, capstans in calyx, tuberculate spindles, clubs, and capstans in coenenchyme of capitulum and stalk. Colour highly variable: red, red-purple, orange, yellow, pink, white, grey or various combinations of these. Colour permanent, originating within the sclerites. Distribution Presumably endemic to southern Africa; known from the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula to the Tugela River mouth, Natal; depth range 13-468 m (Williams in press a). Type locality is off East London, eastern Cape Province. Remarks This is perhaps the most commonly encountered soft coral of the South African continental shelf. The species is commonly observed by SCUBA divers in the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Agulhas regions, but not in False Bay. It is a common benthic species of subtidal horizontal rock reefs and vertical walls. Strikingly different colour varieties may be encountered within a few centi- metres of each other. Numerous colonies representing several distinct colour varieties may be brought up in a single dredge haul. For a detailed account of this species, including variability and a historical survey of systematics and synonymy, see Williams (1986b). Alcyonium variabile differs from other southern African Alcyonium species by capitate growth form and sclerites of spindles, needles, rods, clubs, and capstans. Alcyonium wilsoni Thomson, 1921 Figs 25F-I, 26 Alcyonium (Erythropodium) wilsoni Thomson, 1921: 160, fig. 3; 1923: 50, 69. Material SAM-H558 (holotype), off Knysna Heads (34°12’S 23°02’E), 73 m, 11 October 1900, colony attached to brachiopod shell, large dredge, coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 10219. SAM—H3820, off Llandudno, west coast Cape Peninsula (34°00’S 18°20’E), 21 m, 24 January 1984, colony attached to brachiopod shell, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 299 Description The two colonies examined are attached to the valves of brachiopods, probably of the genera Kraussina and Megerlina. Globular polyparies (up to 5 mm in diameter) arise from thin and membranous, often spreading bases that adhere to the brachiopod shells. Retracted polyps are 1,5 mm in diameter. Usually 6-20 polyps per polypary. Polyps restricted to polyparies, none arise directly from membranous base. Sclerites of the polyparies and coenenchyme of Fig. 26. Alcyonium wilsoni Thomson, 1921. A. Entire colony growing on a brachiopod (Kraussina sp.) that is attached to a fragment of stylasterine coral; length of coral fragment 23 mm. B. Sclerites from polypary and base of colony; scale bar = 0,3 mm. 300 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM the membranous base are predominantly tuberculated spindles and clubs 0,10- 0,33 mm in length. Globular forms are rare. The autozooids have crown and points of mostly slender spindles approximately 0,15 mm long. Tubercles of all sclerites are usually dense and coarse, often low, but sometimes thorny. Colour of colonies in life not known; cream-white or brownish-white when preserved. Distribution Known only from the above material—Cape Peninsula to Knysna, 21- 73 m in depth; apparently endemic to southern Africa. Type locality off Knysna, south coast of South Africa. Remarks Alcyonium wilsoni, A. fauri, and A. foliatum are superficially similar species and may be confused; all three may have membranous growth forms with polyparies of more-or-less globular aggregations of polyps, and alcohol- soluble pigments. Accurate identification can only be made by examination of coenenchymal sclerites. The three species possess coarsely tuberculated sclerites and can usually be distinguished by sclerite shape only. Alcyonium wilsoni has elongated clubs and spindles predominant (Figs 25F—I, 26). Alcyonium fauri has spindles and clubbed spindles (see Figs 14, 15) as well as many globular to oval spheroids or compact capstans; and A. foliatum is characterized by having distinct double heads and leaf clubs predominant (see Figs 16, 17A—E). Six membranous colonies in the South African Museum collection are problematical: a colony attached to a brachiopod shell, 51 m depth in Sebastian Bay (34°29'S 21°00'E) (SAM-—H879); two colonies from 11 m depth in Algoa Bay (33°50'S 25°40’E), which were blue-violet in life (SAM—H3326, H3350); a colony from 20 m depth off Onrus River (34°29’S 19°12’E), mottled purple and white in life (SAM—H3807); and two colonies from 14-33 m depth off the Atlantic side of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula (34°00'S 18°20'E), salmon pinkish-orange in life (SAM—H3806, H3808). These colonies mainly have elongate clubs and spindles but, some sclerites are more robust and ovoid to spheroid, and may have large thorny tubercles characteristic of Alcyonium fauri. It may be that A. wilsoni is in fact yet another variant of the extremely variable A. fauri. A detailed comparative examination of a large suite of specimens from throughout coastal southern Africa is necessary to determine the true nature of these taxa. Other species of Alcyonium Six additional species of Alcyonium have been described or recorded from southern Africa. Alcyonium membranaceum was originally described by Kiikenthal (1906: 53) from St Francis Bay (34°7’S 24°59’E) at 100 m depth. Kiikenthal charac- terized the species by its membranous growth form and sclerites of spindles in the polyps with capstans and spindles in the coenenchyme. Since Kukenthal’s SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 301 material is not available presently for examination, I cannot determine the status of this species. The possibility exists that it represents yet another variant of the highly variable A. fauri complex. If this were proved valid, then the name would have priority over all other names applied, since it precedes them all with the exception of A. purpureum Hickson, 1904, which Liittschwager (1922) found to be preoccupied. Thomson (1921: 159) listed A. membranaceum without description or figures, from several South African south coast localities: Mossel Bay (18-22 m), Cape St Blaize (22 m), and Algoa Bay (46 m). Tixier- Durivault (1954: 263) listed the species from Plettenberg Bay, South African south coast, without description or figures. Thomson (1921: 158) equivocally identified a small and incomplete colony from northern Natal (165 m) as Alcyonium reptans Kikenthal (1906: 53), originally described from Bouvet Island (457 m). Tixier-Durivault (1954: 264) identified two colonies from 200 km south of Cape Infanta, Cape Province (177 m) as Parerythropodium reptans. Neither author gave descriptions or figures, but merely listed the species. This material is not presently available for examination. It is therefore not possible to determine the validity of Thomson’s or Tixier-Durivault’s identification, and I consider these to be dubious records. Thomson (1921: 157) identified a specimen (SAM-—HS560) from the Cape Town region (40 m depth) as Alcyonium sollasi Wright & Studer (1889: 240), originally described from the Straits of Magellan (100 m depth). The material is fragmentary and badly damaged through desiccation. An examination of scler- ites reveals that they are superficially similar to those of A. wilsoni. However, considering the unsatisfactory condition of Thomson’s material, I must consider it unidentifiable and his identification of it as A. sollasi to be dubious. Thomson did not give a description or figures for the material. A single colony in the SAM collection (H562) was described and identified by Thomson (1921: 157) as Alcyonium sarcophytoides Burchardt (1903: 671), originally described from the eastern Malay Archipelago. The golden-yellow specimen is about 80 mm in length and digitiform with a well-demarcated stalk and an elongate, smooth and unfolded polyparium. Many sclerites from the surface coenenchyme of the polyparium are very thin, slender needles up to 0,35 mm in length. These do not resemble any sclerites described or figured by Burchardt. At present, I consider this material to be of an undetermined species. Tixier-Durivault (1954: 265, figs 4, 5) described Parerythropodium roseum from depth 27—28 m in False Bay (34°07'S 18°31'E). Groot & Weinberg (1982) have shown that the genus Parerythropodium must be considered a synonym of Alcyonium. According to Tixier-Durivault, the species is distinguished by rose-carmine coloration that is conserved in alcohol, and diverse sclerites that are mostly irregularly-shaped radiates and branched forms that are less than 0,24 mm in length. A specimen in the South African Museum collection (SAM-—H3811), also from False Bay resembles Alcyonium roseum but possesses a markedly different growth form with small polyparies of one to four polyps 302 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM arising from a stolon-like base. Tixier-Durivault did not designate a holotype for A. roseum. A comparison of type material of A. roseum with SAM-H3811 is necessary since Tixier-Durivault’s description lacks sufficient detail for comparison. Thomson (1921: 155) identified a colony from off Durban (155 m depth) as Alcyonium glomeratum Hassall, 1843, a species known from the British Isles, France, and possibly the western Mediterranean (Manuel 1981: 42). Recently acquired material from Durban (133-165 m depth) is conspecific with Thom- son’s specimen. This species cannot be considered a member of the genus Alcyonium because of the possession of permanent calyces into which the polyps retract. A comparison of the Durban material with type specimens of the European A. glomeratum is necessary to ascertain valid taxonomic status but the latter material is not presently available for comparison. Genus Anthomastus Verrill, 1878 Anthomastus Verrill, 1878: 376. Kikenthal, 1910: 3. Diagnosis Colonies fungiform; a broad capitulum usually arising from a narrower stalk. Holdfast often with long projections. Capitulum smooth, rounded spherical, or somewhat flattened. Polyps dimorphic restricted to distal capitu- jum. Stalk and polyparium distinctly delimited. Autozooids relatively large and few in number. Siphonozooids numerous between autozooids, usually conspicuous. Sclerites are mainly double stars, double heads, and capstans, with sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum. Colour often red, rarely white. A genus of about nine species, north Atlantic to Bovet Island and the Indo- Pacific, mainly in deep water, 50—2 800 m; includes some of the deepest known of all soft corals. Type species. Anthomastus grandiflorus Verrill, 1878, northern Atlantic. Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954 Figs 27-28 Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 526, figs 1, 2. D'Hondt, 1988: 271, text-fig. 5, pl. 1 (figs 9-12). Material SAM-H3246 (paratype), off Cape Columbine (32°53,3'S 17°30’E), 309 m, 27 September 1947, 2 colonies, dredge, coll. University of Cape Town Eco- logical Survey. SAM—H3666, Sandy Point, Transkei (32°39,2'’S 28°45,2'E), 450 m, 14 July 1984, 1 colony, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-—H3667, Stony Point, Transkei (32°38,9’S 28°45,0’E), 360 m, 12 July 1984, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 303 Fig. 27. Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954. A. Two entire colonies, 40mm in length (top) and 138mm in length (bottom). B. Stalk sclerites. C. Sclerites from pinnules of tentacles. B—C. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. 304 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 28. Scanning electron micrographs of Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954; stalk sclerites. A-B. 0,11 mm. C. 0,28 mm. D. 0,12 mm. E. 0,08 mm. Description Colonies examined range in length from 30-110 mm. Each colony is unilobate, unbranched, with an upright and well-developed stalk. The capitulum arises from the distal end of the stalk and may be rounded or spheroid, or only slightly flared from the rest of the stalk. Surface of stalk smooth and uniform. Autozooids generally less than 12 per colony; very large, up to 35 mm in length and 10 mm in diameter preserved. Calyces absent. Autozooids capable of par- tial if not total retraction into capitulum. Siphonozooids numerous on surface of capitulum between autozooids, <0,5 mm in diameter. Autozooid tentacles with needle-like sclerites <0,2 mm long, particularly numerous in pinnules. Body walls of anthocodiae with sclerites filling spaces between siphonozooids; these are thorny rods and double stars similar to those of the stalk. Surface of stalk and stalk interior with numerous thorny double stars <0,15 mm long and SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 305 slender elongate needle-like sclerites with simple thorny processes (which may be hook-like), up to 0,55 mm long. Colonies cream-white to rose or pale red. Autozooids often greyish in alcohol. . Distribution Apparently endemic to southern Africa, known from the south-west coast of South Africa to Transkei. This species is one of the deepest known identified soft corals in southern African waters, ranging from 309m to 450 m depth. Alcyonium variabile was recorded by Thomson (1921: 164) at 468 m off Cape Recife. The type locality of Anthomastus giganteus is off Cape Columbine, west coast of South Africa. Remarks Anthomastus giganteus is distinguished by its relatively elongate stalk, the capitulum that is only slightly wider than the stalk, and by stalk sclerites that are needles with hook-like tubercles, together with thorny double stars. Remarks on the genus Anthomastus Hickson (1904: 217) identified a single specimen from 450 m off Cape Recife, near Port Elizabeth as Anthomastus grandiflorus Verrill, 1878. Junger- sen (1904: 13) maintained that Hickson’s material does not resemble any known specimen of A. grandiflorus and therefore does not belong to the species. Bock (1938: 44) gave the new name A. hicksoni for this specimen. It is possible that A. giganteus is synonymous with A. hicksoni since colony shape of the two species is similar, but a comparison of type material is necessary because Hickson’s description does not include figures of sclerites. D’Hondt (1988: 271) discussed the systematics of four species of Anthomastus, including A. giganteus and A. hicksoni. Genus Cladiella Gray, 1869 Lobularia (non Lamarck, 1836). Ehrenberg, 1834: 281. Tixier-Durivault, 1943: 437. Cladiella Gray, 1869: 125. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 35. Sphaerella Gray, 1869: 122. Bayer, 1956: F188. Microspicularia Macfadyen, 1936: 28. Diagnosis Colonies with a distinct basal stalk. Distal polyparium is multi-lobed or many branched to form many short, rounded, knob-like lobes during contrac- tion; these are often elongate and finger-like with acute tips during expansion. Polyps are restricted to this multi-lobed polyparium. Polyps monomorphic, capable of complete retraction into polyparium, without permanent calyces. Sclerites are primarily compact double heads or double stars, usually <0,12 mm in length. Colour often white or cream in alcohol. 306 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM A genus of over 40 species, from the tropical Indo-West Pacific, in rela- tively shallow water. Cladiella species are common constituents of shallow- water coral-reef regions in the Indo-Pacific. Type species. Alcyonium tuberculosum Quoy & Gaimard, 1833. Cladiella madagascarensis (Tixier-Durivault, 1944) Remarks Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) listed Cladiella madagascarensis (Tixier- Durivault, 1944) from Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique, without description or figures. According to Tixier-Durivault (1966: 47), the species is characterized by possessing sclerites of double stars (0,07—0,11 mm long); colony colour greyish-white; distribution—Comoro Islands, Madagascar, and southern Mozambique. Pople (1960) recorded the genus Cladiella from intertidal rock pools near Durban, Natal, and tentatively identified the species as Sphaerella krempfi (Hickson, 1919). No description or figures were given and thus the identity of the material must be considered dubious. An unidentified species of Cladiella is occasionally encountered on the coral reefs at Sodwana Bay, northern Zululand at 13 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b). Genus Eleutherobia Pitter, 1900 Eleutherobia Pitter, 1900: 449. Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 27. Diagnosis Colonies unbranched; digitiform, capitate, or digitate. Polyps monomor- phic. Retracted polyps form distinct hemispherical, cup-like or dish-like per- manent calyces on the capitulum surface. Anthocodia completely retractile into calyx, sometimes forming a low rounded eight-rayed protuberance inside the calicular cup. Sclerites are primarily eight-radiates and capstans. A genus of perhaps 15 species of the Indo-West Pacific; three species in southern Africa. Type species. Eleutherobia japonica Pitter, 1900, Japan. Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910) Figs 29, 30D-—F Alcyonium rotiferum Thomson, 1910: 573, pl. 1 (figs 3, 4), pl. 4 (fig. 38); 1923: 47, 50, 68. Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910) Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 36, figs 18c, 29 (part.). Material _ SAM-H566 (type material) Keiskamma Point, eastern Cape Province (33°15’S 27°30’E), 60 m, 27 August 1901, 2 colonies, dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 13553. SAM-—H849 and H850, Great Fish Point, eastern Cape 307 SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 1910. A. Entire colony, 30 mm in length. D. Stalk sclerites. 35 mm in length. C. Polyparium sclerites. >] Fig. 29. Eleutherobia rotifera Thomson B. Entire colony, 0,1 mm. C-—D. Scale bar 308 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Province (33°30'S 27°10’E), 90 m, 4 September 1901, 11 colonies, dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 13727 and PF 13727B. Description The colonies that were examined range in length from 20 to 35 mm. Colonies are upright, digitate; 3—8 finger-like unbranched lobes arise form a prominent robust stalk. Lobes are up to 15 mm long and 4 mm wide. Stalk with a broad base forming an extended holdfast. Surface of preserved colonies markedly wrinkled or pustulate. Polyps restricted to lobes. Anthocodiae com- pletely retractile into prominent, rounded calyces up to 1,5 mm in diameter. Sclerites numerous in stalk, lobes and calyces; almost exclusively compact 6-8 radiate capstans, 0,030—0,065 mm in length. Colour golden yellow. Distribution Apparently endemic to South Africa, known only from the eastern Cape Province south-west of East London, 60-120 m depth (Williams in press a). Type locality is Keiskamma Point. Remarks Eleutherobia rotifera differs from other southern African Eleutherobia species by digitate growth form, prominent stalk, and sclerites that are tuberculate spheroids and capstans. Eleutherobia studeri (Thomson, 1910) Figs 30A-C, 31 Bellonella studeri Thomson, 1910: 550, pl. 1 (fig. 1), pl. 3 (fig. 23), pl. 4 (figs 45a—e); 1921: AE N9232 505 7A chart Eleutherobia studeri Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 41 (figs 33, 36, 37). Material SAM-—H1249 (holotype), St Francis Bay, Cape Province (34°10’S 24°50’E), 42-64 m, 3 May 1906, 1 colony, large trawl, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18831. SAM-H909, off Flesh Point, Cape Province (34°18’S 21°55'E), 60m, 29 January 1904, 2 colonies attached to a large gastropod shell (Fusinus ocelliferus Lamarck, 1816), large trawl, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 18423. Description Colonies examined are 40—95 mm in length. Colonies are capitate, the polyp-bearing capitulum arises from an upright stalk. Stalk length approximately 40-50 per cent of total colony length. A distinct demarcation is present between the stalk and polyparium. Capitulum usually slightly elongate or conical, rarely spheroid. Polyps retractile, crowded, and distributed over entire surface of capitulum. Preserved expanded polyps <12 mm in length. Anthocodiae with crown and points of needle-like spindles 0,15—0,30 mm long. Wall of pharynx SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 309 often densely spiculated. Wall of calyx with capstan-like radiates, 0,05—0,08 mm long. Surface region of polyparium with mostly spindles and radiates 0,04- 0,13 mm in length. Surface of stalk with capstan-like radiates 0,04—0,1 mm long. Stalk interior with thorny spindles 0,12—0,20 mm long. Preserved colony colour yellow or pink. Distribution . 2 Known only from south and east coasts of South Africa, Mossel Bay to central Natal, 42-121 m in depth. Thomson (1921: 171; 1923, chart 2) recorded Fig. 30. Scanning electron micrographs. A—C. Eleutherobia studeri (Thompson, 1910); sclerites from surface of polyparium. A. 0,05 mm. B. 0,065 mm. C. 0,10 mm. D-F. Eleutherobia rotifera Thomson, 1910; sclerites from surface of polyparium. D. 0,052 mm. E. 0,054 mm. F. 0,047 mm. 310 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM the species from Umtwalume River mouth (Natal) at 46 m depth and off Great Fish Point (eastern Cape Province) at 121 m. Type locality St Francis Bay (south coast of Cape Province). Remarks Eleutherobia studeri is distinguished by the possession of pliable dish-like calyces that are formed during the retraction of polyps; the terminal ends of the polyps form eight-rayed protuberances inside these calyces; sclerites are radiates and spindles; anthocodial sclerites are present. Remarks on the genus Eleutherobia A third species of Eleutherobia is encountered in southern Africa. Thomson (1921: 155) identified a colony from Durban (155 m in depth) as Alcyonium glomeratum (Hassall, 1843). Recently collected material from Durban to Cape St Lucia, Natal (depth 100-164 m), has been compared with Thomson’s ‘specimen, with which it appears to be conspecific. However, the colonies possess permanent calyces in which the anthocodiae retract, and the coenenchymal sclerites are primarily eight-radiates and capstans. Because of these characters, I consider the material to represent an undetermined species of the genus Eleutherobia, that cannot be attributed to A. glomeratum. Genus Lobophytum von Marenzeller, 1886 Lobophytum von Marenzeller, 1886: 352, 362. Pratt, 1903: 514: Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 55. Verseveldt, 1983: 4. Diagnosis Colonies encrusting, dish-shaped or stalked and upright. Polyp-bearing capitulum arises from a basal region or distinct stalk. Capitulum relatively smooth or variously lobed, folded, or plicate. These are closed folds which may be digitate or plate-like, resembling ridges or crests. Polyps dimorphic. Sclerites of capitulum are tuberculated spindles, usually somewhat club-shaped with ill- defined heads. Sclerites of stalk are generally capstans <0,3 mm in length. About 47 species from the Indo-Pacific, usually in warm shallow water, and often associated with coral reefs. See Verseveldt (1983) for a detailed revision of the genus, with a key and descriptions for the recognized species. Type species. Lobophytum crassum von Marenzeller, 1886; Indo-Pacific. Remarks Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) recorded Lobophytum crebiplicatum von Marenzeller, 1886, and L. crassum von Marenzeller, 1886 (as L. crassospicu- latum Moser, 1919), without descriptions or figures, from Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique. Verseveldt (1983: 32) considered Tixier-Durivault’s identification of L. crebiplicatum as a misidentification, and considered the species to be confined to the western Pacific Basin. Several unidentified species SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 311 a "y, Fig. 31. Eleutherobia studeri (Thompson, 1910). A. An entire colony, 55 mm in length. B. An entire colony, 90 mm in length. C. A single exsertile polyp, 8 mm long, tentacles contracted. D-F. Three cup-like calyces with retracted anthocodiae; 1,0—1,4 mm in diameter. G. Sclerites from the crown and points of the anthocodia. H. Calyx sclerites. I. Sclerites from the surface region of the polyparium. J. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. K. Sclerites from the stalk interior. G—K. Scale bar = 0,1 mm: 312 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM of the genus are found on the coral reefs and coral assemblages at Sodwana Bay and Kosi Bay (northern Natal), 12-19 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b). Material representing these species is in the South African Museum collection. The alcyoniids Lobophytum, Sarcophyton and Sinularia are three of the most abundant and conspicuous soft coral genera in the warm and shallow coral reef regions of the Indo-Pacific. Verseveldt & Benayahu (1983: 3) reported that these genera, together with the nephtheid genus Litophyton, often form monospecific carpets at depths of 1-6m in the Red Sea. In the shallow sublittoral of northern Natal and southern Mozambique, the most commonly encountered soft coral genera are Sinularia, Sarcophyton, Lobophytum, Dendronephthya, Cladiella, Xenia, and Anthelia. | Genus Malacacanthus Thomson, 1910 Malacacanthus Thomson, 1910: 583. Williams, 19876: 1337. Diagnosis Colonies capitate, broad capitulum arising from a columnar stalk. Stalk enveloped by rough cuticle. Polyps dimorphic, restricted to distal surface of capitulum. Capitulum retractile into distal portion of stalk. Autozooids and siphonozooids numerous and crowded. Autozooids capable of complete retrac- tion into capitulum. Calyces absent. Tentacles with a single row of pinnules per side. Sclerites absent from all parts of colony. A monotypic genus, endemic to southern Africa. Type species. Heteroxenia capensis Hickson, 1900; South Africa. Malacacanthus capensis (Hickson, 1900) Figs 1C, 32 Heteroxenia capensis Hickson, 1900: 70, pl. 4 (fig. C); 1931: 172. Thomson, 1923: 47, 66-67. Broch, 1939: 4. Day et al., 1970: 16. ?Xenia uniserta Kikenthal, 1906: 22, pl. 1 (fig. 5), pl. 6 (figs 25-29). Thomson, 1923: 47, 66-67. Malacacanthus rufus Thomson, 1910: 583, pl. 1 (fig. 6); 1921: 171; 1923: 48, 71. Broch, 1939: 12, fig. 8. Tixier-Durivault, 1954: 390. Day et al., 1970: 15. ?Heteroxenia uniserta: Day et al., 1970: 16. Malacacanthus: Bayer, 1981b: 912. Malacacanthus capensis Williams, 1987b: 1338, figs 1-7. Material SAM-—H3192, off Llandudno, west coast Cape Peninsula (34°01’S 18°20’E), 25-31 m, 24 September 1983, 6 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved. SAM-— H3864, off Llandudno (34°01'S 18°20’E), 21 m, 24 January 1984, 2 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. SAM—H3865, Sunny Cove, False Bay (34°09’S 18°26'E), 12 m, Dec. 1980, 1 colony, SCUBA, G. M. Branch. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 313 Description Preserved colonies 12-80 mm in height. Colonies fungiform, a broad capitulum arising from a prominent cylindrical stalk. A tough horn-like cuticular envelope surrounds the stalk and proximal portion of the capitulum. Polyps restricted to the distal surface of the capitulum. Polyp-bearing surface of cap- itulum is plainly delimited from the stalk and proximal region of the capitulum by a distinct boundary, which is formed by the distal termination of the cuticle. Polyps dimorphic. Polyp calyces absent. Autozooids often over 100 per colony, up to 25 mm in length. Siphonozooids conspicuous in mature colonies, crowded between autozooids, approximately 1,0 mm in diameter. Autozooids retractile into capitulum. Capitulum capable of almost total retraction into distal region of stalk. Colonies in this state assume a cylindrical shape. Tentacles with one row of pinnules per side. Sclerites altogether absent. ea . Ke 2 i 4 } N J ~ 4 >, f N ¥ x 3 & yf ¥ = Son arrees xy ore 2 ae ‘ x B = = rm i Daal | 2] e c St Ne 4 wy fa ce- = 4 ns ee OS ha Kg Pe t anes =< rg mot Lite. J ry aS = Sa ee — Loew Es ( carrie bite ENS ros tAhchos = ~ = vert ee le it Si , * > 3 ie ety ioe ae pp i 5 oe Fig. 32. Malacacanthus capensis Hickson, 1900. A. Entire colony with polyps expanded, total length 80 mm. B. Entire colony with polyps retracted, 80 mm. C. Single autozooid with fourteen siphonozooids at base; length of figure = 22 mm. 314 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Distribution _ Known from the west coast of the Cape Peninsula to the Gonubie region, eastern Cape Province, between 10 and 93 m in depth. Apparently endemic to southern Africa. A locally common species on vertical rock walls and reefs. One of the few species that is common both on the Atlantic and False Bay sides of the Cape Peninsula. Type locality is False Bay. Remarks The cuticular covering of the stalk provides a substratum for epizoic organisms such as encrusting white didemnid ascidians. Malacacanthus capensis is distinguished by the presence of siphonozooids, total lack of sclerites, and horny cuticle surrounding the stalk. Branch & Branch (1981: 152), illustrated this species and referred to it as the ‘sun-burst soft coral’. Genus Minabea Utinomi, 1957 Minabea Utinomi, 1957: 139. Utinomi & Imahara, 1976: 206. Bayer, 1981b: 913. Diagnosis Colonies digitiform. Finger-like polyparium gradually tapers distally from a stalk that is short and thick. Apex of colony broadly rounded, not markedly pointed. Polyps dimorphic. Autozooids completely retractile into polyparium. Siphonozooids not densely distributed between autozooids. Sclerites are mostly capstans, with some spindles. At least three species from the Indo-Pacific: Japan, Australian Great Barrier Reef, and south-eastern Africa. Type species. Minabea ozakii Utinomi, 1957, by monotypy; Japan. Remarks Several colonies of two undetermined species of Minabea have recently been collected from Transkei and northern Natal (Zululand), 250-370 m in depth. The colonies are either pale brownish-orange in colour or white with pinkish retracted polyps. This account represents a new record for the genus to southern Africa and to the south-western Indo-Pacific. Genus Sarcophyton Lesson, 1834 Sarcophyton Lesson, 1834: 517. Pratt, 1903: 505. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 106. Verseveldt, 1982: 5. Diagnosis Colonies mushroom-shaped to somewhat funnel-shaped or cup-shaped. A broad capitular disc arises from a distinct stalk. Surface of capitulum smooth, usually with open folds on the disc margin. Disc spreading and wider than distal SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 315 portion of stalk. Polyps dimorphic. Autozooids numerous, often several hun- dred per mature colony; capable of total retraction into capitulum. Siphono- zooids minute, contained on surface of disc between autozooids. Sclerites often numerous and dense, usually tuberculated clubs and spindles. A large genus in warm tropical seas of the Indo-Pacific; mostly shallow water, often inhabiting coral reefs; about 36 valid species; see Verseveldt (1982) for a detailed revision of the genus and a key to the recognized species. Type species. Sarcophyton lobulatum Lesson, 1834, by monotypy; Indo- Pacific. Remarks Several presently unidentified species occur on the submerged platform coral reefs of northern Natal at Sodwana Bay and Kosi Bay, 12-27 m depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b), and representative material is present in the South African Museum collection. Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) listed Sarcophyton trocheliophorum von Marenzeller, 1886, from Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique. Genus Sinularia May, 1898 Sinularia May, 1898: 24. Luttschwager, 1915: 5. Kolonko, 1926: 293. Tixier-Durivault, 1945: 56; 1951: 1; 1966: 164. Verseveldt, 1980: 4. Diagnosis . Colonies low, flat, and encrusting or erect with a definite stalk. Polyp- bearing capitulum arises from an encrusting basal portion or a distinct stalk. Surface of capitulum relatively smooth to plicate, forming crests or ridges, or intricately lobate with many crowded upright finger-like lobes. Polyps mono- morphic. Sclerites of capitulum usually clubs with distinct heads and thorn clubs, 0,06-1,5 mm long. Sclerites of stalk are generally large robust spindles, >2,0 mm in length. A large genus with about 105 species of the tropical Indo-Pacific. Common in warm and shallow waters of coral reef regions. See Verseveldt (1980) and Verseveldt & Benayahu (1983) for a revision of the genus with a key and descriptions for the recognized species. Type species. Sinularia brassica May, 1898, by monotypy; Indo-Pacific. Remarks Tixier-Durivault (1960: 360) recorded Sinularia polydactyla (Ehrenberg, 1834), without description or figures, from Inhaca Island, southern Mozam- bique. Single specimens of two distinct species have been collected from Sodwana Bay, northern Natal (18 m depth) and are in the South African Museum collection. The two specimens are partial, freeze-dried, and somewhat damaged. Many presently unidentified colonies representing several species are also present in the South African Museum collection and occur on the coral 316 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM reefs at Sodwana Bay and Kosi Bay, 12—27 m (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b). Some colonies from 12 m depth can attain a diameter of over 2 m. Genus Verseveldtia Williams, 1990b Verseveldtia Williams, 1990b: 22. Diagnosis _ Colonies unbranched, capitate. Stalk narrow, elongate. Polyps dimorphic. Anthocodiae capable of total retraction into capitulum. Permanent calyces absent. Coenenchymal sclerites are mainly double stars, barrels, eight-radiates, or tuberculate spheroids. : A genus of two species, endemic to southern Africa. Type species. Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900), by subsequent desig- nation; South Africa. Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900) Figs 33, 34F-I Sarcophytum trochiforme Hickson, 1900: 77, pl. 3 (fig. C), pl. 6 (fig. C). ?7Thomson, 1921: 168; 1923: 48, 70. Anthomastus trochiformis Kikenthal, 1910: 6. Verseveldt, 1982: 10. Verseveldtia trochiforme Williams, 1990b:-22-28, text-figs 1-3, pl. 1, pl. 2 (figs a—e). Material SAM-H724, off Ncera River Mouth, eastern Cape Province (co-ordinates unknown), 91m, 7 August 1901, 3 incomplete colonies, dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 13329. SAM—H742, same data as SAM—H724, 1 incomplete colony, PF 13329@: Description The partial colonies do not exceed 60 mm in length. Colonies are capitate, an enlarged capitulum arises from an elongate and narrow stalk. The largest specimen has a capitulum measuring 12 mm in width, whereas the stalk is 2-3 mm in width. The capitulum is dome-shaped or elliptical with the polyps covering the entire surface. Polyps are dimorphic. The retracted anthocodiae of the autozooids may form small protuberances on the surface of the capitulum but these are not true calyces, since the protuberances are capable of complete retraction into the capitulum. Autozooids are small and numerous (50-100 in number and 0,9-1,2 mm in diameter). Siphonozooids crowded between the autozooids, 0,3-—0,5 mm in diameter. Sclerites of the capitulum surface and interior, as well as the stalk sclerites are predominantly eight-radiates, 0,05— 0,11 mm in length. A few girdled spindles (0,110—0,114 mm) may also be present in the capitulum. The autozooid anthocodiae possess flattened plates, 0,04—0,07 mm in length, and girdled or tuberculate spindles, 0,10—0,17 mm in length. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Sag. Fig. 33. Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900). A. Entire mature colony, 65 mm in height. B. Young colony attached to a foraminiferan fragment, 9 mm in height. C. Sclerites from the anthocodial wall. D. Tentacular sclerites. E. Sclerites from the capitulum. F. Stalk sclerites. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. 318 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Colonies are light grey or brownish-white to cream, retracted autozooids are rust orange, siphonozooids are grey or cream in coloration. Distribution Eastern Cape Province, the vicinity of East London, 82-97 m in depth (Williams 19905, in press a). Remarks Hickson (1900) assigned this species to the genus Sarcophyton (mis-spelled as Sarcophytum). Kiikenthal (1910) recognized this as incorrect and placed the species in the genus Anthomastus. Verseveldt (1982) repeated Kikenthal’s opinion and considered it an invalid species of Sarcophyton. Verseveldtia trochiforme does not have the sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk that are characteristic of the genus Anthomastus. _ Thomson (1921: 168) identified eleven specimens from Natal (46-165 m in depth) as Sarcophytum trochiforme. He did not give descriptions or figures for the material, other than stating that most of the colonies are reddish in colour. Because of this, it is possible that at least some of the specimens may be Verseveldtia bucciniforme. Examination of Thomson’s material is necessary to establish valid taxonomic status. Verseveldtia trochiforme is differentiated by a convex, dome-shaped polyp- bearing portion of the capitulum, coenenchymal sclerites that are primarily eight radiates, and colony colour greyish-white with rust-orange retracted autozooids and greyish-white siphonozooids. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990b Figs 34A-E, 35 ?Anthomastus granulosus (non Kikenthal, 1910) Thomson, 1921: 169. ?Anthomastus trochiforme (Hickson, 1900) Thomson, 1921: 168. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990b: 28-34, text-figs 3-5, pl. 2 (figs f-i), pl. 3. Material SAM-—H3799, off Gonubie, eastern Cape Province (33°06,8'S 28°04,9’E), 90 m, 17 July 1984, 3 colonies, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-—H3800, off Mbotyi, Transkei (31°29,2’S 29°45,4’E), 50m, 21 July 1982, 1 colony, dredge, coll. Natal Museum (R.V. Meiring Naude). SAM-H3801, off East London (33°15,0’S 27°58,0’E), 85m, 17 July 1984, 1 colony, dredge, coll. G. C. Williams (R.V. Meiring Naude). Description Colonies examined range in length between 12 and 20 mm. Colonies are funnel-shaped, markedly capitate with a long, slender stalk. Polyps restricted to the somewhat flattened capitular disc at the distal terminus of colony. Polyps dimorphic. Autozooids capable of total retraction into capitulum, usually 10-20 SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Fig. 34. Scanning electron micrographs. A-E. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990b. A-B. Sclerites from bases of polyps and surface of capitulum. A. 0,075 mm. B. 0,048 mm. C-E. Stalk sclerites. C. 0,058 mm. D. 0,08 mm. E. 0,08 mm. F-I. Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900). F. An eight-radiate from the capitular surface, 0,072 mm. G. Girdled spindle from the capitular surface, 0,114 mm. H. Sclerite from the interior of the capitulum, 0,060 mm. I. Stalk sclerite, 0,064 mm. 320 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM per colony, 1,5—2,0 mm in diameter when retracted. Siphonozooids crowded between autozooids, usually around 0,5 mm in diameter. The autozooids of all material examined have the anthocodiae totally retracted. Partly retracted autozooids may produce hemispherical protuberances on the surface of the capitulum but these are not true calyces since they too are capable of complete retraction into the capitulum. Sclerites of the capitular surface and interior, as well as the stalk are barrels, double stars and tuberculate spheroids, 0,06— 0,08 mm in length. The anthocodiae contain rods and irregularly-shaped flattened platelets, 0,03—0,08 mm in length. Colonies orange, red or pink in colour with retracted autozooids and siphonozooids bright yellow. Distribution Apparently endemic to South Africa, known from the eastern Cape, Transkei, and Natal coasts between East London and Durban, 50-90 m in depth (Williams 1990b, in press a). Type locality is off East London, eastern Cape Province. Remarks Thomson (1921: 169) identified a specimen from 58 m off East London as Anthomastus granulosus Kikenthal, 1910. From his brief and unillustrated description, it seems probable that the colony actually belongs to V. buc- ciniforme. Like the two species of Verseveldtia, A. granulosus (from Japan) does not have sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum that are characteristic of the genus Anthomastus. Verseveldtia bucciniforme is distinguished by a somewhat flattened or disc- shaped polyp-bearing portion of the capitulum, sclerites that are barrels, double stars, and tuberculate spheroids, and red colony colour with yellow siphono- zooids and retracted autozooids. Digitiform and capitate species of the families Alcyontidae and Nidaliidae Approximately 18 species of southern African alcyoniids and nidaliids have digitiform or capitate growth forms. Many digitiform species have in the past been plagued with considerable confusion in the literature as to proper generic placement. Verseveldt & Bayer (1988) recently provided a much needed revision of four genera that contain digitiform species: Bellonella Gray, 1862, and Eleu- therobia Pitter, 1900 (Alcyoniidae), and Nidalia Gray, 1835, and Nidaliopsis Kikenthal, 1906 (Nidaliidae), and named two new genera, Inflatocalyx (Alcyoniidae) and Pieterfaurea (Nidaliidae). This re-assessment has shown that Metalcyonium Pfeffer, 1888, is not a valid genus because the type species M. capitatum Pfeffer, 1888, can be accommodated in Bellonella. All of the above-mentioned genera have polyps that retract into permanent calyces or at least into protuberances composed of palisade-like arrangements of sclerites. Some digitiform alcyoniids do not possess permanent calyces but rather the polyps retract directly into the polyparium or into basal protuberances that are SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 321 Fig. 35. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990b. A. Entire colony growing on a foraminiferan fragment, length of colony 13 mm. B. Entire colony, 17 mm in length. C. Sclerites from tentacles. D. Sclerites from polyps and capitulum. E. Stalk sclerites. C-E. Scale bar =0,1 mm. 322 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM capable of complete retraction into the polyparium. Williams (1986a: 61; 1988: 18) maintained that the genus Alcyonium should be considered a morphologically diverse assemblage of species and that certain digitiform or capitate forms with- out permanent calyces can be accommodated within it. The southern African Alcyonium moriferum and A. variabile and the Japanese A. muricatum Yamada, 1950, and A. pacificum Yamada, 1950, are examples of such species. Eight of the digitiform or capitate southern African forms have been included in the pres- ent work: Alcyonium mutabiliforme, A. moriferum, A. planiceps, A. variabile, Acrophytum claviger, Eleutherobia studeri, Pieterfaurea unilobata and P. khoisa- niana. Of the ten or so remaining undetermined species or those with unverified identifications (many of which have recently been collected from the southern African coast), the following names have been recorded by previous authors. Bellonella rubra Brundin, 1896, was recorded by Thomson (1910: 554) (eastern Cape Province, Transkei, central Natal; 44-100 m). Utinomi (1957: 149) questioned Thomson’s identification of the South African material. Bello- nella rubra was originally known from the western Pacific. Tixier-Durivault (1954: 127) placed the species in the genus Nidalia. More recently, Verseveldt & Bayer (1988: 37) transferred it to the genus Eleutherobia. The South African material possesses sclerites that resemble those figured by Brundin. However, the colonies do not have non-retractile calyces, which are characteristic of the genera Nidalia and Eleutherobia. In fact, the polyps are capable of totally withdrawing into the polyparium without forming protuberances or permanent calyces. Because of this, I presently consider this taxon to be an undetermined species of the genus Alcyonium. The colonies vary from pink-magenta to deep wine-red, both in life as well as in alcohol. Metalcyonium clavatum Pfeffer, 1889, was recorded by Thomson (1910: 556) from central Natal, 66-73 m. Thomson considered this southern African material (SAM-—H550) to be conspecific with M. clavatum from the Subantarctic island of South Georgia. This identification cannot be validated without a comparison of Pfeffer’s type material, since the original description lacks sufficient detail. Thomson described three digitiform species with large sclerites: Met- alcyonium natalensis Thomson (1910: 559—Durban, Natal, 71-73 m depth); Metalcyonium lanceatum Thomson (1921: 167—eastern Cape Province, 40 m depth); and Sinularia unilobata Thomson (1921: 172—East London to Durban, 40-93 m depth). Metalcyonium natalensis was later considered by Thomson (1921: 170) to be conspecific with Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900. Sinularia unilobata is-synonymous with Pieterfaurea unilobata. Metalcyonium lanceatum possesses finely tuberculated needle-like spindles in both the stalk and polyparium, whereas P. unilobata has large robust spindles with ornate tuberculation. The holotype of M. lanceatum (SAM-—H793) has unfortunately been pre- viously dried and somewhat damaged, thereby making detailed redescription and comparison difficult. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA aes Kiikenthal (1906: 48) described Metalcyonium novarae from the Cape of Good Hope in a brief description, without any figures of the colony or sclerites. Many colonies recently collected from the Cape Agulhas region (24-54 m depth) show characteristics that conform to Ktkenthal’s description. However, a comparison of these specimens with Kiikenthal’s type material is necessary for a positive identification; the latter is at present not available for examination. a Family Nidaliidae Gray, 1869 Colonies unbranched (capitate or digitiform) or arborescent, with still and cylindrical branches. Texture of colonies rough and rigid. Polyps monomorphic or dimorphic. Anthocodiae retractile into permanent, spiculose calyces or ‘palisade-like’ protuberances. Sclerites are primarily large, tuberculate spindles, mostly longitudinally aligned. Six genera of widespread distribution, but concentrated in the Indo-Pacific, West Indies, central Atlantic, and southern oceans. Two genera in southern Africa. Genus Pieterfaurea Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988 Pieterfaurea Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 66. Diagnosis Colonies unbranched, digitiform. Polyps monomorphic. Anthocodia retrac- tile into a permanent conical calyx composed of a palisade-like arrangement of spindle-like sclerites. Sclerites of the colony are robust coarsely tuberculated spindles and clubbed spindles, densely distributed in the surface region of the stalk and polyparium. Similar sclerites are common in the colony interior. A genus of two species, endemic to southern Africa. Type species. Sinularia unilobata Thomson, 1921; South Africa. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988) comb. nov. Figs 1G, 36, 37A—D Alcyonium khoisanianum Williams, 1988: 7-14, figs 5-10, 14, 165A. Material SAM-—H3411 (holotype), off Danger Point, Cape Province (34°43'4,94"S 19°20'30,19"E), 48 m depth, 29 April 1984, 1 sectioned colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey. Description The holotype is 82 mm in length. Colonies are digitiform; a finger-like polyparium arises from a prominent stalk. Polyps are numerous, completely retractile, relatively large (up to 12 mm long and 3 mm wide), calyces absent. Sclerites of the anthocodiae are small rods up to 0,33 mm long, sparsely 324 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM distributed in crown and points. Sclerites from surface region of polyparium and stalk are robust, densely tuberculated spindles or slightly club-shaped spindles, somewhat crowded but not exceedingly dense. Sclerites from the polyparium are 0,5—1,4 mm in length, whereas those from the stalk are 0,4—1,9 mm long. Most elongate spindles from the stalk are widest in the middle and taper toward both ends. Only a few scattered spindles may be present below the surface sclerites of the polyparium and stalk, contained in between gastric cavities. These sclerites are totally absent from the central interior region. Colour in life is vivid purple or magenta with polyps whitish, tentacles bright yellow, and stalk whitish. Colours fade to uniform dull greyish-yellow in alcohol. Distribution This species is presently known from the Cape south coast, Danger Point to the eastern Cape Province, 30-50 m in depth (Williams 1988, in press a). Type locality is Danger Point. Remarks This species may be confused with smaller colonies of Acrophytum claviger that are 70 mm in length, in which siphonozooids are not apparent. Larger colonies of A. claviger show obvious dimorphism. Colonies of A. claviger have densely set clubs and slightly clubbed spindles in the surface layer of the polyp- arium and stalk, 0,17—0,35 mm in length. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana, on the other hand, has comparatively sparsely set spindles in the surface of the polyparium. Many of these are slightly club-shaped. In the surface region of the stalk are many robust spindles that are widest medially with ends that taper markedly. All spindles are densely and ornately tuberculated, and vary from 0,4 to 1,9 mm in length. Anthocodial sclerites are absent in Acrophytum CANE EE but are present in Pieterfaurea khoisaniana. This species is here provisionally transferred to the genus Pieterfaurea because of the possession of large tuberculate spindles in the surface of the stalk and polyparium as well as in the bases of the polyps, even though ‘palisade-like’ arrangements are not distinct. Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thomson, 1921) Figs 37E-G, 38 Sinularia (Sclerophytum) unilobata Thomson, 1921: 172, fig. 5. Bellonella unilobata Verseveldt, 1980: 11. Metalcyonium unilobatum Williams, 19866: 263, fig. 2B. Pieterfaurea unilobata Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 67, figs 62-64. Material SAM-H741 (paralectotype), off Umhloti River mouth, Natal (29°40'S 31°10’E), 73 m, 18 December 1900, 1 colony, large dredge, S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 10880. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 325 Fig. 36. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988). A. Entire colony (paratype), preserved, 90 mm total length. B. Single polyp showing arrangement of sclerites, total height of polyp 5mm. C. Polyp sclerites. D. Sclerites from surface of polyparium. E. Stalk sclerites. C-E. Scale bar = 1,0 mm. 326 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Description The colony examined is slightly damaged due to lengthy desiccation. The colony is 35 mm long and finger-like; a cylindrical polyparium arises from an upright stalk. Stalk length approximately 40-50 per cent of total colony length. Stalk and polyparium distinctly delineated. Anthocodiae retractile into perma- nent calyces. Anthocodial sclerites absent. Calyx sclerites are spindles 0,7— 1,0 mm long. Surface of polyparium is densely spiculated with spindles or slightly clubbed spindles, mostly 0,4-1,0 mm in length. Surface of stalk with large robust spindles or slightly clubbed spindles 0,25—2,6 mm long. Similar large sclerites are common throughout the interior of the colony. Preserved colony colour brownish, sclerites white. Distribution The species is known only from the east coast of southern Africa, from East London (eastern Cape Province) to the Durban region (Natal), 40-93 m (Williams in press a). Type locality unspecified. Remarks Pieterfaurea unilobata is distinguished by the possession of conspicuous permanent conical protuberances formed by a palisade-like arrangement of large spindles; large tuberculate spindies and clubbed spindles are present throughout the surface as well as in the interior of the colony; anthocodial sclerites are absent. The two species of Pieterfaurea can be differentiated as follows: P. khoi- saniana has sclerites in the anthocodiae that form well-defined crown and points, in which the sclerites may be sparsely or densely disposed; the maximum length of the coenenchymal sclerites is 1,9 mm; sclerites are more sparsely disposed in the surface of the stalk and polyparium giving the colonies a softer, more flexible appearance; and the bases of expanded polyps are sparsely spiculated with a ‘palisade-like’ arrangement not well defined; the maximum size of colonies is 130 mm long by 50 mm wide; the colonies are mostly stout with the stalk usually comprising half or less of the total colony length; the species is apparently restricted to the Cape south coast from Danger Point to the eastern Cape. Pieterfaurea unilobata, on the other hand, does not possess sclerites in the anthocodiae; the maximum length of coenenchymal sclerites is 2,6 mm; sclerites of the surface of the colony are very dense giving the colonies a relatively stiff and rough appearance; and the bases of expanded polyps have sclerites that are densely arranged in a ‘palisade-like’ fashion; the maximum size of colonies is 50 mm long by 10 mm wide; the colonies are mostly narrow with the stalk usually comprising one-half or more of the total colony length; the species is apparently restricted to the South African east coast from East London to central Natal. The placement of the genus Pieterfaurea in the Nidaliidae is here considered nominal as it also shares characteristics with the family Alcyoniidae. The SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA i DH | Fig. 37. Scanning electron micrographs. A-D. Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988). A-B. Sclerites from the surface of the polyparium. A. 0,85 mm. B. Detail of surface tuberculation from a polyparium sclerite, total length of micrograph represents 0,24 mm. C_D. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. C. 0,28 mm. D. 1,0 mm. E-G. Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thomson, 1921), sclerites from the surface of a colony. E. 1,0 mm. F. 0,70 mm. G. 0,24 mm. 328 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM ‘palisade-like’ arrangement of sclerites at the base of the polyps do not represent true calyces (Verseveldt & Bayer 1988: 47, 66). Alcyonium complanatum Verseveldt, 1977, and A. planiceps Williams, 1986a, also do not possess calyces but do have large multi-tuberculate spindles that are longitudinally placed in the outer surface giving the colony a rough appearance, a feature used to define the Nidaliidae (Verseveldt & Bayer 1988: 47). Even though Verseveldt & Bayer (1988) considered Pieterfaurea to be a genus of the Nidaliidae, they at the same time included it in the key to the genera of the family Alcyoniidae, and not in the key to the nidaliid genera. Genus Siphonogorgia Kolliker, 1874 Siphonogorgia KO6lliker, 1874: 18. Verseveldt & Bayer, 1988: 48. Diagnosis Colonies branched and arborescent. Slender branches arise from a well- defined stalk. Surface of colonies brittle and rough. Polyps arise from the ends of terminal branches but are not present on the main branches or on the stalk. Polyps armed with well-developed crown and points. Sclerites are mostly tuberculated spindles. : A genus of perhaps twelve or more species from the Red Sea and Indo- Pacific. Type species. Siphonogorgia godeffroyi Kolliker, 1874; Indo-Pacific. Remarks A single undetermined species has been collected by dredge from northern Natal between 62 m and 142 m in depth. This account represents a new record of the genus for southern Africa. Family Nephtheidae Gray, 1862 Colonies lobate or arborescent, upright, with a distinct stalk. Polyps monomorphic, arranged individually or in clusters or catkins, along surface of branches and/or at the tips of ultimate branches. Sclerites often dense, mainly of spindles, clubs, and radiates. A family of about 20 genera known world-wide; at least four genera repre- sented in southern Africa. Genus Capnella Gray, 1869 Capnella Gray, 1869: 129. Utinomi, 1960: 28. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 233. Verseveldt, 1977: 184. Eunephthya Verrill, 1869: 284. Utinomi, 1951: 28. Paranephthya Wright & Studer, 1889: 227. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 329 ~ ip \ MI)\ LO, YON AY ea Ox PAYTTAR Cf Ze at Me 4 MN FZ Z Fig. 38. Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thompson, 1921). A. An entire colony, 35 mm in length. B. A single polyp showing palisade-like arrangement of sclerites to form a permanent calyx; diameter of base of calyx = 2 mm. C. Sclerites from the calyx and surface of polyparium. D. Sclerites from surface of stalk. C-D. Scale = 0,6 mm 330 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Diagnosis Colonies often arborescent, usually with multiply branched polyparium arising from a prominent stalk. Polyps in clusters, curved inward, without crown and points arranged en chevron. Sclerites scattered throughout polyps. Polyp sclerites include leaf-clubs and thorny spindles. Stalk sclerites include leaf-clubs and thorny spindles. Stalk sclerites are often irregular and compact radiate-like structures, frequently thorny. A genus of perhaps 19 species, primarily Indo-Pacific and extending into the south-eastern Atlantic (Cape of Good Hope Peninsula). Type species. Alcyonium imbricatum Quoy & Gaimard, 1833, by subsequent designation. | Capnella susanae Williams, 1988 Figs 39—40 ‘ Capnella susanae Williams, 1988: 19—26, figs 14-15, 16B, 17-19. Material SAM-—H3717 (holotype), Hottentots Huisie, Cape of Good Hope Penin- sula, South Africa (33°59'S 18°21'E), 15-18 m depth, 11 November 1984, 1 whole colony, SCUBA, G. C. Williams. Description The holotype is arborescent and somewhat digitiform, not luxuriantly bushy, <50 mm total length. Stalk and polyparium strongly demarcated. Polyparium inconspicuously and sparsely branched. Lateral branches <6 mm long. Polyps sometimes solitary but often clustered into groups of 2-20 (commonly 3-7). Polyps of these clusters joined proximally. Polyps elongate clavate, 2-3 mm in length, curved adaxially, non-retractile, but tentacles ‘retractile into body of polyps. Polyparium sclerites are caterpillars, leaf clubs, and thorny spindles, <0,33 mm in length. Surface sclerites of stalk tuberculate spheroids of irregular shape, and capstan-like radiates, <0,15 mm in length. Radiates are densely set in gastric cavity walls of the colony interior, <0,12 mm in length. Colony colour pink in life, fading to dark grey or brown in alcohol. Distribution Known from the west coast of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula to southern Transkei, between 15 and 70 m in depth (Williams 1988, in press a). Type locality is the west coast of the Cape Peninsula. Remarks Capnella susanae differs from other southern African nephtheids by digitiform growth habit, polyps 2-3 mm long distributed along finger-like polyparium, and sclerites <0,33 mm long. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 331 Fig. 39. Capnella susanae Williams, 1988. Entire colony 25 mm in length. B. Group of three polyps; central polyp is 3 mm in length. C. Sclerites from polyp wall. D. Sclerites from surface of stalk. C-D. Scale bar = 0,2 mm. 332 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 40. Scanning electron micrographs of Capnella susanae Williams, 1988. A-E. Sclerites from polyp bases. A. 0,15 mm. B. 0,125 mm. C. 0,035 mm. D. 0,20mm. E. 0,14 mm. F-H. Sclerites from surface of stalk. F. 0,07 mm. G. 0,07—0,09 mm. H. Both 0,075 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 333 Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865) Figs 1H-I, 41-42 Nephthya thyrsoidea Verrill, 1865: 1982. Nephthya rugosa Kiikenthal, 1902: 299. Capnella rugosa Kiikenthal, 1906: 68, pl. 3 (figs 12, 13), pl. 11 (figs 67-69). Thomson, 1910: 575, pl. 2 (fig. 10), pl. 4 (figs 42a—c). Broch, 1939: 12, fig. 9. Capnella gilchristi Thomson, 1910: 578, pl. 2 (fig. 11), pl. 4 (figs 40a—c). Capnella-thyrsoidea Utinomi, 1960: 31. Verseveldt, 1977: 185. England & Robson, 1984: 313, figs 4C, 5C-D. Material SAM-H917, Mossel Bay, Cape Province (22°15’S 34°10’E), 38 m, 24 June 1898, 2 colonies, shrimp trawl, coll. S.S. Pieter Faure survey, PF 88. SAM-— H3385, off Danger Point, Cape Province (34°39’S 19°20’E), 39 m, 12 April 1984, 2 colonies, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey. SAM—H3415, Hottentots Huisie, Cape Peninsula (33°59'S 18°21’E), 14 m, 22 March 1984, 4 colonies, SCUBA, coll. G. C. Williams. Description Colonies examined are 15-170mm long. Colonies upright, bushy arborescent, with an intricately branched polyparium arising from a prominent stalk. Stalk often robust, up to 30 mm in diameter and 40 mm in length. Polyparium wider than stalk, exuberantly branched. Polyp clusters arising from sides and apexes of ultimate branches. Polyps extremely numerous, cylindrical or tear-shaped with distal portion sometimes slightly expanded; c. 1,0-—2,0 mm in length. Sclerites of stalk are compact six-radiates (capstans), some approaching irregular spheroids with prominent tuberculation, 0,04—0,09 mm in length. Sclerites of the polyp clusters and calyces are elongate coarsely- tuberculate spindles, clubs and leaf-clubs, 0,12—1,2 mm long. Colour variable, brown to dark brown, light grey to smoke-grey, white to salmon to pinkish, or cream to yellowish. Distribution Apparently endemic to South Africa, west coast of the Cape of Good Hope Peninsula to the Durban region of Natal, 10—240 m in depth (Williams in press a). This species is one of the commonest octocorals in southern Africa, often seen by divers on vertical rock walls and reefs. It is probable that the distribution of this species extends into northern Natal (England & Robson 1984: 315). Type locality South Africa, detailed locality unspecified. Remarks The appearance of colonies of C. thyrsoidea differs remarkably depending on degree of contraction or expansion. Underwater observation of the species off the west coast of the Cape Peninsula (12—20 m depth) during daylight hours in turbid water, has revealed that in feeding posture the colonies are greatly ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 334 partially contracted, total length of figure 105 mm in length. D. Sclerites from polyp wall. Scale bar =0,3 mm. E. Stalk sclerites. Scale bar =0,1 mm. b) , Fig. 41. Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865). A. Entire colony, 135 mm in length. B. Detail from a group of five polyps 2,5 mm. C. Entire colony, tightly contracted SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 335 expanded and elongated, reaching up to 300 mm in length and 200 mm in width, very limp and flexible. The colonies have all branches elongated and exposed with the ultimate branches containing polyp clusters forming protuber- ances along the surface of the branches. During severe contraction, as in daylight hours in clear water or during preservation, the colonies are tightly compacted, stiff and rigid, resembling stalks of cauliflower, usually not more than 80 mm in total length. | “ 3 A recently described and unusual species of ptychodactiarian anemone, Preactis millardae England & Robson, 1984, representing a new anthozoan family (Preactiidae), has been shown to be a species-specific predator on C. thyrsoidea (England & Robson 1984: 313). The large anemone (up to 200 mm in length) is relatively mobile, using the lateral vesicles and pedal disc to temporarily adhere to various substrata. Preactis millardae is at present known only from the south-western Cape Province, in less than 20 m of water. The anemone apparently engulfs and digests whole polyparies of C. thyrsoidea, often leaving only the basal portion of the stalk remaining. Macfadyen (1936: 51) recorded C. rugosa (a junior synonym of C. thyr- soidea) from the Australian Great Barrier Reef. This is probably a misidenti- fication; examination of Macfadyen’s material is necessary for verification. Verseveldt (1977) considered at least eight species of the genus Capnella to occur in Australia, C. thyrsoidea (= C. rugosa) not being one of them. Capnella thyrsoidea is distinguished from C. susanae by the presence of bushy arborescent form with intricately branched polyparium, polyps 1-2 mm jong, and sclerites up to 1,2 mm long. Genus Dendronephthya Kikenthal, 1905 Dendronephthya Kikenthal, 1905: 667. Utinomi, 1952: 161; 1954: 319. Diagnosis Colonies are bushy and arborescent with a prickly or bristly appearance. Colonial growth form is umbellate, glomerate or divaricate. Polyps arranged in groups. Each polyp has a conspicuous supporting bundle of sclerites that usually projects far above the polyp. Sclerites are primarily tuberculate spindles. A very large genus of over 250 described species, distributed in the Red Sea and the Indo-Pacific. Type species. Nephthya savignyi Ehrenberg, 1834, by subsequent desig- nation; Red Sea, Indo-Pacific. Remarks At least four undetermined species of this genus occur in Natal between Durban and Kosi Bay, 12-50 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press). Tixier-Durivault & Prevorsek (1962: 70) described Dendronephthya muta- bilis as Morchellana mutabilis from the Durban region of Natal, at 64-91 m in depth. Verseveldt (1960: 511) described Dendronephthya inhacaensis from 336 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Fig. 42. Scanning electron micrographs of Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865). A—I. Sclerites from polyp bases. A. 0,29mm. B.0,17mm. C. 0,28mm. D. 0,24 mm. E. 0,09 mm. F. 0,25 mm. G. 0,40 mm. H. Detail of surface tuberculation from sclerite shown in F; total length of micrograph = 0,07 mm. I. 1,0 mm. J—L. Sclerites from surface of stalk. J. 0,10 mm. K. 0,09 mm. L. 0,10 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 337 Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique; depth not recorded. The two species can be distinguished as follows: D. mutabilis has supporting bundles of one large projecting spindle whereas in D. inhacaensis the supporting bundles are composed of 3-5 large projecting spindles. Genus Litophyton Forskal, 1775 Litophyton Forskal, 1775: 139. Bayer, 1956: 188; 1981b: 913. Ammothea Savigny in Lamarck, 1816: 410. Litophytum Agassiz, 1848: 616. Kikenthal, 1903: 105. Shann, 1912: 511. Light, 1915: 1. Diagnosis Colonies arborescent, branches arise from a single erect stalk. Polyps clustered in lappets or catkins on the terminal branches only, not present in other portions of colony. Colonies repeatedly branch distally. Surface of stalk and branches smooth. Polyps non-retractile, without supporting bundles. Sclerites of various types, but leaf clubs are not present. Twenty or more species of the Indo-Pacific and the south coast of South Africa. Type species. Litophyton arboreum Forskal, 1775; Indo-Pacific. Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988 Figs 43-45 ‘Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988: 321-327, figs 2B, E, 4-8. Material SAM-—H3400, off Danger Point (34°38’'S 19°20’E), 39 m depth, 12 April 1984, 1 whole colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey. SAM—H3863, off Cape Aguihas (34°52'S 20°05’E), 54 m depth, 23 February 1985, 1 whole colony, SCUBA, coll. W. R. Liltved, Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Line Fish Survey. Description Colonies examined are 56-110 mm in height. From a common base several stems may arise, which repeatedly ramify distally. Colonies are cauliflower-like, with polyp-bearing regions of distal branchlets arising from a tall branching stalk, which is smooth and fleshy. Polyps are contained on the sides and apices of short lateral branches, as well as on the distal-most branchlets. The finely divided ultimate branchlets usually contain 3-12 polyps, giving the colony a luxuriantly bushy appearance. Ultimate branchlets are 3—8 mm long and 2- 5mm wide. Polyps are concentrated on distal portions of these branchlets. Tentacles are retractile into the body of the polyp. Polyps are tear-shaped (clavate) with global distal portions when contracted, or elongate-cylindrical when expanded, 1,5-3,0 mm long and 0,8-1,5 mm wide. Several ultimate 338 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM branchlets were observed with young polyps budding laterally from near the bases of adjacent polyps. Sclerites are of three general types. The tentacles possess small irregular rod-like structures that may branch near the ends. These sclerites are 0,05— 0,10 mm in length. Their arrangement in the tentacles was impossible to determine due to contraction. The polyp walls and branchlets contain spindles with fine but sparse tuberculation. These sclerites are 0,09—0,25 mm in length. Some of these may be slightly club-shaped. Those of the polyps are relatively robust spindles that may be somewhat curved with marginal protuberances more Fig. 43. Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988. A. An entire colony, 110 mm in height. B-E. Four groups of polyps from terminuses of four separate ultimate branches. B. Group of four polyps with tentacles retracted into bodies of "polyps, length 3,3 mm. C. Group of three polyps with tentacles retracted into bodies of polyps, 2,5 mm in length. D. Group of seven polyps; total length of figure 6 mm. E. Group of three polyps, total length of figure = 4,5 mm. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 339 pronounced and numerous on the convex side. Sclerites of the ultimate branches are often slightly shorter than the polyp sclerites, usually <0,15 mm long. The surface region of the stalk contains stout and irregular modified capstans, 0,05—0,13 mm long. Colony colour is pale cream-white, both in life and in alcohol. Distribution The species is known only from the south coast of South Africa— Danger Point, Cape Agulhas, and Cape St Francis; 30-54 m in depth (Verseveldt & Williams 1988; Williams in press a); apparently endemic to southern Africa. This species is locally common on vertical rock walls off Cape St Francis, with a relatively dense population (approximately 5—8 colonies/m’—W. R. Liltved pers. comm.). Type locality is Danger Point, south-western Cape Province. ~ 2 Remarks Litophyton liltvedi is distinguished from other southern African nephtheids by having polyps clustered in catkins at ends of terminal branches, and sclerites of spindles and double stars. Genus Nephthea Audouin, 1826 Nephthea Audouin in Savigny, 1826: 230. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 271. Nephthya Ehrenberg, 1834: 284. Kiikenthal, 1903: 141. Shann, 1912: 510. Diagnosis Colonies copiously branched. Polyps are contained in lappets, catkins or bundles on the many branchlets. Each polyp has a supporting bundle of usually slender and more-or-less similarly-sized tuberculated spindles. A large genus of the Indo-Pacific. Type species. Nephthea chabrolii Audouin, 1826, by monotypy; Red Sea and Indo-Pacific. Remarks One unidentified species has recently been collected on the sublittoral coral reefs of northern Natal at 12-19 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press 5). This account represents a new record of the genus to southern Africa. Other species of Nephtheidae Only five nephtheid species have been identified and recorded from south- ern Africa, these being Capnella thyrsoidea, C. susanae, Litophyton liltvedi, Dendronephthya inhacaensis, and D. mutabilis. Material from at least three other species not presently identified to genus or species, occur from Saldanha Bay, False Bay, the eastern Cape Province to Transkei, and Sodwana Bay. This material is held in the South African Museum marine invertebrate collection. 340 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Family Xeniidae Ehrenberg, 1828 Colonies membranous, lobate or capitate. Polyps monomorphic or dimorphic. All mesenterial filaments except the two asulcal ones are absent or rudimentary in mature polyps. Pinnules are in several rows on each side of tentacles. Sclerites are minute flattened oval rods or discs that are smooth, knobbly or granular and rough in appearance (<0,1 mm long), or are com- pletely absent. Many species possess symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) in the gastrodermal tissues of the tentacles. Colour of tentacles in life is often blue, green, brown, grey, or yellowish. Seven genera recognized world-wide, primarily in warm shallow seas of the Indo-West Pacific. Genus Anthelia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816 Anthelia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816: 407. Roxas, 1933: 59. Gohar, 1940: 88. Utinomi, 1958: 98. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 348. Diagnosis Colonies form membranous sheets from which individual polyps arise. Polyps not retractile. Sclerites, if present, are small ovoid or rod-like platelets <0,05 mm in diameter, often granular or rough in surface texture. Perhaps twenty or more species of the Red Sea and Indo-Pacific; littoral or shallow water. Type species. Anthelia glauca Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816; Indo-Pacific. Remarks Three species of Anthelia have been recorded from southern Africa (Table 1). In addition, Anthelia capensis Studer, 1879, was described from the Cape of Good Hope at 91 m in depth. Studer gave only a brief description and a very generalized figure that lacked sufficient detail to define diagnostic characters or even to assign to a genus with certainty. According to him the outer polyp wall is smooth and soft, without grooves or ribs. The cylindrical polyps are weakly thorny spindles 0,2 mm long, and are thus consistent with those of the genus Clavularia (Clavulariidae) but quite unlike sclerites of the family Xentidae. The colony colour is described as vermilion red. Studer’s material is presently not available for examination. Two presently undetermined species of Anthelia have recently been col- lected from Natal: a slate-grey species common on the sublittoral coral reefs of Sodwana Bay, 9-19 m in depth (Williams 1989a: 142; in press b); and a vivid blue species that is frequently encountered at Durban from the littoral to at least 3 m in depth (see Fig. 1D). Genus Cespitularia Valenciennes, in Milne Edwards & Haime, 1850 Cespitularia Valenciennes, in Milne Edwards & Haime, 1850: Ixxviii. Hickson, 1931: 162. Roxas, 1933: 103. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 351. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 341 Fig. 44. Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988. A. Sclerites from polyp walls and ultimate branches. B. Sclerites from tentacles. C. Stalk sclerites. Scale bar = 0,1 mm. 342 ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Diagnosis Colonies are lobed and digitate; several lobes or branches arise from a common stalk. Polyps arise from different levels of the polyparium on several lobes and are non-retractile. Sclerites if present are minute, usually smooth round to oval rods or discs. Perhaps ten or more species of the Red Sea and the Indo-Pacific. Type species. Cornularia multipinnata Quoy & Gaimard, in Milne Edwards & Haime, 1850, by subsequent designation; Indo-Pacific. Remarks A single species of Cespitularia has been recorded from South Africa (Table 1), but no new material has been collected representing this genus. Genus Heteroxenia KOlliker, 1874 Heteroxenia Kolliker, 1874: 12. Hickson, 1931: 168. Roxas, 1933: 95. Gohar, 1940: 101. Tixier- Durivault, 1966: 368. Diagnosis Colonies capitate; capitulum arises from an upright stalk. Polyps arise from a distinct terminal disc on the capitulum. Polyps dimorphic at least during breeding periods, non-retractile. Type species. Heteroxenia elisabethae KOlliker, 1874, by subsequent designation, Red Sea and Indo-Pacific. Remarks Four species of Heteroxenia have been recorded for southern Africa (Table 1), but no new material has been collected that is assignable to this genus. Genus Xenia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816 Xenia Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816: 409. Hickson, 1931: 148. Roxas, 1933: 76. Gohar, 1940: 93. Tixier-Durivault, 1966: 358. Diagnosis Colonies are lobed and capitate; several polyps arise from the top of upright stalks or lobes. There may be one or several lobes in a colony but they do not arise from a common stalk. Polyps always monomorphic, non-retractile. Scler- ites, if present, are mostly minute smooth rounded or irregular plates. A genus of perhaps 30 or more species from the Red Sea and Indo-Pacific. Type species. Xenia umbellata Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816; Red Sea, Indo- Pacific. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Fig. 45. Scanning electron micrographs of Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988. A-E. Sclerites from the bases of the polyps. A. 0,235 mm. B. 0,26mm. C. 0,208 mm. D. 0,19 mm. E. Detail of a single tubercle from a polyp sclerite; total length of micrograph = 0,09 mm. F-I. Sclerites from the surface of the stalk. F. 0,74 mm. G. 0,09 mm. H. 0,07 mm. I. 0,052 mm. ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM 344 "snowAUOUAS 3q 0} DIDDUDIQUIAU "HY PUR SIPLIA ‘XY PIIBPISUOD (ZS ?[€61) UOSYIIH, , 5. ‘p10I91 SNOIGNp & PaJaPISUOD aq PjNoys puke UO!BIIUApIsiW v A\qeqosd JsOW SI SIY) Jey) Paseys (€ :6E61) YOOIG (19€ 0961) 1NBALING-IOIXI anbiquiezoy) ‘purest eoeyuy 9681, “YWOUYG SIPUiA DIUAY ,. x (Z :6€61) yooug (je107}1]) JEIEN ‘UeqINg OTR] ‘youewey ui ‘Ausiaes ojojjaquin viuay (CSI :1761) uosuoy | W [QZ :doulAorg ode ‘ozielg I$ adeD (cZgI ‘uossa]) vpuoyf vIUdX .. (OZS :6S61) WNBALUNG-sOIXLL loysues |p “SuUYOF Ig UO 6S6L ‘WNeAING-sOIXLL Mop viuay (19€ :0961) NBAING-JOIXLL onbiquiezoy ‘pur|s] eoeyuy (6681 ‘AeIA) vplsu viuaxouajap] (19€ :096L) INBALING-JOIXI onbiquiezoyy ‘pueysy eoeyuy = (PZ Q] “YUDYOS) vaovuUDIQquiaWl DIUAXOIJIHY «. 5. (Z9¢ :096] ) WNeALING-IOIXIL, anbiqwezoyy ‘pueysy eoeyu] (peg ‘sioquoiyq) suaosasn{ viuaxosaja] ] (I9€ :0961) 1MBAUNC-JOIXIL onbiquiezoy ‘puejsy eoeyuy PL8L JOM soysaqovsija viuaKo1aj9H (Z9€ 70961) NBALING-JOIXI onbiquiezoyy ‘puey|sy eoeyuy 6681 ‘ARIA Vajnsa09 vuDjnjidsazy (LS :796L) YNeALING-JoIXIL «(WI QOg ¢) URGING Jo jse9d-YINOS ‘ULDIO UeIpUT 7961 ‘WneaNnqg-Iox1| vpunfosd vyayjup (19€ :096L) WNeALING-JOIXI, onbiquiezoyy ‘pueysy eoeyuy OTR] ‘yorewey wi ‘Austaes vonvjs vijayjupy (19€ :0961) WNeALING-191XLL onbiquiezoy ‘puejsy eoeyuy (6681 ‘AeW) vavyf oyayjupy dDUdIIJOY uOoNeo0T sa1oods ‘oepiusyK Ajiwey oy) JO Soioads pue esouNS URdIIW UIOYINOS ‘T aTdVb SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 345 Remarks Four species of Xenia have been recorded from Natal (Table 1). Material representing one or more undetermined species of the genus has been collected from Durban (shore station), Umtwalumi (shore station), and off Kosi River mouth (47 m in depth). Other species of Xeniidae in southern Africa Twelve species representing four genera have been recorded from southern Africa. These are summarized in Table 1. The known distribution of the family Xeniidae in southern Africa is along the Indian Ocean coast from Port St Johns in Transkei to Inhaca Island, Mozambique; presence of the family is to be expected north of Inhaca. KEY TO THE SOFT CORALS AND STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 1A. Colonies attached to substrata by basal stolons that are mainly ribbon-like or reticulate; or stolons form multi-layered platforms. Polyps separate, not grouped together by common swellings or globular polyparies ..... Z 1B. Colonies without true stolons. Colonies attached to substrata by a basal holdfast or membranous sheets; if base stolon-like then adjacent polyps grouped together by a common swollen or globular polyparium, or base Spreadime and membranous, notribbon-like. of... s ee oe 10 2A. Colonies arborescent. Anthocodiae not retractile into anthosteles...... RP ar erate dec seen os Nats i, de nce at hes oh ECT et NE AE Coelogorgia palmosa 2B. Colonies not arborescent; polyps solitary or with secondary lateral polyps. Anthocodiae totally retractile into anthosteles 2 2226.8 ese. sa. 3 3A. Walls of anthostele brittle and inflexible, composed of permanently fused sclerites, or a mosaic of tightly fitting, flattened plates ................ + 3B. Walls of anthostele flexible, not brittle, composed of numerous free Sclerites OF cClumaps Of partly fused Sclemites\)2 2. ss ee oe ce we es i) 4A. Colonies heavily calcified, with lateral connections of multi-layered stolons that form successive platforms. Colonies form rounded clumps. Colo unewiMe eG. vats week re cogs aia one ae Tubipora musica (Fig. 6) 4B. Polyps arise from stolons which adhere directly to substrata in one layer, not forming multiple layers. Colour whitish, pinkish, or brownish...... 5 5A. Anthosteles composed of separate flattened plates, tightly fitting together I CRAsMI@OSANC Pe ate ony cu, Whee aes at aaha Scleranthelia thomsoni (Fig. 4) 5B. Anthosteles composed of inseparably fused, tuberculated sclerites ..... 6 6A. Anthocodia with 8 points of sclerites arranged longitudinally. Base of gastric cavity open, not forming a calcareous lattice of 8 canals........ Uh hari eae ee wee tnt wet eam yielesto: tubuliporoides (Fig..2) 6B. Anthocodial sclerites not arranged in 8 points. Base of gastric cavity forming a calcareous lattice of 8 canals .......... Scyphopodium ingolfi 346 8 7B. 8A. SB. 9A. OB. 10A. 10B. ‘LIA. 11B. IZA. 12B. 13A. 13B. 14A. 14B. ISA. ISB. 16A. 16B. 17A. 17B. ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Za Long axial polyps produce many lateral secondary polyps. Sclerites of polyp walls sometimes partly fused forming clumps ......... Carijoa sp. Polyps solitary or sometimes producing one lateral secondary polyp. Sclerites of polyp walls are free, not fusing to formclumps ............ 8 Retracted polyps form low rounded or conical anthosteles, polyps may retract intO StOlONS, 22 heg. wae Woe ee ee ee Sarcodictyon sp. Retracted polyps form prominent cylindrical or tubular anthosteles .... 9 Polyps long and tubular (often >10 mm), sometimes with lateral secondary polyps. Proximal part of gastric cavity filled with mesogleal PUALORAL eae ee we wae ay ees teers oe pe eee Telestula sp. Polyps cylindrical (usually <10 mm long), never with lateral secondary polyps. Proximal part of gastric cavities open........... Clavularia spp. Polyps'of one type:(monomorphic) 222525. 6.3.2. 19 Polyps of two-distinct types.(dimorpiic);. 4.2... 2 eee eee 11 Sclerites entirely absent or, if present, then of inconspicuous, flattened, ovate structures (usually <0,05 mm long), with smooth surfaces ..... 1 Sclerites conspicuous, numerous and dense; of diverse form (>0,05 mm in length); with surface.tuberculationsy 2-5.) ee 13 Tentacles with pinnules in several rows per side. Stalk without a rough horn-like cuticle. Sclerites present or absent. Polyps not retractile....... bw nll SQLS occ ep Ags Aten a the esa tata ee ge Heteroxenia spp. Tentacles with pinnules in a single row per side. Stalk covered by a rough horn-like cuticle. Sclerites altogether absent. Polyps retractile........... ree ee mb seri gs Tire yh mints he Malacacanthus capensis (Fig. 32) Colonies digitiformr cco no eee ee eee 14 Colonies distinctly capitate or with broad capitulums that are folded, lobed, or plicate. ieee eek en es tener ey steals) Sclerites ase mostly clubs -. 51... aes Acrophytum claviger (Fig. 7) Sclerites are mostlycapstams.. ss A snen ee ee ee Minabea sp. Colonies clavate to capitate. Capitulums spheroid or funnel form without open folds on margins. Deeper water (>50 m depth)............... 16 Colonies with broad capitulums that are folded, lobed, or plicate. Shallow sublittoral (<30 m depth) of Natal and Mozambique............... 18 Colonies with sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum... . wa dy PN NOE gk geass aN ks TEC get ee Anthomastus giganteus (Fig. 27) Colonies without sparsely spinose rods in the inner stalk and capitulum 17 Colony colour red-orange with yellow retracted polyps. Coenenchymal sclenites are barrels-and tuberculate spncroidS a aes er ee «aye soles ah Tie Orbe apes ue ee eee Verseveldtia bucciniforme (Fig. 35) Colony colour greyish-white with rust-orange retracted polyps. Coenen- chymal sclerites are eight radiates .... Verseveldtia trochiforme (Fig. 33) Oc 18A. 18B. 19A. 19B. 20A. 20B. 21A. 21B. 22A. 22B. 23A. 23B. 24A. 24B. 2A. 25B. 260A. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 347 Colonies fungiform or funnelform. Capitulum smooth or with open folds GHIBLIN Meer Legs ce CP ene ae No he eB ee Sarcophyton spp. Colonies often low and encrusting or dish to bowl-shaped. Capitulum with closed folds or lobes or ridge-like plications .......... Lobophytum spp. Sclerites are absent, or are very sparse flattened rods (0,06—0,26 mm long); or if numerous, then are smooth, flattened ovate or rod-like forms ease mrnri Mie) 2 ee oe coke de eral Fb cele ca oD eee yaa 20 Sclerites numerous, dense, and conspicuous (>0,10 mm long), usually with conspicuous suriace tuberculation.. oc. we oe ee ee De, Sclerites are rods (0,06—0,26 mm long) confined to the neck zones of polyps and sometimes forming rings surrounding the bases of polyps. Tentacles with a single row of pinnules per side. Colour orange or DORMS ee 0 VBS Gis ae, 0c Son Bae, Alcyonium mutabiliforme (Fig. 19) Sclerites absent or reduced to minute smooth circular, oval, or rod-like bodies, usually <0,05 mm long. Tentacles with two or more rows of pinnules per side, often vivid blue, slate grey, or greenish. Littoral or shallow sublittoral of the Indian Ocean (family Xeniidae)............ 21 Colonies membranous and flattened, without a basal stalk............. Eee ee er ee we nope int uA uate meant, Sieg Anthelia spp. (Fig. 1D) Colonies capitate or digitate, usually with a distinct stalk ............ dips CoOlomicsiCapi ales rae ele ee as ete Re IE Pk Xenia spp. Colonies digitate.. = 22). 2 LEAR OSCE URI R AINE Aa RE od Cespitularia spp. Colonies branched repeatedly or multilobate (>10 ultimate lobes or Bolen INC s)ateeeiara tices Sucre Mr aPern ot Male tatemertiy en Miele LEMMA SE RUG fs. 5 24 Colonies membranous or creeping, capitate, digitiform, digitate, or few fomare suo nmicimrate ODEs). sae, en Hye eine sees SL ee 33 Surface of colony rough and stiff, due to large, narrow finely tuberculate spindles, densely packed and longitudinally placed. Polyps with conspicu- ous crown and points, retractile into calyces composed of elongate SpinGlcsiee iri chiereie Acre Cnet yE Seem cI Lt. id Siphonogorgia sp. Surface of colony usually smooth and soft, not packed with large, narrow longitudinally placed spindles; polyp calyces, if present, not composed of laneennely tuberculatespindles::4/ oan aes acsecae Swe le oe Zs Entire polyp capable of complete retraction into polyparium, or antho- codiae retractile into base of polyp that is either sparsely set with sclerites or without sclerites altogether. Polyps arise singly from surface of lobes or ultimate branches, adjacent polyps not joined together proximally .... 26 Anthocodia retractile into a permanent calyx that is densely set with sclerites of variable form. Adjacent polyps clustered together, often forming a common base and joined proximally, polyp clusters distributed on sides and distal tips of branches (family Nephtheidae) ............ 30 Sclerites are mostly spindles and/or clubs, 0,05-—5,0 mmlong......... 27 348 26B. DPX 27B. 28A. 28B. 29A. 29B. 30A. 30B. 31A. SB: 32A. 32B. SVEN S)o18). 34A. 34B. ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Sclerites are mostly small capstans, double stars, or tuberculate spheroids, 0,03=0 1S mmlong 23.2 oo: ae ee Pe ee ee 28 Polyparium with complex plications or with digitate lobes often long, thick and tapering distally. Polyps cover entire surface of lobes or plications, often preserved totally retracted. Sclerites are small clubs (0,06—0,2 mm long); and large, robust, coarsely tuberculated spindles (0,5-5,0 mm long) ara tere a oh wie seater Mr ae nM oe So Sinularia spp. Polyparium repeatedly ramifies distally. Polyps confined to ultimate branches in the distal-most portion of colony. Sclerites are spindles with sparse tuberculation (0,09—0,25 mm long), and irregularly shaped, modi- fied capstans (0,05—-0,13 mm long)...... Litophyton liltvedi (Figs 43-44) Sclerites are primarily double stars or double heads (0,03—0,08 mm long) Nee er Poe rar eo Cladiella spp. Sclerites are primarily capstans or tuberculate spheroids (0,03—0,15 mm long)... fae eset. pee Ey ee 29 Sclerites are capstans distributed throughout the surface region of the polyparium and’ stalk (0;03—0065 mmlone))y se Oe EE RS Re ee ee Alcyonium valdiviae (Fig. 22) Sclerites are primarily tuberculate spheroids restricted to the surface of the stalk (0,08—0,15 mm long) .......... Alcyonium distinctum (Fig. 9) Individual polyps each with a supporting bundle ofspindles.......... 31 Individual polyps without a supporting bundle of spindles ........... 32 Supporting bundle of spindles conspicuously projects beyond the polyp. Colonies brightly coloured; white with red, orange, yellow, or maroon PE tare Ae eee nN EIN G Gn ben’) GclSyn 6 9p Dendronephthya spp. Supporting bundle of spindles does not project beyond each polyp. Colonies uniform: cream-coloured ear cee ees ee Nephthea sp. Sclerites of the polyps and branchlets are mostly leaf clubs and robust tuberculate spindles (0,12—1,2 mm long) .. Capnella thyrsoidea (Fig. 41) Sclerites of the polyps ahd branchlets are mostly leaf clubs, caterpillars, and thorny spindles (0,12—0,33 mm long).... Capnella susanae (Fig. 39) Polyps relatively few (usually <20) restricted to distal and sometimes flattened terminal surtace of colomyas 4 weiner ee ee 34 Polyps numerous (usually <20), dispersed over entire surface of a globular; lobate; or finger-like polypanum 2-3. 2s ee 35 Polyps with numerous red needle-like sclerites. Sclerites of polyparium and stalk are mostly capstans. Stalk without a cuticular envelope. Colony colour permanente sar ae ee irae eee Alcyonium elegans (Fig. 11) Polyp sclerites absent. Colony sclerites are exclusively large, robust tuberculate spindles restricted to surface of stalk and sides of capitulum. Stalk covered with a thin cuticular envelope. Colony colour alcohol- soluble3 3920 cee ee eee ee Alcyonium planiceps (Fig. 21) 3 5/8 35B. 36A. 36B. 37A. 57 B: 38A. 38B. oo 39B. AOA. AOB. 41A. 41B. 42A. 42B. 43A. 43B. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 349 Colonies digitate, polyparium of several slender finger-like processes aris- ing from a prominent basal stalk......... Eleutherobia rotifera (Fig. 29) Colonies capitate, digitiform, lobate, globular, membranous or encrust- re eee ys ate ia ee ee nd Oe RNR ee das 36 Colonics GicttionmlOn, Capltate. 2 hoi e es ele ee ee ee eee be ne tee 37 Colonies lobate, globular, membranous to encrusting............... 45 Colonies excluding polyps are digitiform (finger-like) es 38 Colonies excluding polyps are capitate (fungiform) ................. 43 Bases of retracted polyps often form globular swellings or conical to cylindrical calyces or palisade-like arrangements of spindle-like sclerites te Ee eh el hotly ee Mon MOE dla bom 5 5 eas 5 ak 39 Polyps without calyces or palisade-like arrangements of spindle-like sclerites; entire polyp capable of complete retraction into polyparium . 42 Polyp bases form conical calyces by the palisade-like arrangement of large spmdic-shaped-sclenites (073 mmilone) A) 5: 3 i ee ws role ee} AO Polyp bases globular, low and hemispherical or tall and cylindrical to clavate. Calyx wall filled with small sclerites (<0,3 mminlength).... 41 Palisade-like arrangement of sclerites in retracted polyps strongly devel- oped with sclerites erect and densely set. Anthocodial sclerites absent. Maximum length of coenenchymal sclerites is 2,6mm........... Wri hips Nia een, oo fe as aes Picterjeurea untiobata (Fig: 38) Palisade-like arrangement of sclerites in retracted polyps is weakly developed with sclerites sparsely or irregularly arranged. Anthocodial sclerites present. Maximum length of coenenchymal sclerites is 1,9 mm ols ERIS Cae Meet rT Sto Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Fig. 36) Polyp bases low and globular, low and rounded. Adjacent polyps are solitary and arise directly from polyparium. Colony colour permanent Ped are Pres eee Ah eevee wie AMR Alcyonium moriferum (Fig. 18) Calyces elongate cylindrical or slightly clavate. Adjacent polyps often clustered together with common bases. Colony colour alcohol-soluble Zs pity Reeth icra aie cute A Mae SE gpg eee a ee ee Capnella susanae (Fig. 39) Sclerites are exclusively tuberculated spheroids (<0,1 mm long)......... Le Tap ie SR mae Ae RN eRe, Pe AN Alcyonium moriferum (Fig. 18) Sclerites are predominantly clubs with spheroid heads and narrow pointed neanelkc Sr Onsale ONG) Surg. 2 ee Ale ee oe ie aN sess a we esr ene ak gee gay ay Acrophytum claviger (monomorphic colonies) (Fig. 7) Fully retracted polyps from flexible and circular cup-like or disc-like CANN Sipe rues meee ae aes patito tet se aos Eleutherobia studeri (Fig. 31) Fully retracted polyps form low rounded, protuberances on the surface of the capitulum or are completely retractile into the capitulum; not forming SURE SG AIDS SS, OTe tla een RPC 0 a hs PO nt 44 350 44A. A4B. ASA. ASB. 46A. 46B. ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Some sclerites are tuberculate spheroids, double heads, or ovoid forms. Colony :colour-alcohol-soluble =. °. 20.0) aac0 ei Me Me an Se ee St hoi Alcyonium fauri (capitate form) (Figs 13-14) Sclerites are clubs, capstans, spindles, and needles; no globular or ovoid forms. Colony colour permanent ......... Alcyonium variabile (Fig. 24) Sclerites are entirely elongate, tuberculated clubs and spindles; no globu- lar, ovoid, or foliate forms or double heads present.............. er eer Main, Stelter yo. u Alcyonium wilsoni (Fig. 26) Sclerites diverse, but many are globular, ovoid, or distinctly foliate forms or double heads... ee oe oe a ee 46 Many sclerites are distinctive foliate forms and double heads. Colonies usually encrusting soft substrata such as sponges....................--- Ai ee re ete nea PONE er. Alcyonium foliatum (Fig. 16) Some sclerites are globular or ovoid tuberculate forms or double heads, no foliates present. Colonial growth form variable: globular, lobate, or membranous; usually on hard substrata such as rock, shell, and dead or living Corals: 46). en ee ee Alcyonium fauri (Figs 13-14) LIST OF SOFT CORALS AND STOLONIFEROUS OCTOCORALS RECORDED FROM SOUTHERN AFRICA Order ALCYONACEA Lamouroux, 1816; amended by Bayer, 1981b. Family Clavulariidae Subfamily Clavulariinae * * * * Clavularia cylindrica Wright & Studer, 1889 Clavularia diademata Broch, 1939 Clavularia elongata Wright & Studer, 1889 Clavularia parva Tixier-Durivault, 1964 ** Clavularia spp. ie) Bathytelesto tubuliporoides Williams, 1989b + Scyphopodium ingolfi (Madsen, 1944) Subfamily Sarcodictyoniinae ** Sarcodictyon sp. ° Scleranthelia thomsoni Williams, 1987a Subfamily Telestinae ** Carijoa sp. * Telesto arborea Wright & Studer, 1889 ** Telestula sp. Family Tubiporidae ° Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758 SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Family Coelogorgiidae * Coelogorgia palmosa Milne Edwards & Haime, 1857 Family Alcyoniidae * x Acrophytum claviger Hickson, 1900 * Alcyonium distinctum Williams, 1988 te Alcyonium elegans (Kikenthal, 1902) Alcyonium fauri Thomson, 1910 Alcyonium foliatum Thomson, 1921 Alcyonium ‘glomeratum’ (Hassall, 1843) Alcyonium membranaceum Kikenthal, 1906 Alcyonium moriferum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954) Alcyonium mutabiliforme Williams, 1988 Alcyonium planiceps Williams, 1986a Alcyonium reptans Kukenthal, 1906 Alcyonium roseum (Tixier-Durivault, 1954) * Alcyonium ‘rubrum’ (Brundin, 1896) * Alcyonium sarcophytoides Burchardt, 1903 * Alcyonium sollasi Wright & Studer, 1889 Alcyonium valdiviae Kiikenthal, 1906 Alcyonium variabile (Thomson, 1921) Alcyonium wilsoni Thomson, 1921 Anthomastus giganteus Tixier-Durivault, 1954 Anthomastus hicksoni Bock, 1938 Cladiella madagascarensis (Tixier-Durivault, 1944) ** Cladiella sp. Eleutherobia rotifera (Thomson, 1910) Eleutherobia studeri (Thomson, 1910) Lobophytum crassum von Marenzeller, 1886 Lobophytum crebiplicatum von Marenzeller, 1886 Lobophytum spp. Malacacanthus capensis (Hickson, 1900) ‘Metalcyonium’ ‘clavatum’ Pfeffer, 1889 ‘Metalcyonium’ lanceatum Thomson, 1921 ‘Metalcyonium’ molle Burchardt, 1903 ‘Metalcyonium’ novarae Kikenthal, 1906 * Minabea sp. Sarcophyton trocheliophorum von Marenzeller, 1886 Sarcophyton spp. Sinularia polydactyla (Ehrenberg, 1834) Sinularia spp. Verseveldtia bucciniforme Williams, 1990b Verseveldtia trochiforme (Hickson, 1900) 351 352) ANNALS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN MUSEUM Family Nidaliidae ° — Pieterfaurea khoisaniana (Williams, 1988) ° Pieterfaurea unilobata (Thomson, 1921) ** Siphonogorgia sp. Family Nephtheidae ° Capnella susanae Williams, 1988 Capnella thyrsoidea (Verrill, 1865) Dendronephthya inhacaensis Verseveldt, 1960 Dendronephthya mutabilis (Tixier-Durivault & Prevorsek, 1962) ** Dendronephthya spp. ° Litophyton liltvedi Verseveldt & Williams, 1988 ** Nephthea sp. *k * Family Xeniidae * Anthelia flava (May, 1899) Anthelia glauca Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816 * Anthelia profunda Tixier-Durivault, 1964 Anthelia spp. Cespitularia coerulea May, 1899 * Heteroxenia elisabethae Kolliker, 1874 Heteroxenia fuscescens (Ehrenberg, 1834) Heteroxenia membranacea (Schenk, 1896) “ Heteroxenia rigida (May, 1899) * Xenia dayi Tixier-Durivault, 1959 * Xenia florida (Lesson, 1825) * Xenia spp. Xenia umbellata Savigny, in Lamarck, 1816 * Xenia viridis Schenk, 1896 Incertae sedis * Anthelia capensis Studer, 1879 * Literature record only; adequate material not available for study. ** Species indeterminate; material available but status uncertain or unidentifiable at present. ° Described and illustrated in the present work. + Identified, but material is partial or damaged or otherwise not adequate for full description. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The present study represents the first comprehensive survey of the known soft coral and stoloniferous octocoral fauna for all of southern Africa. Of at least sixty species presently recorded in the literature, 26 species, 27 genera, and seven families are here considered to be valid. SOFT CORALS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 353 Several species remain indeterminate or of uncertain status due to one or more factors: (1) the lack of availability of type material for comparison with pre- viously described species, either because of lack of response or co-operation from a particular source, or not knowing the whereabouts of type material or even if a type specimen exists; (2) the lack of sufficient detail pertaining to the original descriptions of many species; (3) the lack of availability of certain literature references and problems such as delays or lack of co-operation from sources of inter-library loans; (4) the damaged or inadequate nature of available material pertaining to a given species, or (5) in some cases a large-scale revision of a given group may be necessary in order to accurately identify an individual species. The genera Sarcodictyon, Telestula, Carijoa, Minabea, Siphonogorgia, and Nephthea are here recorded from southern Africa for the first time. Approximately 90 species of soft corals and stoloniferous octocorals are presently estimated to occur in southern African coastal regions. This number is subject to change as future studies will undoubtedly reveal many unrecorded and undescribed species. Detailed examination of the fauna from the west coast Atlantic and east coast Indian Ocean regions is still necessary. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to the late Dr J. Verseveldt of Zwolle, the Netherlands, for the identification of some material and for his comments regarding the status of the genera Acrophytum and Metalcyonium; Dr F. M. Bayer of the Smithsonian ‘Institution for his ideas concerning the taxonomy of Malacacanthus and for his critical comments on the manuscript; Dr M. Grasshoff of the Senckenberg Institute, Frankfurt, for critically reading the manuscript; and Phil Alderslade of the Northern Territories Museum, Darwin, Australia, for his comments per- taining to the status of Alcyonium, Metalcyonium, and Acrophytum. I particularly thank W. R. Liltved of the South African Museum for his keen underwater observations and copious material; also Dr R. N. Kilburn, Dr D. Herbert, and Ruth Fregona of the Natal Museum, Susan Burke, Philip Coetzee, Alan Connell, Dr T. M. Gosliner, the Sea Fisheries Research Institute Dive Survey Unit (particularly Andrew Penney, Rob Tarr, and Paul Williams), and the crew of the R.V. Meiring Naude (particularly Captain George Foulis) for help in the collection of material. Dane Gerneke and Klaus Schultes of the University of Cape Town Electron Microscopy Unit provided assistance in the preparation of scanning electron micrographs. Liz Hoenson, Michelle van der Merwe, and Sheryl Ozinsky provided curatorial assistance and prepared photographic prints. Marcelle Scheiner and Sandra Saven typed the manuscript. Figure 42C was prepared by Virgilio Branco (South African Museum). I thank Prof. G. M. Branch and Dr J. A. 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Journal of Zoology 221 (1): 21-35. WILLIAMS, G. C. (in press a). Biogeography of the octocorallion coelenterate fauna of southern Africa. Biological Journal of Linnean Society. Wi.iiams, G. C. (in press b). Coral reef octocorals: an illustrated guide to the genera of soft corals, sea fans, and sea pens inhabiting the coral reefs of northern Natal. Pietermaritzburg: Natal Parks Board. WriGHT, E. P. & STUDER, T. 1889. Report on the Alcyonaria collected by H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-1876. Report on the scientific results of the exploring voyage of H.M.S. Challenger 1873-76. Zoology 31 (1): 1-314. 6. SYSTEMATIC papers must conform to the International code of zoological nomenclature (particu- larly Articles 22 and 51). Names of new taxa, combinations, synonyms, etc., when used for the first time, must be followed by the appropriate Latin (not English) abbreviation, e.g. gen. nov., sp. nov., comb. nov., syn. nov., etc. An author’s name when cited must follow the name of the taxon without intervening punctuation and not be abbreviated; if the year is added, a comma must separate author’s name and year. The author’s name (and date, if cited) must be placed in parentheses if a species or subspecies is trans- ferred from its original genus. The name of a subsequent user of a scientific name must be separated from the scientific name by a colon. a Synonymy arrangement should be according to chronology of names, i.e. _ all published scientific names by which the species previously has been designated are listed in chronological order, with all references to that name following in chronological order, e.g.: Family Nuculanidae Nuculana (Lembulus) bicuspidata (Gould, 1845) Figs 14-15A Nucula (Leda) bicuspidata Gould, 1845: 37. Leda plicifera A. Adams, 1856: 50. Laeda bicuspidata Hanley, 1859: 118, pl. 228 (fig. 73). Sowerby, 1871: pl. 2 (fig. 8a—b). Nucula largillierti Philippi, 1861: 87. Leda bicuspidata: Nicklés, 1950: 163, fig. 301; 1955: 110. Barnard, 1964: 234, figs 8-9. Note punctuation in the above example: comma separates author’s name and year semicolon separates more than one reference by the same author full stop separates references by different authors figures of plates are enclosed in parentheses to distinguish them from text-figures dash, not comma, separates consecutive numbers. Synonymy arrangement according to chronology of bibliographic references, whereby the year is placed in front of each entry, and the synonym repeated in full for each entry, is not acceptable. In describing new species, one specimen must be designated as the holotype; other specimens mentioned in the original description are to be designated paratypes; additional material not regarded as paratypes should be listed separately. The complete data (registration number, depository, descrip- tion of specimen, locality, collector, date) of the holotype and paratypes must be recorded, e.g.: Holotype SAM-—A13535 in the South African Museum, Cape Town. Adult female from mid-tide region, King’s Beach, Port Eliza- beth (33°51’S 25°39’E), collected by A. Smith, 15 January 1973. Note standard form of writing South African Museum registration numbers and date. 7. SPECIAL HOUSE RULES Capital initial letters (a) The Figures, Maps and Tables of the paper when referred to in the text e.g. “. . . the Figure depicting C. namacolus .. .’: ‘. . . in C. namacolus (Fig. 10). . .’ (b) The prefixes of prefixed surnames in all languages, when used in the text, if not preceded by initials or full names e.g. DuToit but A.L.du Toit; Von Huene but F. von Huene (c) Scientific names, but not their vernacular derivatives e.g. Therocephalia, but therocephalian Punctuation should be loose, omitting all not strictly necessary Reference to the author should preferably be expressed in the third person Roman numerals should be converted to arabic, except when forming part of the title of a book or article, such as ‘Revision of the Crustacea. Part VIII. The Amphipoda.’ Specific name must not stand alone, but be preceded by the generic name or its abbreviation to initial capital letter, provided the same generic name is used consecutively. The generic name should not be abbreviated at the beginning of a sentence or paragraph. Name of new genus or species is not to be included in the title; it should be included in the abstract, counter to Recommendation 23 of the Code, to meet the requirements of Biological Abstracts. GARY C. 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