ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS

OF THE

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY

PUBLISHED IN CELEBRATION OF THE

Fiktieth Anniversary of the Society's Foundation.

1830-1880

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- PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

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ERECTED /863.

ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS

OF THE

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY

PUBLISHED IN CELEBRATION OF THE

Fittieth Aniwibersary of the Society’s foundation.

1830-1880

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

PUBLISHING COMMITTEE.

SamuEL H. ScuppEr, Epwarp BurGEss,
SamuEL L. ABgor, AupHeus Hyatt,
J. A, ALLEN.

PRESS OF A. A. KINGMAN.
BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
BERKELEY ST.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

SOCIETY ANNALS.
List of the Present Officers of the Society. (1-page.)
Prefatory Note, with extracts from the minutes of the annual meeting, May 5th, 1880. (3 pages.)

Historical Sketch of the Boston Society of Natural History, with a notice of the Linnaean Society of
New England which preceded it ; including biographical notices of all the Society’s prominent past mem-
bers, officers and benefactors. By Tuomas T. Bouvn. (250 pages, six floor plans, view of the Museum, and
portraits of Benjamin D. Greene, George B. Emerson, Amos Binney, John C. Warren, Jeffries Wyman,
Thomas T. Bouvé, Augustus A. Gould, D. Humphreys Storer and William J. Walker.)

SCIENTIFIC PAPERS.

N.S. Smarter. Propositions concerning the Classification of Lavas considered with reference to the
Circumstances of their Extrusion. (15 pages.)

Aupneus Hyarr. Genesis and Evolution of the species of Planorbis at Steinheim. (114 pages, ten
plates on nine sheets, one plate of sections ; map and two sections in text.)

Samurt H. Scupprr. The Devonian Insects of New Brunswick; with a note on the Geological Re-
lations of the Fossil Insects from the Devonian of New Brunswick, by Principal J. W. Dawson, LL.D.,
F.R.S., ete. (41 pages, one plate.)

W.G. Fartow. The Gymnosporangia ( Cedar-apples) of the United States. (388 pages, two plates.)

Tueopore Lyman. A new Structural Feature, hitherto unknown among Echinodermata, found in
Deep-Sea Ophiurans. (12 pages, two plates.)

W.K. Brooks. The Development of the Squid, Loligo Pealii Lesueur, (22 pages, three plates.)

A. §. Packanrp, Jr. Zhe Anatomy, Histology and Embryology of Limulus Polyphemus. (45 pages,
seven plates.)

Epwarp Bureess. Contributions to the Anatomy of the Milk-Weed Butterfly, Danais Archippus
Fabr. (16 pages, two plates; one cut in text.)

SamuEn F, Crarke. The Development of a Double-headed Vertebrate. (6 pages, one plate.)

Cartes Sepawick Minor. Studies on the Tongue of Reptiles and Birds. (20 pages, one plate; six
cuts in text.) :

Epwarp S. Morsr. On the Identity of the Ascending Process of the Astragalus in Birds with the In-
termedium. (10 pages, one plate; twelve cuts in text.)

Lucien Carr. The Crania of New England Indians. (10 pages, two plates.)
Wituuam James. The Feeling of Effort. (32 pages.)

LIST OF THE PRESENT OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY.
President.
SamueL H. Scupper.

Vice-Presidents.
JoHN CUMMINGS, FreperickK W. Putnam.

Custodian.
AupHEUS Hyatt.

Honorary Secretary.
SAMUEL L. ABBOT.

Secretary.
EpwarpD BuRGESS.

Treasurer.
CHARLES W. SCUDDER.

Librarian.
Epwarp BurGEss.

Committees on Departments of the Museum.

MINERALS. RADIATES, CRUSTACEANS AND WORMS.
Tuomas T. Bouve, H. A. Hacen,
R. H. Ricuarps, ALEXANDER AGASSIZ.

M. E. Wapsworrts. :
MOLLUSKS.

GEOLOGY. Epwarp 8S. Morse,
Wim H. Nizzs, J. Henry Brake.
G. Freperic Wricut,

INSECTS.
PALAEONTOLOGY. SamueEt H. ScupprEr,
Tuomas T. Bouve, Epwarp Burcess,
N. S. SHALER. A. §. Packarp, JR.

BOTANY. FISHES AND REPTILES.
JoHN CuMMINGS, F. W. Purnam,
Cuartes J. SPRAGUE, Turopore Lyman,
J. Amory Lowe tt. S. W. Garman.

MICROSCOPY. BIRDS.
SamvuEL WELLS, ; J. A. ALLEN,
R. C. GREENLFAF, SamuEL Cazor.
B. Joy JE¥Frriss.

MAMMALS.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. J. A. ALLEN,
Tuomas Dwiecut, E. L. Marx,

W. F. Wuirney. Georce L. GoopaLe.

ERRATA.

In the table of contents:

Fifth paragraph, for ten plates on nine sheets read nine plates on eight sheets.

In the Historical Sketch :

Page 216, 22d line, read Charles W. Eliot.
&“ 6th “ from bottom, for from all read from that of all.
« 247, 12th “ after with insert the chief causes of.

In Mr. Scudder’s memoir :

Page 33, line 9 from the bottom, for confidentially read confidently.

In Dr. Farlow’s memoir:
Page 3, note 2, for Ustitaginées read Ustilaginées.
“ 6, 9th line from top, for Huromyces read Huuromyces.
COP iamloblinc: 4c “ & hymeniferus read hymeniferous.
« 9, 5th “ “ bottom, for varies read vary.
“11,4th “ “ top, for Berke read Berk.
cout EE iG. LT readifigs 16.
18, Wath« “ “.* Gasperrini read Gasparrini.
« 20, 6th & 10th lines from top, for thuyoides read thyoides.
“ 21, 7th line from top, for gymnosporangium read Gymnosporangium.
ce DAeEStm ss (ts “« « Juminata read luminatum.
eS OGhese |S “« « tubercules read tubercles. :
* 31,28d © “© “ nseudoperidis read pseudoperidiis.
«39, 19th“ “ « before present insert the.
“« 33, 9th © “ © for #. lacerta read FR. lacerata.
Owing to the absence of the writer during the printing of this article a considerable part of the proof
could not be submitted to him for revision.

In Prof.. Morse’s memoir:

Page 7, 17th line from top, for fore read hind.

In Prof. James’ memoir :

Page 12, 10th line from bottom, for right read left.
ems Olin 1" sc “ left read right.
“« 30, 8th “ “ top, for work read no work.

La oO Oo

expressed my sincere regret that we can no longer be led in this work by the President
whose devotion we have been only too pleased to acknowledge by our ballots for ten years
past; but as long as his life is spared to us we shall have his sympathy and wise advice,

(v)

R. C. GREENLFAF, DAMUEL—Onpu4s
B. Joy JEFFRIES.

MAMMALS.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. J. A. ALLEN,
Tuomas Dwicut, EK. L. Marx,

W. F. Wuairney. Grorce L. GooparE.

PREFATORY NOTE.

Tur Boston Society or Natura History, founded in 1830 by a few earnest men,
has this year celebrated its fiftieth anniversary. Its growth during ‘this period has
been so considerable, it has gained for itself so firm a hold upon the esteem of our citi-
zens, and its relations to the higher education of the people have been so significant,
that it has been thought fitting to signalize this anniversary by the issue of a special volume
of scientific papers, preceded by a detailed history of the Society, the preparation of which
was entrusted to the President. Included in the history will be found the proceedings of
the jubilee meeting, held on the twenty-eighth of April last. At the annual meeting,
held a few days later, the President, Thomas T. Bouvé, Esq., declined a reélection ;
having been an officer of the Society for nearly forty and its President for ten years, -
no man living is so thoroughly identified as he with its life and interests during the
most eventful period of its history; and it is therefore fitting that this statement
should be followed by the tribute paid at the annual meeting to his untiring devotion
to the interests of the Society, not only during his Presidency, but for nearly the whole

period of its existence.

Boston, Dec. 15, 1880. PUBLISHING COMMITTEE.

Extract from the minutes of the Annual Meeting, May 5, 1880.

Mr. S. H. Scudder, on assuming the presidential chair, discussed the mission of the So-
ciety, closing his remarks with the following words: At a previous meeting I have already
expressed my sincere regret that we can no longer be led in this work by the President
whose devotion we have been only too pleased to acknowledge by our ballots for ten years
past; but as long as his life is spared to us we shall have his sympathy and wise advice,

(v)

and we may be sure that in all the work the Society undertakes, it will have no stronger
friend than he.

Mr. John Cummings thereupon offered the following vote: —

“Tn consideration of the fact that Mr. Bouvé has declined to be a candidate for the first
office of this Society, the members desire to express their grateful acknowledgment of the
Jong and valuable service he has rendered as President, and their cordial thanks for his
arduous labors, unremitted devotion, prudent and successful administration ; nor can they
part from him in this official capacity without the additional expression of their warm
personal esteem.”

No one ever associated with Mr. Bouvé, added Mr. Cummings, who did not feel himself
drawn to him by the strongest and tenderest ties. In his own experience he had never
met a man with so much devotion to any cause as Mr. Bouvé had shown for the
welfare of the Society.

Mr. Cummings’s remarks were warmly applauded and the motion was seconded by Prof.
A. Hyatt, who said, in respect to Mr. Bouvé’s administration, that although from the first
the present policy of the Society had met the severest criticism and sometimes disapproba-
tion from the intimate friends and advisers of the President, he had yet been able to keep
his judgment unwarped and to consider those ideas, which were new to him, purely on
their own merits. It is not too much to say that the Society’s aims, which we have heard
so highly praised in this anniversary year, could not have been so developed without Mr.
Bouvé’s constant support. The feelings expressed by Mr. Cummings will be echoed in
the heart of every officer of the Society, for we have always found our President full of
kindness and consideration, as well as just and sound in judgment.

Mr. F. W. Putnam said he could not allow this opportunity to pass without a few words,
which at best would be but a feeble expression of his feelings; for in addition to a long
and cherished friendship that every year had strengthened, his official ties to Mr. Bouvé
were double, and both were broken by his resignation, since, as might not be remembered
by all present, the President of the Society was ea-officio a member of the board of trus-
tees of the Peabody Museum at Cambridge; and while, as Curator of that Museum, he
welcomed his friend, the new President of the Society, he was very sorry to lose one who
had been so long connected with the Museum and had ever been ready to give his kindly
aid in furtherance of its objects.

Prof. W. H. Niles spoke of the large amount of work in the care and arrangement of
the collections which Mr. Bouvé had accomplished during the term of his presidency.
Most of this has been done after the business duties of the day, and how frequently he
has remained until called home by some one, none but his family know. When alterations
in the building were going on, he habitually inspected the entire premises after all
others had gone, to see that all was left in safety. The Society has steadily progressed
in its usefulness and scientific position during the administration of Mr. Bouvé, and he

Vil

now leaves the presidential chair with nothing to regret, and with the esteem and friend-
ship of every member. Day by day, and year after year, he has brought here a large
heart, full of geniality and goodness, and has been in himself a source of happiness to
those who have known him as President. It would be a pleasure to reciprocate, in some
small measure at least, his long-continued kindness, and this could be best done by each
member’s trying to make the Society so pleasant for Mr. Bouvé, that, as a source of his
future happiness, it should be second only to his home and his family. In conclusion, Mr.
Niles said he did not doubt that each member present would like to express in some spe-
cial way his personal respect and honor for him who was the dear friend of all and one of
the best benefactors the Society ever had; and he hoped they might do so by rising as
they voted for the adoption of the resolution proposed by Mr. Cummings.

The Chair accordingly called for a standing vote and the resolution was unanimously
adopted.

t.

1830. ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1880.

HISTORICAL SKETCH

OF THE

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY;

WITH
A NOTICE OF THE LINNAAN SOCIETY,

WHICH PRECEDED IT.

By THOMAS T. BOUVE.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

nO
CHARLES JAMES SPRAGUE and JAMES CLARKE WHITE,
Companions with me for years in laborious work upon the collections of the Society,
these pages are dedicated,
with the great respect and kind regards of

Tur Avutuor.

HistoricAL SKETCH OF THE Boston Society or NaturAL History: witu A Notice
OF THE LINN#HAN SOCIETY, WHICH PRECEDED IT. By Tuomas T. Bovuvé.

No history of our Society can well be given without some brief account of the
attempts previous to its formation to interest the public in the study of Natural History.
Before any organized efforts were made to this end but few publications even had
appeared on the subject, and these are cited from remarks made by Dr. A. A. Gould in a
sketch of the Linnean Society, which appeared in the Proceedings of the Boston Society
of Natural History in 1863.1. The most valuable of them was one by the Rey. Manassah
Cutler, entitled “Account of some of the Vegetable Productions naturally growing in this
part of America, botanically arranged.” Another was a pamphlet published by the cele-
brated Dr. Benj. Waterhouse, who seems to have brought with him from Holland “some
general notions of Systematic Natural History.” The pamphlet was entitled, “Heads of
a Course of Lectures on Natural History,” Cambridge, 1810, in which he distributes the
lower animals under the heads of Ornithology, Amphibiology, Ichthyology, Insects and
Vermes; which latter he mentioned as “outskirts of Animated Nature extending to the
confines of the vegetable world.” In a note he said he would “extend, contract or omit
parts of his programme to suit his audience.” As Dr. Gould quaintly remarks, it does not
appear whether he ever had any audience at all. In addition to these publications
some articles of a practical character were written by Prof. W. D. Peck, who occupied the
Chair of Natural History at Harvard College from 1805 to 1822. They appeared in
agricultural papers, and the most important of them purported to give a natural history of
the slug worm and the canker worm. Dr. Gould, in referring to the Professor’s work at
Cambridge, says, ‘““He gave such instruction as was demanded, which was very little.”
Harris's Natural History of the Bible, Mather’s Magnalia, Thacher’s Dispensatory, with
some treatises on the medicinal properties of herbs, and a few other papers of little
importance, complete the publications referred to.

Tue LINN@AN SOCIETY.

The time at length arrived for an organized effort to excite some interest on the part
of the public in natural science, and the men were not wanting. On the 8th of
December, 1814, there met at the house of Dr. Jacob Bigelow, a number of gentlemen,
then prominent in the community, some of whom afterwards became eminent in their
several professions, if not in natural science. They were, besides Dr. Bigelow, Wm.
S. Shaw, Octavius Pickering, Dr. Walter Channing, Ezekiel D. Cushing, La Fayette
Perkins, Dr. Geo. Hayward, Nathaniel Tucker, J. Freeman Dana, John W. Webster, and

1 Vol. 1x, 335.

4 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Dr. John Ware. Dr. Channing was chosen Chairman, and Dr. Bigelow Secretary, and a
committee, composed of Dr. Bigelow, Mr. Pickering, and Dr. Hayward, was appointed to
draft a Constitution for the Society, which they called the New England Society for the
Promotion of Natural History. Two days after they met again by adjournment, and the
Constitution reported by the Committee was read, discussed, and adopted. Among its
provisions are some which may interest readers of the present day.

The Ist article provides that the Society shall consist of Immediate, Associate,
Honorary, and Corresponding Members.

The 2d, that the officers shall consist of a President chosen from the Honorary or
Immediate Members; Vice President, Corresponding Secretary, Recording Secretary,
Treasurer, and Cabinet Keeper, who shall be chosen from the Immediate Members.

The 11th, that there shall be a meeting once a week.

The 12th, that any Immediate Member who shall unnecessarily be absent three times
successively, shall forfeit his membership.

The 14th, that all specimens placed in the Museum shall be the property of the
Society, and that no others shall have a place, except by express vote.

The 17th, that no person shall be chosen an Immediate Member except by unanimous
vote of all present; other members may be elected by a two-thirds vote, but none
without nomination at a previous meeting.

The 18th, that there shall be a Standing Committee of five members, chosen annually,
to provide a suitable room for the collection, employ one or more persons for service,
and draw on the treasurer for payment of the expenses thereby incurred, under such
restrictions as the Society may from time to time make.

The 19th, that each Immediate Member shall pay $5 annually.

The 20th, that every Immediate Member absent from a stated meeting without excuse,
shall be fined fifty cents.

Such articles have been quoted of the Constitution adopted as tend to show the animus
of the members. Who can say that they were not thoroughly in earnest ?

In subsequent proceedings of the Society it appears that fines were collected, undoubt-
edly for absence without excuse ; but there is no recorded instance of a member forfeit-
ing his membership by unnecessary absence. .

It is not easy to understand the principle or the policy which dictated the selection in
all cases of persons on whom was conferred Honorary, Corresponding or Associate Mem-
bership. In numerous cases individuals were elected to the former who cannot be sup-
posed to have manifested much interest in natural science, and who too were residents of
Boston. They were distinguished perhaps as Doctors of Divinity, or as Doctors of Medi-
cine, but neither then nor afterwards were known as Naturalists. Among the Correspond-
ing Members are found the names of several residing in the immediate vicinity of Boston,
as Cambridge and Charlestown; which seems singular, for the perils of a ferriage
across the Charles, which at an earlier date might have made these ports appear distant,
were no longer to be incurred; good bridges then as now uniting the populations. But
this is not all, some of the Corresponding Members were citizens of Boston itself.

From the records it seems that the number of Immediate Members at first, or soon
after the formation of the Society, was about 20; of the Honorary, 19; of the Corres-

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 5

ponding, 68, and of the Associate, 24. It is not clear what privileges these last had as
members of the Society, except the implied one that they were not subject to assessment.

In the list of the early Corresponding Members, it is pleasant to find the name of
Dr. William J. Walker, to whose great bounty the Boston Society of Natural History is
indebted for its present standing among the leading scientific societies of the world, if not
for its very existence; for there is much reason for the opinion that had the Society con-
tinued dependent on the voluntary labors of its members as would necessarily have
been the case without his help, it would have met the fate of the majority of the
societies of natural history, which have been formed under apparently favorable auspices,
have flourished for a time, and then faded out of existence. But more of this when his
large benefactions to the Boston Society of Natural History are mentioned in the course
of this history.

It may be a matter of interest to the reader to have presented here some of the names
of members connected with the Society, particularly of such as afterwards distinguished
themselves in their several callings, or at a subsequent period became active members of
the Boston Society of Natural History. Among them may be found : —

As Immediate Members :

Dr. Jacob Bigelow. Francis C. Gray. Dr. John Randall.
Dr. Walter Channing. Dr. Geo. Hayward. Dr. John Ware.
Benj. A. Gould. Octavius Pickering. Dr. John W. Webster.
As Honorary Members:
Hon. John Davis. Rev. James Freeman. Rev. John Prince.
Hon. John Lowell. Prof. Wm. D. Peck. Rev. J. Lathrop.
Hon. Christopher Gore. Rev. Manassah Cutler. Rey. J. T. Kirkland.
Dr. John Jeffries. Dr. John Warren.
As Corresponding Members :
Nathaniel Bowditch. Prof. Benj. Silliman. S. G. Perkins.
Josiah Quincy. Robert Hare. Dr. E. Hale.
Dr. W. J. Walker. Prof. Parker Cleaveland. Thomas H. Perkins.

Benjamin Pierce.
As Associate Members :

Joseph Tilden. Rev. Wm. Ellery Channing. Dr. Geo. C. Shattuck.
Dr. J. C. Warren. Wm. Minot. Rev. Edward Everett.
Dr. James Jackson. Richard Sullivan. Nathan Hale.

Francis Boott.

The first officers elected were
John Davis, LL.D., President.
Wn. S. Shaw, Vice-President.
Jacob Bigelow, Corresponding Secretary.
George Hayward, Recording Secretary.
Octavius Pickering, Treasurer.

John W. Webster, Cabinet-Iceper.

On December 29th, in accordance with a vote previously passed, the several members
having specimens to present to the Society towards the formation of a museum brought
them forward, and it is recorded that a considerable collection was made.

6 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

At a meeting held January 14th it appears that much dissatisfaction was expressed at
the name of the Society, and it was therefore voted that each member should propose in
writing at the next meeting such name as he judged the most suitable. When the Society
again met, on the 21st of January, 1815, the members, after due consideration, unani-
mously

Voted, That the Society shall be called the Linnzean Society of New England.

To understand the spirit and do justice to the labors of the active members of this
Society, let us look a little into their proceedings of the first year. February 4th it was
voted that each member shall,if possible, prepare some animal in the course of the week
and present it to the Society at the next meeting. In the record of a following meeting
it is stated that a considerable number of animals were presented to the Society, all of
which had been prepared by the members in the course of the week. Whether these
animals were of the dimensions of elephants or mice is not stated. At the same
meeting the Recording Secretary was requested to draw up some popular directions
for the preservation of specimens in Natural History, to be given to masters of
vessels and others, and to report at the next meeting; and at the next meeting a
circular letter was presented containing such directions. This was ordered to be
printed.

The subjects brought before the members did not always pertain to natural history. At
a meeting on March 4th a paper by the Hon. John Lowell was read, “ On the.resemblance
between certain customs of the modern Italians and ancient Romans.” It was voted to
copy it into the common place book of the Society.

Besides the weekly meeting it was decided to hold once a quarter a general meeting, to
which should be invited the Honorary, Corresponding and Associate Members, and at each
such quarterly meeting a paper by some person appointed at the preceding meeting
should be read on some subject connected with the pursuits of the Society. The first of
these quarterly meetings was held on the 21st of June, and Judge Davis delivered what
the record of that date states to have been ‘an elegant address on the advantages of
natural history and the objects of the institution.”

At the regular meeting held a few days afterwards, Dr. Randall, as the text expresses
it, was unanimously chosen to perform at the next quarterly meeting. It was also voted
that on the next Wednesday, the 28th of June, the day appointed by the Constitution for
the Annual Meeting, the Society should dine together at Richards’ in Brookline. In
accordance with this vote, the Immediate Members met at Brookline and after trans-
acting the business of electing officers for the year, they dined together, the record states,
in company with the Hon. John Lowell and Hon. Josiah Quincy. This combination of
scientific pursuits with feasting is not mentioned as a peculiarity of the members of this
pioneer society, and even in later days it has not been found disagreeable or unprofitable.
In some degree these Annual Meetings partook of the character of what has been more
recently called in some of our societies “ Field Days’’, for they were held at some selected
place in the country, and a portion of the day was employed in obtaining specimens.
Thus, at the first meeting, it is mentioned that “after dinner the members divided them-
selves into several parties for the purpose of making an excursion in search of specimens

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 7

in the several branches of natural history.” Towards evening it is further said: “they
returned to town after having passed a delightful day.”

Presentations of objects of natural history are frequently mentioned as having been
made to the Society during the year, and sometimes those of other character, as
for instance a likeness of Mr. Roscoe, of Liverpool, presented by Mr. Francis Boott.
In June, the Society was the recipient of two living tigers, presented by Capt. Stewart,
of the United States frigate Constitution. Whether it was more fortunate in receiving or
losing them, it is now impossible to say ; certain it is, they were by some means lost,
and a Mr. Savage was held accountable ; for in February, 1818, the record states that
“a settlement was effected with Mr. Savage for the loss of the Brazilian tigers, which
were presented to the Society by Capt. Stewart of the Navy,” and it subsequently
appears that the treasurer was authorized to pay out of the money received from
Mr. Savage, rent due by the Society.

At the second Quarterly Meeting of the year, held in September, Dr. Randall read an
interesting paper on the history and medical properties of the native plant Triostewm
perfoliatum.

In October, the Museum was arranged into several departments, and members were
allotted to take charge of them, as follows :

First division of Minerals. . Dr. Randall. Amphibia. : : . Mr. Gould.
Second “ ¢ & . Dr. Channing. First division of Insects . Mr. Pickering.
Avenel = Ge & . Mr. Dana, Sen. Second “ ¢ ss a MirDanas dirs
Plants . ; 6 5 . Mr. Tucker. Adoyygel ec ¢€ » Mr. Codman.
Mammalia. , : . Dr. Bigelow. Shells. 0 P Fi . Mr. Gray.
Birds. 0 . : . Dr. Cushing. Zoophytes, &e. é . Dr. Hayward.
Fishes . 3 5 ‘ . Dr. Ware.

In November, a paper was read by Dr. Goodwin of Sandwich, on tadpoles found there

In December, Dr. Channing was requested to make up, from the duplicates, a box
of minerals, and send to France, for exchange, and the Vice President was requested to
use his exertions to procure a moose for the Society. Professor Cleaveland of Bowdoin
College, a distinguished mineralogist, had been invited to deliver the quarterly
address in December, but unable to visit Boston, was obliged to decline, and no address
was delivered.

It has been thought well in view of the lesson to be derived from the experience of
this Society, to give at some length an account of the proceedings of this first year of its
existence with the intention of being more brief in mention of subsequent proceedings.
Enough is known of the character and ability of the members of the Society, and enough
has been shown of their devoted zeal in its service, to satisfy all that if ultimate success
did not crown their efforts, the fault was not so much in them, as in the fact, that more
was undertaken for accomplishment through voluntary labor, than can ever be expected
from men however zealous, who are engaged in professional or business life.

The second year of the Linnzan Society was marked by the same manifestation of zeal
on the part of the members as was shown during the first. From the assessment of the
members enough was raised to pay for some professional labor, and an artist, so called, was
hired, who probably could mount specimens; as in January, a committee was appointed to

8 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

procure animals, that he might find employment in preparmg them. In February the
room in which the cabinet was kept beg unsatisfactory, one was hired over Boylston
Hall, where the collection was placed, and where meetings were subsequently held.
The Museum of the Society was opened to the public every Saturday afternoon.

In all the months of this year valuable donations of specimens were received. Among
others specified may be mentioned a living bear, presented by Commodore Chauncy of the
navy; a miscellaneous collection of objects of natural history from Bowdoin College; a
valuable collection of birds from Africa; besides cases of insects, handsome minerals
and beautiful shells and corals, from other donors.

The meetings were well attended, and there appeared throughout the year no loss of
interest on the part of the members. The annual meeting was held at Fresh Pond Hotel,
Cambridge, and the attendance was general on the part of the members. Judge Davis
presided, and the day being pleasant, all found great enjoyment in excursions and in
amusements until dinner, which they partook of together, returnmg to town in the
evening.

In August Dr. Bigelow gave an interesting account of an expedition, undertaken
by himself, and the other members of the Society, for the purpose of visiting the White
Mountains in New Hampshire. Being equipped, as he states, with proper instruments,
the height of the mountains was ascertained more accurately than it ever had been. His
estimate of the height is not mentioned. Particular attention, the record states, was
given to the mineral, animal, and vegetable specimens that were found in the mountains,
and the whole paper abounded with curious facts and ingenious observations. All
who in subsequent years had the pleasure of intercourse with Dr. Bigelow, need
not be assured of the interesting character of the paper presented by him to those who
were favored by hearing it. It would, undoubtedly, be read with great interest now,
notwithstanding the general knowledge prevailing relative to the region mentioned.

The Society increased in numbers during the year, and there appeared no loss
of interest on the part of the members. Save a few lines found in the report of
one of the meetings in September, everything denoted great prosperity. But these
few lines are enough to suggest to those of a later day, conversant with the
history of natural history societies, the probable decay at a not distant time, of
that zeal and interest so marked at this period. They may be found in the report of a
committee appointed to obtain from the Legislature an act of incorporation. This report
declares it imexpedient to petition at present, provided our expenses can be defrayed
until we are united with the Atheneum. This is the first expression in the records
implying what, alas, the history of most natural history societies shows to be inevitable
when sustained only by the voluntary labors and assessments of members, and dependent
on the uncertain contributions of friends; lack of adequate means for the care and
presérvation of the rapidly augmenting collections and consequent disaffection. We
shall later see, that notwithstanding the strenuous exertions of the members, and
abundant success in collecting specimens, an increasing uneasiness manifested in a
disposition to unite with another society and thus sacrifice its own identity ; or, failing
this, to dispose of its collections in a way that would not have been considered for a
moment at an earlier period.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 9

The time, however, has not arrived to dwell upon anything not agreeable in the record
of the devoted workers of the Society. The Recording Secretary appears to have been
quite elated at the progress made, for he writes in October: The zeal and activity of the
members seem to be unabated, and if the collection continues to increase for a few years
in the same proportion, it will surpass every establishment of the kind in the United
States, and almost rival those of Europe.

The close of the year shows no less activity. In December a valuable paper was read
by Dr. John Ware. Large and valuable specimens were set up under the superintendence
of the committees, and arrangements were made, as the record states, for labelling all the
birds, beasts and fishes belonging to the cabinet. A committee was also appointed to see
what could be done in relation to furnishing permanent apartments for the collection of
the Society, which implies, probably, that.it had increased to a size rendering more room
necessary for its accommodation.

1817. Judging by the records of this year’s doings alone, it might be thought that all
was well with the Society, and that its continued existence and progress were secure.
Donations continued to pour in, many of a very valuable character. Among them may be
noticed a fine American elk, which is mentioned as one of the most interesting and
valuable animals which our country affords. There seems certainly to have been
no fears-of calamity, for in the early part of the year a fine specimen of a female
moose, from Maine, was purchased, and the hope is expressed that another year
a male may be obtained, together with a reindeer, which the Secretary states will
make complete the collection of the deer of the United States. Arrangements were
also made with Capt. Waterman to procure specimens of natural history from the
coast of Africa.

The annual meeting was held at Brookline, where the members, as usual, sat down to
dinner. Valuable papers were presented, one on the mineralogy and geology of
Cambridge and its vicinity, by Mr. 8. L. Dana, Jr., containing, it is stated, ‘ unquestionably
more accurate information on the subjects upon which it treats than has ever before been
communicated ;’ one on the luminous appearance of the sea, translated from the
Transactions of the Swedish Academy by Judge Davis; and one on the medical properties
of Phytolacca decandra, by Dr. Hayward.

It is distinctly mentioned by the Secretary, in June, that the usual business of
collecting and preserving specimens had been regularly attended to.

On the 18th of June, Dr. Channing delivered an address. Ata previous meeting of
the Society it had been voted to call a public meeting of the members, each of
whom should have the privilege of inviting others to be present on this occasion,
which was made one of great interest, many of the leading men of the state and city
being present. Among them, the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Council, members
of the Senate, and many ladies. The whole company were surprised at the size of the
collection, and highly pleased with its general order and neatness.

At twelve o’clock the address was given, which was upon the importance of literature
and science, particularly to the people of New England. The claims of the Society to the
patronage of the public were urged with great force and ingenuity. A sketch of the
progress of the institution from its first foundation was given, and statements made
showing the rapid growth of the cabinet.

10 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The interest excited by this meeting gave the Society reason to believe that the
importance of its work was fully appreciated, and that the public already felt disposed to
protect and patronize it. It is sad to think how soon the hopes excited by the
feeling manifested at this meeting were doomed to fade away.

Soon after this meeting, wonderful stories were circulated concerning a strange marine
animal, said to have been seen in the harbor of Gloucester, and a special meeting of the
Society was called for the purpose of taking measures to obtain information. Judge Davis,
Dr. Bigelow, and Mr. Gray, were constituted a committee to write to, and have depositions
taken of, all who had seen the animal. The committee reported, in September, that they
had no doubt of the existence of an animal of extraordinary appearance and enormous
dimensions, as there were many credible witnesses. They expressed the hope of getting
more information soon. In October, a very. full report was made upon what was
now designated as the sea serpent, and an account was also given of a small one, probably,
the record says, of a “spawn,” that had been taken at the water’s edge. The committee
were of the opinion that these animals were of a genus wholly unknown to naturalists,
and they designated them under the name of Scoliophis, from the singular curvatures
of the spine, by which they possessed a vertical motion. To this they added the specific
name Atlanticus.!

It is a subject of great regret, the Secretary wrote, that all the efforts that were made
to take the great serpent proved wholly ineffectual, notwithstanding the zeal and activity
of his pursuers.

1818. We have thus far traced the history of this Society from its formation, have
dwelt upon the evidences of its rapid progress, and have had brought before us accounts
of its great acquisitions, through which it had become possessed of a collection which, in
the language of its Secretary, seemed likely to surpass any one of like character im this
country and even rival the great collections of Europe. Henceforth we shall find evidence
of declining vigor on the part of the Society as such, notwithstanding great struggles on the
part of many of its members to sustain it and give it renewed activity; we shall see the
interest in its meetings rapidly wane, and its valuable cabinet becoming ruined for the want
of proper care; we shall see that even the hope for continued existence is giving place to
utter despair, foreboding dissolution.

In January a committee was appointed to make propositions to the trustees of the
Athenzum for a union of the two institutions, and if this could not be effected, to report
what measures should be taken for the preservation of the cabinet.

Meetings were held in the succeeding months, but not with so much regularity as here-
tofore. At one of the meetings a valuable paper was read by Dr. J. W. Webster on the
mineralogical character of the Island of St. Nicholas, which he had lately visited. This
seems to have been the only paper brought forward during the year. The Immediate
Members-‘made an excursion up the Middlesex Canal, upon invitation of Mr. J. L. Sulli-
van, and they dined together at Woburn, — their last dinner as a society.

1 Report of a Committee of the Linnzan Society of New 52 pp. See remarks by Dr. Jeffries Wyman, Proc. Bost.
England relative to a large marine animal, supposed to bea —_— Soe. Nat. Hist., rx, 245.
Serpent, seen near Cape Ann, Mass. Boston, 1817. 8vo.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Tut:

1819. During this year the meetings were not held with any regularity. Attempts
were made to take charge of and preserve the specimens, but without success, and the
members had the mortification of seeing a museum going to decay that had cost them so
much labor and expense ; but it seemed inevitable. They were mostly engaged in profes-
sional pursuits, and of course could not give their personal services to the preservation of
the collection; and the funds of the society were not sufficient to hire any one perma-
nently.

1820. Things remained in this condition until March, 1820, when a meeting was called
for the purpose of considering the expediency of disposing of the collection.

It was then voted, that if one hundred dollars per year could be obtained for ten years,
the members would renew their efforts to preserve the institution.

In April it was reported that enough had been subscribed, and more, for the preser-
vation of the collection. This seemed for a time to revive hope and inspire interest.
Amendments were made to the Constitution, and a committee was appointed to attend to
the preservation of the collection. A number of new members were elected.

In May, committees were chosen to examine and report upon the state of. each depart-
ment of the collection, and they were expected to attend at the hall of the museum every
Saturday, from 3 to 6 o’clock. A committee was also appointed to petition the legisla-
ture for an act of incorporation ; evidence certainly of renewed hope.

The Society became incorporated, and the first meeting under the act was held in June.
Dr. Jacob Bigelow was elected President.

In August a specimen of a seal and several minerals were presented, and in October
there were many minerals added to the collection. In December a movement was made
towards the formation of a library, and in the following March (1821) rules and regula-
tions were adopted for it. Notwithstanding, however, these signs of activity on the part of
the Society, the records afford sufficient evidence of declining interest. The meetings were
not well attended. Immediate Members resigned as such, and were made Associate Mem-
bers, mainly for the reason that they could not attend to the duties of the former.

1822. In the early part of this year there yet appeared no evidence of yielding to the
inevitable, and specimens, among them the bones of a camel, were received for the cab-
inet with satisfaction and thanks. ‘In August, however, we find that a committee had
been appointed to consider upon the future disposal of the cabinet, which reported :

“ That it appears, by the resignation and non-attendance of members, that it has become
burdensome to individuals of the Society to support its meetings and collections as they
have hitherto done; that it is expedient, therefore, to suspend its meetings and give up the
room of the Society, and place the collection, or such part of it as can be preserved, in
some place where it will occasion no further expense to the Society or its contributors ;
that a committee be appointed to remove it from its present location and place it in the
hands of any other person or persons who will afford suitable rooms for its reception, the
preference being always given to a scientific corporate body; that the present funds of the
Society be devoted to removing, securing and enlarging the collection, at the discretion of
the committee.”

This committee was made permanent, with directions to appoint a Secretary, and to call
a meeting of the Society on the application of three members.

12 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The expression that the funds of the Society be devoted to enlarging as well as securing
the collection denotes the existence of a vague hope at least of renovation.

The election of officers was made, as in former years.

1823. In March of this year a meeting was called by the Society, and the committee
appointed in August of the previous year relative to the collection reported, that they had
offered the whole of it to the Boston Athenzeum, upon condition that suitable rooms should
be provided for its reception and preservation, but that the Trustees had declined to accept
it; that they had subsequently offered it to the Corporation of Harvard College or to the
Board of Visitors of the Massachusetts Professorship of Natural History, who jointly
accepted the offer, agreeing to erect a building for the collection and to grant to the mem-
bers of the Society free access to the collection and to the Botanic Garden.

This report after consideration was acted upon by a vote that the conditions on which
the Corporation of Harvard College and the Board of Visitors of the Massachusetts
Professorship of Natural History, propose to accept the cabinet of this Society, be acceded
to; and the committee were requested to make the transfer. This was done, and the
balance of cash in the hands of the Treasurer, $264.29, was also included in the transfer.

A vote was finally passed that all subscriptions and assessments not collected be can-
celled. Thus came to an end the Linnzan Society so far as exertion for the furtherance
of the objects of its existence was concerned. It yet remained a corporate body, and
years after, upon the formation of the Boston Society of Natural History, it was once more
called together by its Secretary for the purpose of recovering if possible from Harvard
College such part of the collection as yet remained worth removing, in order to present
it to the new society. This reclamation was made on the ground that the College had
failed entirely to comply with the conditions made at the time of the transfer; no building
having been erected, and proper care not having been given for its preservation as a
collection for promoting the study of natural history. In the sketch which follows of
the doings of the Boston Society of Natural History, it will be found that very little of
the really extensive and valuable collection of the Linnzan Society came into its possess-
ion, though all that remained of it was given up by the College. It had gone to ruin for
want of care, as hundreds of earlier collections had before it, and as hundreds will
hereafter, if the views which the history of the Linnean Society are calculated to incul-
cate do not prevail in their aims and purposes.

That these views may be presented and dwelt upon has been the motive of giving
so full an account of the doings of this Society, as its experience so well illustrates their
truth. As stated in an earlier page, if success did not crown the efforts made
by the members to build up a permanent institution, the fault was not so much in them,
as in the fact that they undertook more than it was possible for men engaged in
professional or business life to accomplish, however zealous and devoted they might be.
The views referred to and which it is thought desirable to inculcate, may be given
in a few paragraphs. They are not new, for the same ideas may be found expressed in an
address delivered before the Linnzan Society of London, in 1867, by its President, George
Bentham, F.R.S., and also in an article by Dr. H. A. Hagen, published in the
American Naturalist (Volume x, pp. 80 and 135). They are as follows:

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 13

No society organized for the pursuit of the study of natural history should undertake
to form a large rhuseum, unless it is endowed with means fully adequate for the constant
care and preservation of its collections, either through support of the government,
or from funded property that will yield income sufficient for such purpose. Large
collections require enormous expense for preservation from destructive agencies, in
the necessary supplies of jars, bottles, alcohol, and other articles absolutely required
for use; and .for the payment of competent curators; as experience demonstrates that
none others than those who are paid for their services can be relied on to permanently
do the work, without which, sooner or later, all there is destructible in a collection
will certainly go to ruin. In the early period of an institution founded by voluntary
effort and designed to be so sustained, the members, zealous and active, may for a time,
and while the collection is not great, manage to arrange the specimens received, and keep
them from destruction by care, but as the museum increases, this becomes onerous
to them, and finally impossible. Its impending destruction discourages the members,
and the society itself, unable to bear the necessary expense of preserving what they
look upon as an important element of existence, is finally dissolved. A society of
natural history not supported by government, and inadequately endowed, should never
undertake to make more than a very limited collection of specimens, and these should
be confined to such as illustrate the natural history of the immediate neighborhood,
with perhaps a few others, typical specimens only, of forms found in distant regions.
Where more than this is attempted by any society, continued existence and progress
can only be predicted in case it possesses ample means to employ steadily a sufficient
number of capable men to take charge of its museum, and exert a_ careful
watchfulness over the specimens. No society can long exist that depends upon voluntary
continuous labor on the part of its members, or on the voluntary subscriptions of its
friends.

Nor is the collection of an immense number of specimens in every department of nat-
ural history a desirable thing for the general student. It is far more important that there
shall be an epitome collection so arranged as to give elementary instruction to visitors
who seek knowledge and to whom a great multitude of specimens might be confusing. Of
course there is no objection to the largest collection of known species where there are
abundant means to obtain and care for them, but an arrangement of such should always
be preceded by a proper synoptical series; the latter for the instruction of the general
student, the former for the use of advanced naturalists who need such collections for
comparison. A large collection has the effect of attracting great attention, and the
wondering thousands who are drawn by its exhibition to visit it daily or weekly, enjoy an
innocent pleasure that is well worth providing for in all large communities, especially as
the influence may often go far beyond gratifying curiosity. The collection of species local
to the neighborhood, should perhaps be the aim of every society, as a knowledge of all the
forms of life met in our daily walks is very desirable.

Perhaps the experience of no society better illustrates the truth of some of these remarks
than that of the Linnean Society. It was formed by men of more than ordinary ability,
and in a community ready and willing to aid it by voluntary contributions. Its members
were hard workers, and freely gave much time to its interests. But it had no funded

14 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

wealth and could not look to government for support. It flourished greatly for a consid-
erable period and only showed signs of weakness when its rapidly increasing collections,
garnered from every quarter of the globe, called for continuous labor and large expendi-
ture of money. Engaged as the members were in professional or business occupations,
they could not give the former, and they became tired of soliciting subscriptions to meet
the latter. The result was inevitable.

Tue Boston Society or NAaturaAL History.

In passing from the consideration of the doings, the experience and the dissolution of the
Linnean Society to a review of the history of the Boston Society of Natural History, the
question naturally arises in the mind whether the new Society started under any better
auspices, financially or otherwise, than the old, and if not, whether its aims and objects
were so different as to render it less liable to ultimately meet with the same fate.

A careful reading of its records fails to show that pecuniarily it was any better provided
with means in the early period of its existence, or that its aims and objects or its proposed
methods of action were in the least different from those of its unfortunate predecessor.
This is especially noticeable, as among its earliest members are found the names of several
who had been active in the Linnean Society.

As will be seen further on, the Society was at first dependent entirely on the annual
assessment of its members; yet it proceeded at once to collect specimens for its museum
without discrimination, thus involving itself in the same kind of expenditure for their
arrangement and preservation. That it finally succeeded in establishing itself on a firm
foundation will be seen to have been the result of fortunate circumstances that could not
have been foreseen, much less depended upon, and without which success would probably
have been impossible.

The first meeting of such persons as favored the formation of a new society was held
at the house of Dr. Walter Channing, February 9th, 1850. Dr. Channing was made
Chairman, and Mr. Simon E. Greene, Secretary. A committee was appointed to
recommend at a future day such measures as it should judge advisable for the formation
of the Society, and for creating an interest on the part of the public in its objects.

Dr. George Hayward, Dr. John Ware, Mr. Edward Brooks, Dr. Amos Binney and Mr.
Geo. B. Emerson, composed the committee. It does not appear whether other persons
were present than the seven named, as the number that met is not mentioned. Of those
whose names appear, three were active members of the Linnzean Society, viz.: Dr. Walter
Channing, Dr. Hayward, and Dr. Ware. There were two other original members
of the new Society who had been active in the Linnean, viz.: John Davis, LL.D., and
Mr. Henry Codman.

At a meeting subsequently held, the date of which is not given, the committee made
a report, which was adopted and a vote was passed, ‘‘ That a Society on the plan proposed,
be now formed,” and this was followed by the appointment of a committee to wait upon
persons favorable to the objects of the Society and obtain their signatures ; with authority
to call another meeting as soon as a sufficient number had subscribed.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 15

Such a meeting was called together on the 28th of April, and was held at the room of
the Trustees of the Atheneum at 7 1-2 o'clock P. M. Dr. Channing was chosen
Moderator, and Theophilus Parsons, Secretary. The names of the subscribers were read,
and a sketch of rules and by-laws for the government of the Society presented for con-
sideration. It was then

Voted, That the name of the Society shall be The Boston Society of Natural History.

Then followed discussion on the rules proposed, and finally a committee was appointed
to draft a constitution and code of by-laws and to report at the next meeting. Dr. Binney,
Dr. Hayward and Simon E. Greene were made this committee.

Thus was formed this Society, destined to become one of the leading institutions of the
kind in the world, into whose museum thousands would gather weekly for observation and
instruction, and whose publications would be known and valued in every civilized
community.

The next meeting was held on May 6th, and the constitution and by-laws which had
been proposed, after due consideration and with some amendments, were adopted. An
adjournment for one week followed. On reassembling at the apnointed time the members
proceeded to vote for officers and the following named persons were chosen to fill the
positions designated :

Thomas Nuttall, President.

Geo. Hayward, Wirst Vice-President.

John Ware, Second Vice-President.
Gamaliel Bradford, Corresponding Secretary.
Theophilus Parsons, Recording Secretary.

Simon E. Greene, Treasurer.
Seth Bass, Librarian.

CuRATORS:
Francis C. Gray, Edward Brooks, Amos Binney, Jr.,
Geo. B. Emerson, Walter Channing, Benj. D. Greene.
Joseph W. McKean, Francis Alger,

A committee was then appointed to make enquiries relative to the collection of the
late Linnean Society, which had been presented to Harvard College upon certain
‘conditions which had not been complied with, and to learn whether the whole or any part
of it could be obtained for the cabinet of this Society. No farther meeting is recorded
until August 9, though the adopted by-laws required that one should be held on the first
Thursday of every month. At this meeting it was announced that Dr. Nuttall had
declined to accept the office of President, whereupon the members present proceeded to
fill the vacancy, and Benj. D. Greene was unanimously elected. Thus was completed the
organization of the Society, and we find that the Council, now composed of all the officers,
proceeded at once to take active measures for the furtherance of its objects. The next day
after the election of Mr. Greene, it held a meeting and appointed a committee to arrange
for a course of lectures, to designate the lecturers, and to decide upon their compensation ;
also one to procure rooms for the use of the Society. At the next meeting of the Council
a week later, the committee on lectures reported in favor of a course of sixteen to be
given besides an introductory lecture, and that tickets of admission be put at $3 each,

16 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

&5 for a gentleman and lady, and $2 for each person additional. The subjects proposed
and the number of lectures to be devoted to each were as follows:

Two on a general account of the Mineral Kingdom and Geology, particularly as
connected with animal and vegetable remains ; four on Anatomy and Physiology of the
Vegetable Kingdom, with general account of the characters, relations, and uses of plants
and their distribution ; two on Anatomy and Physiology of the Animal Kingdom, and of
the principles upon which its scientific arrangement is founded, etc.; two on the
Mammalia; two on birds; one on Reptiles and Fishes; two on Insects; one on
Invertebrate Animals.

Subsequently the Committee reported that they had decided upon the compensation for
the lectures, and fixed it at $20 for each. The persons selected to deliver the lectures,
and who accepted the invitations, were Dr. George Hayward, Mr. Thos. Nuttall, Dr. Gam-
aliel Bradford, Dr. John Ware, Dr. Walter Channing, Dr. J. V. C. Smith and Dr. D. Hum-
phreys Storer. The introductory lecture was free to the public. This course of lectures
was commenced on the third Tuesday of October, and they were continued weekly.
Where they were delivered, and by whom the introductory one was given, does not appear
in the records.

These lectures yielded a net profit of $174.58. Besides this course, there was another
given under the auspices of the Society, before the close of the lecture season, by Mr.
Nuttall, on Botany. This yielded $170, $100 of which was paid the lecturer and $5.50
for expenses; the balance, $64.50 going into the treasury.

It will be recollected that in the sketch given of the closing proceedings of the Lin-
nan Society, it was stated that as the Trustees of Harvard College had failed to comply
with the conditions binding upon them in accepting the collection of that Society, re-
clamation had been made with the purpose of presenting whatever might yet be of value
to the Boston Society of Natural History. This had been done at the instance
of several members of the latter society who had likewise been members of
the former, and who reasonably felt aggrieved at the want of care shown for
the collection by its possessors. One of these, Dr. Hale, remarked that “ he felt it to be his
duty as an officer of the Linnean Society, to express the opinion that something effec-
tual should be done; that he would take the opportunity to again assert that
Harvard University had forfeited all her right to the possession of the cabinet of
the Linnxzan Society. The members of that Society were not so faithless to the
cause they had espoused as to desert it. When few in numbers and burdened with
heavy assessments, they had relinquished their rich collection to the Corporation of said
University, that body having passed at a formal meeting a vote to erect a suitable
building to preserve the collection, for the benefit of students m natural history.
That agreement had not been complied with, no buildmg had been erected, and
the specimens were scarcely to be found. Justice to the members of the Linnean
Society compelled him to make these observations.” It seems now but right to give
here the remarks of one whose statement can be taken as authentic concerning the
whole matter, as it furnishes more succinctly than anything else found, a_ full
justification of the course taken in presenting the valuable collections of the Linnzwan
Society to the College. Provision was made as far as was possible for its preservation, in

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. yy

placing it where it was thought it would be of great service to students in Natural
History.

The result of the application which was made to obtain for the Society whatever might
be left of value may be given in the few words taken from the record of the Annual
Meeting of the Society in May, 1832, which are as follows: “In the course of the year,
an order was obtained from the President of Harvard College for the surrender of such
articles as might remain of the old Linnzan Society, in pursuance of which a quantity of
refuse matter was sent to the Society’s room, but nothing of any considerable value was
obtained.”

Early action was taken to render the monthly meetings interesting, first, by referring
specimens presented to such Curators as were the most interested in the department
to which they belonged, to report upon at the next meeting. This added much interest
to the proceedings, and led to better attendance. At that time, so little was known of
many of the objects now familiar to all in the collections of natural history, that many
which would now be received without remark, because of their well known character,
excited not only much interest, but considerable discussion. It was at a time when a
convoluted mass of chaleedony might have been seen in the Boston Museum, labelled
petrified kidney, when at the store of a dealer in curiosities, within a stone’s throw of the
hall of the Society, fossil corals were exposed for sale as petrified flagroot, when Ammonites
upon being discovered in the rocks were heralded in the papers as coiled snakes,
sometimes mentioned as being as large as cart-wheels, and exciting wonder in proportion
to their size. The writer well remembers receiving notice of a remarkable “ petrified
bug” in a museum at New Orleans, and upon its being procured and sent to him,
finding it to be an excellent specimen of a Trilobite, originally, no doubt from the Trenton
limestone of New York.

Soon after the organization of the Society a room was hired for its use in the
Athenzeum building in Pearl street. Here its collections were deposited and here the
meetings, after the first two, were held until more suitable accommodations were obtained
three years afterwards. The early meetings took place in the evening, but subsequently
for several years in the afternoon, sometimes at 3 and sometimes at 33 o'clock.
They were held once a month until August, 1833, but after this time twice a month.

In January, 1831, measures were taken to procure an act of incorporation for the
Society, and in the same month, in view of the great lack of books on Natural History, it
was Voted—That this Society considers a library of works essential to its success ; and
funds were appropriated to purchase the best elementary books in the different branches
of natural history.

A Committee of the Council was also appointed at this time to apply to the Governor and
his Council requesting that the gentleman making a Geological Survey of the State might
furnish the Society with a suite of geological specimens. No further reference is made to
this matter, and the request does not appear to have been favorably considered, as no such
collection ever became the property of the Society. The State Collection itself, was, how-
ever, deposited for several years in the Society’s rooms.

A singular provision to obtain information was made in February, 1831, by a vote
passed, which was in substance as follows:

18 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

That a blank book be provided and placed on the table in which may be written
queries on subjects of natural history by any member and such answers as may be given ;
unless the latter may be of considerable length, when they may be put on file.

March 18, 1831. <A special meeting of the Society was held to accept the Act of Incor-
poration, and to organize under it, which was done. The Constitution and By-laws were
re-adopted, the only change made being that of providing that the Annual Meetings of
the Society be held on the first Wednesday of May each year, and that stated meetings be
held on the first Wednesday of every month. The same officers were elected the preceding
year, excepting that Dr. Storer was chosen to fill the place of Theophilus Parsons who had
resigned, and J. S. Copley Greene was chosen Curator in the place of B. D. Greene elected
President.

May 4, 1831. In accordance with the provisions of the Constitution as re-adopted in
March, the first Annual Meeting, so called, of the Society, was held on this day. As an
account of the receipts and expenditures during the period from its organization to this
time may interest the present generation of members, the items are recorded and given
in full.

RECEIPTS: Admission of 75 Members . R 4 : : 6 . $375.00
Tickets sold for Lectures . : ; : < C - 600.22 $975.22
ExpenpitTurEs: Compensation of Lectures . c 340.00
Fuel, Lights, Advertising and Pawan Tickets for Tract es 86.20
Rent of Society Rooms : é 0 c , . 125.00
Fuel and attendance Society Paging : ; ‘ : : 7.00
Cabinets $170, and Chairs $14.77 = F : : 5 teh (ry
Other small bills . - 5 ; i } F . © 57.67 $800.64
Leaving at disposal of the Society. 5 Oe : a $174.58

The Society proceeded to the choice of officers for the year, and the following named
gentlemen were elected:

Dr. Benj. D. Greene, President.

Dr. George Hayward, First Vice-President.

Dr. John Ware, Second Vice-President.

Dr. Gamaliel Bradford, Corresponding Secretary.
Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, Recording Secretary.
Simon E. Greene, Treaswrer.

Dr. Seth Bass, Librarian.

CURATORS :
Francis C. Gray, Dr. Joseph W. McKean, Dr. Joshua B. Flint,
Dr. Amos Binney, Jr., Rev. J. 8. Copley Greene, Dr. Augustus A. Gould.
George B. Emerson, Francis Alger,

To avoid frequent repetition the names of those elected each year will not be mentioned
hereafter, except in a summary of the past officers of the Society at the end of this

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 19

sketch. The election at this time being the first under the act of incorporation, this
list of those chosen is given in full.

A letter was received at this time from Professor Edward Hitchcock, then engaged in
making a Geological Survey of the State, requesting the aid of members of the Society in
furnishing lists of the animals of Massachusetts, to be published with his report. The
following were appointed by the Council to serve as requested: Thos. Nuttall and Simon
E. Greene, on Ornithology; Drs. John Ware and Joshua B. Flint, Mammalia; Dr. J. V. C.
Smith, on Ichthyology; Drs. Bass, Storer, and Binney, on Mollusca; Drs. Harris and
Gould on Entomology; Dr. B. D. Greene, on Zoophytes. They were to submit their
reports to the Society.

In July, 1831, the Committee on lectures reported that it was expedient to have fifteen,
and the following gentlemen were invited to deliver them: Dr. George Hayward, the
2d, 3d and 4th, on the natural history of man; Dr. Joshua B. Flint, the 5th and 6th, on
quadrupeds; Simon KE. Greene, the 7th and 8th, on birds; Dr. McKean, the 9th and
10th on reptiles; Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, the 11th and 12th, on shells; Dr. Thaddeus
W. Harris, the 13th, 14th and 15th, on insects. Mr. Francis C. Gray was afterwards
appointed to give the introductory one.

This course of lectures was given the ensuing season, but no record is found of the
result. That it was pecuniarily unsuccessful is, however, clear from a statement made
when the question of another series came up in the followimg February, to the purport
that the failure was disheartening.

In February, 1832, a proposal was received from Mr. Savage of the Savings Bank, for
leasing a room in the building to be erected for that institution on Tremont street. This
led to the appointment of a committee to confer with him, and finally to an arrangement
by which the hall of the third story was engaged for the use of the Society.

In February also, the committee on lectures reported that a course for the next season
was absolutely necessary for the prosperity of the Society. They advised that seventeen
should be given, and that Mr. Edward Everett be asked to deliver the mtroductory one ;
that the price of tickets should be $2 for the single one, and $1 for each additional ;
that the lecturers be requested to deliver them gratuitously; and that the whole
arrangement for the course be to the important one of increasing the finances of the
Society. The committee were instructed to engage Temple Hall for the lectures, and to
make all necessary arrangements for their delivery.

At a subsequent meeting of the Society, doubts were expressed relative to the success
financially, of the proposed course for 1832-33, and apparently to ensure this it was
voted to put the tickets at $1. Whatever the effect of this reduction may have been,
it is certain, from the Treasurer’s report of the next year, that financially, the course
was an exceedingly successful one, as it yielded a net profit of $720 to the Society.

In March of this year, the committee on publication reported that it was expedient
to publish a Journal, but nothing appears to have been done towards carrying the
recommendation into effect, until sometime after. The report of the committee shows,
however, the feeling at this period relative to such publication. There seems to have

20 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

ait

been for a considerable time an arrangement with the proprietors of Silliman’s Journal,
by which some of the papers read before the Society and some of its proceedings appeared
in that periodical.

At the annual meeting of May, 1832, the report upon the collection in the different
departments stated that donations were withheld from the Society awaiting its having
proper accommodations for their preservation and exhibition.

At the election of officers the following changes were made: Dr. John Ware was chosen
first Vice President, in place of Dr. George Hayward, resigned; Mr. Francis C. Gray was
chosen second Vice President, in place of Dr. John Ware. Dr. Amos Binney, Jr., was
chosen Treasurer, in place of Mr. Simon E. Greene, resigned; Mr. Charles Amory was
chosen Librarian, in place of Dr. Seth Bass, resigned. Dr. Winslow Lewis, Messrs. Wil-
liam B. Fowle, Clement Durgin, Dr. George W. Otis, were chosen Curators, inplace of
Mr. F. C. Gray, Dr. Amos Binney, Jr., Rev. J. 8. Copley Greene, and Dr. Joshua B.
Flint.

As in the sketch of the Linnean Society the earlier proceedings were more fully
described, so in the account of this Society they are given in greater detail than will
be possible to accord to the subsequent records, consistently with proper limits. It has
seemed well to dwell somewhat at length upon early transactions, in order that the reader
may better understand the character and scope of the work undertaken by the first
members, and the better appreciate their earnestness and devotion. To do full justice
to their merits, it would be necessary to understand the great difficulty of procurmg any
information upon many of the objects sent to the Society. It was sometimes impossible
to make out their character, and often found indispensable to await the reception of works
on natural history before any adequate idea could be expressed concerning them.
Mr. Samuel H. Scudder, in a brief sketch of the history of the Society, given some years
since, quotes what seems particularly appropriate to repeat here. One of the original
members recalling, in after years, the success of their undertaking, wrote thus of the
difficulties encountered :

“At the time of the establishment of the Society there was not, I believe, in New
England an institution devoted to the study of natural history. There was not a college
in New England, excepting Yale, where philosophical geology of the modern school was
taught. There was not a work extant by a New England author which presumed to grasp
the geological structure of any portion of our territory of greater extent than a county.
There was not in existence a bare catalogue, to say nothing of a general history, of the
animals of Massachusetts, of any class. There was not within our borders a single
museum of natural history founded according to the requirements and based upon the
system of modern science, nor a single journal advocating exclusively its interests.

“We were dependent chiefly upon books and authors foreign to New England for our
knowledge of our own zoology. There was no one among us who had anything like a
general knowledge of the birds which fly about us, of the fishes which fill our waters, or of
the lower tribes of animals that swarm both in air and in sea.

“Some few individuals there were, distinguished by high attainments in particular
branches, and who formed honorable exceptions to the indifference which prevailed ; but

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Dil

there was no concentration of opinions or of knowledge, and no means of knowing how
much or how little was known. The laborer in natural history worked alone, without aid
or encouragement from others engaged in the same pursuits, and without the approbation
of the public mind, which regarded them as busy triflers.”

In August of this year Dr. Martin Gay reported in reference to some objects which he
had been requested to give an account of, that it was impossible to do so, because of the
want of necessary books.

In October the Council held a meeting for the especial object of arranging the Hall,
which the Society was to occupy, for the Cabinet.

In December, recognizing the importance of a permanent fund, it was voted in Council
assembled—That all money received from Patrons and Life Members should be invested in
bank stock for the purpose of creating one.

Probably the most important event of the year was the election to membership of Mr.
Ambrose 8. Courtis, whose subsequent benefactions were a great aid to the Society when, by
reason of increased expenditure it had become considerably in debt, and when its efficiency
seemed likely to be much impaired, to say the least, for the want of means to carry on its
work.

In March, 1833, the hall engaged for the Society over the Savings Bank in Tremont
Street, being represented as ready or nearly ready for occupancy, a committee was
appointed to remove articles to it, and in May following this committee reported that the
cabinet had been transferred and would be arranged as soon as circumstances would
admit. It was announced at the same time that the Historical Society had voted to
deposit its collection of Natural History in the cabinet of this Society.

Arrangements were made early in the year for a course of lectures in the winter of
1833 and 1834, and the committee having this business in charge, reported that Audubon

‘would deliver the introductory one, that the Rev. Dr. Greenwood would give two;

Dr. Harris, three; Dr. Gould, one; Dr. Otis, one; F. C. Gray, one; and Dr. C. T. Jack-
son, two. It was subsequently stated that as Mr. Gray had declined to serve, Dr. Bradford
had been substituted in his place, and that he would give two lectures. The committee
considered it expedient to pay $15 for each lecture.

Dr. J. V. C. Smith, an active member of the Society, who had devoted much time to the
study of fishes, and had made quite a large collection of them, offered to sell all that he
possessed at a very low price, and a committee appointed for the purpose of considering
the subject, having reported in favor of securing them for the cabinet, they were
purchased for the sum of $100. The collection was contamed mainly in 141 glass
vessels, many having several specimens, and was generally in good condition. Besides the
contents of the bottles, there were several dried preparations.

At the Annual election of officers in May, Mr. Chas. K. Dillaway was chosen Librarian
in place of Mr. Charles Amory, resigned, and Dr. Chas. T. Jackson, Curator, in place of
Mr. Clement Durgin, resigned.

The president, B. D. Greene, at one of the meetings of the Council of the Society this
year, expressed a strong desire that a fund of $5000 might be raised, the interest of

29, HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

which should be devoted to paying the rent bills incurred by the Society. He wished
that we might feel independent, and thought with such provision against indebtedness
there would need be no doubt of success. He then pledged himself ready to furnish
$500 for this object. Mr. Charles Amory likewise pledged himself to raise $400. Noth-
ing further seems to have been done towards the creation of such fund.

Pending the arrangement of the cabinet in the new hall, and the necessary prepar-
ation for its use, meetings were not held in June or July of this year.

The first meeting in the new hall was held on Aug. 7. The cabinet of the Society,
increased by the collection purchased of Dr. J. V. C. Smith, had been fully arranged
during the summer months. The magnificent collection of shells belonging to Dr. Amos
Binney, Jr., and of minerals belonging to Dr. Chas. 'T. Jackson had also been deposited
with the cabinet of the Society, and put on exhibition.

Surrounded by such evidences of prosperity, the members might well feel gratified at
what had been accomplished in the past, and reasonably hopeful for the future. They
were rejoiced too, by the accession of a large number of specimens to the several
departments of the Museum, that had long awaited a fitting place for their reception.

Before adjourning, it was voted that hereafter meetings be held twice, instead of once a
month, as heretofore. Accordingly on the 21st of August the second meeting for the
month was held, and a large number of members were present. At this meeting an
address was delivered before the Society by the Rev. F. W. P. Greenwood, commem-
orative of the opening of their new hall. This very admirable address was published in
full in the first volume of the Journal of the Society. As the first paragraph undoubt-
edly expresses fully the feeling pervading the minds of all the members, it is quoted here.

“With good cause, gentlemen, may we congratulate each other at this meeting, on our
condition and prospects as a Society. This spacious and delightfully situated apartment ;
these neat and well contrived cases and tables, already exhibiting treasures, the lustre of
which is more pleasant to the eyes of science than the shining of silver and gold; this
convenient furniture; these ample accommodations—are all indubitable evidences of our
improved, established, and promising state. Everything wears a congratulatory aspect.
Our countenances are full of animation. Even the mute representatives from the several
kingdoms of Nature, which here in new order surround us, seem to participate in our
pleasure, and, rejoicing in their deliverance from the damp and obscure region in which
they have been hidden, to bid us welcome to upper air, and the comforts of our present
abode.” Another quotation from the address of Dr. Greenwood will find an appropriate
place in this history, before its conclusion.

It may be well to note, as showing the comprehensive ideas relative to the work of the
Society, that a committee at this meeting was appointed at Dr. J. V. C. Smith’s desire, to
consult with him upon the expediency of forming a zoological garden. Nothing of
course could come from this under the circumstances of the period, and the consum-
mation of such a wish seems now but a remote possibility of the future.

Action was taken at a meeting of the council in October of this year, which
shows that as yet the public were not admitted to view the Society’s treasures, as a record

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 23

states that a vote was passed to allow those who purchased tickets to the lectures the
privilege of visiting the Society’s cabinet one day each week.

Early this year a committee was appointed to inspect the rock specimens and minerals
collected by Dr. Hitchcock in making the survey of the State, and, if thought best, to
petition the Legislature to allow them to be deposited with the collection of the Society.
This was done, and for many years following the whole State collection arranged in proper
order was on exhibition with that of the Society.

1854. In February, a very triumphant vindication, by the Rev. John Bachman, of the
accuracy of the observations and truthfulness of the statements of the honored and beloved
Audubon, written against attacks made upon his veracity which appeared in Loudon’s
Magazine, was read before the Society, and subsequently published in the first volume of
the Journal. It excited great interest at the time and was regarded as fully conclusive.

At the annual meeting in May, the Curators reported that the collection contained of
Mammalia, 14 perfect ligamentary skeletons, 54 crania, 15 pairs horns and many teeth ;
of Reptiles, 16 Chelonia, 60 Ophidia, 52 Saurians; of Birds, 40 species; of Corals, 30
species; of Fishes, about 100 species, well preserved; of Insects, about 4000 species, of
which 2000 were numbered per catalogue ; of Shells, 1600 to 2000 species; of Plants,
about 800 specimens, nearly all from the neighborhood. Of the Insects it stated that the
collection would soon surpass all in America.

Before the election of officers, an alteration in the Constitution and By-laws proposed
at a previous meeting was made, by which the office of Cabinet Keeper was created.
His duties were defined to be the general charge of the rooms of the Society, that the
contents be kept in the best order, that he should select a competent person as a porter,
who should be under his immediate control, and that when convenient he should attend
personally at the rooms upon days of public exhibition.

Upon balloting, Rev. F. W. P. Greenwood was chosen Second Vice-President in place of
Francis C. Gray, resigned; Dr. Amos Binney, Jr., Corresponding Secretary, in place of
Dr. Gamaliel Bradford; Epes 8. Dixwell, Treasurer, in place of Dr. A. Binney, Jr.; Dr. J.
B. 8. Jackson, Curator, in place of Francis Alger, resigned ; Estes Howe, Cabinet Keeper.

In October, the committee on lectures for the season reported that Professor Hitchcock
of Amherst, Rev. F. W. P. Greenwood, and Dr. Flint, had been chosen to deliver them,
and they advised that $20 be paid for each lecture. This programme was probably carried
out as there is no mention to the contrary. In November, Dr. Ware suggested applying
to the Legislature for a grant in aid of the objects of the Society, and a committee was
appointed to ask it. .The result of this was a subsidy of three hundred dollars per annum,
for five years, granted by the State, payment of which commenced in 1845.

1855. At the first meeting of the Society in January, the members were cheered
by the announcement that one of their number who was in Europe, Mr. Ambrose 8.
Courtis, had provided in a will made by him that the Society should receive certain sums
for specific purposes amounting in all to $15,000, and that to ensure the reception of a
part of it soon, he had forwarded an order for the immediate payment of $2000. This
amount was received by the Society. It is painful to add, considering the Society’s financial
condition, that this whole sum was lost by the failure of a bank in which it was deposited.
There were conditions annexed to the benefaction of Mr. Courtis, which were not entirely

24 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

satisfactory, and a committee was appointed to correspond with him and suggest some
modification of them.

Up to this time the meetings of the Council had not been held regularly, but only as
occasion seemed to require. It was now, January 7th, voted that they be holden twice
each month, immediately after the regular meetings of the Society.

At the annual meeting in May, it was reported that besides the $2000 cash before
mentioned, a note payable in five years for a like amount had been received from Mr.
Courtis,

It was also reported that the usual success did not attend the lectures of the last season,
the expenses having exceeded the receipts, $177.05. The first ‘‘annual” so called,
issued by the Society, embracing the address delivered by the Rey. F. W. P. Greenwood,
upon opening of the new hall; Remarks in defence of the Author of the Birds of America,
by the Rev. John Bachman; Description of a Gibbon, by Winslow Lewis, M. D.; Cicin-
delae of Massachusetts, by Augustus A. Gould, M. D.; and observations on a shell in the
cabinet of the Society, supposed to be identical with the Murex aruanus of Linnaeus, by
Dr. Amos Binney, Jr., was reported to have paid for itself the first year. These papers
compose part first of the first volume of the Journal of the Society.

At this meeting the Annual Address was delivered by Dr. Walter Channing. — It is thus
spoken of in the record. ‘“ Dr. Channing laid the Society under great obligation by an
exceedingly well-timed and interesting address. The objects and progress of the Society,
its wants, its claims upon the members and the community at large, the reasons why it
should live and flourish; all these considerations were dwelt upon with an earnestness and
enthusiasm which could not but produce a corresponding impulse in the minds of his
hearers.” ;

The thanks of the Society were voted to Dr. Channing, and he was requested to deposit
a copy of his discourse with its papers, for the use of the members.

In a revision of the proceedings of the Society published some years later than this
period, the statement is distinctly made that this address of Dr. Channing, which was
highly commended by those who heard it, was printed, but a copy has been sought
in vain. Unfortunately the manuscript itself cannot be found in the archives of the
Society, which is the more to be regretted as it is supposed to have embraced matter con-
nected with its early history, that would have been interesting to present in these pages.

The only changes made in the officers this year were as follows: Dr. N. B. Shurtleff
was chosen Cabinet Keeper, in place of Estes Howe, resigned; Dr. Thaddeus W. Harris,
Mr. J. E. Teschemacher, and Dr. Martin Gay, were elected Curators in place of Mr. William
B. Fowle, Dr. George W. Otis and Dr. Joseph W. McKean.

In June of this year the curators agreed among themselves to each take charge of sep-
arate divisions of the cabinet. The curatorships were not assigned to special departments
until three years later.

A solar microscope was received this year from Europe, the gift of Mr. Ambrose S.
Courtis, who purchased it for presentation to the Society. This was put on exhibition for its
benefit, the members only being admitted gratis. In October the exhibition having ceased
to be remunerative was closed. In August, the committee on lectures reported that they

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 25

had been disappointed in every way, and had not been able to obtain a single lecturer.
At a subsequent meeting, Dr. Gould expressed his unwillingness that the lectures should
be entirely omitted, and offered himself to give a course on Botany in the Spring. The
offer was accepted and a committee appointed to make the necessary arrangements.

1836. In April of this year, considerable discussion took place relative to the means of
paying the debts of the Society, and it was unanimously voted at a Council Meeting to
expend the money received from the State towards this end.

At a meeting this month it was announced that no one had accepted an invitation to
deliver the annual address, and it was therefore voted to omit it and have the report of
the Curators substituted.

The Annual Meeting was held May 4, the Rev. F. W. P. Greenwood in the chair.

From the Treasurer’s report at this time, the liabilities of the Society were shown to be
$1476.76 with a cash balance of only $56.69 in his hands, and but $227 due it from
members, much of which might not be realized. The Courtis Fund was stated to be
intact and amounting to $2057, invested in Fulton and Granite Bank stocks.

The officers of the previous year were re-elected, with the following exceptions: Rev.
F. W. P. Greenwood was chosen first Vice President, in place of Dr. John Ware, re-
siened; Dr. Walter Channing, second Vice President, in place of Rev. F. W. P. Green-
wood; Dr. Martin Gay, Recording Secretary, in place of Dr. D. Humphreys Storer ;
Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, Curator, in place of Dr. Martin Gay. The thanks of the
Society were presented to Dr. Storer, the late Secretary, for the great zeal, accuracy
and fidelity which he had manifested in its behalf since the establishment of the insti-
tution.

The Cabinet of the Society had been enriched by the addition of the skeleton of an
elephant that had died in a menagerie. The bones were stored and bleached in the house
of Mr. James Blake, and a vote of thanks was passed to him for his great kindness in
allowing this, and for the care shown by him in their preservation. To the skill and labor
of Dr. Shurtleff the Society was indebted for putting them together and forming the
perfect skeleton.

The Committee on lectures reported in August that it was not expedient to have a
course of lectures during the coming season.

At a meeting held Dee. 7, Mr. Epes 8. Dixwell resigned the office of Treasurer, and
Mr. Ezra Weston was elected to fill the vacancy thus created.

1837. The Legislature of the State was invited to visit the rooms of the Society.

In February of this year, a letter having been written to the Legislature recommending
a re-survey of the State, and that a collection of the plants and animals should be made
under the charge of the Boston Society of Natural History, a Committee was appointed
by the Society to meet a Committee of the House, to whose consideration the subject had
been given.

In April, the Legislature authorised the Geological Survey by Prof. Hitchcock, and
the following persons were commissioned subsequently to report upon the Botany and
Zoology of the State: George B. Emerson, President Boston Society of Natural History
Chester Dewey, Professor of Botany in the Berkshire Medical Institute ; Ebenezer Emmons,
M. D., Professor of Natural History in Williams College ; Rev. William B. O. Peabody,. of

26 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Springfield; Thaddeus W. Harris, M. D., Librarian Harvard University ; D. H. Storer,
M. D., Curator of Boston Society of Natural History; Augustus A. Gould, M. D., Curator
of Boston Society of Natural History.

These gentlemen met, and it was arranged among them that Professor Emmons should
undertake to report upon Mammalia; Rev. Mr. Peabody, upon the Birds; Dr. Storer,
upon Fishes and Reptiles; Dr. Harris upon Insects, Dr. Gould, upon Mollusca, Crusta-
cea, and Radiata; Professor Dewey, upon the Herbaceous Plants ; and Mr. Emerson upon
the Trees and Shrubs.

The Reports presented to the Legislature were published in 1839-1846.

It will be remembered that in January, 1855, the announcement was made _ to
the members that Mr. Ambrose 8. Courtis had provided in a will that the Society
should receive certain sums for specific purposes, amounting to $15,000, and that
prepayment had been directed by him of $2,000 of that amount. A copy of the
will had been forwarded by him for examination by the Society, and a committee
on its part had been appointed to suggest some modifications of its provisions.

It is not known whether the matter received his attention. Possibly his change
of residence from place to place delayed the reception by him of the communication
of the committee until increasing illness prevented consideration of it. Intelligence
of his death was received a few months after. What is known of this early benefactor
of the Society is but meagre. It will however be read with grateful interest,

Mr. Ambrose Stacy Courtis, for that was his full name, was born in Marblehead, Mass.,
on March 1, 1798. He received only a common school education, but early acquired a
taste for literature and science, which often manifested itself in his subsequent life.
Upon leaving school he entered a country store of his native place, and there was ac-
customed to devote all the spare time he had to classical and scientific studies. He
afterwards came to Boston, and entered into partnership with Mr. Samuel Johnson, the
firm being Johnson & Courtis. The business was that of wholesale dry goods.

While actively engaged in that occupation, he kept up his interest in other pursuits,
devoting much spare time, as when at Marblehead, in reading works upon his favorite
pursuits. He accumulated property, but his health became impaired. In 1834, he
retired from the firm of which he was a member, and travelled in Europe, hoping
to regain his strength. In this he was disappointed, and he finally died in Greece, _
August 27, 1836. His remains were brought home and buried at Mount Auburn.

On a tablet in the vestibule of the Museum, may be found the following inscription :

TO
AMBROSE 8. COURTIS
MERCHANT OF BOSTON
WHOSE GENEROUS BEQUEST IN 1838 WAS
FOR TWENTY-FIVE YEARS ITS CHIEF SUPPORT
THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY
ON THE FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF ITS FOUNDATION
APRIL 28 1880
GRATEFULLY INSCRIBES THIS TABLET

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 27

There seems to have been some anxiety on the part of the Society relative to the will
of Mr. Courtis. In February of this year, ata meeting of the Council, extracts were read
and considered, and finally a committee was appointed to take charge of the matter with
power to take legal measures if necessary to protect the Society’s interests.

At the Annual Meeting in May, the Rev. Hubbard Winslow delivered an address on
the relation of natural science to revealed religion, which was subsequently published by
the Society. It is spoken of in the records as an ingenious, eloquent and fervid address.

The Treasurer’s report at this meeting shows the Society had on hand but $180.17,
whilst it owed a note for $677 with 10 months interest.

No money had been expended on the library during the year, and the need of a fund
for the purchase of books which were indispensable for progress was strongly felt.
Dr. Storer reported upon the state of the collections, giving a very elaborate account of
the condition of every department, with notice of the many valuable additions made to it
during the year.

The most important acquisition was that of the great collection of insects purchased of
Professor Hentz, the entomologist, then residing in Florence, Alabama. This was the
fruit of seventeen years labor in this field of study, and was undoubtedly one of the best
collections extant. Professor Hentz was very desirous that the whole collection should be
possessed by some society of similar character to our own, rather than that it should be
sold abroad. He had previously offered it to Harvard College, together with his ento-
mological books, for $1600, but the offer had been declined. Professor T. W. Harris, then
Curator of the Entomological department of the Society, interested himself in obtaining
subscriptions in its behalf, and after much exertion, obtained in this way enough to secure
the collection, and also such portion of the library of Professor Hentz as was most needed
for our Society. The imsects alone cost $550, the books $200, and other incidental
expenses, $39, making in all $789.

The principal donors to the fund were Dr. B. D. Greene, Dr. James Jackson,
Dr. George C. Shattuck, Hon. Francis C. Gray, Hon. Jonathan Phillips, Dr. John Randall,
the Hon. David Henshaw and an anonymous person who gave $250 of the amount.

The collection contained, by the count of Dr. Harris after arrival, 14,126 specimens, of
which 12,811 were American, and 1515 foreign. There had been much delay in
responses to the application for subscriptions, and Dr. Harris was annoyed in consequence.
In mentioning the great accession to the cabinet at the annual meeting, he expresses
himself thus: “Icongratulate the society in the acquisition it has received, and
although the tediously protracted negotiation has caused me much anxiety and vexation,
and the small and lingering success which has attended my efforts in your behalf has
subjected me to severe mortification and disappointment, I cannot but feel happy at the
result. It is my hope that we shall have here in entomology, as well as in other depart-
ments, a standard collection, rich in genera and species, as complete as possible in the
productions of our own country, arranged and with the names affixed to every
described species. Our museum then will be useful, not only to ourselves, but to all
others who may wish to refer to well authenticated specimens, to remove their doubts or
confirm their conjectures.”

28 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The reception and the magnitude of this collection has been particularly dwelt
upon, because of what will follow in due time respecting its fate. It is necessary
that there should be a proper appreciation of the value of this as well as of other
important collections subsequently allowed to perish, in order that lessons may be
derived from experience such as it is so well calculated to teach.

Previous to the election of officers, the highly respected and much beloved President,
Benjamin D. Greene, tendered his resignation, greatly to the regret of all. The following
changes were made: Mr. George B. Emerson was chosen President, in the place of
Dr. B. D. Greene, resigned ; Dr. Amos Binney, 2d Vice President, in place of Dr. Walter
Channing, resigned; Mr. Epes 8. Dixwell, Corresponding Secretary, im place of Dr.
Amos Binney; Dr. T. M. Brewer, Cabinet Keeper, in place of Dr. N. B. Shurtleff;
Dr. N. B. Shurtleff, Curator, in place of Mr. George B. Emerson.

In August of this year, Louis Agassiz was elected an Honorary Member, and
in November, Jeffries Wyman was elected a resident member of the Society. These
admissions are particularly mentioned, because of the great influence these gentlemen
afterwards exerted upon its welfare.

As showing the financial trouble of the Society, it may be mentioned that at a
meeting of the Council in November, it was reported that the rent of the hall,
$150, was due in two days, and that there were only $50 on hand to meet the call. It
was voted that the treasurer make the best arrangement in his power with Mr. Savage,
respecting it.

The Committee to whom the subject of lectures was intrusted, reported that several
members of the Society had pledged themselves to bring forward at times such exercises
upon the subject of natural history as they thought would be interesting to the
public, and recommended that the members should have the privilege of attending
these, and of introducing members of their families and strangers who might be in the
city. The recommendation was adopted.

This seems to have led not exactly to what was suggested, but to the admission of
ladies of the members’ families and such others as they chose to invite, to the regular
meetings; for at the next one, held Dec. 20, the record states that the occasion being the
first on which ladies had been invited, the President, Mr. Emerson, addressed the Society
upon the subject of this invitation. He explained the objects of the Society somewhat
at length, and said much to interest the audience in the study of natural history. He
spoke of the many pleasures and benefits to be derived from some knowledge of Nature
as shown in her works and operations, and concluded with some account of the advantage
we have over the ancients in our more extended knowledge of these subjects.

The admission of ladies seems to have had for a time considerable influence upon
the attendance, as the number of members reported as present at this and succeeding
meetings was much larger than had been usual. There was a gradual failing off how-
ever, but how soon ladies ceased to attend is not mentioned in the reports of subsequent
meetings.

1838. In January, the Council voted: That notice be given by written card posted up
in the State House, that the Museum will be open every Wednesday, between 12 and 2

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 29

o'clock, for visits from the public, and that the members of the Legislature be invited to
examine it at those times.

By the advice of the Council, an alteration was made in the By-laws by which each
Curator should have his particular department allotted him at the time of his election ;
he to have the privilege of selecting from among the members of the Society a person to
assist him’ in arranging and labelling the specimens.

The Annual Address was delivered this year by Dr. Chas. T. Jackson, and was a very
interesting and lucid discourse upon the various influences of the study of Natural
History of Man, both im an individual and a social capacity.

At the election of officers the following changes were made: Dr. Augustus A. Gould
was chosen Recording Secretary in place of Dr. Martin Gay; Dr. Jeffries Wyman,
Cabinet Keeper, in place of Dr. Thos. M. Brewer.

The Curators were for the first time elected for special departments ; the following were
chosen : ;

Dr. N. B. Shurtleff, for Comparative Anatomy; Dr. Thos. M. Brewer, Birds; Dr. D.
Humphreys Storer, Reptiles and Fish; Dr. Thaddeus W. Harris, Insects; Mr. J. E. Tesch-
emacher, Botany; Dr. Chas. T. Jackson, Mineralogy and Geology, State Collection ;
Dr. Martin Gay, Mineralogy and Geology, Society’s Collection.

1839. In January, 1859, the Legislature was formally invited to visit the collection
during the hours when it was open to the public.

Since occupying the hall in Tremont street, the library of the Society had been
placed im cases much needed for portions of the cabinet, and the librarian having made
a proposition to receive it into his room in Tremont Row, where the books could
be kept together, and where access could be had to them at all times, and at all
hours of every day; it was voted to accept the offer of the librarian, and that unoccupied
cases in the attic over the hall be made use of by him for the reception of the books
in his room.

The necessity for more room for the increasing collection had become so great,
that many claims were at once presented by the curators of several departments for
the space about to be vacated by removal of the library, and it became necessary
to appoimt a committee with power to assign it as they thought expedient.

At the Annual Meeting this year, the Treasurer reported receipts amounting to
$1537.18, and payments $1167.51, leaving on hand $169.67, with debts outstanding
to the amount of $1001.96.

The Report on the Cabinet stated that out of one hundred and twenty species of
Massachusetts Fishes ninety were in the collection, and of the Reptiles every described
species; all in good condition. The Annual Address was delivered by Rey. John L. Rus-
sell, on the pursuit and delight of the Study of Nature.

At the election the changes made in the officers were as follows: Dr. Jeffries Wyman,
chosen Recording Secretary, in place of Dr. Augustus A. Gould; Mr. John James
Dixwell, Treasurer, in place of Mr. Ezra Weston; Dr. Samuel Cabot, Jr., Cabinet Keeper
in place of Dr. Jeffries Wyman; Dr. Jeffries Wyman, Curator of Mammals, in place of
Dr. Winslow Lewis; Mr. Thomas J. Whittemore, Curator of Mollusks (office not previously
filled).

30 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

In June, at a meeting of the Council, it was voted that the Committee to whom
was referred the affairs relating to the will of the late Ambrose 8. Courtis, be authorized
to complete the negotiations with the heirs of said Courtis on such terms as they
may deem expedient, and to receive all money accruing therefrom, to be deposited
in some bank for safe keeping.

Before the close of the year, a settlement was made with the heirs of Mr. Courtis,
by which they were to be released from all obligations, upon the payment of $10,250.
For some reason not given, $10,000 were finally received.

In October, Dr. Samuel Cabot resigned the office of Cabinet Keeper, and Mr. William
I. Bowditch was elected to the position, but as he preferred a month later to have
another substituted in his place, Dr. Samuel L. Abbot was chosen to succeed him.

In November, a report was made upon the disposition of the money from the
Courtis bequest, and the members, feeling now that they could reasonably expend some-
thing towards meeting wants long felt: Voted, to procure such books as were most
needed for the library. They also appointed a committee to make an estimate of the
cost of mounting the Birds of Massachusetts in first rate order.

In December, the librarian proposed that the meetings through the winter should be
held once a week at his room opposite the hall, provided he should be made a life
member, and the expenses of the lights and fuel be paid for by the Society. This offer
was accepted, and the meetings were accordingly held there.

It is pleasant to notice in looking over the proceedings of the Society, that it was
enabled sometimes to aid others in scientific measures to serve the public, as it has often
done in more recent periods. At one time we find Prof. Hitchcock appealing to it for
information concerning soils; at another the specimens of the Cabinet were solicited by
Prof. Silliman for use in illustrating his great course of lectures before the Lowell Insti-
tute. It is unnecessary to add that these calls were cheerfully met.

1840. In February, of this year, the Society was saddened by the death of one of its
original founders and most interested members, Mr. Simon E. Greene. This gentleman
was a business man of great activity. In early years he was an officer in one of the city
banks, but afterwards, and until the close of his life, was a broker in whom the utmost
confidence was placed. All of his contemporaries represent him as a man high minded
and honorable in all his dealings, and of much public spirit. He was a nephew of
Gen. Simon Elliott, and from him derived his name. In the formation of the Society he
was not only one of the original members, but was the secretary of the first meeting of
gentlemen favorable to the formation of a society for the study of natural history, which
was held at Dr. Walter Channing’s house. He was afterwards appointed, with Dr. Amos
Binney, Jr., to call wpon such persons as it wasthought would like to be associated in
the project and obtain their signatures. At the first election of officers for the new
Society, Mr. Greene was chosen Treasurer, which office he held for two years, when he
resigned, receiving the thanks of the Society for the services rendered by him. Ata
meeting held February 12, the President feelingly alluded to the loss the Society had
sustained, stating that Mr. Greene had a great love for the study of nature, more partic-
ularly for the departments of Ornithology and Botany; that he had ever shown himself

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 81

one of the firmest friends of the Society, ready to assist and co-operate with others in
times of need, and on all occasions manifesting a strong interest in its prosperity and
usefulness. The followimg resolutions, offered by the President, were unanimously
adopted :

“« Resolved, that in the death of our late valued and honored associate, Simon Elliott
Greene, we, members of this Society, feel that we have lost a firm, liberal, and enlight-
ened friend.

“That we cherish fondly in our hearts the memory of his many virtues as a generous
friend, an honorable merchant, a perfectly upright and honest man; and that while
we mourn over our loss, we deeply sympathize with those whose ber secant from their
nearer connection with our friend, is still more heavy than ours.”

Mr. Greene, though bearing the same family name, was not connected by ties of
relationship with the President. His means were limited, but he manifested his continued
interest in the Society by a bequest of five hundred dollars in money, a fine collection of
about twelve hundred species of shells, and several works on natural history.

In April of this year the meetings were resumed in the hall of the Society, and
were continued weekly, as through the winter, until the Annual Meeting in May, after
which they were held twice a month.

At the Annual Meeting held May 6, Dr. C. T. Jackson, who presented the Reports
of the Curators, after referring to the additions made to the Cabinet during the year,
made some pleasant remarks relative to the Society, of which a few lines may be
appropriately quoted: ““We have now shown to the world that a Society of Natural
History can be supported in Boston, and trust that the time is not far distant when
the public generally will feel that the establishment of such a Society has contributed
not a little to the general weal. Our hall is already crowded with visitors at such
times as we throw open the doors for general admission, and there cannot be a doubt
respecting the beneficial mfluence which is exerted by this institution upon the minds
of its young visitors. Many a student in science will look back with gratitude to those
objects in your collection that first attracted his attention to the delightful walks of
Natural History.”

The only change made in the officers of the Society at the election was in Mr.
Marshall 8. Scudder being chosen Curator of Birds, in place of Dr. Thomas M. Brewer,
who resigned.

The Curatorships of Comparative Anatomy and Mammals were united at this time,
and Dr. Nathaniel B. Shurtleff, who had held that of the former, was chosen to fill
that of the combined departments. Dr. Jeffries Wyman, who had been Curator of
Mammals, retired.

Let us now review briefly the history of the Society during the first ten years
of its existence, touching upon some general points not hitherto presented. It will
be well to do this at the close of each decade, as thus perhaps a better idea may
be conveyed, not only of the progress of the institution during each period in material
prosperity, but of the change in thought relative to its proper mission as an educational
institution, and the means necessary for the accomplishment of its aims and purposes.

32 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Some statements have been made in the notices of the Annual Meetings, of the
Treasurer’s reports showing excess of expenditure over receipts, and the fact of an accu-
mulating debt which threatened seriously the welfare of the Society, notwithstanding the
annual subsidy of $300 received from the State, and which was granted for five years.
The Treasurer’s Report for the year ending May, 1840, will show the financial condition
of the Society, at the end of the ten years of its existence.

Its receipts for the year were as follows:

From the previous treasurer : ; : é - $150 00
Dividend on one share Granite Bank aoe é 3 : 2 F 18 00
Annual and last grant from the State . A ; 6 , 3 4 300 00
Annual assessments and entrance fees. 6 504 00
Borrowed from the Courtis Fund in order to aie off erdchiednere of

the Society . p . ; : : : 5 : 0 : 800 00

$1,772 00
Payments as follows : —

Notes held against the Society and interest , 6 : c - $767 17
Rent and taxes due for rooms prior to the past year . : . : 271 96
Amounts due incurred prior to year. 7 : . fs 5 6 d1 25

Whole debt paid 3 : : ; P : ; ; . 1,090 38
Books added to library a Ro 86 oe So ha ek EN
Rent and taxes of Society’s apartments 280 51
Printing and advertising. : 5 C 0 0 0 : : 32 77
Miscellaneous expenses of cabinet : : : ¢ : ; : 10 00
Current expenses of the cabinet . S 3 c ° . 89 42
Entomological cabinet . ¢ : : : : : . ° 50 00
Care and attendance on the room, fel, &e. 0 2 : 0 : 90 47
Expense altering shell-cabinet . c . 6 0 C : 63 00
Commissions collecting fees, &c. . : A : ; é . 6 27 05

668 94

$1,759 32

Cash balance in treasury . . . . 5 G6 © gs 12 68

$1,772 00

This account has been given in full, in order to exhibit more clearly the economy exer-
cised in managing the affairs of the Society, necessary if the Society was to be saved from
the burden of a debt that could not be borne, yet destructive afterwards to portions of the
collection of very great value, from that want of expenditure requisite to the proper care
and preservation of perishable objects.

The Society had struggled with debt during the greater part of its existence, and was
for the first time free fiom its harrassing claims. This, however, was only brought about
by borrowing from the fund which it desired to hold sacred for special purposes; that
received from the heirs of Ambrose S. Courtis, $10,000. The claim that “we had now
shown to the world that a Society of Natural History could be supported in Boston,”
having the aims and objects of the one existing, and relying on voluntary labor and

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 33

voluntary contributions for the furtherance of its objects, is not sustained by the
condition of affairs at this time, for it may well be asked how long the Society could have
gone on with an increasing debt consequent upon increasing expenditure not to be
avoided, if the bequest of Mr. Courtis had not relieved it from embarrassment; especially’
when it will be seen that with the additional means thus acquired, the best portion of its
rich collections went to ruin for want of that necessary care which only paid service can
be relied upon to render, and which could not be afforded.

The income from the Courtis fund was a great help, and a great encouragement. It
enabled the Society to go on with its work in a manner that secured for it public appro-
bation, of great service to it later when its increasing collections called for more room for
their exhibition, and made an appeal for help necessary. It was not enough to enable it
to adequately protect its perishable treasures. A much larger income was indispensable,
but experience had not yet demonstrated this fully.

Sometime during this year, though no record is made of it, the Council agreed to
appropriate the income of the Courtis Fund one-third to the Library, one-third to publi-
cations, and one-third to the Cabinet.

It may be interesting to the members of the present time to know something of the
attendance of members in the early days of its activity.

The following table will show the highest and lowest number present, together with the

- average attendance each year.

; tb 3500 : ; to i é
- Rae aad 43 - mae SEs 43
IUSBIE 5 5 5 PPA G ts 5 Als) 1836 . 700. ye 14
IBY 5 5 6 AD co 5 dal 5 lle 1837 . . 40 6. 12
BBB} oc 6 oo Ac 2 Wo . 18 1838 . - 40 8. 19
18384... 45. a UO eg . 26 1839 . - 35 oe - 14
USB) 6 aq 6 MMU Sg Gm 5 Hl 1840 . Ol Sr - 12

An increasing interest seems to have been felt in the meetings during the year ending
May, 1834, as the average attendance is shown to be double that of the one previous.
This was due in part at least to the removal of the Cabinet to the new hall in Tremont
Street, over the Savings Bank, where subsequently the meetings were mostly held. The
average afterwards fell off and became small in the years ending in May, 1836 and 1837,
when it again increased considerably, as during the year ending May, 1838, there was an
attendance of over 50 per cent. more than during the two previous years. This is
likely to have been the temporary effect of ladies being permitted to accompany the
members. There is no record of this permission being withdrawn, and the probability
is that too few continued to feel such interest as to lead to the custom of their attend-
ance becoming permanent. In the years following nothing is said of their presence and
the average number of members at the meetings again fell off.

Respecting the increase of the Cabinet up to this period it may be said that there were
but few meetings held when specimens were not brought forward and presented. Some-
times these donations were of great value, and deserve special mention.

54 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

At one meeting, Park Benjamin presented ninety-two beautifully preserved bird-skins
and a box of insects, from Demerara. Joseph Coolidge, forty-five bird-skins, with corals
and other objects from Bombay. John James Dixwell, one hundred and_ thirty-three
specimens of bird-skins, in perfect order, with many fishes, from the vicinity of Calcutta.
J. N. Reynolds, a magnificent collection of between four and five hundred bird-skins ;
a large collection of botanical specimens; boxes of minerals, organic remains, and of
insects; a large and valuable collection of shells; skulls, fruits, and fishes, all from
South America, the Islands of the Pacific, and the South Shetland Islands. Dr. James
Jackson, a valuable Herbarium. Mr. J. 8. Copley Greene, also, a valuable Herbarium.
Dr. F. W. Cragin, of Surinam, magnificent donations of zoological and botanical speci-
mens.

Dr. D. Humphreys Storer was continually bringing forward specimens for the
cabinet. At one time he presented seventy specimens all carefully put up by him,
in glass bottles and labelled. To his generosity mainly was due the fact, that out
of one hundred and twenty species of Massachusetts fishes then known, ninety were in the
collection, and every described reptile of the State, with one exception. Alas, that
through the want of proper care in after years, nearly all these should have been
destroyed! Of this more will be said hereafter.

It would require pages to specify all the donors who enriched the cabinet by their
contributions; suffice it, therefore, to mention the names of some who were particular
benefactors in this way, viz., Doctors Augustus A. Gould, Amos Binney, Jr., Winslow
Lewis, John Flint, B. D. Greene, C. T. Jackson, J. V. C. Smith, G. C. Shattuck; Rev. F.
W. P. Greenwood; Messrs. Joseph P. Couthouy, William B. Fowle, Estes Howe, Edward
Tuckerman, Jr., Simon E. Greene ; Commodore Downes, of the United States Navy; Messrs.
George W. Pratt, George James Sprague, J. W. Mighels, H. T. Parker, and C. J. F.
Binney.

It is impossible to state the number of specimens in all the departments of the
cabinet. There were of fishes three hundred and forty-four species, of which there
were, as has before been stated, ninety of Massachusetts waters alone, out of one hundred
and twenty known. Of birds, there were of mounted specimens about seventy-five, and of
bird-skins not mounted, about four hundred. There had been a much larger number ot
the latter, but the collection had suffered from the attacks of insects.

Of Reptiles no statement can be made excepting that already given, that the collection
contained every known Massachusetts species excepting one, and that had only once
been found within our limits. In the Mazological department there were 23 specimens.
In that of Comparative Anatomy many, but the number is not given.

Of Mollusks there were over 3000 species in the collection, but whether these
embraced the private collection of Dr. Amos Binney, is not certain. At this time he had
already proffered to give the whole of his to the Society, provided other gentlemen
having collections would allow a committee to select from those species not possessed by
him or the Society. This was complied with afterwards, so that all in the cabinet at the
time soon became the property of the Society, with a great number in addition.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 35

The Entomological department was very rich, embracing as it did the great collection
purchased of Hentz, but the whole number of species and specimens cannot be stated.

Of the Herbarium there is no mention of the magnitude at this time, but it contained
the valuable donations of plants made by Dr. Jas. Jackson and by J. 8. Copley Greene.

Already the collections of the Society were beyond the ability of the curators to find

) A ) y
proper space for in the exhibition cases, and it was necessary to put away many in drawers
out of view.

The Library as well as the Cabinet had constantly received donations during the ten

” fo)
years past, but as yet was very deficient in works necessary for students in every
department. It consisted at this time of 660 volumes, besides numerous pamphlets.
But little money had been expended for books, as the financial condition of the Society
had not warranted it. The largest donors to this department were Judge Davis, who in
1837 presented a great number of valuable works; and Col. Thomas H. Perkins, who in

»-last year he decade presented a magnificent copy of Audubon’s work on the
the last of the decade ted enificent copy of Audul
birds of America. Other donors to the library of valuable books were Drs. D. H. Storer,

are, Amos Binney, Jr., Joseph W. McKean, B. D. Greene, and Messrs. E. ker-
John Ware, Amos Binney, Jr., Joseph W. McK Ba DaG , and M EK. Tucker
man, Jr., Edward Warren, Henry Codman, Isaac McLellan, John Lowell, Jr., and Joseph
Coolidge.
ddresses were delivered before the Society at its annual meetings, first in 1835, and

Addre ere del 1 bef the S j os,
afterwards in 1857, 1838, 1859, and 1840, as already mentioned. Several of these were
published.

At this time the first two volumes of the Journal of the Society and the contents of a
arge ion he third had been published. she papers were communicati hat
large portion of the third had | published. All the pay ‘e con cations that
had been made at meetings of the Society, and were of such character as to establish for
it a high scientific reputation, both at home and abroad. It served greatly towards
obtaining the works of foreign societies through exchange.

Communications of important character were made at almost all the meetings, and often
interesting discussions followed concerning the matter presented in them. The members
who took the most conspicuous part in the proceedings during the first five years, were
Dr. C. T. Jackson, Dr. D. H. Storer, Dr. A. A. Gould, Mr. George B. Emerson, Mr. C. C.
Emerson, Mr. Epes S. Dixwell, Dr. J. V. C. Smith, Dr. J. B. S. Jackson, Dr. Walter Chan-

? ?
ning, and Rey. F. W. P. Greenwood, though many others participated. During the later five
years may be mentioned as the most frequent contributors to the interest of the meetings
by their communications, Drs. C. T. Jackson, Augustus A. Gould, D. Humphreys Storer,
Thomas M. Brewer, Martin Gay, Thaddeus W. Harris, Amos Binney, Rey. F. W. P. Green-
wood, Professors Jeffries Wyman and C. B. Adams, and Messrs. J. E. Teschemacher,
Edward Tuckerman, Jr., George B. Emerson and Epes 8S. Dixwell.

The Council of the Society, consisting under the Constitution of the officers elected by
it, and whose duty it was to control the expenditure of the money, select lecturers and
decide upon the subjects to be treated upon by them; designate what books should be
purchased for the library ; nominate Honorary and Corresponding Members ; attend to the
publication of the Journal; and to transact any other business not inconsistent with the
Constitution and By-laws; met in the early days only as specially called together, but
subsequently, after the regular meetings of the Society.

36 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

For the furtherance of its objects, Committees were annually chosen on the Finances,
on Lectures, on Publications, and on Honorary and Corresponding Members. ‘Those who
were active on these Committees previous to this period were Drs. Harris, Binney, Gould,
C. T. Jackson, Lewis, Storer,the Rev. Mr. Greenwood, and Messrs. Emerson, Dillaway,
J. J. Dixwell, Epes 8. Dixwell, and 8. E. Greene.

DrecapeE II. May, 1840-May, 1850.

We now enter upon the second decade of the existence of the Society, with the grati-
fying fact of its freedom from debt, and its possession of a funded property sufficient at
least with due economy to sustain its life and enable it to do much in furtherance of its
objects ; but not enough to furnish the means necessary for the proper care and preserva-
tion of its increasing collections, as will be seen hereafter. At the first meeting after the
annual one, there came to hand a large donation of very valuable specimens from Dr.
Thomas S. Savage, a missionary at Cape Palmas, West Africa, mostly of just the character
which afterwards suffered greatly from lack of care, viz., insects aud reptiles.

In June of this year, an official communication was received from the heirs of Mr.
Simon E. Greene, announcing the bequest before mentioned, of five hundred dollars, and
of some works on natural history.

In November, the lease of the hall occupied by the Society was renewed for three years,
and also an arrangement similar to that of the previous year was made with the Librarian,
by which the meetings through the winter were held at his room in Tremont Row, in the
evepings, once a week until Dec. 30th, and twice a month afterwards.

The Society had again an opportunity of making a part of its Cabimet serviceable to
the public otherwise than by exhibition within its own halls, by granting permission to
Prof. Wyman to use specimens from it, in illustrating his course of lectures before the
Lowell Institute on Comparative Anatomy, given this season.

1841. Early this year, the usual invitation was extended to the Legislature to visit the
Museum. On such occasions the Curators made it their business to be present, im order
that such visits might be the more agreeable and instructive.

An attempt to render the meetings more interesting was made at this time by forming
committees on the several departments of natural history, who should be held responsible
for the presentation of communications.

As showing a strong feeling against the absorption of the Courtis Fund in the expendi-
tures of the Society, action taken in February of this year is noticed. It will be remem-
bered that in order to liquidate outstanding debts before the last annual meeting, a sum of
eight hundred dollars had been borrowed from this fund, and four notes of two hundred
dollars each, on interest, had been given by the Treasurer to the Trustees of that fund.

The Society now voted to apply the five hundred dollars, received by the bequest of
Mr. Simon E. Greene, and the proceeds of a sale to be made of the one share yet held of
the Granite Bank stock, to pay the first three notes; and that the fourth note should be
paid out of any surplus in the hands of the Treasurer, during the current year.

For the first time in the history of the Society, we find the Council appropriating any
amount of money for the use of the several departments of the Museum. The income
from the Courtis Fund now enabled the Curators to expend something, though little,

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 37

towards the purchase and preservation of specimens. We accordingly learn that $50
were appropriated for the department of Ornithology, $50 for that of Comparative Anat-
omy, and $25 for that of Botany. Moderate sums have ever since been asked for by the
Curators, as required in the several departments, and these have been granted when the
state of the finances would justify the expenditure.

It will be remembered that Dr. Amos Binney, Jr., had proffered his whole collection of
shells to the society, upon the condition that other gentlemen possessing cabinets should
open them to a committee, who should be allowed to select from them such species as
would serve towards completing the collection of the Society. At the annual
meeting in May of this year, the Curator of the Conchological department reported
that from the cabinets of Messrs. Dixwell, Greenwood, Emerson, Storer, Emmons and
Warren, about six hundred species had been selected, most of which were new to the
collection. He also reported that by the bequest of the late Simon E. Greene, his entire
collection of about 1200 species had come into the Society's possession. The Curator,
after referring to the accession of Dr. Binney’s collection and that of Mr. Simon E.
Greene, with the additions made from compliance with the conditions of Dr. Binney’s
gift, and by the donations received from various other parties, spoke of the cabinet of
shells as standing foremost of all the public collections of the New World. By the
reports of the other Curators for the year, it appeared that the donations to their depart-
ments had not been very importait, except to that of Entomology. The additions to the
Library were numerous and valuable, some being received from the bequest of Mr. Simon
E. Greene and others from purchase by means of the money received from the Courtis
fund.

The Treasurer reported the entire receipts for the year $1837.41; the entire expendi-
tures $1715.52; leaving a cash balance of $122.09 applicable to the purposes for which
the income of the Courtis Fund had been specially appropriated, viz., the increase of the
cabinet, the increase of the library and the publication of the Society’s Journal.

After the reading of the several reports, the President congratulated the Society on the
evidence furnished by them of its prosperous condition. He remarked that “the constant
circulation of the volumes proves the usefulness of the library and the increasing taste for
study and investigation on those subjects for the pursuit of which we are associated. The
state of the treasury shows the gratifying fact that the Society is out of debt and with a
considerable income annually applicable to its purposes. During the past year there have
been twenty-five meetings, at which seventy-five reports, written and oral, were made,
including the whole range of subjects embraced by the Society. Besides these, twelve
other written communications of interest, with letters received, have occupied the time of
the meetings, and afforded us the gratification of reflecting that we have not been quite
idle in the work we have undertaken to do.”

The following changes took place among the officers of the Society — Rev. Dr. Green-
wood having declined to serve longer on account of ill health, Dr. Amos Binney, Jr., was
elected First Vice-President in his place, and Dr. Charles T. Jackson succeeded Dr.
Binney as Second Vice-President; Dr. Frederick A. Eddy was chosen Recording Secre-
tary; Dr. A. A. Gould, Curator of Conchology ; Thomas Bulfinch, Curator of Mineralogy
and Geology (State Collection); 8. L. Abbot, Jr., Curator of Ornithology, and Thomas
T. Bouvé, Cabinet Keeper.

38 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The Society then listened to an interesting and instructive address from Mr. Tesche-
macher upon the progress of Natural Science. This was subsequently published.

Nothing of unusual interest occurred during the summer and fall months. When the
season became too cold for meetings in the hall, the members met by invitation at the
President's house in the evening, until February ; after which they assembled at the room
of the Librarian, 7} Tremont Row, until spring.

1842. In April of this year a committee was chosen to make arrangements for the
reception of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists in the hall of the
Society, where their approaching meetings were to be held by invitation of the Society.
These meetings, the first in Boston, took place during the week commencing April 25th
and ending on Saturday the 30th. The most eminent scientific men of the country were
present, including Profs. William B. and Henry D. Rogers, Dr. Samuel G. Morton, Prof.
Hitchcock, Prof. Benjamin Silliman, Dr. James D. Dana and Prof. Locke. Mr. Lyell the
distinguished geologist, afterwards Sir Charles Lyell, was also present. The meetings were
of great scientific interest and importance, and several of the members, also members of
the Association, took an active part in the proceedings and discussions, among others Dr.
C. 'T. Jackson and Capt. Joseph P. Couthouy.

The Association before adjourning passed a vote of thanks to the Boston Society of
Natural History for the use of the hall, and for the kind attention shown by its individual
members. ;

Previous to and in anticipation of the meeting of the Association, the Society had voted
to hold a special meeting on the 27th of the month, in order to invite the members of
that body to hear the Annual Address which was to be delivered by one of their number,
Dr. Samuel G. Morton, the celebrated ethnologist. This meeting so held, was largely
attended by the members of the Society and by those of the Association. The President
first gave a brief history of the doings of the Society the past year. This was followed
by the address, which was upon the distinctive characteristics of the aboriginal race of
America, and was extremely interesting and instructive. It was published by the Society
in its Journal, Vol. IV, p. 190, and in pamphlet, 8vo., 1842.

The yearly reports of the Curators were not always ef such character as to give partic-
ular information concerning the extent of the collections, sometimes being limited to a
statement of donations received, with remarks upon condition, etc. When presented in
detail, it seems well to embody their substance here, in order that comparisons may be
made hereafter if desirable. Some of the reports made at the annual meeting in May,
1842, are therefore dwelt upon at length. They were all quite encouraging.

In the Ichthyological department the whole number of species was given as 450, of
which 390 were from the Western Hemisphere, and 60 from the Eastern. Of the Massa-
chusetts species alone, there were now 168, an increase of 7 during the year.

Of the mineral Cabinet it was stated by the Curator that he had rearranged the collec-
tion, and that there were 610 specimens on the shelves, which probably comprised all
worthy of exhibition.

The Curator of Entomology reported the enriching of this department by the addition
of eighty species of African beetles presented by Rev. Dr. Savage.

The Curator of Conchology reported the continued prosperity of the department under
his charge. During no former year had a greater amount of labor been bestowed upon

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 39

it, or more important accessions made. Six hundred and fifty species had been added and
entered in the catalogue, and nearly a thousand names had been ascertained, and the
labels applied. There were now in all 3900 species, not including duplicates, all of which
had come into the possession of the Society by donation. Of the whole number, 1722
species had been contributed by Dr. Binney, 1197 by Captain Joseph P. Couthouy, 104
by Commodore Downes of the Navy, 95 by Mr. Dixwell, 54 by Mr. George B. Emerson,
85 by Mr. T. J. Whittemore, 43 by Mr. George Brown, 44 by the Rev. Dr. Greenwood, 29
by Mr. John Warren, 33 by Mr. Stephen Emmons, 41 by Dr. Storer, 155 by Dr. Gould,
and many had come from the bequest of Simon E. Greene. The want of room and the
want of books on the subject were complained of, the members being almost wholly
dependent upon the splendid library of Dr. Binney for information. This, however, was
liberally open to the use of all who sought knowledge.

The Curator of the State Collection of Geology reported the addition to it of 1100
specimens collected by Professor Hitchcock on his resurvey of the State, making, with the
previous collection, 2646, besides the series of soils numbering 227.

The Curator of Botany reported the addition of 1194 species, mostly foreign, to the
department under his charge. No account of the whole collection was given.

The Curator of Ornithology reported the whole number of birds in the collection as
540, very few being duplicates; 120 of these were mounted, of which 106, including 76
species, were of Massachusetts. Forty-three specimens were received during the year, the
donors being Capt. Joseph P. Couthouy, Judge Amos of Bengal, Messrs. Teschemacher,
H. Bryant, Lewis Ashmun, Charles Mayo, and Dr. J. P. Kirtland.

The Curator of Comparative Anatomy reported some additions to his department, but
stated that the large skeletons were in bad condition from exposure to dust.

The Librarian reported the condition of the library as prosperous; 140 volumes,
including 58 pamphlets, having been added during the year, presented by various indi-
viduals.

The Treasurer reported the whole receipts during the year, including balance at com-
mencement, $1550.29; whole amount expended, $1215.56, leaving a balance of $156.95.

The changes among the officers this year were, that Dr. Martin Gay was chosen Curator
of Minerals, Mr. T. T. Bouvé of Geology, Mr. T. Bulfinch, Recording Secretary, and Dr.
Henry Bryant, Cabinet Keeper.

In May of this year the Diploma now in use by the Society was first adopted.

In June, it is recorded that Dr. Jeffries Wyman was made a delegate to represent the
Society at a meeting of the British Association, soon to be held at Manchester, England.

In September, there appears to have been some apprehension as to the safety of por-
tions of the collection, as Dr. Wyman was requested to devote such of his leisure as he
could command for the ensuing year, to its preservation and increase, and $200 were
appropriated for the purpose.

In December, the Council of the Society having learned “that a proposal had been
made to take from their authors the notes, journals, and observations made by some of
the corps of the late Exploring Expedition, and to place them in the hands of others for
publication,” and recognizing the injustice of such proceeding as well as the many other
objections thereto, thought fit to remonstrate against it, which they emphatically did, by

40 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

passing votes expressive of their views on the subject, copies of which were sent to the
Hon. Secretary of the Navy, and to Hon. Robert C. Winthrop, the representative of this
district in Congress.

1843. In the early part of this year ten members of the Society subscribed to Audu-
bon’s work on the Quadrupeds of the United States for presentation to the Society. They
were George B. Emerson, N. I. Bowditch, Amos Binney, Jr., George C. Shattuck, Jinks
J. Amory Lowell, George Parkman, William Sturgis, F. C. Gray, John James Dixwell
and Amos A. Lawrence.

On May 3d, in the absence of many members who were attending the meeting of the
Association of Geologists and Naturalists at Albany, it was voted to postpone the business
of this meeting, the annual one, to the 17th inst. On that date, therefore, it was trans-
acted. The Curators’ reports were generally very gratifymg. Dr. Cragin of Surinam
had again enriched the cabinet by donations to the several departments of Comparative
Anatomy, Herpetology, Ornithology, and Ichthyology, and as usual in former years fre-
quent contributions to them all had been made by the members.

The Curator of Ornithology mentioned that the collection had increased during the
year to 753 specimens mounted and unmounted, of which 172, comprising 131 species,
were natives of Massachusetts.

The Curator of the department of Geology as disconnected with that of Mineralogy,
made his first report. The whole collection was stated to consist of about 1000 specimens,
400 of which had been received by donations during the year, 200 of these being Silurian,
50 Carboniferous, 25 New Red Sandstone, nearly 500 Tertiary and 50 of unstratified rocks,
lavas, etc. The remainder were undetermined. It should be borne in mind that this
department of Geology embraced the fossils of the several formations at this time, that of
Palaeontology not being made a separate one until years later.

The Librarian stated the increase of books during the year to have been 105 volumes
and 55 pamphlets, making the whole collection 1071 volumes and 250 pamphlets, inde-
pendent of the publications of the Society.

The Treasurer reported expenditures exceeding receipts in the general account showing
a deficit of $258.45, but of the Courtis Fund income he reported excess of receipts over
expenditures $303.53.

The annual address was delivered by Dr. Jeffries Wyman, and was a learned and inter-
esting discourse on the progress of science during the past year.

Mr. George B. Emerson, who had served the Society with great fidelity as President for
six years, having declined a re-election, Dr. Amos Binney was unanimously elected in
his place. The Corresponding Secretary who had likewise held this office for six years,
also resigned, and Dr. A. A. Gould was elected to fill the vacancy. Dr. Charles 'T. Jackson
was chosen First Vice-President, and Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, Second ‘Vice-President.
Other changes were in Jeffries Wyman being elected Curator of Reptiles and Fishes, and
A. E. Belknap, Curator of Conchology.

On the 2d day of August of this year, there passed from earth one of the best of
men; one whom all who knew, loved and revered. This man was the Rey. F. W. P.
Greenwood. It is a joy to dwell on such a character, and it was a privilege of the early
members of the Society to have associated with them one so much loved and respected,

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 41

and whose tastes led to his zealous codperation with them in advancing its interests until
health and strengtlwta0 longer permitted active exertion.

Dr. Greenwood was not one of the original members of the Society, but he was early
connected with it arftl ever afterwards participated largely in its work. He became
second Vice President in 1834 and first Vice President in 1856, holding the latter position
until May 1841, when by reason of failing health he resigned. As Vice President he was
frequently called upon to preside at the meetings of the Society, and he often by commu-
nications or otherwise, took part in the proceedings. In 1833 he delivered an address be-
fore it upon the opening of its new hall in Tremont street. This was published in the
Journal of the Society and formed its first article. This address has been before referred
to; but some remarks in it bearing upon the importance of a collection of local species
merit attention. He said: “It should be our object to attend particularly to the formation
or completion of such collections as may give a good idea of the natural features of our
own country and of our own section of our country. If I were traveling in Spain or Per-
sia, I should desire especially to examine some depository of the natural productions of
Spain or Persia. If I were traveling in our western states I should prefer seeing a mu-
seum well stocked with their own curiosities to one well stocked with all curiosities but
their own. And so, too, I presume a traveler in New England will first of all desire to
see those objects which illustrate the natural history of New England. For our own in-
struction and gratification, indeed, and for the advancement of natural science amongst
us, we shall gladly collect from every quarter and every coast and corner of the globe ;
from every sea and lake and river, whatever can be furnished for our purposes ; and yet,
for our sakes too, we shall least of all choose to be ignorant of the beings and things with
which Providence has surrounded our own dwellings, of the plants which spring from our
native soil, the birds which fly in our own heavens, and whatsoever passeth through the
paths of our own-seas.”

We pass on to the Annual meeting of 1844, which was held on the Ist of May. The
President in presenting the reports of the Curators for the year took occasion to make
some remarks upon the early history, progress and present condition of the Society, and
then forcibly stating the pressing want of larger accommodations for the collections and
for the library, appealed to the public for aid in supplying them.

The Reports then given, though generally satisfactory as to the condition of the speci-
mens in the several departments, presented exceptions which were but too suggestive of
what would inevitably follow under the system of reliance wholly upon voluntary care
and labor.

The Curator of Entomology reported that the collection had been infested to an alarm-
ing extent by Anthreni, and great injury done ; that in order to better preserve the speci-
mens he had been obliged to take a portion of them into his own keeping away from the
Hall, and resort to active measures to destroy the pest that was making such ravages.
Nothing, he said, but the utmost vigilance on his part enabled him to keep the collection
from destruction, and he urged that provision should be made for such glazed cases as
would effectually exclude the enemy.

The Curator of Comparative Anatomy reported that by subjecting the specimens under
his care to over 180° of heat in the steam oven of the Society, they had been freed from
insects, and by the free use of poisonous washes future ravages prevented.

42 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The Curator of Ornithology likewise reported that specimens in his department had
been attacked, but that by baking those infected, the collection was now in good condition.

Thus it will be perceived that in three of the important departments of the Museum
the collections had been seriously attacked and much injury done. Up to this period no
harm had come to the Ichthyological collection, which the Curator reported in good order.

The only reports that specified to what extent the collection had been increased, were
those of Ornithology and Geology. The mounted birds were given as 235, of which 195,
comprising 151 species, are found in Massachusetts. Of unmounted skins the number
given was 592, making in all 825 specimens.

The number of specimens in the Geological Collection was given as upwards of 1000,
of which about one half were Tertiary, the remainder being of the older formations.
Quite a number of these were yet undetermined, and the Curator stated would have to
remain so, until the Library should be better furnished with works on the subject of
Palaeontology.

The most important addition to the Cabinet of the Society, during the year, was that
made to the department of Herpetology by Dr. Cragin of Surinam. From him twenty-
three jars were received, containing nearly one hundred specimens of Saurian, Ophidian,
and Batrachian reptiles, all in an excellent state of preservation. The Curator deplored
the necessity of storing these out of sight for want of room to put them on exhibition.

The officers elected were the same as chosen the year previous, except that Dr. A. A.
Gould was made Curator of Conchology; Dr. 8. Cabot, Jr., of Ornithology; and Dr. H. J.
Bigelow, Cabinet Keeper.

The Annual Address was delivered by Professor Asa Gray, and gave an account of
the recent progress and present state of Vegetable Physiology. It was exceedingly inter-
esting and instructive, and was listened to by a numerous and highly cultivated audience
with marked attention.

In June of this year, the first notice was taken of the bad condition of the Button-
woods in New England, which had always been, until within a short time, one of our
healthiest and most beautiful trees. At the suggestion of Dr. J. B. 8. Jackson, the
Rey. John L. Russell was appointed a Committee to investigate the cause of the injury to
them. Mr. Russell, whose attention had already been given to the subject, communicated
the result of his observations at a meeting in August. His views appear in the Proceed-
ings of the Society of that date. He ascribed the evil to the young wood being winter-
killed, remarking that well ripened wood was always essential to vigorous health in peren-
nial vegetation, and that for several years no such young wood had been seen. He
thought that the great vigor in the larger limbs would eventually enable the trees to
survive until favorable circumstances facilitated the ripening of the young wood, though
doubtless some would perish. The views then given of the cause of the trouble have
been sustained by experience, and are here briefly expressed because the subject has by
no means lost its mterest in the minds of those who admire stately and vigorous growth,
such as was exhibited in the Buttonwoods of our neighborhood forty years ago.

1845. As showing the means sometimes adopted to obtain specimens for its collections,
it may be mentioned that early this year the Society appropriated $25, and various mem-
bers individually subscribed a considerable amount in aid of an expedition to Florida, for
such a purpose, to be undertaken by Mr. John Bartlett.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 43

It had been for some time apparent that the accommodations afforded by the Hall oy
the Society were entirely inadequate for the proper care and arrangement of the increas-
ing collections.

At the Annual Meeting in May, several of the Curators complained bitterly of this, and
it became manifest to all that some measures should be adopted towards obtaining more
room to meet this requirement. The Curator of Ornithology stated that less than one
third of the specimens in his department were mounted, for the want of room to place
them in, that the cases in which the unmounted specimens were placed were so accessible
to moths and other destructive insects that the collection had suffered considerably, and
there was consequently not much encouragement for him or others to make exertion
for its crease, until assured that the labor would not be thrown away. Others of the
Curators expressed themselves in like manner.

In the President’s review of the doings of the Society during the past year, he likewise
remarked upon the necessity for more room, saying that the time had now come when the
crowded state of the collections and limited accommodations for meetings made it neces-
sary to take earnest measures for the erection of a suitable building for the Society.

The present is a propitious time, he said, to commence an energetic movement for the
accomplishment of this great object.

The members all feeling the necessity for decisive action, it was

Voted: That in the opinion of this Society, the time has now arrived when a strenuous
effort should be made to raise sufficient funds to ensure the prosperity and Bernianenee of
the institution.

Voted: That a Committee be appointed to act personally or through others, to be selec-
ted by them, to solicit subscriptions for the purpose of erecting a building for the use of
this Society.

Drs. Amos Binney, Jr., C. T. Jackson, D. H. Storer, and A. A. Gould, were elected to
compose this Committee.

The Curators’ Reports did not mention generally the extent to which the collections
had increased. That of the Treasurer showed, independently of the Courtis fund, an
excess of expenditure over the income of $142.88, which added to excess of former
years, $327.22, made an amount of debt due to the Courtis fund of $470.10.

The income from the Courtis fund showed a balance of cash on hand of $421.88, with
$470.10 due from the General Fund. The understanding that the income from this fund
should be equally divided between the Library, Publication expenses and the Cabinet, had
not been complied with, in fact it seldom if ever was; the general expenses of the
Society being too great to admit of such compliance. The publications, moreover, fre-
quently required too much to allow the others a fair share. During this year they had
over $300 of the $618.66 received, whilst the Library had obtained only $28.55, and the
Cabinet nothing.

Among the pleasant events of the year just closed, may be mentioned two of consid-
erable importance ; one was the bequest of $2000 from a gentleman then recently de-
ceased, John Parker, Esq., a merchant of the city, and the other a donation of more than
fifty volumes to the Library by Dr. Francis Boott of London.

44 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

One means of obtaining many books much wanted by the Society has not been yet
referred to. At the time of the generous donation of the great work of Audubon, by
Col. Thos. H. Perkins, there was already a copy in the library which had been acquired
through the subscription of a number of the members. After the reception of the last
copy, the consent of the donors of the first was asked and readily obtained, to its disposal
by the Society in exchange for other works. A Committee was therefore appointed by
the Council to effect such exchange. Messrs. Little & Brown, who had always manifested
a very friendly feeling in behalf of the Society, purchased the work, agreeing to allow
$625.00, and to deliver in return for it such books as might be ordered from time to
time through the Committee. As the works received in exchange were to be such as
related to Ornithology only, it was several years before the negotiation was completed ;
the Committee for this purpose meanwhile being annually reappointed.

Mr. John James Dixwell, who had served the Society as its Treasurer for six years, re-
signed at this meeting, and a vote was passed expressing sincere regret at his retirement,
and thanks for the acceptable manner with which he had filled the office for so long a
period. Patrick T. Jackson, Jr., Esq., was chosen to succeed him. The only other change
among the officers was that Edward Tuckerman, Esq. succeeded Dr. A. A. Gould as Cu-

rator of Conchology.

The Annual Address was by Prof. Charles Brooks, ad was entitled “The history of
Philosophical Zoology from the earliest times to the present day.”

In July of this year the Society had ‘again the gratification of serving the cause of
Science by a loan of several of its specimens from the collection of the Radiata to
Dr. Dana, who was preparing his great work on the Corals of the U. 8. Exploring Expe-
dition.

In this year, too, the Society was enabled, by the publication of a report made by Prof.
Jeffries Wyman at one of its meetings upon what purported to be the skeleton of a Sea
Serpent, to do great service to the community by saving it from continued deception.
There had been placed on exhibition in New York some fossil remains, consisting of a
great number of vertebrae arranged in such a way as to give them the appearance of
having belonged to a single individual. These, with what purported to be the head,
measured in length about one hundred and fourteen feet. There were also teeth, ribs
and paddles. The character of the remains was not understood by the exhibitor,
Dr. Koch, and no obstacle was put in the way of as thorough an examination as could
be made without separating the parts which had been, to a greater or less degree, ce-
mented together. The name of Hydrarchus Sillimani had been given to this so-called
sea-serpent, and its exhibition of course attracted large crowds of visitors. The full descrip-
tion of the bones, as read by Dr. Wyman, may be found in the published proceedings
of the Society. Suffice it here to state that the vertebrae were shown to belong, not to
one individual, but probably to many of different ages, that so far as they yall be
studied they did not present any of the characters of an ophidian reptile; and that some
at least of what purported to be bones, or portions of the bones of the paddles, were
not bones at all, but casts of the cavities of a camerated shell. The teeth Dr. Wyman
claimed to be those, not of a reptile, but of a warm blooded mammiferous animal, prob-
ably a Cetacean.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 45

This report did honor to the Society, and added much to the reputation of Dr. Wyman.
It soon became well known that the bones were not those of a Reptile, but of a Cetacean
belonging to a genus to which Prof. Owen had given the name of Zeuglodon. They were
found in the Tertiary deposits of Alabama and belonged undoubtedly to many individuals.
Vertebrae and other bones of this animal may be now seen in the collection of the So-
ciety.

It may be well to state, as the annual reports of the Curators do not always give par-
ticulars desired relative to the collections, that during this year the Museum was visited
by Prof. Lewis R. Gibbes of South Carolina, and that he carefully studied the Crustaceans
in its cabinet and made a full catalogue of them. This represents that there were 58 gen-
era and 91 species, some of them rare and until recently undescribed.

1846. But little happened during this year that would interest the general reader.
From the reports of the Curators it appeared that a gratifymg imcrease was made to the
several departments of the Museum, and from that of the Librarian that there had been
added 145 volumes to the Library, mostly obtaimed by purchase. No very considerable
donations were mentioned. Great complaints of lack of room for useful exhibition of the
specimens in the Museum were made.

The Treasurer reported a balance in his hands belonging to general fund of $20.72
and a balance of income from permanent fund of $148.01. The permanent fund now
amounted to $12,000.

The only change in officers was the election of Dr. John Bacon, Jr., to succeed Edward
Tuckerman, Esq., as Curator of Conchology.

1847. The advent of Agassiz among us, was, as Mr. George B. Emerson afterwards char-
acterized it, a most important event to all engaged in the study of natural history in our
country. It was not alone that he possessed information most desirable for our education
in science, and great ability to impart it, but largely because of a personal influence that
he extended over all who came in contact with him. His noble mien, his personal beauty,
his genial manner and expressive features, the earnestness with which he spoke when-
ever he sought to interest others in the pursuits he loved; all conspired to impress every
one who approached him not only with admiration for himself, but with the great im-
portance of the science he taught. It is to show what were the feelings of the members
of the Society regarding him and his teaching, that this notice of him is given in this
place, together with the action of the Society at a meeting held Feb. 5, 1847. He had
but recently arrived, and had just completed his first course of lectures before the Lowell
Institute. At the meeting referred to, Dr. D. Humphreys Storer submitted the following
resolutions, which were unanimously adopted :

“ Resolved, That this Society present to Professor Agassiz their heartfelt thanks for the
gratification and instruction received by its members during his late course of lectures on
the Plan of Creation.

‘They would assure him that his lectures have given an impetus to the study of natural
history such as has never before been felt in this community ; and which, while they have
excited the curiosity and called forth the admiration of the public, have more than realized
the most sanguine expectations of this Scientific Society.

46 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

“While as a body we would thus tender our acknowledgement to the liberal naturalist
and enlightened philosopher, we beg him to accept our individual esteem and friendship.”

These resolutions not only received the signatures of all present, but of the members
generally, who subsequently visited the library, all gladly availing themselves of the op-
portunity to sign them.

In March of this year the Society received the sad intelligence of the death of its
hig _ly respected President, Dr. Amos Binney. A special meeting was called on the 24th
of this month to take such action as the feelings of the members should dictate. After
remarks by the Vice President, Dr. C. T. Jackson, upon the melancholy event that had
brought the members together, Dr. Storer moved the following resolution :—

“ Resolved, That the unexpected tidings of the death of our much valued friend, Amos
Binney, Esq., late President of this Society, fills us with inexpressible sorrow. To us, we
feel that his loss is irreparable. The founder of this Society, he was ever its steady, devo-
ted, true friend; constantly evincing his interest by suggesting new plans for its advance-
ment; constantly proving his sincerity by his endeavors to perfect them. To his encour-
agement, decision and perseverance we owe, in no slight degree, our present prosperous
condition. With full hearts, we would acknowledge our obligations, while we gratefully
cherish his memory.”

Prof. Asa Gray offered the following resolution :—

“ Resolved, That the Council be requested to prepare, or cause to be prepared by such
members of the Society as they may designate for that purpose, a sketch of the life, the
scientific labors and the services of our late lamented President, to be read before the So-
ciety and published in its Journal, or in such other manner as the Society may direct.”

These resolutions were unanimously adopted.

At a subsequent meeting of the Council Dr. Augustus A. Gould was appointed to pre-
pare the memoir asked for. This was done, being made introductory, however, to the pub-
lication of Dr. Binney’s work on the Terrestrial Mollusks of the United States. From this
memoir are taken, many facts here presented concerning the subject of it. Dr. Binney
was born in Boston, October 18th, 1805. He received his early education at the Derby
Academy in Hingham, and afterwards entered Brown University, from which he graduated
jn 1821. Subsequently he studied medicine with Dr. George C. Shattuck of this city, and
attended medical lectures at Dartmouth College. At this time his health failed and he
was obliged in consequence to give up his studies, and by the advice of his medical friends
to travel extensively over this country and Europe. Whilst abroad he visited England,
France, Italy and Germany, giving his attention to the hospitals and to the great collec-
tions of science and art. In December, 1825, he returned home much improved in health.
He. again devoted himself to professional study. and took the Degree of Doctor in Medi-
cine at Harvard University in 1826. The practice of his profession, however, he did not
find congenial to his tastes, and thinking it would not be so favorable for his health as mer-
cantile pursuits, he abandoned it, and engaged in trade and subsequently in mining opera-
tions.

While so employed he never lost his interest in scientific studies, which indeed ab-
sorbed a large part of the leisure time that could be spared from business. After suf-
fering from some vicissitudes of fortune, and having finally obtained a competence, he

;

f.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. AT

-determined to devote his life especially to science and art, intending “ after his own family ”’
to make the Boston Society of Natural History and the Boston Athenaeum, the objects
of his solicitude and bounty. His anticipations were not realized. His health again
declined, and encouraged by his former experience he sought to regain it by a sea voy-
age and a sojourn in Europe. His intentions were, if health permitted, to make himself
acquainted with the scientific collections of the old world, and to select while there, a fine
library of such scientific works as would be of service not only to himself but to e+hers
engaged in like pursuits. He left home in October, 1846, was not improved by the voy-
age, and after suffermg much from disease both in France and Italy, finally died at Rome,
February 18, 1847. His remains, in obedience to his wishes, were brought home for
burial at Mount Auburn. As the memoir states, “ Dr. Binney in person was above the
middle stature, erect, robust and well formed. His complexion was dark, with very dark
hair and eyes. His features were full and well formed. His dress was scrupulously neat,
his manners were dignified and bespoke the gentleman. His voice was deep toned, full
and melodious, and his enunciation was remarkably distinct. In his opinions he was
decided but not obstinate. He was elegant and refined in his tastes, and passionately
fond of the fine arts. He was most happy in his domestic relations, an excellent father,
unspeakably anxious to train up his children, both by example and precept, in all their
duties to God and Man.” An extract from his Journal quoted in the Memoir expresses
well his feelings relating to his children. “May they,’ he wrote, “especially imbibe
principles of honor and religion, and may it be their high aim to acquire and deserve the
name of the Christian gentleman. May it be said of my house, not that all the sons were
brave and the daughters virtuous, but that all the sons were upright and honorable, and
all the daughters good.”

The part taken by Dr. Binney in the formation of the Society, and his active zeal for
its interests manifested ever afterwards, have been shown but inadequately in the pages
of this history. To do full justice to the memory of all to whom it owed its origin, and
who nurtured it in its infancy, would require volumes where but brief chapters can be
given. He was, as has been stated, of that small number of persons who first met at the
house of Dr. Walter Channing on February 9, 1830, to consider the question of forming
a Society of Natural History.

He felt a great interest in the Journal of the Society and contributed several papers
which appeared in its columns. ‘To the Museum he presented specimens of great value,
not only for his favorite department of Conchology, but for any of them as opportunity
favored. It will be borne in mind by readers, that he offered upon condition that other
gentlemen opened their cabinets to a committee of the Society to select from them species
not in his own, his whole collection of more than twelve hundred. The condition having
been complied with, the Society was enriched through his generosity to the extent of
about two thousand species. ‘The first large donation of fossils and of minerals was made
by him and the number of specimens aggregated about five hundred. Of mounted Amer-
ican birds he also presented many. He had a large and valuable library of books on sci-
entific subjects, and these were always at the service of all who required them for investi-

gation.

48 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Up to the time when again forced by disease to relinquish his labors, he continued to
manifest the same zeal in behalf of the Society as had always been shown by him from its
formation. His last work for it was in a strenuous effort to obtain subscriptions from the
public that would enable it to possess a building suitable for its increasing collections, and
he had well nigh succeeded before incapacitated from further exertion.

The Society could have met, apparently, no greater loss than that incurred by the death
of Dr. Binney. This was felt deeply by its members, as his intentions to devote tame and
means largely to its service were well known to them.

But they did not mourn his loss merely as that of one from whom, had he lived, the
Society might have received continued benefits, but because they felt in common with all
who knew him intimately, that a helpful companion, a good citizen, and an upright man
had passed away, one possessing all the traits that constitute the character which he
prayed might be the high aim of his children to acquire, that of a Christian gentleman.

In April, Dr. Samuel Cabot, in behalf of a Committee to whom had been allotted the
duty of seeking for the Society a suitable edifice for its purposes, reported that the build-
ing in Mason Street known as the Massachusetts Medical College was for sale at a reason-
able price, and that after a thorough examination, they judged it capable of being adapted
perfectly to the wants of the Society. They therefore recommended its purchase, and
that the necessary alterations be made.

After some discussion a vote passed unanimously that the Committee have authority to
purchase the property and make the proposed alterations.

The Annual Meeting was held on the first Wednesday of May and the reports of the
Curators were presented, but on motion being made, the reading of them was postponed
until the next meeting, when the annual address would be delivered. The officers of the
Society were elected, John Collins Warren, M. D., being chosen President. The only
other change from those of the previous year, was that Dr. 8S. Kneeland, Jr., was made
cabinet keeper. .

The reports of the Curators were read at the next meeting. The specimens of the sey-
eral departments, excepting that of Entomology, of which no report was made, were rep-
resented to be now in safe condition, though not much increased in number. Those of the
Ornithological department were two-thirds of them stowed away carefully in the garret,
sealed up, for want of more suitable accommodations. To preserve them from the Der-
mestes, which had attacked them seriously in spite of previous precautions, they had been
immersed in corrosive sublimate. Twenty-seven or twenty-eight specimens had been re-
ceived from that indefatigable friend of the Society, Dr. Cragin of Surinam.

As was remarked at the meeting, it must not be inferred from the reports of the Cura-
tors, that there was any less interest felt in the collections than formerly. It had been
necessary to refuse specimens for want of room to accommodate them and it had not been
possible to arrange properly those already belonging to the Society.

The Vice President, Dr. Storer, made some very appropriate remarks upon the late
President, Dr. Binney, and addressing his successor, warmly welcomed him to the seat he
was now occupying, pledging the hearty co-operation of his brother members and himself
in aiding him to advance the interests of the Society.

Te ete if
ie

Clana GO 7LY,
ia

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 49

The President, Dr. Warren, expressed the gratification felt by him at the honor con-
ferred in his election, and at the kind welcome given him.

An address by Dr. Augustus A. Gould, followed, and was principally upon the life,
character and labors of the late President, Amos Binney. He closed by congratulating
the Society upon the prospect that the next annual meeting would be held in a new edi-
fice, more suitable for its purposes.

From the Treasurer’s report for the year it was shown that the whole receipts on gen-
eral account had been $499.22, and the expenditures $499.26, leaving a balance due the
Treasurer of four cents. The Courtis fund account exhibited receipts including balance
of previous year, $555.51, and expenditures $358.26, showing a balance on hand of
$197.25.

There was a special meeting, later in May, at the house of the President, to take fur-
ther measures relative to the proposed new building. It would seem from the action
taken that the purchase had not been consummated, probably awaiting the subscription of
a sufficient amount to warrant it, as votes were passed directing the Treasurer to collect the
moneys already subscribed for the purpose; that the Building Committee be requested to
continue their efforts to increase the subscription ; and that they be authorized to conclude
the purchase of the Medical College.

From the subsequent records of the year there is little or nothing to be learned of fur-
ther action relative to the acquisition of the building it was proposed to purchase ; yet be-
fore its close it had come into the possession of the Society, and such alterations had been
made as were necessary to adapt it for the use of the museum and library.

1848. On the fifth of January, 1848, the Society met in the new building, and a
large number of members were present. The President congratulated the Society on the
agreeable circumstances under which the first meeting of the year was held; spoke of the
difficulties under which it had labored from restricted accommodations and narrow means ;
and ended with expressing the hope, that with increased means of usefulness, it would not
permit the achievements of its maturity to contrast unfavorably with those of its youth.

The movement inaugurated by the late President to raise an amount of money by an
appeal to the public sufficient to enable the Society to possess a building of its own, had
been quite successful, the sum of $28,660 having been contributed for the purpose by
eighty-six individuals. The following resolutions were introduced by Dr. Storer at this
meeting :—

“Resolved, That the heartfelt thanks of this Society be presented to those gentlemen
whose munificence has enabled us to call this temple our own.

“Resolved, That we will endeavor to prove our sense of obligation by a renewed de-
votion to the cause of science.

“Resolved, That we deeply feel the kindness and liberality of George M. Dexter and
Edward C. Cabot, Esqs., in advising and aiding in the architectural arrangements of our
building ; and most especially do we feel indebted to N. B. Shurtleff, M.D., for the skill
he ‘has exhibited in adapting, and the zeal and fidelity with which he has for months su-
perintended the advancing work.”

At the next meeting, held January 19th, a vote was passed thanking Dr. Storer, Dr.
Cabot and their associates for the earnestness and perseverance shown by them in raising

50 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

funds towards the purchase of the new building and its adaptation to the use of the Soci-
ety, and at a meeting in February a special vote of thanks to Dr. Shurtleff was passed for
the great care taken, for the time given, and for the taste and skill exhibited by him in
providing for the accommodation of the Society and its collections.

At the annual meeting in May the Treasurer reported that the whole amount received

From general sources was : : F ‘ : j ; ; $1288.96
From Courtis fund . ; F j 5 ; ; ; , ; 1103.56
From subscribers to building . % P ; 3 : : i 26999.75
Total received ; , ; j : ‘ F 3 : : $29392.27

That the whole amount expended was

For general purposes 3 : : : ; : é c ; $1300.35
From Courtis fund . ; : ‘ 3 ; : ; . 450.73
Towards new building. 4 c c : : : c 5 20000.00
For repairs and alterations : : : : A P : ‘ 7257.63
Total expended. : c : : : 2 : . . $29008.71
Leaving a balance of cash . j F ; : : 3 $383.56

There yet remained due,—

On the building : , : ‘ : : ‘ : , . $3000.00
Interest . ; é : ; : : j ; : : : 425.00
To architects and others . ; 3 j : ‘ : : ‘ 1295.00

$4720.00
Towards liquidation of this, subscribers to the building yet owe . 1720.00
Leaving an amount to be provided for of : : . . : $3000.00

The Librarian reported that during the year there had been received 120 volumes, and
102 pamphlets and parts of volumes, most of them donations. Of the works received,
twelve volumes had been selected from the library of the late Hon. Judge Davis, in
accordance with a provision in his will; Audubon’s Quadrupeds of America had been pre-
sented by subscribers to that work; and other valuable publications had been the gift of
Alcide D’Orbigny, and Drs. Kneeland, Shurtleff and Bacon. The whole number of vol-
umes in the library now numbered 1260, and of pamphlets and parts of volumes there
were 120.

The Curator of Mineralogy reported that of the specimens in his department eight
hundred only were thought worthy of a place on the shelves of the new building, where
they had been deposited and classified. Mr. Francis Alger had presented eighty valuable
specimens to the collection, and others, costing fifty dollars, had been procured by sub-
scription.

The Curator of Ornithology reported that there had been presented eighty birds by
various persons during the year, and that he was ready to give from his own collection
one hundred more, as soon as funds ‘could be had to mount them. A valuable collection
of eggs had been received. The donors to this department during the year, were
Major Townsend, Messrs. G. M. Dexter, E. C. Cabot, W. Sohier, Robbins and Ogden, and
Drs. Shurtleff, Read, Abbot and Bethune.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 51

The Curator of Ichthyology reported that the collection of this department was not in
good condition, owing to the losses produced by the ravages of insects and the means
used to eradicate them. To Capt. N. E. Atwood the Society was indebted for several fine
specimens, two of which were of genera new to the waters of Massachusetts.

The Reports upon other departments were too meagre of information to call for notice
here.

The same board of officers was elected, except that Dr. 8. L. Abbot was chosen Record-
ing Secretary, Waldo I. Burnett Curator of Entomology, W.O. Ayres of Ichthyology,
Dr. Jeffries Wyman of Herpetology, and Dr. Wm. Reed of Conchology.

The annual address was delivered by Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, and was a very inter-
esting historical sketch of the origin and growth of the Society up to that period.
Dr. Storer availed himself of the opportunity to acknowledge the indebtedness of the
Society to its numerous friends and benefactors, who at all times had been ready with a
liberal hand to supply its wants and promote its interests, until by a crowning act of mu-
nificence it had been furnished with a building in every respect suited to its wants. He
urged with great earnestness upon the members the duty of making redoubled efforts in
the cause of science.

This address, of which the record gives the above account, was listened to with great
attention by a crowded audience. The thanks of the Society were voted to Dr. Storer for
it, and he was asked to furnish a copy for publication. It is to be regretted that he neither
did this nor preserved the original manuscript, as there was undoubtedly much in it of
historical value.

From the time that the Society took possession of its new apartments there was an
increased interest shown on the part of the members, both in attendance upon its meetings
and in work upon the collections. The room of meeting, that of the Library,’ was a cosy
one, and in the afternoons some of the Curators were generally to be found there engaged
in the examination and study of specimens,-or arranging them on tablets. Here the Cu-
rator of Botany might often, for years, have been found at work upon the Herbarium, and
the Curator of Geology, then embracing Palaeontology, striving in vain perhaps to obtain
some knowledge of fossils, of which little could be learned, for want of the necessary
books.

1849. At the annual meeting this year, the figures given, showing the extent of the
collections, are repeated here. Several of the Curators as usual, omit a statement.
The department of Mineralogy had been increased by the addition of 542 specimens, mak-
ing the whole number now about 1450. - Of those received, about 200 had been presented
by Francis Alger, the remainder by several donors. The collection of insects was
reported as containing 14,000 specimens comprising about 4,000 species. J. M. Bethune,
Esq., had presented 540 species from the vicinity of Boston, and Dr. T. W. Harris 670
species. Great pains had been taken to exclude Dermestes and Anthreni, and to repair
the ravages already made by them. The collection of birds had been increased
by several donations, and now numbered somewhat over a thousand specimens, eftect-
ually secured against the attacks of insects.

The department of Ichthyology had received donations from Dr. D. Humphreys

1 The use of the Library room was sometimes granted to Desor was thus permitted to occupy it two evenings ina
members of the Society who wished to lecture. Mr. week, for a course delivered by him in the fall of 1848.

52 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Storer, Mrs. Binney, Dr. H. B. Storer and others. The collection contained 360 species,
all reported in good condition.

The Library now contained 1520 volumes, and 213 pamphlets.

The Treasurer’s account showed a balance of cash in his hands of $124.98, and an
amount of $1100 due from subscribers to the Building, not paid. There was yet due by
the Society on account of the Building, debts to the amount of about $4500.

The changes among the officers this year, were in C. C. Sheafe being chosen Cabinet
Keeper; Francis Alger being made Curator of Mineralogy, and Dr. S. Kneeland, Jr., of
Comparative Anatomy.

This year a proposition was made by an Association called “ A Republican Institution ’
to deposit the books possessed by it in our library, and to grant for the use of the Society
one half of a fund belonging to the Institution, of over $2500, for the purchase of such
works upon Natural History as the Society might select, with the understanding that the
other half should be expended upon works of History, Biography, Geography, Politics
and Finance ; and that the whole, together with other books now owned by them, should
be placed in our library on deposit; provided that the members of the Association should
have the same privileges in the use of the Society’s library, as the members of the So-
ciety. This proposition was accepted, and the sum of $1300 was placed in the hands of
the Treasurer for purchase of books on natural history.

Another event very gratifying to the members occurred this year. This was the mu-
nificent donation of two thousand dollars, made by Mr. Jonathan Phillips of Boston. By
this most timely and helpful act, the Treasurer was enabled to pay the debts of the So-
ciety, and to have the satisfaction of reporting it free from all encumbrances.

Most heartily the Council passed a vote of thanks, which was conveyed to Mr. Phillips
in a letter signed by the President and Secretary of the Society.

1850. In the early part of this year the Society was called upon to mourn the loss of
one of the original members of the Society, Dr. Martin Gay. He was a man of learning,
and ardently devoted to science and art; of strict integrity, and of singular purity of
life and thought. Perhaps the writer of these pages can give no better idea of him than
by repeating from the records of the Society, the words in which he gave utterance to
his feelings upon the announcement of the sad event.

“With Dr. Gay I was indeed most intimate, and I express, therefore, what I know, when
I claim for him a degree of virtue, a nobleness of purpose, an exaltation of character, far
beyond what is generally found in man. Conscientious to a great degree, every deed per-
formed by him, every judgment given, first received the sanction of the highest senti-
ments of his soul; and, long as I have known him, I never heard him express an impure
thought. Loving God, and loving man, his desire was to enlarge his own being that he
might the better serve both. Too great by nature and culture to confine his regard to
those of a class, or a sect, all who sought his friendship and were worthy, found in him
ready sympathy. The bickerings and the jealousies that trouble smaller men, never
reached him; but yet he was always ready to advocate manfully the cause that appeared
to him just. Without cuile, transparent to all whose motives were kindred to his own, he
inspired and enjoyed the confidence of the community. His attainments were of a high
order. Love of the beautiful in nature and art, and in spirit, was a ruling trait of his

?

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 53

character. <A fine scene, a good painting, or a noble action, would alike kindle his enthu-
siastic admiration. In truth we have lost from amongst us a presence which sanctified
communion by its purity ; a wisdom which was more than that of this world; and a loy-
ing soul which we trust has found acceptance in the land of the pure and the holy. God
help us, that we may be as ready as was our brother, to bid adieu to present scenes of
action, when we are summoned hence to be no more here forever.”

All that was thus expressed before the Society of the character of Dr. Gay was recog-
nized as being true of him by his associates in the medical profession, and in other
Societies of which he was a member ; and by a large number of friends, among whom he
was respected and beloved. Dr. Gay was born in Boston, Feb. 16, 1803, and received his
education at Harvard College, being a member of the class of 1825. His attainments as
a chemist were of a high order. Judge Shaw, in a tribute to his memory before the
Academy of Arts and Sciences, of which he was a valued member, spoke of him as an
adept in medical jurisprudence, and as having a peculiar faculty of rendering scientific
principles and processes intelligible to a jury.

From annual reports of the Curators of the Museum, May 1, 1850, and of the other
officers of the Society, may be learned, so far as these give particulars, statements of the
conditions of the several departments, and what progress had been made during the two
decades now passed in the history of the Society. Unfortunately they are too brief to be
entirely satisfactory.

The Ornithological department is mentioned as in good condition, free from insects, and
as improved by the substitution of many good, in place of bad specimens. The whole
number reported in the Cabinet was given as 1207. In the Geological department but little
change was reported as having occurred through the year. It may be stated, therefore,
that the collection at this time consisted of about 1000 specimens desirable for exhibition,
and about 500 duplicates. The Curator of Ichthyology reported the collection in his de-
partment to be in good condition, but gave no figures. As there were reported at the
previous annual meeting, 360 species, and a large number of donations had been received
during the year, there were probably about 400 species.

The Curator of Entomology reported that there had been no material increase in his
department, and stated that he thought it more an object to take care of and to system-
atically arrange what specimens were already in the Cabinet, than to add to their number.
It may be presumed from this that there were about as many specimens in the Cabinet as
mentioned the previous year, viz: 14,000, comprising about 4000 species.

The Curator of Comparative Anatomy reported many valuable additions, among others
the entire skeleton of the Manatee, then the only one in the country ; with the stuffed skin
also. This had been obtained and presented by the President. A fine skeleton of a male
moose had likewise been presented by him and had been beautifully mounted by Dr. Shurt-
leff. The number of specimens was not reported in this department, and as this had been
the case for several years, no statement as to how many there were can be made.

The Curator of Mineralogy reported the accession of about 100 specimens to his de-
partment during the year, but made no mention of the entire number belonging to it.
Adding those received since the previous annual meeting to those then reported in the

54 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Cabinet, and we have about 1550 specimens as comprising the whole collection at this
time.

The Curator of Herpetology made no report beyond stating that. the collection was in
about the same condition as it had been for some time. The number of specimens cannot
be stated, as the reports for several previous years are too meagre in detail. It will be
remembered, however, that every species of reptile belonging to Massachusetts, with pos-
sibly one exception, was reported in a previous year as in this department, in good con-
dition.

The Librarian reported the whole number of books in the Library as 5500, including
about 300 deposited, these being the property of “ A Republican Institution.”

The Treasurer reported a balance due him on general account of $746.19.’ This
occurred from causes not likely to happen again, arising from the removal, such as adding
iron shutters to the buildmg. As there was a balance at the same time to the credit of
the Courtis fund account of $985.88, the Society could not be regarded as in debt. The
Treasurer was afterwards authorised to pay himself out of the mcome of that fund.
Mr. J. Elliot Cabot was chosen Corresponding Secretary at this meeting, and Dr. N. B.
Shurtleff, Treasurer. The other officers were re-elected for the ensuing year.

Notwithstanding the favorable character of the Reports of the Curators at the annual
meeting, upon the condition of the collections under their charge, there must have been
indications of evil; as at the meeting of the Council held after that of the Society, a
Committee of three was appointed to check the ravages of insects, with power to notify
the various Curators of their presence in the specimens under their charge, and if need
be to adopt measures themselves to free the cases from them. This implies not only the
opinion that harm was likely to result from insects, but some question whether the Cu-
rators could be relied upon to free the collections from them.

The annual address was not delivered until June 5. It was by the Rev. Zadock Thomp-
son, of Burlington, Vermont, upon the natural history of that state, and was a very in-
teresting and instructive discourse.

There were some facts mentioned by Mr. Teschemacher at the annual meeting which,
considering the great excitement following the recent discovery of gold im California and
the consequent results, were certainly surprising. These were, that in a work printed in
London in 1818, Phillips’ Lectures on Mineralogy, it is distinctly stated that gold is found
in large lumps deposited a few inches below the surface of the soil throughout an exten-
sive district bordering on the sea; that Mr. Ellis, thirty years ago (about 1820) obtaimed
from this region a mass of native gold mixed with quartz; and that in 1859 Mr. Alfred
Robinson sent to Boston from California $10,000 worth of gold in large lumps. It seems
strange in view of such evidence of the existence of gold in large quantities in the soil of
California, that no action was taken to obtain it, and that the finding of it by Mr. Sutter
in 1847 should have been regarded as a new discovery. Phillips probably had learned
from Spanish priests what he stated.

In November Mr. Wm. Read, who had served the Society for over two years as Curator
of Conchology, resigned, and in December Mr. William Stimpson was elected to this

office.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 55

In reaching the end of the second decade of the existence of the Society, some men-
tion will now be made of what has not been before presented, respecting the attendance
of members at the meetings.

In the year ending May, 1841, the average number was about 11. For the year 1842,
12, for the year 1845, 10, for the year 1844, 11, for the year 1845, 11, for the year 1846,
9, for the year 1847, 11, for the year 1848, 18, for the year 1849, 18, for the year 1850,
20. ?

It should be borne in mind that meetings were held then in the summer months as well
as at other seasons of the year, when very many of the members would be likely to be
away from the city. The average attendance from this cause, was unavoidably less than it
would have been if meetings had been omitted in the hot season. There were, however,
very rarely more than from fifteen to twenty present until the building in Mason street
was occupied by the Society. The average attendance then increased very much, as the
figures show, and during the last year mentioned it had more than doubled that of any
one of the first seven, and it was not uncommon to have present over thirty members.
This increased attendance arose largely from the interest added to the proceedings by the
presence of such distinguished men as Agassiz, Desor, Wm. B. Rogers and others, who
took an active part in them. Those whose names appear the most frequently as making
communications at the meetings during the first five years of the decade are Drs. Gould,
Storer, Wyman, Cabot, 8. L. Abbot, C. T. Jackson, J. B.S. Jackson, Binney, and Messrs.
Teschemacher, Emerson and Bouvé ; during the last five years Drs. Gould, Wyman, C. T.
Jackson, Storer, Kneeland, J. B. 8. Jackson, Burnett, Bacon and Cabot; Profs. Agassiz
and Rogers; Messrs. Teschemacher, Desor, J. D. Whitney, Ayres, Alger and Bouvyé.

Addresses were made at the Annual Meetings of 1841, 1842, 1845, 1844, 1845, 1847,
1848, and 1850.

Donations were made to the several departments frequently, but to less extent than
during the first ten years. The collection of Herpstology was enriched by many speci-
mens from Dr. F. W. Cragin of Surmam; that of Ornithology by many from Dr. Cragin
also, and by some from Dr. G. A. Bethune; that of Entomology by insects from Dr. Sav-
age of Cape Palmas; that of Mineralogy by about 200 fine specimens from Francis Alger ;
that of Comparative Anatomy by many anatomical preparations from Dr. Jeffries Wyman ;
and that of Icthyology by fishes from J. G. Anthony of Cincinnati, Dr. F. W. Cragin of
Surinam, and Capt. N. E. Atwood of Provincetown.

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions presented many shells and
plants, and Dr. Morton, Rev. Mr. Bachman, Mr. Audubon and many others, presented
books.

The increase of the Library during the ten years had been from about 600 volumes to
upwards of 3000.

The financial condition of the Society was not much better than at the commencement
of the decade. The income derived from assessments and from the funded property had
sufficed for its ordinary expenditures, and there remained a small balance of cash in the
Treasury. Yet its means remained far from adequate to provide for the necessary care
and preservation of its collections.

Be HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

In 1841, the Society commenced publishing its Proceedings, and the first two volumes
with a large part of the third, had been issued before the annual meeting of 1850.

The Journal of the Society was issued with some degree of regularity, gaining for it
much reputation both at home and abroad, by the character of its articles. At the
time of the annual meeting in 1850, five volumes had been published, all of them
containing papers of great value, many of them elaborate treatises upon the natural pro-
ductions of our own State, of which may be mentioned those on the Fishes and Reptiles
of Massachusetts, by Dr. Storer; on the Lichens of New England, by Edward Tucker-
man, Jr.; on the Mosses of Massachusetts, by John Lewis Russell; on the Shells of Mass-
achusetts, by Dr. Augustus A. Gould and by Joseph P. Couthouy; and on the Coleop-
tera of Maine and Massachusetts, by Dr. J. W. Randall.

The members of the Standing Committees of the Council during the ten years past,
should be mentioned here, as on them devolved a great part of the business of the So-
ciety other than that performed in the Museum.

They were the Presidents, Geo. B. Emerson and Amos Binney, Jr.; the Librarian,
Charles K. Dillaway ; the Treasurers, John Jas. Dixwell and Patrick T. Jackson, Jr.;
with Drs. Harris, Storer, Gould, Bacon, Kneeland, Abbot, Cabot, Wyman, Shurtleff, and
Messrs. Epes 8. Dixwell and Thos. Bulfinch.

Dr. Storer served on two of these Committees, viz., those of Publication and the Lib-
rary during the whole period, and several of the others a great part of the time.

DrcapE III. May 1850—May 1860.

1850. In June, a letter was received from the President of the Society, stating that he
had procured through the American Minister at the Court of St. James, a donation from
the Hon. East India Company of a complete suite of casts from the fossils of the Him-
alaya Mountains. These were received in the following November, and were placed in
the Cabinet of the Society. There were in all forty-one specimens, mostly of Mam-
malia. The collection was found to be peculiarly rich in Pachydermata, especially
mastodons and elephants. Of reptiles there were casts of several bones of a gigantic
turtle. Upon motion made, the thanks of the Society were passed to the Hon. Kast
India Company for the very valuable donation made by them, and also to the Hon.
Abbot Lawrence, and to Sir John Richardson, for their kind offices in aiding the President
to secure it.

1851. In January of this year, two very remarkable Indian children, a boy and a girl,
dwarfs, were exhibited in Boston and other cities of the United States, under the name of
the Aztec children. They were quite small, of nearly the same size, and having much
vivacity, drew the attention of crowds to visit them. As it was claimed that they belonged
to a race of similar beings found in Central America, they became objects of scientific
examination. Dr. J. Mason Warren, after studying their characteristics, read a paper
in which were presented his conclusions respecting them, viz.:

1. That these children are possessed of a very low degree of mental and physical
organization, but are not idiots of the lowest grade.

2. That they probably originated from parents belonging to some of the mixed Indian
tribes.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Dif

3. That they do not belong to a race of dwarfs, because history teaches the truth of
the doctrine of Geoffroy St. Hilaire, that dwarfs cannot perpetuate their kind.

These children were subsequently brought before the Society, and being placed upon
the table, the members sitting around, amused all by their interesting and lively move-
ments. There was nothing disagreeable in their appearance or manners.

The views of Dr. Warren were fully corroborated by a letter received from Mr. E. G.
Squier, respecting their origin.

At the annual meeting the usual reports were made, the several departments being rep-
resented as in good condition. That of Ornithology had received valuable donations from
Mrs. G. H. Shaw, Dr. Henry Bryant, Mr. J. C. Leighton, Mr. Theodore Lyman and others ;
that of Geology from the Hon. East India Co., Dr. C. T. Jackson, Messrs. Moses H. Per-
ley and Alexander Vattemare; that of Ichthyology from Mr. Horatio R. Storer, Dr.
Henry Bryant, and Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Jr.

The Report upon the department of Comparative Anatomy was unusually full, embrac-
ing what had not before been presented for several years. From it is learned that there
were in the collection at this time, 73 complete skeletons, 17 human skulls, and 143 of
animals, including birds; 85 jars of specimens in alcohol; and 25 stuffed skins.

The Treasurer reported the total receipts during year, $2218.59, expenditures,
$1714.54, leaving a balance of $504.05 in his hands.

The Librarian reported the addition to the library of 353 volumes, and 130 pam-
phlets, and that the whole number of volumes in the Library was 2569, including 59
copies of the Society’s Journal, and 28 of the Proceedings; unbound volumes 1280,
including 80 Legislative reports on the natural history of the State; and about 500
pamphlets or parts of volumes. The number of volumes in circulation during the year
was 506.

The only change made at the annual election, was in the choice of Horatio R. Storer as
Curator of Herpetology in place of Prof. Jeffries Wyman.

1852. The Reports of the Curators at the annual meeting in 1852, were brief, and
excepting that upon the Crustacea and Radiata, presented but little of interest. The collec-
tion of that department was represented to have suffered very seriously from the attacks of
insects. Almost all the specimens of Crustacea had been mutilated, limbs detached, and in
some cases lost. Many very valuable species had been entirely destroyed. Of the Radi-
ata the soft parts had been completely consumed.

The Treasurer reported a balance of $754.56 in his hands. The Librarian, alluding to
the fact that the Smithsonian Institution at Washington had made such arrangements as
to enable the Society hereafter to transmit abroad, and to receive from foreign Societies,
publications at little expense, recommended a more liberal exchange of our Journal and
Proceedings, for the works of such Societies.

Before the election of officers, final action had been taken upon a proposed amendment
to the Constitution, by which the number of Curators was no longer limited. In July of
the previous year, Dr. Thomas M. Brewer had been placed in charge of the nests and
egos of birds, and Mr. W. O. Ayres of the Crustacea and Radiata of the Society,
and at this election these gentlemen were made Curators of the two departments respect-
ively.

58 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

There had been in Feb. 1841, a department established, embracing the collections of
Crustacea and Radiata, and] Dr. Amos Binney, Jr., had had charge of it for several
months, when it appears to have been discontinued. Other changes at the election were
as follows :

Mr. Charles Stodder sueceeded Mr. Chas. C. Sheafe as Cabinet keeper. Mr. Charles J.
Sprague was chosen Curator of Botany in place of Mr. Jas. E. Teschemacher, and Dr.
Silas Durkee, who had been the previous July elected Curator of Ichthyology in room of
Mr. W. O. Ayres, was rechosen for this position.

At a meeting of the Council in November of this year, Dr. Storer, as a Sub-committee of
the Boston Society for Medical Improvement, chosen to aid Dr. C. E. Brown-Séquard in his
arrangements for delivering a course of lectures on Physiology, submitted a proposition
that the Society be advised to allow the use of the library room for such lectures. He
spoke of the high scientific character of Dr. Brown-Séquard and hoped that favorable action
might be taken upon the proposition. Dr. Storer mentioned that the lectures would be il-
lustrated by vivisections, and that these being very repugnant to his feelings he could not
witness them, but yet on account of the addition to human knowledge which might result,
he should favor the proposed action of the Council. Strong opposition was manifested by
a number of the members of the Council, particularly Dr. Kneeland, Mr. Bouvé, Mr. Dill-
away and Dr. Abbot. The subject was finally disposed of by a vote declming to lay the
matter before the Society, on the ground that there was a restriction in the deed of
their estate forbidding the use of their building for anatomical purposes.

1855. In February of this year the Society took action in favor of the prosecution of
a geological survey of Oregon and Nebraska, by passing strong resolutions and transmit-
ting them to Congress, recommending the necessary appropriations.

At the annual meeting the Curator of Botany reported great improvement in the collec-
tion during the year. The previous May only a small proportion of the specimens had
been systematically arranged. Large bundles of plants from France, Italy, the Vosges
mountains, the Cape of Good Hope, Florida and Kentucky, were in the same condition
as when received. These had all been examined and provided with sheets of paper
during the year.

There had also been valuable donations, one from the Historical Society, of a large num-
ber of plants procured many years ago by the Hon. Thos. H. Perkins. A package of New
England plants collected by the late William Oakes, particularly rich in White Mountain
specimens, had been purchased by the Society. The Curator had obtained over a hundred
specimens of plants growing in the Botanic Garden, Cambridge, through the kindness of
Prof. Gray, many of them being new and unpublished species from Texas and New Mex-
ico. The entire Herbarium had been revised and sheets provided for all the plants. The
genera had been placed in manilla paper and arranged upon the shelves according to End-
licher’s Genera Plantarum. The Herbarium contained representatives of 1300 genera and
five or six thousand species. The Curator remarked that not being able himself to collect
specimens away from the immediate neighborhood, he would be glad to receive the assist-
ance of those who could, particularly in obtaining New England species.

The report of the Curator of Botany was noticeable as showing an immense amount of

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 59

work done in one year upon the Herbarium; work, too, that was not only desirable in
order to make the collection useful, but absolutely necessary to prevent its destruction.
It was the first of a series of years during which Mr. Charles J. Sprague devoted almost
all his leisure afternoons and holidays to bringing order out of disorder, with the view of
making available many thousand species before inaccessible to examination, and of pre-
serving the plants and increasing the collection.

The report of the Treasurer exhibited a balance of $1102.69 in his hands, including that
belonging to the Courtis fund.

Upon the election of officers Dr. J. B. 8. Jackson was chosen Curator of Crustacea and
Radiata, in place of Mr. W. O. Ayres, and Mr. T. J. Whittemore, Curator of Conchology;
in place of Mr. William Stimpson.

At this meeting a motion was made by Mr. Bouvé and adopted, that a committee be ap-
pointed to take measures, if decided expedient by them, for the purchase of the collec-
tion of Ornithichnites, so called, belonging to the estate of the late Mr. Marsh, of Green-
field.

The committee, consisting of Mr. James M. Barnard, Mr. Francis Alger, Dr. Brewer and
Mr. Bouvyé, feeling the great importance of securing for the Society the collection soon to—
be disposed of at auction, obtained by subscription a considerable sum towards its purchase,
and detailed two of their number, Mr. Alger and Mr. Bouvé, to be present at the sale.
They attended and bought a large part of the whole for about $1400. Thus the Society
became the possessor of several of the large and valuable slabs covered with footprints,
which now adorn the entrance hall of the Museum, and of many other specimens contained
in the Cabinet. One of these, Prof. Hitchcock of Amherst College pronounced the best
and largest slab of fossil footprints ever found, or that in his opinion ever would be found.

The President had prepared an address for the annual meeting, but was prevented by
ill health from delivering it. It was, however, subsequently printed and distributed. In
it was given an account of the early efforts made in Boston to encourage the study of nat-
ural history, which finally culminated in the formation of the Boston Society of Natural
History. As there had been no previous annual address since 1850, a statement was ap-
pended giving an account of the proceedings of the Society during the three years since
that date.

In November, by invitation, President Hitchcock of Amherst College addressed the
Society, giving some of the results of his examinations in the Connecticut Valley. His
remarks were replete with interest and instruction, and were followed by some on the
same subject by Prof. Henry D. Rogers. The views presented may be found in the pub-
lished Proceedings.

In December of this year, the death of Mr. James E. Teschemacher, long an active and
very useful member of the Society, was announced, and the President was requested to
draw up such resolutions in reference to this event, as should be judged proper by him.
In accordance with this request, he presented at the next succeeding meeting, a notice of
his life and writings, much of which is given here as follows:

“Our Society has experienced a great loss in the death of Mr. Teschemacher, one of its
most valuable members, and we must turn aside a moment from the path of science to
pay a tribute to his memory. This gentleman, who joined our Society in the year 1835,
and has since that time been an able associate in our labors, and a large contributor to

60 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

the advancement of science in our country, has suddenly terminated his mortal career at
the age of sixty-three, from a disease of the heart.”

These remarks were followed by resolutions, one of which expresses “ That a record be
made in our transactions of the high estimation in which we hold the private qualities
and scientific labors of Mr. Teschemacher, as manifested in his excellent papers on bot-
any, mineralogy, some departments of geology, and particularly in his able and practical
investigations of the carboniferous formations. We also regard his productions in the
composition and improvement of soils, as a valuable and permanent contribution to the .
agriculture of the country.”

A brief notice of Mr. Teschemacher was then read, and is here given.

“ James Engelbert Teschemacher, of Hanoverian extraction on the paternal side, was
born in Nottingham, England, on the 11th of June, 1790. At the age of fourteen he
commenced his commercial career in a mercantile foreign house of eminence in London,
where he evinced application and business talents of a high order; and amid the extensive
transactions of mercantile life, in which during a long series of years, he was engaged,
his fine comprehensive mind ever remained unshackled by any of the less elevating
habits sometimes contracted in commercial pursuits. At an early period of his life he
imbibed a taste for studying out of Nature’s beautiful book, thus acquiring that purity
and love of truth, so constantly pervading all his thoughts and writings. In the year
1830, Mr. Teschemacher accepted the offer of a partnership in a house of considerable
standing in Havana, and proceeded to Cuba with highly advantageous prospects, but these
faded on his approach, and he returned to England. After a short time, he made up his
mind to repair to the United States with his family, reaching New York Feb. 7, 1852.
He finally settled in Boston, where during the space of twenty-two years he was unre-
mitting in his exertions for his family. Of his untiring zeal and devotion to science, we
need not speak; his hours of leisure, it may naturally be inferred, were few, but those
few were employed (apparently as a recreation) in the severe branches of study which
frequently form the labor of a life, even with those who make science their occupation.
Truly may he be said to have improved the talents committed to his charge.”

To what was said of Mr. Teschemacher at the meeting, may be added that he was
engaged daily in active business through all the years of his connection with the Society,
but yet found time to do considerable work for it while Curator of Botany. In order to
secure time for this, he was accustomed to visit the rooms of the Society, after an early
breakfast, and stay until business required his presence perhaps an hour later. The pub-
lished Proceedings of the Society attest to his interest in the meetings, and the character
of the communications made by him to the value of his observations, and to the extent of
his scientific knowledge. He was an excellent mineralogist, a good botanist, and a
very accurate observer in both fields. One could not very well be a more careful and
painstaking investigator. Had he been able to devote more time to scientific pursuits, he
would undoubtedly have accomplished much more than he did in this direction, as he
lacked neither ability, industry nor perseverance.

Besides papers to be found in the printed Proceedings of the Society and in its Journal,
several addresses by him were published. One before the Society at its annual meeting
in 1841, one before the Horticultural Society, and one before the Harvard Natural Hist-
ory Society.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 61

1854. A vote passed by the Society in March of this year, shows that the members
were already indulging the hope of yet better accommodations than those of the struc-
ture so recently purchased and adapted for their use. A thousand dollars having been
received from the estate of the late Hon. Thos. H. Perkins, subscribed by him towards the
building now occupied by the Society, but not so appropriated, it was ordered that this
sum be invested by the Treasurer as a commencement of a fund to be called the Building
Fund, and that the income from it be annually added to the principal.

The Society had an opportunity at this time to perform a graceful act in helping their
unfortunate brethren of the Portland Society of Natural History, which had lately lost the
whole of its valuable collection by fire. A vote was passed, that a complete set of the
Journal of the Society be presented to the Portland Society, and another, that a series of
duplicate shells belonging to this Society, be presented to the Portland Society, whenever
they are prepared to select and receive them.

It is sad to know that by a second great fire a few years afterwards, the recipents of
these donations again lost their entire collection.

At the annual meeting the Reports of the Curators were quite satisfactory, though the
donations through the year were not numerous.

The Botanical department had received some additions of value from Prof. Asa Gray,
Mr. B. F. Kendall and the Curator. These, with others obtained by exchange, had
added about 800 specimens to the collection.

The department of Odlogy was reported as now having about 240 specimens of eggs,
belonging to 165 species.

The department.of Geology had been enriched by the splendid collection of the Foot-
marks of Animals upon the Red Sandstone of the Connecticut Valley, obtained by
purchase, and by the donation to it of a series of Silurian fossils.

The Curator of Herpetology reported that this department now contained about 480
specimens, of which 50 were Chelonians, 227 Serpents, 122 Saurians, and 81 Batrachians.

The Librarian reported a considerable increase of bound volumes and pamphlets.
Among the most valuable works presented to the Society was the splendid one by
Geoffroy St. Hilaire and Cuvier, entitled “ Histoire Naturelle des Mammiferes,” three
volumes finely bound, from the Hon. Francis C. Gray.

Upon the election of officers for the ensuing year, Dr. Samuel L. Abbot was chosen Cor-
responding Secretary in place of Mr. J. Elliot Cabot; Dr. Benj. 8. Shaw, Recording Sec-
retary, in place of Dr. Samuel L. Abbot; Dr. Henry Bryant, Curator of Ornithology, in
place of Dr. Samuel Cabot, Jr.; Dr. Jeffries Wyman, Curator of Herpetology, in place of
Dr. Horatio R. Storer.

This year the Society lost one of its most useful and active members, and science one
of its most ardent votaries, in the death of Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett. To characterize
his ability as wonderful, and his achievements as extraordinary, is to speak moderately of
one who in the short life allotted him had manifested such knowledge, and accomplished
so much in scientific research. To express all concerning hin that his memory deserves,
would require too much space for this volume ; but the reader who may desire to learn
more than is here presented, will find a full and delightful tribute to his worth and ser-

62 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

vices, prepared at the request of the Society, by Dr. Jeffries Wyman, and published in
the fifth volume of its Proceedings. What follows is but a brief abstract of this paper.

Waldo Irving Burnett was born in Southboro’, Mass., July 12, 1828. He early mani-
fested a strong love of study, and became so much absorbed in that of insect life as to
cause a fear on the part of his father, who was a distinguished physician, that his health
would suffer, and he was therefore subjected to some restrait. The passion for investiga-
tion was, however, too strong to be more than temporarily checked. His mental activity
was remarkable, enabling him to master all the studies of the academy where he was
placed, with ease. In mathematics he became so efficient as to lead the teacher to confess
that he was no longer able to instruct him. Later he became familiar with the French,
Spanish and German languages, and had made progress in the Swedish.

At sixteen years of age he manifested a strong inclination to learn the nature of things,
and became interested in all that claimed to give an explanation of the phenomena wit-
nessed about him. He had, young as he was, commenced the study of medicine with his
father, accompanying him on professional visits and being present at examinations of bod-
ies after death. His father died when he was of the age mentioned, and he afterwards
studied with Dr. Joseph Sargent of Worcester, in the Tremont Medical School of Boston,
and in the Massachusetts General Hospital. He did not receive a collegiate education.

In 1849, at the age of twenty-one, he graduated in medicine, and soon after visited
Europe, where he spent much of his time in attention to natural history and microscopic
observations. There the symptoms of disease manifested themselves, and he returned to
the United States with the hope that the climate of the more southern portion would be
beneficial. For several years he was obliged by increasing illness to pass his winters in
the South, but wherever he was he kept incessantly at work, accomplishing more than it
would be possible for many well men to do, in investigation with the microscope ; in wri-
ting the results of his investigations ; and in giving lectures on microscopic anatomy.

While a medical student he became an active member of our Society, and soon after Cu-
rator of Entomology. He also was admitted at the early age of twenty-three to the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

His communications to different scientific bodies and journals, considering the circum-
stances of his waning health and frequent travel, were astonishingly numerous and mani-
fested a degree of activity, mental and bodily, that few could exert. Many of these com-
munications may be found in the Journal and in the Proceedings of the Society.

To a speculative and inquiring mind like that of Dr. Burnett's, there would of necessity
arise questions of perplexing character involved in the problem of life, and doubts did
arise of a disturbing nature, which however, were afterwards replaced by a settled and
firm conviction, that if there was much to live for, and no man valued life more, there was
still more to die for. He passed away on July 1, shortly before he completed his twenty-
sixth year.

Resolutions, expressive of the great loss the Society had sustained by his death, and of
condolence with his family, were passed by the Society.

At a meeting of the Council in November, the Cabinet keeper exhibited several cases
of insects destroyed by the pests that finally caused the great loss of nearly all the valua-
ble collection.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 63

1855. In the doings of the annual meeting this year, we find some evidence to show
that the lack of proper accommodation for specimens was already felt in the building so
joyously taken possession of scarcely eight years before. It was not entirely from want of
sufficient room, but partly from the fact that there was more need of air and sunlight for
the best good of the Museum. The Curator of Comparative Anatomy mentioned that the
collections in his department had been injured by dampness in the cases. This evil he
ascribed to the external circumstances of the building, for which there seemed no remedy
so long as it should be screened from the light and heat of the sun, and from free ventila-
tion.

The Curator of Ornithology reported some donations to his department, the principal of
which were 41 specimens from Dr. F. J. Bumstead, 11 from Mr. C. J. F. Binney, 10 from
Mr. E. Samuels and 8 from Mr. Thure Kumlein. He mentioned that he had commenced a
catalogue of the specimens, but from the limited number of the books of reference feared
he would not be able to perfect it.

The Curator of Odlogy reported that the collection now contained 209 ascertained spe-
cies, 16 of which had been added during the year.

The Curator of Botany stated that the collection under his charge was in excellent con-
dition and that several hundred species of native and foreign plants had been added to the
collection during the year, some of the most valuable of which came from I. A. Lapham,
Esq., of Wisconsin, and from Prof. Gray.

Several of the Curators made no reports.

The Librarian gave the whole number of books now possessed by the Society, as about
3500. He complained that books were frequently taken away from the library in his
absence, sometimes without entering them in the record book, and though these were
generally returned, there had been some loss. He did not know where to look for the
property. He also stated that since the erection of the new theatre next to our building,
the room had become dark and damp, uncomfortable to those occupying it, and injurious
to the books. He thought if there was no prospect of having a new building, the inter-
ests of the Society would require better accommodations for its books, and for those using
them. Some alterations were subsequently made by placing windows where none were
before, which considerably improved the room.

The Treasurer reported receipts from all sources, $1,950.59; expenditures $1,654.18,
leaving a cash balance in his hands of $298.21.

At the election of officers, Dr. Jeffries Wyman was chosen Curator of Comparative An-
atomy and Mammals, in place of Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Jr.; Dr. J. P. Reynolds, Curator
of Crustacea and Radiata, in place of Dr. J. B.S. Jackson; Dr. J. Nelson Borland, Cura-
tor of Herpetology, in place of Dr. Jeffries Wyman; and Dr. H. K. Oliver, Jr., Curator of
Entomology, in place of Dr. Waldo I. Burnett, deceased.

At a meeting of the Council there was an appropriation made of $100 for a Card Cata-
logue of the books and pamphlets, none having been provided previously.

In the death of Mr. James Brown, which occurred in March of this year, the So-
ciety lost one of its best friends and patrons, one to whose memory is due some notice
of his life and character. He was born in Acton, Mass., in 1800, and when a young man
was poor, but highly respected for his industry and fidelity. He began business as a pub-

64 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

lisher of books in Cambridge, but not long afterwards became an active partner in the
firm of Little & Brown, in Boston, a house which soon became well known all over the
country for its publications, and for its high character. The business was very successful,
and by it Mr. Brown became possessed of considerable wealth, through which he was
enabled to gratify his taste, and to contribute much to the welfare of others. He keenly
enjoyed the beautiful in Nature, and became much interested in the study of Ornithology,
in which department of natural history he possessed a valuable library.

He bequeathed to the Society this library, or the most valuable part of it, and through
this bequest it became the owner of the works most wanted, which could not otherwise
perhaps, have been obtained, their cost being probably not less than $2000. Mr. Dil-
laway, the librarian, made some remarks when announcing this valuable accession to the
library, and of which part are here given. He said, “ This is not the first time we have
been indebted to the liberality of Mr. Brown. On many occasions his purse and _ his
influence have been freely offered in aid of our efforts for the promotion of natural sci-
ence. In the list of our patrons, numbering eighty of the most liberal and public spirited
citizens of Boston, his name now stands among the first. As my acquaintance with him
has been a long one, commencing at a time when his whole property could not have
purchased one of the volumes he has bequeathed to us—when industry, integrity and a
generous heart were all his capital, and reaching to a period when he was able and willing
to give his thousands to the promotion of literary, scientific and charitable objects, I
may be permitted to express a belief that Boston has lost a citizen of whom she had good
reason to be proud, and our Society a valued friend, whose memory we shall ever hold
in honor.” .

The Society appointed a committee to prepare resolutions suitable for the occasion,
which were presented and adopted at a subsequent meeting. A vote of thanks was also
passed to Mrs. Brown, for her generous donation of a portrait of the distinguished Nat-
uralist, Thos. Nuttall.

1856. In February of this year, it was announced that the Society had lost by death,
two of its oldest and most highly esteemed members, Dr. Thaddeus W. Harris of Cam-
bridge, and the Rey. Zadock Thompson of Burlington, Vt. Their services to the Society
and to science generally merit notice in these pages, and this will be given by reporting the
action taken at the meetings following the announcement.

Prof. Jeffries Wyman, in behalf of a Committee appointed to prepare resolutions
expressive of the loss the Society had sustained in the death of their late member,
Dr. Thaddeus William Harris of Cambridge, offered the following, which were unanimously
adopted :—

“ Resolved, That the members of the Boston Society of Natural History have learned
with deep regret, the death of their late associate, Dr. Thaddeus William Harris. That
in his death, the Society has lost one of its earliest and most respected members, science
a faithful and zealous student as well as a conscientious observer, the results of whose
labors have eminently contributed to the extension of the knowledge of natural history ;
and have reflected dignity and honor upon American science.

“Resolved, That the members of this Society sympathize with his family in the loss they
have sustained in his death.”

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 65

Prof. Wyman in presenting the resolutions, referred to Dr. Harris’s wide reputation as
a naturalist at home and abroad, and to his scientific labors. He spoke of his researches
as chiefly confined to entomology, though he had an extensive knowledge of other
departments of natural history, especially botany. As an entomologist he ranked
among those, comparatively few in number, who with a strong knowledge of classification,
combined the faculty of correctly observing and accurately recording the habits of
insects. His very valuable report to the Legislature of Massachusetts on Insects injuri-
ous to Vegetation, is an admirable testimonial of his industry and patience, his powers of
observation, and his happy manner of portraying the subject of his thoughts. At the
time of his death he was engaged in an investigation of the origin of some of the culti-
vated plants, and their subsequent distribution by human agency over the world.

In relation to the Rev. Zadock Thompson, Prof. Wm. B. Rogers addressed the meeting,
speaking of him as a thorough and persevering worker in geology, and as possessing a
large amount of accurate practical knowledge on the subject.

Dr. Samuel Kneeland read a sketch of Mr. Thompson’s life, of which the following is
an abstract. He was born in Bridgewater, Vt., in 1796, and at an early period showed a
strong propensity for observing facts im natural science, and for mathematical applications.
He graduated at the University of Vermont in 1825, and afterwards was occasionally
occupied as a teacher. His chief labors were those of independent investigations into the
resources of his native state. He wrote the History of Vermont, and thereby became
extensively and honorably known. In 1853 he was appointed State Naturalist, making it
his duty to study its physical geography, geology, mineralogy, botany and zoology.
On this work he entered with zeal, and had far advanced towards its completion, when
his labors were closed by death.

Mr. Thompson delivered the annual address before the Boston Society of Natural
History, in June, 1850, on the Geology of Vermont. He made several communications
to the Society, and through his instrumentality many specimens were added to the Cab-
inet.

In view of these facts it seemed proper that the Society should take special notice of
his death. Dr. Kneeland, therefore after his remarks, moved the following resolution,
which was unanimously adopted :

“ Resolved: That in the death of the Rev. Zadock Thompson, the Boston Society of
Natural History has lost a valued friend, a distinguished member, and a sincere and truth-
ful co-worker in the various departments of natural science.”

It is certainly not a little simgular that the next event to be dwelt upon here is the
death of the venerable President of the Society, which occurred on the 4th of May.
Upon the 5th, a special meeting of the Society was called to take measures appropriate to
the occasion, and a committee was appointed to prepare resolutions. It was also voted to
attend the funeral of the late President, and to meet at the rooms of the Society for that
purpose, on the morning of the 7th inst.

At the annual meeting, May 7th, Dr. Chas. T. Jackson, Vice-President, in the Chair,
Dr. D. H. Storer, on behalf of the committee appointed to prepare a series of resolutions
expressive of the deep sense of regret which the Society experienced in its recent bereave-
ment, read the following report, which together with the resolutions, was adopted.

66 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Mr. President and Gentlemen : —We are again called upon to mourn; we meet here to
sympathize in our common sorrow. Science has Jost a true friend; her votaries, we
would reverently bow to the stroke, while we deeply feel and gratefully acknowledge the
goodness which so long averted the blow. He, who for the nine years has presided over
this institution with paternal solicitude—who has performed every duty devolving upon
him with the greatest cheerfulness, with unsurpassed fidelity—who with the enthusiasm of
youth, would not allow the most inclement night of the last most inclement season to
prevent his attendance at your meetings—but who was ever here to encourage you by his
presence to increased exertion—has accomplished his work. He has left us forever.

He needs no fulsome eulogy. His claims upon the respectful and lasting remembrance
of his professional brethren have already, elsewhere, been most eloquently portrayed.
The debt we owe his memory can never be repaid; but, as naturalists, that debt we
should recognize.

Upon the death of Dr. Amos Binney, our much loved President, Dr. Warren was se-
lected to succeed him. From the day of his appointment his interest never flagged,
but increased with his advancing years.

His first great desire was to see our valuable collection displayed in a more safe and
commodious building—to accomplish which his efforts were indefatigable. A large por-
tion of the means required to purchase our present accommodations, was procured di-
rectly by him, and but for the influence he was enabled to exert in his social relations,
we could hardly have succeeded in our attempt.

Dr. Warren’s labors were principally directed to the great object of exciting and keep-
ing alive a taste for natural history, by constantly presenting its wonders to such minds
as he thought susceptible of being thus influenced.

He delighted to gather around him those whose tastes were congenial — to enjoy with
such the beauties of his country seat — to extend its hospitalities. How many of us have
been made the happier by his yearly festival !

He has, however, done more than this. Three years since he prepared an address,
which was published, presenting a history of the Society from its foundation. He became
exceedingly interested in palaeontoloegy —he exerted himself to assist in procuring the
magnificent slabs, containing the ornithichnites from the Connecticut River, which orna-
ment our vestibule. He also made a most valuable private collection of these footprints,
and two years ago described some of the most striking of them in a small volume, with
the title, “Remarks on some Fossil Impressions in the Sandstone Rocks of Connecticut
River.” Ata great expense he purchased the most perfect skeleton of the Mastodon
giganteus now known to exist; and his elaborate work upon that subject will ever re-
main a monument to his zeal, his industry, his munificence.

Just previous to his decease, he had prepared a paper on the animal of the Argonauta,
all the available species of which genus he had collected, described and figured. This
memoir he had completed, the last page of manuscript having been corrected by him
within a week of his death.

This was his last labor —his dying legacy to science. Let us cherish his memory ; and
upon this occasion, upon this altar, renew our devotion.

I, 6. LT; VA-E4h2

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 67

In compliance with the duty devolving upon us, we would present the following reso-
Ivtions : ‘

Resolved, That in the sudden bereavement which has befallen our Society, we would
not suppress the grief so deeply felt. For the long-continued, unwearied interest mani-
fested by our late President in our prosperity; for the readiness, the liberality with which
he seconded every effort for our advancement; for the uniform courtesy with which he
presided over our assemblages, and the kind-heartedness often evinced there; for his
anxious desire to see around him a band of brothers engaged in the same ennobling pur-
suits, actuated by the same spirit, aiming at the same end, we shall ever with gratitude
remember him.

Resolved, That some member of the Society be appointed to prepare a biographical
sketch of our late President, to be presented to the Society at a future meeting.

Resolved, That our deep sympathy be extended to his afflicted family.

Prof. Jeffries Wyman was chosen in conformity with the recommendation of the com-
mittee, to prepare a biographical memoir of the late President. The Society then ad-
journed, out of respect to the memory of the deceased.

Dr. Wyman, in accordance with the wishes of the Society, prepared a very full
biographical memoir of Dr. Warren, which was read by him at the meeting of Dee. 17,
and which may be found in the published Proceedings, Volume VI. A list of Dr. Warren’s
scientific writings is appended.

At the adjourned annual meeting held May 21st, the Curator of Ornithology called at-
tention to a magnificent donation of birds from the Government Museum of Natural His-
tory, at Victoria. Among them were one hundred species or more, not previously in the
Museum. Other valuable donations had also been received from Dr. Samuel Kneeland,
Jr., Mr. Geo. S. Shaw of Cambridge, and Mr. E. Samuels.

The Botanical department had received from Prof. Asa Gray several hundred South
European plants.

The Geological Cabinet had been the recipient of a fine series of Eocene shells from
the Paris basin, presented by Geo. B. Emerson, Esq.

The Curator of Comparative Anatomy mentioned several valuable donations from
Dr. J. V. C. Smith, Geo. B. Emerson, Esq., and Dr. $8. Kneeland, Jr. He called attention
to the fact that specimens under his charge were injured from year to year, in consequence
of the increased dampness and other unsuitable conditions of the building.

The Librarian reported that a card catalogue had been prepared for the use of the
Library.

The officers for the ensuing year were then elected, with the exception of the President.

Dr. John Bacon was chosen Curator of Mineralogy, in place of Mr. Francis Alger ;
Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Jr., Curator of Ichthyology, in place of Dr. Silas Durkee; and
Dr. Silas Durkee, Curator of Entomology, in place of Dr. H. K. Oliver, Jr.

A Committee consisting of Dr. A. A. Gould, Prof. Jeffries Wyman, Dr. Samuel Cabot,
Dr. N. B. Shurtleff, and Mr. C. J. Sprague were appointed to nominate a candidate for the
office of President. This committee at the next meeting were further instructed to report
the names of two or more persons as candidates.

At a meeting held on the 18th of June, the Committee on nomination made a report
which is not given in the records.

68 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The Society proceeded to vote, and upon collecting the ballots it was found that Prof.
Jeffries Wyman was unanimously elected President. With his usual modesty he hesitated
to accept the position tendered, doubting his ability to serve the Society satisfactorily as
President. This led to an emphatic expression of feeling on the part of the members in
favor of his accepting the office. He still hesitated, and finally begged the Society to give
him time for consideration, which was granted.

At the next meeting, July 2d, Prof. Wyman announced his acceptance of the office of
President, and entered upon its duties.

The first and the only excursion that the Society ever made as such, took place this year.
A committee was appointed to consider the subject of summer excursions, of which
Mr. Bouvé was chairman. In behalf of the committee he reported in favor of the plan,
and proposed that the first one should be made to Hingham and the neighboring country.
It was voted to assemble on board the Hingham Steamboat at 9 A. M., on Wednesday,
July 23d, and it was understood that the Committee would make arrangements for proper
conveyances at Hingham when the company should arrive.

Accordingly the Society met on board the boat at the time appointed. The day
was beautiful and everything conspired to make it an agreeable and instructive one
to the members. Upon landing at Hingham they were conveyed to Nantasket Beach
in carriages, stopping on the way to examine a colony of night herons in the woods, and
many trunks of submerged trees buried in salt water peat, which had become exposed by
excavations. This gave rise to much conversation upon the breaking away of the barrier
which had formerly kept the ocean back from this tract of land, and the consequent des-
truction of the forest. The next interesting locality was the site of an Indian cemetery
near Nastasket Beach. Here the President, who had previously with his brother and Mr.
Francis Boyd, had an opportunity of examining some of the graves, gave an account of
what had been found there, which was quite interesting. Mr. Boyd, who resided near,
invited the members to his house, where he showed them such relics as were in his pos-
session from the cemetery, and also regaled them with a generous entertainment. After
riding on the beach, the carriages were sent round to the Cohasset shore, and the mem-
bers, wandering along the margin of the sea and climbing over the rocks, collected such
specimens of shells, fish and marine plants as they met with, listenmg meanwhile to the
remarks of such as were conversant with the objects found. Dr. David F. Weinland par-
ticularly called attention to the ovaries of the whiting, in which were eggs in process of
embryonic development.

Upon again resuming seats in the carriages, a pleasant drive along the ridge road fol-
lowed, with a stop to view the great trap dyke which there protrudes through the granite
rock. Here remarks were made upon the dyke and the enclosing rock, by Dr. Jackson,
Mr. Alger and Mr. Bouvé.

After a further very interesting drive, the company arrived at the house of Mr. Bouvé
at about 3 P. M., where they examined his mineralogical cabinet, listening to some expla-
nations respecting the specimens, made by Dr. C. T. Jackson and himself.

Dinner followed; this having been partaken of with much hilarity, the members sep-
arated, some going into the woods to collect specimens, while the larger portion assem-
bled under a grove near the house to listen to some scientific remarks upon what had been
-seen during the morning, and other matters. This proved to be a very interesting gath-

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 69

ering. Prof. Wyman gave an account of the horse shoe (Limulus), and the way in which
it casts its shell. Mr. Francis Alger spoke upon the great Beryl formation in Grafton,
N. H., and Dr. Jackson, upon the geology of the hill where the Beryls are found.
Dr. Jackson then gave an account of trap dykes, as illustrated by what had been seen
by them in the course of the excursion on the coast. Dr. Weinland gave an account of
the reproduction of parasitic animals, and Mr. Charles J. Sprague exhibited and talked
upon a parasitic fungus growing upon the body of a beetle.

Informal, but interesting and instructive conversation followed. The members then
passed votes of thanks to those who had been instrumental in enabling them to pass the
day so agreeably, and proceeded to take cars for Boston from the station only a few hun-
dred feet distant.

Of course it has not been possible to make any reference to the many valuable papers
brought forward and read at the meetings of the Society. To have mentioned even
briefly the most important of them would have required that volumes should have been
devoted to this historical sketch, where only pages are given. Moreover these may all
be found in the Journal, or the printed Proceedings of the Society. When, however, an
important discovery is mentioned as having been made in our immediate neighborhood,
it seems well not to omit notice of it.

Of this character certainly was the discovery of Trilobites in the slates of Braintree,
scarcely a dozen miles from Boston. This was announced by Prof. Wm. B. Rogers, in
August of this year, and specimens were exhibited. This afforded the first satisfactory
evidence yet presented of the geological age of the stratified rocks of eastern Massachu-
setts.

A letter was received in November from Mrs. M. A. Binney, tendering a portion of the
library of the late Dr. Amos Binney for deposit with the books of the Society, upon cer-
tain conditions not objectionable. It was voted to receive them, and present the thanks
of the Society to Mrs. Binney for the kind interest manifested by her in making the pro-
posal. The number of works thus deposited were 353, and the number of volumes, includ-
ing pamphlets, 1145. This accession to the library was of very great service to the mem-
bers, the works deposited being many of them of great value for investigation, and not
otherwise to be had by them.

1857. Early this year the Society lost from among its corresponding members no less
than three, distinguished for their scientific attainments, viz.: Prof. J. W. Bailey, of West
Point ; William C. Redfield of New York, and Prof. Michael Tuomey of Alabama. Reso-
lutions expressive of the great loss that science had sustained by their death, were passed
by the Society, introduced by remarks concerning their lives and labors. From Prof.
Bailey a bequest was received of great value, consisting of his microscopic collection, and
of a collection of Algae, with a great deal of material for microscopic research. Also a
great many works upon microscopy, botany and histology. These embraced Ehren-
berg’s Mikrogeologie, Lindley and Hutton’s Fossil Flora, and others of great value.
The bequest was upon the condition that the collection should be kept in cases by them-
selves, and that the sons of Prof. Bailey should have such access to them for study or
examination, as might be consistent with the rules of the Society.

At the annual meeting, the reports of the Treasurer, Librarian and Curators were pre-
sented, and the substance of them is here briefly given.

70 is, HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The Report of the Treasurer was very unsatisfactory, showing an amount due him of
$1726, largely arising from the fact that collections from members of the annual
assessments had not been made, as they should have been. The Trustees of the Courtis
fund held about $400, which would lessen the indebtedness to $1326, and it was thought
that $900 might be realized from members who owed much more than this, but some of
whom had not been called upon for several years. This would still leave an amount due
the Treasurer of $456. The Auditing Committee expressed the opinion that much money
was lost to the Society by lack of promptness and want of system in collecting, and
strongly advised that all the members should be annually called upon during some one
month, for their assessments. They suggested too the importance of the utmost econ-
omy in expenditure, considering the unsatisfactory financial position of the Society.

The Librarian’s report was more exhilarating, stating as it did, that not less than 1500
volumes had been added to the collection during the year. Of these over 1000 had been
deposited by the widow of the late Dr. Amos Binney, in accordance with what she
believed to be his wish, viz.: for the use of members of the Society and others, who may
resort to its library for scientific investigations, and to be subject to the same regulations
as are the books of the Society. This collection is very rich in scientific works, and
there is scarcely a department of science not represented.

The Library had also received, as before mentioned, through the bequest of the late
Prof. J. W. Bailey, in addition to his valuable microscopical collection, a very valuable
library of microscopic and botanical works, numbering in all eighty-four volumes, and

one hundred and fifty pamphlets.
The whole number of books in possession of the Society including those deposited, was

stated as follows:
Bound Vols. Pamphlets and Parts.

Belonging to the Society, not including the bequest of Prof. Bailey, 8,000 300
Bequest of Prof. Bailey, 84 150
Deposited by “A Republican Institution,” 767

1012

Deposited by Mrs. Binney,
Total, 4863 450
The Curator of Mineralogy reported his department as indebted to Dr. 8. Kneeland, Jr.,

Mr. N. H. Bishop, Mr. Wm. Haley, and Rev. S$. Adams for specimens received from them

during the year. | |
The Curator of Geology reported the additions to the collection under his charge

as few and of little value, compared with those received in previous years.

The Curator of Entomology, in referrig to the destruction in past years of specimens
in the collection, stated that there yet remained many uninjured, and entitled to care and
attention. These had been subjected to a heat of about 200 degrees, and the drawers
containing them had had a constant supply of camphor. ;

Specimens of value had been received from Mr. Samuels, collected by him in Califor-
nia, and one beautiful Neuropterous insect was presented by Mr. Solomon Adams, of Lu-
nenburg, found in Winter street, Boston.

The Curator of Herpetology reported the collection under his charge as in good order,
and that some valuabie additions had been made to it, principally through the serv-
ices of Mr. Samuels in California. From him between two and three hundred speci-

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. ‘ all

mens had been received, many of which were new to our Cabinet. To Mr. Kennicott,
one of our Corresponding Members in Illinois, the Society was also indebted for a consid-
erable number of valuable specimens.

The Curator of Oology reported that the collection of eggs had received many ad-
ditions during the year from Mr. E. Samuels, obtained in California.

No report from the Curator of Ornithology was made. ‘Two specimens of South Amer-
ican birds had been presented to the collection by Mr. N. H. Bishop.

The Curator of Crustacea and Radiata reported that his department was indebted to
Mr. Thos. Tallant of\Concord, for some corals from California; Capt. Geo. E. Tyler for
one large specimen; Capt. J. P. Couthouy for corals from the wreck of a Spanish vessel
sunk off the Island of Magdalena; Capt. N. E. Atwood for Corals and a starfish ; and to
Dr. J. T. Parkinson for a crustacean from St. Simon’s Island, Georgia.

The Curator of Ichthyology reported the collection of his department as in fair con-
dition, and that the Society was indebted to Dr. A. G. Hamlin of Bangor, Dr. 8. Knee-
land, Jr., Mrs. Geo. S. Hillard, Dr. S. Durkee, Rev. J. P. Robinson, Dr. D. H. Storer, and
to himself, for specimens received during the year.

The Curator of Conchology reported the following donations: A collection of land and
fresh water shells from Dr. James Lewis of Mohawk, N. Y. A box of land and fresh
water shells from R. Kennicott, Illinois, some marie shells from Capt. N. E. Atwood,
and a small collection of shells from John Jas. Dixwell.

The Curator of Botany reported that but little damage had been done to the herba-
rium during the year, and that the plants were generally in good condition.

At the election of officers for the year, Capt. N. E. Atwood was chosen Curator of Ich-
thyology in place of Dr. Samuel Kneeland Jr. ; Theodore Lyman, Curator of Crustacea
and Radiata in place of Dr. John P. Reynolds, and John Green, Curator of Comparative
Anatomy in place of Dr. Jeffries Wyman, elected President the previous June.

The reception of the splendid bequest of Prof. Bailey seemed to inspire some of the
members with a desire for microscopic research, and in June a Section for the special
purpose was formed, called the Section of Microscopy. This, all members of the So-
ciety interested in the object, were invited to join. It was provided that a Curator of the
department should be chosen yearly at the annual meeting, whose duty it should be to
take charge of all specimens belonging to it, and to preside at its meetings. It was also
further provided that at the first regular meeting of the Society each month, the presid-
ing officer shall call for microscopical papers, remarks or exhibitions, and that these shall
be in order during the continuance of the meeting, excepting that no business matter
properly belonging to the annual meeting of the Society shall be superseded. The pro-
ceedings of this department were to be published in the Journal and Proceedings of the
Society, subject to the decision of the Publishing Committee.

At the first meeting in June, Dr. Silas Durkee was elected Curator of the new depart-
ment of Microscopy.

Mr. Charles J. Sprague announced the donation by Dr. Benjamin D. Greene, the
first President of the Society, of his large and valuable Herbarium. ‘This was stated to
be particularly rich in specimens collected by the various exploring expeditions, both of
Europe and this country.

In September of this year, the department of Crustacea and Radiata was divided,

oO . HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Mr. Theodore Lyman who had been its Curator, becoming Curator of Radiata; and
Dr. H. R. Storer, Curator of Crustacea.

1858. April. The President stated that a considerable sum of money had been sub-
scribed for the purchase and stocking of an Aquarium, and that it would be advisable to
appoint a Committee to attend to the matter. Accordingly Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Jr.,
Mr. L. B. Stone, and Mr. Theodore Lyman were chosen for this purpose.

From the record of the annual meeting in May, the following is presented :

The Report of the Auditing Committee upon the finances, exhibited a balance due the
Treasurer of $2074.25. To meet this there were available assets consisting of uncol-
lected bills in the hands of the Collector, and a sum in the Treasurer’s hands belonging to
the Building fund, $1506.00, leaving the Society in debt $768.25, and this providing that
all the uncollected debts should be paid in full.

The Librarian reported that since the last annual meeting there had been added to the
Library, seventy-four bound volumes; and one hundred and five pamphlets or parts of
volumes, exclusive of those deposited by “ A Republican Institution,” of which there had
been forty-three bound volumes. To Dr. Benjamin D. Greene the Society was indebted
for some of the most valuable works that had been presented. The Librarian in pre-
senting his report took occasion to remark upon the small sum used for the purchase
of books, stating it to be far short of what the reasonable wants of the Curators required.
He strongly recommended that one-third of the income of the Courtis fund should be, as
formerly, appropriated strictly for the increase of the library.

The Curator of Mineralogy, reported that his department had received donations during
the year from Dr. Chas. T. Jackson, Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Jr., Dr. Henry Bryant,
Mr. Thos. J. Whittemore, Mr. R. H. Eddy and Mr. 8. M. Major. Those from Dr. Knee-
land were numerous, comprising an extensive series of minerals from the Lake Superior
region. ‘That of Mr. Eddy consisted of a considerable supply of native borate of lime
from South America, valuable for exchanges, ete.

The Curator of Geology reported that there had been but few additions to the collec-
tion under his charge during the year. The large collection belonging to the State, illus-
trative of its geology, and which had been for many years under the charge of the Society,
had been removed to the State House. This enabled him to place in sight all the
specimens in the department of sufficient interest for exhibition, a considerable number
having been previously kept in drawers for want of room in the cases.

The Curator of Botany reported that extensive additions had been made to the Her-
barium during the year. By the donations of Dr. Benj. D. Greene, and the bequest of ©
the late Prof. Bailey, the number of specimens had been increased ten-fold. Dr. Greene’s
collection had been incorporated with our own, and the two united form one of the rich-
est, most extensive and most valuable herbariums in the country. The bequest of
Prof. Bailey had made our collection of Aleae the most complete of any. The Curator
expressed his intention to give particular attention to the plants received, to take meas-
ures for their preservation by poisoning every specimen, and to arrange them according
to their genera and species. When this work was completed, he proposed to make a de-
tailed report on the whole herbarium of the Society.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 73

The Curator of Conchology reported that but few additions had been made to the col-
lection of shells. He complained of want of case-room to arrange species now ready for
exhibition.

The Curator of Herpetology reported the condition of the collection good, and stated
that the most important additions to it had been some specimens from Lake Superior, pre-
sented by Dr. 8. Kneeland, Jr.

The Curator of Radiata reported that the collection had been increased during the
year by donations from Dr. A. A. Gould, Prof. Agassiz and Capt. N. E. Atwood. He
remarked that when he took charge of it the previous year, he found it in a state of con-
fusion and disorder, but that now it was properly arranged, and the specimens mostly
labelled. The collection embraced about one hundred species of Polypi, representing
thirty-nine genera, and about eighty-nine species of Echinodermata, representing about
forty genera. Besides these there were a few Medusae in alcohol.

The Report upon the Entomological department was brief, being limited to a statement
of the means used to prevent injury to the specimens, by baking, and the free use of
camphor.

The Curator of the Microscopical section dwelt at some length upon the great value of
the collection, and stated that from the duplicate material belonging to it, specimens had
been furnished to a large number of scientific persons in different parts of the country,
who had applied for them.

No reports were made by the Curators of the departments of Ichthyology and Crus-
tacea, by reason of absence from the city.

At the choice of officers, the only changes made were in the election of Amos Binney
as Treasurer in the place of Dr. Nathaniel B. Shurtleff, Alexander E. R. Agassiz, Curator
of Entomology, in place of Dr. Silas Durkee, who had been made Curator of the depart-
ment of Microscopy, and Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Jr., Curator, of Ichthyology instead of
Capt. N. E. Atwood.

In July the death of Dr. James Deane of Greenfield, a Corresponding Member,
was announced. He had manifested great interest in the Society, and to him it was
indebted for much advice and assistance in procuring the magnificent slabs with impres-
sions of the foot marks of animals, which have since found place in the entrance hall of
the Museum. A full sketch of the life and labors of Dr. Deane, read at a meeting of the
Society, July 7, 1858, by the writer of these pages, may be found in the sixth volume of
the Proceedings.

For the first time the Society took a recess in the summer. The members voted
July 7 to have no meeting until the first Wednesday in September.

In September the death of another of the Corresponding Members was announced, that
of Dr. Francis W. Cragin, of Surmam. He well merits notice here, as having been for
“many years one of the Society’s generous benefactors, from whom were received large
numbers of donations, of great zodlogical and anatomical interest.

It will be borne in mind that as early as 1855, complaint was made that owing to want
of sunlight and proper ventilation, the collection of the department of Comparative Anat-
omy was suffering injury from the dampness of the cases in which the specimens

74. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ,

were contained. The trouble was increasing, and subsequently the Curators of several of
the departments reported injury from the same cause to the collections under their charge.

The erection in 1855 of the Boston Theatre, a large building adjoming the Museum,
which cut off its light and air, had produced a change, rendering the latter far less suit-
able for the requirements of the Society than when it was first occupied. Moreover,
with the ever increasing collections of the several departments it had become too small
for the proper exhibition of its cabinet.

As early as 1857, Mr. Jas. M. Barnard had suggested that in view of the necessities of
the Society, and of the opportunity of purchasing at alow price a good site for a new
building, some action should be taken to secure land for the purpose. The unsatisfactory
condition of business affairs at that period, however, precluded any action.

1859. Early this year Mr. Wm. E. Baker of Boston presented a plan for the accom-
modation of the several institutions of art and science of the city in a large building,
which he called the Conservatory of Art and Science, to be erected on the new land then
being formed by the State on the Back Bay. There was certainly much in the project to
commend it to the serious attention of the institutions referred to, but it did not meet
with full approval. The zeal and public spirit manifested by Mr. Baker deserved the grat-
itude of all interested. The presentation of the plan proposed had the good effect to call
attention to the necessity of some action in favor of securing early a grant of land from
the State for the Society, and accordingly a committee was appointed, consisting of
Dr. Cabot, Prof. Rogers, and Messrs. Barnard, Bouvé and Whittemore, to act in connection
with committees of other institutions in petitioning the Legislature for sufficient territory
to meet the requirements of all, This was done, but the lateness of the season prevented
action during the session.

The annual meeting was held on May 4.

The Report of the Treasurer, Mr. Amos Binney, was very gratifying. An arrangement
had been made with the former Treasurer, by which the amount shown by the accounts
as due to him was liquidated without full payment in money. The income of the Society
had been from all sources $1986, and the expenditures, $949.04, leaving in the Treasurer’s
hands, $1056.96. Deducting from this amount a small debt, $89.70, and there was shown
as available assets, $947.26. Besides this cash balance, the Society held ten shares of
stock in the Bank of North America, at the market price, $1035.

The Librarian reported that there had been seventy-five volumes, and one hundred and
twenty-six pamphlets and parts of volumes added during the year, of which thirty-seven
had been deposited by “ A Republican Institution;” six hundred and eighty-nine volumes
had been borrowed from the library.

The Curator of Mineralogy reported that only few donations had been made to the col-
lection during the year. These were chiefly from Dr. C. T. Jackson and Dr. Samuel
Kneeland, Jr. He stated that valuable accessions might be expected when’ the Society
could provide adequate accommodations for their arrangement and exhibition.

The Curator of Geology reported the condition of the collection good, but that there
had been few specimens presented to it. A series of thirty-six vertebrae, twenty-
six fragments of ribs and other bones of the Zeuglodon from the eocene deposits of Ala-
bama, had been deposited by Mr. C. 8. Hale of Burlington, N. J. These, and many other

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 75

fossils from the same locality in the possession of that gentleman, would undoubtedly
become the property of the Society, it being his expressed intention to provide that this
should be the case. :

The Curator of Entomology reported upon the great accession to the department in Dr.
Thaddeus W. Harris’s collection of insects. The native specimens in this, he mentioned,
had a peculiar value, for they included many typical species described by himself,
Say, and other naturalists, and because of the completeness of the collection. It was
stated to contain 4838 specimens of 2241 species of Coleoptera, 181 specimens of 76
species of Orthoptera, 620 specimens of about 500 species of Hemiptera, 267 specimens
of 146 species of Neuroptera, 1125 specimens of 602 species of Hymenoptera, 1931 speci-
mens of 900 species of Lepidoptera, 796 specimens of 595 species of Diptera. In all 9758
specimens of 4660 species, besides quite a number not yet classified. The general collec-
tion was stated to be in good condition.

The Curator of Comparative Anatomy, Dr. J. C. White, reported that the department
contained at this time the following specimens: crania 257, skeletons 88, membra disjecta
172, wet preparations 125, skims 43, dried preparations 10. Total 695. Many of these
were packed away and could not be put upon exhibition for want of room. The additions
during the year had been few, but were valuable. Donations had been made by Drs.
Kneeland, J. Mason Warren, E. 8. Holden, J. C. Warren, Mr. C. B. Fessenden and Mr. J.
C. Reinhardt. Dr. White stated that upon taking charge of the department he found
the specimens almost without exception covered more or less with fungoid growths, the
mycelium of which penetrates and destroys the organic parts of the bones. The ligamen-
tous skeletons had also been injured by the ravages of Dermestes. The growth of these
fungi, of which three species had been detected by him, was caused by the dampness and
want of light and ventilation, unavoidable in the building. Dr. White hoped that he had
prevented further injury by carefully brushing the specimens and thoroughly washing
them with an acid solution of corrosive sublimate, strychnia and camphor. He had also
taken the precaution to place in each compartment dishes of chloride of calcium to absorb
the dampness.

The Curator of Microscopy reported that such had been the drafts upon the crude
material belonging to the collection received from Dr. Bailey that he thought the time had
arrived when the kindness of the Society must be limited so far as related to donations
from it. What remained he thought would be wanted by the active members of the
Society in coming years for study. He advised, therefore, that there should be no further
disposal of it, except when required for special and important microscopic researches.

Of the other departments nothing was stated important to present here.

The changes made in the officers at the election were as follows: Samuel H. Scudder
was chosen Curator of Entomology in place of Alexander E. R. Agassiz; F. W. Putnam
was chosen Curator of Ichthyology in place of Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Jr.; Albert Ordway
was chos2n Curator of Crustacea in place of Dr. H. R. Storer. ‘

In November, a plan having been proposed for a large building to accommodate both the
Horticultural Society and the Society of Natural History, a petition was presented to the
legislature asking the grant of one of the squares of land on the Back Bay for its erec-
tion, and another for the use of the contemplated Institute of Technology. Great efforts

76 HISTORICAL -SKETCH OF. THE

were made by Prof. Rogers, Messrs. Emerson, Ross, Waterston and Binney in behalf of
the project through addresses before the Committees of both branches of the Legislature.
Considerable opposition however on the part of many Senators prevented favorable action
at that time, though it did not cause defeat. The petition was finally referred to the next
General Court.

1860. To awaken interest in the work of the Society, and to justify its claims in the minds
of the public, it was thought best to have an address delivered at the time of the annual
mecting in May, and Prof. Rogers was invited to prepare one for the occasion. It was
read before a very large audience at the new hall of the Mechanic’s Charitable Associa-
tion in Bedford Street. The record states that he “ delivered a most eloquent and pertinent
address on the progress of natural science for the last thirty years, dating from 1830, the
year in which the Society was organized. <A large, highly intelligent and enthusiastic
audience honored the occasion with their presence, and the Society had great reason to be
proud of this successful and brilliant revival of their annual address.”

The Reports of the Treasurer, Librarian, and Curators at the annual meeting, furnish
information which is presented as follows :

The Treasurer exhibited an account showing receipts for the year, including the balance
on hand at its commencement, and also the proceeds of sales of bank stock held by the
Society to be $5559.15 ; and expenditures, including an amount paid to Dr. N. B. Shurt-
leff, the former Treasure, in settlement, $5,599.48, showing a balance of $159.65 on hand
in cash, and no debt. The Society having disposed of its bank stock, held at this
time no other property available for its future requirements.

The Librarian reported the accession to the library of 540 volumes and pamphlets
during the year; about 500 volumes of these were very valuable works on entomology,
from the library of the late Dr. Thaddeus W. Harris, which were purchased by J. P. Cush-
ing, Esq., of Watertown, and generously presented by him to the Society.

There was nothing in the reports of the Curators of Mineralogy, Geology, Herpetology,
Oology or Microscopy, calling for notice here, and none was made upon Ornithology.

The Curator of Entomology mentioned but few additions, but stated that much work
had been done by him towards checking the further ravages of destructive insects.

The Curator of Radiata stated that the department had been indebted to Drs. Bryant
and Winslow for several additions to it.

The Curator of Ichthyology reported an accession of about 200 specimens. The donors
had been Dr. Henry Bryant, who presented a very valuable collection from the Bahamas,
Dr. C. F. Winslow, a valuable collection from the Island of Maui, and the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology.

The Curator of Comparative Anatomy, Dr. James C. White, reported as might have been
expected, considering his indefatigable labor upon the collection of his department, that
this was now in good condition and systematically arranged. He stated that the means
adopted by him mentioned in the report of the previous year, to free the specimens from
the ravages of insects, had been completely successful, and that even the growth of the
destructive fungi had been prevented by the applications made. Every specimen too, had
been numbered, and had had attached to it a label giving its name, locality and donor.
A new catalogue had also been prepared for the whole collection.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 77

During the year 275 specimens had been added to the cabinet, many of which were quite
valuable. Of these may be mentioned a large collection of mammalian skulls and skeletons
presented by Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Jr.; and the lower jaws of an immense sperm whale
from F. W. Choate, Esq.

The Curator of Conchology reported that little or no progress had been made in his
department for want of room to arrange specimens. The collection was stated to com-
prise about 4000 species. It had had donations as follows: from Dr. Aug. A. Gould, 37
species from Cumana and Hayti, new to the cabinet; from Dr. J. Lewis, a collection of
shells from the Mohawk valley and neighboring lakes; from Dr. Simon Shurtleff, 23
species, many of which were new to the cabinet; and from Dr. C. F. Winslow, specimens
from the Hawaiian Islands.

The Curator of Crustacea reported that the cabinet of his department was generally m
good condition, but that many of the dried specimens had suffered from the ravages of
insects. He had arranged, labelled and catalogued about half the collection, and hoped soon
to finish the work upon it. He complained seriously of the lack of room to properly dis-
play the specimens, and also that a considerable number were comparatively worthless
because their localities were unknown. The donations had been numerous. Dr. Henry
Bryant had presented a large collection from the Bahamas ; Prof. Agassiz also a large col-
lection from the Hawaiian Islands, and the Essex Institute many specimens from our coast.
In all, there had been added during the year 366 specimens, comprising 78 species and
55 genera.

The Curator of Botany reported that the Herbarium was in good condition. A series of
valuable Swiss plants collected by Mr. Godet, and another of southern plants collected by
Prof. Gibbes in the Carolinas were presented by himself.

At the election of officers the following changes took place: Dr. Augustus A. Gould was
elected second Vice-President in room of Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, resigned; Dr. B.
Joy Jeffries, Curator of Microscopy, in room of Dr. Silas Durkee, resigned; Mr. A. T.
Lyman, Curator of Conchology, in room of Mr. Thomas J. Whittemore, resigned; and Dr.
Samuel A. Green, Curator of Herpetology, in room of Dr. J. N. Borland, resigned.

Votes of thanks were passed to the retiring officers for their long and efficient services.
Those of one of them call for particular mention.

Dr. D. Humpureys STORER.

Whatever reason there may be generally for hesitating in writing freely of the services
of the living and yet active members of the community, there are none that should pre-
vent full expression here of such as were rendered to the Society by Dr. D. Humphreys
Storer during the first thirty years of its existence. Those for the Museum were invalua-
ble, and it is due to him to make such mention of them while treating of the period of his
labors, as will in some degree serve to do what the visible result of his own work as exhib-
ited in the magnificent collection made by him of the Fishes of Massachusetts would
have done much better, had this not been destroyed. This collection, obtained through
arduous effort, put up by his own hands and presented by him to the Society, was allowed
to go to ruin, through causes, perhaps unavoidable at the time, but not therefore the less to
be deplored. It was made by Dr. Storer when preparing his valuable report on the Fishes

78 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

of Massachusetts, published by order of the Legislature of the State in 1859, and at the
same time in the Boston Journal of Natural History. It embraced, as has been
before stated, ninety out of the one hundred and twenty then known species of the
coast, a large number of which were type specimens, and from which the descriptions
of the species were drawn. When engaged in collecting and in seeking information con-
cerning them, he visited the market daily and examined all that were to be seen there.
He made the acquaintance of those engaged in selling fish and through them with the
fishermen themselves, often going to their boats and interesting them in his work, so that
many were led to aid him by bringing for his use every species that came into their pos-
session. His ever genial manner served to make him very popular among them, and he
thus became a welcome visitor whom they were ready to serve with alacrity. On obtain-
ing any specimens wanted he conveyed them home, or to the rooms of the Society, where
they were studied for description and prepared for preservation. For the greater part of
two seasons, that is, during the spring, summer and autumn months, when the temperature
of the weather would allow of work in unheated rooms, he, in company with Dr. Augustus
A. Gould, might be found busily engaged on specimens of their respective departments,
from five o’clock in the early morning until their breakfast time. Mr. Teschemacher, who
had the care of the herbarium at this period, generally jomed them previous to their depar-
ture, having breakfasted before leaving home. He worked until his business engagements
called him away, perhaps an hour later. These glimpses of the doings of some of the ear-
lier workers are not unworthy of contemplation by those who occupy their places and
who would do justice to their memory. Dr. Storer’s labor on fishes and reptiles was
often of a very disagreeable character, the specimens received requiring transfer and
preparation, being often in a condition far from pleasant to work upon. Alas, that a great
part of this labor should have resulted, so far as the Museum is concerned, in ‘scarcely more
than the valuable lesson it, with other experience, has taught; that the voluntary work of
Curators cannot be relied upon alone, to preserve collections that are subject to ruin with-
out constant supervision and care. In subsequent years nearly all the work of Dr. Stor-
er’s hands was allowed to perish. The Society will not have done its duty until it has
replaced all the species obtained by him of the fishes of Massachusetts waters, every one
being labelled as a substitute for the original presented by him. It is pleasant to know
that this is recognized as a duty, and as one likely to be accomplished.

Mention has been made of aid afforded Dr. Storer by fishermen, at the time he was
engaged in collecting specimens. To two of these he was very much indebted, not
only for many of the species described by him, but for a great deal of information con-
cerning them. He would feel it an injustice not to have their names recorded with
his, in any description given of the work done by him. These men were Capt. Blanch-
ard of Lynn and Capt. N. EK. Atwood of Provincetown. The latter, particularly, furnished
many species that could not otherwise have been procured, and which were of invaluable
service.

Indirectly Dr. Storer did much for the Society in introducing to it Capt. Atwood. He
became a Corresponding Member and ever after manifested great imterest in its proceed-
ings. When in the city, he has attended the meetings, and often addressed them, giving
always a vast deal of information concerning fishes, their habits and the methods adopted
for their capture, not possessed by any other man.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 79

Dr. Storer’s services whilst an active member of the Society were by no means limited
to his labors for the Museum ; on the contrary, few, if any, were more earnest in devotion
to its general welfare. Was there money wanted for any special purpose, what he could
spare was freely given. Was an appeal to be made for help from others, he was never
backward in taking steps towards rendering it effective.

The part he took in the meetings was a prominent one, and the communications made
by him were often of great value. No one can look over the records of the Society with-
out recognizing the importance of the work performed by him in building up the institu-
tion he loved so well. There was one trait manifested by him when an active member
that will not be forgotten whilst yet members who were associated with him live, and that
was a disposition to encourage young and deserving members to take part in the pro-
ceedings.

Dr. Storer, though not strictly speaking one of the original members of the Society,
may well be considered such, as he became an associate with them immediately after its
formation, and in September of the same year was elected Recording Secretary, which
office he held until May, 1836. He was a Curator before there were special departments
of the Museum from 1836 to 1838, afterwards of the department of Reptiles and Fishes
from 1838 to 1843. Elected Vice-President in 1843, he remained in this position until
1860, when he resigned. He thus held office for the long period of thirty years, with
honor to himself and with great advantage to the Society.

Of Dr. Storer’s life and work otherwise than as connected with the Society the following
is presented :

Dr. Storer was born in Portland, Maine, March 26th, 1804. He was educated at Bowdoin
College; graduated there in 1822 and had the degree of LL.D. conferred upon him by
that institution in 1876. His scientific tastes led him to associate himself, as has been
mentioned, with the Boston Society of Natural History soon after its formation, but the
particular attention he subsequently gave to ichthyology was entirely the result of fortui-
tous circumstances. When Dr. Hitchcock was authorized to re-survey the State in 1837,
he expressed a strong desire that there should also be made a more full examination of its
Natural History. A committee of the Legislature therefore met the one on the part of
the Society in conference, the result of which was that George B. Emerson, President of
the Boston Society of Natural. History, Chester Dewey, Professor of Botany in the Berk-
shire Medical Institution, Ebenezer Emmons, M.D., Professor of Natural History in
Williams College, Rev. William B. O. Peabody of Springfield, T. W. Harris, M. D., Librarian
of Harvard University, D. Humphreys Storer, M. D., and A. A. Gould, M. D., of Boston,
Curators in the Boston Society of Natural History, were commissioned to take charge of
the Botanical and Zoblogical survey. These gentlemen met and agreed among themselves
as to the part they should respectively take in the work. Prof. Emmons undertook to
report upon the Mammals, Dr. Storer upon the Fishes and Reptiles, Mr. Peabody upon the
Birds, Dr. Harris upon the Insects, Dr. Gould upon the Mollusks, ete.

The division was unquestionably a wise one, but it required of Dr. Storer a scientific
report within a year on a subject of which neither he nor any one else in the community
knew anything beyond what was known to the fish dealer and the cook. Laughingly he
has since remarked that he could scarcely at the time have told a flounder from any other

80) HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

flat fish. This was not all. There was not in New England an ichthyologist with whom
he could consult, and scarcely a book that would aid him in his investigations. Sufficiently
discouraging all this, but Dr. Storer did not despair. If he knew but little of ichthyology,
he had a scientific mind, sharply observant, quickly perceptive and nicely discriminating.
Moreover he was indefatigable in performing whatever he undertook, never relaxing in his
work until it was done and well done.

The Commissioners came to an understanding that they all should endeavor as far as
possible to extend the boundaries of knowledge in each department, and not confine
themselves to merely presenting catalogues of species. It was soon perceived that the
work expected of them could not possibly be done within the allotted time, and leave was
asked and obtained to defer the reports until a later period.

Before another year, however, had elapsed, several were ready, and we can only wonder,
in looking over the volumes produced, that so much could have been accomplished within
so limited a period. The result of Dr. Storer’s labor was what Dr. DeKay described as a
“masterly report” on the Fishes of Massachusetts. This was published by an order of the
Legislature in August, 1839, and also appeared in the Boston Journal of Natural History
at the same time. Previous to this, Dr. Storer had presented some papers before the So-
ciety on fishes, which had also appeared in the Journal. In April, 1845, he communicated
to the meeting of the American naturalists at New Haven, a very valuable paper called
“A Synopsis of the Fishes of North America.” ‘This was published in the Memoirs of the
American Academy. Subsequently there appeared in the same Memoirs what Dr. Storer
termed his final report on the fishes of Massachusetts, the species beg all illustrated by
fine engravings, and this was also published in a separate volume.

The third decade of the existence of the Society having now passed, some mention will
be made of what has not been referred to during the period.

The Journal of the Society had been published from time to time, but not quite with
the regularity that distinguished its earlier issues. Volume VI and part of Volume VI had
appeared with many articles of great value. The Proceedings appeared more frequently.
A part of Volume III, and Volumes IV, V, and VI, and a considerable portion of Volume
VII had been printed and circulated. The scientific character of both series had been well
sustained, and had helped much to extend the reputation of the Society abroad.

The average attendance on the meetings each year may be seen by the following table :

For the year ending May 1851 23 For the year ending May 1856 20
cc ce 1852 16 st ce 1857 26
“6 a 1853 14 ‘c cs 1858 28
ce : 1854 17 cc ce 1859 30
% ue 1855 17 cc eC 1860 30

Those who took a prominent part at the meeetings of the Society during the first five
years of the ten, by presenting communications, participating in the discussions, or other-
wise, were Dr. Charles T. Jackson, Count Desor, Dr. Wyman, Dr. Burnett, Dr. Gould, Dr.
Durkee, Mr. W. O. Ayres, Dr. Cabot, Mr. William Stimpson, Dr. J. C. Warren, Dr. Samuel
Kneeland, Jr., Dr. A. A. Hayes, Prof. William B. Rogers, Mr. Teschemacher, Dr. Thomas
M. Brewer, Dr. D. H. Storer, Dr. H. R. Storer, Mr. Charles J. Sprague, Mr. Wells, Prof.
Henry D. Rogers, Dr. J. Mason Warren and Mr, Thomas T. Bouvé.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 81

Those who were prominently active during the last five years of the ten were Dr. C. T.
Jackson, Prof. William B. Rogers, Dr. A. A. Hayes, Mr. Charles J. Sprague, Dr. Thomas
M. Brewer, Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Jr., Dr. Jeffries Wyman, Professor Agassiz, Dr. Gould,
Dr. J. C. White, Dr. Henry Bryant, Dr. Samuel L. Abbot, Dr. J. N. Borland, Mr. J. Whit-
temore, Dr. Silas Durkee, Dr. John Bacon, Jr., Mr. Charles Stodder, Mr. Theodore Lyman,
Dr. B.. J. Jeffries, Dr. C. F. Winslow, Mr. Samuel H. Scudder, Dr. Samuel Cabot, Dr. D.
H. Storer, Dr. Charles Pickering, Mr. John Green, Dr. D. F. Weinland, Capt. N. E. At-
wood, Mr. Nathaniel H. Bishop, Dr. J. B. 8. Jackson, Prof. H. D. Rogers, Mr. J. M. Bar-
nard, Prof. Theophilus Parsons and Mr. Thomas T. Bouvé.

The financial condition of the Society at the close of the decade differed but little from
that at the commencement. There had been during the ten years, periods of considerable
indebtedness, but the economical course of the government had prevented its increase, and
at the annual meeting, as stated in the Treasurer’s report, there was a small balance in the
‘Treasury.

The Library had increased from about 3500 volumes reported as in the possession of the
Society in 1850, to nearly 500), including 1012 deposited by Mrs. Binney, and 767 depos-
ited by “ A Republican Institution”. Besides these there were 681 pamphiets, or parts of
volumes.

The number of Resident Members of the Society at this time were about 206, exclusive
of Life Members, of whom there were 18.

The Standing Committees of the Council, through which much of the important business
of the Society was transacted, had faithfully attended to the duties assigned them.

The members of each during the decade were as follows :

On the Library: Drs. A. A. Gould, 8. Kneeland, Jr., Henry Bryant, and D. Hum-
phreys Storer, and Messrs. C. K. Dillaway and Charles J. Sprague.

On Finance: Dr. N. B. Shurtleff, Messrs. J. J. Dixwell, Thos. Bulfinch, P. T. Jackson,
Amos Binney, C. C. Sheafe, Jas. M. Barnard, Thos. T. Bouvé, and George B. Emerson.

On the Library: Drs. A. A. Gould, D. Humphreys Storer, $8. Kneeland, Jr., John Bacon,
S. Cabot, Jr., Henry Bryant, and Messrs. C. K. Dillaway and Chas. J. Sprague.

On Publications: Drs. D. Humphreys Storer, Jeffries Wyman, Samuel Kneeland, Jr.,
Samuel L. Abbot, Samuel Cabot, Jr., Benj. $. Shaw, and Mr. C. K. Dillaway.

DrecapE IV. May, 1860—May, 1870.

Soon after the annual meeting, Mr. Arthur T. Lyman, who had been elected Curator of
Conchology, resigned, and in June Mr. Nathan Farrand was elected his successor.

In October of this year the Society was notified that the late Jonathan Phillips had
made to it the magnificent bequest of $10,000. It will be remembered that in the latter
part of 1849, when the Society was suffering from debt, this gentleman manifested his
interest in its welfare by a timely donation of $2,000, which relieved it from all liability.

The exertions of the members of the Society towards accomplishing the objects in
view, viz., that of securing land from the State on which to build, and help from the
public to enable the Society to erect a structure suitable for its wants, were constant. In
December a Committee was appointed by the Council, consisting of Prof. Rogers, Dr. A.

89 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

A. Gould and Mr. Amos Binney, to prepare a pamphlet setting forth the claims and wants
of the Society. This was published and distributed among the members of both houses of
the Legislature.

In December also it was voted by the Council that a course of lectures be given during
the winter by members of the Society, free to the public, and Profs. Rogers and Wyman,
with Dr. Gould, were appointed to prepare a plan of such a course, with full powers to
make all the necessary arrangements.

1861. The most important event of the year to the Society, and one of the most
important in its history, was the munificent donation by Dr. William J. Walker of his
estate in Bulfinch Street.

As this act was the first of a series of great donations on the part of Dr. Walker to the
Society, it may be well to state what is known that led to such manifestation of interest
in its welfare. For some time previous to the event mentioned Dr. Walker had boarded
in the same house at Cambridge with the President of the Society, Prof. Wyman, and an
intimacy had arisen between them which led the former to regard with attention whatever
the latter was particularly engaged in. Noticing among the documents brought home and
laid upon the table of their common sitting room by Prof. Wyman, some of the publica-
tions of the Society, Dr. Walker became interested in their perusal and finally in the work
of the Society itself. This led to many conversations between them respecting the aims
and objects in view, which resulted in the donation mentioned, and eventually in Dr.
Walker becoming the great benefactor of the Society.

In announcing the pleasing event Prof. Wyman made the followmg remarks, which
are worthy of mention here :

“T have great pleasure in stating that since our last meeting, Dr. William J. Walker
has presented, and by the necessary legal process has conveyed to this Society, the estate
recently occupied by him in this city. The property has been placed in the hands of
trustees, to be devoted, under wise and liberal conditions, in such a manner as they may
deem most expedient, for the promotion of our best interests and of the study of natural
history. This is the largest gift that we have received from a single individual. Under
any circumstances it would be munificent. Now it is both munificent and timely. It is all
the more gratifying inasmuch as it was wholly unsolicited. It naturally follows, from the
emotions which this beneficence calls forth, that we should rejoice at bemg the recipients
of such a gift, and, in accepting it, should express our gratitude and sense of deep obliga-
tion. But we must not rest here; there are other considerations to which we must allow
a place at this time.

“ Standing before a community identified with the study of natural history and the dif-
fusion of a knowledge of it, we have been liberally endowed in this and other ways. I
believe that with our very inadequate means, we have done much to justify our benefac-
tors and the public in their encouragement of us. But every benefaction has imposed,
and every new one will impose, additional and more exacting obligations. Societies are
often charged, and it is to be feared too often justly, as less faithful to their trust than
individuals. We must have care that such a charge may not apply to us. In accepting
the gift now offered us, we bind ourselves, though tacitly yet firmly, to fulfil all the obli-
gations which belong to it, implied no less than direct.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

(3%)

“We have recently set forth our claims upon the community for patronage. It should be
remembered that the public, though it does not formally set forth its claims upon us, has
them, and with a deeper interest in the study of nature than has been known before,
judges us with a severer scrutiny and by a higher standard than at any previous period.
So long as we make our collections useful and our studies conducive to the public good,
and thus show ourselves faithful to our trusts, we are justified in the belief that we may
confidently expect to receive hereafter, as we have received already, every necessary sup-
port and encouragement.”

Professors W. B. Rogers and Agassiz congratulated the Society upon the addition to
their means at such an opportune moment, and Dr. Augustus A. Gould offered the fol-
lowing resolutions, which were unanimously adopted :

“ Resolved, That the Society accepts with gratitude the donation of Dr. Wm. J. Walker
on the terms stipulated.

“ Resolved, That the accession of so munificent a sum to our funds at a moment when
further expansion with our actual resources must have been very limited, greatly encourages
us to new and more efficient exertion.

“ Resolved, That it shall be our diligent care that the avails from the donation shall be
applied prudently and practically towards the cultivation and diffusion of useful knowl-
edge; specially aiming to modify the direction of our endeavors, as the spirit of the age
may from time to time indicate.”

The conditions upon which this donation was made have always been sacredly regarded
by the Society.

During the session of the Legislature in the winter of 1860-61, strenuous efforts were
made by several members of the Society, and of the Institute of Technology, to obtain
the grant of land wanted for the use of each, particularly by Prof. Wm. B. Rogers and
Mr. M. D. Ross, which were finally successful, the grant of one square, so called, having
been made on certain conditions which seemed objectionable at first, but which turned out
to be of no detriment. Of this “square” one third was to be for the use of the Boston
Society of Natural History, the other two-thirds for the Mass. Institute of Technology.

In March, it having been intimated that possibly the city might be willing to buy the
building of the Society in Mason Street, for the enlargement of the Normal School House
near to it, a committee consisting of Mr. Bouvé, Mr. Binney, the Treasurer, and
Dr. Kneeland was appointed to confer with the City Government on the subject.

In April, the Treasurer with such other members as saw fit to join him, were
appointed a committee to solicit subscriptions for a building fund, and in the same month
a Building Committee was appointed consisting of President Wyman, Mr. Binney, Pro-
fessor Rogers, Dr. Jeffries and Mr. Bouvé, to consider and propose a course of pro-
ceedings in relation to the new hall, accompanied by such general plan of grounds and
buildings as they might deem expedient, and to report from time to time to the Soci-
ety, making no engagements without further authority.

The reports of the Curators at the annual meeting in May present but little of
interest. Generally. complaint was made of want of room for the proper display of speci-
mens, and the expectation expressed that when this lack should be supplied there would
be a much greater disposition manifested to make donations. The Curator of Geology

84 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

reported that his department was better cireumstanced than the others so far as the collec-
tion belonging to the Society was concerned, inasmuch as by the removal of that belong-
ing to the State, ample space was now afforded for the reception of specimens and their
display.

The Conchological department had received between four hundred and five hundred
specimens, many of them species new to the collection, the donors being the Smithsonian
Institution, Mr. E. R. Mayo, Dr. A. A. Gould and Mr. H. Davis.

The Mineralogical department had received but few donations, but two of these were
quite valuable, one being a large mass of amethystine quartz from Salto, Uruguay, the
other a large geode of the same from Uruguay, both the gift of R. B. Forbes, Esq.

The Curator of Comparative Anatomy reported that by the precautionary measures
adopted, the collection had been kept in good order, and that donations of considerable
value had been received, principally from. Dr. Henry Bryant and Mr. Du Chaillu.

The Treasurer’s report was exhilarating. He congratulated the Society upon a state of
financial prosperity unprecedented in its history. It had received during the year the leg-
acy of the late Jonathan Phillips of $10,000, a donation of an estate from Dr. Wm. J.
Walker valued at $30,000 and the grant of land from the State for the erection of
a new structure.

The Librarian reported the number of volumes now in the Library as exceeding 5000.

At the election of officers the only change made was in substituting Dr. Francis H. Brown
Curator of Herpetology for Dr. Samuel A. Green, who had tendered his resignation.

A special meeting of the Society was called in July to consider upon accepting the offer
of $28,000 which has been made on the part of the city for the building of the Society in
Mason street. It was voted to accept that price, and a committee consisting of Professor
Rogers and Mr. Bouvé was appointed to complete the sale. This was subsequently done
and the Society received the amount mentioned.

In August Mr. Amos Binney resigned the position of Treasurer of the Society through
a letter to the President, in order that he might accept a commission in the military ser-
vice of the United States. Mr. Thomas T. Bouyé was unanimously elected Treasurer in
his place.

After the sale of the building in Mason Street had been consummated, it was determined
on the part of the Society to temporarily occupy the Bulfinch estate for the storage of its
collection and for meetings, until a new museum should be erected for its use. Accord-
ingly the house was prepared for the reception of the collection and for the accommoda-
tion of the meetings, the parlors on the lower story being fitted up for the latter purpose,
and occupied at the same time as a library. All this being accomplished, the Society in
August left the home it had occupied for thirteen years, and where its growth had been
such as to render more extensive apartments necessary for its expanding wants.

Not without kindly thoughts of many pleasing and instructive hours passed in the cosy
meeting room of the Society, was the old building left for new quarters. Here, with the
library arranged in the cases around and a large table serviceable for multifarious purposes,
might have been seen almost every afternoon several of the Curators at work upon speci-
mens or investigating their character ; here too, for several of the later years might have

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 85

been heard at the meetings as able scientific discussions as any hall ever echoed to, for it
was here that Agassiz, William B. Rogers and Henry D. Rogers made their power felt in
warm though most friendly conflict of opinion, exciting the intense interest of all who
had the good fortune to be present.

Dr. Kneeland made a proposal to.the Society to occupy with his family some rooms in the
Bulfinch St. house, and thereby ensure the greater safety of the buildings and contents, on
certai conditions. These were acceded to and Dr. Kneeland and family subsequently
occupied the premises.

The Building Committee promptly and industriously devoted themselves to the work
put into their hands. They studied the wants and requirements of the Society, conferred
among themselves as they met from time to time, as to the interior arrangements suitable
for the accommodation of the several departments, and subsequently consulted with archi-
tects respecting the exterior, and the cost of building. In the meantime one of their nun-
ber, Mr. Amos Binney, having entered the Army, Dr. Jas. C. White was substituted in his
place, and the committee subsequently now consisted of the President, Dr. Jeffries Wy-
man, Prof. Wm. B. Rogers, Dr. Jas. C. White, Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, and Mr. Thomas T.
Bouvé. They frequently met for consultation at the house of Professor Rogers, where
they examined plans submitted to them and then discussed their merits. After two
or three months of close attention to the subject, and after considering fully several
plans brought before them, they finally reported to the Society in November, as their
choice after mature and long deliberation, one offered by Mr. Jonathan Preston. Dr. White
explained the details of the plan and presented estimates of the cost, showing that a hand-
some building could be erected, and such portions finished as would serve the immediate
wants of the Cabinet and Library for about $62,000. The Report was quite satisfactory
and the Society voted that the plan be accepted “as at once graceful and ample in its pro-
portions and well adapted for all the purposes which the Society has in view.”

The Building Committee was requested to have detailed specifications prepared, in order
to obtain positive estimates of the cost of finishing such portion of the building as
was referred to in the report, and it was empowered to make arrangements for the con-
struction, if such estimate should show that the cost would not exceed the available fund
increased by further contributions.

The Society also voted that the Building Committee be authorized to take such steps as
they judged proper to raise an additional ameunt towards paying for the new structure,
and also to add to the committee Geo. B. Emerson, Esq., and Rev. R. C. Waterston.

In November of this year, a fire occurred in Boston, by which a menagerie of wild
animals was destroyed, the poor beasts being suffocated in their cages. The skins were
greatly damaged by fire and water, but the bodies were generally not much injured.
Through the exertions of Dr. White, the Curator of Comparative Anatomy, he obtained
for his department the animals, and they were dissected, part of them at the Medical
College, and the rest at the private dissecting room of the President at Cambridge.
Dr. White in making a report of the matter, stated “that the Society may consider itself
fortunate in having secured so valuable an acquisition to its already extensive osteological
collection. Such an opportunity will probably never occur again. It raises this depart-
ment of the Cabinet far above any in the country in importance, and will enable us to

86 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

grace our new halls with an almost perfect collection of skeletons of the large cats of the
old and the new worlds.”

The specimens obtained were, one fine male lion from Delagoe Bay, Africa; a very large
lioness, mate of above; lioness from Cape of Good Hope, presented to Prof. Wyman; one
male jaguar; female of same, presented to Prof. Agassiz; young Bengal tiger, female ;
hunting leopard, female, from Asia; young leopard, male, from Asia; cougar, male, from
South America; ocelot, female, from Central America; civet cat, female, Asia; spotted
or laughing hyena, male, Cape of Good Hope; jackal, Cape of Good Hope, presented to
Prof. Wyman; young black bear; two raccoons, male and female; llama, female, from
South America; American opossum; peccary, female, Brazil; three monkeys, one baboon,
domestic goat, skull of gnu; eagle and various other birds.

1862. In January of this year, the Boston Marine Society presented to the Society a
valuable collection of objects in natural history, and of specimens of the workmanship of
different East India and Pacific nations, such as models of canoes and junks, war clubs
and insignia of office, cutting weapons, bows and arrows, quivers and paddles, native
cloth and tanned skins, etc., ete.

The presentation of so many objects of art, led the Council to recommend the establish-
ment of a department of Ethnology, and in accordance with this suggestion, the Society
formed such a department and elected Dr. Charles Pickering its Curator.

In March of this year, Dr. Kneeland entered the Medical Corps of the Army, and at
his request a vote was passed that his family be allowed still to occupy rooms in the build-
ing as a residence. Dr. Kneeland was the third officer of the Society that the war had
called into active service.

The Building Committee, now having in charge not only the construction of the pro-
posed new edifice, but the raising of additional means to meet the cost, omitted no effort
to accomplish the objects in view. They exhibited publicly the plan of the structure,
with detailed specifications prepared by Mr. Preston, and invited proposals from mechanics
for the execution of the work. No less than sixty-four were presented and considered, but
not until subscriptions had been received sufficient to cover the entire estimated cost, was
any contract made involving expenditure. To obtain subscribers they took most efficient
measures. They met together, they discussed plans, they consulted with others interested,
they decided what persons should be appealed to, and finally distributed among themselves
the names of such as each one would undertake to solicit, so that there might be no con-
flicting action. On account of the very great service rendered by Mr. M. D. Ross, for the
Society at this time, it is proper to state that though not upon the committee he offered
his valuable aid in furtherance of its objects, met with them, gave good advice, and finally
took an active part in appealing to such parties for money as he thought he could best
influence. To aid the committee in their work they issued a circular prepared by Drs. Jef-
fries and White giving the reasons for the appeal made to the public, accompanied by lith-
ographic views of the exterior of the proposed building, as well as some representation
of the plan for its interior arrangement. While thus engaged in prelimmary movements
towards personal appeals, what was their joy and how great their encouragement, to have
the announcement made to them, as was done by President Wyman, that a gentleman,

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. <—e 87

whose name was to remain for awhile unknown, had offered towards the Building Fund,
the munificent sum of $20,000, provided a like sum should be secured by subscription
from other parties! This enabled the Committee to head the subscription papers quite
effectively, and no doubt had great influence in securing signatures to them. The success
which followed soon justified active measures for the construction, and contracts for the
execution of the work, and for delivery of material, such as stone, bricks, &c., immediately
followed.

In May it was found that $20,000 had been subscribed, and Professor Wyman was
requested to communicate the fact to the gentleman who had made the offer alluded to.
At a subsequent meeting of the committee Professor Wyman mentioned that he was
none other than Dr. Wm. J. Walker, to whom the Society was indebted for the house it
occupied, and stated that he was ready to pay over the $20,000 at once.

At the meeting of the Society, June 4, the President announced the reception of the
$20,000 from Dr. Walker, and besides other appropriate action the following resolutions
were passed :

“ Resolved: That the Society hereby tender to Dr. Walker their most grateful acknowl-
edgement for the renewed and munificent proof of his interest in their prosperity, and for
the occasion and the incentive which it had afforded to other friends of the Society to con-
tribute an equal aggregate amount.

“ Resolved: That in view of this and the previous benefactions, by which Dr. Walker
has marked his appreciation of our scientific labors and aspirations, we feel that to his
liberality, chiefly, we are indebted for the enlarged opportunities of usefulness now so
brightly opening before us, and that, in offering him the homage of our grateful hearts, we
have no need to assure him of the enduring honor which will associate his name with the
future successes and the whole history of the Society.”

While yet engaged in getting subscriptions, the committee kept busily at work upon
matters pertaining to the building, and as soon as it became clear that means enough would
be secured to meet the cost, they made contracts for the principal part of the work, includ-
ing the filling in of the land.

From the estimates made of the probable cost of the building completed, it appeared that
not less than $87,000 would be required exclusive of cases, but that by leaving unfinished
certain portions not needed for early occupancy, about $80,000 would suffice.

It was therefore voted not to exceed $80,000 upon the building, exclusive of cases and
furniture. -

It has been thought well to give somewhat in detail the action of the Building Com-
mittee in the preliminary steps taken to erect the grand structure since occupied by the
Society, and in obtaining the necessary means to accomplish its completion. To do any-
thing like justice to the devoted service of a most faithful and industrious committee would
require a much fuller record of their doings than can be given here. The result of their
endeavors to erect a building satisfactory to the Society will be stated further on. Notice
must now be taken of other matters of interest concerning the Society that transpired dur-
ing the year.

The Reports of the Treasurer, Librarian and Curators were presented as usual at the
annual meeting, and were, considering circumstances, satisfactory. The department of
Comparative Anatomy had been enriched by the addition before mentioned of a valuable

88 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

collection of the skeletons of animals suffocated at the fire in Portland Street, by the osteo-
logical collection of the late Dr. Lane, by a series of crania from Dr. Henry Bryant, and
by a skull and nearly a perfect skeleton of a gorilla presented by Dr. Otis of the Navy.

The department of Geology had also been enriched by the addition of specimens show-
ing tracks of animals, purchased from Mr. Field of Greenfield.

The Curator of Ethnology, the department of which had been recently formed, acknowl-
edged the reception of the various objects of art and manufacture presented to the Society
by the Boston Marine Society, as before mentioned.

At the election of officers, Mr. 8. H. Scudder was chosen Recording Secretary in place
of Dr. Samuel Kneeland, who had entered the service of the United States as surgeon in
the army.

The office of Curator of Crustacea, made vacant by the resignation of Mr. Albert Ord-
way, who had also entered the army of the United States, was not filled.

This year, so full of events gratifying to the members and cheering to their hopes for
the future, did not pass without one that caused sadness in the hearts of all, but more par-
ticularly to such as had been associated in the work of the Society in its earlier years.
Reference is here made to the death of Dr. Benjamin D. Greene, which took place on the
14th of October, and which was announced to the Society on the 15th.

Dr. Benzamin D. GREENE.

When the good and the wise participate in the formation and in the work of an institu-
tion, they leave an impress upon its character not to be effaced, whilst the memory of their
deeds is yet fresh in tie minds of those who succeed them ; and as what they were, and
what they accomplished is not only a delight to contemplate but an inspiration to endeavor,
it becomes a sacred duty to extend and perpetuate a knowledge of their worth and labors.
It was the good fortune of the Society to have associated among its members at the period
of its origin and in its subsequent history, some of the noblest and purest minded men
that the community has produced. This is not expressed without due consideration, and
will not be questioned when the names of Dr. B. D. Greene, Rev. F. W. P. Greenwood,
Dr. John Ware, Dr. J. B. 8. Jackson and Dr. Jeffries Wyman are recalled to mind as active
workers, to say nothing of many others whose attainments and deeds justly earned for
them the esteem and regard of all who knew them.

Among those mentioned, none enjoyed the respect and love of contemporaries more
than the honored First President of the Society, Dr. Benjamin D. Greene, and a knowledge
of his virtues is only necessary to cause his memory to be revered by all who come after,
as long as the Society shall exist. It is to impart this knowledge that the following account
of him is given.

Dr. Greene was born in Demarara, in 1795, during a temporary sojourn of his parents
there. In 1812 he graduated at Harvard College in the same class with Charles G. Loring,
Peleg Sprague, Henry Ware and others who became well known to public fame in later
days. After leaving Cambridge he studied law at Litchfield, Conn., where was then a well-
known law school, and was later admitted a member of the Boston bar. His subsequent
career cannot be better given than by quoting the words of a near and dear friend and

The Heltotype Printing (o 2]! Tremont StBoston

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 89

connection, Mrs. Robert C. Waterston, sister of Mrs. Greene, embodied in a letter respecting
him. They were as follows: “Dr. Greene’s studies at Litchfield were rather to acquire a
general knowledge of law than from an intention to pursue it as a profession, and his tastes
for natural history, especially botany, led him to turn his attention to medicine. To pur-
sue this study he went abroad and was a student in London, but more especially in Edin-
burgh, where he passed several years. Here he formed the acquaintance of men who
were afterwards widely known in their different departments. Among them was William
J. Hooker, afterwards Sir William Hooker, with whom a friendship arose which continued
through life. The intimacy was renewed on Mr. Greene’s various visits to England and
Scotland; and always maintained by correspondence and the interchange of botanical
books and information, as weli as by mutual expressions of lasting affection.

“Mr. Greene’s botanical studies greatly interested him both in Europe and America.
Forgetful of time and even of hunger, he would go out in the country in the morning and
not return until night, coming back laden with botanical boxes filled with specimens, and
then spend half the night in laying each in its separate papers with the careful and tender
touch peculiar to his hand.

“Thus besides acquiring two professions, he gained a reputation as a botanist in the front
rank of that department of natural history. Added to these attainments he had com-
mand of several modern lJaneuages. He knew much and said little. Constitutionally
reserved and silent, it was impossible for him to impart what he had acquired.

“ Once only I heard him express a regret that fluency of speech or writing had been
denied to him. Few knew how richly his mind was stored on almost every subject.
His taste for the fine arts made him a just judge of both music and painting. Of pictures
he had a great love and knowledge. His ample fortune was the means, not only of adorn-
ing his own house with works of the old masters, and those of a more modern school, but
also of encouraging and aiding many struggling workers in various departments of ‘man’s
endless toil and endeavor, who but for him had been ‘desolate and oppressed.’ His
library was well chosen and filled, and there he loved to abide — and when at last he
passed on to wider regions of knowledge, the works on natural history as well as his
Herbarium were at his request transferred to the Boston Society of Natural History.
Mr. Greene’s life was one quite aside from the hurry and self-assertion of American careers.
He possessed many qualities, which, had he practised the profession of medicine, would
have made him an able and certainly a beloved physician. His was the magnetic touch
of a born healer, and the strength and tenderness of his presence in the sick room was
of itself a restorative power. I knew well that character whose ‘still waters ran deep.’
His low voice was seldom raised except to rebuke wrong, but the flash of his wrath was
all the more startling, because it so seldom fell from the calm and quiet sky of his serene
days. After he left us in 1862, I arranged at my sister’s request a simple monument to
be placed over his resting place at Mount Auburn. An ivy plant climbs over the tablet
and half hides a cross on its summit, typifying that sincere faith and reverence which lay
in his soul, seldom outwardly revealed. To please a wish of my own heart there was cut
on-the marble the grass which was named for Mr. Greene, by Thos. Nuttall, when he dis-
covered it on the Western plains, the Greenia Arkansia.” To this beautiful and just tribute
of one who knew more of Dr. Greene in his domestic life, than any other who has written

90 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

of him, it may seem unnecessary to add anything touching his private character and its
influence. Yet the subject is too interesting not to dwell upon, especially as there are
words of Dr. Asa Gray, not in print, concerning Dr. Greene, which should not be omitted
here. In referring to a brief notice written by himself of Dr. Greene, published in the
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and in which remarks were
made upon his well known generosity in placing the results of his observations and his
collections in the hands of those who could make the best use of them for the advance-
ment of science, he says that the notice given “does not make enough of the liberality,
the winsomeness and the very quiet generosity of Mr. Greene, which made itself felt in a
most spontaneous, unobtrusive way, as if it were something in the atmosphere, a delicate,
grateful, subtle aroma, rather than anything consciously put forth.” Most fitting words
these will be judged by all who had the pleasure of personal intercourse with the subject
of them.

Of Dr. Greene as a botanist it may be said that he stood deservedly high in the estima-
tion of those who knew him best in this relation. He collected extensively the plants
of our country, and studied them carefully, so that his knowledge of them was
thorough. Dr. Gray, in writing of him, states that after he ceased to collect, from failing
health, he still showed a real interest in his plants and from time to time “ verbally gave
me critical, remarks such as would only be made by a keen and accurate observer.”

Of Dr. Greene’s botanical work less can be said than might be expected concerning the
knowledge he possessed on the subject, and his desire that others should profit by his ac-
quirements. No doubt this was largely due to that want of fluency in expressing what he
knew either in writing or by speech, to which he himself feelingly alluded. Dr. Gray, who
knew more discriminately what he accomplished in his favorite pursuit, said that his retir-
ing, contemplative, unambitious disposition rendered him averse to the toils, and wholly
indifferent to the fame of authorship; that his services to science were in his helpfulness to
others, by making botanical collections, and by forming a library of botanical works; the
plants and the books being always at the disposal of those who needed them for scientific
research.

The action of the Society upon the death of Dr. Greene is presented as follows :

On the 15th day of October, as before mentioned, the Rev. Mr. Waterston announced to
the Society the death of the First President of the Society, Dr. B. D. Greene. He spoke of
the high personal character and the attainments of the deceased, and of the great interest
he had ever felt in the welfare of the Society. Remarks were also made by the President,
Jeffries Wyman, and by Professor Agassiz and Dr. Pickering, expressive of their great
respect for his memory. Upon motion made by Mr. Waterston, a committee was appointed
to take such action as seemed proper in view of the sad event, consisting of Dr. Gould,
Professor Rogers, Professor Agassiz and Mr. Waterston.

At the next meeting of the Society, held Noy. 5th, Dr. Gould made a brief address, giv-
ing an account of Dr. Greene’s participation in the formation of the Society and in the pro-
ceedings of its early days, after which Professor Rogers followed, dwelling more at length
upon some points of interest in the life and character of the deceased. “It is not often,” he
said, “ that the possessor of a liberal fortune is found giving his heart and time to the labor
of scientific studies which, however ennobling and replete with the finest of enjoyments,
have as we know, nothing in sympathy with the luxurious ease and brilliant excitements of
what is called society.” i

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 91

“Such tastes and labors as marked the life of our late colleague are the exception, and
we are therefore especially called on to honor the memory of him who furnished so beauti-
ful an example. But qualities still more rare characterized the pursuits and conversation
of Dr. Greene. No one could fail to remark his singular freedom from the ambitious
impulses which, whilst they stimulate the labors of men of science, so often dim their aspi-
rations for what is true and beneficent. With him the love of knowledge was a sufficient
incentive and adequate reward. Delighted to store his mind with the beautiful truths
gathered from the ample sources around him, and ever ready to help others devoting them-
selves to kindred branches of inquiry, and indeed to any scientific pursuits, his singular
modesty shrank from the least public exhibition of his various knowledge, and in the eyes
of those who knew his solid and diversified culture, gave to his social character its most
peculiar and winning charm.” Professor Rogers closed by offering the following resolutions :

“ Resolved, That while it is the duty of the Society to hold in grateful recollection all who
at any time have participated in the labors or helped to enlarge its means of scientific use-
fulness, it is under especial obligations to honor the memory of the founders and early
patrons of the Society, whose earnest zeal gave the first strong impulse to the pursuit of
natural history in the community, and whose liberal contributions and fostering care laid
the foundation for those labors which have won for the Society an honorable place in the
history of scientific investigation.

“ Resolved, That the Society, while deeply regretting the loss which it has sustained in
the death of its late associate, Dr. Benj. D Greene, has a sad pleasure in placing on record
air expression of its grateful and enduring reverence for his memory as one of the most
zealous of its founders and its first acting President, and as one of the most liberal of the
patrons and co-workers of the Society.

“ Resolved, That in expressing our sense of the great value of the services of our late asso-
ciate in this Society, and of his work as a cultivator and promoter of natural science, we
would dwell with affectionate interest on the gentle graces of character for which he was
remarkable, and especially on the shrinking modesty and reserve which veiled so beauti-
fully the knowledge and culture they were unable to conceal.”

Nov. 19th, 1862, by vote of the Society, the names of all persons who had contributed
one hundred apilnts or upwards towards the erection of the new building, were entered in
the records as Patrons.

1863. In April of this year there arrived from London casts from the bones of the
Megatherium in possession of the British Museum, presented by Joshua Bates, Esq. These
were subsequently mounted by Mr. George Sceva, under the direction of Dr. James C.
White. The huge animal form thus reconstructed has since been one of the most striking
features of our main hall.

At the annual meeting in May it was announced that the Society had been the recipient
of a bequest of $9,000 from our late associate and first President, Dr. Benjamin D.
Greene. :

The Treasurer’s ae showed receipts of $72,507.76, and expenditures $61,224.31,
leaving in his hands $11,285.45. Of the receipts ae 267 had been paid in especially for
building purposes, and of the expenditures $58,685.75 had been paid towards the new
laine.

92 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The Report of the Librarian mentions the munificent bequest of the library of Dr.
Greene, comprising 1,500 volumes or parts, many of which were costly illustrated works,
mostly upon botany. This was the largest addition ever made to the Library at any
one time.

The Curators had but little to report except that the collections were safely housed,
awaiting accommodations for exhibition in the new building.

At the election of officers for the ensuing year, Mr. William T. Brigham was chosen
Curator of Mineralogy in place of Dr. John Bacon, and Mr. Thomas T. Bouvé was chosen
Curator of Geology and Paleontology instead of Curator of Geology alone, which office he
had previously held, the two being combined in one department.

The Building Committee had continued to act vigorously in the business of construction
and finish. Already the structure was approaching completion, and questions concerning
ornamentation, railing for balconies, tiling, heating apparatus, library and other cases, had
recently occupied their attention.

In October the announcement was made of the sudden death of Dr. George Hayward,
one of the members of the Linnean Society, and subsequently one of the founders and orig-
inal members of the Boston Society of Natural History. He was First Vice-President from
May, 1830 to May, 1832.

October 21st Mr. Alpheus Hyatt was elected Curator of Conchology.

On the 4th of November, the President of the Society reported on behalf of the Build-
ing Committee that the new building was nearly ready for occupancy and that the Library
room was quite so. It was therefore voted —That the Library be moved forthwith and
that the next meeting of the Society be held at the new building, if gas is previously
introduced into it. It was also voted — That the Curators be authorized to remove their
collections as soon as convenient. In accordance with the vote, and gas having been in
the meantime carried into the library room, the Society on the 18th of November for the
first time, met in their new and capacious building, 79 members being present. The
library had already, since the previous meeting, been removed to the room, and now oc-
cupied the shelves of the cases.

In November of this year, another of the founders of the Society passed away,
Mr. Francis Alger.

At the meeting held Dec. 2d, Mr. T. T. Bouvé remarked that before proceeding to busi-
ness it seemed meet that the members of the Society should express their appreciation of
the loss it had sustained in the death of their friend and associate, Mr. Francis Alger.

“Public spirited, he always felt a strong interest in all institutions designed for the wel-
fare of the people, and often gave of his means for their endowment. Especially was he
interested in the promulgation of knowledge relating to his favorite branch of science,
that of mineralogy. To further this he was always ready to give specimens, inviting
ihose interested in the study to select from his duplicates.”

‘“‘ But a few days since he suggested to me his intention to send some very large speci-
mens of beryl and other minerals to adorn our grounds, and such was his interest in the
Society that I cannot but think his large collection would have come into our possession
at an early day, if his sudden departure had not prevented the fruition of his wishes.”

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 93

At the request of the Society, Dr. Chas. T. Jackson prepared a notice of Mr. Alger for
the Proceedings, a considerable portion of which will be presented here.

“Our late associate, Francis Alger, son of Cyrus Alger, was born in Bridgewater, in this
State, March 8th, 1807. In youth he was not studious, and had only a common school edu-
cation. His taste for study commenced in 1824, when his attention was first drawn to
the science of mineralogy. To his love for that science he attributed his after progress in
general learning and scientific attainments. One branch of natural history leads to
another, and Mr. Alger soon found himself engaged in the study of shells and plants, first
the fossils and then their analogues in the living world. His library shows how exten-
sively he studied in the various branches of natural history; but it was to his first love,
mineralogy, that he devoted his chief attention.”

Having occasion to accompany his father on an excursion for business purposes to Nova
Scotia, Mr. Alger collected minerals from near Digby Neck, and im the trap rocks of Gran-
ville, a list of which he published in the Boston Journal of Philosophy and Arts, upon his
return home. He also published a brief description of Nova Scotia minerals in the Amer-
ican Journal of Arts and Sciences.

In 1827, Mr. Alger and Dr. Chas. T. Jackson made a full exploration of Nova Scotia,
and collected a large number of minerals, the species of which they described by a joint
essay in the 14th and 15th volumes of the American Journal of Science, extra copies
being freely distributed gratuitously to scientific men.

In 1829, Mr. Alger and Dr. Jackson again visited Nova Scotia, and making many new
discoveries, prepared a revised memoir for the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Dr. Jackson in his notice went on to say, referring to their work together :

“‘In the second joint excursion a schooner was chartered for the voyage, and served as
a home along the wild coasts of Nova Scotia. Though Mr. Alger was always very sea
sick when in the rough waters of the Bay of Fundy, he bore the affliction with great
patience, and when on shore worked with the most enthusiastic zeal in exploring for min-
erals. It was a great pleasure to witness his joy when a new crystal oven in the trap
rocks, or brilliantly studded agate ball was broken open, disclosing to view the ‘ flowers of
the mineral kingdom.’ He fairly danced with delight, and thought no labor too severe,
when such rewards were to be won. His part in the Memoir was fairly borne, the work
of writing the descriptions being carefully and equally divided. Soon after its publica-
tion, Mr. Alger was elected a Fellow of the American Academy, and took an active inter-
est in the meetings, occasionally communicating some of his scientific observations.

. . “Having become interested in the iron and zinc mines of Sussex Co., New Jersey,
he made that locality, before well known to the scientific world, still more famous for its
rare and unique minerals, and spread them broadcast over the mineralogical world. He
often made excursions into the state of New Hampshire, and purchased some of the inter-
esting mines more for the sake of obtaining specimens of the minerals they produced
than from any hope of pecuniary gain. He would never sell any mine without reserving
the right to all the fine specimens of crystals that should be got out in mining. Finding
that he could not extract and bring home to his cabinet a large beryl of five tons weight
which exists in Grafton, N. H., he purchased the hill, had the crystal uncovered of rock,
and considered it as in his cabinet and one of his specimens.

94 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

“Tis zeal, instead of cooling off, seemed constantly to be inflamed, and I never knew the

time when his eyes would not sparkle at the sight of a new or beautiful mineral.
In New York he met a young man who had a guard-chain made up of fine crystals of
gold, every one of them far better than could be found in the cabinets of Europe. He at
once bought the chain at a high price, and had the crystals carefully removed and added
to his cabinet.”

In 1849 Mr. Alger received the honorary degree of A. M. from Harvard University.

Of Mr. Alger’s personal character we know that he was a kiad hearted man, a firm friend
and worthy Christian. He was always disposed to apologize for the short-comings and
faults of others, and he never spoke a hard word except of those whom he considered irre-
claimably vicious, and such men he loathed and did not like even to name. Francis Alger’s
career in this world is now ended. He died in the field of his public duty. He was en-
gaged in the city of Washington in perfecting shrapnel to be employed in restoring the.
union of our divided States. Exposure to cold and wet weather, with fatigue and neg-
lect of proper personal care of himself, brought on a sudden attack of congestion of the
lungs which terminated in typhoid pneumonia, of which he died on the 27th of November,
in the fifty-sixth year of his age.

Mr. Alger’s scientific writings were mostly essays upon minerals published in the Ameri-
can Journal of Science and Arts, in the Proceedings of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, and in the Journal and Proceedings of the Boston Society of
Natural History. His most important work was what he modestly entitled “ Alger’s
Phillips’s Mineralogy.” It was an edition of Phillips’s Mineralogy increased by Mr. Alger’s
additions more than one half, the result of his labor for many years.

The Society passed the following resolutions:

“ Resolved, That the Boston Society of Natural History has learned, with profound sor-
row, the death of their late associate and friend, Francis Alger, one of the founders of the
Society and for years an efficient Curator in the department of Mineralogy.

“ Resolved, That this Society recognizes in Mr. Alger a true lover of science, an active
and earnest collaborator, animated with a kindly spirit, calculated to win the friendship of
all who knew him, and to excite an interest in the branches of science to which he was
devoted.”

On December 2d, Mr. A. 8. Packard, Jr., was elected Curator of Crustacea.

1864. The new year opened auspiciously for the Society, and yet there were sufficient
reasons for anxiety concerning the future. Dazzled by the success which had followed their
endeavors to secure for themselves a structure adequate to the requirements of a great
institution, they but imperfectly realized the enormous expenses that necessarily attend
such work as that to which they were now pledged. There was imminent danger that the
income derivable from all sources at command would fall far short of the amount required
to accomplish what was now expected of them. The following extracts from the records of
the first meeting of the Society held January 16th, will show what reasons the members
had for new joy and congratulation :

“Mr. T. T. Bouvé arose to speak of the financial condition of the Society and its enlarged
needs in the new building, showing that the capital which had hitherto barely supported
the Society, would now be manifestly insufficient for its maintenance. He then read a

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 95

letter recently received from Dr. William J. Walker, to whom the Society was already so
largely indebted, wherein he promised to give $20,000 more on condition that others would
subscribe a like amount, the whole to be funded and used by the Society as a working cap-
ital. In conclusion Mr. Bouvé urged very strongly that every member should give his
direct personal effort toward the raising of the sum requisite to secure so generous a
donation.”

tev. Mr. Waterston thought “the time auspicious for the endeavor, since the Society,
within the means given for the object, has erected a handsome and spacious edifice, an orna-
ment to the city, and most suitable for its wants. We have done all we proposed to do in
the outset and have not overburdened ourselves with debt by overstepping the limits of
the fund set apart for this special purpose, and now in order to secure a working capital
which shall forever place in security our valuable collections, enable us to make a proper
exhibition of these to the public, and put us upon a proper basis as an active, progressive
Society, we call upon the public to subscribe for this object, $20,000; failing to secure
which, we have barely enough to maintain the building in proper repair, leaving out of
consideration our necessities for the proper exhibition and ultimate security of our cabinet,
and for the publication of our Proceedings and Memoirs.”

Others spoke earnestly upon the matter, urging prompt action, and finally a Committee
of Subscription was appointed, consisting of Prof. Jeffries Wyman, Dr. A. A. Gould, Dr. C.
T. Jackson, Prof. William B. Rogers, Rev. R. C. Waterston, Dr. Samuel Cabot, F. W. Lin-
coln, Dr. Henry Bryant, Dr. Charles Ware, Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, George B. Emerson,
Thomas T. Bouvé, Dr. S. L. Abbot, M. D. Ross, R. C. Greenleaf, J. D. Philbrick, Edward
Pickering, N. L. Hooper, Lemuel Shaw, C. J. Sprague, Charles C. Sheafe, J. D. Kidder,
Thomas Gaffield, M. S. Scudder, and Dr. J. C. White.

This committee issued a circular setting forth the need of a working fund to carry on
efficiently the objects of the Society, and mentioning the munificent offer of Dr. William J.
Walker to give $20,000 towards this, if a like sum should be obtained by subscription.

To facilitate obtaining signatures for $100, an alteration was made in the By-laws by
which the payment of this sum would be requisite to constitute any one a life member,
and it was understood that all parties subscribing that amount towards the working fund
should be made life members.

In April, Mr. Bouvé announced the death of Dr. Edward Hitchcock of Amherst, an
honorary member, and subsequently made a short address upon his character, ending with
a presentation of the following resolution:

“ Resolved, That the members of the Boston Society of Natural History recognize in the
death of their late distinguished associate, Dr. Edward Hitchcock, the loss to themselves,
and to the public, of a man of comprehensive ability, of untiring devotion to the cause of
science, and of great private worth.”

A few days previous to the annual meeting of this year, died one who had been the first
of the Second Vice-Presidents of the Society at the time of its foundation, Dr. John Ware.

He was the son of the Rev. Henry Ware, for thirty-five years Professor of Theology at
Harvard University, and was born at Hingham, Mass., Dec. 19th, 1795. He graduated at
Harvard in 1813, and received the degree of M. D. in 1816. In 1817 he removed to Bos-
ton, where by steady devotion to his profession, he gradually built up an extensive practice.

96 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

In 1852 he was appoimted adjunct Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine in
Harvard University, and succeeded Dr. James Jackson in 1836, holding the chair until
1858. He was President of the Mass. Medical Society from 1848 to 1852.

Dr. Ware was one of a family distinguished for the talents of its members. His father
and several brothers were eminent as preachers and theological writers ; one, William, was
the author of the widely known classical novels of “Zenobia” and “ Aurelian ;” and
Henry possessed a fine poetical talent. More than one of the brothers achieved great
success in the practice of medicine.

Dr. Ware’s contributions to the literature of his profession were numerous and very able ;
and some of them exercised a great influence, especially the essays on delirium tremens
and on croup. He was a most careful observer, a mature thinker, and very thorough as a
teacher. His great liberality and candor were as marked as his ability; and his gentle and
lovable nature rounded off a character which was appreciated as it deserved to be, by all
who had the good fortune to be cared for professionally by him, or to enjoy his friendly
intercourse. Asa physician, he was wholly devoted and faithful, as he was in all other
relations of life.

Dr. Ware died in Boston on the 29th of April, 1864, in the seventieth year of his age.

At the annual meeting in May, the Treasurer, before presenting his report, announced
the agreeable intelligence that the subscriptions to the working fund had reached the re-
quired sum of $20,000, and that consequently the $40,000 was secured.

His report stated that the receipts for the year amounted to $24,955.90, which added to
the balance of last year, made $56,239.35; the expenditures had been $52,121.16, leaving
a cash balance of $4,118.19.

Of the $24,955.90 received, $7,700 were from subscriptions already paid on the working
fund. Of the $32,121.16 paid $27,773.07 had been on the new building.

The Librarian, Mr. Chas. K. Dillaway, after serving the Society for the long period of
thirty-one years, having been elected in 1855, in tendering his thirty-first and final report,
resigned the position so long and faithfully held, much to the regret of the members, to
whom he was endeared by long and intimate association. The record of the meeting
states that im presenting the report, Mr. Dillaway gave an interesting account of the pro-
gress of the Society in every department during his connection with it. The Library, he
said, at the time of his first annual report contained about 200 volumes ; now we have over
6000 of great value. In 1853 we had published nothing and had no exchanges; now our
Journal and Proceedings go to every kindred Society in America and Enrope. Since the
last annual meeting there had been received from donations 915 volumes and 559 pam-
phlets and parts of volumes, including the munificent bequest of the late Dr. Greene ;
from exchanges 40 volumes and 197 parts of volumes, making with some from other sources
an addition of 970 volumes and 778 parts of volumes. Since our removal to this building
every book has been numbered, labelled, catalogued and placed upon the shelves, for a
great part of which labor the Society was under obligations to Mr. Samuel H. Scudder.

The warm thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Dillaway for his long and efficient
services, and he was requested by unanimous vote to make use of the rooms of the Society
for private instruction as heretofore.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 97

The Curators having now placed their collections in the new building were enabled
generally to report upon their magnitude and condition. It will be well to present here,
now that the Society starts upon anew era of activity, the substance of what was stated
respecting the cabinet.

The Curator of Ornithology reported the collection of birds, notwithstanding the time it
was stored in Bulfinch Street, to be in as good order as when it was taken from the old
building in Mason Street; that several large additions had been made to it since entering
the new building, principally by the Smithsonian Institution and by himself; and that the
whole number of mounted birds is now more than twenty-five hundred.

The Curator of Comparative Anatomy reported that the collection of his department
had all been removed in good condition, and that the skeletons and parts of skeletons had
been arranged in the places allotted to them; that the skins not in the hands of the taxi-
dermist, for want of money, were in the cellar exposed to injury from insects. The collec-
tion was briefly described as follows :

Mammals: skeletons, mounted 73, unmounted 25; parts of skeletons, 197; skulls, 279 ;
teeth, 95.

Birds: skeletons, 25; parts of skeletons, 56; skulls, 87.

Reptiles : skeletons, 15; parts of skeletons, 8; skulls, 21.

Fish: skeletons, 0; parts of skeletons, 57; skulls, 21.

Alcoholic specimens, 100; horns, 50; miscellaneous, 25; skins not estimated.

During the past year the large collection of mammalian skeletons which came into the
possession of the Society at the burning of the Menagerie in 1861, had been mounted in a
very correct and beautiful manner by Mr. George Sceva.

Several valuable donations had been received, the principal donors being Dr. Henry
Bryant, Mr. George Sceva, Mr. C. J. Sprague, Dr. Borland, Mr. W. H. Dall, Dr. B. Joy
Jeffries and Mr. J. M. Barnard.

The Curator of Herpetology reported that there were in the collection representatives of
500 species. During the winter and spring much work was done in arranging them and in
placing a certain number of each species in fresh bottles and clean alcohol. Some speci-
mens had become worthless and were thrown away. The reptiles of Massachusetts were
tolerably well represented, but many common species were lacking which the Curator hoped
to obtain before the next annual meeting.

The Curator of Ichthyology reported that the fishes had not been materially injured by
their storage in Bulfinch Street. He stated, however, that when they were carried there
from Mason Street the poor specimens thrown away left a deficiency in Massachusetts fishes
which he expected might be supplied during the season. This is the first indication given
of the fate of the magnificent collection of Massachusetts fishes, largely type specimens,
collected by Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, and presented by him to the Society. The want of
jars and alcohol was strongly urged to the attention of the Society.

The collection was stated to consist of 280 species, 800 specimens from North America ;
80 species, 250 specimens from the West Indies and Bermuda; 45 species, 62 specimens
from the fresh waters of South America; 8 species, 9 specimens from Africa; 14 species,
16 specimens from Europe; 115 species, 197 specimens from the Hawaiian Islands; 60
species, 236 specimens of duplicates for exchange; 25 species, 200 specimens dry, from
various localities. In all 627 species, and 1770 specimens.

98 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The Curator of Crustacea reported that the collection had been removed without serious
injury. ‘The additions during the year were a few native forms, presented by Mr. W. I.
Dall of Medford. The collection contains 122 species of alcoholic specimens, 198 species
of dry specimens.

The Curator of Oology reported that the original collections of the Society had been
increased by the local collections of Mr. Thoreau of Concord and Mr. W. H. Henck of
Dedham. The number of specimens belonging to the department was not reported.

The Curator of Conchology reported considerable donations of shells from Dr. Gould,
Dr. Gundlach of Cuba, and Mr. J. M. Barnard, together about 500 species, but made no
mention of the number in the cabinet.

The Carator of Botany reported an immense amount of work done by him in arranging
the plants of the collection in the most scientific manner, and in thoroughly protecting
them by means of poison from the attacks of insects. There were many packages still
unarranged, but which had been carefully examined. A collection of dried plants had
been commenced, and the Curator had incorporated his own private specimens with those
of the Society. The number of seed vessels and fruits he reported as 230.

The Curator of Mineralogy reported the safe removal of specimens in his department,
and their favorable arrangement for exhibition. He mentions the donation by Dr. Charles
T. Jackson of a portion of his private collection which had been for a long time stored in
the apartments of the Society.

The Curator of Microscopy reported the safe deposit of the collection of this depart-
ment, embracing the magnificent gift of Prof. Bailey, in the room allotted to it.

The Curator of Ethnology made a full report upon the collection of this department. It
embraced stone implements of the aboriginal inhabitants of New England, collected by
the late Mr. Thoreau; hat, bows, models of paddles and canoes of the Chinnook or mari-
time tribes around Puget Sound; hat, dress, models of canoes, and other articles
from Russian America; pottery from Central America or Peru; sharks’ teeth swords,
war implements of the Kingsmill Coral Islands; articles from the Hawaiian Islands, some
of them now unknown on those islands; stone adzes from the Hervey Islands; war club
from the Samoan Islands; articles from New Zealand; clubs, female dress and bark cloth
from the Feejee Islands; implements from various other localities ; Hindoo idol, African
krisses, Egyptian relics, Roman lamp, &c. |

The office of Cabinet Keeper was abolished at this time and that of Custodian created.
The duties of this officer were defined as follows:

The Custodian was to be a person of acknowledged scientific attaimments. He was to
have general charge of the building and its contents, have free access to the collections at
all times, and act in concert with the Curators, to whom he should bear the relation of
advisor and assistant. In case of absence or neglect of Curators, he was to act in their
stead and perform their duties. He was required to prepare and read at the annual meet-
ing a report of the state of the museum, compiled from the special reports of the Curators.
He was to keep a Donation Book and record the names of donors, and perform such other
duties as might be prescribed by the Council, and mutually agreed upon.

At the election of officers which followed the reports of the Curators, 8. H. Scudder was
chosen Recording Secretary, Librarian and Custodian, and A. E. Verrill Curator of Radiata
in place of Theodore Lyman who had engaged in the service of the United States.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 99

It was voted by the Council at a meeting held on May 4th that the new building should
be known as the “ Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History.”

On May 27th the Council directed that the Museum be open to the public on Wednes-
days and Saturdays, and that it also be open to the members and patrons, or to such as
have tickets, on Thursdays.

The Committee of Arrangements for the dedication of the Museum announced that
those only would be admitted to the ceremonies who presented tickets, which had been
distributed to all the members and patrons.

DEDICATION oF THE MUSEUM.

This notable event in the history of the Society took place on the afternoon of June
3d, the ceremonies being in the main hall of the Museum. At about 4 o'clock the Presi-
dent invited the Rev. Dr. Hill of Harvard University, to offer prayer.

After this service the President made some remarks appropriate to the occasion, expres-
sive of gratitude felt for the liberality of the Commonwealth and the munificence of indi-
viduals, which had resulted in placing the Society in the high position it now occupied.
He then introduced Prof. Wm. B. Rogers, who gave a brief history of the movements made
by the Society, which had resulted in its possession of the beautiful edifice to which the
audience were now welcomed. He alluded to the fact that even whilst the flames of civil
war were lighting up the country, the legislature of the State made the grant of land the
Society asked for, adding that for this gift it was as much indebted to Governor Andrew
as to any other man.

Prof. Rogers then spoke of the progress of the Society and of the means it would now
afford the student in scientific pursuits. He regarded the interest shown in the Society
during these years of war as evidence of the desire of the community for truth, ending by
gratefully referrmg to those who were struggling through conflict for peace, without which
many of the blessings we enjoy would vanish like smoke.

His Honor the Mayor, F. W. Lincoln,.Jr., next addressed the assembly, and in the
name of the citizens of Boston bade the members God speed in all their honorable efforts.

Rev. Dr. Waterston followed, giving a very interesting address upon the importance of
such an institution as that of the Boston Society of Natural History. Its objects, like those
of the Public Library and the Institute of Technology, were important for the higher educa-
tion of the community. All citizens might take an interest in it with great advantage to
themselves, for it furnishes the means of enlarging their sphere of knowledge. He thought
its success should be viewed with reverent gratitude, since all who participated in its ben-
efits would find an increased enjoyment.

Lieutenant Lutke of the Russian Navy, aide-de-camp of the Grand Duke Constantine,
who had been invited to be present, made a few remarks expressive of his high gratifica-
tion in being able to participate in the ceremonies of the dedication.

After further remarks by Professor Rogers upon the taste displayed by the architect in
the construction of the building, and the conscientious devotion constantly manifested by
him while erecting it, the audience was invited by the President to remain and examine
the collections.

100 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The account thus given of an exceedingly interesting occasion is largely der.ved from
the newspapers of the day, the records of the Society being meagre.

In June of this year the Society lost one of the most promising of its younger mem-
bers, Carleton Atwood Shurtleff. He was particularly interested in entomology, and had
recently prepared a paper upon the general plan of venation in the orders of insects, which
was presented and read by Mr. 8. H. Scudder at a meeting in September, accompanied by
some remarks upon the scientific character and attamments of the deceased. The collec-
tion of insects and plants made by Mr. Shurtleff, and his scientific papers, were sent to the
Society by the bereaved family, with the expressed wish that they should be regarded as a
bequest from him who had manifested such an interest in its welfare.

The collection consisted of a considerable number of native plants, over a hundred bot-
tles of alcoholic specimens, mostly imsects, quite a large number of dried chrysalids of
insects, and a cabinet of dried insects containing about six thousand specimens beautifully
prepared, mostly from the vicinity, but mcluding several hundred from China and Japan.

At a special meeting on the 12th of August, it was announced that the twenty thou-
sand dollars offered by Dr. Walker, towards a working fund for the Society, on condition
that other individuals should subscribe a like amount, was secured, as one hundred and
thirty-five persons had subscribed twenty thousand, seven hundred and five dollars.

The income receivable from the amount given by Dr. Walker was subjected by him to
certain conditions which are shown by the following extract from the agreement with him.

“ The said aggregate sum of money (forty thousand seven hundred and five dollars), shall
be invested and kept invested in some productive real estate, or if such cannot be con-
veniently obtained, in mortgages, bonds, stocks, or other personal property, and shall form
a permanent fund, the principal of which shall not be infringed upon under any cirecum-
stances, but if through unavoidable casualties, or otherwise, any portion of said aggregate
fund should be lost, the whole income of the remainder of said aggregate fund shall be
retained and added to said fund until said loss is fully made up; all investments and
changes of investments of said funds, are to be subject to the approval of the supervisors
hereinafter named ; all deeds, certificates and evidences relating to said aggregate fund, are
to be kept distinct from those of all other investments of said Society ; and the accounts of
the principal thereof shall be kept separate from all other accounts of the Society.

“John A. Andrew and Samuel K. Williams of said Boston, County of Suffolk, Jeffries
Wyman of Cambridge, of the County of Middlesex, Thomas T. Bouvé of the said Bosten,
and George A. Kettell of Charlestown, of said County of Middlesex, shall be the super-
visors of the funds of the trust hereby erected; and durmg their lives, the approval in
writing of the major part of them, or of the major part of the survivors of them, or of
their successors in the trust, shall be requisite to the validity of any sale or investment of
the trust property.

“ From one half of the income of the said aggregate fund representing the gift of the
said William J. Walker, there shall be annually offered two prizes for the best memoirs,
and in the English language, on subjects proposed by a committee appointed by the
Council of said Society, as follows :

“ First, for the best memoir presented, a prize of sixty dollars may be awarded. If,
however, the memoir be one of marked merit, the amount awarded may be increased to
one hundred dollars, at the discretion of the committee.

— BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 101

“ Second. for the next best memoir, a prize not exceeding fifty dollars may be awarded
at the discretion of the committee; but neither of the above prizes shall be awarded
unless the memoirs presented shall be deemed of adequate merit.

“ Third, Grand Honorary Prize. The sum of two hundred dollars shall be set aside each
year from the income of the trust fund representing the donation of the said William J.
Walker, and shall with the accumulations therefrom, form a prize fund; when said prize
fund amounts to the sum of two thousand dollars, the Council of the Society may award
and pay therefrom the sum of five hundred dollars for such scientific investigation, or dis-
covery in natural history, as they may think deserving thereof; provided such investiga-
tion or discovery shall have first been made known and published in the United States of
America, and shall have been at the time of said award, made known and published at
least one year; if in consequence of the extraordinary merit of any such investigation or
discovery, the Council of the Society shall see fit, they may award therefor the sum of
one thousand dollars.

“ After the said prizes shall have been thus awarded, the residue of said fund shall be
retained, and a certain portion of the income of the trust fund, not exceeding two hundred
dollars, shall be annually appropriated by a vote of the Council of the Society, to the for-
mation of a new prize fund of one thousand dollars, and when, and as often as said prize
fund amounts to said sum, the Council of said Society may again award a prize therefrom
in the manner above stated; provided, however, that the said prize shall not be awarded
oftener than once in five years; and also, as said prize is to be awarded for merit solely,
if no sufficiently meritorious investigation or discovery is brought to the notice of the
Council, they may withhold said prize at their discretion, until an investigation or discovy-
ery of sufficient merit shall be published and made known.

* After the above appropriations have been set aside from the annual increase of said
trust fund, given by the said William J. Walker, the residue of said income is to be applied
as follows:

“ First, to pay for procuring the necessary means for the preservation and exhibition of
the specimens belonging to the cabinet of said Society, such as the purchase of alcohol
and other antiseptics, jars, bottles, barrels, and the materials for the proper mounting,
labelling and displaying of the specimens, but not to expenses in the nature of salaries or
wages, or for labor, or instruction, or for cases or other furniture, nor for the purchase of
specimens, but may be economically applied to the necessary repairs of the building in
which the collections of the Society are preserved, and for gaslights and fuel.

“ Second, should the whole income of the fund not be required for the above named pur-
poses, the balance thereof may be reserved and used for such purposes in future years, or
added to the principal of the fund at the discretion of the Society.”

In November, the Curator of Entomology reported the collection of insects of the Society
in a dangerous condition, requiring prompt and close attention which he could not give ;
another evidence that without parties paid to constantly look after the collections, and ad- s
equate means to provide all possible protection for the specimens, it was worse than useless
to make them.

In this case a paper was circulated for subscriptions among the officers of the Society
that enough money might be realized to hire an assistant.

102 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

It will be remembered that a Section of Microscopy was founded in 1857, and that for
sometime afterwards it showed signs of activity, which were manifested less and less until
all mention of its existence ceased to be made in the records. In December of this year, in
response to an invitation from the Curator of Microscopy, sixteen gentlemen interested in
the revival of the Section, met and appointed a committee of reorganization. This com-
mittee reported a series of rules for the government of the Section a fortnight later, which
were adopted. Among them there was one providing that the meetings should take place
on the second Wednesday of every month in the room of the department.

1865. Ata meeting held on the 15th of February the Rev. Mr. Waterston addressed
the meeting upon some of the educational instrumentalities which he thought within reach
of the Society, ending with a motion:

“That a committee of three be appointed to consider the subject of courses of lectures
to the public school teachers of this vicinity with full powers to act.”

This motion was strongly seconded by Mr. John Cummings, and upon his suggestion a
vote was passed that the committee be nominated by the chair.

The Rev. Mr. Waterston, Dr. Augustus A. Gould and Dr. James C. White were made this
committee.

The action thus taken by the Society is well worthy especial notice for several reasons.

ne is that it clearly shows to whom is due the first conception of a plan to impart
instruction to the teachers of the public schools. To the Rev. Mr. Waterston unquestion-
ably belongs that honor. Another is that it indicates the early interest felt in such teach-
ing by the gentleman who seconded with much earnestness the original motion. Many
years afterwards several courses of lectures to the teachers of the public schools were
given under the auspices of the Society, the whole expenses of which were generously
borne by the gentleman alluded to, Mr. John Cummings.

Still another reason why this action merits attention is the surprising fact that there is
not to be found in the subsequent records of the Society, or of the Council, one word im-
plying that anything grew out of the proposition and motion of Mr. Waterston. It is hard
to believe that this can be said relative to one of the most commendable acts the Society
ever engaged in, and yet it is strictly true. Fortunately for the presentation of what
followed, the Report of the Superintendent of Public Schools enables the writer to do that
justice to the Society which its own records fail to do.

John D. Philbrick was then the Superintendent, and his report of September, 1865, to
the Board of School Committee, embraces the following paragraphs :

“ During the past year, an event worthy of record, and highly eratifying to the: friends
of education, may be found in the fact that one of the most important and well endowed
scientific institutions in this community, made arrangements for a series of lectures on dif
ferent branches of natural history, which were prepared expressly for the teachers of the
public schools of Boston.

“The large hall belonging to the Society of Natural History was thronged with earnest
listeners. The lectures were amply illustrated by specimens and diagrams, and at the
close of each lecture the rich and extensive cabinets of the Society were generously
thrown open for the inspection of all present. At the introductory meeting, the teachers
were addressed by His Excellency Governor Andrew, His Honor the Mayor, President
Hill of Harvard University, George B. Emerson, LL.D., and other eminent friends of
education.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 103

“The lectures which followed in successive weeks were by Professor Wyman, President of
the Society of Natural History, Professor Rogers, of the Institute of Technology, Dr. Augus-
tus A. Gould, Rev. R. C. Waterston, D.D., and Professor Gray of Harvard University. They
embraced branches of natural history of the deepest interest, and when it is remembered
that here were assembled some six hundred teachers, having daily under their care more
than twenty-seven thousand children, it may readily be believed that a fresh impulse must
have been given, which could not fail to be beneficial and widely felt. Wholly aside from
the valuable knowledge thus imparted and acquired, the memorable fact not to be over-
looked or forgotten, is this, that one of the ablest bodies of scientific men in our commu-
nity thus publicly extended the most courteous hospitalities to the teachers of the public
schools, inviting them to meet, throngh successive weeks, at the spacious hall, arranging
gratuitous lectures upon various branches of natural history, by men especially qualified
to give valuable information, and to awaken interest among the teachers for whose particu-
lar advantage they were given.”

At the close of the last lecture, the teachers unanimously passed resolutions expressive of
their recognition of the generous action of the Society, thanking the lecturers warmly, and
especially the Rev. R. C. Waterston, for the interest he had manifested in the success of the
intellectual entertainments to which they had been invited.

On the 5th day of April, 1865, the President announced the death of Dr. William J.
Walker, which event took place at Newport, R. I., on the 2d inst. He remarked upon the
great interest Dr. Walker had shown in our welfare, and offered the following resolution,
which was passed unanimously :

“ Resolved, That the Boston Society of Natural History recognize in the death of Dr.
William Johnson Walker the loss of their greatest benefactor, and in view of his munifi-
cent gifts to this Society and his beneficent aid to the cause of education and science, we
would ever hold his name in honorable and grateful remembrance.”

A motion was made at this meeting significant of the anxious feelings that pervaded the
public mind at this important crisis in our country’s experience. The rebel army under
Lee had just been forced from Richmond and was being pursued by General Grant with
all the forces at his disposal. Everybody was in hourly expectation of decisive news, and
too much excited to calmly consider ordinary matters.

Dr. Augustus A. Gould therefore moved: “ That in view of the absorbing interests of the
hour in national affairs, the Society adjourn, and hold an informal meeting for the expres-
sion of sentiment.”

This-motion was passed, and the Society as such adjourned. An informal meeting then
followed, and brief addresses were made on the subject that agitated all minds, by Drs.
Wyman, Gould and Jeffries, Prof. Chadbourne, and Messrs. Ross and Bouvé.

Of the great benefactor of the Society, concerning whom action was taken by it as
mentioned above, the following notice is presented :

Dr. WILLIAM JOHNSON WALKER.

Dr. William Johnson Walker was born March 15th, 1789, at Charlestown, Mass. His
father, Major Timothy Walker, was a prominent citizen of the town, and came originally
from Burlington, Mass., where he, as well as his wife, was born.

104 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

', Dr. Walker was the second son in a large family of children. He was educated in the
public schools of Charlestown, prepared for college at Phillips Academy, and graduated at
Harvard in the class of 1810. He studied medicine with Dr. (afterward Governor) John
Brooks at Medford, giving particular attention to the branches of physiology and anatomy.
While yet a student, he won the prize of the Boylston Medical Committee at Harvard Col-
lege for an essay on Hydrocephalus, in 1815.

Graduating the same year at the Massachusetts Medical College, he sailed for France
and entered the Paris hospitals, where he found unusual opportunities for study and prac-
tice on account of the scarcity of French students, caused by the rigid conscriptions of
Napoleon. He had the advantage of being under the instruction of many of the ablest
French surgeons of the time, and subsequently was a pupil of Sir Astley Cooper in Lon-
don, where he spent six months in the hospitals. Then, returning home, he entered upon
the practice of his profession in Charlestown, and soon established his reputation as a very
able practitioner. He was appointed physician to the Massachusetts State Prison and con-
sulting surgeon to the Massachusetts General Hospital. He practised in Charlestown about
thirty years, but finally withdrew from his profession, and moved to Boston. This course
was looked upon by his numerous patients with the greatest disappointment and sorrow, as
he had devoted himself to them with the utmost faithfulness and kindness, and was univer-
sally beloved by all whom he had occasion to care for professionally, more especially by
those who were poor and helpless.

Although probably while he practised, he had no superior in surgery, yet he was among
his contemporaries quite unpopular as a man, owing to his marked peculiarities. But with
all this, he} was very kind toward young physicians, and was much consulted by them.
He had an extensive experience as a medical instructor, and was very successful. His
well known accurate knowledge of anatomy and careful investigation into the natural
history of disease, caused him to be widely looked up to, and his pupils were numerous.

Upon removing to Boston, he interested himself in financial and business matters, espec-
ially in manufactures and railroads, and from his great shrewdness in investments, rather
than in speculations, rapidly amassed a large fortune, which he no sooner obtained than he
set himself to expend in the most enlightened and generous manner. He gave away during
his lifetime very great sums to various of the educational institutions of his native State
and at his death left still larger amounts for such noble purposes. He was a most munifi-
cent friend to the Society of Natural History. The amounts of money which he gave out-
right and willed to the Society are elsewhese summed up in detail, and it is only necessary
here to say that without his magnificent generosity, the Society would have been to-day
in far different circumstances from those in which it finds itself; owing as it does in great
measure to him the building in which is its home. It can never forget its great obliga-
tions to him, and will hold his memory in grateful remembrance.

Dr. Walker died in Newport, R. I., whither he had removed the latter part of his life,
on the 2d of April, 1865. He had married in 1817, Eliza Hurd, daughter of Joseph Hurd
of Charlestown. By her he had eight children, five of whom, with the widow, survived
hin.

On the 15th day of April a special meeting of the Council was held for the purpose of
hearing a statement from the executors of the will of the late Dr. Wiliiam J. Walker rela-

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 105

ative to the provisions of that instrument, and to take such action as might be necessary
to see that the purposes of Dr. Walker were carried into effect.

The Treasurer, Mr. Bouvé, who was also one of the executors, read a statement of some
of the provisions of the will, and gave some account of the property, by which it ap-
peared that the whole amount probably exceeded $1,250,000. Of this, $10,000 was be-
queathed to the Redwood Library, $26,500 im various sums to friends, and there were an-
nuities to be paid out of the estate amounting to $1,280 during the lives of certain indi-
viduals mentioned. To his family was left $200,000, and to the Boston Society of Natural
History, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Amherst College and Tufts College,
the remainder of his estate in equal proportions.

It was also provided that if his children, to whom the $200,000 was left, die childless,
then this amount also should be divided between the residuary legatees.

It was also stated by Mr. Bouvé that Mr. Wheeler, one of the executors, and a friend of
the heirs, had asked in their behalf that the four residuary legatees would consent to the
further payment to them of $300,000 from the estate without conditions. He gave reasons
why he thought this request had better be promptly complied with, and wished action
taken upon the proposition whether the Society, as one of the four residuary legatees,
would consent to such payment. If this were done, and the others concurred in it, each
would soon receive from $175,000 to $180,000, with a fair prospect that this would at some
time be increased to $200,000, whereas if it were not done, the whole sum might be lost
in litigation, or much lessened after years of strife, of which there was imminent danger.

Following this statement by Mr. Bouvé, a motion was made that he be authorized to
act for the Society with full powers. Upon his suggestion, however, that it would be bet-
ter to have parties selected for the purpose who were not also executors of the will, Dr.
Gould and Prof. Rogers were appointed, and authorized by an unanimous vote to make
such settlement on behalf of the Society with the executors and the heirs-at-law of the
late Dr. William J. Walker, as they should see proper.

‘The annual meeting of the Society was held on May 3d. The report of the retiring
Treasurer, Mr. Bouvé, who declined re-election, was in substance as follows:

That as Treasurer of the general account of the Society, he had on hand at the be-

ginning of the year, . . We meee ee SLO,
And that he had received since, 5. Hoa WARE agin Borowed o ite Came fund and
RAGA Or none ORM, Boo a 6 6s loa 6 & 6 a5 Hoe 9 6 6 6 able bey
$119,550.51
And that he had paid on account of new building and furniture . . $12,527.12
diguianabil pravel JPRercear bine 5 ol acwliiowece Doo on Ooidmo |B. ce ualeD 129.04
(Cenerdlmen Pp CuscaemmeMar ous aa unicigeieht Stems yen) syacyourpiete febtcre) tha) © (alc "> 3,014.38
(Caine immer Mere CM etre isu ters nck tects Gite wr os 8S Re cet wen! wy |e 838.32
GD AT yee MCC SPR Myo Yoh ty Feed cee alma Mlsy Event aha) esses 71.89
Temporary loans, . . . Spee a Ae cis tace has Che in Seah ve 62,010.00
Investments of Walker fond, Be sh bas) veh m oeiee St fal ote ise 41,105.00
IMGCTES ue MEER MMMM RIICCEe NCTM Ys Eled ane Yorv. =: gis CUES 6 ica te. 251.81
$119,947.56

ShoOwinotaapAlancerdMeRMmMyOter est sw ti ise sh 6 «oe te 3397.05

106 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

As Treasurer of the Courtis Fund he reported that it consisted of an amount due from

Way Soin, Ube ONL 65 6 6 bo Go Bo 6 o oO oO oo oF Bo ttopebeil
POOL G3, ToNKOIAMeANE) INO GE oo G6 Hon oH 6 6 nm 6 6 0 bo poo 6 6 5 BHI
As Treasurer of the Bulfinch Street Estate he reported receipts amounting to . . $1.073.00
ING CrqyeChinnss OG 5 5 5 6 0 bo 6-6 0 0 6 oO 6 6 8 oo eo oo 341.39
Soar lobar ailnnel@: 5 5 ¢ 6 656-5 5 6 560 OOo Bo OO $731.61
As Treasurer of the Walker fund, he reported receipts amounting to. . . . . . $1,226.97
ANUGC| GrqsNCliNS Che a 6 SoG 6 dO 6 56 696 5 6 6 6 6 oo oo o AMUSO
SHO anys DEE! o so o o 0 5 6 0 6 Go 6 0 0 6 0 a 5 06 a 0 ERIeYeb)

The balances in his hands belonging to the Bulfinch Estate and Walker fund amount-

COs Soa ace OReORN aes ns Poe CLL tena a Ghinom etc dr 6 44 im ea mitt otie
Balance due him on general appropriations, . . . .-. +... =... .... . 93s97.05
Actual balance in his hands of all the accounts rendered, . ..... =... =. $481.51

He presented estimates of the value of the property belonging to the Society at different times for pur-
poses of comparison; in May, 1862, the value was $85,001.49; in May, 1863, $133,497.80; in May, 1864,
$142,512.47; at the present time, $167,881.51.

These estimates included the buildings and furniture, but not the library or the cabinet.

In retiring, the Treasurer said he would not undertake to estimate the value of our prop-
erty, in the estate of our late benefactor, Dr. Wm. J. Walker. It was sufficient for him to
know that in resigning the office of Treasurer, he left to his successor the pleasing task of
showing on the next anniversary, means of usefulness beyond what the most sanguine
expectations could have looked for.

On behalf of the Building Committee, Mr. Bouvé announced that the full cost of the new
building, including commissions for architectural services, but not including the cases, had
been $94,593.80, and that the cases had cost $10,005.56, making the total amount
expended $104,397.16, a result with which the Society had reason to be gratified, consider-
ing that such a structure with the cases would have cost much more if the construction had
been delayed, by reason of the greatly enhanced prices of material and labor. With this
report presented as a final one, the committee asked the Society to accept the buildig and
discharge them from further duty, which was done with warm thanks.

By the Custodian’s report it appeared that much work had been done in the several
departments towards perfecting the arrangement of the specimens and adopting means for
the safety of such as were perishable. Not without great regret, however, did the members
learn of the extent of the injury done to the collections by the ravages of insects, and of the
absolute unfitness of the cases throughout the building for the preservation of the speci-
mens from dust and destructive vermin. Already had it become apparent that there yet
would have to be a large outlay in substituting other cases before the treasures of the
cabinet could be regarded as secure. It had not been recognized when those now in use
were constructed, that they should be made practically air tight in order to render them
suitable for what they were designed.

The Library now contained 11,191 volumes and pamphlets. The additions through the
year had been 1519, or between 11 and 12 percent. The greater part of the increase
was stated to have come from exchange with kindred institutions.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 107

The Botanical department had had during the year an accession of about 1800 New
England plants, the bequest of Mr. C. A. Shurtleff, and over 1200 German plants from
Col. Joseph Howland.

The Geological and Palaeontological department had received in exchange a series of
casts of large animals from Prof. Ward, a collection of fossils from the Andes presented by
Dr. Winslow, and a natural cast in Red Sandstone of the bones of one of the animals that
probably made impressions upon the rocks of the Connecticut river.

The most important and interesting addition to the collection during the year, was the
cast of the Megatherium presented by the late Joshua Bates of London, and which had
been mounted on a platform in the eastern part of the main hall. This was done by
Mr. Sceva with artistic skill, under the superintendence of Dr. James C. White, and it is
believed in a posture consonant with what the character and habits of the animal required.
The whole collection of the department was stated to consist of about 5250 specimens.

The Mineralogical collection was reported to have undergone a thorough revision
during the year. The specimens suitable for exhibition and arranged upon the shelves,
numbered about fifteen hundred.

The department of Comparative Anatomy and Mammals had received an accession of
eighty-four specimens in all, including seventeen skins of mammals. Skeletons of the
white whale, porpoise and dromedary had been set up, and much work done by the Cura-
tor, in making sections of skulls representing the various orders of mammalia. The
Curator again called attention to the unsafe condition of the skins in his department.

The Ethnological department had received from many donors, principally Commodore
Charles Stewart, Dr. C. F. Winslow, Mr. E. A. Brigham, Mrs. James Phillips, and the
Smithsonian Institution, articles from Japan, Siam, California, Mexico, and from local-
ities in Massachusetts, all of which had been placed in the collection.

The Ornithological department was represented to be in good condition, but the Cura-
tor complained sadly of the unsuitableness and imperfect construction of the cases.

The Odlogical collection had been increased by donations from Dr. Henry Bryant,
Dr. A. 8. Packard, Jr., John R. Willis, Esq., of Halifax, and Dr. Chas. T. Jackson, in all
numbering forty-five specimens.

The Conchological department had received a donation from Dr. Henry Bryant, of a
collection of shells from Cape St. Lucas, and from Dr. Gundlach of a series of Cuban shells
identified by him.

The Herpetological department was reported as containing about five hundred species,
half of which had been identified and arranged for exhibition, the others remained unar-
ranged for want of bottles, alcohol, Xe.

The Ichthyological department had received many additions, the donors being Prof. F.
Poey of Havana, the Lyceum of Natural History of Williams College, Dr. H. Bryant, the
late C. A. Shurtleff, Mr. S. M. Buck, Mr. W. A. Nason, Mr. W. H. Dall, Mr. E. T. Snow,
Mr. H. C. Whitten, Dr. C. F. Winslow, Dr. B. 8. Shaw, Mr. David Pulsifer, and the Curator,
F. W. Putnam.

The department of the Radiata had received donations from Dr. H. I. Bowditch, Dr.
Samuel Kneeland, John B. Willis, Esq., Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., and the Essex Institute of
Salem. The Echinoderms had been fully catalogued and arranged, with the exception of

108 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

the alcoholic specimens, which required bottles and fresh spirit before they could be put on
exhibition.

To the collection of Crustacea a large number of specimens had been added during the
year.

The collection of the Microscopical department remained about as before reported, but
few additions having been made to it.

It was sad to learn what indeed had been partially known before, that a large part of
the Entomological collection was well nigh ruined by the Anthreni, which, from want of
secure cases and continuous care, had been able to attack the specimens and accomplish
their destruction. The magnificent collection of Professor Hentz, purchased at considerable
cost many years since through private subscription, and being then altogether the finest in
country, might be said to be entirely destroyed, imasmuch as not one-fiftieth part of the
whole remained fit to serve the student for purposes of comparison and identification,
much less to place on exhibition. The same could be said of all the old collections pre-
sented to the Society by Dr. Gould, Dr. Harris and others.

How forcibly in this statement is brought to mind the truth often alluded to in these
pages, that it is worse than useless to form large collections of perishable objects unless the
means are at hand to command the accommodation and the unremitting care and watchful-
ness necessary for their preservation.

The late collection of Dr. Harris, purchased and presented to the Society by several
gentlemen after his death, and that of the late C. A. Shurtleff, which came to the Society
by bequest, were reported to be in fair condition. These were receiving proper attention,
and a large number had been put upon exhibition.

The whole number of specimens of every kind added to the cabinet during the year,
the Curator stated to be 21,155, of which half were insects, the bequest of Mr. C. A.
Shurtleff.

The very efficient Curator of Botany, Mr. Charles J. Sprague, much to the regret of
every member of the Society, resigned his office at the annual meeting, after a long ser-
vice of twelve years, during which time, he had brought order out of disorder, so far as
the herbarium of the department was concerned, and accomplished an amount of work in
identifying, arranging and poisoning the plants, of incalculable value to the Society, and
such as few persons in active business could have found time to do.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to him, and also to the retirmg
Treasurer for their services in its behalf.

At the election of officers, Edward Pickering was chosen Treasurer, in place of Thomas
T. Bouvé ; Thomas T. Bouvé Curator of Mineralogy in place of William T. Brigham ; and
Horace Mann Curator of Botany in place of Charles J. Sprague. The office of Custodian
was left vacant, Mr. Scudder declining to act longer as such. In the August following,
Dr. A. 8S. Packard, Jr., was appointed by the Council Acting Custodian.

In October of this year, Dr. Henry Bryant announced his intention of presenting to the
Society a large collection of birds recently purchased by him when in Europe, and asked
that an appropriation of $4,000 be made, for the purpose of fitting up two of the rooms in
the second story for their reception. This was voted, and a committee consisting of Dr.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 109

Bryant and Dr. J. C. White, was appointed to attend to the proper construction of the
cases.

The collection, which was purchased by Dr. Bryant of Count Lafresnaye de Falaise for
the purpose of presentation to the Society, was the largest and most valuable private.one
in Europe. It contained nearly 9,000 specimens, all finely mounted, and from 4,500 to
5,000 species. Of these, 700 to 800 were from North and South America, many heing
type specimens described by the Count himself, an able ornithologist..

October 18th, Dr. Burt G. Wilder was elected Curator of Reptiles in place of Dr. Francis
H. Brown, who had resigned at the previous meeting.

A special meeting of the Society was called to consider the subject of creating the office
of Director of the Society, whose duty it should be to administer the affairs of the Museum
and Library, with the intention of inviting Dr. Jeffries Wyman to take such office.

With great unanimity of feeling and action it was voted to invite Dr. Wyman to fill
such office, with a salary of $2,500 per annum, clerical assistance in the administration of
the Library and such scientific assistance as might be necessary. To the great regret of
all the members, Dr. Wyman, after much consideration, declined to accept the position
tendered him. The office designed for him was not therefore created.

In December, the Treasurer announced the reception by him of the first instalment of
the Walker bequest, amounting to $100,000 in various stocks, and that it had now become
the duty of the Trustees to assume the management of this property.

1866. From the report of the Acting Custodian, Dr. Packard, made at the annual
meeting in May, we learn that there were twenty stated meetings of the Society, and
eight of the Microscopical section. These had been well attended, and the communica-
tions presented were of an interesting and instructive character. Forty-four Resident
and eleven Corresponding Members had been elected.

The Society had again resumed publication, after having omitted to issue any of its Pro-
ceedings for a year, and not having continued its Journal beyond Volume VII, printed
in 1863. In resuming publication it was thought best to change the form of the Journal
from octavo to quarto, and also to change the title to “ Memoirs.” It was also decided not
to furnish the Proceedings to members free of cost, as hitherto, the state of the Treasury
not warranting it. The first part of Volume I of the Memoirs, and nearly one half of
Volume X of the Proceedings, including the records of the meetings held in 1864 and
1865, were mentioned as having been issued.

The Treasurer’s report for the year showed that there had been an excess of expendi-
ture over receipts, not including borrowed money, of $2,890.19. The amount expended,
however, included $5,030.61, the cost of fitting up rooms with cases for the Ornitho-
logical collection.

The Librarian reported an accession of 981 volumes, parts of volumes and pamphlets,
of which 767 had been received in exchange for our publications. He stated that the
Library now contained 7622 volumes, 2097 parts of volumes, and 2462 pamphlets.

The Curator of Microscopy stated that the collection was in good preservation, though
not in such order as it should be. Donations had been received from Dr. 8. A. Bemis,
Dr. C. F. Winslow, and Messrs. C. G. Bush and J. S. Melvin.

110 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The meetings of the Section had been well attended, with advantage to its members and
to the Society.

The Curator of Comparative Anatomy reported the addition to his department of 2
skeletons, 1 parts of skeletons, 20 skulls, 4 skins of mammals, 5 mammals in spirit, and
miscellaneous 3; total 44 specimens. The donors were Drs. C. T. Jackson, A. A. Gould,
A. S. Packard, Jr., H. Bryant, B. J. Jeffries, S. Kneeland, and Messrs. H. Mann, C.
Kirkpatrick, J. K. Warren, and the Boston Milling and Manufacturing Company.

The specimens belonging to the department were represented to be in good order with
the exception of the skins.

The Curator of Ornithology reported the collection in good order. He stated that the
Lafresnaye collection, before mentioned as purchased by him for the Society, arrived safely
in the autumn of the previous year, and upon being unpacked had been found in perfect
condition. He himself had personally superintended the packing while in France. The
whole number of specimens received had been found to be 8,656.

The Curator of Ichthyology reported valuable donations to the department from the
Smithsonian Institution, of 54 specimens of North American fishes ; from Dr. A. 8. Packard,
Jr., of 10 species comprising about 100 specimens Labrador fishes, and from the Curator of
about 40 species comprising 1000 specimens from Lake Erie, and about 20 specimens from
Dr. B.S. Shaw, Messrs. C. J. Sprague, W. H. Dall, J. 8. Lewis, Samuel Hubbard, R. C. Green-
leaf and Caleb Cooke. The latter presented a fine specimen of the rare Leptocephalus
gracilis Storer, one of six collected by him on Nahant beach.

To the Entomological Cabinet about 600 specimens had been added, the principal donors
being Drs. H. Bryant, S. A. Bemis, C. F. Hildreth, A. A. Gould, C. T. Jackson, 8. Kneeland,
Jr., C. F. Winslow, Messrs: A. R. Grote, Samuel Hubbard, 8. H. Scudder and Prof. J. L.
Smith.

To the collection of Crustacea 440 specimens had been added. Of these, 50 species,
comprising about 340 specimens, represented the Crustacean fauna of Labrador, and 25
species, comprising 80 specimens, that of Maine. The Worms, now united with the
Crustacea in the department, included 55 species, of which 30, comprising 115 speci-
mens, were from the coast of Labrador; and 14, comprising 65 specimens, from Maine,
had been obtained by the Curator.

The donors to the department of Crustacea and Worms, were Drs. A. 8S. Packard Jr.,
B.S. Shaw, A. A. Gould; Messrs. E. R. Mayo, Samuel Hubbard, C. Stodder, F. G. San-
born, C. C. Sheafe; and Captain E. Smith.

The Conchological department had received about 1,500 specimens, many of them of
great value, the donors being Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., Dr. Gundlach, Dr. Henry Bryant, Dr.
A. Chapin, Dr. C. T. Jackson and Mr. A. Coolidge.

The department of the Radiata had received from the Essex Institute 10 species, from
Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., 250 specimens, from N. Appleton 3 species, and from Yale College
in exchange 59 specimens, comprising 34 species.

The Curator of Mineralogy reported the whole number of specimens on exhibition to
be about 2,000. The department had received donations from Drs. C. T. Jackson,
Henry Bryant, A. S. Packard, Jr., the Agassiz Natural History Society, Prof. Jeffries
Wyman, and Messrs. G. P. Huntington and W. H. Dall.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. aati

The department of Botany had received very valuable donations of mosses and lichens
from the former Curator, C. J. Sprague, Esq., comprising about 500 species. Specimens
had also been presented by Drs. C. Pickering, C. F. Winslow, A. 8. Packard, Jr., 8. Knee-
land, Jr., and Messrs. Gunning, E. R. Mayo, H. M. McIntire, William Nelson and S. Wells,
Jr.

The Curator of Herpetology reported 69 additions to the department during the year,
the donors being Drs. A. 8. Packard, Jr., S. Kneeland, Jr., C. F. Winslow, and Messrs. §.
Hinckley, F. Andernach, D. White, and Captain Barber.

The Ethnological department had received a few donations from Dr. H. Bryant, A. E. L.
Dillaway and Horace McMurtrie.

To the Odlogical department there had been no additions.

In June, the sad intelligence of the death of Prof. Henry D. Rogers of Glasgow was
received.

Henry Darwin Rogers was born at Philadelphia, in 1809. He early became interested in
scientific pursuits, and while still quite young engaged as State Geologist of Pennsylvania
in an extended and very thorough survey of that State. His great work on the geology of
Pennsylvania, subsequently published, placed him at once in the front rank of American
geologists, and his later Report on the Geology of New Jersey was a valuable contribution
to science.

His eminent attainments led to his being invited, in 1857, to take the chair of Regius
Professor of Geology and Natural History in the University of Glascow, Scotland. He
accepted this position, which he filled to the time of his death, which took place on his
return from a visit to his native land, at his residence, Shawlands, near Glasgow, May 29th,
1866, in the fifty-eighth year of his age. He was a brother of Professor William B. Rog-
ers, and for several years was a resident member of the Society; while so, manifesting
much interest in its welfare. Valuable communications were frequently made by him,
reports of which may be found in the Proceedings.

In September a special meeting of the Society was called upon the occasion of the death
of one of its founders and most eminent members, Dr. Augustus A. Gould. This event
was announced by the President, and a committee, consisting of the President, Thomas T.
Bouvé and 8. H. Scudder, was appointed to report a suitable address upon the occasion.
A vote was unanimously passed that the Society attend the funeral, and four mem-
bers were appointed to act as pall-bearers in connection with those appointed by the Suf-
folk District Medical Society. The four were the President, Dr. C. T. Jackson, Mr. George
B. Emerson, and Mr. C.K. Dillaway. The services were at the Rowe Street Baptist Church,
of which he was a member, and were attended by a large concourse of friends.

At the regular meeting on Sept. 19th, on behalf of the committee appointed at the special
meeting the President read the following notice :

“Dr. Augustus Addison Gould, for many years one of the Vice-Presidents of this Society,
died at his home on the morning of the 15th day of September. By this sad and sudden
event, the Society loses one of its most honored and respected associates, and science a
disinterested and truthful worker. From the beginning of our existence to the day on
which he died, his hand was never weary in our service. Through many years we have
leaned on him for his wise counsel ; his thought and labor more than any other have helped

112 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE>
us in our progress, and it is to his name and fame at home and abroad, that we are very
largely indebted for what we most prize in our own. It is not we alone that suffer from his
death. His interests were broad and catholic and embraced whatever was good and excel-
lent, and his helping hand was not withdrawn whenever sought, whether in behalf of the
interests of science, education or humanity. The loss to these will be truly great. For all
his disinterestedness he was not without his reward. The profession of which he was so dis-
tinguished an ornament gladly bestowed upon him its highest gifts, and the community of
which he was so worthy a member gave love and honor for his many graces of character
and for his work in life so full of christian excellence. With head and hand still busy and
with a heart still earnest in his chosen work and still warm in all his relations to friends
and kindred, it was God’s will that he should pass away. The Society would express its
gratitude for the example of his life, and offers its deepest sympathy to those to whose
hearts his death brings so much sorrow.”

Dr. Wyman then stated that a more full notice of the scientific labors of Dr. Gould
would be presented by the committee at a later meeting.

Dr. C. T. Jackson followed with remarks upon Dr. Gould’s character and work, passing
in review the various stages of his scientific career; and Mr. C. K. Dillaway read an
interesting autobiography of him which had been written in 1850, and which he had in his
possession as secretary of his college class.

It was then voted that a copy of the notice of the committee be furnished to the press,
and that out of respect to the memory of our lamented friend and associate the Society
adjourn without the transaction of business or the hearing of scientific papers.

A considerable portion of the obituary notice of Dr. Gould, prepared by Dr. Wyman in
behalf of the committee and published in the Proceedings of the Society, Volume IX,
page 188, is here given:

Augustus Addison Gould was born in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 23d of April,
1805. His early life was passed there, and as soon as he was old and strong enough to
labor, the larger part of the year was given to his father’s farm, and the rest to the common
school. At the age of fifteen he took the whole charge of the farm; nevertheless a part
of the year was devoted to study, and some progress was made in the classics. By the
careful husbanding of the odds and ends of time and a year’s teaching at an academy, he
was prepared to enter college, and entered at Cambridge in 1821. With his college life
came a struggle, the forerunner of many such by which his strength was to be tried. He
had already come to know something of the barrier which limited means had put between
himself and the things he aspired to, and now this assumed larger proportions, such as to
most persons would have been disheartening. College duties and exercises demanded his
time, nevertheless his education must be paid for, and he must do largely towards earning
the means;: and so by strict economy, by performing various duties for which indigent
students received compensation, and also by hard work in vacations and on those days
which others gave to relaxation, he says he at length fought his way through, and attained
to respectable rank.

In college he was noted among his classmates for industry, and it was there, too, that his
taste for natural history began to show itself. He became familiar with the most of our
native plants and to the end of life never lost his love for them. After leaving college, he

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BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 113

held the office of private tutor in Maryland, and at the same time began the study of
medicine. The rest of his pupilage was passed in Boston, and the last year of it at the
Massachusetts General Hospital as house student. He was graduated in medicine in 1830,
and at once began the practice of his profession, having given good grounds to his friends
for expecting future eminence. But his struggles with poverty were not yet ended. Until
his profession could yield him a support, he was obliged to go out of it, to earn the neces-
saries of life. To this end he undertook burdensome tasks; one of them, the cataloguing
and classification of the fifty thousand pamphlets in the library of the Boston Athenzeum,
was Herculean, as any one may see who will take the trouble to look over the four large
folio volumes he wrote out, monuments of his patient industry and handiwork, and for
which he got only a pitiful return.

The study of natural history was nearer to his heart than all other pursuits, and to that
he could always turn, and did, whenever he could command a few spare hours or moments
to do so. Asa matter of course, he became a member of this Society. This was soon
after its organization, and to the time he died he labored for us without stint. When his
studies began to assume a methodical shape, his first investigations were in the class of
insects, of which, at one time, he had a large collection. Among his first published works
was a monograph on the Cicindelae of Massachusetts, printed in 1834, and in 1840 he pub-
lished an account of the American species of shells belonging to the genus Pupa, in regard
to which he found much confusion. These shells are very small, and Mr. Say, who named
all the species previously described, gave no figures, and consequently naturalists fell into
error. “Ihave received from our best conchologists,’’ Dr. Gould says, “a single species
under four of the names that Mr. Say applied to as many different species.” Dr. Gould
then points out how, by the use of the microscope, and a careful study of their minuter
details, the classification of them might be improved. The paper was illustrated by about
thirty figures carefully drawn by himself, with the aid of the microscope.

In 1841, he read before this Society a paper entitled “ Results of an examination of the
species of shells of Massachusetts, and of their geographical distribution.” This is the
more noteworthy since the geographical distribution of animals had at that time attracted
but little attention, and none amongst us. Now it involves one of the most important
zodlogical problems.

Dr. Gould also points out in this paper the influence of shore outlines, and shows from a
comparison of species, that Cape Cod, which stretches out ito the sea in a curved direc-
tion some forty or fifty miles, forms to some species an impassable barrier. Of two
hundred and three species, eighty do not pass to the south, and thirty have not been found
to the north. In the same paper he calls attention to the importance of the fact that cer-
tain species appear and disappear suddenly, and of the necessity, in order to construct a
correct catalogue of the shells of any region, to extend observations through a series ot
years, a consideration by which many naturalists, even of the present day, might profit.

One of the first results of the joint action of the members of this Society, and of which it
has more reason to be proud than any other, was the part taken by some of them in the
series of admirable reports on the natural history of the State, presented to the General
Court in compliance with a legislative enactment. The report on the Invertebrate Animals,
excepting insects, was by Dr. Gould.

114 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The Molluses were Dr. Gould’s favorite subject for study, and his attention was chiefly
given to them. Up to this time, few if any attempts had been made to give as complete a
zovlogical survey as practicable of any particular region of the United States. As regards
the Molluses, the descriptions of Say, Conrad and others, pioneers in conchology, pertained
more to the Middle and Western States, than to New England. Their writings were frag-
mentary and scattered through the narratives of travels, journals of science, and even news-
papers. It was no small labor, therefore, to become acquainted, merely as a preparation
for his task, with the writings of his predecessors. To make his report as complete as
possible, and to ascertain what changes in the classification of Molluscs recent important
progress growing out of the study of them would indicate, he opened correspondence for
information and exchanges with European naturalists imterested in the same branch of
study, who obligingly and courteously lent their aid, and out of this correspondence grew
up long continued friendships.

The report fills a volume of nearly four hundred pages, illustrated by more than two
hundred figures skillfully drawn from nature by himself. ‘“ Every species described,” he says,
“indeed almost every species mentioned, has passed under my own eye. ‘The descriptions
of species previously known, have been written anew, partly that they be more minute in
particulars, and partly with the hope of using language somewhat less technical than is
ordinarily employed by scientific men.” The number of species described was about two
hundred and seventy-five of Molluscs and nearly one hundred of Crustaceans and Radiates.

As a contribution to zoélogical science, this report gave him an honorable name and an
eminent position among the naturalists of Europe and America,

Dr. Gould edited the admirable work entitled “The Terrestrial Air-breathing Molluses
of the United States,” prepared, but left unfinished at the time of his death, by his intimate
friend, Dr. Amos Binney, formerly the respected president of this Society, and whose name
we hold in grateful remembrance, not only for his contributions to science, but for the
munificent bequest which fills so large a space on the shelves of our library.

In 1848 he was associated with Prof. Agassiz in the preparation of the Principles of
Zoology.

His largest and most important contribution to natural history was the description of the
shells of the United States Exploring Expedition. This was prepared under circumstances
somewhat embarassing. The collection was not made by himself, but by the late Capt.
Joseph P. Couthouy, well remembered as one of the most zealous and active members of this
Society. Capt. Couthouy had drawn up full notes on the external characters of the soft
parts, habits, geographical description, and other important points. Before the voyage
was completed he left the expedition, but the notes and collections were sent to Washing-
ton. The former were unaccountably lost, and no trace of them was found. The collec-
tions, when they came into the hands of the Navy Department, were repacked by incom-—
petent hands, the arrangement of them disturbed, labels in many cases lost, and the whole
thrown more or less into confusion. Dr. Gould was called upon to save this wreck, but in
accepting the task was obliged to submit to various arbitrary restrictions, and to leave
undone many things he deemed of much importance.

The Otia Conchologica was the last of his primted volumes, but this was merely a
reprint in a condensed form of the descriptions of species of shells previously published

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 115

separately in different works. Besides the works already mentioned, there is a long cata-
logue of communications made to the Boston Society of Natural History,which may be
referred to as showing that he did not allow himself to become a mere specialist, but kept
his mind awake to the relation of individual forms to higher and more general truths.

We must not forget that Dr. Gould was a member of the medical profession, and that
his time was of necessity chiefly devoted to this, while the scientific labors we have been
considering were the yield of spare moments made useful. He was an active member of
the medical societies of this city and of the State, and held offices of trust in them. The
Massachusetts Medical Society conferred on him the honors which it has to bestow upon
its fellows. In 1855 he delivered the annual address, which was marked for the soundness
of its views and the characteristic clearness and elegance with which they were presented
He took for his text the advice of: Harvey to the Royal College of Physicians of London
when he founded the annual oration which bears his name, and in which, among other
things, he enjoins upon the orator “an exhortation to the members to study and search
out the secrets of nature by the way of experiment.’ Dr. Gould was elected president
of the Medical Society, and his term of office ended within a few months of his death. He
was for several years one of the physicians of the Massachusetts General Hospital, was an
efficient member of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement, where he often com-
municated valuable observations, and took an active part in its discussions. He labored
much and long in preparing the vital statistics of the State from the official returns.

At one of the meetings of the National Academy of Sciences, of which he was amem-
ber, he presented an important paper on the distribution of certain diseases, especially
consumption, in reference to the hygienic choice of a location for the cure of invalid
soldiers.

As a citizen, Dr. Gould made a principle of going out of the ordinary routine of life to
lend a helping hand wherever it was desired, and he could. He served the public in many
capacities ; in the religious society of which he was from early life a member, and in the
public schools, where he took an active interest in all attempts to improve the ways and
means of instruction. He from time to time gave public lectures, and although in this
capacity he could not be said to be brilliant or highly accomplished, yet his unostentatious
manner and simplicity, his knowledge of his subject and hearty interest in it, always
gained him attentive listeners, who went away instructed.

In his temperament he was genial, and drew friends around him, retaining the old and
attracting the new. He came to the social gathering with joyous face and kindly feelings.
His love for natural scenery was genuine and hearty, and whatever personal enjoyment
came from this source, it was always enhanced if others partook of it with him. There
are too many naturalists who stand in the presence of nature all their days, but see her
not. ‘To them the world offers nothing but the forms they would technically describe and
arrange in their cabinets. Take away this object and all becomes a waste, for they are
neither warmed nor enlivened by the world around them. Not so with our associate; no
one toiled more industriously than he over individual forms and specific descriptions ; but
all this aside, every aspect of nature touched him to the innermost. Those who have
been intimate with him know how his face would light up while in the presence of the
least as well as of the greatest natural objects! the flower of a day, or the sturdy tree

116 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

that had known its centuries of life, the quiet or the grander scenes of the world. His
emotions were not those of an enthusiast, but rather came of a clear perception and calm
contemplation of the things around him, and of his own responsive nature.

His life, all too poorly and inadequately represented in this sketch, was throughout a
consistent one, and to the end each day was full to the round. He was still endeavoring
to improve what had been done before, and looking forward to the accomplishment of new
and better ends, when suddenly it was closed. He had been less well than usual; on the
afternoon of September 14th, 1866, he manifested the usual symptoms of an attack of
Asiatic cholera, soon after fell into a state of collapse, and on the following morning just
before the dawn, he died.

The office of Custodian, it will be remembered, was created in May 1864, and Mr. Sam-
uel H. Scudder was elected to fill it. He held it one year only, when it became vacant
and remained so until October 3d of this year, Dr. Packard performing its duties tempora-
rily by appointment of the Council. The great importance of having the constant
services of some able person who would at the same time perform the special duties
appertaining to this office and also act as Librarian and Recording Secretary, led the Com-
mittee on nominations to propose Mr. Scudder again to the Society for Custodian, and he
was elected. An arrangement was then made by the Council with him, by which it
was agreed that he should give his undivided attention to the wants of the Society through-
out the year, excepting such time as might be allowed him for a vacation of from one to
two months, and that he should perform all duties of Custodian, Librarian and Recording
Secretary. The Society to provide permanent assistance in the Library department as
heretofore, and also in the special manipulation of specimens which require immediate care
for their preservation.

Before the death of our lamented associate, Dr. Gould, there had been some negotiation
with him for the purchase of his cabinet of shells, as he had expressed a willingness to
part with it to the Society ata price much less than he would be willing to accept from
any other party, as he desired it should finally have a place in the Museum. The only
reason why the purchase had not been consummated was that Dr. Gould first wished to put
it in good order, and to properly label all the specimens. This work he did not find leisure
to do, and consequently much time of an able conchologist would be required to perform
it. It wasdeemed therefore inexpedient to compete with others who offered more than
the Society could afford to pay. This was more to be regretted because of its having been
the collection of one so much revered by the members, and because it contamed many type
specimens of species described by him. A large number of the species were, however,
already in our cabinet.

In November, the Society, upon motion of Dr. J. C. White, passed resolutions expressing
appreciation of the value of the gift of Mr. Peabody to Harvard University for the founda-
tion of a Museum and Professorship of American Archaeology and Ethnology, and
great pleasure in the recognition on his part of the relation of this Society to that impor-
tant department of Science in the selection of its President for one of the Trustees of the
munificent endowment made by him.

By the terms of this donation, the President of the Society is, ex-officio, one of the
Trustees.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Late

At the meeting of Nov. 2d, Mr. Thos. T. Bouvé was elected Vice-President of the Soci-
ety, to fill the vacancy made by the death of Dr. Gould.

A Section of Entomology was formed at the meeting of Nov. 28th. Members of the Soci-
ety only to be members of the section, the President of the Society to be ex-officio President
of the section, and the Recording Secretary of the Society Recording Secretary of the
section. The meetings to be held on the evening of the 4th Wednesday of each month.

1867. In January of this year, Palaentology, which had been combined with Geology,
was raised to a separate department, and Thomas T. Bouvé was made its Curator. Wm.
T. Brigham was chosen Curator of Geology.

Early in this year the Society was the recipient of a munificent bequest from Miss Sarah
P. Pratt. This lady had long been interested in the study of conchology, and had made a
large collection of shells obtained from every quarter of the globe, many of them being of
rare species. The whole cabinet, consisting of more than 4000 specimens, was bequeathed
to the Society, together with her library and works on conchology, and the sum of $10,000
to be held as a fund for the increase and maintenance of the department devoted to that
science. -

As with individuals, so with institutions, events often succeed each other of the most
diverse character, those of a joyful following such as are painful, and the reverse. Nota
week had elapsed after the announcement of the bequest above-mentioned, when news was
received of the death of one of the great benefactors of the Society, Dr. Henry Bryant.
At a meeting held on the 20th of February, after some remarks by Mr. Bouvé expressive
of the feeling that pervaded and saddened all hearts, a committee consisting of Drs. S. L.

Abbot and J. C. White, and J. E. Cabot, Esq., was appointed to prepare a notice of the
professional and scientific life of the deceased.

Tn behalf of this committee, Dr. 8. L. Abbot subsequently read before the Society a very
full and discriminating notice of Dr. Bryant, which appeared in Vol. XI of the published
Proceedings, and from which the following brief abstract is given.

Dr. Henry Bryant was born in Boston, May 12, 1820. He entered Harvard University
in 1856, graduated in 1840, then studied medicine in the Tremont Medical School, from
which he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1843. He afterwards studied in
Paris and subsequently joined the French army in Africa as a volunteer surgeon, in which
capacity he served during the winter campagn of 1846. He returned home in 1847 and
commenced the practice of his profession. His ,health failme him he was obliged to give
up practice, and he ever after devoted himself to the study of Ornithology, which had always
been a favorite pursuit with him. The precarious state of his health compelled him to
take a great deal of outdoor exercise, and his active, energetic temperament led him often to
the most distant parts of the country for the purpose of collecting specimens of Orni-
thology. He had a singular power of endurance, and invalid as he was, a most. stoical
indifference to considerations of personal comfort on these expeditions, which sometimes
lasted for months, many of them being out of the country among the West India Isl

On the outbreak of the civil war, he offered himself as a candidate for the position of
assistant surgeon in the regular army, and after a very severe examination was accepted,
but subsequently was appointed surgeon of the 20th regiment Massachusetts Volunteers

being promoted to be brigade surgeon, in September, 1861. He was afterwards Med.

ands.

118 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

ical Director in the army of General Shields, in the Shenandoah Valley. While engaged
in this service he was severely hurt by his horse falling upon him, and confined to his bed
for a portion of the many months during which he suffered from his mjuries. Yet,
although it was even thought for a while that he might have to undergo amputation of his
foot, he continued on duty all the time, and in the midst of his sufferings organized the
military hospitals at Winchester. In August, 1862, he took charge of the Cliffburn hos-
pital near Washington, and in December, 1862, was ordered to assume the care and oper-
ation of the Lincoln hospital, in Washington, which under his thorough and most excellent
administration, was regarded as a model hospital. But close confinement and excessive
mental labor broke down his health and strength, and he was eventually compelled in
May, 1863, to resign his commission. His faithful service in his country’s cause very
nearly cost him his life, so utterly exhausted had he become by unremitting work.

After the close of the war he went to Europe twice, and in December, 1866, visited
Porto Rico. For some weeks he travelled about the island, suffering extremely from ill
health all the time, but working at his favorite pursuits unintermittingly, until the Ist of
February, when he was taken with what proved to be his last violent attack of illness,
while on an expedition in the country, and died the next day.

Dr. Bryant was no common man. He was peculiar in certain ways, but much of this
peculiarity arose undoubtedly from his ill health and bodily suffermg. His thorough-
ness, intellectual, honesty, and faithfulness to duty were marked characteristics through
his whole career. He was as true as steel, through and through genuine, and with far
more kindliness and wider sympathy than he ever liked to show. Dr. Bryant was elected
a member of this Society in November, 1841. He served as Cabinet-keeper for a part of
1843, and took charge in 1855 of the Entomological collection for a time. From 1854 to
the time of his death, he was Curator of Ornithology.

He was a most munificent friend to the Museum of the Society, his donations embracing
reptiles, fishes, crustaceous insects, minerals and birds. His most valuable gift was the
magnificent Lafresnaye collection of birds, which amounted to nearly nine thousand fine
specimens. Extensive pecuniary aid was also received from him whenever the purchase
of collections was desirable for the museum.

Dr. Bryant married in 1848, Miss Elizabeth B. Sohier, daughter of W. D. Sohier, Esq.,
of Boston.

In March of this year Professor Baird, of the Smithsonian Institution, expressed a strong
desire that the Society should codperate with that imstitution in extending the system of
explorations undertaken by it, in return for which the Society should receive the first
choice among the duplicates of objects cf natural history. He desired a yearly appropria-
tion of $500. ;

There was a unanimous wish on the part of the Council to act favorably upon the propo-
sition which resulted in a vote: “That the sum of $500 be placed at the disposal of the
Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the purpose mentioned, and that the
Secretary intimate the desire of the Council to assist further at a future time.”

April. The necessity of refraining from any account of the scientific papers brought
before the Society or of the discussions that took place at the meetings, in order to con-
fine this sketch within reasonable limits, has often prevented even a reference to much of

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 119

public interest. There was one subject, however, brought before the meeting of April
17th of this year, which is here mentioned, because there is yet quite as much diversity of
opinion upon it as at that time, and some readers may be interested to learn where to look
for the views of two distinguished members of the Society whose investigations led them
to diametrically opposite conclusions. This subject was practically what was likely to be
the result of the introduction here of the common house-sparrow of Europe. Dr. Charles
Pickering ably presented his ideas on the question, maintaining that nothing but evil would
follow their increase ; that its habits were of the most destructive character and that it had
been the enemy of mankind for five thousand years. Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, on the
other hand, at a subsequent meeting, defended the bird from the charges preferred against
it, claimed that it had already accomplished much good in the destruction of insects, and
cited the authority of many authors in proof of its great usefulness. The papers pre-
sented were meagrely reported, but may be found in the eleventh volume of the Pro-
ceedings.

The establishment of the Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology at Cam-
bridge through the munificence of George Peabody, Esq., gave rise to the question whether
it was worth while for the Society to continue its department of Ethnology. After much
consideration it was judged best to abolish it, and this was accordingly done by a vote of
the Council. The collection Was afterwards presented to the Peabody Museum of American
Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge.

Some of the rooms of the Museum which had remained unfinished were at this time
prepared for use by laying the floors and building cases. The lecture room was also
finished.

Just before the annual meeting the Society was the recipient of a bequest from a former
patron, Mr. Paschal P. Pope, of $20,000. This large sum was most gratefully received.
Mr. Pope had been a successful merchant and had accumulated a large fortune, the greater
portion of which he bequeathed to various public institutions. He had the reputation of
being a highly honorable man, and died at an advanced age, much respected by all who
knew him.

At the annual meeting, May Ist, the Custodian reported that there were now held every
week meetings of the general Society, or of the sections of Entomology and Microscopy.
There had been thirty-five meetings of the Society; forty-four communications on various
branches of natural history had been read; forty-one Resident, seven Corresponding, and
four Honorary Members elected. The first number of the Memoirs in quarto had been
issued, and the first quarter of Volume XI of the Proceedings completed. The museum
had been open one hundred and one days, with an average of three hundred and twelve
visitors per diem.

The Library had increased in size, mainly through the efforts made to effect exchanges
for our publications by the Librarian when in Europe. It will perhaps surprise readers to
learn that an amount equivalent to 400,000 octavo pages of the publications of the Society
had been sent away during the year.

The donations to the cabinet had been less numerous than usual. Including the bequest
of Miss Pratt, there’ had been added 20,202 specimens. Among these and worthy of
mention, was a valuable collection of volcanic specimens from the Hawaiian Islands, pre

sented by Mr. Wm. T. Brigham.

120 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The Treasurer’s report showed receipts from all sources, of $13,281.23, and expenditures
of $11,022.93.

There had been no essays offered in competition for the annual Walker prize.

The changes in the officers at the election were in Alpheus Hyatt beg chosen Curator
of Palaeontology in place of Thomas T. Bouvé; J. Eliot Cabot, Curator of Ornithology,
in place of Dr. Henry Bryant, deceased ; and Edward 8. Morse, Curator of Conchology, in
place of Alpheus Hyatt.

At a meeting in June of this year, the death of Thomas Bulfinch, long a member of the
Society, and for six years its Recording Secretary, was announced by the Rey. R. C. Water-
ston, with appropriate remarks upon his life and character.

Mr. Bulfinch was deservedly held in great esteem by all the members of the Society.
His faithful devotion to his duty, his genial manner, his loving and sympathetic nature,
all conspired to endear him to them and to make his loss deeply felt, particularly to those
with whom he was associated in the work of the Society in earlier years.

On motion of Dr. C. T. Jackson, Mr. Waterston was requested to prepare a fitting trib-
ute to the memory of the departed for the Proceedings, which he did by an exceedingly
interesting sketch of his life and character, and which may be found in Volume XI.
The following is a brief abstract from this paper.

Thomas Bulfinch was born July 14th, 1796, at Newton, Mass. He was the second son
of Charles Bulfinch, whose reputation as an architect at that day stood among the highest
in the profession. Graduating from Harvard University in 1814, he numbered among his
classmates Prescott the historian, the Rev. Dr. Greenwood and the Rey. Dr. Lamson.
After leaving college, Mr. Bulfinch was chosen usher in the Latin School. Here he
remained fourteen months, when feeling no very strong inclination for either of the profes-
sions, he entered upon the active duties of a business life. Two years were thus spent in
Boston, when he was led to remove to Washington, where his father was engaged as archi-
tect in the erection of the Capitol. Here he resided seven years, when in 1825 he returned
to Boston, entering into a copartnership with his relative, Mr. Joseph Coolidge. This con-
nection continued until 1832, when he was chosen to a responsible position in the Mer-
chant’s Bank, which he held until his death, a period of thirty years.

Devoted as he was to the duties devolving upon him as a man of business, he had tastes
aside from this, yet more congenial to his nature, which he followed with quiet but persis-
tent enthusiasm. Thus it was that he became an active member of the Society and its
Recording Secretary.

His mind balanced for a time between science and literature. There was that in both
which awakened his admiration and exerted an attractive power. At length, literature
gained the ascendancy, though science always continued to possess a peculiar charm.

In 1855 he published the Age of Fable, in which he relates the stories of Mythology,
Greek and Roman, in a way to render them attractive to the lovers of general literature.
This was followed in 1858, by a volume on the Age of Chivalry, or the Legends of King
Arthur, presenting in the same spirit pictures of a later age. In 1863 he published the
Legends of Charlemagne, or the Romance of the Middle Ages.

There were other works of less importance, all of which were the fruit of care, written
in hours rescued from the pressure of active business.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. it

Mr. Bulfinch devoted much time to social intercourse among a circle of friends who
highly appreciated his worth. Modest he was, but not morose, for a more genial and gen-
erous nature could not be found. Keenly sensitive to the gentle sympathies of life, he
truly lived in his affections, and never was he weary of extending kindness, not only to
companions and friends who valued his friendship, but to the needy and tried, young or
old, whoever they might be.

Much more might be said of Mr. Bulfinch, but it is not needed. His excellences were
familiar to all. His quiet and respectful manner, his gentlemanly consideration, his
conscientious fidelity, his love of learning, his Christian trust and faith; these were an
indispensable part of himself.

Members of the Society and other visitors to the Library will recall with pleasure, not
unmixed with sadness, a very agreeable young lady of great excellence who at this period
and for several years was an assistant in the Library. Her beauty of person, her vivacity,
her pleasing address and manners, combined with her intelligence and readiness to meet all
the requirements of her position, made her a general favorite. She was the daughter of
the Rev. Mr. Blaikie, a Presbyterian clergyman of the city. She left the service of the
Society because of her marriage, and soon after died, to the great grief of all who had been
associated with her.

It was quite apparent before the close of this year that further assistance than what had
hitherto been employed was required in the Museum, if the collections were to be pre-
served from ruin. It was therefore voted in Council to employ Mr. F. G. Sanborn as
assistant in the Museum from the Ist of January, to act under the direction of the Cus-
todian.

Two courses of lectures were authorized by the Society for the winter of 1867-8.
One given by Edward $. Morse, consisting of six on the natural history of the mollusca,
or shell fish, on Saturday afternoons, commenced Dec. 7th, and continued weekly. The
other by Horace Mann, consisting of eight, on structural botany, commenced March 7th.
The lecturers were paid $25 for each lecture, and an admission fee of $1 for the course
was charged those who attended. The cost of giving these lectures exceeded the amount
received from the sale of tickets, $114.37.

1868. From the Report of the Custodian, made at the annual meeting in May, we
learn how much had been done durmg the year towards preparing unfinished portions of
the building for use. Besides the lecture room, in which for the first time the annual
meeting was held, the rear library room had been furnished for use and was now occupied,
two exhibition rooms fitted up, and new cases built for several of the departments. A
printing office had been prepared in the basement, and the Janitor’s apartments remod-
elled.

There had been twenty general meetings of the Society, seven of the Section of Micro-
scopy, and nine of that of Entomology. The average attendance at the general meet-
ings was about forty, and at each of the sections about nine.

There had been eighty-six communications made, of which fifty-six were at the general
meetings of the Society, the others bemg at meetings of the Sections. One Honorary,
two Corresponding, and forty Resident Members had been elected.

122 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

There had been issued of the publications of the Society, the second and third parts of
the Memoirs, and the fourth and concluding part of the first volume was in press. The
eleventh volume of the Proceedings had been completed, and a new edition of six signa-
tures of the eighth volume printed.

Great additions to the Museum had been made during ‘the year, the most important
being a very fine series of humming birds, embracing over 700 specimens, com-
prising about 500 species, from Mrs. Henry Bryant; a large collection of eggs, number-
ing 1500 specimens, comprising more than 550 species, from the same lady; a collection
of more than 2000 Guatemalan birds purchased; a large donation of several thousand
rock and fossil specimens from Dr. C. T. Jackson; and a collection of skulls from Arizona,
given by Dr. J. W. Merriam.

The collections of the several departments were reported generally to be in good con-
dition, though that of Entomology had suffered some injury from the ravages of Anthreni.
These pests, had however, been entirely eradicated, and it was hoped that by constant vigi-
lance they would be prevented from doing farther harm. Some remarks made by the
Custodian before closing his report, are worthy of notice. He said, in referring to the
erowth of the Society: “The small collections received at first had a certain charm of
novelty which attracted the lovers of nature, and were undoubtedly a principal means of
sustaining the interest of its members; but the times have greatly changed ; for while the
number of members who give their personal attention to the care of the collections is
scarcely greater than in former years, the collections have increased an hundred fold, and
the ratio of increase does not seem to lessen. Now it is manifestly impossible for such a
state of things to continue, if the Museum is to maintain an appearance creditable to the
name and honor of the Society. On this account several years ago a regular Custodian
was appointed ; for the same reason the Council found it necessary, within a few months, to
engage the services of a regular assistant, whose labors have been already felt in every
department. On similar grounds, I believe that im a short time, the services of many
assistants will be indispensable; indeed I am convinced that at least one or two more are
needed at the present moment, and that from this time forward the greater part of the
work of the Museum should be done by regular salaried assistants, under the direction of
the officers.”

The report of the Treasurer showed, including all sources of income available for gen-
eral purposes, an excess of expenditures over receipts of $208.05.

Dr. J. C. White, notwithstanding urgent solicitation that he would continue to hold the
position in which he had faithfully served the Society, positively declmed reélection. He
had been Curator of the department of Mammals and Comparative Anatomy for nearly
ten years, devoting a considerable portion of his time to laborious work upon the collec-
tion, not a small part of which his wise and skilful management saved from destruction.
He was, moreover, very efficient in obtaiming specimens for the department, thus contrib-
uting to its large increase.

At the election, all the officers were re-chosen excepting Dr. White. No one was sub-
stituted in his place.

It may be remembered by the reader that in 1857 permission had been given to mem-
bers to bring with them to the meetings ladies of their families and such others as they

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 123
might choose to invite, and that the temporary effect of this at least had been beneficial,
leading to a better attendance on the part of the members themselves. As stated subse-
quently, there is no record of the permission having been withdrawn, but as ladies ceased
to attend, it is fair to presume they did so from lack of interest in the proceedings. Twenty
years had elapsed, and again an effort was made to have their attendance. The Council at
a meeting in June of this year voted: “That members have permission to invite ladies to
attend the second meeting of each month.”

Previous to the summer recess the Lecture Committee of the Council reported in favor
of having three courses of lectures during the next succeeding winter, one course of four
by Dr. Jeffries on the anatomy of the eye, one by Mr. W. H. Niles, of ten or twelve on the
Geological History of North America, and one by Mr. Wm. T. Brigham on some botanical
subject. The report was accepted and adopted.

In October Dr. Burt G. Wilder resigned his position as Curator of Herpetology, being
about to remove from the State.

November 18th, Dr. Chas. F. Folsom was elected Curator of Comparative Anatomy, and
J. A. Allen Curator of Herpetology.

In November the death of Mr. Octavius Pickering, long a member of the Society and one
of the founders of the Linnaean, was announced with appropriate remarks by the President.

At the next meeting, the Society was called upon to deplore the loss of another member
by the death of Mr. Horace Mann, the youngest officer in its service, Curator of Botany.
The remarks upon the occasion by Mr. Wm. T. Brigham, his intimate friend, were very
appropriate and the following particulars are abstracted from them.

In his earliest youth Mr. Mann imbibed a love of nature from the teachings of his father,
and in opposition to the advice of many of his friends who wished him to have a collegiate
education, entered the school of Prof. Agassiz as a student of zodlogy and geology. He
was at the same time deeply interested in botany, and it was from this taste that his friend-
ship with the speaker commenced. In company they visited the Hawaiian Islands and
studied the peculiar flora of that group. Soon after his return -to Cambridge, Mr. Mann
was appointed assistant to Dr. Gray, and subsequently instructor in botany in Harvard
College. Besides the work of arranging the Thayer Herbarium, and of aiding Dr. Gray
both in preparing material for his classes, and in revising proof for his two botanical man-
uals, he worked steadily in spare hours, often late into the night, upon his Hawaiian col-
lections, many thousand specimens of which were determined, labelled and distributed.
His enumeration of Hawaiian plants, which has given him a good botanical reputation,
was published by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, of which body he was
elected a fellow on the very evening of his death. As the result of these Hawaiian
explorations, five new genera and sixty-seven new species were added to the flora.

Early in October, Mr. Mann yielded to the solicitations of his friends, and resigned his
college classes; but the worst forms of pulmonary complaint had gone too far to be
checked; and although at times his recovery was hoped for, he continued to fail rapidly,
and passed away on the evening of November 11th.

1869. Mr. Edward S. Morse, then residing in Salem, was engaged to work on the
shells of the Pratt collection, for three alternate days of each week through the year, the
other three days being devoted to work on the collections of the Peabody Academy.

124 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

A new arrangement was also made with the Custodian, by which he was to give his
undivided attention to the duties of the position through the year, with the exception of
five weeks between the first of May and the first of November, and three weeks between
the first of November and the first of May, he to have permanent assistance in the
Library and Museum.

Upon application to the City Government, two police officers were detailed for duty at
the Museum on public days of exhibition.

An idol obtained in purchasing other objects from Guatemala was, by vote of the Coun-
cil, presented to the Peabody Museum. Authority was also obtained from the Marine
Society by which the antiquities formerly given by that institution were transferred to the
same Museum.

The Trustees of the Society, after calling attention to the greatly increased expenses of
the year, and mentioning the necessity arising therefrom to sell stocks to the amount of
$4,000 to meet indebtedness, made a protest against such large expenditures.

The Council voted that authors should be allowed twenty-five copies of their productions
from the publications of the Society, free of expense.

From the Report of the Custodian at the annual meeting in May, and doings of the
Society for the year ending May, 1869, may be learned as usual much of interest. There
had been twenty general meetings of the Society, ten of the Section of Entomology, and
six of Microscopy. At the general meetings, the average attendance of members had been
thirty-three, of the Section of Entomology twelve, and of that of Microscopy eight. The
number of ladies who attended in response to the invitation of the Society, of course is not
included. Very few, however, availed themselves of the opportunity offered. One hundred
and five scientific communications had been presented by forty-nine persons, of which the
titles are given in the report. Five Corresponding and twenty-nine Resident Members
had been elected during the year.

There had been three courses of lectures given during the winter and spring ; the first
by Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, consisted of four upon Optical Phenomena, the second by Mr. W.
H. Niles, of twelve upon the Geological History of North America, and the third by Mr.
Wn. T. Brigham, of twelve upon Plant Life. The first, not having been advertised and the
subject being of limited interest, failed to draw many hearers, the second was attended by
an average of sixty-six persons, the third by an audience averaging about ninety-nine per-
sons. The last course was in the evening, which may in part account for the greater
attendance.

The Custodian dwelt with satisfaction upon the large amount of the Society’s publica-
tions, as well he might if only their extent and value were considered, and the consequent
cost ignored. When, however, it is learned that what was done in this way led to an
excess of expenditures over receipts to the amount of thousands of dollars, and obliged the
Trustees of the property of the Society to encroach largely upon its capital to meet this
excess, one is inclined to judge there was little cause for exultation. A few years of such
lavish expenditure could have had but one result.

The issue from the press of the publications of the Society had been double that of any
previous year, being not less than an equivalent of one thousand two hundred and twenty-
nine octavo pages. The twelfth volume of Proceedings begun a year previous, had

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY 125

reached the four hundredth page. The annual report, the first issue of the publication
called the “ Annual,” a physical map of North America, the fourth part of the Memoirs,
and the first volume of the Occasional papers had all appeared, the latter containing the
Entomological correspondence of the late Dr. T. W. Harris, embellished with steel plates
and wood cuts.

It will be remembered that in 1867, an appropriation of $500 was made by the Council
towards the expenses of some explorations to be made under the auspices of the Smith-
sonian Institution, with the understanding that the Society should receive the first choice
among the duplicates of objects of Natural History collected by the explorers. Under
this arrangement the Society received within the first year a series of birds from the
Island of Socorro, the natural history of which had been explored by Col. Grayson. The
specimens received were of peculiar interest, being nearly all new to science, and distinct
from the species of the neighboring continent, or of islands nearer the coast. Only a
portion of the sum appropriated having been called for, the Council again voted in 1868,
that $200 should be at the disposal of the Smithsonian Institution for further explorations
by Col. Grayson in Central America, and $100 towards an expedition to be made by
Prof. Sumichrast in Tehuantepec, the $500 being what remained unexpended of the
original appropriation.

During the past year, after leaving the Island of Socorro, Col. Grayson had been study-
ing the natural history of the Sierra Madre, from which, however, returns had not been
made of objects obtaimed by him. A fine collection of birds had, nevertheless, been pre-
sented to the Society, by Prof. Henry of the Smithsonian Institution, collected at Costa
Rica.

From the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, for the exploration of which by Prof. Sumichrast
the Society contributed $100, news had been received of a very promising character.
The Smithsonian Institution had already received specimens which had been distributed
for identification.

One of our own members, Mr. W. H. Dall, had been employed by the Society for sey-
eral months selecting specimens from the Smithsonian duplicates, partly in return for the
contributions made by the Society towards the explorations referred to, and partly as a
donation from the Institution.

Already many fossils and mollusks had been received by the Society, and a collection
of the nests and eggs of birds was expected to arrive.

The visitors to the Museum had exceeded thirty-six thousand. It had been open to
the public one hundred and four days.

In the department of Mammals and Comparative Anatomy, a movement had been made
towards obtaining specimens of all our New England mammals, and to make room for
them, the Ethnological collection was to be removed. A black bear and an antelope, one
the donation of Mr. W. T. Adams, the other of the City, had already been received.

The collection of birds had been increased by a donation of twenty-five specimens
of the land species of Massachusetts, from Mr. L. L. Thaxter of Newton. Mrs. Bryant
had again shown her interest in the Society by the gift of a large and valuable collection
of unmounted birds from the West Indies and Central and North America, and from Pro-
fessor Henry of the Smithsonian Institution, eighty specimens from Costa Rica had been
received, all labelled by Mr. Lawrence.

126 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The collection of Nests and Eggs of birds had been entirely rearranged. A statement
was made showing the collection at this time to consist of the eggs of seven hundred birds,
of which four hundred were American. A large number of duplicates, valuable for ex-
change, had been presented by Mrs. Bryant, and about two hundred and fifty nests and
egos by the Smithsonian Institution.

The Curators of the departments of Reptiles and Fishes mentioned great deficiences in
the representation of Massachusetts species, and in the latter the need of help in order
to identify and label the specimens.

The Entomological collection was stated to be in better condition than it had been a
year previous, much attention having been given to its improvement and preservation.

In referring to the condition of the department of Mollusks, the Custodian made some
remarks of more than temporary value. With the exception, he stated, of work done by
the last Curator, there is no evidence of any attention having been bestowed upon the
specimens for fifteen years. It was now in a worse condition than it had been years before,
showing that gratuitous aid had proved a failure. The Curator’s entire attention had been
given to the Pratt collection, the arrangement of which would be completed before other
work was done in the department.

Of the other collections nothing was said of sufficient importance to repeat here.

The report of the Treasurer was startling. It showed an excess of expenditures over
receipts of more than $6,000, and a diminution in the value of the Society’s property of
over $13,000. Much of this latter was accounted for by the reduction in the estimated
value of the stocks which had been received under the Walker bequest, but it was only
too evident that there had not been a due economy exercised in the administration of the
business of the Society. Well might the Trustees protest as they did, and well it was, too,
that the Council heeded their warning. The lesson taught was not lost upon the members,
and finally led to measures tending to prevent, under any ordinary circumstances, more
expense of means than income warranted. Among these was that of requiring from the
Trustees at the commencement of each year an estimate of the probable receipts from the
various sources tabulated, and also one showing what expenditures might be incurred in
the different departments based upon such receipts; there being a clear understanding
that under no avoidable circumstances should there be expended more than the income.
This met the hearty approval of all, and the policy adopted has been faithfully adhered to
ever since. It was not, however, intended that the expenditure yet necessary in finishing
the rooms of the Museum and in supplying cases should be paid for from the ordinary
income. Whatever was done in this way it was expected would necessarily be paid for in
part, at least, from the principal of the Society’s property. At the meetings of the Coun-
cil following the general meeting, there was much discussion concerning retrenchment, a
strong disposition being manifested to reduce expenses within the probable imcome.

At a regular meeting in. June the Rev. Robert C. Waterston reminded the members of
the approaching centennial anniversary of the birthday of Humboldt, and suggested the
public celebration of it by the Society. He remarked that it was wholly unnecessary in
such a presence to speak of Alexander Von Humboldt in order to impart information con-
cerning one whose illustrious reputation in so many departments of knowledge had made
his name familiar over the civilized world. Yet in view of what he had done for science

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 127
by his explorations on this continent, it seemed particularly appropriate that a Society like
this should do honor to his memory. He further remarked that there was one among the
members, preéminent in science, who had been his pupil and his personal friend, Louis
Agassiz, who was specially qualified to speak upon such an occasion. That to hear him
menof science and letters from every part of the country would gladly assemble to listen
and to respond.

Although the matter had not been apparently thought of by any of the members, all
present heartily concurred in the sentiments expressed by Mr. Waterston, recognizing that
in the Society thus paying a tribute of respectful homage to one of the noblest of men,
it could not but do itself great honor. The proposal therefore met with a hearty response,
and the following resolution, offered by Mr. Waterston, was unanimously adopted:

“ Resolved, That it is highly desirable that the Boston Society of Natural History should
hold a public celebration of the centennial anniversary of the birth of Alexander Von
Humboldt, and that a committee of five be appointed to consider the whole subject and
empowered to make all arrangements.’ The President appointed on this committee the
Rey. Robert C. Waterston, Dr. Samuel Kneeland and Mr. Samuel H. Scudder. To these
were subsequently added the President, Jeffries Wyman, His Honor the Mayor, N. B.
Shurtleff, and Col. T. W. Higginson.

It is due to Mr. Waterston to state that a large part of the work attendant upon
the celebration was done by him. That it might be a thorough success and redound
to the credit of the Society and the community, he gave up his whole time to it, remain-
ing in the city during the hot summer months, and exerting himself to the utmost that
nothing might be left undone that would add to the interest of the occasion. He not only
arranged for the meeting at which the address was to be delivered, but for a reception in
the evening, at which distinguished men should be invited to speak, and he induced the
City Government to take part in it and to provide an entertainment at the expense of the
City.

The celebration which followed on the 14th of September was in every respect a success,
far exceeding the anticipations of all who had favored it. Probably nowhere throughout
the civilized world was the day more appropriately observed. The address by Agassiz was
worthy of the man and the occasion. It was delivered at the Music Hall» before an
audience which filled every available place in it. Delegates from the leading literary
and scientific societies of New England and representatives from the colleges of Yale,
Bowdoin, Brown, Dartmouth and Harvard were present, as were likewise His Excellency
the Governor of the Commonwealth, His Honor the Mayor of the City and members of
both branches of the City Government. President Wyman presided at the meeting.

The evening reception was at Horticultural Hall. A large and distinguished audience
attended it, including invited guests from literary and scientific societies, members of the
City Government, and many gentlemen interested in the cause of education from every
part of the country. Interesting mementos of Humboldt, including several portraits of
him, were placed upon the platform and about the hall. The Rev. Mr. Waterston pre-
sided, and after welcoming the delegates from the different societies present and mak-
ing some appropriate remarks, introduced successively the Rev. Frederick H. Hedge, Mr.
Ralph Waldo Emerson and Prof. E. J. Young, all of whom made interesting addresses.
Among the portraits exhibited, was one by Mr. Wight, painted at Berlin in 1852 from life,

128 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

when Humboldt was eighty-three years of age. It had been loaned to the committee for
the occasion by the artist. The chairman, calling attention to it, stated that an order had
been given to the artist to execute an exact copy. - This would be unveiled, and if it was
found in every respect satisfactory, he, the chairman, would take great pleasure in pre-
senting it on this centennial anniversary to the Boston Society of Natural History. The
covering was removed and the resemblance was found to be so perfect as to call forth
spontaneous applause. A letter from the artist was read giving an account of his personal
observation of Humboldt when he was engaged upon his portrait: Accompanying it was
an autograph note of Humboldt, which was also presented to the Boston Society of Natural
History by the chairman. In behalf of the Society, Dr. Charles T. Jackson, Vice-Presi-
ident, accepted the portrait and autograph with expression of thanks. He stated that
Humboldt himself had declared that the original by Wight was the best ever painted of
him.

Dr. Jackson then gave some pleasant reminiscences of Humboldt, whom he had often
met in Paris at Cuvier’s lectures in 183). He also made some interesting remarks upon
his works and character.

The chairman then called upon his Honor the Mayor, who, in responding briefly, said
that the City Government, being desirous of expressing its respect for the memory of Alex-
ander Von Humboldt, had passed resolutions and had made a generous appropriation. In
behalf of both branches, he invited all present to partake of a collation prepared for them
in the hall below. The company accepted the invitation and proceeded to the place
assigned, where they enjoyed an excellent supper, during which at intervals the Ger-
mania band added their enlivening music to the entertainment.

After refreshment at the tables, a poem upon Humboldt, prepared for the occasion by Oli-
ver Wendell Holmes, and another by Mrs. Julia Ward Howe, were read. During the even-
ing, several communications from distinguished persons unable to be present, were pre-
sented, one from the Hon. Theo. 8. Fay, one from Prof. William B. Rogers, one from
the Rev. Noah Porter and one from John G. Whittier. The address by Agassiz, with a
full account of the proceedings at the evening meeting, may be found in pamphlet form
published by the Society.

In October, Dr. C. F. Folsom resigned his position as Curator of Comparative Anatomy
and Mammals.

At a meeting of the Council, held Nov. 17ta, it was voted that the net proceeds of
the celebration of the Centennial Anniversary of the birth of Humboldt, together with
the money received from the sale of Prof. Agassiz’s address previous to Jan. 1, 1870, and
the money subscribed at the solicitation of the Society’s Committee, be given to the
Trustees of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at Harvard College, in trust, for the
establishment of an endowment under the title of the “ Humboldt Scholarship,” the
income of which should be solely applied, under the direction of the Faculty, toward the
maintenance of one or more young and needy persons engaged in study at said Museum.
The reception of the money, amounting to $7,040.66, was gratefully acknowledged by
the Trustees of the Museum of Comparative Zoblogy, under the conditions expressed in
the vote of the Council. .

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 129

Mention was made in giving an account of the proceedings at the evening reception on
the day of the Humboldt celebration, of a fine portrait presented by the Rev. Mr. Waters-
ton to the Society. This may now be seen in the Library of the Museum.

The hearty thanks of the Society were passed to Mr. Waterston not only for the val
uable portrait and autograph, but for the unflagging energy with which he had labored
for the success of the Humboldt celebration. Testimony was borne to the untiring zeal
manifested by him in obtaining subscriptions for the fund, and in performing a large part
of the work consequent upon the celebration. The Society also expressed its obligations
to Prof. Agassiz for his able address, a copy of which was asked for publication. Thanks
were also voted to the Orpheus Musical Association, and to Mr. Carl Zerrahn, for their wel-
come aid in the performances of the occasion; also to Mr. J. H. Paime, who presided at
the organ.

1870. On January 19th, Dr. Thomas Waterman was elected Curator of Comparative
Anatomy and Mammals.

At the meeting of April 20th, in view of contemplated changes in the administration of
the Society, certain alterations were made in the Constitution and By-laws to go into
effect on and after the annual meeting. The most important of these arose from the sub-
stitution of Committees for Curators in the care of the Museum.

The Constitution was made to express that the officers of the Society shall consist of a
President, two Vice-Presidents, a Corresponding Secretary, a Recording Secretary, a Libra-
rian, a Custodian and a Committee of three on each’ department of the Museum, etc., etc.

The By-laws were so altered as to define that the Committees should be entrusted with
the care of the Museum; that they should be designated for particular departments at
the time of their election, and consist of not more than three members, one of whom
should be named by the nominating committee to act as chairman. The duties mentioned
were such as the By-laws previously active expressed for those of the Curators.

Annual meeting. The Custodian’s report gave the following summary of the doings of
the Society during the year:

There had been eighteen general meetings, the average attendance at which had been
thirty-two: eight of the section of Entomology, with an average attendance of eleven:
and seven of the section of Microscopy, with an average attendance of nine. Forty-seven
scientific communications had been made by twenty-five persons, all of which had been
printed in full or by title in the Proceedings. |

One Honorary, three Corresponding and thirty-nine Resident Members had been elected.

Three courses of evening lectures had been arranged for by the Council. One of twelve,
entitled Sketches of Animal Life, by Mr. Edward 8. Morse, delivered in the early part of
the season, had an average audience of seventy-six persons; the second, consisting also of
twelve, given by Mr. William T. Brigham, entitled The Earth we live on, had an
audience averaging ninety-ecight persons; the third, not concluded at the time of the annual
meeting, consisted of four, entitled Familiar Talks about Insects, given by Mr. F. G. San-
born. The average attendance at these was about sixty.

Of the Publications it was stated that from economical considerations the issue of a large
number of the Memoirs had been postponed. Of the Proceedings the twelfth volume had
been printed, and a part of the thirteenth. The address of Prof. Agassiz at the recent cele-

150 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

bration of the Humboldt Centenary, with an account of the evening’s festivities, forming
an octavo pamphlet of one hundred and seven pages, had been also published and dis-
tributed.

The Custodian expressed strongly the feeling that a further postponement of activity
in this direction could not fail to be disastrous. Yet there had been sent abroad of
parts of Memoirs and of the Journal, of copies of Harris’ Correspondence, of the Pro-
ceedings, what was equivalent to about two hundred and sixty-five volumes of the Pro-
ceedings, and over 200,000 octavo pages. Besides all this the Society had distributed in
behalf of the Commonwealth, three hundred copies on the Report of the Invertebrates of
Massachusetts, recently published by the State.

The judicious action of the Legislature, the Custodian remarked, in placing its scien-
tifie publications where they will be of the greatest permanent benefit, merits the com-
mendation of all who, like ourselves, are aiming at the widest diffusion of knowledge.

An enumeration of the books in the Library had been recently made. They were
counted as bound, whether containing more than one volume, as frequently the case, or
not; and the parts had been estimated at their proper proportions of the volumes to
which they belong, and the pamphlets counted separately. ‘The enumeration therefore
gave the number as proportionably smaller than previous estimates. There were found

to be 9396 volumes, and 2677 pamphlets. Of these volumes ten hundred and ten were of

a general literary character, mostly deposited by “ A Republican Institution ”; eight hun-
dred and six were botanical; four hundred and fifty-three entomological; four hundred
and two geological and mineralogical; five hundred and ten encyclopaedic; six hundred
and thirteen upon vertebrates; five hundred and thirty-six upon travels and local fauna,
and forty-one hundred and seventy-three journals and publications of Societies.

The Custodian announced the death of our esteemed coadjutor, Col. A. J. Grayson, to
whose explorations it will be recollected the Society contributed im connection with the
Smithsonian Institution. It had been the strong wish of both parties interested, that he
should visit the Sierra Madre of North Western Mexico, that he might make there a care-
ful investigation of its fauna. He arranged to be there in June, that being considered
the most favorable month for his purposes. Prior to that period he visited the Island of
Isabella off the coast to study the habits of sea fowl during their breeding season, and
there he contracted a malarious disease that led to his death in August.

The amount contributed by the Society bemg unexpended, was returned by his wife to
the Smithsonian Institution. By advice of Prof. Henry, this was transferred by vote of
the Council to Prof. Sumichrast, to be used in the explorations undertaken by him on the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

An arrangement had been made by the Custodian with the Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution, by which a large number of unassorted specimens of various character
were sent to the Society with the understanding that they should be returned in orderly
condition, compensation for the labor being made by a selection from the duplicates for
the Cabinet.

The number of visitors to the Museum during the year exceeded forty thousand. It
was open to the public one hundred and four days. The largest number present on any
one day was seven hundred and eighty-one.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 3t

The Custodian reported the collections of the different departments of the Society to be
in good condition. That of Mammals and Comparative Anatomy had received a stuffed
specimen of the great Antarctic seal collected in the exploring expedition of Commodore
Wilkes. A living opossum and its young had also been received from Dr. C. Kollock of
South Carolina, and had been mounted in characteristic attitudes. Other interesting
specimens had been received from the Union Street menagerie.

In the Ornithological department, the mounted birds had had special attention, every
specimen having been taken down, thoroughly examined, and where necessary treated
with benzine and other materials. The cases had all been made as nearly air tight as pos-
sible and in fact every possible measure adopted to prevent the further ravages of insects.
To accomplish this, four or five persons had worked continuously for two months. Dona-
tions had been received from the Smithsonian Institution, F. E. Everett, 8. Mixter,
H. A. Purdie and others.

Quite extensive additions had been made to the collection of nests and eggs, mostly
in exchange. To Mr. B. P. Mann and Mr. S. Mixter, the department had been indebted
for the presentation of many specimens.

The Entomological collections were reported in better condition than at any time within
ten years. Mrs. Stratton, Mr. H. Edwards and others, had presented many specimens, and
there had been a valuable accession from Tehuantepec collected by Professor Sumichrast.

There had been considerable work done upon the Reptiles, and one hundred and fifteen
specimens had been added to the collection. A marked deficiency of native species was
mentioned, particularly of turtles.

The Fishes, numbering three thousand eight hundred and ninety-six specimens, were
reported in good order and mostly identified.

Some work had been done by Mr. 8. I. Smith upon the Crustacea, and the whole collec-
tion placed in satisfactory condition. ,

The Curator of Mollusks reported much progress in mounting the gasteropods of the
Pratt collection, and mentioned that a valuable series of British shells had been received
from the Smithsonian Institution, and many specimens from Mr. H. Edwards and others.

The collection of Radiates had been greatly improved, and a large portion of the corals
and sponges mounted in an erect position upon black tablets.

The Botanical department had received an important addition in the herbarium of Hon.
John Amory Lowell, containing many thousand species carefully labelled, mounted aud
catalogued.

By the subscription of some gentlemen, a ring of the bark of a Redwood tree of Califor-
nia had been purchased, measuring forty feet in circumference. This had been mounted
under the direction of Mr. Brigham, the acting Curator, and now forms a conspicuous
object in the entrance hall of the Museum.

The arduous task of rearranging and labelling the entire Mineralogical collection had

been completed by the Curator, and the whole was now in perfect order. The number of
specimens was about 2800.

Mr. 8. H. Scudder, the Custodian, in presenting the annual report, took occasion, as
this was to be the final one by him, to review somewhat at length the experience of the
Society in the past, and to suggest considerations in relation to its future policy. He said
that “while some collections need a good deal of revision and many are not yet entirely

132 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

supplied with the uniform system of labelling lately adopted, the Museum is in much
better order and in a much safer condition than it has been at any time since our removal
to this buildmg. The Library has increased, and the lectures have proved a success, but
in our publications and in the interest of our meetings, we have sadly fallen off”

The Custodian further remarked upon the great importance of the publications of the
Society as a means through which the researches of the members might be promptly
made known, and the fame which it has fairly won at home and abroad be sustained.

In relation to the Museum, after mentioning its large collections, he expressed the view
that, with some exceptions, they embraced sufficient for all the purposes of the Society.
That its principal aim should not be to sustain a great museum or an industrial one, but
rather seek to maintain first, a popular educational one, in which all and none but the
characteristic forms of life and inorganic nature should be displayed, and second, a com-
plete local collection, restricted at widest to our New England flora and fauna. To effect
this, it was important that more skilled labor should be regularly employed, and a man of
broad scientific culture placed at the head of the Museum, with its interests alone in
charge.

The Custodian then spoke of his endeavors to faithfully perform the duties of his office,
and expressed warmly his appreciation of the devotedness of those who had been engaged
to assist him in the various departments of the Society’s operations.

Upon motion of Mr. F. W. Putnam, who thought something more was due the retiring
Custodian than a simple vote of thanks for his services, it was unanimously voted that the
rules be suspended and Mr. Scudder be made a Life Member of the Society.

The Treasurer’s report showed, including all sources of income available for general pur-
poses, a balance of receipts over expenditures, of $160.49.

The Prize Committee reported through Dr. J. B. 8. Jackson, that only one essay had
been offered in competition for this year’s prize, and this was not deemed worthy of it.
They announced for the subject of the prize for 1872, “The Darwinian question ; its bear-
ings on the development of animal life.”

Letters from the President, Dr. Jeffries Wyman, at this time in Europe, positively declin-
ing to be a candidate for the office so long held by him, had been received. The Nomina-
ting Committee however, thinking that he might be induced again to accept the position,
asked further time for consideration before any action was taken in electing a President.
They also asked further time before presenting names for the Committees on the depart-
ments of Mammals and Comparative Anatomy, as the Council had, but a few hours before
the meeting, divided the department of Comparative Anatomy, which before embraced
Mammals, into two departments. They likewise asked further time before nominating the
Committee for the department of Microscopy.

The list of officers proposed by them was then presented, the Rev. Joshua A. Swan
being named as the successor to Mr. S. H. Scudder, for the positions of Custodian, Librarian
and Recording Secretary. A strong objection was made to the nominee for the former
office, many present favoring the election of Mr. Alpheus Hyatt. A prolonged and very
earnest discussion followed, the whole policy of the Society and the comparative merits of
the two persons mentioned for the position being ably presented. Those who participated
in the discussion were N. 8. Shaler, J. B. S. Jackson, J. C. White, E. 8. Morse. R. C.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 133

Go

Greenleaf, F. W. Putman, W. H. Niles, T. M. Brewer, W. T. Brigham, J. D. Runkle and
Thomas T. Bouvé. Upon balloting, it was found that Mr. Alpheus Hyatt was elected
Custodian and Mr. Swan, Librarian and Recording Secretary, the majority of the members
thus electing two officers to fill the three positions, instead of one as hitherto. One objec-
tion to this was the largely increased expense thereby incurred, but the result was gener-
ally satisfactory.

The Committees chosen for the several departments were as follows :

On Birds.
Thomas M. Brewer, M. D.,
Samuel Cabot, M. D.,
J. A. Allen.

On Mollusks.

Edward 8. Morse,
John Cummings,
Levi L. Thaxter.

On Fishes and Reptiles. On Palaeontology.
D. Humphreys Storer, M. D., W. H. Niles,
F. W. Putnam, N.S. Shaler,
N. E. Atwood. Thomas T. Bouvé.
On Insects. On Botany.
F. G. Sanborn, William T. Brigham,
A. 8S. Packard, Jr., M. D., Charles J. Sprague,
Edward Burgess. J. Amory Lowell.
On Crustacea and Radiates. On Minerals and Geology.
A.§. Packard, Jr., M. D., Thomas T. Bouvé,
A. E. Verrill, Charles T. Jackson, M. D.,
Alexander Agassiz. William T. Brigham.

The election of Committees for the departments of Comparative Anatomy, Mammals and
Microscopy was postponed to allow time for further consideration.

The fourth decade of the existence of the Society was now completed. It had been a
period of great events in its history. Its commencement found the country involved in a
war which, by rapidly wasting its resources, threatened alike its material prosperity and
its progress in art, science and literature. There was sadness in the hearts of men and an
undefined dread of evil pervading their minds, tending to concentrate all thought upon the
movements of armies and the tidings of conflict. Thank God, too, there was an unfalter-
ing faith im the final success of the struggle for the nation’s integrity, which kept alive
hope and encouraged exertion for the advancement of all movements promising future
good to the community. Thus was it that m the midst of a dreadful civil war the Society
was enabled, through the untiring devotion of its own members and by the exertions, the
contributions and bequests of many friends, to erect the fine structure that now adorns the
city, and to place therein the great collections of natural history that now minister to
the delight and the instruction of multitudes.

In referring to the period of the civil war, it may not be amiss to state that besides the
members of the Society mentioned as having resigned their official positions in it to enter
the service of their country, there were several others who took an active part in the con-
flict. Among them was one whose great interest in the welfare of our institution for

154 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

many years as shown by his exertions in its behalf when in distant regions, entitles him to
respectful notice in these pages. That he died by the hands of the enemy makes it all the
more a duty to render a tribute to his memory.

Joseph P. Couthouy was born in Boston, January 6, 1808. He was educated at one of
the schools in the town, and when yet a lad, made a voyage in his father’s ship. His
tastes leading him to prefer a sea life, he applied himself to the calling he had chosen, and
became, when old enough, the captain of a vessel.

He early developed a love for science, and had progressed in his studies to such an
extent that when the American Exploring Expedition was organized under command of
Lieutenant Wilkes, he was appointed one of the scientific corps to accompany it, his spe-
cialty being that of Conchology. The expedition sailed from Hampton Roads, Aug. 18th,
1838, and, although the state of his health obliged him eventually to abandon his share
of the enterprise at the Samoan Islands, yet he had already made very valuable collec-
tions of shells and illustrated his numerous notes and descriptions concerning the many
species obtained, with drawings and colorings which would have been of invaluable assist-
ance to Dr. A. A. Gould, who subsequently published the elaborate report on the shells
secured by the expedition, had not these papers been in some unexplained way lost or
destroyed when the cases containing the specimens were unpacked after arrival.

Captain Couthouy afterwards went to South America and the islands of the Pacific
Ocean, making numberless valuable observations on the natural history of the countries
which he visited.

In the year 1854, he was engaged to take command of an expedition to the Bay of
Cumana, for the purpose of exploring for the wreck of the Spanish man-of-war San Pedro,
lost there nearly half a century previously, which was supposed to have had a great amount
of treasure on board. After three years spent in an unsuccessful search for this, the vessel
returned to the United States, and was lost in a violent snow storm on Cape Cod, the crew
being saved with the greatest difficulty.

When the war of the rebellion broke out, Captain Couthouy offered his services to the
government. They were at once accepted, and he was placed in command of the U.S.
barque “ Kingfisher,’ in which he was actively engaged against the enemy. Being trans-
ferred to the command of the U. 8. steamer “ Columbia,’ he jomed the blockading
squadron of the South Atlantic, and upon his vessel being wrecked in a storm at Mason-
boro Inlet, he was captured and sent as a prisoner of war to Salisbury, where he remained
three months. After bemg exchanged he was placed in command of the monitor “Osage”
of the Mississippi river squadron under Admiral Porter, and subsequently, being transferred
to the “ Chillicothe” of the same squadron, was ordered up the Red River. In this expe-
dition he met his death. On the 3d of April his ship was engaged with a large body of
rebel troops on the shore. Captain Couthouy was on deck directing the fire of his guns,
when a rebel sharp-shooter on the bank fired at and mortally wounded him. He died the
next day, universally regretted by officers and men, and by no one more than the
Admiral, who, in a letter to the Secretary of the Navy, bore witness to his zealous, patri-
otic and estimable character.

Captain Couthouy was a man of rare and varied ability. He was a fine linguist, and
spoke with great elegance the Spanish, French, Italian and Portuguese languages. An

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 135

interesting example of the beauty of his pronunciation of the Spanish was given the
writer by one of his intimate friends. Being in Spain at the time of the Carlist wars, he
was repeatedly under suspicion on the part of the officers of the government, who could
not believe him to be a foreigner, the purity of his accent and thorough knowledge of the
language leading them to think that he must necessarily be a native Spaniard. He had
also in the course of his travels mastered more than one of the unwritten languages of the
South Pacific Islands.

He was described by intimate friends and associates as being a man of the utmost fasci-
nation of manner, and one whose wide and varied information made him one of the most
interesting of companions.

Elected a member of the Society on the 6th of April, 1836, he was often before it while
at home, at the meetings, with communications or remarks relating to facts of scientific
interest which had come to his knowledge during his wide-spread investigations abroad.
He also, from time to time, presented many specimens to the Society.

His memory should be held in tender regard by the Society, for while, in former years,
an active and valued associate, his death in battle in the service of his country added
another to the list of those who have passed away, leaving, through faithful work in the
cause of science, a lasting lustre on its roll of membership.

Captain Couthouy married Miss Mary G. Wild of Boston. His wife died in 1857, and at
the time of his death, in 1864, he had three daughters livmg. His only son had died
previously.

It having been necessary in quite a number of instances during the first half of this
decade to record the fact of several of the officers having resigned or temporarily vacated
their positions in order to engage in the military or naval service during the war for the
suppression of the rebellion, it is fitting that the part which was taken in the great conflict
by members of the Society should be recognized ; and the following roll gives the names
and branch of the service to which they belonged, of such as are, or have been, borne
upon its list of membership.

Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Surgeon 45th Mass. Infantry, Brevet Lieut. Colonel. -

Dr. Henry Bryant, Surgeon 20th Mass. Infantry, Brigade Surgeon U. 8. Vols.

Dr. Samuel A. Green, Asst. Surgeon Ist Mass. Infantry, Surgeon 24th Mass. Infantry.

Dr. Burt G, Wilder, Asst. Surgeon 55th Mass. Infantry.

Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, Sergeant Ist Corps Cadets M.V.M., Acting Assistant Surgeon U.S.A.

Dr. Francis H. Brown, Acting Assistant Surgeon U. 8. Army, Private 12th unattached company Mass.
Infantry.

Theodore Lyman, Colonel U.S. Vols., aide-de-camp to Major General Meade.

Albert Ordway, Lieut. Colonel 24th Mass. Infantry. Brevet Brigadier General.

Amos Binney, Major and Paymaster U. 8. Vols.

Dr. John Stearns, Surgeon 4th Mass. Heavy Artillery.

Dr. Lucius M. Sargent, Jr., Surgeon 2d Mass. Infantry, afterwards Major Ist Mass. Cavalry. Killed in
battle.

Dr. Hall Curtis, Asst. Surgeon 24th Mass. Infantry, Surgeon 2d Mass. Heavy Artillery.

Dr. Robert T. Edes, Passed Assistant Surgeon U. S. Navy.

Dr. Z. Boylston Adams, Asst. Surgeon 7th Mass, Infantry, Surgeon 32d Mass. Infantry, afterwards
Major 56th Mass. Infantry.

Dr, A. 8. Packard, Jr., Asst. Surgeon 1st Maine Veteran Volunteer Infantry.

Dr. Calvin G. Page, Surgeon 39th Mass. Infantry.

Dr. Franklin Nickerson, Acting Assistant Surgeon U. S. Navy.
Dr. F. P. Sprague, Acting Assistant Surgeon U. 8. Army.

Dr. Algernon Coolidge, Acting Assistant Surgeon U.S. Army.

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Dr. Edward Wigglesworth, Jr., Hospital Steward 45th Mass. Infantry, Volunteer Surgeon.

Dr. J. Collins Warren, Volunteer Surgeon U.S. Army.
Dr. Francis C. Ropes, Assistant Surgeon U. 8. Army.
Dr. H. M. Saville, Surgeon 4th Mass. Infantry.

Dr. George Derby, Surgeon 23d Mass. Infantry, Brevet Lieut. Colonel.
Dr. H. P. Bowditch, Major 54th Mass. Infantry, Captain Ist Mass. Cavalry, Major 5th Mass. Cavalry.

Dr. John McLean Hayward, Surgeon 12th Mass. Infantry.

Dr. C. F. Crehore, Asst. Surgeon 15th Mass. Infantry, Surgeon 37th Mass. Infantry, Medical Inspector on

staff of Major General Sedgwick.

Dr. Oliver F. Wadsworth, Asst. Surgeon 5th Mass. Cavalry, Brevet Captain U.S. Vols.

Dr. Allston G. Bouvé, Private 6th Mass. Infantry.

Dr. John Homans, Assistant Surgeon U. 8. Navy, Asst. Surgeon U. 8. Army.
Dr. William Ingalls, Surgeon 5th and 59th regiments Mass. Infantry.
Dr. William Henry Thayer, Surgeon 14th New Hampshire Infantry.
Dr. John C. Dalton, Asst. Surgeon 7th New York V. M., Surgeon U.S. Vols.

Dr. 8. W. Langmaid, Acting Asst. Surgeon U. 8. Army.

Dr. Charles W. Swan, Acting Asst. Surgeon U.S. Army.
Dr. Samuel G. Webber, Asst. Surgeon U. 8. Navy.

Dr. Charles B. Porter, Acting Asst. Surgeon U. S. Army.
Dr. Frederick S$. Ainsworth, Surgeon 22d Mass. Infantry.
Dr. Thomas B. Hitchcock, Asst. Surgeon 42d Mass. Infantry.
Dr. George J. Arnold, Acting Asst. Surgeon U. 8. Army.

Dr. Charles E. Hosmer, Private, Steward U.S. Navy, Acting Asst. Surgeon U. 8. Navy.

Dr. John G. Park, Acting Asst. Surgeon U. 8. Navy.
Dr. Charles Thacher Hubbard, Asst. Surgeon U.S. Navy.
Dr. James E. Walker, Acting Asst. Surgeon U. 8. Army.

Dr. Henry G. Clark, Inspector-in-chief of the Sanitary Commission.
Dr. J. Nelson Borland, Inspector of Hospitals for the Sanitary Commission.

Dr. Samuel L. Abbot,
Dr. Henry I. Bowditch,

Boston during the war, and Volunteer Surgeon in the Army.

“

oe

“

“

Surgeon to the Board of Enrolment in

Dr. Samuel Cabot, Jr., Inspector of Hospitals for the Sanitary Commission and Volunteer Surgeon.

Dr. William Edward Coale,
Dr. Calvin Ellis,

Dr. Augustus A. Gould,
Dr. J. B. 8. Jackson,

Dr. Francis Minot,

Dr. Benjamin 8. Shaw,

Dr. Charles E. Ware,

Dr. Henry W. Williams,

Dr. W. W. Morland, “
Dr. Winslow Lewis, &“
Dr. Henry K. Oliver, “
Dr. D. D. Slade, “
Rey. Warren H. Cudworth, Chaplain Ist Mass. Infantry.

(79

“

and Volunteer Surgeon.

T. Wentworth Higginson, Captain 51st Mass. Infantry, Colonel 33d U. 8. Colored Troops (1st South

Carolina Infantry).

Francis A. Osborn, Colonel 24th Mass. Infantry, Brevet Brigadier General U. 8. Vols.

Joseph P. Couthouy, Acting Volunteer Lieutenant U.S. Navy.
Alpheus Hyatt, Jr., Captain 47th Mass. Infantry.

Killed in battle.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 137

T. W. Clark, Colonel 29th Mass. Infantry.

Edward C. Cabot, Lieut. Colonel 44th Mass. Infantry.

Hiram 8. Shurtleff, Captain 56th Mass. Infantry.

Nathaniel 8. Shaler, Captain 5th Kentucky Artillery.

Nathaniel Bowditch, 1st Lieut. Ist Mass. Cavalry, A.A.G. U.S. Vols. Killed in battle.

Charles W. Folsom, 1st Lieut. and Q.M. 20th Mass. Infantry.

Huntington F. Wolcott, 2d Lieut. 2d Mass. Cavalry. Died in the service.

Edward T. Bouyé, 1st Lieut. 32d Mass. Infantry, Captain 4th Mass. Cavalry, Major 26th N. Y. Cavalry.

Joseph H. Lathrop, Sergeant 43d Mass. Infantry, Ist Lieut. and Adjutant, ¢ 4th Mass. Cavalry.

John E. Alden, 2d Lieut. Ist unattached company Mass. Infantry.

Nathan Appleton, 1st Lieut. 5th Battery Mass. Light Artillery, Capt. and A.D.C. U.S. Vols.

Louis Cabot, 2d Lieut. Ist Mass. Cavalry, Capt. 2d Mass. Cavalry, Major 4th Mass. Cavalry.

Fletcher M. Abbott, 1st Lieut. 2d Mass. Infantry.

John Ritchie, 1st Lieut. and Q.M. 54th Mass. Infantry.

William E. Endicott, 2d Lieut. 30th unattached company Mass. Heavy Artillery.

Lorin L. Dame, 1st Lieut. 15th Battery Mass. Light Artillery.

Albert S. Bickmore, Private 44th Mass. Infantry.

A. P. Cragin, Private in a Mass. Cavalry regiment. Killed in battle.

John Jeffries, Jr., Major 1st Corps Cadets Mass. Volunteer Militia.

George Brooks, Private 45th Mass. Volunteers. Died in the service at Newbern, N. C.

Robert M. Copeland, 1st Lieut. and Q.M. 2d Mass. Infantry, Major and A.A.G. U.S. Vols.

Alfred P. Rockwell, Captain Ist Battery Conn. Light Artillery, Colonel 6th Conn. Infantry, Brevet
Brigadier General U.S. Vols.

cle M. Weld, Captain 18th Mass. Infantry, Colonel 56th Mass. Infantry, Brevet Brigadier General.

E. R. Cogswell, Corporal 44th Mass. Infantry.

Jonathan Dorr, Private 44th Mass. Infantry.

Nathaniel Willis Bumstead, Captain 45th Mass. Infantry.

Carleton A. Shurtleff, Medical Cadet U.S. Army.

Joseph T. Rothrock, Private 12th unattached company Mass. Infantry, Captain Pennsylvania Cavalry.

Copley Amory, Ist Lieutenant 4th U.S. Cavalry.

Rey. George H. Hepworth, Chaplain 47th Mass. Infantry.

William Ellery Copeland, Private 44th Mass. Infantry.

Lewis W. Tappan, Jr., Captain 45th Mass. Infantry.

The writer can scarcely hope, notwithstanding great care taken, that no errors will be
found in this roll of honor. He would especially regret the omission of the name of a
single member of the Society, who manfully went forward to serve the nation in its hour
of peril.

Early in the decade now passed was received the bequest of Mr. Jonathan Phillips of
$10,000. This was followed by the grant of land from the State on which the Museum
was afterwards erected. Then came the first of the series of donations from our great
benefactor, Dr. William J. Walker, of his house in Bulfinch Street, followed by the second
and third of $20,000 each, and finally by the great bequest from him which established
the institution on such a firm foundation as to secure its perpetuity so long as wisdom
shall prevail in its councils.

The Society had also been the recipient during the decade of the bequests before men-
tioned, from Paschal P. Pope, $20,000; Miss Sarah P. Pratt, $10,000, with a large collee-
tion of shells; Dr. Benjamin D. Ghouna, $9,000, with a large library of valuable books;
and Mr. Flere Harris, $5,000. It had likewise received for the establishment of a fund

138 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

for the Library, $5,000 in the name of Huntington Frothingham Wolcott, who died in the
military service of the country in the war of the rebellion.

Of the donations made towards building and other purposes in the early part of the
decade, Mr. Nathaniel Thayer contributed $2,500, Mr. Thomas Lee $1,000, Mr. John L,
Gardner $1,000, Dr. Benjamin D. Greene $1,000, Mr. Henry B. Rogers $1,000, and an
anonymous friend $1,000. A considerable amount of the money subscribed towards the
building and working funds was from donors of sums varying from $500 to $100 and less.
Besides money, the Society received during the decade the magnificent donation of the
Lafresnaye collection of birds from Dr. Henry Bryant.

There was a very valuable donation made to the Society by Mr. James M. Barnard in
1864, notice of which has not been given. This consisted of a large collection of fossil
echinoderms made by Dr. A. Krantz of Bonn, and was second in the country only to that
in the Museum of Comparative Zoilogy in Cambridge, presenting as it did good types of
nearly every group of the class.

Mr. H. F. Wolcott mentioned above was a young member of the Society whose great
interest in it led to the endowment after his death of the fund referred to in his name by
his father, Mr. J. Huntington Wolcott, as a memento of that interest, and as a recognition
of what would have been pleasing to him if living. The fund is known as the Huntington
Frothingham Wolcott Fund, and now amounts to over $6,000, the interest at first having
been allowed to accumulate and having been added to the capital. It is held is trust, the
income alone being available for the purchase of books for the Library. The service of
this fund to the Society has been very great, as without it, there would not have been
means to supply works actually indispensable for the use of the members. Mr. Wolcott
was born in Boston, February 4th, 1846, and died June 9th, 1865.

In mentioning the bequests of Mr. Jonathan Phillips made during the decade, no such
notice was given of this benefactor of the Society as seems fitting should appear concern-
ing him. A few brief remarks are therefore added here.

Hon. Jonathan Phillips was born in Boston, April 24th, 1778. He was the son of
Lieutenant Governor William Phillips and was educated for mercantile life, but never
engaged in much active business. Upon the death of his father in 1827 he became the
possessor of a very large fortune, and the remainder of his life was mostly passed in liter-
ary culture, travel, and in taking an active share in many of the benevolent and educa-
tional movements of his day, all of which he generously aided. He was at one period a
member of the Senate of Massachusetts, but his tastes and inclinations were such as to lead
him to shrink from public life. For a number of years he held the office of President of
the Massachusetts Bank. He was an associate with Dr. William Ellery Channing, Rey.
George Ripley, Dr. Charles Follen and many other prominent men, in the well-known
Progress Club, and was a very intimate friend of Dr. Channing. Among many other
bequests and donations he contributed $50,000 in aid of the Boston Public Library, first
making a donation of $10,000 and afterwards bequeathing by will $20,000, the interest of
which sums alone is available for use. He bequeathed likewise the sum of $20,000 to the
City im trust, the income of which is to be expended in adorning and embellishing the
streets and public places. To this last-mentioned bequest, the City owes the statue of

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 139

Josiah Quincy in front of City Hall, that of John Winthrop in Scollay Square, and that of
Samuel Adams on Washington Street.

Mr. Phillips died in Boston on the 29th of July, 1860, at the age of eighty-two years.

Of the publications during the ten years, the seventh volume of the Journal and the
last of the series, was completed in 1863. The Memoirs in quarto form which succeeded
the Journal had been delivered to members in parts from 1865; the whole of the first
volume being completed in 1869. Of the Proceedings the twelfth volume and part of the
thirteenth had been issued.

The members of the several standing committees of the Council during the decade
were as follows :

On Publication. Drs. Jeffries Wyman, Augustus A. Gould, 8. L. Abbot, Samuel Knee-
land, Charles Pickering; and Messrs. 8. H. Scudder, William T. Brigham and Charles J.
Sprague.

On the Library. Messrs. Charles K. Dillaway, Charles J. Sprague, S. H. Scudder, Hor-
ace Mann, J. Elliot Cabot; and Drs. John Bacon and A. 8. Packard, Jr.

On Finance. Messrs. Thomas T. Bouvé, James M. Barnard, Edward Pickering and
Amos Binney.

The average attendance at the general meetings during the ten years was as follows:

For the year 1860-61 37 For the year 1865-66 34
ge « 1861-62 37 ce “1866-67 39
“ 1862-63 33 @ “ 1867-68 40
ub “ 1863-64 44 cc “ 1868-69 33
Se “ 1864-65 33 & “ = 1869-70 32

The average attendance at the meetings of the Section of Microscopy after its for-
mation was for the months December 1864 to May 1865, 9; for the year 1865-66, 9;
1866-67, 12; 1867-68, 12; 1868-69, 8; 1869-70, 9.

The average attendance at the meetings of the Section of Entomology after its forma-
tion was for the months November 1866 to May 1, 1867, 12; for the year 1867-68, 9;
1868-69, 12; 1869-70, 10.

The members who took the most active part in the proceedings of the Society during
the first five years of the decade were Drs. Jeffries Wyman, C. T. Jackson, B. Joy Jeffries,
James C. White, Charles Pickering, Augustus A. Gould, Henry Bryant, Burt G. Wilder,
C. F. Winslow, William Stimpson and Thomas M. Brewer ; Profs. Louis Agassiz, William
B. Rogers and H. J. Clarke; Messrs. 8. H. Scudder, F. W. Putnam, Alexander Agassiz, A.
E. Verrill, Horace Mann, C. J. Sprague, Charles Stodder and Thomas T. Bouvé. Those
who were most active during the last five years were Drs. J effries Wyman, C. T.
Jackson, B. Joy Jeffries, James C. White, Charles Pickering, Hermann A. Hagen, J. B.S.
Jackson, Thomas M. Brewer; Messrs. 8. H. Scudder, Charles Stodder, William T. Brigham,
R. C. Greenleaf, N. S. Shaler, Horace Mann, B. P. Mann, F. G. Sanborn, E. Bicknell, C.
8. Minot and Thomas T. Bouvé.

Walker Prizes. In accordance with the provisions in an agreement made with Dr.
William J. Walker by which the Walker Prize Fund was established, offers were made for
the best and second best. memoirs presented on subjects proposed by a Committee of the
Council, as follows:

Subject for 1865: “ Adduce and discuss the evidence of the coéxistence of man and
extinct animals, with the view of determining the limits of his antiquity.”

140 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Subject for 1866: “The fertilization of plants by the agency of insects, in HeLa:
both to cases where this agency is absolutely necessary, and where it is only accessory.”

No essays having been presented, or none deemed by the Council worthy of a prize, the
same subjects were proposed again for the years 1867 and 1868, but still without bringing
forth any response from writers. Other subjects were therefore proposed for the two sub-
sequent years, Viz:

For 1869: “ On the etna of arctic and alpine plants in Northern America, with an
enumeration of species.”

For 1870: “The reproduction and migration of Trichina spiralis.”

As with the case of previous subjects, neither of these last elicited any response, or any
of sufficient merit in the estimation of the Council to call for an award. It will be seen
later that those proposed for the immediately succeeding years were more successful in

calling forth essays upon them.

The property of the Society at the end of this decade, besides the building, and the col-
lections and library which were of inestimable value, consisted of investments belonging
to the various funds amounting in the aggregate to $186,898.20; this included, however,
several bequests left under restr ictions, a part of the income of which must be expended
only for special purposes, and can never be available for general uses or expenses.

The library at this time had nearly doubled in size during the ten years, and consisted
of 9396 volumes, and 2677 pamphlets, as before stated. But if the members had cause to
rejoice at the material prosperity of the institution, they too had often cause to lament
the loss of faithful workers for its interests, many of whom had been companions in their
labors. Among those taken by death during the ten years were Dr. B. D. Greene,
Dr. Geo. Hayward, Mr. Francis Alger and Dr. Augustus A. Gould, all original members of
the Society; Dr. Wm. J. Walker, its great benefactor; Dr. Henry Bryant, Mr. Octavius
Pickering, Mr. Thomas Bulfinch, Mr. Horace Mann, Mr. Huntington Frothingham
Wolcott, Mr. Carleton Atwood Shurtleff and Capt. Joseph P. Couthouy.

DecapE V. May, 1870— May, 1880.

1870. The fifth decade commences with the office of President vacant, by the
resignation of Dr. Jeffries Wyman ; with Mr. Alpheus Hyatt, Custodian; Rev. Joshua A.
Swan, Recording Secretary and Librarian; Dr. Samuel L. Abbot, Corresponding Secre-
tary ; Mr. Edward Pickering, Treasurer; Mr. F. G. Sanborn, Assistant in the Museum ;
Miss Lillias Blaikie, Assistant in the Library, and Mr. George Coles, Janitor.

It will be recollected that at the annual meeting the Committees for the several depart-
ments of Comparative Anatomy, Mammals and Microscopy were not elected. At the first
meeting succeeding, the following persons were chosen to these respectively :

Mammals. J. A. Allen, Thomas Waterman, Jr., M.D., J. B. 8. Jackson, M.D.

Comparative Anatomy. Thomas Dwight, M.D., Jeffries Wyman, M.D., J. C. White,
M.D.

Microscopy. Edwin Bicknell, R. C. Greenleaf, B. Joy Jeffries, M.D.

The following changes were made in the members of the Committees as elected at the
annual meeting: J. A. Allen was transferred from the Committee on Ornithology to that

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 141

of Fishes and Reptiles, taking N. E. Atwood’s place on the latter; and J. Elliot Cabot
was chosen one of the Committee on Ornithology.

It was decided to change the Janitor’s room from the north-west corner of the base-
ment to the south-west corner, at an expense of $1500, it having been found that
from lack of sunshine in the apartments, the health of members of his family had been
seriously impaired.

Under the new condition of affairs inaugurated by the election of Mr. Hyatt as Cus-
todian, certain changes were desirable in the Regulations and By-Laws. The Librarian,
besides such duties as defined hitherto, was given the sole direction of the Janitor so far as
related to work expected of him in the delivery of publications, care of office, lecture
room, &c. He was also to have sole charge of the assistants in the Library. _The office
hours were fixed at from 9 A. M., until the closmg of the Library in the afternocn, ex-
cept an intermission not exceeding two hours at noon. A vacation of two months was
allowed him during the year.

The Custodian, in addition to duties defined in By-laws, was to have the immediate
charge of the Museum, and the sole direction of the assistants employed there. Also the
sole direction of the Janitor, excepting in such duties as are mentioned in the authority
given the Librarian over him. He was empowered to decide in all cases relative to the
arrangement, care or use of the collections not otherwise specially provided for, and his
decision was to be binding, unless overruled by the Council. When any department suf-
fered by neglect or other cause, he was authorized to take charge of it and report to the
Council. He was required to prepare a report as early as possible on the state of the Mu-
seum, and a plan for the definite arrangement of the collection, so as to best illustrate what
the Society had in view by the formation of its Museum. He was required to give twenty-
four hours each week at least, of undivided attention to the Museum; six hours each
for four days, or eight hours each for three days. A vacation of two months was granted
him.

The Assistant in the Museum was authorized to act for the Custodian in his absence. <A
vacation of six weeks was allowed him, the time to be fixed by the Custodian.

The Assistant in the Library was required to act for the Librarian in his absence.
Her attendance was fixed at seven hours per day. She was to be allowed six weeks
vacation during the year, the time to be appointed by the Librarian.

It was understood that an appeal might be made to the Council on the part of any one
employed who felt aggrieved. ;

At a meeting of the Society on the Ist of June, a Committee was appointed, consisting
of five members, to present a candidate for the office of President at the next meeting.
Mr. Edward Pickering, Dr. C. F. Winslow, Mr. Chas. J. Sprague, Mr. R. C. Greenleaf and
Mr. William H. Niles composed this Committee.

At the next meeting, held on the 25th of June, Mr. Edward Pickering, the chairman,
reported that the name that first suggested itself to the Committee was that of the First
Vice-President, Dr. Charles T. Jackson, one of the earliest, most constant and devoted of
the friends of the Society. Upon his unwearying interest in its welfare, his liberal contri-
butions to its treasures, his courtesy as a presiding officer, his well known scientific attain-
ments, it was not necessary to enlarge. But the reception of the following letter pre-
vented the Committee from offering his name as a candidate.

142 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Epwarp Prickerine, Esq., Chairman of Committee of Nomination.

Dear Sir: Having been informed that the Committee on the Nomination of President
for the Boston Society of Natural History are disposed to offer my name as a candidate for
that office, I beg leave to say to the Committee, through you, that however highly I con-
sider the honor, I cannot consent to become a candidate, smee my health, which is often
impaired, especially in the winter, might be inadequate to the very important duties and
constant attention required of the first officer of the Society. So far as my health and
ability will permit, I shall always be happy to labor for the interests of the Society, and
whatever influence I can exert will be in its favor.

A younger man than myself I believe would be able to serve the Society much better
than I can, and my personal preference would be in favor of the promotion of the Second
Vice-President, Mr. Thomas T. Bouyé, to the Presidency of the Society.

Most cordially thanking the Committee for their favorable consideration, I have the
honor to be Your obedient servant,

CHARLES T. JACKSON.

Under these circumstances the Committee proposed for the office of President of the
Society the name of the Second Vice-President, Thomas T. Bouvé.

The report was accepted.

Dr. C. F. Winslow moved that the Society proceed to ballot for the candidate nominated.

This led to considerable discussion, there being the feeling on the part of some present,
that the proposed action was hasty, and that no harm could result from postponing the
election to a future period. A ballot, however, was ordered by a large majority of the
members, which resulted in the election of Mr. Thomas T. Bouvé to the Presidency of the
Society, there being but two dissenting votes.

Early in this official year a letter was received from Prof. Runkle of the Institute of
Technology, expressing a desire for the codperation of the Boston Society of Natural
History with the Institute. This was warmly responded to by the Council, and the Presi-
dent, Mr. Bouvé, was requested to write an answer to Professor Runkle expressive of the
readiness of the Society to meet his wishes, it being thought that an arrangement might
be made which would be of service to both institutions im the furtherance of the purpose
each had in view, to extend a knowledge of science in the community.

A plan was subsequently adopted by which the Institute had permission to use the halls
of the Museum and the collections for the instruction of its students, subject to such
restrictions as the Council might impose for the preservation of the specimens, it being
understood that the Society should be paid a certain sum therefor, and that the Institute
should deposit the collections and charts of the late Prof. H. D. Rogers with the Society,
grant the use of the Huntington Hall for lectures, if required, and contribute specimens
of natural history towards an educational series. Under this arrangement, Dr. Samuel
Kneeland delivered several lectures on Zodlogy in the lecture room of the Society the
first year, and the Custodian delivered a course on Palaeontology.

It is well, perhaps, before proceeding to detail further the doings of the Society, to
dwell at some length upon the necessity of a change in the management of its inter-
ests, which had led primarily to the election of Mr. Hyatt as Custodian, and subsequently
to the adoption of a more defined policy in its administration. It is manifestly unjust to

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 143

the memory of the many distinguished and devoted members of the Society who, from its
earliest period to that now under consideration, were active in its affairs, to imply that no
plan of organization, or policy of administration had been acted upon. A common senti-
ment influenced all of them, that of affording means by which a better knowledge of
natural history might be attained by themselves and disseminated in the community, and
to act upon this they deliberately planned for the accomplishment of their purposes and
organized means for the object. They established a Museum, they founded a Library,
they held meetings, gave lectures, and published scientific papers. Simply, they did not
define their course of action or their arrangement of the Museum, as more advanced
knowledge and experience suggested in 1870. What they did was in accordance with the
best thought prevailing anywhere in relation to such institutions as that of the Society.

If the several departments of the Museum they formed were not placed in such se-
quence as to form together as now, the best means for the education of visitors, the collec-
tions of each were arranged in thorough scientific order. The time had however come for
a more definite statement of what was proposed on the part of the Society, especially as
views were held by some members tending to prevent such change in its policy and in the
arrangement of the collections as seemed desirable for its best good. The Custodian, Mr.
Hyatt, was therefore required, as has been before mentioned, to prepare a report as early
as possible, on the state of the Museum and a plan for its definite arrangement, so as to
best illustrate what the Society had in view in its foundation. ‘This he did soon after, and
a vote was passed by the Council, adopting the proposed plan as a basis for action
until the annual meeting in 1871.

This plan was not limited in its application to the Museum. The paper presented by
the Custodian and adopted by the Council, was termed “Proposed Plan of Organization,”
and embraced views and suggestions concerning the meetings, the publications, and the
library, as well as the Museum. The essential details of this plan may be found in the
annual report for the year ending May, 1871, published in the fourteenth volume of the
Proceedings. Here only such portions of it will be referred to as tended to excite opposi-
tion and to lead to a conflict of opinion and action upon measures deemed essential to the
interests of the Society.

After stating that the Museum of the Society was intended especially for the instruction
of teachers, general students and the public, and that therefore its collections should be
arranged according to some easily understood and comprehensive plan, illustrating the
general laws of natural science, the Custodian added, “ All the different departments
should be connected as closely as possible, and form together a series of lessons in the
structure of the earth and its constituent parts, and in the organization of the plants and
animals living upon its surface.”

A clear understanding of the defective general character of the arrangement of the
Museum, as judged in the light of present experience, is necessary in order that the reason
for a radical change in the location of the several departments in the building, involving
large expenditure of time and money, may be manifest.

As recently as when the new building of the Society was constructed, it is doubtful if in
any of the great museums of the world, the importance was recognized of arranging the
several departments in such relation to each other as would best serve educational inter-
ests; certain it is, that not a member of the Society gave a thought to it. The only idea

144 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

that moved the minds of the Curators in. selecting rooms for the collections was that of
obtaining such as would meet the requirements of each department without reference to
the rest. Thus it happened that those brought in contact had no relation to each other,
and others closely allied by nature, were far remote in location. On the lower floor,
where are two exhibition rooms, one was appropriated to Botany, the other to Geology,
whilst the department of Minerals, which should have had a place with that of Geology,
and immediately preceding it, was far away in another part of the building.

To act upon the advanced views expressed by the Custodian upon the arrangement of
the departments in consecutive series, a radical change was necessary, involving great ex-
pense, particularly in the reconstruction of cases, so that there might be a proper adapta-
tion of them to new uses. Perhaps it was fortunate that as constructed originally, none
of them were fit for the purposes designed. They were, undoubtedly, as suitable as those
generally then found in Museums, but experience had taught the Curators that there was
a necessity for much better, if the collections were to be saved from ruin. This fact made
it easier to accomplish the radical change in arrangement desired on scientific considera-
tions, as it was seen that the necessary expenditure would accomplish a double object.
There was no intention to do all or much at once, towards effecting the change, but only
to establish the policy of placing the collections in such consecutive order as suggested,
and act upon it as time and means would allow. The President heartily approved of the
change. He was strongly averse to encroaching on the principal of the property of the
Society for any but the most weighty reasons, but he regarded the end to be attained as
fully justifying the means, and he gave the policy of re-arrangement of the Museum all
the individual and official influence he could bring to bear in its support.

Besides the re-arrangement of the several departments, the proposed plan contemplated
the formation of separate New England collections im each, and an epitome collection of
the organic sections of the Museum, containing the types of the vegetable and animal
kingdoms, classified to show the approximations of the lower, and the great differences of
the higher orders of each, with the zodlogical succession of the types of each. It will be
seen in the remaining pages of this volume how steadily the policy was adhered to of
effecting the object mentioned, and how gradually but surely the great work was accom-
plished; although not without opposition, and not without the manifestation of unpleasant
feeling on the part of some who failed to recognize the wisdom of what was proposed.
This was to be expected, even on the part of members devoted to the interest of the Society.
The Custodian indicated his appreciation of this in the following remarks upon the plan
submitted.

“The difficulties to be encountered in carrying out the details of any scheme, will be
great or small, precisely in proportion to the feeling which governs the officers entrusted
with its execution. If a broad, catholic spirit of consideration for the interests of the
Museum obtains, there need be no doubt of its ultimate success. On the other hand, if
regard for the interests of any special departments is allowed to interfere with the
uniform arrangements and proper scientific use of the whole Museum, no very beneficial
results can be anticipated.” The course pursued has, it is believed, received the commen-
dation of all naturalists who have made themselves acquainted with it, and witnessed

the results.

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In October of this year, a large fin-back whale was exhibited in one of the docks
of the harbor, exciting much interest in the community, and attracting a large con-
course of visitors. The matter was brought before the Council by a motion being made
that Dr. Thos. Dwight, Jr. and the Custodian be a committee to procure if possible the
skeleton of this huge animal for the Museum. At the next meeting Dr. Dwight reported
that the carcass had been presented to the Society by Mr. Harvey T. Litchfield, had been
accepted by the committee, and had been towed to and stranded upon Spectacle Island.
Upon the suggestion of Dr. Dwight, three hundred dollars were voted to cover expenses
of transportation, cleaning, and delivering the skeleton at the Museum.

This fine specimen now adorns the main hall of the Museum, being suspended from the
roof of the buildmg. Dr. Dwight gave a large part of a year of scientific labor in the
preparation and final arrangement of the skeleton in the position it now occupies, and to
him the Society is mainly indebted for such an important acquisition to its collection.
The skeleton is undoubtedly the finest in the country, and its perfection is largely due
to his personal care and watchfulness over the carcass until all the bones were safely
removed.

The lack of means at this time necessary to accomplish all the objects the Society had
in view for the instruction of the public in science, weighed upon the niinds of the active
members, as indeed it has ever since. They were, therefore, much gratified to learn from
the President that he had had an interview with Mr. John Amory Lowell, the Trustee of
the Lowell Institute, who had kindly expressed a willingness to provide for several courses
of lectures from the Lowell fund, to be given in our building under the auspices of the
Society ; the lectures to be selected by the Council, and the subjects to be such as per-
tained to natural history.

In accordance with this favorable provision for continued instruction by lectures, seven
courses were given during the season of 1870-71. The first six lectures were by the
Rev. J. L. Russell, on Cryptogamic Botany, the second course of two lectures by
Prof. J. 8. Newberry, on the Cafions of the Colorado and Ancient Civilization of America,
the third course of six lectures by Dr. Thos. Dwight, Jr., on the Comparative Anat-
omy of the Mammalia, the fourth course of four lectures by Dr. P. P. Carpenter, on
a General Sketch of Mollusca, the fifth course of two lectures was by the Rev. R. C.
Waterston, on some of the remarkable natural features of California; the sixth course of
twelve lectures by Prof. W. H. Niles on the Principles of Geology, and the seventh
course of six lectures by the Rev. E. C. Bolles, on the Revelations of the Microscope.
These lectures were generally attended by large numbers and were of a very interesting
and instructive character.

In December, 1870, Miss Blaikie, whose services as assistant in the Library had been
very valuable, and whose presence had always diffused cheerfulness, resigned on account
of her approaching marriage. The thanks of the Council were presented to her for the
very efficient manner in which she had discharged the duties of her office.

1871. By vote of the Council in January of this year, as one of the precautions against
fire; smoking in every part of the building was prohibited. On Feb. 7th, Mr. John Cum-
mings presented to the Society five hundred dollars to be applied for educational lectures
to teachers during the next winter, that of 1871-72. Mr. John Cummings, the President,
Mr. Bouvé, the Custodian, Mr. Hyatt, and Mr. Wm. H. Niles, were appointed a Committee
to employ the gift in accordance with the wishes of the donor. This was the first open

146 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

manifestation made by Mr. Cummings of his intention to afford an opportunity to the
teachers of Boston to become acquainted with natural history. His mind had for some
time dwelt upon a plan by which the public might possess a better scientific culture than
hitherto, and thus share in its refining influences. The general lectures delivered each
winter, though undoubtedly of great service to many, seemed to him to accomplish but
inadequately the object he had in view. He finally came to the conclusion that by inter-
esting the teachers in the several branches of science, and by affording them an oppor-
tunity of receiving practical instruction, better and more lasting results might follow than
from any other course. Possessing themselves a knowledge of botany, of mineralogy, or
of any other branch, they could not fail to exert a great influence upon the many thous-
and minds that came under their instruction, in favor of its study, and thus another gen-
eration be led to show greater interest in pursuits of an elevating tendency. The mem-
bers of the committee other than Mr. Cummings himself, feeling a great interest in the
proposed plan, early issued a circular to the teachers, calling attention to the generous
proposal made by him, and invited their co-operation. A committee on the part of the
masters of the Grammar Schools was appointed to learn the feelings of the teachers gen-
erally on the matter, and to report results. The circular referred to, after mentioning the
proposal of the donor, stated that teachers of every grade were invited; that the lectures
would be given on Wednesday or Saturday afternoons, as the teachers might decide, com-
mencing in October and continuing through the winter at the Museum of Natural
History; that the earlier courses would be on Physical Geography, Botany and Geol-
ogy, and that they would be given by Professors familiar with the object method of teach-
ing and skillful in the use of chalk; that it was designed that the lectures should be
practical and familiar, questions and answers to be allowed, and the whole subject slowly
developed; that the Professors were anxious to know how large classes they could rely
upon before leaving the Museum for summer work, and therefore asked all teachers
who desired to avail themselves of the offer to sign the circular.

It was gratifying to find that the movement excited great interest on the part of those
to whom it was addressed, manifested by the prompt signing of the circular by upwards
of seven hundred teachers. The great success which followed this preliminary action will
be given in the account of proceedings hereafter.

In March of this year, a bequest of one thousand dollars was received from the late Mr.
Sidney Homer for the general purposes of the Society. The Council subsequently voted
to appropriate the amount for New England mammals.

The assistant in the Museum, Mr. Sanborn, was authorized to devote two mornings each
week to giving instruction at the Bussey School of Agriculture, upon his consenting to
have his salary reduced, and Mr. P. S. Sprague was employed to work in the collection of
Insects.

At the annual meeting in May, the Custodian read his report for the year. Much of it
was devoted to general considerations concerning the objects of the policy of the Society
which, having been referred to earlier, will not be dwelt upon here. Of the meetings, it was
stated that there had been eighteen of the Society, with an average attendance of forty-
one persons, eight of the section of Microscopy with an average attendance of eleven, and

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 147

seven of the section of Entomology with an average of ten. Thirty-seven written com-
munications had been made by thirty-six persons. Of these, thirteen were presented in
the section of Entomology and thirteen in the section of Microscopy.

Of the publications, eleven signatures of the Proceedings, completing the thirteenth vol-
ume, had been issued, and of the Memoirs, one paper, Historical Notes on the Earth-
quakes of New England, by William T. Brigham, had appeared.

The Library had received during the year by gift, purchase or exchange, 215 volumes,
765 parts of volumes, 183 pamphlets and 22 maps and charts. The use of the Library had
been extended to members of the Institute of Technology and to others pursuing some
branch of natural science, who made application.

Of the departments of the Museum, the Custodian reported as follows :

That of Mineralogy had received a large accession by the purchase of a fine series of
specimens, and by the presentation of several, and the reception of others by exchange.
The whole collection was in perfect order, and every specimen labelled.

The Geological collection was in good order, and fully arranged and labelled. There
had been no important additions.

The Palaeontological collection had had much work done upon it in identifying and
labelling the specimens.

The condition of the Botanical collection was stated to be good, being entirely free from
insects. It contained about 25,000 specimens labelled and glued to papers, and many
hundred duplicates for exchange. A considerable nnmber of plants from various expe-
ditions yet required much study and work for their identification and arrangement.

The department of Comparative Anatomy had been enriched by the important addition
made to it of the skeleton of the whale before mentioned, of the reception and mounting
of which the particulars have been given.

The corals and the sponges of the Radiata had been rearranged by Mr. Sanborn, and
placed on black tablets. The labelling was reported, however, as incorrect in many cases,
and it was recommended that measures should be taken to secure the services of Prof.
A. KE. Verrill for the naming of the species.

Much work had been done on the Insects by Mr. P. 8. Sprague, and it was stated that
the cases recently procured would obviate all danger of future damage from moths and
Anthreni. Valuable additions to the collection had been made by Messrs. Sanborn, Swan,
Trouvelot, Sprague, Dickenson, Minot, and Scudder.

The department of the Mollusca required much attention from able conchologists. The
services of Dr. P. P. Carpenter were obtained for a short period on the general collection,
and Mr. L. Lincoln Thaxter continued work on the New England collection.

The collection of Fishes was in good order and Mr. Putnam had been engaged in label-
ling the specimens, which work was reported as nearly completed.

The Reptiles were stated to be in the same condition as the previous year. The col-
lection was reported as small, and needing many additions.

The department of Ornithology had received many valuable additions of fresh eggs of
Arctic birds from the Smithsonian Institution, and some rare specimens of birds from
Mr. Thure Kumlein.

The Custodian had adopted many expedients to stop the ravages of the Anthreni, but

148 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

with only partial success. Constant work alone, he said was the most effectual. Every
bird had been soaked in benzine or naptha. The great want was such cases as are
the best adapted to keep out the pests that do the injury. Those in use were not fit by
their construction to contain specimens liable to attack.

The department of the Mammalia was reported as rapidly improving. The New Eng-
land collection had received many accessions obtained by expenditure of a portion of the
bequest of Mr. Sidney Homer, the Council, as before stated, having appropriated the sum
thus received for the purpose of adding to this collection.

At the election of officers, Mr. R. C. Greenleaf was chosen Second Vice-President, and
Mr. J. A. Allen one of the Committee on birds in place of Mr. J. Elliot Cabot, resigned.

Walker Prizes. Ata meeting of the Society in June, the President, Mr. Bouvé, pre-
sented the report of the committee on the Walker prizes.

To Prof. Albert N. Prentiss of Ithaca, New York, the first prize of one hundred dollars
was awarded, and to Mr. Daniel Milliken of Hamilton, Ohio, the second, of fifty dollars,
for their competitive essays “On the mode of the Natural Distribution of Plants over the
Surface of the Earth.”

In October, Mr. F. W. Putnam called the attention of the Society to the great loss the
Chicago Academy of Science had suffered in the destruction by fire of their valuable col-
lections in the various departments of natural history and of archaeology, and offered a
resolution of sympathy on the part of the Boston Society of Natural History, and the
offer of such of our publications and duplicate specimens as might be acceptable. This
was ably seconded by Professor Agassiz, who mentioned that the Museum of Comparative
Zoélogy had suffered greatly by the fire, as all of Count Pourtalés’ collections on the Deep
Sea dredging expedition were deposited there. The resolve was unanimously passed.

At a meeting of the Council it was voted that Miss Lucinda Foster be employed to suc-
ceed Miss Blaikie as assistant in the Library.

The death of the Reverend Joshua Augustus Swan, the Recording Secretary and Libra-
rian of the Society, occurred on the 31st of October. At the meeting on November Ist,
the President, Mr. Bouvé, paid the following tribute to his memory:

“1 know not how to utter the deep grief I feel and which I know is shared by you all
in the death of our dear companion, Mr. Swan, the Secretary of the Society. No one, I
am sure, who has had the pleasure of personal intercourse with him, but will feel that he
has lost a near and dear friend. To me his presence even has always seemed a benedic-
tion. Ido not think I ever was so much impressed by the personal character of any man
with whom I have come in contact as with that of Mr. Swan. He seemed always over-
flowing with love for, and a desire to aid, all about him. What might excite in other
men feelings of bitterness or anger, moved him only to sorrow, and no one was more char-
itable in his judgments of the acts of others. Truly we have lost from our circle a man
devoid of guile, upright in conduct, lovable beyond expression, pure in heart and faithful
in every duty. God grant that his family, so dear to him, may have strength to bear the
loss that falls so much more heavily upon them than upon all others.”

The following resolution, with others offered by Prof. J. D. Runkle, was then unani-
mously passed :

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 149

“ Resolved, That in the death of Mr. Swan the Society recognizes the loss of not only a
highly efficient officer and member, but of an associate greatly respected for his attain-
ments as a scholar, admired for his noble qualities as a gentleman, and loved for his many
virtues as a man and a Christian.”

Before the close of the year it had become so evidently necessary to have cases of
better construction for the birds than those in use, and in furtherance of the plan of
reorganization adopted, the Council voted that the entire income from the Bulfinch Street
fund for one year, be expended in fitting up cases in the upper gallery for that purpose.

1872. In February, Mr. Edward Burgess was elected Recording Secretary and
Librarian of the Society in place of Rev. J. A. Swan, deceased.

The necessity for the presence of police officers on public exhibition days to preserve
order and to see that the specimens of the Society suffered no harm, was now so apparent
that at the meeting on March 6th, the President was authorized to petition the City Gov-
ernment to appoint such officers.

At a meeting of the Section of Entomology, on the 27th of March, the death of an
active member of that section, Mr. William Hales Dale, was feelingly referred to, and
the following resolution unanimously passed :

“ Resolved, That in the death of our late associate, William Hales Dale, we mourn the
loss of one whose many graces had endeared him to us, and whose researches in natural
science, now abruptly arrested by this inscrutable dispensation, commanded our highest
respect.”

This gentleman bequeathed to the Section of Entomology his cabinet of insects, and
five hundred dollars.

The annual meeting of the Society was held on May Ist. From the report of the
Treasurer it appeared that the receipts, including donations amounting to $1249.26, and
a bequest of $500, exceeded the expenditures $3649.89.

The Custodian’s report for the year embraced much matter of importance, but nothing
more gratifying that what he expressed relative to the Teachers’ School of Science, by
which name he designated the school formed through the liberality of Mr. John Cum-
mings. It will be recollected that this gentleman in the early part of the previous year
presented to the Society $500 to be applied for educational lectures to teachers, to be
given during the succeeding winter. This sum he afterwards increased to cover all’
expenses occurred in carrying out his design, so that instead of $500 he really paid $950
to the Society. The remarks upon the result are here given.

“The Teachers’ School of Science was conceived and has been carried into successful
operation during the past winter, under the patronage of Mr. John Cummings, a well
known member of the Society. Under the direction of the Committee in charge, courses
of lessons have been given in Physical Geography, by Prof. W. H. Niles; on Mineralogy,
by W. C. Greenough; on Zoology, by the Custodian; and one is now in progress by
Dr. W. G. Farlow, of Cambridge, on Botany.

“Prof. Niles delivered the first six. He undertook to give the more general features of
the earth’s surface, and then to apply these general principles to the explanation of the
physical characteristics of Massachusetts. The success of this course may be judged by
the average attendance, which was about six hundred teachers of all grades, and by the

150 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

fact that the methods of teaching geography in some of our public schools are now under-
going a change in favor of the more natural method introduced by him.

“The necessity of actually handling and dissecting specimens obliged the Committee,
after consultation with the masters of the Public Schools, to confine the issue of tickets to
about two for each school. This limited the average attendance at the succeeding lessons,
six on mineralogy, eleven on zoology, and ten on botany, to about fifty-five. Specimens
were distributed and studied at every lesson, and we know that in many instances the
instruction was repeated at the schools. We have without doubt excited an interest in
natural history, which must speedily effect a marked improvement in the system of public
instruction.

“The lectures of the first course by Professor Niles were given in the commodious hall
of the Institute of Technology, the others in the lecture room of the Society. The mate-
rials for the course of zodlogy were largely furnished by Prof. S. F. Baird, United States
Commissioner of Fisheries, and those of the botanical course by Prof. Asa Gray, from the
Botanic Garden at Cambridge.

“‘The expenses of the Society in connection with these lectures were but trifling, and it
received donations incidental to their delivery of considerable value. Among these-were
a full suite of the marine animals of Wood’s Holl, a full and complete collection of the
fauna of the southern coast of Massachusetts, and also a complete collection of the marine
animals of the coast of Maine. These collections were purchased for the Teachers’ School
of Science by Mr. Cummings, but as the duplicates were sufficient for the distribution at
the schools, a series from all of them was first selected for the Museum to be the property
of the Society. Many of the species thus obtained were not before in the cabinet. The
visit of the Custodian to Wood’s Holl to procure the specimens required for the school,
enabled him fortunately to procure a complete set of the skins of sharks, rays, skates and
other large fishes, which were collected by the vessels and the men in the employ of the
U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries.”

The Custodian, in addition to what has been given above, stated that at his solicitation
Mr. Charles J. Sprague had generously given two hundred dollars towards preparing the
skins mentioned above for the New England collection.

The rearrangement of the Museum in accordance with the plan adopted by the Society,
had been commenced by removing the birds to the upper gallery, where suitable cases had
been prepared for their reception. As the experience of the Society may be of service
to some who read these pages, the statement of the Custodian concerning these cases is
given entire. “ Extraordinary precautions were taken to render them absolutely insect
tight. The lumber was very carefully selected and kept heated while the work was going
on. All joints were tongued, grooved and glued. The tops, bottoms and sides were built
into the plastering, the sashes grooved and tongued and locked by wedge-shaped bolts.
The latter were arranged so as to draw the sashes up tightly and firmly against the
tongues at the top and bottom and completely close the fronts of each case. Morse’s
patent brackets were used to suspend the shelving, which hangs upon the wall and has no
connection with the fronts. The success of these precautions is shown by the air tight
condition of the cases. By suddenly opening or closing a sash, one can readily crush in
or burst out the neighboring glass panes. The resistance of the air is so great that it has

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 151

to be overcome by a steady slow pressure. The plan was similar to one adopted in the
Smithsonian Institution and was recommended by Professor Baird.”

The Custodian reported that the effort to free the Ornithological collection from the
further ravages of Anthreni had been successful. Some of the birds had been so badly
affected as to require their being operated upon over twenty-five times before they were
entirely freed from the pests.

In the Conchological department much work had been done by Dr. P. P. Carpenter,
and by exchange with him a valuable collection of British shells had been procured for
the Society.

In the department of Entomology also much work had been done by Mr. Sprague in
completing the general collection of Coleoptera placed in the rail cases of the upper gal-
lery. The specimens of Coleoptera were mentioned as numbering about 10,000, and are
in the improved boxes adopted by the Council.

The Mineralogical department had received by donation from Mr. F. Alger, the large
specimens of beryl which have since occupied the window recesses in the hall of entrance
to the Museum, exciting the interest of beholders.

The Geological department had been enriched by the presentation on the part of the
Technological Institute of the magnificent mass of hematite iron ore and jasper which
may be seen with the beryls above mentioned in the hall of the Museum. From Mr. L. 8.
Burbank a series of specimens had been received illustrative of a paper by him upon the
Kozoon canadense, from Dr. $8. Kneeland some lavas, and from Mr. Thomas T. Bouveé a set
of polished marbles.

The other collections were mentioned as in fair condition. Much work was constantly
required upon many of them in consequence of defective cases.

Of the publications two quarterly parts of the fourteenth volume of the Proceedings
had been issued, and four articles of the Memoirs.

The Library had received 424 volumes, 945 parts of volumes, 268 pamphlets and 52
maps and charts.

There had been eighteen See meetings with an average attendance of thirty-two per-
sons, nine of the section of Microscopy with: an average of ten, and eight of the section of
Entomology with an average of eleven. Six Corresponding and thirty-four Resident Mem-
bers had been elected. There had been eighty-two communications, of which seventeen
were before the Entomological section and twelve before the Microscopical section.

Previous to the election of officers, the department of Geology and Minerals was divided,
and at the election the following members were chosen on the respective committees:
Geology; William H. Niles, William T. Brigham and Thomas TT. Bouvé ;—Minerals ;
Thomas T. Bouvé, Charles T. Jackson, M. D., and L. 8. Burbank. The only other change
made at the election was in substituting Dr. Samuel Kneeland in place of Mr. J. A. Allen
on the Committee for Fishes and Reptiles.

Leave of absence was granted in June to the Custodian for one year, his salary to be
relinquished until his return to the duties of his office. He wished to visit Europe and
make himself acquainted with its museums and men of science.

Walker Prizes. In June the Council awarded the first prize of one hundred dollars

52 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

to E. D. Cope, and the second of fifty dollars to Benjamin G. Ferris, for their competitive
essays on “The Darwinian Question; its bearing on the Development of Animal Life.”’

In August of this year, the Council passed votes implying some action on the part of
members not entirely satisfactory, and at the same time defining limits for the future, viz. :

All donations shall be submitted to the Committees of departments, before final depo-
sition.

All work rooms in use by Committees are to be regarded as private and shall not be
exposed to intrusion except by members of the Council.

In September, Prof. Shaler proposed that notices of each meeting be mailed to mem-
bers designating the subjects that would be brought before it, hoping this might lead to
better attendance. Before this time simple notice of other meetings had been published
in two daily papers. The suggestion of Prof. Shaler was approved and adopted.

In October, the Council, in view of the fact that the City Government did not furnish
regularly such police officers as were necessary on public days, passed the following vote :

“That in consequence of injuries done the Society’s building and collection by visitors,
the Museum will be closed to the public after October 19th, until measures can be taken to
properly protect the property; and the Secretary is instructed to advertise the same in
six daily papers for one week.’ This determined action led to officers being furnished for
a while satisfactory to the Society.

During the summer of the year, there had been three field excursions of the members
of the Entomological section, resulting in their obtaining a large collection of specimens.
The places visited were first Mattapan and vicinity, second Peabody, and third, Waltham
and Waverly.

1875. The Museum of the Society was closed to the public on the first day of March,
because the police officers had ceased to attend. This led to an interview on the part of
the President, with the Mayor and Chief of Police, resultmg im a promise on their part
that officers should be present on public days.

At the annual meeting in May, in the absence of the Custodian abroad, the Secre-
tary, Mr. Burgess, presented the yearly Report upon the condition and operations of the
Society. From this is given the following abstract.

During the year, two Honorary, one Corresponding, and twenty Resident Members had
been elected.

There had been eighteen general meetings of the Society, six of the section of Ento-
mology, and six of the section of Microscopy. The average attendance at the general
meetings had been twenty-five, showing perhaps a diminished interest in them.

There had been four courses of Lowell Lectures given under the direction of the Society,
and a fifth was in progress. The first was upon “The Principles of Zodlogy,” by Prof.
Edward $8. Morse, and had an average audience of sixty persons; the second upon “ Min-
eralogy,” by Mr. L. 8. Burbank, and had an average audience of forty persons; the third
upon “ Evenings with the Microscope,” by the Rev. KE. C. Bolles, and had an average audi-
ence of two hundred and fifty, and the fourth on “ Chemical and Physical Geology,” by
Prof. T. Sterry Hunt, and had an average attendance of one hundred and fifty. The fifth
course by Mr. B. Waterhouse Hawkins, upon “ Comparative Anatomy,” so far as they had
progressed, had had an average attendance of fifty.

The Teachers’ School of Science was necessarily suspended, much to the regret of a
great number who desired to avail themselves of its privileges. The publications had

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 153

been satisfactory. Two numbers of the Memoirs and two parts of the Proceedings had
been issued.

The additions to the Library during the year had been 277 volumes, 852 parts of vol-
umes, 189 pamphlets and 20 maps and charts.

In the Museum the necessary alterations in the cases had progressed as fast as regard to
financial considerations warranted. New and admirable ones for the reception of the valu-
able Herbarium presented by John Amory Lowell, Esq., had been made and were in use.

The change in the location of the collections of the various departments so as to bring
them in the designed relation to each other had proceeded steadily, and at this time the
work was so far accomplished as to enable visitors to the galleries, by entering the first
and passing round to the right, to study the zodlogical collection in order, beginning with
the sponges and passing to the higher groups.

A beginning had been made on a comprehensive system of labelling, a great step
towards publishing a visitors’ catalogue, so important as a means of instruction.

Much work had been done on the collections during the year by Messrs. Emerton and
Sprague, the former having labelled over 2,000 bottles of Crustacea and many of New
England worms and radiates, and the latter being engaged nearly all the year on insects.
Dr. Carpenter had likewise done much in studying our Mollusca and in labelling them.
They were sent to him at Montreal for identification.

Valuable donations had been received from many parties, among them birds from the
Smithsonian Institution, insects from Mr. Sanborn and Mr. Ernest Papendiek, a fine fossil
tree from the Joggins Mine, Nova Scotia, presented by the Institute of Technology and a
beautiful Japanese crystal globe by Mr. Thomas Gaffield.

The collection of Minerals had been much enriched by a large and valuable addition
made to it by purchase from Dr. Beadle of Philadelphia. The expense was but trifling to
the Society, as two members paid a large sum towards the purchase, and considerable
money was received from the sale of duplicates.

The number of visitors to the Museum seemed steadily to increase, schools often coming
with their teachers. It was open to the public daily during the Peace Jubilee, so called,
when the City provided special police for its protection.

The Treasurer’s account for the year exhibited an excess of receipts over expenditures
of $1,342.98. The Society suffered a loss of $6,280 from the great fire of November,
1872, it having held stocks in insurance companies that became worthless. It was obliged
to pay also assessments to the amount of $2,346, levied by the companies.

The changes made in the officers at the election were as follows: John Cummings was
chosen on the Committee of the department of Geology, from which William T. Brigham
and Thomas T. Bouvé resigned. J. Henry Blake was chosen on the Committee of Mol-
lusks in place of John Cummings, transferred to Committee on Geology. Richard Bliss,
Jr., was chosen on the Committee for Fishes and Reptiles in place of Dr. D. Humphreys
Storer resigned. J. H. Emerton was chosen on the Committee for Mammals in place of
Thomas Waterman, Jr., M. D., resigned. Samuel H. Scudder was chosen on the Committee
for Insects in place of F. G. Sanborn.

In June of this year the gallery was added, with the cases, to the rear library apartment.
The want of more room for books had been long felt but was now indispensable. A case
was also built for the reception of the moose which had been procured for the Society.

154 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

At a meeting of the Council it was voted to present the specimens belonging to the
Society which were formerly in the Ethnological department to the Peabody Museum.

Walker Prizes. The first prize of sixty dollars was awarded in June to Dr. A. S. Pack-
ard, Jr., for an essay by him on the subject proposed for this year ‘“ On the development
and transformations of the common house-fly.”

The Grand Honorary Prize was awarded this year by the Council to Alexander Agassiz
for his investigations in the Embryology, Geographical Distribution, and Natural History of
the Echinoderms, and the sum of one thousand dollars, the highest amount the Council
was authorized to grant, appropriated for the purpose.

In November, Mr. William 'T. Brigham offered to present to the Society the casts of the
busts of several naturalists, if it would pay the cost of transportation from Europe. The
offer was accepted with thanks; these busts, being those of Cuvier, A. L. de Jussieu,
Adrian de Jussieu, Buffon, Linnzeus, and Charles Girard, were subsequently received and
now adorn the main hall of the Museum.

A meeting of the Council was called by the President on December 15th. Upon assem-
bling, he addressed the members, stating that in view of the great calamity that had befal-
len the community and particularly upon all interested in scientific culture and progress,
by the death of our distinguished member Louis Agassiz, he had thougnt it well that they
should come together and take such immediate action in relation thereto, as might seem
fitting upon the occasion. He then recommended as a manifestation of respect to the
memory of our honored associate, that the usual second monthly meeting be omitted on
the next Wednesday evening and that we communicate to the family of Professor Agassiz
our wish to be present at his obsequies if this should be agreeable to them. The pro-
posed action was taken.

Louis AGASSIZ.

874. The meeting of the Society on January 7th partook largely of a memorial char-
acter, the proceedings generally relating to the death of our distinguished member, Prof.
Louis Agassiz. After calling the members to order, President Bouvé addressed them as
follows :

Since we last met an event has occurred that has brought deep sorrow to our hearts,
and indeed moved with grief those of the whole community; for whilst in the death of
the great naturalist we have lost a distinguished Honorary Member, a pioneer in the paths
we love to tread, one whose name deservedly ranks high among the most illustrious of
those who have explored the world of matter and of life, the great body of the commun-
ity has lost one whom it has long and justly regarded as pre-eminently the great teacher
in science, the man of all men, who inspired the love of knowledge, and who was never
weary in his efforts to impart the best he knew to every seeking soul.

Truly all alike, learned or unlearned, high in attainments and position, or only humble
seekers of truth, may well weep the loss of him, whose presence alone was to everybody
an inspiration.

To those of us who have been in any degree sharers in his labors, or companions in lit-
erary or scientific circles, his loss is irreparable.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 155

The fine physical form, the countenance ever beaming with feeling and intelligence, the
expressive utterances, and above all, that subtle influence which came from the whole
being of the man, alas! that these are now only matters of memory.

But it is not for me to dwell upon the event I have alluded to. For a fit expression of
the loss sustained by the Society, we have the privilege of looking to one whose valuable
services to it in its earlier days we have not forgotten, and who was one of the first among
scientific men to welcome to our shores and our companionship the great naturalist. I
need not say I refer to our former President, Mr. George B. Emerson, whom I now have
the pleasure to introduce to you.

Upon the close of the President’s remarks, Mr. George B. Emerson gave an interesting
address, a large part of which is here presented.

I thank you, Mr. President, for the great honor you do me by inviting me to say some-
thing before, and in behalf of, your Society, in commemoration of the most distinguished
naturalist that has appeared among us. You know how reluctantly I consented to speak,
and I feel how madequately I shall be able to represent the Society. Yet I cannot but
admit that there is some apparent propriety in your request. I was one of those who
formed this Society. All the others who first met, except one, are gone; Dr. B. D.
Greene, Dr. J. Ware, F. C. Gray and the rest. My old friend, Dr. Walter Channing,
alone, in whose office most of the first meetings were held, is still living. Moreover, while
I was in the seat you now occupy, it was agreed by my associates that it was very proper
and desirable that a survey of the State, botanical and zoélogical, should be made, to
complete that begun by Prof. Hitchcock in Geology. At their request I presented to Gov.
Everett a memorial suggesting this.

Our suggestion was graciously received. Gov. Everett brought the subject before the
Legislature, in which some friends of natural history in the House of Representatives had
already been acting toward the same end ; an appropriation was made, and he was author-
ized to appoint a commission for that purpose. On that commission four members of this
Society were placed; the reports of three of whom, Dr. Harris, Dr. Gould and Dr. Storer,
have been, and still continue to be, considered of signal and permanent value, and Mr.
Agassiz himself regarded them as among the best reports ever made. It has given and
still gives me the greatest satisfaction to know that the Society has been continually going
forward, and that it is now more prosperous than ever.

A little more than twenty-seven years ago, as I was sitting in my study, a message
came to me that two gentleman desired to see me. They were immediately admitted, and
Dr. Gould introduced me to Louis Agassiz. His noble presence, the genial expression of
his face, his beaming eye and earnest, natural voice, at once gained me, and I responded
cordially to his introduction. He said, ‘“‘I have come to see you, because Dr. Gould tells
me that you know the trees of Massachusetts; I wish to be made acquainted with the
Carya. I have found the leaves and fruit of several species in the Jura Mountains, where
they were deposited when those mountains were formed; but, since that time, none have
been found living in Europe. I want to know them as they are now growing.”

I told him that I knew all the species found in New England, and should be glad to
show them to him. “But I have,” I said, “presently to begin my morning’s work. If
you will let me call on you immediately after dinner, I shall be glad to take you to them.”

156 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

At the time fixed, I called on him at his lodgings and took him, in my chaise, first to
Parker’s Hill, where one species of hickory grew, then through Brookline, Brighton and
Cambridge, where two others were found, and to Chelsea, where a fourth, and one that
might be a variety, were growing. I pointed out the characteristics of each species in
growth, branching, bark, fruit and leaves, and especially in the buds. He listened with
the most captivating attention, and expressed surprise at my dwelling upon the peculiari-
ties of the buds. “I have never known the buds to be spoken of as characteristic,” said
he; “that is new to me.”

We drove on to Chelsea Beach, which stretches off several miles, — apparently without
end, — and, as the tide was very low, was then at least a quarter of a mile wide. He was
charmed with everything, expressing his pleasure with all the earnestness of a happy
child, hardly able to restrain himself in his admiration and delight. He told me that he
had never before been on a sea-beach, but that he was familiar with the undulations and
wave marks on the old beaches laid open in the Jura Mountains. ;

I need not say what a pleasant drive this was. I had long felt great interest in various
departments of Natural History, but had been so fully occupied with my own duties, as a
teacher, that I had been able to indulge myself fully, and that for a small part of the year,
in one only. Here was a companion who was intimately acquainted with all, and with the
most distinguished men who had been advancing them, and who was ready and happy to
communicate wealth of information upon every point I could ask about.

The news of the death of Agassiz caused a throb of anguish in millions of hearts. Such
a death is a loss to mankind. What death among kings or princes in the Old World, or
among the aspirants for power, or the possessors of wealth, in the New, could produce
such deep-felt regret?

He is gone. We shall see his benignant face and hear his winning voice no more ; but
we have before us his example and his works. Let us dwell, for a few moments, on some
features in his life and character, as an inspiration and a guide, especially to those who
mean to devote their leisure, or their life, to natural history, or to the great work of
teaching! What a change has taken place, in the whole civilized world, and especially in
this country, in men’s estimation of the value and interest of these pursuits, since he
began his studies. To whom is that change more due than to Agassiz?

He was endowed by nature with extraordinary gifts. His fascinating eye, his genial
smile, his kindliness and ready sympathy, his generous earnestness, his simplicity and ab-
sence of pretension, his transparent sincerity ;—these account for his natural eloquence
and persuasiveness of speech, his influence as a man, and his attraction and power as a
teacher. For the development and perfecting of many of his highest and most estimable
qualities of mind and character, Mr. Agassiz was doubtless indebted to his noble mother,
who, judging from every thing we can learn, was a very rare and remarkable woman.
To the quiet, homely, household duties, for which the Swiss women are distinguished, she
added unconsciously, very uncommon mental endowments, which she wisely cultivated by
extensive reading of the best authors, and by conversation with the most intelligent per-
sons.

Trained by such a mother, Agassiz grew up in the belief of a Creator, an infinite and
all-wise Intelligence, Author and Governor of all things. He was sincerely and humbly

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 157

religious. During his whole life, while exploring every secret of animal structure, he saw
such wonderful consistency in every part, that he never for a moment doubted that all
were parts of one vast plan, the work of one infinite, all-comprehending Thinker. He
saw no place for accident, none for blind, unthinking, brute or vegetable selection.
Though he was a man of the rarest intellect, he was never ashamed to look upwards and
recognize an infinitely higher and more comprehensive Intellect above him.

Agassiz’s mother-tongue was French, but both this and German were in common use
in the Pays de Vaud. He lived, for years afterwards, in several parts of Germany, and
thus attained, without special study, the rich language which we Americans have to give
so much time to acquire; and he lived, long, a studious and laborious life in Paris, where
he became intimately acquainted with Cuvier and other distinguished naturalists, and per-
fectly familiar with the French language in its best form. More than once, when he was
putting his note-book into his pocket, he told me he knew not whether he had made his
notes in German or in French.

Agassiz’s universality of study and thought suggest a precious lesson. It is never safe
to give one’s self entirely to one study or to one course of thought. The full powers of
the mind cannot so be developed. Nature is infinite; and a small part of one kingdom
cannot be understood, however carefully studied, without some knowledge of the rest.

Agassiz took a large, comprehensive view of the whole field of natural history ; his
thorough education and intimate acquaintance with the works of the highest men in sey-
eral walks, Von Martius, Cuvier, Humboldt, and others, made it possible for him to do it,
and he then fixed on certain departments, and, for the time, he gave himself entirely to
one.

Whenever Mr. Agassiz undertook a special work, he prepared himself for it by a care-
ful study of whatever had been done in that particular line by all others. He had seen,
everywhere, indications of the action of ice. He determined to investigate. He began
by reading all he could find upon the subject, and then set himself to observe, patiently
and carefully, what was taking place in the glaciers themselves. He gave the leisure of
several years to this examination, and then felt himself ready to observe the effects of
similar action in former ages and distant regions. The opinions of such an observer, after
such a preparation, cannot be without authority and value; and it is not surprising that
he should not himself have been willing to yield them to those of others who had never
given the same study to the subject.

His example as a teacher has been of inestimable value, as showing the importance of
the best and largest possible preparation, teaching by things really existing and not by
books, opening the eye to the richness and beauty of nature, showing that there is no
spot, from the barren sea-beach to the top of the mountain, which does not present objects
attractive to the youngest beginner, and worthy of, and rewarding, the careful considera-
tion of the highest intellect.

In 1855, with the aid of Mrs. Agassiz, who, from the beginning, did a great deal of the
work, Mr. Agassiz opened a school for young ladies. For this he was, in all respects,
admirably well qualified. The charm of his manner, his perfect simplicity, smcerity and
warm-heartedness, attracted every pupil, and won her respect, love and admiration. He
knew, almost instinctively, what we teachers have to learn by degrees, that we cannot

158 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

really attract, control and lead a child, and help to form his habits and character, without
first loving him; that nothing in the world is so powerful as real disinterested affection.
He gave, himself, by lectures most carefully prepared, an hour’s instruction, real instruc-
tion, every day. All his pupils retain their respect and love for him, and some keep the
notes they made of his talks, and read them with delight. The school was continued for
seven years, with great success, attracting pupils from distant parts of the country.

One of the secrets of his success as a teacher was, that he brought in nature to teach for
him. The young ladies of a large school were amused at his simplicity in putting a grass-
hopper into the hand of each, as he came into the hall; but they were filled with surprise
and delight, as he explained the structure of the insect before them, and a sigh of disap-
pointment escaped from most of them when the lesson, of more than an hour, closed. He
had opened their eyes to see the beauty of the wonderful make of one of the least of God’s
creatures. What a lesson was this to young women preparing to be teachers in the public
schools of our Commonwealth, showing that in every field might be found objects to
excite, and, well explained, to answer the questions, what? and how? and why? which
children will always be asking.

He had all the elements necessary to an eloquent teacher: voice, look and manner, that
instantly attracted attention ; an inexhaustible flow of language, always expressive of rich
thoughts, strong common sense, a thorough knowledge of all the subjects on which he
desired to speak, a sympathy with others so strong that it became magnetic, and a feeling
of the value of what he had to say, which became and created enthusiasm. He thus held
the attention of his audience, not only instructing and persuading them, but converting
them into interested and admiring fellow students.

The advent of Agassiz is to be considered a most important event in the Natural His-
tory of the country. The example of his character, his disinterestedness, his consecration
to science, his readiness to oblige even the humblest and most modest, his superiority to
self-interest, his sincerity and absence of all pretension, his enthusiasm in all that is noble
—all these recommended not only him, but the science he professed. Never was a life more
richly filled with study, work, thought; and all was consecrated, not to the benefit of
himself, but to the promotion of science for the good of his fellow creatures.

For many years Mr. Agassiz has seemed to live only for the advancement of natural
history, by the building up of his Museum, for which he had collected material, of the
greatest possible diversity, which would, properly cared for and arranged, form a Museum
superior in numbers and variety to any similar collection in the world. Shall this great
work be allowed to fail ?

Let every person who honors the name of Agassiz, say No! Let every one who regrets
that the great main support of the noble structure is taken away, resolve that it shall not
fail, but that, so far as depends on him and what he can do, it shall go on and be
built and filled, and stand firm, a glorious temple of science forever.

At the conclusion of Mr. Emerson’s address Rev. Dr. R. C. Waterston in response to
an invitation from the chair, spoke as follows of Prof. Agassiz’s connection with the Cen-
tennial Anniversary of the birth of Humboldt :

At a meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, June, 1869, it was moved and
voted that a celebration of the Centennial Anniversary of the birth of Alexander von

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 159

Humboldt, by this Society, was highly desirable. It was also suggested that Professor Agas-
siz be invited to deliver an address upon the occasion. The invitation was extended to
Professor Agassiz and accepted. Various circumstances connected with that memorable
occasion, at a time like the present, come to the mind with peculiar power.

In Professor Agassiz’s public address, his introductory remarks were, ‘I am invited to
an unwonted task. Thus far I have appeared before the public only as a teacher of nat-
ural history. To-day, for the first time in my life, I leave a field in which I am at home,
to take upon myself the duties of a biographer.”

Thus this Society had the privilege of inviting Professor Agassiz to a duty (most nobly
fulfilled), which without this invitation in all probability he would never have entered
upon. That being as he himself expressed it, the first time im his life he had undertaken
such a task; it was also, as we now know, destined to be the last. This event which, on
every account, had great interest, for these reasons possesses a solemn and sacred import.
That anniversary we would keep in grateful remembrance, forming as it does, in connec-
tion with many reminiscences, an added and, may we not say, an indissoluble tie between
us and him.

At the time when the invitation was extended to Prof. Agassiz, he was overwhelmed
with work; while by previous labor, both body and mind had already been overtaxed.
Under such circumstances, it would have appeared next to impossible for him to comply
with the request of the Society, yet so desirous was he to meet their wishes that he under-
took the task.

On the 3d of July Prof. Agassiz wrote as follows :—

“For weeks past I have mtended every day to write to you, but the fact is that just
now I have scarcely time to breathe, and with the sincere desire of accepting the invita-
tion tendered to me through you, I have been trying to free myself in some degree of
the tasks before me. It is not so easy to do this as it seems.

“However, I write now to say that I will do my best so far as it depends upon me, to
make the Anniversary of Humboldt worthy of his memory, and serviceable to science in
the country. The task will be a difficult, and in some respects a painful, one to me, none
the less because of my personal relations with him. But I will do my best, and I beg
you to believe that the confidence placed in me by those who wish to make this occasion
a marked day, has gratified and touched me deeply.

“| wish you would express this sentiment in my behalf, and add that my great cause of
hesitation has been the fear that I might not satisfy the expectations of those who have
thus honored me. Believe me,

“ Kver truly yours,
“‘ Louis AGASSIZ.”

In a note dated July 21st, he says, “I have been completely prostrated this week.”

Yet notwithstanding this exhaustion (doubtless far beyond what was imagined by his
most intimate friends, and, added to this, serious illness among the members of his own
family, his son leaving for Europe, on account of his health, the very day upon which the
address was delivered), Professor Agassiz most conscientiously devoted himself through the

160 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

sultriness of an intensely hot mid-summer, to the work of preparation. Few are prob-
ably aware what a mind like his would, under such circumstances, consider requisite.
Nothing was to be taken for granted; not even the memory of former investigations
would be accepted without passing through the process of examination. Every step was
to be measured, with critical exactness, through the long progress of Humboldt’s scientific
career.

Is there not exemplified in this fact, one of the marked characteristics of Prof. Agas-
siz’s mind? Absolute thoroughness; sifting every question and principle down to its first
elements; tracing every thought, from its earliest germ through each successive develop-
ment, until the final result is reached.

In order to secure freedom from all interruption during these researches, he asked for a
room at the City Library, which was readily granted. Here he could gather about him
papers and books, which during his absence would remain undisturbed. Mr. Winsor, the
efficient and obliging Superintendent, tells me that for more than a month Prof. Agassiz
passed at least three or four days of each week, from nine o’clock in the morning until
generally three o’clock in the afternoon, and that during this time he called for more than
two hundred volumes in different languages, always desirmg to read each work as it orig-
inally came from the mind of the author. Thus every work which Alexander von Hum-
boldt ever wrote passed under careful review; not only every volume, but every pam-
phlet, with the exception of one, which could not be found in this country.

On the 4th of September he wrote me,

“| have only yesterday finished gathermg my materials, and have not yet begun pre-
paring my address.”

He adds — “ My friends will never know what anxieties I have to go through on this
occasion.”

Six days after this I received the following :—

“ Nahant, Sept. 10th, 1869.
“My Dear Sir:

“TJ have succeeded this evening in bringing to a close my draft of an address; not
exactly as I would like to deliver it, but such as I may be compelled to read should the
occurrences of the day unfit me for an extemporized discourse, which I believe might be
more effective.”

It would thus appear that even after the address was written, he hoped to give, not
what he had embodied in manuscript, but the result of which that would be the basis, in
the form of an extemporized discourse, for which, as all know from his constant habit of
speaking without notes, he possessed the very highest qualifications.

However, to meet every contingency, he adds :—

‘As I go to-morrow to Cambridge, I will try to have my illegible manuscript set in
type, that I may myself be able to read it. At the same time I shall see how my dia-
grams are progressing, and if satisfactory, forward them at once to the Music Hall.

“ Very truly yours,
“TL, AGASSIZ.”

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 161

On the 15th of September he wrote :—
“ DEAR Sir :—

“T hope I may have a proof of my address for your reporters by the time I reach Bos-
ton to-morrow, which I shall hand to you. My diagrams went to the Music Hall Saturday
afternoon, with the palm-branch worn on Humboldt’s funeral.

“The pen taken from his desk the day he died, and sent to me, I shall bring myself,
fearing it might be lost if left with bulkier objects. Very truly yours,

“LL. AGASssiz.”’

Such were some of the preparatory labors connected with the address which was to be
heard on that Centennial Anniversary by literary and scientific men from every part of the
country. Seldom has there been an occasion in the history of New England, which has
brought together so brilliant an assemblage of able scholars and prominent men in every
department of thought.

At the evening reception, Mr. Ralph Waldo Emerson, in speaking of what he termed
the “delightful address in praise of Humboldt,” concentrated his estimate in this charac-
teristic declaration, “our eminent professor never delivered a discourse more wise, more
happy, or of more varied power.”

These words expressed the universal feeling. And the address, so cordially welcomed
by those who heard it, was received when published with equal favor on both sides of the
Atlantic.

This very day, I was reading a letter by Sir John Herschel expressing his commen-
dation; and in the Life of Alexander von Humbolt, edited by Professor Karl Bruhns,
director of the observatory at Leipzig, the address by Agassiz is referred to, both in the
preface, and in the body of the book. In the latter, a lengthy extract is introduced.
[See Vol. H, pp. 179, 180 and 181.]

There were several occasions upon which Alexander von Humboldt extended such
attention and kindness to Agassiz, at a time when encouragement was most needed, that
it seems but an act of justice and gratitude to recall them here. The first was related by
Agassiz some fifteen years ago, at a meeting of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, soon after Humboldt’s death.

“May I be permitted,” he said, “to tell a circumstance personal tome? I was only
twenty-four years of age when in Paris, whither I had gone with means given me by a
friend, but I was at last about to resign my studies from want of ability to meet my
expenses. Professor Mitscherlich was then on a visit in Paris, and I had seen him in the
morning, when he had asked me what was the cause of my depressed feelings, and I told
him I had to go, for I had nothing left. The next morning as I was seated at breakfast,
in front of the yard of the Hotel, where I lived, I saw the servant of Humboldt approach.
He handed me a note, saying there was no answer and disappeared. I opened the note,
and I see it now as distinctly as if I held the paper in my hand. It said:

‘My Frienp :—

‘I hear that you intend leaving Paris in consequence of some embarrassments. This
shall not be. I wish you to remain here as long as the object for which you came is not
accomplished. I enclose you a check of £50. It is a loan which you may repay when

999

you can.

162 ; HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

That one act of Humboldt, at the turning point in the life of Agassiz, may have affected
the whole course of his active career. If Sir Humphrey Davy could say “ My best dis-
covery was Michael Faraday,’—— what shall we say of this discriminating instance of gen-
erous encouragement, which perhaps gave to us Agassiz as a man of science.

In the address upon Humboldt, Agassiz speaks of his studies at Munich, whose Uni-
versity had opened under the most brilliant auspices, and where nearly every professor
was prominent in some department of science or literature. “These men,” he says,
“were not only our teachers but our friends. We were the companions of their walks
and often present at their discussions.” ‘“ My room,” he adds, “‘ was our meeting-place, bed-
room, study, museum, library, lecture-room, fencing-room, all in one. Students and pro-
fessors used to call it the little Academy.”

It was at this time that Humboldt was preparing for his Asiatic journey. Agassiz was
anxious to accompany him, and asked that he might join the expedition as an assistant.
This was the beginning of his personal acquaintanceship with Humboldt.

A graphic picture is presented of the student’s life in Paris, in the days of Louis Phil-
ippe, when Cuvier, just the age of Humboldt himself, was active and ardent in research,
his salon frequented by statesmen, scholars and artists.

Cuvier was then giving a course of lectures, in the College of France, on the History
of Science. “Humboldt,” says Agassiz, “attended these lectures regularly; I had fre-
quently the pleasure of sitting by his side, and being the recipient of his passing criti-
cism.” At this period, Humboldt had his working-room at the Rue de la Harpe.
“There,” continues Agassiz, “it was my privilege to visit him frequently. There he
gave me leave to come, to talk with him about my work, and consult him in my diffieul-
ties.”

At this time Agassiz was twenty-four years of age, and Humboldt sixty-two.

“JT had recently,’ says Agassiz, “taken my degree as Doctor of Medicine, and was
struggling, not only for a scientific position, but for the means of existence also. I have
said that he gave me permission to come as often as I pleased to his room, opening to me
freely the inestimable advantages which intercourse with such a man gave to a young
investigator like myself. But he did far more than this, occupied and surrounded as he
was, he sought me out in my lodging.”

Here he gives a most interesting account of a visit from Humboldt, at Agassiz’s narrow
quarters, in thé Hotel du Jardin des Plantes. After which is an invitation from Humboldt
to meet him at the Palais Royal,— where they dine,— “a rare indulgence,” says Agassiz,
“for a young man, who could allow himself few luxuries.” “ Here,” he adds, “ for three
hours, which passed like a dream, I had him all to myself. How he examined me, and
how much I learned in that short time! How to work, what to do, and what to avoid ;
how to live, how to distribute my time; what methods of study to pursue; these were the
things of which he talked to me, on that delightful evening.”

When we reflect upon the extended reputation acquired by Agassiz before he left
Europe; of that visit to this country which led him gladly to adopt it as his home, and of
the untiring zeal with which he devoted to it the best years of his life; shall we not hold
in grateful remembrance the man who gave to him, at the most critical moment, the cor-
dial hand of friendship, and who by his cheering words, inspired fresh ardor, and a hope
which no after trial could extinguish ?

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 163

It is more than a pleasant picture, it is a lesson for all time, and should awaken, through
generations, the desire generously to encourage and wisely to aid.

It was in this spirit that a “ Humboldt Scholarship” became associated with the Hum-
boldt Anniversary. Through personal solicitation on the part of the committee the sum
of seven thousand dollars was subscribed to form a permanent fund, the income of which,
under the direction of the Faculty, was to be solely applied to the aid of young and needy
students, while pursuing their preparatory studies at the Museum vf Comparative Zodlogy,
in Cambridge. The founding of this scholarship was the voluntary proposition of this So-
ciety as a token of sympathy and hearty good-will.

The gratification of Professor Agassiz was at once expressed. In a note written July
3d, he says:

“ Your proposition to connect a scholarship with the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy,
in commemoration of this occasion, has had great weight with me. I believe that such an
arrangement will not only be an ever-returning memento of the solemnities of this 14th of
September, but, if properly conducted, will contribute to the real advancement of Natural
History among us.”

The origin of this scholarship was by some misapprehended. It was supposed to have
been suggested, directly or indirectly, by Professor Agassiz. This is an entire mistake.
No one could feel more sensitive than he himself did upon this subject. His feelings are
frankly expressed in a note which I received from him, after he had read a paragraph in
the daily papers, referring this movement to him.

“My Dear Sir: — ;

“Tn a paper to-day, giving an account of the proposed celebration, ‘a plan’ is alluded
to ‘of Mr. Agassiz for founding a Humboldt Scholarship in the institution of which he is
the head.’

“This is no doubt a simple error of the press, but I should be very sorry to have it
stand. It would have been very ungracious in me, and would have shown, to say the
least, a great want of delicacy, had I suggested an endowment for the Museum in which I
am personally interested. It was, as you know, a proposition made spontaneously, without
any reference to me. And though I rejoice in it and feel doubly unwilling, on account of
this offer, to shrink from the responsibility connected with the invitation of your com-
mittee, yet the suggestion coming from me, under the circumstances, instead of being
appropriate, would be wholly unbecoming. You will excuse me for troubling you about
this, but I am sure you will see that it places me in an awkward position.”

If in any mind there should exist even the shadow of a misapprehension upon this sub-
ject, these words will serve to explain fully both the feelings of Prof. Agassiz and the
exact facts of the case.

At the close of his public address of the 14th of September, he says:

“] have appeared before you as the representative of the Boston Natural History So-
ciety. It was their proposition to celebrate this memorable anniversary. I feel grateful
for their invitation, for the honor they have done me. I feel still more grateful for the
generous impulse which has prompted them to connect a Humboldt Scholarship, as a me-
morial of this occasion, with the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at Cambridge.”

164 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Thus, Mr. President and gentlemen, while we cannot but deeply mourn the vast loss
which this community and the whole country has sustained by this bereavement, we
rejoice in that friendly relationship which so long existed between us, and are thankful
that one of the last great public utterances of his life was given under the auspices of this
Society.

And now that his life, so beneficently crowded with activity and usefulness, has closed
to us in this sphere of being, we are grateful that our mutual efforts established what will
not only be a perpetual bond of union between this Society and the institution of which he
was the honored head, but which, we trust, through successive years, may prove a source
of practical help and encouragement to numberless students, who, by their future efforts,
may extend the boundaries of knowledge, thus aiding in the work of human progress,
while they carry forward to yet further completion, those investigations and discoveries
which, in our own day, have given immortality to the names of Humboldt and of Agassiz.

There was much feeling manifested at this time concerning the safety of the Museum
and collections, now of inestimable value. At a meeting of the Council, the Custodian
brought up the question of prohibiting the use of workrooms after dark. This led to the
appointment of a committee to take the whole subject of securing the building and con-
tents against fire. At a subsequent meeting, the President, in behalf of this committee
of which he was chairman, reported, recommending several changes in regard to unsafe
gas fixtures, and the erection of stand pipes for water. By vote, the committee was
authorized to do all they deemed wise and necessary in the matter.

In January, the President, Mr. Bouvé, again brought before the Council the necessity
of continued action in order to place the collections of the Museum in proper sequence,
in accordance with the plan of arrangement which had been adopted. He thought that
extensive changes were desirable at once. These would involve the fitting up of two gal-
leries in the side rooms of the main hall for the reception of the Botanical collection, as
well as the fitting up of the north rooms on the first floor for the Mineralogical and Geo-
logical collections. To carry out these changes would require an expenditure of about
five thousand dollars. After discussion, a committee was appointed, consisting of Messrs.
Bouvé, Hyatt, Brigham, Cummings and Scudder, to consider the matter and report at the
next meeting to be held a week later. When the Council again met, the President in
behalf of the committee, presented plans and estimates relative to the proposed alterations.
He stated, however, that the majority of the committee recommended that the Botanical
collections be placed in the gallery on the north side of the main hall, rather than on the
south side. To this, Mr. Brigham, in behalf of a minority of the committee, strongly
remonstrated. A prolonged discussion followed. The Council, after mature deliberation,
finally voted, with but one dissenting voice, to make the alterations as proposed by the
majority of the committee, and full authority was given the President, Custodian and
Treasurer to carry them out. The Council also voted that the southeast room in the base-
ment be fitted up as a work room under the direction of the same parties.

As indicative of thought given by members of the Society to matters affecting the pub-
lic interest not pertaining especially to its work, it may be stated that in February of this
year, the Council passed a vote for presentation to the city authorities remonstrating

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 165

against licensing “ Jourdain’s Museum of Anatomy” so called, on the ground of its ten-
dency to offend decency and public morality, whilst subserving no good purpose.

It being understood that persons were in the habit of entering the building during
the evening hours for other purposes than that of working upon the collections, the Coun-
cil voted in March: That after the closing of the building, no person shall be allowed to pass
into it, except through the apartments of the Janitor.

Some alterations were proposed and adopted in the Constitution and By-laws at this
time, the most important of which was the addition to the latter of a section, providing
that whenever any existing or anticipated vacancy in the list of officers was to be filled by
election, anominating committee should be appointed by the Society at a stated meeting to
bring in at a subsequent meeting one or more nominations of persons to fill such vacancy.
And providing also that no person should be elected to any office until his nomination had
been under consideration by the Society at least two weeks.

In April of this year, Mr. 8. H. Scudder spoke of the great importance of a re-survey
of the State of Massachusetts, topographical, geological and biological. It was the first in
the Union to provide for a survey, but while almost all the principal States had now
finished or begun a second one, no steps had been taken by Massachusetts in this direc-
tion. The original survey was wonderfully well done, yet incomplete, and the advance of
scientific knowledge since rendered a re-survey very desirable. The American Academy of
Arts and Sciences had taken the matter into consideration and had appointed a committee
to memorialize the Legislature on the subject.

Prof. Niles, Mr. John Cummings and the President all addressed the meeting in favor of
the project, and finally it was voted on motion of Mr. Putnam: That the President ap-
point a committee including himself to petition the Legislature for a re-survey of the State.
Messrs. Niles, Cummings, Putnam, Jeffries, Hyatt, and Morse with the President, were
accordingly made this committee.

In the following May Mr. 8. H. Scudder reported that the subject of a re-survey of the
State had duly come before the Legislature and had been referred to the Committee on
Education with every prospect of a favorable report. He also referred to the question of
a public park now agitated, thinking that the idea of the establishment of a zodlogical
garden should be considered by the Society in connection with it.

The annual meeting was held on May 6th, Vice-President R. C. Greenleaf in the Chair.

The report of the Treasurer showed that the expenditures of the Society had exceeded
its receipts $1874.12. Among the former, however, was included the sum of $1754.22
paid for surance of property for five years. The alterations and improvements in the
building indispensable for the safety of the collections, and to bring them into proper rela-
tion to each other, had cost $3423.81.

The report of the Custodian, Mr. Hyatt, who had returned home and resumed the
duties of his office, after appropriately referring to the decease of Prof. Agassiz, gives a
summary of the work of the year, from which the following is presented.

Mr. Hyatt’s visit to Europe afforded an opportunity to fill out the Palaeontological col-
lection. A fair collection of species from Western Europe was needed in order that we
should be able to compare them in a general way with their synchronous representatives
in North America. To meet this want Mr. John Cummings generously furnished the

166 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

necessary means for their purchase. By good fortune Mr. Hyatt was able to buy the very
valuable collection of Oberfinanzrath Eser of Stuttgart. This was very rich in the fossils
of the Tertiary, Secondary and Triassic periods, and also contained a fair representation of
the Carboniferous, and some of the Devonian and Silurian types. All these had been
selected with great care, and Herr Eser had expended the leisure hours of nearly forty
years in accumulating them.

Speaking of this collection, the Custodian remarked that the “ unique specimens which
it contains are both remarkable and numerous. Many of these were found during the
building of the extensive fortifications at Ulm, and were selections from all the fossils
obtained, which were sent by the chief architect to Herr Eser. The most valuable single
series consists of the two head pieces and detached bones of Belodon Campbelli, the only
remains of this remarkable animal ever found. There are specimens of tertiary plants,
which are of such delicacy that they are mounted like botanical specimens on paper.”

Besides the collection mentioned, Mr. Hyatt purchased also while abroad, through the
generosity of Mr. Cummings, several large specimens for the Palaeontological department
quite essential to it, among the species several Ichthyosauri and Teleosauri, and a magnifi-
cent plate of the expanded species of the Pentacrinus Briartius.

A splendid collection of Devonian fossils collected near Ithaca, New York, had also
been added to the Palaeontological series, partly by donations of Mr. John Cummings
and Mr. Thos. T. Bouvé, and partly by purchase.

The illness of Mr. Sprague had interrupted work in the Entomological department. It
was reported by Mr. Emerton, free from destructive insects. Dr. Carpenter had continued
work on the Mollusca. To the Comparative Anatomy department a prepared skeleton of
a horse mackerel had been added. Work on the Fishes had been begun by Mr. Putnam,
Chairman of the Ichthyological Committee.

The Ornithological collection had been frequently inspected through the year. It was
reported as free from insects. Considerable work had been done in the Botanical depart-
ment by Miss Carter, employed at the expense of Mr. John Cummings, to inspect and
arrange the duplicates.

During the year five Corresponding and thirty-one Resident Members had been elected.
There had been seventeen general meetings of the Society, eight of the section of Ento-
mology, and seven of the section of Microscopy.

The plan of notifying each member by postal card of the general meetings and of the
papers to be read at each, adopted in the autumn, had been attended with great success.
The numbers present since Oct. 15th, have averaged sixty-four, whereas the average num-
ber the previous year “was but twenty-five. The greatest number of persons present at
one meeting was one hundred and twenty-four, the largest Society meeting ever held in
this building.

Only one course of the Lowell Institute Lectures was given. This was by Dr. Thos.
Dwight, Jr., upon living animal tissues.

The disastrous effects of the great fire of November, 1872, had prevented the contin-
uance of the lectures to teachers, so generously provided for hitherto by Mr. John Cum-
mings.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 167

Of publications, four articles in the Memoirs had appeared, and four parts of the Pro-
ceedings. The library had received during the year three hundred and twenty-three vol-
umes, eight hundred and thirty-three parts of volumes, one hundred and twenty-four
pamphlets, and forty-nine maps and charts.

Respecting the alterations that had been going on, the Custodian remarked that a con-
siderable part of the year had been taken up in making them. There would undoubtedly
be experienced some difficulty in the arrangement of details in the separate collec-
tions but the natural sequence of forms, whether mineralogical, geological, or zoélog-
ical would be as fully and better illustrated than it ever has been in any printed work
embracing similar grounds, an achievement heretofore considered unattainable in Muse-
ums of the size of this. He deprecated having ascribed to himself the whole credit
of the extraordinary success thus far obtained, mentioning that the President had urged
the adoption of the plan of organization presented in the annual report of 1870-71, and
had ever since given it his energetic support.

At the election of officers for the year ensuing, Mr. Samuel H. Scudder was chosen
First Vice-President, and Mr. John Cummings Second Vice-President of the Society,
taking the positions hitherto held by Dr. Chas. T. Jackson, and Mr. Richard C. Greenleaf.

T. Sterry Hunt and L. $8. Burbank were chosen upon the Committee on Geology, from
which John Cummings resigned; R. H. Richards was chosen upon the Committee on Min-
erals, in place of Dr. Charles 'T. Jackson; John Cummings was chosen one of the Com-
mittee on Botany in place of William T. Brigham.

On motion of Dr. Kneeland the thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to the
retiring Vice-President, Mr. Greenleaf, for his valuable services. The following resolu-
tion presented by Mr. George Washington Warren was also unanimously passed :

“ Resolved, That this Society desires to place upon its records, its high appreciation of
the eminent services rendered by Dr. Chas. T. Jackson, one of its Vice-Presidents, and of
the high honor conferred upon the Society by his long association with it; and it would
respectfully tender to his afflicted family its sincere condolence for the malady which
has overtaken him, and has so abruptly terminated, for a season only, it is greatly to be
hoped, his scientific researches, which have been of inestimable value to the public.”

It was voted that a copy of the resolution be sent to the family of Dr. Jackson.

Six years have now passed since the above mentioned action was taken by the Society,
and as the hope expressed of the renewal of scientific work on the part of Dr. Jackson,
has not been and is not likely to be realized,’ there can be no more fitting occasion to
dwell upon his connection with, and his services to the Society. He was not, strictly speak-
ing, one of its original members, but he, soon after its foundation, was acting among them,
and in 1833 was elected to the office of Curator.

To no man was the Society more indebted for constant and active zeal in its welfare
than to Dr. Charles T. Jackson during the first forty years of its existence. Others sur-
passed him in laborious work on its collections when nearly all done upon them was by
voluntary effort; others in exerting greater influence in the community for its advantage ;
but none in a constant manifestation of interest in its proceedings as shown by so long
and uninterrupted a participation in them, and by the generous donation of a large por-

1 Dr. Jackson died, after a long illness, on the 29th of August, 1880.

168 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

tion of his mmeral collection. No man among the members perhaps manifested more
genius for scientific work. Had the truly brilliant suggestions of his mind been always
followed up by prompt endeavor to obtain practical results, he would have been recog-
nized everywhere as a great discoverer and benefactor. This is not the place to discuss
questions relative to his instrumentality in the introduction of ether as an anzesthetic
agent. Suffice it here to express what is clearly true that the friends who knew him the
most intimately and who were his constant companions, ever felt that much more was due
to him than the world awarded. Whatever may be said, however, upon mooted points, all
who were members of the Society in his days of activity will agree that he served it well
and faithfully and that he richly earned its gratitude. Possessed of a good memory, and
having a great fund of information upon almost all subjects that came up for discussion
at the meetings, Dr. Jackson became much relied upon to take part when there was any
lack of speakers, and thus often largely contributed to the interest of proceedings that
might otherwise have been dull. Moreover, he frequently read papers of great value
which appeared in the publications of the Society.

In the Council meeting first held after the annual one of the Society, the usual commit-
tees for the year were formed, and a new arrangement was made with the Custodian, by
which it was understood that he should give all his time to the Society, excepting such as
was required by him for his regular lectures, and be held responsible for the building and
all the employees under his charge ; these to be considered his assistants and not those of
the other officers or of members of the Council. The Custodian or the Museum assistant
to be present during office hours. The Secretary to be present only when necessary,
and the second assistant to be a general assistant under his charge.

In furtherance of the plan still in progress to arrange the collections in consecutive
order, the Council voted, upon representation of Mr. Bouvé in behalf of the committee
on alterations, that it was necessary to fit up the gallery on the south side of the building
for the reception of Protozoans and Radiates.

Walker Prizes. The subject proposed for the Walker annual prize for 1874 was ‘* The
comparative structure of the limbs of birds and reptiles.” No essay of sufficient merit
for an award was presented.

In June of this year, the subject of a Zodlogical Garden came before the Society and
the Council. Ata meeting of the former, it was voted, upon motion of Mr. G. Washing-
ton Warren, that a committee be appomted by the Chair to urge, in the name of the
Society, before the Park Commissioners and the City Council, the importance of providing
for the establishment of a Zodlogical Garden and Aquarium in connection with one of the
proposed public parks, and that said committee have power to call a special meeting of
the Society whenever it may be thought expedient to consider such recommendation as
the committee may suggest in relation to the subject.

Whether this committee was appointed and if so what they did, is not reported in the
records. The matter is quoted as indicating the readiness of the Society to codperate
with the City government in any movement that may be made towards the establishment
of a Zodlogical Garden.

)

<n By Woo (WON A

|

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 169

JEFFRIES WYMAN.

Died 4th Sept., 1874.

THE wisest man could ask no more of Fate
Than to be simple, modest, manly, true,
Safe from the Many, honored by the Few;
Nothing to court in World, or Church, or State,
But inwardly in secret to be great;
To feel mysterious Nature ever new,
To touch, if not to grasp, her endless clew,
And learn by each discovery how to wait;
To widen knowledge and escape the praise ;
Wisely to teach, because more wise to learn;
To toil for Science, not to draw men’s gaze,
But for her lore of self-denial stern;
That such a man could spring from our decays
Fans the soul’s nobler faith until it burn.

James Russert Lowet.

The first meeting of the Society in the autumn was held on October 7th. There were
one hundred and fourteen persons present, many of whom had come expressly to testify
their great respect and regard for the memory of Dr. Jeffries Wyman, whose death had
occurred on the fourth day of the previous month. The President addressed the members

as follows:

After our usual summer vacation we meet together with more than accustomed emotion ;
for mixed with the joy of greeting one another after separation, there is a consciousness
of irreparable loss that weighs heavily upon our spirits, a recognition that there have
gone away from us a force and a virtue which have so long been a help and inspiration,
that we cannot but feel a sense of bereavement such as no words of mine can adequately
express. Sad indeed is it for us and for all, that such nobleness of nature, such wealth of
acquired knowledge, such purity and simplicity of life, as were manifested in JEFFRIES
Wyman, should pass from the world ; for rare, too rare, are to be found examples of such
exalted character and attainments.

To our Society Professor Wyman was a great benefactor; not in the sense of a donor
especially, but in the higher sense of one imparting to it such honorable fame as enhanced
greatly respect for it, both at home and abroad. To him also was the Society mainly
indebted for the interest shown in our work by the late Dr. Walker, aud which led directly
to its large endowment with means of succezs.

But pleasant as it would be for me, as a personal friend, to dwell upon the transcendent
virtues of one whom I have always regarded with the highest respect and most affection-
ate esteem, I feel it would be unbecoming to further occupy your time in view of those
present, who have come here with their tributes of love to the memory of our dear
departed friend. I therefore close by inviting others to address you, first calling upon
Dr. Asa Gray, who, from his great regard for Professor Wyman ,has kindly prepared a
notice of his life and work to read on this occasion.

170 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Dr. Gray said: —

When we think of the associate and friend whose death this Society now deplores, and
remember how modest and retiring he was, how averse to laudation and reticent of
words, we feel it becoming to speak of him, now that he has gone, with much of the
reserve which would be imposed upon us if he were living. Yet his own perfect truthful-
ness and nice sense of justice, and the benefit to be derived from the contemplation of
such a character by way of example, may be our warrant for reasonable freedom in the
expression of our judgments and our sentiments, taking care to avoid all exaggeration.

Appropriate and sincere eulogies and expressions of loss, both official and personal,
have, however, already been pronounced or published; and among them one from the
governors of that institution to which, together with our own Society, most of Professor
Wyman’s official life and services were devoted,—which appears to me to delineate in the
fewest words the truest outlines of his character. In it the President and Fellows of Har-
vard University “recall with affectionate respect and admiration the sagacity, patience
and rectitude which characterized all his scientific work, his clearness, accuracy and con-
ciseness as a writer and teacher, and the industry and zeal with which he labored upon the
two admirable collections which remain as monuments of his rare knowledge, method and
skill. They commend to the young men of the University this signal example of a char-
acter modest, tranquil, dignified and independent, and of a life simple, contented and hon-
ored.”

What more can be or need be said? It is left for me, in compliance with your invita-
tion, Mr. President, to say something of what he was to us, and has done for us, and to
put upon record, for the use of those who come after us, some account of his uneventful
life, some notice, however imperfect, of his work and his writings. I could not do this
without the help of friends who knew him well in early life, and of some of you who are
much more conversant than I am with most of his researches. Such aid, promptly ren-
dered, has been thankfully accepted and freely used.

Our associate’s father, Dr. Rufus Wyman,—born in Woburn, graduated at Harvard Col-
lege in 1799, and in the latter part of his life Physician to the McLean Asylum for the
Insane,—was a man of marked ability and ingenuity. Called to the charge of this earli-
est institution of the kind in New England at its beginning, he organized the plan of
treatment and devised the excellent mechanical arrangements which have since been
developed, and introduced into other establishments of the kind. His mother was Ann
Morrill, daughter of James Morrill, a Boston merchant. ‘This name is continued, and is
familiar to us, in that of our associate’s elder brother.

Jeffries Wyman, the third son, derived his baptismal name from the distinguished
Dr. John Jeffries, of Boston, under whom his father studied medicine. He was born on
the 11th of August, 1814, at Chelmsford, a township of a few hundred inhabitants in
Middlesex Co., Mass., not far from the present city of Lowell. As his father took up his
residence at the McLean Asylum in 1818, when Jeffries was only four years old, he
received the rudiments of his education at Charlestown, in a private school; but after-
wards went to the Academy at Chelmsford, and, in 1826, to Phillips Exeter Academy,
where, under the instruction of Dr. Abbot, he was prepared for college. He entered

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. eft

Harvard College in 1829, the year in which Josiah Quincy took the presidency, and was
graduated in 1833, in a class of fifty-six, six of whom became professors m the University.
He was not remarkable for general scholarship, but was fond of chemistry, and his prefer-
ence for anatomical studies was already developed. Some of his class-mates remember
the interest which was excited among them by a skeleton which he made of a mammoth
bull-frog from Fresh Pond, probably one which is still preserved in his museum of com-
parative anatomy. His skill and taste im drawing, which he turned to such excellent
account in his investigations and in the lecture room, as well as his habit of close obser-
vation of natural objects met with in his strolls, were manifested even in boyhood.

An attack of pneumonia during his senior year in college caused much anxiety, and
perhaps laid the foundation of the pulmonary affection which burdened and _ finally short-
ened his life. T’o recover from the effects of the attack, and to guard against its return,
he made in the winter of 1833-34, the first of those pilgrimages to the coast of the
Southern States, which in later years were so often repeated. Returning with strength
renewed in the course of the following spring, he began the study of medicine under
Dr. John C. Dalton, who had succeeded to his father’s practice at Chelmsford, but who
soon removed to the adjacent and thriving town of Lowell. Here, and with his father at
the McLean Asylum, and at the Medical College in Boston, he passed two years of profit-
able study. At the commencement of the third year he was elected house-student im the
Medical Department, at the Massachusetts General Hospital,—then under the charge of
Doctors James Jackson, John Ware and Walter Channing—a responsible position, not
only most advantageous for the study of disease, but well adapted to sharpen a young
man’s power of observation.

In 1837, after receiving the degree of Doctor of Medicine, he cast about among the
larger country towns for a field in which to practice his profession. Fortunately for
science he found no opening to his mind; so he took an office in Boston, on Washington
Street, and accepted the honorable, but far from lucrative post of Demonstrator of Anat-
omy under Dr. John C. Warren, the Hersey Professor. His means were very slender,
and his life abstemious to the verge of privation; for he was unwilling to burden his
father, who, indeed, had done all he could in providing for the education of two sons. It
may be interesting to know that, to eke out his subsistence, he became at this time a
member of the Boston Fire Department, under an appointment of Samuel A. Eliot,
Mayor, dated Sept. 1st, 1838. He was assigned to Engine No. 18. The rule was that the
first-comer to the engine house should bear the lantern, and be absolved from other work,
Wyman lived near by, and his promptitude generally saved him from all severer labor
than that of enlightening his company.

The turning point in his life, 7. e., an opportunity which he could seize of devoting it to
science, came when Mr. John A. Lowell offered him the curatorship of the Lowell Insti-
tute, just brought into operation, and a course of lectures in it. He delivered his course
of twelve lectures upon Comparative Anatomy and Physiology in the winter of 1840-41;
and with the money earned by this first essay in instructing others, he went to Europe to
seek further instruction for himself. He reached Paris in May, 1841, and gave his time at
once to Human Anatomy at the School of Medicine, and Comparative Anatomy and Nat-
ural History at the Garden of Plants, attending the lectures of Flourens, Majendie, and

172 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Longet on Physiology, and of de Blainville, Isidore St. Hilaire, Valenciennes, Duméril,
and Milne-Edwards on Zodlogy and Comparative Anatomy. In the summer, when the
lectures were over, he made a pedestrian jonrney along the banks of the Loire, and an-
other along the Rhine, returning through Belgium, and by steamer to London. There,
while engaged in the study of the Hunterian collections at the Royal College of Surgeons,
he received information of the alarming illness of his father; he immediately turned his
face homeward, but on reaching Halifax he learned that his father was no more.

He resumed his residence in Boston, and devoted himself mainly to scientific work,
under circumstances of no small discouragement. But in 1843 the means of a modest
professional livelihood came to him in the offer of the chair of Anatomy and Physiology in
the medical department of Hampden-Sydney College, established at Richmond, Virginia.
One advantage of this position was that it did not interrupt his residence in Boston except
for the winter and spring ; and during these months the milder climate of Richmond was
even then desirable. He discharged the duties of the chair most acceptably for five ses-
sions, until, in 1847, he was appointed to succeed Dr. Warren as Hersey Professor of
Anatomy in Harvard College, the Parkman professorship in the Medical School in Boston
being filled by the present incumbent, Dr. Holmes. Thus commenced Prof. Wyman’s
most useful and honorable connection as a teacher with the University, of which the Pres-
ident and Fellows speak in the terms I have already recited. He began his work in
Holden Chapel, the upper floor being the lecture-room, the lower containing the dissecting
room and the anatomical museum of the College, with which he combined his own collec-
tions and preparations, which from that time forward increased rapidly in number and
value under his industrious and skillful hands. At length Boylston Hall was built for the
anatomical and the chemical departments, and the museum, lecture and working-rooms
were established commodiously in their present quarters; and Prof. Wyman’s department
assumed the rank and the importance which it deserved. Both human and comparative
anatomy were taught to special pupils, some of whom have proved themselves worthy of
their honored master, while the annual courses of lectures and lessons on Anatomy, Phy-
siology, and for a time the principles of Zodlogy, imparted highly valued instruction to
undergraduates and others.

In the formation and perfecting of his museum—the first of the kind in the country,
arranged upon a plan both physiological and morphological —no pains and labors were
spared, and long and arduous journeys and voyages were made to contribute to its riches.
In the summer of 1849,— having replenished his frugal means with the proceeds of a
second course of lectures before the Lowell Institute (viz:, upon Comparative Physiology,
a good condensed short-hand report of which was published at the time),— he accompa-
nied Captain Atwood of Provincetown, in a small sloop, upon a fishing voyage high up the
coast of Labrador; in the winter of 1852, going to Florida for his health, he began his
fruitful series of explorations and collections in that interesting district. In 1854, accom-
panied by his wife, he travelled extensively in Europe, and visited all the museums within
his reach. In the spring of 1856, with his pupils, Green and Bancroft, as companions and
assistants, he sailed to Surinam, penetrated far into the interior in canoes, made important
researches upon the ground, and enriched his museum with some of its most interesting
collections. These came near being too dearly bought, as he and his companions took the

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 173

fever of the country, from which he suffered severely, and recovered slowly. Again, in
1858-9, accepting the thoughtful and generous invitation of Capt. J. M. Forbes, he made
a voyage to the La Plata, ascended the Uraguay and the Parana in a small iron steamer
which Captain Forbes brought upon the deck of his vessel; then, with his friend George
Augustus Peabody as a companion, he crossed the pampas to Mendosa, and the Cordilleras
to Santiago and Valparaiso, whence he came home by way of the Peruvian coast and the
Isthmus.

By such expeditions many of the choice materials of his museum and of his researches
were gathered, at his own expense, to be carefully prepared and elaborated by his own
unaided hands. <A vast neighborimg museum is a splendid example of what munificence,
called forth by personal enthusiasm, may accomplish. In Dr. Wyman’s we have an exam-
ple of what one man may do unaided, with feeble health and feebler means, by persistent
and well-directed industry, without eclat, and almost without observation. While we duly
honor those who of their abundance cast their gifts into the treasury of science, let us
not —now that he cannot be pained by our praise — forget to honor one who in silence
and penury cast in more than they all.

Of penury in a literal sense we may not speak; for although Prof. Wyman’s salary,
derived from the Hersey endowment, was slender indeed, he adapted his wants to his
means, foregoing neither his independence nor his scientific work ; and I suppose no one
ever heard him complain. In 1856 came unexpected and honorable aid from two old
friends of his father who appreciated the son, and wished him to go on with his scientific
work without distraction. One of them, the late Dr. William J. Walker, sent him ten
thousand dollars outright; the other, the late Thomas Lee, who had helped in his early
education, supplemented the endowment of the Hersey professorship with an equal sum,
stipulating that the income thereof should be paid to Prof. Wyman during life, whether
he held the chair or not. Seldom, if ever, has a moderate sum produced a greater benefit.

Throughout the later years of Prof. Wyman’s life a new museum has claimed his inter-
est and care, and is indebted to him for much of its value and promise. In 1866, when
failing strength demanded a respite from oral teaching, and required him to pass most of
the season for it in a milder climate, he was named by the late George Peabody one of
the seven trustees of the Museum and Professorship of American Archaeology and Eth-
nology, which this philanthropist proceeded to found in Harvard University; and his
associates called upon him to take charge of the establishment. For this he was pecu-
liarly fitted by all his previous studies, and by his predilection for ethnological inquiries.
These had already engaged his attention, and to this class of subjects he was thereafter
mainly devoted,— with what sagacity, consummate skill, untiring diligence and success,
his seven annual Reports—the last published just before he died,— his elaborate memoir
on shell-heaps, now printing, and especially the Archaeological Museum in Boylston Hall,
abundantly testify. If this museum be a worthy memorial of the founders liberality and
foresight, it is no less a monument of Wyman’s rare ability and devotion. Whenever the
enduring building which is to receive it shall be erected, surely the name of its first cura-
tor and organizer should be inscribed, along with that of the founder, over its portal.

Of Prof. Wyman’s domestic life, let it here suffice to record, that in Dec., 1850, he
married Adeline Wheelwright, who died in June 1855, leaving two daughters; that in

174 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

August, 1861, he married Anna Williams Whitney, who died in February, 1864, shortly
after the birth of an only and a surviving son.

Of his later days, of the slow, yet all too rapid progress of fatal pulmonary disease, it
is needless to protract the story. Winter after winter, as he exchanged our bleak climate
for that of Florida, we could only hope that he might return. Spring after spring he
came back to us invigorated, thanks to the bland air and the open life in boat and tent,
which acted like a charm;—thanks, too, to the watchful care of his attached friend,
Mr. Peabody, his constant companion in Florida life. One winter was passed in Europe,
partly in reference to the Archeological Museum, partly in hope of better health; but no
benefit was received. The past winter in Florida produced the usual amelioration, and
the amount of work which Dr. Wyman undertook and accomplished last summer might
have tasked a robust man. There were important accessions to the archeological collec-
tions, upon which much labor, very trying to ordinary patience, had to be expended.
And in the last interview I had with him, he told me that he had gone through his own
museum of comparative anatomy, which had somewhat suffered in consequence of the
alterations in Boylston Hall, and had put the whole into perfect order. It was late in
August when he left Cambridge for his usual visit to the White Mountain region, by
which he avoided the autumnal catarrh; and there, at Bethlehem, New Hampshire, on
the 4th of September, a severe hemorrhage from the lungs suddenly closed his valuable
life.

Let us turn to his relations with this Society. He entered it in October, 1837, just
thirty-seven years ago, and shortly after he had taken his degree of Doctor in Medicine.
He was Recording Secretary from 1839 to 1841; Curator of Ichthyology and Herpetol-
ogy from 1841 to 1847, of Herpetology from 1847 to 1855, of Comparative Anatomy
from 1855 to 1874. While in these latter years his duties may have been almost nominal,
it should be remembered that in the earlier days a curator not only took charge of his
portion of the Museum, but in a great degree created it. Then for fourteen years, from
1856 to 1870, he was the President of this Society, as assiduous in all its duties as he was
wise in council; and he resigned the chair which he so long adorned and dignified only
when the increasing delicacy of his health, to which night-exposure was prejudicial, made
it unsafe for him any longer to undertake its duties. The record shows that he has made
here one hundred and five scientific communications, several of them very important
papers, every one of some positive value; for you all know that Prof. Wyman never
spoke or wrote except to a direct purpose, and because there was something which it was
worth while to communicate. He bore his part also in the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences, of which he was a Fellow from the year 1843, and for many years a Coun-
cillor. To it he made a good number of communications ; among them one of the long-
est and ablest of his memoirs.

Dr. Gray then went on to give a brief account of Prof. Wyman’s scientific work, as
recorded in his published papers which have appeared in the Journal and Proceedings of
this Society, in the Proceedings of the American Academy, in the Boston Medical Jour-
nal, in Silliman’s Journal and in the Smithsonian Contributions. Of several of them he
presented interesting analyses which may be found in the published records of the meet-
ing. After notice of what he had done Dr. Gray continued his remarks as follows:

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 175

The thought that fills our minds upon a survey even so incomplete as this is: How
much he did, how well he did it all, and how simply and quietly! We knew that our
associate, though never hurried, was never idle, and that his great repose of manner
covered a sustained energy; but I suspect that none of us, without searching out and
collecting his published papers, had adequately estimated their number and their value.
There is nothing forth-putting about them, nothing adventitious, never even a phrase
to herald a matter which he deemed important.

His work as a teacher was of the same quality. He was one of the best lecturers I
ever heard, although, and partly because, he was the most unpretending. You never
thought of the speaker, nor of the gifts and acquisitions which such clear exposition were
calling forth,—only of what he was simply telling and showmg you. Then to those who,
like his pupils and friends, were in personal contact with him, there was tae added charm
of a most serene and sweet temper. He was truthful and conscientious to the very core.
His perfect freedom, in lectures as well as in writing, and no less so in daily conversation,
from all exaggeration, false perspective, and factitious adornment, was the natural expres-
sion of his innate modesty and refined taste, and also of his reverence for the exact truth.

Respecting the views of Jeffries Wyman upon the subject that has most deeply moved
the minds of profound thinkers in our day, Dr. Gray remarked :

In these days it is sure to be asked how an anatomist, physiologist, and morphologist
like Prof. Wyman regarded the most remarkable scientific movement of his time, the
revival and apparent prevalence of doctrines of evolution. As might be expected, he
was neither an advocate nor an opponent. He was not one of those persons who quickly
make up their minds, and announce their opinions with a confidence inversely proportion-
ate to their knowledge. He could consider long, and hold his judgment in suspense.

And further on he adds:

Upon one point Wyman was clear from the beginning. He did not wait until evolution-
ary doctrines were about to prevail, before he judged them to be essentially philosophical
and healthful, “in accordance with the order of Nature, as commonly manifested in her
works,” and that they need not disturb the foundations of natural theology.

Perhaps none of us can be trusted to judge of such a question impartially, upon the
bare merits of the case; but Wyman’s judgment was as free from bias as that of any one
lever knew. Not at all, however, in this case from indifference or unconcern. He was
not only, philosophically, a convinced theist, in all hours and under all “ variations of
mood and tense,” but personally a devout man, an habitual and reverent attendant upon
Christian worship and ministrations.

Those of us who attended his funeral must have felt the appropriateness for the occa-
sion of the words which were there read from the Psalmist :—

“The Heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handy-work.

.... +O Lord, how manifold are thy works! In wisdom hast thou made them all; the
earth is full of thy riches; so is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping
innumerable, both great and small beasts. Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are

created, and thou renewest the face of the earth.”

176 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

These are the works which our associate loved to investigate, and this the spirit in
which he contemplated them. Not less apposite were the Beatitudes that followed :—

Blessed are the meek; blessed are the peace-makers; blessed are the merciful; blessed
are the pure in heart.

Those who knew him best, best know how well he exemplified them.

Upon. the conclusion of the address of Dr. Gray, Mr. F. W. Putnam offered the following
Resolutions :—

“Resolved, That in the death of Jeffries Wyman the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory mourns the loss of a most honored member and efficient officer; one who was untir-
ing in his labors for the Society during his long and active connection with it as Curator,
Secretary and President; and that, in his death, Science has lost a most thorough and
careful investigator, and the cause of education and truth a most devoted and conscien-
tious disciple. :

“Resolved, That as members of a Society who gave to Professor Wyman the highest
honor and position we could bestow, we acknowledge our indebtedness to him for the
thoughtfulness and care with which he guided our labors for so many years, and, while
filled with sorrow at our own loss, we ask the privilege, by transmission of these resolu-
tions, of extending our sympathy to his bereaved family in their great trial.”

cd

These resolutions were seconded by Dr. D. H. Storer, who said :—

Mr. President, I most cordially second the adoption of the resolutions which have been
presented. The scientific reputation of our departed friend was universally acknowledged,
but the beauty of his life was equally worthy of admiration. I never knew a gentler
purer, nobler spirit. As a brother I loved him, and I mourn him.

The Resolutions were unanimously adopted.

The following letter from Prof. Rogers was then read :

Newport, Oct. 6, 1874.
To Presipent Bouveé,

My dear friend:—I regret that it will not be in my power to attend the meeting of
the Natural History Society to-morrow evening, as I should greatly desire to unite with
you in an affectionate tribute to the memory of Prof. Wyman, whose long services as
President of the Society, and whose peculiar excellences as a student of nature must ever
claim our regard and admiration.

From my first acquaintance with him, while engaged in the delicate microscopic dissec-
tions with which he illustrated the work of the late Dr. Amos Binney on Land-shells, until
within a few years past, I have had frequent opportunities of marking his scientific
progress ; and although but little acquainted with the inquiries to which he chiefly devoted
himself. I have understood enough of his labors to appreciate his singular patience and
accuracy as an observer, his ingenuity in devising experiments, and the caution and con-
scientiousness with which he was accustomed to report the results of his investigations.

These qualities, early recognized by his scientific co-workers abroad as well as at home,
placed him in the front rank of the promoters of the biological sciences. To these intel-

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 77

lectual gifts were added a modesty and self-forgetfulness which, while they were unfavor-
able to the more popular recognition of his merits, have rendered his example preémi-
nently worthy of imitation by all honest seekers after truth. Yours faithfully,

WiuuiAm B. Rocers.

In October the President received a letter from Miss Susan Wyman, Administratrix,
stating that the will of her father, Dr. Jeffries Wyman, had an item reading: “I offer to the
Boston Society of Natural History my collection of Comparative Anatomy, they paying
therefor the sum of three thousand dollars.” After considerable discussion it was voted to
refer the matter to a committee appointed by the Chair. Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, Dr. T. M.
Brewer, and Mr. Chas. J. Sprague, composed this committee. In November, the com-
mittee on the bequest reported recommending the Council to accept the offer made in the
will, and also, in consequence of the increased value of the collection, to pay $5000
instead of $3000.

Much discussion followed, it being suggested that possibly there might be facts not yet
before the Council concerning the later wishes of Dr. Wyman in regard to the disposal of
the collection which might influence action. A decision upon the matter was therefore
further postponed, and the President was requested to confer with Dr. Morrill Wyman, and
to report the result to the Council two days later. This he did at a large meeting of that
body, there being twenty-one members present. Much more discussion followed, some
members thinking the expense too great for the Society to incur, others that the wish of
the late President as expressed in the will should be respected even at some sacrifice.
None objected to increasing the amount to $5000 provided the collection was received.

It was finally voted to accept the offer made in the will, and also in consequence of the
increased: value of the collection since the execution of that instrument, that $2000
additional be paid. Drs. Dwight and White were appointed a committee to take all nec-
essary action to remove the collection and have cases prepared for its reception.

1875. The Report of the Custodian at the annual meeting in-May, was as usual full of
interest to the members. Respecting the work in the building for the protection of the
collections yet in progress, he stated “that such as had been proposed to be done within
the year has been completed. More than half the cases are now secured against the
entrance of dust and insects, and the most valuable preparations can be safely trusted to
their protection. If any member of the Society will take the trouble to walk through
our rooms, he will easily satisfy himself of the necessity of these changes. The condition
of the collections which still remain in the old cases, whose loose doors cannot be secured
either against dust or insects, show this very plainly. The tables in the Palaeontological
and Conchological collections, though but recently completed, are more or less disfigured
by dust, and where more perishable specimens exist, as among birds and mammals, the
amount of damage done will in a few years be irretrievable.”

Much work had been done upon the collections during the year. Mr. Emerton had been
occupied in removing those of the Geological department, and also the sponges, corals and
echinoderms.

The minerals had been rearranged by the President, so as to make a most attractive dis-
play in the newly furnished room at the right of the main entrance. In the gallery of
this room he had placed a special collection of New England species.

178 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The Eser Palaeontological collection, presented by Mr. John Cummings, had been thor-
oughly revised by Mr. Crosby, and was being mounted for exhibition by Miss Carter,
whose efficient services to the Society were due to the generosity of Mr. Cummings. Mr.
Crosby had been also engaged upon the American fossils, and they were being mounted by
Miss Washburn, for whose desirable assistance the Society had been likewise indebted to
Mr. Cummings.

During the summer of the past year, the Custodian, assisted by Mr. Rathbun, worked for
the U. S. Fish Commissioners under the charge of Prof. 8. F. Baird, to whom the Society
was indebted for the ample opportunities given the Custodian and his assistant for collect-
ing. The valuable additions thus made to our New England collection had been revised
and placed in complete order.

The Custodian, in mentioning some work done in preparing models illustrating some of
the living forms of the Mollusca, remarked that the experiment had shown the practicability
of rendering our collections useful as a means of conveying accurate knowledge to gen-
eral students, teachers and the public, and he strongly deplored the insufficiency of funds
in every department of the Museum, necessary to this being done, except in that of Con-
chology, which the bequest of Miss Pratt provides for.

The Teachers’ School of Science had been resumed with good results, Mr. Cummings
liberally furnishing the means. A course of about thirty lessons on Minerals had been
given by Mr. L. 8S. Burbank of Lowell, and the usual plan of presenting specimens used at
the lectures had been followed. In order to test the practical results of these gifts,
enquiries were made which resulted in showing that in as many as fifty instances the spec-
imens were being intelligently employed in the instruction of students of the teachers.

The Society may therefore congratulate itself upon being the birthplace of the first
practicable movement for introducing the study of the natural sciences into the public
schools of Boston.

The Botanical collection had received daily attention from Mr. Cummings, and had been
much improved by his own work and that of Miss Carter. A beautiful as well as valu-
able addition to this department had been made by Mr. Edward T. Bouvé, consisting of
the preparations of the leaves and stems of New England trees and shrubs pressed under
panes of glass so that they can be readily studied without injury to the specimens. These
were accompanied by other specimens of the wood and bark of each species. When com-
pleted, as it will be as rapidly as possible, this collection will occupy a prominent place
among the New England plants.

Among the donations worthy of mention was one of birds, shells and insects, received
as a bequest from the family of a deceased fellow-member, Mr. F. P. Atkinson. Although
very young, Mr. Atkinson had already shown much interest in the study of natural hist-
ory, and had attracted the friendly attention of many of the me mbers of the Society, who
deeply regretted his early death.

The evening lectures given from the Lowell fund by the Trustee, Mr. John Amory Low-
ell, consisted of four courses, and in all twenty lectures. Six were upon the “ Chemistry
of the Waters,” by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt; six upon “ Injurious Fungi,” by Dr. W. G. Farlow ;
six upon “ American Archeology,” by Mr. F. W. Putnam; and two upon the “ Village
Indians of New Mexico,” by Mr. Ernest Ingersoll.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 179

There had been eighteen general meetings with an average attendance of fifty-four per-

sons, five of the section of Microscopy with an average attendance of eight persons
and six of the section of Entomology, with an average of seven persons. On two occas-

ions one hundred and fourteen persons had been present at the general meetings. One
Honorary, four Corresponding and thirty-seven Resident Members, had been elected;
seventy-five communications had been presented.

Of the Publications, two quarterly parts each of volumes sixteen and seventeen of the
Proceedings, and four articles of the Memoirs had been published.

The additions to the Library had been 297 volumes, 820 parts of volumes, 261 pam-
phlets, and 19 maps and charts.

The Treasurer’s Report showed an excess of receipts over ordinary expenditures of
$248.81. There had been besides extraordinary expenses, viz.: for alterations in Museum
and cases, $10,689.01, and for the Wyman Collection, $5,000, making a total of $15,689.01.

The changes made in the officers, consisted in the resignations of William H. Niles from
the Committee of Palaeontology, J. H. Emerton from the Committee on Mammals, A.
S. Packard, Jr., and A. E. Verrill from the Committee on Radiates, Crustacea and Worms,
and the election of Dr. H. A. Hagen on the last mentioned Committee.

Walker Prizes. The subject proposed for competitive essays for this year was “ Pro-
tective coloration in any class or classes of animals.” No article was presented in
response, or none deemed worthy of a prize.

In May, the Council of the Society, recognizing the importance of the zodlogical and
botanical observations made by the U. 8. Signal Service Bureau, passed resolutions
expressing its interest in the continuance of such observations and their extension, as
being of great value, affording as they do, data for important generalizations respecting
not only the migrations of birds and the relation of their movements to atmospheric
changes; but also respecting the influence of great extremes of temperature, the lateness
or forwardness of the season, etc., upon tae development and maturation of useful and
other plants and the increase or decrease of insect pests; thus possessing not only scien-
tific importance but as likely to lead to valuable practical results, especially in relation to
agriculture. .

In view of these considerations and of the fact that such observations are beyond the
power of private individuals to make, the Council deemed a special appropriation a wise
expenditure of the public money.

Resolutions expressing the above were transmitted to General Albert J. Meyer, Chief of
the Signal Service Bureau.

A little incident in May was too expressive of the feelings existing on the part of the
members towards one of their number to be passed over without mention. Prof. William
B. Rogers, who had not for a long period, by reason of illness, been able to attend the
meetings of the Society, was present, prepared to offer a communication. Upon the Presi-
dent’s introducing him with a few appropriate words of welcome, there immediately fol-
lowed such hearty plaudits from all the members as could not fail to testify how great the
respect and warm the love felt by them for their distinguished associate.

In October of this year, through the bequests of Mr. and Mrs. C. 8. Hale of Burling-
ton, New Jersey, the Society came into the possession of a considerable collection of

180 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils, including series of the Vertebrae of the Zeuglodon and
of the Mosasaurus.

Mr. Hale upon a visit to Boston, many years ago, visited the rooms of the Society, then
in Mason street, and was so much gratified with what he saw of the arrangement of the
cabinet, and of the care taken to exhibit the specimens to the best advantage, that he
proffered to send bones of the Zeuglodon which he had obtained himself in Alabama, and
place them in the Society’s collection, intimating that they might afterwards be presented.
They being received were properly placed for examination, duly labelled, and designated
as deposited by him. These were the vertebrae mentioned as included im the bequest.
The specimens received numbered about two thousand, of which over one thousand were
catalogued and placed in the Cabinet. The others were put aside for exchange. Besides
the fossils there were several books upon natural history received, also bequeathed to
the Society.

The painting of Prof. Agassiz by Mrs. C. V. Hamilton, which has since been conspicuous
among the portraits possessed by the Society, was purchased by the subscription of several
of the members.

1876. The writer of these pages has not found it consistent with his feelings to often
make personal reference to his own part in the proceedings of the Society. To avoid
doing so altogether would be manifestly unjust to those who have been his supporters
during his long service as chief executive officer, and to the reader who asks for truth and
not its obscuration. An event occurred at the meeting prior to that of the annual elec-
tion which can not be passed over in silence with due regard to others than himself, and
it may be added with justice to his own feelings of gratitude for some of the happiest
moments of his official life. He had determined to resign the position he held, really
desiring relief from responsibility, and fully satisfied that the Society would suffer no det-
riment from a change. To his surprise he was called upon at his house prior to the meet-
ing by one of the most honored members, the President of another institution, who,
speaking for himself and others, urged that the resignation should not be tendered. The
writer had, however, too long considered the matter to readily yield, and went to the
meeting firm in purpose to do as he had proposed. To his greater surprise he found
there not only a very unusual number of members, but many who had not been in the
habit of attending. What was read as a valedictory was listened to with great attention,
after which a call to proceed to the business of the meeting was made. Instead of res-
ponding to this call, one after another of those whom the writer most respected, addressed
him in such terms of affectionate remonstrance against his resignation, as to induce him
not only to withdraw it, but to feel that henceforth what had been regarded as a burden
would be a joy, that the performance of the duties of his office would be sweetened as
never before by the recognition that the respect and regard which he felt towards all the
members were fully reciprocated by them.

The very laudatory remarks made by the Custodian upon this matter the writer cannot
present here. He does not feel at liberty to refrain from giving one paragraph from his
Report.

“An event, which in its results was very satisfactory to the officers of this Society,
occurred at the meeting when the President offered his resignation. I allude to the

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 181

approbation of the policy which had governed the Society during his presidency, expressed
by many of our most influential members. The officers of the Society felt themselves to
be identified with the President in this matter; and consequently, the ovation which he
received, and the absolutely unanimous vote of a large and select meeting of the Society,
requesting him to withdraw his resignation, were peculiarly grateful to them.”

At the annual meeting in May, very important alterations were made, in the Constitu-
tion and By-laws, which were primarily suggested by the desire on the part of many that
women should be eligible as members of the Society. Others objected to this, partly
because of the necessity that sometimes arose to speak upon matters not appropriate to
discuss in the presence of ladies. Independently of considerations affecting the admission
of women, a large number favored the creation of a new grade of members, to be known
as Associate Members, who should be admitted to its meetings and take part in scientific
discussions, but who should not be entitled to vote for the officers of the Society, or parti-
cipate in its busmess management. All those hitherto known as Resident Members to
constitute a higher grade to be known as Corporate Members. New admissions to this
grade only to be by election from Associate Members of at least a year’s standing and who
either were professionally engaged in science, or had aided in its advancement.

The views of those favoring an additional grade of members finally prevailed. They had
been embodied in the proposed alterations to the Constitution, and the amendments had
received the requisite three fourths vote of the members present at two consecutive meet-
ings. They were finally adopted by a nearly unanimous vote. In the proposed alteration
of the By-laws made, the article relating to the election of Corporate Members had been
made to express, by a vote of the Society at the previous meeting, that only male Associ-
ate Members should be chosen. When final action was called for, Mr. Cummings moved
that the word male be omitted. After much discussion the motion prevailed by a vote of
forty-eight to twenty. The amendments to the By-laws were then adopted.

Thus after much deliberation and warm discussion, the Society finally by decisive action
ceased to make any sexual discrimination in the admission of members.

At the election of officers no changes were made, all serving the previous year having
been reélected.

The report of the Custodian was as usual full of interest to the members. Of the Min-
eralogical collection, it was said that accessions had been made by the purchase of some
desirable specimens from the Jackson collection and that there were in all belonging to
the department 3250 trays and single specimens on exhibition, 347 of which were in the
New England collection.

In referring to the Botanical collection, it was stated that the New England collection
of specimens had been completed, poisoned and catalogued by Miss Carter, and that it
contained nearly every species found within the New England States, there being 1984,
comprising 3227 specimens. Much work had also been done upon the general collection.

The preparation of the leaves and stems of New England trees and shrubs had been
placed on exhibition by the donor, Mr. Edward T. Bouvé, filling, with the accompanying
wood sections and specimens of fruit, one entire gallery. With these had been placed a
series of plates from the last edition of The Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts, presented
by Mr. George B. Emerson, showing the natural colors of the leaves, flowers and fruit.

182 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Altogether, the Custodian remarked, this collection must be considered one of the most
attractive and instructive in the Museum.

The Bailey Microscopical collection had had much labor devoted to it by Miss Wash-
burn, who had spent the greater part of the winter in cataloguing it. Dr. Henry Codman
had continued his work upon the Burnett collection of mounted parasites. In the Com-
parative Anatomy department, Dr. Thomas Dwight had finished the incorporation of the
Wyman Anatomical collection with that of the Society, and had prepared many sections
showing the structure of bones for the cabinet. There had been an accession of the
skeletons of a large sea-lion and of two fur seals, through the liberality of Captain
Charles Bryant, the superintendent in charge of the Fur Seal Islands.

A collection of sponges had been acquired by purchase and would form the beginning of
a collection of Protozoa. Very valuable though small collections of Australian sponges had
been received from Dr. W. G. Farlow and others, making the dried collection of these ani-
mals the finest in this country.

The collection of New England Fishes had been considerably enlarged through the faeil-
ities afforded the Custodian by the kindness of Prof. 8. F. Baird of the U.S. Fish Com-
mission.

In the department of Mollusca, considerable work had been done upon models by the
assistants in the Museum, and Dr. Brooks had begun the preparation of an accompanying
suite of anatomical preparations for each model. An important addition had been made
in the shape of suites of models showing the principal stages in the development of the
characteristic types of the Mollusca. Dr. P. P. Carpenter had continued the work of class-
ifying and labelling the shells. ,

All the Annelids had been reviewed, sorted, and the Entozoa named by the Custodian.

The Insects had received much attention from Mr. Henshaw, who reported that the en-
tire collection was free from Anthreni. To the collection of the Mammalia, a fine Polar
bear had been presented by Bishop Williams, the skin of a fine grayhound by Mr. Addison
Child and a specimen of the celebrated breed of Ancon sheep by Mr. George William
Bond.

The Custodian mentioned that considerable assistance had been received during the
year from the voluntary labors of Mr. Edward G. Gardner.

During the year another room had been fitted up with improved cases for the reception
of New England fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals, and much had been done in provid-
ing for the protection of the Museum against fire. A large service pipe had been intro-
duced, which would give an ample supply of water, and every workroom was provided with
screw faucets. One large faucet with hose attached would be always ready in the cellar,
and three sets of hose had been distributed about the building for use in any emergency in
the work-rooms. On the roof two faucets, one on each wing, had been placed, to which
hose could be attached. Buckets of water, with a Johnson pump had also been placed
in each workroom, and three patent gas machines in different parts of the building.

The Custodian spoke of continued improvement in the condition and work of the Lab-
oratory under the management of Mr. Crosby. There had been four female students,
besides the usual number of students from the Technological Institute.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 183

The Teachers’ School of Science had been carried on through the liberality of
Mr. Cummings. The statement of the results is given almost verbatim from the Report
of the Custodian as follows: Fourteen lectures or practical lessons in Lithology had been
given by Mr. L. 8. Burbank, during the winter, at which the average attendance had been
about 90 out of 100 members. This was a remarkable fact, considering that the class inclu-
ded a large number of the busiest teachers, the masters of the public schools of Boston and
the vicinity. Each member of the class was provided with tools, consisting of a small
hammer, magnet, file, streak stone of Arkansas quartzite, a bottle of dilute acid with
rubber stopper and glass rod, and the scale of hardness previously used in the Mineralog-
ical class of the preceding winter. All these were purchased by the members of the class
except the scale of hardness, reserved for future use. One hundred sets of rock speci-
mens were distributed gratis, affording each of the teachers a series. Most of these were
large enough for cabinet specimens, and many of the sets had been placed in the collec-
tions of the city schools, and used in the instruction of the pupils. The specimens were
largely collected in Massachusetts. The course was supplemented by a series of excur-
sions for field work in the vicinity of Boston.

Of the Lowell free lectures given under the direction of the Society by the generosity
of John Amory Lowell, Trustee, four courses were given during the winter. These
courses consisted of six lectures, by Prof. EK. S. Morse, on six New England animals and
their nearest allies; six by Prof. G. L. Goodale on Botany; six by Prof. T. Sterry Hunt
on Ancient Rocks of North America; and two by Mr. L. 8. Burbank on Mineral Veins and
Ores. The course on Botany was the best attended, the numbers present averaging 192.

The additions to the Library during the year had been 327 volumes, 1108 parts of vol-
umes, 217 pamphlets and 67 maps and charts.

Of the Publications there had been issued two parts of each of the seventeenth and
eighteenth volumes of the Proceedings, and three numbers of the Memoirs. A second
volume of the Occasional papers had also been published, of 171 pages and 21 plates.

The Report of the Treasurer exhibited an excess of expenditures over receipts of
$522.39.

At the election of officers, L. F. de Pourtalés was chosen on the Committee of
Radiates, Crustacea and Worms, and Jules Marcou on the Committee of Palaeontology.

Walker Prizes. The subject for which the annual prizes were offered for this year was
“ An original investigation of the structure, development, and mode of life of one or more
of the fungi which injuriously attack useful plants, such as the potato, the onion, the
cranberry, etc., to be prefaced by an exposition of our present knowledge of the struc-
ture and development of the lower fungi.” No essays were offered on this subject.

At a meeting of the Council in May, a vote was passed, upon the motion of Prof. Shaler,
that no existing Council shall formally or informally pledge any part of the Society’s
income for a future year.

During the summer recess this year, there passed away by death one of the original
founders of the Society, Dr. Walter Channing.

Dr. Channing was not only one of the origimal members of this Society, but he was
also one of the founders of the Linnean Society which preceded it. He took an active
part in the early formation of both. Upon the organization of the Boston Society of

184 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Natural History, he was elected one of its Curators, and subsequently became one of its
second Vice-Presidents. He was born in Newport, R. I, on the 15th of April, 1786. The
celebrated Dr. William Ellery Channing was his eldest brother, and Edward T. Channing,
who long and ably filled the chair of Rhetoric in Harvard College, was a younger
brother. Walter entered Harvard College in 1804, but did not graduate from there, a
great rebellion among the students having led to his leaving the institution and devoting
himself to the study of medicine in Boston. He afterwards pursued this study with great
zeal in the schools of Philadelphia, Edinburgh, and London. In 1812 he established him-
self in the practice of his profession in Boston, and in the same year was appointed Lec-
turer in Obstetrics at the Medical College. Three years later he became Professor there
of that branch of medical practice, the duties of which position he performed for nearly
forty years.

In the practice of his profession Dr. Channing exhibited marked ability, especially in
the department to which he gave particular attention. In the reform movements of his
day he took great interest, and his pen and voice were very active in advocating them.
In social life he was genial, and had the rare gift of being able at all times to interest lis-
teners by the brilliancy of his conversation, enlivened as it ever was by ready wit.

A characteristic anecdote is, that when asked by a stranger who wished to see his more
eminent brother, if he was the Dr. Channing who preached, he replied, “No! it is my
brother who preaches; I practice.”

Dr. Channing died in Brookline, Mass., on the 27th of July, 1876, at the age of 90
years.

In October the attention of the Council being called to the fact that at the meetings of
the section of Microscopy the attendance had become very small, a vote was passed to
discontinue the notification of them.

Epwarp PICKERING.

At the meeting, December 6th, President Bouvé addressing the members, remarked ;
“The Society is called to deplore the loss of a valuable member and officer in the death of
our late Treasurer, Edward Pickering. Previously to our last meeting, Mr. Pickering had
been ill for aday or two from a trouble in his throat affecting the vocal organs, and
making it painful for him to converse freely, but he kept about his usual occupations until
a few hours before we met, when feeling unable to be with us, he sent to me his regular
financial statement for presentation to the Council in the evening. The trouble with him
seemed similar to that he had before experienced, and there appeared no reason to
anticipate its sad result.

« All, I am sure, were surprised and shocked to learn on the following Tuesday that he
had passed away early that morning. Mr. Pickering, though not strictly speaking, a scien-
tific man, was much interested in whatever conduced to the education of the community,
and he consequently felt great interest in the well being of the Society. He became a
member in 1860, since which, he has always been a regular attendant on our meetings,
and I think, from his highly appreciative mind, enjoyed much the proceedings. In 1865,
he was elected Treasurer of the Society and he became also ex-officio one of the Trustees,

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 185

meeting the requirements of these positions with great devotion and efficiency. Our de-
parted friend acquired the high respect of all who knew him, by his general intelligence,
his marked integrity, and his faithfulness to all the duties of the various offices he was
called upon to fill, and he won the love of all who knew him intimately by his kindly
sympathy and his Christian gentleness.”

On motion of Messrs. Scudder and Hyatt, it was voted that the Secretary send a copy of
Mr. Bouvé’s remarks to the family of Mr. Pickering, as an expression of the Society’s re-
spect and regard for hin.

In December a very fine cast from the bust of Prof. Louis Agassiz, by Preston Powers,
was presented to the Society by the Rev. R. C. Waterston.

In Council a vote was passed allowing the use of the Laboratory of the Society to the
Boston University for instruction in Zotjlogy; the lessons to be given by Mr. Hyatt, as
Professor of the Technological Institute, or his assistant Mr. Crosby, and a suitable rent
to be paid the Society.

1877. In January of this year, the death of Mr. F. B. Meek of Washington, a Corre-
sponding Member, and one of the most eminent of American palacontologists, was an-
nounced by the Secretary. At the next meeting the following resolutions were passed
by the Society.

“ Resolved, That the members of the Society have heard with the deepest regret of the
decease of one of the most highly esteemed of their Corresponding Members, Mr. F. B.
Meek of Washington. Their admiration can add but little to his reputation, which is
secured by the numerous works of which he has been the author. They feel, however,
that a testimonial is due from them to the memory of a man whose knowledge of the whole
field of American palaeontology was unsurpassed, and whose life was a model of laborious
special investigation and therefore unrewarded by public commendation. As students of
natural history, they desire also to record their respect for a life of such modest simplicity
aud devotion to science for its own sake, that it merits, and will, it is hoped, receive the
highest praise from the hands of Mr. Meek’s fellow laborers.

“ Resolved, That this resolution be recorded in the Proceedings of this Society and that
copies be forwarded to the friends of the deceased.”

At a meeting of the Society February 2d, Charles W. Scudder was elected Treasurer.

In Council a vote was passed to procure a crayon of the late President, Dr. Jeffries
Wyman, of life size, with a suitable frame. This was subsequently done, and the fine
portrait obtained may now be seen in the Library room of the Museum.

This body also upon hearing that another attempt was to be made to obtain a license
for the exhibition of Jourdain’s anatomical collection, again successfully remonstrated

against one being granted, on the ground that it would be subversive of public morals.

In March, the President announced the death of Mr. Edward Bicknell, the well-known
Microscopist, and for several years a member of the Council of the Society.

A petition having been presented to the Council that the Museum of the Society should
be opened to the public on Sundays, a committee was appointed to take the matter
into consideration and to report upon the subject. This committee consisted of three,
the President being of the number. At the next meeting, the committee reported
adversely, on the ground mainly that the Society could not afford the additional expense
that would be incurred by compliance. The report was approved unanimously.

In March also of this year, Dr. B. Joy Jeffries called the attention of the Society to the

186 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

necessity of action on the part of the United States Government to prevent accidents by
reason of color blindness in the army, navy and merchant service, and the need of the
State governments also taking measures to prevent casualties on the railroads from the
same cause. Whilst the possible danger arising from color blindness had been mentioned
before, this was the first time in this country that the necessity of control on the part of
the authorities was brought forward and urged. The action of the government, State and
National, and of the railroad corporations since, has proved Dr. Jeffries’ position correct.

In April, the Legislature of the State having authorized the licensing of such persons to
shoot birds for scientific purposes as the Society might designate, a committee was ap-
pointed, consisting of the Custodian, Mr. Hyatt, Dr. Thomas M. Brewer and Mr. J. A. Al-
len, to issue certificates to such persons as they deemed, upon due enquiry, proper to
receive such license.

Many persons desiring admission to the Museum on other days than public days, the
Council voted to admit such as the Custodian judged proper, upon the payment of a small
entrance fee, to cover such additional expense as might be incurred thereby.

At the annual meeting in May, the reports of the Custodian, and of the Secretary, made
in accordance with a new provision in the By-laws, were presented. An abstract from
these follows.

During the year one additional room had been fitted up with new cases and brackets, for
the reception especially of the birds and mammals of the systematic collection. For fur-
ther protection against loss by fire, telegraphic communication had been established with
the fire engine house on Dartmouth Street by which, in case of necessity, engines could
be had for service at the building within a few minutes after giving an alarm.

The Teacers’ School of Science was continued, as in previous years, by the liberality of
Mr. Cummings. The only course of lessons given, was by Prof. Goodale of Harvard Col-
lege, but this was a very comprehensive one, comprising twenty-one lectures on Morpho-
logical, Physiological and Systematic Botany. The lessons were, as usual, illustrated by
specimens which were distributed to the pupils. By the use of blank forms, which were
given with the flowers, each teacher was enabled to analyse the specimens independently
and record his observations, thus preventing confusion and allowing the instructor to
cover more ground than would otherwise have been possible. The analysis of the
flowers for the determination of the peculiarities of the floral structure by each teacher,
was regarded by Prof. Goodale as an important element in the instruction given. The
attendance was large, averaging one hundred.

In the Laboratory much work had been done of a satisfactory character. The collec-
tions for the use of students had been largely increased, and it was hoped they might be
made complete before another year. The room and the collections had been profitably
used by students of the Institute of Technology and of the Boston University.

The condition of the collections was reported to be good, and the progress made in
arrangement, labelling, etc., quite satisfactory.

In the Mineral department the only change made was by the addition of new specimens,
the greater portion of which had been presented by the President.

In the Palaeontological department under the charge of Mr. Crosby, much had been
done by Miss Carter and Miss Washburn, for whose very valuable services the So-
ciety was indebted to the generosity of Mr. John Cummings. The former had mounted,

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 187

catalogued, labelled and placed on exhibition, all the fossils of the Triassic and the Cre-
taceous periods, together with the larger part of the Eurcpean Jurassic ; whilst the latter
had re-arranged, catalogued, and re-labelled all the fossils from the Devonian to the Cre-
taceous periods inclusive. A great amount of work too had been done in identifying the
new specimens, the additions to the collection having been very numerous. The Jurassic,
Triassic, and Carboniferous plants of North America had been tripled in number and
value by accessions from the Rogers collection, and the Devonian and Cretaceous fossils
much increased by additions from the Hale and Cleveland collections.

The Botanical department, under the charge of Mr. Cummings, had received much at-
tention, and great progress had been made in the revision of the general collection by Miss
Carter.

The collection of the department of Comparative Anatomy had had much labor bestowed
upon it by Mr. Van Vleck. More work was necessary upon this collection than antici-
pated, and there yet remained much to do before its arrangement would be completed.

The cataloguing of the Microscopical collection had been finished by Miss Washburn
early in the year. The whole was reported as consisting of 2606 slides and preparations ;
of these, 567 were preparations of parasitic insects acquired by purchase from the Burnett
estate ; 1838 were received in the bequest of Professor Bailey, and consisted largely of for-
aminiferae and diatoms; 155 were miscellaneous preparations of worms, crustacea and
embryos of various kinds, prepared by Mr. J. H. Emerton when assistant in the Museum,
and 113 were preparations of the anatomy and skeletons of sponges, prepared by Mr.
Crosby and the Custodian. Besides these, there was reported a great quantity of un-
mounted material. Subsequently to the close of Miss Washburn’s work, the collection
was enriched by the presentation to it of 477 slides prepared by Mr. William Glen, for-
merly of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy of Cambridge. These were purchased and
given to the Society by Mr. R. C. Greenleaf and Dr. A. D. Sinclair. This collection was
especially rich in sections of the spines of Echini and the tongues of Mollusks. Including
this accession and some specimens of miscellaneous character presented by Messrs. E. Sam-
uels, C. S. Busch and others, the Society collection was reported as containing, exclusive
of duplicate material, 5356 slides and preparations.

The collection of Corals and Echinoderms was reported as undergoing revision by Mr.
Van Vleck, who was likewise preparing the specimens for labelling. The Poriferae were
receiving the same attention from the Custodian.

In the Molluscan department valuable work had been continued by Dr. W. K. Brooks
upon the models of the animals, anatomical preparations of them, and in explanatory out-
line drawings. He had also completed the re-arrangement of the shells. Much to the
regret of the Society, Dr. Brooks removed to Baltimore, having been appointed assis-
tant professor in the Johns Hopkins University. After his departure the work upon the
collection of the Mollusca was continued under the direction of Mr. Van Vleck, who re-
ported that about one third of the specimens on exhibition had been re-labelled by Miss
Washburn. Dr. P. P. Carpenter of Montreal had continued the work of identification
and had completed a large part of the terrestrial shells.

In the Entomological department Mr. Henshaw had continued his valuable labors.
The New England collection of the Coleoptera had been completed, and the Neurop-
tera, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera re-arranged. Very important additions

188 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

to the collection of Coleoptera had been made from the collection of Mr. Sprague, the
late assistant of the Museum. The Society was permitted, in accordance with the
verbal request of Mr. Sprague, to select from the specimens left by him all that might
be valuable to its collection, and thus additions were made to it of 600 species and 2000
specimens.

A revision of all the New England collections at this time showed them to consist of
Hymenoptera, 157 species; Lepidoptera, 711 species; Coleoptera, 1810 species ; Orthop-
tera, 59 species ; Neuroptera, 65 species.

To Dr. Hagen the Society was indebted for a revision and identification of all the Neu-
roptera, and to Mr. Burgess for the revision and identification of the Diptera of the Harris
collection. The entire Harris collection had been transferred to the new style of boxes,
and was considered safe from the ravages of Anthreni. It is due to Mr. Henshaw to state
that he voluntarily gave professional labor in the department of Entomology, equal to
about seven hours daily during the year, the means of the Society not enabling it to ade-
quately compensate him for his services.

The alcoholic collection of Reptiles had been sent to the Museum of Comparative Zoil-
ogy for identification by Mr. Garman, who had kindly consented to examine and name
them. It was understood too, that under the instruction of Mr. Alexander Agassiz, the
director, he would add such species from the duplicates of the Museum as were needed in
the collection of the Society. Mr. Garman had already been instrumental in increasing
our collection of fishes in the same manner, and the Society had to some extent recipro-
cated the favor by sparing specimens from its duplicates.

The Custodian closed his remarks upon the collections of the Museum by stating that
there was now a New England collection in every department, and that there was a great
need of a new gallery around the main hall, which should be devoted exclusively to the
New England department, so that a visitor could see arranged in one continuous series all
the natural products of New England. It is certainly a matter to be deeply regretted that
the Society has not since been able to put up such a gallery as suggested by the Custodian.

From the Secretary’s Report, the following is given: to the Library there had been
added of volumes, 357; parts of volumes, 977; pamphlets, 188; maps, charts and pho-
tographs, 98; making 1620 accessions in all. Nothing had been done in binding for want
of the necessary means. The use of the Library seemed to be regularly increasing. Dur-
ing the year 1019 books had been borrowed by 119 persons.

The publications of the Society had been considerably less than during previous years.
Two parts, concluding Vol. XVIII, of the Proceedings, had been issued, and the first part
of Vol. XIX was in press. Of the Memoirs, the second part of Prof. Hyatt’s Revision of
North American Poriferae was in press.

The meetings of the Society had been well attended, and the interest in the commun-
ications presented well sustained. In consequence of the formation of the Boston Micro-
scopical Society, the section of Microscopy had been given up. The section of Entomol-
ogy had held monthly meetings, with a small but regular attendance.

The Section of Botany formed within the year had held bi-monthly meetings, and these
had been fairly attended.

During the year four Corresponding Members, six Resident, under the old Constitution,
and twenty-five Associate Members under the new Constitution, had been elected.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 189

Of the Lowell free courses of lectures, there had been given under the direction of the
Society ; six on Comparative Embryology, by Dr. Chas. 8. Minot; four on North Amer-
ican Archaeology and Ethnology, by F. W. Putnam; three by Maj. J. W. Powell on the
Cations of the Colorado, Indian Life in the Rocky Mountains, and Indian Mythology ;
six by Prof. N.S. Shaler, on the Geological problems of Boston and its vicinity ; and
five by S. H. Scudder on the Organization and Metamorphoses of Butterflies. The
courses were very interesting and well attended.

From the report of the Treasurer there was an excess of receipts over expenditures
of $1081.12, the most of which, however, it was necessary to reserve for Prize pur-
poses in accordance with the conditions of the Walker bequest.

At the election of officers for the ensuing year the only changes made were as follows :

In the department of Microscopy, Samuel Wells was chosen on the Committee, in
place of Edwin Bicknell deceased, and in the department of Fishes and Reptiles, 8S. W.
Garman was chosen in place of Richard Bliss, Jr.

It is pleasant to observe the persistent efforts made to prevent the expenditures of the
Society from exceeding its income. At the first meeting of the Council, after the annual
meeting of the Society, the Trustees reported that after a careful examination of the
invested funds, they estimated the income for the year then commencing, applicable to
the general purposes of the Society, as not likely to exceed $8500. “To all who are
conversant with the state of affairs in the business world,” they said, “ the estimated reduc-
tion from the income of the past year will not be surprising, though most unwelcome.
Let us be thankful it is no larger, and by a wise and careful economy endeavor to dis-
charge the manifest duty of keeping our expenditures within the limits of our income.”
The following appropriations were recommended :

For salaries and wages, $6000; gas and fuel, $400; general expenses, $900; cabinet,
$300; publications, $900.

These appropriations allowed of no contingences, but it seemed impossible to lessen any
of them.

Walker Prizes. In October of this year the first prize of sixty dollars was awarded to
Mr. C. Riley, for his essay upon the subject proposed for this year, viz.: A complete
life history of the army worm, Leucania unipunctata, and its parasites.

In November the Laboratory of the Museum was rented to the Technological Institute
for a course of thirty lectures, upon the payment of ninety dollars.

1878. In March of this year occurred the death of Dr. Charles Pickering, a greatly re-
spected member of the Society, whose interest in its proceedings had been for many years
manifested by constant attendance at the meetings and often by taking part in them. A
man of very remarkable scientific acquirements, and of personal character corresponding
to his intellectual attainments, he merits more than a passing notice.

Dr. CHARLES PICKERING.

Dr. Charles Pickerimg was born at Starucca, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania, No-
vember 10th, 1805. His father, Timothy Pickering, Jr., was born in Philadelphia, Octo-
ber Ist, 1779, graduated at Harvard College, entered the navy, served creditably as mid-
shipman under Decatur, and resigned in 1801. His grandfather was Colonel Timothy

190 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Pickering of the Revolutionary Army, a friend of Washington, and a member of his Cab-
inet. The Colonel had acquired large tracts of “ wild land” in western Pennsylvania,
and after retirmg from the Cabinet, removed thither with his son, whose wife, Mrs.
Lurena Pickering, subsequently became the mother of the subject of this notice and his
brother Edward.

In the year 1809, Timothy Pickering, Jr. died, and his father afterwards returned to
Massachusetts, settlmg in Wenham, near Salem. He brought with him his son’s wife and
her two boys, and it was under his supervision and that of their mother, an admirable
woman, that they were brought up.

Charles early showed a taste for natural history, roaming about the country in search of
birds, eggs, insects, plants and quadrupeds, with specimens of which he would return from
his excursions loaded. He entered Harvard College in 1823, but did not graduate with
his class, subsequently taking the degree of M. D. at the Medical School in 1826. His
love for natural science increased with his years, and while living at Salem, he was asso-
ciated with William Oakes in botanical investigation, and it is thought that the two first
explored the White Mountains together.

He was elected a correspondent of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
November 28th, 1826, in the twenty-second year of his age; and the next year he removed
to Philadelphia, and became a member of that Society. The scope of his various scientific
attainments, even at that early period of his life, may be estimated from the fact that he
served on the Zovdlogical Committee for ten years (from December 25th, 1829); on the
Botanical Committee for eight years, half this time as chairman ; on the Publication Com-
mittee four years; on the Library Committee a year; as Librarian five years, and as Cu-
rator for four years, discharging all the duties of these several positions with the utmost
faithfulness and efficiency.

He prepared a Catalogue of American Plants in the Academy’s collection, in 1834,
and was intrusted with the transfer of the great collection of plants bequeathed to the
Society by Von Schweinitz. His great services in collecting and arranging the extensive
herbarium of the Society, merited and received its thanks, presented through a resolution
unanimously passed on motion of Prof. Henry D. Rogers. He also was made the recip-
ient of the grateful thanks of the Society on motion of Dr. Samuel George Morton, for
his services in selecting from Mr. Maclure’s library the 2300 volumes designed for the
Academy.

He was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society, January 15th, 1828,
having previously (Oct. 19th, 1827), read before this Society his paper “ On the Geograph-
ical Distribution of Plants.” He was a member of the Yale Natural History Society, and
read, conjointly with James H. Dana, before that Society the “ Description of a Crustaceous
Animal, belonging to the genus Caligus, C. Americanus,” published in Silliman’s Journal,
Vol. XXXVUI. He served as Recording Secretary of the Pennsylvania Horticultural
Society, from February 1830, till September 1837.

On the organization of the U. 8. Exploring Expedition under Lieutenant Charles
Wilkes, Dr. Pickering’s reputation was such that he was at once selected as chief zoblo-
gist, and placed on board the flagship Vincennes. The expedition sailed from Hampton
Roads, Aug. 19th, 1858, and on its return reached Sandy Hook, June 10th, 1842. Dur-
ing the four years’ voyage, Dr. Pickering turned his attention to anthropology and to the

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 191

study of the geological distribution of animals and plants; especially to the latter, as
affected by, or as evidence of, the operations, movements and diffusion of the races of man.
-To the collections and investigations of Dr. Pickering and Professor Dana, the scientific
fame of the expedition is principally due. .

In October, 1845, Dr. Pickering again went abroad, visiting during his tour Egypt,
Arabia, India, and eastern Africa, more particularly for the purpose of verifying obser-
vations made while with the Exploring Expedition. On his return he settled in Boston,
and occupied himself in preparing his “ Races of Man and their Geographical Distribu-
tion,’ published in 1848, being Volume XI, of the Exploring Expedition. In 1850,
appeared in the “ Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal,” his “ Enumeration of the Races
of Man.”

In 1854, his work “The Geographical Distribution of Animals and Plants,” was pub-
lished. This work constituted Volume XV of the Exploring Expedition.

The proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, contain the following
articles by Dr. Pickering: Observations on the Egyptian Computation of Time, appearing
in October, 1849; on the Egyptian Astronomical Cycle, in May, 1850; on Sulphur Vapor,
in December, 1856; on the Coptic Alphabet, in March, 1859; on the Geographical Distri-
bution of Species, in March 1859, and December 1860; and on the Jewish Calendar, in
October, 1864.

In June, 1867, he prepared a paper “On the Gliddon Mummy case in the Museum of
the Smithsonian Institution,” published in Volume XVI of the Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge.

In 1876, was published at Salem the “Geographical Distribution of Animals and Plants;
Part IT; Plants in their Wild State.”

The great work of his life was “The Chronological History of Plants.” This truly
remarkable production, to which he had devoted sixteen years of indomitable industry
and laborious research, was going through the press at his own expense at the time of
his death. While the form in which it is cast will prevent its use as a book for popular
study, to the thorough student and teacher it must ever be unequalled as an exhaust-
ive authority on the subjects of which it treats.

Dr. Pickering was elected a member of the Boston Society of Natural History, March
3d, 1858. As a member, his attendance upon meetings was constant, and his communica-
tions, whether elaborately written out, or merely remarks upon the subject at the time
before the Society, were always indicative of thorough knowledge and acquaintance with
the matter. The range of his general information was very extensive, and whether he
was speaking of Feejean pottery, or rare botanical forms found in the mountains of New
England; of the character of the alluvial deposits of South American rivers, or the origin
of the Esquimaux ; whatever he might have to say was interesting and instructive in a
high degree. Most of the present members of the Society will recall his controversy
with the late Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, relative to the introduction of the European spar-
row, in which Dr. Pickering took very strong ground adversely to the naturalization of
the bird, quoting a formidable array of authorities in support of his position, and predic-
ting very undesirable results in case the proposed experiment should be attempted—and
prove successful—as to the ability of the sparrow to exist in this climate.

192 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Dr. Pickering, while it could be truly said of him by one of his biographers, that there
was probably not a more learned naturalist in the world, was yet one of the most modest
of men. His simplicity of character, inflexible integrity, loyalty to truth, tranquillity
of temper, and kindly though somewhat reserved disposition, were thoroughly consistent
with his great and extremely accurate acquirements, and that love of knowledge which
was his grand passion. The following extract from a biographical notice published with
his “‘ Chronological History of Plants,” speaks thus of him :

“We doubt if any one naturalist ever united in himself so far as he did, the qualities of
an exact original observer on the most enlarged scale, and of an inquirer into all that had
been learned before. His minute, laborious and extended explorations into all possible
records of past ages, seemed of themselves more than enough for the work of a lifetime.
* * * He not only visited every quarter of the earth, but went through the whole range
of history, wherever it could bear upon his subject, in quest of anything that might help
him better to understand “The Races of Man and their Geographical Distribution,”
“ The Geographical Distribution of Animals and Plants,” and “The Chronological History
of Plants.”

Dr. Pickering married in 1851, Sarah S., daughter of the late Daniel Hammond, Esq.
He died of pneumonia, in Boston, March 17th, 1878, leaving a widow but no children.

In April the death of Prof. C. F. Hartt, a highly valued Corresponding Member of the
Society, was announced. As he was for some time an active member of the Society, it
is due to the eminence attained by him as a scientific explorer and investigator, to give
some account of the great work achieved by him in the short time of his active life.
The sketch here presented is drawn entirely from an elaborate and excellent paper pre-
pared by Mr. Richard Rathbun and published in the nineteenth volume of the Society’s
Proceedings.

Professor Hartt was born in Fredericton, New Brunswick, August 23d, 1840.
He graduated from Acadia College in 1860. At an early age he manifested much
interest in the study of natural history, and whilst in college labored zealously in
exploring geologically the Province of Nova Scotia, in doing which he made large collec-
tions. Subsequently he gave much attention to the study of the rocks in the vicinity of
St. John, New Brunswick, and it was by his researches there that he first became exten-
sively known to the scientific world. The discovery there of fossil insects in the Devon-
ian shales, led to Professor Agassiz’ knowledge of him, and to his bemg invited to become
a student in the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, where he passed much time during
the succeeding four years, making great progress in science and preparing himself for
future usefulness. During this period he made excursions to his native province and
to Nova Scotia, making investigations of important character. To him, the scien-
tific world is indebted for very much of the knowledge possessed by it of the ancient
strata of New Brunswick. Mr. Hartt was appointed by Professor Agassiz one of the two
geologists who accompanied the Thayer expedition to Brazil in 1865, and it was whilst en-
gaged in this service, that he became so much interested in the geology of that empire as
to lead to his extensive work there in after years. He made a second trip there in 1867.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 193

In 1868 he was appointed Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, which position
he soon resigned to take the head of the department of Geology in Cornell University,
which he held until the time of his death.

Whilst at Cornell, when not engaged in the duties of his position, he prepared his report
as geologist of the Thayer expedition. This embraced so much of value upon the subject
treated, as to lead to its being published in a volume by itself under the title of “The Ge-
ology and the Physical Geography of Brazil.” It formed a large octavo volume of over
six hundred pages.

In 1870, Prof. Hartt organized another expedition to Brazil, taking with him Prof.
Prentice and eleven of the students of Cornell University. This party, after exploring in
the vicinity of Para, proceeded to the Amazonas where were found the first Devonian fos-
sils east of the Andes in South America. Prof. Hartt soon after made another trip to the
Amazonas in company with Mr. O. A. Derby, with important results. He returned to
Ithaca in 1872, where he remained from two to three years, giving such time as he could
spare to studying up the material obtained in his Amazonian trips, aided by two assistants,
Mr. O. A. Derby and Mr. Richard Rathbun, and in preparing papers for publication.
These appeared in various scientific journals.

In 1875, the government of Brazil, appreciating the labors of Prof. Hartt, invited him
to submit a proposition for the systematic geological exploration of the Empire. He
accordingly proceeded to Rio Janeiro, where he was received with great enthusiasm.
The suggestions made in his proposition were not fully complied with from economical
considerations, which is much to be regretted, considering his early death. In May, 1875,
Prof. Hartt was made chief of a commission for the geological survey of Brazil with
six assistants, among whom was Mr. Rathbun, also a member of the Boston Society of
Natural History. The party was soon in the field, and its active work continued almost
uninterruptedly until the close of 1877. The amount of work done during this period
was immense, and the investigations made of the most important character. No wonder
that the Emperor upon his return from a visit to the Museums of North America and the
old world, should have expressed his astonishment when he found that the small party
which he had left eighteen months before working hard among the rocks of a portion of
the Empire, had created a large Museum containing the collections made, and having con-
nected with it biological, chemical and photographic laboratories.

This brief notice of Professor Hartt will be closed by a few words given in abstract from
the paper alluded to, prepared by Mr. Rathbun.

“Tn order to judge of the real character and value of his investigations, we must refer
to his publications. These, however, give us but a glimpse of the vast store of knowledge
he had accumulated. He has left a number of volumes in manuscript, which when pub-
lished, will add greatly to his scientific standing, by making known to the world the vari-
ety and excellence of the work he had accomplished. Judging from his brilliant begin-
ning, we are confident in asserting that had he lived, he would have won for himself a
place by the side of such investigators as De le Beche, Murchison, Logan and others, like
whom, he was a pioneer in the special field of research he had entered.”’

194 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The reports of the Custodian, Secretary and Treasurer were looked forward to with
much interest, the members generally realizing the difficulty of accomplishing the neces-
sary work of the Society within the means at its disposal, without incurring debt or lessen-
ing its funded property. When listened to at the annual meeting, they gave great satis-
faction, showing as they did much progress in several departments of the Museum, con-
tinued growth of the Library, a fair amount of publication, and good attendance at the
meetings. It will be borne in mind that the period was one of prolonged business depres-
sion, rendering the income from the Society’s funds quite uncertain, and that the Council
at the beginning of the year had decided to limit the expenditures to the least possible
sum consistent with the Society's future welfare. The Custodian commenced his report
by deploring that this decision, though necessary, had prevented continued improvement
in the cases, and thus arrested work, the accomplishment of which alone could render the
collections secure from damage by dust and insects.

From the remarks of the Custodian upon the state of the collections, the following is
presented.

The Minerals remained in the good condition of the previous years and had received val-
uable accessions from the President.

The Palaeontological collections had had much labor bestowed upon them by Mr,
Crosby, the assistant in the Museum, and by Miss Washburn and Miss Carter, who had
aided him in mounting and labelling the specimens. The whole department was stated to
be divided into sections according to locality, and collections of it arranged entirely to
illustrate the stratigraphical relations of fossils. There were of the North American col-
lection on exhibition, 1040 genera embracing 2034 species, and 7834 specimens. These
had been derived from the following sources: Mass. Institute of Technology, 2223 ;
C. 8. Hale collection, 1015; Cleveland collection, 627; various, 3971; making a total of
7834.

The most valuable parts of this collection are specimens of Paradoxides from Braintree,
embracing the original from the Jackson Cabinet; a fine suite of Crinoids from Mr. J. M.
Barnard ; the coal plants of the Rogers Cabinet; the fine animal impressions on stone
from Turner’s Falls; the reptilian bones from the red sandstone of the Connecticut
valley, presented by Prof. W. B. Rogers, and the fossils from Attleboro, Mass.

Of the Eser collection of European species, there were on exhibition 1506 genera, em-
bracing 2563 species, and 8809 specimens.

The Botanical department under the charge of Mr. John Cummings had been steadily
progressing. Three-fifths of the flowering plants had becn revised, and work had only
been suspended awaiting the reception of a further number of the “Genera Plantarum.”
Miss Carter had been engaged much of the time in assorting, condensing and properly
arranging duplicates. She had also sorted, mounted and labelled a large and valuable col-
lection of lichens under the direction of Mr. C. J. Sprague, who reported that “this
formed the Lichen-herbarium of Dr. Thomas Taylor, an Irish botanist, to whom Sir W. J.
and Sir Joseph Hooker communicated the whole of their extensive collections of lichens
gathered during many exploring expeditions. Dr. Taylor published descriptions of these
plants in the London Journal of Botany, 1844-46, and many of the specimens are ‘the
originals of the descriptions. Mr. John Amory Lowell purchased the collection of

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 195

Dr. Taylor's heirs, and afterwards presented it to the Society, with the rest of his herba-
rium.

The knowledge of the structure of lichens has advanced much since Dr. Taylor’s day,
and the nomenclature has undergone extensive changes, so this herbarium, though contain-
ing over a thousand species, might have remained comparatively useless to the American
student had it not been for the voluntary services of Prof. Edward T. Tuckerman.
He examined and named very nearly the entire series, a work which no one else in this
country could have done, and has given it an authentic value, otherwise unattainable.

The decease of Dr. P. P. Carpenter of Montreal, to whom had been intrusted the work
of naming the collections of shells, had prevented its final completion. Fortunately for
the Society, not much remained undone. At the time of Dr. Carpenter’s death, he had in
his possession at Montreal a very large portion of the collection belonging to the Museum.
The specimens were subsequently received in admirable condition, not one having been
lost, and all had been unpacked and arranged in the cabinet by Mr. Van Vleck. Miss
Washburn had been engaged in re-mounting, labelling and cataloguing them.

The Systematic collection of Mollusca, consisting of 630 genera, represented by 2600
species and 9000 specimens, had been completed by Mr. Van Vleck, and placed on exhibi-
tion.

The alcoholic collections of Reptiles and Batrachians had been in large part revised and
named by Mr. Garman of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy. Considerable additions
had been made to them by the kindness of Mr. Garman, who selected from the duplicates
of the Museum by permission of Mr. Agassiz, the director, such specimens as were needed
for the collection of the Society.

The New England collection of birds had been much increased by donations from
various parties, and by exchange. Eighty species had been added, some of which were
of great rarity. The donors were Messrs. Weeks, E. A. & O. Bangs, C. B. Corey, F. B
Loring, W. B. Greene, H. D. Morse, Wm. Brewster, Arthur Smith, Geo. A. Boardman,
and H. O. Ryder.

The Entomological collection had been enriched by valuable donations received from
Messrs. Smith, Bryant, Thaxter and Mrs. Méring. Mr. Henshaw’s labors in this depart-
ment had been continued.

To the Anatomical collection a number of preparations had been added by the assis-
tant, Mr. Van Vleck, and by Dr. Thomas, a student in the Museum.

To the collection of Echinoderms had been added a suite of Ophiurans received from
the Museum of Comparative Zoilogy. These having been identified and named by
Mr. Theodore Lyman, the labelling may be relied upon as correct.

Of the Laboratory, the remarks of the Custodian are presented in full, as they give
briefly a good idea of the practical means taken to advance the knowledge of natural hist-
ory in the community.

“The work in this department has greatly mcreased. The educational collections, if
they continue to be improved at the same rate, will, within a year or two, be entirely
completed, with of course, the exception of those rarer preparations and specimens which
never seem to be within the reach of moderate means. They embrace typical zodlogical,

196 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

palaeontological and geological collections, already sufficiently perfect for the ordinary
purposes of general instruction.

“The room and the collections have been used by the Institute of Technology for a class
in Palaeontology ; by the Boston University for a class in Zodlogy and another in Botany ;
and by the Teachers of Boston, for a class in Zodlogy. This last was composed of the
teachers of natural history in the High Schools of Boston, and other teachers, numbering
about thirty in all.

“The lessons are necessarily given on Saturday, and are limited to two hours, though
the laboratory is open throughout the day for those who wish to remain.

“ This course was instituted in order to support the movement made by the School Com-
mittee to introduce the teaching of Zodlogy into the High Schools. Miss Crocker, the
supervisor having this branch under her charge, applied to the Custodian for assistance,
and the Council of the Society assenting, the laboratory and its facilities were placed at
her disposal. The course will not be finished until the spring of 1879, and will comprise
nearly one hundred lessons, illustrated in the usual way by the study and dissection of
specimens. The instruction so far, has consisted of a series of practical lessons, given by
Messrs. Crosby and Van Vleck, interspersed with lectures of a more general character, by
the Custodian.”

The Teachers’ School of Science was continued, as in previous years, through the liber-
ality of Mr. John Cummings. One course of twenty lectures was given by Professor
Goodale of Harvard University. The teachers were provided with printed synopses of the
lectures as aids in taking notes, and with dried and named specimens of native plants.
About one hundred and fifty sets of these were distributed during the course. The aver-
age attendance was about one hundred and twenty.

From the report of the Secretary, Mr. Edward Burgess, it was shown that the condition
of the departments under his charge was satisfactory.

Of the Library, he stated that the increase was very constant. The additions during
the year had been in slight excess of the previous year, and were as follows: volumes 255,
parts of volumes 966, pamphlets 236, maps and charts 1999. From lack of the necessary
means, no binding had been done.

Of the Publications, two parts of the Proceedings of the Society had been issued and a
third was nearly ready. The second volume of the Memoirs had also been concluded.

Of the meetings, there had been sixteen general ones of the Society, at which the aver-
age attendance had been forty persons ; nine of the section of Entomology and eleven of
the section of Botany, at each of which the average attendance had been about ten.
Nearly forty papers read at these several meetings had been published.

From lack of means, the Society was not enabled to give any public lectures during the
winter.

Of members, four Honorary, seven Corresponding, and twenty-two Associate, had been
elected during the year.

The Report of the Treasurer showed an excess of receipts over expenditures of
$1356.75, a considerable portion of which could only be used for specific purposes.
The receipts available for general purposes had been $9098.75, and the expenditures for
general purposes, $8903.82; leaving a balance of $194.93, showing that the Society

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 197

through great economy had succeeded in accomplishing its purpose of limiting expen-
liture within its income.

At the election of officers for the ensuing year, Theodore Lyman was chosen on the
Committee for Fishes and Reptiles in place of Dr. Samuel Kneeland, resigned, and Jules
Marcou was left off the Committee on Palaeontology, by reason of prolonged absence
ubroad.

Previous to the adjournment of the annual meeting, Mr. Charles J. Sprague, in view of
che great aid given him by Prof. Tuckerman, in enabling him to put on exhibition a very
sonsiderable portion of the Cryptogamous plants of the Society, offered the following res-
lution, which was passed unanimously:

“That the thanks of the Society be conveyed to Prof. Edward Tuckerman, for the
voluntary, generous and invaluable service he has rendered it by elaborating and naming
the Lichen herbarium of Dr. Thomas Taylor, now forming a part of its collection; a
service which no one in this country but he could have performed, and which gives to the
herbarium an authentic value it could not otherwise have possessed.”

At the Council meeting subsequent to that of the annual meeting of the Society, the
Trustees reported that they had made an estimate of the probable income of the Society
for the year entered upon, showing that not much over $9000 could be relied upon as
available for general purposes. Considering, however, that there would be a call for the
oayment of insurance on property for five years, amounting perhaps to one thousand
lollars, they advised that appropriations be made to the extent of $9500 in order to cover
shis item.

The Society being at considerable expense of time and money in carrying out the inten-
tion of the legislature of the State in giving it authority to designate persons who should
have the right to kill birds for scientific purposes, voted to charge for the certificates so
issued, the sum of two dollars each.

Walker Prizes. The subject proposed for the Walker prizes was the same practically
as that of 1876, two years before, and upon which no essay had been presented, viz:
“ An original investigation of the structure, development and mode of life of one or more
of the fungi which injuriously affect useful plants.”

This second attempt to interest writers in treating upon this subject was not successful
in eliciting essays, as none were presented.

In August of this year, the Society lost a young member by death, to whom it seems
fitting to pay a tribute of affectionate remembrance by a brief mention of his life, and of
the interest manifested by him in natural history.

Gurdon Saltonstall, the son of Henry and Georgiana C. Saltonstall, was born in Salem,
on the 15th day of August, 1856, soon after which the family made Boston their winter
residence. Being obliged, by trouble in his eyes, to leave school, and having at a very
early age exhibited a strong inclination to acquaint himself with objects of natural history,
he was led, in January 1871, when but fifteen years of age, to become a member of the So-
ciety, in the work of which he was exceedingly interested, proffering his services in aid of
the Custodian and the working members, and identifying himself with their labors in
almost every department. In turn, he was aided by them in the acquisition of the knowl-
edge he sought, and thus the association was of advantage to both himself and the Society.

198 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

The summer of 1872 he passed at Eastport with the United States Fish Commission,
studying and preparing specimens for the Society, and in a subsequent year he worked
with this Commission at Noank, with Professor Hyatt.

In 1875 he was able to return to school, where he rapidly and thoroughly mastered the
necessary studies and entered Harvard College with honor in the Freshman class of 1874,
in which he passed one year with great credit, taking high rank as a scholar and gaining
the respect and affection of his associates and instructors. But early in his second year his
health suddenly gave way and he was obliged to leave home. Passing part of one winter
at Nassau, he sent valuable specimens and information to the Society, his association with
which was always one of his greatest pleasures. In this association he exhibited such
kindly and lovable traits of character as served to endear him to all the working members,
and they sadly deplored the necessity of his leaving home for his health, and still more
sadly learned of his early decease.

He died at Pau in France on the 21st of May, 1878, beloved by all who knew him, and
happy in the assurance of immortal life.

At a meeting of the Society held Oct. 2d, Mr. Scudder, being in the Chair, alluded feel-
ingly to the death of Prof. Henry, a distinguished Honorary Member, which had recently
occurred, and at the close of his remarks introduced Dr. Asa Gray, who addressed the
Society upon the life and character of “that eminent man whose death, full of years and
honors, had been so sensibly felt throughout the country and the scientific world.”

Leaving to others the duty of portraying his great scientific services and researches,
Dr. Gray gave a brief sketch of Prof. Henry’s life, mentioning his birth at Albany, N. Y.,
near the close of the last century, his restricted opportunities for early education, his
becoming a pupil at the Albany Academy, and afterwards receiving an appointment as
Professor of Natural Philosophy at that institution. He then spoke of his brilliant dis-
coveries in electricity and magnetism, which made his name prominent throughout the
scientific world, and his acceptance in 1846, of the office of Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution. Referring to this, Dr. Gray remarked, that to the simple sense of duty which
impelled Prof. Henry to interrupt a career of research of almost unequalled brilliancy, by
an undertaking which was sure to absorb his best years in administrative and perplexing
cares, was to be attributed the result that the noble bequest of Smithson “ for the
increase and diffusion of knowledge among men” was rescued from waste and misappro-
priation. Dr. Gray insisted that the great benefits which the scientific world at large, and
science in America especially, are receiving from the Institution, were mainly owimg to
the practical wisdom, the catholic spirit, and the just conception of the founder's intent,
and the indomitable perseverance of its first Secretary and Manager. In concluding his
remarks, of which this notice gives but a brief abstract, Dr. Gray spoke of “ the serene
simplicity and loftiness, as well as kindliness of spirit, shown by Prof. Henry, of his deyo-
tion to what he deemed his duty, often exhibited in the extreme patience with which he
attended to the applications of projectors and crotchety discoverers who sought his
advice.” Much of the prominent influence which he wielded at Washington, was attrib-
uted “to his transparent and spotless character, the complete subjection of all consider-
ations of personal advantage, or even of personal ambition, and the atmosphere of purity
in which his official as well as private life ever moved, and upon which never fell even the

shadow of a shade.”

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 199

The fall and winter of this official year were characterized by a degree of work done in
direct instruction by the Custodian, and other officers of the Society and assistants, so un-
exampled in character as to call for special and full notice.

The study of natural history had been recently introduced into the public schools, and
it was thought by those who had been instrumental in effecting this, particularly by Miss
Lucretia Crocker, the supervisor of that department, that the teachers generally of the
schools should have such instruction in the several branches, as-could be well given under
the auspices of the Society. An appeal to its officers was therefore made by Miss Crocker
for assistance, and as this was urged as essential to success, the call was cheerfully re-
sponded to. The opportunity of interesting the children of the public schools in natural
history through lessons given to the great body of their teachers, seemed too much in the
line of the Society work to be lost, and strenuous efforts were at once made to do all that
was possible in furtherance of the object.

The Council appointed the President, Mr. Bouvé, Vice President, Mr. Cummings, and the
Custodian, Mr. Hyatt, to take charge of the matter, giving them full authority to arrange
for the lectures, obtain specimens for illustration and distribution, and to approve bills for
such expenses as might necessarily be incurred, it being understood that, excepting the
time and labor devoted to the object, the cost should be defrayed by subscription.

The wonderful success that attended the movement will be presented in the annual
report of the Custodian at the yearly meeting in May.

Dr. J. B.S. Jackson.

1879, January 15th. After calling the meeting of this date to order the President said:

Since we last met, Death has once again entered our circle and borne from us one of the
oldest and most highly respected of the active members of the Society, Dr. J. B.S. Jack-
son.

To those of you who have not been members for more than the last decade or two,
there can be but little appreciation of the feeling experienced by those of us who
were contemporary, or nearly so, with the founders and early members of the Society,
when one of their number passes the limit that divides the seen from the unseen. Among
these were men of noble characters and impulses, with whom to be associated was to be
impressed with such sense of their great excellence and purity of purpose as no subsequent
experience through life could obliterate. Claiming but little knowledge of natural his-
tory, but strongly appreciating the importance of its study both for themselves and the
community, they came together for mutual help in the acquisition of knowledge, and to
combine their efforts for its dissemination, modestly expressing in the preface to the first
number of the Journal “that having but small claims to the character of naturalists, they
nevertheless are desirous of contributing something to the common stock of information.”

In the greater light of the present day, and reflecting upon the little aid attainable by
them through books or collections, we may well exclaim, Noble men! Simple seekers of
truth, not only for your own good but for that of all others ; you grandly did your work!
And so they did. The many volumes of their papers and proceedings attest this: the
State reports upon the geology; the invetebrate animals; the fishes ; the insects injuri-
ous to vegetation; the trees and shrubs of Massachusetts ; all by early members resident

200 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE
or corresponding, speak unceasingly of the value of their labors. And the magnificent
development of the Society until it has become what it now is, with its great collections
and its wide felt influence, —how much of this is due to their early strivings who shall
say? Certainly all is but the fruition of their hopes and desires.

Among these early members were Dr. Benjamin D. Greene, an accomplished botanist and
the first President of the Society; Dr. Augustus A. Gould, the author of the Report upon
the Invertebrates of the State, and who became one of the most able naturalists of New
England; Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, the author of the very valuable Report upon the
Fishes of New England; Dr. Amos Binney, an accomplished conchologist, afterwards
President ; George B. Emerson., author of the great work upon the Trees and Shrubs of
the State, and who also subsequently became President of the Society; Dr. Martin Gay, an
able chemist ; Dr. Charles T. Jackson, well-known as an accomplished chemist, mineralo-
gist and geologist ; Francis Alger, the author of a valuable work on mineralogy ; the Rev.
Dr. F. W. P. Greenwood, who seemed more divine than human in the loveliness of his char-
acter; Dr. T. W. Harris, author of the Report on Insects injurious to Vegetation, and last
o mention, though by no means the least in his influence upon the affairs of the Society
and its character, Dr. J. B. 8. Jackson, whose loss we now deplore.

The particular investigations of Dr. Jackson were generally not of a nature to bring him
prominently before the Society as an instructor in any branch of natural history, his
labors being largely confined to a class of subjects more generally interesting to students
in pathology. Yet the Journal of the Society presents to us several papers of great value
to naturalists, and the Proceedings contain remarks made by him at various times embody-
ing much useful information.

Dr. Jackson was elected a member in the fall of 1831, the Society having been incorpo-
rated the previous February.

In 1837 he read before the Society a paper which was published in the Journal, giving
an anatomical description of the Gallapagos Tortoise, which was a valuable contribution.

In 1842 the Journal gives an account read by him of the dissection of two adult drome-
daries, male and female. :

In 1845 there is in the Journal a paper upon the dissection of a spermaceti whale and
three other Cetaceans.

Of his remarks made from time to time upon scientific subjects and published in the
Proceedings of the Society, may he found some of interesting character upon the teeth of
Delphinus globiceps, upon fossil bones of the Mastodon giganteus from Schooley’s Moun-
tain, N. J., and upon bones from Indian tumuli.

As said before, Dr. Jackson’s most important work was in pathology rather than natural
history. He became Professor of Pathological Anatomy in the Medical School of Harvard
University in 1847, and was ever after a most diligent laborer in its interests, investigat-
ing with great patience and with keenness of observation arising from constant experi-
ence, the morbid effects of disease upon the organs, and writing out fully and carefully
the results of his examinations, which have been of invaluable service in the cause of
medical science. Much of his work for many years was in the building of the Cabinet of
the Society of Medical Improvement and its arrangement for study, and in the care and
arrangement of the Warren Museum. Of these two fine collections Dr. Jackson published

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 201

descriptive catalogues, containing much matter of great interest to students in medicine
and surgery. Others can write and speak more wisely and instructively of these great
services than can the writer, who has only been associated with him in the Society of Nat-
ural History and as a personal friend. His work for the Society has been spoken of, but
what he did for it in labor and through publications was but a small part of the aid he
was able to render. No member ever felt more interest in its welfare, and if this was
not inanifested to the same degree in actual devotion to work upon its collections and to
investigations in natural history subjects, it was only because his valuable time was preoc-
cupied by the duties owed to his official position. He was always in the habit of at-
tending the meetings of the Society, and always exhibited a strong desire that they should
be made as instructive as possible to younger members, to such particularly as were enter-
ing the paths of science. He was ever urgent, too, that all the specimens of the collections
of the Society should be so distinctively and fully arranged and labelled that all visitors
might clearly understand their character and relations. He indeed sometimes felt impatient
that this was not already accomplished, so important did he regard it as a means of educa-
tion ; though he did not fail to recognize that with the means at the Society’s disposal this
work must necessarily be slow. He lived to see great progress towards the realization of
his wishes in this respect, and if his life had been spared a year or two longer his fullest
desire might have been satisfied.

One marked peculiarity of Dr. Jackson was his great interest in the advancement of
worthy members to positions of honor and usefulness in the Society. Entirely free from
any ambitious desire for office himself, he wished to gratify the feelings of those whom he
thought deserving and to whom position might be an inducement to exertion. It is pleas-
ant to dwell upon the special characteristics that made our departed friend a useful mem-
ber of the Society, but with what additional pleasure can we recall the traits that made
him the delightful companion, the beloved friend, the dear husband and father ; that led
all with whom he came closely in contact to regard him with affection and respect. Sim-
ple, unostentatious, true in all the relations of life, honest in the expression of his convic-
tions, and pure in heart, he lived amongst us a blessing to his friends and the community,
and has passed away leaving only the most tender memories. May we be helped by his
example to live and do our life’s work so that it may be said of each of us when we like-
wise depart, what may be truly said of him: Those who knew him the best loved him the
most.

At the close of the President’s address, Dr. D. H. Storer said:

Mr. President :—TI rise merely to express my thanks for your faithful and most appro-
priate remarks respecting our departed friend. I should have regretted not to have heard
them. I rejoice that nothing ever occurred to alienate him from the Society — that he
continued to feel the same interest, and to evince the same zeal in its prosperity as long as
he was with us.

Jackson and Wyman I always associated together —in my heart they were one — ever
faithful and true.

Again I thank you, Mr. President, for your heartfelt tribute.

202 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

At the annual meeting the reports of the Custodian and Secretary were as usual
interesting and gratifying.

The Mineralogical cabinet was stated to be in good condition and order.

The Geological collection had been undergoing re-arrangement, this being necessary by
recent advances in science, especially in Lithology. The principal accession to this
department consisted of a suite of 250 specimens of the rocks of New Hampshire, col-
lected in the recent geological survey of that State, by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock.

The revision of the Palaeontological collections had been finished. To the North
American had been added forty specimens of Cambrian, Silurian and Devonian fossils, col-
lected by Prof. F. H. Bradley and given by Mr. John Cummings; nearly 500 sub-carbon-
iferous crinoids, obtamed by exchange from Prof. A. H. Worthen, State geologist of
Illinois ; 125 specimens of Cretaceous fossils from Texas, obtained by purchase; and 100
specimens of Cretaceous vertebrate remains from Kansas, purchased from the State geolo-
gist, Prof. B. F. Mudge.

The New England collection had received twenty specimens of fossiliferous rock from
the drift of Truro, Cape Cod, probably Eocene.

The North American collection, with the accessions reported, consisted of:

Genera. Species. Specimens.
; Cambrian. A 5 p : 112 214 645
Silurian 3 3 . : 5 136 241 656
Devonian . , s : : 208 376 112
Subearboniferous. é : ; 99 215 650
Carboniferous. ; 2 ; 79 288 1089
Triassic E . : : : 35 29 51
Jurassic = 4 ; ; : 5 5 40
Cretaceous . j ‘ : ‘ 90 177 883
Tertiary and Post-tertiary . —. 306 548 3086
1070 2093 8227

The Triassic fishes and plants, and most of the foot-tracks, a good collection of Devo-
nian bivalves, and several other small lots of fossils wanting identification, were not
included. ,

The South American collection, including the West Indian, was mentioned as insignif-
icantly small, numbering but twenty-four genera, twenty-eight species, and one hundred
and seventy specimens, all Tertiary, or Post-tertiary, excepting one Cretaceous. The Afri-
can was said to be still more lacking, comprising only five genera, six species, and fourteen
specimens, all Tertiary.

The Asiatic collection, including specimens from the Malay Archipelago, Australia
and Oceanica, had been mounted during the year. This was stated to contain many large
specimens, chiefly casts of the Miocene Mammalia from the Sivalik Hills, also Cretaceous
fishes from Mt. Lebanon, casts of Carboniferous shells from Australia, and casts of the
bones of the Dinornis and Palaeopteryx from New Zealand. The whole embraced 46 gen-
era, 84 species, and 170 specimens.

The principal work done on the European collection during the year had been to
mount the Palaeozoic fossils. There had been an accession to these of 580 specimens,

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 203
received from Mr. John Cummings in exchange. The European specimens at this time
numbered 13,655.

The aggregate of the several collections of the Department was as shown by the follow-
ing table :

Genera. Species. Specimens.
From North America 5 5 1070 2093 8227
“ South America : 3 24 28 170
« Africa . : é : 5 6 14
“« Asia and Australia. f 46 84 170
“ Europe . : : : 1631 3623 13655
2776 5834 | 22236

The Custodian in referring to the fact that the laborious work of the arrangement and
cataloguing of the Palaeontological collections was finished, justly ascribed, not only the
magnitude of these to the great liberality of Mr. John Cummings, but also their condition,
which was attributable entirely to the valuable services of the two assistants employed by
him.

In the Botanical department, the work of sorting the duplicates and supplying the
deficiencies in the general collection had steadily progressed under the direction of
Mr. Cummings. The specimens of wood, fruit, ete., on exhibition had been catalogued,
mounted on tablets, and labelled by Miss Carter. They numbered 2583 specimens, repre-
senting 304 genera, and 492 species. To Mr. Chas. J. Sprague this department was indebted
for 250 specimens of dried plants from Florida, collected by Mr. A. H. Curtiss, and for 50
rare New England species, collected by Mr. C. J. Pringle, of Vermont. Mr. EH. T. Bouvé
had continued his work on the trees and shrubs of New England, and added a number of
species to the collection.

In the Anatomical department, a new section had been established. In this sec-
tion had been brought together preparations made by Mr. Van Vleck, exhibiting the
general anatomy of the invertebrates and the typical forms of the different sub-divisions
of the animal kingdom.

The New Engiand collection of Birds had been considerably increased through the
exertions of Dr. Brewer, thirty to forty species having been added.

The Entomological department had received several important donations, one from
Mr. F. C. Bowditch, of useful insects of all orders; another from Dr. C. 8. Minot of his
entire collection of insects, containing very desirable additions to the New England col-
lection. <A part also of a collection made by the late Mr. Gurdon Saltonstall had been
received from his family, and several valuable specimens of which the Society stood in
need from Mr. Roland Thaxter.

The remarks of the Custodian upon the other collections do not call for repetition.

In the Laboratory there had been much activity. The room and the collections had
been used for the past year by a class in Zodlogy and Palaeontology from the Mass. Insti-
tute of Technology; one in Zoblogy, from Boston University; and one in Zodlogy com-
posed of the teachers of the Boston High Schools. This last class was particularly men-
tioned in the report of the previous year. The course of instruction had been prolonged
and was not yet quite finished.

204 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

“a

Reference was made on a preceding page to the great work accomplished, through the
instrumentality of the Society, in direct imstruction during the last autumn and winter
months. The importance of what was done justifies the presentation of nearly the full
statement of the Custodian, though it involves some repetition.

“Teachers School of Science. The Teachers’ School of Science has this year attained
extraordinary size and importance. So sudden and unexpected was this development
that for the last six months it has almost completely arrested all efficient work in other
directions. The study of nature having been introduced in a definite form into the public
schools, and the supervisor of this department, Miss Lucretia Crocker, having assured us
that our assistance would be of great benefit, and was in fact essential, it was determined
to institute appropriate courses upon elementary Botany, Zodlogy, and Mineralogy, if the
means of paying the expenses could be raised. Mrs. 8. T. Hooper and Miss Crocker un-
dertook and successfully completed this part of the work, and also a considerable amount
of harassing clerical labor, which subsequently arose out of the success of their own exer-
tions. Fortunately for their schemes these ladies met with substantial appreciation from
Mrs. Augustus Hemenway, who both subscribed most liberally, and also encouraged them
to accept the very considerable pecuniary responsibilities, which began to block their way
at the very beginning of operations. In fact, without these assurances of further support
and interest, we should not have dared to begin.

“These obstacles arose from two causes, the number of applicants, and the necessity of
providing identical specimens for all. The specimens and materials for two hundred,
which was the maximum number anticipated at first, could have been readily furnished,
but when the applicants reached six hnndred, it became exceedingly questionable whether
such a number could be provided for, and properly instructed by one person, all at the
same time. Feeling, however, that the cause of science demanded that these difficulties
should be met and supported, and relying on the hearty codperation of Professor Goodale
and the ladies mentioned above, the course was begun.

“The association and sympathy of Mrs. Elizabeth Agassiz with the undertaking has been
particularly gratifying, since Prof. Louis Agassiz was the first naturalist who ever taught a
popular audience in this country with the specimens in hand.

“The enterprise was in large part the work of women and affords pleasing evidence of
the activity and usefulness of this new class of members in our Society.

‘The following is a list of the donors:

n

Mrs. Augustus Hemenway . 5 : $1000.00 Mrs. Sarah 8. Russell. 5 : : $50.00
Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw. : : : 500.00 Mrs. John E. Lodge. : : : 50.00
Mrs. John M. Forbes. : : é 100.00 Mrs. Richard C. Greenleaf. ; : 50.00
Miss A. 8. Hooper . : t c : 100.00 Miss Anna C. Lowell. ; . ‘ 50.00
Mrs. H. P. Kidder . c : ; : 100.00 Mrs. E. W. Gurney . c c - 50.00
Miss M. A. Wales . 5 : : > 50.00

‘Smaller sums were contributed by Mrs. Elizabeth C. Agassiz, Mrs. Samuel Hooper, Miss
S. Minns, Miss E. Mason, Miss M. C. Jackson, Miss Stone, Miss Abby W. May, Mrs. James
Freeman Clarke, Miss Cora H. Clarke, Miss Lucretia Crocker, Mrs. Thomas Mack, Mrs. A.
S. Farwell and others.

“Many of these ladies were very active in securing the success of the course and the

Society thanks them and others ; especially Mrs. E. D. Cheney, Miss J. M. Arms, Miss C. J.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 205

Treland and Mrs. Samuel Wells for their personal efforts in behalf of the Teachers’ School
of Science.

“The teachers themselves, at our solicitation, joined in making up the fund. The contri-
butions from this source amounted to $789.

“ Notwithstanding this generous assistance, it would hardly have been possible to carry
on the several courses without the friendly aid and direct assistance in various ways of the
following institutions and persons.

“The Institute of Technology, which most generously gave us the use of Huntington
Hall, upon the payment of a merely nominal sum for cleaning and heating.

“The Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, under the direction of Mr. Alexander Agassiz,
which, through Count Pourtalés, Dr. Hermann Hagen, and Mr. E. C. Hamlin, at various
times assisted us by donations of specimens from the respective departments superintended
by these gentlemen.

“Mr. Henshaw, my right hand assistant in all the work of preparation and distribution,
whose untirmg energy contributed largely to secure the ‘success of every lesson; Miss
Hintz, of the Normal School. who drew with remarkable skill the diagrams used in the
Zoblogical course, and enabled the Custodian to illustrate fully all subjects; Mr. Van
Vleck for aid in the preparation of models; Mr. L. S. Burbank ; Miss Nunn, Professor of
Biology at Wellesley College; Mr. Robert McCarthy, of New York; Captain Horsfall, of
Steamer Canopus; Mr. Eugene G. Blackford, of New York; and the proprietors of the
Parker House and Young’s Hotel, for donations of specimens and assistance in various
ways.

“ Mr. E. G. Gardiner, Mr. E. A. W. Hammatt and Mr. G. H. Barton of the Institute of
Technology, have also kindly assisted at the lectures in various capacities. To many of my
own students, teachers and others I am also indebted for assistance.

“Since the lectures were begun in 1871, they have been continued without interruption,
except during the winter of 1872-73, under the patronage of Mr. John Cummings; and
previous to this winter about 75,000 specimens of minerals, plants, and animals had been
studied and distributed to teachers of the public schools. The applications for tickets rose
during those years from an average of 55 to 166.

“The number of recorded applications for the course now approaching completion is
616, or nearly four times as many as in previous years, and the number of specimens
which will have been distributed during this winter alone cannot fall short of 100,000.

“ After an introductory lecture in which the Superintendent of the Public Schools, the
President of the Society, and the Custodian delivered addresses appropriate to the occa-
sion, Professor Goodale completed a course of six lessons on Botany in which he instructed
the whole audience of five hundred with apparently as much readiness as if it had been
but fifty. Mr. Jackson Dawson, Mr. Watson and’ Mr. Greenleaf were of great assistance
to Professor Goodale in the procuring of the vast number of live plants and the great
amount of other material required for his lessons. Mr. Charles W. Spurr, 522 Harrison
Avenue, Boston, prepared, for the purpose of illustrating the subject of wood sections, 500
packages of excellent specimens of the following woods: tulip-tree or whitewood, rose-
wood, ash, oak, pine, mahogany, walnut, butternut, maple, cedar, birch, cherry, elm and
holly. Many of these were in duplicate, exhibiting both plain and figured texture. The

~

206 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

specimens, more than ten thousand in all, were gratuitously presented to the class by Mr.
Spurr.

“The Custodian followed with twelve lessons on Zodlogy, which will be completed on
the 10th of this month, and Mr. Burbank is to continue with five on Mineralogy. The
average attendance on fair days, so far, has been about five hundred.

“The course was supplemented by the publication of a series of small pamphlets, under
the general title of Science Guides, which were intended to assist the teachers in the ap-
plication of the knowledge imparted by the lectures. These are described in the Report
of the Secretary.

“ Perhaps the most gratifying and encouraging facts are derived from an examination of
the statistics of the past seven years. Thus out of the 616 applicants of this winter,
there are 155 who had attended at least, one previous course,’ 119 who had attended two
or more previous courses, and 44 who had attended all of the courses. Some of these last,
I may add, are masters of public schools.”

The Secretary’s report was interesting, as he compared the condition and the work of
the departments under his charge during the ten years then closing. As in this volume it
will be better to present such comparisons at the close of another year, they are here
omitted.

Of members, twenty-four Associate, five Corporate, and fourteen Corresponding
had been elected. Of the meetings there had been sixteen of the general Society, seven
of the section of Botany, and eight of the section of Entomology. The average atten-
dance had been twenty-two at the general meetings, eight at the Botanical, and eleven at
the Entomological. The meetings of the last had been unusually interesting.

The history of the Botanical section begun, as stated by the Secretary, ‘ under hopeful
auspices three years ago, is far from satisfactory.” “With so much popular interest in
the study of Botany, the result was unexpected, and is to be regretted.”

The condition of the Library was stated to be good and its usefulness never to have
been so great—1169 books having been taken out by 123 persons.

The Society was indebted to the Museo Civico of Genoa for a valuable and complete
series of its publications; to Prof. Joachim Barrande of Prague, for a set of his extensive
works; and to Prof. J. O. Westwood of Oxford, for a number of his papers. The addi-
tions to the Library are as follows: volumes, 252; parts of volumes, 1005; pamphlets,
214; maps and charts, 221; total, 1692.

Of Publications, two numbers of the Memoirs, and three quarterly parts of the Pro-
ceedings had been issued.

A new volume of Occasional Papers, the third, had been put in press, and would soon
be printed. Besides these, a series of Guides for Science Teaching had been prepared for
use in the courses of lectures to the teachers, three of which had been published and
distributed, the cost being defrayed by sales. The three already issued were, About Peb-
bles, by Prof. Hyatt ; A few Common Plants, by Dr. Goodale ; and Commercial and other
Sponges, by Prof. Hyatt. These were to be followed by other numbers. The Secretary
stated the exchange list as numbering 352 Societies or Journals, of which 50 were United
States and Canadian.

1Tt must be remembered that the highest number of attendants at lessons reached in previous years was 166.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 207

The Treasurer’s account for the year showed that the income applicable for the general
purposes of the Society had not come up to the estimate made at its commencement, and
that the expenditures had been about three hundred dollars in excess of such income.
As, however, insurance on the property had been paid for five years in advance, the
spirit of the policy not to expend beyond the income had been adhered to. There had
been an excess of all receipts over expenditures of $855.90, all of which and probably
more it would be necessary to reserve for prize and other special expenses in accordance
with the conditions attached to the use of the Walker Fund.

At the election of officers but few changes were made, and these only in the Com-
mittees on the departments of the Museum. M. E. Wadsworth was chosen on the Min-
eral Committee instead of L. S. Burbank, Rev. G. Frederick Wright on the Geological
Committee instead of T. Sterry Hunt, W. F. Whitney, M. D., was added to the Com-
mittee on Comparative Anatomy, C. O. Whitman was chosen on the Committee of Mol-
lusks, in place of L. Lincoln Thaxter, and E. L. Mark in place of Dr. J. B.S. Jackson,
deceased.

At the meeting of the Council following the general annual meeting of the Society,
the trustees presented their estimate of the probable income of the Society, applicable for
general purposes for the ensuing year, as $8538.16. Asa portion of the income for
special uses, amounting to several hundred dollars, might be expended for general pur-
poses, they recommended that $8800 be appropriated for expenditure, not well perceiving
how less could be used without detriment to the interests of the Society.

Walker Prizes. 'The subject proposed for this year was “ The structure, history, and
development of some cryptogamous plant.” One essay was presented, but it was not
deemed worthy of a prize, and no award was therefore made.

In October the Woman’s Educational Association having requested the use of the lec-
ture room of the Society for botanical lectures on Mondays and Fridays, the Council
eranted the request upon the condition that the expense of heating the room, and of the
janitor’s services, should be paid by the Association. The Council appointed at this time
committees to act upon special matters as follows: On the grand Walker Prize, soon to
be awarded, Professor Wm. B. Rogers, Professor Goodale, and Colonel Theodore Lyman ;
on tablets to be placed in the entrance hall of the Museum, commemorative of its great
benefactors, Rey. Robert C. Waterston, Edward Burgess, and Alpheus Hyatt.

The Council also voted that the President appoint a committee to consider and report
upon a plan for the reception of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, that body having decided to meet in Boston the coming summer.

In November, the Council granted to Mr. L. 8. Burbank permission to use the lecture
room of the Society for a course of geological lectures, he payimg only such expenses as
might be incurred for janitor’s services, etc.

In December, a vote was passed by the Council authorizing the Committee on Publi-
cation to attempt the publication of an illustrated quarto volume of the Memoirs as a
part of the Society's celebration of the semi-centennial anniversary of its foundation,
by soliciting subscriptions for such memoirs at ten dollars per copy. The committee was
also authorized to begin to prepare and arrange for the publication when five hundred
dollars were subscribed.

208 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

In December, a petition to the Society having been presented for the formation of a
section of Microscopy, signed by Messrs. 8. P. Sharples, Samuel Wells, R. R. Andrews,
Edward Burgess, J. Frank Brown, David Hunt, Jr., Francis A. Osborn, R. C. Greenleaf,
A. Hyatt, G. F. Waters, and W. F. Whitney, the consent of the Corporate Members was
given at two meetings in accordance with the By-laws, and the section was thus formed.

1880. Walker Grand Honorary Prize. In January, the Committee on the award of
the Walker Grand Honorary prize, having unanimously recommended Dr. Joseph Leidy, of
Philadelphia, as eminently worthy to receive it, for his prolonged investigations and dis-
coveries in Zodlogy and Palaeontology, as presented in publications made by him, it was
voted by the Council that the grand prize be given to Dr. Leidy, and that in conse-
quence of the extraordinary merit of his work that the sum awarded be one thousand
dollars.

In January, also, the Custodian reported to the Council that the Committee of the
department of Comparative Anatomy objected to his proposed re-arrangement of the col-
lection of that department, and asked that the question at issue might be referred to the
next meeting for decision. Thus was brought before the Council the very important mat-
ter of determining whether the collection of Comparative Anatomy, like the other collec-
tions of the Society, should be arranged in subordination to the great plan proposed and
adopted at the commencement of the decade for the whole museum, or if the collection of
that department should remain an exception, not becoming a part of a series, the full
completion of which was essential to illustrate in the best manner the general laws of
science.

At the next meeting of the Council, which was held January 21, there was a very full
attendance, and a warm discussion took place upon the proposed action of the Custodian
in which Dr. Dwight, representing the Committee of the department of Comparative
Anatomy, — Professors Hyatt and Shaler, Colonel Lyman and Messrs. Allen and Bouvé
took part.

The great work that had been done by members of the committee upon the collection
in past years, demanded that all said by them against a change should be thoughtfully
and respectfully considered. There was therefore, no disposition to hasten a decision,
and accordingly a vote was passed referring the matter to a committee of three to be
appointed by the President. Colonel Theodore Lyman and Messrs. 8. H. Scudder and Sam-
uel Wells were named as this committee, and instructed to report at a meeting to be held
a week later. Upon the Council again coming together a report was presented by the
chairman of the committee favoring the proposed re-arrangement, whereupon Dr. Dwight
said he would not further oppose the execution of the plan of the Custodian, though he
personally believed the collections would be injured by the change.

The Council then passed a vote with but one dissentient voice, approving the proposed
action of the Custodian in carrying out the plan of 1870, with regard to the department
of Comparative Anatomy.

Thus was settled, not without much feeling, but amicably, a question, the decision of
which in favor of the proposed change, was regarded by the great majority as most
important for the welfare of the Society, whilst a number of members influential through
eminent service in its behalf, thought the proposed action uncalled for and detrimental.

a

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 209

It may be conceded that much worthy of consideration was said in support of their views,
but it is believed that all students of nature will finally concur in the opinion that the
decision made was a wise one.

; Dr. Toomas Mayo Brewer.

At the general meeting of the Society on February the fourth, the President, Mr. T.
T. Bouvé said :

Since we last met, the Society has lost one of its oldest and most valued members, Dr.
Thomas M. Brewer.

It grieved me as an old personal friend to learn when in a distant state, that the disease,
by which as I knew before leaving home he was prostrated, had terminated fatally, and
that I should not again receive his pleasant greeting on earth, or even have the sad satis-
faction of being present at the funeral services following his departure. The long inter-
course between us had always been of the most agreeable character, and I feel that I have
reason to mourn that it has so unexpectedly and mournfully terminated. This is not the
place, however, for me to indulge in the expression of personal bereavement, but rather
to dwell on the great loss the Society and community have met in the death of our beloved
associate.

Dr. Brewer was born in Boston, Noy. 21st, 1814. He graduated at Harvard College in
1835, and in the Medical School in 1838. He labored in his profession for several years,
but his tastes and inclinations were stronger for other pursuits. He was fond of literary
labor, and, having strong political tendencies was early led to write for one of the lead-
ing Whig papers of the period, the Boston Atlas, and at length to become one of its edi-
tors, in which capacity he manifested marked ability both as a writer and close observer.
Subsequently he became interested in the firm of Swan and Tileston, a publishing house
which was afterwards changed to that of Brewer and Tijeston. He retired from business
in 1875 and then visited Europe, where he remained two years. He had become well
known by his ornithological labors and received consequently very gratifying attention
from many distinguished scientific men whilst abroad.

In the cause of popular education he was very zealous, manifesting at all times great
interest in the public schools of the city. He was long a member of the Boston School
Committee, and served in this capacity with great devotedness. His last election to this
office was in 1879, for the term of three years.

Dr. Brewer was elected a member of this Society October 7th, 1855, and soon became
well known by his valuable contributions, mostly upon his favorite subject of ornithology.
It is pleasant to recall the fact that his first communication to the Society was in defence
of Nuttall and Audubon, the distinguished naturalists, the latter his warm personal friend,
against some unjust attempts in a foreign magazine to detract from their well earned and
deserved reputation. Not long after he presented a highly interesting paper upon the
Birds of Massachusetts, in which he gave an account of over forty species not embraced
in the State report of Dr. Hitchcock upon the Geology and Natural History of the State.
From that early period, now nearly half a century since, he never ceased to manifest great
interest in the welfare of the Society, by frequent communications and in such other ways
as his health would admit.

210 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Apart from what he performed for the Society, he accomplished much for scientific
knowledge by contributions to several publications of great value, and by articles which
he furnished for some of the popular magazines.

As these remarks will be supplemented by particular mention of Dr. Brewer’s scientific
writings in a sketch furnished by his friend Mr. J. A. Allen, it will not be necessary for me
to make further reference to them, and I need only add that, had he lived free from the
business cares that until recently absorbed most of his time, much more might have been
looked for from him relative to the habits of birds, particularly of such as find a home
permanently or temporarily in New England.

We of the Society will greatly miss his efficient labors in striving to complete the collec-
tion in the department of New England Ornithology, for the development of which he
manifested much and increasing interest.

In the death of Dr. Brewer our Society has lost a most valuable member, and the
community, a good and wise citizen, one of whom it may be truly said: He was always
faithful to the duties of every position in which he was placed, and ever ready to work
where he recognized that his labors would promote the public welfare.

The following notice of Dr. Brewer’s scientific labors by Mr. J. A. Allen, was also con-
tributed.

The death of Dr. Brewer removes another of the older American ornithologists, of
whom there now remain two only whose period of scientific activity extends back to the
time of Audubon and Nuttall. Dr. Brewer’s first formal contribution to ornithology, enti-
tled “Some additions to the Catalogue of the Birds of. Massachusetts in Prof. Hitchcock’s
Report, etc.,” was published in 1837, in the first volume of the “ Journal” of this Society.
These additions numbered forty-five species and increased by one-fourth the list of birds
previously known as inhabitants of this State. Previously, however, he had furnished val-
uable notes and rare specimens of birds to Audubon, who in his great work on North
American birds, makes frequent mention of his indebtedness to “ his young friend, Mr. T.
M. Brewer of Boston.”

In 1840, he became more generally known as an ornithologist through his edition of
Wilson’s “ American Ornithology,” — the only American edition of Wilson’s work, except
Ord’s, published prior to 1871. The “ Brewer Edition,” from its comparatively small cost,
placed this delightful work within the reach of a wide circle of readers, to whom the more
expensive original and Ord editions were inaccessible. It was enriched by the addition to
the original text of the synonymy and critical commentary of Jardine’s edition, and by a
very useful and carefully digested synopsis of all the birds at that time known as North
American.

In 1857 was published the first part of his “ North American Odlogy,” which forms part
of volume IX of the “Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.” The full title of the
work — “ North American Odlogy; being an account of the geographical distribution of
the birds of North America during the breeding season, with figures and descriptions of
their eggs ”’ —indicates very fairly its scope and character, but in addition to the topics
thus indicated, the work gives a pretty full exposition of the breeding habits of the spe-
cies treated, so far as then known, and also full tables of synonymy. Owing to the great

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Alla

cost of the illustrations, the work was not continued beyond the first part, which treats of
the Birds of Prey, the Swifts, Swallows, Goatsuckers and Kingfishers. This work, until
within the last year, was the only special treatise extant on the subject to which it relates,
and will ever hold the place of a standard work. It is, moreover, a work which brought
to its author great credit, and through which he became widely known as an ornithologist
of high standing.

In 1874 appeared “ A History of North American Birds,” under the joint authorship of
8. F. Baird, T. M. Brewer, and R. Ridgway, in three quarto volumes devoted to the “ Land
Birds.” To this work the whole of the biographical part, forming probably two-thirds of
the letterpress, was contributed by Dr. Brewer, and throughout evinces his thorough
familiarity with the literature of the subject, and shows the hand of the master in all that
relates to his special department of a work which marks an era in the history of North
American ornithology.

Dr. Brewer's minor papers appeared at intervals throughout the long period of forty
years, and embrace important contributions to our knowledge of American birds.

He has left the manuscript for the completion of his share of the great work on North
American birds already mentioned, the final revision of which he had just completed ; also
material for the contemplated continuation of his “ North American Odlogy.” His collec-
tion of eggs—the accumulation of a long series of years, —is doubtless one of the best
private collections extant. .

Dr. Brewer having been engaged during the larger part of his life in absorbing profes-
sional or commercial pursuits, his contributions to ornithology must have been largely the
work of such limited time as could be spared from his business engagements, and only
within the last few years was he able to devote himself wholly to his favorite studies. Al
though an authority of unsurpassed eminence in his special province, — that of North
American Odlogy, — his labors were mainly restricted to this field, taken, however in its
broader sense. Removed suddenly, apparently when there were years of activity and lei-
sure before him for scientific research, his loss is one not easily replaced, nor its impor-
_ tance readily appreciated except by those who knew him intimately and were familiar with
his conscientious manner of investigation, his warm sympathy, and the thorough loyalty of
his friendship.

At a meeting of the Council on the 17th of March, the President called the attention
of the members to the fact that the 28th of April would be the semi-centennial anniver-
sary of the formation of the Society, suggesting that a public celebration of the event
should take place.

After discussion it was unanimously voted, that the President should appoint a com-
mittee, including himself as chairman, to arrange for a proper celebration, with full pow-
ers to take such measures as they judged expedient. The committee as formed consisted
of the President, Mr. John Cummings, Mr. 8. H. Seudder, Mr. Charles W. Scudder, and
Mr. Edward Burgess. It will be remembered that the Council in December had passed
a vote in view of this year being the semi-centennial one of the foundation of the
Society, that there should be published an illustrated quarto volume of its memoirs as @
part of the Society’s celebration of the event, if subscriptions could be obtained for copies

212 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE
that would yield five hundred dollars. As more than the necessary number of names had
already been secured, preparation was made for the issue of sucha volume. Subsequently
the President was solicited to write for the same volume a sketch of the history of the
Society, from its foundation to the close of the fiftieth year of its existence. This, after
much hesitation, he consented to do, recognizing the importance of having such a sketch
prepared, whilst yet some of the founders of the Society were alive and able to give
information concerning their early brother members, and fearing that otherwise it would
be left undone.

The committee appointed to take measures for the celebration of the semi-centennial
anniversary were faithful to their trust, taking active measures to ensure success. It soon
became manifest that the occasion was to be one of great interest, all persons addressed
being found ready to codperate with the committee in carrying out their plans. Cheer-
fully His Excellency Governor Long, His Honor Mayor Prince, President Eliot of Harvard
University, Dr. Samuel Eliot, Superintendent of the Public Schools, Mr. Agassiz, Direc-
tor of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, and the Rey. Robert C. WW Mesa, responded
to calls upon them to take part in the proceedings. The committee’s labors were mul-
tifarious ; they had printed for use at the meeting and for digeibution’ an introduction to
the General Guide to the Museum then in preparation by Prof. Hyatt; they had moved the
elephant from his elevated position, and other large animals from their accustomed places,
and had erected across the north portion of the main hall a platform to accommodate the
speakers and distinguished visitors. This was carpeted and furnished with chairs, the rest
of the hall having settees over the floor.

At the general meeting of the Society, April 21st, the Nominating Committee having
reported a list of officers for election at the annual meeting, to take place on the 5th of
May, in which Mr. Bouvé’s name was mentioned for President, he addressed the meeting,
referring to his having consented four years previously, at the kind solicitation of mem-
bers, to withdraw his resignation then tendered, stating that there were several reasons
why he should decline re-election at the present time, and urging that the Society would
not ask him to reconsider his determination.

Mr. Scudder expressed the hope that the President’s withdrawal was not imperative,
and dwelt upon the work done under his administration, which had resulted in the final
crystallization of the policy of the Society.

Remarks were also made by Mr. Hyatt, Mr. Burgess and Mr. Nathan Appleton, ex-
pressive of regret at the contemplated action of the President. He, however, warmly
thanking the speakers for their kind expressions, reiterated his resolve to resign. It was
therefore voted to recommit the report to the nominating committee for reconsideration.
This being done they withdrew, and after consultation re-entered the meeting, and pre-
sented an amended report, nominating for President in the place of Mr. Bouvé, Samuel
H. Scudder. The report was then fuesisdl

At this meeting the models of the sun and the earth were presented to the Society he
the Boston Stientine Society. These consist of a gilt ball representing the sun, three
inches in diameter, and a white plate on which is a black spot three one-hundredths of
an inch in diameter, which symbolizes the earth. These were placed one on the centre of
each arch at the side of the stairs in the main hall of entrance to the Museum. They

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BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 913

represent approximately the proportionate size of the sun and the earth, and their dis-
tance from each other relative to size. The proportionate scale of the models and their
distance apart is about a foot to three millions of miles, or about one inch to two hundred
and fifty thousand miles.

A yote was passed, that the President appoint at leisure a committee of three to con-
sider the desirability of abolishing the Committees in the departments, and of devising a
different plan for organizing the Council, and to propose the necessary change in the Con-
stitution and By-Laws for this purpose. The President subsequently appointed as this
committee, 8S. H. Scudder, Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, and Edward Burgess.

Tur SEMI-CENTENNIAL CELEBRATION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE SociETy; Aprit 28.

The anniversary day was pleasant and all things conspired to render the occasion inter-
esting and joyous. The spacious platform which had been erected across the north portion
of the main hall was occupied by the President, the speakers, the officers of the Society
and a large number of ladies and gentlemen. <A large audience, composed of members of
the Society and very many prominent men and women of the city and State, filled the floor
of the hall and such portions of the galleries as were convenient to use. Amongst the dis-
tinguished persons present, were His Excellency Governor Long, President Eliot of Har-
vard University, Prof. Asa Gray, the illustrious botanist, Alexander Agassiz, Director of the
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Count Louis Francois de Pourtalés, Dr. Samuel Eliot,
Superintendent of the Public Schools, Miss Lucretia Crocker, Supervisor of the Public
Schools, Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, Judge G. W. Warren, Prof. F. W. Putnam, Rev. Robert
C. Waterston and Mrs. Waterston, Hon. Josiah Quincy, Prof. E. $8. Morse, Colonel Theo-
dore Lyman, Dr. J. C. White, Mr. Justin Winsor, Librarian at Harvard University, and Mr.
John Cummings.

At half past three, the time of commencement, the President, Thomas T. Bouvé, after
calling the assembly to order, began his address as follows:

Members of the Society, my Associates in its service, my Companions for many years in
its labors, its trials and its achievements :—I1 congratulate you. I think we have reason
to congratulate each other that we come here surrounded by a host of sympathizing
friends; and ladies and gentlemen, whose names we have not the honor of having recorded
on our rolls as members, as a representative of the Society, I bid you a hearty welcome
here to commemorate its formation and to rejoice in its success.

With these very few words of greeting, for the time will admit of no more, I proceed at
once to present what I have prepared for the occasion. It is an account of the doings of
those who took an active part, before the Society was formed, in interesting the public in
natural history. I do this because their labors have not been duly appreciated, and because
the lessons which their experience is designed to teach certainly require that we should
take time to do it. What I hold in my hand is intended as an introductory chapter in the
history of the Society of Natural History on which I am engaged,— a memorial volume
to be issued this year.

The President then proceeded to present the early steps taken to inculcate a love for the
study of nature in this community, particularly dwelling upon the formation of the Lin-

214 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

naean Society, its history and its decline. He then gave a brief account of the movements
made towards the formation of a new Society, which culminated in the existence of the
Boston Society of Natural History. As nearly the whole address is embraced in the open-
ing pages of this volume, no further mention of it is necessary here.

At the close of the President’s remarks a telegram was handed to him from Prof. Wil-
liam B. Rogers dated Washington, D. C., expressing regret that he could not be present,
and rejoicing in the prosperity of the Society. His Excellency Governor Long was then
introduced.’

ADDRESS OF GovVERNOR LONG.

When I was invited to be present at this interesting anniversary, thoroughly erateful for
the courtesy, I felt at first that neither personally nor as an official of the State ought I to
take any other part in it than that of a looker-on. But 1 remembered that the seeds of
your noble institution, Mr. President, like those of so many of the best fruits of New Ene-
land, were sown not altogether by the scientists nor by any one profession, but by common
men who lifted up their eyes above the ordinary toil of life, and who for themselves and
their fellow-men reached out to higher levels of knowledge and usefulness. I remembered
too that your first great endowment came from a merchant — type of the unbroken line of
the peerless merchants of Boston—who was little known among scientific scholars, yet
contributed from the accumulations of his thrift to a higher culture than his own, and that
this was only the beginning of a series of generous contributions from citizen after citizen,
which culminated at last in ample revenues from your chief benefactor, who was not less
distinguished for his wisdom in affairs than for his professional acquirements. And I re-
membered more than all, that the Commonwealth, which from the days of her founders
until now never yet has failed the cause of education among her children, had from the
first been the steadfast friend of this Society, giving it incorporation, aiding it in its early
years with a modest but saving annual subsidy, and, in 1861, making to it the munificent
donation of land on which its foundations now rest secure,— a donation that came not only
with the good will and the God-speed of the Commonwealth, but with all the sympathy
and inspiration of the soul of Governor Andrew, who, next to his devotion to human rights
and hate of human wrongs, cherished the love of that enlarging learning which he knew
is from the meanness of wrong to the nobility of right the slow but sure highway.

And so as one of the many citizens of Massachusetts, and also as one in official station
representing her, Iam emboldened, at your request, Mr. President, to unite my voice in
the acclaim that hails this fiftieth anniversary of your existence. Memory and imagina-
tion,— those exquisite poets of the human mind,— memory that looks tenderly back over
the past, and imagination that idealizes and yet in all its mounting knows that it fails to
are making this occasion not the mere boast of fifty

picture or command the future
years’ success, but a tribute to what man has done, and a stimulus to what man yet a
thousand times more shall do in behalf of the happiness, the delight, the knowledge, the
ennobling of his fellow-men, unlocking from every nook and corner of the earth, and dis-
playing in every form and motion of life, the beneficence of God. What a stride from
those first small days,—that parlor sofa that once held you all,— those modest rooms, to
this splendid temple, which I trust is to be your permanent home, where shall not only
gather your rare and beautiful collections, but cluster with them also the memories of tie

1 The addresses at the Semi-Centennial meeting as pre- taken from the reports made of them for the Boston Daily

sented, with the exception of that of Dr. Waterston, were Advertiser.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. ~ 915

zeal and devotion that have marked so many of your members. The birds of Bryant, the
insects of Harris, the shells of Gould, the fossils from the Sivalik Hills, the contributions of
a thousand helpful hands from every quarter of the globe suggest something more than
their scientific value. For they are still alive with the generous love of science which
prompted their bestowal, and which, clinging to them still like the scent to the vase,
wreathes your walls, more beautifully than the chisel of the artist and in more enduring
material, with the names and the features of those of whom I have spoken. Yes, and of
Greene and Wyman and Jackson.and Greenwood and Brewer and a hundred others.

If fifty years have wrought all this from such a slender beginning, what shall not fifty
years more achieve? Everything, indeed, for science; everything for the increase of
human knowledge. But more than all else, speaking for that Commonwealth which means
not a function of government, but means the common weal of the people and of all the
people of Massachusetts, her humblest, her weakest, her most dependent, those who sadly
and heavily bear the burdens, who hew the wood and draw the water, I love to think that
your labors, much as they delight you, will still more bear fruit for them, and that you
are fulfillmg the time when the student of science, exulting in the treasures that come to
his exploring, and touching at his fingers’ ends. the keys that turn every element of the
physical world into an agency of usefulness, not only finds his own cup full, but is the ben-
efactor of the whole human race, alleviating the weight of toil, shortening the hours of
the drayage of labor, enlarging the capacities and material of a brighter, happier, more
generous life for all alike, and letting every soul go freer and freer in its up-springing and
response to God.

The President next introduced Dr. Samuel Eliot, Superintendent of the Boston Public
Schools.

AppDRESS OF Dr. ELiot.

In opening his speech Dr. Eliot observed that he did not understand why he was called
upon to represent the city of Boston in the absence of Mayor Prince. The only title,
said he, which I can so much as imagine entitling me to speak in behalf of Boston, is that,
to some extent, I am, for the time being, a representative of the public education of the
city. Boston has no brighter jewel in her crown, Boston has had no higher function in
all the long years of its past, than that which has made her the teacher and the mother of
so many thousands of her children. Indeed, this education given in the public schools of
various grades and names, and the work of such a Society as this, interests me very
deeply. I think, as I stand here, of the scenes that I have looked upon in this and the
adjoining building, where the teachers of our public schools have gone at the invitation of
this Society, and, through individual genius and the contributions of the friends of this
Society, have received lessons which they, in their turn, have given to their children.
And when I think of all that this involves of nearness to nature, which forms so true an
essential of education, and which, without such help as this Society has given, would be
to-day little more than a name among our teachers and our pupils, I feel that I have the
right, in behalf of the public schools of Boston and of the whole community, to thank the
Society of Natural History for the help which they have given us. Nearness to nature,
as I said, is one of the great essentials of education, but it has been one of the most diffi-

216 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

cult essentials to secure even in our comparatively late day. Anything that helps us to
secure it; anything that brings nature closer to the schools, and the schools closer to na-
ture, is doing good far beyond the limit of the schools. Think, for a moment, of the
homes from which the pupils of our public schools come, of the absolute ignorance of
nature, of all the beauties connected with her, or of the mysteries which extend so com-
pletely over all. Think of the clouds that may hang heavily over house after house and
tenement after tenement within the limits of our city, and think how grateful the people
must be, that from this Society as its source, is flowing in streams through the schools
sweet and healing water, and is now reaching these homes; that there is no home now so
far away but that nature is reaching it, and day by day will take possession of it. That is
the inestimable service, Mr. President, which I am here to acknowledge, and I do it with a
most glad and most grateful heart. It is not merely of the lessons and teachers of which
I have spoken. Here are these collections, whose founders are everywhere generously
commended. If the doors are open the light goes out through them and lights the earth,
and we may be glad if we can even add a hundredth part to the radiance that is every-
where spreading abroad from them. As gratitude, Mr. President, is always a lively sense
of favors to come I want to express my gratitude for the help that is yet to be given by
this Society to those who come after us, and the next halfcentury will be even more fruit-
ful than the last half-century has been, in maintaining the highest interest in the schools
and homes which Boston claims as her own.

ADDRESS OF PRESIDENT ELioT.

President Charles Eliot, of Harvard University, upon being introduced to the audience
said :

This Society has two distinct objects — (1) the promotion of natural history by stimu-
lating and aiding advanced study and original research, and (2) the enlightenment of the
common people concerning animate and inanimate nature. What I have to say touches
each of these two objects.

It would carry us into a discussion too solemn for this occasion to attempt to state the
primary reasons which should induce men to study nature devotedly, although no tangible
benefits could ever flow from that study; for I have never been able to find any better
answer to the question—what is the chief end of studying nature —than the answer
which the Westminster catechism gives to the question, what is the chief end of man —
namely, “ to glorify God, and to enjoy him forever.”

I shall ask your attention to a proposition which contains only a secondary, though sufti-
cient, reason for fostering the study of natural history —to the proposition that the
human race has more and greater benefits to expect from the successful cultivation of the
sciences which deal with living things than from all the other sciences put together. I by
no means forget what mechanics and physics have brought to pass within a hundred years.
They have already reduced the earth to one-tenth of its former size, as regards the car-
riage of persons and goods, and for the transmission of thought, will, and fact, they bid fair
to make the whole surface of the globe as one room. They have made it easy, on the one
hand, to concentrate population in dense masses, and on the other to reach new soils and

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Diliy

shores, and to distribute to all countries the peculiar productions of each. These wonder-
ful achievements of mechanics and physics, aided by chemistry, produce indirect effects
upon the well-being of man, some good effects and some bad, with a probable preponder-
ance of good; but their direct influence upon human character and happiness is not large.
The reduction in size of our earth, our country, or our town, which railways, telegraphs
and telephones have brought about is in itself no satisfaction. Rapid locomotion is not an
object in itself. Does the average man get any more happiness out of his little span than
he did one hundred years ago? or does he have a longer span? And if he does, have the
inventions of the past century in mechanics and physics been a direct cause of the im-
provement? The answers to these questions are not ready and clear. We hesitate to
give an affirmative reply. The fact is, that mechanics and physics deal only indirectly
with human misery,— namely, climatic influences, not understood, and, therefore, not to
be guarded against, violent and unpredictable extremes of heat or cold, wetness ‘or dry-
ness, ravages of noxious plants and animals, diseases both of men and of useful animals
and untimely death. All these evils belong to the domain of natural history, and for ulti-
mate deliverance from them we must look to the student of natural science.

It is astonishing how little progress has been made by the race in discovering the means
of overcoming these evils. Civilized society to-day would be almost as helpless as Pharaoh
was against the plagues which afflicted the Egyptians,—the river water suddenly, made so
foul that the fish in it died, frogs, lice, flies, a murrain upon cattle, boils, hail, locusts, dark
fogs and the dread’ pestilence which struck one race and spared another upon the same
soil. ‘These are evils which, for the most part, we find resistless to-day. Every now and
then some city’s water supply is rendered unfit for use by an extraordinary production of
multitudinous little plants or animals; the plant-louse destroys the vines in a wine-produc-
ing country, and brings the whole population to want; pleuro-pneumonia kills the cat-
tle, now in this district, now in that; an obscure fungus causes the potato to rot, and a
sudden famine is the result; the Colorado beetle, once a rarity in the collections of ento-
mologists, swarms over a continent, devouring vast crops, and forcig the husbandman to
abandon, for a time at least, the cultivation of various useful plants; in some of the West-
ern States the harvest depends, not so much on the foresight and skill of man as on the
favorableness or unfavorableness of the season to the development of grasshoppers. In-
deed, thus far, any single-minded and prolific worm is more than a match for man. Think,
too, of the diseases which afflict humanity, and are the source of by far the greater part of
the sufferings and sorrows of men! There are the regular diseases to which we are so
accustomed that we consider them normal phenomena, the new diseases, which appear or
reappear at considerable intervals, and the occasional pestilences. Man is still so ignorant.
of the causes and sources of these various disorders, of the conditions which develop them,
and of the means of eradicating and resisting them, that he is inclined to regard disease
as a part of the order of nature, over which he can win no control.

But in view of all that science has accomplished within the lifetime of this Society, shall
we not declare that this idea of nature and of man’s relation to his environment ts cow-
ardly, stupid and ungrateful? Can we not clearly foresee that by the patient, thorough,
cumulative study of natural history in all its branches, men will gradually arrive at a
knowledge of plants and animals, and of the favorable and unfavorable conditions of life

218 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

for all plants and animals, which will give them control over many evils which they now
find wholly mysterious and irresistible? I can only touch very briefly upon some of the
grounds of this belief. :

The physician or surgeon of the last century was hardly wiser than Hippocrates or
more successful; but any old physician or surgeon would tell us to-day that the means
and methods of observation, diagnosis and treatment have wonderfully improved during
his lifetime ; that many operations are now successfully performed which were formerly
supposed to be impossible ; that the whole subject of preventive medicine and public hy-
giene has been developed in his day ; and that he has seen the beginnings of the scien-
tific study of heredity, that most fruitful and promising field of scientific and philanthropic
research. Thanks in part to the progress in physics and chemistry, natural history pos-
sesses new and powerful implements of research, and new methods of inquiry which are
of infinite promise. The morbid anatomist observes, not the gross external appearances,
but the abnormal cellular changes which produce, or are, disease ; the physiologist studies
the processes of living animals ; the chemist is constantly making natural organic products
by artificial means ; the embryologist has become conversant with those slight differentia-
tions in the egg which are the starting points of wide diversities; substantial beginnings
of weather knowledge appear; the whole earth has been explored, and now for the first
time the fauna of the ocean abysses is made known.

Antiquity had its great students of nature, but they lacked the means of diffusing, pre-
serving and accumulating their discoveries. The past four centuries have had abundant
means of recording and transmitting from one generation to another all the scientific truth
which they became possessed of. It is in this steady, patient and orderly accumulation of
facts concerning living things that the hope of winning for man new powers over the
gravest natural evils really lies. This Society has a part in making that pregnant record.

There is another aspect of your work which seems to me very important. You propose
to maintain for the public an exhibition of all forms of vegetable and animal life in their
wondrous and endless variety. Hither people may come and see their fellow-bemgs in the
widest and truest sense. Moralists tell us that the best development of an individual man
is not to be reached through introspection, self-reference and an overweening anxiety about
his own salvation. They say to every man — look out and not in. The same eXhortation
might well be addressed to the human race. Mankind needs to look out, and not in; to
realize that it is but one, though a noble one, among countless races and tribes of crea-
tures which inhabit or have inhabited this atom of an earth, and that its welfare is not the
sole end of creation, or the one absorbing interest of the Creator. A few years ago all
men believed that the whole boundless universe centred upon man. That delusion has
lost its hold, except perhaps within the well-protected domain of dogmatic theology. But
there are still many people who cling to the kindred conceit that this earth, at least, was
made for man. It is a belief which will not survive much acquaintance with the vast soli-
tudes of the earth which teem with other life than man’s— the everglades, the jungles,
the mountains and seas. It is a belief which a thoughtful man or child will be apt to qual-
ify or resign, as he studiously examines such a collection of natural history as this Society

strives to maintain,

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 919
Appress oF Mr. ALEXANDER AGASSIZ.

Mr. Alexander Agassiz was the next speaker. In the first part of his address he
mentioned the difficulties through which the Society had passed. An interesting extract
from his remarks is given below :

The scientific man should be without nationality, ready to welcome progress from any
quarter. Science is bound neither by country nor creed in its relation to new informa-
tion. An important publication, a new line of research, a brilliant hypothesis, should ap-
peal to us, not because it is American, German, French or English, nor because it is on
the winning side in the questions of the day. It is, of course, natural that a country com-
paratively young in scientific culture should turn to older institutions for its standards,
should be constantly tempted to compare its own learned societies and their doings with
those of more ancient date and established influence. But while measuring our progress
by theirs with honorable emulation, let us not make the mistake of also measuring our
scientific men by a reflected light only, making our own recognition of them wait upon
that from the other side of the water. Every nation should be proud of its great men,
and may be excused for overrating them, but if should also add to an excusable national
vanity an independence capable of recognizing, appreciating and sympathizing with the
men who are raising the intellectual standard of their country to that of older ones. The
pioneers of science in this country were neither remote imitators nor simply commen:
tators ; they have not only laid the foundations of natural science in this country, but they
have extended its boundaries on many fields. Nor should we assume that they had need
of a kind word of recognition from the other institutions or individuals. Let me not,
however, be understood for a moment as disparaging the intelligent criticism of press or
colleagues at home or abroad. I only wish to distinguish between that and the noto-
riety so easily gained by constant appeals to the public either in person or through
scientific quacks.

Since, however, the true investigator rarely has either the time or the disposition to be-
come the expounder of his own work, it is not always possible for the public to draw the
line between those who speak from their own knowledge and the scientific litteratewr who
forages in any field where booty is to be gained. We have met to-day to honor the pio-
neers of science in this country by a grateful recognition of what has been accomplished
from the small beginnings of fifty years ago. Taking up some of the more prominent
names of the early days of the Natural History Society we must award the highest place
to men like Wyman, Harris, Bigelow, Gould, Storer and Binney, whose investigations
have paved the way for their successors of the present day. They were men of no ordi-
nary stamp. They were men who in any country would have been recognized as leaders
in science, and whose fame will live when many of us are forgotten.

The speech closed with a high tribute to the late President Wyman.

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

bo
bo
oO

AppREss OF Rev. Rosert C. WATERSTON.

On a semi-centennial celebration like this, while we have reason to congtatulate the
members of the Society of Natural History here assembled, on the great success which has
crowned our past efforts, and on the cheering prospects of the future, which dawn before
us like the morning of a yet brighter day, still we cannot but recall with feelings of sad-
ness and solemnity the many san have labored with us in the earlier Hees ‘of the
Society, no longer here. Largely to their unwearied efforts are we indebted for the
prosperity we now enjoy. Constant inspiration comes to us from the remembrance of
their quickening zeal, their love of knowledge, and their generous desire to communicate
to others, what they so profoundly valued themselves. How heartily do we wish they
could be with us, on this eventful day. And yet, as we look around upon these walls, and
gaze upon the life-like portraits of the past officers and benefactors of the Society, it
seems as if, in very truth, they were actually here, participating with us im the privileges
of this occasion.

Before us, is our first President, Dr. B. D. Greene, with his calm expression of blended
sweetness and power. A love of nature pervaded his life. Extensively on this con-
tinent, in the tropics, and in most of the countries of Europe, he diligently pursued his
botanical researches. Blessed with ample means, he was able to make his investigations
under every advantage. Years which might have been given to luxurious repose, were
by him gladly devoted to earnest study. Thus did he acquire a knowledge seldom sur-
passed, and while constantly consulted by younger botanists, never did he decline to
impart from his abundant resources. We do not forget that his rare herbarium, contain-
ing the results of long personal industry, and the fruit of more than a quarter of a cent-
ury of intercourse and exchange with Sir William Hooker and other distinguished botan-
ists in every section of the globe, including plants gathered during the first Expedition of
Sir John Franklin, constituting in all an invaluable collection for quality as well as quan-
tity, we do not forget that this he presented to the Society, together with between one
and two thousand volumes of botanical works from his library; and that at the time of
his death, he enriched the Society by a munificent bequest.

And here by his side, is “ the beloved physician,’ Dr. Augustus A. Gail who from his
large professional labors, could always find time for the benets of this Society. In the
department of conchology he was an acknowledged authority. The collections here bear
testimony to his zeal. I well remember the interest he awakened by one of his lectures to
teachers within these walls. Many of his hearers stopped and expressed their wish
to visit in his company the sea-shore, that they might gather shells on the sands and
listen to his instruction in the midst of Nature. He made arrangements with them on
the spot, and within a week they went together to a neighboring beach, and there
they passed such a day as they will never forget.

And here is our friend Professor Jeffries Wyman, who shunned popularity, rather than
sought it, and who cared always to be and never to seem. His aim was ever Truth, simple,
absolute Truth. Indefatigable in his researches, he would never abandon any investiga-
tion until it was thoroughly completed, and would leave nothing for students who should
come after, but astonishment at what he had accomplished. While engrossed in his studies

¢

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 221
I doubt if he would have been disturbed though an armed force had cannonaded the build-
ing. It was said of Constable the artist, that in the fields he would sit so calmly in his con-
templation of the landscape, that the field-mice would creep into his pocket. I think they
might have done the same with Professor Wyman, though I would not answer for it that
they might not become, under his hand, interesting specimens in Comparative Anatomy.
Unassuming in manner, and with a mortal aversion to pretentious conceit, no man valued
true merit more heartily than he did, or was more earnest to assist struggling endeavor.
His name is now honored as widely as science is known.

And here we look upon the face of Agassiz whose benignant smile is to-day, as it ever
was, a benediction. How absolutely with him the man of science became the acknowl-
edged Instructor. Whether in the halls of legislation or the popular assembly, or before a
convention of teachers, or in his own private lecture-room, he was the Educator. He
seemed born for this vocation. His-gift of speech, his genial spirit, his sympathetic and
magnetic power, made all listen with avidity. He knew not only how to gather, but how
to impart. Whether he was discoursing upon glaciers or embryology, upon the structure
of animal life, coral-reefs, star-fish, or an oyster, he was alike able to arrest and rivet
attention, leading the mind from point to point, wondering and delighted, until rising
above the individual it grasped the universal, and seeing the hidden law, it recognized
through that, the Divine Intelligence.

With voice, manner, look, he held entranced the hearer, leading him onward from
stage to stage in the line of progress. In all he did, he was preéminently the teacher
of the individual, the community, the nation. “I have been,” he said, “a Teacher ever
since I was fifteen years of age. Jam so now, and I hope I shall continue to be all my
life.” He did so continue, and so he still is; through the memory of his life, and through
the words he has left us, he is emphatically the Educator; kindling a desire for knowledge
and the love of progress. The increasing interest in the study of natural history, seen
everywhere, how much he did to awaken !

While we look upon that countenance, do we not all recall those words of Longfellow,
addressed to Agassiz on his fiftieth birthday, where Nature is represented as speaking :

“ Come wander with me,” she said,

. “Into regions yet untrod ;
And read, what is still unread,
In the Manuscripts of God!”

“ So he wandered away and away
With Nature, the dear old Nurse,

Who sang to him night and day

The hymns of the Universe!”

And even thus, by night and by day, to every true-hearted Naturalist, Nature pours
forth her celestial melodies : ey

« And whenever the way seems long,
And our hearts begin to fail,
She will sing a more wonderful song, —
Or tell a more marvellous tale ! ”

The members of this Society know full well the deep joy that is awakened through
that harmony with Nature which comes from the study of her works. The vast collec-

222 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

tions of wonders treasured up within these walls, are infinitely more to the naturalist than
curiosities. They are revelations of eternal laws. They are the condensed history of
the ages. They converse, ina mysterious language, of things that were ; unfolding the
marvellous processes that are ever going on in the hidden laboratories of the earth.

According to our power of observation, the development of our faculties, the extent of
our knowledge, and the elevation of our own nature, will be what we shall here find and
enjoy. Such collections as are within these walls will help us to ascertain whether the
works of the Almighty have a language which we can interpret. Here, according to our
susceptibility, will a love of knowledge be stimulated, the intellectual energies quickened,
and all that is best and noblest in our nature called into activity.

Not as a place for idle amusement were these walls erected. Not to gratify a vague
inquisitiveness were these collections gathered. Not for spinning the gossamer threads of
fanciful speculation were these halls and lecture-rooms dedicated. But for the highest
culture of which man is capable. For the acquirement of solid information. For the
opportunity of studying results gained by scientific explorers all over the globe.
We cannot personally accompany Sir Edward Parry and Sir John Richardson to the
Arctic regions, or with Humboldt climb Chimborazo, or penetrate the forests with Audu-
bon, or sail in “ Her Majesty’s ship”’ the “ Beagle” round the world, but we can come here
and study the result of such labors. All that is of deepest interest between the equator
and the two poles, is here brought together. In books of voyages and travels, in works
upon botany, zodlogy, and palaeontology ; through specimens of rocks, ores, and fossils,
gathered from every zone: what branch of the natural sciences may not here be inves-
tigated? Here is opportunity for observation and thought, analysis and comparison.
Who will affirm that such an institution is not an essential part of our whole educational
system, from the elementary School, up to the University ; yes, and onward through that
continued education which shall extend to the utmost limit of life ?

This educational principle was recognized from the very commencement of the Society,
its avowed purpose being “the encouragement and promotion of the Science of Natural
History,” which it was distinctly stated, the friends of the Society not only desired for
themselves, but that the mterest might be extended far beyond their own circle.

They were, however, few in number, and with limited means; a scanty library and’a
meagre collection, with as yet but feeble response from the public. This now pop-
ulous city was then not much more than a village, and the very taste which the founders of
this institution sought to direct and foster, had first to be created. We can hardly know
how they surmounted the difficulties they had to overcome. Still they persevered until
at length they became established in a buildmg of more adequate accommodation in Mason
Street. Through every stage, there was a recognition of the same educational principle,
and, as their opportunities were enlarged, this purpose became more and more prominent.
Not only scientific students and intelligent citizens availed themselves of its advantages,
but often entire schools, with their teachers, visited the Museum for a day’s study; the
curators and officers of the Society giving explanations in their several departments, thus
rendering the occasions of real service to both masters and pupils.

As the collections accumulated, and the beneficial influence of the Society became more
fully demonstrated, a larger field constantly opened; and an appeal was at length made
to the Commonwealth for an appropriation of land upon which a more suitable building

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 223
:

might be erected. The motive urged was, that the institution would thus be established
“ona permanent basis of augmented usefulness.” It was declared that the result of its
thirty years’ efforts had been a rapid advancement of knowledge, with an almost uni-
versal dissemination of a love for the natural sciences, that now there was a general
recognition of its claims to an honorable rank in our system of public education, while it
was acknowledged that its labors tended to promote both the intellectual and material
prosperity of the Commonwealth.

Thus while it was well understood that scientific men and professional students were to
have every advantage within command of the Society, still it was also understood that
the classification of all the collections, and their entire arrangement, was to be such that
the public generally should have opportunity of gaining correct knowledge, and that
such practical aid should be rendered to our schools, as might be invaluable in its results.

My recollection of this Society goes back to the time when it had its rooms in the old
Atheneum in Pearl Street. The building in Mason Street I often frequented, and at the
time when the plea was made for aid from the Commonwealth, I had the privilege of
being one of the petitioners, and acted with the committee, addressing the members of
the Legislature at the State House. I recall, as if it were yesterday, the interest of that
time. I had just returned from Europe, and during an absence of several years had
enjoyed opportunities of observing the working of such institutions abroad, and feeling
strongly that the educational principle was of the utmost importance, I dwelt upon it in my
statements. That this view had weight with the members of the Legislature, I have reason
to know, and upon this consideration the generous aid of the Commonwealth-was granted.

I well remember an address by Professor Agassiz, at that time, in the House of Repre-
sentatives, on which occasion he dwelt upon the desirableness of training the young, from
their earliest years, to observe and study the works of God in Nature, urging this as
among the best means of disciplining the intellectual powers, purifying the taste and ex-
alting the character. He insisted that the study of the phenomena of nature was one of
the most potent means of developing the human faculties, and that such education should
be introduced into the schools as soon as practicable, and made an indispensable part of all
education; he trusted that the time when the importance of this view would be fully
recognized was only so far remote as was necessary for the preparation of teachers capa-
ble of properly imparting this instruction. The only difficulty, he added, is to find
teachers equal to the task, and the task is no small one. The whole force of his argument
went to prove that an institution like this, to aid teachers in their preparation, was of
inestimable importance. Here, as we may easily understand, those who have an aptitude
for such studies, may find materials, examples, illustrations, suggestions, all brought to
their hand arranged and classified. With such advantages the study of natural history
may be interwoven with the whole system of education, and become one of its most
essential features.

After this building was completed, additional funds were requisite, to carry out the work
contemplated. The Commonwealth had granted the land. The building was erected by
generous contributions. Now, therefore, that forty thousand dollars in addition was to be
given by its earnest friends, it was not simply to render it more attractive to citizens and
strangers, but it was avowedly to make it “one of the first Educational Scientific
Institutions in the Country.”

224 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE
:

This Society has not rested satisfied with making profession of this purpose. It has lived
up to its profession and its purposes have been faithfully carried out. Every promise has
been kept, and every reasonable anticipation realized.

Persons who are not thoroughly acquainted with this Society, can hardly understand
the amount of talent and labor which has been concentrated in this work. What self-
sacrifice on the part of individuals, unremitting perseverance and toil have been necessary
to complete every arrangement.

No one knows better than yourself, Mr. President, that no money could pay for the
thought and labor which has been freely rendered here by the officers and friends of this
institution, while their love for the Society and the cause to which it is devoted, has been
in their estimation an ample reward.

After the dedication of the building, the work first inaugurated was a series of lectures
and addresses in this hall to the Teachers of the Schools of Boston. Between six and
seven hundred teachers availed themselves of the privilege. At the introductory meeting
the Governor of the Commonwealth, John A. Andrew ; the Mayor of the City, F. W. Lin-
coln; the President of Harvard University, Thomas Hill; the Secretary of the Board of
Education, Joseph White; the Superintendent of Schools, John D. Philbrick; and
George B. Emerson, one of the earliest members of the Society, took part, making it a
memorable occasion.

Aftersthis there were lectures on successive weeks by Professor Jeffries Wyman,
Dr. Asa Gray, Dr. Augustus A. Gould, Professor W. B. Rogers and others. These lectures
were amply illustrated, covering botany, conchology, and general zoblogy. The instructors
of over thirty thousand children were present. The ablest scientific men in the country
on those days imparted freely of-their knowledge, suggesting the best means of con-
veying instruction, and giving a fresh impulse to the educators assembled, who, on their
part, warmly appreciated the interest thus shown, and hailed it as one of the new instru-
mentalities for their improvement.

This hope on their part has not been disappointed. The Society has been consistently
faithful to its avowed purpose, and whenever their limited funds have been madequate
to meet the necessary expenditure, generous assistance has been liberally furnished by
public-spirited friends.

To render the collections of the Society more instructive, a careful rearrangement has
been made throughout, involving immense labor. Thus through all the departments the
educational requirements have been recognized, and the successive stages in the history of
creation are visibly unfolded to the eye, exemplifying the actual results of scientific knowl-
edge and principles. The hasty observer can have but a feeble conception of the sublime
meaning embodied in this careful and scholarly arrangement, but the more fully it is com-
prehended the more profound will be the appreciation.

Teachers and pupils may often be seen together, thoughtfully pursuing their investiga-
tions from hall to hall. Some with artistic skill making drawings, others taking notes, and
many more lost in astonishment, and filled with admiration and delight.

But added to this, regular classes have been formed to whom systematic instruction has
been given. The study of natural history having been definitely introduced into the pub-
lic schools, a new zeal has been awakened among the teachers. With some teachers,
additional knowledge is a necessity, while with all it is evidently a pleasure. .The differ-

e

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 225

ent branches are pursued under the guidance of able professors in connection with this
Society. What is known as the “'Teachers’ School of Science” has acquired positive im-
portance. Professor Hyatt, the Custodian, has been unceasing in his efforts, and has been
gratified at the extraordinary success which has followed his labors. This special work
has been gomg on for the last ten years, but never with such marked results as during
the past year. The number of applicants for admission to these lectures has been four
times larger than in any previous period. Over six hundred persons recorded their
names as students, while the average attendance on each pleasant day was five hundred.
There have been distributed among these students more than one hundred thousand speci-
mens. Yes, during the present year there has actually been given away —not one thou-
sand, or ten thousand, or fifty thousand, but—though one can hardly credit it— one
hundred thousand specimens, all of which may be studied by the teachers at their homes,
or used for illustration in their schools.

We talk of the wonders of the telephone ; yet here is a still more felicitous method of
communication ; six hundred intelligent teachers, gomg forth from this place to convey
the knowledge gained to thirty thousand young people, full of life and eager to learn.
Thus has this Society become more emphatically than ever before — an educational power
in the community.

Still it would be unjust to infer, from the facts which have been considered, that the
larger portion of the attention of this Society has been given to teaching even instructors.
Accomplished naturalists, through its collections and its library, find ample material to
extend their investigations. Many come here to test their theories, or more fully to
establish their conclusions. Besides which, many of the members,-in the course of the
year (on their individual account, and for professional purposes), visit distant parts of the
country, or take even a wider circuit. They may be found along the whole coast of New
England, searching her rocks and sands, or dredging in the deep-sea, or exploring the
Gulf-stream, or among the Florida reefs, or skirting the shores of the Great Lakes, or
passing down the Valley of the Mississippi, or climbing the Rocky Mountains and the
Sierra Nevada, or descending the Western slope, or threading the Pacific Coast, or pen-
etrating to Alaska, and China, and Japan. And when they return, they come to tell us of
their experiences, bringing additions to our collections, and recounting in addresses and
lectures the result of their scientific investigations. Has not one spoken of Iceland, and
another of Labrador? One of Indian relics and Western mounds? One of Colorado
with its extensive parks and prolific mines of silver and gold? One of the Calaveras and
Mariposa groves with their colossal trees, the famous Sequoia gigantea, and the Yosemite
Valley with its unequalled waterfalls and stupendous granite domes? One of Alaska, and
another of China and Japan?

It is certainly not claiming too much when we say that at the regular meetings of this
Society one may hear as interesting and instructive accounts as can be found recorded in
all literature. And thus to members, and to all who have the privilege of being present,
such opportunities are exceedingly attractive. These addresses and lectures are not the
less entertaining because they are instructive. The stories of the Arabian Nights are not
more wonderful than are often these narratives. Travellers’ Stories they are, but none
the less true because stranger than fiction. Sindbad the sailor saw no greater treasures
than are those which at times are added to our collections. Some of these are as of yes-

226 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

terday, while others take the mind back to that early time “when the morning stars sang
together and all the sons of God shouted for joy!”

Mr. President, I congratulate you on this interesting anniversary, and I am sure the
members will unite with me in saying that the time of your official connection with this
Society covers one of the brightest periods of its history.

At the close of the address of the Rev. Mr. Waterston, the President, expressing the
great satisfaction felt by the Society at such a large attendance on the part of its friends,
invited all present, with the aid of the “ Introduction to a General Guide to the Museum,”
which had been distributed among them, to look over the collections, either then or at a
more convenient time. The lateness of the hour prevented more than a very cursory
examination of them.

In the evening a reception was given by the President, at his residence in Newbury
Street, to the members of the Society and many ladies and gentlemen interested in its
work. Thus the day was appropriately closed in the enjoyment of social intercourse, and
all parted, feeling that the celebration of the Semi-Centennial Anniversary of the founda-
tion of the Society had been thoroughly successful.

The annual meeting of the Society was held on the fifth day of May, Vice-President
S. H. Scudder being in the Chair. _

After the reading of the records of previous meetings the report of the Custodian, of the
Secretary and of the Treasurer were presented. From these, abstracts will be here given.

The Custodian commenced by stating that im some respects the official year just closed
was one of the most important in the history of the Society. It was marked not alone
by being the termination of the first half century of its existence, but by the fact that
the Museum had begun at last the career for which preparation had been making during
the past ten years.

Of the publications he remarked that they were very creditable, but that it should not
be forgotten that paucity of resources had caused the frequent refusal of important
papers ; that this was greatly to be deplored, since properly illustrated publication is often
the only reward of scientific labor, and the prompt issue of memoirs is essential to the
successful attainment of the chief object of all scientific associations that seek to encour-
age the spirit of original research.

The material results, as exhibited in the collections, the library, and the publications,
were very valuable as credentials of a prudent and economical administration. The Soci-
ety might rest well satisfied with the position which these had earned for it in the estima-
tion of a community which rightfully demands such guarantees of the proper use of trust
funds. These, however, were not the best fruits of its exertions. These seem to lie in
the fact that the community is beginning dimly to comprehend that an mstitution of this
kind creates an atmosphere around it which is beneficial to. them and to their children,
and also that it works directly for their intellectual improvement.

The celebration of the anniversary of the formation of the Society was dwelt upon at
some length by the Custodian, but as a full account of this has already been given it is not
necessary to repeat his remarks. Much was said by him also relative to the resignation of
the President which will be here omitted.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. DOT

The preparation of the general guide to the Museum, the numbering of the cases, the
lettering of the rooms and galleries, and the construction of two new floor cases were
mentioned as having been completed during the year. Synoptical collections for the
departments of Mineralogy, Geology and Palaeontology had also been made and were or
soon would be on exhibition.

In the department of Geology much had been done by Mr. Crosby, assisted by Miss
Carter. About 2500 specimens of rocks had been catalogued and nearly 2000 of these
mounted and labelled. These included a collection of specimens illustrating a synopsis of
the classification of rocks, a systematic or lithological collection, a collection illustrating
structural geology, and one of historical geology.

The important subject of dynamical geology, the Custodian stated, must remain unrep-
resented until floor cases could be furnished. The lack of means at present prevents this
from being done. The principal accession to the department of Geology consisted of four
hundred specimens contributed by Mr. Crosby.

The Palaeontological collection had been increased by a small but quite valuable series
of Crinoids purchased by the Laboratory fund.

The labelling and cataloguing of the Mollusca had been completed by Mr. Van Vleck,
assisted by Miss Washburn. To this department a very valuable addition had been made
by the purchase of the Blaschka models. These were made of glass and represented very
closely the living animal. There were 74 specimens in all, representing 17 genera and 44
species of the soft bodied Cephalopods and naked Gasteronoda.

The Corals and the Echinoderms had been rearranged, mounted and labelled during the
year, this work having also been done by Mr. Van Vleck, assisted by Miss Washburn.

In the department: of Entomology, Mr. Henshaw had been engaged in selecting speci-
mens for the formation of a synoptical collection representing the anatomy of insects, and
considerable progress had been made by him in identifying and arranging the species of
the general systematic collections.

The department of Comparative Anatomy had been entirely rearranged so as to bring
it into harmony with the rest of the collections of the Museum. In the wall cases of
Room G, a synoptical collection had been placed illustrating the type characteristics and
anatomical peculiarities of the different classes of Vertebrates. A similar collection of
Invertebrates will occupy the two floor cases which had just been erected in the same room.
The osteological portion of the collection in the main hall remained nearly as before, but
the special homologies of the limbs and systems of organs, etc., among Vertebrates had
been placed in Room F. To Dr. W. F. Whitney, the Society is indebted for the entire
rearrangement of these last, and for much assistance in other portions of the work.

The identification and labelling of the New England collection of fishes had been com-
menced by Mr. Van Vleck. A large number of species obtained at Annisquam by the
efforts of the Custodian, had been added to this collection.

Of the Amphibia, 75 species had been identified, arranged and catalogued. Of the New
England species, of which there are 25 in all, 23 were reported as in the collection.

In referring to the department of Ornithology, the Custodian alluded to the death of
the distinguished ornithologist, Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, and of the great service rendered
by him to the Society in this department, whilst in charge of its general collection. To

228 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

his exertions also the Society owes its fine collection of eggs and nests, and also the New
England collection of birds. This last he would have undoubtedly made complete had he
lived a year or two longer.

Some work had been done in arranging and labelling several of the groups of birds, by
Mr. Henshaw, assisted by Miss Washburn.

The terse remarks made by the Custodian upon the mammals need no abbreviation or
variation. They are therefore given verbatim: ‘The less said about the mammals the
better. They are a disgrace to the institution, but there is no way of getting a respectable
collection except by buying specimens, and this is impossible for us.”

In the department of Botany the Custodian stated that considerable progress had been
made towards the formation of a synoptical collection of plants, so that each order and
some of the sub-orders shall be represented by one species which will be mounted, framed,
and appropriately labelled. Already ninety specimens, representing eighty-five orders
and sub-orders had been finished. The arrangements of the general collection according
to Bentham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum had progressed under the direction of Mr. ~
Cummings, and much had been done towards supplying deficiencies in this collection.

It had been the habit of the Custodian during the vacation period of the summer
months to pass much time in dredging and fishing off the coast, with the purpose of ob-
taining for the Society specimens necessary for the completion of the New England collec-
tions, and in this work he had been aided by assistants in the Museum and others. Of the
labors of the previous season he thus speaks: “The summer of 1879 was spent at Annis-
quam by the Custodian and a party consisting of Mr. Van Vleck, Mr. E. G. Gardiner and
Myr. E. R. Warren. The collecting was more successful than during the previous season,
but still the need of a large boat and greater facilities is imperative.’ To supply this need,
the Custodian intended to have another and more capacious boat ready for use before an-
other summer.

The Laboratory. In this department there had been much accomplished of satisfying
character. Instruction had been given as usual to classes from the Boston University and
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Besides these another class of twenty-six
persons, all teachers except four, had entered upon a course which is to last for two win-
ters, or about one hundred hours, two hours being devoted to it every Saturday morning.
A small class of advanced students have been taking a course in biology, given by the
assistant, Mr. Van Vleck.

Teachers’ School of Science. It will be remembered that at the time of the last annual
meeting of the Society, and when the report for the previous year was presented, the
very successful course of lectures to the teachers then in progress was not quite com-
pleted. Those given by the Custodian were soon after brought to a satisfactory close, and
a series of five on mineralogy followed, delivered by Mr. Burbank. These were very
instructive, and the interest in them was shown by the average attendance being kept up
to the last. A geological excursion by the lecturer and a part of the teachers was made
to Marblehead after the course was finished.

The report of the Secretary, Mr. Burgess, was very gratifying, giving as it did statistics
showing much activity and progress in the several departments mentioned.

Of members, twenty-six Associate had been elected during the year, but no Corporate,

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 929

Corresponding or Honorary. Five Associate or Corporate members had resigned, and
four had died. The whole number of Associate and Corporate members was stated to be
451.

There had been an average attendance of thirty-nine persons at the sixteen general
meetings of the Society. The largest number present at any one time was eighty-one,
the smallest nineteen. Eight meetings of the section of Entomology had been held, the
average attendance at which had been eight persons. The meetings of the botanical
section had been given up in consequence of the non-attendance of a sufficient number of
members to render them interesting.

In December of the past year, by consent of the Society, the section of Microscopy was
revived, and monthly meetings had since been held, though without a very promising
attendance.

Of the library, the Secretary stated that the additions to it during the year exceeded
those of any other in the Society’s history. These were summarized thus:

8vo. 4to. Fo. Totals.

Volumes . : F A , ‘ : 348 69 2 419
Parts of Volumes . ; : ‘ ‘ 947 156 170 1273
Pamphlets . A : 6 ° : 335 52 2 389
Maps and Charts. : : : : : A ‘ 5 3 ‘ : ‘5 99
In all 2180

Besides the constant use made of the books by members and others at. the Library,
there had been borrowed 1110 volumes during the year, by one hundred and twenty-
three persons.

Of the publications two parts of the twentieth volume of the Proceedings, and a third
article for the third volume of the Memoirs had been issued, the last being a revision of
the Palaeozoic Cockroaches of the world, by Mr. Samuel H. Scudder, 113 pages, 5 plates.
Of “ Occasional Papers” a volume had been published, being the third of the series, con-
taining Mr. W. O. Crosby’s contributions to the Geology of Eastern Massachusetts, 266
pages, with 5 plates and a colored map.

In addition to these, No. 6 of the series of Guides for Science Teaching, by Professor
Hyatt, had been printed, also a pamphlet introductory to the general guide to the Mu-
seum, also by Professor Hyatt. Copies of this last publication were presented to the
audience at the celebration of the semi-centennial anniversary of the Society.

The Committee on Publications having suggested that a special volume should be pub-
lished commemorative of the fiftieth anniversary of the Society, the Council voted that
this should be done provided a sufficient number of subscribers could be obtained for such
volume at the rate of ten dollars a copy, to justify the necessary expenditure. To ensure
the success of this project the Rev. Robert C. Waterston, with characteristic generosity,
had already given one hundred dollars. It was understood that the volume should contain
a history of the Society, and a series of scientific papers, and be entitled “ Anniversary
Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History.”

Walker Prizes. Relative to the Walker Prizes, the Secretary stated that no essay had
been presented on the subject proposed for 1880, viz. :

“The evidences of the extension of the Tertiary deposits seaward along the coast of
Massachusetts.”

230 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

Mention was made of the award of the Grand Walker prize during the year to Dr.
Leidy, but as this has been particularly related on a former page, no further statement is
required here.

The Treasurer’s report showed that there had been an excess of expenditures over the
receipts of $698.95. As, however, the payments included the $1000 awarded for the
Grand Walker prize, and as such prize is only payable once in five years, the spirit of the
determination that expenditures should be kept within the limits of receipts was not vio-
lated.

At the election, the officers chosen were as follows. The full list is here presented that
it may be seen in whose hands the destiny of the Society was entrusted at the close of
the first half century of its existence, and at the commencement of a new era.

Joun CuMMINGS,

PRESIDENT,
SAMUEL H. ScuppER.
VICE-PRESIDENTS,

KW:

CUSTODIAN,
Aupueus Hyatt.

HONORARY SECRETARY,

S. L. Aszot.

SECRETARY,
Epwarp Burcsss.
TREASURER,
CuarLes W. Scupper.

LIBRARIAN,
Epwarp Burcess.

Putnam.

Committees on Departments of the Museum.

MINERALS.
Tuomas T. Bouve,

R. H. Ricwarps,
M. E. Wapswortu.

GEOLOGY.
Wim H. Nites,
G. Freperic Wriaut,
L. S. BurBank.

PALAEONTOLOGY.
Tuomas T. Bouve,
N. S. SHALER.

BOTANY.
Joun CuMMINGS,
CuartEs J. SPRAGUE,
J. Amory Lowertt.

MICROSCOPY.
SamuEL WELLS,
R. C. GREENLFAF,
B. Joy JEFFRIES.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

Tuomas Dwicut,

W. F. WHITNEY.

RADIATES, CRUSTACEANS AND WORMS.

H. A. Hacen,
ALEXANDER AGASSIZ,
L. F. Pourraés.

MOLLUSKS.
Epwarp 8S. Morse,

J. Henry Brake.
INSECTS.

Samurt H. ScuppeEr,

Epwarp Buourcess,

A. 8. Packarp, JR.

FISHES AND REPTILES.

F. W. Purnam,

Turopore Lyman,

S. W. GarMAN.
BIRDS.

J. A. ALLEN,

SamuEL Casor.

MAMMALS.

J. A. ALLEN,

EK. L. Marx,

Grorce L. Goopate.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 931

On the announcement of the ballot the President elect said, “that in occupying the
position to which he had been called, he could only express the wish that the choice had
fallen elsewhere, for he felt he owed the Society any service he might be able to render.
Any one as long acquainted with its government as he had been, must be alive to the
responsibilities of its highest office, but knowing the hearty support which would be given
to one aiming to carry out the objects of our Society with singleness of purpose, he could
not foster such misgivings as naturally arose in undertaking them.”

Mr. Seudder then sketched briefly the Society’s work, more particularly dwelling upon
its chief aim, popular instruction. The highly complimentary remarks towards the writer
and compiler of this history which followed, not only made by Mr. Scudder but by many
others, and the action taken by the Society, were of too personal a character to admit of
his presenting them here. Nothing certainly could have been more grateful to his feel-
ings than such a manifestation at the close of his long official life as President of the
Society.

The Standing Committees elected by the Council for the official year 1880-81 were as
follows: Library, Edward Burgess, W. H. Niles, W. F. Whitney. Publications, 8S. H. Seud-
der, 8S. L. Abbot, Edward Burgess, Alpheus Hyatt, J. A. Allen. Museum, Alpheus Hyatt,
S. H. Scudder, Thomas T. Bouvé, John Cummings, Edward Burgess; Walker prizes,
William B. Rogers, Alexander Agassiz, F. W. Putnam. Membership, 8. H. Scudder, M. E.
Wadsworth, B. Joy Jeffries, Edward Burgess, George L. Goodale. Lectures and meetings,
S. H. Scudder, M. E. Wadsworth, Edward Burgess, F. W. Putnam, W. H. Niles. Bird cer-
tificates, Edward Burgess, J. A. Allen. Trustees, Thomas T. Bouvé, John Cummings, C.
W. Scudder.

The fifth decade had now passed. If it could be said of the fourth that it was a period
of great events in the history of the Society, the same could be said of the fifth, though
those of the latter were of a less striking character. During the fourth, large donations
and bequests were made, enabling the Society to erect its magnificent museum and to
take a position among the leading institutions of the kind in the world, publishing freely
its Memoirs and Proceedings, and making exchanges with kindred societies, thus acquiring
for itself respect at home and abroad. During the fifth, scarcely a donation or bequest
of any amount was received, though the lack of means was felt in every department.
This prevented such expansion of the work of the Society as was deemed desirable, and
made it dependent on the individual contributions of its members, mainly upon one of
them, to accomplish much that it was able to do. What particularly characterized the
last decade was the great change effected in its plans and purposes, but more in its modes
of action and in the arrangement of its collections; not through revolution but by evolu-
tion, the result of advanced views in relation to museums and teaching, growing out of
the experience of the Society itself and of kindred institutions at home and abroad. No
longer would it suffice that great collections should be made in the different departments
of natural history, however well arranged and labelled the specimens might be in each ;
it was necessary that all should be subordinated to a comprehensive plan, so that they
should bear a proper relation to each other, and, moreover, include synoptical series which
should furnish to those seeking knowledge a key to the proper understanding of the
whole. A further development of thought upon the Museum led to the formation of a

932 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

separate local New England collection in each department. Now to accomplish this, and
to provide for the safety of the fast mereasing collections, it was absolutely necessary not
only to prepare rooms unfinished at the commencement of the decade, but to reconstruct
all the cases first erected in the building because of their defective character, as has been
mentioned on an earlier page. This change alone, with the necessary relabelling and
other work upon the specimens, was the labor of years, but one of vast importance to the
future influence of the Museum as an educational instrumentality. This great work could
not have been done in the thorough manner it was, had not the more important change
been first made of placing at the head of the Museum a scientific man whose single duty
it was to act as a Custodian, and to furnish him with paid assistants to work upon the
collections. Fortunately for the Society, Mr. Alpheus Hyatt, a man of large natural
endowments and of broad comprehensive views, was elected to this office. To him was
due the conception of the plan finally carried out for the arrangement of the whole Mu-
seum. It was the good fortune of the writer to be associated with him in this work and
to give the influence of his official position as President of the Society in having it fully
and faithfully done

The findncial resources of the Society were somewhat impaired during the decade by
the fittmg up of the rooms alluded to and the reconstruction of the cases. It also suf
fered by the great fire of 1872, having held a considerable amount of stock in imsurance
companies which became worthless, and by being called upon to pay assessments to mutual
companies in which its property was insured. If thus for reasons not arising from any
fault or bad management the income of the Society was lessened, the Council may well
point with satisfaction to the fact, that the ordinary expenses were not allowed to exceed
the income. To prevent this from being the case, however, much was left undone that
ought to have been done, and it was only by the pecuniary aid of neighbors and friends
that the Society was recently able to enclose the grounds about its Museum with a suitable
curbing of stone, and properly grade them.

The Society lost by death during these ten years, many of its most highly valued and
honored members, Louis Agassiz, Dr. Jeffries Wyman, Dr. Charles Pickering, Edward
Pickering, Dr. John B.S. Jackson and Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, all of whom were conspic-
uous in its annals. It lost, too, by removal, some who in the early part of the decade
were prominent in its proceedings, one of whom was Dr. Sterry Hunt, the eminent geolo-
gist, and another, Dr. Samuel Kneeland, who for many years was a very efficient officer
and member, and often contributed specimens of considerable value to the collections. It
may truly be said of the latter that during his long connection with the Society he sel-
dom, if ever, left home without bringing back with him something for presentation. He
was almost a constant attendant too upon the meetings, and frequently took an active part
in them.

The members of the Society who took the most prominent part in the proceedings at
the general meetings and at those of the sections during the first five years of the decade
were S. H. Scudder, Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, Alpheus Hyatt, Dr. H. A. Hagen, F. W. Put-
nam, N. 8. Shaler, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, Thomas T. Bouvé, Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Dr.
Charles T. Jackson, W. H. Niles, E. S. Morse, Dr. Charles Pickering, Edwin Bicknell, F.
G. Sanborn, Charles Stodder, Dr. Thomas Dwight, Jr., Dr. W. G. Farlow, Edward Burgess,
R. C. Greenleaf, Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, Dr. C. S. Minot, B. P. Mann, Rev. J. B. Perry, L.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 233

S. Burbank and J. A. Allen. Those who took the most prominent part during the last
five years were 8. H. Scudder, Alpheus Hyatt, F. W. Putnam, M. E. Wadsworth, Edward
Burgess, W. H. Niles, W. O. Crosby, E. P. Austin, Dr. H. A. Hagen, Dr. Thomas M.
Brewer, Dr. W. G. Farlow, Dr. C. 8. Minot, Thomas T. Bouvé, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, L. 8.
Burbank, Dr. Samuel Kneeland, Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, Rev. George F. Wright, and Dr.
G. L. Goodale.

The average attendance each year during the decade at the general meetings was as
follows :

1870-71 18 meetings, an attendance of 40 1875-76 18 meetings, an attendance of 33
71-72 18 a 32 76-77 19 & es 33
72-73 18 cs G 26 77-78 16 a se 39
73-74 16 “ x 54 78-79 16 a % 31
74-75 18 ee co 57 79-80 16 « a 40

The average of all these is somewhat larger than during any previous ten years, being
) to} o fo)

thirty-eight. That of the previous ten years was thirty-six. The great increase of attend-

ance in the years 1873-74 and 1874-75 was due largely perhaps to the change made in

uy Bey I 8
giving notices of the meetings, the custom being first adopted in the fall of 1873 to desig-
nate the subjects that were to be brought before them.
The attendance at the meetings of the sections was as follows:

Of Entomology,

1870-71 5 meetings, average attendance, 10 . 1875-76 4 meetings, average attendance, 8
71-72 7 cc fe a 11 76-77 1 cc sé 8
72-73 7 ub) & a 9 77-78 6 cs o & 9
73-T4 6 cs ss a 12 78-79 9 sc ce se 10
74-75 5 & & « 8 79-80 7 us & fc 8

Of Microscopy,

1870-71 5 meetings, average attendance, 11 1873-74 L meeting, attendance, 12
71-72 5 e cS © 12 74-75 2 meetings, average se 9
72-73 1 meeting, attendance, 12

The little interest manifested in this section led to its dissolution in 1875. Its revival
was authorized by the Council in 1879, and one meeting followed with an attendance of
nine persons ; it was the only one.

Of Botany, section formed in 1876,

1876-77 8 meetings, average attendance, 27 1878-79 6 meetings, average attendance, 7
77-78 2 << iG ce 18

Interest in this section was shown as long as able botanists appeared to address the
members. As soon as this ceased to be the ease the attendance fell off.

The large and important part of the work of the Society done through the Committees
of the Council makes it proper to give the names of all such members as have served
upon these during the decade. They are as follows:

On the Library. C.K. Dillaway, J. E. Cabot, Dr. T. M. Brewer, William T. Brigham,
Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., Edward Burgess, William H. Niles, Samuel H. Scudder, Alpheus
Hyatt, N.S. Shaler, J. A. Allen and S. W. Garman.

On Walker Prizes. Dr. Jeffries Wyman, C. J. Sprague, Thomas T. Bouvé, Dr. Asa
Gray, Alexander Agassiz and William B. Rogers.

234 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

On Lectures. Thomas T. Bouvé, Rev. Joshua A. Swan, John Cummings, John D.
Runkle, Alpheus Hyatt, Edward Burgess, Dr. James C. White, F. W. Putnam, Dr. B. Joy
Jeffries, M. E. Wadsworth and William H. Niles.

On Publications. Thomas T. Bouvé, Dr. Samuel L. Abbot, Dr. Thomas Dwight, Dr.
Thomas M. Brewer, Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., Rev. Joshua A. Swan, Edward Burgess, Samuel
H. Scudder, J. A. Allen, Alpheus Hyatt and John D. Runkle.

On the Finance Committee and as Trustees. Charles J. Sprague, Thomas T. os,
Edward Pickering, John Cummings and Charles W. Scudder.

On Meetings. J. A. Allen, Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., Dr. J. B. S. Jackson, Dr. H. A.
Hagen, Edward Burgess, Dr. James C. White, N. 8. Shaler, L. S. Burbank.

On Nominations for Membership. Dr. 8. L. Abbot, F. W. Putnam, Samuel H. Seuddaes
Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, Edward Burgess, Dr. Thomas Dwight, Samuel Wells, Alpheus Hyatt,
Thomas T. Bouvé.

_ On the Museum. Alpheus Hyatt, Thomas T. Bouvé, John Cummings, Samuel H. Scud-
der, Edward Burgess and F. W. Putnam.

The publications of the Society during the decade were, the second volume of its
Memoirs in quarto, 560 pages, containing twenty important papers read or presented at
its meetings, and three numbers of the third volume; a part of the 13th volume of the
Proceedings of the Society, not issued at the time of the annual meeting in 1870, with
six full volumes from the 14th to the 19th inclusive, and three parts of the 20th volume;
two volumes of its Occasional Papers, one, The Spiders of the United States, a collection
of the Arachnological writings of Nicholas Marcellus Hentz, M.D.; the other, Contribu-
tions to the Geology of Eastern Massachusetts, by W. O. Crosby ; six numbers of a series
of Guides for Science Teaching ; also a pamphlet introductory to a general guide to the
Museum to be hereafter published.

The library had increased largely simce 1870, when the whole number of its volumes
was given as 9396, and of pamphlets as 2677. The number of volumes at close of the
decade, counting them as bound, whether containing more than one, as was often the case,
or not, and estimating the unbound parts in proper proportion, was over 14,000, and that
of the pamphlets including maps and charts, was but slightly short of 6000.

Before proceeding to express such general views upon the Society, as press them-
selves upon the mind after sketching its history, and in view of its present condition, it
will not be amiss to refer to the original members yet living, after the lapse of half a
century since they took part in its formation. Of these there are four, Theophilus Par-
sons, Dr. Edward Reynolds, Dr. D. Humphreys Storer and Mr. George B. Emerson, all
men who have distinguished themselves in their several walks of life, and whose associ-
ation would have conferred honor upon any Society. Two of these, Dr. Storer and
Mr. Emerson, were active members during many years, and both of them held high
offices in it. Of the former and of his services to the Society, a full notice has been given
in these pages. It is a pleasant duty to present here some account of the latter.

bo
wo
or

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.
GrorGE B. Emerson.

George B. Emerson was born at Wells, Maine, then a part of Massachusetts, September
12th, 1797. His father was Dr. Emerson, a well known physician, and a man of culti-
vation and taste. He graduated at Harvard in 1784, and was an excellent Latin scholar,
besides being well read in history and English literature. His house was a favorite
resort for the judges and lawyers who attended the sessions of the Supreme Court of
Massachusetts, held semi-annually at York and at Portland, and young Emerson thus
early became acquainted with such men as Judge Jackson and the reporter, Dudley
Atkins Tyng, gentlemen distinguished for their ability, as well as the refinement of their
manners.

Dr. Emerson was chairman of the School Committee, and always was particular to see
that the master was a well educated man, and a proper person to have the charge of
children. His sons were sent to school during the winter season, but kept at home
during the summer, where the practical education that they received on their father’s
farm, both in the knowledge which it imparted of common ways of country life. and
familiarity with common things, and in the information which they derived from acquaint-
ance with the vegetable and animal life around them in the fields, woods, rivers and sea,
is spoken of by the subject of this notice as being of the most valuable character. The
father evidently evinced great good judgment in his management of the education of his
boys.

Young Emerson early familiarized himself with the trees, shrubs and plants of the
neighborhood, reading eagerly all books on botany which came in his way, and learning
what he could from his father relating to that science. He also was an interested reader
of books of travel and poetry, and at the proper time was led to the study of Latin and
Greek, becoming familiar in certain ways with the classics before entering Dummer Acad-
emy at Byfield, where he went to prepare for Harvard. He entered college in 1813,
being in the class with Caleb Cushing, George Bancroft, 8. J. May, Samuel E. Sewall, and
other since well-known men. His experience in college was a pleasant and profitable one,
varied as it so often was in the case of boys from the remote country districts, by occa-
sional teaching of country schools during the long vacations. While at Harvard he very
nearly lost his life by the experiment tried both by himself and his chum, of cutting
down the term of sleep from the normal quantity to four hours a day ; devoting the time
stolen from needed rest to over-study. A severe illness and long consequent sojourn at
home were the price of this ill-considered action.

He graduated in 1817, and after recovering from another severe illness, the result of
overwork, accepted a position offered him of master of an excellent private school, at
Lancaster, Mass. Here continuous trouble with his eyes, brought on by inattention to
general health and too much study previously, was a great annoyance to him; still his
school was a great success, his ability as a teacher being fully exemplified. He continued
at Lancaster for two years, and then accepted an invitation from President Kirkland to
become a tutor in the mathematical department at Harvard. Here he was again thrown
on terms of intimacy with some of his early college friends, Caleb Cushing, Edward Everett
and others, besides meeting most agreeably George Ticknor, then a lecturer on French lit-

236 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

erature, Professor Farrar, Dr. Bowditch, the great mathematician, Rev. Mr. Norton and
other prominent men of the time.

A trip to the White Mountains about this period, with a party of his college friends, is
most delightfully described in his little volume of “ Reminiscences.”

In 1820 was established in Boston the English Classical School, and Mr. Emerson was
chosen its first principal. After a remarkably successful experience as teacher in this insti-
tution, he in 1823 organized his celebrated school for young ladies, which was for many
years regarded as unequalled in the educational advantages to be enjoyed by all who were
in it as pupils.

In the formation of the Boston Society of Natural History, Mr. Emerson took an active
part, and in 1857 he was chosen President. At that time the scientific survey of the
State was determined by the members to be of the utmost desirability, and Mr. Emerson
was deputed to memorialize the State government upon the subject. This he did, laying
his memorial before Governor Everett, by whom it was most cordially and graciously
received. In due time the Governor informed Mr. Emerson that the legislature, both
houses of which justly appreciated his memorial, had authorized the executive to appoint
six proper persons to conduct the survey of the State, and had passed an appropriation to
cover the expenses thereof; and he requested that Mr. Emerson should suggest the names
of such scientific men as he thought competent for the work. The result was that the
gentlemen appointed were almost entirely those named by him. The Governor desired
that he should hold himself responsible for all the reports presented ; but his friends in
the Society, knowing his ability, were not satisfied except by his taking a more active part
in the survey; and he eventually divided the botany with Dr. Dewey, the doctor taking
all other plants and Mr. Emerson the trees and shrubs. The report which he subsequently
made to the legislature was not only admirable in its scientific features, but was most
charming from a literary point of view. It takes one out with the writer into the fields
and woods, and makes the reader at once the interested student and the personal friend, so
to speak, of the tree or shrub which the writer may be describing at the time. This
report was made up from the observations and study of nine successive years, nearly three
months of each of which he gave to the work, visiting all parts of the State in its prose-
cution.

Mr. Emerson published, in 1875, a new edition of his Report on the Trees and Shrubs,
superbly illustrated by colored plates, a full set of which, suitably framed, he presented to
the Society to be placed in the collection of New England Trees and Shrubs, and which
may now be seen in the botanical gallery devoted to that section.

The well-known “ Memorial of the American Institute of Instruction to the Massachu_
setts Legislature,’ was prepared and placed in the hands of the Governor by the Presi.
dent, Mr. Emerson; and the result of this course was the formation of the Board of Edu-
cation with Horace Mann, then President of the Senate, as its secretary. The cause of
education took a new departure from this time forth, and the good effect of this action, in
which Mr. Emerson was prominent, was inestimable.

Mr. Emerson’s zeal in the cause of good education sprang very largely from the affec-
tion for the young, which has always during his lifetime kept pace with his great love of
nature. The influence which he exerted among his pupils through this feeling of personal

‘The Heliotype Printing Co 21! Trernonr StBoston

”

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 237

interest has been very warmly spoken of by many of them. His religious tendencies
were very decided. He had wished in his boyhood to go to West Point, but his mother’s
earnest desire to the contrary had dissuaded him from this course, and his subsequent
tastes led him to study with the intention of entering the ministry, for which profession
he would seem to have been particularly fitted by nature. The young ladies of his school
always looked to him as a friend and adviser, and have many of them alluded feelingly
to the few earnest words spoken by him in the morning service as of more value to
them than all the ordinary instruction in the school.

Mr. Emerson’s interest in the Society has always been very strong; manifested to a
greater or less dezree by his presence at meetings and by occasional participation in the
proceedings. His last prominent appearance before the Society was in 1874, when he de-
livered the memorial address upon Louis Agassiz.

The history of the Society has now been traced from its formation to its present proud
position as one of the leading scientific institutions of the world. We have dwelt upon
the reasons that endangered its continued success in the early period of its existence, and
have witnessed the untiring devotion of its members, some of whom gave voluntarily,
years of life to its service. We have seen too that only by the large donations and
bequests of its great benefactors did it escape the fate of the Linnaean Society which pre-
ceded it, and of many other similar societies not sustained by government aid, and de-
pending on the unpaid labor and contributions of their members. That these gifts were
mainly due to a recognition of the disinterested devotion of the members of the Society to
the work undertaken by them, and of the importance of that work as an educational and
elevating influence in the community, is unquestionably true, markedly in the case of the
largest benefactor of all, Dr. William J. Walker, who, through Dr. Jeffries Wyman, for
whom he had great regard, and others, made himself well acquainted with the leading
members of the Society, and with their designs and purposes in the matter of educating
the community in natural history, before making it the recipient of his bounty.

It becomes the members of the Society, especially such as have been instrumental in
shaping its destiny, to ask whether it has met the reasonable expectations of its founders.
Have their hopes for its growth and its influence been fulfilled? As au associate with the
original members, and as having been acquainted to a considerable degree with their
thoughts and feelings, the writer unhesitatingly answers Yes! far beyond their most san-
guine hopes and expectations. Not that they limited in their own minds the possibility of
achievement, but they simply had no conception that in the lifetime of any of them the
Society would have one of the best structures in the world for exhibition, with collections
of great magnitude in all the departments of natural history, unequalled in arrangement
for instruction ; or that it would carry on such educational work as has been done, and is
now doing, through the Teachers’ School of Science and other instrumentalities.

Nor does it less become the members to ask, especially in view of the fact that for fur-
ther progress in the work carried on by them they will yet be obliged to rely on additional
aid, whether the Society has faithfully administered the trusts reposed in its care; and
whether the wishes of those who endowed it with means by which it has become what it
is, have been fully regarded in the use of the property placed at its disposal.

938 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

To this the writer also responds unhesitatingly in the affirmative, sustained by the grat-
ifying fact that among the nearest representatives of the great donors may be found those
best pleased with all the Society has done.

For the better understanding, on the part of the members of future generations, of the
condition of the affairs of the Society at the present period, it may not be amiss to state
concisely what are its possessions, just what it is now doing, with what means, its present
needs, and what are the hopes and the aspirations of those who are now its active mem-
bers. First then as to its possessions. It owns the building known as the Museum, its
cases, furniture, library and the collections contained therein, free from all incumbrance.
The value of the building with cases may be estimated at the cost, $150,334.86, as it cer-
tainly could not be erected at the present time without a larger expenditure. The money
value of the library and collections cannot be given. The former embraces as before
stated, over 14,000 volumes and nearly 6000 pamphlets.

The collections may be said to be of inestimable worth not only to the Society, but to
the community, for a considerable portion of unique and type specimens in the several de-
partments could never be replaced. There is not on the part of the public an adequate
conception of the extent of these collections and of the great importance that they should
be properly cared for, scientifically arranged and fully labelled in order that they may con-
tinue in all the future to serve as they now do, to help in the education of those who seek
to know something of the works of the Great Creator of all things, and who are not able
to attend the scientific schools where this knowledge is specifically taught. The following
statement will show the magnitude of the cabinet at this period.

Mineralogical Collection. Unmounted, North America . 800 specimens.
General collection. ‘ : 5,660 specimens. - New England : 200 <
¢ net] BT O “
New England collection . 7 We) Anatomical Collection.
Total. ep : ; 6,339 Skeletons, preparations and other
Geological Collection. specimens. c c ; 4,153 specimens.
Catalogued and on exhibition . 3,265 specimens. Microscopical Collection.

's yet uncate bt: 700 «“ : : ! ;
Others yet uncatalogued 1,7 Bailey collection. . : 1,839 specimens.
Total. 4.965 ‘“ Burnett “ : : 566 Gs

: 3 48
R. C. Greenleaf and Dr. i D. Sinclair

The New England ae are all included in the

ve “
1700 yet uncatalogued, and they amount, in round collection — : : c 480
. aes F 2ouers Cc eal 975 “
numbers, to 1500 specimens. Rovers collection 2 2 : ia)
Received from Messrs. A. Hyatt and
Palaeontological Collection. W. O. Crosby et . 114 “
Europe. : : : 13,691 specimens. Received from Mr. E. Semele 24 &
North America, erosive of New & “ others a F 62 ce
England : ‘ : ; 7,678 we =
_ : rl A lea g ees Ue 3,360 “
South America. : ; : 170 Total. 3,36
Asia and Australia. : ; 170 3 Sponges.
Africa. : : 5 : 14 Ke . : ag
Noe noland BA) a A general collection not yet in a condition to deter-

mine number and species; also a large collection
Mounted and arranged. : 22,273 sc of New England specimens not yet examined.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 239

Radiates.

Coelenterates.

Species. Specimens.
General collection including New
England species 200 1,000
Echinoderms.
Species. Specimens.
General collection 5 120 1,000
New England collection . 25 700
Total . 1,700
Worms.
Species. Specimens.
General collection 150 400
New England collection 150 400
Total . 800
Crustacea.
Species. Specimens,
General collection 400 1,000
New England collection 150 1,500
Total 2,500
Insects.
Species. Specimens.
General collection 10,000 85,000
Harris ce 4,364 11,023
New England collection 3,000 7,600
Total . : ‘ ; 53,623
Mollusks.
“ Species. Specimens.
General collection 5,400 32,000
New England collection 160 3,000
Totaly. 35,000
Fishes}
Species. Specimens.
General collection 700 2,500
New England collection 115 2,000
Total 4,500
Amphibia.
Species. Specimens.
General collection : 5 70 324
New England collection. 14 100
Total 494

Reptiles.
Species. Specimens.
General collection 200 740
New England collection. 23 TU
Total 817
Birds.
Specimens.
General collection of mounted birds . 11,801
New England collection of mounted birds 527
Total . 12,328
Bird skins about. 5,000
Eggs of birds about . 5,200
Mammals.
Species. Speeimens.
General collection ‘ : 54 67
New England collection. 30 51
Total . 118

Besides some alcoholic specimens and skins.

Botanical Department.
Herbarium.

General collection
Lowell ce ;
New England collection

28,885 specimens.
20,986 ©

3,277 w
Total . 53,148

On Exhibition in glass cases.

General collection 2,666 specimens.

New England collection 406 ec
Total . 3,072 cc

The New England specimens on exhibition consist of :

30 framed lithographs presented by Mr. George B.
Emerson.

182 mounted specimens of trees and shrubs, pre-
sented by Mr. Edward T. Bouvé.

194 specimens of wood and fruit, presented by Mr.
Edward T. Bouvé.

Besides the Museum Building, the Library and the collections mentioned, the Society
holds property in notes, bonds and stocks, amounting in value to $154,405, estimating the
bonds and stocks at their par value, which is below what they would now sell for in the

market.

1Jt has been stated in this history, and the statement has
been repeated, that the specimens of Massachusetts fishes
presented by Dr. D. Humphreys Storer were nearly all al-
lowed to perish for want of care and attention. The author

is happy to be able to say that a considerable number of
these, about one half, have recently been found in the gen-
eral collection, identified and placed on exhibition.

940) HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

As to what it is now doing. It is engaged, through the constant and arduous work of
the assistants in the Museum, in perfecting the work that has been going on for several
years, of rearranging, placing upon tablets, rebottling and relabelling the specimens
according to their several needs in all the departments, and in exerting proper means for
their preservation. None but those engaged in such work can understand the labor and
the watchfulness constantly required to prevent injury through many causes, but more
particularly through the destructive action of vermin, and from the evaporation of liquids
in which thousands of specimens are immersed. The modern cases, it is true, are gen-
erally secure from the admission of pests, but frequent examination of their contents is
not less necessary. The opening of a door for a moment may sometimes admit an anthre-
nus, the progeny of which it may require weeks to eradicate. Constant vigilance can
only preserve the perishable portion of natural history collections from ruin.

It is striving constantly to render its collections more educational, not only by such
arrangement as will facilitate their study, but by models and anatomical preparations giv-
ing the internal structure and showing the habits of animals.

It holds meetings on the first and third Wednesday evenings of each month, except
during the warm season, at which scientific communications, either written or verbal, are
made by members, followed often by discussions upon the matter presented. All important
communications and remarks are published in the Memoirs or Proceedings of the
Society, together with any business transacted. Besides the general meetings there are
others held of such sections as may be active. There have been three, those of entomol-
ogy, microscopy and botany, but only one of these, that of entomology, can be said to
exist at present, otherwise than nominally.

In its Laboratory it is doing much for those who seek knowledge in natural history.
Instruction is given to a class of the students of the Boston University in Biology and
Zovdlogy ; to a class of the students of the Institute of Technology in Zoélogy and Pa-
laeontology; and to a special class of teachers of the Public Schools in Zodlogy. The
laboratory room and the working collections therein are used also by other persons
engaged in teaching or studying. The accommodations of the room are inadequate for
all “He give and seek instruction, not affording pre per conveniences for either. About
seventy persons now make use of it.

Respecting the very important educational work the Society has done through the
Teachers’ School of Science, it is a matter of great regret that lack of means pre-
vented its continuance through the past winter. The maintenance of this has hitherto
entirely depended on contributions from individuals who, recognizing the great benefits
arising from the instruction of teachers, have voluntarily proffered aid. Whilst, therefore,
it cannot be said that just at the present period the Society is carrying on this work, it
may nevertheless, soon be the case, as it stands ready with its unequalled facilities to
recommence the courses of instruction whenever it can have the necessary help.'

1 Since the period at which the historical sketch closes, tinuance of the Teachers’ School of Science during the fol-
two ladies of Boston, to whom the city owes much, Mrs. lowing season. Several courses of lessons to the teachers of
Quiney A. Shaw and Mrs. Augustus Hemenway, with unso- the Public Schools are, therefore, being given at the time
licited generosity, tendered the necessary means for the con- _ of the publication of this volume.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 241

In its publications the Society is dog a great work. The issues are of such character
as to constantly enhance its reputation at home and abroad, and enable it through
exchange with foreign bodies to secure for the use of the members and others engaged in
the study of natural history, memoirs and journals indispensable to students, and which
the Society could not otherwise obtam. Exchanges are made at the present period with
three hundred and sixty societies and proprietors of scientific journals. To meet the call
for the various publications of the Society, its Memoirs, Proceedings, and Occasional
Papers, an edition of eight hundred of each issue is printed.

In addition to all that has been mentioned, the Society is sustaining its Library, which
is not only open to members but to all engaged in scientific investigation, upon proper
application, and under reasonable restriction. By an agreement with the Institute of
Technology, its students are allowed the privilege of consulting the books and taking them
out for study. The use of the Library is now much greater than at any former period, and
is constantly increasing.

Now what are the means at the present period upon which the Society can rely to go on
with its work? They are manifestly not its ownership in what is visible, its beautiful
building, its growing library, and its grand collections. These are of inestimable value,
but they are all of them sources of great expense, not of income. To sustain these, to con-
tinue publication, without which there can be but little progress, and to do such educa-
tional work as is now called for, a much larger funded property is required than that now
held by the Society. This amounts, as has been stated, to $154,405 at the par value of
the stocks held by it, and from this an income can scarcely be looked for exceeding eight
thousand to nine thousand dollars per annum. Assessments on members increase this from
one to two thousand dollars more.

Now when it is borne in mind that from this income it is incumbent upon the Society to
pay on an average about three hundred dollars yearly for prizes ; to have in its employ an
accomplished scientific man in general charge of its Museum, with several able assistants ;
a secretary and librarian, also of scientific attainments, with assistants in the library; and
a janitor to look after the building and contents ; to say nothing of the necessary repairs,
fuel, gas, etc., the question may well be asked how an income that will scarcely meet the
living expenses of many individual families in the community, can suffice for such
requirements. In truth it has only been by exceeding economy that these absolutely
necessary expenses have been kept within the income. All of extraordinary character
have been met by help from individual members and others. It has been found almost
impossible to spare any reasonable amount for additions to the cabinet, and consequently
the New England collections in the several departments which it is very important to
complete, are yet very far from being so. What was long since stated by the Custodian
of the New England collection of mammals yet remains true: “It is a disgrace to the
Society.” This is the more unfortunate from the fact that some of the larger animals
may ere long become extinct in our borders.

Having now presented a statement of the possessions of the Society at this time, what
it is doing and the income upon which it depends to sustain its work, a few words upon its
requirements, its hopes and its aspirations, may be added.

949, HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

As to its requirements, these have partially been given in mentioning its means and
their inadequacy ; others equally necessary but not so pressing will be here referred to.

It needs to build another gallery in the Museum as originally designed, in order that the
New England collections in the various departments may be brought together. It needs
means to enable it to bind thousands of volumes in its library, periodicals received
by exchanges, and other works which it has hitherto been unable to do. Thanks to the
Huntington Frothingham Wolcott fund, it will henceforth be able to take care of books
received, but it requires a large sum to bind those obtained in the past and which suffer
from want of it.

Of its hopes, they are that it may not only be able to go on with its work, but that it
may progress, and that the requirements for this may not long be wanting. Doimg
what it is in fostering the taste for a study refining and elevating in its tendencies, it feels
that its efforts should not be allowed to become futile through lack of necessary means to
continue its work without constant struggle.

Of its aspirations for the future, they are such as all will commend who recognize that
progress is a duty, viz.: That it may be able to meet the mereasing call from a growing
community for instruction in natural history, to such as cannot avail themselves of the
advantages afforded otherwise, by an expansion of its laboratory and other facilities ; that
it may, before a long period has elapsed, be able to add an aquarial garden to its collections,
both for the study of the habits of a portion of the animal kingdom and as an additional
attraction to visitors of the Museum; and that as these desires cannot have full fruition
without more extensive accommodations, that the day may not be far distant when it shall
possess the ability to enlarge the Museum building so as to best serve its designs and
purposes ; that it may also be able to publish the increasing researches of its members
with the illustrations they require ; which it is now by no means able to do, many me-
moirs being diverted to other channels of publication which would naturally be offered to
the Society were it able to do more than at present. .

The names of some of the most able naturalists of the country, including several of
the most distinguished of the age, are to be found on its roll of active members during
the half century, as Louis Agassiz, Jeffries Wyman, Asa Gray, Augustus A. Gould, Win.
B. Rogers, Henry D. Rogers, Thomas Nuttall, Charles Pickering, D. Humphreys Storer,
George B. Emerson, Amos Binney, Charles T. Jackson, Thaddeus W. Harris, Count Desor.
Others of its members if less illustrious as scientists have been men of such excellence of
life and character as to have endeared them to all the community. Who that knew in
life Dr. Benj. D. Greene, the Rev. F. W. P. Greenwood, Dr. John Ware, Dr. Martin
Gay, Mr. Thomas Bulfinch, and many others worthy of mention with these, will not
feel that its annals have indeed been sanctified by a spirit of purity and simplicity
throughout all the years of the half century now closed. If anything has made the
writing of these pages a pleasing task to the author, it has been the contemplation of
such exalted worth as marked the lives and deeds of so many of his associates. This has
sometimes impressed him with a feeling that the atmosphere about him was hallowed by
their presence.

The writer in his concluding remarks cannot do better than to commend to the govern-
ment of the Society, the expressive words of its great benefactor, in bequeathing to it

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 243

the property, without which it could not have continued its work, and to express the
hope that the request so touchingly urged may not only be sacredly regarded through
coming years, but that the policy indicated may be observed in relation to all property
that the generosity of others may hereafter bestow upon the Sosiety ; to the end that its
means of usefulness be not impaired, and that its elevating and beneficent influences be
continued through all generations.

The words referred to are as follows:

“ Finally, I request the recipients of the above bequeathed property to realize that no
inconsiderable portion thereof has been gathered as the fruits of a laborious vocation,
exercised through anxious days and sleepless nights; that it is given to them, in trust
nevertheless, to be expended so as to inure to the greatest advancement of sound educa-
tion in the departments as above specified, and the public good. I request that its mvest-
ment may be safely guarded; that its expenditure may be subject to the strictest econ-
omy; yet that it may be appropriated liberally where the objects aimed at justify an open
hand, and cannot be afforded the cause of education and the public good at less expense.”

With due regard to what is here expressed, the permanence of the Society is at least
secure, and it may reasonably be presumed that the means of progress will not forever be
wanting.

Thomas Nuttall,
Benjamin D. Greene,
George B. Emerson,
Amos Binney,

George Hayward,
John Ware,

F. W. P. Greenwood,
Amos Binney,

John Ware,

Francis C. Gray,

F. W. P. Greenwood,
Walter Channing,
Amos Binney,

C. T. Jackson,

Gamaliel Bradford,
Amos Binney,
Epes S. Dixwell,

S. L. Abbot,

Theophilus Parsons,
D. Humphreys Storer,
Martin Gay,
Augustus A. Gould,
Jeffries Wyman,
Frederick A. Eddy,
T. Bulfinch,

Edward Burgess,

Simon E. Greene,
Amos Binney,

Epes S. Dixwell,
Ezra Weston, Jr.,
John James Dixwell,

Patrick T. Jackson, Jr.,

Seth Bass,
Charles Amory,
Charles K. Dillaway,

PAST OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY.

Elected.

May, 13, 1830.

Aug. 9, 1830.
May 3, 1887.
May 17, 1843.

May 13, 1830.
May 12, 1832.
May 4, 1836.
May 5, 1841.

May 13, 1830.
May 12, 1832.

May 7, 1834.
May 4, 1836.
May 3, 1837.
May 5, 1841.

May 13, 1830.
May 7, 1834.
May 3, 1837.

May 3, 1876.

May 13, 1830.
Sept. 2, 1830.
May 4, 1836.
May 2, 1838.
May 15, 1839.
May 5, 1841.
May 4, 1842.

May 3, L876.

May 13, 1830.

May 2, 1832.
May 7, 1834.
Dec. 7, 1836.
May 1, 1839.

May 14, 1845.

May 13, 1830.
May 2, 1832.
May 1, 1833.

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

PRESIDENTS.

Retired.
Aug. 9, 1830.
May 3, 1837.
May 17, 1843.
May 5, 1847.

John Collins Warren,
Jeffries Wyman,
Thomas T. Bouvé,
Samuel H. Scudder,

FIRST VICE PRESIDENTS.

May 12, 1832.
May 4, 1836.
May 5, 1841.
May 17, 1848.

SECOND
May 12, 1832.
May 7, 1834.
May 4, 1836.
May 3, 1837.
May 5, 1841.
May 17, 1843.

Charles T. Jackson,
Samuel H. Scudder,
John Cummings,

VICE PRESIDENTS.
D. Humphreys Storer,
Augustus A. Gould,
Thomas T. Bouvé,
Richard C. Greenleaf,
John Cummings,
Frederick W. Putnam,

CORRESPONDING SECRETARIES.

May 7, 1834.
May 8, 1837.
May 17, 1843.

Augustus A. Gould,
J. Elliot Cabot,
8. L. Abbot,

Name of office changed.

HONORARY SECRETARY.

RECORDING SECRETARIES.

Sept. 2, 1830.
May 4, 1836.
May 2, 1838.
May 15, 1839.
Mar. 17, 1841.
April 20, 1842.
May 3, 1848.

S. L. Abbot,
Benjamin S. Shaw,
Samuel Kneeland, Jr.,
Samuel H. Scudder,
Joshua A. Swan,
Edward Burgess,

Name of office changed.

SECRETARY.

TREASURERS.

May 2, 1832.
May 7, 1834.
Dec. 7, 1836.
May 1, 1839.
May 14, 1845.
May 1, 1850.

May 2, 1832.
May 1, 1833.
May 4, 1864.

Nathaniel B. Shurtleff,
Amos Binney,
Thomas T. Bouvé,
Edward Pickering,
Charles W. Scudder,

LIBRARIANS.

Samuel H. Scudder,,
Joshua A. Swan,
Edward Burgess,

1 By death.

Elected.
May 5, 1847.

June 18, 1856.
June 15, 1870.

May 5, 1880.

May 17, 1843.
May 6, 1874.
May 5, 1880.

May 17, 1848.

May 2, 1860.
Nov. 21, 1866.
May 3, 1871.
May 6, 1874.
May 5, 1880,

May 17, 1843.
May 1, 1850.
Nov. 2, 1853.

May 3, 1848.
Noy. 2, 1853.

June 16, 1858.

May 7, 1862.
May 4, 1870.
Feb. 21, 1872.

May 1, 1850.
May 5, 1858.
Sept. 4, 1861.
May 3, 1865.

Feb. 21, 1877.

May 4, 1864.
May 4, 1870.
Feb, 21, 1872.

Retired.
May 4, 1856.1
May 4, 1870.
May 5, 1880.

May 6, 1874.
May 5, 1880.

May 2, 1860.
Sept. 15, 1866.1
June 15, 1870.
May 6, 1874.
May 5, 1880.

May 1, 1850.
June 1, 1853.
May 3, 1876.

Oct. 19, 1853.
June 2, 1858.
May 7, 1862.
May 4, 1870.
Oct. 81, 1871.1
May 3, 1876.

May 5, 1858.
Sept. 4, 1861.
May 3, 1865.
Noy. 21, 1876.1

May 4, 1870.
Oct. 81, 1871.1

Estes Howe,
Nathaniel B. Shurtleff,
T. M. Brewer,

Jeffries Wyman,
Samuel Cabot, Jr.,
William I. Bowditch,
Samuel L. Abbot,

Samuel H. Seudder,
Samuel H. Scudder,

Benjamin D. Greene,
Francis C. Gray,
Walter Channing,
Edward Brooks,
Amos Binney,

Jos. W. McKean,
George B. Emerson,
Francis Alger,

J. S. Copley Greene,
Joshua B. Flint,
Augustus A. Gould,

Charles Pickering,

Winslow Lewis,

Nathaniel B. Shurtleff,

Nathaniel B. Shurtleff,
Samuel Kneeland, Jr.,
Jeffries Wyman,

John Green,

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

Elected.
May 7, 1834.
May 20, 1835.
May 3, 1837.
May 2, 1838.
May 1, 1839.
Oct. 2, 1839.
Noy. 5, 1839.

May 4, 1864.
Oct. 3, 1866.

May 183, 1830.
May 13, 1830.
May 13, 1830.
May 13, 1830.
May 13, 1830.

May 13, 1830.
May 13, 1830.
May 18, 1830.
Sept. 2, 1830.
May 4, 1831.
May 4, 1831.

CABINET-KEEPERS.

Retired.
May 20, 1835. Henry J. Bigelow,
May 3, 1837. Thomas T. Bouvé,
May 2, 1838. Henry Bryant,
May 1, 1839. Henry J. Bigelow,
Oct. 2, 1839. Samuel Kneeland, Jr.,
Nov. 5, 1839. C. C. Sheafe,
Dec. 30,1840. Charles Stodder,

This office was abolished in 1864.

CUSTODIANS.

May 3, 1865. Alpheus Hyatt,
May 4, 1870.

CURATORS.
Sept. 2, 1830. Winslow Lewis, Jr.,
May 2, 1832. William B. Fowle,
May 4, 1831. Clement Durgin,
May 4, 1831. G. W. Otis,
May 2, 1832. Charles T. Jackson,
May 20, 1835. John B. S. Jackson,
May 3, 1837. Thaddeus W. Harris,
May 7, 1834. J. E. Teschemacher,
May 2, 1832. Martin Gay,
May 2, 1832. D. Humphreys Storer,
May 2, 1838. N. B. Shurtleff,

Elected.

Dec. 30, 1840.

May 5, 1841.
May 4, 1842.
Noy. 1, 1843.
May 5, 1847.
May 2, 1849.
May 5, 1852.

May 4, 1870.

May 2, 1832.
May 2, 1832.
May 2, 1832.
May 2, 1832.
May 1, 1833.
May 7, 1834.

May 20, 1835.
May 20, 1835.

May 20, 1835.
May 4, 1836.
May 3, 1887.

The curatorships were assigned to special departments for the first time in 1838.

Feb. 5, 1862.

CURATOR OF ETHNOLOGY.
May 1, 1867.

The Curatorship of Ethnology founded in 1862, was abolished in 1867.

May 2, 1838.

May 2, 1838.

May 6, 1840.
May 2, 1849.
June 7, 1854.
May 6, 1857.

CURATORS OF MAMMALS.
May 1, 1839. Jeffries Wyman,

CURATOR OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
May 6, 1840.

CURATORS OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND MAMMALS.

May 2, 1849. James C. White,
June 7, 1854. C. F. Folsom,
May 6, 1857. Thomas Waterman,

Nov. 17, 1858.

May 1, 1839.

Dec. 1, 1858.

Nov. 18, 1868.

Jan. 5, 1870.

245

Retired.
Mar. 17, 1841.
May 4, 1842.
Oct. 4, 1848.
May 5, 1847.
May 2, 1849.
May 5, 1852.
May 4, 1864.

May 2, 1838.
May 20, 1835.
May 1, 1833.
May 20, 1835.
May 2, 1838.
May 2, 1838.
May 2, 1838.
May 2, 1838.
May 4, 1836.
May 2, 1838.
May 2, 1838.

May 6, 1840.

May 6, 1868.
Oct. 6, 1869.
May 4, 1870.

The Departments of Mammals and of Comparative Anatomy were united in 1840, and again separated in 1870.

Thomas M. Brewer,
Marshall S. Scudder,
S. L. Abbot,

Thomas M. Brewer,

D. Humphreys Storer,

Jeffries Wyman,
Horatio R. Storer,
Jeffries Wyman,
J. Nelson Borland,

May 2, 1838.
May 6, 1840.
Dec. 16, 1840.

July 2, 1851.

May 2, 1838.

May 3, 1848.
May 7, 1851.
Jan. 4, 1854.
Dec. 6, 1854.

CURATORS OF BIRDS.

May 6, 1840. Samuel Cabot, Jr.,
Dec. 16, 1840. Henry Bryant,
May 1, 1844. J. Elliot Cabot,

CURATOR OF BIRDS (nests and eggs).
May 4, 1870.

CURATORS OF REPTILES AND FISH.
May 17, 1843. Jeffries Wyman,

The Curatorship was separated into two divisions in 1848.

CURATORS OF REPTILEs,

May 7, 1851. Samuel A. Green,
Dee. 21, 1853. Francis H. Brown,
June 7, 1854. Burt G. Wilder,
May 2, 1860. J. A. Allen,

1 By death.

May 1, 1844.
May 8, 1854.
May 1, 1867.

May 17, 1843.

May 2, 1860.
May 1, 1861.
Oct. 18, 1865.

Nov. 18, 1868.

May 3, 1854.
Feb. 2, 1867.1
May 4, 1870.

May 3, 1848.

May 1, 1861.
Oct. 4, 1865.
Oct. 7, 1868.
May 4, 1870.

246 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

CURATORS OF FISHES.

Elected. Retired. Elected. Retired.
W. O. Ayres, May 3, 1848. July 16, 1851. N. E. Atwood, Dec. 17, 1856. May 5, 1858.
Silas Durkee, July 16, 1851. May 21, 1856. Samuel Kneeland, Jr., May 5, 1858. May 4, 1859.
Samuel Kneeland, Jr., May 21, 1856. Sept. 3, 1856. F. W. Putnam, May 4, 1859. May 4, 1870.

CURATORS OF INSECTS.

Thaddeus W. Harris, May 2, 1838. May 3, 1848. Silas Durkee, May 21, 1856. May 5, 1858.
Waldo I. Burnett, May 3, 1848. July 1, 1854.1 Alex. E. R. Agassiz, May 5, 1858. Mar. 2, 1859.
Henry K. Oliver, Jr., May 2, 1855. Sept. 5, 1855. Samuel H. Seudder, Mar. 16, 1859. May 4, 1870.

CURATORS OF MOLLUSKS.

T. J. Whittemore, June 5, 1889. May 5, 1841. William Stimpson, Dec. 4, 1850. May 18, 1853.
Augustus A. Gould, May 5, 1841. May 17, 1843. T. J. Whittemore, May 18, 1853. May 2, 1860.
A. E. Belknap, May 17, 1843. May 1, 1844. Arthur T. Lyman, May 2, 1860. May 16, 1860.
Augustus A. Gould, May 1, 1844. May 14, 1845. Nathan Farrand, June 6, 1860. May 4, 1863.
Edward Tuckerman, May 14, 1845. May 6, 1846. Alpheus Hyatt, Oct. 21, 1863. May 1, 1867.
John Bacon, Jr., May 6, 1846. May 3, 1848. Edward §S. Morse, May 1, 1867. May 4, 1870.
William Read, May 3, 1848. Nov. 20, 1850.

CURATORS OF CRUSTACEANS AND RADIATES.

Amos Binney, Feb. 3, 1841. May 5, 1841. John P. Reynolds, May 2, 1855. May 6, 1857.
William O. Ayres, July 16, 1851. May 18, 1853. Theodore Lyman, May 6, 1857. Sept. 2, 1857.
J. B.S. Jackson, May 18, 1853. May 2, 1855.

The Curatorship was separated into two divisions in 1857.

CURATORS OF CRUSTACEANS.
H. R. Storer, Sept. 2, 1857. May 4, 1859. Alpheus S. Packard, Jr., Dec. 2, 1863. May 4, 1870.
Albert Ordway, May 4, 1859. Dec 18, 1861.

CURATORS OF RADIATES.

Theodore Lyman, Sept. 2, 1857. May 4, 1864. Addison E. Verrill, May 4, 1864. : May 4, 1870.
CURATORS OF BOTANY.

J. E. Teschemacher, May 2, 1838. May 5, 1852. Horace Mann, May 3, 1865. Noy. 11, 1868.1

Charles James Sprague, May 5, 1852. May 3, 1865.

CURATORS OF MICROSCOPY.
Silas Durkee, June 3, 1857. May 2, 1860. B. Joy Jeffries, May 2, 1860. May 4, 1870.

CURATORS OF MINERALS AND GEOLOGY (State collection).
Charles T. Jackson, May 2, 1888. May 5, 1841. T. Bulfinch, May 5, 1841. May 4, 1842.

CURATOR OF MINERALS AND GEOLOGY (Society collection).
Martin Gay, May 2, 1838. May 4, 1842.
The State Collection was withdrawn from the Society’s Museum, and the Curatorship of Mineralogy and Geology divided, in 1842.

CURATORS OF MINERALS.

Martin Gay, May 4, 1842. May 2, 1849. William T. Brigham, May 4, 1863. May 3, 1865.
Francis Alger, May 2, 1849. May 21, 1856. Thomas T. Bouvé, May 3, 1866. May 4, 1870.
John Bacon, May 21, 1856. May 4, 1863. :

CURATORS OF GEOLOGY.

Thomas T. Bouvé, May 4, 1842. May 4, 1863. William T. Brigham, Jan. 2, 1867. May 4, 1870.
The department of Palaeontology was added to that of Geology in 1863, and raised to a separate department in 1867.

CURATOR OF GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY.
Thomas T. Bouvé, May 4, 1863. Jan. 2, 1867.

CURATORS OF PALAEONTOLOGY.

Thomas T. Bouvé, Jan. 2, 1867. May 1, 1867. Alpheus Hyatt, May 1, 1867. May 4, 1870.
The office of Curator was abolished May 4, 1870 and Committees on the several departments were elected.

1 By death.

Thomas T. Bouvé,
Charles T. Jackson,

William H. Niles,
William T. Brigham,
Thomas T, Bouvé,
John Cummings,

Thomas T. Bouvé,
Charles T. Jackson,
L. S. Burbank,

W. H. Niles,
N.S. Shaler,

William T. Brigham,
Charles J. Sprague,

Thomas Dwight,
Jeffries Wyman,

A. S. Packard, Jr.,
A. E. Verrill,
Alexander Agassiz,

Edward S. Morse,
John Cummings,
Levi L. Thaxter,

F. G. Sanborn,
A. S. Packard, Jr.,

D. H. Storer,

F. W. Putnam,

J. A. Allen,
Samuel Kneeland,

Thomas M. Brewer,
Samuel Cabot,

J. A. Allen,
Thomas Waterman, Jr.,
J. B. S. Jackson,

Edwin Bicknell,
R. C. Greenleaf,

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

Elected.

1870.
1870.

1872.

1872.
1872.

1873.

1872.
1872.
1872,

1870.
1870.

1870.
1870.

1870,
1870.

1870.
1870.
1870.

1870.
1870.
1870.

1870.
1870.

1870.

1870.
1870.
1872.

1870.
1870.

1870.

1870.

1870.

1870.

1870,

COMMITTEES ON DEPARTMENTS.

Geology and Minerals.

Retired.

1872.
1872,

1873,
1873.
1874.

1874.

1879.

1875.

1874.

1874.1

Radiates and Crustaceans [and Worms, added in 1873].

1875.
1875.

1873.
1879.

1873,

William T. Brigham,

Geology.

.T. Sterry Hunt,
L. 8S. Burbank,
Rey. G. Fred. Wright,

Minerals.

R. H. Richards,
M. E. Wadsworth,

Palaeontology.

Thomas T. Bouvé,
Jules Marcon,

Botany.

J. Amory Lowell,
John Cummings,

Comparative Anatomy.

James C. White,
William F. Whitney,

H. A. Hagen,
L. F. de Pourtalés,

Mollusks.

J. Henry Blake,
C. O. Whitman,

Insects.

Edward Burgess,
S. H. Scudder,

Fishes and Reptiles.

1873.

1872.
1878.

Bird's [nests and eggs.

1880.1

1873.
1879.

1877.1

Richard Bliss, Jr.,
S. W. Garman,
Theodore Lyman,

J. Elliot Cabot,
J. A. Allen,

Mammals.

J. H. Emerton,
E. L. Mark,
George L. Goodale,

Microscopy.

B. Joy Jeffries,
Samuel Wells.

1 By death.

Dropped from title in 1873].

Elected.

1870.

The departments of Geology and Minerals, united in 1870, were separated in 1872.

1874.

1874,

1879.

1874.
1879.

1870,
1876,

1870.
1874.

1870.

1879,

1875.
1876.

1873.
1879.

1870.
1873.

1873.
1877.
1878,

1870.
1871.

1873,

1879,
1880,

1870,
1877.

247

Retired.
1872.

1879.

1878,

1880.

1880.

1877,

1871.

1875.

248

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE

CONTENTS.

Norice or tae Linnanan Society, pp. 38-14.

Early publications and instruction in natural history, 8.— Organization, Dec. 8, 1814, of the N. E. Society

for the promotion of Natural History, 8— Members and rules, 4-— Change of name in 1815 to Lin-
naean Society of New England, 6.— Collection of specimens and addresses, 6.— Division of the Museum
into departments, 7.— Sea-serpent Stories, 10.— Signs of dissolution, 10.— Attempts to unite with the
Athenaeum, 12.— Decision to dispose of the collections, 12.— Lessons taught by the failure of the Lin-
naean Society, 13.

Tue Boston Socimty or Narurat History, Decapr I, May 1830— May 1840, pp. 14-36.

Formation of the new Society and election of officers, 14,— with Thomas Nuttall as President, who declined

to serve, and Benjamin D. Greene is chosen, 14.— Lectures arranged, 15,— Attempt to recover the col-
lections of the Linnaean Society, 16.— Character of the meetings, 17.— Quarters taken in Pearl Street,
17.— First Annual Meeting and reports, 18.— Geological survey of the State, 19.— Difficulties before
the early students of natural history, 20.— Removal to Tremont Street, 21.— Attempts to raise a per-
manent fund, 21.— Extent of collections, 23.— Gift from Ambrose 8. Courtis, 23.— Publication of a
“ Journal,” 24.— Second Survey of the State, 25.— Death of Ambrose 8. Courtis, his bequest and notice
of his life, 26— Purchase of the Hentz Collection, 27.— Resignation of Mr. Greene and election of
George B. Emerson, second President, 28.— Financial troubles, 28.—Annual Meeting for 1838-39, 29.—
Settlement of the Courtis bequest, 30.— Aid given to naturalists, 30.— Death of Simon E. Greene, 30.—
Annual meeting, 1840, 31.— Review of the decade, 31.

Decapve II, May 1840 — May 1850, pp. 36-56.

Bequest of Simon E. Greene, 36.— Annual meeting, 1841, 37.— Meeting of the American Association of

Geologists and Naturalists, 38.— Annual reports for 1842, 38.— Adoption of a Diploma, 39.—Annual
reports, 1843, 40.— Election of Dr. Amos Binney as third President, 40.— Death of the Rey. F. W. P.
Greenwood, 40.— Annual meeting of 1844, 41,— and of 1845, 43.—Endeavors to raise funds for the
Society, 43.— Bequest of John Parker, 33.— The “Sea-Serpent” again, 44.— Annual reports 1846, 45,—
Death of Dr. Amos Binney, 46.— Annual meeting, 1847, 48.— Election of Dr. J. C. Warren, fourth Pres-
ident, 48.— Purchase of the Medical College and removal to Mason Street, 49.— Annual reports for
1848, 50,— and for 1849, 51.— Deposit in the Library of the books of “ A Republican Institution,” 52—
Donation of Jonathan Phillips, 52—Death of Dr. Martin Gay, 52.— Annual reports for 1850, 53.—
Early discoveries of gold in California, 54.— Review of the second decade, 55.

Decape III, May 1850 — May 1860, pp. 56-81.

Annual meetings 1851 and 1852, 57,—and of 1858, 58.— Purchase of the fossil foot-prints from the Con-

necticut Valley, 59.— Death of James E. Teschemacher, 59.— Annual meeting of 1854, 61.— Death of
Dr. Waldo I. Burnett, 61.— Annual meeting of 1855, 63.— Death of James Brown, 63.— Death of Dr.
Thaddeus W. Harris, 64,—and of the Rev. Zadock Thompson, 65.— Annual meeting, 1856, 66.— Elec-
tion of Dr. Jeffries Wyman, fifth President, 68.— First and only field meeting of the Society, 68.— De-
posit from Dr. Binney’s Library, 69.— Deaths of Corresponding Members, J. W. Bailey, W. C. Redfield,
and Michael Tuomey, 69.— Annual meeting of 1857, 69.— Formation of a Section of Microscopy, and
bequest of the collection of Prof. Bailey, 71— Donation of the B. D. Greene Herbarium, 71.— Annual
meeting, 1858, 72.— Deaths of Dr. James Deane and F. W. Cragin, 73.— Thoughts of a new building,
74.— Annual meeting 1859, 74,— and of 1860, 76.—Sketch of Dr. D. Humphreys Storer, 77.— Review
of the third decade, 80.

BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 249

Dercapr IV, May 1860-May 1870, pp. 81-188.

Bequest of Jonathan Phillips, 81.—Constant exertions for a grant of land for a new building, 81.— First
donation from Dr. William J. Walker, 82.— Grant of land to the Society and the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology, 88.— Annual meeting 1861, 83.— Sale of building on Mason Street and temporary
removal to Bulfinch Street, 84.— Plans for the new building, 85.
Gift of ethnological collections from the Boston Marine Society, 87.— Successful efforts of the Building
Committee, subscriptions of $20,000 obtained and the second gift from Dr. W. J. Walker, 87.— Con-
tracts for the new Building, 87— Annual reports for 1862, 87.— Death of Dr. B. D. Greene, 88.— Gift
of the Megatherium cast, 91.— Annual meeting of 1863, 91.— Deaths of Dr. George Hayward and
Francis Alger, 92.— First meeting in the new building, 92.— Financial shadows, 94.— New offer of
$20,000 from Dr. Walker on condition of raising an equal amount, 95.— Death of Dr. Edward Hitch-
cock, 95,— of Dr. John Ware, 95.— Resignation of Mr. Dillaway, the Librarian since 1833, 96.— An-
nual meeting 1864, 96.— Office of Custodian created, and election of 8. H. Scudder, 97.— Dedication of
the new Museum, 99.— Death of C. A, Shurtleff, 100.— Subscriptions to its Working Fund completed,
100.— Conditions as to use of the amount received from Dr. Walker, 100.— Establishment of Walker
Prizes, 100.— Reorganization of a Section of Microscopy, 102.— First course of lectures to Teachers,
102.— Death of Dr. William J. Walker, and sketch of his life, 103.— Bequests of Dr. Walker, 105.—
Annual meeting, 1865, 105.— Cost of the Museum, 106.— Ravages of insects, 106.— Gift of the Lafres-
naye Collection of Birds by Dr. Henry Bryant, 108.— Attempt to make Dr. Wyman Director, 109.—
Annual meeting, 1866, 109.— Establishment of the “ Memoirs” as a new series of the “Journal,” 109.—
Death of Prof. Henry D. Rogers, 111.— Death of Dr. Augustus A. Gould, 111.— The Custodianship,
116.— Formation of a Section of Entomology, 117.— Bequest of Miss 8. P. Pratt, 117— Death of Dr.
Henry Bryant, 117.— Coéperation with explorations of the Smithsonian Institution, 118.— Discussion
on the House Sparrow, 118.— Abolition of the Department of Ethnology, 119.— Completion of some
unfinished rooms, 119.— Bequest of Paschal P. Pope, 119.— Annual meeting, 1867, 119.— Death of
Thomas Bulfinch, 120.— Public lectures, 121— Annual meeting 1868, 121— Admission of ladies to
meetings, 123.—Death of Horace Mann, 123.— Annual meeting 1869, 124.— Results of the Central
American explorations, 125.— Excessive expenditures, 126.— Celebration of the centennial anniversary
of Humboldt’s birth, 127— Founding of a Humboldt Scholarship in the Museum of Comparative Zodl-
ogy, 128.— Formation of Committees in charge of the different collections, 129.— Annual meeting 1870,
129.— Resignation of Mr. Scudder from the Custodianship, ete., and of Professor Wyman from the Pres-
idency, 132.— Election of Prof. A. Hyatt, Custodian, and Rev. J. A. Swan, Secretary and Librarian,
133.— Review of the fourth decade, 133.— Part taken by members of the Society in the war of the
rebellion, 133.— Joseph P. Couthouy, 138.— Gift of the H. F. Wolcott Fund, 138.

Large osteological additions, 85.—

Decapre V, May 1870-May 1880, pp. 140-243.

Duties of the salaried officers, 141.— Election of Thomas T. Bouvé, President, 142.— Plan for arranging
the Museum proposed by Professor Hyatt, 143— Skeleton of a Fin-back whale secured, 145.— Ar-
rangement with the Trustee of the Lowell Institute for series of lectures under the Society’s auspices,
145.— Establishment through John Cummings of the Teachers’ School of Science, 145.— Bequest
from Sidney Homer, 146.— Annual meeting 1871, 146— Death of the Secretary, Rev. J. A. Swan,
148.— Election of Edward Burgess, Secretary and Librarian, 149.— Death of William H. Dale,
and his bequest to the Section of Entomology, 149.— Annual meeting 1872, 149.— Annual meeting 1873,
152.— Award of the first Grand Walker Prize to Alexander Agassiz, 154—Death of Prof. Louis
Agassiz, 154.— Precautions against fire, and progress of the re-arrangement of the Museum, 164.— At-
tempt to induce the Legislature to authorize a new survey of the State, 165.— Annual meeting 1874,
165.— Gift of the Eser Paleontological Collection by Mr. John Cummings, 166.— Dr. Charles T. Jackson,
167.— Thoughts of the establishment of a Zodlogical Garden and Aquarium, 160.— Death of Dr. Jeffries
Wyman, 169.— Purchase of the Wyman Collection of Comparative Anatomy, 177.— Annual meeting,
1875, 177.— Bequest of the C. 8. Hale Collection of Fossils, 179.— President Bouvé wishes to resign, but

250 HISTORICAL SKETCH.

is lead to reconsider it, 180.— Alterations in the Constitution,— Corporate and Associate membership,
181.— Annual meeting 1876, 181— Death of Dr. Walter Channing, 183.— Death of Edward Pick-
ering, 184.— Death of Prof. F. B. Meek, 185.— Consideration of opening the Museum on Sundays, 185.—
Annual meeting 1877, 186.— Death of Dr. Charles Pickering, 189.— Death of Prof. C. F. Hartt, 192.—
Annual meeting 1878, 194.—Death of Gurdon Saltonstall, 197.— Death of Prof. Joseph Henry,
198.— Remarkable work of the Teachers’ School of Science, 199.— Death of Dr. J. B. 8. Jackson, 199.—
Annual meeting 1879, 202.— Teachers’ School of Science, 204.— Vote to publish an Anniversary vol-
ume, 207.— Award of the second Grand Walker Prize to Prof. Joseph Leidy, 208.— Discussion relating
to the Collection of Comparative Anatomy, 208.— Death of Dr. T. M.. Brewer, 209.— Plans for a fiftieth
anniversary celebration, 211.— Resignation of Mr. Bouvé from the Presidency, 212.— Fiftieth anniver-
sary celebration, April 28, 1880, 213— Address of Mr. Bouvé, 213,— of Governor Long, 214,— of Dr.
Samuel Eliot, 215,— of President Eliot, 216,—of Mr. Alex. Agassiz, 219,—of Rev. R. C. Waterston,
220.— Close of the celebration, 226.— Annual meeting 1880, 226.— Election of officers, with Samuel H.
Scudder as President, 230.— Review of the fifth decade, 231.— Original members yet living, 234.—
Sketch of George B. Emerson, 235.— Present condition of the Society and the hopes of its founders,
237.— Statistics of the Library and Museum, 238.— Funded property, 239.— Present work, 240.— Inade-
quacy of means, 241.— Aspirations, 242.— Wishes expressed in Dr. W. J. Walker’s will, 243.

List of past officers of the Society, 244.
Contents, 248.
List of portraits, 250.

PORTRAITS IN THIS VOLUME.

Brensamin D. GreEenr, M.D., First President of the Society. Heliotype from a life-size crayon por-
trait in the possession of the Society. Opposite page 89.

Grorcr B. Emerson, LL.D., Second President. Heliotype from an enlarged photograph, Opposite
page 256.

Amos Briyney, M.D., Third President. Heliotype from a portrait in oil in possession of the Society.
Opposite page 49.

Joun Cottiys Warren, M.D., Fourth President. Steel engraving from a daguerreotype by J. A.
Whipple. Opposite page 66,

Jerrries Wyman, M.D., Fifth President. Heliotype from an enlarged photograph finished in crayon,
in the possession of the Society. Opposite page 169.

Tuomas T. Bouvn, Sixth President. Heliotype from a crayon portrait in possession of his family.
Opposite page 212.

Wituam J. Wacker, M.D. Heliotype from a crayon in possession of the Society. Opposite page 105.

Avaustus A. Goutp, M.D. Engraving by H. Wright Smith, from a daguerreotype by Southworth &
Hawes, originally published in the Annual of Scientific Discovery for 1861. Opposite page 112.

D. Humenreys Storer, M.D. Steel engraving, prepared for the “ Biographical Encyclopedia of
Massachusetts of the Nineteenth Century,” published in New York in 1879. Opposite page 80.

1830. ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY, 1880,

PROPOSITIONS CONCERNING

CLASSIFICATION OF LAVAS,

CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THEIR
EXTRUSION.

BY N. 8. SHALER.

BOSTON :
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

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PROPOSITIONS CONCERNING THE CLASSIFICATION OF LAVAS, CONSIDERED WITH
REFERENCE TO THE CIRCUMSTANCE OF THEIR ExTRUuSIONS.

By N. S. SHALER.

ce

THE lavas of the earth are not easily divided into distinct physical groups ; a division on
the basis of their chemical history has not yet been satisfactorily made, even Richtofen’s
ingenious classification, which at first was accepted with considerable confidence, and seemed
to promise a basis for future enquiry, not appearing to satisfy the conditions in all
the various regions where volcanic rocks of different ages are found. The question of
the physical and chemical history of the various molten rocks is still so much open to
debate that almost any suggestions which promise to aid our understanding may be
deemed warranted. I therefore venture to present the following considerations concerning
the physical history of the known groups of lavas. In this paper I propose to limit my-
self to the mechanical history of the formation and the extrusion of lavas, avoiding the
field of chemical inquiries as far as it may be possible to do so. For convenience, I have
arranged the following matter in the form of propositions which are taken up in succession.
I regret the appearance of dogmatic assertion this form gives, and also regret that the
limits of the paper, as well as my knowledge of the work of others, do not enable me to
indicate the precise points in which the suggestions differ from those which have
hitherto been made.

Outflows of lava are pretty clearly divisible into three classes, viz:

1. Those of ordinary volcanos, characterized by the fact that the escape of gas under
great pressure brings about the extrusion of the lava.

2. Massive outflows of lava flowing not from a cone, but from a fissure, and showing
no trace of the gas action which is the most conspicuous feature in true volcanic action.

3. Inclosed dykes, 7. e., dykes whose fissures did not reach the surface, but stopped
short of it within the rocks which they penetrate.

Besides these we have in various dykes and volcanic chimneys, occasional relics of the
old channels up which the lavas that were forced out in volcanic or marine eruptions found
their way to the surface. It is often impossible to determine to which of these last
named classes such ejections belong, but they are easily separable from the third group,
i. e., that of enclosed dykes.

4 SHALER ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF LAVAS

Tue LAVAS OF ORDINARY VOLCANOS.

The immediate problems connected with the formation and extrusion of the lavas from
volcanic cones are perhaps on the whole less perplexing than those we shall have to
consider in the other classes of voleanic outbreaks; nevertheless, we find ourselves at the
very outset in the midst of a maze of discordant opinions. After carefully weighing
the diverse facts and theories which have been accumulated about the problem as
far as they are known to me,I am inclined to maintain the following propositions as
sufficiently supported to be worthy of presentation.

1. The formation and ejection of the lavas of ordinary volcanos is due to
the invasions of heat into sedimentary deposits; invasions brought about by
the deposition of sediments on the sea-floors, and the consequent vaporization
of the waters and other volatilizable substances contained in the deeply-buried
rocks,—which substances were deposited at the time the buried rocks were laid down.

This proposition is supported by the following facts, viz.: In the first place, the
active volcanos of the earth are limited to the vicinity of areas of sedimentation,
and their activity ceases when in the course of geographical change, the seas leave
their neighborhood. Several times in the discussion of this problem, the suggestion has
been made that the water which contributes the larger part of the gases poured out by
volcanos, penetrated from the surface through the rocks to the heated deep-lying beds,
and being there vaporized was the source of the gases which propel the lavas and
other substances from the volcanic vent. Although Daubrée has shown, by some
very interesting and singularly overlooked experiments, that water will penetrate
rocks against a considerable gaseous pressure, this theory seems to me essentially
untenable, inasmuch as the penetration of water through the rocks beneath the
land must be even more energetic than through the rocks beneath the sea, for
the reason that the hydrostatic column is higher beneath the land; we are therefore
driven to regard the water contained in the gases of the volcano as originating in
the water that is imprisoned in the rocks by stratification. In the second place
all the lavas that have been submitted to a careful microscopic study, show that
the temperatures to which they have been subjected are not high enough to melt
any other than the easily fusible rocks. This is proven by the numerous fragments
of more refractory rocks which they frequently contain. This is evidence of a very
fair kind, to show that lavas are not derived from great depths, and that they are formed
from rocks which had previously been consolidated.

That the ejection of the lavas from ordinary volcanos is due to the action of the gases,
is pretty well proven by the fact that most volcanic eruptions are essentially explosions of
gaseous substances. Inasmuch as these gases are diffused in the atmosphere, or precipitated
as rain, they leave no distinct record of themselves, but there is no reason to doubt that the
volume of gases which have been poured out, by such a volcano as A‘tna for instance, must
amount to many thousand times the mass of the cone that we find there. At the time of
fullest activity, such craters are discharging gas with a greater speed than the gases of
gunpowder are discharged from a cannon’s mouth at the moment of explosion, for they
sent their ejection higher than they could be sent by any artillery. In many volcanos this

BY THE CONDITIONS OF THEIR EXTRUSION. 5

speed of ejection if continued for a month, would set free a mass of gas equal to the atmo-
sphere covering over fifty thousand square miles of the earth’s surface. The
actual weight of gases thrown out in a month of the most vigorous eruption, must in many
voleanos exceed one thousand million tons, or a weight greater than half a cubic mile of
ordinary voleanic rocks, ora large fraction of the mass of such a cone as Aitna. This esti-
mate, which being only approximative is not worth exhibiting in detail, makes it clear that
the volume of the escaping gases and their power is sufficient to propel the lava from the
depths where it is found to the surface.

2. The gases erupted from a volcanic cone, and to a certain extent the lavas, are prin-
cipally derived from a great horizontal distance from the point of escape.

This proposition seems to me to stand ona tolerably sure footing. It is clear that the
gases which escape from an ordinary volcanic cone during its formation would, even in
their solid form, occupy a much greater mass than the cone itself. Moreover, we know
that these gases are mainly the gases of water, and that compact sedimentary rocks cannot
contain more than about two or five per cent. of this fluid. To find a source for the water
which escapes from a volcanic cone we must assume it to have been derived from a great
horizontal area about the cone. Assuming that in the case of Vesuvius the stratified rocks
which give rise to the gases are limited to a depth of one or two hundred thousand feet (a
conclusion to which we are led by the relatively low temperature at which the lavas are
extruded), then we must believe that a part of the supply of gas is derived from distances
of hundreds of miles horizontally from the vent. If we reckon the average diameter of
the crater in all its history, at one half a mile, which is probably much within the facts,
and assume that the whole time in which the crater has been discharging gases at a high
pressure since its beginning to have amounted to an aggregate of only five years, pro-
bably a very small estimate, then it would have discharged im vapor much more water than
could be contained in the rocks over an area of something like forty thousand square miles.
So if we assume that the gases of volcanic eruptions are principally of water, and that
this water was contained in the rocks as it is ordinarily contained there, then we must
admit that the feeding ground of a volcano extends over a very wide area.

The attitude of the rocks about a voleano comes in to support this conclusion in a very
striking way. While in certain cases there is a subsidence of the beds to be noticed very
near the crater, the general level of the region about the crater, even the largest,
has never shown any distinct evidence of subsidence. When we remember that the
cones of a voleano are the seats of a very rapid erosion, owing to the high angles
of the slopes, the incoherent nature of the materials, their generally low specific gravity,
and the torrential rainfalls that accompany great eruptions, causing the cones to
wear down at an average rate of many feet in a thousand years, and also take into
account the vast bulk of the gaseous emanations, it’ is clear that unless the supply
of ejected matter came from a great distance on either side of the voleano, we would
not find this absence of sinking about the cone.

Moreover the well determined interaction between certain volcanos hundreds of
miles away from each other, shows that the gases must have this horizontal

6 SHALER ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF LAVAS

movement, else the eruptions of one volcano could not cause the others to become
dormant. It does not seem to me necessary to assume that this horizontal movement
of the gases takes place through rocks in a state of complete fusion. It is a well
recognized fact that certain substances, iron for instance, are more permeable to gases
when highly heated than when cold, nor need we assume that the movement of the
gases is very rapid; it may be, and probably is, rather slow, otherwise the repetition of
periods of repose and explosion could not well be explained.

3. The lavas of ordinary voleanos do not represent the melting of the whole
section, where they originate, but only that part of the section which it is pos-
sible to melt at low temperatures.

This proposition is deduced from the fact that all our lavas are characterized by the
large proportion of silex which they contain; none of them save the basalts fall below fifty
per cent. of silex, and most of them exceed this amount. Now at the low temperature at
which all of our lavas were formed, it is pretty certain that the limestones and clay slates,
or, indeed any other elements of our ordinary geological sections, except the sandstones
and other very siliceous rocks, would not become melted, though they might slowly part
with their vaporizable substances. The result would be that the production of lavas would
depend in a large degree upon the existence, in the section through which the gases made
their way to the vent, of siliceous deposits, which could become fused at temperatures
as low as probably prevailed in the region whence they came. ‘This will enable us to
account for the invariably siliceous character of our lavas. At the same time, it suggests
that in part, at least, the peculiarities of character of volcanos may be explained by the
irregular distribution of fusible deposits in the earth’s crust. It has long been observed
that the quantity of lavas voided by voleanos varied greatly; those in the Eifel district
being singularly wanting in lavas, while those in other regions, as for instance, in the
Sandwich Islands, throw out great quantities of lava. The ashes, which are in good part,
at least, the product of the friction of fragments of melted rock upon each other, the
rapilli, voleanic bombs, ete., which vary in quantity with the amount of lava, will
not be thrown out in large quantities when the molten rock does not abound. In this
way we see that the height of a volcano or the mass of the cone is in no way a
fair measure of the energy of the escape of gases; the Eifel volcanos, such as Laacher
See, with their low walls of debris reminding us in their form of the lunar volcanos,
may have discharged gases in exceeding abundance, yet have produced little lava,
possibly on account of the absence of siliceous materials in the section whence they are
derived.

It is easily seen that this view aids us in understanding the absence of subsidence in the
foundations of the great volcanos, notwithstanding the vast ejection of fluid and solid mat-
ter from their cones. Taking only the very siliceous deposits which do not usually form a
large part of the section, the lava-making forces would not be likely to remove a consid-
erable vertical thickness from the region just beneath the cone.

4. The conversion of solid rocks into lavas is in part at least due to the energy of the
movement of the imprisoned gases.

This seems to me to be fairly well shown by the phenomena of volcanic
eruptions. Whenever a new volcano breaks out, or whenever a cone long in

BY THE CONDITIONS OF THEIR EXTRUSION. 1

repose again becomes active, their immediate products, gases, are the first to be
thrown out; only after a considerable time, do we have any outbreak of lava. This
is essentially what we should expect on general mechanical grounds. The evidence of a
relatively low temperature in the lavas shows us that the heat beneath volcanos is not
nearly so great as it is in an ordinary blast furnace ; even if elevated to the temperature that
man frequently produces in the arts, there would be nothing to keep many of the enclosed
unmelted fragments from being completely fused by the action of their molten envelopes.

The interaction of the gases which escape from volcanos in the full tide of eruption,
is too complicated for understanding. It will be worth while, however, to consider some of
their effects. In the first place it is clear that the great expansion that takes place in
them must have an effect in lowering their temperature, and that of the substances
through which they pass. It is not possible, however, to separate this action from the
other effects, in the way of increased temperature which their evolution produces. The
movement of the gases would tend to produce this increase of heat in either of two
ways: by the direct mechanical effort of their friction; or by the recombination near the
mouth of the volcano of the gases which had been separated in the more remote regions
whence the volcano draws its supplies of matter. Iam inclined to give little value to
this action. There is, however, a way in which the gases act to liquify the lava which is
worthy of attention. When the pressure of the contaimed gases becomes very great, they
must necessarily tend to squeeze the rock containing them out in the direction of least
resistance. The softening that would give this liberty of movement, is most likely to
occur in sandstones and other highly siliceous rocks, and it is in them that we find the
largest proportion of water to be volatilized. At the time of their deposition our sand-
stones often contain as much as one fifteenth of their bulk of water, while the other more
compact rocks do not usually contain more than from one fiftieth to one hundredth of
their bulk of that substance. The escape of gases from the other more refractory materials
would, as far as it escaped, have to pass through the rigid framework of the rock.
Experience in coal and other mines shows us pretty clearly that the densest of our rocks
are somewhat permeable to gases, and that these gases, under the pressure of their gen-
eration from chemical changes, will make their way out through the interstices of the par-
ticles which compose the rock. In this way the gases of heated rocks, which are the
more permeable to such substances by virtue of their heating, probably find their way
towards the volcanic outlets. So we may reasonably assume that the gases which are the
main spring of volcanic activity, pass towards the vent in either of two ways: by
driving the rock before them when it is fluid enough to admit of it, and by interstitial
movement when this is not possible.

Tue Lavas or Massive ERUPTIONS.

I propose now to consider the outlines of the probable history of that class of eruptions
commonly termed massive. It is only of late years that it has been made tolerably plain
to us that extensive outflows of lava occasionally, though rarely, take place without passing
through the craters of true voleanos. As yet we know but little of these extrusions; they
seem to have been formed in only a few of the known volcanic districts of the globe.
They have been observed in the Cordilleras of North and South America, in the Deccan,

8 SHALER ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF LAVAS

and in Transylvania, and less certainly elsewhere. It seems to be pretty clearly made out
that the escape of these lavas to the surface has been through a fissure of considerable
extent, and not through the cones of ordinary volcanos. It is also probable that there has
been no great uprush of gases at work in propelling these lavas. It is easily seen that
these eruptions present a problem of no small difficulty to those who may hold the opinions
concerning the origin of lavas which I have embodied in the preceding propositions. If
lavas are produced in the essentially solid earth and extruded by the action of heat oper-
ating through the motion of imprisoned gases, how is it that we have these very exten-
sive outflows of lava taking place without the aid of any great amount of gas? It seems
to me that it is important that these difficulties should be met, and shall therefore
present certain considerations which seem to me to offer a fair explanation of the means
whereby such lavas come to the surface.

1. The massive lavas are only found in regions where volcanic activity and mountain-
building forces exist in the same field.

As the geographical distribution of volcanos has been a matter of the utmost conse-
quence to the theories of their origin, we may fairly begin our study of this par-
ticular species of volcanic activity by considering its distribution. It seems to me to
be a fact of the utmost importance to us, that the massive lavas are entirely wanting
in many regions characterized by intense volcanic activity. yet remote-from mountains
which are the product of recent uplifts, and that such outflows are equally wanting in
many great chains, where the mountain-building forces have been exercised with the
greatest energy. ae

In the whole of the Alpine district, where the most intense disturbance of the crust
can be seen, or the Appalachian axis, where throughout the whole of the recorded
geological time the mountain-building forces have been in operation, these massive
lavas are entirely wanting. It seems evident, therefore, that molten rock is not
of constant occurrence on the deeper sections beneath the ground whereon our high
mountains rest ; that its formation and extrusion probably depend upon the combination
of mountain-building forces, and the ordinary volcanic conditions in the same territory.
The only way in which these two classes of forces can combine to produce such lavas
may be represented in the following proposition.

2. The lavas thrown out in massive eruptions have been slowly accumulated beneath
the surface of the earth near the foci of ordinary volcanos, and owe their ejec-
tion to the strong lateral pressure brought to bear upon them by the compressive
movements caused by the mountain-building forces.

There can be no doubt that at a certain depth beneath volcanic cones there is a
great mass of lava more or less perfectly fluid, which may remain in this condition
for geological periods, after the outbreaks of gases have ceased to take place. This
lava parts with its heat with such slowness, that if the mass and the depth at which
it lies are considerable, there is hardly any limit to the length of time during which
it may remain molten. Now when the mountain-building forces bring very great
pressure to bear upon such lavas, they will tend to yield to the strain more easily than
the solid rocks, and will be forced up through the old rocks, or through the fissures

BY THE CONDITIONS OF THEIR EXTRUSION. 9

which would form in the movement of the superjacent beds. We see in all our
great mountain systems evidences of a certain spewing out of the deeper lying beds.
The well-recognized fan structure of the Alpine and other massifs, exhibit this. Even in
the simpler monoclinal mountains, such as the Malvern Hills, on the line between
Worcestershire and Herefordshire, we often have evidences of the forcing up of these
lowest lying rocks, though they never, so far as is known to me, show the ejected
rocks flowing in the fashion of lavas, except where there is reason to believe that
these regions had formerly been the seat of true volcanic action.

The Cordilleras of North and South America, the Deccan and the Transylvania
district are all regions where this pressure could naturally come upon the reservoirs of lava
through the action of the compressive mountain-building forces. On the other hand,
owing to the fact that volcanos are not not often associated with mountain chains, but are
more commonly apart from such axes, we have few regions where mountain-building
forces have been brought to bear upon volcanos, so we cannot properly be surprised at the
rarity of the occurrence of massive lavas, if we put the interpretation on their origin which
is here suggested. It seems to me pretty clear that there is no other power except this
compressive action of the mountain-building forces which can be adduced to explain the
outflow of lavas when they are not impelled up by the gases of ordinary eruptions. We
see that in such eruptions from cones there is great difficulty in forcing the lava out.
even by the aid of the most powerful uprush of gas; now as in the massive eruptions the
gaseous element of the eruption was evidently small in quantity, we must suppose that
some other form of pressure had been brought to bear upon the lava, and this could not
well be any other than that arising from the horizontal compression of the beds that
comes about im mountain building.

It should be remarked that in all ancient volcanic outbreaks we are more apt to have
the compact and nearly horizontal lava streams preserved, than the steep and
incoherent cones whence they came. No geological features are liable to such rapid
effacement as volcanic cones. The high angle of their slopes, the incoherent nature of the
materials that compose them, and the shocks to which they are subjected, lead to
their very rapid destruction ; so that the older the volcanic district, the more likely we are
to mistake the ruins of a crater lava system for the evidences of a massive outbreak. This
consideration should give us caution in the classification of lavas from this point of view,

IncLoseD Layvas.

This third and last of the groups of lavas includes all dykes of whatever nature that
have not been formed in the pipes through which volcano ejections have made their way
to the surface, or in other words all lavas deposited in fissures, the upper ends of which
were not open to the surface of the ground. In the immediate neighborhood of voleanic
cones these lavas have often been formed in a peculiar and local way as diversions from
the main pipes of the voleano. ‘These | would exclude from the general class of inclosed
lavas, regarding them as mere parts of the true volcanic lavas. ‘Thus limited, this class of
lavas remains by far the most extensive group of voleanic products. In most of our
older crystalline rocks this group of lavas is very numerously represented. We could
hame many sections haying areas of from one hundred to five hundred thousand square

10 SHALER ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF LAVAS

miles, where every square mile would give several examples of such injections. In the
older rocks of New England these dykes generally exceed a dozen in number to the square
mile, and often rise to hundreds in such areas. Yet there are considerable areas of Archaean
rocks, where such injections are very rare. The results of my personal enquiries into the
origin and distribution of dykes are briefly stated in the following propositions, viz:

1. Dykes or enclosed lavas are only formed when rocks have been buried by sub-
sequent accumulation to considerable depths beneath the surface, metamorphosed
during such burial, and also subjected to the action of mountain-building forces.

A glance at the section from the Atlantic Coast in North Carolina westward into the cen-
tre of the Mississippi Valley, or from the Laurentian Hills southward to the Ohio, will show
the peculiar differences in the frequency of their occurrence which may be traced in rocks
of different ages. Whenever the section passes through the old Archaean rocks we find
avery great abundance of dykes, the mjections distinctly showing their igneous origin.
When we pass above the level of the Archaean and enter into the lowest Cambrian section
these intrusions disappear, and veins, 7. e., deposits formed by the filling of fissures through
water action abound. I have never seen a single dyke in the Cambrian rocks of East
Tennessee or Southwestern Virginia, though they are extremely effected by mountaim
dislocations and cut by the deep faults that traverse every part of our Eastern American
rocks. There are some of these faults that give a vertical throw of over ten thousand
feet, and must penetrate to very great depths in the crust, yet in no case have they
afforded a passage to lavas. Within the limits of the State of Kentucky, an area of about
40,000 square miles, I am satisfied that there is not a trace of dyke injection, though vein
stones with contents that require us to suppose that they have been deposited by heated
waters abound there. Iam not aware of the existence of a single dyke within a radius
of two hundred and fifty miles from the city of Cincinnati, though the geology of this
region is pretty well known to me.

In all these regions where dykes abound, the metamorphic character of the rocks enables
us to make sure that they have been subjected to extensive alteration from heat, and in
most if not all cases this heat has been brought into the strata by the protective effect of
thick sections, that rested on the surface at the time the dykes were formed, but have since
been eroded. Moreover, in all cases the regions extensively traversed by dykes have been
greatly disturbed by mountain-building forces. We search in vain for horizontally dis-
posed rocks penetrated by dykes or for recent beds that are marked by such injections.

2. Dyke stones are injected into fissures formed by the rupture of beds through
contractions due to metamorphosis, or to the contortion of beds, and their mate-
rials represent the more siliceous deposits of the subjacent rocks of the section.

The formation of the fissures which give rise to veins and to dykes is clearly due to
allied causes. Considered as fissures, they are all clearly to be put into the same class.
They are both formed by strains in the rocks; they both first exist as openings, into
which their contents are brought either slowly by the action of water, or rapidly through
the action of igneous forces. Although we never find gash veins, 7. €., fissures that only
have a limited extension downwards, filled by dyke stones, we find true fissures, or those

BY THE CONDITIONS OF THEIR EXTRUSION. alt

with an indefinite downward extension, filled either with vein or dyke stones, according to
the conditions of the rocks in which they occur. It is perfectly clear that the fissures in
which the vein stones occur often existed as gaping fissures before the deposits they
hold were introduced into them, and we are justified in believing that the fissures con-
taining the dyke stones were formed in the same way. As before remarked, vein stones
are characteristic of the higher lying and less metamorphic rocks. Though they are
found among the rocks containing dykes, they occur there, it seems to me, as deposits
made at another period than that which gave birth to the dykes.

There seems to me no good reason to suspect that the furrows containing dykes*have been
to any extent riven by the injection of the dyke, as is assumed by many writers. It is
likely that the inrushing of materials having the weight and fluidity that belonged to the
molten lava would have exercised a certain rending effect upon the rocks in which the
dyke was formed, but there are abundant reasons for disbelieving that the fissure itself
could have been originally riven by the actual force of the injection.

The hypothesis of the derivation of these lavas from the more siliceous beds of
the subjacent section is a less easily demonstrable part of our proposition. It rests
upon the following classes of evidence. In the dyke stones of any district we usually
find a very decided difference in composition among the several classes of injections that
are found there. In some cases, dykes of one well distinguished class can be found
in one set of beds, and yet not appear in those of a lower kind. ‘This class of facts has
not been made the subject of careful study by our geologists, yet from my own
observation I am satisfied of the truth of this assertion. No one can observe with
care the distribution of the dyke stones of New England without beimg convinced
of the truth of this proposition. The rocks on the shores of Maine and Massachusetts
give some distinct examples of this class of facts. The dykes of peculiar felsite
porphyries of the Marblehead district are not found below the level of the stratified
deposits of this age ; 7. e., they do not exist over the older parts of the field wherein they
lie. The amygdaloids, with porphyry deposits contained in the beds, are not found
beyond the area of the conglomerates of the Cambrian age. The great series of highly
metamorphosed slates and shales like York Harbor and Bald Head on the coast of Maine,
contain a wonderful set of melaphyre dykes which are not found in the subjacent grani-
toid rocks, though there is good evidence that these underlying rocks have not been much
changed since the series of slates were formed. Basalts, ejections of the general mas-
sive character of those which make up the Palisades of the Hudson, and the extensive
dykes of the Connecticut Valley, are not found beyond the limits of the rocks of Triassic
age in those districts. Though the same general classes of basalts are found in other
regions near by, they never take on the peculiar facies which they have in these
districts. While many of these peculiarities in the distribution of injected rocks may be
explained in other ways, I am strongly inclined to believe that they cannot generally be
explained, save by the hypothesis that they are dependent on the peculiarities of the sec-
tions in which they are found. That is to say, they are formed from the deeper lying
highly metamorphosed rocks of each district, and carry the peculiar stamp which is
thereby imposed upon them. I do not mean to deny that many of the dyke stones

ne SHALER ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF LAVAS

come from depths below the levels to which geological sections ever give us access. Nor
do I mean to question the fact that the present superficial character of many of our traps
depends upon comparatively recent alterations of their constitution by the agents of
decomposition ; allowing for all these perplexing accidents, it seems still that the diversity
in the lavas of different geological districts, and indeed their diversity in the same district,
can only be explained by the hypothesis of their local and comparatively superficial origin.

The second part of the last proposition rests upon the well known chemical composition
of the lavas, and also upon the fact that the highly metamorphosed rocks seem in all
cases to show more complete alteration of their very siliceous elements than of the
refractory clays and limestones. It is fairly a matter of surprise when we consider how
large an element the sandstones form in all our metamorphosed sections, that we so rarely
find extensive beds of rocks of this nature in our deposits which bear the marks of
high temperature. I am inclined to think that it is reasonable to suppose that the
deposits which were originally very siliceous have been forced out by the expansion of
their gases as lavas, and now appear in the neighboring dykes, or have been driven to the
surface as true volcanic ejections and have since been lost by erosion.

The depth of the overlying rocks which is required before the rents in the rocks can be
filled by dykes is a matter that cannot be determined. It is evident that it must be great,
for as in parts of Eastern Tennessee it is clear that the surface has lost a section of at least
ten thousand feet in thickness, since the close of the Carboniferous, owing to the peculiar
intensity of the denudation there ; yet there is no trace of dykes in the district, though
there are many veins. i

3. Dykes formed from the melting of particular parts of a section, may penetrate
either downward or upward from the point of origin.

The opening of fissures in metamorphic rocks brought about by contraction or other
strains, will necessarily lead to the frequent downward extension of dykes. If the section
contains extensive beds of fusible materials on one level, and infusible materials above and
below, the result will necessarily be the penetration of the lava into any fissures that
may be contiguous with it, whether these fissures extend downwards or upwards from the
fusing bed. This suggestion may be of no great importance, yet I have seen places where
it would aid in the understanding of the distribution of certain dyke stones.

4. The pressure of the superincumbent unmelted beds codperates with the pressure of
the gases contained in the fusible bed, to impel the molten or semi-molten matter into
the dyke fissures; and also to a certain extent the friction thus brought about aids
in the fusion of the lavas.

The pressure of a vertical section having a depth of twenty thousand feet, amounts
to about 4,000,000 pounds per square foot. This pressure will doubtless be sufficient to
aid the flow of any of the mass-rocks which are somewhat softened by heat, and the con-
tained water. As soon as the movement begins, the heat derived from friction. will greatly
aid in the fusing of the lava. In many of our ancient dykes the superincumbent deposits
have doubtless much exceeded twenty thousand feet in thickness, so that the pressure may
have much exceeded the 2,000 tons to the square foot, which would be given by five miles

BY THE CONDITIONS OF THEIR EXTRUSION. 13

in depth of rocks of average weight. Indeed such a pressure would be sufficient to squeeze
into movement rocks that were not nearly enough heated to flow at ordinary pressures.

It is worth while to notice that this downward extension of dykes would give an
appearance tending to support the present opinion that dykes are derived from an
indefinite depth. It also tends to mask the fact of the limitation of the origin of certain
classes of dykes to certain horizontal areas, and it may happen, if this hypothesis be true,
that a dyke that appears to arise from the deeper regions of the earth may have been
derived from certain beds which have since disappeared from the region where it is found.
It is obvious that this will make the inquiry into the origin of dykes a matter of much
more difficulty than it would be if we could assume that such lavas always rose upward
from their point of origin.

The question will naturally be asked, why, if the dyke stones are derived from sections
near the surface of the earth, they are not frequently seen at their point of origin? To
this it is a sufficient answer that we have never sought for such phenomena, and where
they would be found we should always have a considerable amount of disturbance that
would tend to make the indications of their origin difficult to decypher and not calculated
to arouse the attention of the observer. A thin layer of easily fusible rock might be
forced into the chasm formed by the opening of a fissure so as to permit the beds above
and below it to rest upon each other; or, if a thicker bed, it might appear as a horizontal
prolongation of the dyke that had been formed from it. Moreover, there would be a great
disturbance made, at the point where the molten rock emerged from its bed into the
fissure, which would tend to confuse the record of the event. Despite this difficulty there
are some cases in which I have observed what has seemed to me fair evidence of the local
origin of certain traps. Not infrequently trap dykes may be observed to run out downwards,
which requires us to suppose either that they have been injected downwards, or that they
have originated above the point where we find them. In other cases I have observed small
dykes that extended downwards into a horizontally disposed mass of dyke matter and could
not be traced below a certain level. It is true that the difficulty which we find in deter-
mining the true extension of a dyke on account of its frequent doublings and twistings limits
the value of such evidence, yet it seems to me that, if we start without the prepossession
in favor of the origin of all lavas below the observable level of the earth’s crust, we can
better reconcile the facts with the hypothesis of their local and superficial origin than with
any other.

It is worth while to notice in this connection that some of our conglomerates show
the effect of heat in softening the mass of the deposit. It often happens even when
the mass is apparently not much metamorphosed, that the more siliceous pebbles
are softened and squeezed into each other in a surprising way. I have always
found that the siliceous elements of the mass have been the most affected by
the action; sometimes this action is limited to a slight change of form of the
pebbles or the indenting of one by the other, as in the Roxbury conglomerate or

1Tt seems to me this theory of the origin of dyke squeezing of matter for great distances, would in a way
stones is better than that which we would derive from Mal- _ localize the heat arising from the downward falling of a great
lett’s ingenious hypothesis. While the falling together of mass of rocks upon a small bulk of materials.
the rocks could not develop a great amount of heat, this

14 SHALER ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF LAVAS

the conglomerates of the Swiss Miocene, but not infrequently it goes much further,
and the pebbles are drawn out into very long forms, often to several times their
original length, while the sandy matrix has clearly been found in a semrfluid con-
dition. On the island of Aquidneck in Narragansett Bay, this elongation occurs
in particular localities, I believe im all cases near extensive faults, while a mile away
the pebbles will be found essentially unchanged in form. Between this pasty condition
and the fluidity that would make a dyke stone there is no essential difference. I have
endeavored to show that at certain points the Roxbury conglomerate appears to pass into
an amygdaloidal trap, retaining its conglomeratic characters, even where it is distinctly
fused, and passing insensibly into a completely amorphous mass.’ Again, at Marblehead
Neck, the porphyries seem to pass from an apparently stratified mass into true dyke
stones. Instances of this rather indeterminate sort could be multiplied, but as this paper
is not intended to furnish a detailed inquiry into the facts that support the propositions it
sets forth, I will not go further with the statements.

While included lavas or dykes represent the less vigorous forms of the forces that in their
more intense forms give us true volcanie ejections, they yet differ from them in the
evidence of gaseous action. It seems to me reasonable to suppose that there is an incom-
plete series of phenomena connecting dykes and voleanos. When the ejection serves only
to fill the vacuum of a fault or gash fissure, and has not the impulse necessary to force aside
the obstructions and make its way to the surface, we have an ordinary dyke; when the
uprush of expanding gases is great enough to break a way to the air, the result is a vol-
cano.

The question arises, is it likely that the ordinary dykes which are so abundant in our
Archaean rocks, have in many cases, been the tubes up which came the products of volcanic
eruptions? A little consideration makes this appear improbable. In the first place even the
smaller class of voleanic cones have vents some hundreds of feet in diameter, while it is
unusual to have a dyke of such size. Moreover, we must believe that the long continued
passage upward of the volcanic products through a fissure, would necessarily bring about
a great change in the character of the walls that bound it. They would be to a great
extent melted, and could not help showing marks of the strong uprush of the volcanic
products. In fact our dykes almost always have their walls so little disturbed, that we can
trace the corresponding sides of the break for great distances, and the change in the coun-
try rock from heat, is usually singularly small. This shows pretty clearly that our dykes
are not often to be classed as volcanic channels.

It may be noticed that we sometimes find evidence that the paths taken by dykes after-
wards become more opened, and veins take their place beside the dyke, showing
that even when the temperatures are high enough to enable the penetrating waters to
carry gold, silver, and other metals, the opening of a fissure may not give passage to
voleanic matter. This would seem, at first sight, to militate against the view of the
origin of dykes presented in the preceding propositions, for the temperature, if sufficient
to enable water to convey such metals, would seem to come very close to that necessary to
melt the most fusible substances. But we do not know the actual temperatures at which
water can carry the various metals. They may be soluble in temperatures much below

1 See Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., xx, 129.

BY THE CONDITIONS OF THEIR EXTRUSION. ii)

that at which dyke stones will melt. The very fact that they are deposited against lavas,
proves that they can be carried at a lower temperature than that at which the dykes stones
can be melted. .

It remains to be noticed that dykes do not generally show much evidence of gas
action. We cannot regard this element of force as the principal power at work in their
injection. Were it a very generally efficient cause, our dykes should show us the blebs
or gas centres which are so common in volcano lavas. These are manifestly wanting in
the greater part of our included lavas.

To sum up the most important part of these propositions concerning included lavas in a
few words, we may say that there is good reason for suspecting that they are in many cases
indigenous in one particular series of metamorphic rocks; that they are derived from the
most easily molten parts of the section, 7. e., the very siliceous beds; that they may extend
upwards or downwards from their point of origin; that they are in the main im-
pelled into the position where they are now found by a combination of the pressure of
the superjacent beds and the formation of a vacuum by the opening of a fissure; and,
finally, that they differ from volcanic ejections in the absence of a powerful escape of
gas, which in the volcanic outbreak is the agent that forces the ejected materials to the
surface.

1?
v

YY

7)

1830. ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1880.

THE GENESIS

OF THE

TERTIARY SPECIES OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM.

BY ALPHEUS HYATT.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

THE GENESIS OF THE TERTIARY SPECIES oF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM.

By Aupueus Hyart.

THE following work arose from the interest excited in my mind by the brief account
of the Steinheim fossils, given by Dr. Hilgendorf, in the “ Monatsbericht d. K. Preuss.
Akademie d. Wissensch. zu Berlin,” for July, 1866. My attention was attracted to this
paper soon after its publication, because, if true, it was the only reliable statement of the
theory of evolution, which could be considered a demonstration of the practical applicability
of that doctrine to the life history of any considerable series of animal forms; and as by
previous studies I had tried to prepare for the appreciation of such problems, it was with a
feeling of most intense pleasure that, in 1872, I found myself in the neighborhood of this
famous locality.

Through the introduction of Prof. Fraas, of Stuttgart, I was enabled to make my
investigations and pursue my studies with every facility. During the first visit, as the time
was limited, and it was somewhat late in the autumn, the work was confined almost wholly
to the survey of the pits. A hole was dug in the Old Pit, down to the dark brown clay
which forms the base of these deposits. Specimens were collected in abundance, by the
bag-full, without regard to what they might be, and secured on the spot in paper bags and
boxes containing labels, indicating, by a prearranged system of notation, the precise level
from which they came. Not anticipating any new or original results from the work,
I was simply careful to obtain unmixed samples from every stratum and the intermediate
partings of limestone. After the return to Cannstadt, where I was then residing, a large
part of my leisure durmg the winter was spent in sifting the material, picking out the
shells, studying and drawing with a camera-lucida the different varieties, making one
hundred and eighteen drawings in all.

The process of examination was conducted as follows: The bags were opened one at a
time, according to their formations. The contents of each bag was sifted by a series of three
graded and nested sieves, made for the purpose, over a large plate or basin. These
allowed only the fine dust to escape into the dish. All of the four lots, thus divided
according to their sizes, were examined at each operation, and the shells found secured in
pill-boxes, marked with the same label as the bag; after each bag was finished a general
examination was made, and the species of each separate bag compared with others, even if
they came from a spot only a foot or a few inches removed.

In this way the greatest attainable security from any accidental mingling was obtained,
and the contents of separate bags, even from the same formation, were never mixed until

-

4 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

they had been thoroughly studied. The small size of the third sieve of the sifter also
secured a very thorough examination of the sand,so that I think almost every one of
the thousands of shells brought home, except some of those of very small size, such as
young, ete., really passed once if not oftener, under observation.

In my opinion, this method, in such cases as that at Stembheim, is far superior to the
ordinary one of examining formations and collecting therefrom such specimens as strike
the eye. Such collecting is largely governed by the preconceived ideas of the collector
and he cannot, however honest, avoid seeing by preference, and involuntarily selecting the
things which are forecast in his own mind. There is also great danger that he will be
content with any evidence which fills out his ideal, and stop short of the discovery of the
exceptions, which, though few in number, are essential to the verification of his logical
conceptions.

Illustrious examples in all fields of science are involuntary witnesses to the truth of
these remarks, and show also, that even repeated observation and mechanical means
cannot always correct the personal equation or eliminate the errors arising from this
source. My effort has been to use such clumsy mechanical means as the present
state of zodlogical science permits, and of the success of these, others must be the judges ;
in this case the writer can only appear appropriately as an advocate.

My studies led me to think either that Dr. Hilgendorf had made the most serious
mistakes with respect to the stratigraphical position of the forms, or that I had collected
them without sufficient care. Determined to leave as little risk of error as possible, in
this respect, I again visited Steinheim early in the following spring, as soon as the snow
began to leave the ground. Though this time, as before, almost continually suffermg from
adverse weather, I succeeded in collecting largely. The old hole was reopened in the Old
Pit, widened, and specimens again collected. Another hole to the northward, but within
the limits of the pit, was sunk to the Jura clay. A hole was also dug in the Little Pit, but
not so successfully, owing to the rainy weather, which rendered the work of undermining
the sand dangerous. In the East Pit, although a more persistent attempt was made in
two places, the abundance of water rendered it too difficult to go beyond the limits
shown in the section. The Cloister Pit was dry, but here I did not deem it necessary to
go deeper than was essential for the development of the upper series of formations. The
most exact measurements were made upon the face of every stratum, and quite a
number of sketches showing the position and character of the limestone partings and
sandbeds. In ‘fact, every possible precaution was taken to insure accuracy, so far as
the work went. The plotting of the sections consisted of the reduction of the
measurements to one one-hundredth part of those actually taken, and are approximately
correct as shown in the table of the Geological Sections.

As remarks have been published which show that some importance is attached to the
length of time actually spent by me at Steinheim, it becomes necessary to state, that it
was about five weeks in all: once two weeks, and at another visit three weeks. Where
such earnest controversy exists, as that to which the Steinheim shells have given rise,

1No collections were made from the limestone partings for transportation. and I found by careful examination of
during the second visit, except where these contained addi- cach limestone layer, that no additional information was
tional forms. Such a collection would have been too bulky — obtainable, except in isolated instances.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 5

such points as these are seized upon by one or the other of the contending parties,
and magnified iuto importance. Short as my stay was, it was quite sufficient for the
gathering of bags of sand, each containing hundreds of specimens from every layer which
I saw, so that the positive facts stated were proved, some of them by repeated instances.
This account is given principally in order to enable others to judge as nearly as possible how
much weight theoretical opinions may have had in governing my results. For the same
reason also, I have preferred photographs to drawings. The distinguished draughtsman,
the late Mr. Sonrel, to whom Prof. Agassiz and others owed so many of their most
beautiful plates, has assisted me by his advice, and has photographed the first three plates
in a manner which will be appreciated by all who have attempted to deal with such’
difficult subjects. The remaining plates were made by Mr. Black of Boston, who took the
greatest pains to produce good results. The shells were mounted upon pieces of slate
with cement, and then enlarged by the camera. This, though not large enough in the
first three plates to show all the characteristics of many of the smaller forms, is still
sufficient for the immediate purposes of this memoir. The remaining plates are on a
larger scale, and give the separate series and their theoretical relations more in detail.
These contain true Pl. levis, from Undorf, sent me by Prof. Dr. Sandberger, and the
closeness of the resemblances between these and the pit forms is thus shown. Those who
cannot credit the evolutionary hypothesis, are advised to try to separate these out from the
rest of the forms on plates 4-7, without previously consulting the names of the species,
and then to compare results with the descriptions of the plates.

Useless repetition has been avoided, and the nine hundred and fifty-three specimens
photographed, and twenty-eight drawn with the camera-lucida, a total of nine hundred and
eighty-one, do not by any means exhibit all the variations. Each one was selected
after having been handled, examined, and classed with its congeners many times. The
principal varieties were all previously drawn by myself, with a camera especially
constructed for the purpose, before the present plan of figuring by the wholesale
was thought of, but none of these are reproduced in the plates.

In spite of previous experience, I had hoped to find a perfect demonstration in
the concrete of the theory of the transmutation of species. That I was rightly and
legitimately disappointed in this, I have endeavored to point out in the chapter on
the geology of Steinheim. The Pit deposits certainly do exhibit the fullest, and perhaps
one of the most complete series of genetically connected forms, which it is perhaps
possible to obtain, but there is here, as well as in the adjacent limestones and in those on
the rim of the basin, a deficiency of data, which no explorations can make absolutely
perfect. It is my wish to be here fully understood, not as meaning that there is any
deficiency of observable facts. On the contrary, the varieties are so abundant, that it
becomes difficult for the impartial investigator to avoid becoming hopelessly confused, but
notwithstanding this excess of riches, the record is and must ever remain exceedingly
incomplete. An infinitude of details are necessarily absent, the animals themselves must
ever remain unknown, and we are forced here as elsewhere to construct our genetic
tables upon theoretical grounds, which must necessarily change from day to day as
knowledge progresses.

6 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

The adoption of the name Planorbis, was made after due consideration of the different
views advanced, but especially after a close study of the affinities pointed out by Prof’.
Sandberger, in his renowned work on the “ Land-und Siiswasser-Conchylien der Vorwelt.”
The name of Valvata does not seem to apply, for two reasons; the entire absence of the
least remnant of an operculum, although I searched for this part with a microscope in
the loose sands as well as in the limestones ; and the peculiar aspect of the striae of growth
which are curved, even in the unwound forms, instead of being annular, as in the Valvata
forms.

The affinity with Carinifex, which Prof. Sandberger insists upon for most of the series,
does not appear to me so close as that with many species of Planorbis. His authority
with regard to a matter of this sort would naturally and rightfully have more weight than
mine, but he describes P/. Steinheimensis, and some other forms, which I am entirely
unable to separate from the carinated varieties or species, as members of the genus
Planorbis, whereas the remainder appear under the generic name of Carinifex. The
young of Carinifex Campbelli, the only form I have been able to obtain, either from
the Smithsonian Institution, the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, or any of my
correspondents, is entirely distinct in form from most of the young forms of Pl. discoideus
and Pl. trochiformis, though to others it bears a very close resemblance. I am not at all
surprised that Prof. Sandberger should jom the two im view of this similarity, but
on account of the evident connection of PJ. trochiformis with Pl. levis, I cannot support
him in this conclusion. In my opinion, it must be regarded as a similarity produced
in the shell of distinct animals in widely separated localities.

The nomenclature adopted for the various forms, is similar to that of Dr. Hilgendorf’s,
in so far as the main forms are represented by distinct names, generally the same as those
proposed by him, with the omission of the name “ multiformis,” and the intermediate forms
are designated by two names placed one above the other, thus gteintdimensis:) In this way
the derivation of these forms and their intermediate character is conveniently expressed in
one and the same term. I have used the binomial nomenclature instead of the trimomial,
because the latter is clumsy; and I can see no reason for the prevalent practice
of designating under the same specific name all forms which may be jomed by intermediate
forms or by the study of their development. It is evident, that all of the principal forms
of the Pl. trochiformis series differ from each other quite as much as the universally
recognized and distinct species of the main body of the genus. If they had been found
in different localities, there would be no hesitation in describing them as species. A
binomial nomenclature, therefore expresses exactly the sense which it is considered
desirable to convey, namely, that the forms dealt with in this memoir are, as compared
with others of their own group, of specific value, and ought, from a taxonomic point
of view, to be so considered.

In conclusion, it seems essential to add, that, in spite of the great care taken at the
time the explorations were made to render the evidence as perfect as possible, many
things were necessarily neglected. Thus a fuller exploration of the Valley Rocks,
especially with regard to the relations of the Cloister Ridge Rocks, and the Pit Deposits
can only be attained by these or similar means. Doubtless Dr. Hilgendorf’s forthcoming
memoir will supply many of these deficiencies. Nevertheless, the existence of a Lower

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 7

Steinheim Period, underlying the sandy strata of the pits, can be approximately proved,
and this renders the task of accounting for the origin of the forms in the pits less difficult.
It removes the question of the origin from an ancestral form with equal umbilici, a
single variety of a species, as figured by Hilgendorf, to that of evolution from several
distinct varieties of one species with unequal umbilici, P/. levis Klein, which is, after all,
only a form of Pl. oxystomus ; and also gives a greater allowance of time for the produc -
tion of the forms.

In order to enable the reader to contrast the theoretical views of Dr. Hilgendorf and
those given in the first chapter of this essay, and on Plate 9, the following table is
appended, copied from Dr. Hilgendorf’s paper, above quoted.

0 supremus
9 crescens revertens
8 costatus eee ee

denudatus | | |
7 L costatus minutus trochiformis elegans pseudotenuis
6 costatus he Bee eee ti cines | eecateacih
5 Saale minutus triquetrus discoideus rotundatus pseudotenuis
4 Pie tace ceric #1 al 2 eee ee Kravesi
3 . a sulcatus Kraussii
2 minutus a Steinheimen
1 ee PE ee alae See eh ea

eas Seam

That Dr. Hilgendorf found these forms in these relations can hardly be doubted ; his
reputation and the thoroughness of his' explorations I do not call in question at all,
nor do I in any sense doubt that he and others found the PJ. Steinheimensis at
lower levels than where I found them in my explorations. Our differences rest wholly
upon a series of facts which have evidently been treated by two distinct methods.
of research, and have led to different results. But it will be observed that these
differences are not irreconcilable. The fact being that I require more evidence than
is found in the Pit Deposits to prove the genesis of the Planorbis trochiformis, out of Pl.
Steinheimensis’ os far as the succession of the forms in time is concerned, and he has
accumulated an immense mass of facts, going to show that the Pit Deposits are all sufficient,
and contain the whole history of the series. This question, and others connected with it,
are discussed in the following pages, and it only remains for me to express my earnest
thanks to Dr. Hilgendorf for a valuable series of his type specimens and for his courteous
frankness in sending me accounts of his work while in progress, and to regret that
he has not yet published his last researches. Dr. Sandberger has also treated me with
great kindness, and I have to thank him for material assistance, especially for specimens

8 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

of Pl. levis, without which I could not have continued my work. The owners of the
Pits in Steinheim were uniformly kind and obligmg, as were all the persons with
whom I came in contact at that place, and the accomplishment of my explorations ren-
dered easier and much facilitated by them.

I. GeNERAL RELATIONS OF THE SERIES.

The genealogical series illustrated on Plate 9, are constructed in accordance with facts
discussed in the chapter on the ‘‘ Descriptions of the series,” but they also possess certain
peculiar characteristics of their own, which require explanation.

A glance will indicate what the main assumption is, that all of the forms found in the
Pit Deposits are the direct descendants of four varieties of a species, which is taxon-
omically the normal form to which all the primordial forms of the four series can
be referred. In other words this form, PJ. levis, stands at the focus of all the affinities
of the four series, and is related to them in such a manner that we can only explain the
arrangement of the facts by supposing that this is the ancestral form from which they
sprang. The geological position of Pl. levis also justifies this conclusion with regard to all
the series, since it is a common form in the adjoining Tertiary rocks, as is admitted by all
authors.

These series, having been the result of no preconceived plan of arrangement as far as
the author could judge, were considered to be approximately natural, and were assumed to
be a reliable basis for working hypotheses, in spite of the fact, that no certain data with
regard to succession in time were obtainable, except in the case of the supposed ancestral
species. This assumption rests largely upon well known laws of heredity, such as these,
that an animal found to repeat the stages of another animal of a closely allied species
in the young, with the addition of new characteristics in the adult, may be considered to
be either a lineal descendant of that species, or of some form common to both; that in such
cases as these, whether the forms or species occur mixed on the same level, or on different
levels, there is but one natural arrangement, which has been illustrated on Plate 9.

Such an arrangement ina diverging series can also, by varying the primal norm or
starting point, be used to represent the relations of a brood of individuals, or a
species, or a number of species; in fact it is precisely the same as Darwin’s diagram of
lines diverging from a point of origin; and after seventeen years of investigation I am
entirely unable to propose any fundamental improvement in this mode of presenting
natural affinities. It represents with the same accuracy the parallel succession of charac-
teristics of the individuals, and also the parallel reproduction of similar forms in varieties,
species and larger groups, having as approximately determined by their intermediate forms,
embryology and structure a common origin. It represents also the relationship in time of
groups upon different levels in geological history, and their parallelisms and differences.
It represents these relations equally well for retrogressive, or progressive series according
to the values we may assign to each line, and can be made to coincide with the true time
ratio or relation in time of all the forms.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 9

It seems, therefore, no improbable assumption that the four series, if they answer all
the requirements, are natural series, and that the living forms they represent, once had
the relations here approximately depicted, and that, though the relationship in time has
not yet been cleared up, it is probable that these forms did originate from each other in
the succession assigned to them in plate 9.* It will be understood by all intelligent
readers, however, that this, like all other arrangements, is an intellectual generalization
from the facts and only, as stated above, an approximation to the natural order in which
the animal probably occurred, or was evolved. For example, the different series did
not occur as they are placed upon the plate. If the geological succession had been
confirmed as first laid down by Hilgendorf, then the true relations in time of the different
forms would have been given. Thus instead of placing artificially the representative
forms, nos. 10 and 5, on the same level as is here done with these and others, they would
have probably been on different levels, representing corresponding differences in the
time or formation in which they occurred. The representation or similarity of form,
however, would have remained unchanged, and all the deductions here drawn from such
comparisons.

I make no pretence of originating this method, nor car, so far as I know, any one else.
It has grown with the science of Natural History, and nearly every naturalist uses it more
or less, whether he recognizes the ultimate meaning of gradations in their serial arrange-
ments, or ignores them.

Theoretically, then, the normal primordial form 1. Jevis can be considered as having
had four varieties before its migration into the Steinheim lake, and as having subse-
quently reproduced these, or their immediate descendants in this new field. These are as
Searnronyplad his 4 He. 16; Piro fie, 12, Pl. “ee fig. 8. -and 21. Semlemess fo 1
These four principal series, shown on pl. 9, and numbered in sequence 1-7, 8-11,
12-15, 16-28, were developed from these four varieties after their migration into
the Steinheim lake. While the original forms on the first line had the closest
relationship with each other, their descendants gradually diverged, until finally no
hybrids connected the different series with each other. This is a somewhat bold asser-
tion to make with regard to such closely allied animals as these must have been, and
it may possibly be forced to give way to more complete evidence than that at pres-
ent possessed by the writer. It cannot, however, be refuted except by an absolutely
perfect series of intermediate forms. Tested by the ordinary methods of comparison
pursued, especially by paleontologists, every one of these forms are connected by hybrids,
and the whole presents to the ordinary observer a chaos of similarities and differences.
The hybridity must appear not only in the adults, but in the absolute identity of the young

1 Since the above was written I have had the satisfaction
of reading in a late work of Prof. Dr. Neumayer an unre-
served confirmation of a precisely similar investigation with
regard to the Arietes, a family of Ammonites occurring in
the Lower Lias, which has been treated according to the
same method. Prof. Neumayer followed the ordinary prac-
tical method of tracing the series by the graded resem-
blances of the adult forms, and connected the Arietes with
the predicted ancestral species Fauna d. Untersten Lias.
Abh. d. K. K. Geol. Reichsan’l. Bd. 7, hft. 5. Wien, 1875.

?This series is divided on the plate into three sub-series,
16-20, 18 to 21-24, 21 to 25-28. This last sub-series is
also divided in the chapters on the “ Descriptions of Series,”
into two sub-series, but here these are resolved into one,
this plate having been finished before the two sub-series
were distinguished. For all the general purposes of discus-
sion in this chapter, they can however be treated as a
united sub-series without confusion, since the differences
are entirely those which arise from the greater or less prom-
inence of the costae or ribs, as they are sometimes called.

10 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

forms, since it is frequently the case that the adults of two species are closely similar when
the young are distinct.

The four main varieties, or species found in the Pit Deposits, figs. 2, 9, 15, 17, pl. 9, are
not connected by hybrids, and are distinguished from each other by a practiced eye with
less difficulty than would seem possible to any casual observer, however well trained in
other fields! The remaining representative forms, such as 4-19 and 5-10, are also not
connected, and are quite distinct in the characteristics of their particular series. The First
Series, as has been stated, is as represented on pl. 9, divided sufficiently for general
consideration into three sub-series. The first sub-series leads up to distortus, fig. 28, a
variety of Pl. costatus, fig. 26-27; the second to denudatus, a variety of Pl. minutus, fig.
21; the third to turbinatus, fig. 20, a variety of Pl. triquetrus, fig. 19. The Second
Series is capped by Pl. crescens, fig. 15, the Third Series by Pl. supremus, var. turritus,
fig. 11, and the Fourth Series by Pl. trochiformis. These four series and sub-series
may be classified under three heads, according to the meaning of their ontological
characteristics.

A, the purely progressive series, or those in which the special characteristics of the
series are developed more and more decidedly, and new ones added in each successive
species or form as in the Second, Third, and Fourth Series.

B, the purely retrogressive, or those in which the differences observed in the Pit forms,
when compared with PJ. levis, are not maintained in the progressive sense, but in which
disease interferes with progress, and leads to the production of distorted variations, as in
the second sub-series 21—24.

c, the partly retrogressive and partly progressive series, in which the differences are
increased by the addition of certain minor peculiarities, but the forms become nevertheless
distorted by disease or decrease in size, as in the first and third sub-series.

The resemblances of the forms 1, 8, 12, 16, pl. 9, are of course due to their close
affinity as varieties of Pl. levis, those of Pl. Steinheimensis, fig. 2, Pl. oxystomus, fig.
9, and Pl. minutus, fig. 18, belong, however, to a distinct species, and must be considered
representative forms. They belong, in two cases, to 2 and 9, to progressive series, and
18 to the partly progressive and partly retrogressive third sub-series.

The representative forms, Pl. gre meies fig. 3, Pl. ecens, fig. 13, Pl. minutus, fig. 21,
and Pl. cosas, fig. 25, have even closer resemblances in outline than the original four
varieties of Pl. levis, and yet, on account of the absence of hybrids or intermediate forms,
are unquestionably more easily distinguished from one another, than these four original
varieties. The same observations apply to PJ. tenuis, fig. 4, and Pl. triquetrus, fig. 19 ;
Pi. discoideus, fig. 5, and Pl. supremus, fig. 10; Pl. “chlerms, fio. 6, Pl. supremus, var.
turritus, fig. 11, Pl. triquetrus, var. turbinatus, fig. 20.

1Jn justice to myself it ought to be remarked, that the fer by tracings, or otherwise. After all the figures of each

method pursued in drawing the different figures on pl. 9,
was as follows: Each series was picked out without refer-
ence to the formations, merely to show the zoological rela-
tions. After all were drawn with the camera-lucida, no
transfers were permitted, therefore the shells are all
reversed. This defect, however, was considered preferrable
to the risk of errors sure to occur in any attempt at trans-

series had been made, they were arranged upon a dark
brown tablet. I had but a slight suspicion even of the
remarkable nature of the ontological relations here des-
cribed, until the final arrangement of the figures on the
plate had to be considered and carefully studied, in order to
show as many of the natural relations of the species and
series, as possible.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 11

Figs. 5-10 and 6-11-20, at first sight do not seem to be very close; but if we
remember that PJ. discoideus, fig. 5, and Pl. “pherms, fie. 6, often have no carinations on
the lower side, and if we compare these and such forms as are figured on pl. 2, line e, fig.
1-6, with the sulcated forms of Pl. supremus, the resemblances will be seen to be quite as
close as in other representative forms. Here also there can be no doubt of the absence of
hybrids.

Pl. trochiformis, fig. 7, stands alone in spite of its general resemblance to denuda-
tus, fig. 24, because the similarities to the latter are not exhibited in the form and
characteristics of the whorl itself, but are simply such as any spiral shell might have
to any other allied form, with a similar spiral mode of growth.

This tendency reaches a climax in both the second sub-series and the Fourth Series, and
thus, though Pl. trochiformis and denudatus (trochiform variety, pl. 9, fig. 24), have
very distinct whorls, the general outline of the whole shell in each is similar. This is
especially the case when we compare an old or distorted Pl. trochiformis, pl. 2, line r,
fig. 10, in which the last whorl is partly unwound, with denudatus, in which the young
whorls are also closely wound, and the last whorls only open. This peculiarity has a dis-
tinct meaning from that of the representative characteristics described above, and will
be discussed farther on.

At present it will be better to concentrate attention upon the representative charac-
teristics in the progressive series, (Second, Third, and Fourth Series). As has been
said above, we can readily account for the production of representative forms on the lower
lines, because these are really one and all but slightly different from the four original varie-
ties of Pl. levis, and resemble each other necessarily on account of their close affinity,
though not joined by hybrids. But how can we account for the fact that still more
divergent forms, which follow and which have less affinity with P/. levis, should resemble
each other, species for species, with such remarkable closeness? New modifications are
introduced in these species, which are not present in the original species. These new
characteristics consist of alterations in the forms of the whorls, and the advent of sulca-
tions, accompanied by a more decidedly asymetrical mode of growth. These modifications
could not have been inherited from PJ. /evis, sce they did not exist in that species, nor
in the lower representative forms, pl. 9, figs. 2-9-18.

These considerations enable us to separate the representation in the parallel series into
two kinds, that which occurs by the inheritance of a similar form and characteristics from
the parent form, P/. lJevis, and that which results from the introduction of new
characteristics in each series, which are similar to those produced in corresponding forms
in other series, and which could not have resulted from intercrossing of the different
species in the separate series.

Two of the progressive series, the Second and Third, present us no forms strictly
parallel or representative to Pl. tenuis, fig. 40. This can be readily explained by the
fact that these series retain with great pertinacity the characteristics of the varieties of
Pl. levis, from which they sprang. The Second Series remains smooth and devoid of
sulcations, though the outer side of the whorl becomes angulated in PJ. crescens. The
Third Series retains the gibbous form of the under side of the whorl, and does not flatten
the whorls at all, as in Pl. tenuis. Nevertheless, the general tendency to increase the

e

12 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

asymmetry of the spiral, and to introduce decisive sulcations and carinations, finally asserts
itself, and eventually produces representation. Thus, P/. swpremus becomes very similar
to some of the varieties of PJ. discoideus, and Pl. “emrms, particularly to those forms
which either retain or revert to the smooth character of the under side first observed
in PI. levis. This Third Series also fails in producing any modification comparable with
Pl. trochiformis, fig. 7, for the same reason, because of the preponderance of its in-
herited peculiarities. Thus, although the last whorl is very asymmetrical, and quite
similar in shape to ¢rochiformis, the young internal whorls are peculiar and always have an
upper umbilicus, and are therefore enveloped by, rather than elevated above, the outer
whorls. This condition is frequently excessive in PJ. /evis, and is the natural result of
the discoidal mode of growth during the early stages of the shell.’

These facts, when viewed as a whole, show that the progressive series are all more or
less parallel, and may be said in general terms to have the following succession of form,
First, a universal tendency to increase the spiral ; equivalent to the deepening of the lower
at the expense of the upper umbilicus, thus eventually producing more or less trochiform
shells. Second, the forms are modified in the following succession in each of these series,
starting from (1) the smooth forms, there occurs (2) a gradual increase in the flattening of
the sides of the whorl, both above and below, accompanied by (3) the mtroduction of
longitudinal sulcations and (4) carinations.

There is, then, in spite of the diversity maintained by the differences, which have
arisen in the origial progenitors, and which continue to be inherited throughout all
the members of each genetic series, certain uniform tendencies which have led to the
genesis of certain similarities in the form and even in the minor characteristics of the
species in different series. Farther than this, it may also be said that these uniform ten-
dencies, as expressed in the spirality of the growth and the introduction of new character-
stics, have a certain uniform succession.

The phenomena, therefore, indicate the uction of some general cause which controls the
tendency to variation first observed in the varieties of Pl. levis, and brings about a certain
uniformity in the production of forms and representative characteristics in each progressive
series.

The First Series and its sub-series are also subject to the control of the same law
so far as the tendency to increased spirality is concerned, but in other respects they
deserve special consideration. The similarities of the lower representative forms, figs.
25, 21, 18, are evidently accounted for in somewhat the same way as those of the
progressive, viz.: they are close to the point of origin. Unlike these, however, they
are so nearly related, that the hybrids or intermediate forms are numerous. It will
be observed that they possess the flat form of whorl also found in the Second
Series. We are on this account able to compare figs. 25, 21, with 13, and Pl. cos-
tatus, fig. 26, with Pl. crescens, fig. 14. The representation of Pl. major, fig. 27,
and Pl. “dans fic, 22, is also evidently due to the close affinity of the two, and the
tendency of the whorls to become uncoiled and to degenerate in outline gener-
ally, as may be seen by observing the apertures of the shells. Fig. 28, PJ. costatus

1 There are, however, forms much more like trochiformis line 1, fig. 4-11, but of these no full grown ones seemed
than fig. 11, see Pl. oxystomus, var. rotundatiformis, pl. 3, any closer than the one figured.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 1183

var. distortus, and Pl. “tens | fio. 23, can be explained in the same way. Var. denudatus,
fig. 24, crowns one sub-series standing alone, as did also the remarkable Pl. trochiformis,
the latter as the extreme of the progressive series, and the former as the extreme of
the retrogressive series.

These sub-series are not all purely retrogressive. The second sub-series is almost wholly
so, because it does not add a single new character to those observed in Pl. ™(i’ , except
the tendency to form a spiral. It goes steadily without a break, from the closest coiled,
smooth, discoidal form of the latter, to the extreme spiral, trochiform, and _ partly
uncoiled denudatus, and remains throughout diminutive in size, smooth and with a
cylindrical and extremely embryonic form of the whorl. The first sub-series, however,
while it agrees entirely with the second in the size and form of the whorl and shell,
and the tendency to increased spirality, nevertheless adds a new characteristic, the
enlarged transverse striations or ribs, and increases in size Mm some species, as in figs.
26 and 27.

Thus only the second sub-series is almost entirely retrogressive, and yet both the first
and second have diminutive shells, and the first has also diseased forms, which present a
tendency to uncoil the shell. This last characteristic is only observable in isolated instances
in the species of the purely progressive series. Thus it occurs as figured on pl. 8, line a,
fig. 1, to an incomplete degree in the extreme old age of Pl. Steinheimensis; and for a
similar reason in a very large P/. tenuis, pl. 1, line k, fig. 11; in Pl. discoideus, in different
degrees, pl. 1, line g, fig. 10; line 1, fig. 6; as a pathological condition of the individual
either due to wounds, disease or premature old age; in Pl. oxystomus to a most extraordi-
nary degree as figured by Sandberger, and to a less degree in figs. 7, 8, 9, line p,
pl. 3. These instances, however, are very instructive, since in fig. 8, the scars of severe
wounds are apparent on the shells, whereas figs. 7 and 10 exhibit no cicatrices, and are
evidently the result of some weakness caused by disease in the animal ; in Pl. trochiformis,
pl. 2, line r, fig. 10, and other specimens as previously described, it occurs as the result
probably of some disease. PI. 8 is especially devoted to these senile and diseased speci-
mens, which will be described more fully further on.

The uncoiling of the whorls must therefore be looked upon as a sign of weakness in the
animal, and as the result of pathological conditions, whether these be normal as in the final
retrograde transformations of advanced senility and disease of any kind affecting the
adults and young ; or traumatic and abnormal as in the cases cited where wounds and other
accidents may have caused disease in the animal, followed by a weak condition in which the
usual increase of the shell by growth could not be maintained. Therefore there is the
strongest reason for calling the second sub-series a purely retrogressive series, and the first
partly retrogressive, since not only do they show retrogression by the size of the species, and
their failure to produce comparable series of new and varied forms with newly introduced
characteristics, but they show common variations, which can be compared with the patho-
logical variations and metamorphoses of the shells of individuals of the progressive series.
It will be observed by all who read this memoir attentively, and study the plates especially,
that these uncoiled forms do not occur, except in the cylindrical whorled forms which are
transitional from Pl. minutus to denudatus and distortus, and this cylindrical characteristic
is decisively retrogressive. It can occur only in those individuals which do not inherit

14 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

the more flattened and more involute whorls of the full grown Pl. 2, but retain
throughout life with very slight changes, the cylindrical form of the very youngest
stages of that shell. Like the uncoiling, it indicates the weakness of the animals, which
fail in the power of growth and cannot continue even the normal rate of increase
in the size of the shell which distinguished them in their later stages, and adult condi-
tion.

It is very evident, however, that all of these retrogressive characteristics cannot be con-
sidered as pathological in exactly the same sense as the results of individual cases of
disease among the progressive species. They here affect three entire series of forms which
exhibit their impaired natural powers in various degrees, in one series as has been
shown, mingled with the advent of new characteristics, and in another, the third sub-
series, so completely subservient to these new characteristics, that the forms become
representative, notwithstanding their derivation from Pl. "yi" and decrease in size, with
those of the progressive series.

The gradations and the numbers, and perfectly normal aspect of these shells as regards
their thickness, external markings and so on, as well as the increase in size noted in first
sub-series show that we must look to some cause which has affected their entire develop-
ment and lessened their powers of growth, finally leading through heredity to evidently
normal and general distortion. The retrogressive sub-series of the First Series, furnish
therefore, a very sharp contrast with the picture presented as a whole by the purely
progressive series.

In the Second, Third and Fourth Series, there is a purely progressive tendency towards
increase in involution, in size, in spirality, and in the addition of new characteristics. In
the retrogressive sub-series on the other hand, there is a progression in some respects,
and a retrogression in others.

The progressive characteristics are, however, but feebly manifested. Thus the decrease
in size from PI. levis to Pl. minutus, fig. 18, is the most marked characteristic, and after
that the increase in size is confined to the normal members of the costatus group, the finely
costate and the coarsely costate shells, which are similar to fig. 26, and lines h and k, pl. 4.
The distorted forms corresponding to these, figs. 22-24, 28, pl. 9, and lines d, e, f, g, k, pl.
4, are nearly all small, and these are more numerous in the first or costate sub-series, than
the larger shells. In the third sub-series no increase in size can be truthfully predicated, as
may be seen on pl. 4, lines a, b, c, though in these forms as has been stated, there are
carinations and sulcations, and slightly turbimate forms produced, which are decidedly
progressive in these characteristics. These facts seem to show clearly that each sub-series
has a history of its own in which both progressive and retrogressive tendencies are active
in different degrees.

The tendency then to produce forms steadily increasing in spirality, is the only progres-
sive characteristic common to all the series shown in the table, and is evidently a prepo-
tent characteristic of all the Stemheim species, as it is in fact of most of the divisions of
the shell-bearing Lamellibranchiata, Gasteropoda, and Cephalopoda.

Eliminating this characteristic and laying it aside for future consideration, let us now
turn to the very evident selection which has been exercised between the retrogressive and
progressive characteristics of the different series and sub-series. It has been shown, that

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 15

the retrogressive characteristics of the first and second sub-series could be compared with
the pathological conditions, normal and abnormal, of occasional diseased and_ senile
individuals of the progressive series, but that they were distinct as far as they showed that
whole series were affected. They were therefore spoken of as the results of normal
pathological conditions of the animal, which were inherited with ever increasing effect in
successive species, occasioning distortions and retrograde metamorphoses, and finally
leading to the extinction of the race.

In the same words we can formulate the life history of a diseased individual,
since, as has been shown, a similar series of changes are produced in the forms and
characteristics of the diseased individuals of the progressive series, and that these,
though in a more confined field, are identical in their results, leading also to the death
of the individual.

In the individual the effects are shown in the disturbance of the laws of growth
producing abnormal or premature weakness ; or in the natural exhaustion of the powers of
growth, causing senility. A wound and its results, whatever they may be, can unques-
tionably be so classified, since it is primarily a severe shock to the system, which lays
additional burdens upon the powers of growth, and is usually followed, if severe,. by
retrogressive metamorphoses, or premature old age.’ Senility and its accompanying
metamorphoses also fall under the same law, though here there is no accident, and we
must refer it to the action of well known physiological laws. Thus, when the powers
of incremental growth during the life of any individual reach that point at which actual
increase in the size of its organs is no longer perceptible, physiology teaches us, that the
organs are maintained in size and the performance of their functions by an adequate
supply of nutriment; but that, after a time. the individual becomes unable to digest
sufficient food to supply the waste occasioned by the performance of its functions.
Then, that those peculiar transformations take place, consisting of the loss of functions
and the gradual decrease in size and entire or partial absorption of parts and organs,
which constitute what are called the retrograde metamorphoses of old age.

Senility, therefore, simply expresses the normal wearing out of the powers of vitalized
tissue to sustain itself against the perpetual friction with the disintegrating, wasting, and
ultimately unfavorable effect of existing physical surroundings. When we compare these
effects of unfavorable environment in producing distortions and decrease in size of the
individual, with the corresponding distortions and decrease in size of the retrogressive
sub-series, there is a certain similarity which leads to the supposition that the latter are
also probably due to an unfavorable environment. In other words, that the continuous
action of unfavorable environment upon a race, eventually produces variations in form
and characteristics in the successive but genetically connected species, which show that
their growth not only as individuals is interfered with, but that the distortions and
retrogressive characteristics thus produced tend to be inherited, and affect the whole
series of forms.

We are justified, therefore, in assuming, that in all probability the sub-series were
retrogressive, because the environment in the Steinheim lake was so unfavorable ; that the

1 The exceptions in which additional normal characteristics or abnormal ones are produced are very rare and
can be disregarded.

16 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

physical causes represented by that term acted upon the organization of the animals
unfavorably, occasioned a weak pathological condition leading to deterioration in size,
and to the production of senile-like characteristics and deformities, and the final but
gradual extinction of the different sub-species. In other publications I have used the
term geratology, and shall employ that same term here to indicate such correspondences
and such phenomena.

Having met the question of the general retrogression in size and form, by the
hypothesis of an unfavorable environment, the question naturally arises, how shall we
account for the progression of the progressive series? How then could this environment
act upon such closely allied shells, in such an opposite way as to cause the decease of some
races and be entirely healthy for others ?

We habitually refer such questions among animals, and in man, to the innate strength
or pliability of the constitution of the race or the individual, and account for the survival,
growth, and development of races and individuals by this reference to their supposed
ability either to resist change in their surroundings, or to become modified in accordance
therewith.

This principle is one of the best established results of paleontological research. It is
founded primarily upon the perpetual dying out of races in geological times, simultaneously
with the close of formations and the incoming of closely-allied, but modified forms in
later formations. It is sustained by the existence of persistent types which resisted change
to such a degree, that they are but slightly modified through long periods of geological
time, although passing through revolutions in the environment which destroyed the larger
proportion of their allied forms. It is sustained by the advent and comparatively short life
of those forms, which suffer greater modifications in each successive formation. Among
living animals it is a matter of daily experience to find some races incapable of
enduring variations in the surroundings, to which others readily accommodate themselves,
and even thrive under. Precisely the same environment, therefore, may produce
results diametrically opposed to each other, even upon different individuals of the same
species or closely allied forms, provided there is anything in the constitution either
directly acquired or inherited, which enables the organization of one to resist or fit itself
to conditions which the other cannot healthfully endure. It being therefore a matter of
fitness or unfitness of the organization, a question of inherited or acquired power and
capacity, which we can refer to the constitution of individuals, species, or races, we must
now inquire, whether there are any signs of greater strength to encounter, or ability to
accommodate themselves to change manifested in progressive series. The facts already
stated show this. The individual shells are larger, steadily increase in size in the suc-
cessive species of each series, and show distortion only in isolated individuals as the
results of disease, or only in the very advanced age of others equally exceptional. This
latter fact is very curious, and would be puzzling if I had not already been familiar with the
extraordinary fact, that many animals have no old age ; e.g., Amoeba, most of the Insecta,
and probably most of the Crustacea. Old age, in fact, being the result of an exhausted
or outgrown organization, it can only take place in animals which have complicated
organs, and which also live so long, or use them so actively that they become worn out
by perpetual effort to sustain the waste occasioned by their surroundings. The absence

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. ily

of well-marked old age metamorphoses in most of these large shells, is therefore another
sign of the innate strength of the progressive series.

The progressive series are, therefore, not persistent but variable types, and consequently
we can consider them as possessing a capacity of adjusting themselves to the changes
in their environment, which affected the retrogressive series unfavorably. The reference
of these matters to the organization itself as a primary standard is farther sustained
by the behavior of each of these series.

Thus each series is distinct from every other in the amount of change which it
exhibits, and in the partly retrogressive series we see the contention of two opposing
tendencies. The representative characteristics, the sulcations and carinations, and increas-
ing involution of the whorl, are equally with the increase in size and spirality, marks of
strength. If so, the third sub-series exhibits most decidedly this battle of the tendencies,
and assuredly the first sub-series, where the size is temporarily increased, is a still stronger
instance of a similar kind.

Here we appear to have a display of energy or force which probably did not arise in
the retrogressive species themselves, but was inherited from PJ. Jevis, and we see it in
these races unsuccessfully resisting the deadly influences of the unfavorable environment.
These races, therefore, present in this respect, as well as in their forms, changes
which may be compared to those in the life of any individual of the progressive series,
which passes through a full series of changes or metamorphoses ; that is, one which has
not only a series of young and adult progressive changes, but also a series of retrogressive
or old age changes.

If we analyze the phenomena presented by such an individual, we find, first, that it is
smooth, discoidal, and in a word similar to Pl. levis; then that the whorl shows a flatten-
ing taking place above and below, with an increase in the amount of involution, and in
spirality ; then sulcations begin to appear, and longitudinal carinz, then as it passes its
adult condition, and is affected by disease or by old age, there is a tendency to suppress
the longitudinal carimations, and substitute more prominent cost or transverse lines of
growth, to decrease in size, and destroy the spiral. All of these last are changes attribut-
able to weakness in the organization of the animal. The prominence of the transverse
cost is due to longer periods of rest in building up the shell, and the consequent accumu-
lation of shelly secretions at intervals; the decrease of the size in whorl self-evidently to
the same cause, and this also accounts well for the loss of symmetry in the spiral, which
can only be maintained by a constant increase in the building up of the shell. Here we
perceive the same contest of tendencies. There is the inherited strength of the consti-
tution building up the organization in size. and in all its progressive characteristics, and
resisting functional waste. There is then, in all outgrown specimens, though to an unap-
preciable degree in some, a retrogression, and in others a well marked retrogression, in
which the functional waste overbalances the supply of nutriment, and the organization
loses its progressive characteristics in a series of retrogressive changes. The contest is
decided at last as it must always be, in favor of function, the representative of physical
forces, which exhausts, conquers and kills by continuous friction. Thus, we can readily
understand that each of these series, whether progressive or retrogressive, can so far as its
collective life is concerned, be compared in the closest manner with the life of an

18 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

individual, and similar correspondences be traced in both, and also that the tendencies
exhibited are of two kinds in each, one towards a building up of the organization, and the
other directly opposed to this.

We cannot understand these remarkable concordances between the changes shown in
the succession of the forms in allied or genetic series, and the metamorphoses of the indi-
vidual, unless we can attribute them to a similar cause. The fact, that during the growth
of the individual, the increase in bulk, and all increments, whatever be their nature, must
be due to an excess in the supply of nutriment over and above what is needed to repair
the waste of the body, alone shows that there is a force at work within the organiza-
tion. The action of this innate power of the organism therefore is fundamental, and lies
at the base of all changes whatever, except the strictly retrogressive, and it becomes evi-
dent that the same force which causes growth also occasions all progressive changes.

It is sometimes the case that, as in the third sub-series, the force described produces a
series of progressive characteristics without increasing the size ; but this, and also the very
frequent decrease in bulk of full grown animals when compared with their larval forms, as
in many butterflies and moths, etc., and in some frogs, may be accounted for by the greater
development of functional activity. The phenomenon is similar to the stunting of the
growth of an animal by the too early and powerful use of its organs. The growth power is
used up in the assimilation of the formative material for the new parts produced, and their
functional waste is so great that there is no material for increase in bulk.

If we apply the presence of this unknown power or force within the animal to the
explanation of the characteristics of the series, we are struck by the ease with which all
the phenomena of parallelisms are resolved. By reference to the laws of growth and
development the naturalist is able to explain why it is that all the forms and modifica-
tions on the progressive grades, show similarities to the metamorphoses of the growing
individuals; why all the forms of the descending grades compare so closely with the senile
metamorphoses of the individual; why it is that some series, like some individuals, have no
perceptible and others have a very complete series of old age metamorphoses; why all the
forms and characteristics of the progressive series succeed each other in similar order in
every series, occasioning the reproduction in each series of an independent but similar
parallel series of forms and characteristics ; why it is that there is a similar succession in
the development of the characteristics in each representative species ; why it is that differ-
ent tendencies, one towards the production of progressive, and the other towards the
production of retrogressive characteristics, can appear in the retrogressive series im
different combinations or quafitities according to the series; why it is in fact that the
whole series of modifications in the group and its series, can be approximately com-
pared with the life of one imdividual. The uniformities of series of animals as compared
with each other then become like the uniformities observable in the growth of closely
allied individuals, like their parallelisms in growth and in old age or disease, all due to
the force of the inheritable constitution, enabling the animal to take advantage of favorable
surroundings for a time, or to resist the effects of its unfavorable environment more or less
successfully. In all cases the individuals and its series must change by growth along
certain Imes of modifiation, which it is but reasonable to suppose we shall some day be
‘able to map out beforehand for a series of forms with the same precision that we can
now forecast the metamorphoses of any given individual in a given species.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 19

The parallelisms of the species or forms in the different series are, however, produced
by characteristics, which, as we have noted above, are not inherited from PJ. levis, and could
not have been inherited from any previously existent species, since they originate inde-
pendently in the forms of each series. This condition of affairs casts doubt upon these
unqualified statements of the paramount influence of the forces of growth as stated above,
and leads to the following questlon: Are these parallelisms adaptations, and can they
possibly be attributed to the direct action of the uniform external environment upon the
forms of the different series? This can hardly be answered in the Steinheim locality, but
still there are indications that here, as in other groups, these parallel characteristics are
not due to similar inorganic influences. The lower forms probably arose in the First
Period if my observations are correct, and only a part of them, the Pl. trochiformis in
the Fourth Series, the forms of the First Series and its three sub-series during the Second
Period, in the pits, and those of Pl. crescens in the Second Series were evolved,
during the same time. It does not appear, then, that the inorganic influences,
which were probably very dissimilar, if we can judge by the deposits, during these
two periods, could have been the cause of the representation. Fortunately, how-
ever, the phenomenon of representation is quite common in the animal kingdom,
and we can look elsewhere for a solution of this question. I have described a
large number of species of Ammonites, and in no case was it possible to attribute the
independent production of similar forms in distinct series to the action of similar physical
environment. On the contrary, the most remarkable eases of parallelism took place
frequently in series occurring in different formations and distinct faunae, just as the
remarkable parallelism of the Marsupials with the rest of Mammalia. The unquestionable
case of the Marsupials of Australia, may serve as a means of estimating the effects of the
environment. While this certainly cannot be said to determine either the growth of the
individuals in parallel lines, or to be the cause of the production of the parallel forms, it
may nevertheless be essential to the full exhibition of both phenomena.

It must be remembered that in the Marsupials we have, probably, the lowest
mammalian type, as well as the oldest, and the greater number of representative forms
which we. now find in Australia, are characteristic of the present period, and they
are not found in the fossil European, nor in the existing or fossil American forms. There
is, then, something peculiar in the environment in Australia, which makes it possible
at least for these forms, which represent Rodentia, Carnivora, ete., to be produced
there. It is evident that, if the land had already been possessed by these classes of typical
mammals, or if they had not belonged to the base of the mammalian stock, no such
expansions of the marsupial type would have been possible. It required these two
elements; the growth force of a basic mammalian type and room for it to grow
and reproduce, or a free environment. This was the case also in the Steinheim lake.
Planorbis levis is an immature or low form, the field into which it entered was free, and
it developed all its latent growth force, in order to fill it with species. In the same way
the Ammonites did not exhibit their greatest expansion until after the lowest competing
type, Nautilus, having expended its growth force in the Carboniferous, began to die out.

This hypothesis then would attempt to account for the production of so many similar
forms in distinct series, simply by the fact, that the series had room to expand, or to grow

20 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

and reproduce to the fullest extent in this field; that they did so in precise accordance
with the laws of growth, and the succession of characteristics in the individual. This is
very evident from the fact that Planorbis exhibits no such tendencies in other localities
where it is surrounded by competing forms. It has become plain probably to the “ begeis-
terte Darwinianer” by this time, that this is in fact an application of the law of natural
selection, but he will also see that it is accompanied by such important modifications, that
it is reconciled with the laws of growth. Thus it may be said that the struggle for exist-
ence, and the survival of the fittest, is a secondary law grafted upon laws of growth, and
governed by them in all its manifestations.

The law of natural selection, as generally understood, assumes in the first
place the existence of an animal type, of its descendants, and of a tendency to vari-
ation (indefinite and unlimited) in every one and all of these descendants, from which (an
indefinite and unlimited) selection may take place durimg the struggle for existence
between competing forms, destroying the weak and permitting only the strongest and
fittest of these variations to survive.

The truth is, as far as my studies have gone, that there is no such thing as indefinite or
unlimited variations in any species. They may perhaps be considered innumerable,
but they are not indefinite or unlimited. This obvious proposition, if admitted, leads at
once to the question, what are the limits within which a species may vary? Making
special studies for this purpose among the Ammonites, the limits of variation in the
species have been found to correspond to the growth changes in an individual. Some
individuals may retain a portion or a large part of their earlier developed characteristics
(not embryological), some may make considerable modifications in their hereditary adult
characteristics, amounting even to new additions in many instances ; some may occupy the
other extreme, and either as diseased individuals, or as individuals under circumstances
very unfavorable to normal growth, show premature senile and retrograde metamorphoses
and distortions. This also is a picture of the grander variations of any large or
small group of Ammonites, and of the present group of Planorbis. PJ. levis may vary
from the equiumbilicated discoidal form, to the unequiumbilicated form similar to Pl.
oxystomus, or the more depressed whorls of P/. 77%, and each of the varieties may
have minor sub-varieties founded upon innumerable minor differences in the spiral,
more or less angular outer sides, and so on, but there is evidently a well defined
law in their development. The variations consist in the retention of the earlier
or young form with no additional progressive characteristics, or if these are added
they consist of modifications or exaggerations of some part, found more or less
developed in other forms, whether these occur in the lakes of America or other continents.

It has already been shown that the representative forms were divisible into two kinds.
Those whose similarities could be accounted for, because they differ very slightly from
Pl. levis, retaining in part its form and smooth whorls, and those subsequently produced
which were new in the Steinheim lake, and, that the former, which are due to the reten-
tion of ancestral characteristics, are replaced by the latter.

Thus the equiumbilicated discoidal form is lost entirely in Pl. tenuis, Pl. triquetrus,
and Pl. crescens, except in the young of some specimens. In Pl. discoideus, it is not
even found in the young which are asymmetrical at all ages, except perhaps the young-

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. a1

est zones of growth in the shell. This decrease is evidently brought about by the prepo-
tency of the newly introduced tendency to ingrease the spirality, and develop the
square form of the whorl and the sulcations and carimations.

The retrogressive series, as may be readily seen, have an increase in the adult
retrogressive characteristics, which obeys the same law; the farther removed the species
is from the original form the less it is apparent, either in the young or in any of the adult
forms. Thus, in following up the series we find, that im any one form during the adult
stages the representative characteristics displace the ancestral characteristics in inverse
proportion to the affinity of the forms in which they appear for the ancestral form.

This law is applicable even to those resemblances occurring between the forms of the
old and young, such as have been traced between the oldest and youngest stages of the
individual among the Ammonites, by D’Orbigny and the author, and by many authors
between Baculites and Orthoceras. These resemblances are accompanied in these cases,
as in man, where there is considerable resemblance in the form of the body and the
parts at the extremes of life, by entirely distinct structures, and are evidently due to the
partial or entire absence of parts and organs. In the young this is found only before
or during the stage of development in the parts; in the old however, only after or
during the stages of absorption of the parts. The retention of the cylindrical or semi-
cylindrical whorl in the adult of denudatus and distortus, are precisely comparable
with such geratologous characteristics. The extreme young are closely coiled and
similar to the young of PJ. levis, and the subsequent aspect of the shell is brought
about by retrogressive changes counteracting the normal tendency of the growth. They
are not arrests of development, but geratologous metamorphoses. True arrests of devel-
opment and reversions, if the latter can really be separated from the former, are precisely
the exceptions which are needed to show the uniformity of the law under ordinary
conditions, and its subordination to unfavorable or extraordinary external conditions.

This law is equally applicable to the parallelisms of individuals of the same brood, same
variety, species, genus, or family. The differences which appear in the individual
adults, and which distinguish them at this stage from their own young, or their own
embryos, are for the most part those which show their affinity to other individuals of the
same brood, variety, species, genus, and family.

These new or differential characteristics replace those of the earlier stages, which, as is
well known, are inherited from ancestors, who, with the exception of animals having the
larval stages much prolonged, have first acquired them during growth in their adult
stages. In fact, one cannot understand such series as are here shown, or as
may be constructed from a study of the affinities of animals, when arranged with
a due regard to the embryology, geological surroundings in different formations and
occurrence in time, and their adult characteristics, without assuming continuity of
descent. This being granted, all observations show that one and the same general law
covers all series, whether retrogressive or progressive, namely, that the representative
characteristics of the individuals and their differences in structure at the adult stage are
inversely proportional to their relative removal in time, and the surrounding conditions
or environment, from the egg or from some assumed or observed parent type.

22 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

It is impossible to construct a series and begin to investigate the causes of the origin
of the forms without assuming continuity of descent, and the action of time and changed
conditions in modifying the organization, as has been done by modern experimental
zoologists.

If this position is the true one, then similar physical causes acting through similar
periods in time, upon the same or different genetic series of animals, ought to produce
results or modifications in which not only the action of time and the environment upon
the animal, but also the reaction of the laws of heredity and growth, would be distinctly
manifested. This has seemed to me to be the case among the Steinheim series, and among
the Ammonites, and to account for the sudden appearance of geratologous resemblances,
arrests of development and reversions, all of which are pathological; and due, like other
pathological conditions, to unfavorable surroundings.

There are two extreme classes of cases which might be considered exceptions to such
a law, one class embraces what paleontologists call persistent types, and another those
curious parasites, which like the Epizoa and others among Crustacea, or the parasitic
Vermes lose in the adult a portion or nearly all of their typical characteristics.

The persistent types are such animals and their fossils, as mi Lingula, Nautilus ;
Myrmecobius among mammals; Ceratodus among fishes; and a host of other forms,
which exhibit at the present day very nearly the same forms as those of the same genus
found in Paleozoic or Mesozoic time. Even if this statement be doubted, as it may
reasonably be with regard at any rate to the Lingule, as stated by Mr. Dall, and with
the Nautili, there still remains the fact that these types are persistent, or do not
present any modifications of their organization at all proportionate to the changes through
which they passed. Paleontologists have noted these peculiar and remarkable instances,
but failed to call attention to the fact that many groups present a greater or less number
of species which can be classed in the same category with these more noted examples, and
that, after all, this is not an uncommon phenomenon.

Almost every group of Ammonites contains such species, and I have tried to show in
previous publications that all of these persistent species or forms were among the lower,
or earlier occurring, members, or more embryonic forms of the groups to which they
belonged. When taken in conjunction with the fact that none of the extremely per-
sistent forms exhibited geratologous transformations, these facts appeared to show that
the reason why time and changing conditions had no more effect, was due to the
enormous power of reaction in the organism itself, its growth force, which enabled it
to withstand the action of the shifting environment, and to adjust itself to these changes
without materially modifying its own organization. Such a case is also presented here,
and it is Pl. "7, Pl. oxystomus, and Pl. Steinheimensis which have the greatest range in
time, and are found in all the formations. I

If it be true that growth force has anything to do with the life of a series, as it has
to do with the life of an individual, then there ought to be some common ratio between
the power of reproduction in the series and in the individual, and between the life
power of these persistent types and the poimt at which they sprang from the ancestral
tree. In fine, if growth force has any meaning at all, and has, as is here claimed, an
influence upon the life of a series in the same way that gravitation acts upon the

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 23

heavenly bodies, determining the morphological cycle of their successive species, then
types could only be persistent when they sprang from a point of origin near to the
source of the whole group to which they belong. The instances of persistent types
are all of this character, as far as I know them, and preéminently what Prof. Agassiz
would call embryonic types, when comparing them with the higher organisms of their
own group.

The greatest contrast with these is afforded by the parasitic types, which vary from
those which are in the fully adult condition, still recognizable as Vermes, Crustacea,
Mollusca, ete., to those in which all the type characteristics are obliterated in the adults,
but still preserved in the young, and finally to those in which the type is difficult to
recognize at any period. Of the first classes there are many examples, of the second
fewer, and of the third very few illustrations.

A large portion of the Epizoa among Crustacea, Entoconcha among Mollusca, Lingua-
tula among Arthropoda, are familiar illustrations of the second class ; while Gregarina
and Taenia, may possibly belong to the last, to which some of the males of several genera
of the Cirripedia make a near approach.

It is difficult to escape from the conclusion, that the loss in the adults of the alimentary
canal and other parts and organs, which are found in the young of the second class, must
be attributed to the parisitic environment ; no other adequate cause whatever has as yet
been presented, and the losses take place in those parts which are especially affected, and
become useless on account of the parasitic environment namely, the alimentary canal,
limbs, the shell, ete. In these cases, we can only account for the second and third classes,
by supposing that the differences arise from the greater or less completeness of the
parasitic mode of living, which time and habit have increased, until the environment
finally conquered the tendency of the growth, and of the laws of heredity to repeat in
the young the inherited characteristics of the type. How fast, or how slowly this was
accomplished in specific cases, is not the question, but simply whether there were two
opposing forces at work, one represented by heredity and growth, and the other
by physical causes or the environment, and I think this assumption is highly
probable. With regard to the third class of cases, it would be difficult to determine
whether they represented distinct types in the animal kingdom in some cases ; but the
gradation which is presented in the males of Cryptophialus among Cirripedia, where the
young are almost as degraded in organization as the adults, shows that the environment
has acted either throughout a long time or quickly and effectually, so as to destroy the
type characteristics even in the earlier stages.

This would then be an extreme exhibition of the power possessed by physical causes
to alter the primitive organization, and in fact I do not see how we can otherwise account
for this result when we look at the results of modern research and the serious modifications
produced by the experiments of Schmankewitch upon Artemia and Branchipus among
Crustacea, of Carl Semper upon Lymneus among Mollusca, and of Siebold and others
upon Batrachians.

But although this power be granted in the abstract, and as a corollary of all the
relations of animals to their environment, the fact remains that under all but the most
extraordinary conditions, animals maintain their type characteristics. They show this by

24 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

growing through a series of stages in the young, which repeat more or less fully the adult
characteristics pane’ from ner ancestors, and by producing series of new forms, more
or less parallel with those of other congeneric series, which are also new, or in part the
direct result of inheritance from the parental type form.

Thus, although it may be said that the environment, which here consisted of an unoc-
cupied field, or one which may at least be inferred to have been unfavorable for the
growth of other competing shells, was favorable to the fullest expansion of the type,
nevertheless the precision with which the series were evolved, and their concordances
cannot be explained by any hypothesis based solely upon these influences. Again, if this
be doubted, and the uniform action of the uniform environment be assumed as_ possible,
then how account for the manifest differences arising in the primary PI. levis, and
becoming hereditary in the series. These characteristics are not representative, but
essentially differential, in fact the only ones which in the lower forms indicate affinity,
and enable us to begin to thread our way through the complicated labryinth of represen-
tative. characteristics. -Chus, 20.7, Pi. ees. Pr. Cruse and) cal. ee areal
more or less distinct and possess certain differences which are subsequently imcreased in
each of the progressive and in some, but not all of the retrogressive series.

Thus, Pl. 778 has the sub-acute outer side of the whorl less perceptible than in P1.
parvus, but it is a distinction constant in the series. Reversions to PJ. levis might
of course, and probably would, occur, if we could know the facts by the actual
experiment of hatching broods, but these would only add strength to the present prop-
osition, since they would only be adults retaining the form of the young, which until a
late stage, even in PJ. crescens, is identical with Pl. levis. Pl. 27g" has the narrow
umbilicus and gibbous whorls in the lower side of some varieties of PJ. levis, and we
have only to consult the plates to see how persistently this is maintained in Pl. supremus.
PI, Steintemensis has the form of whorl of the more angular and flattened varieties of Pl.
levis, with a tendency to increase this to an excessive degree in P/. discoideus.

But here a curious interference is observable. An apparently retrogressive or revers-
ionary characteristic, the gibbous or rounded and smooth character of the under side of
the whorls described in many of the PJ. discoideus, appears, and is increased in the succes-
sive forms causing so close a resemblance to Pl. supremus, that a derivation of that form
from these was actually traced out by Hilgendorf. I have shown, however, that this is
probably erroneous, and that they are in distinct genetic series.

All of the changes of form in the First Series as previously pointed out, are repre-
sentative, so that the only characteristics which can be compared to the class now
under discussion are the prominent cost, and the small size of the whorls when considered
as one series.

Having now this peculiar category of characteristics before us, it is easy to see that
they represent the essential differences of the series, and are quite distinct in their nature.
They are permanent when once introduced, and essentially progressive, or rather cumu-
lative, in each series, except where they are modified by the introduction of some pre-
potent representative or reversionary characteristic, as in PJ. trochiformis.*

1 Though even here they are present in the early stages of all forms with one exception (the variety with rotundatus

like young 2).

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 25

They arise as differences and remain differences, and have at no time any value as
representative characteristics. They, however, appear in the same forms as the repre-
sentative or parallel characteristics ; and the question now arises, can they also be reduced
to the control of the same law of succession in the series and in the individual ?

Evidently there is no such succession, for if we take an individual out of any of the
series, and attempt to show this, we are met at once by the insuperable difficulty that
there is nothing to compare it with in other series. These characteristics, therefore,
present themselves with remarkable clearness, as increasing by heredity throughout
the series, or as in the case of the Fourth Series increasing only in a certain number of
species, and being then partly superseded by an evidently prepotent tendency in the
remainder of the species to revert to the rounded form of the whorl, or they are absent as
in the geratologous series, the second sub-series. Here, I think we have the key. The
geratologous series, if the comparisons made above are approximately correct, owes its
purely retrogressive character to the disadvantageous nature of the surroundings, and in
these the differential characteristics are not developed, while in all others they are devel-
oped in precise proportion to their rank as progressive series. Thus in the first sub-
series, the fine crowded costz or the enlarged widely separated coste or size, form alone
the progressive characters of the series. In the third sub-series, the development of the
third carination is decidedly progressive, as is also the serial difference of the Second
and Third Series, and even the Fourth as far as it goes.

Not only do these differential characteristics as a whole progress, or increase, but they
are progressive in the differences, which they present within each series. That is to say,
that the gibbous underside of the whorl in PJ. swpremus is only a little more gibbous in
Pl. supremus than it is in Pl. ms. The whorl of Pl. 27" is more angular in Pl.

levis

erescens, the flattened lower side of PJ. Sirhemensis stil] flatter in PJ. tenwis and Pl. discoid-
eus, the coste of Pl. ii; are largest in var. major of the largest size. There is then
uniformity in the way in which these differences of the series act, they are all
progressive, but their progress in each series.consists alone in their increase in
intensity of expression or size in each series. Thus their uniformities are in the
strongest possible contrast to the uniformities of the representative characteristics.
These do not agree with each other in the same series, but have their uniform-
ities in the representative forms of different series, whereas the differential charac-
teristics have all their uniformities in the same series, and do not agree with each
other in different series. The increase of intensity in each series is, as above stated,
directly proportional to the more or less progressive character of the series, being
nothing in the exclusively geratologous series, and most intense in the most progressive
or Fourth Series.

If, therefore, the absence of the differential characteristics can be accounted for by
the action of disadvantageous surroundings in the second sub-series, it becomes evident
that the existence and permanency of the same class of characteristics in other series must
be due to the selective action of the same surroundings. This conclusion’ can be
farther sustained by the great increase in size of the First Series, or most progressive
or differential one, and the gradual decrease in size of each series towards the left of
plate 9. Proportionate size and weight are acknowledged by physiologists as the most

26 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

reliable basis of estimating relative health of individuals, and, other things being
equal, the favorable or unfavorable character of their surroundings. These facts and the
peculiar reversions of Pl. trochiformis in some of its characteristics, appear therefore to
be perfectly well accounted for by Darwin’s theory of natural selection. In no other
way can we possibly account for the selection of but four out of the varieties of PZ.
levis, and the continuous propagation and increasing intensity of the differences which
they exhibit. An examination also of the figures of the nearest allied forms of Pl. levis,
such as Pl. Steinheimensis, will show any one how many variations are lost in each form
or species of the series, and how few are continued. This can only be accounted for
upon the supposition that those which survived possessed in some way advantages indi-
cated by their peculiar variations, which enabled them to propagate those variations, and
suppressed their less fortunate neighbors.

It is impossible to imagine any uniform inorganic cause acting upon the comparatively
constant organization of P/. levis, and producing therefrom a number of radiating series,
genetically distinct from each other, and with all the other marks of independent consti-
tutional and hereditary traits above cited, unless we allow with Darwin a basis of original,
constitutional differences indicated by the tendency of PJ. levis to vary. Then it is easy
to see how the physical environment would cause a selection to take place in the differ-
ential characteristics of the varieties, and how the same causes continued, would perma-
nently fix the favorable differences in the race or series, causing it even to increase in
intensity until another change, as in Pl. ,2un., might cause selective alteration of the
original differences, or even a reversion of these.

All of these considerations when taken together appear to show that the following
propositions may be considered as reasonable :

(1.) The extraordinary modifications and series of shells found at Steinheim are in one
way exceptional, and owe their existence to exceptional conditions.

(2.) These conditions appear to be the isolation of the modified descendants of Pl.
levis, due to the absence of competing types, and the character of the environment.

(3.) This environment was suitable for the propagation and perpetuation of the
distinctive peculiarities of three series, and unfavorable in various degrees to those of
the sub-series of the First Series.

(4.) That while the perpetuation and survival of the differential characteristics can be
thus accounted for, we must look to other causes for the production of the parallel forms
and the regularity of succession of these forms, as shown in the arrangement in the
different series, and in the development of the individual.

(5.) That this cause lies in some law of growth and heredity which reacts against the
tendency of the physical environment to produce variations and differences, and produces
parallelism in the development of different individuals of the same species, of different
species in the same series, and in the succession of forms in the different series, and
also limits the tendency to variation within definite boundaries in the species, espec-
ially in Pl. levis.

(6.) That while the influence of the environment must be admitted as paramount in
exceptionable instances, it for the most part produces these exceptions in extreme cases of
parasitism, and the Steinheim shells are not parasites, and cannot be assumed to have been

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. oT

under similar influences in respect to the laws governing the size and genesis of the series,
they ought, therefore, to come under the same laws as other forms occurring in other
localities.

(7.) That this appears to be the case except im so far as they are a very limited group,
confined to a very limited field, a field free from competition, and extremely favor-
able to their growth for that and other reasons.

These conclusions being approximately arrived at our next inquiry is very naturally,
what is this law of heredity and growth which maintains the type, causes parallelisms and
constrains variation under ordinary conditions, but still, in certain cases, is forced to give
way to physical influences.

Ruling out the lost or transient forms which are not perpetuated we see that the funda-
mental law here, as elsewhere, is that all the characteristics are inherited after they are
once introduced.

Our first inquiry, then, must be as to the mode in which they are inherited. Is there
any law which embraces this class of phenomena in some general statement ?

In former essays, especially written for this purpose, I have tried to show that there
was such a general law which is so plain and simple that I have wondered that no authors
have made it the basis of investigation except Prof. Cope and myself.

In every series of animals which I have studied the same fact appears, namely, that in
a given number of generations inherited characteristics of every kind tend to appear in
the descendants at earlier stages than that at which they first occurred in the ancestral
forms. Whether characteristics are normal or abnormal, provided they are fixed in the
race either by the action of natural selection or by the direct working of physical causes,
they are inherited according to this law.

Though led to this discovery, if it is such, by close observation of small series of
Ammonoid forms, I have since applied it, with greater or less success, to every series of
animals which have come under observation, and in fact it is a corollary of the doctrine
of evolution.

The law of Biogenesis which is now quite generally adopted in Europe, though long
since used habitually by the students of Prof. Agassiz! in this country, and regarded by
them as an essential basis of investigation, leads naturally to a search for some such
uniformity in the inheritance of characteristics as that described above. How can
an animal in its transient stages of growth resemble the permanent adult characteristics
of ancestral forms without the action of some such law ?

A negation is not proof, though so often regarded in that light, nor is it proof that in
some individual cases a disease or characteristic is inherited later in the life of that
particular individual. These instances, and they are not very frequent, are exceptions,
and this investigation simply shows that the ordinary action of this law, which has been
called the law of accelerated development or acceleration by Cope and myself, has been
interfered with by the action of external causes. The only proof against it must be of
such a character as that upon which it is founded, namely, the investigation and published
description of some genetically connected series of closely allied species, which do not
develop in accordance with or verify its provisions.

1 Prof. Agassiz did not give his law an evolutionary called “‘Heckel’s law” in Europe.
application nor a name, Heckel did both, and it is now

28 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

A general and confused conception exists that certain characteristics either appear
“in utero”, or tend to be inherited at earlier or later periods in the life of individual
descendants, and, then becoming fixed in the organizations, are transmissible at
corresponding stages, and also, that in some way, some of these characteristics become
fixed in embryo, and thereafter are invariable for that particular division of animals.

The law of acceleration appears to me at present to show the manner in which
characteristics, which are perpetuated, finally either disappear or become fixed in
the young, or even inembryo. This conclusion may be followed out by any one who
will arrange a series of animals or their shells, according to their adult affinities and
their developmental characteristics. He will then see that adult characteristics which
are introduced in ancestral forms, tend to reappear at earlier and earlier stages, as he
travels along the series.

Though it is perhaps impossible for us to trace any type back to its beginning, and thus
substantiate this law for the truly embryonic characteristics, the conclusion is inevitable
that if it is a true expression for the mode of inheritance of any series of animals, it was
probably also true for their ancestors.

Why, then, the invariability of the embryonic form and characteristics, as among the
Ammonoids and Nautili? The explanation appears to me to present no great difficulty.
All perpetuated characteristics when crowded into the younger stages, and tending to
appear at younger and younger periods, must either replace the origmal embryonic form
and characteristics, or be crowded out by the constant incoming of new characteristics,
which are continually being originated and tending like them to be inherited by the law
of acceleration.

Embryonic characteristics are subject to great variations, under the action of corre-
sponding changes in the environment. Witness the different degrees to which parasitism
has encroached upon the type characteristics of the males of Cirripedia and of the Epizoa,
shortening the periods during which the young show their typical Crustacean forms
and characteristics, and the inference becomes almost irresistible, that Taenia has lost its
original type characteristics at all stages of development by the same process.

In what other way can we describe this as taking place, except by the law of
acceleration, by the earlier and earlier inheritance in successive generations of differential
characteristics first introduced in the adult stages of their ancestors by the influence of
the parasitic environment ?

It is evident that suitability to the parasitic mode of life determined the selection of
these crustacean forms, otherwise we cannot understand their being found in such
habitats, or the pliability of their organization, or the fact that their young are
locomotive, and seek out the hosts in which we find them when full grown.

In the same way we cannot understand the disappearance of perpetuated characteristics
in the young except on the hypothesis that they have become useless and are absorbed to
make room for the new ones which are inherited from later ancestors. They are met on
the one side by the embryonic type characteristics, which are the last to give way even in
the parasites, and on the other by the action of the law of acceleration, and they must
disappear or become embryonic. But room for them in the embryonic stages does not
appear to be found, except perhaps to a very limited degree. This we know from the

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 29

comparative uniformity of these stages wherever they have been observed, except in a
few extreme cases above described, and their almost exact parallelism in different individ-
uals of the same type, and by the observations of Barrande, Chalmas and the author among
the embryos of fossil Trilobites, Ammonites and Nautili.

Why, then, are these embryonic characteristics usually so invariable,’ and why do they
resist even the efforts of the parasitic environment to crowd them out by the action of the
same law of heredity by which they first became embryonic ?

If they first became embryonic by the action of the law of acceleration upon‘the adult
characteristics of some ancestral form, all traces of which are now lost, why did they not
in their turn disappear ?

An answer to this in detail must be deferred to a paper I am now preparing, an abstract
of which will, I hope, in due time appear in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of
Natural History. Here I shall try to show that this sanceitinllt rests not only upon the
power of the earlier and more embryonic organisms to resist change produced by the
environment, but also upon the greater protection from the working of physical causes
afforded to the young during the earlier periods of its existence.

The environment is more uniform as regards temperature, food, and so on, in the egg,
than at any subsequent period. Starting with the common origin of the ovum, I think
it can be shown that the uniformity of the environment of the earlier stages, whether
held “in utero” or cast out to take care of itself, whether carried and protected in
pouches or at the breast, is not assumed without a sufficient basis of evidence. If it be
granted, that there is a growth force in organisms, which is the basis of all heredity, and
which resists the working of physical surroundings, tending to preserve the type
and sustain the uniformity of the organization, which limits variations and produces
parallelisms, the conclusion becomes inevitable, as in the Stemheim shells and the
persistent and embryonic types, that the nearer an animal is to the point of origin of its
type the stronger or more potent will be all of its uniformities, and the less subject to
variation from changes in the environment.

If then we can join to this any general law of uniformity in the environment at early
stages, we have two efficient causes working in unison to maintain the stability in
Pealoee time, and the invariability in heredity of existing types as shown by the
characteristics of the embryo.

Deferring the proofs of this position to a future opportunity, it only remains to add by
way of caution, that I recognize in the term growth-force an expression of a purely
physical cause, which is shown by the fact that organic forms can and do habitually grow
in opposition to the forces of gravitation, as well as exist and perpetuate themselves in
spite of the action of physical forces of the environment, which even under the most
favorable circumstances suffer them to exist but a very limited time, killmg them off in
inverse proportion to the innate powers of resistance, or growth force, manifested
by them. I do not pretend to assume that this force is antecedent, correlative, or
consequent upon the production of organic matter, I simply assume its active existence,

1 Comparative invariability is here meant, for as I have more recent descendant forms. See also H. J. Clark,
shown, Fossil Cephalopoda, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. “Mind in Nature,” on the differences of the egg in different
8, there is considerable variability in the earlier stages of types, etc., and authors on the structure of the egg at early
Silurian Goniatites, as compared with the same stages in stages. ;

30 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

and use the word force as all of us are obliged to do for a cause, which we can recognize,
but cannot see. This battle of a force from within, against a force from without, is
perhaps the strongest argument for natural selection which can be adduced. But it also
shows that natural selection, even if it is as general as is claimed, is the expression for a
series of results caused by the action and reaction of these forces, one upon the other.

The views of Wagner upon the necessity of isolation for the production of new forms,
have specially interested me in connection with the Stemheim shells, since they show cer-
tainly the effects of isolation in an extreme case. Although the Steinheim basin is an
evident exception, and although it is much more difficult to apply the law of isolation in
ordinary cases, still Weissmann has shown us how this can be done, and how the pre-
vention of indiscriminate crossing, ‘“amixie,’ may be called in to assist isolation in the
production of new forms. This view appears to me to receive the strongest possible con-
firmation when applied to the differential characteristics of the Steinheim Series, since,
as I have pointed out, the four species were selected from a number of varieties of PJ.
levis, after these had migrated into this isolated basin where their surroundings were
favorable, and the field unoccupied. But the uniformities presented by these series appear
to me to indicate the existence of other causes, which must be taken into account if the
phenomena presented by them are to be fully and correctly explained.

The law of acceleration in the inheritance of characteristics is very often difficult to
recognize among shells, but not fortunately among the Steimheim species. The rounded
whorl of Pl. sriniiivensis, begins to be confined to the early stages in the PJ. Steinheimensis,
and in those like figs. 4-19, line ec, pl. 1, which have angular whorls in the full-grown, it is
found at still younger stages, and finally disappears altogether in PI. discoideus, with
some exceptions, and is replaced in the young by a form like that of Pl. tenuis, fig. 4.
This form is again replaced in the young of the extreme forms of Pl. discoideus
and Pl. trochiformis, by a more spiral form resembling the adult of Pl. elegans, the whorl
has the same flat, angular upper side, and rounded lower side. The increasing spirality
of the adults is carried back into the easy stages in the same way and at the same time
as the other characteristics. In Pl. crescens, this acceleration is less noticeable
than in other forms, but even here the inheritance of the acute, angular, outer side
of the whorl takes place much earlier in P. crescens, fig. 15, than in the transition
form, fig. 14. In the young of PI. discoideus and trochiformis, all traceable derivation
from Pl. Steinheimensis is lost, bemg crowded out by the angular sulcatus or elegans form.
This also occurs in Pl. triquetrus var. turbinatus, fig. 20, when compared with true Pl.
triquetrus, fig. 19 and P. minutus.

The inheritance of striz in the first sub-series proceeds according to the same law, but
the presence of numerous hybrids makes it difficult to follow it out.

The small sac-like shell which occupies the apex, belongs to the later embryonic
stages, and as such is present in nearly all Gasteropoda, except such as retain a still earlier
and flatter or more open form, and all the Ammonoids and Belemnoids, and, though absent
in the Nautiloids, its former presence is indicated by a scar which occupies the apex of
the whorl.

I have not a sufficient acquaintance with the local peculiarities of the Planorbide in
other habitats to determine whether there is any general modification in all of the shells,

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 31

or even a majority of them, which may have been caused by the physical peculiarities of
the environment, and which can be attributed solely to their action.

The tendency to increase the spirality in each series at first sight appears to be a
uniform result which might be attributable to the habitat alone. But, as has been shown,
this is a general tendency expressed without regard to locality in nearly all series of the
Mollusca, and shows very forcibly what the author means by the tendency of growth-
force to reproduce under the most diverse circumstances similar forms in similar
succession.

The well-known researches of Mr. J. A. Allen’ and other American naturalists among
birds and mammals have shown that such general modification in the colors, bills, tail and
wing feathers of birds, and in the pelage and size of ears and feet in mammals, do take
place in given localities, and are attributable probably to certain well defined local causes,
such as humidity, temperature, etc. My own similar results obtained from the commercial
forms of the keratose sponges,? and Mr. Scudder’s*® in the insects, also seem to show that
there are such general effects on the organization which may be separated from other
categories of characteristics.

There is not the slightest reason for regarding any of the series, as purely scalariform
and distorted, except the first and second sub-series. These also agree in form with the
Planorbis found in the famous locality of Magnon, where the environment is evidently
unfavorable to the race.

To these instances I can happily add another of peculiar interest which occurs in a marl

bed at Lawlor’s Lake, near St. John, New Brunswick. My attention was first called to
this locality by the kindness of Prof. E. 8. Morse, who sent me a lot of shells collected
there by Prof. C. F. Hartt, late Director of the Geological Survey of Brazil, whose
untimely loss was regarded here, as well as in the country of his adoption, as a public
misfortune.
Since the receipt of these I have personally surveyed the locality in company with
Mr. G. F. Matthews, a well known geologist of St. John, attached to the Canadian Survey.
Residing several weeks in the vicinity, I gathered a large collection, which is now
undergoing the process of sifting. The shells are all scalariform and distorted so as to
resemble closely in form and aspect the third sub-series and the Magnon Planorbes, but
they all belong to the genus Valvata (an unquestionable identification).

It is also worthy of remark, that a true Planorbis is found abundantly side by side with
the distorted Valvatz, so similar to P/. /evis, that I think it may prove to be identical.
This is also distorted but to a less degree. It would be premature to attempt to give a
description of the probable condition of the lake when the distortions were produced in
Valvata, but I hope to be able to present, in course of time, a joint memoir written by
Mr. Matthews and myself. It may be observed, however, that none of the distorted
Valvatz now exist in the lake itself, upon the banks of which, and in immediate
contact with the water, lie the deposits of marl containing the extinct shells. In all
these instances of pure distortion, as well as in others observed by me in speci-

1 Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. 2. 3 Revision of Oedipodide, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.,

? North American Porifere, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 17, p. 482-83.
Vol. 2, pt. 2, 1877.

832 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

mens of Planorbis from this vicinity, or from the West’ there is no difficulty in deter-
mining that they are the result of the unusual and unfavorable conditions to which the
individuals or races were exposed. They all show one thing, namely, a disturbance of
the regular growth of the spiral, resultimg in some extreme cases in the complete unroll-
ing of the whorls. ;

This enables us to separate them at once from such series as are presented in the
third sub-series, and Second, Third, and Fourth Series on pl. 9, and adds considerably to
the evidence here produced. This question undeservedly assumed great prominence in
the discussion of the Steinheim shells, at the meeting of the Naturforschende Gesellschaft
at Munich, several naturalists hastily adopting the view that most of these shells were
distorted forms.

I must also be permitted to point out another serious error which the retrogressive
sub-series illustrate. Many investigators evidently picture a retrogressive series as a
departure from the normal form of any group, which can only be represented by
a line running backwards, so that to them the fan-shaped arrangement of limes is nota
true presentation of the affinities of any given number of series. They demand a series
of radii emanating from a centre to all points of the periphery of a sphere. The utmost
that can be granted to the graphic presentation of such an arrangement is a hemisphere
of radiating lines. A centre of distribution being granted, that centre is a form or
fixed point in geologic time, and from that we can only truthfully depart in lines
of genetic descent, radiating in time upwards, or horizontally, perhaps, but never
backwards.

This common sense view of the relations of affinity and time is farther borne out
by the fact, that in no case are retrogressive series actual returns of forms really
identicalwith those previously existing, unless they are the direct descendants of those
forms. The Baculite is not an Orthoceras, nor is Bactrites, though they are all
wonderfully similar. The Epizoa are never Protozoa, nor is Entoconcha a worm. Nor
are the distorted forms of Magnon,? though Planorbes, identical with their distorted
brethren of the Steinheim basin, though this is a case where identity could perhaps be
found, if the environment was exactly similar, and they belonged to the same species. If
the retrogressive sub-series can be represented by lines going backwards, where are the
more ancient forms with which they are identical ?

It cannot be claimed that the Magnon specimens should be graphically represented in
this way, because they are similar to those of Steinheim ; for it is evident that they are
simply parallel forms. As compared with the normal Planorbis, they can be more
truthfully represented by the extreme lateral line of a fan-shaped arrangement of lines
having a centre, in some existing species of Planorbis.

The habit of representing affinities by the sphere of radiating lines is in direct
opposition to all that we know about genesis, growth, and development, retrogressive or
progressive, and the relations of these phenomena to time and the surfaces upon which
animals live. I may add, also, that it is rarely employed by any, but mere zodlogists.

1U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of Colorado, Dr. 1 Wa 2M. Louis Piré. Planorbis complanatus (forme scalaire).
Hayden, 1874. Report by Ernest Ingersoll, p. 402. Ann. Soc. Malacol. Brussels, vol. 6, 1871.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 33,

II. GeroLocy oF STEINHEIM.

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GEOLOGICAL MAP.

The village of Steinheim in the kingdom of Wurtemburg, stands at the height of about
1867 We. feet above the level of the seat It is not far from Heidenheim on the eastern
slope of the elevated plateau forming the Wurtemburger Alb. This village, from which
the formations described in the following pages acquire their name, and the village of
Sontheim, are situated in a valley which is circular in form, surrounding a central hill;
Steinheim lying just to the north of this elevation, and Sontheim a short distance to the
south. The valley externally, is surrounded by a circle of ridges more or less discon-
tinuous where they have been cut through by the drainage of the surrounding highlands.
The underlying formations of these ridges is the White or Upper Jura. Those of the
central hill, where the overlying Tertiary limestones and sands have been removed
by denudation, comprise representations of all the principal formations from the Lias to the

1 Equal to about 1822.5 English feet, or about 555.5 metres.

84 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

White Jura, 4 and B included. Prof. Quenstedt and Prof. Fraas have given minute
descriptions of the geology, and the map accompanying the official report of the latter to
the government of Wurtemburg, is here reproduced with certain essential changes in
order to illustrate this description. Though differing with regard to the structure of the
underlying portions of the central hill or Cloisterberg, these investigators and Prof. Sand-
berger agree in considering the valley to be due primarily to a synclinal depression of the
White or Upper Jura, which is the surface rock of the larger portion of the surrounding
and more elevated parts of the Alb.

According to this view then, we start in our history with a more or less closed kettle
shaped valley in which the Tertiary rocks, clays and sands, which form the subject of this
memoir, were deposited. These belong, according to all authorities, to the Miocene, and
according to Sandberger to the upper part of that formation.

Surrounding the entire edge or rim of the kettle is found a peculiar coarse breccia of the
older or Jurassic rocks, cemented together by freshwater limestone. My visits to these
rocks were directed wholly to the search for the beds described by Hilgendorf as contain-
ing Pl. aequiumbilicatus and its descendants, and therefore, the geological observations
made were merely incidental. I first endeavored to find these rocks as directed by
Hilgendorf on the west side of the basin, but did not succeed on account of the stormy
weather and my uncertainty as to their exact position. Subsequently, and also in the face
of a cold storm, I succeeded in finding two of the formations described by Fraas as occurr-
ing upon the Burgstall south of Sontheim, or “ Die Landzunge zwischen dem Stubenthal
und Steinkeimer Thal.’ Prof. Fraas writes of this locality very fully, and the cursory
observations made by me accord precisely with his descriptions. The Coarse Breccia lying
externally, or next to the Jurassic rocks, I did not visit, but found the Coarse Fresh-water
Limestone of Fraas in place. This rests immediately upon and passes into the coarser and
underlying Breccia, and contained only poorly preserved fossils, but by careful comparison
I have been able to ascertain that they unquestionably belong to the oxystomus series.
The natural sections which are abundant leave no room for doubt that the larger number
of the forms have a deeper upper umbilicus than is common even in PJ. i7"8, and
approximate more closely to the typical form of PJ. oxystomus. There are also several
moulds of Pl. srr. The umbilicus is large above and deep, as in that species, and the
upper ridge and sulcations plainly though slightly marked.

A fossil somewhat better preserved than others, showed in section a curious
intermingling of characteristics. The last part of the outer whorl had the angular aspect
of Pl. levis Klein as figured by Sandberger. The front part of the same whorl was of
somewhat blunter aspect, like PI. levis, as figured by Klein, the size being also about that
of the specimen figured by Klein. The upper umbilicus was much shallower than in PJ.
oxystomus, and the lower umbilicus wider. In fact it seemed to be a form combining
characteristics of PJ. levis, Pl. Steinheimensis, and Pl. oxystomus. This specimen leads
to the supposition that P/. Steinheimensis should be regarded as a variety of PJ. levis, a
view sustained by Hilgendorf’s observations, and by fifteen authentic specimens of P1.
levis received through the kindness of Prof. Sandberger. They were collected at Undorf,
near Regensburg, and contain several marked varieties.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 35

Eight of the specimens have exactly the form and characteristics described and figured
by Sandberger. Pl. ,.j<7'1s 18 represented by one full-grown specimen, with rounder
whorls in the young, and only the outer whorl angulated. This leads into one full-grown
specimen exactly identical with Klein’s figure of PJ. levis, with whorls somewhat flatter
on the upper side, always rounded externally, and slightly stouter, so that the umbilicus is
deeper. This last is supplemented by one in which the whorls become still stouter, and the
umbilici on both sides perceptibly deeper, whichis absolutely identical with PJ. oxystomus
in the general aspect and characteristic outline of the whorl, but differs slightly in the
more open character of the lower umbilicus.

Two young specimens were until a late period of growth absolutely identical with Pl.
Steinhemensis, var. wequiumbilicatus, and one acquires an angular outer whorl when
not quite half grown. This one and the Pl. levis forms with angular outer whorls in the
adults cannot be distinguished from the typical specimens of Pl. “ji, part of parvus of
Hilgendorf, such as are figured on pl. 5, line k, fig. 1-4, and many others, which a
reéxamination of my Cloister Pit material has brought to light. The full-grown specimen
described as having only the outer whorl angular, is not distinguishable in any way from
the young shells described as transition forms between var. parvus and the Steinheimensis
forms of the pits. The specimens mentioned as identical with Klein’s figure and the one
described similar to oxystomus, can be in no way separated from Pl. oxystomus, especially
forms which can be readily picked out of any large number from formation m, of the
Cloister Pit. In fact, these specimens show conclusively that P/. Steinheimensis, Pl. oxys-
tomus, etc., are varieties of P/. levis, and explain the confusion of characteristics which must
necessarily result as long as this is not recognized. All the gaps were not filled in the
pits with intermediate forms, which would be so considered by an exacting judge opposed
to all theoretical views of the transmutations of specific forms. This failure is here accoun-
ted for, and the gaps closed up by the forms found in the rocks of the Lower Steinheim
Period, and the more ancient Tertiaries.

Other specimens, with rounded outer whorls, are not infrequent in the Coarse Limestone,
which the receipt of Prof. Sandberger’s specimens of PJ. levis have enabled me to identify
as precisely similar to the stouter forms of the Pl. 747s. No specimens were found
which could be said to have whorls identical in all respects with the angular whorls of Pl.
levis, figured by Sandberger. Gillia utriculosa was also found.

Fraas’ description states that the Coarse Limestone passes into regularly stratified fine
grained limestone, his “ Valvaten-Kalk,” which I have called Oxystomus Limestone, to
accord with the views taken here of the affinities of the fossils.

This contains according to Prof. Fraas’ account of this locality only the discoidal forms
found in the oldest layers of the Pits. ‘“ Die Valvaten gehéren der neideren, flachen Form
an, die in der Sandgrube von Steinheim im unteren, iiltesten Lager sich finden.”

The specimens of rock hammered out by me and apparently in place contained
specimens of PJ. levis, var. parvus Hilg., Pl. 778, and Pl. oxystomus with their young.
Pupa antiqua and Gillia utriculosa were also found, but were rare. Remains of fishes were
frequent as described by Prof. Fraas, but all fossils were less abundant than in the surface
limestones next to be described.

36 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

The “schmieriger Sand,” probably a deposit of clayey sand described as underlying the
Oxystomus Limestone, was not visible at any pot in my path in such a way that I could
determine its relations to the surrounding rocks. A large number of loose pieces of a thin
bedded limestone, slightly coarser in texture than the Oxystomus Limestone, were found
lying scattered on the soil of the lower part of the hill from the junction of the Sontheim
and Cloister ridge roads to the western end of the Burgstall. P/. supremus is very
abundant in these pieces, and one form also occurred, a variety with a slightly elevated
spire, which I have described as P/. oxystomus var. cochleata. This also occurs in formation
m of the Cloister Pit in great abundance. Though we find this to be a turretted form
with the whorls flattened on the upper side and so similar in the young to those of the
adult of Pl. °7ses, when seen from the same side, that no differences could be
detected, nevertheless the lower umbilicus was deep, the increase of the whorls in size by
growth exceedingly rapid, and the whole shell evidently similar to PJ. oxystomus, var.
cochleata. Closer investigation showed that this view could be sustained by an almost
uninterrupted series of intermediate forms, and by innumerable young shells, which
covered the surface of the slabs. PJ. levis Sand. also occurred, but this was rare and I
could not detect any specimens having forms intermediate between this and the former.
Gillia utriculosa, Gillia sp. unknown and Pupa antiqua were also found. The fossils
are not sufficiently peculiar to identify those fragments as belonging to any rock in place
and I only mention them here because they contain the rare form of cochleata.

The formation next described by Fraas as occurring on the road to Neuselhalderhof, I
did not visit, but the fossils are fully described by him, and differ from all hitherto men-
tioned. The rock itself he describes as succeeding the Coarse Breccia on the lower part
of the hill, but he does not attempt to synchronize it with the formations just described
on the Burgstall. The fossils consist of Pl. solidus Th., Pl. declivis Br., Pl. platys-
tomus Klein, Pl. exustus Desh., Pl. Hilgendorfi Fraas, Helix sylvestrina Ziet., Helix
gyrorbis K1., Lymneus socialis, Ancylus deperditus Desh., Neritina flwiatilis Linn. Of
all these it will be remarked that only Lymneus socialis and Helix sylvestrina are
found subsequently in the neighborhood of the Cloisterberg, either in the rocks or in the
Sand Pits, and that not a single one occurs in the formation on the Burgstall. To
determine precisely the relations of this formation with regard to those on the Burgstall,
would require a re-examination of the locality, but this is hardly necessary. Prof. Fraas
has described it as lying within the Coarse Breccia, and considers the fauna as related to
the older Tertiary Molasse of Teutschbuch. Hilgendorf describes the formation as a
“hard, thick, yellowish-gray limestone,’ and besides the fossils enumerated by Fraas, says
that it contains the Pl. aequiumbilicatus Hilgend. Steimberger refers this P/. aequium-
bilicatus to Pl. levis Klein, and says in his famous work so often quoted (page 579), that
this species occurs in the Planorbis shale (Schiefern), over the limestone containing Helix
sylvana, and mentions, as found with it, Lymneus dilatatus Noulet. Sandberger describes
the whole fauna of the Neuselhalderhofer or Sylvana Limestone as older than the Cloister-
berg deposits, and adds the following significant remarks :' “The enormous number of such
species as Carinifex multiformis, tenuis, oxystomus, Gillia utriculosa, Planorbis costatus,

1 Op. cit., p. 654.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 37

Kraussii, and so on, which until now have been found in no other Tertiary formation,
astonishes one at first, and occasions one to overlook the manifold relations which exist
between the Steinheim fauna, that of the Upper Freshwater Molasse, and that of the
Sylvana Limestone, which (last) appears at Neuselhalder, under such circumstances that
it must at any rate be considered as the next oldest Tertiary formation of the neighbor-
hood.” ‘This opinion is supported by a long list of all the fossils found in this and other
localities, and other remarks which will be quoted more fully hereafter. Prof. Sandberger
is an acknowledged authority upon the Tertiary shells of continental Europe, and this
opinion, therefore, is of the greatest weight, especially when it is accompanied, as in the
present case, by a wealth of illustration, and a detailed text which most fully supports the
position.

Again the same authority does not describe the Neuselhalderhof rocks, under the
heading of Steinheim, but under that of the “Land und Siisswasser Conchylien des
Kalkes mit Helix sylvana, und der oberen Siisswasser Mollasse der Schweiz Schwabens
und Bayerns,’ and speaks of it as follows: “The Upper Miocene Limestone with Helix
sylvana again appears to the north-west of Ulm, first at Neuselhalderhof” (one hour
from Steinheim), and then describes its occurrence at a host of other places in various
parts of Germany, in scattered detached masses, the remnants of the former deposits of
an equally large number of fresh-water lakes of the Upper Miocene period.

Though none of these authors state distinetly the relationship of the Sylvana Limestone
at Neuselhalder to other rocks or by what it is immediately underlaid, they all agree that
it must be a remnant of a former period and it contains as stated by Hilgendorf the
elements from which the shell fauna of the Steinheim lake-basin were in all probability
directly derived. It is equally clear that it occupies according to Sandberger a position
underneath the Planorbis bed, a formation in which he found PJ. levis var. aequiumbili-
catus Hlg. on the Neuselhalderhof road.

These facts support the proposition advanced by Hilgendorf, that the ancestors of the
Planorbis forms of the Pits are found in the PI. levis, var. aequiwmbilicatus of the
Neuselhalder rocks. Though I cannot for reasons previously given trace all of the forms
to this variety, it is evident, that in the main proposition, the descent of the Pit
forms as a whole from the Neuselhalder and perhaps other Tertiary varieties of Pl.
levis, Dr. Hilgendorf is amply sustained.

More or less doubt must of course hang about conclusions based upon anything but a
series of close observations, and therefore I cannot at present do anything more than
suggest the probability that this First Period really represents two, one including the
Sylvana Limestone and the Coarse Breccia, and the other beginning with the Plan-
orbis rocks. I am also bound to state certain alternatives by no means improbable,
namely, that the remnants of an older fauna as shown in the Neuselhalderhof rocks may
have lived side by side with the new fauna for a considerable length of time, or on the
other hand, that the fauna of the Sylvana Limestone merely represents an unsuccessful
migration from a neighboring fauna, which gained only a temporary foothold in the lake.
Both of these alternatives appear to me to be unsatisfactory, but in such a locality nothing
but the keenest exploration can settle such a question, and that has not yet been given to
this point by any person, so far as I know.

38 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

To the east of the road to Heidenheim and on the low ridge crossed by the road, I took
a sample of rock which I considered at the time to be identical with that occurring in the
East Pit; the more massive character of the deposit struck me at the time, but being
influenced by the conclusions of former authors I did not pay much attention to the local-
ity. I supposed that it was nothing more than a fragment of the limestones from which I
had already collected in the East Pit, and took only one hand specimen, and that only as a
precautionary measure.’ This is to be regretted since its connection with the Sylvana
Limestone and the Cloisterberg rocks is very remarkable. The fossils show that the gradual
character of the transition from one fauna to the other cannot be safely denied. Pl.
discoideus is represented by a full array of varieties, but the flatter forms predominate
such as are figured on pl. 1, line e, fig. 10-12; like these also the young in the few
cases examined had the true discoidean character. The extreme varieties, the stout form
similar to fig. 19, line f, pl. 2, or the thin form shown in figs. 10, 11, line h, pl. 1, are rarer
than the normal forms, though the observer is very apt to think the latter very abundant
until a close examination is made. PJ. tenwis was sought for, but not found.

Two forms occurred which are probably the young of Pl. gieinirinensiss DUE It is not pos-
sible to determine whether they were these or the young of PJ. Steinheimensis. The
upper umbilicus was entirely wanting, and the whorls had the shape of P/. tenuis, but
without its angularity, or flatness on the lower side, or its narrow umbilicus.

Besides these there occurs a specimen of Hyalina subnitens Miill., and Vitrina Suevica
Sand. Though casts, these are well enough preserved to give positive grounds for
their generic identification. The second of these two species is described by Sandberger® as
occurring in the Sylvana Limestone, on the west side of the valley, and the first as in the
same formation at Méringen and Undorf. Both are very rare, and it is quite remarkable
that they should occur in a single hand specimen of this rock taken at random from the
first available point. Lymneus socialis of large size was very abundant.

The exposures of rock on the southern side of the Cloisterberg ridge are divisible into
two portions. The lower part occupies the lower border of the ridge extending in places
nearly to the top. Its structure, though finer than the Coarse Limestone on the Burgstall,
is very similar, and it was evidently deposited under similar conditions. Both are evi-
dently the product of speedy deposition in waters saturated with lime, as shown by their
coarse, irregular, granular structure, and numerous cavities which have led to the frequent
description of the latter as tufaceous.

I surveyed these rocks on every available occasion, and obtained many hand specimens
without, however, being able to determine with certainty either that they were connected
with the rocks to the eastward of the Heidenheim road, or what were their upper
boundaries. All varieties of PJ. discoideus are abundant, except those with very deep
sulcations on the lower or umbilical side; these are very rare, as are also the deep, thick-
whorled forms like those on pl. 2, line f, fig. 19. The prevalent variety is similar to
that described above, from the rocks in the valley to the east of the Heidenheim road.
They differ, however, in the young, which is more immature in aspect and precisely
resembles in a large number of forms the adult of Pi. tenuis. This is, therefore,
an intermediate variety and must be designated as PI. disooideus Specimens Ofid-l« stemesimenaty

1] have called this the Valley Rock, to distinguish it from 2 Op. cit., p. 602.
other formations.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 39

such as are described farther on are extremely rare, but still do occur occasionally, though
they can only be determined when the young can be seen as in natural sections.

Pl. tenwis occurs quite frequently, and also a variety, which is slightly turretted. The
young are a little flattened, and have narrow umbilici on the lower side, so that they
can be at once distinguished. The upper side, and the form as a whole, resembles fig.
6, line ec, pl. 1, but the lower umbiicus is much narrower, and there are no marks
of sulcations. There is one specimen of the young of this species with no umbilical
depression in the upper side, a truly turretted variety, which resembles precisely the
figure of Pl. Lartetii Noul., as figured by Sandberger, on the upper side, but is more
rounded on the lower side.

Lymneus socialis, of large size, was very abundant in places, occupying the rock
to the exclusion of other forms. Guillia utriculosa Sand., was present in considerable
numbers, in the forms figured by Sandberger. Casts of the stems of Chara appear, but
are rare.

The rocks which I have called the Upper Tier, form the summit of the crest,
and like those of the Lower Tier are much denuded, the surface being worn out
into pillars of fantastic shapes, and rough looking knolls. The composition is similar
to that of the Lower Tier, but much harder and denser in places, though nowhere is
the porous characteristic, formerly described, entirely lost. The fossils are much less
numerous than in the Lower Tier with the exception of the Chara stems which are
very abundant in some places.

Pl. discoideus is very rare, but Pl. “ries is of more frequent occurrence. Pl. tenwis
is the most abundant fossil, but is almost wholly represented by the very flat form, which
is quite rare in the Lower Tier. The slightly turretted variety, which is quite common
in the Lower Tier, is found here also, but is much more infrequent. All the specimens
are very small or young, with the exception of PJ. tenuis.

Several young specimens were collected, which were identical with those previously
described in the Valley Rock as the young of Pl. gieifiensige These are here unquestion-
ably the young of forms which in the adult have the characteristics of Pl. tenuis. Never-
theless these young have rounded whorls and open umbilici on the lower side, until a much
later stage of growth than that at which the angular whorls, etc., are usually acquired in
Pi. tenwis. One full grown specimen was similar to Sandberger’s specimens of Pl. levis,
to my Pl. 4zer"*, and also similar to the specimens figured on pl. 1, line b, figs. 13-15.
Its evidence makes the relation of the most extreme forms of Steinheimensis and PI. levis
very clear. It has the peculiar flattened aspect on the upper side and shallow umbilicus of
many forms of Steinheimensis with the whorls on the outer and lower sides exactly like
those of Pl. °z0""". Besides these, several young specimens occurred, which were not
separable from the young of PJ. °"4¢""", and were undoubtedly identical with them.

Lymneus socialis of large size is present, but quite rare. In one hand specimen of a
peculiar gray limestone on the lower border of the Upper Tier on the west side of the
Cloisterberg, were found several specimens and fragments of Pupa antiqua, and a broken
cast of a specimen of Helix. A fragment of a tooth with thick dark-brown enamel, like
that of some small rodent, was also found.

40 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

No stratification was observed, and consequently it was not possible to determine
whether the rocks dipped towards the valley or not. These characteristics indicate
a continuous deposition, or rather precipitation of calcareous matter, since it is hardly
possible to conceive that any metamorphic changes could have taken place sufficiently
extensive to destroy the marks of stratification. It would seem a fact that these
rocks must have been deposited under circumstances very similar to those which occurred
when the brecciated limestones of the outer rim were formed.

This is evidently the view taken by Prof. Fraas, since he alludes to them in the following
words: ‘‘ Diesem Griesfels oder den Breccienkalk begegnen wir zum erstenmal bei Steinheim,
das von einem solchen Schuttgebriges regelmassig umlagert ist.’! And again, “ Sobald
man sich aber dem centralen Klosterberg, und den Dorf nihert, wiederholen sich gleich den
Breccien Erscheinungen aus dem Ries: regellose Massen alteren Juras, die in tertiiren
Sand und Kalk drin stecken.” ?

Sandberger * describes these rocks under the name of “ die klotzigen Kalke,” and says,
that though no stratification is found by which the superposition of the fossils can
be definitely determined, they contain the same association of fossils as in the strata of the
Pit, up to the introduction of “ Carinifex multiformis.”

The statements with regard to the geology, are entirely in accordance with my own
observations, except the portion of Prof. Fraas’ remarks which refer to the underlying
structures of the Jura. With regard to these, 1 am not capable of judging between his
and Quenstedt’s views, nor has the question an important bearmg upon the age
of the rocks under consideration. Whether the Cloister ridge is an irregular mass, as
stated by Fraas’ or an anticlinal ridge, as held by Quenstedt, it is, according to both
authorities, capped by the tertiary deposits here called the Cloister ridge rocks, and these
alone are concerned in the present discussion. When we attempt to compare the fauna of
the opposite sides of the valley, we are at once struck by the great differences between the
fauna of the Cloister ridge and Burgstall rocks. PU. levis ? Pl. ses, and Pl. oxystomus
in the rocks of the Burgstall present the characteristic association of forms found in
the fauna of the Cloister Pit, formation “m,” rather than what their geological position
would lead one to expect, though, as has been shown, these species are really the direct
descendants of PI. Jevis, and their occurrence here ought not to surprise any one. On the
other hand the rocks of the Upper Tier on the Cloister ridge, though they resemble
the Coarse Limestone closely in texture, and may be of the same age, have a very
different set of fossils. Pupa antiqua, Lymneus socialis, an unknown Helix, the tooth
of arodent; Pl. stein(tvsnsiss Pl. tenuis, Pl. “cides, and Pl. discoideus are all distinct
from those of the Coarse Limestone. PJ. °743°""* alone represents the species of this last
named formation.

The fossils of the Upper Tier are, as remarked by Prof. Sandberger, similar to those in
the lowest of the Pit deposits. In the next or Lower Tier this likeness to the fauna of the
Pits is increased, but the change consists more in the relative proportions of the species
than in the introduction of new forms. Lymmneus socialis, Gillia utriculosa, Pl. tenuis,
PI, wscoideus’ Pl. discoideus, are abundant, and Pl. gii(ft¥t.sig Very rare. The prevail-
ing form is, however, as in the Pit formations, P/. discoideus, except in places where
Lymneus socialis excludes all other forms.

1 Op. cit., p. 13. 2 Op. cit., p. 14. 3 Or. cit., p. 630.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 41

If the rocks to the east of the Heidenheim road had contained any Planorbis, Lymneus
or Gillia it might have been said that the Cloister ridge and these rocks together, con-
tained a fauna precisely intermediate in character between the Burgstall and the lower
strata of the Pit Deposits. The presence of Hyalina subnitens and Vitrina suevica, how-
ever, both fossils of the Sylvana Limestone, may be perhaps explained in the same way as
oxystomus

wos in formation m of the Cloister Pit, namely by colonization
from some neighboring part of the lake where they had continued to exist. With these

the reappearance of P7.

exceptions, the fauna of these Heidenheim road rocks certainly presents a somewhat
remarkable character and contains an association of species which appear to follow on very
naturally after those of the Lower Tier, and fill the gap between these and those of the
lower strata of the Pit Deposits. This rock is very similar, as remarked by Quenstedt, to
the limestones of the Pit Period, and at first sight seems to be filled by the normal vari-
eties of P/. discoideus, to the exclusion of other forms, and has altogether a more recent
aspect than the rocks of the Cloister Ridge.

The forms, however, do not indicate a geological transition, because it is in the Lower
Tier that the predominance of discoideus occurs and not in the Upper. The Upper
Tier appears to lie upon that here called the Lower Tier, though with regard to this the
data are not such as would render this view unquestionable. The division between the two
Tiers is uncertam and not sharply marxod off by any line of stratification. It is
possible that, what now is the Lower Tier does not underlie the Upper Tier, but may have
once covered the summit of the hill and been superimposed upon the rocks now exposed
by denudation above. In this case the anomaly of the prevalence of “ discoiceus” in
the lower bed instead of the higher, would be done away with.

Whatever results may flow from future investigations upon the relations of the rocks
of the circular valley, it does not seem to me probable that the bearime of these facts
upon the origin of the fauna of the Pits can ever be materially altered. The rocks
contain a fauna, which is probably older than that of the Pits, and shows that the forms
which here and there appear suddenly at the lowest levels in the Pits had their origin in
a former period of which these rocks are the imperfect remnants. The richness and the
sudden development of the forms of the lowest stratum of the Pits at the two places
examined by me require an explanation, and that given by Hilgendorf does not seem
to me wholly satisfactory. Granting that the spots examined by me were nearer to the
shore line, and his farther out in deeper parts of the lake, and that he found only
Pl. Steinheimensis and Pl. parvus in the lowest stratum of the Pit deposits, the
fact remains that my explorations reached the bottom of the deposits in two places.
If the fauna I found was not contemporaneous with that which he found, the shores
must have been very steep, and have prevented the burying up of the shore-line faunas
until all the deeper parts of the lake were filled. This, however, is a difficult matter
to prove, in view of the fact that the strata have been more or less elevated since they
were deposited.

The Cloister Ridge has suffered greatly from denudation, and standing on the summit
alongside of one of the pillars or knolls, which still remain, the conclusion, that the
entire valley or basin must have been originally covered by rocks of a similar kind,
which have been, however, almost wholly removed, seems to be well supported.

4? HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

Fraas and Quenstedt both attribute the formation of the circular valley and the
superficial aspect of the Cloister Ridge largely to denudation, and I think the inference
is very well founded that a considerable proportion of this must have taken place before
the formation of the lower strata of the Pits. These partially consist in the lower
part of the Little Pit of a peculiar coarse sand, containing fragments of rock,
both resembling in color and texture the Cloister Ridge rocks, though in the small number
of fragments examined no fossils were found. The dark, reddish-brown color of the sand
in the lower strata of the Pits predominates, whereas, in the upper parts above e and
f, this is not the case, and pure white shell sand is more abundant. Above these
again comes in some of the sections a sort of rubble, like that of the basal strata,
containing Lymnea again in abundance, whereas, in the intermediate deposits, it was
but sparsely represented. I was under the impression when at Stemheim, that the
Cloister Ridge rocks were considered older than the Pit Deposits, but nevertheless
spent a considerable portion of time in studying the relations of the two, and made
a series of observations, in order to find out their relations to each other, knowing
that but little attention had been paid to this part of the field.

Dr. Hilgendorf, in reply to my questions, wrote me on the 15th of November, 1877, that in
the Old Pit the massive Fresh-water Limestone of his Section 2? was surely a tufa similar
to the Cloister Ridge rocks. “ ‘Der massige Siisswasserkalkstein’ welcher die Grundlage
des Profils M 2 bildet (p. 481) ist sicher ein Tuff gewesen exhnlich den Felsen, die den
Klosterbere kronen.” He also states that he found in one of his excavations a block of
“'Tenuis Tufla,” resting upon the Jura, which was four and one-half metres thick, and adds
that.they (the Cloister Ridge rocks) agree with the older layers of the pits... The view that
the Cloister Ridge rocks and the lower Pit Deposits were formed at the same time is
rendered improbable by all the facts stated above; by the composition of the lower Pit
Deposits; by the difference in the structure of the rocks, which show that conditions
existed which made the lake at this period very different, a reservoir of lime-laden water
unfavorable, either from this or some accompanying cause, to the existence of such vast
numbers of shells as appeared in the purer waters of the Pit Period; by no signs of
transition between the two,and by the position and inclination of the strata of the Pits,
which dip away from the unstratified Cloister Ridge rocks, indicating a want of conform-
ability, which, however, could not be proved because no contacts were exposed.

The influences which effected the deposition of the Cloister Ridge rocks, were indepen-
dent of any periodical changes which could so materially alter the quantity of sediment held
in suspension by the water at any season of the year as to produce regular strata of slight
thickness. Whereas, within a few feet occur the Pit Deposits regularly stratified in such a
way that we can say with certainty that there were periods of quiet waters for the lime-
stones and clays, and periods alternating with these during which much coarse sediments
were transported and deposited in the form of sands and rubble, ete.

I am aware that the deposits of water impregnated by mineral springs, may take place
in very narrow and confined areas, but that such a thickness of rock exceeding that of the
Pit Deposits, would have been deposited on the Cloister Ridge in the immediate vicinity of
the Pit Deposits, in the middle of a lake, and yet been wanting in the larger number of

1 See p. 44 of this Memoir.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM.

=
(Se)

the forms which are so abundant in the Cloister Pit, which is surrounded by them,
appears highly improbable.

In fact the enclosed pieces of rock, the general composition and incliation of the
strata, and the fossils of the lower Pit Deposits, all seem to indicate for them an origin
later in time, and a partial derivation of the material from the Cloister Ridge rocks.

The uppermost Pit Deposit found by me on the hill immediately above the Old Pit, and
containing Lymnea socialis and described as a rubble derived from the Cloister Ridge
rocks, also indicates a similar origin.

The structure of the Cloister Ridge rocks indicates a contemporaneous origin with the
lower rocks on the Burgstall, as noticed by Professor Fraas, but the fossils are not identical.
No exposure of any rock under the Lower Tier was seen, although diligently sought for,
and I was disappointed in this last hope of obtaiming positive proof of identity between
the rocks on the Burgstall and those on the Cloister Ridge. The impression made by the
fossils and the rock structure was such that under ordinary circumstances, and in a less
important locality, I should hardly, however, have hesitated to consider the Cloister
Ridge rocks as belonging to a somewhat later, if not contemporaneous part of the same
general deposit as those of the Burgstall.

The Pit Deposits do not extend far out into the valley, but are limited to remnants
clinging to the sides of the central hill. The underlying clay, the White Jura 3, has
been described as occurring wherever wells or cellars have been dug in the village, and
was found by Dr. Hilgendorf and the author in the Old Pit at the base of the deposits.
According to Dr. Hilgendorf, however, the White Jura forms the base of the Kast Pit,
and the Opalinus Clay, a much older formation of the Brown Jura, the base of the Cloister
Pit. This last fact shows how great the denudation must have been which took place
before the Pit Deposits began to be laid down on the south side of the hill.

It is very evident also from the singular want of exact agreement between the
layers of adjoining localities, as for example in Sections 7 and 8, representing two nearly
opposite sides of the New Pit, that the physical conditions varied considerably within
a few yards, and that while limestone or clay was accumulating in one spot, sand
was bemg laid down in another immediately adjoining, and the same for greater
distances, and in a larger sense. As, for instance, the sands and limestones of the Cloister
Pit are in direct contrast with the great prevalence of clay in the corresponding parts
of the New Pit and East Pit. There must have been, therefore, very considerable
variation in the state of the water in these different spots, though in such close proximity
to each other. Nevertheless, with all this local variation, there is a regularity in
any one section in the succession of limestones, clays, and sand, which strikes the
observer at first as absolutely uniform. Thus though no great amount of uniformity
exists such as would enable us to synchronize the strata with exactitude in different local-
ities on the same level, there is great uniformity in the alternation of limestone and _ shell
sand, or clay and shell sand, and this may be seen to be the governing fact in any one of
the sections. These minor local differences of structure can not be used to explain the
greater differences of the Cloister Ridge rocks, since in no case are the partings of lime-
stone formed “in situ” of a similar structure. They are everywhere a shell limestone of
greater or less fineness, but never vesicular, or similar to the limestones of Cloister Ridge
rocks except in the lowest parts of the Pit Deposits.

44 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

M. Ami Boué in an article entitled “ Les dépots Tertiaries et Basaltiques de la parti du
Wurtemburg et de la Baviere,” ' describes these Cloister Ridge rocks as a calcareous tufa
deposited upon the strata of sands and clays. This hypothesis is, however, inadmissable,
since no observer has seen any of the Pit deposits between the underlying Jura rocks and
the Brecciated or Cloister ridge Limestones in any locality. The Cloister Ridge rocks are
described as resting directly upon the Jura in all cases. and so also is the Breccia of Fraas,
and they are both laid down in the official map of which a modified copy heads this chapter,
in accordance with these views. The existence of the Lower Steinheim Period though
advanced here in distinct terms for the first time, is really to be inferred from the writings
of Quenstedt, Fraas, Hilgendorf and Sandberger. Every one of these authors allude
either directly or indirectly in such terms to the Neuselhalderhof rocks containing a dis-
tinct and older fauna than that of the Upper Steinheim (or Pit) Period.

The Geological Map of Steinheim, page 335, shows the central hill with Steinheim to the
north and Sontheim to the south. The Neuselhalder rocks are situated to the westward and
are marked like the Breccia of Frass, as are also the Cloister Ridge rocks forming a half
circle on top of the central hill, and also the rocks of the Burgstall, southeasterly from
Sontheim. This was done to place clearly in view the association of rocks supposed to
form together the strata of the Lower Stemheim Period.

Til. Review oF GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS.

Hilgendorf gives five diflerent and detailed sections in the Old Pit, which do not agree
very closely, nor im view of the great disparity of even adjomimg parts of the
same pit, depart much from the sections here given. His remarks about the New
Pit, however, show that here there was a very marked difference. He describes this
as very deficient in limestone, whereas, a glance at my Sections 7 and 8 will show
that the opposite condition occurs at the present time. This agrees also with the
fact that for a long time previous to my visit this had been the pit preferred for the
excavation of sand, and had been very much enlarged. The two following sections
are quoted from the two, which were continued down to the base of the deposits,
by Dr. Hilgendorf.

Dr. HirGenporr’s First SECTION. Dr. HILGENDORE’s SECOND SECTION (LOWER PART).
Limestone; formerly the floor of the pit. (Clay.
Clayey sand. Shell-sand.

2.4. Clay with three strips of shell-bearing sand. Clay.
Shell-sand with Pl. m. sulcatus. Limestone.
3 < Clay. 44 Clay.
Shell-sand with Pl. m. sulcatus. Shell-sand.
Gh ‘ Clay.
if cols Shell-sand.
, | Shell-sand. Sian Sed
$+ Clay Clayey-sand.
eens { Shell-sand.

| Clayey-sand with Pl. m. tenuis and sulcatus, Clayey-sand.

underneath clay with a thin layer of Pl. m. 3 ) Shell-sand.
22 Tenuis and below with large angular pieces of ( Clay.

Jura-limestone. ;
2 Clayey-sand with two shell layers.
1 Massive Fresh-water limestone.

1 Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1824. Vol. 2sc, p. 5—12.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 45

It will be observed, however, that, in the two holes sunk in the Old Pit, under my
directions, the pieces of Jura limestone began to be thrown up as soon as the pick entered
the dark clay layer. Dr. Hilgendorf, in none of his sections, found the dark clay layer,
which forms the base of these two sections. Nevertheless, No. 2, in his First Section,
consisted above of clay layers containing PI. tenuis, and below the large angular
fragments of Jura limestone, which show that he had here reached the bottom of
the deposits. It seems as if no other inference was possible, since everywhere this
indicates the same fact, and is accepted as the limit.

I cannot synchronize his sections and any of mine with success, as in fact might
be anticipated from the great variation which occurs often within a few feet between
the details of the stratification. :

His second section, given on p. 480-81, is the most complete of all, since here he
obtamed his Pl. m. Steinheimensis. With relation to this there are some statements
which have confused me in searching for the exact situation of this form. All of his sec-
tions described are in the Old Pit, and only a general description is given of one in the
New Pit, and of the “ dritte Grube ” which is the Cloister Pit — the East Pit he does not
mention. In the New Pit he distinctly states that he did not reach the Steinheimensis
layer ; and in the Cloister Pit he saw the Sfeinheimensis zone, but not “in situ,” (“ nicht
in situ gesehen.” )

This narrows the places in which this zone was first observed to one section, his
second section.

On p. 492 in his account of Pl. m. Steinhermensis, and its genetic series, he writes as
follows: “‘ Die Zone (1), deren Schilderung den Anfang machen miisste, ist mir leider nur
mangelhaft bekannt, da sie bei meinem letzten Besuch der Gegend unzuginglich war.
Sie enthilt die echten Steinheimensis ; doch zeigen schon hier einzelne Exemplare eine
Andeutung von tenwis — Kennzeichen ; am Ende der letzte Windung tritt oben eine
undeutliche Furche auf, und die Abplattung der Umginge ist auf der Oberseite oft schon
recht merklich. Doch kem einziges Exemplar wiirde mit einem fenwis verwechselt wer-
den kiénnen. Dagegen kommt in der niichsten Zone, (der wntersten, zu der ich in der
alten Grube gelangte), ein tenwis-artiges Aiissere den meisten Exemplaren zu, nur die
scharfe Kante auf der Unterseite ist bet kemem Exemplare ausgebildet, so dass ein
eigentlicher fenwis (unter etwa 1000 Exemplaren) noch nicht zu finden ist. Diese
erscheint erst in der niichsten Schicht in der Begleitung von echten, meist involuteren
Steinheimensis ; beide Zonen zusammen geben eine Reihe von Exemplaren die von der
schénsten Rundung emes Steinheimensis zu der breiten scharf kanntigen Form des
tenuis jede Abstufung zeigen, Doch scheint in den fenwis Zonen schon eine kleine
Liicke zu sein, so dass aus ihr allen eine Reihe nicht mehr gut herstellbar ist. Man kann
die 3 Schichten als Stetnheimensis-zone, Uébergangszone des Steinheimensis zu tenuis,
and fenwis-zone bezeichnen.”'

In this description he declares the second zone to be the lowest which he reached
in the Old Pit, although the first zone is put down in his second section. This
discrepancy however, disappears, when taken in conjunction with the fact that he
deseribes zones 1 and 2 in the section, as two layers of shells contaimed in one

1 The italics are all my own, except, of course, the names of the species.

46 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

layer of clayey sand. The lowest of these consisted of true Steinheimensis shells,
and the upper of ‘emesis shells. In this statement, then, we see that Dr. Hilgendorf
did not find two distinet deposits, but one deposit with two distinct layers of shell.
Unfortunately, the conditions of the problem demand that there should be a wider
separation than this, or else there comes m the doubt that m this case, at any rate,
there may have been the overlapping of local and contemporaneous colonies, so common
in these deposits. This same section also assures me that in my sections in the Old Pit,
the bottom of the deposits at that place was reached. I carefully kept separate ' until
after I had drawn and studied them, the samples of fossils gathered from pockets
in the Jura clay itself, and these contaied specimens of the Pl. multiformis, which
were not only important in respect to being found in this position, but still more
so from the fact that they were transported shells. This was the conclusion arrived
at by comparing them with other specimens. They were encrusted with brown
limestone, and otherwise roughened like rolled shells. They imply that PJ. mu/tiformis
existed before this lowest layer was deposited, and that the few specimens found were
transported from some other locality where living specimens existed, and had been
in the water long enough after the death of the mollusks to acquire their rolled
aspect, and encrusted outer surface.

I farther assured myself from the owner of the pit before digging the hole, that
the floor of the pit had not been disturbed since Dr. Hilgendorf’s visit, and dug
near the spot pointed out to meas the one where he had sunk a pit. This, however,
proved to be a mistake, since the limestone was unbroken, and Dr. Hilgendorf
claims that the section No. 6, of my digging, was nearer the hill, and not so deep as
those explored by him, except his No. 4, and that I struck the Jura clay at a much
less depth, so that in place of Nos. 1-2, I found only his bed 5, equivalent to his disco-
ideus zone.

He states that the fish remains occurred in his zones 6 and 7, while they occurred
much lower in my sections —namely in bed c. His zones 6 and 7, however, are the
equivalents of &. 7. in my sections, and the whole thickness of my sections were between
40 and 55 feet in the Old and New Pits. This is a very significant fact, since he states
that the total thickness of all the strata were 45 Wurtemburg feet— about 42 Eng-
lish feet. “Die gesammte Miichtigkeit der beobachteten Schichten wiirde sich auf etwa
45 Fuss belaufen, wenn dieselben der niimlichen Stelle siimmtlich in giinstiger weise ent-
wickelt wiiren.”

The number of zones which could be distinguished petrologically was, as stated by him,
about 40 in all; but this I could not use for comparison, the number of layers differing so
greatly, that no reliable comparison could be made. The total thickness, also, must have
been considerably lessened in the Old Pit at the time of Dr. Hilgendorf’s visits, since he
did not find the oxystomus and supremus zones here, but in the Cloister Pit, whereas,
these were well shown in the New Pit immediately adjoining the Old Pit, at the time of
my explorations.

1 Tt is of course understood in all these cases, that no exposed surface, or without digging under the limestone
pains were spared to make every sample perfectly reliable, layers, ete. No one but a tyro would think of neglecting

and that in no case was a hole sunk except through — such precautions.
unbroken limestone, nor was anything gathered from an

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 47

I am, of course, bound to believe Dr. Hilgendorf’s explicit statement that he was
obliged in order to reach the Jura, to dig much deeper than I did, and there are certain
facts in my own sections which confirm this. He dug to the Jura in his Sections 1 and 2,
before the Pits were opened so far into the side of the hill, and was therefore farther out
in the valley, and this corellates with the facts in my Sections 5 and 4, as compared with
6. In 6 the lowest formation a is really equivalent to a, 5 in No. 5, which was only a
short distance to the northward, and is replaced by a layer of limestone in No. 4, which
was a considerable distance to the north and east. This is shown by the position of the
limestone immediately between the clays above, and the coarse layer below, in No. 4.

Thus all the layers found below a, 3 in No. 5, and the limestone just above a, 3 in
No. 4, are absent in No. 6. The first of these is the coarse layer a, 2, in Section
5, and a, 3,in Section 4. The great increase in the thickness of this, is carried out in
the Little Pit in the other beds also, so that it can safely be inferred that the beds crow
deeper outwards in this direction, as well as probably to the westward where Dr. Hilgen-
dorf dug. Thus a, 1, in Section 5, is shell sand and clay, becoming two layers and _pos-
sibly more of clay, with at least three thick limestone partings in No. 4.

The conditions governing the deposition of the layers between these three places,
therefore, must have been very different, though gomg forward at the same time, and at
a short distance from each other, and two of them, 5, 6, in nearly the same depth of water.
This conclusion is sustained also by the aspect of the layers containing fish remains, which
occur in b, c, d, according to the observations made upon the adjacent Sections 3, 4, 5,
and 6. The pit formations, in fact, show everywhere the exceeding variability of the con-
ditions under which deposits took place in adjacent spots, for they cannot be dignified by
the name of localities.

The fossils found in @ of Section 6, comprised nearly the whole range of forms,
and indicated also by the worn character of some of the trochiformis shells that they had
colonized this locality from some other part of the lake. Those found in the lower part
of a in contact with the Jura contained eight specimens of Pl. trochiformis, all in one
spot together, with intermediate varieties “his, while at another place in the hole, only
three feet distant, none were found of this species. No divisions were seen in this stra-
tum, but the specimens were fewer in the upper part than in the lower. Fish remains
occurred in a soft calcareous parting immediately between this and formation b.

This last fact is important, since if confirms the opinion that in all probability @ in
Section 6 is equivalent to a, 3, in Section 5.

Do the fossils differ in Section 5? The list given shows that in formation a, 3, only the
following are found, Pl. Steinheimensis, tenuis, discoideus. If | had gone no farther, the
absence of PI. trochiformis, and the intermediate forms Pl. “7el/*rm's mioeht have been
considered very significant in favor of Dr. Hilgendort’s view.

But the next lower formation a, 2, Section 5, at a lower level, contained the same gen-
eral association of forms with the addition of Pl. discoideus, and “chrm’s” The lowest
formation a, 1, contained even a more complete association of forms, and was not separable
from @ in Section 6, with which the specimens were finally mingled on plate 1 in
order to complete the illustration of this stratum, which in both cases rested on Jura
clay. But there was a much greater abundance of PJ. sulcatus, and the Pl. trochiformis
was exceedingly rare, only one specimen being found, and that a rolled shell.

48 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

If we assume in accordance with the contained fossils, that these layers belong to the
Trochiformis zone, the difficulties become greater mstead of less, as we shall see
farther on.

Dr. Hilgendorf in his communication “ Neue Forschung in Steinheim,” Zeitseh. d.
Deutsch. geol. Gesellsch., 1877, p. 450, writes that he tried to find during his
reéxamination of all these localities, single specimens of the higher varieties in the lower
strata, but without success, and also that no less than five other competent observers
failed in the same quest. This is very strong evidence, especially when taken in
connection with the fact, that Dr. Hilgendorf, with a zeal which must make every
one desire to agree with him, sunk no less than ten holes to the Jura, and took
photographs and sections, gomg over all his observations again and again six times,
with great care. Altogether the amount of time, trouble, and study he has expended
is very remarkable, and worthy of the highest success, which I most heartily wish for
hin.

But although my observations cannot compare with his in these respects, there
are certain facts which even the great mass of evidence he is able to bring to bear
upon this subject, do not seem to make clear.

My two sections 5 and 6 reached the bottom of the deposits at the places where they
were made. Whatever formations they represent, whether deposited in deep or shallow
water, rest upon the original bottom of the lake. The trochiformis fossils are not only
the remains of fresh, but also of rolled shells. These were found at a greater depth
in Section 5 than in Section 6. Therefore, if bed @ in Section 6 was the equivalent of Dr.
Hilgendort’s Discoideus or Sulcatus bed, or even if a, 1 in Section 5, was so high, how was
it, that on three occasions, and two different places, | found Pl. trochiformis there.

Dr. Hilgendorf’s Trochiformis bed unquestionably lies immediately underneath m,
the Oxystomus bed, in all my sections, and, if a@ in my section is part of the
Trochiformis zone, then the Trochiformis bed would extend from m, to the Jura,
a greater thickness, and a larger number of beds than could be meluded in that
formation, and yet preserve the sequence of the forms as described by him, since under
this again must come five out of the ten zones described by hin.

His recent researches may possibly remove these doubts by showing how this can be
accounted for, but there still remain other facts.

Unquestionable Pl. oxystomus occurred in the New Pit, much lower than m, the
first true Oxystomus zone of the Old Pit and of the Cloister Pit, namely in h, Section
8, together with P. crescens,' which also ought not to have occurred until the Oxystomus
zone was reached. Pl. oxystomus also occurred in Section 6, in bed 7 again in company
with PZ. erescens.

Another point in this connection is the occurrence in a, 3, of Section 4, in a formation
lower than a Section 6, and equivalent to a 2 in Section 5, of a specimen of P/. (iians.
This is such an intermediate form as is figured on pl. 4, fig. 2, which does not occur
until e is reached in the Old Pit, pl. 2, lme e. This specimen was found when hunting

This species also occurred in f, before P/. oxystomus.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 49

very carefully, by digging into the sides of the Pit, for the few specimens of PI. tenuis
which accompanied it.

But what is more important, and to me most mexplicable in this matter, is that
I failed to distinguish throughout any beds which could be considered as corresponding to
those described by Dr. Hilgendorf as sulcatus, “Qiiis’, discoideus, “iris, trochiformis
and oxystomus.

There were here and there beds, such as a 3, Section 4, which held only Pl. tenuis,
but this had also @nudatus, q 2, Sect. 5, could have been "gchiformis’ but here was also
trochiformis ; and a 3, Sect. 5, could also have, but for this, been considered a true
Discoideus bed.

Pl. minutus came in formation d, Old Pit — but how account for the earlier appearance
of Pl. cums in a 3, Sect. 4, so much earlier, before the fish layers, and in what would
otherwise have been a perfect P/. tenwis bed. In the New Pit the same difficulty occurs
with P/. oxystomus and crescens which, as described above, put in an appearance too
early, and spoiled the definition of the PJ. trochiformis formations.

So also, in the East Pit, formation d, e, otherwise a perfect Pl. discoideus formation,
with PI. triquetrus, and Pl. costatus and minutus as described by Dr. Hilgendorf, con-
tained one or two broken specimens of Pl. oxystomus. Not much in themselves, but
very significant when taken in connection with other facts, and also when it is considered,
that to obtain these, I sifted considerable material taken from this very thick formation.

In this Pit, however, I could easily trace the kind of evidence brought forward by
Dr. Hilgendorf, and from d, e to the true Trochiformis bed h, which would give a very
perfect series from Pl. discoideus or sulcatus to Pl. trochiformis.

I can think of no way to account for these discrepancies, except the different results
of different methods of research. My collections are much smaller, and my observations
more limited than those of Dr. Hilgendorf, and therefore it may seem to some readers
that it is presumptuous on my part to oppose his results, but from another point of view
this only makes it more difficult to account for the exceptions which were found.

I feel myself, that the conclusions with regard to the Cloister Ridge rocks need more
positive evidence than I have been able to bring forward, but the facts with regard to the
occurrence of fossils in the Pit Deposits, are not in any case theoretical. The identifica-
tions are made after comparison with a set of types sent me by Dr. Hilgendorf, and after
prolonged and repeated observations, and the discrepancies occur in species of marked
characteristics, and easily identified. The method of research excludes error in any other
respect as much as is possible in such investigations.

The theory also, which I have advanced, that the Cloister Ridge rocks really contained
a more ancient fauna than the Pit Deposits, is substantiated by the geological facts,
the fauna contained in them, the “ tenwis Tufa,’ found lying on the Jura Clay, by Dr.
Hilgendorf, and described by him in a letter to me, the structure of the lower beds of the
Pit Deposits, and so on.

Again, the situation of the Cloister Pit, where Dr. Hilgendorf found a full series of beds
near the highest elevation of the ridge, and which must be at least a hundred feet

1The sides of the Pit above in which the Pl. denudatus this shell differs in color from them, and agrees with the
also occurs in formation e were removed wel] back, and bleached, dead white Pl. tenuis found with it.

50 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

higher than the Old Pit, seems to show that the relative depth to which one may dig
in reaching the Jura does not count for much. The elevations which have taken
place, and which of course primarily affected the Jura clay also, make it impossible
to say that the strata represented in a hole, six feet deep in one spot, may not
be of equal age with strata resting on the Jura, ina hole fifteen or twenty feet deep.
The foldings of the formations and the broken aspect of the limestone layers above,
show that restricted local and vertical movements in the formations have taken place,
and that a general movement of the Cloister Ridge upwards has also taken place.
This last would account for the greater thickness of the formations as a whole as we go
outwards from the ridge, but not for the greater thickness of the same beds. If this is
a fact, such formations as a1, 2, Sect. 5, are older than a 1, Sect. 6; and al, Sect. 4,
older than a 1, Sect. 5.

The great uncertainty in this problem is the variability of adjacent beds, as in m—p, of
the two sections in the New Pit, or d, e, f, of the two sections in the East Pit.

Of course, if the fossils followed each other in regularly arrangeable series, as
described by Dr. Hilgendorf, in a number of places, and throughout the entire series
of formations from the Jura clay to m inclusive, in every pit and excavation, there
could be no doubt, but, if they fail in a single section, it is fatal, provided the number
of exceptions found are sufficient to eliminate errors of observation due to the accidental
intermixture of higher occurring species in lower formations; and this appears to me to
be the real state of the case.

The following section of ‘Sandberger’s is given in detail, because it was taken in
the East Pit, which is likely to vary exceedingly with farther exploration, and also
presents more difficulties than the others.

SANDBERGER’s SECTION. | EqurvALentTs. SeEcTION 2,|| SANDBERGER’S SECTION. | EQUIVALENTS. SECTION 2,
RAST err East Prr.
No. Metres. No. Formations.|| No. Metres. No. Formations.
1 Shell-sand ? d 21 Limestone 0.03 20 Limestone
2 Bk 1.10 2 Shell-sand 22 Shell-sand 0.12 21 Shell-sand
3 Limestone 0.01 3 Limestone — 23 Limestone 0.05 | 22 Clay
4 Shell-sand 0.20 4 Shell-sand 24 Shell-sand 0.28 23 Shell-sand
5 Limestone 0.01 5 Limestone e 25 Limestone 0.02 | 24 Clay i
6 Shell-sand 0.22 6 Shell-sand 26 Shell-sand 0.09 25 Shell-sand
7 Limestone 0.02 7 Limestone 27 Limestone 0.06 26 Limestone |
8 Shell-sand 0.30 8 Shell-sand 7} 28 Shell-sand 0.14 27 Shell-sand
9 Limestone 0.01 9 Limestone 29 Limestone 0.04 | 28 Limestone JJ
10 Shell-sand 0.08 10 Clay 30 Shell-sand 0.12 7
11 Limestone 00.2 11 Limestone rf 31 Go 0.03 29 Shell-sand i kl
12 Shell-sand 0.30 12 Shell-sand 32 Gr 0.62
13 Clayey-sand 0.16 13 Clay | 33 Limestone 0.05 30 Limestone :
14 Limestone 0.58 14 Limestone J 34 Shell-sand 0.97 31 Shell-sand xl
15 Shell-sand 0.45 15 Pocket shell-sand } 35 Limestone 0.16 32 Limestone m
16 Clayey-sand 0.15 Clay surround’g Ist 36 Shell-sand 0.85 | 33 Clay
17 Limestone 0.62 16 Pocket of shell- | “fl 37 Limestone 0.09 | 34 Limestone
sand and also oc- { ® 88 Shell-sand 1.30 35 Shell-sand n-o
cupying centre. | 39 Limestone 0.25 | 36 Limestone
18 Shell-sand 0.50 17. Pocket shell-sand J 40 Shell-sand 0.25 37 Clay-sand
19 Limestone 0.04 | 18 Clay h 41 Limestone 5 Qh al]-
20 Shell-sand 0.50 | 19 Shell-sand j 42 SHelceand he ee aS

My own Section 3, was not taken directly up the face of the cliff, but in two
connected parts of the cliff, and Section 2, from a hole in the centre of the pit.

1 The correspondence here is much confused on account of the distribution of the shell-sand in pockets in the midst of the clay.

pn Ee eee

Annivers Memoirs, Bost.Soc Nat Hist.

Cloister Pit.

RAMA)
WOU

Explanation of Signs.

ZAABARAA
AL a
LSI OOS

Surtiice Lubble .

Broken liyer Of Limestone oS ©
f

Cly.-

Shell - sand aul Clay.
Shell - sand.
Limestone.

Depot leriivd Srom
Cluister Hidye rocks.
Dark-broie hey.

'

—

x
7

—4---------4-+

XS

SOON NO BAUM ANS NNN

ANAS UAL LERRATRANY|

SSSSSTSNU TG SANTA SSESUUSNSNUONNG
a
AN WN

Rea

HOLOGICAL SECTION OF THI

E UPPER PERIOD AT STEINHEIM .

= =

———————— 7
(RRNA

—__

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 51

It is quite curious that under these circumstances, such a close agreement could
have been obtained as is exhibited in the preceding table. In this table, however, I
have taken the liberty to transform the word sand into shell-sand, otherwise Sandberger’s
table is given literally. This was done, because in my own notes and sections all hard
sand is put down as shell-sand, whether entirely composed of shells and their fragments,
or largely made up of detritus.

The sections from 1-8 inclusive, were taken from the precipitous sides of the various
pits, which are located on the Geological Map. The measurements were taken with
a rule or tape in millemetres, from the face of the strata, and in no case estimated.
Nevertheless, the thickness of the limestone partings are quite often exaggerated,
in order to make them of an appreciable thickness in the printed sections, where,
if reduced to ;1,, they would in some cases be too thin to show the cross-bars
which indicate their lithological character.

It may be said that there is general prevalence of the clay layers below in the lower
parts of Sections 4, 6, and probably also in 2, 3, and 7, 8, if they had been penetrated
sufficiently ; and that these clay bands are for the most part destitute of fossil shells.
Above the fish layers ¢ the sand predominates until we reach formation m, when the
clay again appears in excess. It will be observed that this coincides with the three great
faunal groups which may be made, the period of the PJ. Steinhemensis which is rare
above the fish formation ¢; of Pl. trochiformis, which is so abundant from formation d to
J, inclusive ; and of Pl. oxystomus which is equally characteristic of formations m to o,
inclusive. This is apparently contradicted by the prevalence of clay in formations / to i,
inclusive, in sections 3 and 4. We can, however, account for these as unfossiliferous
partings between the layers of shell-sand, corresponding to the limestone partings of the
the other sections.

Notwithstanding this apparent correspondence between the kind of bottom obtaining
in the lake at any one time and the species of shells living at that time in the
waters, there are many failures which prevent the application of this rule in detail.
Thus, the oxystomus series, which is prevalent im the clays of formation m, in Sections 3,
7, and 8, are equally prevalent in the sands of the corresponding formations in the
Cloister Pit, and in the Coarse Limestone of the Lower Period. Pl. trochiformis,
also, which appears usually only in the shell-sands, is very abundant in the upper
clays of Section 8, and the formation p, of Section 7. All species seem to be found
in about equal abundance in the limestone partings, but are rarer and often entirely
absent in the thin clay layers, or partings described above, and in some of the thicker
beds.

Nevertheless, the general tendency of the observed facts, leads to the conclusion
that the entire series of animals found below formation m preferred to inhabit localities
in which sand was being deposited, or had sandy bottoms, and those from formation m
upwards were either equally well fitted for clayey or sandy waters, which seems the
most probable conclusion, or preferred to dwell in clayey localities.

This conclusion derives additional probability from the fact that the return of the
trochiformis fauna, which occurred in formation x, in the East Pit, Old Pit, and New
Pit, was accompanied by a deposit of shell sand.

52 F HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

The dip of the strata is quite irregular, considering the limited boundaries of the pits,
varying from 10° to 30° of inclination outwards on all sides of the central hill.
This elevation, to a certain extent, evidently took place before the formations of the
pits were entirely completed. This is shown by the pocket contaiming the Pl. multiformis
and Pl. discoideus shells in the New Pit, and also by a similar pocket in the East Pit.

Formations m and « 2 of
Section 9 were evidently de-
posited one upon the other
in the New Pit. The only
way to explain the appearance
of the wood-cut, after this,
is to imagine that the fold-
ing took place along the lines
of elevation. The wood-cut
represents a_section at right
angles with the dip, so that

Shanon the folds run across the strike
of the layers.

Subsequent to the folding, a certain amount of denudation must have removed part
at least of the bed # 2, and the upper part of the bed m, in order to permit the deposition
of no, and x 3.

Whether the same tendency to fold continued, caused by the resumption of the
process of elevation on either side of x 3, and gave the basin-shape to n 0, deepened the
folds on either side, but did not alter them otherwise, leaving « 3 a symmetrical
hollow, or saucer-shape, is doubtful. They seem to belong to the same system of folds as
x 2 and the want of «x above is probably due to local denudation. On the face of the pit
on the north side of x 3, this is shown by the anticlinal bend in m, but even more
perfectly by the fact that » 0, and m become exactly parallel farther to the north.

Section 10 shows that some-
what similar conditions must
have obtained in the East Pit SOL
at about the same time. Un-
fortunately I had confused the =»
samples from « 1, with those 'm

c c | ee aaa SS eee S|
from k, and consequently only 52S =I: —S= SESS
rely on my notes made upon "-— — = Za
the detailed section. These SSS

Ke See

speak of trochiformis in two =
places as prevalent, but not |
abundant ; whether, therefore, a Ze

other fossils occurred with this
I cannot say.

Here the bed @ is in both cases a pocket—in one case in a fold, and in another evidently
occupying a hollowin an undisturbed clay layer. It is very evident that formation

SECTION 10.4

1 These sketches are not drawn to any definite scale.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 53

x 1 of Sect. 3, and Section 10 above, and of Sect. 6, is not the same as formation x 2
of Sect. 7, since they are separated by the clay bed m, and for the same reason formation
x 3, of Sections 3 and 7, is not the same as x 2, since these are separated by formations n
and o. ‘There are really, therefore, three series of formation 2, due to the colonization
and re-colonization of the same spots by the persistent forms of PJ. discoideus and
Pl. trochiformis. How is it possible for « bed fauna to alternate in this way with
clay in pockets, or in folds, as the case may be, or with beds of pure shell-sand and
shell, without recognizing their resemblance to the same mode of occurrence of similar
pockets in many of the clay layers below? That they were ruims of the older
trochiformis formations and were swept into these well defined local depressions is
of course possible, but it is an assumption which an experienced collector would be
slow to adopt. It is a well-known fact that deep holes in water-ways are usually
more or less filled with dead shells of various kinds, but these usually exhibit decisive
marks of the rough handling they have received from the currents.

This does not appear in the shells of the x beds so far as I have observed them, and
even in such a small lake as Steinheim this must, I think, be asked for. Many shells are
unquestionably water-worn and, if so, why not all in these beds if, as claimed by Dr.
Hilgendorf, they are made up of wholly transported materials.

The upper layer of limestone in the Old Pit, and all the layers of limestone above
formation 7, in the East Pit are fragmentary. These fragments lie more or less closely
together, and look very much like continuous layers broken up in place by the bending
of the strata. Whether these may be taken as evidence that the strata lying upon them
at the time of their last elevation was not of great thickness, it would be hazardous at
present to say. One fact, however, seems to indicate something of this sort. The lime-
stone above J, was probably free from any great pressure at the time the folds took place,
which formed the pocket at x 1, in section 10, as also was that of / in the Old Pit. This
suggests that the same condition of affairs probably occasioned the breaking up of the
succeeding layers in the East Pit.

The formations seemed to have been disturbed in the East Pit, and in the Old Pit, at
about the same time, that is after the deposition of « 1 upon /, or k, 7. This did not seem
to affect the strata in the New Pit, however, until after the deposition of clay beds con-
taining fossils, which caused me to synchronize them with m and n, 0, in the East Pit, and
the bed « 2 which was deposited between them.

The broken aspect of the layers of limestones were not, when I saw them, similar
to the descriptions given by Dr. Hilgendorf in “‘ Neue Forschung in Steinheim,” p. 452,
but possessed in all the cases observed by me, a regularity which I could only
account for as the result of the bending of the strata after deposition. It is well known
in this country that not very dissimilar effects occur from the compression of gneiss
occasioned simply by the removal of the superincumbent rocks. The upper layer
relieved from the weight, in some spots forms miniature anticlinals and synclinals, and in
others bursts with considerable violence in the quarries of Monson, Mass., where these
phenomena have been observed by Prof. W. H. Niles.’’ I could not understand the reg-

1 Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. History, x1v, 80.

54 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

ularity which the upper layer of limestone in the pits presented, if the pieces were trans-
ported there, and thrown loosely together.

It will, however be observed, that formation m, of the Cloister Pit, presents a fauna
closely similar to m, in the other pits, and that of no above in all of the pits is
quite as similar to m, as the fauna of « 3, above is to that of z 1, 2, below, wherever
that bed occurs twice. There is, it seems to me, just the same reason for maintaining
that m and no are composed of drift, as there is for maintaining that « is made
up in this way. In conclusion, I would say also, that there are the most positive reasons
for the belief that x in Section 8, represents the upper and not the lower bed 2, of Section
7. I find it so mentioned in my notes and sketches taken on the spot. I was, however,
unable to say whether m in Section 8 represented m alone, or both m and no,
of Section 7, with absolute certainty, since the south-east corner of the pit was concealed
by a recent and heavy fall of loose materials. One thing, however, can be said with
certainty, that a bed corresponding to lower x, on the east side of the pit, as repre-
sented in Section 7, is not to be found on the south side, and the thickness of the clay
on that side is very nearly equal to that of the two clay beds on the east side, and
it has every appearance of being continuous with those two, If, therefore, lower a is
drift, it had a very limited distribution, since it is certainly not found on the south side of
the New Pit. This also corresponds with the unquestionably mere pocket-like aspect of
the upper # deposit in the East Pit, and is evidently not in harmony with the supposition
that this is a bed of detrital matter, as represented by Dr. Hilgendorf, spreading over
the entire bottom of the lake. ;

I do not consider this point of any great consequence, or worthy of much debate,
since it makes not the slightest difference with regard to the main question, whether PJ.
trochiformis lived after the Pl. oxystomus bed was deposited, or not; though it is of vital
importance to determine whether oxystomus preceded trochiformis in time.

One statement, however, of Dr. Hilgendorf’s is of great importance, since it shows that
very considerable changes likely to disturb the regularity of the deposits in very confined
areas, as is claimed here, did occur in one case, whether they occurred in the latest Z’rochi-
formis bed or not. On p. 452,’ he states that in the Su/catus bed he found broken Stein-
heimensis clays “ Platten,” “ tenuis Gesteinen,’ blocks of porous sulcatus tufa, clayey
sand and Jura pieces, all mixed in the greatest confusion, and two metres thick. This
mass evidently was of very limited extent and shows how great are the local peculiarities
likely to be found in any one spot from the transportation of material.

As he says, these mixtures are apt to escape a careless observer, and I might add also,
any one perhaps, not especially looking for them. In this extraordinary mixture, how-
ever, of the Sulcatus zone, he found no intermixture of the higher occurring forms. This
fact he justly regards as very important to his hypothesis, smce the rocks also. are all
older than the stratum or zone in which he found them.

The characteristics and situation of the bed 7 appear to make it very suitable as a
standard for the comparison of all the formations above and below its level. It occurs
immediately between the beds containing the trochiformis fauna, and those containing the
oxystomus fauna, and it affords a strong contrast in its fossils and lithological characters,
and is also apparently universal in its distribution. These reasons have induced me to

1 Neue Forschung in Steinheim, Zeit. d. Deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch. 1877.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 55

adopt it in the table as a fixed level through which I have drawn a dotted line. Depart-
ing from this in any section, it becomes possible to synchronize the different formations.

If we assume that the usual sedimentary matter held in suspension by the waters of the
lake was clay, and that these waters were saturated with lime, we have an explanation of
the rapid formation by deposition of the plates of limestone. This being the necessary
consequence of the undisturbed action of the water, we should have the dense limestone
layers deposited on the bottom wherever the currents were not disturbing it and spreading
out the coarser sand derived either from the Cloister Ridge rocks or the adjacent surfaces
of the Jura.

The constant shiftings of the local currents, due either to the obstacles they themselves
had built up or other disturbing causes, would produce this aspect of regularity in each
section of the layers, as well as the want of correspondence in the synchronous deposits of
even adjoining sections.

The widely distributed formations could never be limestones, but might occasionally be
composed of materials derived during floods from the surrounding country, that is of clay
or sand. A glance at the sections will show that this is the case since e is of shell-sand,
m of clay, and none of the limestone-tables are continuous. The general changes, the
predominance of shell-sand during the Trochiformis period, and of clay during the Oxys-
tomus period, would also seem to be accounted for by a greater or less prevalence during a
certain number of successive seasons of similar deposits, due to changes in the localities
from which the greater part of the drainage was derived, or to other local causes.

In this condition the Stemheim deposits of the Pits assume the aspects which might be
expected to arise in a land-locked lake with a central island. The deposits would be
formed in some places from the debris washed off of the rapidly disintegrating surface of
the island, and in others, even in close approximation, the ordinary formation of limestone
or the precipitation of fine sandy material, or flocculent clay, might take place in quieter
water, or farther from the shore. Any of our inland lakes present similar conditions
wherever local streams empty into them. During heavy rains as at dffierent seasons of
the year, the debris of the beaches and bottom is subject to noticeable variation within
very short ranges.

Another fact in this direction indicates also that the amount of time represented by
the Steinheim Pit Deposits must have been very limited. Strata slowly formed are
marked off in exceedingly thin layers, since but a small amount of fine sediment is held
in suspension by the water, and slowly deposited during a given period of time. The
thicker layers result from a larger amount of sediment which has been held in suspension
and falls with greater rapidity. This accounts for the finer bedding of the clays,
fine grained sandstones, limestones and so on, as contrasted with the coarser rocks and
rubble.

The strata and sometimes entire thick beds of shell-sand bear no marks of stratification,
and must, therefore, have been built up by continuous and rapid deposition. The
clay layers are of various degrees of thickness, but usually an inch or more,
and very rarely of paper-like thinness, and this is true also of the limestones. The
fish-layers of formation ¢ are particularly instructive in this respect. The fishes being
necessarily very destructible, testify to several things: first the rapid deposition of the

56 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

layers, which are an inch or more in thickness; second, the prolonged continuance of
conditions about equally favorable to the rapid formation of limestone, or of clay strata ;
and third, the unfavorableness of the waters, at this time, to the existence of the
fish, which must have died in vast numbers.

None of these facts, so far as the Pit Deposits are concerned, are in favor of the
vast periods of time which have been claimed by Darwinists, in order to account
for the changes which are supposed to have taken place in the fauna of the lake
during the Upper Period.

There is only one fact which would seem to interfere with this conclusion. Some
of the “ shell-sand beds” are mostly composed of broken shells, and it may be inferred
that they are wholly made up in this way. This may possibly be so, in some instances, in
the middle part of the deposits, but is of local occurrence, and not a general characteristic.
The limestones would come under this head more than any other, as might have
been anticipated from their chemical constitution, but even here in most cases the matrix
is an even-textured argillaceous limestone, and*is not invariably composed of shell
fragments alone.

It is very evident that the formation of the strata, either by precipitation or deposition,
was going on all the time, either as clay, limestone, or shell-sand, all over the area de-
scribed. The apparently regular interruption of the deposition of the clays and shell-
sands by beds of limestone are too local to indicate in any very positive way the constant
recurrence of periods of time or seasons when the waters of the lake were generally affec-
ted, and contained so little transported sediment of any kind, that limestone layers could
be formed on the bottom which would be continuous. These facts, the local distribution
of the beds of shell-sand in some clay strata, as in Section 5, and in several instances not
sketched in the section, in the East Pit and New Pit, the dark clay band d, Section 2,
in the midst of shell-sand, all appear to show that the unstratified beds were swept into the
spots where they are now found by currents of greater or less strength, and built up con-
tinuously during a period of time limited by the extra supply of water rushing down from
the drainage of the island, or the neighboring hills, or both. This extra supply of water
could only recur at certain seasons of the years ; therefore the unstratified beds either rep-
resent rainy seasons, and the intermittent local currents which they would naturally pro-
duce, or constant currents shifting in position from year to year, or season to season.

If the latter theory is accepted it becomes exceedingly difficult to interpret the regularity
with which the coarser beds were locally interrupted by the limestone layers, without
assuming that there were years or periods of years, during which the currents flowed con-
stantly bringing in shell-sand, and then shorter or longer periods of months or years of
rest. These would occur at regular intervals during which the currents flowed somewhere
else to return again by some inexplicable fatality directly over the same spot, begin to
increase in volume, and move so fast that shell-sand could be again transported.

The latter hypothesis appears to me to present by far the greatest difficulties, besides
being contrary to experience. If we adopt the former, the Steinheim Pit Deposits show
a very limited thickness, for the most part of loosely aggregated materials which must
have been heaped up in a shorter time than one would be led to suppose by the number
of new fossil forms produced and by a cursory examination of the strata.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 57

I cannot, of course, presume to say that the period of time represented by the
Pit Deposits was or was not long enough to allow of all, and more than all the
changes which took place in the fauna, but simply point out the fact, that no grounds
exist for the assumption that they represent any very prolonged periods of time, such
as have been habitually, and, in my opinion, erroneously claimed, by most naturalists,
as essential for serious morphological changes in animal series.

Professor Cope’s researches among fishes and reptiles, the author’s among the
Ammonites, and, at a later date, Mivart’s work on the “Genesis of Species,’ have all
given alarge amount of evidence, which tends to show that vast periods of time are
not necessarily essential to the production of new species, or even new generic or
family forms. Nor is yet the converse true, that animals which have lived through great
periods of time, and many geological changes, are necessarily and correspondingly altered
in their organization. The testimony of all paleontologists bears witness to the last
statement, but the first requires more proof, and for this I must refer my readers to the
authors above mentioned.

In the chapter on the geology of Steinheim, an attempt has been made to show
how great the denudation of the surface of the rocks of the Cloister Ridge must have
been, and that a part of it probably took place before and during the deposition of the
lower part of the Pit Deposits. The evidence that a great amount of denudation
has occurred since the Pit Deposits were formed, would not need to be summed up
to any one who had seen the locality.

The whole area of the circular valley must have been at one time covered to a consid-
erable depth by stratified deposits similar to those of the Pits, either resting upon the de-
nuded limestones of the Lower Period, or what is more probable, merely abutting against
these remnants on the sides of the valley. These have almost entirely disappeared, since
what is left adhering to the sides of Cloister Ridge can only be considered as the merest
fragments of what the mass originally was. What the vertical height of these deposits
must have been is of course wholly problematical. Sufficient evidence has been brought
forward to show that, though the elevation of the Cloister Ridge took place before the Pit
Deposits were formed, this elevation was continued certainly after their deposition was
completed, and probably also went on more or less while they were being deposited. This
of course, would be an element in the problem, as well as the determination of the extent to
which the neighboring heights and the outlets, which once bordered and limited the depth
of the waters of the lake, had suffered from sub-aerial denudation. This portion of the
problem, therefore, can only be safely approached by a local geologist, and it would be
idle for any one else to attempt an estimate. That the Pit Deposits were much thicker
than they are at present, and that they present in every way only fragmentary evidences
of what the fauna of the lake was, as well as of its geological history, can hardly be
gainsaid, unless different conditions governed in former periods from those which we now
find in similar localities.

It remains only to add that ample provision for the removal of any required thickness
of deposits once probably existed in the drainage of the surrounding mountains. A pro-
portion of this even now passes through the valley of Steinheim to the Steubenthal as
described in Quenstedt’s article previously quoted, and ample evidence of the former exist-
ence of a more powerful stream, may be found in the official geological map of Wurtem-
burg, “ Heidenheimer Blatt,” and its accompanying text by Prof. Fraas.

58 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

IV. Descriptions oF SERIES AND SUB-SERIES.
FIRST SERIES.

Planorbis minutus.

Planorbis multiformis minutus Hilg., Monatsber. d. Akad. d. Wissensch., Berlin, July,
1866, f. 16.

Pl. Zietenii (pars) Sand. Land und Siissw. Conchyl. d. Vorwelt., p. 645.

Pl. hemistoma Klein, Jahreshefte Ver. Naturg. Wiirttemb. 2 vol. 1847, pl. 1, fig. 25.

This remarkable species seems to have in the aspect of the whorl, and the general
thinness of the disc-like form a very close affinity for P/. crescens. It differs,
however, in the greater involution of the whorls in the healthy forms which precisely
resemble Pl. Kraussii, in the aspect of the umbilici when viewed from above or
below. This part is narrower, and the internal whorls less exposed than in PI. crescens.
It is plain that a flattened form of Pl. Kraussii would be precisely intermediate between
these two. After much search, I found a specimen which was a trifle flatter than
the usual square form, the outline being similar to that of Pl. minutus, but it was
still considerably larger than the ordinary specimens of this species, and could not be
considered a hybrid. A close comparison between the largest minutus and Pl. parvus, was
more successful. The typical minutus forms have a narrow umbilicus, as compared with
Pi. parvus, in any of its varieties, but this characteristic is exceedingly variable in
the species, and many of the specimens have a wide umbilicus on the lower side. If we
compare these with the young of PJ. parvus, as figured on pl. 3, line a, fig. 6, 20-22, they
will be found to be almost identical.

Var. minutus can by no means be considered the ancestor of var. parvus, on account
of closer affinity of the latter for P/. levis, and Hilgendorf has also found it in company
with Steinheimensis in the lowest formation. Both Hilgendorf and Sandberger decided
that the affinity of this species was closer for Pl. Jevis than for var. Steinheimensis,
and this is also my own conclusion. My observations agree also with those of Hilgen-
dorf, in respect to the derivation of crescens from parvus, and with both his and
Sandberger’s, in tracing a close affinity with P/. minutus. They differ, however, in
preferring to trace a direct connection between Pl. minutus and Pl. levis, through
the normal forms of both species, rather than through the aequiumbilicated varieties
of Steinheimensis.

Again, if we compare a large minutus with the forms of Pl. parvus having an angular
outer whorl, pl. 3, line &, fig. 1, this similarity strikes the eye very forcibly. Compare
also the figures of parvus on pl. 3, with the those of minutus, line a, pl. 4. This
connection with parvus settles the question of size, since this variety of parvus is
certainly an intermediate species in this respect, between minutus and Pl. levis. I
have, therefore, separated this angulated form of parvus, figs. 1-4 and 11, line &, pl. 3,
under the name of i@*, to distinguish it from the normal forms of parvus, which
lead into PJ. crescens.

It only remained, therefore, to find some form of a full-grown specimen from Undorf,
which would show the characteristics of Pl. ™2es. This, on the reception of
Sandberger’s specimens, was accomplished, and is figured on pl. 9, fig. 16.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 59

Starting then with P/. levis, we can trace this series through a variety found in the Pits
which we call the "5 (equal PJ. m. parvus Hilg. in part), into the more angulated varieties
of Pl. minutus. This last figured on pl. 9, fig. 17, and line e, fig. 16, pl. 2, is the PU.
triquetrus of Hilo. Notwithstanding this name it will be found by comparison with such
forms as have just been mentioned, as PI. minuius that it differs only im size.
This leads into a variety of Pl. minutus, fig. 18, pl. 9, and fig. 1, line e, pl. 2, in
which the breadth and angularity of the inner part of the aperture is still maintained, but
the shell is otherwise a variety of Pl. minutus, and has the thinner proportions of the
young whorls observable in this species. Both this and fig. 17, pl. 9 seem to fade by
imperceptible gradations into fig. 19, P/. triquetrus, also figured in nos. 1-3, pl. 4, line ec.
Or they may be traced into the less involute formsof P/. minutus. These have exceedingly
cylindrical whorls, and umbilici entirely open on both sides, and connect the more involute
or levis-like minutus forms, with the uncoiled P/. denudatus.

Remarks: On pl. 4 this genetic series is fully illustrated. Line @ exhibits various va-
rieties of PJ. minutus. These appear to be identical with the Pl. m. minutus, var. 8
teres of Hilgendorf in part, and in part are equal to his Pl. m. minutus, var. « typus.

I think that figs. 1, 3, 5, 7, lme @ would be considered as belonging to the first named.
The figures on line a, however, are arranged with the view of exhibiting the varieties
which tend to deflect the whorl by growth against the spiral. Fig. 7 is an extreme form
in this respect. Figs. 2, 4, line 6, are typical minutus forms, and connect directly with
Pi. tigers fies, T-8, line b. These have a closer umbilicus on the lower side (compare figs.
2 and 6, line b), and in this respect approximate to P/. triquetrus. This last named species
is figured on line e, figs. 1-5. Pl. triquetrus, var. turbinatus figs. 5 and 9, line 6, the latter
a section, exhibit very distinctly the tendency towards trochiform growth of the spiral,
which is common in all the species and varieties at Stemheim. This also, is the proper
place to notice the modes of variation among Steinheim shells.

It will be observed that the varieties of any one of the forms previously de-
scribed fluctuate between two extremes so far as the spiral is concerned. As in the case
before us these extremes are indicated by a tendency to reverse the spiral in some forms,
and to increase it in others. This correllates with a widening of the umbilicus on the
lower side in the former, and a narrowing of the umbilicus in the latter.

These two again correllate with more cylindrical whorls in the former, and wider or
larger whorls in the latter. The latter correllation is important, since it enables us to
draw one more important distinction between the healthy and unhealthy series, or the
progressive and retrogressive, as I have called them. Thus on the Summary Plate, pl. 9,
series 2-4, exhibit this in a marked manner, and so also does sub-series 5, which thus
shows another progressive characteristic besides those previously enumerated.

If there is any truth in the assumption that health marks the favorable character
of the surroundings, and that such correllations are signs of healthy growth, then
the sub-series previously assumed upon other grounds to be diseased or unhealthy,
might show the universal tendency to form a spiral, but ought to be deficient in
healthy characteristics. I have already shown this to be the case in different degrees
according to the character of the sub-series, and I now have to add, that they are inameasure

60 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

exceptions to this law of correllation, since in sub-series second, the whorls become less in
respect to their breadth, or more cylindrical as has been previously stated. It will also be
seen by looking at pl. 4, that there is a decided increase in size in the costate sub-series,
as was to be anticipated in correllation with the partially progressive characteristic of the
well-marked coste which appear in this sub-series. The contrast between the large and
comparatively healthy specimens of this sub-series and the smaller distorted ones, is very
well shown also on lines h and &, as contrasted with g and 7. This tendency to such
correllations as here described, show that the varieties of each species are quite closely
parallel with the general progress or morphology of the most advanced group, the Fourth
Series.

Thus not only does every species vary from a more or less aequiumbilicated to a more
or less asymmetrical rofundatus or trochiform-like shell, but the whole series of
changes in form of the Fourth Series is similar. See pl. 9, figs. 1-7.

To this I might add if space permitted, many other examples among the fossil
Ammonites and living animals. In fact, in my experience, the general limits of
variation are indicated in the range of form of almost any numerously represented
species of a group. The difference between the morphological range in a species of this
kind and the group to which it belongs being one of degree, one of quantity rather than
quality,! or otherwise there could be no parallelism between the morphological variations
of form in the species and the series of forms, which are comprised in the group to which
the species belongs.

Planorbis triquetrus.

Planorbis multiformis triquetrus Hilg., Op. cit., fig. 17.

Var. typica.

Fig. 18, pl. 9, leads into shells, fig. 9-25, line g, pl. 2, in which the upper side becomes
slightly channelled, and sometimes the lower side also, as in Hilgendorf’s figure.
We are here presented with a remarkably close parallelism with the thinner forms
of Pl. tenuis, but it is not very difficult to separate even large perfect forms of
Pl. triquetrus from the young of forms which are figured in the two lines below on the
same plate.

Var. turbinatus. This includes three specimens, which, as in figs. 20, pl. 9, or figs. 5, 6,
9, pl. 4, line b, become more trochiform than var. typica.

Planorbis denudatus.

Pl. multiformis denudatus Hilg., Op. cit., fig. 19.

Hilgendorf’s arrangement of the derivative forms which may be designated by this
name, appears to be defective, in so far as he traces the uncoiled, smooth or “ denudatus”
variety, to the coiled and round whorled * costatus.” My collection gives a perfect
series, without break of any kind, from the perfectly smooth Pl. minutus to a
completely asymmetrical shell, which differs but slightly from Hilgendorf’s figure
of Pl. denudatus.

1Jt must always, however, be understood that parasites supreme modifier, and the reaction of the organization
do not come under this law, nor any range of forms however against the environment, and the maintenance of the type by
closely connected, which have been placed in exceptional this reaction, cannot survive in the presence of continuously
surroundings. As previously stated, the environment isthe exceptional surroundings.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 61

Thus, figs. 1-5, 7-8, 10-14, line e, 6-8, line g, pl. 2, show this series perfectly enough,
though too slightly magnified to be convincing with regard to the smoothness of the shell.
I have been unable to detect any cost on any of these shells, and have seen much more
turbinate forms than fig. 8, line g, almost completely uncoiled. I have, however, not yet
succeeded in finding the exact equivalent of Hilgendorf’s figure, which must be very
rare! The forms which have the young so completely trochiform, usually have the
last-formed whorls widely uncoiled instead of being so contracted as in his typical
specimen.

On pl. 4 this series is shown fully and may be followed from the minutus forms
through such specimens as figs. 6-9, line ce, and the more uncoiled forms on line d,
to the completely trochiform and uncoiled shells photographed on line e. None of these
show any costae.

The decrease in the breadth of the whorl of the specimens on lines d and e,
as compared with the specimens less uncoiled on line ¢, and the true minutus forms
is also perceptible. The flat form of the young in figs. 10-11, line e, can also be perceived,
though less perfectly because the minute size of fig. 11 threw the lower part out
of focus. .

This young is like the young of Pl. minutus, and of Pl. levis, but I failed in
finding an adult of any of these forms which could be considered identical with it.
This was not a surprising result, since any resemblance occurring at so early a
stage with any adult form in tlie shell alone was not to be anticipated, especially
with the adult of any proximate ancestor.

The law of accelerated development by heredity, which has been noticed in other
series, is here also demonstrated. The uncoiling begins at earlier and earlier stages
in the different species, and it is the same story with the increase in spirality. If
any arrangement in series is in general terms a fair presentation of the natural
accession of the forms, then this law must be admitted. It will be found to hold
equally well when applied to any serial arrangement of species based on all the
attainable evidences of affinity, in the identity of the extreme young stage, the
resemblances of the succeeding stages to supposed or traceable ancestral forms, and
the similarities of the adult, old age, and diseased forms.

I have already sufficiently traced the resemblances between these retrogressive
uncoiled species and the partly uncoiled, diseased shells of the progressive series photo-
graphed. Figs. 4-5, line a, 4—5, line b, and 1-2, 6, line c, pl. 8, are particularly instructive
in this connection, since figs. 4-5, line a are senile deformities, figs. 4-5, line b, the results
of normal disease, and the remainder doubtful or due to wounds. A

The series traced by Dr. Hilgendorf between this species and costatus, can undoubtedly
be formed, but it seems to me perhaps more natural to consider the costate forms
as a distinct sub-series. They can certainly be separated quite as easily as any other
set of species, if we recognize the fact that the different series all have a tendency
to reproduce similar series of forms, which may be arranged in parallel lines.

1 This defect in my own collection has been most deeply indebted for the beautiful specimen of this form,
generously supplied by Dr. Hilgendorf himself, and I feel which he has sent me.

62 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

This appears also to have been the result arrived at by Sandberger, though from
his conclusion, I must also differ in part, on account probably of the opportunities
afforded by a larger amount of material, which has enabled me to trace the connection
of costatus with ™7s,

evis
Planorbis costatus.

Planorbis costatus Klein, Op. cit., pl. 1, fig. 24.
Pl. multif. costatus Hilg., Op. cit., fig. 18, 18 a.
Pl. costatus Sand., Op. cit., p. 647, pl. 28, fig. 5.
Var. costatus

minutus *

In order to understand what follows it becomes necessary to trace the relations of the
strie of growth, and the costz of the shells. It will be observed that the striae of
growth are of various degrees of fineness and prominence in all the species of the Stein-
heim Planorbidae. Sometimes they are hardly observable, smce they are not prominent
enough to be seen with the unassisted eye, though visible with a magnifier of four diam-
eters, as in Pl. minutus and denudatus. There are all degrees of this in PJ. Steinheimen-
sis for example, until we find specimens in which they are plainly visible by the naked
eye. In other species, such as Pl. tenwis, discoideus, trochiformis, oxystomus, and supre-
mus, they are distinct enough in many specimens to catch the light, and be visible in the
photographs, and in all specimens with the naked eye.

This is also an effect of old age, as in the older portions of the whorl of the senile
specimens of Pl. suwpremus, fig. 1-4, line d, pl. 8. In these, and in many others, any
cause which retards or arrests growth, causes an increase of shell deposits at the lines of
growth, and a consequently greater prominence of the striz. That these more promi-
nent strie may be also a hereditary characteristic in perfectly healthy shells is demon-
strated by such series as Pl. /evis to Pl. crescens, and others, and by Pl. discoideus var.
sulcatus, ete.

In Pl. crescens they are visible under a magnifier, as in Pl. Steinheimensis and Pl.
levis, and in none of these, or in equally finely preserved shells of PJ. minutus, is there
any tracable difference except in point of fineness. This fineness also differs in different
shells of the same species, precisely as it does between different species, being finer in
some than in others, according to the rate of growth of the animal. Between each pro-
jecting ridge or striation there is a (usually, but not invariably) sunken smooth
band of exceedingly variable width in the same shell. At intervals there are stria, more
elevated than the rest, more elevated than those on either side of them, which are the
costee proper. They are formed by an arrest of the growth at this point, occasioning a
slightly greater thickening of the shell. The rim of the opening not being absorbed in
these shells, when growth is resumed at the usual rate of increase, and the true striz
begin to be again formed, there remains a larger and more prominent ridge. | These costz
will often occur is some specimens of a species, and not in others. They are quite rare
in those species which, like Pl. Kraussii, have very fine strix of growth, but can be dis-
tinguished in some specimens. Care must be taken in both this and PJ. minutus to
obtain shells which have not been acted upon by any re-agent. The larger number of

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 63

the shells of P/. minutus, and a very large proportion of Pl. Kraussii appear to have
been subjected to the action of an acid sufficiently powerful in many instances to cancel-
late the outer surface, and destroy the striz. It is, however, easy to distinguish the per-
fect shells after a close examination, though sometimes the strize are so fine and equal,
that at first sight, even under a magnifier, the shell appears to be absolutely smooth.

The coste are not found on some specimens of P/. Araussit or Pl. minutus, but
in others they are distinct, though in the latter more difficult to see than in the
former, on account of the size of the shell. The cost in their turn are apt to
be confounded with the still larger and more opaque ridges left by the building in of
mouth rims, which have marked long periods of arrest of growth in the shell. I have
not been able to reduce them to any law on account of the perfect way in which
they are generally covered up when growth is resumed. In recent species of Planorbidee
it is quite possible to trace them occuring at regular intervals by their opacity and color,
and they are evidently due to seasonal arrests of growth, but in the fossils they
are too readily confounded with the striw, though occasionally noticeable. When
the shell attains its growth, however, the arrests of growth appear not to be wholly
limited by the seasons. The building period appears to be shorter and more irregular,
and in distorted specimens this is particularly noticeable. See, for illustrations of this, the
figures of PI. supremus, pl. 4, already described, and the following, fig. 9, line g, fig. 13,
line h, pl. 1; figs. 2, 4, line ¢, fig. 5, line m, pl. 2; figs. 1, 7. line g, fig. 1, line n, pl. 3;
figs. 5-5, line a, figs. 1-4, line d, pl. 8, all simple forms. A noticable case of distortion
combined with senility is that of fig. 10, line r, pl. 2, which is repeated on line e, fig. 2,
in a different position.

These were not specially selected to show these peculiarities, but are very good
ordinary examples of the pathological conditions described. In any shell there may
be every condition from that of the young or full-grown healthy shell marked with
striz, coste, and permanent mouth-rims, to its old age form, in which the costs are
susperseded by permanent mouth-rims occurring at rapid intervals, and finally to
the last stage of debility, in which the latest built mouth-rim projects only slightly
beyond the former and greatly narrows the aperture, as in fig. 4, line c, pl. 8. The
thickness of the permanent mouth-ring varies greatly in different adult individuals,
even of species like P/. oxystomus, which habitually have a very thick lip in the
adult. As a general rule, however, the mouth-rims are thinner in the young shells
of all forms, whether species, or varieties, or individuals, than in the adults ; and
especially so in those which thicken the lips or rims during their subsequent growth.
This peculiarity aids in the concealment of the cicatrix or ridge of the permanent
mouths during growth, so that these become apparent in most shells from the
Stemheim Pits, only when the edges have been broken during the season of rest, or
after the shell has reached the full adult size, and forms a thicker rim than is nsual
in the young.

The first of the series of the costate forms are not distinguishable from the
typical Pl. minutus, or from the varieties intermediate between that species and
Pl. denudatus, except by the presence of distinct fine coste. These do not occur
in the young shells of the forms most closely allied to Pl. minutus, but only on
the last whorl in the full grown adult shell. This point I have established by

64 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

repeated observation, it being very important in its bearing on the law of acceler-
ation. Thus figs. 8, line &, 1-2, line f, pl. 4, are shells in which they appear only
on the last part of the last whorl, fig. 3, line f, at an earlier period on this same whorl,
fig. 4, line f, at a much earlier stage, at least half a whorl sooner in the growth.

In all of these the costz are closely approximate. Though there is very considerable
variation in this respect, the differences between these and var. major, as shown on
line f, pl. 4, and on lines g, and i, where they are of about the same size, bemg
distinguishable by a practiced eye in almost all shells.

Line g shows a variety identical with Hilgendorf’s var. typica of Pl. costatus, and figs.
1-5, line i, the equivalents of his var. platystomus of the same species. The coste are
very wide apart in the latter, which in my view are the young of the larger specimens of
the coarsely costate forms on line & above, while the specimens figured on line g are the
young of those shown on line h, in which the same peculiarities of the costae are observ-
able. The extremely uncoiled forms are in all cases, of course, regarded‘ not as young
forms, but as diseased shells, which as previously observed, would of course be under-
sized in comparison with more healthy individuals of the same species.

I have not succeeded in finding any hybrids or shells of an imtermediate character
between these and the corresponding uncoiled smooth forms of Pl. (intii’. The different
forms may be in general terms distinguished into two varieties: Ist, Shells with sharply
defined crowded costa. 2d, Shells with widely separated costa. These may have their
variations in the coste. (1), having either sharp, forward projecting, rim-like costa ;
(2), thick, vertical lip-like costae ; (3), thick costae overhanging, opposite to the direc-
tion of the growth of the shell. These modifications are due to the way in which
the costae are built up. In the first place, the re-building of the shell is begun on the
inside of the old whorl, leaving the edge of the mouth projecting forward like the
free edge of a frill, fig. 9, line g, pl. 4. The second is accomplished by the curious way
in which the new growth is begun, immediately along the flarmg edge of the mouth so
that the resulting coste are of double thickness.'. The third is occasioned by a slight
overlapping of the old edge of the mouth by the new growth, so that the most abrupt
portions of the costa are the posterior sides, instead of the anterior, as in the first
instance.

Varieties 1-2 may be subdivided in precisely the same way, but the peculiar ways in
which the variations are occasioned in var. 2, are more easily observed.

Notwithstanding these facts, however, it is noticeable that the last two kinds, or abnor-
mal cost, are very rare in the finely costate series, and very common in the coarsely cos-
tate, or 2d variety.

The distorted varieties are precisely parallel with Pl. denudatus, so far as the form of
the whorls and the spiral is concerned, but bear the most indubitable marks of their deri-
vation from the various costate races above described. They are of all degrees of uncoil-
ing except the absolutely uncoiled, that is, one in which the extreme young is not closely
coiled. The whorls may not touch anywhere, after the first part of the first whorl is
built, but this is invariably in close contact with little bag-like ovishell, due to the prepo-

1 This variety is figured in the coarsely costate specimen, — ety, fig. 7, line 2, pl. 4.
fig. 1, line k, pl. 4. See also for the next described vari-

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 65

tent inherited tendency to form a closely coiled shell during the protected stages of the
earliest period of growth. I failed to find any finely costate forms, with distorted or
open whorls.

Line h, pl. 4, gives photographs of the variety major of Hilgendorf, and he probably
also includes in this variety the coarsely costate forms on line kh.

Var. major (Pl. multiformis var. major Hilg.), fig. 15, line 6, pl. 5, is an exceedingly fine
specimen of the largest size. It is comparatively rare even in formation 2 of the East
Pit, where it was most abundant. It was, however, not difficult to ascertain that it was
divisible into sub-varieties, having fine and coarse costae, but these are invariably more
or less widely separated, and therefore belong to the coarsely costate series.

The following table depicts these relations diagramatically for the purpose of placing
them in a clearer light.

Coarsely costate sub-series. Finely costate sub-series. Smooth shelled sub-series.
Pl. costatus var. Pl. costatus var. Pl. denudatus.
platystomus. distortus.
Pl. costatus var. Pl. costatus var Pl. minutus.
obtuso-costatus. acuto-costatus.
costatus ; costatus PI. minutus.
] ed parce PL
minutus. minutus. |

| |
weet ee mn $s

Pl. minutus and its immediate affinities are shown by three sub-series. Each of
these have the cylindrical and less involute forms corresponding to Pl. minutus, and
the completely trochiform and partly uncoiled cylindrical whorled forms, the equivalent
of Pl. denudatus. Thus each of the three sub-series presents a similar succession of forms,
the ancestral, or closely allied, the highly differentiated or distinct forms of the third line
and the diseased and closely representative forms of the fourth line.

Ido not think that the accepted limitation of a species to one or more series of forms
connected by hybrids or intermediate varieties, is of any use whatever in estimating
the value of the characteristics in cases like that under consideration. The value
of these must be determined with reference to all the members of the group in which
they occur; this alone can give their approximate taxonomic meaning. Thus, by
reference to the Planorbidae generally, we can show that the modification represented
by forms in the smooth and costate series, are really more distinct than most of the
species of the genus Planorbis. If the intermediate forms were lost or destroyed,
there would be no doubt on this point. If the word species can be used to mean
anything at all, it must be restricted in given groups to certain limited series of
modifications, having a certain approximately determinable value. If the term can
be used atone time to designate so great a series as is included from minutus to
costatus, or Steinheimensis to trochiformis, or even discoideus to trochiformis, I can
see no reason why at another time it may not be used for all these forms together, as
Hilgendorf has done.

Fig. 15, line 0, pl. 3, has no costae on the last part of the outer whorl, and this repre-
sents the extreme old age condition of the costate series. This return of the smooth

66 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

condition of the young shell is-exactly comparable with the conditions attending senility,
as observed first by D’Orbigny among the Ammonites, and subsequently by the author,
among these shells, and also in other departments of the animal kingdom. It is apt to
mislead the observer, since, although it occurs in the life of the same animal, and in the
same organs, it belongs to a class of resemblances which are not generally understood,
and have been neglected by all but a few observers. The absorption of, or more exactly
speaking the failure of the animal to build up, the costae during the last stages of its
existence, causes the whorl to revert to its early smooth condition, and while the latter is
due to heredity, the former is evidently pathological in its origin. If a represents the
young and its inherited characteristics, and 6 the new characteristics added during growth
to n the adult stage, then a+b+n—m, the adult forms. The amount of resemblance
between the senile stage and the young, therefore, depends upon how much or what parts
of 6 and v are subtracted by absorption or decay during old age, and as it is never the
whole b+ 7, which is destroyed by senile disease, the resemblance produced can never be
identical, though they may appear so to the eye in some organs or parts.

Another way of explainmg these phenomena is admirably illustrated by the numerous
cases which have been cited of the sudden return of youthful and apparently long forgot-
ten facts, songs, etc.,in the memories of old people. They are evidently the survival and
the sudden reappearance of youthful characteristics, which have been hidden under a mass
of differential characteristics. These being removed the basal form becomes once more
visible.

The foundations of a building are the first to appear, then become invisible under the
superstructure, and become visible again only by the decay and destruction of that which
they supported.

SECOND SERIES.
Planorbis parvus.

Planorbis Zieteni (A. Braun) Sandb., Op. cit.

Pl. m. parvus Hilg., Op. cit., fig. 4.

The shells which represent this variety, pl. 3, line a, figs. 6, 20-22, have a defined upper
umbilicus and closely resemble in all essential characteristics those young forms of PJ.
Steinheimensis, which have the mouth deflected downwards and the third carina
exceptionally well marked. Figs. 10, 11, line b, pl. 1, represent specimens of this class,
which are a trifle stouter than the true parvus and are evidently the young of
Steinheimensis, since at earlier periods than the one figured the whorls have all the
peculiarities of Steinheimensis. The third carina, which is so prominent in figure 11, does
not appear until the shell has attained a stage considerably older than that in which this
carination usually makes its appearance in parvus. This is the case also in the more
compressed forms of Steinheimensis, such as fig. 9, line m, pl. 1, though in some of these
the resemblance of the nearly full grown shells to the young and adult shells of parvus is
even closer than in fig. 11, line b, pl. 1. This is undoubtedly attributable to their more
disc-like or flattened forms.

The specimens forwarded by Prof. Sandberger resolved the difficulties encountered m
the Pit Deposits and explained admirably the close affinities above described between

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 67

the young of Steinheimensis and the adult of parvus and the very evident differences
between the full grown shells of each variety. They are both probably distinct varieties
of Pl. levis derived directly from that species. Some of the specimens of one of the
varieties of Pl. levis from Undorf are identical with parvus and have been previously
described. ,

Hilgendorf regarded parvus as intermediate between minutus and var. aequiumbilicatus,
and also as in the same genetic series as crescens. Sandberger on the other hand joined
minutus, teres, and crescens under the name of Zietent Braun as a distinct species.

Planorbis crescens.
Pl. m. crescens Hilg., Op. cit., fig. 16.

This species is perhaps the least variable of any of the Steinheim forms. The
connection with the preceding is clearly made through some specimens slightly stouter
than the norm, but these are exceedingly rare in my collection.

The mouth and last whorl may be central or turned downwards. I have so far
seen none with these parts deflected upwards or against the spiral. Some of those
with the mouth in the middle have nearly equal umbilici, but these are extremely
rare forms. Those with the mouth turned downwards and the upper umbilicus only
slightly none) as in figs. 9-12, line ¢, pl. 5, and those with no upper umbilicus, as in
figs. 13, 14, on the same line, are very numerous. Quite a trochiform variety ends
the tendency to variation in this direction, of which I have found one specimen,
pl. 9, fig. 15, but even in this one the whorls retain the same attenuated aspect and
form. The third carina is prominent in all of these, and in some the fourth makes
its appearance, especially in those like figs. 15, 14, line e, pl. 3. The striae of growth
are particularly well defined in this variety, even at the earliest stages, and in all
specimens.

Remarks. On pl. 5, the entire genetic series as here described, is figured. The four
shells on line @ are undoubtedly Pl. levis, from Undorf, and show the close relationship
with Pl. parvus from the Pits, as exhibited on line b. Pl. “sels is exhibited on line ¢
and on line d the ordinary forms of Pl. crescens.

The angularity of the outer whorls resulting from the ‘development of the third
carination is evidently a mark of affinity with PJ. levis, in which this is a constant
characteristic. The gradual flattening of the form of the whorl is shown in the right
and left series of figures, and the close resemblance in form of the whorl to that
of PJ. levis, in fig. 2, line 6. Compare this with some of the forms of PJ. Jevis, on
pl. 7, which are in the same position. This flattening of the angularity of the whorl,
and the openness of the lower umbilicus, fig. 5, line d, are both low characteristics,
and show that the series has altered but very little in the characteristics which
were derived from Pl. levis. The increase in size is notable, and this must be
classed with the progressive series. The progression in the flattening of the whorls
and the angularity of the outer whorl which takes place in the adult also characterizes
the young, and is inherited at earlier stages in each form, until, in fig. 2, the young
begin to show the crescens form at a very early age.

1 See p. 35.

68 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

No very decidedly diseased or aged forms were observed, but the spiral is often
slightly irregular.

The peculiar gibbous aspect of the whorls in fig. 7, line b, is exaggerated by the
photograph, as it is also in fig. 1, on the same line, and may mislead the observer
into the belief that he is looking at specimens of °"Y"s, This, however, can be readily
corrected by comparing them with true °[7"s, on pl. 6, lines a, b.

The apparent contrast between the two figures above mentioned, on line 8, pl. 5, and
the two corresponding figures of Pl. Jevis, on line a, is hardly perceptible in the
specimens themselves, which are really very large specimens of P/. parvus.

THIRD SERIES.

Planorbis oxystomus,
levis

The shells figured on pl. 1, line m, figs. 10-14, approximate to, but are still readily
separated from those figured on pl. 1, line a, figs. 12, 13. These last are slightly different
from the P/. °73%"s, from Undorf, but figs. 14-16, which are of about the same size,
would not be separated by the most conservative naturalist, if found at Undorf. The
full-grown forms, figs. 12, 15, line a, pl. 1, are larger, and approximate to true PJ. oxystomus,
pl. 3, figs. 8, 9, line /; in fact, they are so nearly identical with these that the young alone
show their affinity to Pl. oes. The young have the shallower umbilicus on the lower
side, and that side of the outer whorl is flatter at the same age than in true P/. oxystomus.
Fig. 12, line a, pl. 1, even shows the peculiar mouth-rim and general outline of
Pl. oxystomus.

There is one noticeable characteristic in the shells of Pl. Steinheimensis, which
may also be cautiously used in separating the varieties just described, from those
of Pl. oxystomus. The striae of growth are not so decisively marked in Steinheimensis.
Shells with striations as prominent or as deeply incised as is usual in PJ. oxystomus are
rare. The surface of the former has a smoother aspect than that of the latter, and
this is almost invariable in the young, while the young of many varieties of P/. oxys-
tomus have very distinct striae. But though rare, such shells do occur, and some of them
are found in the intermediate varieties just described.

Planorbis oxystomus.

Pl. oxystomus Klein, Jahresh. Wurtt, Vol. 2, pl. 1, fig. 27.
Pl. m. oxystomus Hilg., Op. cit., pl. fig. 7.
Pl. m. revertens Hilg., Op. cit., pl. fig. 8.
Pl. m. supremus Hilg., Op. cit., pl. fig. 9.
Carinifex oxystomus Sandb. Op. cit., p. 643, pl. 28, fig. 3.

Variety revertens Hilg. = rn’, pars.

evis

After prolonged comparisons I am unable to find any characteristic by which this vari-
ety in some of its forms can be separated from the narrow umbilicated forms of PJ.
orn’. These, like those figured on line &, fig. 6, and line p, figs. 10-11, pl. 3, have shal-
lower umbilici on the lower side, with whorls less gibbous than is usual, and a mouth

which neither flares nor contracts, and has a very thin inner lip.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 69

Variety typica.

The second variety, or true norm, which I take to be identical with Hilgendorf’s
figure, has the mouth and part of the last whorl considerably contracted, the lower
umbilicus quite deep, and the lower sides of the whorls gibbous but rounded, figs. 12-18,
line k, and fig. 12, line 8, pl. 3.

The third variety, figs. 2-9, line m, pl. 3, has a mouth similar to the first variety in
some specimens, but in others there is a lip of medium thickness on the inner side.’ This
form is an exaggerated repetition of that of figs. 12-16, line a, pl. 1. The closeness of the
resemblance in form is due to the rotundity of the lower side, and the depth of and
narrowness of the umbilici in both forms.

Planorbis supremus.

Pl. m. supremus Hilg., Op. cit., fig. 9.

First variety.

This begins with a form precisely similar to the preceding, except in the upper umbil-
cus. This deepens by growth, and the first carina and sulcation begin to make their
appearance. The lower side also, is sharper, and the fourth carina stands out quite promi-
nently. The mouth is central. Figs. 6, 10-12, line o, figs. 7-9 same line, are inter-
mediate between these and the last described form of oxystomus on line k, pl. 3.

Second variety.

This differs only in having the mouth bent downwards. The first carina and
suleation become very prominent, and the fourth carina also, as in figs. 1-7, line n,
and 1, 5, line p, pl. 3.

Another form is represented by figs. 8-15, line n, and fig. 1, line o, pl. 3. In these
the upper umbilicus becomes shallower, and in fact almost disappears. This is one of the
nearest approaches to a turretted form observed in this variety, and it is accompanied in
fig. 8, line n, by the development of a distinct sulcation on the upper side. A typical
variety of oxystomus occurs on line a, fig. 14, pl. 3, in formation h, East Pit. This differs
from the series just described in the upper umbilicus. This is shallower, and the inner
whorls are therefore more exposed in the young. Almost without exception, these
have the fourth carma strongly developed, but there are some in which the upper umbilicus
is deeper than usual, and the whorls more cylindrical.

This variety leads by the closest gradation into the stouter form figured on line 3, pl. 3,
figs. 1-6, and line J, figs. 1-3. The next step is shown in figs. 9-10, line b, and 5-8, line e,
in which the lower umbilicus may be either quite wide or very narrow, and the upper side
begins to lose the umbilical depression.

In fig. 13, line b, fig. 1, line ¢, and figs. 4—7, line J, pl. 3, this tendency is consummated
in a truly turretted form.

Variety turrita.

Tn figs. 9-11, line /, pl. 3, the whorls increase with great rapidity below the fourth carina,
and narrow lower umbilicus, assuming a trochiform aspect.

I have one specimen of this last, considerably larger then the one figured, with a form
similar to that of “ elegans” Hilgendorf. It is noticable that although the first and fourth

TIt should be noticed here that the specimen figured on by a very thin or almost imperceptible film, while in Pl.

line a, pl. 1, fig. 12, has a thickened inner lip, also a char- _ oxystomus the opposite is the case, the thin film being excep-
acteristic which is exceedingly rare in Pl. Steinheimensis, tional, and the thick deposit the rule.
in which this portion of the mouth is usually represented

70 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

carinae are distinctly indicated in fig. 1, line ¢, and the first, second, third, and fourth in
some other specimens of the turretted varieties, there are no accompanying indications
of suleations on the upper sides of the whorls. These are usually round, but may become
somewhat flattened, though in no case have I found suleations. The limits here given
for this species correspond quite closely to those given by Sandberger, since
he also included under one name the three principal varieties described by Hilgendorf.
The difference in our views is due to the intermediate forms, which in my opinion bridge
the chasm between this and Pl. Jevis. With regard to the affinity with Carinifex, I have
written elsewhere.

The whole series is given on pl. 6.

Figs. 1-3, line a, are PI. levis, from Undorf. Compare fig. 1, line a, with fig. 1, line dD;
also i 2 with 4, line a, and fig. 3 with 7, linea. Line 0 is the Pl. °"(""", from formations
Zand m, of the Cloister Pits. Thus it can be seen, that it is not necessary even to descend
to formation a of the pits, in order to obtain forms showing the probably direct derivation
of Pl. oxystomus from Pl. levis.

Fig. 3, line b, is important in this connection, because it shows very distinctly that a
perfectly preserved shell of Pl. 2h" exhibits the bright and polished surface and
striae which are common in PJ. levis.

The transition from PI. levis to Pl. oxystomus is also still farther confirmed by the two
young specimens, figs. 4-5, line d; fig. 5, being Pl. levis, from Undorf, and fig. 4, the
young of a typical P/. ox ystomus, from the Cloister Pit.

Pl. oxystomus var. "ys" is shown in figs. 4-7, line a; these are even closer to PJ. levis
than those on line b, which exhibit ihe transitions from °%"""s to true oxystomus,
occupying lines ¢ and d.

I Ape supremus is represented by the figures on line e.

The series is roughly shown by the range of figures numbered 1 in each line, and these
exhibit the general tendency to increase the jong The tendency in each variety to
increase spirality of growth in some shells, is also observable. Thus, in P/. oxystomus, line c,
fig. 6 is quite trochiform, only inferior to fig. 1, line d, a specimen of the same variety.

“This last is apparently quite as turbinate as fig. 1, line e, a specimen of Pl. supremus ;
but in reality it is not of the same species as ans since the umbilicus is more open, and
wider.

The oxystomus-like widening of the whorl in course of growth, fig. 1, line ¢, is not
observable in any of the forms of P1. levis, in the youngest stages of growth, which have
whorls like fig. 3, line a. In Pl. ny, this peculiar widening, occasioning the angularity
of the aperture on the lower side, is more pronounced in the adults, and appears earlier
in the life of the individual. In PJ. oxystomus, line ec, fig. 5, this is still more pro-
nounced, and inherited at a still earlier stage.

In PI. supremus the broad whorl occurs at a very early age, so that the young are
often identical with the typical form of oxystomus; and subsequently the first carination,
or the first and second with the sulcation between them, appears durmg the growth of
individuals.

It is interesting, also, to note that some specimens which have no pronounced carin-
ations or suleation, but are smooth, like oxystomus, have to be classed with this variety on
account of the peculiar shape of the whorls, as in the turbinate form, fig. 1, line e.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. Wl

Another interesting peculiarity is the obliteration of the upper umbilicus in several
turbinate forms, as in fig. 1, line d, and its approximate obliteration in figs. 2 and 6, line
c. It must be understood, however, that even in fig. 1, line d, there is a minute upper
umbilicus in the extremely young shell, as seen at the apex.

A very curious tendency in the whorl to depart from the regular mode of growth is
apparent in figs. 6-9, pl. 3, line p. The whorl, either through a wound as in fig. 8, received
at an earlier age, or through some weakness caused by sickness or unfavorable conditions,
ceases to increase by growth according to the usual proportions. This contraction grad-
ually leads to the distortion of the spiral. Sandberger figures one of this species much
much more remarkable than any here. The mouth strikes off almost as a tangent to the
curvature of the spiral, and extends out to a distance very much beyond that of any of
the specimens seen by me, except perhaps fig. 5, line , pl. 8.

The distorted forms to whose illustration plate 8 is devoted, are largely taken from
Pl. oxystomus, and it will be observed that most of them are var. revertens Hile. — sto,

Figs. 3-4, and perhaps 5, line a, figs. 1, 6, lme 6, are from specimens of typical PZ.
oxystomus, while figs. 2-5 line b, and all of line c, are taken from °°", Some of
these cases are evidently due to wounds, the effect being distinctly marked on the shell.
That the wound in such cases affected the health of the animal is evident, because in other
cases of shells similarly scarred, no distortions are observable in the subsequent building
up of the shell. Figs. 3, line a, 2, line 6, and all on line ¢, are undoubtedly due to such
accidental causes. The other shells show no derangement in their striations or scars.
These distortions may or may not have been due to diseases arising from other causes, but
of one thing we can rest assured, that °”4s7"" was more subject to such distortions than
any other species or form belonging to any of the progressive series. If it is desirable
to test the conclusions drawn from such diseased specimens in chapter 1, it can be
readily done by comparing figs. 1-3, line c, and 4, 5, line b, with the uncoiled forms
of the retrogressive sub-series, or better still by observing the close parallelism of fig. 5,
line 6, with fig. 23, of pl. 9.

Another remarkable result of disease, whether it may be from accident or otherwise, is
a reversion to the peculiar angularity of form conspicuous in some varieties of Pl. levis.
This is not very well shown in the plate on account of the positions of the specimens, but is
partially shown in fig. 2, line b, which was especially intended to exhibit this peculiarity.
It results from a perceptible flattening of the diseased portion of the whorl, as well as from a
general diminution in size. The diseased specimens of Pl. supremus, figured on line d,
are very large, and they are distorted only towards the latter part of the last whorl. The
distortions consist of enlarged striae, and simultaneously the size of the whorl decreases,
occasioning at once a deflection from the regular increment of the spiral, which tends to
become turbinate.!

These phenomena appear to indicate the slow rate of growth consequent upon old age.
This is also shown very well in fig. 1, line », pl. 3, when the same enlarged striations
are seen on the last part of the last whorl, and it is this part alone which is deflected to

1T do not wish to be understood as implying that the ten- equally unquestionable that Pl. trochiformis is a thoroughly
dency to become turbinate is always a diseased or retro- healthy species, as are many other turbinate forms.
gressive characteristic. While this is often the case, it is

72 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY-SPECIES

form the extreme spirality observable in another view of a precisely similar specimen in
fig. 2, by the side of the first described.

FOURTH SERIES.

Planorbis Steinheimensis.
Variety aequimbilicatus.

Pl. m. Steinheimensis var. aequiumbilicatus Hilg., Op. cit., fig. 1.

Forms which are aequiumbilicated are quite rare in the lower formations of the Pits.
One is figured in section on line }, fig. 17, pl. 1, another on line a, fig. 2; almost all others
only approximate to this condition and ought perhaps to be placed with the maequiumbili-
cated forms. They are the true transitions from the latter, but also possess the more
cylindrical or equal-sided and less involute whorls of the aequiumbilicated variety, such
are those figured on plate 1, line a, figs. 1, 3, 4, line ¢, figs. 1, 19, and line m, figs. 1-7.

In the aequiumbilicated variety there are several sub-variations. Those with the mouth
and last whorl or whorls turned upwards, those with these parts central, and those
with these parts turned down as in fig. 7, line m, pl. I.

In the inaequiumbilicated variety there are similar variations in the direction of the last
whorls, but here the downward or spiral tendency is of course predominant. In the
aequiumbilicated variety I did not find a tendency to flatten the upper or lower sides, but
it must be taken into consideration that very few specimens of this variety were found.

In the inaequiumbilicated variety, especially in the sub-variety with the mouth turned
upwards, there is a decided tendency to flatten the upper sides of the whorls and this is
correllated with a corresponding tendency to angulate or produce a ridge-like angularity
in the whorls on the outer side, both above and below and on the inner lower side near
the umbilicus. For convenience sake I have called these ridges the second, third, and
fourth carinae, reserving the designation of first carina for the innermost umbilical ridge
on the upper side, which appears so prominently in P/. discoideus. Forms may be picked
out which show this tendency’ in every way in the sub-variety with the mouth turned
downwards, though the second carina is very rarely seen.

In some specimens only the third carina is seen, and these are remarkably similar to
Pi. levis as figured by Sandberger. In others the fourth carina alone, or third and fourth
carinae with a slight flattening of the lower side occur, and the second and fourth carinae,
but in none did I find the third carina alone.

The forms united under this name have, besides the characteristics above given, the
following: the whorls are more cylindrical, and the increase in the size of the whorls
by growth is less marked than in Steinheimensis proper, and therefore the involution a
trifle less.

Variety Steinheimensis.

Pl. Steinheimensis Hilg., Monatsb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wissensch., Berlin, July 1866,
p- 485, fig. 2.

Pl. Steinheimensis Sandb., Op. cit., p. 644.

1Tt must be observed that I here speak of a hardly per- mouth and lower side of fig. 5, line m, pl. 1.
ceptible angularity such as is shown in the outline of the

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 73

This species or variety may be distinguished from the preceding, principally by the
more rapid increase in the size of the whorls by growth, and the consequently slightly
greater breadth and involution of the last whorls. The young are habitually asymmet-
rical, as in the section fig. 7, lime a, pl. 1. No absolute lme can, however, be drawn
between this and the preceding. The varieties are very numerous, and I cannot pretend
to enumerate all of them. The most significant, if it may be so expressed, are the
following :

1. Those with the mouth turned upwards, or against the spiral; line J, fig. 3, pl. 1.

2. Those with the mouth central ; line a, fig. 9, pl. 1.

3. Those with the mouth turned downwards ; line m, fig. 13, pl. 1.

All three of these varieties may occur with perfectly rotund, smooth whorls, without
the slightest indications of a carina-like angularity or ridge, in any light, or in any
position in which they may be held. There is, however, this observable peculiarity : the
larger number of carimated specimens have the mouth central or turned downwards,
rarely deflected against the spiral.

All three of these principal varieties may also occur with the carinations described in
the preceding form, and in one case a distinct third carina appeared, fig. 1, line n, pl. 1,
which will presently be described in detail.

Specimens with the mouth turned upwards, have a tendency to flatten the upper side
of the whorls. The second carina is very rarely indicated in these, but the third very
often. Sometimes it is alone, but usually it is accompanied by a well defined tendency to
flatten the lower side, and produce the fourth carina also, as in fig. 3, line 5, pl. 1.

The same peculiarities, word for word, may be attributed also to those having the
mouth central. Those figured on line |, figs. 6-10, pl. 1., have only one carina,
the third, indicated as in the mouth of fig. 6, inside of which it is well shown, though
rather too delicate and unpronounced to be shown in others. Figs. 4, 5, have the
third and fourth carinae indicated, especially the specimen shown in fig. 4. Fig. 4,
line n, plate 1, exhibits this peculiarity more markedly than it can usually be shown
by photography.

In this variety also a sulcation makes its appearance as a faint depression on the
upper side, as shown in fig. 2, 5, line 2, pl. 1. The extraordinary form, figured on line n,
pl. 1, fig. 1, not only has the third and fourth carinae, but shows a peculiarly broad, dorsal
aspect, and has indications of the second carina, and a very slight depression or suleation
on the upper side, quite equal to that in No. 5, on the same line, though hidden by the
flare of the mouth. These characteristics are well marked, according to the usual fashion
in other specimens, on the last whorl, for about three-fourths of its length. A con-
striction occurs in this specimen, caused evidently by some accident to the shell, which
was probably the immediate cause of the appearance of these unusual characteristics.
After the repair of this injury, the third carina appears as a regular ridge with a definite
linear depression on either side.

The old age of Steinheimensis is indicated in this and other large specimens by a
slight decrease in the amount of involution of the last quarter of the last whorl, and this
peculiarity is well marked in this shell, so that the distinct carination appears to arise. in
the old age of this form.

74 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

The variety with the mouth turned downwards, in the normal direction of the spiral,
fiz. 11, line m, pl. 1, has the third and fourth carinz well developed. Fig. 13, line h, pl. 1,
exhibits throughout its adult stage a form inseparable from that described above, on
line n, fig. 1, but in old age the whorl is deflected in the normal direction. At the same
time the sulcation appears, and with it the first carina is indicated, and the second
carina becomes quite prominent and much better defined than I have seen it in any other
specimen. The aspect of the whorl, the decrease in its involution, and the enormous
comparative size of the shell show that these exaggerated features are the products of sen-
ility. A tendency to produce the second, third and fourth carinae is also observable in quite
a number of specimens with a decided and symmetrical flattening of the upper, outer, and
lower sides of the whorls, but no sulcations ; this is the case with fig. 16, line 6, pl. 1, which
can only be separated from P/. tenwis, line c, fig. 2, by the absence of any linear sulcation
or depression on the upper side.

Besides the above, there are still other modifications which it is necessary to mention.
These consist of exceptionally flattened forms. All of those previously described are more
or less stout, but there are some which do not partake of this characteristic, such as are
figured on line m, pl. 1, figs. 8-9. All, including the above just described, have rather wide
and open umbilici on the lower side, and cylindrical or flattened whorls, but there are
some forms, with stout whorls, in which this is exchanged for a tendency to narrow the
umbilicus, and these, though difficult to distinguish at first, are soon readily picked out
after a little practice. They are then seen to be distinct, and by comparison with PI. levis,
are recognizable as the intermediate forms of Pl. iy", figs. 14, 16, line a, pl. .1.

Planorbis tenuis.

9

Planorbis tenuis Hilg., Op. cit., fig. 3,
Carinifex tenuis Sand., Op. cit.

tenuis

Variety steinheimensis:

Certain forms which I have included under this name are not distinguishable from certain
forms of Steinheimensis. They nearly all have faint but unquestionable marks of a
suleation on the upper side, but so have some unquestionable specimens of PZ.
Steinheimensis, and that this is an artificial line can be readily shown by the comparison
of such specimens as fig. 16, line }, and fig. 2, line ¢, pl. 1. The latter I have often
referred to Pl. Steinheimensis, when studying that species, because of its very faint
suleations, and also on account of the extreme smoothness of the shell and its close
resemblance to true Steinheimensis forms, especially figs. 3, 4, line a, pl. 2. There is the
same story to be recounted with any characteristic which may be selected.

First sub-variety.

This is represented by a flat shell with the first, third and fourth carimae indicated, but
the second almost absent. They are not distinguishable from such forms as fig. 14, line e,
pl. 1. They are rounded and smooth on the upper side, but flattened as in ¢enwis on the
lower side, with the third and fourth carinae well developed. Some of these have also
almost imperceptible sulcations on the upper side on the last whorl. These differences
disappear in fig. 13, same line, which is really a flattened Steinheimensis form with inter-

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 75

mediate form and characteristics. Fig. 13, lme n, pl. 1 must also be joined to this
sub-variety. The form has not a very close resemblance owing to the deflection of the
mouth, but the third carina is well developed and the shell is intermediate to figs. 14 and
15 same line.

Second sub-variety.

It is not possible to arrange these varieties in a line with reference to Steinheimensis,
and therefore the successive numbering of the sub-varieties means nothing so far as
the genesis and relative rank is concerned. The forms figured on pl. 1, line @, figs. 1-4,
have both the first and second carinae, and the sulcation on the upper side is indicated.
Fig. 16, line e, shows a passage form from these directly to Steinheimensis. The under
sides of the whorls in this variety are rounder than in the first variety, stouter and not so
involute.

Other sub-varieties might be described in the transition forms, such as fig. 1, line 0,
pl. 1. This is an extremely thin shell, more or less flattened on both the upper and
lower sides of the whorls, and with the faintest possible sulcation.

Near the mouth or the upper side, it is evidently very closely allied to such flattened
forms of Steinheimensis as fig. 9, line m, pl. 1, or intermediate between these and the
still more flattened form on line n, fig. 8, which leads into forms figs. 9-12 on the same
line, belonging to the true tenwis group. We must also add to this list fig. 6, le n, pl.
1, which fills the gap between fig. 7 of the tenuis group and Steinheimensis.

The specimens described in the Lower Steinheim Period, as occurring in the Cloister
Ridge rocks show with considerable clearness that PJ. tenwis is really a derivative of Pl.
levis, and that the transition forms here described between this and Pl. Steinheimensis
must be accounted for either as hybrids or as descendants from Cloister Ridge species.

Variety Kraussii.

Planorbis Kraussii Klein, Jahresh. Wiirt., 1847, plate 1, fig. 28.

Pl. multiformis Kraussii Hilgend., Monast. K. Preu. Akad. d. Wissensch., Berlin,
July 1866, pl., fig. 12.

Pl. Kraussii Sand., Conchyl. d. Vorwelt, Supp., p. 646.

This species at first sight appears to be separable from PJ. Steinheimensis on the one
side and Pl. tenuis on the other. The close and thorough examination of the shells,
however, gradually obliterates all distinctions. It can, therefore, if one chooses, be
properly considered one of the varieties of Pl. s4i((eM 8 nsis+

If we compare the full grown shell with the young of Pl. tenuis, line f, fig. 1-7, pl. 2,
we find that the young of certain forms are with difficulty separated from Pl. Kraussii,
e. g., fig. 4, line f, and fig. 3, line d, pl. 2. The young of the more immature of the
tenuis forms are like the specimens of Pl. Kraussii.

This would answer very well for all the forms with flattened upper sides, figs. 1-8, line
d, and figs. 13-16, same line, pl. 2, in which a triquetrus-like outline is attained by the
flattening of both the upper and lower sides. This explanation, however, hardly applies
to such forms as figs. 9-12, and 17, on the same line. These are almost purely Steim-
heimensis-like, so much like the latter that if they had been found in the same formation,
I should have called them by that name.

76 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

The umbilicus on the lower side is narrow, and it will be observed that the young are
quite stout in some specimens, as in figs. 11, 12, line d, pl. 2. Since the above was
written, I have succeeded in finding in my collection true Pl. iin is) in formation a, of
the Old Pit, line f, figs. 1-3, pl. 1.

The prominence of the third carination in Pl. Araussii is precisely what was
previously observed in Pl. Steinheimensis, and besides this the adults of many
develop the second carina and become flattened externally on the last whorl, as in
the young of Pl. tenuis. Occasionally, also, as in fig. 2, line d, pl. 2, a faint sulcation
becomes visible on the upper side.

It is possible that the specimens figured on pl. 2, from the higher formations of
the Pits, are the survivors of the forms of formation a, and perhaps may be considered as
somewhat dwarfed. Their resemblance to the specimen from formation /, figured on pl.
2, line g, fig. 12, as Pl. sicinhelmensiss IS apparent at a glance.

The specimens of Araussii figured on line d, pl. 2, figs. 15-16 are similar to some of
the more compressed young of P/. tenuis, like those of figs. 7, 15, line n, pl. 1, and figs.
1-2, line f, pl. 7, and are identical with the more immature young, and some of the
full grown shells of P/. tenuis of the Cloister Ridge rocks. Sandberger appears to
have been unable to separate this form in the Pits from P/. tenuis, but there is no diffi-
culty in doing this until the young of the tenvis forms are studied. The adults are quite
distinct. Hilgendorf’s opinion that this species is a direct derivative from Pl. Steinheim-
ensis is amply sustained by the material I have examined, but whether this ought
also to be considered intermediate between Steinheimensis and his Pl. pseudotenuis is more
doubtful. This last I have had no means of studying, except through two specimens sent
me by Hilgendorf. These are very minute, delicate, thin-shelled specimens, with the third
carina only developed, which forms a sharp ridge on the lower side and outer edge of the
whorl. The shell has the aspect of the young of PJ. tenwis, but I have unfortunately not
the time now for a re-examination in order to test this question. If his material
enables him to trace a close series of transmutations this can be established, but in the
absence of this exact proof, I should certainly at once class it as the young of a variety
of Pl. tenuis, traceable to such forms of Pl. gpith is ncig aS are figured on pl. 1, line e,
fig. 14.

There is not a single specimen of PI. pseudotenuis figured on my plates, and this
shows the extreme rarity of the shell, a fact I was not aware of until the receipt of
Dr. Hilgendorf’s type specimens. If this series is finally established by Dr. Hilgendorf,
then another distinct series of a retrograde character will have to be added to those des-
cribed in these pages. The specimens of P/. m. Araussii received from him are of the
true «A7avssii.. type, and show none of the tenuis-like characteristics here described as

Steinheimensis

varieties of this species. Fig. 9, line f, pl. 2, is identical with these.

Variety tenuis.

The sub-varieties appear to be almost wholly derived from forms of the preceding de-
cribed varieties, either of Steinheimensis OY greiftrsnsis. Thus the first sub-variety which
shows a tendency to become turbinate, such as that figured on line ¢, pl. 1, figs. 2-12,
appears to be connected directly with the Steinheimensis forms, similar to fig. 16, line 6,

previously described.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 7(76

The majority of this variety, however, have the square form of the whorl with the
sulcations and carinz well developed. The mouth in these may be deflected against the
spiral slightly, as in fig. 16, line ¢, pl. 1, and perfectly flat on the upper side, as in figs. 15,
17, 18, on same line. They are inseparable from the preceding variety, though in many
forms they tend to grow in a sub-turretted form, fig. 8, line d, pl. 1, and line e, figs. 14,
15, and line 9, fig. 1-3, fig. 6, and line f, pl. 7.

These last lead without break into forms such as figs. 4-7, line 0, which have
an extraordinary development of the first carina with a sub-turretted shell, or with a flat
shell, as in figs. 2-10, line e, pl. 1. Then a sub-variety, probably connected with the last,
in which both the first and fourth carine are very prominent, as in figs. 11-13, line e,
plod.

The forms on line 2, pl. 1, figs. 9-12, are much compressed, with sides flattened and
convergent outwardly, showing a whorl, which connects them with the extremely
flattened form, fig. 8, same line ; and also fig. 1, of line 6, on same plate.

If one examines this last mentioned compressed form, and fig. 8, line n, there is in -
both a slight want of symmetry, which consists in the greater prominence of the zone
which would be occupied by the third carina, if it were present.

This is perhaps one of the most curious of the genetic series traced out directly from
specimens, which are identical with Steinheimensis, on account of the almost imperceptible
changes of form by which it is accomplished, and by reason of the extreme variation of
some of the varieties.

Planorbis discoideus.
Variety: Ae".

This transition form, when that term is used in its most conservative sense, as applicable
to shells which exhibit characteristics which make it impossible to decide whether they
belong to discoideus or to tenuis, is not found in the Pit Deposits. It is, however,
found in the Cloister Ridge rocks and has been previously described.

These forms entirely fill the gap, since they meet the only objection which can
be urged against the intermediate position of the Pit forms; they have young which
“ precisely resemble the adult of P/. tenwis.’ There is indeed so close an approximation
to true transition forms that I have more than once had to alter the nomenclature of this
series. Thus the gap which exists between the form of Pl. tenwis figured on line e, fig. 1,
pl. 1, and those of P/. discoideus figured on line f, figs. 4, 17, pl. 1, is so slight that hardly
any naturalist would hesitate to unite the former with the latter. Nevertheless the young
of the form figured on line f cannot be considered as similar to the adult of the form
figured on line e, since it is stouter.’

For a precisely similar reason I have also been obliged to separate the compressed
forms of discoideus figured on line h, figs. 10-12, and line p. figs. 1-2, pl. 1, from Pl.
tenuis, though among these it is possible that farther search would detect Pl. “codes,

1 This would generally be considered as of no value, but it adopted is restricted to the most conservative basis of anti-
must be remembered that the basis of the reasoning here evolutionism,

78 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

Variety discoideus.

The sulcatus form is simply a compressed variety of PJ. discoideus with a remarkably
square mouth and whorl as in figs. 7-14, line g, line h, and 8-10, line p, pl. 1. The square-
ness and angularity of the under side is well depicted in figs. 2-5, and 7-9, line h. ‘There
is a prevalence of these forms in formation a, but they are accompanied by true disco-
ideus, and every attempt to separate the two has been attended by great confusion in my
own mind.

The typical forms of PJ. discoideus involutus Hilg. are shown in figs. 10-17, line f, and
1-6, line g._ I have applied this name to still more involute and more easily distinguish-
able forms, the extremes of this variety.

Figs. 4-7, line g, show a still stouter form in which carinations and sulcations are more
marked, but the mouth at an early age has not the angularity of P/. discoideus ; figs.
14--17, line f, the carinations are still more distinct, and the mouth is angular in the
young. Figs. 10-13, line f, show a trifle stouter and more trochiform shell with per-
fectly developed carinae, and sulcations both above and below.

After this, the difficulty in following the series consists only in settling the affinities of
the adults of the numerous varieties; the young remain quite similar in form, though
differing greatly in being more or less carimated or sulcated. They accord in this respect
usually with the adults, as for example, fig. 7-14, lme f, pl. 1, and the various series of lines
d,e, f, pl. 38. In this way it may be shown that the species really most closely related
to Pl. tenuis are the somewhat flattened but trochiform and unconnected forms like fig. 7,
line 7, pl. 1, and not the deeply suleated and carinated forms like sulcatus, however
flat they may be.

The first variation is that cited above, in which the upper sides of the whorls have the
first carina well developed, the second rounded off, with the third and fourth on the lower
side prominent. This leads into a number of allied forms, such as figs. 9, 10, line e,
pl. 1, which become very turretted, and on the other hand into exceedingly flat forms
like fig. 4, same line, in which all four carinae are well developed, but the sulcations not
well marked. Figs. 15-18, pl. 2, line f, shows a similar series of modifications, and these
are evidently the young of the trochiformis-like varieties, on line n, figs. 3, 4, and line m,
figs. 5, 4, and which lead in “7chorms, same line, figs. 1, 2.

A series might also be formed with the variety elatior Sand. as a type, fig. 16, line i,
pl. 2. This also, it seems to me, is not sufficiently described when included with the
discoideus series, and placed as Sandberger places it among the transition forms from
true discoideus, to his variety intermedius, sub-variety communis, figs. 1-2, line m.
Though quite closely allied to this series, there is a certain outline to the mouth, and
an aspect of the whorl, which is reproduced in trochiformis, figs. 6, 7, line r, pl. 1, and a
series could be doubtless formed connecting the two.

Going back again we may take up almost any other line of characteristics, and follow
them out to a similar result. A.

Let us take, for instance, the true swlcatus form, already studied in part. In this we
find the flattened tenuis-like form, line h, pl. 1, figs. 10-12, and line p, figs. 1, 2, becoming
stouter, 5-10, same line. On line , figs. 2, 3, we can see them more trochiform, and on

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 79

line p, fig. 12, so excessively altered, that it is difficult to recognize the same variety.
But observe closely the shape of the immer whorl in this and in fig. 13, then it will
be seen that these are flat on the lower side, and in all respects similar in shape to fig. 3,
line 7.

Still another form of this variety is shown on pl. 2, line b, fig. 1-4, in which the
turretted forms are not so, and may be traced directly back to the thinner forms
mentioned above, through fig. 6, line i, pl. 1.

Within the limits of these series, there are a great many varieties which appear to be
simply individual, or else to obtain only in a limited number of individuals, and to have
no special meaning. Such is the appearance of an anomalous carination, along the centre
of the whorl, as in fig. 5, line &, pl. 1. The existence of this appears to me unac-
countable, as a normal characteristic, and it is not perpetuated. The peculiar mode
of growth shown in figs. 17-19, line e, and fig. 18, line d, pl. 1, in which the reg-
ularity of the spiral is abandoned, seems to be another characteristic equally unparal-
leled.

Besides these anomalies, there are numerous individual characteristics appearing with
exceedingly limited range, which can be better accounted for. These are largely mere
excessive developments of certain parts, as certain carinations, or suppression of others.
Very often these have a meaning, which is very important. They are often really char-
acteristic of a series, as the extraordinary development of the first carina in a large num-
ber of the sulcatus series. Again they may be of more limited application, but even more
significant and instructive.

If we observe any series of square forms, such as 7-14, line g, pl. 1, there will be
some with the upper and lower sides of nearly equal breadth, and others in which the
lower side is narrower, never broader. In such extremely square forms as no. 19, line f,
and fig. 11-14, line 1, pl. 2, this is quite as well marked as in other series, fig. 10-11, line e,
pl. 2, being the young of such forms, showing the the narrowness, as does also fig. 13,
line 7. Sometimes this tendency is accompanied by a tendency to suppress the carinations
on the lower side. When carried to its extreme, as in the series figs. 1-6, line
c, this produces a whorl, which is rounded and smooth on the lower side, as in
fig. 6. If we now compare these forms with line &, fig. 6,! pl. 1, we shall see that
this is one of those transitions to PI. trochiformis, which are distinguished by having
smooth lower sides.

In the same way, where the carinae are not atrophied, it will be observed that the
narrowing of the lower side always takes place in the transition forms to Pl. trochiformis
in proportion as they become more turretted.

I do not mean to trace out a series on this character, because no one can examine
a series without seeing that the narrowing of the lower side and the sometimes correlative
atrophy of the ribs is not characteristic of series, but is an individual variation, gaining in
importance and represented in a larger number of individuals, as we approach the
turretted forms. See also in this respect the transition forms, figs. 1-4, line 7, pl. 2. We
can say also, with approximate accuracy, that in any series there is a constant tendency

1The Pl. elegans of Hilgendorf.

80 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

to produce flattened forms with prominently developed carinations, but that this is
counteracted by a still stronger tendency to produce turretted forms, with the carinations

and sulcation of the lower side more or less depressed or atrophied, and that side
correspondingly more or less rounded. It will be seen at once that these tendencies

produce in one direction the squarest whorls and mouths, and in the other the
triangular or trochiform shape of the whorl and mouth.

The specimen figured on line o, fig. 15, pl. 1, is the young of discoideus, with
a very close resemblance to the var. rotundatus, Hilg., differing only in the greater
angularity of the lower side. It is the young of a Pl. “orherms variety, and not of the true
Pl. trochiformis. There is one remark of importance to be made in this connection, that
this young form is intermediate between the flattest of the rotundatus-like young,
next to be described, and the young of the immature forms of discoideus, figured
below on line J, figs. 7-9.

Var. rotundatus, as described and figured by Hilgendorf, is equivalent to the young
of several forms of Pl. trochiformis.

Sandberger alludes to it as a full-grown variety of his intermedius, distinguished
by its smoothness, but in this sense it is not identical with Hilgendorf’s figure, which
relates to the young alone, as may be seen in the following remarks.

If we compare the young of PI. discoideus displayed on pl. S, line 7, figs. 1-9, and line
h, figs. 1-17, with the tenwis forms on line f, fig. 1-12, we shall first ascertain one very
important fact, which has been stated before: that the young of P/. discoideus differ
in the smooth forms from the young of PJ. tenwis, in being stouter, even from a
very early period, though in all other respects they are identical. The diseoideus series
is finished by the older specimens, figs. 13-17, line /.

The continuity is unbroken on line h, and fig. 18 makes an easy transition with
its more or less rounded whorls, from discoideus to the forms of rotundatus.

These do not entirely abort the third carina which is still to be seen in fig. 23, line h.
They do, however, inherit a tendency to become trochiform, at a very early age,
and with this a tendency to round the lower side of the whorl, and suppress the
third and fourth carine. If now we attempt to follow up the characteristics, we are
led into such forms as figs. 4, 5, 6, line p, pl. 2, with a linear third carination, which are
undoubtedly young of P/. trochiformis, as figured on line gq, fig. 18.

The Pl. trochiformis, fig. 8, line n, is tracable in all its stages down to the undoubted
rotundatus forms, fig. 12, same line, and figs. 15-18, line o. Figs. 9-10, line 0, are
identical with PJ. discoideus, and at first seem really to belong to that species. They
bear nearly the same relation to that species as fig. 6, line ¢, differing only in having the
narrow umbilicus and peculiar sharpness of the lower whorls, which show that they are
the young of the same varieties of trochiformis as rotundatus.

As a separate designation for a variety, the name rotundatus therefore has no
existence, unless accepted as noted by Sandberger, but even then it is open to this
difficulty, that very dissimilar varieties of Pl. trochiformis may be devoid of carinae.
They may be as distinct as the transition form, fig. 4, line r, pl. 2, and the Pl.
trochiformis, fig. 9, line k, pl. 1.

This study of the young forms, however, leads to the conclusion that we must

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. Sil

look to the true discoideus line for the origin of the major portion of the trochiform
varieties. That this is the case, will be established by looking at any large collection
of specimens."

In the majority of the varieties of Pl. trochiformis, the upper sides of the whorls
of the young are exposed at the apex of the shell, and these are smooth, not suleated
and have two carinae generally blunt, as in the true discoideus.

Others, however, equal to the variety pyrguliformis Sand., Pl. trochif. turbinatus
Hilg., are more prominently carinated, as on plate 2, figs. 9-12, line s, and have flattened
apices; and the young, as seen externally at the apex, seem to be identical with
the young of such forms as are figured on line n, figs. 1-2, plate 2, which are flattened
forms of discoideus, distinguishable from the true sulcatus variation by the absence of a
deep sulcation on the upper side.

Occasionally, however, the apices of some true trochiform varieties are similar to those
of the young of other varieties than discoidews. Thus, in the case previously pointed out,
the young of the forms on line 7, figs. 6—7, plate 2, indicates a descent from the variety
elatior, fig. 16, line 7, same plate, and to this might be added other similar forms like
fig. 8, also on line 7, plate 2, and also fig. 8, line k, plate 1. These appear to be identical
with Klein’s V. multiformis, var. trochiformis, and in part with Sandberger’s multiformis,
var. trochiformis communis.

Fig. 3, line o, plate 2, which is the young of the PI. trochiformis, fig. 5, line 7, has the
flattened apex and some of the characteristics of elegans Hilg., but also resembles the
discoideus involutus, and the discoideus rotundatus forms. From this, which often has
prominent carinations, we are able to pass into Pl. trochiformis turbinatus Hilg., line s,
figs. 9-12. These forms have the flattened and sharply carinated young like those of the
less turbinate elegans Hilg., as shown on line a, fig. 15, plate 3, with a broken young speci-
men of Pl. trochiformis (fig. 16) for companion. Compare then again with selected forms
of Pl. discoideus in which the young are remarkably flattened and sharply carinated above
(as fig. 13, line ¢, plate 2, figs. 1-3), line &, figs. 12-14, line g, plate 1, and similar figures
of discoideus on plate 3. The paucity of intermediate forms in this series is very marked,
and caused Dr. Hilgendorf, as in the case of rotundatus, to invert the natural order of the
series. He derives both of these forms from P1/. trochiformis, whereas in tracing them out
as in the case of revertens it will, I think, be found that the young, which always indi-
cate the true line of descent, show closer affinity with discoidean than with trochiform
varieties. In this connection see figs. 6, 7, 8, line &, plate 1 (fig. 6 being very like Pl.
elegans, though evidently intermediate between discoideus and trochiformis) ; also 5-10,
line 6, plate 2, and then compare fig. 15, line a, plate 3, with flat discoideus above. The
resemblance of the young to these full grown forms will at once become apparent. So
far as my experience goes the only retrogressions from trochiformis, which I have been
able to find, are like those figured on plate 8, which are diseased forms showing, as prev-
iously described, a tendency to depart from the spiral as in fig. 10, line 7, and fig. 11, line
8, plate 2.

The conclusion from these observations seem to be that Pl. trochiformis arises from the
almost simultaneous changes of a number of closely allied varieties. These are mostly

?

1 The name of the species, Planorbis trochiformis, which ought to have been at the head of these remarks, has been
accidentally omitted on p. 78, above third paragraph.

82 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

discoideus. The extremely flat and square whorled varieties with their prominent
carinae and sulcations being, however, more rarely represented by true trochiform
descendants, than those forms of discoideus in which these parts are less prominent, and
the form from the beginning of the series more asymmetrical. These in the trochiform
descendants appear in the young as the rotundatus-like form, by which the greater part of
all the trochiform specimens are characterized. Thus the direct line of descent from Pl.
Steinheimensis is shown to be prepotent, or to paves: a greater number of descendants
than any other form.

It is useless to attempt to reduce these proportions to numbers, but it may be generally
stated that in any formation the trochiform varieties with rotundatus-like young greatly
outnumber all others; so much so that those with a distinct flattened form of the apex
have to be sought for, and become rarer and rarer until the extreme is reached in
sulcatus-like young of elegans.

The value of this statement has been tested by the revision of boxes of Pl. trochiformis
from nearly all the formations, the results of the sifting of several samples from each for-
mation in the New Pit, besides a mixed box containing thousands, and a similar review
of material in the Old Pit and East Pit. There is, however, one notable distinction which
is represented also in a measure in the plates. The forms with rotundatus-like young
occur much more abundantly in the East Pit than in the Old or New Pit, where the forms
with discoideus-like young, the P/. trochiformis, as figured by Hilgendorf, appear to be
equally, if not more abundant in some formations.

It will, however, be noted even in this connection that all of the rotundatus-like young
as well as the larger forms with rotundatus-like young figured on plate 2, came from the
Old Pit. The cases of distorted spirals also are much more frequent among the specimens
with flattened discoidean apices than in those with normally formed or rotundatus-like
apices. This fact correllates with another of equal importance, namely, that in some
case a true elatior-like whorl may be caused by a wound. Thus in one specimen in my
collection, of a Pl. trochiformis with a typical rotundatus-like young, very smooth and
rounded on the apex, a wound has interrupted the deposition of the shell when nearly
half grown. The new whorl, when growth was resumed, was not only begun considerably
inside of the spiral projected by the earlier whorls, thus narrowing the spiral consid-
erably, but a first carimation was le oe and a form of the whorl similar to that of
elatior instead of such a form as in plate 2, line s, fig. 6, which would have been produced
in due time if no wound had taken place.

These facts and others mentioned previously, are very curious and appear to indicate
less strength on the part of the prominently carinated forms to resist external or internal
causes of disease, producing a lessened size of the whorl and distortions of the spiral,
which are only very rarely found in those forms having the rotundatus-like young. Thus
the descendants in the direct line of descent from Steinheimensis are not only more
numerous, but healthier than those of other varieties. The largest specimens are those of
the transition forms from the flat variety of discoideus to Pl. trochiformis, such as are
figured on line m, plate 2, and others with the rotundatus-like young.

The descendants of the swlcatws and elatior varieties are generally smaller, especially
when distorted, but when perfectly normal may be quite up to the average size of

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 8

(30)

the direct line, except in the case of those of Pl. trochiformis, which have the discoidean
young and are descended from those just referred to, as figured on line m, pl. 2. Thus the
forms in the direct line of descent have the advantage in point of size, as well as in the
other characteristics mentioned.

Besides these numerous varieties, there are still others which cannot strictly perhaps
be attributed to disease or any definable cause. One of these is precisely similar to fig. 4,
line 7, plate 2, in the rotundatus-like characteristics of the apex, but is extremely attenuated
or tapering. The whorls, however, are perfectly regular, and the external aspect of the
spiral smooth and more regular even than in fig. 4. This seems to be the variety
vermetiformis Sand.

Another variation, which may be the trochiformis communis Sand., is that represented
by the peculiar stout-whorled spiral of figs. 4-9, line &; figs. 2-5 and 6-8, line s, on
plate 2, have also rotundatus-like young.

The distorted specimens, line r, figs. 9-10, plate 2, also deserve special attention. These
have rotundatus-like young, but the last whorl, as shown in fig. 10, has an excessively
thick inner lip, and strikes off from the regular lme of increment. In both cases, the
coarseness and the crumpled look of the aberrant part of the whorl indicates a diseased
condition to which doubtless the distortion must be attributed.

There are also extraordinary forms frequently found at the apex, showing that the
young, as in fig. 1, line s, plate 2, must have presented a remarkable spiral during the
two whorls, owing to the sharp projection of the second carina due to the contraction of
the spiral. This was undoubtedly, I think, a pathological condition, because if it had
been continued the adult would have been much distorted, perhaps even unrolled, as in
Pl. denudatus Hilg. It will be perceived that these results agree only in part with those
of Hilgendorf. That author traces PI. trochiformis through discoideus and sulcatus in
linear succession, to Pl. tenuis, then to Pl. Steinheimensis, and lastly to Pl. aequiumbil-
icatus.

The changes or variations from sulcatus and discoideus varieties into trochiformis were
probably simultaneous or nearly so. At any rate, though this cannot be proved, there is
a strong antecedent probability in its favor, owing to the sudden appearance of these
forms in such great numbers, the precise parallelism of the different series, the frequency
of hybrids and a parallelism so exact that it can only be explained by supposing that it
was produced by the intercrossing of all the varieties.

This conclusion I find after a re-examination of the material to be substantially correct
so far as the evidence as found in the Pits is concerned. °

Throughout the preceding observations any reader can see by referring to the figures
from what Pit and formation the different shells came, but in the following remarks no
attention is paid to the formation, that not being considered important.

There are upon plate 7, six specimens of PI. levis from Undorf; three of them are
easily picked out, having been mounted on white paper, but can any reader distinguish
the other three from the “Pit forms of PJ. S“irfeimensis’ which are associated with them, before
reading the following descriptions.

This series is arranged entirely with the view of showing the zoological affinities of the
series, independent e their geological relations.

84 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

The shells are more magnified than in the first three plates, and carefully selected
to show- their affinities.

Line a, fig. 1, Pl. levis, from Undorf, compares with figs. 5, 5, Pl. Steinheimensis.
The latter have peculiarly deep umbilici on the upper side, which is a characteristic of
Pl. levis, and are otherwise just like fig. 1; the forms could not be separated if found
together. Fig. 2 shows the typical form of PJ. levis, from Undorf. Fig. 6, also, from
Undorf, exhibits the angular whorl of PJ. levis, and compares equally closely with fig. 7,
PI. Steinheimensis and fig. 8, a young specimen of the latter. Compare also fig. 2, line b,
from the Pits, with P/. levis, Undorf, fig. 5; fig. 1, line b, PJ. Steinheimensis, with fig. 4,
Pl. levis, Undorf; figs. 5, 7, 8, line 6, from the Pits, with figures on the line below, and
fig. 6, from Undorf. It is observable, however, that while in PJ. levis a decided angu-
larity is found in the outer edge of the mouth-rim, owing to the prominence of the third
carination, this is not the case with Steinheimensis, as a rule. It is a rare exception in
the last named, and none of the normal specimens examined by me, even though they
had this third carination as strongly shown as in fig. 6, line a, plate 7, possessed an
angulated aperture.

Fig. 3, line c, shows a remarkably fine specimen of Pl. Steinheimensis, which has the
cylindrical form of the whorls common in var. aequiumbilicatus Hilg., but is not aequium-
bilicated. It is decidedly asymmetrical, and shows the tendency to form a turbinate
whorl, which is so common in all the forms. Line ¢ exhibits forms of Steinheimensis
intermediate with regard to the stoutness of the whorl, etc., between those in the three
lower lines, and line d. These specimens also show, as do those below, that in some
specimens the same variations occur also in the young. Line e, figs. 1-4, are more or
less symmetrical forms, all normal, healthy, full-grown, but not outgrown, or old speci-
mens, as in fig. 13, line h, pl. 1. Fig. 7, line d, is Pl. seinheimensis, from the rogks of the
Upper Tier of the Cloister Ridge ; figs. 5-7, line e, are Pl. Sicitti teas fromthe: Pits:

Figs. 1-3, line f, complete the transition to Pl. tenuis, figs. 4-5.

The asymetrical forms of tenwis are shown in fig. 6-7, same line, and on line g,
all of which are tenwis forms. Fig. 6, le g, is the stoutest true fenuis form which
I have been able to find in my collection, and it will be seen that a hair’s breadth
more and a shade more of prominence to the third carima would make it impossible
to say whether it was tenwis or discoideus.

The remaining specimens on this plate exhibit the ordinary forms of discoideus, those
having rotundatus young. Figs. 3-6, line 7, are true rotundatus Hilg., and figs. 1, 2,
same line, the transitions from P/. discoideus to these.

It remains now only to trace the law of acceleration in this series. If we select any
of the transition forms, Pl. giff7snsis, and examine the younger stages, we should find,
as in fig. 1, line 6, fig. 13, line c, pl. 1, that the only traceable resemblance to PI. tenuis,
the sulcation, occurs on the last part of the last whorl, or during the full grown adult
condition only; that such shells as figs. 14-15, line c, exhibit the same at an earlier age,
accompanied by carinae, and finally fig. 16, at a still earlier age; so that it is difficult to
say whether the young is like Pl. Steinheimensis, except at a very early stage.

Finally in many specimens of Pl. tenwis it becomes difficult to recognize the form of
Pl. Steinheimensis at all on account of the early period at which the flattened whorl,

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 85

carina, sulcation and narrow umbilicus make their appearance, figs. 5-10, line e, pl. 1.
The square form of the whorl as inherited by PJ. discoideus passes through a similar
series of descendants, in which it becomes more pronounced and stouter in the young by
degrees, until the young themselves from being similar to tenwis become stout whorled and
discoidean, as well as the adults, fig. 16, line ), pl. 2, fig. 14, line g, pl. 1. The turbinated
form of the shell is wholly an adult characteristic in many specimens of discoideus, figs.
2-3, line h, pl. 1, fig. 12, line p, and may be traced with all its accompanying characteristics
through several series to Pl. trochiformis, where the different series culminate in shells
which have young that are so trochiform-like at an early age, that only the very youngest
periods retain any resemblance to discoideus.

In some of these it is easy also by breaking down the shell to see one of the common
results of this mode of inheritance by acceleration. Namely, the Steinheimensis form is
almost, and in some few cases entirely, unrecognizable. It is skipped by the development,
and so also is the tenwis form, the discoideus form alone surviving in the young.!

With regard to the proper identification of these forms, and those described by Klein in
Jahresh. d. Vereins. fiir vaterland. Naturk. in Wiirtt., 1847, p. 60, fig. 7, line A, pl. 1,
seems to me identical with Klein’s V., multiformis var. planorbiformis, pl. 2, fig. 14.

Fig. 7, line k, pl. 1, seems to correspond with Klein’s V. multiformis var. intermedia,
pl. 2, fig. 15. Fig. 8, line 7, pl. 2, is almost exactly identical except in size with Klein’s
figure of V. multiformis var. trochiformis, pl. 2, fig. 16. Fig. 7, line 7, pl. 2, is equally
close to Klein’s figure of V. multiformis var. turbiniformis, pl. 2, fig. 17. Fig. 11, line o,
pl. 2, is apparently identical in every respect with Klein’s V. multiformis var. rotundata,
pl. 2..fie. 18:

Feeling that it would be futile to attempt a revision of the mames of the different
varieties, I do not attempt here or elsewhere, to do anything more than assist those who
may feel disposed to take upon themselves this thankless task, with such observations as I
may have made. ;

Sandberger’s diagnosis, in which he divides this group into three, is the best which has
been devised, with the exception of rotwndatus, which, as shown, is only a name for a
young specimen, and is therefore placed in brackets.

First variety? A, planorbiformis; containing sub-variety a, sulcatus, sub-variety )b,
discoideus, sub-variety (, elatior.

Second variety B, intermedius; containing sub-variety a, communis, sub-variety },
eleguns, [sub-variety ec, rotundatus |.

Third variety C, trochiformis; containing sub-variety a, communis, sub-variety },
pyrguliformis, sub-variety c, vermetiformis.

1This phenomenon was what led to the adoption of the 2 Tn place of “ variety,” I should have written group, and

name “acceleration.” In place of ‘‘sub-variety” the word species in most cases,
but this is merely a difference in taste.

HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

V. Lists or Fossits By SECTIONS.

OxLp Prt, Section 5-6.
Formation “a.”
Stratum “a,” 1, and a.

This, the lowest observed stratum, was explored in two places in the Old Pit
by means of holes sunk through the fish layers, ce, to the dark Jura clay beneath.
At the lowest points fossils were carefully collected, which are figured on plate 1,
lines a-k, and k-J. Lines a-k include the varieties obtained during the first visit
to Steinheim, in the first hole sunk to the Jura-clay level, and also those collected
during the second visit in a new hole at a short distance to the northward and still within
the limits of the Pit. Lines k-l, include a selection of the varieties obtained in the
lowest stratum during the reopening and reéxamination of the first hole dug and
described above, in order to establish the fact that Planorbis trochiformis occurred in
the Old Pit associated at the lowest level with Pl. Steinheimensis, var. aequiumbilicatus.

The descriptions and plates show that the following species, with many intermediate
forms, were obtained from the lowest part of the deposit, in contact with the Jura or dark-
brown clay.

Pl. Steinheimensis, var. aequi- Pl. steinneimensis: WEA, apes Metered

umbilicatus. Pil. tenuis. Pi. eee similar tom wane
Pl. Steinheimensis. Pl. discoideus. elegans Hilg.
Pil. omystomns Pl. discoideus, var. involu- Pl. trochiformis.
Piece tus.

Stratum a2, Old Pit.

This consisted, like the first stratum, of a brownish colored, coarse sand, but was devoid
of clay, and contained also stones or small boulders. The following species were found,
and are figured on plate 1, lines m-p:

Pl. Steinheimensis var. ae- Pl. ns. Pl. discoideus.
quiumbilicatus. 1 BAR Ststabeunoaties Pi. Prelit
Pl. Steinheimensis. Pil. tenuis.

Stratum a3, Old Pit.

This consisted of sand of a similar coarse quality and color to that of a2, but contained
no large stones. The fossils were as follows, and are figured on plate 2, line a, and line },

figs. 1-4.
Pl. Steinheimensis, var. ae- Pl. Steinheimensis. Pi. tenuis.
quiumbilicatus. PUR ei Pl. discoideus.

Summary of Formation “ a.”

The geological characteristics of the lowest observed stratum in each of the two holes
sunk to the level of the bottom clay differed. In the first hole, at the base of Section 6,
it was almost entirely shell-sand, but in the second hole, at the base of Section 5, the sand

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. Sif

was largely mixed with clay. The strata a2 and a3, in Section 5, both contain the
typical forms of stratum al, but not quite so fully represented in a2 as in a1, or in a3,
as in a2. They seem, therefore, to be diminishing at the end of this period, in this
part of the lake. The deposits of a2 are distinct from al; they consist of masses and
granules which resemble in character the adjacent porous limestone, or the older rocks
described previously as forming the mass of the Cloister-ridge. Without the contained fos-
sils it would not have been possible to have synchronized the two formations, namely, the
single stratum at the base of Section 6, and the three strata at the base of Section 5. The
fossils, however, include a similar association of forms. Pl. Steinheimensis, Pl. tenuis and
Pl. discoideus are abundant, and Pl. trochiformis is comparatively rare.

Formation “b,” Old Pit.

This contains no fossils, but was situated immediately under Formation ec, in both
of the holes dug in the Old Pit. It contained shell-sand, and a considerable proportion
of clay, in Section 6, and was almost wholly of clay in Section 5.

Formation “ec,” Old Pit.

This consisted, in the first hole dug, of 250 mm. of clay, in layers, and 250 mm.
of limestone layers, all more or less filled with fish remains ; in Section 5, however, in the
second hole, the limestone occurred in layers regularly divided thoughout by layers
of clay. No shells were found associated with the fish fossils. The general distribution
of this Formation and its peculiar fossils makes it very valuable as a fixed level,

from which to estimate the relationship of other formations.
Formation “d,” Old Pit.

This consisted, in the locality first explored in the Old Pit, of clay and sand mixed,
300 mm. in thickness, and in the second place, Section 5, of sand exclusively, the
thickness being approximately 270 mm. The fossils were scarce and difficult to
gather, because this formation formed the floor of the Pit in both sections.

The following fossils were obtained :

Pl. discoideus. Pl. trochiformis. Pl. minutus.

They are figured on pl. 2, line }, figs. 5-16.

Formation “e,’” Old Pit.

This consists of shell-sand 1 m. in thickness, and abundance of fossils, especially
of the smaller forms. The color differs somewhat from this ordinary shell sand, and
it appears of darker or brown color, as if made up of the debris of darker limestones
on the hill.

The following fossils were obtained :

Pl. discoideus. TEU Ose) Pl costatus, |
Pl. trochiformis. Pl. denudatus. Ph
Pl. minutus. Pl. costatus. Pl. tenuis, var. Kraussii.

They are figured pl. 2, lines c, d, and e, figs. 1-17.

88 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

Formation “f,” Old Pit.

This consisted of the usual quality of white shell-sand, and contained the following
fossils :

Pl. tenuis. Pl. denudatus. Pl. triquetrus.
Pl. discoideus. jE}, See
Pl Ae Pl. costatus.

Plate 2, line e, figs. 18-27, line f, line g, figs. 1-16.

Formation “g,’” Old Pit.

This is composed of the common white friable shell-sand, but contained no fossils.

Formation “h,” Old Pit.

This consisted of the ordinary white, friable shell-sand, and contained the following
fossils :

Pl. discoideus. Pl. discoideus (var. elatior—PI. triquetrus.
Pl. discoideus (rotundatus- Sand).
like young). Pl. trochiformis.

Plate 2, line g, figs. 17-23, line h-1.

Formation “i,” Old Pit.

This consisted, where examined, mostly of the debris of broken shells, but contained
numerous fossils in good preservation, but very few species.
Pl. discoideus. Die caneeil=
Plate 2, line m. .
Formation “k,” Old Pit.

This consists of the common quality of white, friable shell-sand, and contained
the following fossils :

Pi. tenuis. Pl. trochiformis.
Pl. discoideus. Pl. trochiformis (rotundatus-young ).

Plate 2, lines n, 0, and p, figs. 1-13.

Formation “1,” Old Pit.

This consisted of white shell-sand, and contained :

PI. steinheimensis- Pl. trochiformis. JA fe prettle
Pl. tenuis. Pl. trochiformis (var. pyrgu- Pl. denudatus.
Pl. discoideus. liformis Sand).

TEL Areal bine Pl. minutus. Pl. costatus.

Plate 2, line p, figs. 14-20, and lines q, 7, s.

Formation “x,” Old Pit.

This has the admixture of broken shells and perfect specimens which is very often

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 89

found in other formations, and I cannot see why it should be necessarily considered as
entirely composed of transported materials, as described by Hilgendorf.

Pl. discoideus, Pl. trochiformis, and one well-preserved specimen of PI. oxystomus
were obtained. ¢

Formation “1.” (Uncertain.)

?

The absence of the upper or clayey formations from “m” upwards, in the Old
Pit, had attracted my attention from the first.

In order to ascertain whether this had been due to denudation, I ordered a hole
to be dug on the top of the hill at some distance from the Old Pit, and a little
to the north of a line connecting the Old Pit and the East Pit. This was sunk
about eight feet; the first two feet or so through a bed of rubble, containing
large specimens of Lymnaea; the remaining five feet, through a bed corresponding
more to Formation 7 of the Old Pit, than to any other. Pl. trochiformis of the same
varieties as those figured on plate 2, limes 7, s, were very abundant, but distinguished
by the almost invariable absence of the carination on the lower side.

Pl. costatus and minutus were also quite abundant, especially the latter; in both
also the specimens were large, and the ribs in the latter very coarse and prominent, as in
the variety major Hilgend. Var. Avraussii was also found, but of rare occurrence.

The bed could not be said to be continuous with / in the Old Pit, although in all
probability it was synchronous, and bed x was entirely absent, its place being occupied by
the rubble, which occurs frequently just under the surface soil on the hill, and appears
to be composed of drift from the Cloister-ridge rocks.

This result was interesting, in so far as it confirmed the conclusions attained
elsewhere, that the beds often differ so essentially, although but a short distance,
removed from each other, that it is not possible to determine whether they are
exactly synchronous. One fact is worthy of special remark. The rubble had also
occurred at the very highest point known, the top of the Cloister Pit, Section 1, but the
oxystomus layers were absent, and the rubble on the north side of the hill rested directly
on the trochiformis beds, which agree in their fossils with formation / of the Old Pit
_ more than with the higher beds x; which, however, have similar fossils.

New Pir, Section 8, SoutH SIDE.

This section was made on the south side of the New Pit, where the formation differed
somewhat from those on the east side, as shown in Section 7. It would have been
idle to repeat the figures of the usual PJ. discoideus and trochiformis shells of the
Old Pit, and other species which have been already so fully given. These occurred
abundantly in some of the strata, and more rarely in others, until in Formation m, they
gave way to the usual fauna of the oxystomus zone. I have accordingly only figured
those forms which were not previously found at what have been considered as
corresponding levels in the Old Pit, or which seemed to require special consideration.

90 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

Formation “f,’ New Pit, South side.

,
This consisted of the usual shell-sand, but many of the specimens were incrusted with
lime, and had the aspect of transported shells. P/. erescens makes its appearance, but is
rare. 4
Pl. tenuis. Pl. discoideus. Pl. trochiformis.
Pl. 3, line a, figs. 1-5.

Formation “g,’ New Pit, South side.

This also consists of shell-sand and fossils, but not so abundant as in /f.
Pl. discoideus and Pl. trochiformis.

Formation “h,” New Pit, South side.

This consists of shell-sand, and contains :—
Pl. parvus. Pl. oxystomus. Pl. discoideus.
Pl. erescens. Pl. minutus. Pl. trochiformis.
Pl. 3, line a, figs. 4-14.

Formation “i,” New Pit, South side.

Pl. parvus. Pl. oxystomus. Pl. trochiformis var elegans,
Pl. crescens. Pl. trochiformis. (Very rare).

The absence of Pl. discoideus is a fact worthy of remark.

Pl. 3, line a, figs. 15-23, line 0, figs. 1-11.

Formation “k,” New Pit, South side.

This consists of shell-sand and contains :—
Pl. oxystomus. Pl. costatus var. major. Pl. trochiform is.
Pl. crescens. Pl. discoideus.

Pl. 3, line 8, figs. 12-17.

Formation “1,” New Pit, South side.

This consists of shell-sand, and contains : —
Pl. oxystomus. Pl. minutus. Pl. trochiformis.
Pl. discoideus was not found.
Pl. 3, line ¢, figs. 1-4.

Formation “m,” New Pit, South side.

This consists almost wholly of clay, and contains :— P/. oxystomus, Pl. crescens, but no
Pl. discoideus; and Pl. trochiformis becomes exceedingly rare.
Plate 3, line ¢, figs. 5-16.

Formation “x,” New Pit, South side. .

This consisted of the usual shell-sand and broken shells with PJ. trochiformis and Pl.
discoideus, well preserved and very abundant. :

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 91

Formation “p,”’ New Pit.

This consisted of alternate thin layers of clay and limestone, containing remains of PJ.
oxystomus, Pl. crescens, and PI. trochiformis, the last very abundant in the lower part,
and very rare in the upper part of the formation.

New Pit, Section 7, East SIDE.

The species of the formations in this section did not seem to require figuring. The
beds are remarkably distinct in aspect from those of the more regular layers on the south
side of the same pit, as shown in section 8.

Formation “g,’’ New Pit, East side.

This formation was made up of alternate layers of limestone and shell-sand, containing
the usual Pl. trochiformis and discoideus, but no other forms were present, or represented
in my collection.

Formation “h,” New Pit, East side.

This narrow streak of shell-sand was perhaps one of the most remarkable deposits which
I

it was my good fortune to find. It was an almost solid bed of shells, consisting largely of

the transition form, P/. “ecerms’ Quite a number of the Pl. discoideus and Pl.

trochiformis were also present in all varieties and some very remarkable forms, produced
by distortion of the spiral, arising from wounds.

Formation “i,” New Pit, East side.

The lower part of this formation presented a very close resemblance to Formation “ 7,”
of the East Pit, Section 3. It contained lumps of limestone, in a fine sandy clay, and it
is not improbable that these show the mode of formation of the numerous dividing layers
of limestone, since they are of all degrees of hardness and exhibit frequently no definite
outlines when in place.

Pl. parvus was found, but not very abundant. PJ. crescens was more abundant than
the preceding. PI. oxystomus was quite rare. Pl. trochiformis was abundant, but not
so frequent as in the upper part. Var. Kraussii was also found, and Pl. minutus, but not
abundantly.

Formation “k,’ New Pit, East side.

This consists of a thin layer of shell-sand between two layers of clay, and was evidently
of very limited extent. The clay on either side contained no fossils.

Pi. crygioms — var. revertens, and the turbinate and flat forms were very abundant.
Pl. crescens was also abundant. PI. trochiformis and Pl. oxystomus were the most char-
acteristic and numerous of all others.

Formation “1,” New Pit, East side.
This consisted of shell-sand. The usual list of shells were found, Pl. trochiformis

being perhaps the most abundant form.
Pl. minutus. Pl. crescens. Pil. tenuis var. Kraussii.

Pl. oxystomus. Pl. trochiformis.

92 . HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

Formation ‘‘m,’ New Pit, East side.

The clay bed in this section was by no means so thick as in Section 8, though it
probably only corresponds to the lower part of Formation ““m”’ in Section 8. The col-
lections made from this bed are particularly favorable to the views taken by Hilgendorf
of the genesis of Pl. oxystomus from Pl. trochiformis.

They appear in my collection labelled as transition forms, and would without other
evidence be considered sufficient to prove his position. A most perfect series can be
built up between PI. trochiformis and the extreme discoidal variety of var. revertens,
which I think would be considered sufficient even by the most sceptical person, if no
other evidence was forthcoming.

The confusion arises from the number and variety of the Pl. trochiformis with
rotundatus young, and the close resemblances of these young forms to certain varieties of
Pl.oxystomus, which were also present in considerable numbers.

Pl. crescens was abundant and of large size.

Formation “x2,” New Pit, East side.

This consisted of the ordinary materials of the shell-sand fillmg a lenticular pocket,
which disappeared on following it a short distance towards Section 8.

Formation “n, 0,’ New Pit, East side.

This was a bed of clay of the usual fine texture, and containing specimens of Pl.
oxystomus and Pl. crescens, but no other species.

Formation “x3,” New Pit, East side.

This consisted of the usual materials, and was apparently continuous with x3, in Section
8, and just above it laid the layers of limestone and shell-sand of

Formation “p,’’ New Pit, East side.

This bed is directly traceable into formation p, of Section 8, and contained the same
species of fossils.

LirtLe Pit, Section 4.

Formation “a,” Little Pit.

This was situated considerably to the northward of the Old Pit, on the first road to the
eastward. It was only a small excavation, but I employed a laborer to open it to the
depth of about ten feet. The weather, however, was very unfavorable for such work,
and the digging difficult on account of the thickness and frequency of the limestone. I
therefore abandoned it before reaching the Jura clay, but succeeded in ascertaining the
fact that the layers increase in thickness to the northward.

Above the two clay layers respectively marked 1 and 2 of Formation a, occurred a
thick deposit of drift material, often very coarse, and exactly resembling the porous
limestone drift of Section 5, formation a2, but much thicker. Here shells were more
abundant, and I obtained a few specimens of PJ. tenuis, and one uncoiled specimen of

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 93

Pl. denudatus. This last was very carefully collected, and there is no doubt in my own
mind, that it came from this formation, but though I sought diligently for specimens, I
could not find another. Above this we find Formations b, ¢ and d, running together,
and consisting of layers of clay containing the fish remains.

‘Formation “e,” Little Pit.

The lower part of this formation consisted of the same brown porous limestone drift as
formation e¢ in the Old Pit, and the fossils of the lower part also agreed very closely
with those of that formation. The upper part contained a large admixture of the ordi-
nary friable shell-sand, and a somewhat distinct fauna.

Lower Part.

Pl. minutus, Pl. costatus, and Pl. denudatus were particularly abundant, with Pl. dis-
coideus.
Upper Part.
Pl. discoideus, and Pl. trochiformis are abundant, and with them numerous specimens of
the form of the young, known as rotundatus.

Formation ‘“f,” Little Pit.

The prevailing fossils here, as elsewhere, were Pl. trochiformis and Pl. discoideus.

East Pir, Section 3.
This section was taken on the south side of the Pit, and continued as far down
as possible by a hole dug to the fish-layers of formation e. Any attempt to penetrate
this, though made here in two places, was frustrated by the influx of water.

Formation “c,” East Pit.

This consisted of clay in layers containing the usual fish fossils, but no shells.

Formation “d, e,’’ East Pit.

This is very thick, and consists of layers of shell-sand of greater or less density, but
otherwise not distinguishable. They have the same lumpy character and brown color of
the corresponding formations in the Old Pit. Pl. discoideus was abundant.

Pl. minutus and costatus were also abundant. Pl. triquetrus was also found. A
broken specimen or two of oxystomus was found, a fact which was carefully ascertained.

Formation “f,” East Pit.

This formation is naturally divided into three parts just in the southwest corner of the
sandpit, where one hole was dug, by streaks of clay interpolated between the three thicker
layers of shell-sand. P/. discoideus is particularly fine in the lowest, but generally not
very large. The usual spiral transition forms are not very abundant, the large majority
being of the deeply channelled sulcatus form. A few also are smooth, but none of them

94 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

approximate very closely to trochiformis. Pl. sulcatus had the same peculiarities in the
middle bed. In the upper bed, however, nearly all the forms, without approximating
very closely to Pl. trochiformis, showed the trochiform tendency in being more or less
spiral, either throughout life, or only in the adult; only a very few of the flat sulcatus
form were found in this part. P/. minutus occurred but very rarely in the lower part,
while in the middle part it was much more numerous, and also associated with P/. costatus.
In the upper part they were even more numerous, and associated with P/. costatus. One
specimen had the tunnelled form, but the whorls were not open. Var. Araussii follows
nearly the same rule, being scarce in the first, quite numerous in the second, and still more
abundant in the third part.

One broken specimen of Pl. oxystomus was found in the middle part in which only a
portion of the centre, and an outer whorl is left unbroken.

Formation “ g,” East Pit.

This consists of clay, but has two pockets or layers of shells. Pl. discoideus was very
abundant, with numerous specimens of the rotundatus young of Pl. trochiformis in all
varieties, Pl. minutus and costatus, and Pl. parvus, and rarely Pl. crescens.

Formation “h,” East Pit.

This consists of shell-sand. PP. discoideus, and Pl. trochiformis, with all the interme-
diate forms were very abundant. P/. minutus and Pl. costatus were also very abundant,
and uncoiled forms of both species. Var. Araussii and Pl. crescens also occur, but not so
frequently.

Formation “i,” East Pit.

This consists in the lower part of two strata of clay, with three of shell-sand, and in
the upper part of one layer of shell-sand between two of limestone. The shells were
not abundant, and much thinner than in the preceding formations. PJ. trochiformis most
frequently occurred, but not in good preservation. Pl. minutus, Pl. costatus, and
Pl. crescens were also found. <A specimen similar to PJ. pseudotenuis Hilg., probably the
young of Pl. tenuis, occurs for the first time in these formations.

Formation “k, 1,” East Pit.

This consisted of shell-sand and could have been divided into two parts according to the
fauna, but this hardly seemed essential since the deposit was continuous. The lower part
contained Pl. minutus, Pl. costatus, and a large proportion of the uncoiled or costated
denudatus-like varieties. PJ. crescens, and Pl. oxystomus also occurred, the latter in
great plenty. Pl. trochiformis was also abundant, but the most interesting form
zodlogically, though not frequent, was the pseudotenuis-like species, which seems to be the
young of the PJ. tenuis figured on line f, figs. 1-6, plate 2.

The shells of Pl. minutus, in the upper part, were whiter and more fragile than in the
lower, and Pl. oxystomus was almost entirely absent; otherwise the fauna presented the
same characteristics. ;

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 95

Formation “xl,” East Pit.

This formation occurred in a pocket of limited extent.

Formation “m,” East Pit.

The lower part of this formation was divided -by a layer of broken pieces of limestone.
Both parts consisted of clay. Specimens of PI. trochiformis, Pl. °yerr’ var. rever-
tens, and Pl. oxystomus, Pl. crescens, Pl. tenuis, Pl. minutus and Pl. costatus var. major
were also found. The upper part contained the same forms with the exception of
Pl. costatus and Pl. trochiformis in one spot, while in another, almost adjoining, these
were also found.

Formation ‘‘n,” East Pit.

This consisted also of two parts. The lower of an argillaceous shell-sand, and the
upper of an exceedingly fine sand filled in the border with nodules of the same material,
but of lithographic fineness, and very soft. The lower portion alone contained fossils.

Pl. trochiformis, Pl. crescens, Pl. ser"s var. revertens, and Pl. costatus var. major
occurred, but none very abundantly.

Formation “o,” East Pit.

This consisted of clay more or less permeated by reticulated veinings of limestone,
arising from percolation from above, giving the whole a loose tufaceous aspect, reminding
one of the limestone on the surface of the hill. Only a few specimens were found. PJ.
oxystomus var. revertens, Pl. oxystomus, Pl. crescens, and Pl. costatus var. major.

Formation ‘x3,” East Pit.

This appeared to be similar in character to what was found in the Old Pit, but con-
tained P/. oxystomus in considerable abundance.

East Pit, Section 2.

It is not necessary to describe in detail the formations shown in this section. It
is taken from an excavation in the centre of the Pit. Three such excavations were
examined, and an attempt made to sink this one deeper, which was unsuccessful on
account of the influx of water. It is evident, however, here, that the strata are apt
to become thicker, as we progress outwards from the hill. The fossils were about the same
as in the corresponding formations of Section 3.

CLoIsTER Pit, Section 1.

This pit, which had become filled with debris, was reopened to a depth sufficient to
uncover the beds containing abundance of the Pl. discoideus and trochiformis. None of
these formations compare very closely with those of the other pits, and it is to be regret-
ted that I did not continue the excavations to the base.

96 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

Dr. Hilgendorf in his last exploration, however, has repaired this omission. He found
that the base of the section rested upon Opalinus clay, an older formation of the Jura
than those which are at the bases of the other sections. He also ascertained that the
lowest beds contained only PJ. Steinheimensis, a fact of the greatest importance to his
theory. This, however, does not seem to me to be conclusive, even though confirmed
in other sections, for reasons given elsewhere. In fact, the occurrence of the true
Pl. Steinheimensis bed in these elevated deposits makes it very difficult to account for
the absence of this bed in lower situations, such as those represented by Sections 5, 6.

Formation “k,’ Cloister Pit.

This consists of shell-sand and contains the following fossils in the lower part :— Pl. dis-
coideus, Pl.minutus. Pl. discoideus was the only fossil Planorbis found in the upper
part.

Plate 3, line e, figs. 17-19, and line d.

Formation “1,” Cloister Pit.

Consists of layers of shell-sand, with the usual limestone partings, and contains

stomus

Pi. mimitus = narvus (pars). Pl. erescens, Pl. "ivr var. revertens, Pl. oxystomus, Pl. oxys-
tomus var. cochleatz, Pl. supremus var. turrita, Pl. supremus, Pl. discoideus, Pl. “qerihacus’>
Pl. trochiformis.

Plate 3, lines e-k, and line J, figs. 1-14.

Formation “m,” Cloister Pit.

This is like “J,” lithologically, and contains:— Pl. °7"* var. revertens, Pl. oxys-
tomus, Pl. supremus var. turrita, Pl. discoideus, Pl. trochiformis.
Plate 3, line J, figs. 15-17, and lines m-—p.

Formation “n, o,’’ Cloister Pit.

This consisted of sand layers with limestone partings like formation m, but contained
no fossils. Above this occurred a bed of rubble consisting of disintegrated rock, appar-
ently derived from the Cloister-ridge rocks and resembling m character that previously
encountered on the north slope of the hill, but containing no fossils.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 97

VI. Lists or Sprecres By ForMATIONS.

Lower Prriop, or PERIOD oF Rock Deposits.

Weuselhalder Rocks.

Pl. solidus. P1. platystomus. Pl. Hilgendorfi.
Pl. declivis. Pl. exustus. PI. levis.
Pl. Larteti or conulus.

Coarse Limestone.

ay, czysiomus Pl. oxystomus. SEY, (EMG

oxrystomus.

Oxystomus Limestone,

Brag. Cousions Pl. oxystomus. Pl oe
Pl. parvus.

Valley Rock.

Mele creinncimensia. Pl. discoideus.

Cloister-Ridge Rocks.

(Lower Tier.)
tenuis or i liscoideus
Pi. ictiiciaiensta: Jap tenuis. Pl. seeeratie

Pl. discoideus.

(Upper Tier.)

ae oy somes TV rae Pl. tenuis, turreted variety.
Pl. discoideus. Pl. tenuis. pals ees

Uprer Prriop, or Pertop oF Pit Deposits.

Formation a.

Pl. Steinheimensis var. I El fs Sehr ibs ee Pi. Mechiformis var. like elegans
aequiumbilicatus. Pl. tenuis. Hilg. .

Pl. Steinheimensis. Pl. discoideus. Pl. trochiformis.

HY Sonu sions Pl. discoideus var. involutus. Pl. denudatus.

JE lls pe Merateeaeee Jd a es aes Pi. tenuis, turreted variety.

Pl. minutus.

Formation d.

Pl. discoideus. Pl. minutus. Pl. triquetrus.
Pl. trochiformis. Pl. costatus. Pl. oxystomus.

98 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY

Pl. discoideus.
Pl. trochiformis.
Pl. minutus.

Pl denudatus

minutus.

Pi. ant

evis.

Pil. discoideus.
iT latus
Tee cnaniee

Pl. denudatus.
SEY costatus

minutus.

Pl. Steinheimensis.

Pl. discoideus.
Pl. trochiformis.

Pl. Steinheimensis.
Pl. discoideus.

Formation e.

Pl. denudatus.
PI. costatus.
Pi. costatus

minutus.

Pi triquetrus

minutus.

Formation f.

Pl. costatus.
Pl. triquetrus.
Pl. tenuis.
Pl. crescens.

Formation g.

SPECIES

Pl. trochiformis (rotundatus-

like young).
Pl. triquetrus.
Pl. oxystomus.

Pl. trochiformis.
Pl. Kraussii.
Pl. minutus.

Pl. oxystomus.
Pl. pseudotenuis.

Pl. trochiformis (rotundatus- Pl. costatus.

like young).
Pl. minutus.

Formation h.

Pl. parvus.
Pl. crescens.

Pl. trochiformis var. pyrgqu- Pl. oxystomus.

liformis.

Pl. discoideus (rotundatus- Pl. “pckivennis

like young).
Pil. discoideus var. elatior.
Pl. trochiformis.

Pl. Steinheimensis.
Pl. discoideus.
p) te is
Je d. Stevimermensie
Pi trochiformis

* discoideus.

Pl. parvus.

Pi. tenuis.
Pl. discoideus.
Pl. trochiformis.

discoideus.

Pl. triquetrus.
Pl. parvus.
Pl. erescens.

Formation i.

Pl. crescens.

Pl. oxystomus.
Pl. trochiformis.
Pl. Kraussit.

Formation k.

Pl. oxystomus.
Pl. crescens.
Pl. costatus var. major.

Pl. trochiformis (rotundatus- Pl. oxystomus var. rever-

like young.)
Pl. Steinheimensis.

tens.
PT eee

heimensis.

Pl. minutus.

Pl. costatus.

Pl. denudatus.

Pl. costatus var. distortus.
Pl. Kraussii.

Pl. minutus.
Pi oxystomus

levis.

Pl. costatus.
Pl. tenuis.

Pl. minutus.

Pl. costatus.

Pl. costatus var. distortus.
Pl. tenuis.

Pl. pseudotenuis.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 99

Formation 1.

PA. seeinkeimensis. Pl. minutus. Pl. costatus.
Pi. tenuis. JEN deans JAX, ory somue var. revertens.
Pl. discoideus. Pl. denudatus. Pl. oxystomus var. turritus.
Ls ects Pl. oxystomus. Pl. supremus.
Pl. trochiformis. Pl. Kraussii. Pl. pseudotenuis.
Pl. trochiformis var. pyrquli- Pl. crescens. Wd ie Rae

forms. Pl. parvus. Pl. Steinheimensis.

t Us
ley cous

Formation x.

Pl. oxystomus. Pl. discoideus. Pl. trochiformis.

Formation m.
Pl. Steinheimensis. Pl. trochiformis (votundatus- Pl. costatus.
LAI ag like young. ) Pl. costatus var. major.
Pl. oxystomus. Pi, orysiomus var. revertens. Pl. supremus.
Pl. crescens. Pl. tenuis. Pl. supremus var. turritus.
Pl. trochiformis. Pl. minutus.

Formation n.
Pl. crescens. Pl. trochiformis. Pl. costatus var. major.
Pl. oxystomus. PI, ervgoms var. revertens.

Formation o.
Pl. crescens. Pl. trochiformis. Pl. tens * Var. revertens.
Pl. oxystomus. Pl. costatus var. major.

Formation x bis.

Pl. discoideus. Pl. trochiformis. Pl. oxystomus.

Formation p.

Pl. oxystomus. Pl. crescens. Pl. trochiformis.

100 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

APPENDIX I.

On page 27 I have written, that I wondered no authors except Prof. Cope and myself
had made the law of acceleration an object of investigation.

This statement is not wholly correct, since I find in a work just received, “ Studien itiber
die Stammes-geschichte der Ammoniten,” by Leopold Wiirtenberger (Leipzig, Ernest
Gunther, 1880, 8vo., pp. 110, with four Stammtafeln), that the author has used this
law of heredity, though evidently misunderstanding its fundamental character, as one of
the laws of heredity, and explaining it as the result of the action of the law of natural
selection. It becomes interesting, also, to observe how closely his statements and facts
agree with those previously made in my publications; for example, on page 28, he writes
as follows: “ Wenn niimlich eine Veriinderung welche fiir die ganze Gruppe eine wesent-
liche Bedeutung erlanet, zum erstenmal auftritt, so ist dieselbe nur auf einem Theil des
letzten Umganges angedeutet. Gegen jungere Ablagerungen hin tritt diese Veriinderung
immer deutlicher hervor und schreitet dann, dem spiralen Verlaufe der Schale folgend,
nach und nach immer weiter gegen das Centrum der Ammonitenscheibe fort; d. h. sie
ergreift allmithlich immer mehr auch die inneren Windungen, je héher man die betref-
fende Form in jungere Schichten hinauf verfolet.”

“When, for instance, a variation which attains a substantial importance for the whole
group, makes its appearance for the first time, it is exhibited only upon a part of the last
(outer) whorl. This variation comes out ever more distinctly as the strata are younger,
and advances, following the spiral trend of the shell, step by step, towards the centre of
the spiral: that is to say, they (the characteristics) strike gradually more and more
towards the inner whorls, as one follows the forms from the older into the younger (later
formed) beds.”

This statement is an exact transcript of what I have repeatedly written in various
essays upon the Ammonites, and also gives the fundamental facts upon which all my inves-
tigations have been based for fourteen years.

Compare the above, for example, with the following sentences from p. 203, of my
memoir in Vol. Ist of the Memoirs of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., read Feb. 21, 1866, and pub-
lished in 1867.

“The young of higher species are thus constantly accelerating their development, and
reducing to a more and more embryonic condition, (or entirely passing over) the stages
of growth corresponding to the adult periods of pre-existing or lower species.”

“In other words, there is an unceasing concentration of the adult characteristics of lower
species in the young (or inner whorls) of higher species, and a consequent displacement
of other embryonic features (in these inner whorls), which had themselves, also, previously
belonged to the adult periods of still lower forms.”

With reference to the characters of the Ammonitoid shells, on p. 94, he says: “ dass die
Veriinderungen an den Sculpturen, sowie an den tibrigen Charakteren der Ammoniten-
schalen sich zuerst auf dem letzten (iiussern) Umgange derselben bemerklich machen, und
dass dann eine solche Veriinderung bei den nachfolgenden Generationen sich nach und
nach immer weiter gegen den Anfang des spiralen Gehiiuses fortschiebt, bis sie den gréss-
ten Theil der Windungen beherrscht.”’

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 101

“That the variations of the sculpture, as also those of the other characteristics of the
shells of Ammonites first make themselves visible upon the last (outer) volution, then
such a variation advances in the following generations step by step always nearer to the
beginning of the spiral, until it covers the greater part of the (inner) whorls.”

The difference between our statements! is that Wiirtenberger speaks of the inner
whorls and I use the word “ young” in place of the word “ inner whorls,” because the
inner whorls of all shells represent the first formed or younger stages of growth.

I also in the first quotation use a phrase “entirely passing over’? which has been
included in parentheses because it refers to the skipping of characteristics in development,
a phase of the law of quicker inheritance, or acceleration in heredity, which Herr Wiirten-
berger also mentions, but which is not included in his first statement. I might also refer
if I chose to similar quotations from Prof. EK. D. Cope of Philadelphia, showing that he,
simultaneously with me, discovered the same law though giving it a somewhat different
application than either Wiirtenberger or myself.

Now we have only to understand, that the outer whorls are built during the full grown
or adult period, and the inner by the animal during the younger stages, in order to per-
ceive that this is a statement that the Ammonites inherited the adult characteristics of
their ancestral forms at earlier and earlier periods in successive generations.

This is the law of acceleration, and it is specifically given by Herr Wiirtenberger in
various places in his book, notably on p. 98, where he attributes the preservation of any
characteristic differences which may arise, to natural selection, and says that they may be
inherited earlier or later in the life of dividual descendants.

Then as the earlier inheritance of these characteristics would be of advantage to the
individual in the struggle for existence, Herr Wiirtenberger thinks that successive gener-
ations would tend to inherit them at earlier and earlier periods. The objections to this
seemingly simple and straightforward explanation are numerous. Animals do not inherit
the new characteristics which their parents may have acquired at later periods than those
in which they appeared in the parent, but at the same time, or earlier in the immediate
descendants, and eventually always earlier in the more remote descendants. I have as yet
seen no evidence that the descendants inherit a characteristic at a later period than that
at which it first appeared in an adult ancestor.

Even if this assumption should be proven it would still remain necessary to establish the
nature of the characteristics inherited, whether they really were advantageous or not.

Notiing can exceed the confidence with which the strict Darwinist assumes, without
any appeal to observation, that all characteristics which are inherited are necessarily
advantageous. Exactly the reverse is very often true. The disadvantageous, the
advantageous, the parallelisms and the differences, are all subject to the law of acceler-

1JIn order to see how closely we have followed the same
path it is also necessary to compare the statements on pages
27 and 28 of this Memoir, and in the following essays: “ De-
velopment of the shells of Ammonoids and Nautiloids.”
Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. History, Vol. 14, p. 398. ‘ This is
the law of acceleration, or the perpetual reduction of adult
characteristics to earlier and earlier periods in the growth of

the later existing individuals, until finally many character-
istics altogether disappear.” ‘“ Cephalopods of the Mus-
eum: Embryology.’”’ Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge,
Mass., Vol. 3, No. 5, p. 70-71. ‘¢ Evolution of the Arietidae.”
Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 17, p. 238. ‘ Genetic
relations of Stephanoceras,’”? in same, Vol. 18, p. 379, last
paragraph, p. 382.

102 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

ation described above, whereas the law of natural selection can only act when there is a
choice of characteristics, and where those characteristics are differences, variations newly
introduced, not yet fixed in the organization, and unquestionably advantageous. Animals
or plants must act and react upon each other, and then and not before then, can we have
any law like that of natural selection, and it is exceedingly questionable whether natural
selection applies at either extreme of life. Man is certainly by his own acts capable of
modifying and perhaps controlling the result of the battle of life, and it is very probable
that the action and reaction of the first beginnings of life in the past history of the
world, was no more than could be accounted for by the known action of physical forces
upon the simplest of organisms.

Natural selection certainly has nothing to do in the embryo, nor yet in the extreme old
age of the individual. If, as I have constantly tried to prove, the individual life is a true
exponent of the life of the group to which it belongs, the embryo to the progressive past,
the adult to the present, and the old age to the degraded or retrogressive future of an
exhausted or diseased type, then it may with approximate certainty be assumed that
natural selection acts at neither of the extremes of the variation of a given group, neither
upon the phenomena of their first appearance, nor upon those indicating their decline and
leading to their disappearance.

Natural selection, in fact, is simply one of the transient conditions of the physical sur-
roundings, having no value as a cause of origin of characteristics, but simply acting on
certain categories of these characteristics, after they have originated, and helping to take
them out of the list of transient characteristics and fix them in the organization. Once
fixed they are inherited, and, unless as described above, interfered with by a reversal of
the ordinary physical conditions, by extreme parasitism, etc., they become a part of the
younger stages of growth in accordance with the law of acceleration, and are either finally
skipped, crowded out altogether, or become embryonic and part of the type form.

Herr Wiirtenberger has, also, observed this peculiarity of the skipping or omission of
accelerated characteristics, which originally caused the use of the name acceleration as
applicable to these phenomena, and used also in this respect words which are almost iden-
tical with those which I have employed in describing the same phenomena in previous
essays.

“Denn es ist leicht einzusehen, dass die fortgesetzte Wirkung der friihzeitigeren Verer-
bung der fortwiihrend im Lebensalter auftretenden Abinderungen dahin fiihren muss, die
friiheren Entwickelungsstadien niiher zusammenzudriingen, zu verwischen oder zum Theil
ausfallen zu lassen, wenn die der eigentlichen Entwickelung der Organismen nicht tiber
alle Massen hinaus verliingert werden soll.”

“For it is easy to perceive, that the prolonged working of the earlier transmission * of
the changes which are perpetually appearing in older life” must lead the earlier stages
of development® to shorten up, to disappear wholly or partly, or else the individual devel-
opment of the organism would be prolonged beyond all just measure.”

1JIn successive individuals, forms or species. 8 Of descendant individuals, forms or species.
Fy Pp e)
2 Of the more ancient or ancestral individuals or species.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 103

I have endeavored in this memoir to explain these accelerations or skippings from which
the theory took its name, on pages 28, 29, 30, and the importance of this law in explaining
the partial or total obliteration of type characteristics in the embryos of some parasites, as
well as in the ordinary cases which occur in every group of animals.

Herr Wiirtenberger deals with the Planulatus, Amaltheus, and Pettos groups, on all of
which I have published papers, and since he has quoted Waagen, who cites my work, and

since Herr Wiirtenberger also knew of my work on the “ Embryology of the Cephalopods,” *

as is shown by his allusion to my name at the foot of page 35, it would be very interesting
to know how he escaped noticing that I had discovered and formulated the law which he
justly considers an important law of heredity, and to the exposition of which he had
devoted his book.

In a note to page 35 he gives Branco the credit of having done in 1879 the work
which I had done in 1872 in my treatise on the Embryology of the Cephalopods, and
casually mentions that I had already done something of the same sort on the Goniatites,
a small sub-division of the Cephalopods.

Here, unfortunately, he did one of his own countrymen an injustice, since this was one of
the parts of my work which was not original, it having been copied almost bodily out of
Guido Sandberger’s previous researches. I can, however, congratulate Herr Wiirtenberger
upon his recognition by full quotations of that much abused naturalist, Haeckel, who, not-
withstanding his great offences against the conservatism of reasoning in science, has given
a better analysis than any other living naturalist of the laws governing the relations of
animals to their surroundings and to each other. His critics, whose name is legion, do
him a monstrous injustice in allowing themselves to dwell wholly upon the errors and the
faults they can find, forgetting themselves, and blinding others to the substantial services
to science of this justly celebrated naturalist. My own indebtedness to him and to his
works is very great, as must be that of all those who strive to get some idea of funda-
mental laws.

Though differing from him on essential points, still in his Generelle Morphologie der
Organismen he has given substantially the same view of the action of heredity in pre-
serving the type, and of the relations of growth to heredity and of heredity to the modi-
fications produced by the direct action of physical influences, as has been set forth in this
memoir. ‘The differences lie principally in the estimate of the importance of the law of
natural selection, which he considers as of wider application than I think is at all justified
by any proofs which have so far been produced.

APPENDIX II.

On page 14, in paragraph next to the last, and again on page 31 in the first paragraph,
I allude to the general tendency to spiral mode of growth in all shells.

I had in this memoir no opportunity to enlarge on this subject, and when the remarks
were written had not yet published any observations on this interesting subject. Since then,
however, in an evening lecture given before the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science during the meeting of 1880, at Boston, I gave some account of the facts
as they stand throughout the Mollusca, and attempted to prove, so far as the absence of
experiment would permit, the hypothesis that the spiral forms of all shells, whether Ceph-

te

104 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

alopods, Gasteropods, or Lamellibranchs, and their peculiar shapes, can be accounted for by
the different ways in which the attraction of gravitation would act upon the excreting bor-
der of the mantle through the weight of the shell itself, or by the natural growth of this
part when freed from the weight of the shell.

Thus the oyster, pecten, ete., show during the adult stages distortions and a peculiar
horizontal growth which can only be accounted for by the support they receive, either
from permanent attachment, or by resting on one valve. ‘

The evidence here seems to show that the shell must grow in the direction resulting
from the action of the two forces, the movement and growth of the tissues and the oppos-
ing force of gravitation. The extraordinary shapes and combinations of asymmetry and
symmetry in different parts of the same animal as exhibited in the mollusca, all seem to be
resolved when we can account for the influence of gravitation upon a fixed or moving
organism, allowing for the reactions occasioned by growth and heredity.

APPENDIX III.

The remarks on p. 76, with regard to Pl. pseudotenuis, are misleading. Since this page
was printed I have undertaken with the help of two assistants to revise and re-arrange my
collection. This has led to the finding of several specimens of Pl. pseudotenuis. ‘These
show that PJ. pseudotenuis is a form which is genetically connected with Pl. minutus. It
has all the characteristics and peculiar aspect of that species in the young, and is never so
stout at any period as P/. Araussii. The latter has a shell which resembles it in color and
general aspect but not in its proportions, and is also approximate to P/. pseudotenuis, very
closely in some specimens which have a prominent thick carination. These are very closely
similar to Pl. pseudotenuis, and I think led Dr. Hilgendorf to trace pseudotenuis into
Kraussii instead of into Pl. minutus with which it seems to be connected. There have
also been found two specimens of PJ. pseudotenuis with a suleation on the upper side
of the whorl, which confirms this conclusion; as any one will see, even from an exam-
ination of Hilgendorf’s own figure, that such a suleation would render even the extreme
form of Pl. pseudotenuis very similar to Pl. triquetrus, which Hilgendorf himself con-
siders a member of the minutus series. Var. Avaussii p. 89, fifth paragraph, is P/. pseu-
dotenuis. One specimen of Pl. pseudotenuis has been found in Formation f, New Pit,
one in k, /, East Pit, one in w same Pit, and one in /, Old Pit.

This revision of the collection has also led to the discovery of several diseased forms of
Pl. trochiformis, which are very interesting. They are dwarfed. The spiral is partly
unwound and then closed up again in course of growth, but is even then much contracted.
In fact a very slight increase in the characteristic tendency of the growth, as shown by
our specimen would make a whorl larger, but not very unlike P/. denudatus im general
appearance.

APPENDIX IV.

In revising the collection my assistants have also succeeded in finding in Formation de,
referred to on page 49, line 18, as containing only “two broken specimens of P/. oxysto-

mus’ and also on p..93, line 22, two well preserved young specimens and one nearly full
grown.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM.

APPENDIX V.

The Geological Map on p. 33, does not exactly represent the views of the strata given
on the subsequent pages, it having been copied from the official geological map of the

Steinheim locality, sometime before the text was written.

Thus the Cloister-ridge Rocks near Steinheim are represented as the equivalent of the
Oxystomus Limestone near Sontheim, whereas they more nearly resemble the Coarse
Limestone. The rocks on the west side of the amphitheatre, and the two spots of rock also
shaded like the Oxystomus Limestone, and lying the west of these, again, are the Neusel-
halder rocks, and not at all like the Oxystomus Limestone, which contains a much younger

fauna.

CORRECTIONS.
Page 9, line 8, read animals for animal.
Page 11, line 39, read fig. 4 for fig. 40.
Page 12, note, line 2, read var. cochleata for var. rotundatiformis.
Page 14, line 30, read line ¢ for line A, omit line /.
Page 28, line 28, after ast, insert the words a large part of.
Page 30, line 24, after fig. 4, insert pl. 9.
Page 30, line 28, read early for easy.
Page 32, line 25, read immediate for direct.
Page 35, line 2; Pi. 74s in place of Pl. paiva,
Page 39, line 6, read wmbilicus for wmbiicus.
Page 49, line 22, read trochiformis for Trochiformis.
Page 62, line 11, read to for by.
Page 63, line 19, read pl. 8 for pi. 4.
Page 63, line 22, read pi. 8 line e fig. 2 in place of line e, fig. 2.
Page 67, line 21, read Jine c for line e.
Page 75, line 22, read Steinheimensis for “levis.”
Page 75, line 31, read sub-varieties for “ varieties.”
Page 77, line 7, after “Zine o,” insert PZ. 1.
Page 78, line 2, after “dine h,” insert except fig. 13.
Page 78, line 14, insert Pl. trochiformis as title in centre of page.
Page 78, line 36, read pl.2 for “pl. 1.”
Page 80, line 33, read traceable for “ tracable.”

Page 94, line 24, the PZ. pseudotenuis Hilg. there mentioned is not a true pseudotenuis.

106 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I.

Magnified 2 diameters.
List or Spectres.

Pl. Steinheimensis var. aequiumbilicatus, line a 1-4, b 17, ¢ 1, 19, m 1-7.
Pl. Steinheimensis line a 5-11, b 2-16, d 5, f 18, h 18, m 8-11, n 1-5.
Pl, 7425 Jine a 12-16, m 12-14,

Pil. 5 russ", line £ 1-3.

Steinheimensis,

Pl a lineibi Lc la=—145 dl—4 e016) ni 6513:
l. tenuis, line ¢ 2-12, 15-18, d 6-17, e 1-15, k 11, n 7-12, 14-15, o 1-7.

Pl. discoideus, line £ 4-17, g 1-14, h 1-12, i 1-12, k 1-5, 12, 1 1-10, 0 8-14, 16 (named specimen ), p1-13.
Pil. discoideus var. involutus, line d 18, e 17-19.

Pi. *echiformis line k 7, line o 15.

aisco
PI. tockiformis (var. elegans Hilg.), line k 6.

discoideus

Pl. trochiformis (= trochif. typus Hilg.), line k 8-10, 1 11-12.

RS

Cueck List py Lies.

Line a, figs. 1-4 Pl. Steinheimensis var. aequiumbilicatus, 5-11 Pl. Steinheimensis, 12-16 Pl. evans

Line b, fig, LPL. seit noi, 2-16 Pl. Steinheimensis,' 17 Pl. Steinheimensis var. aequiumbilicatus.

Line ¢, fig. 1 Pl. Steinheimensis var. aequiumbilicatus, 2-12 Pl. tenuis, 18-14 Pl. seiiitiensis, 15-18 Pl.
tenuis, 19 Pl. Steinheimensis var. aequiumbilicatus. -

Line d, figs. 1-4 Pl. sities, 5 Pl. Steinheimensis, 6-17 Pl. tenuis, 18 Pl. discoideus var. involutus.

Line e, figs. 1-15 Pl. tenwis, 16 Pl. syiiitiiensis, 17-19 Pl. discoideus var. involutus.

nheimensis,

Line f, figs. 1-3 Pl. Kia"; 4-17 Pl. discoideus, 18 Pl. Steinheimensis.
Line g, figs. 1-14 Pl. discoideus.
Line h, figs. 1-12 PZ discoideus, 13 Pl. Steinheimensis.
Line i, figs. 1-12 Pl. discoideus.
Line k, figs. 1-5 Pl. discoideus, 6 Pl. ychifem’ var. elegans, 7 Pl. *yhierns 8-10 Pl. trochiformis, 11
Pi. tenuis, 12 Pl. discoideus.
Line l, figs. 1-10 Pl. discoideus, 11-12 Pl. trochiformis.
Line m, figs. 1-7 Pl. Steinheimensis var. aequiwmbilicatus, 8-11 Pl. Steinheimensis, 12-14 Pl, otystomus
Line n, figs. 1-5 Pl. Steinheimensis, 6 Pl. srinitinensis, 1-12 Pl. tenis, 13 Pl. sreinhelmensis, 14-15 PI. tenwis.

Line 0, figs. 1-7 Pl. tenwis, 8-14 discoideus, 16 Pl. discoideus (named specimen), 15 Pl. “penice
Line p, figs. 1-13 Pl. discoideus.

Cueck List By SEecrions AND FORMATIONS.
Formation a.
Stratum a 1, Second Hole, and a, First Hole,? Old Pit, Sections 5, 6.

Pl. Steinheimensis var. aequiumbilicatus, line a 1-4, b 17, ¢ 1, 19.
Pl. Steinheimensis, line a 5-11, b 2-16, d 5, f 18, h 13.

EP crysomuny a A = G>

PI. seishetnensis, Line f 1-3.

PL. geist nce line. b 1, ¢ 18-14, d 1-4, e 16.

Steinheimensis,

1 Figs. 10-12 are very similar to Pl. m. parvus Hilg. * lines k-l,a special suite from the First Hole, Sect. 6 taken
* Lines a-k show a mingling of forms from both holes; during my second visit to Steinheim.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 107

Pl. tenuis, line ¢ 2-12, 15-18, d 6-17, e 1-15, k 11, o 8-10.

Pl. discoideus, line f 4-17, g 1-14, h 1-12, i 1-12, k 1-5, 12, 1 1-10.
Pil. discoideus var. involutus, line d 18, e 17-19.

PA. "iritia, Vine k 7.

Pi. ‘rpchiformis (var. elegans Hilg.), line k 6.

Pi. trochiformis, line k 8-10, 1 1-12.

Stratum a2, Second Hole, Old Pit, Section 6.

Pi. Steinheimensis var. aequiumbilicatus, line m 1-7.
Pl. Steinheimensis, line m 8-11, n 1-5.

Pi, gos line m 12-14,

Pl. seinitinensis, line n 6, 13.

Pl. tenuis, line n 7-12, 14-15, o 1-7.

Pl. discoideus, line 0 8-16, p 1-13.

Pi. trochiformis line fay 15.

discoideus

PraArns ie

Magnified 2 diameters.

List oF SPEcIzs.

Pl. Steinheimensis var. aequiumbilicatus, line a 1-2.

Pil. Steinheimensis, line a 3-4.

Pl. Kraussii, line d 1-17, f 9.

PL. suite, Line a 7-8, q 12.

Pi. tenwis, line a 5-6, 9-12, e 18-27, f 1-8, 10-12, p 9-18, q 5-11.

Pi. discoideus, line a 13, b 1-6, 16, ¢ 1-13, f 13-19, h 1-18, i 1-14, k 1-2, m 3-4, 6-9, n 1-7, q 13-16.
Pi. discoideus (var. elatior Sand.), line i 15-17.

Pi, tpehcorm’s line m 1-2, 5, q 17-18, r 1-4.

Pl. trochiformis, line b 7-10, d 18-19, k 3-11, 1 1-11, n 8-12, 0 15-18, r 5-10, s 1-8.

Pi. trochiformis (var. pyrguliformis Sand.), line s 9-12.

Pl. discoideus (young with forms similar to rotwndatus Hilg.), line h 19-23.

Pl. trochiformis (young of normal varieties identical with rotundatus Hilg.), line o 1-14, p 1-8.
Pl. minutus, line e 1-6, 7-8, g 1-2, 4, p 14-20, b 11-15.

elena timere 101259016, q) 1.

Pl. denudatus, line e 13-14, g 7-8.

PA. minutus, line e 6, g 5.

Pi. costatus, line e 9, g 3, q 2-4.

Pi, mnie Jine e 15-17.

Pi. triquetrus, line g 9-23.
Cueck List sy Livgs.

Line a, figs. 1-2 Pl. Steinheimensis var. aequiumbilicatus, 3-4 Pl. Steinheimensis, 5-6 Pl. tenuis, 6-8
PU. seerintts isis, 9-12 Pl. tenuis, 13 Pl. discoideus.

Line b, figs. 1-6 PZ. discoideus, 7-10 Pl. trochiformis, 11-15 Pl. minutus, 16 Pl. discoideus.

Line ¢, figs. 1-13 Pl. discoideus.

Line d, figs. 1-17 Pl. tenwis var. Kraussti, 18-19 Pl. trochiformis.

Line e, figs. 1-5 Pl. minutus, 6 Pl. cites 78 Pl. minutus, 9 Pl. costatus, 10-12 Pl, tenmiates 1314 Pl, denu-
datus, 15-17 Pl. ns 18-27 Pl. tenuis.

Line f, figs. 1-8 P27. tenwis, 9 Pl. tenuis var. Kraussii, 10-12 Pl. tenuis, 13-19 Pl. discoideus.

108 HYATT ON THE .TERTIARY SPECIES

Line g, figs. 1-2 Pl. minutus, 3 Pl. costatus, 4 Pl. minutus, 5 Pl, costae 6 Pl, temdats 7_& Pl. denudatus,
9-23 Pl. triquetrus.

Line h, figs. 1-18 Pl. discoideus, 19-23 Pl. discoideus (rotundatus-like young).

Line i, figs. 1-14 Pl. discoideus, 15-17 Pl. discoideus (var. elatior Sand.).

Line k, figs. 1-2 Pl. discoideus, 83-11 Pl. trochiformis.

Line 1, figs. 1-11 Pl. trochiformis.

Line m, figs. 1-2 Pl. "pharm 83-4 Pl. discoideus, 5 Pl. tgchivermis 69 Pl. discoideus.

Line n, figs. 1-7 Pl. discoideus, 8-12 Pl. trochiformis.

Line 6, figs. 1-14 Pl. trochiformis (rotundatus young), 15-18 Pl. trochiformis.

Line p, figs. 1-8 Pl. trochiformis (rotundatus young), 9-13 Pl. tenwis, 14-20 Pl. minutus.

Line q, fig. 1 Pi. erudets 2-4 Pl, costatus, 5-11 Pl. tenuis, 12 Pl. fens’. 138-16 Pl. discoideus, 17-18

Steinheimensis,
PI, tochiformis
* discoideus.

Line r, figs. 1-4 PZ. "pekvarms 5 10 Pl. trochiformis.

discoideus,

Line s, figs. 1-8 PU. trochiformis, 9-12 Pl. trochiformis (var. pyrguliformis Sand.).

Cueck List By Sections AND ForMATIONS.

Formation a.
Stratum a3, Second Hole, Old Pit, Section 5.

Pl. Steinheimensis, var. aequiumbilicatus, line a, figs. 1-2.
Pl. Steinheimensis, line a, figs. 3-4.
Pl. seinkchvensie, line a, figs: 7-8.

Pi. tenuis, line a, figs. 5-6, 9-12.
Pl. discoideus, line a, fig. 13, b, 1-4.

Formation d, Section 5.
Pl. discoideus, line b, figs. 5—6,16.
Pl. trochiformis, line b, figs. 7-10.
Pl. minutus, line b, figs. 11-15.
Formation e, Section 6.

Pl. discoideus, line ¢, figs. 1-13.
Pl. trochiformis, line d, figs, 18-19.
Pl. Kraussii, line d, figs. 1-17.
Pl. minutus, line e, figs. 1-5, 7-8.
Pi, emacivs Vine e, figs. 10-12.
Pl. denudatus, line e, figs. 13-14. *
Pi. costatus, line e, fig. 9.
Pl. writs, line e, fig. 6.
Pi, mints line e, figs. 15-17.
Formation f, Section 6.
Pl. Kraussii, line f, fig. 9.
Pi. tenuis, line e, figs. 18-27, f, 1-8, 10-12.
Pl. discoideus, line f, figs. 13-19.
Pl. minutus, line g, figs. 1-2, 4.
Pl. “mints, line g, fig. 6.
Pl. denudatus, line g, figs. 7-8.
Pl, covers line g, fig. 5.
Pl. costatus, line g, fig. 3.
Pl. triquetrus, line g, figs. 9-16.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM.

Formation h, Section 6.

Pi. triquetrus, line g, figs. 17-23.

Pi.
Pi.
AU:
Tf,

~

Pi.

Pi.

JPUh
JEN,
JA
Pi.

Pi.
Pi.
Pi.
Pi.

Pi.
Pi.
Pi.
Pi.
Pi.

Pi.

Pi.

Pi.

Pil.
Pi.
Pi.

discoideus, line h, figs. 1-18, i 1-14, k 1-2.

diseoideus (rotundatus-like young), line h, figs. 19-23.
discoideus (var. elatior Sand.), line i, figs. 15-17.
trochiformis, line k, figs. 8-11, 1 1-11.

Formation i, Section 6.

discoideus, line m, figs. 3-4, 6-9.

trochiforms line m, figs. 1-2, 5.

discoideus,

Formation k, Section 6.

discoideus, line n, figs. 1-7.

trochiformis, line n, figs. 8-12, 0 15-18.

trochiformis (rotundatus-like young), line 0, figs. 1-14, p 1-8.
tenwis, line p, figs. 9-15.

Formation 1, Section 6.
minutus, line p, figs. 14-20.
denudatus + 70"
mune, Une q, fig. 1.
denudatus, line q, figs. 2-4.
tenuis, line q, figs. 5-11.
Steinticimensis, line q; fig. 12.
discoideus, line q, figs. 13-16.
trochirormis ine q, figs. 17-18, r 1-4.
trochiformis, line r, figs. 5-10, s 1-8.
trochiformis (var. pyrguliformis Sand.), line s, figs. 9-12.

Puate II.
Magnified 2 diameters.

List or Spectres.

discotdeus, line ¢, figs. 17-19, d 1-11, e 1-12, f 1-14, g 1-9, h 1-10, i 5-9, 1 15-17.

eoehiores lime vis tio We
trochiformis, line a, figs. 16, 1 Amis
trochiformis var. elegans, line a, fig. 15.
minutus, line a, figs. 8-13, ¢ 2-4, d 12-16.

costatus (var. major Hilg.), line b, fig. 15.

Pl. parvus, line a, figs. 6-7, 20-22.

Pi.
Pi.
Tithe
Pi.
Pi.
Pi.
Pi.

mimtus (narvus Hilg. pars.), line k, figs. 1-4, 11.
erescens, line a, figs. 1-5, 17-19, 23, b 16-17, ¢ 9-16, i 10-14.
orystomus (var, revertens Hilg.), line k, figs. 5-10, m 10-14, p 6-14.

oxystomus, line a, figs. 14, b 1-14, ¢ 1, 5-8, k 12-18, 1 1-3, m 2-9, 0 2. |

supremus, line 1, figs. 12-14, n 1-7, 0 3212, p 1-5.
oxystomus var. cochleatus, line |, figs. 4-11.
supremus var. turritus, line n, figs. 8-13, 0, 1.

109

110 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

Cuecxk ‘List sy Lives.

Line a, figs. 1-5 P/. crescens, 6-7 Pl. parvus, 8-13 Pl. minutus, 14 Pl. oxystomus, 15 Pl. trochiformis
var. elegans, 16 Pl. trochiformis, 17-19 Pl. crescens, 20-22 Pl. parvus, 23 Pl. crescens.

Line b, figs. 1-14 Pl. oxystomus, 15 Pl. costatus var. major, 16-17 PI. erescens.

Line ¢, fig. 1 Pl. oxystomus, 2-4 Pl. minutus, 5-8 Pl. oxystomus, 9-16 Pl. crescens, 17-19 Pl. discoideus.

Line d, figs. 1-11 P/. discoideus, 12-16 Pl. minutus.

Line e, figs. 1-12 Pl. discoideus.

Line f, figs. 1-14 P/. discoideus.

Line g, figs. 1-9 Pl. discoideus.

Line h, figs. 1-10 Pl. discoideus.

Line i, fig. 1 Pl. "gchiformis 2-4 Pl. trochiformis, 5-9 Pl. discoideus, 10-14 Pl. crescens.

Line k, figs. 1-4 Pl. "2 (parvus Hilg. pars.), 5-10 Pl. fos" (var. revertens EL] 3) lula le ee
(parvus Hilg., pars.), 12-18 Pl. oxystomus.

Line l, figs. 1-3 Pl. oxystomus, 4-11 Pl. oxystomus var. cochleatus,! 12-14 Pl. supremus, 15-17 Pl. discoi-
deus.

Line m, fig. 1 Pl. trochiformis, 2-9 Pl. oxystomus, 10-14 Pl. pres

Line n, figs. 1-7 Pl. supremus, 8-13 Pl. supremus var. turritus.

Line 0, fig. 1 Pl. supremus var. turritus, 2 Pl. oxystomus, 3-12 Pl. supremus.

Line p, figs. 1-5 Pl. supremus, 6-14 Pl. iin

Curck List By Srcrions AND ForMATIONS.

New Pit, South side.

Formation f, Section 8.
Pl. crescens, line a, figs. 1-3.

Formation h, Section 8.
Pl. parvus, line a, figs. 6-7.
Pl. crescens, line a, figs. 4-5.
Pl. oxystomus, line a, fig. 14.
Pl. minutus, line a, figs. 8-13.
Formation i, Section 8.
Pl. trochiformis var. elegans, line a, fig. 15.
Pi. trochiformis, line a, fig. 16.
Pi. parvus, line a, figs. 20-22.
Pl. crescens, line a, figs. 17-19, 28.
Pl. oxystomus, line b, figs. 1-11.
Formation k, Section 8.

Pl. oxystomus, line b, figs. 12-14.
Pl. crescens, line b, figs. 16-17.
Pl. costatus var. major, line b, fig. 15.
Formation 1, Section 8.
Pl. oxystomus, line ¢, fig. 1.
Pl. minutus, line ¢, figs. 2-4.
Formation m, Section 8.

Pl. oxystomus, line ¢, figs. 5-8.
Pi. crescens, line ¢, figs. 9-16. <

1This species is erroneously referred to as var. rotundatiformis on p. 12.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. aialal

Cloister Pit.

Formation k, Section 1.
Pl. minutus, line a, figs. 12-16.
Pl. discoideus, line ¢, figs. 17-19, d 1-11, e 1-12, f 1-14.

Formation 1, Section 1.
Pi, mimes line k, figs. 1-4, 11.
Pl. crescens, line i, figs. 10-14.
Pl. orysioms Vine k, figs. 5-10.
Pl. oxystomus var. cochleatus, line 1, figs. 4-11.
Pl. supremus, line 1, figs. 12-14.
Pi. discoideus, line g, figs. 1-9, h 1-10, i 5-9.
Pi, *pckiferms line i, fig 1.
Pi. trochiformis, line i, figs. 2-4.
Pl. oxystomus, line |, figs. 1-3.

SS

aN

Formation m, Section 1.
Pi, orysioms line m, figs. 10-14, p 6-14.
Pl. oxystomus, line m, figs. 2-9, 0 2.
Pl. supremus, line n, figs. 1-7, 0 8-12, p 1-5.
Pl. supremus var. turritus, line n, figs. 8-13, o 1.
Pi. discoideus, line |, figs. 15-17.
Pl. trochiformis, line m, fig. 1.

Prats IV.

Magnified 8 diameters.

Line a, figs. 1-7 Pl. minutus.

Line b, figs. 1-4 Pl. minutus, 5-6, 9 Pl. triquetrus var. turbinatus, T-8 Pl. timers

Line ¢, figs. 1-8 Pl. triquetrus, 4-5 Pl. timetns 69 PI, denudeis 1

Line d, figs. 1-5 P/. %emmiats uncoiled in various degrees, 6-10 same, but more turbinate.

Line e, figs. 1-5 Pl. denudatus, uncoiling excessive, but turbination slighter than in 6-8; 9 broken adult,
whorl of, 10, the young of the same shell perfectly flat and in part closely coiled, 11, young stage of another
broken out. This, though not a distinct figure shows that the coiling is in the same plane in the young.

Line f, figs. 1-8 Pi. costatus

Line g, fig. 1, Pl. costatus, 2 Pl. costatus var. distortus, 3-10 Pl. costatus.

Line h, figs. 1-7 Pl. costatus (Pl. costatus var. major of Hilg.), var. acuto-costatus.

Line i, figs. 1-5 Pl. costatus var. platystomus, 6-12 Pl. costatus (=major Hilg. pars.), var, obtuso-costatus,
much distorted.

Line k, figs. 1-7 P7 costatus var. obtuso-costatus (= Pl. major Hilg. pars.), 8 PZ. conais

PLATE V.

: Magnified 534 diameters,

Line a, figs. 1-4, P/. levis from Undorf.
Line b, figs. 1-7, Pl. parvus.
Line ¢, figs. 1-6, Pi. crescens 7 Pl. cresre* turretted variety.

parvus,

1 The different forms of P/. denudatus, Pl. costatus var.
distortus and Pl. costatus var. platystomus would probably
have been more clearly understood if I had given them sep-
arate specific names and called them respectively Pl. denu-

datus, Pl. distortus, and Pl. platystomus, but having neglected
doing this, and even in one place on page 10, spoken of Pl.
denudatus, as variety denudatus, I thought it best to make no
alterations in the nomenclature used in the text, p 65.

112 HYATT ON THE TERTIARY SPECIES

=

Line d, figs. 1-7 Pl. crescens. Fig. 2 line d shows a specimen of the young, which at a very early age
begins to show the compressed form of the whorl, which distinguishes the adult of 7. crescens. In fact the
three young specimens on this line form a series in this respect, fig. 2 being the most compressed, fig. 6 next,
and fig. 4 the least, although figs. 2 and 4 are of the same age and fig. 6 a little older. The adults of all of
the three would have been about equally compressed in form.

Puate VI.

Magnified 534 diameters.

Line a, figs. 1-3 P7. levis from Undorf, 4-7 P27. ozoms (= revertens Hilg.).

Line b, figs 1-6 Pl. -sv"s (= revertens Hilg.), somewhat stouter than the normal forms of P27. levis, even
in the young, fig. 5.

Line ¢, figs. 1-5 Pl. oxystomus with extremely stout whorls even in the young. In this variety the young
are very similar to the rotundatus-like young of Pl. trochiformis, see pl. 2, line 0, figs. 1-14, line p, figs. 1-8.
They, however, are distinct in the aspect of the upper umbilicus, in the carinations and shell, and outline of
the opening of the whorl, especially in the younger stages. Compare also figures on lines 0 and p, pl. 3, with
figures of young of P7. oxystomus var. cochleatus, pl. 3, line 1, figs. 4-11, which also have extremely stout
whorls in the young. Fig. 6 is.a fine specimen of the transition from the normal variety to the turretted
form, variety cochleatus of Pl. oxystomus.1

Line d, fig. 1 Pl. oxystomus var. cochleatus, full grown shell,? figs. 2-4 Pl. oxystomus, normal variety,
showing the identity of a young shell, fig. 4, with a shell of the same size of Pl. levis, from Undorf.

Line e, fig. 1 Pl. supremus var. turritus, figs. 2-4 Pl. supremus.

Pratt Vile

Magnified 4 diameters. .

Line a, figs. 1-2 P/. levis, Undort. Figs. 3-5 are deeply umbilicated forms of Pl. Steinheimensis which
are similar to fig. 1 in this respect and in the form of the whorls. Fig. 6, P/. /evis, Undorf, to compare with
figs. 7-9 Pl. Steinheimensis, adult and young with a similar form of whorl. Fig. 10 an unusually turbinate
form of PJ. tenvis.

Line b, figs. 1-2 P/. Steinheimensis for comparison with figs. 83-4 P/. levis, Undorf. Fig. 5 Pl. Steinheim-
ensis with sub-angular outer whorl for comparison with fig. 6 PZ. levis, Undorf. Figs. 7,8 Pl: Steinheimensis,
younger stages of same variety as fig. 5.

Line c, figs. 1-38 Pl. Steinheimensis with very slight unsymmetrical and cylindrical whorls, figs. 4,5 PU.
Steinheimensis normal variety (see specimens) with cylindrical whorls, figs. 6, 7, normal variety with unsym-
metrical whorls and a deeper, narrower umbilicus on the lower side than in the preceding. Fig. 8 Pl. Stein

2

heimensis var. aequiumbilicatus ?

Line d, figs. 1-6 specimens of Pl. Steinheimensis with stouter whorls transitional to those of line e. Fig.
7 Pi. tenuis, from the rocks of the Upper Tier of the Cloister Ridge. This has young like the adult of PZ.
Steinheimensis.

Line e, fig. 1 Pl. Steinheimensis with an extremely turbinate tendency expressed in the last whorl. Figs.
2-4 are large fine specimens of the normal unsymmetrical varieties, figs. 5-7, are Pl. seni". ,«;, for comparison
with these and others below, for example compare the umbilicus of fig. 7, with fig. 6, line ec.

Line f figs. 1-3 Pl. sreifi2s ysis, SOMeWhat more advanced stage of transition, figs. 4-7 Pl. tenuis.

Line g, Pl. tenuis.

Line h, Pl. discoideus, figs. 1-4 flatter variety with acute carinations, figs. 5-7 stouter varieties with gener-
ally less acute carinations.

Line i, Pl. discoideus with rotundatus-like young, showing transitions to the varieties of PJ. trochiformis
having similar young.

1 See in this connection remarks on page 70. 8 See for discussion of figures on this plate, p. 83.

2 This shell has a much shallower umbilicus than the one
figured on pl. 9, fig. 11, and described on p. 12.

OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM. 113

Prats VIII.
Magnified 4 diameters.

Line a, fig. 1 PZ. Steinheimensis, same as fig. 13, line h, pl. 1, an aged specimen of extraordinary size, show-
ing the deflection and contraction of the last formed or oldest part of the outer whorl; fig. 2 P/. Steinheim-
ensis, also very large and beginning to show senile changes, same as fig. 18, line f, pl. 1. Figs. 83-5 Pl.
oxystomus; fig. 3 has the spiral deflected as the result of a wound, possibly also in part as the result of old
age; figs. 4-5 are probably both distorted solely by senile or geratologous metamorphoses.

Line b, figs. 1-6 Pl. "ifn" (=revertens, Hilg.); figs. 1 and 6 are normal forms with spiral deflection probably
due to old age; fig. 2 shows a cicatrix which has produced a precisely similar effect wpon the size and direc-
tion of the last part of the last whorl; fig. 3, probably distorted from some normal disease or old age ; figs.
4, 5 are undoubtedly weak or diseased specimens in which the spiral is very greatly deflected as in Pl. denw-
datus.'

Line ¢, figs. 1-6 P7. "ze" ‘These specimens are all distorted apparently from the. results of wounds or in-
juries received during the building of the last whorl.

Line d, figs. 1-4 Pl. supremus; all are more or less deflected, and the striae enlarged as the result of geratol-
ogous changes.?

Line e, figs. 1-8 Pl. trochiformis, fig. 1 shows a deflected spiral probably due to disease. Fig. 2 is a front
view of fig. 10, line r, pl. 2. The distortion or deflection of the whorl is evidently caused by the age and
perhaps also, diseased condition of the specimen, as may be seen from the enlarged striae and thickened shell.
Fig. 3 is distorted on account of a severe wound.®

. PrarE 1X.

Magnified 4 diameters.

Figs. 1-7 Fourth Series showing transformations from P27. levis var. ““"jcize* Undorf, fig. 1(= fig. 1, line a,
pl. 7), to Pl. trochiformis fig. 7. Fig. 2 Pl. Steinheimensis, 3 Pl. syniiti® ci, 4 Pl. tenuis, 5 Pl. discoideus, 6

Pi trochiformis
* discoideus.

Figs. 8-11 Z%ird: Series-showing transformation from P/. levis var. "32" Undorf, fig. 8 (= fig. 1 pl. 6), to
Pl. supremus var. turritus, fig. 11. Fig. 9 though spoken of in the text p. 10 and elsewhere as PZ. oxystomus,
is really a specimen of revertens Hilg.—= Pl. 42" out of the Sand Pits, Steinheim, and ought to have been
supplemented by a figure of true Pl. oxystomus such as fig. 1, line ¢, pl. 6, but this plate was already finished
before I became aware of the need of another figure. Fig. 10, PZ. supremus, is the flat and suleated variety

of this species.

Figs. 12-15 Second Series showing transformations from PU. levis var. 775 Undorf, fig. 12 (= fig. 1 pl. 5),
to Pl. erescens, trochiform variety, fig. 15.

Fig. 13 Pl. veers The gap here which should have been filled by a figure of Pl. parvus was left unfilled
purposely on account of the number of figures necessary, see pl. 5, lines b, ¢. Fig. 14, Pl. erescens, normal
variety.

Figs. 16-28 Mirst Series, figs. 16-20, third sub-series includes P27. levis var. "ims Undorf, fig. 16 (=fig. 2,
line a, pl. 7), DZ. "iit fig. 17, also Pl. minutus, fig. 18, which has cylindrical whorls showing one of the tran-
sition forms from Pl. "74" to the normal Pl. minutus, fig. 21 at the base of the next sub-series,‘ also fig. 19,
true Pl. triquetrus, and fig. 20, Pl. triquetrus var. turbinatus.

Figs. 21-24, second sub-series includes P/. minutus, fig. 21, normal smooth form, which leads into Pi.
iis, HES. 22, 23, and Pl. minutus var. distortus, fig. 24. The intermediate forms, etc., are given on pl. 4

and described in the text on pages 59 to 66.

1See also description on p. 13, of other forms, and discus- 3 Compare, also, fig. 11, line s, pl. 2.

sion on pp. 15, 17. ° 4 The transition forms from Pl. minutus to Pl. triquetrus are
2 Compare, also, pl. 3, figs. 1-2, line n, 5, 6, line g, 4, line _ photographed on PI. 4.

h; pl, 2. figs. 2, 3, line h, fig. 6, line i.

114 TERTIARY SPECIES OF PLANORBIS AT STEINHEIM.

Figs. 25-28, first sub-series includes as previously mentioned p. 65, two sub-series, the acuto-costate and the
obtuso-costate, but as they are both exactly parallel in the production of the distorted varieties, platystomus
and distortus, it was not considered necessary to go to the expense of making up and photographing another
plate. Fig. 25 Pi. evans fio, 26 Pl. costatus, the costae are coarser in these figures than in the specimens and
so also are those of Pl. costatus var. distortus, figs. 27, 28, but they show accurately the forms of this sub-
series.

Nore. These plates are described in the text as having been photographed by Sonrel and Black, but the

negatives prepared by them could not be used by the Heliotype Company, and the whole were successfully
rephotographed by the latter.

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1830. ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY, 1880,

THE DEVONIAN INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK.

BY SAMUEL H. SCUDDER.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

Ture DevontAn Insects or New Brusnwicx.

By Samuret H. Scupper.

CONTENTS.
I. Introduction. VIII. Xenoneura antiquorum.
II. The structure of the wings in Ephemeridae; IX. General summary.
with a note on a jurassic may-fly. X. Note on the geological relations of the fossil
III. Platephemera antiqua. insects from the devonian of New Bruns-
IV. Gerephemera simplex. wick. By Principal J. W. Dawson, LL.D.,
V. Homothetus fossilis. 15 18 fSi5 ues
VI. Dyscritus vetustus. XI. Explanation of the plate.

VII. Lithentomum Harttii.

Il. IntrrRopvuctTIoNn.

INVESTIGATION of fossil remains of the oldest insects is nearly always extremely diffi-
cult and perplexing, and often very unsatisfactory in its results. The interest, however,
necessarily attaching to the beginnings of life, warrants any labor that may be expended
upon them. Especially is this true of the fragments treated of in this paper, because
they are as yet the only insect remains which have been found in rocks older than
the carboniferous formation in any part of the world. The writer may be pardoned for
adding that they possess a special attraction for him, as among the specimens which
first directed his particular attention to fossil insects, and he only regrets that so
long a period as fifteen years should have elapsed before their full discussion.

The remains consist entirely of broken wings, and were discovered in 1862, by the
late Professor C. F. Hartt (at the time of his death director of the geological survey
of Brazil), while searching for plant remains in the devonian shales near St. John,
New Brunswick. The locality — called Fern Ledges by Mr. Hartt, from the abundance
of plant remains which occur in the black shales that are interstratified with the
prevailing sandstones — is about a mile west of the town of Carleton, not far
from St. John. The rocks form a series of ledges, exposed on the sea-shore between
high and low water marks. The beds of sandstone and shale, of which they are
composed, have a seaward dip of about 45°, and a strike of about W. 10° N.,
corresponding very nearly to the trend of the shore. The fossiliferous shales between
the enclosing sandstones are worn away by the action of the water, leaving the fossils
accessible in only a few places. The whole deposit is of very limited extent; it
reaches along the shore for about three hundred and twenty-five paces, exposing a thickness
of strata of about forty-five meters, with a width of about ninety meters.

4 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

The specimens discovered were six in number, some of them with their reverses.
They are now in the museums of the natural history societies of St. John, N. B.
and Boston, Mass. I am much indebted to Mr. G. F. Matthew, of the former institution,
and to Professor A. Hyatt of the latter, for the opportunity of studying these specimens
anew at my leisure.

The plan of the present paper will be seen by a glance at the table above. As
the simpler devonian insects, first described, have certain special relations with the
Ephemeridae, their description is preceded by an account of the wing structure of
the modern May-flies, as a basis of comparison; each of the devonian species is then
separately described, and its affinities discussed, and the whole is followed by a general
summary. The stratigraphical question being, in this instance, of special importance,
Principal Dawson has kindly prepared for me a statement of the case with which
the article closes.t

II. Tue SrrucTURE OF THE WINGS IN EPHEMERIDAE; WITH A NOTE ON A JURASSIC
SPECIES.

The following statement considers mainly the direction and division of each of the
principal veins, and the comparative areas covered by them.

The marginal vein forms the costal border. The mediastinal vein is absent or, perhaps,
amalgamated with the scapular in Lachlania, Oligoneuria and Tricorythus; in all
others it is simple, and extends to, or almost to, the tip of the wing, keeping
at a very short and nearly uniform distance from the margin, with which it is generally
connected, especially on the apical half of the wing, by frequent cross veins. On
the basal half, the cross veins may be as abundant as apically, but they are generally
rarer, and may be entirely absent, even when frequent apically ; or they may be absent
throughout. In very rare instances, as in Coloburus, an intercalary vein may be
found in the apical half of the wing between this vein and the costal margin.

The scapular vein is simple, and reaches the tip of the wing, excepting in the
three genera mentioned above, where it may perhaps be said to be amalgamated
with the mediastinal, as shown by its forking near the middle of the wing in
Tricorythus; in Lachlania, however, it terminates not at the tip, which possesses
only the marginal vein, but near the middle of the costal border. It is always
connected with the vein below by a greater or less number of, usually many, cross veins.

The externomedian vein is always compound, and always covers at least half, usually
much the greater part of the wing. It always divides at the very base, and the upper
branch is always forked, while the lower may, although rarely, remain single, and is
usually forked to a less extent than the upper branch. Three is, therefore, the
smallest number of nervules which may reach the margin in the area covered by

1 Besides the references given in the bibliography under Dawson’s Acadian Geology, 2d ed., pp. 513-23. 8vo. London,
each species, notices of the devonian insects will be found 1868. Darwin, Descent of man, I, 360. 12mo., London, 1871,
in the following places: Hartt, on the Devonian plant- Stett. Ent. Zeit., xxvii, 145-53, passim. Trans. Entom.
locality of the Fern Ledges, Lancaster, N. B., in Bailey’s Ob- Soe. Lond., 1871, 38-40. American Naturalist I, 445, 625-
servations on the Geology of Southern New Brunswick, pp. 26. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., X, 96, XI, 150-51,
131-40. 8vo., Fredericton, 1865; reprinted in substance, in Memoirs Boston Soe. Nat. Hist. II], 13-21, passim.

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 5

the vein, and this number we find in Oligoneuria and, perhaps, in Lachlania. The
portion of the area of this vein covered by the upper branch and its forks is almost
always greater, generally considerably greater, than that covered by the lower branch;
an exception to this will be found in Polymitarcys where the lower area is greater,
owing to unusual breadth of wing combined with narrowness of the area covered by
the intermedian vein, which has been crowded out of much of its natural ground by
this lower branch. Some of the allies of Polymitarcys, especially “Asthenopus and
Pentagenia, also have this area of the lower branch larger than usual, although not
larger than that of the upper branch, and some other genera not placed near it exhibit
a similar propensity ; but asa general thing, the area covered by the lower is scarcely
more than half as large as that covered by the upper branch, and not infrequently it is
less than one third its extent. The upper branch usually forks close to the base,
occasionally at the very base, and sometimes the upper of the forks is amalgamated
at the base with the scapular vein, as in Asthenopus, Tricorythus and Chloeon, and
to a certain extent in Coenis, so as to give it the appearance of originating from that
vein, and of complete independence of the externomedian; whether thus severed from its
connections, or plainly arising from the externomedian root, this upper fork of the upper
branch runs in proximity to the scapular vein, parallel or subparallel to it, and, excepting
where the venation is occasionally simple (as in Oligoneuria, &c.), always emits from its
lower surface in the central portion of the wing one, two, or three nervules; the first
and second of these nervules are usually pretty near together at base, but all generally
reach the border at unequal distances apart, the inequality being made good by
intercalary longitudinal nervules ; these intercalary nervules often curve at their inner
extremities toward or to one or another of the adjoining nervules, assuming then the
appearance of regular branches, while the nervules proper are themselves oftener
detached from their base; so that it is sometimes difficult to tell whether a given vein
should be considered normal or intercalary. The lower fork of the upper branch is
occasionally simple, as in the Tricorythus, but usually forks once at about the middle
of its course, rarely near the base, and very frequently encloses an intercalary nervule
between these branches, but no intercalary nervules (excepting such as often break
up the extreme margin into an irregular meshwork of veins) ever intervene between the
upper nervule of this fork and the lower nervule of the upper fork, nor between its
lower nervule and the upper nervule of the lower branch of the externomedian vein,
excepting in the rare instances where this lower nervule is detached from its base, and
takes on the form of an intercalary nervule.

This lower branch, as has been said, is usually forked to a less extent than the upper
branch, but a conspicuous exception is found in Polymitarcys where the branch is made up
of a large number of sub-convergent simple rays, directed from the outer margin
toward various parts of the upper internomedian nervule, but generally lost before reaching
it. In general. however, its area is only about half that of the upper branch; it usually
forks close to the base, and each or either of its branches may again subdivide once ; all other
nervules in the area are sure to be intercalary; where it forks only once there is usually
a single intercalary nervure midway between the branches, which seems to belong to one
or the other of them and to represent its fork ; while between it and either branch there

6 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

may be other shorter intercalaries; the only exception to this general statement is the
case of Polymitarcys already cited, where after division at the base the upper fork must
be looked upon as breaking up at once into three rays, while the lower severed from its
connections breaks up similarly into a couple of forked rays; the amount of abnormal
divergence in this case may be better seen, by stating that it is the only genus of Ephem-
eridx in which this area is carried around the lower outer angle of the wing; in all others
it stops short of, usually far short of this angle; here it reaches around it half way along
the anal margin. The genus agrees, however, with all the others in that all the branch-
ing occurs in the basal half of the area. In Oligoneuria and Lachlania the branch is
simple and undivided, unless the apparent branch in the latter should be looked upon as
such, and not as a cross nervure, like the more directly transverse veins above it.

The area of the internomedian vein is never great, although always more extensive than
that of any other vein but the externomedian, and it always includes the lower outer
angle of the wing, excepting as above specified in Polymitarcys, and excepting also in
the full-angled Tricorythus, where the anal area disputes its sway. Its construction is gen-
erally similar to that of the lower branch of the extermomedian vein, although from the
form of the area covered by it, its absolute appearance is very different; moreover, one
rarely finds in it any intercalary nervures, excepting such as sometimes line the-
extreme border, the smaller nervures almost always originating from the main stems ;
the exceptions are found in Leptophlebia, Cloeon, and Baetis. The vein almost invariably
forks at its extreme base, and from the upper of these branches sends either, rarely, a
single shoot, or, much more frequently, a half a dozen, occasionally a dozen simple or forked
shoots to the margin. In the interesting fossil described in the note at the end of this
section these shoots appear to originate from the lower branch, the upper remaining
simple, just as rarely occurs in living forms as e. g., in some species of Leptophlebia.

The anal vein invariably plays an insignificant part, and is apparently sometimes want-
ing. Its area seldom reaches even half way along the anal margin, but in Tricorythus it
extends even around the lower outer angle, fairly upon the outer margin. Here it is
composed of a single vein with three or four short but widely divergent branches ; usually
it is forked at the base, and occasionally one or the other of these forks imitates the rayed
branch of the internomedian by sendmg a number of parallel branches, often closely
crowded, to the margin.

This account of the neuration of the Ephemeridae is based upon much more extended
material, and a longer study than that formerly given by me in my first quarto paper on
fossil neuroptera, and corrects it in several important particulars, especially in the account
of the internomedian vein, which was eroneously stated to be simple? and in the fuller
statement of the divisions of the externomedian vein.

Note on a Jurassic May-fly.

Hexagenites Weyenberghii, gen. et sp. nov.:—A frasment of a wing only is preserved, in
5 fo) fo) )
which the entire costal area and base are wanting. The neuration of the parts that remain

1 This statement was evidently the result of some over- same memoir it was remarked that the internomedian vein
sight, since in the digest given on a subsequent page of the was “ similar in character to the vena externomedia.”

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. Uf

is perfect and indicate an insect whose alar expanse was nearly 45 mm., and which is most
nearly related to Hexagenia; the first inferior nervule of the upper fork of the upper
branch of the extermomedian vein is thrown off some way before the middle of the wing;
the lower branch forks at some distance beyond the middle of its course, and encloses
between its branches a single intercalary nervule which extends nearly to the widely
spreading fork. Ata short distance from the base of the wing the lower branch of the
externomedian vein has divided into three branches, the middle one nearer the upper than
the lower, all of which continue undivided to the margin; two intercalary nervures of
unequal length occur in each of these interspaces, extending almost half way to the base
in the lower interspace, besides many short ones near the margin; the lowest of these
branches is considerably curved and subparallel to the inner margin. The internomedian
vein probably divides at the very base into two branches, the upper of which is simple,
runs subparallel to the lowest externomedian nervule, striking the angle of the wing,
while the other branch is in close proximity to it and throws off a large number of sin-
uous simple branches to the anal margin, in doing which its outer half follows an irreg-
ular course by a slight change of direction with each emission. The cross-veins are mod-
erately frequent and subuniform throughout the portion of the wing which is preserved
excepting in the internomedian area, and the border is much broken by interealary nerv-
ules into cells which are quadrate and generally much longer than broad. The anal
area must be very contracted and the form of the wing closely resembles that of Hexa-
genia.

The specimen is from Solenhofen, and is in the British Museum. The description is
drawn up from a very clear sketch magnified 7 diameters, taken with the camera and pub-
lished by Rev. Mr. Eaton in the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London,
1871. Pl. 1, fig. 10.- The species is dedicated to my friend Dr. Weyenbergh, of Cordoba,
who has done so much in increasing our knowledge of the Jurassic insect fauna of Bavaria.

III. PLATEPHEMERA ANTIQUA. Pl. 1, figs. 5, 9, 10.

Platephemera antiqua Scuvp., Can. nat., (n.s.) ut, 205, fig. 2 (1867) ;—Is., Geol. mag.,
Iv, 387, pl. 17, fig. 2 (1867) ; —In., Dawson, Acad. Geol., 2d ed., 524, fig. 181 (1868) ; —
Iz., Amer. nat., 1, 630, pl. 16, fig. 3 (1868) ; — In., Geol. mag., y, 173, 175-76 (1868) ; —
Pack., Guide ims., 77-78, pl. 1, fig. 3 (1869);— Nicuors., Man. pal., 185, fig. 128
(1872) ; —Is., Ane. life hist. earth, 145, fig. 89 (1877) ; — Dana, Man. geol., 2d ed., 273,
fig. 550 A (1874) ;— Rorm., Leth. geogn., pl. 51, fig. 9 (1876).

Mentioned without name, as the first species, in my letter to Mr. Hartt on the Devonian
Insects of New Brunswick (1865) ;— Bailey, Obs. geol. south. New Brunsw., 140
(1865) ; — Amer. journ. sc., (2) xxxIx, 357 (1865) ;— Can. nat., (n.s.) 1, 23 (1865); —
Trans. entom. soc. Lond., (3) m1, 117 (1865). See also Amer. journ. sc., (2) xn, 277
(1865).

The wing was ample (whence the generic name) and gigantic. Probably a third of
the wing is wanting at the base, besides the greater part of the extreme outer edge, but
the fragment preserved enables us to judge, probably with considerable accuracy, both
the general structure and, by the direction of the nervules and of the margins, the general

8 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

form of the wing, which is presumed to be much as outlined on the plate. The wing
was probably more than 60 mm. in length, and about 27 mm. in breadth; the alar
expanse was therefore at least 125 mm., and probably 135 mm., and the two figures
have been so placed as to indicate this expanse.

This is more than double the ordinary size of the larger Ephemeridae and the largest
mentioned in Eaton’s paper on these insects has an expanse of only 78 mm., and the
largest of the jurassic species only 65 mm.

The costal margin is very gently arcuate; the apex probably somewhat pointed, toward
which the upper veins are directed without additional arcuation; the greatest breadth
was probably a little before the middle of the wing, and the outer perhaps half as long
again as the anal margin. The marginal vein runs close to but does not form the margin
of the wing, the latter being indicated in the figures on the plate by a dotted line.

The mediastinal vein runs as close as possible to the margin, and is not connected with
it by cross veins; these two veins apparently run side by side to the apex, when the
marginal disappears and the mediastinal takes its place close to the border. The scapular
vein runs sub-parallel to the mediastinal, but at double the distance from it apically as
basally, the change occurring rather abruptly near the middle of the preserved portion of
the wing; it is connected with the vein above by straight cross-veins at tolerably regular,
rather frequent intervals.

As usual in this family, the externomedian vein is apparently divided, probably not far
from, or at the base, into two stems, and the upper of these stems is again divided, prob-
ably at some distance from the base, into two principal branches; the main portion of the
upper branch runs parallel to, but somewhat distant from the scapular vein, approaching
it, however, apically, and is everywhere connected with it by cross-veins, very much as in
the mediastino-scapular interspace; it throws off from its inferior surface several inequi-
distant feeble offshoots; the first originate a little before the middle of the wing, and
run irregularly but with a gentle downward curve to the outer margin ; they have between
them and between the outermost and the main branch a number of equally irregular
intercalary nervules, all of which are connected together by cross-veins, and thus form
over the whole area a mesh work of irregular but usually hexagonal and longitudinally
elongated cells, making it impossible to distinguish between normal and interealary veins,
since the latter are as prominent as the former, and invariably arise from cross-veins ;
while whatever nervules lie next the main branch are united with it by frequent and,
equally irregular cross-veins fallimg from the main branch quite in the manner of the oft
shoots proper, and forming cells only slightly larger than the others, although generally
transversely elongated; together there are about nine rows of cells between the main
upper branch and its first offshoot. The lower branch of the upper stem is simple and,
originating apparently near the middle of the basal half of the wing, diverges at first
slightly from the upper branch, afterwards a little more rapidly, and in its apical fourth
curves downward considerably, and is somewhat irregular in its course; its direction is in
general parallel to the offshoots, and especially the nearer offshoots of the upper branch,
and on the border it is separated from the apex of the upper branch by nearly one-third
of the outer margin of the wing; in its simplicity this branch resembles the same nervure

oD?
in Tricorythus, which is peculiar in this particular among modern Ephemeridae. As in

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 9

modern Ephemeride generally, there is no intercalary nervule between this lower
branch of the upper externomedian stem and the first offshoot of the lower branch, but
this interspace is filled with simple and frequent cross veins.

The lower externomedian stem is apparently formed on the same plan as the upper, a
feature which appears to have no counterpart among living Ephemeridae ; apparently it
is composed, like the upper, of two primary branches, which seem to part from each other
very nearly at the same considerable distance from the base, (about one-third the distance to
the margin), a feature uncommon but not unknown in living Ephemeridae ; but instead of
having a single independent intercalary or two between the forks, it has several offshoots .
which depend from the upper branch, just as the offshoots of the upper branch of the
upper stem do, while between them in the outer half of their course other intercalaries
arise, depending from angular cross veins—the whole united by frequent cross veins
(again as in the upver area), to form a mesh-work of irregular cells generally pentagonal,
although not often longitudinal; there are thus included between these forks about six
rows of cells. The interspaces directly adjoming either side of the lower branch of the
upper externomedian stem are slightly wider than the interspaces between the nervules in
the area of the lower externomedian stem, possess no intercalaries, and are divided by
frequent cross veins. ‘The lower branch of the lower externomedian stem also curves
downward at the tip, like the lower branch of the upper stem; the area of the lower
externomedian stem repeats, therefore, and on only a little smaller scale, the structure of
the area of the upper stem, instead of exhibiting, as in recent forms, distinctive features.

That portion of the fragment of the wing lying below what we have here considered
the lower simple branch of the lower externomedian stem, and which is shown in fig. 10
and not in fig. 9, is so fragmentary and so separated from its basal connections that it is
difficult to decide to what area of the wing it belongs; it consists of four rows of cells
separated by curving nervules a little more uniform in their course than the minor
nervules above, with slightly less frequent cross veins; the cells being slightly larger and
more regular, frequently quadrangular and usually longitudinal ; this field belongs of course
either to the externomedian or the internomedian area. The general similarity of the
structure of the fields would lead one at first to suppose it to belong to the externomedian
area, in which case of course our description of the lower stem and its branches should be
modified to receive it. As, too, the form of the fragment would indicate that a very
considerable part of the region about the anal angle is lost, the reference of this field to
the internomedian area would give that area a very great and very unusual preponderance
in the wing. But its reference to the externomedian area, which is certainly possible,
would involve quite as great an anomaly ; for in that case the lower externomedian stem
must be supposed to consist of two branches, the lower lying beyond the present
fragment and probably simple, the upper forked and reproducing on a smaller scale the
whole of the upper externomedian stem, including the minor offshoots depending from the
uppermost branch of each. In this case the area of the lower stem would exceed that of
the upper, which occurs in very rare instances in modern Ephemeridae and then only by
crowding out of room the lower areas, which the probable wide expanse of this wing would
not allow unless this lower area is of an exceedingly disproportionate size. The
translation of the facts which I have offered in my description, on the other hand, while it

10 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

requires a very unusual development of the internomedian area, leaves the lower externo-
median field in its usual proportionate extent as compared to the upper field, and is
further supported by several considerations: chiefly by the probability that where
repetitions of structure are found—a mark of simplicity much more common among
ancient than among recent insects — they are far more apt to occur between repetitive
parts than between those which may not be so exactly compared. On the hypothesis
sustained above, this repetition occurs in the fields embraced between the two similarly
disposed sets of branches into which one vein is divided. On the other suggested (and
apparently the only alternative, for the open interspaces on either side of the lower branch
of the upper externomedian stem seem to fix that nervule unquestionably) the repetition
would be between the whole of one set of branches of this vein, and one portion only of
the two of which the other set of that vein is composed. Other arguments may be
advanced from the character both of the nervules and of the cells formed by them and the
cross veins, which differ slightly from those in the field next above, a difference greater both in
extent and in nature than that existing between what we have considered the upper and
the lower externomedian fields. Further than this, the slight change of direction in the
course of the outer margin, resulting in a slight emargination of this border of the wing,
although apparently not found at all in living Ephemeridae, would be far more likely to
occur, does far more frequently occur in other insects, between two adjoining areas than

in the middle or other part of one.

Considering then the field under discussion as belonging to the internomedian area, we
must describe this as plainly of very unusual extent, and as filled as it never is in living
types with a large number of intercalary nervules.

It may be remarked that none of the many intercalaries in this wing arise indepen-
dently, and that they are not more abundant at the extreme outer edge of the wing, as
is frequently the case in modern types. The former feature is the more noteworthy, as
the independent origin of the intercalary veins in Ephemeridae would naturally be
taken as a mark of inferior organization; and yet it does not occur in this oldest member
of the group, nor yet in the jurassic species from Solenhofen, described on a previous
page; in this last, however, the edge of the wing is more broken by intercalaries than
the parts removed from it.

The length of the fragment preserved is 42 mm. and its greatest breadth, 25.5 mm.

The points in which this insect presents the most striking differences from modern
types, and upon which we would establish the genus Platephemera, are: the very similar
instead of distinctive structure of the framework of the two sets of branches of the
externomedian vein, and of the respective areas included between them; the excessive
number of the intercalaries in the area included between the lower set of externomedian
branches, and their attachment (in the apical half of the wing) to the upper of these
branches — from which the previously mentioned peculiar feature mainly depends; the
simplicity of the lower branch of the upper externomedian stem in an unusually ramose
wing; the unusual extent of the internomedian area and its rich supply of intercalaries ;
the density and polygonal form of the cells formed by the cross veins below the upper
externomedian vein; the emargination of the outer border; and finally the vast
dimensions of the wing.

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 11

If we look to other early types for species akin to this we shall find a whole group of
carboniferous insects with reticulated wings, to which this is evidently related. To this
belong those forms to which the generic names Dictyoneura and Breyeria have been given
m the old world, and Paolia and Haplophlebium in the new. Several new forms, as yet
unpublished, are known to me from the American carboniferous rocks. In all these
genera, but especially in Dictyoneura and Haplophlebium (which perhaps should not be
separated from each other), the wing is very much larger and slenderer (like a dragon-fly’s
wing) than the fragment of this devonian wing will allow us to suppose it to be. Ag in
these wings, the mediastinal vein is present, and usually runs into the marginal at some
distance from the tip of the wing, and the general relation of the principal veins is sim-
ilar in all; in none of the others, however, do we find so distinct a meshwork of sub-
ordinate veins, nor can they be resolved as here into sets depending from the two prin-
cipal branches of the externomedian vein. So that while a general similarity of structure
may be conceded, there is no occasion for considering the insects as closely affiliated.

The distinction between Platephemera and Gerephemera will be pointed out in treating
of the latter insect.

This sect comes from plant-bed No. 7 of Professor Hartt, and was the only inseet
found at that horizon.

In his “ Monograph on the Ephemeridae,”’ Rey. Mr. Eaton treats of the fossil species
which have been referred by.one and another author to this family, in a very summary
manner,’ asserting that: “ when a fossil comprises only a fragment, or even a complete wing
of an Ephemerid, it is hardly possible to determine the genus, and impossible to assert the
species. The utmost that can be learned from such a specimen is the approximate
relations of the insect. Neuration by itself is not sufficient to define the species or even
the genera of recent Ephemeridae.”

While we should not wish to deny the claims of Mr. Eaton to a profound knowledge of
the structure of the Ephemeridae, we venture to doubt if he would assert that there are
not features in the wing structure of some genera not foand in others, and which are,
therefore, in so far characteristic of those genera; and it might be worth while to consider
whether a careful study of such differences would not reveal some further differences
not discernible upon a cursory examination. One should be slow to hazard sweeping
statements of a negative character; and after all, it may be enquired, what more is desired,
or at least expected, than “the approximate relations of an insect” found fossil in the
older rocks. ‘That is precisely the aim of palaeontology the world over ; and those who
discourage efforts to discover these relations are simply bidding us close one of the vol-
umes of the book of life, quite as valuable as that they study.

In further comments in the same place, Mr. Eaton asserts of the insects of the Devo-
nian discussed in this paper, that ‘they have all been regarded as allies of the Ephemer-

1 Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond., 1871, 38-40. toward their authors. In the three pages he devotes to this
2 The manner in which Mr. Eaton has confounded names topic, Dyscritus is twice given as ‘ Dyscritius”; articulatus
in this section of his work is pretty fair evidence that he — twice as ‘‘ antiquorum ”; occidentalis once as “ Brownsoni ”’;

has not given the papers he quotes that close attention Bronsoni twice as “ Brownsoni’’; Dana twice as ‘ Scud-
which would entitle him to use the language of ridicule der’’; Scudder six times as ‘‘ Dawson.”

12 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

idae.” I do not know by whom; certainly not by myself, who first described
them. Platephemera he says, may possibly belong to the Ephemeridae, “but there
is nothing in the figures to make this certain.” The better figures published with
this should be sufficient proof that Platephemera belongs where I originally placed
it. The neuration agrees in all essential features with that family, and indeed,
considering the antiquity of the creature, shows marvellously little divergence from existing
types. And although Mr. Eaton has nothing to say of the wing structure of the Ephem-
eridae as a whole, in distinction from that of other neuropterous families, I can hardly
believe that any one who has studied it from the standpoint of the substantial unity of
wing structure in all insects, could fail to discover that the Ephemeridae have a special
development of wing neuration distinct from all others, permitting formulation, and to
which Platephemera conforms to so close an extent, that until we have further light by the
discovery of more complete remains we are amply justified in considering it as an antique
type of Ephemeridae.

IV. GEREPHEMERA SIMPLEX. PI. 1, figs. 8, 8a.

Gerephemera simplex Scudd., Geol. mag., v, 174-75 (1868).

Mentioned without name, as the fourth species, in my letter to Mr. Hartt: On the
devonian insects of New Brunswick, p. 1; Bailey, Obs. geol. south. New Br., 140; Amer.
journ. sc., (2) xxxrx, 357; Can. nat., (n. s.) 1, 235; Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., (3) u, 117—
all in 1865.

In the specimen and reverse as first seen by me, scarcely more could be said of this
insect than the brief notice already published ; nothing appeared but a slight fragment of
the tip of a wing, and this would not have been dignified by a name had not the extreme
interest attaching to fossil insects from the horizon at which it occurred seemed to demand
it. The portion preserved was the upper half of the outer border with the extremities
of the veins impinging upon it, and two of the principal veins near the tip of the costal
margin ; these two veins are as usual in the Ephemeridae and probably represent the mar-
ginal and mediastinal (or scapular), and show that the latter reached the border scarcely
above the tip of the wing. °

Since my first examination, however, Mr. G. F. Matthew has worked out a considerable
part of the wing on one of the stones belonging to the St. John Society, which, though
very different in certain parts from what would have been anticipated from the portion
first exposed, bears out in a measure the statement that was hazarded concerning it,
although it proves that the generic name chosen was unfortunate. In this removal of
the stone from the surface of the wing, a fragment of the tip with its two veins was
flaked off; but as careful drawings had been taken of it, I have replaced the two lines
indicating the veins mentioned above upon the drawing made of the wing as it now
appears. This gives us indeed a much better clue to the probable form of the wing than
we could possibly otherwise have, for the considerable and constantly increasing diver-
gence of the upper and lower veins of the continuous portion of the fragment leave a
very strange eflect ; and, without the aid these two vein-tips furnish, leave the form of the
apex of the wing decidedly problematical.

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 113%

The wing is that of a very large insect, the fragment, which reaches neither base nor
tip, being 60 mm. long, and rendering it probable that the alar expanse was at least 150
mm. and more probably 175 mm. The apex of the wing was pointed, the costal and outer
margin probably meeting at a rounded angle of about 60°. The costal margin must have
been very strongly arched near the middle of the apical half, while the apical part of the
outer border is nearly straight. The wing was probably elongated, not very broadly
expanded in proportion to its length, as I at first presumed from not having counted on
such an extended development toward the base. — In the middle of the outer half of the
wing the width is about 23 mm., and from the course of the fragments of the two borders
it is probable that the width nowhere exceeded 25 mm. or about two-sevenths the length of
the wing. The fragment preserved contains considerably less than half the area of the wing
comprising most of the central portions. The whole anal area is lost as well as what is
apparently most or all of the internomedian area, extending far along the outer margin ;
the merest fragment of the costal border, 2-3 mm. long, is preserved, apparently about
the middle of the wing; the tip of the wing and outer half of the costal margin are
broken away, but a couple of veins at the tip are supplied, as already stated, from a piece
that was accidentally removed. This irregular fragment, extending diagonally across the
outer half of the wing, with a basal extension along the middle line, is traversed by.
principal nervures bound together by a net work of mostly very irregular and very feeble,
occasionally more regular and distinct cross veins, forming irregular, mostly longitudinal,
unequal, polygonal, rarely quadrangular cells. The veins may be grouped into an upper
set of parallel, equidistant and rather approximate, nearly straight, slightly upeurved
nervures, three or four in number, traceable only near the middle of the wing; and a lower
set of two, traceable throughout the apical half of the wing and extending nearly half way
from the middle to the base ; these are parallel, more distant, directed gently downward and
so divergent from the other set, and toward the apex curved considerably downward
Between the veins of the upper set the cross veins are infrequent and mostly straight,
forming quadrangular cells; while in the lower set they are more frequent and very
irregular, forming polygonal cells which, toward the apical margin, are very indistinct
from the feebleness of the cross veins.

The area formed at the apex of the wings by the divergence of the two sets of veins,
is filled by branches from the superior surface of the uppermost of the lower set of veins,
supporting a mesh of cross-veins.

The principal vein of the wing then—the only one which appears unquestionably to
support a number of branches —is the uppermost vein of the lower set. And since in
all palaeozoic imsects having true net-veined wings, one never has to pass beyond the
externomedian vein, in starting from the costal margin, to find the first extensively
branched vein, there can be little if any doubt that this should be considered as belong-
ing to that vein, and not to a lower one. The only difficulty about this interpretation is
that m the middle of the wing, there are above this vein no less than five equidistant and
almost equally distinct veins. The first of these, forming the margin, is the marginal
vein, and the next is the mediastinal. It is impossible to consider this marginal as the
mere thickening of the border, and the vein next removed from the border as the true
marginal vein, for both the margin itself would be too broad, and the marginal would

14 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

then be an elevated, and the mediastinal a depressed vein (see fig. 8a), which is never the
case in such insects. The nervure at the margin then is certainly the marginal, and
that next to itthe mediastinal vein. Only one vein, the scapular, can lie between the med-
iastinal and the externomedian, yet between our undoubted mediastinal and our presumed
externomedian there are no less than three veins to be disposed of.

Two of these lie in the depression following the mediastinal vein, while the third is
upon the side or the upper edge of the ascending portion of the area, which on the
opposite side of the depression lies at the level or above the level of the mediastinal vein (see
fig. 8a). It seems, therefore, highly probable that the two low-lying veins are branches
of a scapular vein which probably divides not much further toward the base ; and that
the third vein in question is the main externomedian stem, of which the branching
vein below is only a principal basal offshoot ; indeed the very fact that the branches of
this offshoot are thrown off from its superior surface leads to the presumption that it is
itself a branch from a vein above ; for, while an area between two branches of one vein
may not very infrequently be filled by superior offshoots from an inferior branch, it would
certainly be abnormal for a wide area to be filled by superior offshoots from an upper
branch, or even from a main stem itself. Presuming then upon the correctness of these
interpretations, the structural basis of the wing is as follows :

The marginal vein forms the border. The mediastinal vei is simple, and,
running nearly parallel to the marginal vein, probably terminates by impinging
upon it not very far from the middle of the outer half of the wing; from it run
frequent oblique delicate cross veins to the border. The scapular vein divides into
two longitudinal veins before the middle of the wing, probably considerably before
it; for even before the middle of the wing, and for as great a distance beyond
it as it can be traced, the two branches are exactly parallel to each other and
the mediastinal; all the longitudinal interspaces in the middle of this part of the
wing are equal ; the forks are connected with each other (and the upper with the medi-
astinal?) by ‘olorably frequent faint cross veins at right angles to the nervures ; and in
the middle of the wing and beyond it, at least for a short distance, have a gentle upward
direction, and even curve very slightly, almost imperceptibly, im the same direction ;
beyond however, they must curve strongly in the opposite direction, for the pair of detached
veins toward the tip of the wing have a decided downward direction, and these forks,
whether the same or not, must in that part of the wing have a similar direction ; probably
they are the same, and if so they show that they retain a similar distance apart until
they strike the costal margin, one just before or at the tip, the other a little earlier.

The externomedian vein must divide into two principal veins near the base of the wing ;
the upper branch follows closely the course of the veins above, and lies as far from the near-
est as the latter from the next; a little beyond the middle of the wing, however, this space
is slightly increased, and an intercalary vein, straight and similar to the others, but fainter,
takes its rise from an oblique bent cross vein; all the other cross veins in this interspace
and on either side of the intercalary vein, are like the others im the scapular interspaces,
and the whole area in which these straight and directly transverse cross veins lie, namely
that between the mediastinal and upper externomedian veins, forms a deeply sunken but
broad sulcus, the floor of which is nearly flat, and not V-shaped as usual in folds in this

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 15

part of the wing; probably it is otherwise further toward the base of the wing before
the division of the scapular vein, for the sides of the sulcus are tolerably steep, and

where only a simple vein occupied the sulcus, as is ordinarily the case in neuropterous

wings, the sulcus would be angular. The lower externomedian branch at the middle of
the wing is already as far from the upper branch as that from the upper scapular branch,

and continues to diverge from it with a very gentle curve, which increases apically, so

that it strikes the border with the same direction as the veins above; in the interspace

between these two branches runs a feeble intercalary vein, slightly irregular in direction,

sending off cross veins to one side and the other, forming longitudinal irregularly pentago-

nal cells; as the interspace widens these become more irregular, until at about two-thirds

the distance from the base of the wing to the tip of this branch, a superior offshoot from

this branch is emitted, having a course about midway between the two branches, but very

soon taking a somewhat zigzag direction, and assuming altogether the appearance of the

interealary, to which it sends frequent cross veins ; a short distance further on, or at about

the end of the second third of the wing, this emits a second offshoot, rather more prominent

and regular than the first, which parts rapidly from the branch, and, remaining near the

first, afterwards takes the apical direction of all the veins; it is bound to the upper off

shoot by frequent cross veins forming small polygonal cells; between it and the lower

externomedian vein is another very feeble intercalary arising from a cross vein, and

becoming, like its lateral offshoots, nearly imperceptible toward the outer margin ; as

indeed do all the other cross veins and intercalaries, so that they were nearly unobserved _
when the margin alone was exposed, and many of the cross veins fail to compass the

interspaces.

What can be seen of the internomedian vein is traceable slightly further toward the base
of the wing than the preceding, but as the wing is broken here, it is impossible to say
whether it is basally divided, and the portion visible is the upper branch, or whether
what we see is the whole vein; in the former case the upper branch, in the latter the
vein proper, runs sub-parallel to the lower externomedian, very slightly diverging from
it, and in the middle of the wing (where it is broken, but where its connections leave no
doubt whatever of its course) is as distant from it as the two externomedian branches
at the same point; a single, distinct, pretty regularly zigzag intercalary runs midway
between it and the lower externomedian branch, connected with tolerable regularity to
the veins on either side by alternating, straight, transverse or oblique cross veins, generally
forming rather regular, longitudinal, pentagonal cells, which become exceedingly irregular,
obscure and broken next the outer margin of the wing; just below the apical offshoot
of the lower externomedian branch it throws off an inferior branch, which is nearly
straight, and is apically as distant from it as is the next vein above; between these
branches is a very irregular intercalary vein, resembling in its connections the apical part
of the interealary above. The parts of the wing below this branch are wanting.

The relations of this insect to living types is far more obscure than in the case of Plat-
ephemera. It has certain resemblances to Platephemera and also to the carboniferous
Palaeodictyoptera to which it may possibly belong, but it is certain that the limits of the
Kphemeridae, even including Platephemera, are not elastic enough to admit it, and its diver-
gence from Dictyoneura and other net-veined insects of early time is so great that. its

16 ; SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

reference there would seem to obscure its real isolation. In fact there seems to be not
only no family of insects into which it can be placed, but even no sub-order living or
extinct, into which it would naturally fall. There is no known insect in which five par-
allel and distant nervures follow the course of the costal margin, and of which only two
arise from the same root; and so far as my observations have gone, I have found no neu-
ropterous insect (to which of living groups this is plainly the most nearly allied), in which
the externomedian vein is the first extensively branched vein, and in which at the same
time, the upper branch of this vein is simple. In Ephemeridae (to which group one
would most naturally compare it from its general appearance), the externomedian vein, as
already stated, is always compound, and its upper stem is always forked. In this insect
on the contrary, the upper stem is simple (which is the more remarkable from the forked
character of the scapular, always simple in Ephemeridae) and the lower forked, its
branches being superior and herein differing remarkably from ordinary types.

Gerephemera then is not only further removed from modern Ephemeridae than is Plat-
ephemera, but can be even less closely affiliated with Platephemera than the latter with
modern Ephemeridae. It has, nevertheless, some distinctive points in common with it.
Such are its great size and the probable great expanse of the internomedian area, the dif-
fering character of the net-work above and below the uppermost externomedian branch,
the polygonal nature of the mesh-work caused by the cross-venation (in common with
many other old insects), and the somewhat uniform character of that network next to
and away from the border. In common with modern Ephemeridae, but in distinction
from most other insects, must be mentioned the common feature of intercalary nervures,
which here, as in Platephemera, are never free at their origin.

As points of special distinction from Platephemera may be mentioned the broad area
given to the ves above the externomedian vein, the forking of the scapular vein, its
course at the bottom of a deep and broad sulcus, the occurrence of a straight intercalary
in the scapular-externomedian interspace, the entire structure of the externomedian vein
(differing altogether from Platephemera) and the elongated slender form of the wing,
which resembles much more closely Dictyoneura and Haplophlebium.

From these latter genera again, to which we should perhaps consider it most closely
allied, this insect differs remarkably in the structure not only of the externomedian vein,
but in the wide extent of the wings above that vein, and the number of nervures which
fill it. It would appear also to differ in the character of the reticulation above the exter-
nomedian vein, a matter of less importance, but in which it agrees with Platephemera.
The difference in the frame work of the wing, however, is so great and so deep seated,
that there can be no doubt of at least its family distinction from all known types.
Whether or no it is worthy of being classed as subordinally distinct, I leave to future
discussion. But in allusion-to the apparent fact that the peculiar nature of its neuration
has not left its mark on modern types, I propose to call the family group in which it
should be placed Atocina.! It will be sufficiently distinguished from other ancient types
(as from modern) by the forking of the scapular vein, the course of the externo-
median, its distant removal from the costal margin, and its peculiar division.

This insect and Xenoneura come from the lowest of the Lancaster Shales which furnish
insect remains, called plant bed No. 2, by Professor Hartt.

. 1 From the Greek a@roxos-

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 7
V. Homoruetus Fossiuis. Pl. 1, figs. 1, 2.

Homothetus fossilis Scupp., Can. nat. geol., (n. s.) 1, 205, fig. 3 (1867);—JIs., Geol.
mag., Iv, 387, pl. 17, fig. 3 (1867); — Is., Daws., Acad. geol., 2d ed. 524—25, fig. 182 (1868);
— Is., Amer. nat., 1, 631, pl. 16, fig. 7 (1868);—In., Geol. mag., v, 172, 176 (1868); —
Pack., Guide ins., 77-78, pl. 1, fig. 7 (1869).

Mentioned without name, as the second species, in my letter to Mr. Hartt: On the devo-
nian insects of New Brunswick, p. 1; Bailey, Obs. south. New Br., 140; Amer. journ. sc.,
(2) xxxix, 357; Can. nat. geol., (n. s.) u, 235; Trans. ent. soc. Lond., (3) m1, 117,— all in
1865.

The wing representing this insect is the most complete of the devonian insects,
and would leave little to be desired were the base more complete; unfortunately the
reverse of this specimen was never found, or it might supply the missing parts. To
judge from the strong convexity of the costal margin, it is a front wing. It has the gen-
eral appearance of a Sialid of moderate size, and the form of the wing closely corresponds.
Although a fragment from the middle of the costal margin, and the whole outer half of
the lower margin with the apex are missing, the form of the wing can be estimated with
considerable probability. The costal margin is in general strongly convex, but is flat in
the middle third, the basal portion rapidly ascending, and the apical as rapidly descending ;
the apex was probably rounded, but a little produced, and the hinder border pretty uni-
formly and fully rounded, making the middle the broadest part of the wing, where the
breadth is probably contained about three times in the length; toward the base
the wing narrows rapidly, but at the extreme base more gradually above so as to be
almost pedunculate.

The marginal vein forms the border. The mediastinal vein is at first inclined slightly
downward, then ascends as gently, parting slightly from the marginal, but again in the mid-
dle of the wing commences most gradually to approach it, running toward the extremity of
the wing in close contact with it, but apparently not joining it until just before the apex
and beyond the preserved part of the fossil; throughout it partakes of the course of the
margin, but in a less exaggerated form, ascending slightly beyond the basal part, then
straight in the middle, gently arcuate apically ; it is connected with the margin, so far as
can be made out, by a single straight cross vein somewhat before the middle of the wing.

The scapular vein follows a similar course as the mediastinal, always about as far removed
from it as it is from the margin, excepting in the apical third; where its distance from the
mediastinal is slightly greater, so as to carry its termination, no doubt, exactly to the tip
of the wing; no cross veins can be seen to connect this vein with the mediastinal. No
other veins can be traced at the extreme base of the wing between the scapular and the
lower margin ; but at a short distance (about 2-3 mm.) from the base of the scapular vein,
and where its course turns from a descending to a longitudinal direction, a strong trans-
verse vein depends from it, directed a very little obliquely outward, and reaching from one-
third to one-half way to the lower margin of the wing; and from near and at the lower
extremity of this stout transverse vein, other longitudinal veins arise. The uppermost arises
from the middle of the lower half of the vein, at a distance from the scapular much greater
than the scapular from the costal margin at this point; at first it tends upward, parallel to

18 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

the costal margin, but very soon divides into two main stems. These two stems I take to
be: the upper the main scapular branch, of which the transverse vein is the base ; the lower
the externomedian vein, amalgamated with the former at the base, the two being com-
parable, as will be shown further on, to the same nervures in the Odonata. The connection
of the main scapular branch with the veins preserved in the field beyond cannot be
directly traced; but from the position of the latter the followmg account must be sub-
stantially correct. It runs in a nearly straight course to the middle of the apical half
of the wing, where from not following the arcuate course of the main scapular vein it has
diverged considerably from it; here its straight course suddenly terminates, but it passes
to the same point on the apical margin (just below or at the apex), by a gentle arcuation
subparallel to but distant from the main scapular vein, with which it appears to be
nowhere connected by cross veins. This main scapular branch emits two basal and
several apical inferior offshoots ; the apical offshoots are thrown off at wide angles, at sub-
equidistant intervals from the arcuate portion of the main branch, the first at its bend
being abruptly and widely forked not far from its origi, the others being simple and the
interspaces apparently free from cross veins. The basal offshoots are probably thrown off
(their origin is destroyed) at a little distance either side of the end of the basal third of
the wing; and, unlike the apical offshoots, certainly diverge at a very slight angle, and are
each similarly forked ; the first from the base is forked near its origin, and its upper fork is
again divided narrowly about half way to the margin, the general course of all the near-
vules of this basal offshoot being broadly arcuate. The other and outer basal offshoot soon
runs parallel to the main scapular branch, and is connected with it by a straight oblique
cross vein in the middle of the wing, where it forks; a short distance further on a piece is
broken from the middle of the wing, and the part beyond is displaced a little with refer-
ence to it, and apparently folded a little so as to obscure the exact course of these forks ;
which seem to become involved with the fork of the first of the apical offshoots, with
which, as well as with each other, they are connected by weak, inequidistant, straight, direct
or oblique cross veins.

The externomedian vein can be traced in all its parts, excepting an insignificant
portion of the tip of the outer of its branches; the main stem takes an arcuate
course, parallel to the basal offshoot of the main scapular branch, and terminates on
the lower margin just beyond the middle of the wing; half way from the transverse
basal vein to the margin it throws off an inferior branch, which soon becomes parallel to
it (and where it becomes so is connected by a cross vein to the vein below) and, by an
interpolated vei, which appears as a baseward continuation of this inferior branch, to a
bent cross vein in the same interspace, just beyond the middle of the basal half of the
wing; this cross vein is bent on the externomedian side of the interspace. The inter-
nomedian vein is compound, being broken at the lower extremity of the transverse basal
vein (before which it is not seen) into two compound branches, each throwing off a couple
of inferior curved offshoots to the margin, which are connected together by two sets of
cross veins,— one belonging only to the nervures of the upper branch, and in continuation
of the direct cross nervure in the externo-internomedian interspace ; the other set cover-
ing both branches and broken, each succeeding vein being carried successively further in,
the general course of the whole series being across the middle of the internomedian

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 19

area, sub-parallel to the outer series; one or two of the nervules in this area are briefly
forked next to the border. The anal veins cannot be seen.

The length of the fragment is 40 mm.; the probable length of the wing 42 mm.; its
breadth at the middle is 14 mm., reduced at base to 4 mm.

The most important vein in this wing is the scapular, whose branches occupy about
half the outer margin; the externomedian is comparatively unimportant, the imterno-
median occupying a larger area. The more striking features of the wing besides this are :
the origination of the principal scapular branch (from which all the scapular nervules
arise) and the externomedian vein from a common stem, having its source in a transverse
basal nervule; and the meagreness of the transverse neuration, which in no place shows
any sign of reticulation. The point first mentioned finds no parallel among insects excep-
ting in the Odonata, where it is almost precisely similar. There, as I attempted to show
many years ago in treating of the structure of the wings of recent and of fossil Neurop-
tera, the transverse vein termed the arculus in modern nomenclature should be considered
as made up of two veins meeting each other; for the upper of the two longi-
tudinal nervures which always originate from it belongs to the scapular vein, while the
lower belongs to the externomedian. Here, these two veins appear, at least, to be amal-
gamated at the base, but it is not impossible, and would indeed seem a@ priori more prob-
able, that they run side by side by side to the arculus, and are merely connate in appear-
ance from the preservation of the fossil. However, this may be, it would seem as if we
had in this peculiar structure the presence of an arculus as a forerunner at this early day
of the specialized type of Odonata; the main scapular branch arising from the arculus is
here, as in all normal modern Odonata, the principal vein of the wing,’ from which most
of the subsidiary branches arise; in these two points this fossil wing is distinctively and
decidedly Odonate in character; but if one looks further, one fails to find expected fea-
tures, now, and even in jurassic time, invariably corellated with those mentioned ; espec-
ially is a nodus to be sought in vain; the marginal vein runs without break to the tip of
the wing; for, although it cannot be followed from want of its perfect preservation, all
the neighboring veins can, and the number is similar throughout. So too the fine mesh-
work of Odonate wings is not only absent, but what cross neuration exists is confined to a
dozen or so straight veins for the whole wing. If, however, we consider this uppermost
offshoot from the arculus as the main branch of the scapular, and simply imagine the
arculus-structure removed, so as to bring this main branch directly and plainly dependant
from the scapular vein, one cannot fail to see how close the entire structure would be to
what we find in the Sialina. In the latter group indeed, there is no such separation
of apical and basal offshoots to the main scapular branch as here, but all the scapular
nervules take their rise, not from the vein itself, but as here from a principal scapular
branch, arising far back on the scapular vein; the general relations of the different
areas of the wing are also much the same in both, while the cross venation is very
similar. Here as there, the internomedian vein and its branches are of more impor-
tance —cover a wider area and bifurcate far more —than either the externomedian
vein on the one side, or the anal on the other. We have here, therefore, as I pointed out

1 Jt is termed vena principalis in the modern nomenclature not arise in the same way as in other Odonata, but has trans-
of students of Odonata. In some Calopterygidae it does ferred its origin to the scapular (median) itself.

20 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

when first calling attention to this fossil, the distinctive features of two tolerably well sep-
arated groups combined in one individual: certain features of the wing are distinctively
Sialid in character; others occur nowhere but in the Odonata. Yet these two groups
belong, one to the Neuroptera proper, the other to the Pseudoneuroptera, and we find
here the earliest proof of their common origin, in a wing whose type is more distinctly
synthetic than any other known. It seems also to bring new and unanticipated evi-
dence in support of my view of the homologies of the vein arising from the arculus in
Odonata.

It is plainly impossible for us to place this insect in any known family of Neuroptera.
It must be considered the first known member of a family, forming the connecting link
between the Neuroptera proper and Pseudoneuroptera, and will be evidence, in so far as
it goes, of a closer connection between these two groups, than between the latter and Or-
thoptera. For this family I would propose the name of Homothetidae, and would char-
acterize it as a family of Neuroptera (sensu /atior7), allied to Sialina, but in which the prin-
cipal scapular branch, instead of originating as in Sialina directly from the main stem,
usually near the middle of the wing, arises in common with or close beside the externo-
median vein, from an arculus near the base of the wing, connecting the scapular and inter-
nomedian veins; and in which, further, the basal and apical offshoots from this main
scapular stem are diflerentiated, instead of exhibiting a similar and uniform character.

This insect was found in plant bed No. 8, of Professor Hartt’s section, the highest in
the series as developed at the Lancaster locality.

VI. Dyscritus vetustus. Pl. 1, fig. 4.

Dyscritus vetustus Scupp., Geol. mag., v, 172, 176 (1868).

Mentioned without name, as probably identical with one of the other species, in my
letter to Professor Hartt: On the devonian insects of New Brunswick, p. 1; Bailey, Obs.
geol. south. New Br., 140; Amer. journ. sc., (2) xxxix, 357; Can. nat. geol., (n. s.) 1,
234; Trans. ent soc. Lond., (8) 1, 117 —all in 1865.

The insect briefly mentioned hitherto under this name has not before been figured, and
is the least important of the devonian wings. It consists of only a small fragment of a wing,
which shows a bit of the lower margin with three or four curved veins running toward it,
and connected rather uniformly with one another by cross veins forming quadrate cells. It is
plainly distinct from all the others, for the equivalent region in no case is similarly broken.
In Lithentomum Harttii the corresponding region is indeed not preserved, but the cross
veins in the neighboring parts, although weak, straight and direct as here, are so very
infrequent and irregular that we cannot presume the parts which are wanting below them
to be very different.

The veins preserved are four in number. The uppermost has two inferior branches
at short distances, of which only the extreme base of the outer is preserved, while the
inner is traceable throughout its extent; it parts from the main vein, which in the brief

portion preserved runs nearly parallel to the lower margin, at an ordinary angle and
passes in a regular arcuate downward course to the margin. The three veins below this
take a course sub-parallel to this, and are sub-equidistant ; the upper, at the base of the

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 21

part preserved, is a little nearer to the vein above, and to its first branch, than to the vein
below, and may possibly, not improbably, be a branch of the first vein mentioned, parting
from it further toward the base than the fracture of the specimen allows us to see;
the two veins below it seem to belong together; the bit of margin preserved, covering
only two interspaces, is slightly convex. The cross veins are weak, but tolerably uniform,
and either direct or slightly oblique, or occasionally a little irregular; they are nearly
equidistant as a general rule, but more frequent in the outer of the two interspaces touch-
ing the margin than elsewhere. The length of the fragment is 15 mm.

The fragment then consists of some curved veins striking the lower margin of a wing,
one at least of which is one of two or more inferior and, so far as can be seen, simple
branches of a principal longitudinal vein, whose course would make it terminate either at
the very tip of the wing, or, if it afterwards curved considerably, very near the extremity
of the lower margin. This principal vein probably belongs either to the scapular or exter-
nomedian, while the lower curved veins appear like branches of the internomedian vein.
The wing cannot therefore be referred to the vicinity of either Platephemera or Gereph-
emera, both on account of the relations to each other of the veins, and of the nature of
the reticulation, the latter being certainly polygonal in this region in both these genera ;
while the irregular course of the veins themselves in Platephemera and their considerable
apical divarication in Gerephemera constitute peculiarities not observed in the simple frag-
ment under discussion. So far as the course of the veins is concerned it can be much
better, and indeed very well, compared to Dictyoneura and its allies; but in all these
insects the interspaces are filled with a minute polygonal reticulation (wherever it is
preserved), which is such a characteristic feature that Dyscritus can by no possibility be
considered as very closely allied to them.

The neuration is altogether different in Xenoneura, finding nothing at all comparable
in this region. The longitudinality of the veins throughout Lithentomum seems to forbid
any close comparison with it. But in Homothetus we do find some points in common
with Dyscritus ; for while the reticulation is much more sparse in the former, there is a
certain regularity about it similar to what we have in the latter, while the curving of the
internomedian veins and their parallelism certainly resemble in a general way the same
features in Dyscritus. And if we presume the fragment of Dyscritus to be broken from
near the middle of the wing, we may see a not distant resemblance between the longitudinal
vein of Dyscritus and its two visibly connected branches, and the main branch of the scap-
ular vein in Homothetus ; while the upper, independent, curved vein of Dyscritus may be
taken perhaps for the externomedian vein, and the other two nervules for branches of the
internomedian vein. The resemblance is at least sufficient to make us believe we have
here a clue to its relationship ; while at the same time it differs so much from it that we
cannot associate the two even generically ; for if they are to be compared in this way at all,
the lower stem of the main scapular branch, as seen in Homothetus, must either have
become single and simple in Dyscritus, or it must have assumed the longitudinality and
mode of bifurcation of the upper stem.

There is nothing, however, in the fragment to show what the connection of the main
scapular branch may have been, and consequently nothing to prevent the reference of
this wing to the Sialina, where the relations of the veins would be the same. Judging

22 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

by comparison of what we have presumed to be similar parts, we may suppose this wing
to have been slightly larger than that of Homothetus fossilis, and its probable length not
far from 50 mm.

Whatever views are held of the special homologies of the veins, its right to generic dis-
tinction from Homothetus, to which it is most closely allied, must be conceded on the
ground of the greater simplicity of the neuration.

On account of the insignificance of the fragment, however, and the consequent impos-
sibility of any sure clue to its affinities, it would not have been worth while to confer
upon this wing a distinctive generic name, even granting its generic dissociation from all
others, were it not for the extreme interest attaching to any insect fragment of such high
antiquity.

The remains were found in plant bed No. 8, of Professor Hartt, the highest in the Lan-
caster series.

VIL Lirsenromum Hartt. Pi. 1, fig: 3.

I
Geol. mag., 1v, 387, pl. 17, fig. 4 (1867); Is., Daws., Acad. geol., 2d ed., 525, fig. 183
(1868) ; — Is., Amer. nat., 1, 630, pl. 16, fig. 6 [artii] (1868); — Is., Geol. mag. v, 172,
176 (1868); — Pacx., Guide ins., 77, 78, pl. 1, fig. 5 (1869).

Mentioned without name, as the third species, in my letter to Professor Hartt: On the
devonian insects of New Brunswick, p. 1; Bailey, Obs. geol. south. New Br., 140; Amer.
journ. sc., (2) xxxix, 357; Can. nat. geol., (n.s.) mu, 235; Trans. ent. soc. Lond., (3)
nm, 117 — all in 1865.

The relic to which this name has been given is the central upper portion of a wing in a
very fragmentary condition, but with a bit of the upper margin sufficient to enable one
to determine pretty positively the homologies of the vems. A fragment of Calamites has
unfortunately covered the base and lower part of the wing, but one or two of the veins
appear through it at what must be the very base of the wing, and help to determine its
nature. The fragment preserved is 36 mm. long, and 15.5 mm. broad; but the wing was
probably 55 mm. long, and perhaps 20 mm. broad, if one may judge from its general
appearance only ; it certainly represents a large insect.

The marginal vein forms the border. The mediastinal vein in the basal half of the
wing, and probably for some distance beyond, runs parallel to and at considerable dis-
tance from the border, with which it is connected by very weak oblique cross veins at
irregular intervals, which toward the base are considerably more oblique than further
outward; this weak construction of the costal margin renders it probable that the wing
was a hind one. The scapular vein in the basal quarter of the wing runs in very close
proximity to the mediastinal, then parts from it a little, and continues sub-parallel
to it, but a little nearer to it than the latter to the border; there appear to be no cross
nervules between these veins, but a slight and irregular tortuous longitudinal line like
amere puckering of the membrane; at some distance before the middle of the wing
this vein puts forth at a slight angle an inferior branch, which takes an arcuate course
sub-parallel to the vein, and is forked about as far beyond the middle of the wing,
apparently, as it arose anterior to it, both offshoots taking a longitudinal direction.

Lithentomum Harttii Scupp., Can. nat. geol., (n. s.) u1., 206, fig. 4 (1867); — Ib.,

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 23

_

The externomedian vein next the base of the wing is somewhat distant from the scap-
ular, is afterwards still further removed from it, and, in the middle half or more of
the wing, has a somewhat irregular, sinuous, longitudinal course, sub-parallel to the
scapular vein ; just before the end of the basal quarter it appears to have a straight ob-
lique inferior branch widely divergent from it; this is the vem next the lower margin
of the fragment; by its course it would appear to be a branch of the externomedian, but
it is not impossible that ‘it may be the internomedian vein ; whichever it is, it forks in the
middle of the second quarter of the wing, each fork being straight, simple and slightly
divergent. From the point where this inferior branch appears to be thrown off from the
externomedian vein, a superior branch appears also to be emitted ; it scarcely parts from
the vein and runs only a short distance along the interspace in a nearly straight line and
then dies out. Beyond this the externomedian vein throws off two, so far as can be seen
simple, branches, which are nearly straight, obliquely longitudinal, and part from the vein,
one at the middle of the wing, the other a short distance before it or just below the
branch of the scapular vein. The interspaces thus formed below the scapular vein are
very unequal and variable in breadth, giving the neuration a feeble uncertain appearance,
which is heightened by the irregular distribution of the cross veins, which, although nearly
always straight and transverse, sometimes bridge the narrowest, sometimes the broadest
parts of the interspaces ; they are exceedingly feeble and infrequent, the largest number
being found in the interspace between the scapular and externomedian veins, although
they may have been present in some of the areas where they cannot now be seen.

We shall seek in vain to accommodate this wing in any of the modern families of
Neuroptera. There are none excepting the Ephemeridae, the Embidae and perhaps the
Raphidiidae, in which the externomedian vein has such a preponderating importance, and
in none of these do the scapular or externomedian veins have a structure at all similar.
The structure of the scapular vein is somewhat similar to what we find in the Sialina, but
is widely different from it in the paucity of the offshoots of the scapular branch, in which
this wing is comparable to Xenoneura only. The structure of the externomedian vein is
also distantly similar to that of the Sialina, but in this family, in modern times at least,
the number of principal branches is always fewer, they never assume such a longitudinal
course, and never cover so great an area. We must, therefore, separate this group from
all known families, as one having its nearest affinities to Sialina in modern times, and
perchance to Xenoneuridae in the ancient ; and, considering it as in some sense a
precursor of the Sialina, may call it Cronicosialina.’ It should be looked upon as a family
of Neuroptera proper, of feeble neuration, in which the scapular vein emits a main branch
near the middle of the wing, which, running nearly parallel to the main vein, emits one
or at most two subsidiary, also longitudinal, simple offshoots. The externomedian vein,
tolerably distant from the former throughout, terminates near the tip of the wing, emitting
two or three branches at very unequal distances apart, all of them longitudinal and all but
the basal simple; the irregular interspaces thus formed are crossed at very unequal
distances by very feeble but straight cross veins. The lower veins are unknown.

This specimen is the most obscure of all the devonian insects and would have
been overlooked by any less keen-sighted observer than the late Professor C. F. Hartt.

1 Kpoytxds, old fashioned.

24 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

Very few persons seeing it would recognize it as an insect, yet it was the first insect found
by him which he recognized as such. It is on this account that I have selected this of
all the devonian wings to commemorate his discovery. It comes from plant-bed No. 8,
the highest in the series.

VIII. XeEnonEvURA ANTIQUORUM. PI. 1, figs. 5, 6, 7.

Xenoneura antiquorum Scupp., Can. nat. geol., (n. s.) m1, 206, fig. 5 (1867);—Ib.,
Geol. mag., tv, 387-88, pl. 17, fig. 5 (1867) ;—Is., Daws., Acad. geol., 2d ed., 525-26,
fig. 184 (1868);—Is., Amer. nat., 0, 163, fig. 1 (1868);—Is., Geol. mag., v, 174,
176 (1868).

Mentioned without name, as the fifth species, in my letter to Professor Hartt: On the
devonian insects of New Brunswick, p. 1; Bailey, Obs. geol. south. New Br., 140; Amer.
journ. sc., (2) xxxIx, 357; Can. nat. geol., (un. s.) 1, 235; Trans. ent. soc. Lond., (3) m1,
117,—all in 1865; see also Amer. journ. se., (2) xi, 271.

This fossil is represented by a fractured basal fragment of a wing, probably including a
little more than half of it. It is the smallest of the devonian insects, the wing having
probably measured only a little more than 18 mm. in length. It was long and slender,
broadest near the middle, and probably tapered to a rounded but somewhat produced
extremity, as in certain species of Dictyoneura. The costal border in the preserved por-
tion (probably a little more than half of the whole) is gently convex; probably beyond
the middle it is straight nearly to the tip, as represented on the plate; the portions of the
lower margin preserved indicate that this was more strongly arcuate but not full next the
base ; the direction of the margins and the course of the distant veins indicate, as stated,
a tapering tip, which was probably rounded, and in no way angular.

The marginal vein forms the border. The mediastinal vein is simple and gently arcu-
ate; at first it curves gently in the opposite sense to the margin, from which it is some-
what distant, and with which it is connected by faint, nearly transverse, or, away from the
base, gently oblique cross veins, not very closely approximated. At the beginning of the
second quarter of the wing, it is about as distant from the scapular vein as from the mar-
gin, and thereafter runs nearly parallel with the latter, but with a slightly stronger curve,
to a little past the middle of the wing; where it suddenly terminates in a cross vein bent at
a right angle, the upper half a little the longer, by which it is connected with the veins
on either side of it; a somewhat similar termination of this vein is shown in Goldenberg’s
figure of Dictyoneura libelluloides.

The scapular vein is one of the most important in the wing. In the part of the wing
preserved it is very straight. Next to the base it is in exceedingly close proximity to the
mediastinal, diverging gently from it by the curve of the latter at about the end of the
basal fifth of the fragment, until it is as distant from the mediastinal as the mediastinal is
from the margin, and again gradually approaches it; it is about equidistant from the bor-
der at the end of the fragment, and where the mediastinal diverges from it; beyond the
tip of the mediastinal, it probably continues its straight course at first, or even trends
slightly upward to take the place of the mediastinal vein, until it is in close proximity to
the border, and then follows nearly the curve of the latter, gradually approaching it until

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 25

near the tip; but the track of the vein beyond the tip of the mediastinal is of course
conjectural.

At a little beyond the end of the first third of the wing, it emits at a considerable
angle an inferior branch, which, at about half way from its base to the tip of the
mediastinal, or at just about the middle of the wing, begins to curve, so as to assume
a direction parallel to the main vein, and at the same time forks; this whole branch
is very faint, and is almost effaced at the fork next which the wing is fractured.
To judge from the course of the other veins, one and only one of the offshoots of
that branch is again simply forked; which, it would be impossible to say; but the
upper offshoot (with its upper fork, if it divides) most probably runs sub-parallel to, and at
considerable distance from, the main scapular vein, very gradually approaching it,
especially apically where it curves downward, until it terminates, probably at the
very apex of the wing. The sketch in fig. 5, however, represents the lower branch
as forked, at a little past its middle ; there can be little doubt that the branches impinge
upon the margin at about the distance apart that is indicated, or at a little less distance
apart than the branches are seen to abut on the fragment of the lower margin which is
preserved. The only question is concerning the basal attachment of the vein which
strikes the border the second below the scapular vein itself ; if not attached as represented
in the plate, it originates from the branch of the scapular vein at probably a little less
than half the distance between its first forking and the apex.

The vein lying next below this, and which appears on the plate (fig. 5) to have
a double attachment to the scapular vein, seems to be the externomedian vein. That
its basal half, like that of the preserved portion of the scapular branch, is very faintly
indicated on the stone seems due to some accident of preservation, for its apical
branching part is distinct. It appears to originate from the scapular vein at a little
more than half way from the base of the wing to the origin of the scapular branch ;
its basal portion must therefore be either connate with the scapular vein, or be so
closely connected with it by the accidents of preservation as to be inseparable from it. It
diverges from the scapular at the same angle as the scapular branch, is very soon
connected with the adjacent vein below by a short cross nervule of unusual distinctness,
bends outward a little beyond this cross nervule, and at an equal distance beyond is
again bent to its former course; here it is connected to the scapular vein by a faint
oblique cross vein, which is almost exactly continuous with the subsequent part of the
externomedian, and reaches the scapular vein directly above the distinct cross vein
above mentioned ; thus giving the mediastinal vein the appearance of having a double base,
and enclosing between its basal attachments an elongated subrhomboidal cell. Beyond
these basal divisions the vein runs in a straight oblique course to just before the
centre of the wing, where it forks widely, the upper branch being simple and excepting
for a gentle arcuation at its base nearly straight and a little more longitudinal than
the main stem; the lower branch nearly continues the direction of the main stem,
and at a little less than half way to the margin forks, again widely, but symmetrically,
the offshoot being simple, the upper again forked half way to the margin, the final
upper fork being nearly horizontal and striking the border in the middle of the apical
half of the wing.

26 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

The internomedian vein seems to be represented by two widely separated simple veins,
the course of which, so far as they can be traced, would seem to indicate that they have a
common origin very near or at the base of the wing, directly below the common stem of
the scapular and externomedian veins. The upper branch first comes into view directly
beneath this stem, running parallel to it, and not very far away from it, but at double the
distance from it that the mediastinal vein is at this point, which is before the end of the
basal quarter of the wing; when the mediastinal vein curves upward from the scapular,
this curves downward in about the same degree, until it reaches the distinct short cross
vein which unites it, as before stated, to the externomedian vein; here it bends downward,
becomes more distinct than any of the nervules between it and the main scapular vein
(previously it had been rather inconspicuous), and runs in a nearly direct faintly arcuate
course to the middle of the lower margin of the wing, gently diverging throughout from

o> 5

the externomedian vein and its nearer branches. The lower branch is first seen in the
very centre of the basal third of the wing, from which point it passes in a nearly straight
course almost parallel to the distincter portion of the other branch, and is as heavily
marked. The anal vein is perhaps simple, running at first downward and curving outward,
subparallel to but distant from the lower basal margin, becoming just before the middle of
its regular course straight and distinct, when it diverges slightly from the border of the wing,
and inclines distinctly although not greatly toward the lower internomedian branch, con-
tinuing in this course until it reaches a distinct oblique cross vein which unites it to the
latter in the middle of the basal half of the wing; here it bends abruptly downward at
right angles to the cross vein, and runs doubtless into the margin; the cross vein is nearly
transverse to the interspace in which it lies, and is about parallel to, and is of the same
length as, the upper limb of the bent cross vein in which the mediastinal vein terminates.
Next the basal margin of the wing is a brief simple shoot directed almost vertically
downward, which may be an inferior basal branch of the anal vem. The other lines
between the internomedian veins and the margin, seen in fig. 5, represent merely fractures
in the stone.

Besides the three distinct cross veins mentioned,—(1) that in which the mediastinal
vein terminates, (2) that between the upper internomedian branch and the externomedian
vein; and (3) that connecting the lower mternomedian branch and the anal vein —
and the weak cross veins visible in the interspace above the mediastinal vein (of which
only those in the basal half are represented in fig. 5), there are in various parts of
the wing exceedingly indistinct, very weak, very closely approximated, but unequally
distant cross veins, transverse or nearly transverse to the interspaces, sometimes
curved but never showing any tendency to unite so as to form any kind of reticulation ;
it is probable that they exist throughout the wing, or at least below the main scapular
vein; they are most distinct in the externomedian interspaces, and in those on either
side of the internomedian branches, especially next the nervules themselves, as
may be seen in fig. 5 on either side of the lower internomedian branch, where they
are more distinct than in any other part of the wing; this mode of fracturing the

interspaces, rather than reticulation, is the more marked from the exceedingly open and
distant neuration.

-INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 27

=

Besides these normal features of neuration there are some other characteristics in this
wing, purposely left for description to the end. These are some peculiar marks near the
base of the wing, originally described by me as “ apparently independent veinlets,
forming portions of concentric rings.” These ridged rings overlie the probable
position, as here described, of the basal part of the lower internomedian branch, and
lie just beneath the initial divergence of the mediastinal and scapular veins; they
consist of an alternate series of broken concentric grooves and furrows, some faint,
others in places very distinct, extending over nearly half the width of the wing at
this point, i. e., almost reaching the upper branch of the internomedian vein on the
one hand and the anal vein on the other; the most distinct are three short, shallow
furrows, with very rounded low ridges between them upon the upper side, next the
upper branch of the internomedian vein; the outer of these is distant from the extreme
mark upon the opposite side about 2.2 mm.; the central region, rather less than a milli-
meter in diameter, presents a slightly elevated, irregular, granulated surface, like many of
the rougher parts of the stone outside the wing, and has no peculiar structure ; the whole
lies directly upon what would be the continuation of the lower branch of the interno-
median vein were it present, and apparently obliterates it; one of the outermost
grooves, an extremely faint and delicate one, crosses the anal vein at a very sharp
angle. This peculiar feature in the wing I formerly compared to the stridulating
apparatus of the Locustariae, and suggested that this insect thereby united characteristics
now found only separated, some in Neuroptera and some in Orthoptera. Several
naturalists, e. g., Darwin, Dawson, and Packard, followmg my suggestion, have used this
as a striking illustration of synthetic character in early types of animals, and have
pictured this as the earliest example of stridulation. I am now obliged to confess
that I have led them altogether astray; this peculiarity, although bearing a strong
superficial resemblance to the stridulating organs in Locustariae, having, I believe,
nothing whatever to do with the wing itself. The stridulating apparatus of Or-
thoptera, whenever it concerns the wings, is invariably based on a modification of
existing veins; in its simplest forms it is the mere thickening of certain nervules,
and furnishing them with a sharp or rough edge. In the original appearance of
a stridulating organ in insects, we should look for some such simple form as the
initial stage. But in this fossil wing we find nothing of the sort; no one of the
concentric lmes or grooves are continuous with any of the neighboring veins. The
only appearances which favor such a view are: (1) the openness of the neuration at
this point, which allows this great scar to lie at the base of the wing without disturbing
more than one of the veins; (2) the curve of the anal vein, which has the appearance
of passing around this obstruction ; but the course of which is in keeping with the curve
of the lower margin of the wing, equally explaining it; and (3) the curve of the cross
veins in the neighborhood of the scar, as seen on either side of the lower internomedian
branch in fig. 5; which veins, however, when narrowly examined, are seen to form
angles with the more prominent concentric grooves and ridges. These ridges, too,
are not of a form suitable for the production of sound, the depressions or elevations
being extremely smooth and gradual; they are also of very unequal size and thickness ;
they do not occur in the anal area, as in all Locustariae, but in the internomedian ;

28 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

and they have just sufficient regularity to render it most probable that the central,
irrecular, rough, and slightly elevated mass is either the relic of a foreign substance,
which has fallen upon the wing, subsequent pressure upon which, when the membrane of
the wing formed, so to speak, a part of the floor upon which it lay, has caused the mud and
membrane together to assume the present appearance; or, that we chance here to have
stumbled on a wing which, in the nymph condition, has met with some accident, producing
in the imago a blister-like distortion, such as those figured by Mocquerys, as suggested to
me by Dr. Hagen, in the elytra of Carabus monilis, Mesonphalia gibba, Timarcha
rugosa, and as must have been observed in the veined wings of insects of the other
orders by all entomologists. This last supposition would better account for the greater
prominences of the peculiar markings around one part of the scar than elsewhere, and
for the apparent partial conformity of the cross venation to the contour of the scar.
Whichever way it be considered, it does not now appear to me reasonable to maintain my
former hypothesis of a stridulating organ, to which nevertheless there is, as stated,
a remarkable general resemblance. That such a stridulating organ would be a great
anomaly no one can question, and the proposition should not be maintained in the
face of the objections which careful and prolonged study and comparison elicit.

But putting aside its extraneous features, we may discuss the affinities of this insect on
the basis of the unquestionable characteristics of its neuration, and shall find in these enough
to excite our interest and even to perplex us. In its general features the wing is plainly
neuropterous. It would appear from the strength of the margin to be an upper wing,
and in its form to resemble that of many true Neuroptera; its sweeping forking branches
with direct transverse cross venation attest the same proposition, but when we come to
compare it with known types, we shall find it extremely difficult to place it. Its very
open neuration is one general feature which is peculiar; the presence of two or three
very prominent cross veins, with an extreme multitude of feeble cross veins never
breaking up into an irregular reticulation, is certainly strange ; so is the termination of
the mediastinal vein, and still more the entire simplicity and extreme separation of the
internomedian veins, occupying so large an area of the wing without a fork, and
connected in so unusual a manner with the veins on either side; the apparent absolute
amalgamation of the bases of the scapular and externomedian veins in such early insects
is very unexpected ;—and all combine to form an ensemble which is the odder for the
general simplicity of the neuration. It would be hard to say which is the most prominent
vein in the wing; the scapular, externomedian and internomedian occupy about equal
areas, and while the two former branch more than the latter, their nervules are compar-
atively much feebler.

In the openness and sparseness of the neuration and in the paucity (but not
at all in the position) of the principal cross veins, it bears a certain resemblance to
the Coniopterygidae and to no other neuropterous family; but the differences are far
greater and more important than the resemblances and scarcely need be stated.

There are also some features which give it a sialidan appearance; if we suppose, as we
may, that the second nervule reaching the margin below the main scapular vein arises
from the main scapular branch, we shall have a condition of the scapular vein very like
that of the Sialina, excepting in the slight number of offshoots from its branch, which
would be very abnormal; in the near or actual amalgamation of the externomedian

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 29

with the scapular vein, there is also nothing to separate it from the Sialina, excepting their
amalgamation for so great a distance; but the structure of all the other veins and the
peculiarities of the cross venation is very different from the same points in the Sialina.

In the course of most of the main veins and their mode of branching, it has some
resemblance to the Raphidiidae, but it has no affinity whatever with that group in the
peculiar directions of the nervules and their connection by distant cross veins, so as to
form large polygonal cells, which is one of the most striking of the characteristic features
of Raphidiidae.

The apical two-thirds of the wing (excluding, therefore, the attachments of most of the
veins) are in sufficient harmony with these parts in the carboniferous Dictyoneurae to
presume, at first, that the wing will fall in the ancient order of Palaeodictyoptera. As yet,
however, we know too little of the extent and even of the peculiar characteristics of this
group to say whether or not the structure of the base of the wing will allow its location
here ; certainly it will not admit its being placed in the same family with the genus Dictyo-
neura; and at present this is, perhaps, all that we can say until the structure of all the
ancient wings shall have been most carefully studied.

It is in large measure in those points of structure which Dictyoneura shares with the
Ephemeridae, that Xenoneura is comparable to the former, and we therefore see in this
wing ephemeridan, sialidan, raphidian and coniopterygidan features, combined with others
peculiar to itself. Whatever the closest affinities of the wing may prove to be, it must
certainly, by its combination of characters, bridge over the gulf now separating the wing
features of Neuroptera and Pseudoneuroptera ; and these various considerations assure us
of its family distinction from any known ancient or modern type of Neuroptera, and of
the propriety of applying to the group it represents the family name of Xenoneuridae.

This species, with Gerephemera simplex, came from the lowest insect-producing beds of
the Lancaster Shales, called plant bed No. 2, by Professor Hartt.

IX. GENERAL SUMMARY.

It only remains to sum up the results of this re-examination of the devonian insects,
and especially to discuss their relation to later or now existing types. This may best be
done by a separate consideration of the following points: 5

1. There is nothing in the structure of these earliest known insects to interfere with a
former conclusion ! that the general type of wing structure has remained unaltered from
the earliest times. Three of these six insects (Gerephemera, Homothetus and Xenoneura)
have been shown to possess a very peculiar neuration, dissimilar from both carboniferous and
modern types. As will also be shown under the tenth head, the dissimilarity of structure
of all the devonian insects is much greater than would be anticipated; yet all the features
of neuration can be brought into perfect harmony with the system laid down by Heer.

2. These earliest insects were hexapods, and as far as the record goes preceded in time
both arachnids and myriapods. This is shown only by the wings, which in all known
insects belong only to hexapods, and in the nature of things prove the earlier apparition
of that group. This, however, is so improbable on any hypothesis, that we must conclude
the record to be defective.

1The early types of insects. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., III, 21.

30 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

3. They were all lower Heterometabola. As wings are the only parts preserved, we
cannot tell from the remains themselves whether they belong to sucking or to biting
insects; for, as was shown in the essay already referred to, this pomt must be considered
undetermined concerning many of the oldest insects until more complete remains are
discovered. |

They are all allied or belong to the Neuroptera, using the word in its widest sense. At
least two of the genera (Platephemera and Gerephemera) must be considered as having a
closer relationship to Pseudoneuroptera than to Neuroptera proper, and as having indeed
no special affinity to the true Neuroptera other than is found in Palaeodictyoptera. wo
others (Lithentomum and Xenoneura), on the contrary, are plainly more nearly related to
the true Neuroptera than to the Pseudoneuroptera, and also show no special affinity to
true Neuroptera other than is found in Palaeodictyoptera. A fifth (Homothetus), which
has comparatively little in common with the Palaeodictyoptera, is perhaps more nearly
related to the true Neuroptera than to the Pseudoneuroptera, although its pseudo-
neuropterous characters are of a striking nature. Of the sixth (Dyscritus) the remains
are far too imperfect to judge clearly, but the choice lies rather with the Pseudoneuroptera
or with Homothetus. The devonian insects are then about equally divided in structural
features between Neuroptera proper and Pseudoneuroptera, and none exhibit any special
orthopterous, hemipterous or coleopterous characteristics.

4. Nearly all are synthetic types of a comparatively narrow range. This has been
stated in substance in the preceding paragraph, but may receive additional illustration
here. Thus Platephemera may be looked upon as an ephemerid with an odonate retic-
ulation; Homothetus might be designated as a sialid with an odonate structure of the
main branch of the scapular vein; and under each of the species will be found detailed
accounts of any combination of characters which it possesses.

5. Nearly all bear marks of affinity to the carboniferous Palaeodictyoptera, either in
the reticulated surface of the wing, its longitudinal neuration, or both. But besides this
there are some, such as Gerephemera and Xenoneura, in which the resemblance is marked.
Most of the species, however, even including the two mentioned, show palaeodictyopteran
characters only on what might be called the neuropterous side; and their divergence
from the carboniferous Palaeodictyoptera is so great that they can scarcely be placed
directly with the mass of palaecozoic insects, where we find a very common type of wing
structure, into which the neuration of devonian insects only partially fits. For:

6. On the other hand, they are often of more and not less complicated structure than
most Palaeodictyoptera. This is true of the three genera mentioned above with peculiar
neuration, but not necessarily of the others, and it especially true when they are com-
pared with the genus Dictyoneura and its immediate allies. There are other Palaeodicty-
optera in the carboniferous period with more complicated neuration than Dictyoneura, but
these three devonian insects apparently surpass them, as well as very nearly all other
carboniferous insects. Furthermore :

7. With the exception of the general statement under the fifth head, they bear
little special relation to carboniferous forms, having a distinct facies of their own. This
is very striking ; it would certainly not be possible to collect six wings in one locality
in the carboniferous rocks, which would not prove, by their affinity with those already

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 51

known, the carboniferous age of the deposit. Yet we find in this devonian locality
not a single one of the Palaeoblattariae or anything resembling them; and more than
half the known insects of the carboniferous period belong to that type. The next
most prevailing carboniferous type is Dictyoneura and its near allies, with their
reticulated wings. Gerephemera only, of all the devonian insects, shows any real and
close affinity with them; and even here the details of the wing structure, as shown
above, are very different. The apical half of the wing of Xenoneura (as I have
supposed it to be formed) also bears a striking resemblance to the dictyoneuran wing ;
but the base, which is preserved, and where the more important features lie, is totally
different. The only other wing which shows particular resemblance to any carboniferous
form (we must omit Dyscritus from this consideration, as being too imperfect to
be of any value) is Platephemera, where we find a certain general resemblance
to Ephemerites Riickerti Gein., and Acridites priscus Andr., but this is simply in the
form of the wing and the general course of the nervules ; when we examine the details
of the neuration more closely we find it altogether different, and the reticulation
of the wing polygonal and not quadrate as in the carboniferous types.’ In this
respect indeed, Platephemera differs not only from all modern Ephemeridae, but
also from those of other geological periods. Another prevailing carboniferous type, the
Termitina, is altogether absent from the devonian. Half a dozen wings, therefore, from
rocks known to be either devonian or carboniferous, would probably establish their
age.

8. The devonian insects were of great size, had membranous wings, and were probably
aquatic in early life. The last statement is simply inferred from the fact that all the
modern types most nearly allied to them are now aquatic. As to the first, some state-
ments have already been made; their expanse of wing probably varied from 40 to 175
mm. and averaged 107 mm. Xenoneura was much smaller than any of the others, its
expanse not exceeding four centimetres, while the probable expanse of all the rest was
generally more than a decimeter, only Homothetus fallmg below this figure. Indeed if
Xenoneura be omitted, the average expanse of wing was 121 mm., an expanse which
-might well be compared to that of the Aeschnidae, the largest, as a group, of living
Odonata. There is no trace of coriaceous structure in any of the wings, nor in any are
there thickened and approximate nervules — one stage of the approach to a coriaceous
texture.

9. Some of the devonian insects are plainly precursors of existing forms, while others
seem to have left no trace. The best examples of the former are Platephemera, an
aberrant form of an existing family ; and Homothetus, which, while totally different in the
combination of its characters from anything known among living or fossil insects, is the
only palaeozoic insect possessing that peculiar arrangement of veins found at the base of
the wings in Odonata, typified by the arculus, a structure previously known only as early as

1Dr. H. B. Geinitz has kindly re-examined Ephemerites 2 The Dictyoneurae and their allies, as may be inferred,
Riickerti at my request, and states that the reticulation isin are considered as belonging to the Palaeodictyoptera,
general tetragonal, but that at the extreme outer margin although their ephemeridan affinities are not disregarded.
the cells appear in a few places to be elliptical five- or six-
sided.

32 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

the jurassic. Examples of the latter are Gerephemera, which has a multiplicity of simple
parallel veins, next the costal margin of the wing, such as no other insect, ancient or
modern, is known to possess ; and Xenoneura, where the relationship of the internomedian
branches to each other and to the rest of the wing is altogether abnormal. If too, the
concentric ridges, formerly interpreted by me as possibly representing a stridulating organ,
should eventually be proved an actual part of the wing, we should have here a structure
which has never since been repeated even in any modified form.

10. They show a remarkable variety of structure, indicating an abundance of insect life
at that epoch. This is the more noticeable from their belonging to a single type of forms,
as stated under the seventh head, where we have seen that their neuration does not
accord with the commoner type of wing structure found in palaeozoic insects.' These
six wings exhibit a diversity of neuration quite as great as is found among the
hundred or more species of the carboniferous epoch ; in some, such as Platephemera, the
structure is very simple; in others, ike Homothetus and Xenoneura, it is somewhat
complicated ; some of the wings, as Platephemera and Gerephemera, are reticulated ; the
others possess only transverse cross veins more or less distinct and direct. | No two wings
can be referred to the same family, unless Dyscritus belongs with Homothetus — a point
which cannot be determined from the great imperfection of the former. This compels us
to admit the strong probability of an abundant insect fauna at that epoch ; although many
palaeozoic localities can boast a greater diversity of insect types, if we look upon their
general structure as developed in after ages, not one in the world has produced wings
exhibiting in themselves a wider diversity of neuration ; for the neuration of the Palaeo-
dictyoptera is not more essentially distinct from that of the Palaeoblattariae or of the
ancient Termitina, than that of Platephemera or Gerephemera on the one hand is from
that of Homothetus or of Xenoneura on the other. Unconsciously, perhaps, we allow our
knowledge of existing types and their past history to modify our appreciation of
distinctions between ancient forms. For while we can plainly see in the Palaeoblattariae
the progenitors of living insects of one order, and in other ancient types the ancestors of
living representatives of another order ; were we unfamiliar with the divergence of these
orders in modern times, we should not think of separating ordinally their ancestors of the
carboniferous epoch. It may easily be seen, then, how it is possible to find in these
devonian insects — all Neuroptera or neuropterous Palaeodictyoptera — a diversity of wing
structure greater than is found in the carboniferous representatives of the modern
Neuroptera, Orthoptera and Hemiptera.

11. The devonian insects also differ remarkably from all other known types, ancient or
modern; and some of them appear to be even more complicated than their nearest living
allies. With the exception of Platephemera, not one of them can be referred to any
family of insects previously known, living or fossil; and even Platephemera, as shown
above, differs strikingly from all other members of the family in which it is placed, both
in general neuration and in reticulation ; to a greater degree even than the most aberrant
genera of that family do from the normal type. This same genus is also more compli-
cated in wing structure than its modern allies; the reticulation of the wing in certain

1 Cf. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., III, 19, note 1. -

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 38

structurally defined areas is polygonal and tolerably regular, instead of being simply quad-
rate; while the intercalated veins are all connected at their base, instead of being free.
Xenoneura also, as compared with modern Sialina, shows what should perhaps be deemed
a higher (or at least a later) type of structure, in the amalgamation of the externomedian
and scapular veins for a long distance from the base, and in the peculiar structure and
lateral attachments of the internomedian veins; in the minuter and feebler cross
venation, however, it has an opposite character.

12. We appear, therefore, to be no nearer the beginning of things in the devonian
epoch, than in the carboniferous, so far as either greater unity or simplicity of structure is
concerned; and these earlier forms cannot be used to any better advantage than the
carboniferous types in support of ahy special theory of the origin of insects. All such
theories have required some Zoaea, Leptus, Campodea, or other simple wingless form as
the foundation point; and this ancestral form, according to Haeckel at least, must be
looked for above the silurian rocks. Yet we have in the devonian no traces whatever of
such forms, but on the contrary, as far down as the middle of this period, winged insects
with rather highly differentiated structure, which, taken together, can be considered
lower than the mass of the upper carboniferous insects, only by the absence of the very
few Hemiptera and Coleoptera which the latter can boast. Remove those few insects
from consideration (or simply leave out of mind their future development to very
distinct types), and the middle devonian insects would not suffer in the comparison with
those of the upper carboniferous, either in complication or in diversity of structure.
Furthermore, they show no sort of approach toward either of the lower wingless forms,
hypothetically looked upon as the ancestors of tracheate Articulata.

15. Finally, while there are some forms which, to some degree, bear out
expectations based on the general derivative hypothesis of structural development,
there are quite as many which are altogether unexpected, and cannot be explained by
that theory, without involving suppositions for which no facts can at present be adduced.
Palephemera and Gerephemera are unquestionably insects of a very low organization
related to the existing may-flies, which are well known to be of inferior structure, as com-
pared with other living insects; these may-flies are indeed among the most degraded of the
sub-order to which they belong, itself one of the very lowest sub-orders. Dyseritus too
may be of similar degradation, although its resemblance to Homothetus leaves it
altogether uncertain. But no one of these exhibits any inferiority of structure when
compared with its nearest allies in the later carboniferous rocks, and they are all higher
than some which might be named. While of the remaining species it can be con-
fidentially asserted that they are higher in structure than most of the carboniferous
types, and exhibit syntheses of character differmeg from theirs. It is quite as if we
were on two distinct lines of descent when we study the devonian and the carbon-
iferous insects; they have little in common, and each its peculiar comprehensive types.
Judging from this point of view, it would be impossible to say that the devonian
insects showed either a broader synthesis or a ruder type than the carboniferous. This
of course may be, and in all probability is, because our knowledge of carboniferous
insects is, in comparison, so much more extensive; but, judging simply by the
facts at hand, it appears that the carboniferous insects carry us back both to the

34 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

more simple and to the more generalized forms. We have nothing in the devonian
so simple as Euephemerites, nothing so comprehensive as Eugereon, nothing at once
so simple and comprehensive as Dictyoneura. On the derivative hypothesis, we must
presume, from our present knowledge of devonian insects, that the Palaeodictyoptera
of the carboniferous are already, in that epoch, an old and persistent embryonic type
(as the living Ephemeridae may be considered to-day, on a narrower but more
lengthened scale); that some other insects of carboniferous times, together with most
of those of the devonian, descended from a common stock in the lower devonian
or silurian period; and that the union of these with the Palaeodictyoptera was even
further removed from us in time ;— carrying back the origin of winged insects to
a far remoter antiquity than has ever been ascribed to them; and necessitating a faith
in the derivative hypothesis, which a study of the records preserved in the rocks could
never alone afford; for no evidence can be adduced in its favor based only on
such investigations. The profound voids in our knowledge of the earliest history of
insects, to which allusion was made at the close of my paper on the Karly types of
insects, are thus shown to be even greater and more obscure than had been presumed.
But I should hesitate to close this summary without expressing the conviction that some
such earlier unknown comprehensive types as are indicated above did exist and should be
sought.

X. Nore on THE GeEoLoGIcAL RELATIONS oF THE Fossit INSECTS FROM THE DEvo-
NIAN OF New Brunswick. By Principal Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., &c.

The beds affording these remains occur in the vicinity of the city of St. John, New
Brunswick, and are well exposed on the shores of Courtney Bay, on the east side of the
city, and at Duck Cove, Lancaster, on its western side. They consist of sandstones,
shales, and conglomerates, having an aggregate thickness of about 7,500 feet,’ as shown
in the following generalized section, in ascending order :—

1. Bloomsbury Conglomerate — Reddish-gray conglomerate with interstratified hard
red shale. 500 feet.

2. Dadoxylon Sandstone —(Lower part of Little River Group in my Acadian Geol-
ogy). Gray sandstone and grit, with beds of gray and black graphitic shale — Fossil plants,

ete. 2,800 feet.
3. Cordaite Shales —(Upper part of the Little River Group)—red, gray and black
shales, with beds of sandstone and conglomerate — Fossil Plants, ete. 2,400 feet.
4. Mispec Conglomerate— Red conglomerate and shale. 1,800 feet.

In the vicinity of St. John, these beds rest on cambrian rocks of the Acadian (Mene-
vian) group, and are overlain uncomformably by lower carboniferous (“sub-carboniferous’’ )
conglomerates, which in their extension eastward are associated with the Albert shales
holding fossil fishes and plants of characteristic lower carboniferous types.” Elsewhere im

1 Report of Bailey and Mathew, Geol. Survey of Canada, 2 See for details the author’s Acadian Geology, 3d Edi-
1871. In the author’s Acadian Geology, the thickness is tion.
given as 9500 feet; but later observations have reduced the
thickness of the lower members.

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 35

Southern New Brunswick, they overlie laurentian and huronian rocks, and are seen
to rise unconformably from beneath the carboniferous rocks of the great central coal-for-
mation area of New Brunswick.’ They are everywhere more disturbed and altered than
the overlying carboniferous beds; and Messrs. Bailey and Matthew have shown that
certain intrusive masses and dykes of granite, known to be of pre-carboniferous age, were
erupted subsequently to the deposition of these beds.

The vegetable fossils of this formation are very numerous. I have catalogued or des-
cribed from it upwards of 50 species, belonging to the genera Dadoxylon, Sigillaria, Cal-
amites, Asterophyllites, Lepidodendron, Cordaites, Psilophyton, Neuropteris, Sphen-
opteris, Hymenophyllites, Pecopteris, &c.; the whole constituting a well-marked devonian
assemblage, distinguishable from the upper devonian flora of Perry in Maine, which is
perhaps newer than the Mispec conglomerate, and still more distinct from the lower
earboniferous flora of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, while on the other hand it is
incomparably better developed than any known flora of silurian age. Owing to
the richness of this flora, and to the fact that some genera and species of plants appear
earlier in North America than in Kurope, some European palaeobotanists have been un-
willing to admit the devonian age of this formation, but entirely without good reason.

That some of the species of the St. John beds, as Calamites transitionis (=C. radiatus of
Brongniart), are found in the lower carboniferous of Europe, is not wonderful, as in the
devonian as well as in subsequent periods the flora of America has been somewhat in
advance of that of Europe. Still the prevalent plants in the St. John beds are distinctively
erian or devonian and not carboniferous. Further, recent discoveries of tree-ferns and
petioles of ferns in great abundance in the devonian of New York, and as low as the
Hamilton group, have shown that the devonian must have been even more remarkable
than the carboniferous for the abundance and variety of its ferns. A few additional
species of ferns found among specimens remaining in Professor Hartt’s collections will
shortly be described.

The crustaceans recognized in these beds are Hurypterus pulicaris Salter ; Amphipeltis
paradoxus Salter, a precursor of the Stomapods; and a pygidium of a small trilobite,
unfortunately too imperfect for determination. A species of Spirorbis, which I have
described as S. erianus,? occurs attached to leaves of Cordaites, and is distinct from the
common Spirorbis of the coal-measures (S. carbonarius or pusillus). A fragment of a
spiral shell may possibly represent a devonian pulmonate, and will be noticed in a
forthcoming paper on the pulmonates of the carboniferous. No other animal remains
have been found in these beds, except the fossil insects. The conditions of deposit were
probably estuarine rather than marine, and the abundant fossil plants testify to the prox-
imity of land.

It is difficult to correlate the subdivisions of the devonian in eastern Canada, with
those in the great erian area of New York and western Canada, owing to the absence of
the marine limestones, so characteristic of the latter. In my report on the fossil plants
of the devonian and upper silurian of Canada,? I have, however, stated some grounds

1 Bailey and Matthew’s Reports, which see also for details 2 Report on devonian plants. Geol. Surv. Canada, 1871.
of the structure and relations of the devonian and associated ® Geol. Survey of Canada, 1871.
formations, in southern New Brunswick.

36 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

for believing that the Dadoxylon sandstone and Cordaite shales may be equivalents of the
Hamilton group in New York and Ohio, which has afforded some fossil plants compara-
ble with those of the St. John beds, especially trunks of conifers of the genus Dadoxylon
(Araucaroxylon). The horizon of the fossil insects of St. John would thus be middle
devonian.

In the finer shales of this series, the remains of plants are very perfectly preserved,
the most delicate leaves having not only their outlmes but also their nervature repre-
sented by films and lines of shining graphite, resembling pencil drawings on a dark gray
ground. The insect wings are preserved in a similar manner.

The discovery of the insect remains is wholly due to the late Prof. C. F. Hartt, who,
with the aid of other gentlemen, members of the Natural History Society of New Bruns-
wick, removed by blasting large quantities of the richest fossiliferous beds and examined
them with great care. The extreme rarity of these remains renders it probable that
but for the large quantities of material examined by Professor Hartt, they would not
have been found; while the extreme delicacy of the impressions would have prevented
them from being observed except by a very careful collector scrutinizing every surface in
the search for leaflets of ferns, preserved in such a way as to be visible only under
the most favorable light. These unusually perfect explorations should be taken into
the account in any comparisons made of the fossils of this locality with those of other
places.

The following detailed section of the Little River Group, at the Fern Ledges, Lancaster,
N. B., where the insects occur, is derived from Professor Hartt’s paper in Bailey and
Matthew’s report before alluded to, and is substantially the same as given in my Acadian
Geology.

Section at the “ Fern Ledges.” (Order ascending.)

Heavy beds of gray sandstone and flags (Dadoxylon sandstone). Dadoxylon ouan-
gondianum Daws., Calamites, ete. Thickness, by estimation, 500 feet.
Under this head I have classed all the beds underlying the Plant-bed No. 1, which I am

disposed to regard as the lowest of the rich plant-bearing layers, and the base of the

Cordaite shales. These beds occupy the low ground lying between the ridge of the

Bloomsbury group and the shore. They are covered by drift, and show themselves only

in limited outcrops, and in the ledges on the shore. In the western part of the ledges

they are thrown forward on the beach by a fault, forming a prominent mass of rock, in
the summit of which a fine trunk of Dadoxylon is seen embedded in the sandstone.

Recent excavations made in these beds in quarrying stone for building purposes, in the

eastern part of the locality, where the rocks are very much broken up by dislocations,

have exposed numerous badly preserved impressions of large trunks of this tree.

PLANT-BED No. 1. : : : : F ; ; : : Thickness, | foot.
Black arenaceous shale, varying from a fissile sandstone to a semi-papyraceous shale,

very fine-grained and very fissile, charged most richly with beautifully preserved remains

of plants, among which are the following species :—
Calamites transitionis Goeppert. (C. radiatus Br.) Occasional, in large, erect speci-
mens.—A sterophyllites latifolia Daws. Extremely abundant, often showing ten or
twelve whorls of leaves, sometimes with many branches.—A. acicularis Daws. Also

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 37

very abundant.—A. scutigera Daws. The curious stems of this species, with
their scale-armed nodes, occur abundantly in this bed.—Sphenophyllum — anti-
quum Daws.—Pecopteris obscura Lesqx.—Sphenopteris sp.?-—Cardiocarpum cor-
nutum Daws. Rare.— Psilophyton elegans Daws. Occasional. I have never
detected any trace of Cordaites Robbii Daws., in this bed. It is extremely common
in the overlying strata.

Gray sandstones and flags, with occasional ill-preserved plants, Calamites transitionis

Goeppt.—Cordaites Robbii Daws.— Asterophyllites and Sternbergiae . 2 feet 6 in.
Black arenaceous shales of the same character as those of Plant-bed No. 1, but

without fossils, so far as I have examined . : ; 3 . 11 inches.
Compact flaggy, gray sandstone, with badly preserved plant remains, MC aleoniites ;

eto. ‘ : : : : ‘ : ‘ : : , : : 2 feet.

Very soft, dark, lead-colored shales, much slicken-sided and charged with frag-
ments of plants. This bed is so soft that the action of the weather and the
sea have everywhere denuded it to the level of the beach . : ; : 4 feet.

PLANT-BED No. 2 . : ; ; z ‘ é z : . ; ; 1 foot.

At the point where the section crosses the bed, and where I first discovered it, it con-
sists of very compact and hard, light lead-coloured, slate-like, arenaceous shale ; but the
character of the shale varies much in its different exposures, being sometimes very soft
and fissile, and of a very black colour. The following is the list of species which it
affords :—

Calamites transitionis Goeppt. Occasionally; never in good specimens.—C. cannae-
formis Brongn. Occasionally; never in good specimens.— Asterophyllites acicularis
Daws. Rather rare—A. latifolia Daws. Rather rare—A. longifolia Brongn. (?).
Rather rare—A. parvula Daws. Whorls of a minute Asterophyllites, which
may belong to this species, are not imfrequent in this bed. — Sporangites
acuminata Daws.—Pinnuaria dispalans Daws. Abundant.—Psilophyton elegans
Daws. Quite common, always in fragments, never in good specimens.—
P. glabrum Daws. Flattened stems, with a wavy woody axis traced in a
brighter line of graphite, occur in this bed, but always in fragments.—Cor-
daites Robbii Daws. Extremely abundant, and very fine specimens may be
obtained, especially from the upper part of the bed, and rarely specimens showing
the base or the apex of the leaf—Cyclopteris obtusa Lesqx. Occurs very abund-
antly in detached pimnules—C. varia Daws. Rare.—Neuropteris polymorpha Daws.
Extremely abundant, never in large fronds.——Sphenopteris Hoeninghausii Brongn.
Quite abundant, often in fine fronds. =9 marginata Daws. Abundant, in fine fronds.
—S. Harttii Daws. Very rare.—The original specimen came from this bed.—
Hymenophyllites Gersdorfii Goeppt. Rather rare—ZH. obtusilobus Goeppt. Rare.
—A1. curtilobus Daws.—Alethopteris discrepans Daws. Amongst all the abundance
of plants afforded by Plant-bed No. 2, I have detected only one or two pinnules of
this fern, which appears first in abundance in Plant-bed No. 3. It is afterwards one of
the most common species.—Pecopteris ingens Daws. Very rare, only two or three
fragments of pinnules having been found.—TZvrichomanites (?) Only a single speci-
men, probably, as Dawson has suggested, only the skeleton of a fern—Car-

38 SCUDDER ON THE DEVONIAN

diocarpum cornutum Daws. Abundant, and very finely preserved, never attached
—C. obliquim Daws. Quite abundant, also never attached.— Trigonocarpum
racemosum Daws. Rare.—Hurypterus pulicaris Salter. The occurrence in Plant-
bed No. 2 of this minute crustacean was first detected by my friend Mr. George
Matthew. It is very rare, not more than four or five specimens having been found
by Messrs. Matthew, Payne, and myself at the time of the description of the species
by Salter. I have since that time succeeded in collecting nearly twice as many more,
some of which appear to belong to a new species.—Amphipeltis paradoxus Salter.
The specimen figured in Salter’s paper was found by Professor Dawson and myself, m
breaking a piece of shale in my cabinet, that came from this bed. Only one other
specimen has since been obtained. It consists of two or more of the thoracic seg-
ments, and was collected by Mr. Lunn. It is in the collection of the Natural History
Society of New Brunswick. In addition to the above species, this bed has afforded
the following :—Cyclopteris, sp. nov—Neuropteris, sp. nov. A single specimen
collected by Mr. Lunn.—Sphenopteris, sp. nov.—Spirorbis erianus Daws. The leaves
of Cordaites in the upper part of the bed are as thickly covered with a little
Spirorbis as are the fronds of the recent fucoids of the Ledges. The specimens
are poorly preserved. — TZrilobites. Mr. Payne collected a minute trilobite from
from this bed, but it proved not determinable.—IJnsect Remains! In the sum-
mer of 1862, I discovered an organism in Plant-bed No. 2, which at the time I could
make nothing of; but which I have since proved to be the wing of an insect. Several
weeks after, I found in Plant-bed No. 8 an unequivocal insect’s wing. This discovery was
followed by that of others, my father, J. W. Hartt, finding another in this bed. [The
insects of this bed are GEREPHEMERA SIMPLEX and XENONEURA ANTIQUORUM. |
Compact flagey sandstone, quite barren . : ‘ ; : : 5 feet 10 inches.
PLANT-BED No. 3 . : : : ; F : : : 5 : 10 inches.
Black and lead-colored shales, quite compact in upper part, but in lower very crum-
bling, splitting irregularly, slicken-sided, often with polished surfaces, and traversed by
thin quartz-veins. These shales are so soft that the sea and weather have everywhere
denuded them to the level of the beach. There are now no exposures of the bed work-
able. The following are the fossils which occur in it :—

Calamites transitionis Goeppt. Occasionally. — C. cannaeformis Brongn. — Aste-
rophyllites latifolia Daws. Very beautiful whorls of this plant are very common
here, the whorls, though usually detached, being sometimes found united three or
four together.—Sporangites acuminata Daws. Common.—Pinnularia dispalans
Daws. Common.—Psilophyton elegans Daws. Occasionally —P.(?) glabrum
Daws. Occasionally.—Cordaites Robbii Daws. Extremely abundant, but not so
well preserved as in Plant-bed No. 2. Leaves usually appear as polished bands of
graphite, with venation obliterated —Cyclopteris obtusa Lesqx. Not very abundant.
—Neuropteris polymorpha Daws. In beautiful specimens, common.—Sphenopteris
marginata Daws. Not common.—S. Hoeninghausii Brongn. Not common.—Pecop-
teris (Alethopteris) discrepans Daws. It was here that I first discovered this species.
It occurs quite abundantly, but always in fragments.—Cardiocarpum cornutum Daws.
Quite common.—C. obliquum Daws. Quite common.

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 39

Coarse sandstone, full of obscure casts of Sternbergiae and Calamites . 6 feet 6 inches.
Soft shale and fissile sandstone, with Calamites oa.
Sandstones . ‘ 5 , , F ‘ ‘ ‘ : : + 2feets 3 “
Shale with obscure remains of plants 24 «
Sandstones, barren, so far as examined : P P : - Afeet10 «
Sandstone and shale, with a few Calamites and Cordaites i , , 9 «
Sandstone and coarse shale, with obscure markings 3 ’ . Ofeet 10 «
Light greenish, coarse shale, with fern-stems, Cordaites, and obscure

markings, Carpolites (?) « : : ‘ . fe
Sandstones and coarse shales, with badly preserved vegetable remains 18feet 9 «
PLANT-BED No. 4. ‘ ‘ : P a) tedGin Gs 5 <

Coarse shales, affording at the point where the litte of section crosses it : —
Cordaites Robbii Daws—Calanities transitionis Goeppt.—Neuropteris polymorpha
Daws.—Psilophyton glabrum Daws.—Pinnularia dispalans Daws.

Ihave examined at two different points, in the eastern part of this locality, a bed
which appears to correspond to this. It is characterized there by a very beautiful Neu-
ropteris* (.N. Dawsoni Hartt) with long linear lanceolate pinnules decurrent on the rachis,
to which they form a broad wing. The pinnules are often four inches in length. This
is one of the most beautiful ferns occurring at the locality. Several other new forms are
associated with it. Among these is a magnificent Cardiocarpum, nearly two inches in
diameter (C. Bailey Daws.).

Sandstone with obscure markings : ; ‘ : : : : 9 feet 6 inches.
PLANT-BED No. 5 é : F : , ; ‘ ‘ ‘ 6 inches.
Soft, fine-grained fight- greenish shale.
Cordaites Robbii Daws. Extremely abundant. — Calamites cannaeformis Brongn.

Found occasionally.—Psilophyton (?) glabrum Daws.—(?) Asterophyllites acicularis
Daws. — Alethopteris discrepans Daws. Quite abundant.—Sphenopteris marginata
Daws. Quite abundant.—Pecopteris, sp. nov. (?) — Hymenophyllites sp. (?)—Neurop-
teris polymorpha Daws. Very abundant—Spirorbis occurs in the bed, attached to
the leaves of Cordaites. I have never detected it in any of the beds higher up.
Compact flaggy sandstones and coarse shales, se a few plants. : ‘ : 8 feet.
PLANT-BED Ne Oo. 6. : : : 2 feet.
Fine-grained and light-coloured Bhald, with great abundance of Cordaites Robbii, and
Calamites transitionis; above that a layer of coarse shale, with Cordaites and stems of
plants badly preserved ; then a layer of soft, very friable shale, with few fossils; and lastly,
a layer of coarse shale of a greenish-gray colour, with : —

Alethopteris discrepans Daws. Abundant.—Cordaites Robbii Daws. Abundant.—
Calamites cannaeformis Brongn.—WNeuropteris polymorpha Daws.—Cardiocarpum
cornutum Daws.—Co ardiocarpum obliquum Daws.— Pecopteris, sp. nov. Occurs
abundantly in some of the overlying beds.

Sandstones and coarse shales, with abundance of plant remains, principally Cordaites
and Calamites . ‘ ; ? ; : : E : : , 5 feet.

* This plant belongs to a new genus, subsequently named Megalopteris. Report on devonian plants of Canada, 1871.

40 SCUDDER ON THE, DEVONIAN

PLANT-BED No. 7 . 2 : : : é : . 2 feet.

This is one of the richest plant- sigak Bi the peciod The shales composing it vary
much in character in different exposures. They are for the most part of a gray colour
and compact, like a fine-grained sandstone, though they pass into a light brownish, very
fissile, soft shale, and there are some layers of a very black colour.

Cordaites Robbii Daws. Very abundant, and in a beautiful state of preservation.—
Calamites transitionis Goeppt. Not abundant as good specimens.—C. cannaeformis
Brongn. Rare.—(?)Asterophyllites acicularis Daws. In very beautiful specimens,
very common in certain thin layers. There are two or three other species, occurring
also in the overlying beds, which appear to be new.— Sporangites acuminata Daws.
Extremely plentiful. — Pinnularia dispalans Daws. Extremely _ plentiful.—
(2?) Psilophyton elegans Daws. I have obtained several specimens of a Psilophyton
growing in tufts, and closely resembling this species.—Neuropteris polymorpha
Daws. Occasional.— Alethopteris discrepans Daws. Abundant, and obtainable in
good specimens.—Cyclopteris obtusa Lesqx. Occasional.—Sphenopteris mar-
ginata Daws.—Hymenophyllites subfurcatus Daws.—Cardiocarpum cornutum Daws.
Quite abundant.—C. obliquum Daws. Quite abundant.—C. Crampu Hartt. —
Alethopteris Perleyi Uartt—Sphenopteris pilosa Daws.—Several other plants
not yet determined.—Insects. A single insect’s wing was obtained from this bed
by my father and myself. Tea mserermen ANTIQUA. |

Centred sandstone and coarse shales (barren of fossils). : ‘ ; : 3 feet.
PLANT-BED No. 8. : : : : ; : : 1 foot 10 inches.

Fine-grained, tough, but Reale aaartstones rather coarse shales, often of a greenish
cast, and at the top a thin layer of very black shale very rich in plants. The middle por-
tion does not contain so many plant remains, but the lower is as well stocked as the
leaves of an herbarium. The followmeg are the fossils I have collected from it :—

Cordaites Robbii Daws. As usual in great profusion, and in very fine specimens.—
Calamites transitionis Goeppt. Occasional.—C. cannaeformis Brongn.—(?) Aste-
rophyllites acicularis Daws. Quite common, together with one or two other species
apparently new, which occur also in Bed 7.—Annularia acuminata Daws. Ex-
tremely common, especially in certain layers—Pinnularia dispalans Daws. Abun-
dant.—(?) Lycopodites Matthewi Daws. Rare.—Cyclopteris obtusa Lesqx.—Cyclop-
teris, sp. nov.— Neuropteris polymorpha Daws. Quite frequent in detached pimnules.
— Hymenophyllites subfurcatus Daws. Very common. — Alethopteris discrepans
Daws. ‘This is the most abundant fern in this bed. It occurs usually in detached
pinnules, though not unfrequently in considerable fronds.—Alethopteris. Besides
the above, there are three or four other species, some of which occur also in Beds
6 and 71—Cardiocarpum cornutum Daws. Not very common.—C. obliquum
Daws. Also not very common.—C. Crampii Hartt. Quite common.—Several
other species of plants not yet determined.—/nsects. Two species, two specimens.
One was obtained by my friend, Mr. James Hegan. [Three insects were obtained
from the bed: Homorurerus rossitis, Dyscrirus veTustus and LirHENTomMUM
Harrru. |

1 Probably the species afterwards described (Dr. Dawson’s — serrulata Hartt, and Pecopteris preciosa Hartt.

Report of 1871) as Alethopteris Perleyi Hartt, Pecopteris

INSECTS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 4]

Sandstones and coarse shales, with badly preserved Cordaites Robbii Daws., C. tran-

sitionis Goeppt., and Alethopteris discrepans Daws. . ; : : : 26 feet.
Fine-grained, light-greenish shale, with obscure remains . 3 . : : 1 foot.
Sandstone and shales, with Calamites and obscure markings . : : , 23 feet.

Total thickness of the beds embraced in this section : : . 440 feet, 11 inches.

XI. EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1. Homothetus fossilis (magn. ?). The dotted lines are conjectural; the break in the dotted line
representing the outer border indicates the presumed amount of separation at that point to account for the
bending of the outer piece of the wing.

Fig. 2. The same (4). With no parts restored.

Fig. 8. Lithentomum Harttii (4). The dotted lines show the presumed connection of the basal veins
with the other fragment.

Fig. 4. Dyscritus vetustus (4).

Fig. 5. Xenoneura antiquorum (¢). The dotted lines indicate the supposed course of the veins and
border where they are not preserved. A portion of the base is shaded to show the exact appearance of
the concentric ridges; this basal portion is mostly drawn from the same stone as fig. 7, but the small fragment
unshaded, at the extremity of the anal vein, and the cross vein are drawn in from the reverse of fig. 5, shown
in fig. 6; so also is the larger apical piece with part of the lower margin, these two parts being more complete
on the reverse than on the obverse.

Figs.6 and 7. The same (}). With no parts restored. The apical fragment of fig. 7 is not represented ;
it exists, but is not so complete as in fig. 6.

Figs. 8 and 8. Gerephemera simplex (}). The two independent lines at the extremity of the costal
margin are inserted from a drawing made under the camera when only these lines and the outer margin with
the tip of the veins were exposed; in working out the rest of the wing these were broken away, but are
here restored. The arrow indicates the direction of 8°, which represents the contour of the surface of the wing,
the upper dotted extremity indicating the costal margin (shown to the left of the arrow), and the dots along
its course the position of the veins it crosses.

Fig. 9. Platephemera antiqua (4). The faint line of dashes above the marginal vein represents the
margin of the wing, indicated on the stone by a slight darkening of the surface. The dotted lines at base and
at tip indicate the presumed form of the wing.

Fig. 10. The same (4). This figure, the reverse of fig. 9, is so placed in relation to the preceding as to
indicate the probable expanse of wing of this insect; a fragment at the lower angle of this specimen is not
preserved in fig. 9, which possesses a bit of the outer margin not found in this.

Figs. 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 represent specimens preserved in the museum of the Natural History Society of St.
John, N. B.

Figs. 3, 7, 9 represent specimens in the museum of the Boston Society of Natural History.

Fig. 5 is a composite drawing from the specimens in each museum. The Boston Society of Natural History
possesses the reverse of a small portion of fig. 8; and the St. John Society the reverse of No. 3, neither of
which are engraved.

The plate was executed by Messrs. Sinclair & Son of Philadelphia.

Annivers. Memoirs Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist Scudder Pl. 1

ae
?

0)
KK)

J. Kenry Blake, delin.

T. Sinclair & Son Jith Plole.

DEVONIAN INSECTS

1830, ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1880.

THE GYMNOSPORANGIA OR CEDAR-APPLES

OF THE UNITED STATES.

By W. G. FARLOW.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

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THE GYMNOSPORANGIA OR CEDAR-APPLES OF THE UNITED STATES.

By W. G. Fartow.

THE UREDINEAE or rusts include a large number of species which are parasitic on living
plants, and, if we adopt the modern view as to their development, they are remarkable for
the transformations they undergo, which suggest rather the metamorphoses familiar to us
in insects than the ordinary phases of plant life. By earlier writers, the Uredineae were
divided into different genera, which were supposed to be distinct, and not genetically con-
nected with one another. Thus, for instance, there were the genera Puccinia, Uredo, and
Aecidium, each containing a large number of species. That species of certain genera
usually preceded or accompanied species of other genera, as Puccinia, was well known, but
the two were not supposed to have any genetic connection, and the relation between them
was regarded as either quite accidental, or else cases of parasitism.

In 1848 Gasparrini’ observed the mode of germination of the spores in Podisoma, a
genus closely related to Puccinia, and in 1854, Tulasne? extended the observation to the
spores of several other genera of Uredineae. He also advanced the opinion that the so-called
species of Uredo, Trichobasis, Lecythea, and related genera were merely early stages in the
development of species of Puccinia, Phragmidium, Melampsora, ete. In a paper by De
Bary,’ published in 1863, it was maintained that not only were the species of Uredo and
their allies forms of development of other genera, but that the so-called species of Aecidium
as well were not distinct, but that they too represented stages of development of Puccinia,
Uromyces, and other genera, and in point of time preceded the stage described by Tulasne
as the stylosporic or uredo condition. The papers of Tulasne and De Bary, as might be
supposed, gave a fresh interest to the study of the Uredineae and, while previously mycolo-
gists had been mainly occupied with describing large numbers of species based on the
microscopic character of the spores and the gross appearance of the spots produced in the
host-plants, after the appearance of the two papers mentioned it became the fashion to try
to ascertain the genetic connection between the different forms known as Aecidia and
Uredines and the different species of Puccinia, Uromyces, ete. The views of De Bary
and Tulasne were, as a general rule, accepted by all the leading mycologists of the con-
tinent, but were not so readily received by those of Great Britain. At the present day, the

1Qsservazioni sulla generazione delle spore nel Podisoma ® Recherches sur le développement de quelques champig-
fuscum. Rendiconto R. Accad. Scienze Napoli, 1848. nons parasites. Annales des sciences naturelles. 4 Série.
2Seconde mémoire sur les Urédinées et les Ustitaginées. Tome 20.
Annales des sciences naturelles. 4 Série. Tome 2.

4 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

connection between the uredo forms and other final forms is generally admitted, and the
relation of the aecidial stage to the others, as shown by De Bary, is considered to be proved
beyond a doubt by nearly all continental mycologists, although there are a few exceptions ;
but British botanists remain more or less sceptical on the subject.

In consequence of the prevalent view with regard to the development of the Uredineae,
writers have ceased retaining such genera as Uredo and Aecidium except as receptacles for
the forms which have not yet been connected with any definite final form, and on the
continent a new nomenclature has arisen which has not as yet been adopted by American
writers. For the purpose of illustration let us take Puccinia Graminis, the common
blight on grass which was minutely studied by De Bary.’ The final form appears as black
spots or lines on the leaves and stems of grasses, and is composed of dark colored, rather
thick-walled spores, formed of two more or less conical cells united by their bases and at-
tached at the lower end to a mycelium. These two-celled spores are called teleutospores
and, in the case of Puccinia Graminis, are produced in the autumn. When left to them-
selves, they germinate the next spring in the following manner. From each cell is given
off one, or occasionally two or three, delicate filaments, which scarcely exceed in length the
length of the teleutospore. The upper part of the filament becomes somewhat enlarged,
and there are generally formed from two to four cross partitions by which the filaments are
divided into two to five cells. The upper cells grow out laterally and bear each a small
ovoid cell which readily falls from its attachment. The name given by Tulasne to the ger-
minating filaments was promycelium, and he called the secondary small ovoid cells sporidia.
In the case of Puccinia Graminis, according to De Bary, the sporidia do not grow except
on the common barberry, on which plant they produce in the spring or early summer what
is popularly called a cluster-cup, or in botanical language an aecidium. The so-called aecid-
ium is a complex affair. The mycelium from the germinating sporidia produces in spots a
swelling and discoloration of the barberry leaves. The spots are more or less of a reddish-
yellow color, and there soon appears on the upper side of the leaves a number of minute,
deep brown pustules called spermogonia. A section through the spermogonia shows that
they are cavities lined with slender filaments, the tips of which, called spermatia, separate
and escape in masses from the spermogonia. Soon after the appearance of the spermogonia
on the upper side of the leaves, the lower surface swells and bears a number of cups,
the aecidia proper. The cups are really formed inside the leaf, and are sacks com-
posed of a cellular covering or peridium, and orange-colored spores arranged in rows
arising from the base of the peridium. When they come to the surface, the peridia rup-
ture and the spores readily escape. The aecidial spores germinate upon different grasses,
and produce in summer what is called the rust, that is, spots or lines containing a rusty
colored powder. The rust stage is called by botanists the uredo and consists of rather del-
icate, oval, unicellular spores of an orange-red colour, often called stylospores, attached to
amycelium. Like the aecidial-spores, the uredo-spores easily fall from their attachment,
and germinate on grass and produce late in the season the pustules which bear the teleuto-
spores already described.

As has already been remarked, these different stages were kept as distinct species by

1 Recherches sur le développement de quelques champig- Neue Untersuchungen iiberUredineen. Monatsber. Akad.

nons parasites. Annales des Sciences naturelles. 4 Serie. Wiss. Berlin, 1865-66.
Tome 20, 1863.

OF THE UNITED STATES. 5

older writers. The teleutospore condition was called Puccinia Graminis ; the uredo con-
dition Uredo linearis; and the aecidial condition Aecidiwn Berberidis. Recent writers
merely speak of the species Puccinia Graminis, including by that all the different stages.
To designate the old Aecidium Berberidis they say Puccinia Graminis, fungus hymen-
iferus, and to designate the Uredo linearis they say Puccinia Graminis, fungus stylospor-
iferus. Or more briefly one says Puccinia Graminis (Uredo) or (Aecidium) as the case
may be. To understand at once what is meant by the different expressions one must be
acquainted with the literature of the development of the different species, and that is a diffi-
cult matter for us in America, since the observations on the subject are scattered in numer-
ous journals, some of which are seldom met with in this country.

Since the development of Puccinia Graminis is probably as well known as that of any
species of the order, and is furthermore, the species in which the development was first
studied by De Bary, we may use that as a type in studying other members of the order.
The development is represented in four different stages, viz.:

1. Teleutospores on grass in the autumn.

2. Promycelium and Sporidia produced in spring directly from the teleutospores.

3. The Aecidium produced in May or June on the barberry, comprising two sets of
organs, the Spermogonia with their spermatia and the cups or Aecidia proper.

4. The Uredo produced on grass from the spores of the Aecidia.

1. Teleutospores produced from the uredo-spores.

There is a cycle of four different stages, which, taken together, constitute the life of the
individual Puccinia. It will be remarked that two of the stages are found on grass, one
on barberry, and one is produced directly from the teleutospores wherever they may be.
At present we are only interested in the genus Puccinia in so far as it is a type of the or-
der, and we must next see how far the other species of the order agree with Puccinia
Graminis. In the first place, if we consider the species of Puccinia alone, we find that
it is only in certain species that aecidial and uredo conditions are supposed to exist. In
some species, as P. Malvacearum Mont., only teleutospores are believed by some to occur.
In P. anemones Pers., uredo-spores are unknown; in a large number of species aecidia
are unknown. Furthermore, in case of the species in which all the different stages are
known to occur, some have them all produced on the same host-plant, while others, as we
have seen in P. Graminis, bear them on different plants. It may be asked whether in the
cases where aecidial or uredo conditions are unknown, we are not to expect that they will
be hereafter discovered. Such is probably true in most cases, but still there are species, as
P. malvacearum, in which it has been supposed that they are absolutely wanting. For the
purpose of expressing the presence or absence of the different stages and their relative
position, Schroeter divided the genus as follows:

Eupuccrnia. All stages known and all on the same plant.

Hereropuccrnia. All stages known. Aecidia and spermogonia on one plant, uredo
and teleutospores on another plant. :

Hemipuccinta. Only stylospores and teleutospores known, and both occurring simul-
taneously on the same plant.

Pucciniopsis. Spermogonia, aecidia, and teleutospores known and on different individ-
uals of the same species. Uredo unknown.

6 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

Microruccrnta. Only teleutospores. known. Spores quickly detached but not ger-
minating except after a considerable interval.

LepropucciniA. Only teleutospores known. Spores persistent, germinating quickly.

From the above named divisions it is evident that there is no want of variety in the
genus Puccinia, or perhaps it would be better to say that there is a very considerable
ignorance of the forms which may occur. Turning from Puccinia to other genera of the
order, in Uromyces, of which the teleutospores differ from those of Puccinia in being one-
celled, we have the same variations in the presence or absence of the different stages and
Schroeter divides the genus in a similar way, into Euromyces, Hemiuromyces, etc. In
the genus Gymnosporangium, which differs from Puccinia in its gelatinous nature, only
aecidia and teleutospores are known. In Cronartium aecidia are unknown. In all the
genera the teleutospores are supposed in germinating to produce the characteristic pro-
mycelium and sporidia, although as I shall have occasion to remark later, this is subject to
modification, while the aecidial spores and stylospores germinate by giving out one or
more germinal filaments as is the case with the spores of most fungi. In the aecidia the
spores are always either orange colored or brownish, and are formed in chains which arise
from a sort of placenta formed by the mycelium, at the base of the cellular sack known
as the peridium. Spermogonia are present in the aecidial stage, and are developed
earlier than the cups, or aecidia proper. The relative abundance and position of the
spermogonia with respect to the aecidia themselves, vary in the different species.. They
are sometimes on different sides of the leaves, as in Puccinia Graminis, some times mixed
rarely on different parts of the plant. The uredo forms of the different genera vary more
than the aecidial forms. Asarule the spores are borne singly, but in some genera, as
Coleosporium, they are in chains. The so-called peridium found in the aecidia is
wanting in the uredo forms, but there is sometimes a false peridium formed from the cells
of the host plant, or the spots are surrounded by a circle of sterile cells, called paraphyses,
derived directly from the mycelium. Spermogonia are usually wanting, but are found in
a few cases. The teleutospores of the different genera vary greatly im several respects ;
they may be unicellular, as in Uromyces and Melampsora; two-parted, as in Puccinia and
Gymnosporangium; or many-celled, as in Phragmidium and Xenodochus. They may
vary from gelatinous, as in Gymnosporangium, to dense and indurated, as in Melampsora.
They may rise above the surface of the host plants in columns, as in Cronartium, or may
be sunk among the epidermal cells, or even produced within them, as in Melampsorella.
The principal generic distinctions are derived from the characters of the teleutospores, but
as far as possible, continental writers have regard to the respective aecidial and uredo
forms. The genera are perhaps not in all cases well marked, but they are at least quite
as well defined as in the other orders of fungi.

In studying the Uredineae of the United States, one, for several reasons, naturally begins
with the genus Gymnosporangium. The species of the genus are comparatively few in
number, and are, with us, found only on different Cupressineae. The teleutospores occur
in spring or early summer, and resemble those of Puccinia in being generally though not
always two-celled, but differ from them in being borne on very long hyaline stalks, the
whole being imbedded in a mass of jelly which in moist weather swells up and forms the

OF THE UNITED STATES. G6

orange colored masses, which are supposed by many to be the flowers of the cedar-trees.
Probably in no part of the world are the species so abundant as in the eastern United
States, and material for study can be procured in the greatest abundance. In one
respect this abundance has its advantages, in another it has its disadvantages. The
Gymnosporangia of Europe, compared with our own, are few in number and much less
abundant, the number of species found in central and northern Europe being limited by
Oersted and Reess to three. Oersted, of Copenhagen, was the first to study their devel-
opment. He connected the gelatinous teleutosporic stages which occur on species
of Juniperus with the elongated cluster-cups placed formerly in the genus Roestelia, which
are found in summer on the leaves of different Pomeae, thorns, pears, apples, etc. He
went so far as to connect each of the three species of Gymnosporangium found in Denmark
with a particular species of Roestelia. The experiments of Oersted consisted in sowing
the germinating sporidia of the Gymnosporangia on leaves of different Pomeae. I shall
have occasion to return to this subject later, but it is sufficient to notice in this connection
that Oersted’s ' observations were afterwards confirmed by De Bary? and others in Ger-
many, Cornu’ in France, and Cramer * in Switzerland, and accordingly the genus Roestelia
has been suppressed by recent continental writers, who refer to the species formerly placed
in that genus as the aecidial or hymeniferus stage of the different Gymnosporangia.

Ifone then would study the American species of Gymnosporangium in the light of
modern research, he must also take into account. the different Roesteliae of which we have
an abundance. The first step is to settle the species of the two genera on anatomical
grounds, and then by cultures or observations in the field to ascertain their genetic rela-
tions. I insist on the importance of first defining the species from their anatomical struct-
ure, for unless this is done any cultures which may be made can have very little value and
one is constantly gropimg in the dark. One may afterwards modify his view of the species
in consequence of knowledge derived from artificial cultures, but one should not, for
instance, conclude at once, because the sporidia of a given species of Gymnosporangium
produce spermogonia when sown on the leaves of two plants which are known to have
Roesteliae differing in their morphological characters, that the two Roesteliae are the same
species in spite of their different appearance. In determining the species of the two
genera one is obliged to ascertain which of our species are the same as those found in
Europe, and here a difficulty arises, for one is not quite sure in some cases how far a Euro-
pean species of fungus may vary from the type when growing upon a different host from
the one on which it occurs in Europe. In this case one would gladly resort to artificial
cultures to settle the question. Unfortunately for us who are obliged to follow in the
steps of Europeans in so far as the determination of species common to both continents is
concerned, European writers have not agreed amongst themselves as to the limits of

1Bot. Zeit., 1865, 291; and 1867, 222. Nouvelles observa-
tions sur un champignon parasite dont les générations alter-
nantes habitent sur deux plantes hospitaliéres differen tes.

tesvampe og navnlig om den genetiske Forbindelse mellem
Sevenbommens Baevrerust og Paeretraeets Gitterrust.
Copenhagen, 1868.

Bulletin de 1’ Académie Royale des Sciences de Copenhague,
1866.

Nouveaux essais de semis faits avec des champignons par-
asites. Loc. cit., 1867.

Om en saeregen, hidtil ukjendt Udvikling hos visse Snyl-

2 Bot. Zeit., 1865, 222.

8 Bull. Soc. Bot. Tome 25, pp. 122, 221, &e.

“ Ueber den Gitterrost der Birnbiiume and seine Bekiimp-
fung. Schweizer. landwirthschaft Zeitschrift. Solothurn,
1876.

8 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

their species. Reess! is the most recent writer who has given the synonymy in detail, and
I have in most cases followed his account, and have only given in full the special Ameri-
can references.

The greater part of the present paper is devoted to an account of the morphological
characters of the species of the two genera found in this country, and I have been unable
by means of cultures to arrive at as definite results as I should desire ; but a record of
one’s failures is hardly less important, than an account of one’s success. I have myself
collected large quantities of Gymnosporangia and Roesteliae in the region around Boston,
and I am greatly indebted to Mr. H. W. Ravenel, of Aiken, and Dr. J. H. Mellichamps of
Bluffton, for material from South Carolina; to Mr. J. B. Ellis of Newfield, N. J., and Mr. C.
H. Peck, the State Botanist of New York, for valuable notes as well as specimens; to Mr.
C. B. Fuller for specimens from Portland, Me., and to Dr. H. W. Harkness for specimens
from California. I must particularly express my indebtedness to Dr. M. Cornu of
Paris, for his notes on European and American species, as well as for a valuable series of
specimens, and to Prof. C. Cramer, of Zurich. I have examined the specimens in Herb.
Curtis to which reference is made by Berkeley in Grevillea Vol. 11., p. 55-59, the speci-
mens in the Sprague collection of the Boston Society of Natural History, and some orig-
inal specimens of Schweinitz, which, however, were not in a good state of preservation,
besides numerous series of Fungi Exsiccati published in Europe and this country.

GYMNOSPORANGIUM De Cand.

Spores yellow or orange-colored, usually two-celled, occasionally one- to six-celled, on
long hyaline pedicels, imbedded in a mass of jelly which when moistened swells into col-

umnar or irregularly expanded masses. Mycelium parasitic in the leaves and branches of
different Cupressineae, producing in them various distortions.

The different genera in which the species of the present genus were placed by writers
previous to De Candolle, are given in detail in the paper of Reess and need not be repeated
here. The genus was first described by De Candolle from unpublished papers of Hedwig
in the Flore Frangaise, Vol. 11., 1805. Link? in 1809 separated the species in which the
gelatinous substance was more or less conical or cylindrical, from those in which it was
irregularly shaped, placing the former in Podisoma and retaining the latter in Gymnospor-
angium. The two genera of Link have, until a comparatively recent time, been kept dis-
tinct by European writers, and they were adopted by Schweinitz in the Synopsis Fung.
Am. Bor., and by nearly all recent American writers. That the distinction depending
merely on the shape of the gelatinous masses should not be called generic, is the opinion of
probably a majority of the mycologists of the present day, although a number still keep
the genus Podisoma. Accepting Gymnosporangium in its widest sense as adopted by
European writers, we have a genus whose teleutospores are two-celled like those of Puc-
cinia, but invested with a variable amount of colored jelly which assumes a more or less
definite shape in the different species. Accepting also the opinion first advanced by Oer-

1Die Rostpilzformen der deutschen Coniferen. Abhandl. 2 Observationes in Ordinis plantarum, 1809.
Naturf. Gesellschaft. Vol. x1. Halle, 1869.

OF THE UNITED STATES. 9

sted the aecidial stage is found in the so-called Roesteliae which are found on different
species of Pomeae but no indications of a uredo-stage have as yet been detected.

An acquaintance with some of the more recently discovered American species shows
that the original limits of the genus must be extended so as to include species in which the
spores become several (3-6) celled, and in which the amount of gelatinous substance found
is comparatively small. In other words, as far as can be judged from the teleutosporic
condition, the genus evidently approaches Phragmidium in G. Eilisii, which species can-
not well be placed in a separate genus, as was done by Kérnicke! in forming his genus
Hamaspora. The teleutosporic condition of Gymnosporangium unlike that of most of
the other genera of Uredineae of temperate regions, is found in the spring, and the species
of the United States occur only on species of Juniperus, Cupressus, and in California on
Libocedrus. The production of the promycelium and sporidia is seen with the greatest
ease and, in fact, after a shower the orange-colored masses are covered with the latter.
When, however, the masses after having been wet are quickly dried, instead of a produe-
tion of sporidia from the promycelium, the latter divides quickly into a number of cells
which separate from one another, and which on remoistening send out germinal tubes just
like the sporidia. A similar transformation of the promycelium was noticed by Cramer, loc.
cit., p. 7, in Gymnosporangium fuscum growing in Switzerland. In the Northern States
the teleutospores make their appearance usually from the middle of April to early in May
according to the season, reach perfection in May and disappear at the end of June. In
the South they are found considerably earlier.

The principal characters used in distinguishing the species are the shape and size of the
gelatinous masses, the shape and size of the spores, and the number of cells of which they
are composed, the number and position of the promycelia produced from each cell, and the
form and character of the swellings or distortions produced in the plant on which they are
parasitic. The particular shape of the gelatinous masses in any given species depends con-
siderably upon the age and amount of moisture, and in all species, after having been repeat-
edly expanded by numerous showers and again dried, they become amorphous. When first
appearing after the rupture of the epidermis, or outer bark, they are in the form of cush-
ions of a dark velvety color. As they reach perfection, the forms they assume may be divi-
ded into three; the cylindrical, which may be either blunt or acutely attenuated ; the
flattened or wedge-shaped, which are usually blunt and crenate or partly divided ; and the
irregularly expanded, which are broadly ovate or flattened and generally plicate. The
usual number of cells is two, but even in species which normally have only two cells, one
sometimes finds three or four cells. The single-celled spores are generally immature, but
occasionally they bear promycelia. In two of our species the normal number of spores is
greater than two. The number and position of the promycelia given off from each cell
varies considerably in the same species. As a rule, they are not borne at the apex of the
cells, but near the line of union of two cells. They are occasionally produced from the
apex, and in one species, that seems to be the common position. In some species the usual
number of promycelia to each cell is four, in others only one or two. The length of the
promycelia depends upon the position of the spores in the gelatinous mass. ‘Those on or

a 1 Hedwigia. Vol. Xvi, p. 22. 1877.

10 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

near the surface have short promycelia, while those of the interior have very long ones,
the object evidently being that the tips which bear the sporidia may reach the light and
air.

One of the most curious and interesting phenomena connected with the growth of Gym-
nosporangia is the peculiar distortions which they produce in the plants on which they
are parasitic. The mycelium does not differ much from that commonly found in the other
Uredineae. It is irregular, much branched, and cross partitions are rather numerous. Un-
like, however, the mycelium of some of the Pucciniae, that of the species of the present
genus is limited in extent, and is not found throughout the whole of the plant on which it
is growing, but is confined to certain portions of the stems or leaves. The mycelium of
most of the species is perennial, that is, the mycelium which has produced a crop of
spores one year, will the next year, under ordinary circumstances, produce another crop in
or near the same place. One species, however, and possibly others are annual, the spores of
one year not following those of another in the same place. The kinds of distortion pro-
duced vary with the species, but it is probable, although not absolutely certain, that the
same species produces different deformities when growing on different species of plants.
This we might perhaps account for by a difference in the histological character of the two
plants, but exactly why two different species of Gymnosporangium parasitic on the same
individual cedar, should produce two widely distinct deformities is less easily explained.
In the mere appearance of the mycelium itself, one can not see any cause for the different
growths produced.

The explanation is evidently to be sought in the amount and extent of the mycelium,
the rapidity of its growth, and its duration. Thus in a rapidly growing annual species, as
G. macropus, we have a large, rather spongy excresence which shrivels in drying. In G@.
JSuscum var. globosum, which is perennial, and of slower growth, the excrescence is more
dense and scarred externally. In G@. biseptatum the mycelium is comparatively limited in
amount, and does not increase rapidly, and in consequence, the formation of the annual
woody layers is not prevented, nor the nutrition of the branches above much interfered
with. The mycelium is found principally in the region of the cambium, and acts rather
as a stimulant than as a destructive agent, and the result is that a nodose swelling is formed
in consequence of the unusual development of the wood in the region of the fungus.
In G@. Eilisii, which like the previous species, grows on Cupressus thyoides, there is a
more luxuriant and rapidly growing mycelium, which extends for some distance along the
smaller branches, and is so abundant as to interfere with the nutrition and, in consequence,
the branches above become short and stubby, and, at length, densely fasciculated, the
branch below the fungus remaining unchanged, so that we have, instead of a nodose swel-
ling, a dense tuft of short branches borne on the end of a normal branch. In other
species the mycelium traverses the leaves, which are distorted throughout, so that the
branches infested by the fungus and those free from the fungus, seem to belong to differ-
ent species, so regular is the hypertrophy of the leaves. In this connection it may be
remarked that in some places the distortions are not altogether due to the direct action
of the fungi themselves, but are produced in part by the secondary action of the disor-
dered nutrition combined with the effect of the weather. Nor can one infer from the

OF THE UNITED STATES. 11

amount of the gelatinous expansion on the exterior, how destructive a particular species
is to the plant on which it is growing. G*. macropus, for example, is much more striking
to the eye than G. clavipes, but the latter is more destructive to the plants upon which
it grows.

GyMNoOspoRANGIUM Exuisi (Berk).
Plate 2, figs. 13-17.

Podisoma Ellisii Berke., Grevillea, Vol. 11, p. 56; Farlow, Bull. Bussey Inst., Vol.
u, p. 226. Exsicc. Thiimen, Herb. Mycol. Oeconom., 440.

Hamaspora Ellisii Kérnicke, Hedwigia, Vol. xvi, p. 22.

Gymnosporangium Eillisvi, in Ellis’s North American Fungi, Fase. m1, No. 271.

Sporiferous masses numerous, scattered, cylindrical, filiform, from one-eighth to a quar-
ter of an inch high; spores dark yellow, linear-fusiform, obtuse, usually 3-4 celled, some-
times 1-5 celled, 10u-16u in diameter, 75u-190u long, average 120u-150u; pedicels long
and slender; promycelia short and much curved, usually one from each cell. Mycelium
perennial, distorting the smaller branches.

On Cupressus thyoides.

Newfield, N. J. (Ellis); Newton, Dedham, Wood’s Holl, Mass. (Farlow).

This is one of the many interesting species of fungi discovered by Mr. J. B. Ellis at
Newfield, N. J. Previous to May, 1872, when it was first seen by Mr. Ellis, the species
was quite unknown, although it is apparently not uncommon in the so-called cedar swamps
along our eastern coast. It is the smallest and least gelatinous of the genus, but the
trees attacked by it may be recognized, even at a considerable distance, by the peculiar
distortions, which consist in a dense fasciculation of the smaller branches in different parts
of the tree, so that, when viewed from a distance, one sees closely branching tufts of a
somewhat fan-shaped or corymbose outline, which appear to terminate some of the
branches. The fungus itself is only visible on close inspection. The branches affected are
thickly covered with the sporiferous masses, which, when dry, are of a reddish-brown color,
not very different from that of the bark itself, and which, when moistened, are orange-col-
ored, and not generally more than from an eighth to a quarter of an inch long. The spe-
cies is often associated with G. biseptatum which produces an entirely different distortion,
affecting generally the larger branches. The leaves themselves are, however, but little dis-
torted by the present species. The mycelium of G. Zilisii is of rather large size and in
cross sections of the stems is seen to follow the medullary rays, sometimes extending
nearly to the centre of the stem, and occasionally forming partial circles between the an-
nual rings. In longitudinal sections of affected branches one sees the mycelium collected
in brownish spots which extend far into the wood. The greater part of the mycelium is
found near the cambium and it collects in masses in the bark to form the sporiferous bodies
which originate at some little distance beneath the surface. The mycelium is perennial and
extends gradually along the branches sometimes for a distance of eighteen inches, and
they swell to about once and a half their normal diameter.

12 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

The spores of G. Eilisii are very striking and differ from those of the rest of the genus
in being very long and narrow and in being usually more than two-celled, the most usual
numbers being three and four. The amount of jelly in the sporiferous masses is less than
in other species, and in consequence dried specimens give a better idea of the fungus as it
appears in nature than is generally the case in the present genus. The promycelia are
very abundant and very short, the lower sterile part found in other species beimg almost
wanting and the part bearing the sporidia being much curved, so that the promycelia com-
ing from the cells of one spore sometimes wind round and enclose another spore, making
dissection difficult without tearing off the promycelia. One not unfrequently finds spores
in which the upper cell is more or less deeply cleft, as in Pl. 2, fig. 17.

In spite of the fact that in certain details, @. Eilisii differs from the majority of the
other species of Gymnosporangium it seems to me that Ko6rnicke’is not warranted in
establishing a new genus Hamaspora, founded on two species, G. Ellisii growing on
Cupressus thyoides and Phragmidium longissimum Thiim. growing on Rubus rigidus
at the Cape of Good Hope. In the first place, the gelatinous substance is not wanting m
G. Ellisii, as can easily be seen in examining fresh specimens, and furthermore,
the fact that the spores are more than two-celled is equally true of G. biseptatum, a
species which undoubtedly belongs to Gymnosporangium. On the other hand, in 1. long-
issima Kornke., admitting that the teleutospores bear a great resemblance to those of
G. Ellisii, the specimen in Mycotheca Universalis, No. 542, shows an abundance of uredo-
spores surrounded by the circle of large paraphyses generally found in the uredo-spots of
Phragmidium, while in G. Eilisii there are no uredo-spores at all. When we consider
also that the species of Phragmidium generally occur on species of Rubus or related gen-
era, and Gymnosporangium only on Coniferae, it would certainly seem that H. longissima
should be kept in Phraemidium where it was placed by Von Thiimen, and that G. Hilisi
should be retained in Gymnosporangium. Iam perfectly willmg to admit that the last
named genus approaches the former, but the matter is not helped by creating a third
genus less clearly marked than either of the others.

The present is more limited in its range than our other species, as far as at present
known. It probably has often been overlooked, on account of its small size, and may
occur wherever the white cedar, Cupressus thyoides, is found. It is certainly common in
such localities in Massachusetts, and in passing from Boston to Washington by railroad,
I have seen the peculiar distortions along the whole route wherever the white cedar

occurred.

GYMNOSPORANGIUM CLAVARIAEFORME De Cand.

Gymnosporangium clavariaeforme D. C., Flore frangaise, Vol. 1, p. 217; Reess, loc. cit., p.
21. Exsicc. Ellis, North American Fungi., Fase. m1, 273.

Podisoma clavariaeforme Duby, Bot. Gall., Vol. m1, p. 881. Oersted, Nouveaux essais de
semis. Pl. 5 and 4.

Podisoma Juniperi communis Fr., Syst. Mye., Vol. m1, p. 548.

1Hedwigia, Vol. xv1, p. 22.

OF THE UNITED STATES. 1133

Podisoma Juniperi Cooke, Decades of Maine Fungi,’ p. 185; Notes on Podisoma,’ Pl. 19,
fig: 1.

Sporiferous masses numerous, scattered or aggregated, yellowish-brown when dry,
bright yellow when swollen, cylindrical or slightly compressed, acute or occasionally
forked at the apex, from a quarter to half an inch high, spores narrowly lanceolate, those
on the outside of gelatinous masses clavate, two-celled, 15u-—19u broad, by 55u—90u long ;
promycelia usually one or two from each cell. Mycelium perennial, causing long fusiform
swellings of the branches.

On Juniperus communis.

Portland (C. B. Fuller); Cape Elizabeth, Me. (E. C. Bolles); Maine, without locality,
in Herb. Curtis (M. B. Blake, No. 579). Northern and Central Europe.

Apparently not a common species in the United States and known to me only as occur-
ring in Maine. It is said by Mr. C. B. Fuller to be common on the ground cedar in the
islands in Portland Harbor, and some of the specimens collected by him were distributed
by Ellis in North American Fungi. The species is not known to occur on leaves in the
United States, but is found on the larger branches, which swell for a considerable distance
to nearly twice their normal size, and become cracked on the surface. The sporiferous
masses are quite yellow when swollen, and are not dark colored when dry, as in the case
in G. fuscum. They are rather slender and pointed at the apex, and, although sometimes
a little flattened, are not decidedly compressed as in some other species. I have never in
American species seen the apex flattened and expanded, as is shown in the figure of Bul-
lard referred to the present species by DeCandolle. The Portland specimens collected by
Mr. Fuller bear the closest resemblance to No. 1088, of Rabenhorst’s Fungi Europaei,
Series Nova. The spores, compared with those of our other two-celled species, are long
and narrow. ‘Those borne on the outside of the gelatinous masses are clavate, or have
the upper cell broader than the lower, and obtuse at the apex, but the spores in the
interior are attenuated at both extremities as in G. macropus, but they are distinctly
longer and more slender than the latter. The promycelia are, as a rule, fewer in number
than in G. macropus, and one generally sees only one or two given off from each cell.
In Europe the species is said also to occur on the leaves of Juniperus communis,
and probably a close examination of plants affected will show that such is the case also in
this country. The specimen in Herb. Curtis collected by Mr. Blake, is not in sufficiently
good condition to show the shape of the sporiferous masses, but the spores suffice to show
that the specimen belongs to the present species rather than to G. fuscum.

GYMNOSPORANGIUM MACROPUS Lk.

Plate 2, figs. 1-6.

Gymnosporangium Juniperi virginianae Schw., Syn. Fung. Carol., Sup., p. 74, No. 504.
1822.

Gymnosporangium macropus Link, Species Plantarum, Vol. vi, part 2, p. 128. 1825.
Exsicc. Ellis, North American Fungi, Fasc. 3, No. 270.
Podisoma Juniperi virginianae Fr., Syst. Myc., Vol. 1m, p. 57. 1832.

1Proc. Portland Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. I, 1m, 1869. ? Journal of Quekett Microscopical Club, Noy. 1871.

14 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

Podisoma macropus Schw., Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., p. 507, No. 5096, 1851; London
Jour. Bot., Vol. rv, Pl. 12, fig. 6; Sprague’s Contributions to New England Mycology,*
p- 829; Curtis’s Plants of North Carolina, p. 121; Peck’s 25d Report, p. 57; Notes on
Podisoma, Pl. xrx, fig. 3; Grevillea, Vol. 3, p. 56. Exsicc. Ravenel, Fung. Car., Fase.
1, No. 85; Thiimen,? Mycoth. Univers., No. 148.

Sporiferous masses aggregated in globose tufts, surrounded at the base by a ring formed
by the raised epidermis and subepidermal tissue of the host-plant, orange-yellow, cylindri-
cal, acuminate, half an inch to an inch long or, at times, longer ; spores ovate-acute, two-
celled, generally constricted at the septum and with a papilla at the apex, 15u-20u broad
by 45u-60u long; promycelia generally four from each cell. Mycelium annual, producing
globose or reniform knots in the smaller branches.

On leaves and smaller branches of Juniperus virginiana.

Common from Massachusetts to South Carolina (Ravenél, Mellichamps), and extending
west to Missouri (Englemann), Colorado (Palmer), and Wisconsin (Lapham).

The common “cedar apple” of the Atlantic States, an? the most striking species of
the genus. It is very abundant along the seaboard, but becomes rarer in the west. The
knots together with the sporiferous masses, often measure three inches across when swollen.
When dry the sporiferous masses are much shrunken, and as the knots do not differ much
in color from the branches, they are not well seen from a distance. The species was first
described by Schweinitz, in 1822, under the name of G. Juniperi virginianae. Link in
1825, described it in the Species Plantarum (Linnaeus and Willdenow), under the name of
G. macropus, but why the Schweinitzian name was suppressed, or why Link placed the
species in Gymnosporangium rather than Podisoma, a genus of his own creation, is not
clear. In 1831, in the Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., Schweinitz adopted Link’s specific name, but
placed the species in Podisoma, and it has generally been known since as Podisoma
macropus Schw. Fries, however, retained Schweinitz’s original specific name, and called
our plant Podisoma Juniperi virginianae. Notwithstanding that Schweinitz’s name given
in the Syn. Fung. Carol. Sup., is the oldest, it must be abandoned in consequence of the
confusion and awkwardness which has arisen from applying the compound names Junipert
virginianae, Juniperi communis, Juniperi Sabinae, ete., to denote the different species.
The present species, moreover, is by no means the only one found on J. virginiana, and
it is on all accounts desirable to retain the name given by Link, and afterwards adopted by
Schweinitz himself, at least as far as the specific name is concerned.

The mycelium of G. macropus is abundant, and easily seen. It is found principally in
the leaves, and there are haustoria which enter the parenchymatous cells. The fungus
causes the leaves to swell, and finally ruptures them at about the central portion. One
then sees a rounded mass tipped with the comparatively unchanged apex of the leaf. In
some cases the gelatinous columns are produced when the knot is quite small, so that not

1Proe. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. v. 1856. sisted in sending a letter with a drawing of the fungus to
2 Streinz, Nomenclator Fungorum, p. 455, gives Wyman Berkeley, asking the name of the species. The letter and
as the authority for the species and in this error he is fol- Berkeley’s reply that the fungus was Podisoma macropus
lowed by Von Thiimen. The Wyman in question was Prof. Schw. were published in London Jour. Bot., loc. cit.
Jeffries Wyman, whose only connection with the species con-

OF THE UNITED STATES. 15

more than two or three columns can find attachment, but generally the knots grow to
from half an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, before the gelatinous masses break
through the surface. The latter arise a short distance below the surface, and the outer
portion of the knot consisting of several layers of cork cells is raised in flattened papillae.
By the growth of the gelatinous masses the centre of each papilla is ruptured, and the
columns risé vertically. The margin of the raised papilla remains behind, as a sort of
collar around the base of each sporiferous mass.

The shape of the fully developed knots is peculiar. In consequence of the fact that
the cells of the outer part of the knots multiply more rapidly than those near the base, the
knots become convex on the upper side and finally reniform, and are contracted beneath
and attached by a small base. It has generally been supposed that the knots are usually
outgrowths from the smaller branches, but such is not the case and, as far as I have been
able to ascertain, they originate in a leaf. When the knots have attained a considerable
size they appear to be terminal, because the branch above is pushed to one side. The
young knots begin to appear about the end of August, and often reach a considerable size
before winter. In the latitude of Cambridge, the gelatinous masses do not naturally
appear before May or, exceptionally perhaps, in April, but if knots are gathered in Febru-
ary or March and placed in a warm, moist place, they may be made to appear in from ten
days to a fortnight. The knots persist after the sporiferous masses have been quite washed
away, and from silvery-gray become brown and spongy, the surface being honeycombed,
the depressions being the spots from which the gelatinous masses have disappeared. In
by far the majority of cases, the knots gradually dry and drop off after having borne one
crop of spores. In rare instances, however, a new knot may grow from one side of the
old knot and bear a second crop of spores, but in this case the two portions remain
quite distinct, one part being old, shrivelled and weather-worn, and the new part succu-
lent, brownish-gray, and covered with sporiferous masses. By the nature of the knots
alone one can distinguish between this and the following species. The latter is perennial,
and between the sporiferous columns of one year one can easily see the scars of the last
year’s masses.

As far as concerns the gross appearance presented by G. macropus, the account given
by Schweinitz in the Syn. Fung. Am. Bor. is quite accurate. He states that the spe-
cies is rare in North Carolina, but common in Pennsylvania. He remarks also “ capitulum
persistit per annum,” from which one may infer that he recognized that the species was an
annual, a fact which succeeding writers have not sufficiently regarded. His description of
the cedar-apples themselves is so minute and accurate that there can be no doubt that
Schweinitz had either never seen the form described on a succeeding page as G. fuscum
var. globosum, or at any rate clearly distinguished it from G. macropus. In the letter of
Wyman, published by Berkeley in the London Journal of Botany, Vol. rv, p. 316, an ac-
count is given of the germination of the spores and the distortions supposed to be produced
by G. macropus, but it is evident from the description that Wyman had confounded G.
macropus and G. clavipes. He says “I have made numerous searches for these parasites,
but have almost never detected them, except in the localities mentioned, viz.: the tufts
composed of acerose leaves and the “cedar apple.” The tufts with acerose leaves are not
identical, as I believe, with the variety of form which occurs in the young shoots of the

16 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

J. virginiana, described in Bigelow’s Med. Botany and by yourself (Sir J. W. Hooker to
whom the letter was originally addressed), in the Flora Boreal. Amer., also in the
description of the J. bermudiana in the London Journal of Botany for March 1843. The
form of the leaf is in both cases acerose, but the tuft to which I refer forms a single dense
mass, the twigs so crowded together as scarcely to allow the light to pass through, looking
at a distance like the nest of some bird. These masses vary in size from that of the first
to eighteen inches in diameter. Generally not more than one mass is seen on the same
tree, sometimes, however, two or three. I have never seen a single tuft like those described
in which the fungus in question was not present, and this is the result of a great number of
observations.” Ths description of the acerose leaves and the dense growth of the
branches, which look in the distance like bird’s nests, is excellent, but the species which
causes this distortion of the branches is not G. macropus but G. clavipes, a distinct species
as we shall see hereafter, and one haying no connection with the cedar-apples proper.
The figures of Wyman represent the spores of G. macropus, except that some of them
appear to be germinating at the tip in the mode characteristic of G. clavipes.

The species is very widely distributed and is, as a rule, very common, but is not recorded
in some localities where one would have expected it. Mr. Peck informs me that it is not
common near Albany, N. Y., and it is not mentioned in Tuckerman’s Catalogue of the
Plants growing near Amherst. It is certainly very common in Eastern Massachusetts,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Maryland, and although said by Schweinitz to be rare in
North Carolina, has been found by Ravenel and Mellichamps to be common in South Car-
olina. The comparative scarcity of J. virginiana in the Western States would account
for the absence of G. macropus in many Western localities. The injury done to the trees
affected is comparatively slight, as was remarked by Schweinitz, and the reason for this is
apparent if we consider the short duration and the mode of growth of the mycelium. The
cedar-apples are said to be used as anthelmintics and the United States Dispensatory gives
as the dose ten to twenty grains three times a day. In Massachusetts the use of the apples
as medicine is, as far as I can ascertain, unknown, and the practice is probably confined to
Pennsylvania and the Southern States.

The spores of G. macropus are pretty uniformly ovate and acute at both extremities,
and although they bear a certain resemblance to those of G. clavariaeforme, they are
markedly shorter and broader. Schroeter suspects that G. macropus is only a form of
the last-named species, but the fact that there is a difference in the spores and that one is

annual and the other perennial, not to mention the difference in habit, clearly forbids a
union of the two.

GYMNOSPORANGIUM FUSCUM De Cand.

Gymnosporangium fuscum D. C., Flore francaise, Vol. 11, p. 217; Reess, loc. cit., p- 16.

Podisoma Juniperi Link., Observ. 1, p. 9; Species Plantarum, Vol. v1, part uo, p. 127;
Sprague in Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. v, p. 329; Frost in Tuckerman’s List of
Plants of Amherst.

Podisoma Juniper Sabinae Fr., Syst. Mye., Vol. m1, p. 508.

OF THE UNITED STATES. ily

Podisoma fuscum Duby, Bot. Gall., Vol. u, p. 881; Cramer, Ueber den Gitterrost der
Birnbiiume, PI. t.
Podisoma Sabinae Oersted, Om en saeregen hidtil ukjendt Udvikling, etc., Pl. 1.

Sporiferous masses numerous, generally approximated, brownish when dry, dark orange
when swollen, a quarter to half an inch high, compressed-conical, or wedge-shaped,
upper margin thick, rounded, sometimes notched ; spores roundish ovate, two-celled, fre-
quently constricted at the septum, 38u—553u long, by 15u—22u broad; upper cell either
nearly hemispherical or obtuse ; promycelia generally four from each cell. Mycelium
perennial, causing long swellings of the branches.

On stems of Juniperus virginiana and J. communis.

Near Boston (Sprague); Amherst, Mass. (Frost); Catonville, near Baltimore, on im-
ported species of Juniperus, (Farlow). Europe.

This species, although apparently common in Europe, is, in its typical form, rare in the
United States. It has frequently been confounded with Gym. clavariaeforme from which
it differs in the shape and color of the sporiferous masses, which are in G. fuscum usually
thick and wedge-shaped with a blunt margin, and of rather a dark, blackish brown
color, especially when dry, while in G. clavariaeforme they are rather slender and cylin-
drical. It also differs in the shape of the spores, which are shorter and stouter in G. fus-
cum, and usually give off four promycelia from each cell. The spores vary considerably in
outline, those on the surface being more decidedly oval and with a thick dark cell-wall,
while those in the interior of the jelly are more acute and with thinner cell-walls. As
is the case with -most of the species where the promycelia are given off near the sep-
tum, the two cells at maturity retract from one another at the outer margin and only
remain slightly adherent at the centre. The mycelium is found principally in the stems
which have attained a certain thickness and causes them to swell for a distance of several
inches. The sporiferous masses rupture the outer bark in elliptical spots which may be
isolated, or, as is more frequently the case, are rather closely approximated.

In American catalogues and herbaria one rarely finds the specific name fuscum applied
to the present species, but it usually figures under the name Podisoma Juniperi Lk., and
occasionally as P. Juniperi Fr., which is incorrect, as there is no proper P. Juniperi Fr.,
the name given by Fries to the present species being P. Juniperi Sabinae. The name P.
Juniperi Lk., it must be remarked, has been rather loosely applied in this country to sev-
eral distinct species, and when occurring in catalogues of fungi allowance has to be made
for the determination. In Herb. Curtis, for instance, of the different specimens marked P.
Juniperi, Lk., one from Maine is G. clavariaeforme; one from Pennsylvania (Michener,
949) and one from Hillsboro, N. C., collected by Curtis himself, are G. clavipes, and one
from Sprague is G. fuscwm. Specimens which may with certainty be referred to G. fus-
cum are fewin number. The specimens of Frost, which I have been unable to examine,
were on J. communis. Of Sprague’s specimens one in the collection of the Boston So-
ciety of Natural History, and one in Herb. Curtis are the true @. fuscum on what appears
to be J. virginiana. The spores in Sprague’s specimens are rather more slender than in
European specimens, being 46u-57u long by 15u-19u broad, but in other respects they are
quite typical. Whether the P. Juniperi of Schweinitz, Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., No. 3095, is
to be referred to the present species or to G. clavariaeforme is uncertain, the original

18 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

specimen which I have examined not being in condition to be determined with accuracy.
The only instance where I have myself seen the species growing was on the estate of Mrs.
Lerman at Catonville near Baltimore, where several imported Junipers were, in May 1879,
badly affected by a fungus which was without doubt G. fusewn. I have never collected
the present species on J. virginiana, but besides the specimens of Sprague already men-
tioned it was found by Tulasne on J. virginiana in France. I am indebted to my friend
Dr. Cornu for an opportunity of examining a portion of Tulasne’s specimen and it
seems to me that the fungus in that case is the same as that collected by Sprague and
referred to G. fuscum. Dr. Cornu,’ however, distinguishes between Podisoma Juniperi
Sabinae and P. fuscum, and it is to the first named form that he thinks the specimens
found by Tulasne on Juniperus virginiana should be referred. The P. fuscwm on J.
Phoenicea figured by Gasperrini has been separated by Cooke as a new species under the
name of G. Phoeniceae.

GYMNOSPORANGIUM FUSCUM, var. GLOBOSUM Farlow.

Pl. U figs. 7-11.

Podisoma fuscum Cooke, in Notes on Podisoma, p. 10, 1871; Peck, in 25th Report,
New York State Botanist, p. 89, 1873; Farlow, in Bull. Bussey Inst., Vol. mu, p. 225.

Sporiferous masses densely aggregated, dark brown when dry, yellowish orange when
swollen, a quarter to half an inch high, compressed conical or wedge-shaped ; spores ovate,
sub-acute, 38u—45u long, by 19u—21u broad ; promycelia usually four. Mycelium perennial,
forming globose swellings in the branches.

On the smaller branches of J. virginiana.

From Massachusetts (Farlow) to South Carolina (Mellichamp).

The present form probably passed for a variety of P. macropus with earlier writers pro-
vided it was observed by them at all. It was first noticed by Cooke from specimens col-
lected by Peck, in Notes on Podisoma, and was referred by him to P. fuscwm Duby. In
Peck’s Report for 1871, published in September, 1873, the species was also referred to P.-
fuscum. It is very common in the Atlantic States on Juniperus virginiana, on which it
forms globose knots resembling those made by G. macropus in some respects, but smaller
and less striking. The mycelium is perennial and abounds in the stems and leaves. ‘The
fungus, unlike G. macropus, does not break through the central part of the leaf, but bursts
through the stem at the point of attachment of the leaves, and the knots formed do not
assume the reniform outline so common even in the early stages of G. macro-
pus, but are more nearly globose and on the surface. appear of a dark mahogany color,
rather than silvery gray as in G. macropus. The knots grow comparatively slowly and
last for several years, bearing several successive crops of spores. The sporiferous masses
rupture the surface irregularly and they are not surrounded by so distinct a ring at the
base as is the case in G. macropus. 'The gelatinous masses are broad and flattened at the

1Présence du Podisoma Juniperi Sabinae sur le Juniperus Vol. 25, p. 122. 1878.
virginiana et sur divers autres Genévriers: Bull. Soc. Bot.,

OF THE UNITED STATES. 19

base and taper upwards, but are comparatively broad and flattened even at the apex.
The scars left by the sporiferous masses of the previous year are distinctly visible between
the bases of the newly formed masses. The knots seldom attain a great size and rarely
exceed an inch in diameter. They usually appear to be terminal on the smaller branches,
but sometimes they form nodes in the continuity of the branches., In course of time the
surface of the knots becomes grayish and irregular by the action of the weather, but they
are always more compact and harder than the knots of G. macropus. The leaves are not
usually distorted by the fungus, but when the knots are large, the leaves on the upper
branches above the knots become somewhat hypertrophied.

What we have called variety globosum, is certainly common in the Eastern States. It
often accompanies G!. macropus, and is in Eastern Massachusetts about as common as that
species, and Mr. Peck states that it is still more common in the region of Albany. How
far west the variety extends is unknown. The southern limit, as far as I can ascertain, is
Bluffton, S. C., where it was collected by Dr. Mellichamp. Although often accompanying

7. macropus, and like it producing what are popularly called “ cedar apples,” there is no
doubt that the present form is distinct from it as is shown by the fact that it is perennial
and not annual, and by the very different character of the knots formed, and the appear-
ance of the sporiferous masses. A very slight experience will enable any one to distin-
guish between the two at sight. The only question which can arise is whether the fungus
in question is distinct from G. fuscum, and on this point it is not so easy to give a decided
answer. The variety, if indeed it be not a distinct species, differs entirely from the type
in the character of the distortions produced on the same host-plant, J. virginiana, and it
may be said with considerable truth that the same species of fungus could not produce
two such different distortions in the branches of the same species of plant. The sporif-
erous masses, however, are in shape and color much like those of G. fuscum, and
the spores themselves, the size and shape of which, at the best, are variable even in the
same species, although in general smaller than in G. fuscum, are not sufficiently distinct
to allow one on the strength of their smaller size alone, to separate the fungus as a dis-
tinct species. The question is, does not the smaller size of the spores in connection with
the peculiar distortions caused by the fungus warrant one in regarding it as different from
G. fuscum? I think it quite possible that the two are distinct, but am unwilling to speak
positively without more information with regard to the mode of occurrence of G. fuscum
on J. virginiana in Europe. So far as I know, however, the globose distortions are
unknown in Europe, the only case known to me where a globose mass is figured, being in
Cooke’s notes on Podisoma, Pl. 19, fig. 2, but it is not there stated whether the figure
was drawn from a European or an American specimen.

GYMNOSPORANGIUM BISEPTATUM Ellis.
Pl. 2, figs. 18-21.

Gymnosporangium biseptatum Ellis, in Bulletin of Torrey Club, Vol. v, p. 46, 1874; Far-
low in Bull. Bussey Inst., Vol. um, p. 226; Vize in Grevillea, Vol. vit, p. 11; Harkness
and Moore, Catalogue of the Pacific Coast Fungi, p. 25. Exsicc. Ellis, North American
Fungi, Fasc. 11, No. 272.

20 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

Sporiferous masses flattened and brownish when dry, becoming hemispherical or oval
and rugose when swollen, and of a light yellow color, about a quarter of an inch high;
spores linear-oblong, obtuse, two to six celled, most frequently three or four celled,
5(u—S4u long, by 15u-20u broad; promycelia one or two from each cell. Mycelium per-
ennial, forming node-like swellings in the branches.

On leaves and stems of Cupressus thuyoides, Newton, Dedham, Wood’s Holl, Mass.
(Farlow) ; Newfield, N. J. (Ellis).

On Libocedrus, Yosemite, Cal. (Harkness and Moore).

A striking species first found by Mr. Ellis in New Jersey, and although only known
apparently in a few localities it is probably common on Cupressus thuyoides throughout
the Atlantic States. It often accompanies G. Ellisiit for which, however, it cannot pos-
sibly be mistaken. As in that species the distortions produced by G. biseptatum can be
seen ata considerable distance. The mycelium is perennial, and is found in the leaves and
branches, principally in the latter.

In the leaves the mycelium produces no perceptible distortion until the sporif
erous masses appear. There is only one mass to a leaf, and it is first seen as a
brownish elliptical protuberance emerging from the edge of the leaf. In the stem
the distortions are marked and may be seen at a distance. The mycelium is found
principally in the region of the cambium, and oval or oblong swellings are formed
from one to two inches long, the bark becomes distended and cracked, and the sporiferous
masses are found in the fissures, at first in small pulvinate tufts which on swelling form
shapeless masses of rather a light yellow. The swellings increase year by year, and at
length become very marked, the fungus growing constantly outwards, and producing
fresh crops of spores year after year. The swellings are sometimes found in the main
trunk of the tree, and I have seen them more than a foot in diameter. However large
they may become, the heart wood generally remains firm and hard, and does not become
spongy and riddled with holes as is the case with the branches attacked by G. Eilisit,
which on the whole is decidedly more injurious to the trees than G’. biseptatum.

The spores of the present species are characterized by the great variability in the
number of cells of which they are composed. The most usual number is three or
four, two are rather common and occasionally there are as many as six. ‘The spores are
rather stout and obtuse, and generally constricted at the septa. When mature and about
to produce the promycelia it is usual for the different cells to separate from one another
either wholly or in part, as is well shown in Pl. 2, fig. 20. The spores of the present
species when fully grown are not easily mistaken for those of any other species, but the
young tufts on the leaves often bear spores which are all, or nearly all, two-celled. I have
received specimens from Mr. Ellis, with the fungus confined to the leaves, and it was diffi-
cult to say to what species to refer it. Large sets of specimens collected at Newton, how-
ever, show that while the young spots on the leaves may have principally two-celled
spores, those on the smaller branches have about an equal proportion of two and three
celled spores, and the still older spots have a large proportion of three-celled spores. In
short, the variability is so great that without a large set of specimens, one would have
difficulty in convincing himself that the extreme forms belonged to the same species.

OF THE UNITED STATES. 21

Like G. Ellisii, the present species, although occurring in localities as remote as Massa-
chusetts and California, is known in only a few localities, but where it occurs it is
generally abundant. There can be no doubt whatever, in spite of the unusually large
number of cells of which the spores are composed, that the species should be placed in
Gymnosporangium, and the number of cells only goes to strengthen the view that Hama-
spora cannot be kept as a distinct genus.

GYMNOSPORANGIUM CLAVIPES Cooke and Peck.

Podisoma gymnosporangium, var. clavipes C. and P., in Notes on Podisoma, 1871.
Gymnosporangium clavipes C. and P. in Peck’s 25th Report, p. 89; Farlow, Bull. Bussey

Inst., Vol. 1, p. 226; Exsicc. Ravenel’s Fungi Americani Exsiccati, No. 272.
Podisoma Juniperi Herb. Curtis in part.

Gymnosporangium sp. Herb. Curtis in part.

Sporiferous masses subpyriform or irregularly globose becoming indefinitely expanded,
reddish yellow when dry, orange when swollen, about a quarter of an inch high; spores
broadly ovate, obtuse, two-celled, generally constricted at the septum ; pedicels broad, much
swollen beneath the spores, 40u-60u long by 22u-358u broad; promycelia usually two or
three from a cell, frequently produced from the apex of the cells. Mycelium perennial
in the leaves and branches, producing nest-like distortions.

On Juniperus virginiana.

Eastern Massachusetts (Farlow); New York (Peck); New Jersey (Ellis); Pennsylvania
(Michener) ; North Carolina (Curtis); South Carolina (Ravenel).

One of the most unsightly species of the genus and certainly common in the Atlantic
States from Massachusetts to Florida. The mycelium is abundant in the leaves and
branches and produces peculiar distortions already referred to under G. macropus. The
leaves swell to double their original size and become sharp pointed and rather spreading.
The effect produced will be seen by comparing figs. 22 and 25 of Plate 2, where fig. 23
shows a twig with normal leaves, and 22 one attacked by G. clavipes. The branches
are somewhat swollen and the branching of the affected ones becomes very dense, so
that at a distance it appears as if there were bird’s-nests in the boughs. The branches
are often distorted for a distance of a foot or a foot and a half. The sporiferous masses
are very abundant on the leaves and branches. Those on the leaves appear at their bases
where they are adherent to the stems. They are at first broadly obovate, but
soon become either subpyriform or irregularly globose and much wrinkled, and after
having been exposed to a few showers they become quite amorphous, and form discol-
oured films on the leaves and branches. On the branches the sporiferous masses are very
similar to those on the leaves, but they are rather larger and more irregular in shape.
When young and dry, they often are reddish rather than brown, and lack the deep brown
color generally seen in the early stages of other species. The mycelium is apparently
perennial, but I am not entirely certain on that point.

22 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

The spores differ in several respects from those of the species already described. They
are usually two-celled, but it is not at all unusual to find three cells, as is shown in Plate
2, fig. 25. They are broadly ovate, and attached to pedicels which, instead of being of
nearly equal diameter throughout, as in the other species, are very much swollen just
below the spores, in fact often more so than is shown in figs. 24 and 25. The breadth of
the upper part of the pedicels, however, varies with the state of expansion of the spor-
iferous masses, being especially broad when they are young, and slenderer when they are
old. The base of the spores where the pedicels are attached is very broad, and when the
masses are quickly swollen, especially by means of re-agents, the inner portion of the
pedicels expands more rapidly than the outer part, and the latter is ruptured just below
the spore, so that there is left a hyaline ring surrounding the pedicel at the base of the
spore. .

The growth of the promycelia is peculiar in G. clavipes. As a rule the promycelia of
the other species are given off from the cells near the part where they are in contact with
one another, and they are either single or double, or, as is very frequently the case, four
are given off at diametrically opposite points. Occasionally one sees a promycelium form-
ing at the apex of the spore, and such a case, occurring in G. macropus, is shown in Pl. 1,
fig. 6. In G. elavipes it is very common for promycelia to be formed at the apex as
shown in Pl. II, fig. 27, and another promycelium near the septum. The most peculiar
form is that shown in fig. 26, where the spore has fallen from its pedicel, and a
promycelium is produced both at the apex and the base. This form I have not found to
be common, but it can be seen without difficulty.

The present species, in spite of some striking peculiarities, presents a general resem-
blance to G. conicum, which is common enough in Northern Europe, but is rare in this
country, if indeed it occurs at all. G. clavipes was first separated from G. conicum in
consequence of the swollen pedicels and the formation of promycelia at the apex ob-
served by Peck. Curtis, judging from the specimens in his herbarium, did not distin-
guish G. clavipes from Podisoma Juniperi Lk. which is the same as the G. fuscum of the
present article, for the specimen of Michener No. 4830, from Pennsylvania, and a speci-
men collected by Curtis himself at Hillsboro, N. C., certainly belong to G. clavipes. A
- second specimen from Society Hill, 8. C., marked simply Gymnosporangium, also belongs
to the present species. The question whether G. clavipes is merely a form of G. con-
icum or not, is not easily answered. The general appearance of the sporiferous masses
is the same, and if the distortions produced are different, it may be said that that may
be accounted for by the fact that m Europe G. conicum grows on J. communis, while
what we call G. clavipes grows on J. virginiana. The swollen pedicels, even admitting
that the amount of the swelling varies in different specimens, has not been noticed in
European specimens of G. conicum, and, although Oersted figures one spore in which
the promycelium is given off from the tip in G. conicum, it seems nearly certain that no
European species has the apical form of germination, unless exceptionally. Taking these
facts collectively, I should think that G. clavipes was a distinct species peculiar to
America, and that it was not quite certain that the true G. conicum occurs with us.

A few forms which can hardly be included in G. clavipes, I should refer to G‘. conicum
with a doubt.

OF THE UNITED STATES. 23
GYMNOSPORANGIUM conrIcuM, De Cand.

Gymnosporangium conicum D. C., Flore francaise, Vol. 1, p. 216; Reess, loc. cit., p. 26.

Gymnosporangium Juniperi Lk., Obs. 1, p. 9; Species Plantarum, Vol. v1, part 2, p. 127;
Schweinitz, Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., No. 5094; Berkeley, Outlines, Pl. 1, fig. 5; Curtis,
Plants of North Carolina; Peck, in 25th Report; Frost, in Tuckerman’s Cat. Amherst
Plants.

Gymnosporangium juniperinum Fr., Syst. Mye., Vol. 11, p. 506; Exsicc. Ravenel, Fungi
Carol., Fasc. v, 87.

Podisoma juniperinum Oersted, Nouvelles Observations, 1866.

Podisoma Gymnosporangium Cooke, Notes on Podisoma, Pl. 18, fig. 2.
On Juniperus communis. Northern and Central Europe.
On Juniperus virginiana, Newton, Mass. (Farlow); New York State (Peck); South

Carolina (Ravenel).

Sporiferous masses, subpyriform or indefinitely expanded, orange colored, half an inch
high; spores oblong, two-celled, constricted at the septum, 45u—58u long, by 15u—18u
broad; promycelia either two or four from each cell, given off near the septum. Mycelium
perennial, forming long swellings in the branches.

As before said, the determination of American specimens of the present species is
very unsatisfactory. The name Gymnosporangium Juniperi Lk., to be sure, often
appears in catalogues of American fungi, but in many cases the determination is evidently
doubtful, and I have not thought best to accept it in several cases, but have formed
my opinion rather on specimens actually collected by myself or belonging to authentic
collections. In most instances the species is said to occur on Juniperus virginiana. In
Tuckerman’s Catalogue of Amherst Plants, it is reported by Frost as growing on J. com-
munis, but I have not been able to examine Frost’s specimens, which probably belong to
the true G. conicum. In the Bulletin of the Minnesota Academy of Sciences for 1876,
the species is said to have been found on living branches of various trees, a statement
which is probably inaccurate, and tends to make the determination doubtful. As far as my
own experience goes, I have only once found a form which was probably to be referred to
G. conicum, and, in that case, the fungus was in such a condition that an accurate deter-
mination was out of the question. Of all the specimens which I have examined, the
No. 87, Fasc. v, of Ravenel’s Fung. Carol., and two specimens in Herb. Curtis, collected
by Ravenel on the Santee Canal in 1848 and 1850, come nearest to the true G. conicum.
There is also a specimen in the Sprague collection which may belong to this species.
Without larger sets of specimens in good condition one can not well say whether the
specimens referred to may not belong to other species. Most specimens marked G. Juni-
pert Lk. which I have seen were gathered after the fungus had been exposed to the rain
some time, and the only character by which one could be guided was the mode of germi-
nation of the spores, which, as I have said is generally that found in G. clavipes, and I am
not sure that all the so-called G. Juniperi recorded on J. virginiana is not to be referred
to G. clavipes. More material and further study are necessary to settle that pot, and it
is not impossible that some European botanist may discover that G. conicwn has at times
the same swollen pedicels and apical germination as G. clavipes. If that turns out to be

24 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

the case, our common G. clavipes must be regarded as a variety of G. Juniperi, but, as the
matter now stands, I must believe that the two are distinct, and that the existence of G.
conicum in the United States rests only on a few specimens resembling G. clavipes in habit,
but which, as far as can be made out from specimens which as a whole are in poor condi-
tion, have longer and slenderer spores on pedicels which are not perceptibly thickened
below the spores, and whose promycelia are in twos or fours near the septum.

RogEstTevtiA Rebent.

Aecidia usually hypophyllous, lower part sunk in the swollen tissues of the leaves, form-
ing, above, cylindrical, conical, or oblong projections which are often split and fringed in
the upper part, peridium composed of large, colorless cells, spores brownish or orange-
colored, subglobose when mature, formed in moniliform rows. Spermogonia punctiform,
forming minute dark-colored pustules in discolored spots on the upper surface of the
leaves. Mycelium infesting the leaves and stems of different Pomeae.

The old genera Aecidium, Roestelia, and Peridermium cannot be distinguished from one
another except in an arbitrary way. The species of Peridermium are parasitic on differ-
ent Coniferae, the Roesteliae on species of Pomeae, and Aecidium proper is very widely
diffused. Wolff! considers that Peridermium Pini is the aecidial form of Coleosporium
Senecionis, and De Bary and Hartig have connected other Peridermia with Chrysomyxa
aud Calyptospora. The Roesteliae differ from the species of Aecidium in the fact that
the peridium is elongated in a more or less tubular form, whereas in Aecidium it is
short. But in forms like R. penicillata (Sow.) the peridium is comparatively short, while
in Aecidium Fraxini Schw. the peridium is so long that in the Syn. Fung. Am. Bor. it
was placed by Schweinitz in Roestelia. In his work, Untersuchungen tiber die Brand-
pilze, De Bary considered it to be a distinguishing mark of Roestelia that the spores were
not formed from all the cells of the sporiferous filaments but from every other cell, so that
the spores hung together for a short time by the shrivelled sterile cells. Reess adopts the
same view, but more recently De Bary? has stated that similar sterile cells are found in
other genera than Roestelia and they are certainly found in Caeoma luminata Schw.
and in species of Aecidium which I have examined. The cells which form the peridium
are, like those found in Aecidium, large and colorless, with thick walls which
generally have peculiar markings. They are only loosely adherent, and although they
may cohere to one another in longitudinal rows, the rows, especially at the upper end of
the peridium, soon separate from one another and form a fringed mouth to the perid-
ium. In some species, however, the cells at the apex remain united and those below sep-
arate from one another so as to form a sort of lattice-work, through the meshes of which
the spores escape.

The spores of Roestelia are more or less angular, when young, from mutual pressure,
but when mature they generally become globose. They are almost always of a brownish
color, but in one of our species they are orange-colored. The wall of the spores is double,
consisting of a rather thick endospore and a thin exospore. The endospore is perforated

1 Beitrag zur Kentniss der Schmarotzerpilze, Landwirthsch. 2 Bot. Zeit., 1869, p. 786.
Jahrb., 1877.

OF THE UNITED STATES. 25

with a number of holes, usually from five to ten, and it is through these holes that the ger-
minal tubes protrude. Reess considers that the number of pores can be used as a means of
distinguishing species, but my experience shows that the number is variable in the same
species. The spermogonia are small and found in clusters in discolored spots on the
upper surface of the leaves, where they are seen as brownish black dots. The spermatia
are punctiform and are almost identical in all the species of the genus.

The Roesteliae are very abundant on the leaves of our different thorns and fruit trees,
and they are also found on the fruit. In some cases they cause distortions of the stems,
which swell to twice their original size and become cracked and very irregular, or, if the

‘stems attacked are small and flexible they often become much recurved. The presence of
members of this genus in the leaves is indicated by yellowish or reddish spots in which
the spermogonia appear first on the upper surface, while the aecidia do not become visible
until after a considerable interval in most cases. The amount of swelling produced in the
leaves by the aecidia varies much in the different species. In some it is only slight,
often in the form of a ring, but in others prominent ovoid or conical projections are found.
The duration of the mycelium is a point of importance in considering the connection be-
tween Roestelia and Gymnosporanguim. Certainly in some cases it seems to be perennial,
but supposing that there is a genetic connection between the two genera just named, one
would expect the Roesteliae to be annual products of the germinating sporidia of the differ-
ent Gymnosporangia. The date of the appearance of the different species is also of import-
ance in attempting to connect any particular Roestelia with a given species of Gymnospo-
rangium. Some species, as £2. penicillata, mature in May and June, almost simultaneously
with the Gymnosporangia, while other species, as R. botryapites, do not ripen until the
middle of September or October. From an economical point of view, the Roesteliae
are of considerable importance, since they attack the leaves of so many of our fruit trees,
causing them to fall prematurely, and some of the species attack the yonng fruit as well
as the leaves.

The determination of the species from their anatomical structure is attended with many
difficulties. The principal characters used are the gross appearance of the spots and swell-
ings and the microscopic characters of the spores and the cells of the peridium. Too
many species depend upon the amount of splitting of the peridium which evidently must
depend to a large extent upon the age of the latter and accidental circumstances. The
species of Roestelia are, moreover, not limited to a single host-plant, and one must nat-
urally expect modifications of the swellings and of the peridium according as the Roestelia
is parasitic on different hosts.

ROESTELIA BOTRYAPITES Schw.

Caeoma (Roestelia) botryapites Schweinitz, Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., No. 2902.

Roestelia Ellisii Peck, Bull. Torrey Club, Vol. vu, p. 13. Exsicc. Mycoth. Univers., No.
431.

Roestelia botryapites Schw., Berkeley in Grevillea, Vol. v, p. 34; Farlow, Bull. Bussey
Inst., Vol. 11, p. 2265.

Aecidia hypophyllous, borne in tuberculated or pyriform protuberances about an eighth
of an inch high, sometimes solitary, usually densely aggregated or consolidated, 3-14,

26 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

usually 7-8 together ; peridia cylindrical, contracted at the base, brownish-white, an eighth
of an inch long, composed throughout of long, sinuous, smooth-walled cells, 12u—15u in
diameter, which cohere at the apex and separate below in meshes so that the peridium is
clathrate. Spores brownish, 15u-19u in diameter, epispore slightly granular, pores indis-
tinct. Spermogonia few in number in the depressed upper part of the leaves.

On the leaves of Amelanchier canadensis.

Eastern Massachusetts (Farlow) ; Newfield, N. J. (Ellis); Bethlehem, Pa. (Schweinitz).

A striking species which does not mature until the middle of September or the first of
October, the spermogonia appearing in the latter part of August. It is distinguished from
our other species by the large-sized tubercles which appear in dense clusters on the under
surfaces of the leaves, from which protrude the long peridia which resemble those of FR.
cancellata in having the cells coherent at the apex and separate below, so that the peridium
becomes clathrate, the spores being discharged through the meshes. The peridia, how-
ever, are less broad and bulging than in &. cancellata and the microscopic character of the
cells is very different. In RR. botryapites they are longer and more slender than in any
of our other species, and the cell-walls are destitute of the papillose or granular markings
found in most of the species. They are also so sinuous and so long that an accurate meas-
urement of their length is out of the question. The different cells, instead of overlapping
at the extremities as in 22. cancellata, fit closely together, and the apical cells, instead of
being shorter and broader than those below as in the species last named, are of about the
same breadth and shape throughout. In fact, so narrow and smooth are the cells and so
closely are they united to one another at the extremities that, on seeing them for the first
time under the microscope, one would be more likely to suppose them to be some brownish
mycelium than a collection of peridial cells. The spores of &. botryapites are, on the
average, smaller than those of our other species. The fungus forms reddish-yellow spots
on the leaves of Amelanchier in which the spermogonia are developed in comparatively
small numbers, and when the swollen masses of the leaf in which the aecidia are borne
appear, the upper surface bearing the spermogonia becomes depressed. The tubercular
masses are much contracted at the base, and when fully mature they drop from the leaves,
only a small scar remaining. The cells of the tubercles abound in starch grains, in this
respect resembling f. cancellata.

The present species is very common in Eastern Massachusetts and has probably a wider
range than one would infer from the very few recorded localities. It is frequently seen in
entomological collections, and the large tubercles with their small bases certainly remind
one more strongly of insect galls than the work of fungi, at least until the peridia have
protruded. The Schweinitzian species remained for a long time obscure, but it was redis-
covered by Ellis at Newfield, N. J., and named by Peck G. Hilisii. Berkeley is quoted in
Grevillea, loc. cit., as having ascertained the identity of the two species from the examina-
tion of an original specimen of Schweinitz. There is a specimen from Schweinitz in Herb.
Curtis, but the peridia and spores are not mature. As far, however, as can be judged from
its present condition, it seems to be the same as specimens collected by Ellis.

OF THE UNITED STATES. PATS

ROESTELIA TRANSFORMANS Ellis.

Roestelia transformans Ellis, Bull. Torrey Club, Vol. v, p. 3; Farlow, Bull. Bussey Inst.,
Vol. 1, p. 255. Exsicc. Thiimen, Mycoth. Univers., No. 1029.

Aecidia hypophyllous, or covering the young shoots and fruit, borne in conical protub-
erances, occasionally 3-4, generally 5-20 or more together, consolidated at the base ; perid-
ium brownish-yellow, a tenth to a twelfth of an inch long, at first conical but soon becom-
ing lacerated ; cells of peridium isodiametric at apex, below long and narrow, 12u-15u in
diameter, not overlapping on the inner side, cell-wall papillose ; spores globose, brownish,
18u-22u in diameter, cell-wall nearly smooth. Spermogonia few in number in purplish-
red spots on the upper side of the leaves.

On the leaves, fruit and young shoots of Pyrus arbutifolia and on the leaves of Pyrus
malus.

Newfield, N. J. (Ellis); Newton, Gloucester, Wood’s Holl, Mass. (Farlow).

This species, which occupies an intermediate position between R. botryapites and R.
cancellata, is common on Pyrus arbutifolia in Eastern Massachusetts. It occurs in three
forms. On the leaves it forms purplish-red spots and the aecidia are generally compara-
tively few in number and rather slender. On the fruit they are more numerous and
shorter, and when the fungus is found on the young shoots they swell to several times
their original size, and become much curved and twisted and take on a yellow color. The
number of aecidia produced on the stems is very large. The aecidial protuberances are
rather acutely conical and more slender than in either &. botryapites or PR. cancellata ;
they readily fall from the leaves as in the first-named species. It is only in the young con-
dition that the cells of the peridia cohere at the apex, and, as generally seen, the peridia
are lacerate. The peridial cells resemble those of &. cancellata but are more slender and
do not project inwards. The spores resemble those of L. botryapites.

What seems to me the same species was collected on apple leaves near the Bussey Insti-
tution, Jamaica Plain, Mass., but did not seem to be common. The species is probably
common near the sea-shore, but is actually recorded in but few places. It is not likely to
escape observation wherever it occurs for the purple spots on the leaves and the distorted
shoots are very striking.

ROESTELIA CANCELLATA Rebent.

Roestelia cancellata Rebent, Fl. Neom., p. 350, Pl. u, fig. 9; Curtis, List of Plants of North
Carolina, p. 123; Oersted, Om en saeregen, etc., Pl. 1 and m1; Reess, loc. cit., p. 20;
Decades of Maine Fungi, p. 180; Grevillea, Vol. v, p. 151.

Aecidium cancellatum Schweinitz, Syn. Fung. Carol., No. 433.

Caeoma roestelites Lk., Spec. Plant., Vol. v1, part 2, p. 164; Schweinitz, Syn. Fung. Am.
Bor., No. 2900.

Aecidia usually hypophyllous, borne in the swollen tuberculated substance of the leaves,
consolidated at the base in clusters of 4-20 ; peridia yellowish-white, a twelfth to an eighth

28 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

of an inch long, broadly ovate, acute and closed at the apex, clathrate below ; peridial cells
thick-walled, surface papillose, isodiametric, about 58u, coherent at the apex of peridium,
below united in longitudinal rows; cells about 20u thick by 60u—80u long, the upper end
of each cell projecting inwards and overlapping the base of the cell above ; spores brown-
ish, roundish-angular, 25u to 30u in diameter, cell wall thick, pores well marked. Sper-
mogonia numerous in the discolored upper surface of the leaves.

On leaves of apple and pear trees.

Westbrook, Me. (Bolles); Bethlehem, Pa. (Schweinitz); North Carolina (Curtis) ;
California (Harkness). Europe.

The typical 2. cancellata is common in Europe and is easily distinguished. It has been
published in several series of exsiccati of which I need only mention Libert, No. 394, and
Thiimen, Mycoth. Univers., No. 537, where the specimens are very characteristic. The aeci-
dia are borne in swollen parts of the under surface of the leaves, but the swellings are by no
means so large as those of 2. botryapites and they are broad at the base, not constricted as
in the last-named species. Although the peridium bears some resemblance to that of R.
botryapites and FR. transformans, it is distinct in having the upper end of the cells pro-
longed inwards in the form of a papilla. The peridial cells are quite different from those
of LR. botryapites but resemble more closely those of FR. transformans. ~ LR. cancellata
must be considered a rare species in the United States as far as at present known. It is
only known in doubtful cases in Eastern Massachusetts and it is not enumerated by Peck
among the Roesteliae of New York. The fungus mentioned under the name of L. cancel-
lata in Bull. Bussey Inst., Vol. un, p. 225, does not seem to me really to be that species.
The only specimens which I have examined of the Aecidium cancellatum of the Syn.
Fung. Car. Sup. and of Caeoma roestelites Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., were in poor condition,
and certainly were not typical &. cancellata, and although mentioned in Curtis’s list as
occurring in North Carolina, there are no specimens in Herb. Curtis to mark the locality.
Considering that the species is easily recognized from European specimens, there would
probably be no difficulty in recognizing it if it occurred with us. One thing is certain, that
the very common Roestelia found on apples in the autumn in Eastern Massachusetts is not
R. cancellata. The present species is generally found on the leaves only, but is said also
to attack the smaller branches.

ROESTELIA CORNUTA (Ehrh.) Fr.

Aecidium cornutum Pers. in Gmel. Syst. Nat.

Caeoma cylindrites Link, Species Plantarum, Vol. v1, part 2, p. 64, in part; Schweinitz in
Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., in part?

Roestelia cornuta Fr., Summa Veget. Scand., Vol. m1, p. 510; Oersted, Nouvelles Observ.,
Pl. iv; Reess, loc. cit., p. 28; Peck, 24th Report; Farlow, Bull. Bussey Inst., Vol.
u, p. 225; Tuckerman’s Plants of Amherst.

Ceratitium cornutum Rabenh., Bot. Zeit., 1851, 452.

Centridium sp. Chevallier, Desmaziéres, et al.

OF THE UNITED STATES. 29

Aecidia hypophyllous, in pulvinate, orange-colored thickenings of the leaves,
densely agglomerated, 10-40 together, often arranged in a circle ; peridia yellowish-brown,
cylindrical-acute, recurved, generally entire but when old becoming fimbriate; peridial
cells large, polygonal, coherent throughout, thick-walled, 38u—15u broad by 58u—76w long ;
spores yellowish-brown, surface slightly papillose, roundish-angular, 18u—22u in diameter ;
spermogonia numerous in reddish-yellow spots on the surface of the leaves.

On the leaves of Pyrus americana, Amelanchier canadensis, Crataegus sp.

Eastport, Maine (Farlow); Amherst, Mass. (Frost); New York (Peck); Ithaca, N. Y.
(Dudley). Northern and Central Europe.

This species in its typical form is common on the leaves of Pyrus americana at East-
port. The spots on the leaves are of a brilliant reddish-yellow color, the spermogonia
very numerous and the aecidia crowded together in a circle, the swelling of the leaf being
in the form of a circular elevation and not at all tubercular as in the preceding species.
The peridia are long and recurved and preserve their shape for a considerable time, be-
coming at length lacerate. In this, its typical form, it is more robust than R. lacerata,
and the peridial cells are broader and thicker. The form which occurs on Amelanchier
has fewer aecidia in a cluster, the substance of the leaf around their bases is more dis-
tinctly tubercular, and the peridia are shorter and more acute than in the form on the
mountain ash, approaching, perhaps, 2. lacerata. The occurrence of R. cornuta on
species of Crataegus in the United States possibly requires confirmation. I have speci-
mens on C. crus-galli which may perhaps be referred to R. cornuta but am not certain.
None of the Schweinitzian specimens of Caeoma cylindrites which I have examined seem
to belong to the present species, but possibly some of the varieties mentioned under that
head in the Syn. Fung. Am. Bor. may be placed here.

ROESTELIA LACERATA (Sow.) Fr.

Aecidium oxyacanthae Pers., Syn., 206.

Aecidium Mespili and oxyacanthae D.C., Flore francaise, Vol. v1, p. 98.

Aecidium laceratum Sow., British Fungi, Pl. 318. Exsicc. Ravenel, Fungi Carol., Fase.
Ve 20:

Aecidium crataegi var. oxyacanthae Schweinitz, Syn. Fung. Car. Sup., No. 432.

Caeoma cylindrites var. Crataegi punctatae, var. arborescentis and var. C. oxyacanthae
Schweinitz, Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., No. 2899.

Roestelia lacerata Fr., ‘Suan Weret Scand., Vol. m1, p. 510; Sprague, Contrib. to New
England Mycol., p. 329; Decades of Maine Fungi, p. 180; Pecks 22d and 24th Reports ;
Farlow, Bull. Bussey Inst., Vol. 11, p. 255; Tuckerman, Plants of Amherst; Harkness
and Moore.

Aecidia hypophyllous, sometimes on the stems and young fruit, seated on the yellow
pulvinate thickening of the leaves, slender, cylindrical or somewhat subulate, recurved,
densely clustered, 5-30 together; peridia yellowish-white, rather delicate, soon splitting
and becoming fimbriate, the divisions not extending to the base of peridium; cells of
peridium narrow, 20u broad by 55u—75u long ; spores brownish, roundish-oblong, surface

30 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

finely granulated, 19u-24u in diameter. Spermogonia in yellowish spots on the upper
surface of the leaves.

On leaves, stems, and fruit of Crataegus crus-galli, C. punctata, C. coccinea, C. tomen-
tosa, O. oxyacantha, and other species; on leaves and fruit of Amelanchier canadensis,
and on leaves of wild and cultivated apples.

Common from Maine (Bolles) to South Carolina (Mellichamp), and west to Missouri
(Engelmann).

This is decidedly the most common species found with us, and it abounds on all wild and
cultivated species of Crataegus and apples. On the one hand the species approaches PR.
cornuta, from which it is distinguished by being more slender, and when young, splitting
into segments which become fimbriate, and by the narrower peridial cells. On the other
hand, it approaches ?. penicillata with which, in fact, it is united by some authors. Te:
lacerata is more variable than most of our species, and I can distinguish the following
forms. On C. tomentosa and other species of Crataegus the aecidia are borne on small,
slightly swollen spots, and the peridia are large and diverge from one another. Our form
is precisely the No. 556 of Westendorp and Wallys. The form on Amelanchier is the
Aecidium Mespili D.C., and the swellings of the leaves are more strongly marked, and
the peridia shorter than in the form last described. Our smallest form is found on apple
leaves. The spots are bright yellow and the aecidia are few in number, often only 1-3,
and occupy the centre of the spot. Possibly this last form might be separated as a dis-
tinct species. It is, apparently, not the variety Mali of the Syn. Fung. Am. Bor. The
specimen in Mycotheca Universalis, No. 732, collected by Ellis at Newfield, N. J., labelled
R. lacerata, f. Mali, is said by Von Thiimen to be synonymous with Aecidium cancella-
tum of the Syn. Fung. Carol. Sup., but on what authority the statement rests is uncertain.

ROESTELIA PENICILLATA (Sow.) Fr.

Aecidium penicillatum Pers., in Gmel. Syst.
Aecidium Mali Schum., FI. Saell., Vol. 11, 222.
Aecidium laceratum D. C., Flore Francaise, Vol. v1, p. 98.
Caeoma cylindrites, var. Mali Schweinitz, Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., No. 2899.
Aecidium pyratum Schweinitz, Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., No. 2896.
Roestelia penicillata (Sow.) Fr., Summa Veget. Scand., Vol. m1, p. 510.
Ceratitium penicillatum Rabenh., Bot. Zeit., 1851. 452.
On leaves and fruit of Pyrus malus and Pyrus angustifolia and fruit of Amelanchier
canadensis.
Eastern Massachusetts (Farlow); Santee Canal, 8. C. (Ravenel).

Same as P. lacerata, but aecidia smaller and frequently concentrically arranged, peridia
splitting to the base, the divisions very numerous, revolute, fimbriate, formed of one or
more rows of cells.

The present species, if indeed it is not a form of the one last described, does not appear
in American Catalogues as distinct from &. lacerata. It is not uncommon and seems to

OF THE UNITED STATES. 31

attack the fruit more frequently than F. lacerata. The Aecidium pyratum of Schweinitz,
Syn. Fung. Am. Bor., is probably the same as FR. penicillata. I am indebted to the
officers of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for the privilege of examining
the original specimen in their collection and I have also specimens from Ravenel and
Curtis which do not differ from the type. Although it is unusual to find F. penicillata on
Crataegus in this country, what seems undoubtedly that species was collected by Prof. W.
R. Dudley on C. crus-galli at Ithaca, New York.

ROESTELIA HYALINA Cooke.

Roestelia hyalina Cooke, in Bull. Bot. Soc., 1877, pp. 314, 315; Hedwigia, Vol. xvn, p.
38; Grevillea, Vol. v1, p. 137. Exsicc. Ravenel, Fungi Americani, No. 37.

Aecidia hypophyllous, borne few together in subpyriform tubercules ; peridia pointed,
cylindrical, delicate, splitting longitudinally ; peridial cells rhombic-ovate, about 35u broad
by 55u long, cell-walls thin, nearly smooth ; spores globose, 19u—22u in diameter. Spermo-
gonia few, in yellowish spots on the upper surface of the leaves.

On leaves of Crataegus.

Aiken, 8. C. (Ravenel).

This species is only known to me by the single small specimen in the Fungi Ameri-
cani Exsiccati, from which the description above given was taken. The specimen bears a
close resemblance to some forms of R. Jacerata, but the cells of the peridium are thin
walled and destitute of the markings generally seen in the other species. The spores in
my specimen are distinctly brownish and not orange colored as given in the description in
Hedwigia, loc. cit. As it may be that there was an error in distribution, I quote the origi-
nal description. ‘Epiphylla, vel amphigena. Maculis rufis. Soris convexis brunneis.
Pseudoperidis cylindrico-acuminatis, longitudinaliter et unilateraliter dehiscentibus. Spo-
ris globosis, aurantiacis, .02-.022 mm.”

ROESTELIA AURANTIACA Peck.

Roestelia aurantiaca Peck, in 25th Report, p. 64, Pl. 1, figs. 10-12; Bull. Buffalo Soc.
Nat. Sci., Vol. 1, p. 68; Tuckerman’s Plants of Amherst ; Farlow, Bull. Bussey Inst.,
Vol. u, p. 225. Exsicc. Ravenel’s Fungi Americani, No. 217.

Roestelia lacerata Herb. Curtis in part.

Aecidia densely aggregated on the young fruit and swollen stems; periuia erecu or
slightly recurved, an eighth to a quarter of an inch in length, cylindrical, tubular, shining
white, coarsely toothed at the apex, teeth seldom extending more than a quarter of the
length of the peridium; cells of peridium squarish-ovate, closely united, about 55) long
by 36u broad, cell wall very thick and striate. Spores bright orange, spherical or slightly
angular, 27u to 47u in diameter, average 30u—40u, cell wall thick, punctate, pores distinct.
Spermogonia in discolored spots on the leaves.

32 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

On unripe fruit and stems of Crataegus crus-galli, C. punctata, C. oxyacantha and other
species of Crataegus, on Amelanchier canadensis and on cultivated quinces and apples.

Not rare from Massachusetts (Farlow), Vermont (Frost), New York (Peck), to North
Carolina (Curtis), South Carolina (Ravenel), and Missouri (Engelmann).

By far the most beautiful species of the genus which we have, at once attracting the
popular eye by its brilliant orange or almost cinnabar colored spores and shining white
peridium. It is generally found on the young fruit, though it is occasionally found on the
stems and petioles, but I do not recollect having seen aecidia on the leaves. What I take
to be spermogonia of this species are found on the leaves apart from the aecidia. f.
aurantiaca is often accompanied by R. lacerata, but one cannot consider the former to be
a form of the latter, which grows on the fruit rather than leaves, for the differences in the
spores and cells of the peridium are too marked to warrant any such supposition. The
peridia of the present species are more rigid than those of our other species, and the cells
cohere throughout, except at the tip where the peridium splits into comparatively few
short teeth, and does not become lacerate or penicillate as in most of the species. The
spores are large for the genus Roestelia, and instead of the brownish tinge common in
other species, they are bright orange. The cell-wall is quite thick and striate. In drying,
the spores become pale, but their size and cell-wall even then are sufficient to distinguish
present from other species.

R. aurantiaca is represented in Herb. Curtis by several specimens, including some col-
lected by himself in North Carolina. He apparently considered them all forms of £. lac-
erata, at least, they are so labelled. The species is particularly apt to attack the different
species of Crataegus, and the peridia attain a large size on the small berries of that genus.
It is reported by Peck to occur on Amelanchier, but I have never myself seen it on that
host. Perhaps the most striking form is that which is often found on quinces in Eastern
Massachusetts. I have collected specimens in Newton and I have received others from
Pepperell, Miss Freeman; and from near Salem, Mr. Robinson; and there are specimens
in Herb. Curtis and the Sprague collection from Mr. John Russell. One sometimes sees
a quince two inches in diameter more than half covered by the bright orange aecidia
and occasionally small apples are affected in a similar way. . aurantiaca is generally
found in midsummer, I have, however, seen it on C. crus-galli as late as October.

After the preceding detailed account of the species of Gymnosporangium and Roestelia
of the United States, one naturally wishes to know how far the view first promulgated by
Oersted is confirmed by cultures made with American species. Oersted recognized three
species of Gymnosporangium, and, at first, four species of Roestelia growing in Denmark.
He was afterwards induced to believe that two of the supposed Roesteliae, R. Jacerata and
R. penicillata, were only forms of a single species, and he considered that he had proved
that G@. fuscum was connected with R. cancellata; G. clavariaeforme with R. lacerata,
including in that the form &. penicillata; and G. conicum with R. cornuta. Thus,
there were no superfluous species of either genus in Denmark, that is, there was no
species of one genus which could not be matched with a species of the other genus.

OF THE UNITED STATES. 53

From the account already given, it will be seen that I recognize the following species,
and the question which I have unsuccessfully tried to answer is, what species with us are
genetically connected. To sum up the species, we have:

GYMNOSPORANGIUM. ROESTELIA.
G. Ellisii. R. botryapites.
G. clavariaeforme. RK. transformans.
G. macropus. R. cancellata.

7. fuscum. RF. cornuta.
G. fuscum var. globosum. R. lacerta.
G. biseptatum. ~ BR. penicillata.
G. clavipes. R. hyalina.
G. conicum ? RR. aurantiaca.

It will be seen that I have mentioned eight species of each genus which could on
anatomical grounds alone be considered distinct. Of the species enumerated, G. conicum
is given as doubtful, because it seemed to me that sufficiently abundant material was want-
ing to enable any one to speak with certainty. G. fuscwm var. globosum, it will also be
borne in mind, is not by several writers considered distinct. With the possible exception
of the two species just mentionéd, the validity of the species of Gymnosporangium is not
likely to be much questioned. Turning to the Roesteliae, we have RF. lacerata and R.
penicillata enumerated, which are by many writers united on anatomical grounds, apart
from any developmental considerations, and f. cancellata, a species whose presence, or,
perhaps better, whose distribution in the United States is not sufficiently well known in
my opinion. In speaking of &. lacerata, also, one must not forget that, even in the lim-
ited sense in which I have adopted it, it appears under a good many different forms which
some botanists on anatomical grounds alone might consider distinct.

If one is disposed to admit the eight species of each genus with the limitations I have
given, he might suppose that the task of tracing the connection between them would be
comparatively simple and interesting. A very slight experience, however, would con-
vince him of the contrary. In the first place, if we accept the conclusions of Oersted as
correct with regard to the Danish species, knowing that two and perhaps all three of the
Danish Gymnosporangia are found in the United States, we are struck with the fact that,
although G. fuscum, regarding var. globosum as distinct, and the true &. cancellata, its
supposed aecidial form, are about equally common, or rather equally rare, with us, when we
come to G. clavariaeforme, the case is different, for the Gymnosporangium is not at all
common, while its presumed aecidium, 2. lacerata, is very common, indeed being found
hundreds and even a thousand miles from localities where G. clavariaeforme is known.
About the comparative distribution of G. conicum, and its corresponding F. cornuta,
little can at present be said, since the localities of G. conicum are not well known. Yet,
in general, what is supposed to be G. conicum is best known towards the South, while
RR. cornuta is northern in its range, unless, indeed, that species properly includes some of
the forms now included in R. lacerata. Wf, on the other hand, with some writers we
regard the var. globosum as identical with G. fuscum of Europe we are, in looking at the
distribution, met with the difficulty that G@. fuscum var. globosum is very common in Mas-
sachusetts, for instance, whereas its supposed aecidium, R. cancellata, is not known with

34 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

certainty to occur at all, and where, at least, the common Roestelia on apple leaves is cer-
tainly not R. cancellata.

At first sight, then, we would not admit the correctness of Oersted’s views with regard
to particular species without further inquiry, and one naturally resorts to artificial cultures.
These may consist in sowing the germinating sporidia of the different species of Gymno-
sporangium either on leaves of different Pomeae, kept moist under bell-glasses, or on the
young plants themselves. The former mode is more convenient, but has this objection
that, although after sowing sporidia on the leaves spermogonia may appear in from about
eight days to a fortnight, yet the interval is so great between the production of sperm-
ogonia and the development of the aecidia, from which alone the species can be with cer-
tainty determined, that the leaves, kept in a moist place, are almost sure to be destroyed
by moulds before the aecidia have developed. Cultures made with the young plants
themselves permit the development of the aecidia, but for mechanical reasons they
are less easy to manage, and one is also obliged to keep a series of plants on which no
sowing has been made, in order to make it comparatively sure that the mycelium of the
Roestelia was not in the plants before the cultures began. I have, as a rule, made use of
leaves only because the amount of space at my control was limited, and because it was
difficult for me to procure young plants of some of the species required for cultures.
The season of the year when the subject must necessarily be studied, the latter part of the
spring, is, moreover, one when numerous occupations prevent my devoting as much of
my time to the cultures as I should like.

In the spring of 1875, I procured two plants of Amelanchier canadensis about a foot
high, and sowed upon the leaves the sporidia of G. macrogus which were seen by micro-
scopic examination to be in good condition. Nothing resulted from it. Iwas led to
begin with this experiment because the most striking Gymnosporangium in the region of
Boston is G. macropus, and one of the most prominent Roesteliae is 2. botryapites which
grows only on Amelanchier, and both species are peculiar to America. Since 1875 I have
repeatedly made attempts by cultures to demonstrate the connection between our different
species. The species with which I have experimented are G. macropus, G. fuscum var.
globosum,' G. Ellisii, G. biseptatum, and G’. clavipes, all common near Boston.

I. May, 1876.
G. clavipes sown on 6 Amelanchier leaves. No result.
G. Ellisii on 6 apple leaves, three Amelanchier leaves, and two leaves of Crataegus
tomentosa. No result.
G. macropus on 3 leaves of Crataegus tomentosa, 6 apple leaves, 4 Amelanchier leaves.
Spermogonia formed on one leaf of C. tomentosa.
G. globosum on 3 leaves of Crataegus tomentosa, 3 of Amelanchier, and 3 of apple.
Spermogonia appeared on all the leaves of Crataegus.
II. May, 1876.
G. macropus on two small pear seedlings. No result.
G. globosum on one young plant of Crataegus oxyacantha. No result.
Ill. June, 1876.
G. globosum on 5 leaves of Crataegus tomentosa. No result.
G. macropus on 3 leaves of Amelanchier. No result.

1 For sake of brevity this form is given under the name of G. globosum in the following tables.

OF THE UNITED STATES. 35

G. clavipes on 3 leaves of Amelanchier. No result.

Nore. The cultures of 1876 were made at the laboratory of the Bussey Institution. Those made in June
continued only 17 days, but no result being then obtained the laboratory was closed for the season.

IV. May, 1877.

G. macropus on 3 leaves of apple, 3 of Amelanchier, 3 of Crataegus tomentosa, and 3
of Pyrus arbutifolia. Spermogonia appeared on one leaf of Amelanchier and one of
C. tomentosa in ten days.

G. globosum on 3 leaves of apple, 3 of Amelanchier, 3 of Crataegus tomentosa, and 5 of
Pyrus arbutifolia. Spermogonia appeared on ali the leaves of Crataegus.

G. biseptatum on 3 leaves of Crataegus tomentosa, 5 of apple, 3 of Amelanchier, and 5
of Pyrus arbutifolia. Spermogonia appeared on one leaf of Crataegus in six days.

G. Ellisii on 3 leaves of apple and 3 of Amelanchier. No result.

Nore. The cultures of 1877 were made at the Bussey Institution, and lasted from May 25th to July 4th.
V. June, 1878.
G. macropus on 3 apple leaves, 5 of Crataegus oxyacantha, 3 of C. crus-galli, and 3
of pear. No result.
G. Ellisii on 3 apple, 3 pear, 3 C. oxyacantha and 3 C. crus-galli leaves. No result.
G. biseptatum on 3 apple, 5 pear, 3 C. oxyacantha and 3 C. crus-galli leaves. No
result.
G. globosum on 3 pear, 5 C. oxyacantha, 5 C. crus-galli, and 1 apple leaf. No result.
Vi.
G. Ellisii on two pear seedlings and on two young plants of C. tomentosa. No result.
G. macropus on an apple seedling and 2 plants of C. tomentosa. No result.

Being absent from Cambridge in 1879, no cultures were made, and the cultures of 1880
present no result worth detailmg, as no spermogonia were produced.

In reviewing the record given above, one is struck with the small number of cases in
which spermogonia succeeded the sowings on the different Pomeae. Certainly a sufficient
variety of leaves was selected, for it is on Amelanchier, Crataegus, Pyrus arbutifolia, and
cultivated apples and pears that the greater part of our Roesteliae are found in nature.
That the sporidia used were in good condition was shown by microscopical examination.
In running over the list, it is seen that the only plants on which spermogonia were pro-
duced were Crataegus tomentosa and Amelanchier canadensis. Those on Amelanchier
followed the sowing of the spores of G. macropus, but, inasmuch as three species of Roes-
telia are known on that plant, it is impossible to say to which the spermogonia belonged.
What is surprising, however, is that of the three species of Gymnosporangium which
were followed by spermogonia on C. tomentosa, viz.: G. macropus, G. globosum, and G.
biseptatum, not one is the species which, according to Oersted, ought to produce our com-
mon form on C. tomentosa, namely RR. lacerata. Accepting his view one would hardly
have been led to expect spermogonia on such a host plant from three species so distinct
from G. clavariaeforme. Further, we are not allowed to suppose that the production of
spermogonia on C. tomentosa indicates any close resemblance between the three different
Gymnosporangia. It might, perhaps, be said, considering how much more frequently the
spermogonia followed the sowing of G. globoswm than of the other two species, that
where the spermogonia appeared to follow the latter, it was really because some of the

36 FARLOW ON THE GYMNOSPORANGIA

sporidia of G. globosum had become mixed with those of the two other species. Such
a supposition is possible in the case of G. macropus which often grows in company with
G. globosum, but it can hardly be true of the G. biseptatum in question, which grew in
a deep swamp remote from G. globoswm, and the specimens of which were collected and
covered with care to prevent a mixing of the spores with those of other species.
Whether we consider the distribution of our species or the results of the cultures made,
there is nothing to confirm the views of Oersted as to the connection of particular species.
In this connection, I would refer to a paper by Rathay known to me only by the abstract
given by Magnus in Bot. Zeit., 1880, p. 798. The method of culture adopted by R&thay is
unknown to me, but he came to the conclusion that PR. penicillata belonged not as a form
of R. lacerata to G. clavariaeforme, but to G. fuscum. If then our G. fuscum var. globo-
sum be really a variety of G. fuscum, and if R. penicillata be a form of R. cancellata as
supposed by Rathay, then the spermogonia on C. tomentosa, which so frequently followed
the sowing of the sporidia of G. globosum, might be supposed to belong to what I have
called L?. penicillata, which does occur on Crataegus in the United States. One could not
be at all certain, however, without seeing the fully developed aecidia, but it must not be
forgotten that thove who are fully imbued with the belief that the different aecidial genera
as Aecidium, Roestelia, etc., are stages of Puccinia, Gymnosporangium, ete., accept the ap-
pearance of spermogonia alone, without having seen the aecidia, as strong proof of a con-
nection between different forms. In fact the imstances where the aecidia themselves have
been produced by cultures of teleutospore forms are very few in number. But even if we
admit that the spermogonia following the sowing of G'. fuscum belonged to R. penicillata,
what are we to say of those which followed the sowing of G. macropus and G’. bisepta-
tum? It is absolutely impossible to consider G. biseptatum a form of G. fuscum, nor, in
my opinion, is there any reason to suppose that G. macropus is a form of that species.
Spermogonia followed sowings of G. macropus on both C. tomentosa and Amelanchier,
and accordingly they might have belonged to R. lacerata or R. aurantiaca. R. cornuta
may be excluded as belonging, according to Oersted, to G. conicwm, which is not in the
least related to G. macropus, and the distribution of #. hyalina makes it very improbable
that it is connected with the ubiquitous G. macropus. R. lacerata should be connected
with G. clavariaeforme and, as has already been remarked, Schroeter has suspected that
G. macropus may be a form of the last named species, but I have already stated my rea-
sons on structural grounds for not considering them two forms of the same species, and I
do not think that that belief should be altered in consequence of the results of my cultures.
There remains then f. aurantiaca which might possibly be connected with G. macropus.
The case of G. biseptatum is still more desperate. It certainly cannot be connected
with R. penicillata, or R. lacerata, and if we assume it probable or even possible that
there is a connection between G. macropus and R. aurantiaca, there is only left R. cor-
nuta to be matched with G. biseptatum, and this would imply that G. conicum and
G. biseptatum were forms of the same species, which I presume that few botanists are
willing to admit, for excellent anatomical reasons.
The reader has probably in the last few pages been surfeited with if’s and or’s, and a
choice of rather bewildering alternatives. There is only one more point to be suggested
in this connection. That is, that the appearance of the spermogonia after sowing the

OF THE UNITED STATES. 37

sporidia of the three Gymnosporangia in question, was in consequence of the presence
beforehand, in the leaves, of the mycelium of some Roestelia which was made to develop
by the moist condition in which it was placed. I am strongly inclined to favor this view,
because in many cases I have from the beginning had my suspicions that the leaves of
Crataegus tomentosa used might contain the mycelium of a Roestelia.

R. lacerata is so common in the region about Boston at just about the date of the
maturity of the Gymnosporangia that it has been with great difficulty, at times, that I
have procured leaves of C. tomentosa which appeared even to the naked eye to be free
from the fungus. In some cases pots of the young Crataegus used as control plants,
showed a growth of spermogonia without any sowing at all, and it was necessary to
reject from the cultures all the pots in consequence of the suspicion which was attached
to them. In one case, furthermore, spermogonia appeared on a leaf on the fourth day
after sowing, a suspiciously early date, unless one supposes that the mycelium was already
in the leaf at the time of sowing. Again, why was it that, with abundance of fresh spor-
idia of all our common species, in only one instance did spermogonia develop on any
other leaves than those of C. tomentosa? The same pains were taken in sowing, the same
care was exercised during the continuance of the cultures, yet in spite of that, sperm-
ogonia were only produced, one case excepted, on C. tomentosa, the very plant of all used
whose leaves were in some cases doubtful, and produced, too, by three different Gymno-
spordngia, none of which is the species supposed by Oersted to be connected with
R. lacerata, our common Roestelia on Crataegus. There is only one thing, viz.: the com-
parative frequency with which the spermogonia followed sowings of G. globosum, that
prevents my expressing a strong belief that the results of my cultures indicate that the
Roesteliae in question were originally in the leaves used, and did not follow as secondary
stages of the Gymnosporangia experimented upon. It must be admitted that the accuracy
of Oersted’s views with regard to the development of the three Danish species is not so
generally acknowledged at the present day as it was a few years ago, and the note of
Reess on R&R. penicillata, and Rathay’s recent observations, show that even if Oersted isin
general correct in supposing that the Roesteliae are genetically connected with the Gym-
nosporangia, he has certainly failed to show the connection in the case of given species.

Much may be said on both sides of the question of the relations between the so-called
aecidial and final forms, but in this paper I have only considered the two comparatively
small genera Roestelia and Gymnosporangium. Much more work remains to be done in
this country. In the first place, more extended and accurate knowledge of the distribu-
tion of our species is to be desired, and many more cultures must be made. <A few sug-
gestions may be made with regard to the latter pomt. For the purpose of procuring
pure spores of the different Gymnosporangia, a difficult matter if we consider how many
of the species are parasitic on J. virginiana, one might gather specimens in March, in the
latitude of Cambridge, and allow them to perfect under cover in the house. G. macropus
is hardly likely to be connected with &. botryapites, which occurs on Amelanchier,
because the young knots are formed in summer before the Roestelia makes its appear-
ance. In studying G. Hilisii and G. biseptatum, which occur on the white cedar, and
which are hardly known in the East except where found by Mr. Ellis and myself, it
would be well to bear in mind that &. botryapites and 2. transformans are species which
have about the same range. It is also an important matter to ascertain the exact date of

38 FARLOW ON GYMNOSPORANGIA,

the earliest appearance of the spermogonia of the different Roesteliae, and of the appear-
ance of the sporiferous masses of Gymnosporangia in limited regions. This last point I
think has not received sufficient attention from European botanists. Unless I am mis-
taken, I have seen the spermogonia of /. lacerata near the Bussey Institution, at a date
preceding the maturing of any of the Gymnosporangia of the neighborhood.

Cornu! has called attention to the fact that Roesteliae may be made to appear out of
season by means of cultures. Another important fact is to ascertain how many of our
Roesteliae are perennial. This, at least, appears to be the case with &. aurantiaca.
If it should be shown that several of our Roesteliae are perennial, a fact true with regard
to most of our Gymnosporangia, and to grow in regions remote from species of Juniperus
and Cupressus, then one could not help feeling that any connection between the two
genera was probably accidental rather than genetic.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Puate I.

Figs. 1-6. Gymnosporangium macropus Lk. 1, Sporiferous masses fully expanded; 2, the same ina
dry condition, showing the knot or cedar-apple, and the contracted sporiferous masses surrounded by the
raised collar at the base; 3 and 4, teleutospores, with a part of their pedicels; 5 and 6, spores producing
promycelia and sporidia, 6 showing a promycelium forming at the apex. 1 and 2 natural size, 3-6 mag-
nified 350 diameters.

Figs. 7-11. Gymnosporangium Juscum var. globosum Farlow. 7, Sporiferous masses expanded ; 8, the
same contracted, and showing the knot formed; 10 and 11, spores with pedicels; 9, spore producing promy-
celia. 7 and 8 natural size, 9-11 magnified 350 diameters.

N. B. 9-11 have been drawn on too small a scale, and should be enlarged one fourth in comparing with
the spores of other species.

Prats II.

Figs. 13-17. @ymnosporangium Ellisit Berk. 13, portion of a distorted branch of Cupressus thuyoides
with sporiferous masses expanded; 14-17, spores of the same; 17, spore bearing promycelia ; 16, anomalous
spore forking at the tip. 15 natural size, 14-17 magnified 350 diameters.

Figs. 18-21. Gymnosporangium biseptatum Ellis. 18, stem of Cupressus thuyoides, bearing expanded spo-
riferous masses; 19-21, spores of the same ; 20 producing promycelia. 18 natural size, 19-21 magnified 350
diameters.

Figs. 22-27. G@ymnosporangium clavipes C. and P. 22, twig of Juniperus virginiana, with sporiferous
masses expanded, and distorted, acerose leaves, to be compared with 23 which represents a normal branch ;
24, 25, spores with enlarged pedicels ; 26, spore which has fallen from pedicel and produced promycelia at
both extremities; 27, spore with terminal and lateral promycelia. 22 and 23 natural size, 24-27 magni-
fied 350 diameters.

1Bull. Soc. Bot., 1878.

Annivers.Memoirs Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.

J.H.BLAKE & AUCT, DEL.

GYMNOSPORANGIA OF THE UNITED STATES.

Farlow Pl. |

YMAYER & CU. Li4rt BOSTON

od

+

it

.

Farlow PI. 2.

Annivers.Memoirs Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.

MAYER & CO. L/TH BOSTON

J-H.BLAKE & C.E.FAXON DEL.

GYMNOSPORANGIA OF THE UNITED STATES.

.

1830, ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY, 1880.

A STRUCTURAL FEATURE,

HITHERTO UNKNOWN AMONG ECHINODERMATA,

FOUND IN

DEEP-SEA OPHIURANS.

By THEODORE LYMAN.

[Printed by permission of Hon. Carlile P, Patterson, Supt. U. S. Coast-Survey ; and of the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, England.]

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

Ey

6
. = geie@itr cia

(s.anun GAs OS Cap nebihi “pees
' pAii ee “) 7
; ex:

:

yi

a | mo Ce .47) aad

A StructuraAL FEATURE, HITHERTO UNKNOWN AMONG EcCHINODERMATA, FOUND IN
DEEP-SEA OPpHIURANS. By THreoporE Lyman.

LONG after the main collection of the “Challenger” expedition had arrived, there were
sent me several glass slides containing additional specimens of Ophiuridae. One of these,
hastily examined with a weak lens, I labelled Ophiomyces, and set aside for further study.
In the very last cast made by Mr. Alexander Agassiz, during the “ Blake” expedition of
1878-79, near the Barbadoes, and in 82 fathoms, there came up a small soft Ophiuran,
which seemed, under the microscope, to have little tufts resembling bunches of simple
hydroids on the sides of the arms. More careful search, with a higher power, showed that
these were bunches of minute spines, each enclosed in a thick skin-bag, and that they had
a most extraordinary form, resembiing long-stemmed agarics, or parasols with small
shades. On going back to the “Challenger”? Ophiomyces, this too exhibited the same
spines, and a third species, also brought back by the “Challenger,” was found with sim-
ilar appendages. Their form, however, was not the most curious thing. It was by their
arrangement in two, or even three, parallel vertical rows, that they wholly differed from
all Ophiuridae hitherto known. For, with all the variety exhibited by the hundreds of
living species, there is not one that departs from the unvarying single row of articu-
lated spmes. Not even the double rows of hook-bearing grains among the Astrophytidae
would be homologous, because these grains are not attached to the side arm-plates. In
one species, these parasol-spines stood side by side with the normal arm-spines (Ophio-
tholia), while in the two others (Ophiohelus), they took the place of the normal spines.
Among known Echinodermata I have been able to find only a single instance of a some-
what similar spine, or pedicellaria. This is in Aceste bellidifera Wyv. Thom., and is to be
figured in Mr. Alexander Agassiz’ forthcoming work on the Echini of the “Challenger,”
plate XL, fig. 66. The question whether these novel shapes are spines or pedicellariae is
not a very important one, since a pedicellaria is only a spine peculiarly modified. But
it may be said that their supplementary character and abnormal shape give these parasol

spines the position of what used to be carefully distinguished as pedicellariae.

Ophiotholia is indeed an Ophiomyces with this peculiar character, while Ophiohelus is
an allied but distinct form. Both may be considered low genera, with elaborate appen-
dages. The want of radial shields and imperfect calcification suggest their position,
which is confirmed by the embryonic character of their arm-bones, which are longi-
tudinally divided into the two halves they theoretically should have. These bones are so
large and independent, even close to the tip of the arm, that it is not easy to understand
how they can be spurs of the small side arm-plates, as they should be according to one
theory. Unfortunately I could nowhere find a terminal joint, which would have shown
how the arm-bones take their rise.

4 LYMAN ON A NEW STRUCTURAL

These soft little creatures illustrate how small an influence certain kinds of the notorious
“environment”? have in determining structure. Of the two species of this abnormal
Ophiohelus, one comes from 82 fathoms, near the Barbadoes, and the other from 1350
fathoms, near the Fiji Islands. When we consider the differences of locality, light, pres-
sure, and temperature (differences which are supposed to create varieties, or species
so called), between these two stations, we may well be a little sceptical as to the potency
of such environment. |

These genera stand quite apart from others of the family and call for diligent renewal of
the endless search after those constantly increasing missing links.

OpHIOTHOLIA } gen. nov.

Disk and arms capable of being raised vertically: the former covered by a delicate
scaling set with minute spines. Mouth-angles clothed with several rows of wide, flat
mouth-papillae, (as in Ophiomyces), and with a single row of slender, sharp teeth. On
outer joints of arms near margin of each side arm-plate is a tuft of minute, translucent,
supplementary spines or pedicellariae, which have the form of a long-handled parasol.
They stand a little inside the true arm-spines, which are continuous to the end of the

arm.
Ophiotholia supplicans sp. nov. Plate J, figs. 1-3.

Special marks. Three arm-spines. Pedicellariae beginning about the ninth joint and
arranged in clusters of three or four.

Description of an individual. Diameter of disk (when the arms are raised vertically),
2mm. Height of same, 3.5 mm. Width of arm without spines 0.8 m.m. Length of
arm, about 15 m.m. The mouth-angles are high and narrow, so that the mouth-slits
between them are wide: with their curved sides and sharp tooth at the apex the angles
bear a resemblance to a bird’s head with a pointed bill. Three acute spine-like teeth, out-
side which, and partly encircling the large three-sided jaw plate, as with a frill, is a trans-
verse, curved, erect, close row of eight or ten long, narrow, flat papillae. Again outside
these, and on the jaws and mouth-frames are three parallel transverse rows of erect foliate
papillae —the first row has six papillae, which are smaller than some of those beyond,
but, like them flattened and widest at the free end; the second row is similar; while the
third usually consists only of two papillae much larger and wider than the others. These
rows quite obscure the base of the mouth-angle and mouth-shields. In general, the
arrangement is like that of Ophiomyces frutectosus. The above numbers are the maxi-
mum ; some angles have fewer papillae; not more than four in a transverse row. In the
fresh specimen, under arm-plates are not visible, but, on partial drying, their outlines may
be seen. They are narrow, much longer than wide, wider without than within, with a
small angle within, lateral sides reénteringly curved, and outer side in a broken curve.
In like manner the side arm-plates are seen to meet broadly below, and to form a slight
spine-crest at their outer edge. Figure 2 shows the arm-joint from below, so covered by
the natural skin that the junction of the side arm-plates on the central ridge cannot be
seen. Disk sugar-loaf shaped and sparsely set with minute spines, each of which, in the

l-Ogic, a snake; PoAd/a, a parasol.

FEATURE IN DEEP-SEA OPHIURANS. 5

partly dried specimen, is seen to stand on a small, delicate scale. No radial shields visible,
and there probably are none; which, as in Ophiomyces, may account for the fact that the
arms are raised vertically, encircling the high disk like a fence. Three sharp, slightly
flattened, microscopically rough arm-spines nearly as long as a joint, standing near the
outer edge of side arm-plate, and on a low spine-ridge. At the ninth joint there appears,
on inner side of spine-ridge, and close to base of spines, a cluster of three or four
minute pedicellariae, scarcely 0.5 m.m. long. They are shaped like long-handled parasols,
or slender-stalked agarics (fig. 3) with along shaft, surmounted by a disk divided into
symmetrical radiating flutings, and with a slight bulb at the base articulated to a little
mamelon. They are glassy and translucent, and naturally are enveloped in a skin-bag
which, however, is easily stripped off, leaving them free, as shown in the figures. They
are found on all the outer joints, to the tip of arm. The tentacles are long, smooth and
translucent. The second mouth-tentacle bas four flat scales similar to mouth-papillae.
The next two pairs have each two smaller scales, one on the side arm-plate, the other on
the under arm-plate. Each pore beyond has one long, spine-like scale on its inner edge.
“ Challenger,” Station 296, S. W. of Juan Fernandez; 1825 fathoms; 1 specimen.

OPHIOHELUS,’ gen. nov.

Disk covered with a delicate, film-like scaling, without radial shields. Arm-bones com-
posed of two halves like curved bars, lying side by side, joined at their ends and enclosing
an oval hole. Mouth-papillae spiniform and arranged in a single row; teeth similar ;
no tooth-papillae. On the outer joints of the arm, the true arm-spines cease, and are
replaced by two or more rows of minute spines or pedicellariae, which have the form of
a long-handled parasol.

Ophiohelus umbella sp. nov. Plate I, figs. 4-10 and 16.

Special marks. Parasol-spines long and slender ; about twenty altogether, arranged in
two or three irregular rows. Disk beset with minute spines. One small, spiniform ten-
tacle-scale.

Description of an individual. Diameter of disk 4.5 mm. Arms long, slender and
gradually tapering; in length about ten times diameter of disk. Width of arm without
spines 1m. m. Mouth-angles covered by a thick skin (fig. 5), which must be removed to
see the hard parts, (fig. 6). The armature is all of short, sharp, spine-like papillae. The
small jaw-plate carries a cluster of from three to five, whereof the central one is longest,
and may be considered the lowest tooth; then, outside these, there are three, somewhat
irregularly arranged on either margin, of which the outer one is longest, and may be con-
sidered as a tentacle-scale of the second mouth-tentacle. On taking off the covering skin
(fig. 6), there is seen a small mouth-shield as broad as long, three-sided, with an angle
inward and the inner sides curved. Closely soldered to it are long, curved, side mouth-
shields which grow broader without and are closely united within. First under arm-plate
nearly as large as those beyond, shield-shaped, with inner lateral side a little turned down-
ward, and prolonged in an acute angle. From the third plate onward (fig. 7), the out-

1"Ogic, a snake; 7Aos, a a broad-headed nail.

6 LYMAN ON A NEW STRUCTURAL

line is axe-shaped, with a wide, slightly curved edge without, and a narrow prolongation
within, terminating in a small angle. Side arm-plates (figs. 5, 7), nearly meeting below,
widely separated above; when stripped of skin, they present a base which has a long,
curved projection forward, running along the side of the tentacle-pore and ending in a
spine-ridge. Near tip of arm they have a wedge-shape (fig. 16), with the smaller end
pointing inward and downward, while the wide end is flaring and forms a spine-ridge,
having two or three rows of little elongated mamelons, each bearing a parasol-spine.
Above lies a film-like upper arm-plate, of an ovoid outline with the small end forward.
This, as well as the side plates, is composed of a translucent lime net-work, pierced with
numerous holes. Surrounded by these parts are the very singular arm-bones, which,
instead of the usual disk-like figure, are composed of two long, curved bars, lying side by
side and joined at each end to make the articulating surfaces, the whole forming an elon-
gated oval with terminal articulating surfaces. This embryonic division of the arm-bone
sto its two halves continues to the disk, but the bars become proportionately shorter and
shorter, and the articulating surfaces approach, until, just at the margin of the disk, the
central hole nearly or quite disappears, and the bone pretty much resembles the usual
type. Disk slightly puffed, and uniformly covered with minute, delicate scales, some of
which bear small, short spines (fig. 4). Well magnified, these scales are found to be
translucent and film-like, and oval in shape, not more than 0.5 m.m. long and pierced with
holes (fig. 9). Many of them throw up a small spine, composed of two spiculae joimed
by cross-bars. This scaling is continued quite to the bases of the arms, for there are no
radial-shields. Two wide genital openings extending from outer corner of mouth-shield
to margin of disk. Three slender, tapering, somewhat flattened, translucent arm-spines,
not quite as long as two arm-joints. They are composed of two spicules, slightly serrated
and joined by their edges (fig. 8). At about the eighth joint the normal spines cease,
and are replaced by two or three crowded, irregular rows of parasol-spines or pedicellariae,
about twenty in all. Each of these parasol-spines is covered by a thick skin-bag, on
removing which, the spine is seen to be about 1.2 m.m. long, translucent, with a regular
agaric top radiatingly fluted. It is mounted on a high mamelon projecting from the side
arm-plate (fig. 10). One short, spiniform tentacle-scale at inner angle of lower arm-plate.

Color in alcohol, straw.

“Blake” Expedition of 1878-79; Station 300 off Barbadoes; 82 fathoms; 3 speci-
mens.

Ophiohelus pellucidus sp. nov. Plate I, figs. 11-15.

Special marks. Parasol-spines short and stout; in two rows, three or four in a row.
Disk smooth. No tentacle-scales.

Description of an individual. Diameter of disk, 4mm. Length of arm, 12 m.m.
Width of arm without spines, 1 m.m. Mouth angles prominent and separated by wide
mouth-slits; at apex isa thick, rounded jaw-plate bearing three sharp, spiniform tooth-
papillae, above which are teeth of similar shape; on either side are two spiniform mouth-
papillae, whereof the outer one is longer and serves as a tentacle-scale to the second
mouth-tentacle. The condition of the single specimen did not allow the forms of the
mouth-shields and side mouth-shields to be made out, as they were pretty closely soldered
and more or less covered with skin; they seemed, however, similar to those of O. umbella

FEATURE IN DEEP-SEA OPHIURANS. 7

(fig. 6). Under arm-plates of a long axe-shape, much broader without than within,
with a widely curved outer edge, deep reéntering curves on lateral sides, and a small an-
gle within. Side arm-plates nearly meeting below, widely separated above, having a fee-
ble spine-ridge on their outer margin; before partly drying the specimen it is hard to
make out their outline. No upper arm-plates, so that the curious double arm-bones show
through the translucent skin (fig. 12). Disk, soft and delicate, slightly puffed, covered uni-
formly with scales so very thin that they can only be seen under the microscope by a
cross-light. No radial shields. Three nearly equal, sharp, somewhat flattened, arm-spines,
about as long as an arm-joint and a half. When cleaned with potash they appear as two
parallel spiculae united by cross-bars (fig. 15). At the ninth joint there still are three
spines standing near the outer margin of the side arm-plate, but at a large angle to the
arm, and just inside their base is a single minute parasol-spine, or pedicellaria, about
0.6 m.m. long; and stouter and with a larger head than in O. wmbella. On the joints
beyond, there are no longer any common spines, but, instead, two close rows of parasol-
spines, three or four in each row (fig. 13). Tentacles large, long, smooth and not pro-
vided with scales.

Color in alcohol, translucent bluish-white.

“Challenger,” Station 175, near Fiji Islands, 1550 fathoms ; 1 specimen.

Here follow six new species, not included in my Prodrome of the “ Challenger ” Ophiu-
ridae, published in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoélogy (Vol. V, No. 7 and
Vol. VI, No. 2). Of Ophiacantha, Ophiopeza and Ophiactis, there is one representative
each ; and there are three new genera, Ophiocymbium, Ophiochytra and Ophiambix, each
with a single representative. Among Ophiuridae and Astrophytidae the entire number
of new species brought home by the “ Challenger ” is 167 ; and of new genera, 20.

OpniocyMBIUM! gen. nov.

Disk flat and covered with delicate overlapping scales, without radial shields externally
visible. It overlies and is scarcely attached to the arms, like the borders of a Basque cap;
and there seem to be no genital openings. Arm-spines along outer edge of side arm-
plates. On jaw-plate, a tuft of small spines which correspond to teeth and tooth-papillae.
Mouth-papillae squarish aud arranged in a close line. Tentacle-pores very large ; those of
the second mouth-tentacles set in a socket, much like the rest.

Ophiocymbium cavernosum sp. nov.

Special marks. Four arm-spines. ‘Two or three disk-scales in the length of 1 m.m.
Side mouth-shields small and not meeting within.

Description of an individual. Diameter of disk, 7.5m.m. Arms broken, but appar-
ently about three times the diameter of the disk. Width of arm, without spines, 1.2 m.m.
At apex of mouth-angle is a boss-like jaw-plate bearing a cluster of four or five short, blunt,
irregularly placed spines, which correspond to teeth and tooth-papillae ; inside these, and
along the margin of the wide jaws, on either side, is a close line of three or four flat,
squarish mouth-papillae, whereof the outermost stands on the margin of the socket of the

1'Ogis, a snake; KyuBior, a flat cup.

8 LYMAN ON A NEW STRUCTURAL

second mouth-tentacle, while the opposite margin, formed by a portion of the side mouth-
shield, bears two flattened, spine-like tentacle-scales. Mouth-shields small and of a rounded
heart-shape ; length to breadth, 1:1. Side mouth-shields small, wide without, but narrow
and not meeting within. First under arm-plate pretty large and wide, three-sided, with an
angle inward. Those beyond are shaped like an axe, with a wide, curved cutting-edge,
and a narrow body pointing inward. The narrowness of the inner portion comes from the
encroachment of the large tentacle-pores. Side arm-plates long but not prominent; meet-
ing above and below. Upper arm-plates small and triangular with an angle inward.
Disk thin and flattened, with a tender skin covered by very thin, delicate, overlapping
scales; two or three in the length of 1 m.m. No radial shields can be seen from the
outside. There are apparently large genital openings, but these are merely the creases
on either side of the arm; for, in reality, the under disk surface, with a very delicate
scaling, is continuous over the arm, and there are no genital openings in their usual
position. Four delicate, sharp, somewhat flattened, arm-spines which, though placed on
outer edge of side arm-plates, have a considerable lateral motion. No tentacle-scales
except to the mouth-tentacles.

Color in alcohol; disk, pale greenish-gray ; arms, straw.

“ Challenger,” Station 157, east of Kerguelen Islands; 1950 fathoms ; 1 specimen.

OpntocHyTRA | gen. nov.

Disk covered with little, overlapping scales, and small radial shields. Teeth: no tooth-
papillae: a line of squarish, close-set mouth-papillae on each side. Large side arm-plates,
which meet above and below, and bear on their outer edge small spines, which, however,
stand at nearly a right angle to the arm.

Ophiochytra epigrus sp. noy. Plate II, figs. 17-19,

Special marks. Two small peg-like arm-spines. One tentacle-scale. Very small
radial shields, wider than long.

Description of an individual. Diameter of disk, 5.5 mm. Length of arm about
13mm. Width of arm, without spines, 1.2 m.m. Teeth small, wide and short, closely
soldered to a small and very thin jaw-plate. On either side of mouth-angle, a close row of
three or four flattened, squarish mouth-papillae, whereof the outermost is largest and acts
as tentacle-scale to the second mouth-tentacle. Mouth-shields small, of a pointed heart-
shape, with the angle inward; length to breadth 0.8: 0.6. Side mouth-shields long, and
extending far beyond the mouth-shields, tapering inward where they nearly or quite meet.
First under arm-plate about as broad as long, with a curved, or slightly angular outer
side, and a tapering angle inward; the plates beyond are axe-shaped, much wider with-
out than within, bounded without by a curve, on the lateral sides by reéntering curves,
and within by an obtuse angle. Side arm-plates long and meeting broadly above and
below, thickened on their outer edge, but not flarmg. Upper arm-plates small, with three
nearly equal sides, and an angle inward. Disk round, slightly arched, covered above with
pretty reeular, rounded overlapping scales, two or three in the length of 1 m.m.; and below

1*Ogic, a snake; yizpa, a flat vase.

FEATURE IN DEEP-SEA OPHIURANS. 9

by larger and more angular scales. Radial shields very small, wider than long, and touch-
ing. Genital openings large, extending from mouth-shield to margin of disk. Two
very short, peg-like arm-spines standing on outer edge of side arm-plates, but at nearly
aright angle to arm. One oval tentacle-scale.

Color in alcohol, pale greenish gray; arms lighter.

“ Challenger,” Station 276, near Low Archipelago; 2550 fathoms, 1 specimen.

This solitary representative is highly interesting as almost the only deep-sea Ophiuran
found by the “Challenger” in the immense distance between the Sandwich Islands and
the S. W. coast of South America.

Ophiacantha placentigera sp.nov. Plate II, figs. 20-22.

Special marks. One very large, flat, tentacle-scale. Six cylindrical, tapering, nearly
smooth arm-spines. At inner point of each under arm-plate is a diamond-shaped raised
figure.

Description of an individual. Diameter of disk 9.5 mm. Width of arm, close to
disk without spines, 2m.m. Five spaced mouth-papillae on each side of mouth angle,
the two outermost, large, squarish and flat, the three inner ones more pointed ; and the one
at the apex short and blunt. Mouth-shields broad triangular, with rounded corners, and
a blunt angle inward. Side mouth-shields long and large, nearly or quite meeting within,
where they taper; broad without where they join the side arm-plates and curve somewhat
round the mouth-shield. Under arm plates of a wide axe-shape, with a curve without,
reéntering curves on the lateral sides, and an obtuse angle within. At the innermost
point on the median line, is a small raised figure in form of a transverse diamond. Side
arm-plates wide and thick, meeting fully below, just touching above. Upper arm-plates
broad diamond-shape, with outer and inner angles somewhat rounded, and with a central
longitudinal ridge; length to breadth, 1.5: 2. Disk flat and thick, closely set above with
short, thick, rounded, thorny stumps, four or five in 1 m.m. long, those in the centre being
smaller; near the margin they are shorter; and below they take the form of scattered
grains. Radial-shields small, of a short ovoid shape, widely separated and diverging
inward. Six long cylindrical, scarcely rough, slightly tapering arm-spines ; those above
and below shorter than the two middle ones, which are as long as two arm-joints. One
large, flat, wide, smooth, tooth-like tentacle-scale on the outer edge of the side arm-plate.

Color in alcohol, very pale brown.

“Challenger,” Station 175, near Fiji Islands; 1350 fathoms; 1 specimen.

O29 «

Ophiopeza aequalis sp. nov. Plate II, figs. 25-25.

Special marks. Disk uniformly covered, including radial shields, by a close granulation.
Ten flat crowded arm-spines nearly equal, except the lowest, which is larger.

Description of an individual. Diameter of disk 25 mm. Length of arm about
150 m.m. Width of same, close to disk, without spines, 5m.m. Fourteen to seventeen
flattened, crowded mouth-papillae to each angle; those withm small and pointed; the
two outermost on either side much the broadest. Mouth-shield short, rounded, heart-
shaped, with a blunt angle inward. Length to breadth, 4:4. Side mouth-shields very
small, occupying the outer lateral corners of the mouth-shield. Under arm-plates wider

10 LYMAN ON A NEW STRUCTURAL

than long, with a rounded, truncated angle within; slight reéntering curves on the lateral
sides, and the outer edge curved. Side arm-plates, short and thick, with cleanly curved
outer margin; separated above by the large upper arm-plates which are much broader
than long, and strongly arched, with outer side straight, except at the corners where it is
rounded ; length to breadth 4.5:1.3. Disk thick but flat, with a notch over the arms;
it is covered, including radial shields and space next mouth-papillae, with an even, fine gran-
ulation; thirteen grains in 1 m.m. long. Genital openings long, extending from outer
edge of mouth-shield nearly to margin of disk. Ten short, flat arm-spines with rounded
ends, about two-thirds as long as a side arm-plate, except the lowest which is longer and
larger. ‘Two small, round tentacle-scales, whereof one covers the base of the lowest arm-
spine.

Color in alcohol nearly white.

“ Challenger,’ Station 219, N. E. of New Guinea; 152 fathoms; 1 specimen.

This species agrees in the number of disk-grains with O. Yoldii, but has twice as many
arm-spines. O. fallax and O. aster agree with each other as to grains, (about twenty-five
in the length of 1 m.m.), O. aster, however, has six arm-spines, instead of eight, and the
entire mouth-angle, including mouth-shield, is closely granulated. Finally O. Petersi has
about eighteen grains in the length of 1 m.m., six arm-spines, and naked radial shields.

Ophiactis pectorale, sp. nov. Plate II, figs. 26-28.

Special marks. Disk without spmes, and covered with thick, rounded scales, whereof
the largest are near the radial shields. Two small tentacle-scales.

Description of an individual. Diameter of disk, 7 mm. Length of arm about
38 m.m. Width of same, close to disk, without spines, 2m.m. Three large, flat, irreg-
ular mouth-papillae on either side of the mouth angle; and one long, thick, blunt papilla,
or tooth, at the apex. Mouth-shields slightly swollen, wide diamond-shaped, with rounded
angles and a slight lobe without; length to breadth, 1:1. Side mouth-shields short, wide
and of nearly equal width, meeting fully within. First under arm-plate small, longer
than wide, five-sided with rounded angles and curved outer edge; beyond, the plates are
much broader than long, with an ill-marked angle within, short deep réentermg curves on
the lateral sides, and outer side long and cleanly curved. Side arm-plates short; nar-
rowly separated above and below. Upper arm-plates much wider than long, thick,
slightly arched, with a broad rounded angle within, acute angles on the lateral sides, and
outer edge gently curved. Disk thick, having deep radiating constrictions in the inter-
brachial spaces, extending even to the centre:

it is covered with large, thick, flat,
rounded, overlapping scales; those in the centre being much finer than those without,
and the largest are arranged in rows radiating from the radial shields. These are large
and stout, about as broad as long, and of an irregular triangular shape, with the outer
end rounded; length to breadth 1.4 : 1.1; they are separated by a row of two or three
large, rounded over-lapping scales. On the under surface the scaling is much finer than
above. Four or five short, blunt, cylindrical, slightly tapering arm-spines; upper ene
longest and somewhat longer than an arm-joimt. ‘Two tentacle-scales, one small and lip-
like, on the under arm-plate; the other oval and on the side arm-plate.
Color in alcohol,—straw.

FEATURE IN DEEP-SEA OPHIURANS. iat

“ Challenger,” Station 214, N. E. of Celebes; 500 fathoms; 1 specimen.
This species stands nearest O. cuspidata, from which it differs in the scaling of the
disk, and by having two tentacle-scales.

OPHIAMBIX ! gen. nov.

Disk flat; arms wide and flat; and both beset above with sharp grains, or spines. No
radial shields or upper arm-plates externally visible. Small, sharp, mouth-papillae and
teeth; no tooth-papillae. Tentacle-pores very large. Side arm-plates widely separated
above and below, but occupying a considerable part of under surface of arm. Arm-spines
translucent, hollow, and with an uneven surface.

Ophiambizx aculeatus sp. nov. Plate I, figs. 29-31.

Special marks. On upper side of disk and arms, sharp grains, which increase to short
spines on margin. Interbrachial spaces below delicately scaled. Three sharp arm-spines.

Description of an individual. Diameter of disk 5 mm. Width of arm without
spines, 1.5 m.m. The rather small jaws, which are separated at their outer ends, bear
each, three or four small, sharp, translucent papillae, while the apex is occupied by the
lowest tooth, which is peg-shaped and much larger than the papillae. Mouth-shields very
small, of a transverse oval shape, with a slight peak within. Side mouth-shields short and
small, tapering at each end, and wedged between outer ends of jaws. First under arm-
plate nearly as large as those beyond, somewhat longer than broad, bounded within by
an obtuse angle, without by a gentle curve, and, on the lateral sides, by reéntering curves.
Length to breadth of 4th plate, 0.6: 0.5. The wide space on either side of the under arm-
plates is occupied partly by the very large tentacle-sockets, and partly by the side arm-
plates which make narrow purtitions between the tentacles, and then enlarge into a strong
but very low spine-crest. Upper surface of arm covered by skin, and evenly set with
sharp, conical grains, about eight in the length of 1mm. Disk much flattened, and
somewhat puffed in the interbrachial spaces; evenly set above with sharp conical grains,
which are similar to those of the arm, and which are continued as minute conical spines,
over the margin. Interbrachial spaces below destitute of spines and covered by a thin,
delicate scaling. No radial-shields are externally visible. Genital openings large, extend-
ing from outer corner of mouth-shield to margin of disk. The extremely flattened arm
bears, on either side, three translucent, hollow, slightly flattened, sharp, tapering arm-
spines, whereof the two upper are as long as two joints, and the lowest about two-thirds
as long. Three or four short, sharp, spine-like tentacle-scales, standing on the margin of
the very large pores, from which protrude simple club-ended tentacles.

Color in alcohol, straw.

“ Challenger,’ Station 175, near Fiji Islands; 1350 fathoms; 1 specimen.

1Odic, a snake; auBié, a cup.

is LYMAN ON NEW DEEP-SEA OPHIURANS.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Pirate I.

Fig. 1. Ophiotholia supplicans; whole animal, seen from the side, with its arms raised vertically,
whereby the mouth-angles are turned down and outward, #

Fig. 2. Ninth arm-joint, seen from the under side; in the centre two large tentacles, each with its
long, spiniform scale ; on each side two regular arm-spines, and a cluster of the peculiar parasol-spines, or
pedicillariae. The central ridge is made by the junction of two side arm-plates, 45

Fig. 3. A parasol-spine stripped of its skin-bag and mounted on its little mamelon, 7,2

Fig. 4. Ophiohelus wmbella; upper side of disk with bases of two arms, showing how the parasol-spines
follow the normal ones ; also the arm-bones, divided in parallel halves, ¢

Fig. 5. Lower side of disk, with mouth, 1°

Fig. 6. A mouth-angle treated with potash, to show the underlying hard parts, On the sides are the
first two under arm-plates, and, in the centre, the closely soldered mouth-shield and side-shields, the sockets
of the second mouth-tentacles on either side, and the jaws, jaw-plate and tooth-papillae within. The little
circles indicate the bases of mouth-papillae, 22

Fig. 7. Two arm-joints, also treated with potash, to show the under and side arm-plates, two arm-spines
in position, and the articulation of the arm-bone above, 18

Fig. 8. An arm-spine stripped of its skin, and showing the two parallel spicules that build it, 48

Fig. 9. Scales of disk, one of them bearing a minute spine, cleaned with potash to show their open
structure, and the mode of growth of the spine, 3%

Fig. 10. A parasol-spine stripped of its skin-bag and mounted on a little mamelon. 174

Fig. 11. Ophiohelus pellucidus; lower side of disk with mouth, showing the tentacles. 1°

Fig. 12. Upper side of disk, exhibiting the extremely delicate scales (to be seen only by a cross-light)
and the arm-bones divided in parallel halves, 4,°

Fig. 13. 9th, 10th and 11th arm-joints stripped of skin. On the 9th are three normal spines and one
parasol-spine ; on the 10th and 11th, only two rows of the latter form, 4°

Fig. 14. A parasol-spine stripped of skin and mounted on its little mamelon, 34

Fig. 15. A normal spine, treated with potash, and showing that it is composed of two spicules like that
of O..umbella, 2,2

Fig. 16. Ophiohelus umbella; a joint close to tip of arm, digested with potash ; seen from above. On
the upper side is the film-like upper arm-plate pierced with numerous holes; to the right and left of it is a
side arm-plate, also of open structure and haying a spine-ridge which consists of two or three crowded,
irregular rows of elongated mamelons. On the right, these mamelons are shown carrying their parasol-

spines. Underneath are the curious, curved, translucent bars that are the two halves of the arm-bone, uni-

ted only at their articulating ends. 27

Pirate I.
Fig. 17. Ophiochytra epigrus, from below, $
Fig. 18. ce from above, 3
Fig. 19. ae cc arm-joints in profile, $
Fig. 20. Ophiacantha placentigera, from below, §
Fig. 21. WY cc from above, §
Fig. 22. a a arm-joints in profile, §
Fig. 23. Ophiopeza equalis, from below, 3
Fig. 24. ce “ from above, $
Fig. 25. ss “ arm-joints in profile, $
Fig. 26. Ophiactis pectorale, from below, $
Fig. 27. & “ from above, §
Fig. 28. ec “ arm-joints in profile, §
Fig. 29. Ophiambix aculeatus, from below, }
Fig. 30. Ke from above, #
Fig. 31. co so arm-joints in profile, }

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OPHIURANS.

1830, ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY,

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID.

LOLIGO PEALIT (LESUEUR).

By W. K. BROOKS.

BOSTON: .

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

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Tue DEVELOPMENT OF THE Squip. Lorico PEA. (LESUEUR).

By W. K. Brooks.

ALTHOUGH several authors have recorded important observations upon various
points in the embryology of the Cephalopoda, our knowledge of the outlines of the
process of development, as a whole, is almost entirely derived from the accounts which
have been given by Killiker and Grenacher. Klliker’s paper contains an elaborate and
exhaustive account of the external changes which are undergone by the developing
embryo of Sepia officinalis, and Grenacher gives an equally valuable and complete history
of the embryo of an unknown species of Decapod Cephalopod. Although these two forms
of embryos are substantially alike in all essential particulars, they differ so greatly in
all the details of the process of development that similar outlme sketches of other
Cephalopods are greatly needed, and until they are furnished we shall not be in a position
to discuss the relation between the young forms of this group and the embryos of other
molluses, or to speculate upon the manner in which the peculiarly direct and complex
form of development exhibited by the Cephalopoda has originated.

The mode of development of the common Squid is essentially like that of Sepia
and Grenacher’s Cephalopod, but in minor points it is different from each of them,
and in many features it seems to be intermediate between them, and although we have
a number of figures, by various writers, of stages in the development of Loligo, there
still remains a need for a continuous account of its history as a basis for comparison
with other Cephalopods, and I hope this paper will furnish part of the necessary material
for a general discussion of the subject.

The eggs and embryos which are described were, with two exceptions, obtained at
the Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, during the
summer of 1879, by dredging in water five or six fathoms deep, in the lower part
of Chesapeake Bay. They were collected through the aid of the steamer Lookout
of the Maryland Fish Commission, under the command of Major T. B. Ferguson, of the
United States Fish Commission, to whom I take pleasure in expressing my thanks for this
and for much more valuable assistance which our party has received from him.

Two of the figures (17 and 18, plate 3) are from embryos which were obtained,
during the summer of 1876, at Mr. Agassiz’s laboratory at Newport.

The youngest egg which I observed is shown, magnified eighty diameters, in plate 1,
fig. 1. It is surrounded by a well-defined wall or egg shell a, outside which was the
gelatinous matter of the egg capsule. The egg shell is transparent, elastic, and is
reflected inwards a little at one end, around an opening m, which may probably be
regarded as a micropyle. As the embryo grows, the space inside the egg shell

4 W. K. BROOKS ON THE

enlarges, and the shell itself is stretched and pushed out, away from the embryo,
as if this were hollowing out a place for itself in the surrounding gelatinous matter ;
but as both the outer and inner surfaces of the egg shell are well marked and clearly
visible, there can be no doubt that it is a real membrane, and the albumen of the
egg capsule must therefore either be absorbed through it or drawn in through the
micropyle. One axis of the egg is nearly twice as long as the other; the micropyle
is situated at one of the ends, and the two ends are alike in outline. The yolk y,
is elongated im about the same proportion with the egg shell, and the long axis is
nearly parallel to that of the egg shell, but its surface is not concentric with the
inner surface of the latter, since one end of the yolk is much more rounded than
the other. The poimted end is the one upon which the blastoderm makes its appearance,
and is invariably turned towards the micropyle of the egg shell.

The space b, between the egg shell and the surface of the yolk, is filled by a clear,
transparent, albuminous fluid, which does not, at first, present much difference from that
outside the egg shell, but as the embryo develops, the albumen inside the shell gradually
becomes liquid. A number of small, spherical, highly refractive particles were visible in
this fluid, and they were especially abundant around the micropyle, and on the surface
of the yolk. Owing to the spherical shape of the egg I was not able to use a mag-
nifying power of sufficient strength to determine whether they were spermatozoa or not.

The yolk is transparent, highly refractive, and with a low power it appears perfectly
homogeneous, but with higher powers it is seen to be packed with oil drops of various
sizes, with very faintly marked edges, and a refractive index about the same as that of
the more fluid portions of the yolk. At the earliest stage which I found, the blastoderm
c, was well developed, and was perched, like a cap, upon the pointed end of the yolk,
which, as already stated, is the end which is nearest the micropyle. The cells of the
blastoderm are not very well marked in a living egg, but when treated with borate
of carmine fluid, to which a very small quantity of one-tenth per cent. solution of osmic
acid has been added, they become very conspicuous. Figure 4, plate 1, represents the
edge of the blastoderm of the egg shown in figure 1, after it has been thus treated.
The centre of the germinal area is occupied by a number of small spherules which are
irregularly spherical, and each of which contains a very large nucleus.

As we pass from the centre of the cap towards the periphery, the spherules become
larger, and at its growing edge they are replaced by large flattened pyramids b, b, which
radiate out on all sides, upon the surface of the yolk a, and gradually pass imto the
surface of the yolk, without any distinct boundary at their outer ends.

Careful examination shows that the segmentation spherules are pretty regularly
arranged with reference to these pyramids. Just inside the broad inner ends of the
pyramids there is a ring of large spherules, c, equal in number to the pyramids, and
presenting every indication of having been just formed by the separation of the proximal
end of each pyramid from the larger distal portion. Inside these there is a second
ring of spherules, d@’, about half as large, and exactly twice as numerous as the first set,
and so placed that a pair of the spherules of the second set are pretty nearly in a
straight line with one of the first set and the base of a pyramid. Each pair of this set
is obviously the product of the division into two of a spherule like those of the set ¢,

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID. 5

formed by separation, somewhat earlier, from the end of a pyramid. Inside this set is
another series, 7”, equal in number to the set d’, and arranged like this set, in pairs along
the radii which end in the pyramids. Inside there is another set d”, of the same kind, so
that, as we pass inwards in the line of each pyramid continued, we have the following
series: 1, the pyramids; 2, one large spherule, ¢; 5, two spherules, d’; 4, two spherules,
d”; 5, two spherules, d’”. I was not able to trace the arrangement any farther on account
of the spherical shape of the egg, but the last series, d”, was some distance from the
centre of the blastoderm, which appeared to be occupied by somewhat smaller spherules
than d”. Although the earlier stages of seementation were not observed, the phenomena
presented at this stage are sufficient to show that, as Lankester has stated (Observations
on the Development of the Cephalopoda), the egg of Loligo undergoes substantially the
same form of segmentation as that described by Kolliker in the case of Sepia. My
figures | and 2 obviously represent an egg a little older than Kolliker’s figure 6, taf. 1,
(Entwickelungsgeschichte der Cephalopoden) as copied in Bronn’s Klassen und
Ordnungen des Thierreichs, Band 1n, taf. exxii, fig. 15. Lankester states that the
segmentation is not as regular in Loligo as it is in Sepia, but the arrangement of the
spherules in our species seems to be perfectly regular, and the only important differences
from Sepia are the greater relative size of the nuclei, and the separation of the radiating
pyramids from each other by areas of unsegmented yolk, figure 2, a, a, a, in Loligo,
while the pyramids are almost in contact with each other in Kolliker’s figures, as copied
by Bronn.

In an optical section of the egg at this stage, the blastoderm, figure 2, c, is seen to be
formed of a single layer of large spherules, resting directly upon the yolk, d, from
which they are sharply separated in the centre, but less sharply at the edges. In the
species which Lankester studied, the blastoderm at about the same stage as our figure I,
is several cells thick at its edge, (see Lankester’s figure 1, x), but this is not the case in
our species.

Figure 3 is a somewhat older egg in the same position as figure 1; a, is the egg shell;
b, the space occupied by the albumen; c, the blastoderm; d, the yolk; and m, the
micropyle as before. The blastoderm now covers a considerable area at the formative
pole of the egg, and its edge is marked by two parallel lines around the yolk. The
outermost of these lines appears to be the growing edge of the layer of ectoderm,
which has been formed by the subdivision and increase of the segmentation spherules of
an earlier stage, and the second or inner line I believe to be the growing edge of the
lower layer of the blastoderm. The surface of the yolk below the blastoderm and
inside this second line is covered by a number of large, well-defined, nucleus-like bodies,
the autoplasts of Lankester, which are strictly confined to the area inside the inner
one of the two circular lines noticed, and in no case reach to or beyond the growing
edge of the blastoderm. The appearances indicate that these bodies are the nuclei of the
lower layer or endoderm, which is in process of formation on the surface of the yolk
under the outer layer or ectoderm, but covering .a smaller area, so that the ectoderm
projects beyond the lower layer a little around the entire growing edge.

According to Lankester’s observations (page 39 and plate 4, fig. 1), the autoplasts
of the egg of Loligo cover the surface of the egg far beyond the growing edge of the

6 W. K. BROOKS ON THE

blastoderm. He says that “when the cap of klastoplasts (ectoderm), has spread one-third
over the egg, its marginal cells grow by a regular increase in size, and consequent
fission, taking place equally all round the margin. But before the superficial extension
of the cap of klastoplasts has commenced, there appear in a deeper stratum of yolk
pellucid nuclei, at first arranged in a circle around the cap of klastoplasts.” This is not
the case in our species, where the autoplasts appear inside of, instead of outside of, the
cap of segmentation spherules.

Lankester goes on to say, however, that he believes that in the eggs of Loligo there
may be, according to season, an increase of nucleated cleavage segments, or, on the other
hand, of these bodies — the autoplasts— they being reciprocally vicarious within small
limits. If this is the case in one species at different seasons, it is not improbable that
there may be still more difference between our species and the one which he studied ; and
to this difference may be due the lack of agreement between his observations and my
own.

The outlines of the surface cells are now very obscure until treated with re-agents,
but under the action of carmine and osmic acid, they become very conspicuous as shown
in plate 1, figure 5. The growing edge is now formed by a row of large polygonal
nucleated cells, b, with well-marked outlines upon the sides which are turned towards the
formative pole, but with faint outlines fading gradually into the unaltered yolk a, upon
their distal sides. These cells are evidently growing by assimilation of the yolk sub-
stance, and are what remain of the pyramids shown in fig. 4. Inside these there is a
row of smaller polygonal cells, which are arranged in pairs along the radii of the larger
cells of the first row, as in figure 4, but the regularity of this arrangement is not
quite so perfect as it was at the stage shown in that figure.

Inside this there are concentric rows, d, of much smaller cells, which have a somewhat
peculiar arrangement; they are usually irregular pentagons, but some of them have six
or four sides; their shape is nearly triangular, one end being pointed and the other blunt,
and they are arranged in pairs, with the blunt ends in contact.

The nuclei, which are near the centres of the cells of the series b and c, are at the
blunt ends of the cells of the rows d, so that the nuclei of each pair of cells are nearly
in contact. This peculiar arrangement indicates very clearly that each pair of cells of
the series d, has been formed from a cell like that in the series ¢, by fission along a line
parallel to one of the original radii of segmentation.

The condition of the surface cells of the blastoderm, at this stage of development, is
thus seen to have been reached in a very simple manner, by cleavage in four ways, as
follows: first the blastoderm is cut up by radial lines of cleavage into a number of
radiating pyramids; second, the central ends of these pyramids are cut off by cleavage
at right angles to the first; third, each of the cells thus formed is divided into two by a
cleavage parallel to the first; and fourth, each of the resulting cells is divided into two
by a cleavage parallel to the first and third.

The next embryo which is figured, plate 1, fig. 6, has advanced very far beyond
the stage shown in fig. 3, and the position of the body of the future Squid is
now indicated. The blastoderm has grown down around the yolk, which is now almost
entirely covered, except at a point y, directly opposite the formative pole, where

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID. 7

the process of segmentation was initiated. The growing edge of the blastoderm is
marked by a ridge 6, which is ciliated. This stage of development corresponds pretty
nearly to the one given by Grenacher (Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Cephalopoden)
in his figure 3; and this figure has been copied and referred to as a trochosphere, and
the line of cilia around the edge of the blastoderm has been spoken of as a rudimentary
velum. Grenacher does not himself suggest any such comparison, which is certainly
unwarranted and without basis, as there is no possibility of an homology between
the molluscan velum and a ciliated line, which, if it be homologous with any part of the
body of an ordinary mollusc, can be compared only with the gastrula-mouth or orifice of
invagination, a portion of the body which has no connection with the velum in any known
molluse.

At the stage shown in fig. 6, the embryo has become bilaterally symmetrical about a
plane which passes through the long axis of the egg, and the blastoderm has become raised
into a circular area, the mantle, m, on that end of the egg where segmentation began.

The primitive condition of the mantle, as shown by the figure, will be seen to be quite
different from its condition at the same stage in Grenacher’s embryo, as shown
in his fig. 3, in which the mantle area is indicated by the presence of numerous
chromatophores, while the margins of the area are not at all marked, and the elevation
from the general surface of the yolk is very slight. In our species, the chromatophores
do not make their appearance until much later, and the margin of the mantle-area
is well defined at the time of its first appearance. Judging from Bronn’s copies of
K6lliker’s figures, the mantle of Sepia seems to make its appearance about as it does
in Loligo, which it resembles much more than it does that of Grenacher’s form.

The rudimentary arms are indicated in fig. 6, by a slight ridge or projection, a, upon
each side of the embryo, a little nearer the nutritive pole of the yolk than the formative
pole. The outlme of the yolk, represented by a heavy black line in the figure, is
no longer regularly rounded, but begins to conform to the shape of the body of the
embryo, a decided prominence projecting into the mantle-area; and a large, rounded,
projecting eminence on each side of the body in the space between the arm a, and the
mantle, m, marking the position of the future eye-stalk.

The history of the later stages of development shows that the end of the egg which
is uppermost in this figure, and which is the end where segmentation began, becomes
what is usually spoken of as the posterior end of the body of the adult, the extremity
opposite the head. The surface which is shown in the figure, is that which is usually
called ventral, the surface which carries the siphon. The lower end of the figure
is that which is occupied by the head in the adult animal.

Without entering into a discussion of the homology of the Cephalopod body, which
I shall return to at the end of this paper, I shall, for the present,—accepting the
views of Leuckart and Huxley, which I believe to be essentially correct, — speak of
that surface which is uppermost in fig. 6, as the dorsal surface; of the opposite end,
as ventral ; of the surface shown in this figure, as posterior ; and of the surface opposite the
siphon, as anterior. Fig. 6 is therefore a posterior, instead of a ventral, view.

Figure 7 is an opposite or anterior view of a somewhat older embryo. The mantle, m,
is more elevated, and its margin is quite sharply defined, and nearly circular, when seen

8 W. K. BROOKS ON THE

in a surface view. In the centre of the mantle area there is a shallow circular depression,
the shell area, s. The eye-stalk is much more prominent than it was at the previous
stage, and the layer of integument which covers it is very much thickened, and the
surface of the yolk at this point much further from the surface of the body than
it was at the stage shown in fig. 6. Near the centre of the eye-stalk, a depression
or invagination of the integument marks the position of the developing eye ; which
originates, as has been well described by Lankester and Grenacher, by the involution
of the ectoderm of the eye-stalk. Between the mantle and the eye-stalk on each side of
the body, another elevation or ridge has made its appearance, the outer siphon-fold, si.

Fig. 8 is a view of the left side of an embryo of about the same age as the one shown in
fig. 7. As before, m is the mantle; e, the eyestalk; b, the growing edge of the blasto-
derm; y, the uncovered end of the yolk; and a, the arm-ridge. The next two figures,
plate 1, fig. 9, and plate 2, fig. 10, are of especial interest, smce they represent two views
of an embryo which exhibits more clearly than any other which has been. figured, the
relation between the Cephalopoda and the ordinary Gasteropod Molluscs. The embryo
seems to be in substantially the same stage of development as the one shown in Grenacher’s
figs. 6 and 7, but the differences between the two are very considerable, as well as very
instructive.

Kolliker’s figs. 17, taf. 1, and 25, taf. 2, as copied in Bronn’s “ Klassen u. Ordnungen,”
also represent an embryo at about the same stage of development; but the Sepia embryo
differs much more from the Loligo embryo than Grenacher’s form does. The latter
and Sepia are extreme forms, with Loligo intermediate between them in most respects,
but with much closer resemblance to. the first than to Sepia. Plate 11, fig. 10, is a
slightly oblique view of the anterior surface of an embryo which, like those shown in
figs. 6 and 7, has its dorsal surface above, and which is drawn in such a position as to
show rather more of the left side than of the right. Plate 1, fig. 9, is a foreshortened
view of the same embryo, as seen from above, in such a position as to exhibit the dorsal
and posterior surface.

The mantle, m, fig. 9, is now quite sharply defined, and its posterior edge, m, fig. 10,
begins to overhang a little, arching over the rudimentary mantle cavity, which is
thus seen to be formed in Loligo, as in most Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs, by the
outgrowth of a flap of integument from the surface of the body. A reference to Gren-
acher’s figures will show that the origin of the mantle cavity was quite different from
this in the form which he studied. At a corresponding stage (see his figs. 6 and 7), the
mantle area is much larger than in Loligo, and covers almost one half of the body of
the embryo, and is more developed externally than it is in Loligo at the stage shown in
our fig. 15. The mantle cavity, however, is barely indicated, and when it makes its
appearance it is not formed, as it is in Loligo, by the outgrowth of a mantle-fold, but by
the involution of the integument under the mantle, after the latter has spread over a
considerable area of the body. The resemblance between the manner in which the
mantle cavity is formed in most Gasteropods and Lamallibranchs, and the way it is formed
in Loligo, seem to indicate that the latter presents the primitive mode of development
among the Cephalopoda ; and the way it is formed in Grenacher’s species must, therefore,
be regarded as a modification of the primitive mode which has been retained by Loligo.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID. 9

It is interesting to notice that there are other groups of Mollusca, among which the
mantle cavity is produced in more than. one way. In Cyclas, Pisidium, and many other
Lamellibranchs, a fold grows out from the body, and thus converts the space between
the fold and the body into a mantle cavity precisely as in Loligo, but in Anodonta the
shells are quite well advanced in their development before the mantle cavity is formed,
and when this is produced it is formed by the retraction of the body wall into the space
between the shells; and we have in Anodonta almost precisely the same modification of
the primitive history which Grenacher describes in the Cephalopoda. In the oyster again,
we have the mantle cavity produced by a process which is about midway between that
met with in Cyclas, and that presented by Anodonta.

Projecting from under the overhanging edge of the mantle, on the posterior surface of
the body, at the stage shown in figs. 9 and 10, are the rudimentary gills, g, one on each
side of the middle line. They are formed as little papillae, or outgrowths from the
surface of the body, and are covered with cilia. In position and method of formation
they are very much like a single pair of the gill-tentacles of a Lamellibranch embryo,
and their embryonic history would seem to indicate that they are to be regarded as
greatly specialized gill filaments, rather than structures comparable to the entire gill of a
Gasteropod or Lamellibranch.

The shell area in the middle of the mantle is now a deep pit, fig. 9, s, and its edges
have begun to fold towards each other, as shown in fig. 10, s. As Lankester has
pointed out, it originates in exactly the same manner as the shell-gland of a Gasteropod
or Lamellibranch, and is strictly homologous with these structures.

The eye stalks, es, figs. 9 and 10, are now very conspicuous projections from the
sides of the dorsal end of the embryo, and the eye-invaginations are well developed,
and their external openings much smaller than the inner portion of the invaginated
sac. In fig. 10, the left eye is shown in a surface view, and the right eye in profile.
The lateral folds of the siphon, fig. 10, si’, are a little more definite than they were
during the previous stage, and the two inner siphon-folds, fig. 9, si, have made their
appearance on the posterior surface of the body. They are not only separate from each
other, but widely separated at this time from the lateral folds. Opposite the outer
ends of the inner siphon-folds the ears, fig. 9, er, have mdae their appearance, as two
almost spherical invaginations of the integument, communicating with the exterior by
large openings. Nearly opposite the inner folds of the siphon, on the median line of the
anterior surface of the body, the mouth, mo, fig. 10, is now visible as a blind sac with
a large opening pointing downwards. ;

On each side of the mouth, there is a very faintly-marked undulating line or
fold of the surface of the body, v, which runs from a point near the corner of
the mouth, out into the eye-stalk, crossing the outer ventral edge of the eye. The
line makes two well-marked dorsal undulations, and one ventral one, the latter near
the middle of the line. Any small particles which are floating in the vicinity of this line
are thrown into active motion in the direction of the arrows, thus showing the presence of
cilia too small to be visible by any magnifying power which can be used. The position of
this line, its relation to the mouth and eye-stalk, and the presence of cilia along it, all
indicate that it is to be regarded as a rudimentary velum.

10 W. K. BROOKS ON THE

The ridge, a, of figs. 6 and 7, is now divided into three arms, fig. 9, a, wpon each
side of the body, about half-way between the mantle and the opposite pole of the egg,
and therefore much nearer the mantle than at the stage of fig. 6. The yolk is now
entirely surrounded by the blastoderm, and has departed still further from the regularly
curved shape of fig. 1. The prolongations into the mantle and the eye-stalks are
well defined, and the portion of the yolk contaimed within the body of the embryo,
which is not quite half the whole, is separated by a well-marked constriction, just
dorsal to the arms from the remainder, which is now nearly spherical. The thin
layer of blastoderm which covers this external portion of the yolk is split into two layers,
separated from each other by a cavity which is largest along the median plane of the body,
and which is traversed by a few branched corpuscles, by the contraction of which, rythmical
waves of the outer layer are set in motion on the surface of the yolk. The fact that the
mantle is dorsal to the row of arms at this period is worthy of notice.

The next figure, plate 2, fig. 11, is a view of the posterior surface of a somewhat older
embryo, represented, like the preceding ones, with its dorsal surface above. ‘The mantle,
m, now overhangs the body considerably at the sides, as well as posteriorly, and the
portion of the yolk which projects into it is more sharply marked off than before, and
is drawn out to a point at the dorsal end. The eye-stalks, es, and their yolk
protuberances, are much more prominent, and the constriction which separates the
body from the external yolk is much more marked. The three pairs of arms are a little
larger than before, and a cavity is visible in each of them. The inner siphon folds, si,
have lengthened, and their outer ends now point towards the outer folds, sz’, from which,
however, they are still widely separated. The most important differences between this
and the preceding stage are differences of proportion and relative size, which are
sufficiently well shown in the drawings, and do not call for description.

Plate 2, fig. 12, is a posterior view of an older embryo, figured with its dorsal
surface below instead of above, in order to facilitate comparison with the figures which
follow, and with the adult animal. The mantle, m, has extended its edge sufficiently to
form a very well defined mantle-cavity, within which the bases of the gill tentacles, g, are
now contained. The tail fins, f, have made their appearance upon the dorsal surface of
the mantle, and the rectum, ve, is now present as a raised, longitudinal, hollow rod, upon
the median line of the posterior surface between the gills. The two inner siphon folds,
si, have met upon the middle of the body, and their free edges have bent towards each
other to form the opening of the siphon; but they have not yet united with each other,
and the siphon has the characteristics of that of the adult Nautilus. The inner folds are
still separated from the outer ones, si, si’, but the latter have begun to bend around upon
the posterior surface of the body. The eye-stalks, es, are now extremely prominent and
conspicuous, and the yolk protuberances no longer entirely fill them, but have begun to
decrease in size, thus leaving between the eye and the yolk a space in which the optic
ganglion has made its appearance.

The three pairs of arms, a, are much elongated, and begin to bend away from the
surface of the yolk, which is now divided into three well-marked regions; the external
yolk, y’; the portion within the head region and eye-stalks, y”; and the portion within the

body and mantle, y’”. During its development the embryo has undergone an increase in

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID. null

size, and although the drawing is less enlarged, the embryo shown in fig. 12 is actually
much larger than that shown in fig. 10. The external yolk sac shares in this growth, and
is very much larger at a somewhat later stage than the whole egg was at the beginning of
the process of development.

The points of difference between Loligo, Sepia, and Grenacher’s embryo are more
conspicuous at this stage than at any previous time.

K6lliker’s figures 20, 21, 23, of taf: 11, represent about the same stage as our fig. 12,
and a comparison will show a remarkable difference in all the details of structure, while
the general plan remains much the same.

The body of the embryo is very much smaller as compared with the external yolk,
and is not separated from this by a constriction, but is flattened down upon it. The
blastoderm does not yet cover the yolk, but only extends a short distance beyond the
circle of arms. Five pairs of arms have made their appearance in the Sepia embryo, and
only three pairs are present in Loligo. The outer and inner siphon folds of each side
have been united to each other from their first appearance in Sepia, but in Loligo they
do not unite until after the two inner folds have united on the middle line to form the
mouth of the siphon. The mantle and mantle-cavity of Sepia are about like those of
Loligo. Grenacher’s figs. 8 and 9, taf. 40, are in about the same stage of development;
and comparison will show that while this form is more like Loligo than it is like Sepia,
the differences are still numerous and considerable.

The external yolk is very small, and hardly projects beyond the tips of the arms.
Grenacher, p. 454, is inclined to regard it as entirely wanting, but his “ stirntheil,”’
in figs. 7 and 8, is clearly the same as the external yolk of Loligo, and this again
is obviously the same as that of Sepia. His argument that since the internal yolk of
Sepia is divided into three regions, three divisions must be found in the internal yolk of
his form, and that the “stirntheil” being necessary to make up the three, must therefore
belong to the internal yolk, cannot carry much weight; for at this period the internal
yolk of Loligo is only divided into two regions, although a third afterwards becomes
recognizable. As regards the external yolk, then, Sepia, Loligo, and Grenacher’s embryo
form a series, with Loligo as the intermediate form. Grenacher’s embryo differs from
Sepia, and agrees with Loligo, in having only three pairs of arms at this time. The eye-
stalks are about equally prominent in the three forms, and the period of greatest promi-
nence is about the same in all; but while the prominence began to be conspicuous in
Loligo and Sepia at about the same time, its development is retarded in Grenacher’s embryo
until some time after the siphon folds have all united. The outer and inner siphon folds
unite with each other in Grenacher’s embryo sometime before the two inner folds meet on
the middle line ; while in Loligo, the two inner folds not only meet but unite with each
other before they join the outer folds. In this respect Grenacher’s embryo is intermediate
between Loligo and Sepia, since the two sets of folds are united with each other
from the first in the latter form. As it has four separate folds at one time, Grenacher’s
embryo would seem to resemble Loligo more than it does Sepia, so far as the formation of
the siphon is concerned.

At the stages shown in figs. 8 and 9, the mantle of Grenacher’s embryo covers
almost half the body, and its surface is thickly set with chromatophores, while the mantle-

12 W. K. BROOKS ON THE

cavity is very shallow, and hardly extends beyond the edge of the mantle. In both
Loligo and Sepia, the mantle is much smaller, the chromatophores are wanting, and the
mantle-cavity extends nearly or quite to the dorsal extremity of the body.

The fins of Sepia and of Grenacher’s embryos make their appearance at about the
same time, and are developed later than they are in Loligo.

The fact that three such closely related forms, belonging to the same group of
Cephalopods, differ from each other in the order of development of all organs of the body,
except the otocysts, is a striking comment upon the assumption that the order of
development of parts, as observed in a single species, can give any information as to their
morphological importance, or as to the order in which they were acquired in the evolution
of the group. We must notice, too, that the series which these three forms furnish
when any one organ is taken as a basis of comparison, may be quite different from that
given by another organ, and it is clear, without comment, that we have no information at
present which will allow us to generalize upon such questions as to which of these forms
recapitulates the phylogenetic record most perfectly. There are a number of interesting
points, however, in which all three agree. In all, the halves of the siphon are separate at
first, and all pass through a stage in which the siphon resembles that of a Tetrabranch. In
all, the eyes are at first open pits, like those of the Nautilus, and in all they are at some
time carried upon long stalks. In all there is a time when only four of the five pairs of
arms are present.

Passing now to the next stage in the development of Loligo, plate 11, fig. 15, is a
view of the posterior surface of an embryo somewhat older than in fig. 12. The external
yolk sac, y, has grown so much larger that only a small part of it is shown in this
and the next three figures. The mantle, m, has grown so much that the gills, g, and the
rectum are nearly contained in the mantle-cavity. A constriction across the base of
each gill has separated the branchial heart, h, from the gill proper. The inner folds, s¢,
of the siphon, have united with each other to form the closed siphon tube, and the inner
and outer folds, si, si’, have met and are uniting with each other.

The walls of the otocysts, er, have grown thin, and their cavities have greatly enlarged ;
the otoliths have made their appearance, and the two chambers have begun to move
towards the median line, under the end of the siphon.

The external openings of the otocysts have become constricted to long, tortuous,
ciliated ducts, which are not visible with a low power, and are not shown in the figure.

The eye-stalks, es, are of about the same relative length as in the last figure, but the
yolk prominences which have filled them up to this time are now almost entirely with-
drawn or assimilated, and the cavity of the eye-stalk is nearly filled by the ball of the
eye, e, the optic ganglion, ga, and the white body, wb.

The arms have lengthened, and suckers have appeared upon the longest pair, a”, and a
new pair, a’, have made their appearance upon the posterior or siphonal surface of the
body. In Grenacher’s embryo this pair of arms make their appearance as buds upon the
next pair, a”, but in Loligo they are distinct from the first, and make their appearance as
elevations of the integument upon the surface of the body.

The yolk is now divided into four well-marked revions, the external yolk sac, Oe
which is still nearly spherical; the head yolk, y”, which is pretty nearly cylindrical, and

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID. il

which passes gradually into the external yolk sac; the body-yolk, y’”, much smaller than
the head-yolk, and separated from it abruptly by a well marked change of outline; and
the little mass of yolk, y””, at the dorsal end of the body, constricted off from the mass,
y’, by a deep groove.

Fig. 14, plate 2, represents a view of the posterior surface of a somewhat older embryo,
as seen from the left side.

The mantle is now large and bowl-shaped, and covers the greater part of the body
dorsal to the eye-stalks. Chromatophores now begin to make their appearance around
the posterior side of the edge of the mantle, and those which first appear are of a dark
brown color.

The gills, g, have lengthened considerably, and are divided by constrictions into a
series of enlargements, the dorsal one being much larger than the others, and becoming
the branchial heart. The inner and lateral folds of the siphon have completely united
with each other, and at the point of union the siphon is also united to the body wall, and
the retractor muscle of the siphon, sm, now runs back to unite with the inner anterior
surface of the mantle. The otocysts have almost met each other upon the median line,
under the siphon, and their walls are now very thin. The eye-stalks, es, are most promi-
nent at this stage, and soon begin to disappear.

A comparison of this figure with Grenacher’s figure 10, which represents about the
same stage of development, will show that certain organs are more accelerated in Loligo
than in Grenacher’s species, while others are retarded. The yolk sac of Grenacher’s
embryo has disappeared, while it is as large as ever in Loligo. The mantle is much
further developed in Grenacher’s embryo, and covers the whole base of the siphon, which
is almost entirely uncovered in Loligo, even when the animal is retracted into the mantle.
The posterior or siphonal pair of arms, a’, are well developed in Loligo, and just making
their appearance in Grenacher’s embryo as buds from the next pair of arms.

The embryo shown, from the right side, in the next figure, plate 3, fig. 15, has assumed
the general form of the adult, and the eye-stalks have almost disappeared, although, as
shown in a posterior view, fig. 16, the eyes are very prominent still, and are directed more
towards the ventral surface than they are in the adult.

The mantle now covers about one-half the entire length of the embryo, exclusive
of the yolk-sac, and the neck-cartilage, nc, has made its appearance, forming a support for
the edge of the mantle, on the middle line of the anterior surface of the head. The
posterior surface of the mantle is now pretty well covered wita chromatophores, which
at this stage possess remarkable power of expansion and contraction, and render
the living embryo a very beautiful and wonderful sight under a low magnifying power.
_ They are, as yet, entirely absent from the anterior surface of the mantle.

About this time small polygonal areolations, much like epithelial cells, begin to
make their appearance on the posterior surface of the mantle, and soon spread over
the whole mantle, except the middle line of the anterior surface, as shown in the
figure. Ata later stage, figs. 17 and 18, they cover the head and arms as well as the
mantle, and still later they make their appearance upon the surface of the siphon.

Upon cursory examination, they resemble epithelial cells so much that they might
readily be mistaken for them; but when more carefully examined with a high power,

14 W. K. BROOKS ON THE

they are seen to be due to the presence of minute branching tubes, which, spreading over
the surface of the body and inosculating, divide it up into small polygonal areas.

No fluid could be seen to circulate in them, but as they appear at about the same
time with the larger blood-vessels of the surface of the body, they are probably the
indications of a system of capillary vessels.

The course of the larger blood-vessels on the posterior face of the mantle is shown,
at a somewhat later stage, in fig. 17. A large vessel will be seen to enter the mantle
on the median line near the dorsal end of the body. ‘This is the pallial artery from the
systemic heart. Passing forwards, it divides into three branches; a pair of large ones,
and a median unpaired smaller one. The latter runs forwards, nearly to the lower edge of
the mantle, and divides up into a number of smaller branches. The two larger branches
diverge, and running out towards the free edge of the mantle, give rise, on their inner
edges, to a number of irregular branches, and on their outer edges to a number of nearly
parallel trunks, which communicate with a pair of large venous trunks, each of which
receives a smaller trunk from the median tract of the mantle, and then, bending around
the side of the body, runs inwards to open into the larger vena cava, from which
the blood passes into the branchial heart, and is conveyed to the gills. The branchial.
hearts appear at quite an early stage of development, but the systemic heart is not
developed until about the stage shown in fig. 16. During the later stages of development,
and in the adult also, the small size of the gills is no doubt compensated for, to a great
degree, by the aeration of the blood while it is passing through the system of vessels near
the exposed surface of the mantle.

At the stage shown in fig. 15, the siphon has substantially its adult form, and is made
up of two lateral chambers, si’, which have been formed from the lateral siphon folds, and
which open into the mantle-chamber, but have no external openings; and a single median
chamber, si, on the posterior surface of the body, which has been formed by the union
of the two inner siphon folds, and which opens into the mantle-chamber as well as
externally.

At the point where the lateral chambers meet the median chamber, the wall of the
siphon is united to the wall of the body, and the three chambers are thus shut off from
communication with each other.

The animal is so perfectly transparent that the valve-like action of the two outer
chambers can be perfectly seen, as their free inner edges are thrown out against the
mantle so as to close it at each contraction, and the water, which passes in around the
whole free edge of the mantle, is thus concentrated in the funnel-shaped middle chamber
of the siphon. 4

At about this time the valve of the siphon, figure 15, v, is developed as a single
unpaired flap, which arises from the posterior surface of the neck.

Considerable change has now taken place in the shape of that portion of the yolk
which is contained in the head. It is reduced to a long narrow tube, y”, which connects
the portions contained in the body proper, y”, y”, with the external yolk sac, y/’.
The pulsatile space, x, between the outer wall and the surface of the yolk sac, is more
plainly shown in this figure than in the preceding ones, although a profile view shows it
with equal distinctness at earlier stages.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID. 15

The figures of the later stages hardly call for much description, since they show
sufficiently well in themselves the gradual change of shape, and the approximation to
the form and structure of the adult.

Fig. 16 is a posterior view of an embryo a little older than the one shown in
fig. 15. A large rounded prominence on each side of the bed marks the position of
the eye-stalk, and the eyes are farther forward than they are in older specimens, but in
other respects the form is very similar to that of the adult. The ink sac, 7, has appeared,
and is filled with ink, and the tip of the free portion of the rectum is prolonged at its
corners into the pair of ear-like anal valves.

Figs. 17, 18, are copies of drawings made at Mr. Agassiz’s laboratory at Newport during
the summer of 1876, from specimens which were found swimming at the surface of the
water of Narragansett Bay. As the arrangement of the chromatophores is like that of the
other embryos, they undoubtedly belong to the same species and are given here to show
the later stages of development. The external yolk-sac has almost disappeared in fig. 17,
and it is entirely wanting in fig. 18.

There are considerable individual variations in the arrangement of the chromatophores,
but there are certain features which were observed in all the specimens, and which seem
to be constant.

The first which make their appearance are dark brown in color, and are placed
in a ring of six or seven (plate 2, fig. 14), around the edge of the mantle on the posterior
surface. They are a little smaller, and somewhat more excitable than those which appear
subsequently, and they can be readily recognized in the later stages shown in figs. 15, 16,
17, 18. They are soon followed by larger spots of the same dark brown color, scattered
irregularly over the posterior surface of the mantle (fig. 16).

The next spots to appear are upon the arms, and are also dark brown. At first
there are two upon the first or siphonal pair of arms, and three upon the second
pair (fig. 16). A fourth soon appears upon the second arm, and these four remain
conspicuous until quite a late stage of development (fig. 18). Three large brown spots
now appear upon the posterior surface of the head (fig. 16), and they are soon followed by
others (fig. 17).

A second set of spots, more deep-seated and of a bright orange color, soon make their
appearance, and are much more constant in position than the brown ones. The first pair
which appear are just in front of, or ventral to the eyes. They are soon followed by a
single one on the middle line of the head, at the bases of the first pair of arms, and
another single one on the middle line of the edge of the mantle. About the same time
a pair appear dorsally to the eyes, and another pair on the edge of the mantle, near
the sides.

Four small orange spots next appear upon the second pair of arms (fig. 17, a”),
alternating with the four larger brown spots, and soon after a ring of six or eight orange
spots appears on the mantle, dorsal to the ink bag. Two orange spots next appear
upon the first pair of arms, figure 18, a’, alternating with the brown spots.

I was not able to procure specimens in sufficient numbers to follow the development of
the spots to any later stage than this, but they do not seem to develop regularly at the
later stages.

16 W. K. BROOKS ON THE

THEORETICAL DISCUSSION OF THE OBSERVATIONS.

In a general view of the facts which have been detailed, the most prominent and
conspicuous feature seems to be the remarkable directness with which the embryo
develops into the adult, and the total absence of anything like a metamorphosis.
Everything which does not contribute to the formation of the adult animal has been
dropped out of its life history. With the exception of the velum and the eye-stalks, there
are no larval or rudimentary organs, and the whole process of development is wonderfully
direct.

When we bear in mind that the Cephalopoda are almost the most highly specialized
of Invertebrates, and that they must have had a long and complicated phylogenetic
history, I think we must acknowledge that the embryonic record has been simplified to a
degree which is without a parallel in the animal kingdom, and it is hardly too much to
say that the ontogenetic process furnishes us with no knowledge whatever of the
phylogeny of the group.

The method of formation of the shell-area and of the shell; the mode of origin of the
mantle and of the mantle-cavity, and the form and position of the gills of the Cephalopod
embryo are all of them features which show closer relationship to a typical Gasteropod
than could be inferred from the condition of these organs in the adult. They thus show
the affinity of these groups to each other, and help us to a clearer understanding of the
homology between the organs of the Cephalopod, and those of a typical Mollusc, but this
is about all. Ido not see that they furnish any basis whatever for speculation upon the
origin of the Cephalopod, or give us the least information as to the manner in which its
peculiar specializations of structure have been brought about.

We, undoubtedly, have an ancestral feature in the embryonic condition of the siphon,
at the time when the siphon folds are separated from each other upon the median line,
but in the present state of our knowledge it furnishes a very scanty basis for generali-
zation. It is true that there is a resemblance between the adult condition of this organ in
the Tetrabranch and its embryonic condition in the Dibranch, and the evidence therefore
shows that in this respect, the former group is more embryonic, or less specialized, than
the latter, but it certainly is not sufficient to warrant the conclusion that the one group
has been derived from the other, rather than from a common ancestral form.

I think that this is true of the development of the eye as well as of that of the siphon.
The history of this organ shows, as Grenacher has pointed out, that it is essentially
similar to the ordinary molluscan eye, and that it is less specialized in the Tetrabranch than
it is in the Dibranch, but the resemblance is not such as to indicate that the Tetrabranchs
are the ancestors of the Dibranchs.

It is just such an embryonic resemblance as we should expect to find, if both are the
descendants of an unspecialized form, and while it is not mconsistent with the idea that this
common ancestry is very remote indeed, neither would it conflict with the view that the
divergence of the two groups was comparatively recent.

The arms of the Dibranch embryo are hardly, if at all, more like those of a Tetra-
branch, than those of the adult, and although the shell is at first external, it is, in this
respect, no more like the Nautilus shell than any other molluscan shell is.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID. lly

In a word, the case is hardly too strongly put, by the statement that the developing
Dibranch has so completely lost all ancestral features that no traces of them remain.

In another point of view our embryo is more suggestive. Although it furnishes us no
basis for phylogenetic speculations, it does furnish a safe ground for the discussion of
cephalopod homology.

Homology, as I take it, is the resemblance which is due to common ancestry, while
phylogeny is the study of the steps by which specializations of structure have been
acquired. It is quite conceivable that a form of life should exhibit its relationship to a
remote ancestor, without any indications of the manner in which the divergence from
this ancestor has been brought about. This seems to be the case with the Cephalopoda.
While the Squid embryo fails to give us any information as to the way in which a typical
Molluse has been modified in order to convert it into a Cephalopod, or as to the trans-
formations through which it has passed in reaching its present form, it nevertheless
clearly shows the fundamental similarity of type which subsists between it and the other
Mollusca.

The precise relation between the organs and regions of the body of a Cephalopod and
those of a more typical Mollusc, have always been as obscure as the close natural affinity
of these groups is obvious, and the obscurity has been increased by the disposition
to regard the various Mollusca as modifications of a highly specialized architype, uniting
in itself the characteristics of all its derivations. This tendency still retains a considerable
influence over the minds of morphologists, although it is now perfectly obvious that the
architype, or proto-mollusc, must have been an unspecialized rather than a highly
specialized form, and that the various existing molluscs must have been derived from this
primitive form by gradual specialization. The only basis for an homology of the
Mollusca, in the absence of a phylogenetic record, and of transitional forms, is therefore
to be sought in the comparison of early stages in the development of individuals
of the different groups, at a time when the specializations of structure, characteristic of
the adult forms, have not yet made their appearance.

In his paper on the development of an unknown Cephalopod, Grenacher has made such
a comparison, and has attempted to furnish a sound basis for the discussion of the
homology between the Cephalopoda and other Mollusca.

As the result of this comparison, he reaches conclusions, which, being the product of
observation rather than of speculation, are much more valuable and natural than any
which have been advocated by previous writers, although I believe them to be only
partially correct.

Although his embryological record is very complete, it unfortunately lacks the stages
which are of the greatest importance as a basis for generalization, and I have been so
fortunate as to fill this gap by finding embryos which exhibit general molluscan
characteristics unobscured by the presence of the distinctive features of the Cephalopod.
For comparison with a Gasteropod embryo I give in fig. 19 of plate 3, a diagramatie side
view of an embryo at the same stage as that shown in plate 2, fig. 10, but with the rectum
and anus represented as they are found at a somewhat later stage.

The figure, like fig. 10, has the head and the yolk sac y, below ; the so-called posterior
end above ; the surface upon which the siphon is to be developed at the left, and the
so-called dorsal surface at the right.

18 W. K. BROOKS ON THE

Fig. 20, plate 3, is the embryo of a fresh-water Pulmonate, in what I regard as a
similar position. The foot, f, is below ; the shell, sh, above; the mouth, m, the tentacles, ¢,
and the head on the right, and the rectum, 7, on the left. The figure therefore shows the
right side of the body of the Gasteropod ; and as the twist by which the rectum and the
mantle-chamber are subsequently carried around the right side of the body on to the
anterior surface has not yet appeared, the embryo is bilaterally symmetrical, and the
mouth, the anus, the foot, the mantle, and the shell occupy substantially the same positions,
and bear about the same relations to each other, that they do in a Lamellibranch. A
comparison with fig. 19, or with fig. 10, will show that there is, at the same time, an
essential similarity to a Cephalapod.

In the Gasteropod, fig. 20, or im a Lamellibranch, we have the bilaterally symmetrical
shell, sh, resting like a cap upon the dorsal surface of the body, and surrounded by a
reflected ridge of integument, the margin of the shell area, sa.

As Ray Lankester has pointed out, the embryonic shell of a Cephalopod is very similar,
and in the Squid, fig. 19, we have the external shell, sh, surrounded by the reflected rim
of integument, sa, exactly as in the Pulmonate.

Running around the shell and shell area in both Cephalopod and Gasteropod, is a
second ridge of integument, the margin of the mantle, ma, ma, which already projects a
little from the posterior, ventral surface of the body of the Cephalopod, to form the outer
wall of the rudimentary mantle chamber.

On the middle line of the posterior surface of the body, just below the mantle-ridge,
in both Cephalopod and Pulmonate is the rectum, 7, with its external opening, the anus;
raised from the surface of the body upon the anal papilla in the Cephalopod, but other-
wise alike in the two forms.

On each side of the rectum of the Cephalopod is a single tentacular gill, gy, underneath
the overhanging edge of the mantle. There are no corresponding structures in the
Pulmonate, and in the Prosobranch the gills do not make their appearance until the
symmetry of the body has been distorted by the twisting of the visceral mass into a
spiral, but the gill filaments of a Lamellibranch are exactly similar in form, structure and
position to the gills of the Squid embryo.

On the anterior surface of the body, the surface which is usually called dorsal in the
Cephalopod, and which is on the right in both figures, we have first, the thickened mantle
ridge, ma, which forms the angle between the dorsal and the anterior surface. Next we
have in the Pulmonate and in most Gasteropods the large pulsatile “ neck region,” h. In
the Cephalopod this region is short, not pulsatile, and it forms the “back” of the animal.

Below the neck region of the Pulmonate a tentacle, ¢, is developed on each side of the
median line of the body, and the eyes subsequently make their appearance upon these
tentacles. On each side of the corresponding region of the body of Squid embryo, the
projecting eye-stalk, ¢, carries the rudimentary eye upon its rounded extremity, and there
does not seem to be any doubt that the sensory tentacles of the Gasteropod, and the
eye-stalks of the Cephalopod are strictly homologous.

In the Pulmonate the rudimentary velum, v, is marked by a line of granular ciliated
cells, which crosses the middle line of the body just below the tentacles, and then run-
ning out upon the sides, bends up towards the dorsal surface, in such a way as to almost
encircle the tentacles.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID. 19

When the corresponding surface of the body of the Cephalopod embryo, at the stage
shown in plate 2, fig. 10, is carefully examined with the highest power which can be
brought to bear upon such a large rounded opaque surface, a well defined line or groove,
plate 5, fig. 19, v, will be found to run from the median line out upon the sides of the
body, bending up towards the dorsal surface in such a way as to partially encircle the eye-
stalks; and the motion of floating particles shows the presence of cilia along the line.

Immediately below it at the point where it approaches the median line of the body, the
mouth, m, is situated, in the Cephalopod as well as in the Pulmonate, and the fact
that the ciliated line bears exactly the same relation to the mouth and to the sensory
tentacles in the Cephalopod that it bears in the Pulmonate seems to show beyond doubt
that it is the same structure, a rudimentary velum, in both cases.

The mantle; the mantle-cavity ; the shell area; the shell; the rectum and anus; the
sensory tentacles; the velum, and the mouth are thus seen to be so similar in position,
relations, mode of development and function, in these two Molluscs, as to leave no doubt
of their homology.

When used as a basis for comparison these various features furnish us with a sufficient
number of points of orientation to assure us that the Cephalopod embryo must be placed as
it is in plate 5, fig. 19, and in plate 2, figs. 10 and 11, in order to be in a position which is
homologous with that of the Gasteropod embryo, shown in fig. 20.

The views which were advanced upon the morphology of the Cephalopoda, nearly thirty
years ago, by Huxley, are therefore essentially correct in outline, although I shall now
give my reasons for opposing certain of the homologies advocated by him.

There are few morphological questions upon which more conflicting views have been
expressed than those of the various writers who have discussed the homology of
the siphon and arms of the Cephalopod, and the equivalent, in this group, of the Gasteropod
foot.

The history of opinion upon this subject has been treated at length by Grenacher,
and more recently by Von Jhering (Vergl. Anat. des Nervensystems und Phylogenie der
Mollusken, pp. 269-281), and I may therefore enter at once upon an examination
of the morphological aspect of the question without first reviewing its historical side.

The molluscan foot, fig. 20, f,is a median unpaired structure, on the ventral surface
of the body, between the mouth and the anus. In the Pulmonate, and in many other
Gasteropod embryos, a large sinus-space, c, separates the integument of the foot from the
endoderm and its derivatives. This space contains blood corpuscles, and as the integument
is rythmically contractile the embryonic foot is a circulatory organ.

A glance at fig. 19, or fig. 10, will show that the only unpaired structure on the
median line of the ventral surface of the body of the Cephalopod embryo is the large
external yolk-sac, y, and to this, if anywhere, we must look for the homologue of the
Gasteropod foot.

When the Cephalopod embryo is seen in a profile view, fig. 19, or fig. 15, the
integument, f, of the yolk-sac will be found to be separated from the yolk by a space, ¢,
and as the integument is rythmically contractile, the fluid which fills this space is kept
in constant motion. Physiologically then, as well as in its position, the yolk-sac of the
Squid resembles the foot of the Gasteropod, and I think we must conclude that, as a

20 W. K. BROOKS ON THE

locomotor organ, the foot of the Cephalopod has been suppressed by the great development
of a food-yolk at the pomt where it should be found.

The arms of the Squid make their appearance as little protrusions, fig. 19, a, a, a, arranged
in pairs around the neck or constriction which separates the external yolk-sac from the
body proper. As they are, at first, ventral to the mouth, and as a true velum is present,
they cannot be regarded as a velum, and as they are paired instead of median, they are
not homologous with the median unpaired foot. They are paired outgrowths from the foot
region, and may perhaps be regarded as the equivalents of the cephaloconi of Clio, but
there does not seem to be any evidence that they have been produced by the modification
of any part of the body of a typical Gasteropod, and they are undoubtedly structures which
have been acquired by the Pteropods and Cephalopods, after these diverged from the
common aucestral form which united them to the Gasteropod stem.

The siphon originates as two pairs of folds, s and s’, of the integument of the lateral
walls of the body, and if we regard these four folds as homologous with the epipodial
folds of a Gasteropod, the arms must be regarded as independently acquired structures.

If we regard the arms as modifications of the epipodial folds we must consider the four
siphon folds as independently acquired structures, and as we have nothing whatever to
furnish us with a test, nothing seems to be gained by the uncertain homology of either
the arms or the siphon, with any part of the body of a typical Gasteropod.

It seems certain that the common ancestor of the Gasteropods and Cephalopods must
have been an unspecialized form, rather than a highly complex architype, and if this is the
case we cannot expect any valuable results to follow from the attempt to compare any
part of the body of a Cephalopod with structures which, like the epipodial folds, are not
common to the Gasteropoda, but somewhat exceptional; which, when they are found at
all, as in Aplysia, are not rudimentary but functional; making their appearance very late
in the history of the individual instead of early, and presenting every indication of recent
acquisition.

While we owe a great debt to Huxley’s paper on the Morphology of the Cephalous
Mollusca, for the demonstration of the general relations between the Cephalopod body
and that of a Gasteropod, I think that confusion has resulted from his attempt to
carry the homology into the details of Cephalopod structure.

The growth of opinion upon the homology of the siphon and arms may be stated
briefly as follows:

Huxley regarded the arms as the true foot, and the siphon as the epipodial folds.

Grenacher shows that as the foot is an unpaired structure, it cannot be homologous
with the arms, and he follows Lovén (Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Entwicklung der Mollusca
Acephala Lamellibranchiata ; reprint of 1879, p. 53), in regarding these as a modified
velum. The foot he believes to be wanting, and the siphon he regards as the epipodium.

Von Jhering opposes Grenacher’s view that the arms are homologous with the velum,
and points out that the cephaloconi of Clio, which are undoubtedly homologous with the
arms, are certainly not homologous with the velum, since an embryonic velum appears in
the young Pteropod, and then disappears without forming any part of the adult body. He
also calls attention to the fact that in the Gasteropods, even when the velum is cut up into
tentacles, these do not persist or become converted into any part of the adult body. He

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID. 21

says, on p. 269, that the arms are tentacular appendages to the body, and does not appear
to regard them as the equivalent of any part of the Gasteropod.

The innervation of the siphon from the pedal ganglion leads him to regard this as the
foot, and he concludes that the valve of the siphon is the true foot or protopodium, and
the two lateral folds pteropodia. He conjectures that Grenacher’s two inner folds unite
and give rise to the valve, but this is opposed to Grenacher’s account, as well as to
my own observations, and there can be no doubt that the two inner folds form the tube
of the siphon and the two lateral folds its lateral chambers. The valve appears quite
late, fig. 15, v, as an outgrowth from the inner wall of the siphon tube, and there is
nothing in its history which gives any reason to believe that it has ever had any other
function than that of a valve to the siphon-tube. Von Jherring’s homology rests upon the
assumption that similarity in the method of innervation implies similarity of origin, but the
bilateral charagter of the siphon seems to be an objection to its homology with the foot,
even if it were in the right position upon the body, and if it is a new structure, as I
believe, the origin of its nerves cannot have any profound morphological significance.

Bravurort, N. C., July 31, 1880.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

All the figures except plate 1, figs. 2, 4, and 5 and plate 3, figs. 19 and 20 were drawn from living
specimens, Swimming without restraint within the uncompressed egg, or, after their escape from the egg, in a
sufficient quantity of water to allow perfect freedom of movement. As the use of a camera was thus ren-
dered out of the question, the drawings are not all upon the same scale. Most of them were made, however,

with an amplification of about eighty diameters.
Prate I.

Fig. 1. An egg in which the process of segmentation is somewhat advanced. a, Ege-shell; 4, space
between the shell and the yolk, filled with transparent albumen; c, cap of segmentation spherules; m,
micropyle.

Fig. 2. More highly magnified view of the blastoderm of the egg shown in figure 1, as seen in optical
section; @, 6, and c as before; d, yolk.

Fig. 3. A more advanced egg, with the blastoderm covering about a quarter of the surface of the yolk;
a, b, c, d and m, as in the preceding figures.

Fig. 4. More highly magnified view of the growing edge of the blastoderm of the egg shown in figure 1
after staining with osmic acid and borate of carmine; a, unsegmented yolk; }, segmentation pyramids;
¢, first row of cells, which have been formed by a separation from the ends of the pyramids; d, second set
of cells, which have been formed by the division of cells like c; d, third set similar to d; d’, fourth set,
similar to d, and d@.

Fig. 5. Highly magnified view of the edge of the blastoderm of the eg shown in figure 3, after stain-
ing with osmic acid and borate of carmine. a, 6, and ¢, as in figure 4; d, cells which have just divided.

Fig. 6. View of the posterior surface of an embryo, in which the yolk is almost covered by the blasto-
derm. a, arms; }, growing edge of blastoderm; m, mantle; y, uncovered portion of yolk.

Fig. 7. View of the anterior surface of a slightly older embryo; m, mantle; s, shell area; s¢’, lateral
siphon folds; e, eye.

29 DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID.

Fig. 8. View of the left side of the same embryo. Reference letters as in figs. 6 and 7.
Fig. 9. Foreshortened dorsal view of the posterior surface of the embryo shown in plate 2, figure 10.
a, Y, 8, and m, as in the preceding figures; es, eye stalk, gy; gills; er, otocysts; s?, inner siphon folds.

Prate II.

The letters of reference have the following significance in all the figures of this plate; a, arms; @/, pos-
terior or siphonal pair of arms; @’, second pair; a”, third pair; e, eyes; er, otocyst; es, eye stalk; 7,
fins; g, gills; 4, branchial hearts; m, mantle; mo, mouth; re, rectum; sz, inner siphon folds; sz’,
lateral siphon folds; sm, siphonal muscle; v, velum; y, yolk; 4’, external yolk sac; y”’, yolk mass of
the eye stalks and head; 7/”, and y’””, yolk masses of the body and mantle.

Fig. 10. Embryo a little older than the one shown in figures 7 and 8, represented with its dorsal surface
above, and showing the anterior surface of the body, as seen from the left side.

Fig. 11. The posterior surface of an older embryo with its dorsal surface above.

Fig. 12. A similar view of an older embryo, with its dorsal surface below.

Fig. 138. An older embryo in the position of figure 12. In this and the following figures, only a small
portion of the external yolk sac, y’, is represented.

Fig. 14. The posterior surface of an older embryo, as seen from the right side, with the dorsal surface
below.

Prats III.

Fig. 15. A somewhat older embryo seen from the right side. The external yolk is now so large that
only part of it is shown in the figure; a’, a”, a”, a”, the four arms of the right side; f the fin; g, the
gill; , the branchial heart; m, the free edge of the mantle; ne, the neck cartilage; si, the siphon tube; s7’,
the lateral chamber of the siphon; v, the valve of the siphon; a, the space between the integument and the
surface of the external yolk; y’, y”, y, y’, the four divisions or regions of the yolk.

Fig. 16. Posterior surface of a somewhat older embryo; e, eye; 7, ink bag; 7, rectum. The other
letters as in figure 15.

Fig. 17. A free swimming squid with the external yolk almost absorbed. The letters as in the preceding
figures.

Fig. 18. A free swimming squid with the external yolk entirely absorbed. The letters as in the pre-
ceding figures.

Fig. 19. Diagrammatic view of the right side of a Pulmonate embryo, with its dorsal surface above ;
Sf, foot; h, neck region; m, mouth; ma, mantle; c¢, foot-sinus; 7, rectum; sa, shell area; sh, shell;
t, tentacle; v, velum.

Fig. 20. Diagrammatic view of the left side of a squid embryo, at the stage shown in figure 10; a, a, a,
arms; ¢, sinus space around the yolk sac; e, eye; 7, integument of yolk sac; g, gill; m, mouth; ma,
mantle ; v, velum; 7, rectum; s, inner siphon fold; s’, outer siphon fold; ¢, eye-stalk; y, yolk sac.

Annivers.

Memoirs Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.

Brooks.

Plate |.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID,

Annivers. Memoirs Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Brooks. Plate 2.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SQUID.

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1830, ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HIST RY, 1880,

THE ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY, AND EMBRYOLOGY

OF

LIMULUS POLYPHEMUS.

By “A>"S:. PACKARD, Jr., MD.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.

Tue Anatomy, HistoLogy anp EmpBryoLocy or Limutus PoLypHemus.

By A. S. Pacxarp, Jr., M.D.

SINCE the publication of my first paper on the development of the horse-shoe or
king crab (Limulus polyphemus), in the Memoirs of this Society,’ I have, as opportunity
allowed, made additional observations on the development of the larva, and also
on the histology of the different organs, and especially the brain. In making the
microscopic sections of the embryos and for a series of sections of a brain, the
latter of which were unstained, I am indebted to Professor T. D. Biscoe. For mounting
some of these sections for study, I am indebted to Dr. C. B. Johnson of Providence, R. L,
who also kindly cut, stained, and mounted preparations of the digestive canal. Within
the past year I again returned to a study of the brain, using the methods of staining
employed by German observers, Dietl and Krieger, also by Mr. E. T. Newton. The
sections of the brain were cut and stained, as also those of the eyes, parts of the
stomach and rectum, kidneys and liver, ete., by Mr. Norman N. Mason, of Providence,
R. L, who kindly devoted a great deal of time to the work. To his unusual skill and
delicacy of manipulation, I am indebted for a large number of préparations much better
than I could have made myself, and which have been of most essential aid in preparing
this paper; so that portions of the histological part of this paper, especially that
on the structure of the eyes, are really joint productions with Mr. Mason, as we together
examined the preparations.

Position oF LimuLus AMONG ARTHROPODA.

The researches of M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards on the anatomy of Limulus, proved
that this animal, so far from being a genuine normal crustacean, is either the type
of a group equal to all the other Crustacea, namely a sub-class of Branchiata; or, as
several authors contend, should be regarded as the representative of a distinct class of
Arthropoda.

Before arguing what we now believe to be the true position of Limulus and
the allied fossil forms, including the Trilobites, let us take a review of the different
opinions of the leading zoologists who have done special work on the animal. The
titles of their work will be found in the bibliographical list at the end of this paper.

1 Memoirs Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 11, 155-202.

4 A. §. PACKARD, JR., ON THE ANATOMY

Straus-Diirckheim was the first author to remove the genus Limulus from the
Crustacea, and to regard it as the type of a distinct order of Arachnida, which he called
Gnathopodes. In his memoir, published in 1829, according to Van der Hoeven’s statement,
Straus characterized the Arachnida by the disposition of the feet arranged in a circle
around an interior cartilaginous sternum, and by the absence of antennae. Van der
Hoeven, in 1838, remarks that the branchiae are the principal characters of Crustacea,
as insisted upon by Latreille and Milne-Edwards, who placed Limulus in this class ;
therefore Limulus should belong with these animals, and he shows that there are other
characters which separate Limulus from the Arachnida, and which ally them with
the Crustacea. These are the compound eyes, the position of the stomach in the
front of the cephalothorax, “while it is contained in the abdomen of Arachnida.’ He
then says: “But whether we place the Limuli among the Crustacea, or with the
Arachnida, they should always form a distinct order for themselves alone, which, in
the actual state of our knowledge, is far from all the other orders of these two classes.”
Afterwards, in 1846, in his Handbook of Zoology, and again in the second, English
edition of 1856, he placed the Poecilopoda as the first order of Crustacea, referring,
however, to their resemblance to Arachnida.

In 1871, Dr. A. Dohrn, in his Untersuchungen iiber den Bau und Entwicklung der
Arthropoden, concluded that Limulus, Eurypterida and Trilobita should be united un-
der a common name, Gigantostraka, as originally proposed by Haeckel, in his Mor-
phologie, for the Eurypterida alone; and that they should be placed near the Crus-
tacea.

Most if not all the other leading zoologists, while recognizing the aberrant characters
of the Limuli, have left them among the Crustacea, though in 1834 H. Milne-Edwards
established a subclass (Xiphosura) for the group; this group being equivalent to
any one of several other subclasses of Crustacea which he enumerates. For the views we
held previous to the publication of H. Milne-Edwards’ memoir, we would refer the
reader to our Memoir on the development of Limulus, published in March, 1872.

In October, 1871, the following views of M. Edouard Van Beneden! were published :
“Tétude du développement embryonnaire de ces animaux et de leurs caractéres
anatomiques m’a conduit aux conclusions suivantes que je puis formuler dés 4 présent :

I. Les Limules ne sont pas des Crustacés; ils n’ont rien de commun avec les
Phyllopodes, et leur développement embryonnaire présente les plus grandes analogies
avec celui des Scorpions et des autres Arachnides, dont on ne peut les séparer. Dans
le cours de leur développement embryonnaire, on ne distingue aucune des phases
caractéristiques du développement des Crustacés, et il ne peut étre question de distinguer
dans le cours de ce développement embryonnaire, ni phase nauplienne, ni phase
cyclopéenne.

II. L’analogie entre les Limules et les Trilobites, et laffinité qui relie entre eux
ces deux groupes, ne peut é6tre un instant douteuse pour celui qui a étudié le
développement embryonnaire de ces animaux. Les lois de développement sont les
mémes chez les Trilobites et les Xiphosures, et lanalogie entre les jeunes Trilobites et

1 Journal de Zoologie. Par Paul Gervais. Tom. I, p. 42, 1872. Paris.

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 5

les jeunes Limules est d’autant plus grande, qu’on les considére 4 une époque moins
avancée de leur développement. A l’examen de jeunes Limules, MM. Packard et
Woodward ont été frappés de ces analogies.

III. Les Trilobites, aussi bien que les Euryptérides que les Poecilopodes, doivent
étre séparés de la classe des Crustacés et former avec les Scorpionides et les autres
Arachnides un rameau & part, dont lorigine est encore 4 déterminer.”’

In November, 1872, A. Milne-Edwards, in his beautiful memoir on the anatomy of
Limulus, claimed that the central nervous system resembled that of Arachnida, and was
surrounded by arterial coats, and that the brain supplied no limbs with nerves. His con-
clusions are stated in the following extracts: “ L’aprés les faits que je viens de passer en
revue, on voit que le systéme nerveux de la Limule différe beaucoup de celui de tout autre
animal articulé, et resemble moins a celui des Arachnides qu’a celui des Crustacés.
Chez les premiers, les ganglions cephalothoraciques sont tellement serrés entre eux
que le pertuis ménagé au milieu du collier cesophagien, pour le passage du tube
alimentaire est d’une petitesse extréme, et qu’en arriére de cette masse médullaire,
les deux moitiés de la chaine nerveuse sont réunies entre elles dans toute leur longeur,
au lieu d’étre attachées lune a lautre par des commissures ganglionnaires seulement.
Chez les Crustacés, on rencontre souvent une disposition analogue 4 celle des Limules.
Mais la coalescence des ganglions cérébroides et des ganglions postbuccaux n'est
jamais portée aussi loin, et c’est en général entre ces deux systémes des centres nerveux
que les connectifs sont le plus allongés. Chez les Limules, au contraire, ces connectifs
sont remarquablement courts, tandis que ceux situés a la partie antérieure de la
région abdominale sont fort longs. Il est aussi & noter que le systeme ganglionnaire
viscéral, dont M. Blanchard a tiré des caractéres anatomiques pour la distinction des
Insectes, comparés aux Myriopodes et aux Arachnides, présente chez les Limules
une disposition qui n’a encore été obsérvé nulle part ailleurs. Ces particularités
anatomiques viennent done & lappui de l’opinion que j’ai déja émise, relativement
a la nécessité de séparer ces animaux des autres Articulés, et d’en former une classe
particuliére, sous le nom de Merostomata, classe trés-voisine, d’ailleurs, des Arachnides.”
He then states, in considering the external anatomy, that it is not only by their internal
organization that the Limuli differ from the Crustacea and approach the Arachnides,
without, however, being confounded with them ; for there are also in the general conform-
ation of the Merostomata and the Scorpions, resemblances which seem to indicate in all
these Entomozoa a community of primordial type.

The external characters which separate the Limuli from all other articulated animals
are the absence of any preoral appendages, Milne-Edwards having shown that the
nerves to the first pair of feet do not arise, as Van der Hoeven and Owen claim, from the
brain, but from the oesophageal collar. To use Edwards’ own words: “J’eu conclus que,
chez les Limules, il y a absence compléte d’appendices frontaux, et ce caractére les
distingue des Arachnides aussi bien que de tous les autres animaux articulés de la période
actuelle.”

Finally, he remarks that if the Limuli are not Crustacea, neither are they Arachnida.
“They are distinguished, the latter not only by their mode of respiration, but by the
existence of compound eyes, the absence of frontal appendages, the continuous

6 A. 8S. PACKARD, JR... ON THE ANATOMY

prolongation of the ventral appendages on the adjacent part of the abdomen, and by
several other organic characters. They are distinguished from all other articulated
animals by the disposition of their circulatory system, and consequently, in spite of
the small number of species of this group, the zoologist should consider them as
constituting a particular class intermediate between the Crustacea and Arachnida. He
claims with Mr. H. Woodward, that the fossil Pterygoti and Eurypteri should be united
with the Limuli, under the name of Merostomata. Milne-Edwards then adds that “the
Merostomata were contemporaries of the Trilobites, and there seems to be between
these two groups, not only very strong resemblances, but intermediate forms which establish
the passage from one to the other. Some authors: have thought it useful to unite them
under a common name. This seems to me at least too premature, because we know
nothing of significance on the subject of the appendicular system of Trilobites, and we
cannot pronounce legitimately on this question ; but it should be taken into consideration,
that it seems very probable that the Trilobites differ from the Crustacea properly so-called,
as we have seen the Merostomata differ from them, and that they should likewise
constitute a particular class in the great natural division of Entomozoa.”

In November, 1873,) in the light of A. Milne-Edwards’ researches, I stated that “I
should no longer feel warranted in associating Limulus and the Merostomata generally
with the Branchiopoda, but regard them as perhaps forming with the Trilobites a distinct
sub-class of Crustacea. In a second notice in the same Journal for December, 1879, I
proposed the name Palaeocarida, for the sub-class; these comprising the Merostomata and
Trilobites. We also proposed the term Neocarida for the remaining sub-class of normal
Crustacea.

In 1874 Gegenbaur, in his Grundriss der Vergl. Anatomie, divides the living Branchiata
as opposed to the Arthropoda Tracheata, in two divisions: I. Crustacea, II. Poecilopoda.?

As regards the relations of the Merostomata to the Arachnida let us examine them and
inquire whether they are not rather those of analogy, than of affinity. It is not neces-
sary, in view of what has been published, for us to restate the essential anatomical charac-
teristics of Limulus. The relations of the viscera to the body wall, and of the appen-
dages may be seen by our figures in Plates I and I.

The resemblances to the Arachnida in general, and the scorpion in particular, have been
supposed to consist (1) in the want of antennae, and (2) the form of the central nervous
system, as well as (3) the mode of development, while (4) the branchiae of Limulus
have been homologized with the pulmonary sacs of spiders.

It should be borne in mind, however, that the Arachnida are a sub-class of Tracheata,
with no antennae to be sure, but with two pairs of post-oral appendages, the mandibles
and maxillae, which are constructed on the hexapodous type, and are also built upon the
same plan of structure as the mouth-appendages of Myriopoda; so close indeed are the
homologies between the Hexapoda, or insects proper, and the Arachnida and Myriopoda,

1 Farther observations on the embryolory of Limulus, Palaeocarida, and regard Gegenbaur’s Crustacea as equiv-
with notes on its aflinitiess Amer. Naturalist, Novem- alent to my Neocarida; this would express my views as to
ber, 1873. the relations of the two sub-classes. This makes the terms

2 If we substitute for the term Poecilopoda, which applies Crustacea and Branchiata synonyms trom my point of
only to the sub-order of which Limulus is the type, the term view.

AND EMYRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 7

all breathing by tracheae, excepting the few species which have no breathing organs at all,
that it seems most advisable to retain them as sub-divisions or sub-classes of the class of
insects or Tracheata.

There is little in common between the mouth-parts of Limulus and those of the Arach-
nida, either in their form or grouping; moreover, the mouth-parts of Limulus are not
differentiated from the other cephalothoracic appendages. The six pairs are alike;
morphologically true gnathopods; and in the embryo arise simultaneously ; in the Arach-
nida, the two pairs of mouth-parts are, in adult life, quite different from the eight legs,
and are soon differentiated in early embryonic life. Limulus resembles the Arachnida
in the want of antennae, but so important are the differences in the mouth-organs and legs,
that it seems a violation of the principles of classification to associate together the two
types within the limits of the same class.

The second Arachidan feature claimed by authors to exist in Limulus is the alleged
similiarity in the form of the nervous system to that of the Arachnida, especially the
scorpions and spiders. The oesophageal collar of the horse-shoe crab has been homolo-
gized with the thoracic ganglionic mass of Arachnida, and the brain of Limulus has been
likened to that of the spiders and of the scorpions.

The brain of Arachnida has heretofore been supposed to be a single pair of ganglia, and
to send nerves not only to the simple eyes, but also to the first pair of mouth appendages.
If this view is correct, as all who have studied the adult Arachnids agree, then the brain of
Limulus is not homologous with the arachnid brain (supra-oesophageal ganglion), as it sup-
plies only the eyes, sending no nerves to the anterior gnathopods. As will be seen farther
on (Plate 4, fig. 7 gn), the first pair of gnathopods is supplied in the larva directly from
an independent pair of ganglia. Very recently, however, Mr. Balfour! has proved that
the so-called supra-oesophageal ganglion or brain of the spider is formed of two pairs of
ganglia which at first are quite distinct, as shown by his section of the embryo spider.
Mr. Balfour concludes that “the evidence which I have got that the cheliceres are true
postoral appendages, supplied in the embryo from a distinct postoral ganglion, confirms the
conclusions of most previous investigators, and shows that these appendages are equiv-
alent to the mandibles, or possibly the first pair of maxillae of other Tracheata.”

In either case then, whether the brain of Arachnida is a single pair of ganglia, sup-
plying the cheliceres (or mandibles), as well as the ocelli or two pairs of consolidated
ganglia, the brain of these Arthropods can scarcely be homologous with the brain of
Limulus.

Moreover, the position of the brain in relation to the thoracic ganglionic mass of Arach-
nida is quite different from that of Limulus; in the former animals, judging from Blanch-
ard’s beautiful and accurate plates, and our own examination of the brain of the scorpion,
it is invariably situated in a plane parallel to and much above the thoracic mass, and
separated by long slender commissures; while the brain of Limulus is situated on the
same plane as the oesophageal collar, in fact, closing up the front of what would otherwise
be an open ring or collar.

1 Notes on the development of the Araneina. By F.M_ April, 1880, pp. 176, 185, 189, Pl. xxi., fig. 21.
Balfour. Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,

8 A. 8. PACKARD, JR. ON THE ANATOMY

The thoracic ganglionic mass of the Arachnida is likewise not homologous with the
central cephalothoracic nervous system of Limulus. The thoracic mass in the former
type sends off nerves to the maxillae, or second pair of mouth-appendages, and also to
the four pair of limbs, and from this mass the abdomen, including the spinnerets (in our
view morphologically limbs), is supplied with nerves; there being no ganglia in the
abdomen of any spiders (Araneina) as yet known. On the contrary, the oesophageal
collar of Limulus supplies the nerves for the six cephalothoraic appendages alone (and
this seems strong proof that these gnathopods should be regarded as either mouth-parts
alone, or partly mouth appendages, and partly thoracic appendages), while there is a
chain of six ganglia in the abdomen. Here, however, it should be borne in mind that in
the scorpions there is a chain of abdominal ganglia, so that in this respect there is an
interesting analogy between Limulus and the Pedipalpi. So far, however, as concerns
the brain and thoracic mass, there seems to be a lack of homology in the two types of
nervous system of Limulus and Scorpio.

In the mode of early development, Limulus resembles the Arachnida, but also in the
embryonal membranes the insects, while it also recalls the development of certain Crus-
tacea, notably Apus, as we attempted to show in our first memoir.

The fourth point of comparison, ¢.e., between the gills of Limulus and the pulmonary
branchiae of spiders seems far-fetched. The gills and mode of respiration of Limulus are
thoroughly crustacean, the gills being certainly not homologues of the “lungs” of the
air-breathing spiders, which are tracheal sacs, formed by modified tracheae, and opening
externally by stigmata.

From any point of view, developmental, anatomical or physiological, the relations
of Limulus and its fossil allies to the Arachnida seem purely those of analogy, the fund-
amental differences being such as characterize and separate the Tracheate from the Bran-
chiate Arthropods; the differences are so fundamental as to suggest the idea that the two
types probably had a different origin, 7. e. from some vermian ancestors.

In order to epitomize the differences and resemblances between the Merostomata and
Arachnida, we have prepared the following tabular view:

CoMPARISON OF THE MEROSTOMATA WITH THE ARACHNIDA.

Arachnida.

Head in adult soldered to thorax.

No compound eyes.

No antennae or morphological equivalents.
Mandibles on hexapodous type.

Maxillae with a palpus, on hexapodous type.
Four pairs of thoracie legs on hexapodous type.

No functional abdominal legs, the spinnerets being, how-
ever, modified legs.

Digestive canal on hexapodous type with a voluminous
liver, and urinary tubes.

Brain formed of two pairs of ganglia supplying eyes and
mandibles.

Maxillae and thoracic legs supplied from a concentrated
postoesophageal ganglionic mass.
No abdominal ganglia in spiders, but present in scorpions.

Merostomata (Limulus).

Head separate from hind body.

Compound eyes.

No antennae or morphological equivalents.

Only their morphological equivalents (gnathopods).

“ “ee “

No true thoracic legs; the gnathopods representing the
mouth-parts and possibly the thoracic legs.

Six pairs of swimming respiratory legs, on the Crustacean
type.

Digestive canal on Crustacean type, with a voluminous
liver, but no urinary tubes.

Brain formed of a single pair of ganglia, supplying eyes
alone, and free from the suboesophageal ganglion in embryo
and adult.

Gnathopods supplied from a concentrated ganglionic oeso-
phageal ring.

Six abdominal ganglia, much as in Crustacea.

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 9

Turning now to the relations of the Merostomata to the normal Crustacea, we may
inquire whether the former belong to the class of Crustacea, or should form the type
of a distinct class. The latter view is that proposed by A. Milne-Edwards, and a number
of zoologists have adopted this view.

The facts that seem to us to poimt to the crustacean nature of Limulus and
its allies are: (1) the nature of the branchiae, those of Limulus being developed in
numerous plates overlapping each other on the second abdominal limbs; those of
the Eurypterida being, accordmg to H. Woodward, attached side by side, like the
teeth of a rake; while the mode of respiration, as seen on plate 1, is truly
crustacean; (2) the resemblance of the cephalothorax of Limulus to that of Apus;
(3) the general resemblance of the gnathopods to the feet of the Nauplius
or larva of the Cirripedia and Copepoda; (4) the digestive tract is homologous
throughout with that of Crustacea, particularly the Decapoda, there being no urinary
tubes as in Tracheata; (5) the heart is on the crustacean type as much as on the tracheate
type, and the internal reproductive organs (ovaries and testes) open externally, at the base
of and in the limbs, much as in Crustacea.

The resemblances and differences between the normal Crustacea (Neocarida) and the
Palaeocarida (Merostomata and Trilobita) are shown in the following tabular view : —

CompPARIsON OF NormMAL Crustacea (NEOCARIDA) WITH LIMULUS AND OTHER PALAEOCARIDA.
Neocarida. Palaeocarida.
Integument solid and calcareous, or thin and chitinous.
Usually in higher forms a cephalothorax, but in Phyllo-
pods no genuine cephalothorax distinct from the abdomen.
Eyes of normal form, rods and cones present, but no cor-
neal lenses.
Two pairs of antennae.
Mandibles normal.
Maxillae normal.
Maxillipeds normal.
Gills on thoracic feet, or thoracic or abdominal feet them-
selves broad and thin, and serving as gills.
Abdominal feet biramous.
Heart polygonal or tubular.
Digestive canal with its three subdivisions of fore-, mid-
and hind-gut.
Nervous system with a brain sending nerves to the anten-

Integument usually chitinous.
Head and abdomen alone; no thorax except in trilobites.

Eyes with no rods and cones, but corneal lenses.

No antennae, either functional or morphological.
No functional mandibles = gnathopods.

No functional maxillae = enathopods.

No functional maxillipeds = gnathopods.

Gills on the abdominal feet.

Abdominal feet biramous.

Heart tubular, as in many Neocarida except Decapoda.

Digestive canal homologous with that of most higher
Crustacea.

Nervous system with brain supplying eyes alone—first pair

nae and eyes.

Oviduct opening at base of middle thoracic feet ; male out-
let at base of 5th thoracic feet.

Metamorphosis often complete.

Nauplius in some forms.

Zoea in Decapods.

of gnathopods supplied from oesophageal collar, in larva
from suboesophageal ganglion.

Oviduct and male outlet situated at base of first abdominal
feet.

Metamorphosis absent, or partial.

No Nauplius.

No Zoea.

The difficulties which stand in the way of associating the Merostomata (throwing

out the Trilobites for the sake of clearness of statement) with the Crustacea, are: (1)
the nature of the limbs, and the absence of the pairs of antennae ; but it may be observed
that in the undifferentiated gnathopods of Limulus we have a parallel in the larval

10 A, 8. PACKARD, JR, ON THE ANATOMY

Cirripedia and Copepoda, where what ultimately become antennae and mandibles are
swimming feet; and in the zoea of Decapods, in which two pairs of antennae exist, and
the temporary swimming feet ultimately become maxillae and maxillipedes; (2) the
unique relations of the inferior blood system to the central nervous system (the brain
and certain nerves alone excepted); and (3) the peculiar nature of the eyes of the Meros-
tomata and Trilobites, which are constituted on a type peculiar to themselves.

Under all these circumstances, it may be claimed, as has been done by A. Milne-
Edwards, that the Merostomata should form a distinct class of Arthropoda. It should
be borne in mind, however, that M. A. Milne-Edwards believes that a second class
of Arthropods should be formed to receive the Trilobites. Taking all the facts into
consideration, we should propose that the Merostomata and Trilobites should together
form a subclass of Crustacea (i. e., Branchiate Arthropods) standing parallel to, and
as the equivalents of, all the other Crustacea, the two groups being parallel and
equally important branches of the same genealogical tree.

It should be borne in mind that the Palaeocarida are a generalized or synthetic type;
Limulus is, so to speak, a subzoea, the cephalothorax having been differentiated from the
abdomen and prematurely developed, with the gills of a normal crustacean; having the
primitive appendages of a nauplius, and the compound eyes superficially like those of
a zoea, but on an elementary, prematurely developed type; while the circulatory system
is of a high order, and the nervous system well developed, though the brain is constituted
on a simple plan, quite unlike that of the higher Crustacea, and probably the Crustacea
in general. The subclass of Palaeocarida apparently bears very much the same relation
to the subclass Neocarida, as the subclass Elasmobranchii or Ganoidea do to the
Teleostean fishes; as in these early synthetic forms certain organs are prematurely
developed, while the skeleton and other parts are in a more or less embryonic or larval
condition. They abounded most in the Palaeozoic ages, dying out in part, with
but a few survivors; such was the case with the Palaeocarida. Under these circumstances
we see no more reason for removing the Merostomata and Trilobita from the class
of Crustacea, than to consider the Elasmobranchii or Ganoids as independent classes
of Vertebrates. or the Arachnids or Myriopoda, as independent classes of Arthopoda.

Regarding, then, the Palaeocarida as an early offshoot of the Crustacean or Branchiate
eaioned tree or stem, we would venture to present the classification on the followmg
page, as proposed in 1879, in our little school book, “ Zoology

The Neocarida may be characterized briefly as genuine Grenass with two pairs of
antennae, biting mouth-parts and ambulatory or swimming thoracic feet ; mostly modern
types. The Palaeocarida, on the other hand, have the cephalothoracic appendages in
the form of foot-jaws, rather than true jaws; no antennae, the brain supplymg the
compound eyes and ocelli alone; the nerves to the cephalothoracic appendages sent off
from an oesophageal ring or collar; and the nervous system, with the exception of the
brain, ensheathed in a ventral system of arteries; they are mostly palaeozoic types.

The close homologies between the Merostomata and Trilobita were discussed in our
first memoir. At that time (p. 184), we advocated the view that the cephalothoracic
limbs of the Trilobites must have been jointed, rounded rather than foliaceous, and ambu-
latory in function, and inclined to the views of Mr. Billings as to the nature of what he

”

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 1

regarded the appendages of the Asaphus described by him in 1864. Since then the
researches of Mr. C. D. Walcott’ on sections of Trilobites seems to have satisfactorily
proved that Trilobites have rounded, jointed ambulatory appendages developed from the
head and possibly from the thorax. His observations, though from the nature of the case
in some respects imperfect, have set at rest the question as to whether these extinct
Palaeocarida had rounded, jomted limbs, though much yet remains unproved as to the
homologies of these limbs with those of the Merostomata. It also appears that the
hard parts of the eyes of Trilobites are directly homologous with those of Limulus,
as we attempt to show hereafter in this paper.

: 8
is}
S s iS
Q S = 8
NK 3 S
S SS) S
Ny S Sy <
> = 5
~ S 3
Ry S ES
= 3
§ S 3 s
3 s 3
Sj 2 S =
a] s= Ss)
S S Ss
:s < S
ie) & S
|
SS SS
NEOCARIDA, |
PaLocaRiDA.
oS EE Se ere eee coer

|
CRUSTACEA.

As to the general homologies of the body of Limulus, it seems to us that the
facts presented further on confirm the position we have always taken, i. ¢., that there
are no true antennae in Limulus; that the gnathopods are mostly modified mouth-
parts, the last pair possibly representing a pair of thoracic feet; that the fore
region of the body corresponds to the cephalothorax of the Decapoda or of a

Preliminary notice of the Discovery of Natatory and on some sections of Trilobites from the Trenton Limestone,
Branchial appendages of Trilobites, and additional evidence Sept. 20, 1877. See also Ann. Rep. N. Y. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
upon the same. Twenty-eighth Annual Report, New York March, 1879.

State Museum of Natural History, December, 1876. Notes

12 A. 8. PACKARD, JR, ON THE ANATOMY

Nebalia, and that the posterior region is truly an abdomen, the spine of Limulus
being simply the last body-segment, or ninth abdominal arthromere, as the history
of the embryonic development of this segment proves. It then follows that the
abdominal respiratory feet are, for example, homologues of the broad respiratory
abdominal appendages of Isopoda. The view of Mr. Woodward, that what we regard
as abdomen represents in part the thorax, or the opinion of Owen and Huxley that the
spine represents the abdomen, and that what we call the abdomen is the thorax, in
part at least, is, it seems to us, not based on sound induction.

Histotocy or THE INTERNAL ORGANS oF THE ADULT LIMULUS.

Histology of the digestive system. The general form of the digestive canal is
seen in plate 3, fig. 1. The large mouth-opening is situated between the third to

fifth pairs of limbs. The oesophagus is very long, and directed very obliquely forward
and upwards from the mouth, entering the large crop or proventriculus at an angle
to the general course of the latter, which is full and large, projecting anteriorly
over the end of the oesophagus. It curves over backwards, growing smaller posteriorly,
projecting above slightly over the beginning of the stomach or mid-gut. What we call
the crop, is the “cardia” of Van der Hoeven, and the “cardiac end of the stomach”
of Owen and A. Milne-Edwards. Communication with the chyle-stomach is effected
by the large internal projection in the form of a truncated cone (plate 3, fig. 1, cone),
by which the food, when partially digested, is strained, and passes from the proventriculus
into the true stomach. The latter, externally, seems to form the beginning of the
intestine, and extends from the base of the proventricular projection backwards as
far as the first pair of biliary ducts; its histology is quite different from that of the
proventriculus and its posterior conical process.

The beginning of the intestine is indicated externally by a slight contraction just
before the origin of the anterior of the two pairs of biliary ducts. These are placed
far apart by a distance nearly equal to twice the thickness of the intestine. The
hind gut is divided into the intestine and rectum. The intestine is straight, and
of uniform thickness as far as the beginning of the rectum, which is swollen, owing to the
large rectal folds within,

On laying open the digestive canal of specimens collected in the winter, it is found
to be filled with a jelly-like substance, which on examination proves to be the lining
of the canal, which has been molted, and has undergone partial digestion.

Examining the inner walls of the digestive canal, and studying its histology, we
find that there are three fundamental layers composing the canal, extending from the
mouth to, the vent. There are, beginning on the outside, (1) the muscular layer,
(2) the mucous or epithelial layer, and (3) the chitinous layer. The muscular
layer is made up of longitudinal muscles, the fibres striated, with scattered small bundles
of transverse striated fibres, some of these isolated from the outer layer of longitudinal
muscles and passing through the epithelial tissue.

The second or epithelial layer is thick, composed of pavement epithelium, arranged in
fibrous masses or bundles, somewhat like muscular tissue.” The nuclei are large and

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 13

conspicuous where the preparations have been stained with haematoxylin ;! the cell
walls are difficult to distinguish with a one-fifth objective. The pavement epithelium fills
the spaces between the folds of the oesophagus and crop (or fore gut), and is succeeded
by a single layer of columnar epithelium, which looks like a delicate ruffle, edging
the folds, and lying between the pavement epithelium and the chitinous lining of
the canal. The chitinous layer is very finely laminated, the laminae being parallel
for the most part to the indentations and projections of the folds and the teeth of
the fore-gut, showing plainly that it is secreted by the layer of columnar epithelium.
Cross sections of the larva, after hatching, through the fore-, mid-, and hind-eut, when
the appendages and internal organs have assumed their definite shape, show that
the intestine then consists of only two layers, the muscular, which is comparatively
thin, and the layer of columnar epithelium (plate 5, figs. 7, 7a), which rests directly
upon the muscular layer, and consists of long cells projecting irregularly into the
cavity of the canal. It would thus appear that the thick layer of pavement epithelium
and of chitine is not developed throughout the intestine, until some time after hatching.
Indeed, it is known that the larva lives for a long time, even months, after hatching,
before it takes much, if any, food.

Returning to the oesophagus; it is seen to be lined with a pale yellowish chitinous
layer gathered into about eight large deep folds. Plate 5, fig. 5, illustrates the structure
of two of these folds and part of the adjoining ones. The muscular fibres are not
represented. The cells 4, 4a, of the pavement epithelium (pe) are round or oval, with a
large, distinct, dark nucleus; their walls are difficult to define. The projecting lobes con-
sist of columnar epithelium, with large nuclei, much more distinct than in the pavement
epithelium ; the basal half of the cells are dark, being filled compactly with granular mat-
ter enclosing the nuclei, while on the outer half the cells are transparent; plate 5, fig. 3,
3a, represents these cells enlarged. The lobes are hollow, leaving a clear space, as
shown in figure 5; the lobes are unequal in form and size, those figured being situated
near the posterior end of the oesophagus. The columnar epithelium is succeeded by the
chitinous layer (ch), which is finely laminated, the lamimae corresponding to the direction
of the lobes. :

The crop or proventriculus consists of three parts; in the most anterior division the
chitinous folds, continuous with those of the oesophagus, are large and irregular and extend
vertically upwards, until they bend backwards suddenly at right angles to form the rows
of thick, solid teeth lining the second or middle and larger part of the crop. These teeth
are arranged in five sets of rows, each set or series consisting of three rows, and two series
of two rows, the two latter sets situated on the under or ventral side of the stomach, and
arranged on each side of the three-rowed series. The teeth in each row are nearly uniform
in size, are transverse, being flattened antero-posteriorly. In the three-rowed series,
especially on the ventral side, the teeth of the middle of the three rows are larger than
those of the row on each side. There are about 225 well marked teeth in this division
of the crop, those at either end of the rows being small and sometimes double.

1T am much indebted to Dr. C. B. Johnson, of Providence, preparations of the oesophagus, crop, and intestines, stained

for kindly cutting, staining, and mounting some excellent both with haematoxylin and carmine.

14 A. S. PACKARD, JR., ON THE ANATOMY

The minute structure of the vertical folds of the first or anterior division of the crop
may be seen at plate 5, figs. 1, 2, where the relations between the muscular, epithelial
and chitinous layers are shown. The limits between the longitudinal striated muscular
layer (m) and the epithelial layer are clear and well marked, the bundles of pavement
epithelium (pe) running at right angles to and abutting directly on the muscular layer.
The pavement epithelium is also, in slices stained with haematoxylin, clearly demarked
from the columnar epithelium (ce) by its pale lilac tint, the latter staming brownish and
contrasting well with the purple-stained chitine, which is finely laminated, the lines of
deposition being waved, the points of the waves under a low power appearing like fine
lines passing inward near but not quite to the free edge of the tooth, the margin of the
chitinous layer remaining unstained and pale yellowish. Fig. 2 represents the small
central tooth la, still more enlarged, showing the lines of growth of the chitin, and the
ruffle of columnar epithelium, indicated by the row of large nuclei bordering the margin
of the lobes of the columnar epithelium layer.

In the teeth of the middle region, which as we said, number some 225, the columnar
epithelium is wanting, though the corresponding tract is yet stained pale brown by haema-
toxylin or deep crimson by carmine, but the cells are of the same nature as in the adjoin-
ing pavement epithelium; it is also not scalloped, but the layer of chitine is much thicker
than elsewhere in the digestive canal.

The proventricular cone or tube has internally about thirteen unequal chitinous folds,
continuous with and like those of the oesophagus, five large folds alternating with eight
smaller ones. The folds are yellowish, and project ruffle-like at the end, contrasting in
structure and color with the whitish exterior of the cone or strainer. An examination of
the cellular structure of the interior lining of this tube, shows that it has a chitinous
lining continuous with that of the crop, and which stops at the ruffle-like extremity of
the tube; this chitinous layer is succeeded within by a ruffle-like layer of columnar
epithelium, like that in the fore part of the crop. The chitin is entirely wanting in the
papillose exterior of the tube, while the layer of columnar epithelium is deep, the cells
being very long and slender. The structure, then, of this tube is externally like that of
the stomach walls as described below, while internally it is histologically an extension of
the structure of the oesophagus and proventriculus.

The beginning of the mid-gut or true stomach, as we regard it, is lined internally with
a layer of large, long, erect papillae which extends nearly as far as opposite the end of
the strainer, and is also extended along the outside of this organ. Just before a point
opposite the end of the strainer, this layer of dense close-set papillae suddenly stops, and
is succeeded by a division of the digestive canal lying between the point opposite the end
of the proventricular strainer, and a point situated a little before the opening of the
first pair of biliary ducts. This region, which we regard as the true stomach, has the
inner surface raised into about twelve transverse or circular folds. Just where this region
of the digestive canal ends, it contracts, and this is judged to be the line of demarcation
between the mid-gut and hind-gut, 7. e., the true stomach and the intestine. It should
be observed that the chitinous folds of the oesophagus and proventricle (usually called
stomach) are continuous, alike morphologically, and stop at the posterior end of the
proventricular strainer. It is evident that the food, such as worms, at first partly torn by

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 15

the teeth at the base of the limbs, is further triturated by the numerous hard teeth of
the crop, while the more nutritious fluid portions strain through the narrow passage of
the singular hollow cone.

The inner walls of the stomach are destitute of chitin, the long, close-set, large papillae
bemg edged with a thick layer of columnar epithelium. The twelve circular folds of
pavement epithelium are also lined with a similar columnar epithelium.

The four biliary ducts open into the intestine proper, which is lined as far as the
rectal folds with an epithelial membrane, is divided by longitudinal and transverse lines
into squares forming close-set, square, flattened papillae; on the posterior half of the
intestine the longitudinal lines are more numerous than the transverse, the latter being
partially obsolete, so that the imner surface of the intestine is gathered into fine longi-
tudinal folds, the free edges of the folds being irregularly serrated.

These folds consist of pavement epithelium (or mucous membrane), the free edges of
which are of columnar epithelium, the cells being long and narrow, while the nuclei are
not so large and distinct as in the proventricle.

The intestine within suddenly contracts at the beginning of the rectum, but becomes
larger posteriorly to the vent; the interior is thrown up suddenly into ten large folds of
unequal size, which become smaller posteriorly. These rectal folds have the same
muscular and epithelial layers as in the other parts of the digestive tract, but the cells of
the pavement epithelium, instead of being uniformly round, are in places irregularly
diamond or spindle-shaped, as in plate 5, fig. 6. The columnar epithelium of the rectal
folds is lined externally (in the rectal cavity or lumen) with a lining of a clear, structure-
less, somewhat chitinous membrane which stains purple with haematoxylin. It would thus
appear that the secreting surface of the stomach-walls is, owing to these folds and
large erect papillae, very much greater than in the intestine. We have seen that the
stomach, like the intestine, lacks the chitinous lining, and this, together with the
histological identity of structure between what we regard as the stomach and the intestine,
may seem to some as opposed to the view that this region is the mid-gut, stomach or
archenteron ; but the fact that it is divided from the intestine by a slight constriction, that
it lies in front of the biliary ducts, and that the appearance and gross anatomy of the lining
is unlike that of the intestine, coupled with the perfect continuity of structure in the
oesophagus and proventricle, are to our mind sufficient arguments for the position we hold.
Moreover in the lobster the two capacious biliary ducts empty directly into the true
stomach or mid-gut, the small straight intestine beginning at some distance behind the
origin of these ducts.

Thus while the stomach and intestine of Limulus agree in the absence of the chitinous
layer, the rectum in its longitudinal folds and lining of chitine repeats in a degree the
structure of the oesophagus.

Comparing the digestive canal of Limulus with that of the lobster or Decapodous
Crustacea in general, we find that the oesophagus and so-called stomach (what we call in
this paper crop or proventriculus), are continuous parts ; that the true mid-gut or stomach
has, like the intestine, no chitinous lining, though the rectum of the lobster, as we find on
examination, has long rectal folds (besides large square raised projections), and is through-
out lined with chitine. There is thus a general correspondence or homology between the
Decapodous and Merostomatous digestive or enteric canal. Unfortunately we have been

16 A. §8. PACKARD, JR. ON THE ANATOMY

unable as yet to find any specimens of the young with the enteric canal in such an early
stage of development as to throw any light on the morphology of the stomach.?
z 8

Structure of the liver. The tubules of the liver spread everywhere through the
cephalothorax, reaching almost to the edge of the retina of the eyes, and when cut
through, show in sections, as at plate 3, figs. 9, 9a, 9b, a circular or oval layer of epithelium,
surrounding a cavity more or less irregular in size and form. ‘The cells are quite large
and filled with brownish granules, being dark at base and transparent towards the end
where they project into the cavity.

Plate 3, fig. 8, represents the end of a lobule from theliving horse-shoe crab. Com-
pared with that of the lobster (plate 3, fig. 10), they are from one half to a third smaller,
very much longer, more intestiniform, and contracted irregularly, while the pigment
granules are thicker, and the entire mass is blackish-brown. Figs. 8a, 8b, 8c, represent
the cells comprising the’ epithelium teased out and spherical in form. Fig. 8a, indicates
a cell containmg smaller nucleated cells of two kinds, the smaller clear and yellow, the
larger, darker and horn-colored; 8b, a clear, nucleated cell; 8c, represents dark, clear
amber-colored cells filled with the secretion, and with the nucleus no darker than
the rest of the cell, and very clear. For purposes of comparison we give figures
(plate 3, fig. 10) of the end of a liver-lobule of the lobster, which is pale green, with
numerous epithelial cells, a few oil globules being scattered through them. In the living
lobules of a species of Panopaeus common in Buzzard’s Bay, some of the cells are
colored yellowish-green, imparting the same color to the entire lobule; the cells in Pan-
opaeus (plate 3, fig. 8d) are clear of granules, almost as much so as the fat globules. The
lobules of the liver of this crab are larger, more conical and shorter than in the lobster.
From this it will be seen that fundamentally both the general and minute structure of
the liver of the Decapoda and Limulus is nearly identical.

The glandular bodies supposed to be renal in their nature. These glands had
remained undescribed, until in a paper read at the Philadelphia meeting of the National
Academy of Sciences, held in November, 1874,? we drew attention to their occurrence
and histological structure. Although we have nothing to add verbally to the account
then given of the gross anatomy of these glands, we would refer to the figure (plate 3,
fi. 7) illustrating the form, and the cells (plate 3, figs. 7a, 7b, 7c) composing these glands.
They do not appear to have been described by Van der Hoeven, Owen, or A. Milne-
Edwards, in their account of dissections of this animal.

These glands are quite large, and apparently of some physiological importance,
and are easily found, as they are conspicuous from their bright red color, causing
them to contrast decidedly with the dark masses of the liver, and the yellowish
ovary or greenish testes, near which they are situated. The glands are bilaterally
symmetrical, one situated on each side of the proventricle and stomach, and each is
entirely separate from its fellow. Each gland (plate 5, fig. 7) consists of a stolon-

1] have found in the crop (stomach) of a large Limulus In another, occurred an Edwardsia, still alive, and three
oie. . n . . 7 » Leap > J oypie mre >
several living spiny larvae of Homalomyia, and several dead — or four large Nereis virens.
Tollennia gemma, mixed with bits of sea weed and Zostera. 2 American Naturalist, 1x, 511. September, 1875.

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 17

like mass (a), extending along close to the great collective vein, and attached to
it by irregular bands of connective tissue, which also hold the gland in place.
From this horizontal mass, four vertical branches (b, 0) arise, and le between and
next to the partitions at the base of the legs, which divide the latero-sternal region
of the cephalothorax into compartments. The posterior of these four vertical lobes
accompanies the middle hepatic vein from its origin from the great collective vein,
and is sent off opposite the insertion of the fifth pair of feet. Halfway between the
origin of the vein and the articulation of the limb to the body, it turns at a right angle,
the ends of the two other lobes passing a little beyond it, and ends in a blind
sac, less vertical than the others, slightly ascending at the end, which lies just above
the insertion of the second pair of feet. The two middle lobes are directed to the
collective vein. Each lobe is somewhat flattened out, and lies close to the posterior
wall of the compartment in which it is situated, as if wedged in between the wall
and the muscles between it and the anterior portion of the compartment. Each
lobe also accompanies the bases of the first four tegumentary nerves.

I could not by injection of the gland discover any general opening into the coelom
or body cavity, or perceive any connection with the hepatic, or with the great collective
vein. The four lobes end in blind saes, and have no lumen or central cavity.

The lobes are irregular in form, appearing as if twisted and knotted, and with sheets
and bands of connective tissue enclosing the muscles, among which the gland lies.
Each lobe when cut-across, is oval, with a yellowish interior and a small central cavity.

The gland externally is of a bright brick-red. The mass is quite dense, though yielding,
and on this account hard to be cut with the microtome.

When examined under Hartnack’s No. 9 immersion lens and Zentmayer’s B eye-piece,
the reddish external cortical portion when teased out from the living animal, is seen to
consist of closely aggregated, irregularly rounded, nucleated cells of quite unequal size ;
and scattered about in the interstices between the cells, are dark reddish pigment masses
(plate 3, fig. 7a) which give color to the gland. They are very irregular in size and form,
and twenty hours after a portion of the living gland was submitted to microscopic examin-
ation moved to and fro. In other portions of the outer reddish part of the gland, where
the pigment masses are wanting, the mass is made up of fine granular cells, which have
no nucleus. Other cells have a large nucleus filled with granules, and containing nucleoli.

In the yellowish or medullary portion are scattered about very sparingly certain
spherical cells which probably are purely secretory (plate 5, figs. 7b, 7c). The nucleus is
very large and amber colored, with a clear nucleolus; others have no nucleolus, and the
small ones are colorless.

T am at a loss to think what these glands, with their active secreting cells filled with a
yellowish fluid, can be, unless they are renal and excretory in their nature. In general
position they coincide with that of the shell glands of the Entomostraca and Branchi-
opoda, including the Phyllopoda, especially as worked out in Leptodora, by Weismann."
But in lacking apparently an excretory duct, and in their dense parenchym, with no
lumen, as well as histologically, they seem to differ from the shell glands of the lower

1 Ueber den Bau und Lebenserscheinungen von Leptodora hyalina. Zeitschr. fur wiss. Zoologie, Bd. xxrv. p. 385, 1874.

1 A. 8. PACKARD, JR. ON THE ANATOMY

Crustacea, and the green glands of the Decapoda. It should be remembered,
nevertheless, how difficult it is to find the excretory duct of the green gland, though
its inlet is very apparent. It is probable that we have here to deal with a new form
of kidney, adding a fourth kind to the three forms of renal organs existing in the
Crustacea.!

STRUCTURE OF THE Evers or LIMULUS.

After we had made some researches on the structure of the compound eyes of Limulus,
and had ascertained that their structure is quite unlike that of other Arthropodous eyes,
having a chitinous lens and no rods and cones, we had the opportunity of examining
Grenacher’s elaborate work entitled Untersuchungen jiber das Sehorgan der Arthropoden,
insbesonderer der Spinnen, Insecten und Crustaceen?

We have little to add to Grenacher’s account of the histology of the compound eye,
and our studies confirm the accuracy of his account and the three drawings he publishes
of the structure of the retinula and the rhabdom, although we have failed to find the layer
of epithelial cells extending up between the corneal lenses and next to the pigment layer ;
these are much less regular in their arrangement than drawn by Grenacher, and seem to
be simply connective tissue cells, which are as abundant away from the lenses as next to
them. We have also not succeeded in observing that the optic nerve fibres end in the
manner indicated in his drawing. We may here say that we had examined sections of the
compound eye of Limulus, and had made out the leading points in its structure before
seeing Grenacher’s work.

The following account is based upon observations made upon sections cut for us by Mr.
Mason. They are taken in most cases from living specimens, placed in alcohol, and
hardened in gum arabic ; and either stained with picro-carmine, or else the pigment layer
dissolved wholly or in part with nitric acid in order to uncover the ends of the corneal
lenses and to show the structure of the retinula and rhabdom. The subdivisions of the
optic nerve were best showed in slices stained with picro-carmine, the nervous substance
being but partially colored and contrasting well with the highly tinged connective tissue
by which the nerves are surrounded. In order to study the eye of Limulus intelligently
Mr. Mason kindly made for us numerous exquisite sections of the eye of the lobster.®

Plate 6, fig. 1, represents an actual section of the eye, with its exterior convex surface,
its lenses, retina and nerves. The surface of the eye is convex, smooth and polished.
The integument over the eye suddenly diminishes in thickness to form the cornea ; it is
solid and chitinous as in the rest of the integument, and is composed of three layers:
the outer and thinner more solid one (1,), which is clear yellow or amber-colored ; the
middle (1,), which is duller yellow and is finely laminated and softer, being partially

1 See Eug. Wassiliew. Ueber die Nieren des Flusskrebses. the optic nerve-fibres, so that the structure of the eye could

Zoologischer Anzeiger, p. 221, 1878. readily be studied. We did not perceive that the anatomy
7Von H. Grenacher. Gottingen, 1879, 11 lith. taf. 40, of the eye of Homarus americanus differed in any important
pp- 188. respect from that of the European lobster as worked out by

® These sections made by Mr. Mason were remarkably Mr. Edwin T. Newton. Quart. Journ. of Microscopical
successful, the slices being thin enough to include a layer of Science, 1873, p. 339.
hundreds of facets and rods and cones but one deep, with

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 19

stained reddish by carmine ; and a third (1,) thicker layer, less laminated and pierced by
nutritive canals (p), filled with connective tissue and directly communicating with the
body cavity. From the cornea project obliquely inwards large, long, solid, conical
processes (cl). These are the “ corneal lenses” of Grenacher, which he regards as homolo-
gous with the corneal lenses of larval insects and of Arachnida. We see no reason to dissent
from this opinion. These corneal lenses are long, cylindrical, obtusely pointed, sometimes
quite sharp, at the end. They point inwards more or less obliquely towards the centre of
the eye. Those (as at fig. 2a) near the periphery of the eye are longer and slenderer and
more oblique than those in the centre, the latter being considerably shorter and blunter
(plate 6, fig. 2). These lenses are developed from the third, a portion of the second or
more laminated layer of the cornea filling up a conical space (fig. 2a, h,) at the base of
the cone; the lamimae composing this shallow cone within the larger cone are continuous
with the laminated layer of the cornea, and like it are stained reddish by the carmine,
while the cone itself remains unstained, of a clear amber color, and is structureless ;
sometimes one or two curved lines being seen parallel to the periphery of the end of the
cone. That the corneal lens is solid is proved not only by its appearance, as seen
in numerous sections, but by the frequent marks of the razor, and by the laminated
structure of the mner conical portion. What relation, if any, the conical part (h) has
physiologically to the corneal lens, we are not prepared to state.

The terminal half, or sometimes third, of the corneal lens is enveloped in the pigment
layer or retina, (plate 6, fig. 5, rt), which is morphologically a continuation or modification
of the dark hypodermis (hy). The layer is continuous between the ends of the solid corneal
lenses, but is produced at the ends of the latter into cones of corresponding size (rtc),
which project into the body-cavity, and are enveloped by the dense connective tissue.
As stated by Grenacher, this pigment layer is composed of modified epithelial cells, which
are very long and slender, with a minute nucleus (fig. 38, rel). It is very difficult to make
out these cells, and we should have overlooked them had not Grenacher described and
figured them; finally, however, we could trace them, in preparations treated with acid,
into the hypodermis, where the cells are also long and slender, though shorter than in the
retina. Plate 6, fig. 3, rel, represents these retinal cells, as seen at the end of an acute
corneal lens, and their relation to the rhabdom (rhab).

Besides the retina, the soft parts of the entire compound eye of Limulus consists of
a large mass of connective tissue (ct), lying under and next to the retina and finely gran-
ular, permeated by the irregular tortuous branches of the optic nerve. The cells and
granules of this specialized subocular portion of the connective tissue forming the paren-
chyma of the cephalothorax are smaller than elsewhere; they are nucleated, and the
tissue stains paler crimson by the picro-carmine, than the connective tissue beyond the
subocular area, which remains darker brown, with coarser granules. The arteries,
ovarian-tubes and liver-tubes, rarely penetrate into the subocular area; and the branches
of the optic nerve do not wander into the region beyond. Fig. 1, av, represents the cut
ends of two minute arterial branches, ov represents the cell-eggs of the end of an ovarian
tube, and / indicates the much larger sections of a liver-tube; these vessels constitute the
greater part of the soft portions of the cephalothorax, being brown or yellowish brown,
and enveloped in a dense connective tissue.

20 A. S. PACKARD, JR., ON THE ANATOMY

The subdivisions of the optic nerve can rarely be traced for a long distance contin-
uously, owing to their irregular, tortuous course. In the drawing (fig. 1), I have
delineated with the aid of the camera lucida an actual section; the clear spaces indicate
the cut portions of the nerves distributed to each corneal lens. Histologically they
present the same appearance as the nerve-fibres in the brain, those given off from the
lower ganglionic cells. Under a low power (4 inch), they appear to be structureless ;
under a } they are seen to be finely granulated. After repeated search I could find no
nuclei in these fibres; nor were there any ganglion cells to be discovered. Repeated exam-
inations of numerous sections treated in different ways, have convinced me that there
are throughout the subocular area no ganglion cells, such as are characteristic of the eyes
of spiders and myriopods ; hence, with Grenacher, we may state that a ganglion opticum
is entirely wanting in Limulus ; the irregular, tortuous subdivisions of the optic nerve are
sent directly to the corneal lenses.

Coming now to the structure of the individual eye, or facet in the compound eye, we
find that its anatomy is just as described by Grenacher, except that we have been led to
doubt the existence of the layer of triangular (in outline) cells, which he represents as
extending up between the conical corneal lenses, and it should be borne in mind that we
examined eyes taken directly from living Limuli, as well as specimens that had been
preserved in alcohol for several years. Grenacher’s researches were made on eyes pre-
served for a long time in specimens of Limuli obtained from German museums, and his
material was so poor that he did not attempt to study the simple eyes (ocelli).

The structure of the cone of pigment matter enclosing and extending beyond the
end of the conical line has been described and illustrated in a masterly manner by
Grenacher. Impinging on the end of the conical lens, and extending through the centre
of the conical mass is a twelve-radiate semi-solid body, called by Grenacher the rhabdom,
and which he apparently homologises with the rhabdom or spindle-shaped body, suceeeding
the rod of the ordinary Crustacean eye. Along a part of its length, this rhabdom
(fig. 4, rhab) is enveloped by the retinula (plate 6, fig. 4, ret). Our figures show in
sections the rhabdom, with its central axis and twelve or thirteen rays, forming a rosette
extending into the substance of the retinula. That the retinula is, as Grenacher figures,
composed of as many large cells as there are rays of the rhabdom, we have proved by
preparations treated with acid, as seen in fig. 4, a.

How the optic nerve is connected with or impinges on the rhabdom, we have been
unable to ascertain. We have only seen enough to convince us that the nerve reaches
the end of the rhabdom, but the nature of the ending is unknown to us. The nerves,
as seen in our drawing, fig. 1, sometimes appear as if they ran by the end of the retinal
cones, and extended up between the corneal lenses. On the other hand, we have seen
very plainly the mode of termination of the nerve in the ocellus. Grenacher, however,
states that “a number of the nerve-fibres are distributed to each single-eye [facet],
they diverge behind it, and I have repeatedly traced clearly the entrance of a fibre into
the axial part of a retinula cell.”

Grenacher concludes that perception in the typical Arthropod eye is performed accord-
ing to the mosaic theory of Miiller, and that this applies to the eye of Limulus, although
the eye of the latter is morphologically wholly different from the eyes of any other animal.

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. Dall

a

According to Grenacher, the conical lenses are not homologues of the crystalline
lenses of other Arthropods, and the eye of Limulus cannot, he holds, be compared with the
eyes of any other Arthropoda. There can be, he claims, no genetic connection between
the eye of Limulus and those of any other Arthropods, and the two types of eye, i.e.,
those of Limulus and all other Arthropods, agree only in the fact that they are compound.
Among the Arachnida, he states, one may seek in vain for such an isolated type
of eye. He adds: * But it is not only possible but also probable, that the Poecilopoda
are related by their eyes to Myriopoda. In Cermatia, the eyes are wholly unlike those
of the spiders or insects, and they seem to have something in common with those
of Limulus.” We shall see further on, however, that the type of eye of Cermatia is not
fundamentally unlike that of Bothropolys, and other Myriopoda, as figured by Graber.

We have seen, then, that there is in the eye of Limulus an entire absence of rods and
cones, a common feature of the Arthropod eye. The corneal lens of Limulus corresponds
to the cornea or facet of each individual Arthropod eye, but there are no rods and cones, no
optic ganglion, no scattered ganglionic cells, but the end of the long, solid, conical, corneal
lens is simply enveloped by the pigment mass, and the end of the cone is succeeded by
a rhabdom, partly enveloped by the retinula, the terminus of the optic nerve
passing into the axial part of a retinula cell.

Comparison of the compound eye of Limulus with that of Trilobites. Beyond the fact
that the entire eye of certain Trilobites, and enlarged views of the outer surface of the
cornea of the eye, have been described and figured in Burmeister’s work on the organ-
ization of Trilobites and in various palaeontological treatises in Europe and North
America, especially by Barrande in his great work on Trilobites, I am not aware that
any one has given a description of the internal structure of the hard parts of the
eye of Trilobites.

The full bibliography of treatises relating to these animals in Bronn’s Die Classen
und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, carried up to 1879 by Gerstiicker, contains references
to no special paper on this subject, and the résumé by Gerstiicker of what is known of
the structure of the eye, only refers to the external anatomy of the cornea, the form
of the facets and their number in different forms of Trilobites. He shows that observers
divide them into simple and compound; the former (ocelli) are found in the genus
Harpes. These “ocelli” are said to be situated near one another, and are so large
that the group formed by them can be seen with the unaided eye; the surface
of the single “ocellus” appears, under the glass, smooth and shining. From the
description and the figure of the eye enlarged, from Barrande, it would seem as if
each eye was composed of three large simple ones; so that these eyes are really
aggregate, and not comparable with the simple eye or ocellus of Limulus and the
fossil Merostomata.t Moreover, the situation of these so-called ocelli is the same as
that of the compound eyes of other Trilobites.

The Trilobites with compound eyes are divided into two numerically very dissimilar
groups; the first comprising Phacops and Dalmanites alone, and the second embracing

1 The eyes of the fossil Merostomata (Eurypterus and judging by Mr. Woodward’s figure, exactly homologous with
Pterygotus) are evidently in external form and position, the ocelli and compound eyes of Limulus.

2, A. 8. PACKARD, JR., ON THE ANATOMY

all the remaining Trilobites, excepting of course the eyeless genera, Agnostus,
Dindymene, Ampyx and Dioride. The eyes of Phacops and Dalmanites are said by
Quendstedt and Barrande not to be compound eyes in the truest sense, but aggregated
eyes (Oculi congregati). But judging by Barrande’s figures of the eyes of Phacops
fecundus and P. modestus (Barrande, Vol. 1, Suppl. Plate 13, figs. 12 and 22), and
our observations on the exterior of the eye of an undetermined species of Phacops,
kindly sent us by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, Palaeontologist of the Canadian Geological
Survey, we do not see any essential difference between the form and arrangement of the
corneal lenses of Phacops and Asaphus, and are disposed to believe that the distinctions
pointed out by the above named authors are artificial.

For my material Iam mainly indebted to Mr. C. D. Walcott, who has so satisfactorily
demonstrated the presence in Trilobites of jointed cephalothoracic appendages. On
applying to him for specimens, and informing him that I wished to have sections made
of the eyes of Trilobites to compare with those of Limulus, he very generously sent me
his own collection of sections of the eyes of Asaphus gigas and Bathyurus longistrinosus,
which he had prepared for his own study, also other eyes, and especially the shell or
carapace of a large Asaphus, from Trenton Falls, showing the eye and the projecting
points of the corneal lenses. Prof. Samuel Calvin kindly sent me the eyes of an
unknown Trilobite from the Trenton limestone, one specimen showing the pits made in
the mud by the projecting ends of the corneal lenses, while to Mr. Whiteaves I am
indebted for eyes of Calymene.

First turning our attention to the casts and natural sections; that of the interior of the
carapace, including the molted cornea of Asaphus gigas, is noteworthy. When the
concave or interior surface of this specimen is placed under a magnifying power of fifty
diameters, the entire surface is seen to be rough with the ends of the minute solid conical
corneal lenses which project into the body-cavity. This is exactly comparable with the cast
shell of Limulus and its solid corneal lenses projecting into the body-cavity (plate 6, fig. 1).
Those of Asaphus only differ in being much smaller and more numerous, and perhaps
rather more blunt. Without much doubt the ends of the corneal lenses of Asaphus, as
in Limulus, were enveloped in the retina, the animal molting its carapace, the hypo-
dermis with the retina being retained by the Trilobite, while the corneal lenses were cast
with the shell.

In the specimen of the unknown Trilobite from Iowa received from Prof. Calvin, the
corneal lenses, seen externally, are quite far apart, arranged in quincunx order ; the
lenses are round and decidedly convex on the external surface. In a natural section,
where the eye has been broken into two, the conical lenses are seen to extend through
the cornea as cup-shaped or conical bodies, and are quite distinct from the cornea itself.
In another broken eye of the same species, the cornea is partly preserved, and two of the
corneal lenses are seen to extend down into and partially fill two hollows or pits; these
pits are evidently the impressions made in the fine sediment which filled the interior
of the molted eye or cornea!

Thus in the Asaphus gigas noticed above, we have the entire inside of the cornea with
the cone-like lenses projecting from the concave interior; while in the last example we
have the impressions made by the cones in the Silurian mud which silted into the cornea
after the Trilobite had cast its shell.

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 23

Farther evidence that the Trilobite’s eye was constructed on the same pattern as that of
the living horse-shoe crab is seen in the sections made by Mr. Walcott. We will first
describe, briefly, the eye of Limulus. Plate 6, fig. 1 represents a section through the cornea
of Limulus; cor, the cornea which is seen to be a thinned portion of the integument ; pec,
indicates one of the nutrient or pore canals, which are filled with connective tissue extend-
ing into the integument from the body cavity; c/,is one of the series of solid conical corneal
lenses. These are buried partly in the black retina, and the long slender optic nerve just
before reaching the eye subdivides, sending a branch to each facet or cornea, impinging
on the lens. Fig. 6 represents a vertical view of the corneal lenses or facets, magnified
fifty diameters, as seen through the transparent cornea. It will be seen that they are
slightly hexagonal and arranged in quincunx order; their external surface is flat, though
that of the ocelli is slightly convex.

Now if we compare with the horse-shoe crab’s eye that of the trilobite, Asaphus gigas,
(plate 6, figs. 8, 9), we see that the eye is raised upon a tubercle-like elevation of the cara-
pace ; the integument (it) is about as thick as that of Limulus, and it contains similar pore-
canals (pe); the eye itself or cornea, occupies a rather small area; its exterior surface,
instead of being smooth as in Limulus, is tuberculated, or divided up into minute convex
areas; these convexities are the external surfaces of the corneal lenses, which extend
through the cornea, so that its surface is rough instead of smooth as in Limulus ; ed indi-
cates one of the corneal lenses which are arranged side by side; they are of slightly dif-
ferent lengths and thicknesses, and the rather blunt free ends project into the cavity of
the eye, which in the fossil is filled with a translucent calcite.

It is quite apparent that we have here the closest possible homology between the hard
parts of the eye of Limulus and of Asaphus. Another point of very considerable
interest is a tolerably distinct dark line (fig. 9, rt), which seems to run across from one
lens to another, and which may possibly represent the external limits of the retina or
pigment mass in which the ends of the lenses were probably immersed; should this be
found to be the indication of the outer edge of the retina, it would be a most interesting
fact in favor of our view of the identity between the eyes of the two types of Palaeo-
carida under consideration.

Another section sent us by Mr. Walcott is represented by plate 6, fig. 8; it is from
Asaphus gigas, but represents a less elevated and broader part of the eye than that seen
in plate 6, fig. 9; the section does not so well exhibit the free ends of the corneal lenses.
Fig. 7 a represents a tranverse view of the eye of Asaphus gigas, showing the hexagonal
form of the facets, and their quincunx arrangement; so much like that of Limulus
(fig. 6).

This hexagonal appearance of the corneal lenses is still retained in natural vertical sec-
tions of eyes of the same genus, where with a good Tolles lens the sides of the cones are
seen to be angular. Plate 6, fig. 10, represents a few such cones. I do not understand to
what this hexagonal appearance is due; for both in Limulus and the Trilobites the corneal
lenses appear usually to be round, and yet in making a camera drawing (as are
all those here represented) of the cornea of Limulus from above, they present the same
hexagonal appearance as in Trilobites. The cause of this I leave to others to explain.

24 A. S. PACKARD, JR., ON THE ANATOMY

In a section (transverse) of the cornea of Bathyurus longistrinosus, received from
Mr. Walcott, the lenses are seen to be very irregular, five- or six-sided, and very
irregularly grouped, not arranged in distinct rows.

From the facts here presented, it would seem evident that the hard parts of the
eye of the Trilobites and of Limulus are, throughout, identical. The nature of the
soft parts will, as a matter of course, always remain problematical; unless the dark
line indicated in plate 6, fig. 9 (rt?) really represents the outer edge of the pigment
of the retina; but however this may be, judging by the identity in structure of
the solid parts, we have, reasoning by analogy, good evidence that most probably
the eye of the Trilobites had a retinal mass like that of Limulus, and that the
numerous small branches of the long slender optic nerve (for such it must have
been) impinged on the ends of the corneal lenses. It has been shown by Grenacher
and myself that the eye of Limulus is constructed on a totally different plan from
that of other Arthropods; I now feel authorized in claiming that the Trilobite’s eye
was organized on the same plan as that of Limulus; and thus when we add the
close resemblance in the larval forms, in the general anatomy of the body-segments,
and the fact demonstrated by Mr. Walcott that the Trilobites had jointed round
limbs (and probably membranous ones), we are led to believe that the two groups
of Merostomata and Trilobites are subdivisions or orders of one and the same sub-
class of Crustacea, for which we have previously proposed the term Palaeocarida.

Structure of the simple eyes or ocelli. Owing to insufficient material, Grenacher did not
study the simple eye of Limulus. The structure of an ocellus repeats very closely that of
one of the individual facets or members of the compound eye. At the point where a
simple eye is situated, 7. e., on each side of the median spine near the front edge of the
carapace, the chitinous integument suddenly becomes much thinner; the integument is
divided as in the cornea of the compound eye into three portions, an outer thin yellow clear
portion; a much thicker finely laminated part with fine granules and capable of being
stained reddish ; and a much thicker clear part, which has about a dozen layers, not seen in
the third inner layer of the integument next to the edge of the compound eye. The
integument is also penetrated throughout by canals filled with connective tissue. The
surface of the cornea is slightly convex. Next to the base of the large corneal lens, there
is a chitinous portion (p) which is less dense than the adjoining clear part, becoming
stained a pale crimson by picro-carmine. Just as in the facets of the compound eye the
laminated part of the cornea extends conically into the. base of the corneal lens, forming
a cone within the larger lens; this part (2) is less dense than the lens, and is usually
more distinctly conical than the lens itself. The latter is a large solid mass of chi-
tin, with two curved lines (plate 5, fig. 13, cl) in some examples, showing a slight ten-
dency to lamination; in form it is longer than thick, and very obtusely rounded at the
end, being as thick near the end as at the base; in form therefore the lens differs
decidedly from that of the corneal lenses of the compound eye. That the corneal lenses
of both simple and compound eyes of Limulus are solid is proved by the fact that they
do not stain reddish like the laminated portion of the cornea and adjacent integument,
and also because they are excavated as solid cones projecting inwards from the cast

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 25

chitinous crust of the animal. In a specimen (fig. 12), not treated with acid, the end
of the cone is seen to be buried in pigment, and in one out of many sections, i. e., that
figured 14, the cut went directly through the ocellar nerve, which, as seen in the
figure, after leaving the branch distributed to the other ocellus, proceeds undivided
to a distance about equal to the diameter of the corneal lens, when it gives off
minute fibres which pass up and lose themselves in the pigment layer near the base
of the cone. The main nervous trunk is seen to impinge directly on the end of the
pigment mass surrounding the end of the lens, while branches pass up into the pigment
on each side of the lens; so that the latter is immersed, so to speak, in a multitude of
nervous fibres.

On treating the pigment with acid, and cutting a section on one side of the solid lens, as
at plate 6, fig. 5, the entire mass of connective tissue and pigment is seen to be permeated
with nerve-fibres, which end im slight, bulbous, partly hyaline expansions next to the
chitinous integument.

Nothing like the rhabdom or retinula was to be observed, and I doubt much if they
exist. or any nucleated ganglionic cells.

We have, then, in the simple eye or ocellus of Limulus a repetition of the general
structure of any one of the individual eyes of the compound organ of vision, without the
rhabdom and retinula. The simple eye, then, in the horse-shoe crab is apparently rather
more rudimentary than one of the elements of the compound eye; and it is difficult to
conceive of-a much simpler form of eye in an arthropodous animal ; hence it can not be said
of the ocellus of Limulus that it is not less primitive in structure than the compound eye;
for we have here the eye reduced to a corneal lens, retina and optic nerve, the simplest
association of elements in any organ of vision.

Comparison of the ocellus of Limulus with the eyes of Myriopods. When we compare
the ocellus of Limulus with that of the Arachnida, and of larval insects, there is
very considerable difference. In the form of the corneal lens, however, the ocellus
of Limulus somewhat approaches that of the Myriopods, as lately worked out by
Graber."

An examination of the agglomerated eye? of Bothropolys bipunctatus Wood —a
genus allied to Lithobius, the species here named being common in Northern
California at the base of Mount Shasta — shows us that the myriopod eye, as a whole,
is entirely unlike that of Limulus.

The brain, in the first place, is on the usual Arthropod type; the hemispheres being
symmetrical, and the relative position of the larger ganglion-cells being like those
of hexapod insects. A large mass of ganglion-cells is situated at the origin of
each optic nerve. As regards the eye or group of eyes, the individual eyes are abont
eighteen in number and closely aggregated, though each simple eye or facet is
circular and its surface convex. The cornea in the specimen examined, while externally
convex, is concave on the inside, the cornea being no thicker in the middle than

1 Ueber das unicoreale Tracheaten- und speciell das Archiv. fiir mikr. Anat. Bd. 17, heft. 1. Aug. 14, 1879.
Arachnoiden- und Myriopoden-Auge. Von V. Graber. ? Our sections were kindly made for us by Mr. Mason.

26 A. S. PACKARD, JR. ON THE ANATOMY

on the sides, not being lens-shaped as usual in the Myriopod and Arachnidan eyes,
as described by Graber and Grenacher. The cornea is laminated, as in the integument.
That the cornea is apparently normally concave in this genus, seems evident from
the fact that the soft parts next to be described fill the concavity of the cornea. The
solid parts, then, of this Myriopod, are quite unlike the larger corneal cones of Limulus ;
though in general, the corneal lens of the Myriopods examined by Graber appear
to be homologous with the cones of Limulus.

When we compare the soft parts of the eye of Bothropolys and the Myriopods in
general with those of Limulus, we find nothing in common.

In Bothropolys the soft parts consist of the layer of rather large, round, nucleated,
epithelial cells, situated next to the cornea, and called by Graber the “ lens-epithelium
or vitreous-body cells,’ (Glaskérperzellen). This layer (absent in Limulus) is suceeeded
by the layer of short, slender-pointed rods, as figured by Graber, with large nucleated
cells in the tissue enveloping them. This layer of rods, homologues of the rods of
other Tracheate and Crustacean eyes (also absent in Limulus) is succeeded by the
retina, a continuation of the hypodermal epithelial layer, the cells of the latter
being much more distinct and larger than the hypodermal cells of Limulus.

The retina, whose structure differs from that of Limulus in having no “ retinula,” is
succeeded by the ganglion opticum, (absent in Limulus), which consists of a layer of
-very large ganglion-cells rounded and overlapping each other; their fibres leading away
from the eye, to form the optic nerve.

Eye of Cermatia forceps. The eye of this Myriopod appears to be constructed on the
same plan as that of other myriopods though differing in some important respects.
Though Cermatia is said to have compound eyes in contradistinction from the ocelli of
other myriopods, the latter are truly aggregated or compound, the so-called “ ocelli” being
made up of contiguous facets, the nerve fibres which supply them arising in the same
general manner from the optic nerves.

The following description is made from sections made by Mr. N. N. Mason of Provi-
dence, and loaned me for description : —

The eye is composed of a hemispherical, many facetted cornea, the lenses of which are
shallow, doubly convex, being quite regularly lenticular, the chitinous substance being
laminated as usual.

Each corneal lens is underlaid by a retina about as thick as the cornea, the inner
surface of each retinal mass being convex. Corresponding to each lens is a separate mass
of connective tissue, which increases in thickness from the end of the optic nerve
outwards towards the cornea, there being usually a clear interspace between each mass.
Within the broad stratum of connective tissue, next to the corneal lens within the retina,
is a layer of rounded “ vitreous cells” or “or lens-epithelium” of Graber. This layer is
succeeded by the series of rather large visual rods, one in each mass corresponding to
each corneal lens; these rods are long and sharp, conical at the end, the ends extending
one-half to two-thirds of the distance inwards to the inner edge of the retinal mass; they
each possess a nucleus, and the connective tissue enveloping the rods is nucleated, while
there is an irregular layer of nucleated cells near or around the ends of the rods.

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. ON

a

This layer of cells is succeeded by a thin, slightly curvilinear, transverse strip of
connective tissue, passing through the entire eye, and behind it are the loose, nucleated
spherical cells forming the ganglion opticum, among which the fibres of the optic nerve
pass.

The brain of Cermatia forceps, as shown by several sections, is modelled on the same
plan as we have observed in Bothropolys and so far as we see, the myriopod brain corre-
sponds more closely in its general form and structure with that of the Insects than of the
Crustacea. The large, thick optic nerve arises from the upper side of each hemisphere.
The median furrow above is deep, and on each side is a mass of small ganglion-cells ; also a
mass in the deep sinus below the origin of the optic nerve, and another mass on the inferior
lobe extending down each side of the oesophagus, probably near or at the origin of the
posterior commissure. These masses, i. ¢., those on the upper and under side of the brain,
connect on each side of the median line, and in this respect the brain is as in
Bothropolys. There are no large ganglion cells, as in the Crustacea and in Limulus.

It will be seen from this brief account that the eyes of Limulus differ from those of
Myriopods in wanting the lens-epithelium, the rods, and a ganglion opticum, which are
present in other Arthropods, both tracheate and branchiate.

Tue BRAIN AND ITS INTERNAL STRUCTURE.

Several years ago, before the present interest in the study of the brain of Arthropoda
had arisen, I made an attempt to study the brain or supra-oesophageal ganglion of the
horse-shoe or king crab. Mr. T. D. Biscoe kindly cut a number of sections for me.
These were unstained, and owing to interruptions were not examined until the past
winter, when with the aid of a large number of other sections made by Mr. N. N. Mason of
Providence, R. I., I have been enabled to present the following results. The brain was
in some cases stained with osmic acid in the manner described by Dietl' and adopted by
Newton — being taken from the living animal and allowed to remain in the osmic acid
from twenty to forty hours.

The best results, however, were obtained from sections of two brains, one of which had
been several years in alcohol, and which took the osmic acid stains very evenly ; better
results ensued by staining, after hardening the brain for two or three days in alcohol;
the brain is so large that it does not harden readily, when put fresh and living in osmic
acid alone.

When sections were not properly stained in the centre with osmic acid, they were further
treated with a picro-carmine stain with good results. Mr. Mason embedded the brain, when

1The following articles bearing on the brain of the Ar- Flégel. Ueber den einheitlichen Bau des Gehirns in den
thropods have been consulted; the actual bibliography of verschiedenen Insectenordnungen. Zeitschr. wissensch.
the subject being somewhat fuller. Zoologie, Bd. xxx, Suppl. 1878, p. 556.

Ofsiannikoff. Ueber die feinerer Structur des Kopfeang- Newton. On the brain of the Cockroach, Blatta orientalis.

lions bei den Krebsen, besonders beim Palinurus locusta. By E. T. Newton. Quart. Journ. Microscopical Science,

Von Ph. Ofsiannikof. Mém. Acad. Imp. Sc. St. Peters- July, 1879, p. 340.

bourg. Tom. VI. No. 10, 1863. Krieger. Ueber das Centralnervensystem des Fluss-
Dietl. Die Organization des Arthropodengehirns. Von krebses. Von K. R. Krieger. Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaft.

M.J.Dietl. Zeitschr. wissensch. Zool. Bd. 27,1876, p.488. Zoologie. Bd. xxx111, Jan. 23, 1880, p. 527.

28 A. 8. PACKARD, JR. ON THE ANATOMY

hardened and after remaining twenty-four hours in gum water, in a mixture of equal parts
of paraffine, wax and olive oil, so that the consistency of the imbedding substance was
nearly as soft as the tissue to be cut. The sections were made by a microtome devised by
Mr. Mason, and were mounted in glycerine jelly.

While between two hundred and three hundred sections were made, by far the
best results were obtained by a series of fifty-six sections, cut by Mr. Mason from one
brain, and forty-four from the upper four-fifths of another brain, the slices being either
zoo OY sty Of an inch in thickness; the best results of course were obtained from
the thinner sections. These were deeply stained of a dark-brown, the ganglion-cells and
nerve-fibres being much lighter than the nucleogenous masses forming the larger part
of the brain, these being dark brown, the former tawny or yellowish brown.

The examination of a few sections of the brain of the lobster and the locust also kindly
prepared by Mr. Mason, enabled me the more readily to understand the recent papers of
Dietl, Newton and Krieger on the brain of the crawfish and insects, and afforded a stand-
ard of comparison with which to study the topography and histology of the brain of
Limulus.

General anatomy of the brain. The position of the brain in relation to the body
walls and digestive tract is seen in the section of the adult animal on plate 2, fig. 1, br.
The central nervous system consists of an oesophageal collar made up by the consolidation
of six pairs of postoral ganglia from which nerves are distributed to the six pairs of
gnathopods. The ring is closed in front by the supra-oesophageal ganglion, or the
partial homologue of that pair of brain-centres in the normal Crustacea and Insects. It
will be remembered that in these Arthropods the brain is situated in the upper part of the
head, in a plane parallel to, but quite removed from, that of the rest of the ganglionic
chain; in Limulus, however, the brain is situated directly in front of and on the same
plane with the horizontal oesophageal collar, and the abdominal portion of the central
nervous system.

We now come to the singular relations of the ventral system of arterial vessels to the
nervous system. This is fully described by A. Milne-Edwards. After describing the
vascular ring surrounding the oesophagus he remarks: “ Lorsqu’on ouvre cette portion
du systeme artériel, on trouve dans son intérieur le collieur nerveux oesophagien, le reste
de la chaine ganglionnaire et la plupart des principaux nerfs qui y sont baignés par le sang.
Les artéres ne sont par seulement appliquées sur le systeéme nerveux, comme chez les
scorpions, ou développées a la surface de ce systéme de facon a le recouvrir ; elles logent
celui-ci dans leur cavité. Cette disposition rappelle celle du réservoir sanguin dans
Pintérieur duquel M. de Quatrefages a constaté l’existence des ganglions cerébroides chez
les Planaires, et celle du vaisseau ventral des Sangsues, découvert par Johnson.” He then
states that these singular relations of the apparatus of innervation with the arterial system
of Limulus have been seen, but very incompletely, by Professor Owen, and are more
intimate than this eminent anatomist thinks, and quotes as follows from Owen’s
Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Invertebrate Animals (1855, p. 320): “The two
large lateral branches (celles qui j’appelle les crosses aortiques) form arches which curve
down the side of the stomach and the oesophagus, giving branches to both those parts and

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 29

to the intestine, and becoming intimately united with the neurilemma of the oesophageal
nervous collar. They unite at the posterior part of that collar, and form a single vessel,
which accompanies the abdominal nervous ganglionic chord to its posterior bifurcation,
when the vessel again divides. Throughout all this course, the arterial is so closely
connected with the nervous system as to be scarcely separable or distinguishable from it.
The branches of the arterial or nervous trunks which accompany each other may be
defined and studied apart.” Afterwards in his “Anatomy of the King Crab,” p. 24,
Professor Owen thus writes of the arterial system: ‘On each side the origin of the
‘ocellar artery arises one of double the size (7b., e.e), which, diverging from its fellow,
curves outward and downward over the fore-part of the intestinal canal (plate 2, A, fig. 1s);
it gives off, in this course, a branch which ramifies upon the gizzard, a second to the
intestine and liver, the main trunk being continued to the nervous annular centre where it
expands, and combines with its fellow of the opposite side to forma sheath for that
centre analagous to a ‘duramater. This rather loose sheath is continued along the
ganglionic ventral cord, and is prolonged, like a loose neurilemma, upon the nerves
sent off therefrom, as it is upon those in connection with the annular centre.” !

Our own dissections and microscopic sections have taught us that the brain is
enclosed by a thick neurilemma, which is different histologically from the arteries, contain-
ing no muscular layer. This layer closely envelops the brain-substance, and there is cer-
tainly no space between the brain and its neurilemma for the passage of the blood. Now
the two lateral arteries descend fiom the anterior end of the heart, and open just behind
the brain into the space between the oeosophagal ring, and its neurilemma, so that
the latter is bathed in blood; the artery merges into the neurilemma, the sinus
being largest on the upper side of the oesophageal ring. On each side of the back
of the brain is a large artery for the supply of the brain, but there are no small arterial
branches. The whole nervous cord behind the brain, including the ganglionic
enlargements, is loosely invested by this neurilemma, the space being very wide
between the nervous cord and its loose coat, so that the nervous cord and ganglia
‘are directly bathed by the blood. This neurilemma (or perineurium) also invests
the larger nerves sent off from the ganglia. That the nervous cord fills up but a portion
of the space within this outer coat may be seen by reference to plate 6, figs. 12-14.
In embedding the portions of the nervous cord to be cut, the interspace is filled with
the paraffine preparations. We thus conclude, that while Owen and Milne-Edwards’ view
is substantially correct, it should be modified somewhat, viz., the blood does not flow
around the brain itself, though it may flow around the nerves sent to the simple
and compound eyes ; and the nervous system appears to us not to be surrounded by a true
artery, but that the thick permeurium becomes a vicarious arterial coat.

The brain in a Limulus ten inches long, exclusive of the caudal spine, is about
six millimetres in diameter; it is broad and flat above, and on the under side full and

1 Having only the first edition of Owen’s Lectures on the remarkable feature of the nervous axis of this Crustacean
Invertebrates in my library, I can not verify the quotation is its envelopment by an arterial trunk.” From this it
above made from the edition of 1855. In a recent letter would appear that Professor Owen was the first to perceive
from that distinguished anatomist he quotes as follows from that the nervous cord is enveloped by the artery, though
p- 309. “The sides of the great oeosophageal ring are these organs were afterwards elaborated described and
united by two transverse commissural bands; but the most figured by A. Milne- Edwards.

30 A. S. PACKARD, JR., ON THE ANATOMY

rounded; on the upper side is a broad, shallow, median furrow, indicating that it is a
double ganglion. Three pairs of nerves and a median unpaired one (the ocellar) arise
from the upper third of the anterior face of the brain. The two optic nerves are the
largest, arising very near the upper side of the brain, one on each side of the median
furrow, so that the second and third sections made by the microtome, pass through them.
Next below (from above downwards), is the origin of the single nerve sent to the two
ocelli. We have not traced this nerve as far as the ocelli, but Milne-Edwards states that
near the ocelli it divides into two branches. One of these two branches we figure in the
drawing of the ocellus (plate 5, fig. 14). On each side of the ocellar nerve, and in nearly
the same plane, arise two tegumental nerves, and directly below them a second pair of
larger nerves (fronto-inferior tegumental) descend ventrally. ©

No nerves arise from the inferior half or two-thirds of the brain, which is smooth and
rounded, with no indications of a median furrow.

It will thus be seen that, as stated by A. Milne-Edwards, there are no antennal nerves,
such as usually exist in Arthropods with the exception of the Arachnida. This we have
proved in the same manner as Milne-Edwards (though at the time ignorant that he had
pursued the same method), by laying open with fine scissors the envelop (arterial or peri-
neurial) which reaches to the posterior end of the brain, and seeing that the fibres of the
nerves sent to the first pair of gnathopods originate quite independently of the brain
itself. Moreover, after making sections of several brains, it is easy to see that only the
commissures connecting the brain with the oesophageal ring are present; the nerves to
the first pair of gnathopods not arising from the brain itself, but from the anterior and
outer part of each side of the oesophageal ring, 7. e., where the ring joins the brain; the
commissure is very short in the larva, and obsolete in the adult.

Internal structure and histology of the brain. Most of the numerous stained and
unstained transverse sections threw but little light on the topography ; the nerve-fibres
and ganglion-cells being apparently arranged horizontally, and mostly confined to the
upper part of the brain ; at any rate it was not until I had studied the horizontal sections,
that I could gain an insight into the relation of parts as shown by sections cut vertically
from in front backwards.

Finally a series of about fifty sections each, from two brains, cut by Mr. Mason hori-
zontally from above, downwards, and carefully mounted in consecutive order, each section
being numbered, has enabled me to arrive at a tolerably complete idea of the topography
of the brain, so that I could mentally construct a model of the brain of Limulus, and
compare it with the normal arthropod brain.

The histological elements are four in number : —

1. Large ganglion-cells, filled densely with granules, and with a well defined nucleus
similarly filled and containing a granulated nucleolus. These cells (plate 7, fig. 3c) may
be crowded or loosely grouped; the granular contents varying in density, and the walls
of the cell thick and loose or thinner and dense ; they terminate in large nerve fibres.
They are similar in form and size, though not in topographical arrangement, to the
large ganglionic cells of the lobster’s brain (see plate 7, fig. 1b).

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 831

2. Smaller ganglion-cells, much more numerous than the larger, more hyaline, having
much fewer granules and with the nuclei less distinctly outlmed (plate 7, fig. lc). They
are seen to be somewhat smaller, but otherwise like those in the brain of the lobster,
which we also figure (plate 7, fig. 1d).

3. Nerve fibres; these, like the large sized ganglion-cells from which they originate,
are stained tawny yellowish brown with osmic acid. ‘These fibres (plate 7, figs. 5a, 3b)
are large and coarse, their fine granular contents homogeneous, and they closely resemble
the nerve-fibres distributed to the compound and simple eyes of Limulus. Certain fibres
near the origin of the optic nerves are distinctly nucleated at intervals (plate 7, fig. 3b).

4. Minute cells, or rather nuclei, very numerous and forming the large ruffle-like
masses enveloped in connective tissue and constituting the greater part of the brain.
They stain dark brown with osmic acid, so that these fungoid or ruffle-like bodies are read-
ily distinguishable by their dark brown color from the surrounding tissues, which stain
much lighter. In unstained sections simply hardened by alcohol, the tissue or bodies
formed by these nuclei is darker than the other tissue, which is white. As these masses
or bodies appear to be wholly made up of nuclei, I propose that they be distinguished by
the name of nucleogenous bodies.

The brain itself is enveloped by a very thick, dense membrane, which I am disposed
to regard as a neurilemma, homologous with that of the lobster’s brain, though much
thicker. It is formed of a fibrous connective tissue, and probably some elastic tissue,
which directly penetrates into the brain-substance, forming a network of connective
tissue enclosing the nucleogenous bodies ; with occasionally clear nucleated portions in the
spaces between the balls of minute nuclei, 7.e., the nucleogenous bodies. The fact that
this envelop of the brain, a direct continuation of the so-called arterial coat of the oeso-
phageal ring, is so intimately connected with the brain-substance itself, and that there is no
space between it and the brain for the passage of the blood, and that an artery is situated
outside of the brain (plate 7, fig. 4, a7), indicates strongly that this corresponds to the neuri-
lemma of other invertebrates, or what Krieger designates as the “ perineurium.” It forms
a fold on the upper side of the oesophageal ring, and thus becomes the direct continuation
of the large lateral aortic branches; but it seems to be formed of short, tortuous fibres of
connective tissue, with no true muscular fibres, such as are seen in transverse sections
of the smaller arteries.

We will now describe the topography of the brain as seen in sections, beginning with
the upper surface, at the origin of the optic nerves, and going downwards. After the
microtome has made five slices ;5/59 — $y ch thick, removing the upper part of the low
elevations on each side of the broad, shallow median furrow, a section (plate 7, fig. 1) is
obtained, which extends through the optic nerves, and also includes a part of the commis-
sures by which the brain is connected with the oesophageal ring, the commissures being
situated on the dorsal side of the central nervous system; while the brain is here rather
short antero-posteriorly, the median cleft or anterior end of the oesophageal opening
projecting well into the brain; the latter is more symmetrical in life than indicated in the
figure, the brain being probably contracted a little in alcohol, and in the gum, while the
razor made a slanting cut, so that while it passed through the middle of the right optic
nerve, it merely grazed the edge of the opposite nerve.

32 A. §8. PACKARD, JR., ON THE ANATOMY

At the uppermost region of the brain the sides are occupied by the nucleogenous bodies
(nb), extending nearly to the back of the brain, but not reaching near the front.
Within, but next to these nucleogenous bodies, are large sub-spherical masses of nu-
cleated cells (fig. 1, em), from which the optic nerves apparently arise. (Only the outer
edge of the left mass has been cut through.) These cells are abundant and represented
by fig. 2. They are hyaline, contain few granules, as do the nuclei. They are a
little smaller than those of the lobster, which we have drawn to the same scale with
the camera lucida, but it will be seen that they are identical morphologically. En-
closing in part the left mass of cells is a Y-shaped mass of fibres and nuclei (y) which
reminds one of the trabeculae of the cockroach’s brain. This apparently is not of much
importance, and is an offshoot from the central mass of nerve-fibres, as in five sections
below, it merges with the other fibres. Just behind the middle of the brain, on each side
of the median line, is a group of large ganglion-cells adjacent to the rounded cellular
masses. Behind each group of large ganglion-cells originate the fibres of the com-
missures connecting the brain with the oesophageal rmg; on the outside of the com-
missural nerve-fibres is a group of large ganglion cells longitudinally disposed. As we
descend from the top to the base or under side of the brain, the commissure is cut
through and disappears, the brain extending considerably below the oesophageal ring.

In the next section the large ganglion-cells are seen to be scattered through the middle
of the posterior fibrous portion of the brain.

In the tenth section two large ruffle or fungus-like nucleogenous bodies appear, one on
each side of the median line, with several smaller ones; and at the back part of the brain
a bridge or transverse bundle of fibres now appears, connecting the mass of nerve-fibres
on each side of the brain. This bridge becomes thicker as seen in the fourteenth
section (plate 7, fig. 2).

This latter section passes through the lower edge of the right optic nerve (op 7).
The fibrous region is now invaded more than above by the nucleogenous bodies (nb), the
former being mostly restricted to the posterior half of the brain, the brain itself being
longer, and the oesophageal opening not extending so far into the middle of the brain. Its
bilateral symmetry is seen to be tolerably marked. The Y-shaped fibrous mass is broad
and obscurely marked; while the nucleogenous bodies occupy nearly two-thirds of the
area of the section, the area having extended from the sides around to the front, nearly
meeting on the median line of the brain. There are two central areas containing large
ganglionic cells, and two other similar areas farther back and nearer the sides of the
brain.

Plate 7, fig. la, represents the size of the large ganglion-cells of Limulus, compared with
fig. 1b of a similar cell from the lobster’s brain; the two being identical in size and in den-
sity of the protoplasmic granules.

Plate 7, fig. 3, represents a section through the front part of the right side of the
brain; it shows the origin of the optic nerve from the small sized ganglion-cells in the
central region of the brain. That the nerve-fibres within the brain are sometimes nucle-
ated is shown by the adjoining figures (3a, 3b), where the nerves are cut transversely.

Plate 7, fig. 4 represents a section through the ocellar nerve, just grazing the right teg-
umental nerve. The fibrous portions are still more restricted, and they extend to the

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 33

insertion of the nerves; the fibres are arranged into transverse as well as longitudinal
bundles, of which the more important ones are figured, but of their origin and termination
nothing definite has been ascertained.

Plate 7, fig. 5 represents a section through the middle of the ocellar and two tegumental
nerves, and though it is obvious that the razor cut tolerably even, as the nerves are quite
evenly severed, yet it will be seen how unsymmetrical the brain at this point is, after allow-
ing for unequal contractions due to reagents. The median line between the two sides is
very obscure and irregular; the mass of large ganglion-cells is quite large, and disposed in
an unbroken mass on each side of the median line, should one be drawn through the brain.
On the right side the fibres are almost wholly confined to an area near the middle of the
right half, while the left side of the brain is mostly occupied with fibres, the nucleogenous
bodies not extending to the back of the brain, as on the opposite side. At this part of
the brain, in the more symmetrical specimen of the two brains specially studied, the
nucleogenous bodies occupy nearly two-thirds of this plane of the brain; while the
posterior group of large ganglion-cells is more extensive than above, and there are now
but faint traces of the “ bridge” of new fibres.

Tn a section lower down, near the middle plane of the brain, the nucleogenous bodies
extend to the back of the brain, thus enclosing the mass of large ganglion-cells, which
hes in front towards the middle of the brain; the nucleogenous bodies, at least the longer
narrower masses, extend in towards the centre of the brain, so that they seem to radiate
outwards from near the centre to the periphery.

In a section through the pair of lower tegumental nerves (fig. 6), in the same brain as
represented at fig. 5,and on the same side, the fibrous masses are seen to be greatly
reduced in extent, now filling up narrow spaces between the nucleogenous masses which
converge towards the interior of the brain. The fibres evidently originate from the
smaller and larger ganglion-cells, and pass forward and outward among the ruffle-like
nucleogenous bodies. In the section here figured, the large ganglion-cells extend to
the extreme back of the left side of the brain.

In another section below the nerves (fig. 7), the fibrous portion does not apparently
reach the front, nor much beyond the middle of the brain, which at this point in one brain
shows but slight symmetry, no fibres being visible in the right side.

Just below the section last figured, where no nerves are sent out from the brain, and
before the sections diminish in size, the whole area seems to be filled with large rounded
nucleogenous fungoid bodies, forming about eight irregular series passing from the back
to the front of the brain, and arranged four on a side. A very few small bundles of nerve-
fibres are to be seen, but with no determinate direction. This disposition of the histolog-
ical elements extends downward to the bottom of the brain.

A transverse section of the brain from above downwards, cut just before the middle of
the brain (fig. 8), shows nearly the same arrangement of parts as in horizontal sections ;
the upper part is seen to be occupied with the two larger groups of large ganglion-cells
(Lg), the nucleogenous bodies taking up most of the remainder of the brain, while a

long bundle of nerve fibres (fa) passes from above downwards between the nucleogenous
bodies.

34 A. 8. PACKARD, JR, ON THE ANATOMY

To recapitulate and generalize from the foregoing facts: The brain is largely composed of
masses of nuclei (nucleogenous bodies), enclosed by a mesh-work of connective tissue ;
‘these bodies nearly fill up the lower part of the brain, 7. e., that part below the origin of
the nerves. In the upper half or third of the brain whence the nerves originate, the
larger and smaller ganglion-cells and bundles of nerve-fibres appear and preserve a more
or less definite topographical relation to the entire brain. The nucleogenous bodies at and
near the top of the brain are confined to each side of the brain, though masses of large
ganglion-cells, associated with smaller ones, and nuclei, one on each side, just behind the
middle, pass from below upwards; these groups of cells are more or less spherical as they
erow smaller near the under side and at the top of the brain. The ganglion-cells
altogether give rise to bundles of nerve-fibres; though it is probable that many nerve-
fibres are without beginnings from cells, but originally developed from nuclei, as the gang-
lion-cells probably are in the beginning; since, in the larval brain, no fibres are to be
seen, the brain substance consisting of cells alone. (See plate 3, fig. 5a.)

Thus the tract of nerve-fibres in each half of the brain is irregularly wedge-shaped,
the apex situated near the centre of each hemisphere, and the base spreading out irreg-
ularly on the top, thus pushing aside, as it were, and crowding to the walls on each side
the seemingly less dynamic portion of the brain, 7. e., the masses of nuclei, or undeveloped
cells (nucleogenous bodies). At the upper part of the back of the brain, just outside, at
the origin of the posterior commissures, are two longitudinal groups of ganglion-cells on
each side; these disappear below with the commissural nerves themselves.

The asymmetry of the brain, compared with that of other arthropods is remarkable ;
the large ganglion-cells are most abundant in the centre behind the middle, extending
from that point to the posterior side of the brain; a median line is only slightly indicated
by the arrangement of the fungoid bodies. The tract composed of large nerve-fibres,
with scattered ganglion-cells on the left side, is much more extensive than on the right.

Comparison with the brain of other Arthropods. So wholly unlike in its form, the want
of antennal nerves, and its internal structure, is the supra-oesophageal ganglion or brain of
Limulus, to that of the higher Crustacea (7. e., Decapoda, the brain of the lower Crustacea
not yet having been examined), that it is difficult to find any points of comparison.

Histologically, judging by my few sections of the lobster’s brain which are stained with
carmine, the brain of Limulus agrees with that of other arthropods in having similar large
and small ganglion-cells, but the topography of the cell-masses essentially differs in the
two types of brain. There are in Limulus no Ballensubstanz-masses, so characteristic of
other arthropods, — the histological elements constituting these not having yet heen dis-
covered in Limulus.

We conclude, therefore, that, topographically, the internal structure of the brain of
Limulus is constructed on a wholly different plan from that of any other arthropodous
type known, so much so that it seems useless to attempt at present to homologize the
different regions in the two types of brain. The plan is simple in Limulus; much more
complex in other arthropods, especially im the brain of the decapodous, and probably most
other Crustacea, the Decapoda haying two pairs of antennal nerves beside the optic. In
external appearance the two types of brain are entirely unlike. The symmetry of the

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 35

brain of the crayfish and lobster and insects is beautifully marked (each hemisphere
exactly repeating in its internal topography the structure of the opposite side), while
that of Limulus is obscure and imperfect.

Structure of the oesophageal ganglia. (Plate 6, fig. 11.) A section through one side of
the oesophageal ring, running through a ganglionic centre and the origin of the nerve to
one of the anterior (second?) gnathopods (gnn) shows that the topography is quite simple.
The central mass is mostly composed of nuclei and nerve fibres, the latter predominating
until the nuclei disappear towards the base of the ganglion, where the nerve to the foot-
jaw originates. On the outside of the ganglion, along nearly the whole length, are
scattered large ganglion-cells (/yc). Near the upper and outer side is a group of small,
narrow nucleogenous bodies (nb). There is a wide space for the passage of the blood
between the ganglion with its nerve and the connective-tissue envelope, which is thick and
of the same structure as the perineurium of the brain itself. This space extends along
the whole length of the nervous system to the termination of the cord, the nerves sent to
the appendages being enveloped by a continuation of the same coat. Among the large
ganglion cells are numerous smaller ones, some of which are truly bipolar, as represented
in our drawing (fig. lla); the nuclei have distinct edges, so that I regard them simply as
small-sized ganglion-cells rather than nucleated nerve-fibres.

Structure of the abdominal ganglia. There are six abdominal ganglia, the last being
larger and longer than the others. A section through the second abdominal ganglion
(plate 6, fig. 12) shows that the central mass of the double ganglion consists of longitudinal
fibres, with scattered nuclei. On the upper side in the median line is a group of large and
small ganglion-cells, and beneath is a mass extending to each side where they become most
numerous. In some sections the central fibrous mass is enveloped by an irregular layer
of ganglion-cells, some bipolar, with nerve-fibres forming a loose net work. In fig. 12 a
nerve connected by its neurilemma with that of the ganglion has been cut through; in
this nerve there are only fibres present. In fig. 15 a large nerve leading to the
abdominal appendage is seen to be sent off from one side of the double central mass; the
other side (gang) has been torn away from the one opposite.

In neither this nor in sections of the last elongated abdominal ganglion were any
nucleogenous bodies to be seen, so it seems most probable that none occur in the
abdominal ganglia.

The section here figured of the last abdominal ganglion (plate 6, fig. 14) is seen to pass
through four nerves, two on each side. The ganglion is seen to be formed by the union
of the two separate cords, which are separate just before the ganglion. Above the
ganglion on each side of the median line is a mass of large ganglian cells, of the same size
as those of the brain, associated with more numerous smaller ones. This mass extends
around and beneath each hemisphere of the ganglion, forming a layer of cells and fibres,
some of the cells distinctly bipolar, which becomes interrupted at the median line, indicated
by the deep notch in the central fibrous nerve-mass. The fibres from the laterally-
situated cells are distinctly seen passing in and mingling with the fibres of the central
nerve-mass; thus the nerves are reinforced from the peripheral ganglion cells. The

36 A. S. PACKARD, JR., ON THE ANATOMY

central masses are composed of nerves, with a few nuclei; the fibres are mostly cut across,
but occasionally short bundles of nerve fibres are seen lying across the cut ends of the
others, though near the outer edge fibres are seen originating from the cells and passing
in to the nerve mass.

FurTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE EmpBryonoay or Limu.us.

The blastodermic skin or serous membrane. In my paper in the Memoirs of the Boston
Society of Natural History I stated that the blastodermic skin, just before being moulted,
consisted of nucleated cells, and I also traced its homology with the so-called serous
membrane or outer “ Faltenhulle” of the ectoderm of insects. In 1873,’ by making
transverse sections of the egg, I was able to study in a still more satisfactory manner these
blastodermic cells, and to observe their nuclei before they became effaced during and
after the moulting of the blastoderm.

On June 17th (the egg having been laid May 27th), the peripheral blastodermic cells
began to harden, and the outer layer, that destined to form the outer or “ serous” layer,
to peel off from the primitive band beneath. The moult is accomplished by the flattened
cells of the blastodermic skin hardening, and peeling off from those beneath. During this
process the cells in this outer layer lose their nuclei, contracting and hardening during the
process. Plate 3, fig. 14a shows at o the moulted empty cells with the nuclei empty and
beginning to disappear, the walls being ragged and contracted; at b is the layer
underneath of lining cells, with granules and distinct nuclei. Figs. 14¢ and 14d show the
same cells during the moult, as seen from above and sideways; 14 represents the normal
blastodermic cells, with a large, well-filled nucleus.

This blastodermic moult is comparable with that of Apus, as I have already observed,
the cells of the blastodermic skin in that animal being nucleated. This blastodermie skin
may also, in its mode of development, be compared with the serous membrane of the
scorpion as described by Metschnikoff, and with that of insects, in which at first the blas-
todermic cells are nucleated, and appear like those of Limulus. A similar moult takes
place in Apus.

On June 19th, in other eggs, the cells of this membrane were observed to be empty, and
the nuclei had lost their fine granules, and were beginning to disappear. The walls of the
cells had become ragged through contraction, and in vertical sections short, peripheral,
vertical, radiating lines could be perceived. At this time an interesting phenomenon was
observed. In certain portions of the serous membrane the cells had become effaced, tran-
sitions from the rudiments of cells to those fully formed being seen. In insects and
crustaceans, as a rule, the cells all finally disappear, the serous membrane being structure-
less and homogeneous. The relation of the blastodermic cells in the serous membrane of
Limulus is due, without doubt, to the singular function this skin is destined to perform ;
i. @., its use as a vicarious chorion, the chorion itself splittmg apart and falling off in
consequence of the increase in size of the embryo.

1 The substance of this account appeared in the American 2 See Memoirs Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 11, 161, foot-note.
Naturalist, Nov. 1873, vir, p. 675.

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. By

Development of the internal organs. Although a good many eggs were sliced, I was
unable to discover any in the stage when the ectoderm and endoderm are differentiated,
nor to examine the embryo in the gastrula condition, if there be such. The eggs were
either in the stage of segmentation of the yolk, or the embryo was so far advanced that
the indications of the segments had appeared. This period of development of the gastrula
is evidently intermediate between the stages, plate 3, fig. 7, and fig. 10 of my first memoir
The succession in which the more important system of organs arise, is as follows :—
first the nervous'system; long afterwards the muscles and the heart. These organs are
well developed before the larva hatches, though the first indications of the mesoderm were
not observed. It is not for some time after hatching that the digestive canal as a whole is
formed; although in the gastrula condition an archenteron may probably be developed,
I have been unable to detect, after making numerous sections of eggs and embryos, any
traces of the stomach and intestine until long after the larva has hatched. The primitive
liver-tubules and the ovaries seem to arise at about the same time after the digestive canal
is indicated. The development of the renal organs was not traced, no indications of these
organs being detected.

The eyes begin to form at the time of hatching, before the digestive tract is indi-
cated. But little attention was devoted to the mode of development of the compound
eyes. They are then very small black spots, the rudimentary corneal lenses few
in number, and conical. The black retina is underlaid by a white mass; plate 4, fig. 4
represents one of the ocelli at or soon after exclusion from the egg; the external region is
clear und made up of about twenty elongated epithelial cells, with a distinct refractive
nucleus and granules; whether these are pigment cells or not we did not farther observe ;
underneath this area is the dark pigment mass in which no cells could be detected with a
4 objective and B eyepiece ; the ends of the epithelial cells seem to sink into the mass.

Development of the nervous system.' After a number of unsuccessful attempts at
discovering the first indications of the nervous system, I at length discovered, in thin
sections kindly made for me by Prof. T. D. Biscoe, the nervous tract in a transverse
section of an embryo in an early stage of development, corresponding to that figured on
plate 6, fig. 10, of my first memoir. The period at which it was first observable was
posterior to the first blastodermic moult, and before the appearance of the rudiments of
the six pairs of cephalothoracic limbs (gnathopods). The primitive band now entirely
surrounds the yolk, bemg much thicker on one side of the egg than on the other, the
limbs budding out from this disk-like, thickened portion, most of which represents the
ectoderm. At the time the nervous cord was observed it was entirely differentiated and
quite distinct from the surrounding tissue of the ectoderm.”

At a later stage in the embryo, represented by plate 5, fig. 16, in my first memoir, at a
period when the body is divided into a cephalothorax and abdomen, and the limbs are
developed, by a series of sections made parallel with the under surface of the body, I could

1The principal points in this section were originally ? Plate 4, fig. 3, represents the nerve cells, and fig. 3a,
printed in a short notice in the American Naturalist, July _ the cells of the mass of connective tissue in which the two
1875, 1x, 422. cords are embedded, from a freshly hatched larva.

38 A. S. PACKARD, JR., ON THE ANATOMY

make out the general form of the main nervous cord. Plate 3, fig. 3, shows the general
relations of the cord to the body. It is large and broad, with three well-marked pairs
of consolidated ganglia in the abdomen, the two basal ones supplying the nerves for the
first and second abdominal feet. There are in the cephalothorax six pairs of consolidated
ganglia, the commissures being as yet undeveloped; the ganglia are indicated by the
minute openings in front of and behind each pair of ganglia. The ganglia of the first pair
of feet could be clearly distinguished; the brain or cephalic ganglion is probably repre-
sented at fig. 31; fig. 3a, the same enlarged. The number of ganglia, throwing out the
brain, is nine, corresponding to the six pairs of cephalothoracic feet and the two abdominal
segments, there being at this stage but two pairs of appendages in the abdomen.

The next important stage of development is seen in longitudinal sections of the larva
after hatching, and when the digestive canal is marked out. To show the ganglia best,
the section should be made on one side of the median line of the body, so as to pass
through the middle of the ganglia on one side. Plate 3, fig. 2, shows a section thus made
and stained with carmine ; the nervous ganglia remaining white are very clearly indicated ;
the commissures are not shown, but they are now developed, since the ganglia are mostly
separate.

Now if we make a longitudinal section of the young horse-shoe crab when a little over
an inch long, the disposition of the nervous cord is exactly as in the full grown individual,
as figured by A. Milne-Edwards; see also our representation on plate 3, fig. 1, br, oer.
The nervous ganglia are then united into a nearly continuous nervous collar, the opening
in front being filled up by the brain or cephalic ganglion."

Turning now to the nervous system of the larva (plate 3, fig. 2), the section here figured
shows a most important and interesting difference as regards the ganglia which supply
nerves to the appendages of the cephalothorax. They are at this time entirely separate,
the spaces between the four posterior ones, which are connected by commissures, being as
wide as the ganglia themselves are thick. There are behind the oesophagus six ganglia,
corresponding to each of the six pairs of gnathopods; while the brain is rather larger
than the others, and the first post-oesophageal ganglia are the smallest of the six, corres-
ponding to the more diminutive size of the first pair of gnathopods.

Reference may also be made here to plate 4, fig. 8, which shows the mode of origin of
the nerves distributed from the first post-oesophageal ganglion to the feet; this section
certainly very clearly demonstrates that the first pair of gnathopods belong with the post-
oral series, that they can in no sense be regarded as homologues of the antennae of
other Arthropods, and that in fact there are no antennae in Limulus, and without doubt
in the Merostomata in general. But this subject has been already discussed in the
chapter on morphology.

It is not until after the second moult that the adult condition of the nervous system is
attained, as Dr. Dohrn? has figured the separate ganglia in a larva which had evidently
moulted once, the abdominal spine being well developed. This is certainly an interesting

1 For the nature of the brain and the oesophageal gang- 2Dohrn. Zur Embryologie und Morphologie des Limulus
lionie collar, the reader is referred to the section of this polyphemus. He also represents the fourth pair of abdominal
paper on the structure of the adult brain. appendages ; the larva has but three before the first moult.

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 89

instance of the metamorphosis and cephalization of the nervous system, which is carried
on internally, though the other organs and outer body-form remain unchanged.

Development of the digestive canal. Unfortunately the mode of formation of the primi-
tive digestive cavity or archenteron was not ‘observed, as eggs showing the formation of
a gastrula could not be obtained. From this early period until after the larva has
hatched the entire canal remains unorganized, the entire body-cavity being filled between
the heart and nervous tract with yolk granules.

The earliest stage when the enteric canal was observed at all was after the different
parts — oesophagus, crop, stomach, intestines, and cloaca or rectum —had assumed their
definitive shape. Plate 4, fig. 2, illustrates a section of the larva before its first moult,
through the head. The space around the heart and digestive canal and over the nervous
cord is filled with a very loose connective tissue; the cells, which are nucleated, spindle-
shaped or triangular, being scattered, and forming a very open net-work of cells. In after-
life the cells multiply, becoming very numerous and round or oval in form. This con-
nective tissue extends throughout the entire body-cavity, the ovarian or testicular tubes
ramifying throughout the mass, as well as the liver tubules.

The section at plate 5, fig. 8, passes through the oesophagus and the crop. The former
(figs. 10, 11, enlarged) is apparently filled with a few large epithelial cells, which represent
the folds of the lining of the oesophagus. The walls of the proventriculus are very thick ;
the lumen or passage is lined with the alternating larger and smaller folds of spherical
epithelial cells, and with a thi semi-chitinous layer; the muscular layer, representing the
endoderm built up around the originally invaginated ectodermal layer forming the fore gut
or protenteron (plate 5, figs. 7, 7a), shows the epithelium of the intestine, the cells being
very irregular in size and length.

Origin of the liver. Plate 4, fig. 7, represents a section through the middle of the
cephalothorax, passing through the intestine and one of the pairs of biliary ducts. The
ducts are seen to open directly into the stomach, the duct being large, and at first there
is a primary liver-tube, which bends downward at quite an angle before passing to the
outer edge of the carapace. There are thus four primary biliary tubes, these in after
life subdividing and ramifying throughout the body-cavity to an indefinite extent. The
tubes are clear, transparent, with dark granules.

Development of the ovary. The same section represented in plate 4, fig. 7, also passes
two bodies, one on the outer side of and just below the heart, on each side of the mid-cut.
These are the rudimentary ovaries. One section (fig. 8) shows the ovarian follicles
attached to the walls of the gland, and, in fig. 8a, the ovarian eggs are just beginning to
form, constituting a mass apparently free from the walls of the ovarian tubules.

Structure of the testes and development of the spermatozoa. In our first memoir on Limu-
lus we figured the spermatozoa; since then Professor Lankester has also described them.

The argument that Limulus is not a Crustacean because the spermatozoa have tails is
somewhat vitiated by the fact that those of the barnacles have exceedingly long, well

40 A. 8. PACKARD, JR. ON THE ANATOMY

developed tails. We introduce a figure of those of a species of Lepas collected at
Penikese, an island at the mouth of Buzzard’s Bay. The head is broad and flat, plainly
sinuous seen sidewise, the centre being filled with granules. The spermatocysts (plate 3,
fig. 5) are spherical, usually containing five spermatozoa.

The tubules of the testis of Limulus are yellowish; this color is due to the presence of
numerous yellow pigment granules. Fig. 4a represents the epithelial tissue forming
the walls of the follicles (fig. 4). The spermatocysts (fig. 4d) are spherical, containing
four immature spermatozoa, while the earlier condition of the same is seen at fig. 4b,
where the sperm-cells are nucleated.

We introduce for comparison drawings (fig. 6) of the spermatocysts of a decapod
Crustacean (Libinia canaliculata), the spermatozoa (fig. 6/) being tailless and nucleated.
Certain larger cells have a large nucleus, with a small nucleolus ; the nature of these cells
we do not understand.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Van per Horven. Recherches sur lHistoire Naturelle et VPAnatomie des Limules, par J. Van der
Hoeven. Avec sept planches. Leyde, 1838. fol. pp. 38.

GEGENBAUR. Anatomische Untersuchung eines Limulus, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Gewebe.
Von C.Gegenbaur. Mit einer tafel. Besonders abgedruckt aus dem 4. Bande der Abhandlungen der natur-
forschenden Gesellschaft in Halle. Halle, 1858. 4°. pp. 24.

Locxwoop. The Horse-foot Crab. By Rev. 8. Lockwood. American Naturalist, rv, July, 1870.

Packarp. The Embryology of Limulus polyphemus. By A. 8. Packard, Jr. American Naturalist,
Iv, pp. 257-274. July, 1870. American Naturalist, rv, pp. 498-502. October, 1870. Proceedings Bost. Soc.
Nat. Hist., June, 1871. Vol. xtv, p. 60.

On the Embryology of Limulus polyphemus. By A. 8. Packard, Jr. Proceedings American
Association Ady. Science, 19th Meeting, Troy, N. Y., July, 1871. 8°. pp. 8.

Morphology and Ancestry of the King Crab. By A. S. Packard, Jr. American Naturalist, rv,
pp- 754-756. Feb., 1871.

The Development of Limulus polyphemus. By A. 8. Packard, Jr. Memoirs Bost. Soc. Nat.
Hist., m, pp. 155-202. March, 1872.

Further Observations on the Embryology of Limulus, with Notes on its Affinities. By A. 8.
Packard, Jr. Amer. Nat., vu, pp. 675-678. Noy., 1873. Proceedings Amer. Assoc. Ady. Science. Port-
land Meeting, 1874.

On the Development of the Nervous System in Limulus. By A. 8. Packard, Jr. Amer. Nat.,
IX, pp. 422-424. July, 1875.

On an Undescribed Organ in Limulus, supposed to be renal in its nature. By A. 8S. Packard, Jr.
Amer. Nat., rx, pp. 511-514. Sept., 1875.

Structure of the Eye of Limulus. Amer. Nat., xiv, pp. 212-213. March, 1880.

Internal Structure of the Brain of Limulus. Amer. Nat., xtv, pp. 445-448. June, 1880.

Van Benepen. De la place qui les Limules doivent occuper dans la Classification des Arthropodes
apres leur developpement embryonnaire ; par Edouard van Beneden. Communiqué a la Soc. Ent. de Bel-
gique, 14 Oct. 1871. Gervais, Journ. Zoologie, 1, 1872, pp. 41-44. Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1872.

Dourn. Untersuchungen tiber den Bau und Entwickelung der Arthropoden. Von Anton Dohrn.
Abdruck aus der Jenaischen Zeitschrift Wissensch., Band v1, Heft 4. pp. 582-640. 1871.

Mitne-Epwarps. Recherches sur Anatomie des Limules. Par A. Milne-Edwards. Annales des Sci-
ences Nat., xvi, pp- 67. 11 plates. Noy. 1872. Commission Scientifique du Mexique.

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 41

Owen. Anatomy of the King Crab. (Limulus polyphemus Latr.) By R. Owen. London, 1873. Trans.
Linn. Society, London. 5 plates. 4°. pp. 50.

Lankester. Mobility of the Spermatozoids of Limulus. By E.R. Lankester. Quart. Journ. Mier.
Science. Oct., 1878. pp. 453-454.

See also Strauss-Diirckheim’s Traité d’ Anatomie Comparative. 1842.

Owen’s Lectures on the Invertebrate Animals. 1843-1855.

Woodward’s papers on Merostomata. Palaeontol. Society. 1866-1878.

Huxley’s Anatomy of the Invertebrate Animals. 1877.

W. Grenacher’s Untersuchungen tiber das Sehorgan der Arthropoden. 1879.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Prats I.

Fig. 1. Under side of a Limulus, a little over two inches long without the spine, injected to show the
abundance of the arterial twigs in the limbs and caudal spine as well as the body. The injection was made
at Penikese by the late Edwin Bicknell. J. 8. Kingsley, del.

Fig. 2. Camera lucida drawing of a living larva, showing the circulation of the blood-corpuscles in the
right under-side of the abdomen and on the left first abdominal limb. Author, del.

Fig. 3. Camera lucida drawings, showing the actual course taken by the blood corpuscles in the first
abdominal appendage of the same larval Limulus. The arrows show the direction of the currents of blood,
with the corpuscles; the blood passing from the heart down along the inner side of the appendage, and
passing by tortuous, irregular courses around by the outside, back along the base, and returning to the peri-
cardial chamber through the venous opening. This mode of circulation is much as we have seen take place
in the amphipodous Crustacea, Author, del.

Prater) ET.

Fig. 1. Transverse section of adult male Limulus, natural size, through the proventriculus [pr], showing
the cone [c], the oesophagus [oe], and the brain [07]; @, aorta, or frontal artery; col, collective venous
sinus. From a drawing made for the author at Penikese by P. Roetter.

Fig. 2. Section through the cephalothorax in front of the heart, brain, and first pair of gnathopods ;
m, muscles. J.S. Kingsley, del.

Fig. 3. Section through the cephalothorax behind the first pair of gnathopods; Af, heart; m, great longi-
tudinal adductor muscle; cp, supraneural cartilaginous plate protecting the central nervous system. The
latter not shown. J. S. Kingsley, del.

Fig. 4. Transverse section through the abdomen, showing the second abdominal, or first respiratory, foot ;
ht, heart, beneath which is the intestine; 4, origin and middle of branchio-cardiac veins, which carry the
blood from the limb to the heart. J. S. Kingsley, del.

Prats III.

Fig. 1. Longitudinal section through a Limulus about two inches long, exclusive of the caudal spine;
ht, heart; m, mouth, leading by the oesophagus to the proventriculus [pr]; cone, proventricular cone ; sé,
stomach; im, intestine; a, anus; br, brain, or supraoesophageal ganglion, behind which is a part of the
oesophageal ring [oe.7]; ng, ganglionated cord; ct, supraneural cartilaginous plate; enlarged about twice.

Fig. 2. Longitudinal section through the larva of Limulus on one side of the heart and digestive tract,
passing through the brain and cephalothoracic ganglia; 67, brain; the six other ganglia [1-6] separate from
one another, and afterwards consolidate to form the “oesophageal ring”; 1, the first ganglion which supplies
a pair of nerves to the first pair of gnathopods. [Compare plate 4, fig. 7, gn.]

42 A. §. PACKARD, JR. ON THE ANATOMY

Fig. 3. A horizontal section through the embryo long before it hatches, before the body has become flat-
tened, before the heart and digestive canal have appeared, and soon after the embryo has reached the stage
represented by plate 4, figs. 19, 19a, of our first memoir, There are six cephalothoracie ganglia [I-VI]
besides the brain, and three abdominal ones [I-III]; the first two abdominal ones corresponding to the
rudiments of the first and second abdominal appendages. 1-6, the six pairs of gnathopods; I, II, the two
pairs of abdominal legs.

Fig. 3a. Enlarged view of the brain [?], the nerve cells [4] forming the ganglion, which is enveloped by
connective tissue cells [ct]. (Is it these latter which are destined to form the nucleogenous bodies of the
adult brain ?)

Fig. 4. Follicles at end of a seminal tubule of testis of Limulus; 4a, epithelial cells of seminal tubules,
nucleated and highly refractive; x Tolles’ 1 objective C eye piece, magnified 725 diameters; 46, amber-
colored pigment cells of testis; 4c, similar but larger cells; 4d, spermatocysts of Limulus; 4e, cells associated
with the spermatocysts, with a large nucleus and a distinct nucleolus; xX Hartnack No. 9, B eyepiece.

Fig. 5. Spermatocyst of a barnacle [Lepas], 5a, side view, and 54, front view, of a spermatozoon of the
same; X 7yB.

Fig. 6. Spermatocysts of different shapes, a, 4, c, d, ¢ (X +B), and [f'] tailless spermatozoon of Libinia
canaliculata; X Hartnack No. 9.

Fig. 7. Supposed renal glands of Limulus; 8, one of the four lobes extending upwards from the main
stem [@]; ¢, chitinous bases of the gnathopods. 7a, reddish pigment bodies coloring the cellular mass of the
gland, the cells being nucleated. 74, 7c, two amber-colored yellow secreting cells scattered through the cel-
lular mass, composed of nucleated cells, as at 7a; X Hartnack No. 9, B.

Fig. 8. Tubules of liver of living Limulus; x 30 diameters; 8a, a parent cell of the smaller liver cells;
the shaded ones horn-colored, those unshaded clear; 84, free liver cell; 8c, the same with pale nuclei.
8d, liver cells of Panopeus; X } Tolles B.

Fig. 9. Sections of liver tubes stained with carmine; X } A.

Fig. 10. End of a liver tubule of Homarus umericanus; * 1B.

Fig. 11, lla. Striated muscle near insertion of leg of Limulus; x 1} C (725 diameters).

Fig. 12, 12a, 126. Sections through minute peripheral arteries near the compound eye; X } A.

Fig. 18. White fibrous cartilage of the supraneural cartilaginous plate; longitudinal section showing the
fibres on one edge and the nucleated cells in the dense structureless portion.

Fig. 14. Portion of the blastoderm lying next to the chorion [ch] with yolk granules; 14a, the same after
the outer layer [o] has begun to moult, the cells beginning to. wrinkle on the edges, and being without the
protoplasmic granules [14] seen in the deeper layer of blastodermie cells; 14e, vertical, and 14d, profile view
of the same cells after moulting, the walls contracted and wrinkled, and with the nuclei partly absent or
absorbed; X 4 A.

Pirate IV.

Fig. 1. Section through the larva some time after hatching; At, heart; ivf, intestines; nc, double nervous
cord; the muscular system well developed; am, undeveloped adductor muscle. The parenchym of the
body consists of incipient connective tissue and liver-cells.

Fig. 2. Section through the cephalothorax of the same larva as represented at Fig. 1, the section passing
through the compound eye [cc], the heart [At], proventriculus [pr], and the double nervous cord; as yet
the neurilemma is unformed, the nervous cord not being enveloped by it, this being represented by connec-
tive tissue [c¢].

Fig. 3. Nerve cells of nervous cord of a freshly hatched larva, before the digestive tract and heart are
indicated ; 3a, connective tissue cells enveloping the nervous cord of 3; from these cells the neurilemma is
probably formed.

Fig. 4. An ocellus of a larval Limulus, showing the epithelial cells [e] and the dark pigment of the retina
[7]; X 1B. The ocelli are at this stage quite far apart.

Fig. 5. Section of nervous cord [7] embedded in connective tissue [et], the section passing through the
body near the eyes of an advanced larva, in which the heart and digestive tract are developed.

Fig. 6. Section through a ganglion [g] of the same larva as represented in Fig. 5, the ganglion com-
pletely surrounded by the connective tissue [ct].

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 43

Fig. 7. Section through an advanced larva showing the origin of a pair of liver ducts from the intestines
[int], and a single primitive liver-duct [/7], of which there are two pairs; At, heart; gv, a pair of nerves sent
from the ganglion [g] to each second gnathopod.

Fig. 8. Section of an ovarian tube, with the ovarian follicles on the side; 8a, another section showing the
cell-eggs.

PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Section through the vertical folds or teeth of the fore part of the crop or proventriculus; m, mus-
cular layer; pe, pavement epithelium ; ce, columnar epithelium ; ch, chitinous layer.

Fig. 2. The central tooth of Fig. 1 magnified; x 4 A; lettering as before.

Fig. 8. Columnar epithelium from section of end of the oesophagus.

Fig. 4. Nucleated cells and fibres of the pavement epithelium of intestine; x } B; 4a, the same somewhat
enlarged.

Fig. 5. Section from posterior part of the oesophagus, showing the chitinous layer [ch]; the empty
spaces in the lobes surrounded by columnar epithelium [ce ]; the pavement epithelium [pe] supporting the
former.

Fig. 6. Pavement epithelium of rectal folds.

Fig. 7, 7a. Section of stomach of larva where the chitinous lining is absent, showing the irregularity of the
epithelium.

Fig. 8. Section through an advanced larval Limulus, the figure indicating only the portion lying under
the central lobe; At, heart; pr, proventriculus; oe, oesophagus; g, first pair of ganglia, the oesophageal ring
not yet being consolidated; gn, nerve to the first gnathopod [gp], demonstrating that the brain does not
supply the nerves to the first pair of feet; cf, connective tissue, the neurilemma not yet formed.

Fig. 9. Section of inner part of the proventriculus showing the larger teeth [¢] alternating with the
smaller ones [¢]; X } A.

Fig. 10. Section through the oesophagus; X } A.

Fig. 11. Another section of the same.

Fig. 12. Section through the simple eye or ocellus of Limulus; 3, third layer of the integument, clear and
laminated; X }.A; 2, second layer of integument finely granulated and laminated; pc, pore canals filled
with connective tissue [ct]; cl, corneal lens; , cup-shaped depression in the base of the corneal lens.

Fig. 13. Another section of an ocellus more enlarged; lettering as in fig. 12.

Fig. 14. Section through an ocellus showing the relations of the ocellar nerve and its branches [oem];
1, first and outer clear layer of the convex cornea; 2, second layer, finely laminated; 3, third, clear layer,
with a few lamin; rt, pigment layer in retina; A, hypodermis, of which the retina is a modification; cd,
corneal lens; ct, connective tissue.

Prats VI.

Fig. 1. Section through the entire compound eye of Limulus, stained with picro-carmine, showing the
relations of the cornea and corneal lenses and retina to the branches of the optic nerve; cor, cornea; 1, outer
clear, 2, middle laminated, and 3, inner clear portion of the chitinous cornea, seen to extend into the integu-
ment; pe, pore or nutritive canals filled with connective tissue; c/, corneal lenses; rt, retina; hy, hypodermis,
of which the retina is a modification. Below is the mass of connective tissue cells [ct], through which the
tortuous branches of the optic nerve pass and impinge on the ends of the conical corneal lenses; owing to the
tortuous course of the nerve-fibres, they appear not to be continuous in the thin section of which this is a
drawing. ov, ovary with cell eggs; ar, two arterial twigs; J, two liver tubes; ict, inner, darker brown con-
nective tissue of the interior of the cephalothorax.

Fig. 2. Sections of corneal lenses in the middle of the eye; the retina has been removed by acid; ci,
corneal lense: f, cup-shaped depression in base of lens ; 2a, the same from near the periphery of the eye,
where the corneal lenses are longer and more oblique directed inwards towards the middle of the eye.

Fig. 3. Epithelium of the retina around the end of a cone; rab, rhabdom; rei, retinal cells.

Fig. 4. Section of two retinulas, with the rhabdom [rhab] in the centre; X 4A; 4a, a retinula [ret]
ad with acid to show the twelve cells into each of which a ray of the rhabdom projects; x } B.

44 A. 8. PACKARD, JR. ON THE ANATOMY

Fig. 5. Section of soft parts of ocellus of Limulus, showing the subdivisions and mode of termination of
one branch of the ocellar nerve [on]; the branches are enveloped in connective tissue [cf]. The section
passes on one side of the corneal lens.

Fig. 6. Optical section of corneal lenses of Limulus, as seen through the transparent cornea, showing
their slightly hexagonal appearance; X 50 diameters.

Fig. 7. Artificial section through the eye of Asaphus, a trilobite, to show the close similarity to the cor-
neal lenses of Limulus; X } B eye-piece.

Fig. 8. Longitudinal section through the eye of Asaphus showing the corneal lenses; X } A. (Com-
pare with Fig. 1, 2, 2a, the corneal lenses of Limulus.)

Fig. 9. Longitudinal section through the eye of Asaphus gigas; cl, corneal lenses; pe, pore canal; rt?
probable indications of the upper edge of the retina?

Fig. 10. Section of part of the cornea of an Asaphus gigas which has been broken, showing several
entire corneal lenses side by side.

Fig. 11. Section through one side of oesophageal ring passing through the nerve to one of the gnathopods
or cephalothoracic feet; n/, neurilemma; sp, space between neurilemma and the ganglion; nd, small
nucleogenous bodies at top of section or upper side of oesophageal ring; Jgc, longitudinal group of large
ganglion cells, extending along the outside of the oesophageal ring; gn, gnathopodal nerve ; magnified 30
diameters.

Fig. lla. A large ganglion cell [/gc], surrounded by smaller bipolar ganglion cells, magnified 224
diameters.

Fig. 12. Section through second abdominal ganglion, n, nerve to one of the abdominal feet ; fa, fibres of
central nerves; ge, layer of large ganglion cells and nerve fibres arising from them; % 30 diam.

Fig. 13. Section through the same ganglion showing origin of nerve [7] to second abdominal foot.

Fig. 14. Section through the sixth or last abdominal ganglion passing through the nerves [7]; 2f, shows
the nerve fibres arising from the large ganglion cells and reinforcing the nerves making up the central mass,
which is seen to be composed of the union of two separate nervous ends; X 30 diameters.

Fig. 15. Transverse section through the middle of the brain, showing the arrangement of the fibres [7a],
nucleogenous bodies [7] and groups of large ganglion-cells [Zc].

Prater VII.

Fig. 1. Section through upper part of brain of Limulus, passing through the optic nerves [op 1]; ¢ m,
groups of cells from which the optic nerves appear to arise; y, Y-shaped bundle of nerve-fibres ; 7 0, nucle-
ogenous bodies on each side of the brain; 7 g ¢, groups of large ganglion-cells ; em, commissures uniting the
brain with the oesophageal ring; ” 7, neurilemma. The lettering the same for all the figures. Magnified
15-20 diameters. 1a, A large ganglion cell of Limulus; 14, the same of the lobster; 1c, small ganglion cells
of Limulus; 1d, the same of the lobster; all magnified 225 diameters to show their relative size and form.

Fig. 2. Section lower down, just grazing the under side of one optic nerve; the nucleogenous ruffle-
shaped bodies in front as well as on the sides; the Y-shaped bundle of nerves nearly merged with the rest of
the fibrous portion ; the groups of large ganglion-cells [Zgc] limited in extent.

Fig. 3. Section of portion of brain magnified 30 diameters showing the origin of left optic nerve; f,
bundle of nerve-fibres, without cells and nuclei; 24, a nerve of which an enlarged section is seen at fig.
3a, showing the nucleated fibres cut across; 77, a large bundle of nerve-fibres, of part of which, fig. 3, is an
enlarged view, showing the nucleated fibres in section, and seen longitudinally with a few nuclei visible ;
‘X 225 diameters; 3c, a group of large ganglion-cells, with branched nerve-fibres arising from them;
n, nucleus ; ne, nucleolus, magnified 225 diameters; 3d, a single large ganglion cell, giving origin to a branch-
ing nerve.

Fig. 4. Section of right side of brain passing through the ocellar nerve, 0 ¢ 2; ¢, commissure with large
ganglion-cells and fibres at this point, surrounded by a distinct neurilemma; a, artery passing down the
back of the brain. Magnified 30 diameters.

Fig. 5. Section of brain of Limulus through the ocellar nerve [o ec 7] and the two tegumental nerves
[tn]; ¢, section of lower part of commissure to oesophageal ring; fa+ the small area on the right side
composed of nerve-fibres, showing the asymmetry of the brain; magnified 30 diameters.

AND EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMULUS. 45

Fig. 6. Section of left side of brain of Limulus, below the ocellar nerve, passing through the lower set of
tegumental nerves. The fibrous area [ fa] much branched, and still much greater than on the right side
[fv]. A number of large ganglion cells are present at the posterior outer portion of the brain. Magnified
30 diameters.

Fig. 7. Section through left side of brain of Limulus, below any of the nerves, quite near the base of
the brain, and showing how much the nucleogenous bodies have encroached on the fibrous area [ f a].

Figs. 1 and 2, were cut from the same brain; figs. 3, 4, 5,6 and 7 from another brain; and were selected
from about ninety other sections.

Norr.—All the figures in plates 1-7 were drawn by the author, except plate 2, fig. 1, drawn by P. Roetter ;
and plate 1, fig. 1, and all the figures on plate 2 (except fig. 1), which were drawn by J. S.Kingsley. ~

ZooLoGicaAL LABORATORY OF Brown UNIVERSITY,
Providence, R. I., May, 1880.

ERRATA.

Page 10, line 30, for Arthopoda read Arthropoda.

Page 16, line 1 from bottom of footnote, for Tottennia read Tottenia.

Page 23, line 25, for (Fig. 9, rt) read (Fig. 9, rt ?).

Page 26, line 6 from bottom for “ or lens-epithelium ” read “lens-epithelium.”
Page 29, line 14, for analagous read analogous.

Page 29, line 37, after the word but dele that.

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AS Packard, del AMeisel Lith

STRUCTURE OF THE EYES AND NERVOUS GENTRES OF THE KING CRAB.

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Annivers Memoirs Boston Soc Nat Hist Packard, Plate VI.

ODTL 4.

AS Packard, del. AMeisel, ith

STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN OF THE KING CRAB

1830, ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY, 1880.

CONTRIBUTIONS

TO THE

ANATOMY OF THE MILK-WEED BUTTERFLY

DANAIS ARCHIPPUS (Fabdr.).

By EDWARD BURGESS,

SECRETARY OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

CoNTRIBUTIONS TO THE ANATOMY OF THE MILK-wEEeD Butrerriy (Danais Archippus
Fabr.). By Epwarp Burcess.

GENERAL students of comparative anatomy wishing to gain some knowledge of the

structure of the Lepidoptera find their way blocked by the lack of some suitable modern
monograph on any species of this group to which they may turn. I have, therefore,
attempted to fill this gap to some extent by a preliminary sketch of the anatomy of the
Milk-weed Butterfly (Danais Archippus Fabr.), choosing this species as a type of the
order, partly on account of its large size, common occurrence and wide distribution — for
it is found nearly the world over— and, partly, because the anatomy of no species of
Danaidae has yet been studied.

The present paper treats only of the general anatomy of the perfect insect, leaving the
consideration of the larval and pupal structure and development, as well as the histology,
to the future investigations of myself or others.

The special student, already acquainted with the present state of our knowledge of but-
terfly anatomy, will find new observations on the maxillae and suctorial mechanism of
these insects; on the course of the dorsal vessel; and on the structure and mechanism of
the male genital armature.

I. Structure OF THE EXOSKELETON.

Heap. (See pl. 1, figs. 1 and 5.) The roof of the head is formed by the epicranium,
which bears on its sides the large eyes, and, in front, the antennae. The posterior aspect
of the epicranium is called the occiput, while the front is the region immediately above
and between the antennae. The small triangular areas, on either side, and below the face
are the cheeks or genae (qg.). The face includes the region below the antennae, and is
formed chiefly by the large, vaulted clypeus (c.), whose arc-shaped lateral boundaries are
well-marked, while above it passes directly into the epicranium, without any suture or line
of demarcation as found in many insects. The compound eyes (oc.) are very large and
protruding ; the ring-like ridges on which they are borne are termed the orbits (or.). Sim-
ple eyes, or ocelli, are not found in the butterflies, although there are two in moths.

The antennae articulate with the epicranium by a “ ball and socket” jot; the ball
being formed by the large first and smaller second antennal joints (see fig. 3), is deeply
inserted in the antennal fossa or socket. The succeeding joints are cylindrical, and of
much less diameter than the ball; they are about forty-five in number, and of nearly uni-
form size till towards the tip, where the last ten gradually expand, becoming also shorter,
and form the * club.” which characterizes the antennae of the diurnal Lepidoptera.

4 BURGESS ON THE ANATOMY

To the slightly concave lower edge of the clypeus is soldered the upper lip, or labrum
(lb.), a small, flat triangular piece, with a somewhat projecting apex, which overlies the
base of the proboscis. On either side the labrum, and soldered to the cheeks, are seen.
two small triangular, almost thorn-like, pieces, the rudimentary mandibles (md.). They
are immovable and of course functionless ; their inner margin bears a row of stiff bristles.
Behind the mandibles are the mazillae (mz.), of compensatingly enormous development,
forming the tubular proboscis, used by the insect to suck up the honey or other vegetable
juices forming its food in the imago stage.

Each maxilla is a long, slender, flexible organ, tapering gently to the tip, and having a
deep groove along its inner surface, which surface being applied to that of the opposite
maxilla, and locked in that position by hooks provided for the purpose, a canal is formed
traversing the proboscis from base to tip. When not in use the proboscis is coiled into a
spiral like a watch spring, and lies under the head, protected on either side by the large
hairy labial palpi, which are specially developed for this service. In the Milk-weed But-
terfly the proboscis is about 15 mm. long, and at the base, about 0.6 mm. wide. The tip is
rather bluntly pointed. Superficially (pl. 2, fig. 8), the proboscis presents a sort of coat of
mail appearance from its composition of an immense number of rings, or rather segments
of rings, since a portion on the inner side is of course wanting. The separation of these
rings by intervening and more yielding spaces of cuticle, is evidently to permit the spiral
coiling of the proboscis, while imparting at the same time the necessary stiffness. The.
rings are not perfectly regular, but are here and there broken, or branch and anastomose.
They are themselves made up of quadrangular plates jomed side to side, except near the
inner edges of the maxillae, where, especially in front, they become separated, more or less
hexagonal and irregularly scattered ; on the hinder side each plate sends off a stout, spine-
like process, which is directed inwards (see fig. 10). These plates, as will be seen in seec-
tions of the proboscis (figs. 9, 10 and 11), are the bases of little pyramids, or in some
regions, stout nail-shaped bodies imbedded in the cuticle, each one in its own prismatic
block of cuticle, which probably corresponds to a single underlying hypodermic cell, its
matrix. The blocks may occasionally be demonstrated by the separation of one of them
from its neighbor in the process of section cutting, (fig. lle). The dividing boundary line
between the blocks can also generally be seen in successful sections (see figs. lla, 6 and ¢;
cu. cuticle, and hy. hypoderm). The cuticular lamination too is evident in such sections.
The pyramids are opaque, black, or dark brown, and the rest of the blocks colorless and
transparent.

Dotted over the surface of the proboscis but more thickly toward the tip are little cir-
cular plates with a minute papilla in the centre (see fig. 8). These are regarded as modi-
fied hair structures, and in many butterflies are curiously and greatly developed,! forming
toothed or notched spines, believed by Breitenbach to serve as the teeth of a saw or file,
enabling the insect to work the proboscis through plant tissues in search of the contained
juices. These organs are reénforced in the case of the Orange moth ( Ophideres fullonica),
by large spines developed from those which serve simply to lock the maxilla together in

1See Breitenbach, Katter’s Entomol. Nachr. v, 238; Report on Cotton Insects, U. S. Agric. Dept. 1879, p. 86
Arch. Mikr. Anat., xv, 8 and xvi, 308. Also F. Darwin, (proboscis of Aletia).
Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xv, 385, and F. J. Comstock’s

OF THE MILK-WEED BUTTERFLY. 5

other Lepidoptera. They are too small for mechanical use in Archippus, and perhaps the
papillae are, in this case, organs of taste or touch, as suggested by Fritz Miiller, which
appears more likely from the fact that they occur, though in much less number, within the
central canal of the proboscis. This canal is not lined with rows of little blocks like the
exterior, but with the much narrower solid edges of semiannular plates, which give the
canal the appearance of a large trachea (fig. 9). In transverse sections it is seen (fig. 10)
that the ends of these semiannular plates form behind hooked teeth, which are snugly
dove-tailed together, while their anterior ends are produced into long spines which
simply interlock like the fingers of the two hands. These arrangements serve to hold the
two maxillae together to form a continuous tube.

Each maxilla is traversed through its whole length by a nerve and a trachea (figs. 9
and 10, 2. and ¢r.), both giving off numerous lateral branchlets to the muscles which fill the
rest of the interior of these organs. The muscles form narrow bands and are arranged in
two sets, both running from the anterior to the posterior aspect, and descending in this
course. One set, however, is inserted on the outer side of the anterior face, while the
other is inserted on the inner, and both converge in their downward and backward course,
and thus, when seen through the wall of the maxilla from the front, they form a series of
Vs one above the other. Seen laterally, only one set is visible at a time, diagonally cross-
ing the maxilla, as shown in the section (pl. 2, fig. 9). From the attachment of these mus-
cles, their apparent action is to shorten the posterior wall of the maxilla, which of course
must produce the spiral coiling of the organ. This unfortunately, leaves the explanation
of its extension in the dark, unless we suppose elasticity, or possibly the injection of the
somatic fluids, to bring this about. Many authors have assumed that the proboscis was
coiled by its elasticity, but if we admit the possibility of such action at all, we can as
easily require it to account for extension as for flexion. It seems more probable, however,
that we fail to see, or to correctly interpret, some proper muscular mechanism for both
movements of the proboscis."

Maxillary palpi are often well developed in Lepidoptera, though in some they are
wanting, or at least reduced to a little wart on the base of each maxilla (fig. 3, ma.p.).

The labial palpi are, as already said, very large, and conceal the proboscis in repose
The first jomt is short, stout, rather pedicellated, and is curved upwards ; the second is
long, tapering somewhat from the base to the tip; and the last joint is small and pointed.

THorax. A slender neck well separates the head from the thorax, whose first somite, or
prothorax, (fig. 1, 1.), is very small and feebly developed, and the homologies of its skele-
tal parts are not easy to recognize. The scutwm (fig. 1, s.") is divided by a median furrow
into two tumid, bolster-like pieces (called by Mr. Scudder the pro-thoracié lobes), entirely
separated from each other. Behind them is a small triangular plate, representing the
scutellum ; and behind this are two rounded and knob-like processes which form an articu-
lar surface resting in a corresponding depression in the mesothorax. These probably rep-

1T have found few references to the myology of the lepi- See also his article in Todd’s Cycl. Anat. 11; and Gersteldt.
dopterous proboscis; the most extensive is that of Newport, Ueber die Mundtheile der saugenden Insecten, Dissert.
Nery. System of Sphinx ligustri, Phil. Trans., 1834, p. 398, inaug. Dorpat, 8°. 1853.
whose whole conception, however, seems to me erroneous.

6 BURGESS ON THE ANATOMY

resent the post-scutellum. A continuous ossified collar encircles the prothorax beneath,
composed of the episternal and sternal elements fused into one piece. Behind and beneath
this collar are attached the long cylindrical coxae of the first pair of legs. Epimera are
not recognizable.

A broad membranous neck separarates the prothorax posteriorly from the mesothorax
(u.). The scutum (s.?) in this segment is very large, oblong, and vaulted. In front there
is a rather deep pentagonal depressed area, with a rounded central portion, fitting against
the articular surface between the meso- and pro-thorax, as already described. This area is
perhaps the praescutwm, and is, as it were, wedged into the scutum. Just below the ante-
rior corners of the scutum are attached, by a small stalk, two leaf-like epaulets, the pata-
gia’ (pt.). These are nearly semicircular in shape, with a conical piece projecting back-
ward from the lower corner. The great development of the patagia is characteristic
of the Lepidoptera. Behind the scutum, which is slightly emarginated posteriorly, is
the lozenge shaped, tumid scutellwm (sm.?), whose lateral corners project under the base of
the scutum. A narrow membranous area separates the scutellum from the post-scutellum
(psm."), which is an arch shaped piece mostly concealed by the postthorax ; it sends a
long process forward on each side under the scutum and reaching the epimera, while
behind it extends into the interior of the thorax for the attachment of the great thoracic
muscles (see fig. 2, /.m.). The episternum (eps.”) is triangular, with two sides convex, its
base resting on the stermwm (st.*), which is an irrregularly six-sided, transverse piece coy-
ering the chest. The sides of the prothorax behind the episterna are formed by the
epimera (epm.”) shaped something like an hour-glass in outline, beg emarginated deeply
above for the sub-alar membrane, and, beneath for the cowae (cx.”) of the second pair of
legs, which are immovably united with the epimera and sternum.

The scutum (sm.°) of the meta-thorax (111.) is divided into two lateral triangular wedges
somewhat like the prothoracic lobes, between which in front the scutellum and postscutel-
lum of the mesothorax are wedged, and behind the triangular seutellwm of its own seg-
ment (sm.*). The episterna (eps.*) and the sternum show no dividing suture, and embrace
the base of the coxae above and in front; while, in similar fashion, the epimera (epm.*)
send projections backwards above and behind. The shape will be better understood from
the figures, than from any description.

The roots of wings (w.! and w.? ) are inserted in broad, membranous areas occupying the
sides of the meso- and meta-thorax above the epimera and below the scuta of those seg-
ments. The hinder pair of wings in the male are distinguished by a sort of pocket, on
the upper side, forming a small blister on the rib, known as the first branch of the median
vein, opening by a narrow slit and containing scales and hairs.”

The legs show the usual five divisions into the coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tar-
sus. The first pair, however, are much smaller, and, indeed, functionless, as in all the
higher butterflies. They also are different in the two sexes; the tarsi of the males are

1 Westwood, Newport and other authors have erroneously — eral good sections of scales were made, showing their upper-
described the patagia as attached to the prothorax, and this and lower membrane, the former bearing the rib-like mark-
is accordingly often repeated in our text books. Packard, ings. Fig. 6 on pl. 1 shows two of these sections —fig. 6

Guide to the Study of Insects, gives the correct statement. through the middle of the scale, and 6, a, lower down, pass-
*In making sections through the wings at this point, sev- ing through the pedicel.

OF THE MILK-WEED BUTTERFLY.

~I

(rather indistinctly) two-jomted, the second joint bemg very small; while in the females
there are four tarsal joints, the first quite large, much stouter at the apex, the next two
very short, and the fourth or last very minute and indistinct. The first three joints in the
female have each two spurs on their inner extremity. The fore tarsi are clawless in both
sexes.

The middle and hind pairs of legs are alike except for the somewhat larger size of the
former. The coxal joints are conical, immovably united to the thorax. They are
divided into two parts, the coxa and trochantine. ‘The tarsi are five-jointed, all very spiny
beneath. The last joint has two long and rather straight claws.

AsBpoMEN. Nine somites (fig. 1, numbered 1 to 9) are evident in the abdomen of the
Lepidoptera. The first is small, forming a sort ‘of neck which is wider than high; the
dorsum is developed into a large bolster, shield-shaped from above, and somewhat over-
hanging the base of the second somite. The pleural region presents rather complicated
folds, and there is no sternal ossification, leaving a broad membranous surface between the
thorax and the sternum of the second abdominal somite. The next three somites increase
gradually in height, but each is somewhat shorter than its predecessor. The sternal and
dorsal regions are of about equal development. The second sternum shows underneath
two shallow furrows, in which the knees of the last pair of legs seem to fit. The fifth
and sixth somites decrease gradually in size. The last three somites require a different
description for the two sexes. In the female the dorsum of the seventh somite is longer
than the preceding, and the sternum is produced backwards to a point, and its posterior
border emarginated. The eighth tergum is shorter than the seventh, and the whole som-
ite much less high ; its flat sternum looks forward, opposing the hollow posterior aspect of
the seventh ; thus forming with the latter a wide, cave-like vestibule, in which the orifice
of the vagina is situated. The ninth, and last, somite is very small, and in repose, almost
wholly retracted within the eighth. Inferiorly and laterally it is produced into two bluntly
triangular lobes, or flaps, between which lie the openings of the digestive and reproduc-
tive organs. The ninth sternum is reduced to a simple ring, connecting these flaps infe-
riorly.

In the male the seventh somite is simply smaller than the preceding. The eighth,
however, is remarkably developed, for its sternum is produced laterally far beyond the
tergum forming two false clasps wrth bifid tips, the inferior tooth being the stouter, and
both teeth strongly incurved. The ninth segment resembles that of the female, except in
being somewhat larger. To its sternum, however, are articulated the true male claspers,
to be described farther on, and between these projects the penis. The anus lies within
the flaps above the sexual organs as in the female.

Il. Inrernat ANATomy.

From this brief description of the exoskeleton we may pass to the internal anatomy of
our butterfly. To best study it, the msects should be hardened for a few days in alcohol,
made gradually stronger, and then some specimens should be cut with a razor into longi-
tudinal halves, which will show the natural position of the internal organs. It is well to draw
the razor slightly on one side of the median line, as in this way the first part of the diges-
tive tract, the nerve chain and the dorsal vessel are left intact. Some preparations should

BURGESS ON THE ANATOMY

oe)

also be made by merely cutting through the integument near the median line with a
razor, and in places, with a fine pair of scissors, and then gently tearing it away
on one side, thus leaving the principal organs perfectly uninjured, and in their natural
position. By carefully removing the fat body and the tracheae they will, one by one,
gradually become evident.!. A preparation thus made is figured on pl. 1, fig. 2. Of.
course one single dissection will not show every point, as some organs must be removed
in order to get at others beneath them ; thus in fig. 2, all the tracheae, one set of ovaries,
the urimary tubes, etc., have been dissected out. It is therefore well to make several dis-
sections, each having in view one or two organs more particularly, and the study of the
separate preparations will give the knowledge of the whole internal anatomy. Besides
these preparations, many sections, some coarse, and some thin, must be made, (as de-
scribed in text-books of histology and microscopic technique), and mounted for study with
the compound microscope. Many points in the anatomy of small parts of the body, and
of course the histology in general, are only to be learned from such preparations.

Tue ALIMENTARY CanaL AND rs AppENDAGES. The canal traversing the proboscis
opens into a pharynx enclosed in a muscular sac, which occupies much of the lower
part of the head. The sac itself is nearly round, and is hung in position by five principal
muscles, (figs. 4, 5 and 7), two dorsal (d.m.), two lateral (/.m.), and a frontal ( fm.) which
is really a pair of muscles closely united. A more feeble muscle is also inserted on the
lower aspect of the sac. The sac itself is very muscular, and shows two principal layers
of muscles, an outer, of longitudinal annular fibres, and an inner, of transverse fibres.
The pharyngeal cavity extends obliquely upward in the sac, from front to back, and is
much broader than high. The floor, or hypopharynz, is convex on each side of a median
furrow, (fig. 5, kph.) and somewhat resembles in shape the human breast. The convex areas
are dotted over with little papillae, which possibly may be taste organs, although I have not
succeeded in making out any nervous supply. The cuticular layer of the hypopharynx is
very thick, while that lining the superior wall of the pharynx is, on the contrary, delicate,
and is thrown into slight transverse ridges. The suspensory muscles of the pharyngeal
sac pierce the muscular layer of the latter, and are attached to its internal wall. At the
anterior border of the pharynx is a triangular muscular flap, the epipharyna (fig. 5, ep.)
overlying the opening into the proboscis, and serving as a valve to close the latter.

The pharyngeal sac, as is evident from its structure, serves as a pumping organ to suck
the liquid food of the animal through the proboscis, and force it backwards into the
digestive canal, the process being as follows: The proboscis is unrolled and inserted
in the nectary of a flower; at this moment the muscles which suspend the pharynx
contract, and its cavity is thus extended, creating a vacuum which must be supplied by
a flow of honey through the proboscis, into the pharynx. When the latter is full its
muscles contract, the valve closes the aperture to the proboscis, and the honey is forced
backward into the oesophagus. The pharynx is then again opened and the same process
repeated. To prevent the food being sucked back from the oesophagus, it is probable
that some of the numerous fibres in the muscular sac near the origin of the former can,
by contraction, close its opening, but in any case as the proboscis presents a free tube, and

1 This work should, of course, be done under water, the small glass dish.
preparation being pinned to the wax-covered bottom of a

OF THE MILK-WEED BUTTERFLY. 9

the oesophagus leads into the closed alimentary canal, it is evident that the former offers
the easiest route for a supply to fill the vacuum produced in the pharynx.

The organ just described has hitherto escaped the notice of insect anatomists, and its
functions have therefore been conjecturally ascribed to other parts. The so-called “ suck-
ing stomach” thus received its name from the earlier writers, and when its structure was
better known, and such a purpose negatived, the capillarity of the fine canal of the pro-
boscis, and even a peristaltic action of the latter have been suggested to explain the
power possessed by the butterfly to suck up its food.?

At the upper extremity of the pharynx opens the narrow oesophagus and at the lower
edge of the hypopharynx the common duct of the salivary glands discharges into the
canal of the proboscis at its base. These glands consist of two tubes arising in the base
of the abdomen, and passing, with many convolutions, on either side of the oesophagus, into
the head. The glandular portion (fig. 2, s. gl.) of these tubes is about 40 mm. long, and the
more slender anterior and non-glandular portion, or duct, (s.d.) about 12 mm. The two
ducts unite into one in the base of the head; the common duct, as just said, opening
below the hypopharynx.

The oesophagus (oe.) is a slender and delicate tube leading from the pharynx above, and
after piercing the nerve commissure between the brain and the succeeding ganglion,
passes straight through the thorax into the abdomen, in the very base of which it opens,
above, into the food-reservoir, and below, and a little farther back, into the stomach.
The food-reservoir, (f.r.) or so-called sucking stomach, is a large, bladder-like sac, occu-
pying the upper part of the anterior half of the abdomen. Its walls are delicately mem-
branous, well supplied with longitudinal and transverse slender muscular fibres, particularly
the former. Clothing the upper surface of the interior, more thickly in the median line,
are long hair-like processes of the cuticle (pl. 2, fig. 12), whose points are directed for-
ward, that is towards the neck of the reservoir. These processes have broad corrugated
bases and end in long slender tips, appearing therefore, as if formed by being pulled out of
the membrane they cover, or as if each were a bunch of hairs clotted together at the tip.
Their use is not obvious. The food-reservoir is generally found to contain nothing but air ;
but Newport states that it is filled with food after feeding, and as it is not glandular, it
probably serves simply as a reservoir for the temporary reception of food. The neck of
the reservoir is large, and by the contraction or extension of its muscular fibres, it is evi-
dent that food may be easily expelled from, or drawn into, its interior.

Below and just behind the neck of the food-reservoir, the oesophagus opens into the
stomach (st.), a straight tube running along the ventral region of the abdomen from the
base of the second, into the fifth segment. Its walls are thick and composed of muscular
and glandular layers. The stomach is overlaid with the convolutions of the urinary, or
Malpighian, vessels, (see fig. 2, m.v.) six in number, three of which on either side unite
and open by a short common duct into the posterior end of the stomach. The urinary
tubes are about 90 mm. long. At the end of the stomach begins the small intestine,

1¥For the previous literature of the mouth parts in Lepi- Kirby and Spence, ete.
doptera, see Gerstfeldt, loc. cit.; Milne Edwards, Physiol- Compare also the structure of the pharynx in Diptera and
ogie; Newport, Phil.Trans., 1834, p. 397; Savigny, Mémoires Hemiptera as described by Graber, Insecten 1, 316, and
sur les Animaux sans Vert.,1; Graber, Insecten, 1, 154; Amtl. Ber. Vers. deutsch. Naturforschersamml. Miinchen,
and the general works of Westwood, Burmeister, Siebold, 1877, p. 187.

10 BURGESS ON THE ANATOMY

(ilewm, i.), a tube about one-quarter of the diameter of the former, running first backwards,
then upwards and forwards, then turning backwards again, thus making a flattened S-
curve in the fifth and sixth segments. The intestine in this course passes to the left of
the bursa copulatrix of the female, and of the testis and penis in the male (see figs. 2 and
14, 7). The intestine passes, in the dorsal region of the sixth segment, into the colon, or
large intestine (c.), which in some Lepidoptera is expanded anteriorly into a large coecal
sac. In the milk-weed butterfly the colon is somewhat pyriform in the female (fig. 2, ¢.),
but is longer and more cylindrical in the male (fig. 14, ¢.). It is dotted over with numer-
ous little glands of doubtful function.t The colon narrows posteriorly and is followed by a
short cylindrical division, the rectum (r.). The anus (a.) opens between the triangular lap-
pets of the ninth segment.

Tur Harman System. The heart (h.) is a small tube lying immediately under the dor-
sal wall of the abdomen, and hung in this position by triangular muscular sheets (the
alary muscles), which are placed in pairs, apices inwards, on either side of the heart. The
walls of the heart contain two sets of muscular fibres running spirally in opposite direc-
tions. Slight constrictions divide the heart into a number of segments, corresponding to
those of the abdomen. Each segment has probably a pair of clefts for the entrance of the
blood, but I have not succeeded in clearly making out their exact number.

In the basal segment of the abdomen, the heart narrows slightly, making the begin-
ning of the aorta (ao.). This after entering the thorax runs upwards, passing between
the right and left sets of thoracic muscles, and then under the suture between the mesoscu-
tum and scutellum, and expands rather suddenly into a large chamber (ao.c.), which is
hung in position by a net-work of fibrous connective tissue. This aortal chamber is some-
what pear-shaped, with the greater diameter posterior. The forward end bends downwards
and again contracts into a slender tube, which runs backwards and downward until it
reaches the first part of the aorta, and after passing along the anterior face of this for a
short distance, it bends suddenly forward and runs along, and just above, the oesophagus,
passing with the latter into the head and through the oesophageal nerve collar. The
aorta then seems to bend upwards, but I have not attempted to trace it beyond this point.*
The aortal walls, including those of the chamber, are provided with muscular fibres in
spiral layers, as in the heart.

The aorta is very readily demonstrated throughout its whole course, and the chamber
forms a conspicuous object in a good longitudinal section ; it is therefore very remarkable
that its peculiar character * should have hitherto escaped the notice of anatomists. New-
port’s figure of Sphina ligustri’ represents the aorta distinctly following the curve of the

1 For the structure of these glands, see Chun, Abhandl. d.
Senckenb. Naturforsch. Gesellsch. Bd. x.

cacy. Anterior to these trunks are two smaller ones, which
appear to be joined to the parts of the mouth and antennae,

2 Newport (Cycl. Anat. and Phys. 11, 977) states that there
are eight pairs of openings in Sphing ligustri.

8 Newport (Cycl. Anat. and Phys., 1, 978) says of Sp.
ligustri and Vanessa urticae ‘‘the aorta after passing beneath
the cerebrum gives off laterally two large trunks, which are
each equal in capacity to about one-third of the main vessel.
These pass one on each side of the head, and are divided
into three branches, which are directed baekward, but have
not been traced farther in consequence of their extreme deli-

and nearer the median line are two others which are contin-
uations of the aorta. These pass upwards and are lost in
the integuments.”

4No other case in which any portion of the aorta runs
backwards has been described among insects, nor in which it
dilates into a chamber. Cornalia (Monografia del Bombix
del Gelso. Mem. Ist. Lomb., vz. 4°. Milano, 1856) figures
a slight dilatation, but no recurving, in Bombyx mort.

5 Phil. Trans. 1834, pl. xiv.

OF THE MILK-WEED BUTTERFLY. il

thorax, and with no chamber: and hence at first I thought that the features presented by
Archippus were peculiar to its family, or perhaps to the butterflies. I have, however, since
dissected Vanassa Huntera,' a sphingid and a noctuid, and found the same conditions as in
the Milkweed Butterfly, so it is probable they are characteristic of the Lepidoptera, as one
would indeed expect from the general uniformity in the anatomy of the group. How
Newport in his minute and numberless dissections could have overlooked so striking a fea-
ture remains inexplicable, unless we presume that his figure represents what he took
for granted to be the case rather than what he saw. The pulsating ventral blood sinus
I have not studied in Archippus.

Nervous System. Newport’s beautiful monograph’ of the nervous system in Sphinx
ligustri renders anything more than a brief description of its main features, as shown in
fiz. 2, unnecessary. The brain (br.) immediately overlies the oesophagus, occupying nearly
the centre of the head and giving rise to the optic and antennal nerves. The commissures
between it and the next or suboesophageal ganglion, forming the oesophageal nerve-collar,
are short and stout. From the latter ganglion arise the nerves of the mouth organs. The
thorax contains only two ganglia in the perfect insect, two of the original three thoracic
gangha having been fused into one during pupation. ‘The first of them, that is the second
post-oral ganglion, is the smaller, and nearly round, the next being double its length and
oval. ‘The important nerves arising in the thorax are those of the leg pairs, and those of
the wings. ‘The latter arise from the nerve cord between the two ganglia.

The second to the sixth abdominal segments each contain a ganglion; these gradually
increase in size to the last, which is compound and of considerable size.

The stomato-gastric nerves are not shown in the figure owing to their small size and dif-
ficulty of representation. A small ganglion, the frontal ganglion, les in front of and
below the brain hemispheres, with which it is connected by a recurved cord on either side.
Posteriorly it gives off a single median cord, the nervus recurrens, which passes back-
ward over the oesophagus and through the oesophageal nerve-collar. A pair of ganglia
also lie behind the brain hemispheres, connected with the nervus recurrens. The latter
runs backward over the oesophagus, innervating it and the dorsal vessel. On reaching the
stomach it divides into three branches, which run over and either side of this organ.
Branchlets are also given off to the food-reservoir.

FEMALE OrGANS oF Repropuction. The external opening of the oviduct (0.0.) is sit-
uated immediately below the anus and hardly separated from it, between the lappets of
the ninth segment. It leads into a short oviduct, which near the middle of the seventh
segment divides into two lateral branches, each of which is about as long as the common
duct, and each in turn gives rise to the four branches forming the ovaries. These ovarian
tubes from their union in the sixth segment run forward almost to the third segment, just
above the stomach ; they then curve upward and run backwards to the end of the sixth,
again curve upwards and pass forward into the fourth segment, when their slender tips
become solid cords, gradually unite together, and become attached to the dorsal wall of

1Mr. Scudder informs me that in dissections of chrysalids of D. ago, he observed and noted these peculiarities of the aorta.
Archippus, Vanessa Io and other butterflies, made some years 2 Phil. Trans. 1834.

12 BURGESS ON THE ANATOMY

the segment. This is the course of the ovarian tubes before sexual maturity. Each tube
contains a line of eggs diminishing in size from base to tip, in corresponding degrees
of development. As the eggs increase in size, the tubes become more or less spirally
coiled, and fill a large portion of the abdomen.

In the roof of the large vestibule on the ventral surface of the abdomen between the
seventh and eighth segment, already described above, is the opening of the vagina. The
vagina (v.) is a curved canal, with horny walls, which opens into a large and very mus-
cular organ, the copulatory pouch. This pouch is oblong oval in shape, with a shallow
constriction about the middle, the greatest diameter being posterior to the constriction.
The walls are very thick and muscular, and the lining of the internal cavity is covered
with conical teeth above, and is elsewhere thrown into numerous longitudinal folds or
ridges.

On the upper side of the pouch, and just beyond its beginning, is a small tube opening
into it. After two or three convolutions this tube passes a into the oviduct some distance
below its fork ; it expands near the middle into a pear-shaped chamber,— the sperm reser-
voir or spermatheca (sp.).

Besides these organs are alsoa pair of tubular glands, and a single one which discharge
into the viaduct, behind the orifice of the sperm duct. They are known as the accessory,
or colleterial glands. Each of the paired glands has a curious, twisted, somewhat cornu-
copia-shaped dilatation near its orifice; each gland is about twenty-five mm. long. The
single gland is nearly twice as long as the others, and has a corrugated external surface.
The three glands lie in coils over the other organs in the seventh and eighth segments.
Their function is supposed to be connected with the formation of the egg shell.

MALE OrGANS oF Repropuction. The internal male organs are very simple in the
Lepidoptera; they consist (see pl. 2, fig. 17, natural size), of a single large, globular testis,
(¢), formed by the consolidation of the two kidney-shaped testes of the larva; of two
efferent ducts (vasa deferentia), v.d.,into each of which, shortly before their union into the
ductus ejaculatorius (d.e.), a single gland (g/.) opens.

The compound testis lies in the fifth somite, immediately behind the food-reservoir;
the intestine passes to the left of it and its ducts, ete., corresponding to the position of
the former in the female. It is supported by the tracheae arising from the fifth abdominal
spiracles, five branches from which extend to the testis on either side, and on reaching it
divide into innumerable minute branchlets, which spread over its surface (see fig. 18).
The diameter of the testis is nearly 3mm. The efferent ducts arise close together on the
posterior face of the testis. They are about 30 mm. long, and 0.15 mm. in diameter, to
their junction with the glands. As shown in fig. 17, the ducts seem to lead into the
glands, and the basal ends of the latter then continue to the point of union into the ductus
gaculatorius. The glands are tubes about 40 mm. long, and have an average diameter of
0.5 mm.; they are somewhat larger at the tip. The portion of the duct between the glands
and the ductus ejaculatorius is 10 mm. in length, of the same diameter as the glands, but
tapering gradually to the point of junction. The ductus ejaculatorius is about 120 mm.
long, and slightly stouter than the first division of the efferent ducts. It ends in a bulb-
like expansion (p.b.) at the base of the penis.

OF THE MILK-WEED BUTTERFLY. 13

This latter organ is a dark, horny, slightly curved tube, about 6 mm. in length. The
tip expands into a small trumpet shaped mouth, which is twisted more or less asymmetri-
cally. At rest, the tip lies between, and a little beyond the triangular flaps of the anal
somite, just below the anus, and is inclosed in a membranous sheath (p.s.), to permit of
its protrusion beyond the body. This protrusion is worked by two extensor muscles (e.p.),
one on each side, whose attachments and mode of action will become sufficiently evident
by the inspection of fig. 16.

The ventral arch of the ninth somite sends a process into the abdomen immediately
underneath the penis, for the support of the latter, and the attachment of a large band of
muscular fibres (7.p.) which embraces the penis, holds it in place, and accomplishes its re-
traction.

Tue ExTEerNAL Mate ARMATURE IN THE LepipopTERA. The secondary male organs
of the Lepidoptera are constructed on a simple plan, which is modified after various
fashions in the different groups, and these modifications are often serviceable as characters
of classificatory importance.

Their typical structure is well illustrated by the Satyrid but-
terflies, (see the adjoining figure), in which the dorsum of the
anal or ninth abdominal segment is produced into a simple term-
inal hook directed downwards, recalling the telson of Crusta-
cea. The sternum of the same somite is reduced to a narrow,
U-shaped piece, which may be called the ventral arch. To this
ventral arch are articulated two, more or less pincer-like, clasp- Pir ay aa, Sate
ing organs, termed simply “ claspers.” As already stated, the — rus alope, male; d, dorsum, and

. 2 el : : v. a., ventral arch of ninth som-
anus lies just beneath the hook, and the penis projects below j,.7 5, ones Ge eet Ga
the anus. Anal cerci are never present in the Lepidoptera. and left claspers.

Remarkably enough, the eighth abdominal somite sometimes closely imitates the
ninth. For instance in the yellow butterflies (Pierids), its dorsum is produced into a hook
exactly like that of the ninth segment; while on the other hand in the subject of this
paper, the posterior border of the sternum is extended into two false claspers (figs. 13, 14,
etc., f.c.) in close imitation of the genuine organs, except that they are not articulated.1

The terminal hook is often bifid, sometimes very long, or at others curiously armed
with spines, etc. The clasps are equally various in shape, and armature, and in Nison-
iades* very remarkable for their asymmetrical development.

ExternaL Marz Armature in Arcuippus. In the Milk-weed Butterfly, the hook is
entirely obsolete, but the dorsum of the ninth somite projects into two rather triangular
lateral flaps, just as in the female, except that they are longer and slenderer. Between
the flaps the segment is emarginated above. The ventral arch (see fig. 15, at the numeral
9) is wider than usual, and sends a stout cylindrical process (pr.) into the abdomen, for the
support of the penis and the attachment of its retractor muscle as already described.

1 The real claspers are, presumably, true arthropodan ap- _ claspers, and yet not homologous with true abdominal ap-
pendages, but the existence of the false claspers suggests a pendages.
mere possibility of independent development. For if a ?See Scudder and Burgess, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.,
joint could arise between the false clasp and its segment, we x11, 282.
should have organs indistinguishable from the ordinary

14 BURGESS ON THE ANATOMY

The claspers are articulated to the ventral arch on either side and above the process.
In profile, the clasper shows a rather large rectangular body, with a small triangular pro-
jection from its posterior edge above; while lower down there is an inwardly curved stout
and hard process, which is continuous with a stout rib on the internal surface of the
clasper. The lower edge of the clasper is tumid, and in thickness the clasper is here over
a third of its width. The upper edge is on the contrary only a thin plate. The concave
side of the process is turned outwards (see fig. 16), and at its tip, which is black and hard,
is a transverse series of file-like ridges, while the inner surface of the process is smooth.
Powerful muscles lie in the interior and are attached to the ventral arch. The muscular
connection between the latter and the preceding segment is also powerful. From its struc-
ture it seems as if the claspers were probably inserted within the copulatory vestibule of
the female, and then pressed outward against the walls of the latter, the two sexes being
held in this way instead of by the ordinary pincer-like action of the claspers in most insects.

Yet another apparatus distinguishes the male Danaids among butterflies. A brush or
pencil of long delicate hairs lies on either side between the eighth segment and the upper
portion of the clasper, piercing the membrane between the eighth and ninth segments.
These hairs are attached to the bottom of a sac-like sheath (see figs. 14-16 h. s.), which
can be everted at will, as the drawn in finger of a glove may be extended by blowing into
the interior, thus projecting the hair pencil out beyond the tip of the abdomen. A muscle
(7. m.) is attached to the bottom of the sheath and runs downward to the anterior ventral
edge of the seventh segment; this muscle retracts the pencil into its quiescent position.
The uses of this apparatus are unknown ; a somewhat similar one has been noticed in some
other Lepidoptera, but needs anatomical study.

The false claspers, though immovable, have a greater resemblance to the ordinary form of
genuine claspers, than do the latter themselves in Archippus. They are formed by the
production of the lateral edges of the sternum of the eighth segment. In shape they are
oblong and the posterior edge is emarginate, leaving at the corners two processes or teeth
of considerable size, the upper of which is rectangular and the lower rather triangular.
Both are strongly incurved. The sternum between and below the false claspers is deeply
emarginated and its edge carries out the regular sweep of the lower edge of the false
claspers. The edge is rendered stiff by its shape, which in section is much like that of a
T-rail of a, railroad.

REsPIRATORY APPARATUS. The air tubes, or tracheae, present no peculiar features in the
Lepidoptera. The very short main trunk into which the stigmata open soon divides into
branches which run to the special organ to be aerated and there often branch abruptly
into a great number of fine tubes, as shown in the tracheae of the testis (fig. 18). Air sacs
such as are found in the Orthoptera, ete., do not occur. The stigmata of the first pair lie
in the sides of the prothorax behind the prothoracic lobes. Succeeding pairs of stigmata
are situated in the pleurae of the first seven abdominal somites, the pair in the first seg-
ment being rather hard to find owing to the folds in the integument of its sides.

OF THE MILK-WEED BUTTERFLY. 15

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Pruate 1,

Fig. 1. Lateral view of Danais Archippus, female, <6.

Heap. a@., Antenna; 9., Occiput; cl., Clypeus; ma., Proboscis ; p., Labial palp.

Tuorax. I, Pro-, II, meso-, III, meta-thoracic somites. s., scutum; sm., scutellum; psm., post scutel-
lum; epm., epimerum ; eps., episternum; cw., coxa; é7., trochanter ; 7, femur; these parts are marked 4,2, or 3,
as they belong to the pro-, meso-, or metathorax, respectively. Sp.1, first spiracle; 2.1 and w.’, fore and hind
wings.

AxspoMEN. 1 to 9, the nine somites of the abdomen; sp.’, sp.*, second and seventh abdominal spiracles
i.é., the spiracles of the third and eighth pair. X6.

In this figure the membranous portions of the integument are dotted.

Fig. 2. Lateral interior view (6), showing the internal organs in their natural relations, after the removal
of the right half of the integument, together with the tracheae, and fat-body. 1 to mm, somites of the
thorax; 1 to 9, of the abdomen.

ALIMENTARY CANAL AND APPENDAGES. ph., pharynx; s.d., and s.gl., salivary duct and gland of the
right side; oe., oesophagus; f7., food reservoir; st, stomach; 7., small intestine; c., colon; 7., rectum; a.,
anus; m.v., malpighian vessels.

Harman System. h., heart or dorsal vessel; ao., aorta; a.c., aortal chamber.

Nervous Sysrem. (Dotted in the figure), 6r., brain; g.', sub-oesophageal ganglion; tg., compound
thoracic gangla; a.g.1, a.g.4, first and fourth abdominal ganglia.

Femate RepropuctivE OrGans. c¢p., copulatory pouch; v., vagina; o., oviduct, and o0.0., its external
opening; 7.0v., base of the right ovarian tubes turned down to expose the underlying organs; Z.ov., left ovarian
tubes in position, and ov.c., their termination in four cords; sp., spermatheca; @.g/.1, part of the single acces-
sory gland; a.gi.”, one of the paired accessory glands; only the base of its mate is shown. Other letters as
in fig. 1.

Fig. 3. Front view of head, X10. oc. compound eyes; @, antennae; cl., clypeus; 7b., labrum ; md., man-
dibles; ma., base of proboscis; ma.p., tubercle representing maxillary palp; s.g., cheek; or., orbit.

Fig. 4. Interior view of the bottom of the head, the top having been cut away, showing in the middle the
pharyngeal sac with its five muscles — the frontal, fm., the dorsal pair, dm., and the lateral pair, m.; el., cly-
peus; cor., cornea of the compound eye (the left eye is not drawn); oe., oesophagus; pm., one of the large
muscles which move the labial palp.

Fig. 5. Horizontal section of head through the pharyngeal sac. ph., pharynx ; Aph., hypopharynx, show-
ing the papillae dotted over it; fm., frontal muscle; m., labial palp muscles; s.d., salivary duct.

Fig. 6. A section through a bit of wing and a scale; and fig. 6a, the same, the section passing through a
seale pedicel; ew., cw.', the upper and lower cuticular membranes of the wing. With 5 inch objective.

PratE 2.

Fig. 7. Longitudinal section through the head giving a view of the interior of the left half; mza., the left
maxilla whose canal leads into the pharynx; /ph., floor of the latter showing some of the papillae of taste;
oe., oesophagus; c/., clypeus; ep.v., epipharyngeal valve; s.d., salivary duct; dm. and fm., one of the dorsal
and the frontal muscles which hold the pharyngeal sac in its position.

Fig. 8. Tip of the proboscis showing the arrangement of the cuticular rings and blocks, with the
interspersed papillae. With } inch objective.

Fig. 9. Longitudinal section of proboscis; the canal, ¢., is shown above; lower down the trachea, ¢., and
the nerve, n.; while the diagonal muscles, m., overlie them. These are spaced somewhat wider than in na-
ture, for the sake of clearness. The right edge is the outer one. } inch objective.

Fig. 10. ‘Transverse section of proboscis, showing the two maxillae united by the dove-tail joint, and
forming the interior canal, c.; the air tubes, tr.; 7. nerve; m.and m.’, the two sets of muscles, more or less
displaced in the cutting. 4 inch objective.

16 ANATOMY OF THE MILK-WEED BUTTERFLY.

Fig. 11a, b,c and d. Sections through the integument of the proboscis, showing the different shapes of
the cuticular elements and the lamination of the cuticle, ew.; hy., hypoderm or matrix. Fig. 11¢ shows two
of the cuticular elements separating from each other. 5 inch objective.

Fig. 11le. Cuticle of posterior region of the proboscis from outside; each cuticular block being here pro-
longed into a spine. 4 inch objective.

Fig. 12. Cuticular processes clothing the upper central portion of the food-reservoir. The longitudinal
and transverse muscular fibres are seen beneath. } objective.

Fig. 13. Lateral view of the tip of the abdomen in the male; 7, 8, 9, seventh, eighth and ninth somites
of the abdomen; p., penis; fc. false clasper, overlying the real clasper, ¢., which is shown uncovered in
fig. 13a, by the removal of the whole 8th somite; /.s., hair sheath torn open above, showing the protrud-
ing bundle of hairs; ™m., muscle. X 8.

Fig. 14. Lateral internal view of the male abdomen, showing the genitalia in situ; ¢., testis; v.d., the
double vas deferens ; d.e., ductus ejaculatorius; p.0., interior view of the penis bulb; p.s., penis sheath; r.p.,
retractor penis; p7., internal process of the ninth somite affording the attachment of the retractor penis;
the posterior wall of the process is cut away; ¢., clasper; f.c., false clasper; other letters as in fig. 2. X 8.

Fig. 15. Interior of the exoskeleton of the seventh, eighth and part of ninth abdominal somite, male.
The figure 9 is placed on the ventral arch of the ninth somite, which sends forward the process, pr., for the
attachment of the retractor penis as shown also in the preceding figure. The dotted surface represents the
membrane, connecting the eighthand ninth somites. This membrane is pierced above by the hair-bundle ;
h.s., hair-bundle sheath; 7.m., its retracting muscle. X 8.

Fig. 16. Horizontal section through the tip of the male abdomen showing the penis, p., and its extensor
and retractor, ¢.p., and 7.p.; p.0., penis bulb; p.s., sheath; d.e., ductus ejaculatorius; /.6., cut through hair-
bundle; s.m., intersegmental muscles. X 8.

Fig. 17. Male organs, natural size; ¢, testis, with its supporting tracheae, ¢r.; v.d., vas deferens; gl.,
gland; d.e., ductus ejaculatorius.

Fig. 18. Portion of testis showing the distribution of the tracheae of the left fifth abdominal spiracle.
The branching of only one of the main tracheal stems is figured.

AIAHALINEG GHAM-MTIN YHL 40 ANOLVNV

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Annivers.Memoirs Boston Soc.NatHist. Burgess Plate [I

Edw. Burgess, del AMeisel, lith

ANATOMY OF THRE MILK-WEED BUTTERFLY.
.

1830. ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY,

THE DEVELOPMENT

OF A

DOUBLE-HEADED VERTEBRATE.

By SAMUEL F. CLARKE, Pu.D.,

ASSISTANT IN BIOLOGY, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, MD.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

1880,

Tur DEVELOPMENT OF A DouBLE-HEADED VERTEBRATE.

By Samuet F. Cuarxz, Pu.D.

THE mode of origin and development of duplex monstrosities in the vertebrates is one of
those interesting questions so beset with difficulties that it is seldom we can gain any
direct observations with which to test the existing theories. Any one who examines
a considerable number of these double forms cannot fail to notice the varying degrees to
which the duplicity is carried. It is generally agreed that two beings who are in the
slightest way connected by a band of flesh represent one extreme of the series of double
monsters, — as, for example, the Siamese twins, — while the other extreme consists of a
nearly normal form in which there are but the slightest indications of duplicity. Between
these extremes one finds all degrees of variations from the normal. One of the most
generally accepted methods of explaining the origin of these monstrosities is by supposing
that two eggs are fertilized and developed at the same time. This theory would account
very well for ordinary twins, or for such as the celebrated Siamese twins, where the
physical band is slight ; but for other forms, in which the duplicity is but partly expressed,
this theory does not answer so well. According to this view, the origin of such a form
as is represented in plate 1, fig. 5, would be explained as follows: Two eggs fertilized at
the same time had been thrown together, remained united, and developed in such a way
as to form the two-headed monster represented. Now this satisfactorily accounts for the
anterior portion only,— the two heads. Why there should not be also two bodies and
four pairs of limbs as well as two heads is explained (?) by saying that the two ova
became united in such a way as to prevent the development of more than the ordinary
arrangement posterior to the head. How is it, then, that the part of the animal which is
single is so regularly and symmetrically developed? This would seem highly improbable
if two eggs at a very early stage had been thrown together. Hach egg, of course, has the
tendency to develop one symmetrical organism, like that from which it came. Now,
when two eggs become united, it does not seem very reasonable to suppose that these
tendencies will remain intact in certain parts of the united mass, so as to produce two
heads or two tails, ete., while in other parts we find a perfectly normal development.
To account for this, we must suppose that either a part of the mass of one egg loses its
tendency to develop and takes no active part in the progressive changes, being merely
absorbed by the protoplasm of the other egg, which has retained its tendency or power to

oo?
develop, or that both portions have become intermingled, and in this enlarged mass there

4 CLARKE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF

exists, either as a newly formed or as a product of the union of the two individual
tendencies, the ability to develop one normal form. Still less probable does this seem
when we consider the forms in which duplicity is but very slightly indicated, las, for
example, where there are two thumbs on each hand. In this case one would be forced
to believe that these small appendages were the only expression of that strong tendency
of each ovum to produce a being like the one from which it had its origin. In other
cases where the duplicity is much more complete, as in the Siamese twins, it may be
supposed that the embryos did not come in contact until after they were considerably
advanced. This would seem somewhat more reasonable. Moreover, if two ova are united
intimately and then develop into a monster but slightly duplex, we should expect to find
the animal of unusual size. This, however, is very often not the case. In the Ichthyop-
sida, and especially in the Teliosts, where many eggs are hatched at the same time, and
among which specimens of duplicity are not uncommon, these latter are often, though not
always, smaller than their brothers of the same age. This would seem to indicate that,
in some instances, duplex monstrosities arose from the union of two eggs, while others
came from a single egg.

The idea that one ege may give rise to two animals, or to a duplex form, has also been
often advanced. This theory would account for all such forms of every degree, and this
is certainly a strong point in its favor, as there exists a complete series between the
extreme former, by supposing that there existed in some eggs an unusual amount of
developmental activity, so that, instead of developing in the regular way, it pushed beyond
its bounds and formed additional parts. By this theory one can explain all cases of
duplicity by supposing a greater or less degree of extra developmental power. A small
amount might produce only a secondary thumb, while an extreme amount might give
rise to a nearly or quite complete form like itself.

This theory that double monsters origimate from one egg has better support than
any other. In the first place, as there is a continuous series of these forms from one
extreme of duplicity to the other, a theory that shall be satisfactory must explain them
all. That is true of this theory. Secondly, these forms are not (so far as I have had a
chance to investigate) any larger, and not often so large, as other individuals born at the
same time. Were they the product of two eggs this would probably not be the case.
Thirdly, all double monsters in which the bodies are sufficiently developed are both
invariably of the same sex.

A very interesting case in connection with this question in Teratology came under
my notice in the spring of 1879. I had in my aquarium a large collection of between
two and three thousand eggs of Amblystoma punctatum, of which I was studying the
development. Examining great numbers of them daily, I chanced to find one in which
the medullary folds were nearly completed, but in which the latter had not united at the
cephalic end, and in which they appeared so much elevated and rounded at their anterior
ends, with well defined instead of ordinary vague outlines, that I kept the egg by itself
and watched its development. When first found it was in about the condition represented
in plate 1, fig. 1. Figs. 1 and 2 are from memory. The original sketches from life were
unwittingly destroyed. Having watched the development and made sketches of the
embryo my memory is very clear on the subject; so that, while it is much to be regretted

A DOUBLE-HEADED VERTEBRATE. 5

that the original sketches are gone, I feel that the two given are accurate in all the
essential points. I have also given two figures froni life of normal development at the
same stages for comparison. As the medullary folds closed in, they failed to unite along
a certain part of the thickened cephalic end. Then each free portion of the medullary
folds developed a perfect head, which at first partly united, gradually became more so,
until they were connected throughout their entire lengths. Posterior to the heads,
however, there are no indications of duplicity. There is but one body with the regular
appendages and cloaca. One of the heads, the right, is larger than the left, and somewhat
more in a direct line with the body than the smaller head of the left side. Each head has
a pair of well-formed eyes and a mouth. The branchiae of the right head are quite
normal; those of the right side of the left head are unusually small and crowded down by
the branchiae of the left side of the right head; the branchiae of the left side of the left
head are abnormally large, sufficiently so to make good the want of size of those of the
right side. The right head is much nearer the plane of the body than the left, as will
readily be seen from the position of the eyes and mouth. The smaller head, however, is
so twisted, or rotated, that its left side is in about the same plane as the ventral side of
the body. Having reached the stage indicated in figs. 5 and 6, the animal died.

The interesting point in this observation lies in the fact that a two-headed monster, with
one regularly symmetrical body, was developed from one egg, and that the anterior
portion of each medullary fold gave origin to a head.

It is a point in favor of the theory of a tendency of singleness toward duplicity; that
is of one egg having a tendency to develop into two animals, more or less completely.

It is quite surprising to find that the portion of each medullary fold which ordinarily
gives rise to a definite half of the head, with its sense organs and appendages, should, in
this case, have developed a perfect head with paired eyes and ears and branchiae.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Figs. 1-4. All the figures enlarged to thirty diameters.

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of the earliest stage in which the embryo of the monstrous form was observed.
A, the space separating anterior ends of medullary folds, and across which they never united; mf, medullary
folds; mp, medullary plate; mr, medullary groove.

Fig. 2. A later stage of the same embryo. <A indicates the region along which the folds remained separate.
Other letters as before. Figs. 1 and 2 are from memory; see above.

Fig. 3. An embryo of same stage as fig. 1; but developing normally. Letters as before. Here the medul-
lary folds have united anteriorly. From life.

Fig. 4. An embryo in corresponding stage with fig. 2, showing normal development. In this there is no
separation between the cephalic portions of the medullary folds. Letters as before. From life.

6 CLARKE ON A DOUBLE-HEADED VERTEBRATE.

Figs. 5, 6. Figures from life. Enlarged twelve diameters.

Fig. 5. Dorsal view of the double monster. m, mouth of right or larger head; m’, mouth of left or
smaller head; ¢, left eye of larger head; ca, right eye of larger head; cc, outline of cranial cavity as exter-
nally indicated; 07, branchiae of right side of larger head; those of the left side of larger head are not
marked, to avoid confusing the figure; a/, anterior limb of right side; ea’, right eye of left or smaller head 3
br a’, branchiae of right side of smaller head; 67 6’, branchiae of left side of smaller head; a’, anterior limb
of left side; sc, median line and indication of spinal column. It is worthy of notice that there seems to be
externally no connection between the smaller head and the spine. ¢f, caudal fin.

Fig. 6. Ventral view of the same. 0’, left eye of left or smaller head; pi, posterior limb; ed, cloaca.
The figure is not completed posteriorly, as the structure of these parts is fully shown in fig. 5. Other letters
as in fig. 5.

“VINOLSATSNY CHCVeaH-ATENOC V HO LNANGOTHAYG

L 1d! 42219

1830. ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

STUDIES ON THE TONGUE

OF

REPTILES AND BIRDS.

By CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

1880.

7
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pray ry)
7
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a:

STUDIES ON THE ToNGUE OF REPTILES AND BIRDS.

By CuHaries Sepewick Minot.

THE following paper consists principally of a description of the soft parts of the tongue
of the moccasin snake, Ancistrodon piscivorus. I have added some observations made for
comparison, upon the tongue of the rattlesnake, Crotalus durissus, our common garter
snake, Hutaenia sertalis, also Chamaeleon dilepis, and Ameiva surinamensis, and finally
the mocking bird, Mimus polyglottus. The immediate object in view was to investigate
the muscles of the ophidian tongue; the other observations reported are therefore
incidental only, which explains their fragmentariness.

For my material, I am especially obliged to Dr. 8. W. Garman, the curator of the
herpetological collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, whose kindness I have
the greatest pleasure in acknowledging. Iam also indebted to Prof. Semper of Wiirz-
burg, to Prof. Hyatt and Mr. Van Vleck of this Society, and finally to my brother,
Wm. Minot, Jr., for valuable specimens. Iam glad to have this opportunity to thank
them. To the kindness of Dr. H. P. Bowditch, I owe the opportunity of carrying on
these researches in the physiological laboratory of the Harvard Medical School, where I
enjoyed every convenience for histological work.

. The tongue of reptiles has been comparatively little studied ; most of the papers, which
deal with its anatomy, are thirty or more years old, and there is no published investi-
gation, so far as I am aware, upon its microscopic anatomy and histology.

The most accurate paper I have found is that by Duvernoy (v)', published in 1830,
and supplemented by a second memoir (v1) which appeared in 1832. The same author
incidentally gives some further observations on the lingual muscles in an article
on the poison glands of snakes, (vi). The principal article besides these, is that by
Dugés, (111) contained in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1827. Dugés’ experi-
ments and observations on the function of the ophidian tongue, as an organ of touch
rather than taste, are particularly valuable, and may be easily confirmed. A paper by
Bendz (1) dated 1843, also deserves special mention, on account of its valuable descrip-
tions of the glossopharyngeal and hypoglossal nerves of reptiles.

1 The Roman numerals refer to the bibliographical list at the end of the article.

MINOT ON THE TONGUE

I. ANATOMY OF THE SNAKE’S TONGUE.

The mouth of snakes is a spacious cavity leading into the wide oesophagus. Upon its
lower floor, a short distance behind the anterior end of the mandibles, are two openings
in the median line; one, the anterior, leads into the sheath of the tongue; the other
immediately behind the first, is the rima glottidis. The surface of the floor has numerous
longitudinal folds, which partially disappear when the mandibles are divaricated. Over
the trachea there is a ridge in the floor of the mouth, which is also flattened out when
the jaws are pulled apart laterally. By these means the extension of the inelastic epi-
thelium is provided for. ~ ;

A vertical transverse section, cut 1, through the opening of the trachea, shows the
relative size and position of the parts. The folds of the buccal epithelium are each sup-
ported by an extension of the fibrous submucosa, the
epithelium itself consisting of beaker cells. The folds
cease abruptly at the entrance of the glottis, g/, and the
height of the epithelium rapidly diminishes. Two cartil-
ages, c, lie on either side of the rima, which is also sur-
rounded by longitudinal muscular fibres, arranged in
seven bundles, one underneath, and three on each side. I
could find no trace of circular fibres. The sheath, s, of the
tongue follows immediately underneath the muscle, but
in my sections has been pressed away in mounting. It is
more than twice the diameter of the rima glottidis, but
Cur. Frontal section through the Rima further back the trachea and the lingual sheath are of

glottidis and lingual sheath of Eutaenia serta-

is. gl, rima glottidis; ¢, cartilsges: m, ep the same diameter. In the interior of the sheath lies the
aig, 2-; mnacalus geniovaginins; 4, gland. tongue, at this point entirely free. Underneath the sheath
is a very large gland, g, which I have seen in Eutaenia only. I overlooked it at first,
and cannot therefore say, whether it occurs in Ancistrodon or Crotalus. As far as I am
aware, no similar glands have been previously noticed in the Ophidia. It extends for a
considerable distance along the median line. Further observations are necessary to
determine whether it is homologous with the sublingual glands of other vertebrates.
On either side are the cut ends, m. g. v., of M. genio-vaginii, the fibres being united into
three bundles on either side. The JZ. genio-tracheales and retractor tracheae do not
appear in this section, the former being too distant laterally, the latter not extending so
far forward.

The tongue, as a whole, may be said to consist of three parts:— 1, the free part forked
in front; 2, the base, or attached portion, lymg under the trachea, and connected with
the hyoid cornu; 3, the sheath, into which the free part can be withdrawn. The follow-
ing points must be mentioned, because they have hitherto been either overlooked, or
insufficiently described. If the tongue and sheath be cut out, they appear as in fig. 1,
which represents the tongue of the rattlesnake, Crotalus durissus. The same figure
shortened by about three-quarters of an inch, would correctly represent the tongue
of the moccasin. The distance to which the tongue is free, is shown by the pig-
ment on its dorsal surface; the dark color shines through the sheath, but does not

OF REPTILES AND BIRDS. 5

extend behind the point a, where the tongue and sheath unite. Three pairs of nerves
enter the tongue, each being accompanied by an artery. The first, A, goes to the sheath
a short distance in front of the attachment, a, of the tongue; the second, BL, enters
about the same distance behind the attachment as the nerve A before it. The third, C,
enters about half way between the point, a, and the posterior extremity of the tongue.
Its point of entry marks a division line in front of which the tongue has both longi-
tudinal and transverse muscles, fig. 10, and back of which it has only longitudinal fibres,
fig. 11. In the latter region the fibres form two distinct bundles, separated at first by
slight depressions above and below, which deepen posteriorly until they finally meet,
forming a fissure, which divides the two muscles, ¢. gl., the cerato-glossi, one for each
hyoid cornu.

The upper half ‘of the free portion of the tongue is somewhat expanded, and is marked
off from the lower surface by a shallow longitudinal furrow on either side of the tongue.
These furrows face downward, and extend from the level of the fork half way or more
to the point of attachment.

When the tongue is extended, the point of attachment moves forwards, and the free
part of the tongue lengthens. It is probable that, when the tongue is retracted, the
nerves are thrown into sinuosities, which are straightened out when the tongue is
exserted. This disposition occurs in other nerves in snakes, to allow for the distension of
the part, because the nerve-tubes, not being elastic, would be injured by stretching.

In the Ophidia, as is well known, the hyoidean apparatus of cartilages and bones is
reduced to a single cartilaginous piece, consisting of a thicker median part often with
an anterior spine, and of two unusually long thread-like cornua, to which the ceratoglossal
muscles are attached. In the amniote vertebrates, and also in the Amphibia, there are
usually numerous distinct muscles differentiated in the intermandibular area. Of these
muscles, the mylo-hyoid, genio-hyoid, genio-glossus, sterno-hyoid, omo-hyoid, and costo-
hyoid are the most constant, but in the snakes they are all fused to form a single
uninterrupted layer. Dugés, it is true, figures and describes several distinct muscles,
but Duvernoy (v) who makes no mention of Dugés’ earlier paper, found a single layer,
extending from the transverse processes of four or five of the anterior vertebrae, and from
the anterior ribs, downwards over the whole intermandibular region. Dumeril and
Jacquart (iv) state that the fibres from the ribs are continuous with M. obliquus
internus ; they figure (iv, plate 20, fig. 2, and plate 21, fig. 5) that connection in the
boa. My own observations entirely agree with those of Duvernoy. The layer is quite
thin, and separated from the ectoderm by the dermis only. Its fibres run, 1, transversely
- between the anterior ends of the mandibles; 2, from near the anterior ends of the mandi-
bles to the hyoid cartilage ; 3, from the hyoid to the ribs and vertebrae; 4, from the pos-
terior portion of the mandibles to the vertebrae. Different parts of this layer, therefore,
serve to draw the mandibles together, to protract and retract the hyoid cartilage, and to
lower the under jaw.

It is interesting to find a whole group of muscles represented only by a single unbroken
layer. This is perhaps an instance of arrested development or more properly reversion,
consequent upon the reduction of the shoulder girdle and the visceral skeleton. Vetter
(xiv) has shown that in the selachians, there is a constrictor superficialis, which in its

6 MINOT ON THE TONGUE

simplest known form resembles to a striking extent the disposition I have just described
in the snakes. According to the view that the lower jaw is a modified visceral arch, an
mportant part of the mandibular muscles: must be modifications of the J. constrictor
superficialis ;— a reversion, therefore, seems possible. It must, however, be further
assumed, that the longitudinal ventral muscles? are also fused with the general muscular
layer. I could not satisfy myself that any fibres were attached to the base of the tongue,
certainly no fibres enter the tongue itself. I am therefore unable to confirm Dugés’
statement that there is a distinct muscle homologous with the genio-glossus.

Underneath (above) the general layer just described, are four distinct pairs of muscles, all
of small size. First, the genio-vaginii, running from the front ends of the mandibles to the
sides of the sheath, along which they pass on to the attached part of the tongue,
extending some distance backwards. A transverse section through the sheath shows
that the only muscular fibres it contains belong to these muscles. A section through
the base of the tongue shows them lying at the sides, but without connection with the
proper lingual muscles. Second, the genio-tracheal, also arising from the mandibles, but
further back, and running obliquely backwards and inwards to be inserted into the
trachea, some distance behind the glottis. Third, the retractores tracheae, inserted above
and in front of the genio-tracheal muscles and running obliquely backwards and
outwards. ourth, the epi-tracheal muscles, short longitudinal bands placed laterally
and ventrally upon the trachea, immediately behind the glottis (cf. cut 1). Of
these four muscles, the genio-vagiuii are the only ones directly concerned with the
movements of the tongue.

The sheath of the tongue is lined by a continuation of the buccal epithelium, and has a
fibrous tunica propria. As already mentioned, the only muscles of the sheath are the
longitudinal genio-vaginit. i

Transverse sections which are now to be considered, enable us to study the disposition
of the muscles and tissues of the tongue.

Such a section, taken a short distance behind the fork of the tongue, at the level of the
line 7, in V1. 1, fig. 1,is represented in fig. 7. The section is limited by an epithelium, sup-
ported by a fibrous swhmucosa, which is thickest on the upper and lower surfaces, and
least developed at the sides, but is nowhere sharply limited against the underlying con-
nective tissue. This last is distinctly adenoid, being formed of fibres, so disposed as to
make a mesh work of fusiform interspaces; among the fibres are scattered, first, large
numbers of small, round, darkly stained nuclei; second, a smaller number of paler gran-
ular nuclei, three times the size of those first named; third, ramified pigment cells, most
numerous dorsally, and sometimes entirely wanting on the ventral surface; some of these
cells appear to send their processes in between the epithelial cells. In parts of some
preparations, I have observed around each small nucleus, a clear space, which I consider
the cell body, marked off by a distinct outline, which I regard as the cell wall. The cell
closely resembles the red blood globules. An irregular granular cell body is sometimes
distinctly visible around the larger nuclei. Finally the tissue contains numerous vascular
spaces. The adenoid tissue is bounded internally by the common fibrous sheath of the

1Tn Selachiaus the coraco-aruales, coraco-hyoidecus and coraco-mandibulare.

OF REPTILES AND BIRDS. 7
muscles, which lie closely compacted in a continuous core. The sheath is composed of
connective fibres, running transversely but irregularly, crossing one another at slight
angles, and not united into bundles. From the common sheath arise fascie and
partitions of connective tissue, which extend around the single muscles, and in between
the fibres and bundles of fibres, of which they are composed.

The muscular fibres are long, and their striation very distinct. In the preparation
now under examination, they show no tendency to unite in bundles, differing in this
respect not only from the other muscles of snakes, but also from the lingual muscles of
Ameiva, Chamaeleon, Mimus, and mammals. In some sections through a retracted
tongue there appears a slight tendency to form bundles of fibres. In transverse sections
it can be very plainly seen, that the sarcolemma is well developed, that the “ Grund-
substanz”’ is pale and transparent, and that the darkly stained fibrillulae are each entirely
distinct, and scattered irregularly, though always tending to unite in fibrillae, and some-
times plainly so united. The nuclei are about the same diameter as the fibrillae. They
occupy varying positions inside the fibre, but rarely lie in the centre, and never, so far as
I have observed, against the sarcolemma.

The muscles of the tongue are five:—Longitudinal, 1, Ceratoglossi. 2, Lingualis.
Transverse. 3, Transversus superior. 4, Transversus inferior. 5, Verticalis.

The ceratoglossi, c.gl, are inferior; the lingualis, 1, superior, as is also the trans-
versus superior, tr.s; the verticalis, v, is median; the transversus inferior, tr.i, is lat-
eral, but in the posterior part of the tongue, fig. 10, lateral and inferior.

The muscular tissue is abundantly supplied with blood vessels, which run parallel to the
fibres, and are for the most part about half their diameter. The vessels have an elastic
fibrous tunica propria, and endothelial intima. In some places, where the larger arteries
have been cut through, the endotheliwm is shown in section with perfect distinctness,
fig. 13. The thin endothelium is quite pale, with few granules and pale oval nuclei, over
each of which the endothelium is thickened or bulging. The elastic coat is thick and
darkly stained; it contains annular connective fibres, and small, round, darkly stained
nuclei.

In figs. 7 and 8 there appears two pairs of nerves B and C’. I think B is probably the
lingual nerve; ©” is the hypoglossus. B is accompanied by an artery, and considerable
loose connective tissue. C” lies in the midst of the ceratoglossal muscle. Each nerve
is inclosed in a fibrous sheath, the neurilemma, and consists entirely. of medullated fibres,
in sections of which the three component parts, axis-cylinder, medullary sheath, and
Schwann’s sheath, all appear very plainly, fig. 4.

The epithelium extends of course only over the free part of the tongue. Near the
point of attachment, the epithelium resembles that of the sheath of the tongue, being
distinctly divided into a mucous and horny layer, and is of nearly uniform thickness and
character upon all points of the section (cf. fig. 9). The horny layer extends with certain
exceptions over the whole of the tongue, but in no part of it is the cellular character of
the layer so much obscured, as is the case when the cornification is complete, as upon the
tongue of Mimus. In sections through the middle of the free part of the tongue, the
epithelium presents several characteristic peculiarities, fig. 8. The corneous layer
is interrupted at the furrows, #. The mucous layer is much thinner on the ventral than

8 MINOT ON THE TONGUE

on the dorsal surface ; it is especially thickened in the median dorsal line, again just over
the upper and outer corners of the muscular core, and in the furrow. Still further
forward there are also two thickenings, fig. 7, on either side below the furrow. As these
thickenings all appear upon many successive sections, they must each correspond to a
longitudinal ridge. Along the ridges and the two furrows, the corneous layer is
represented by a stratum of somewhat flattened cells. The main thickness of each ridge
is occupied by large polygonal cells, which in the basal part, become cylinder-cells, and
are there mingled with smaller cells with smaller nuclei. Thus, on the inner surface of
the epithelium, there are seven longitudinal ridges, distinguished by their histological
character. As the thickenings in the furrows resemble the ridges, except in their position,
it seems to me correct to call them ridges also, — making nine in all, as follows : — three
dorsal, two in the furrows, fowr lateral below the furrows. None of these ridges extend
upon the forks of the tongue.

A short distance behind the fork, the epithelium on the wnder side assumes a follicular
character, the corneous layer becomes very thin, while the mucuous increases in thickness,
fig. 14. The cells of the middle portion are quite distinct, and have polygonal outlines ;
they are of two kinds, one smaller, with nuclei of the usual character, the other larger
with clear vesicular nuclei. The basal or follicular portion consists of much smaller
cylinder cells, some with pale oval, others with long darkly stained nuclei.

Upon the base of the forks the epithelium, fig. 15, has the general character shown in fig.
14, except that the middle layer of polygonal cells is more distinctly separated into an
outer and inner structure, the cells of the former being flattened. The follicles partially
disappear a short distance from the base of the fork.

The muscles of the tongue are all intrinsic, excepting the ceratoglossi, and are five in
number, counting the paired muscles once only. They all lie in close proximity to one
another, forming a continuous fleshy mass, the muscular core, occupying the centre of the
tongue, and invested by a common fascia or sheath, into which the muscular fibres are
inserted. The general appearance in transverse sections has been described above.

The courses and proportions of the various muscles can be most readily followed upon
a series of transverse sections, figs. 5-11. Fig. 5 is the most anterior, fig. 11, the most
posterior section figured. Figs. 5-9 are through the free part of an extended,
figs. 10-11 through the attached part of a retracted tongue. The transverse lines
through fig. 1, show approximately the level at which the sections were taken, the lines
being numbered to correspond with the figures. Fig. 1 represents the tongue of Crotalus
durissus, while all the sections are from Ancistrodon.

The I. ceratoglossi arise from the posterior ends of the hyoid cornu, between which
they run, each entirely isolated from its fellow, forward to the point, fig. 1, c, where the
hypoglossal nerve enters the muscle; at which spot they become encased by the superior
and inferior transverse muscles, and separated from one another by the WV. verticalis,
fig. 10. It may properly be said that at this point they enter the tongue, through the
length of which they extend, nowhere mingling with or penetrated by other muscles, or
by each other.t At first the muscle occupies the largest part of the tongue ; it lies on

1JIn the Crocodilia the two genio-glossi cross one another fig. 3), has described and illustrated. The same peculiar
in a peculiar manner, which Duvernoy (VI, p. 17, pl. V, arrangement may be readily observed in the alligator.

OF REPTILES AND BIRDS. 9

the ventral side of the tongue, and maintains that position throughout figs. 5-9. The
single fibres of the muscle are at first some distance apart, fig. 9, but they soon become
more compact in the free part of the tongue, fig. 7. The ceratoglossi gradually taper
towards the tip, while the other muscles increase in relative bulk. Towards the fork the
two muscles under consideration divaricate and each, greatly reduced in size, enters the
tips’ of the same side, fig. 5, and terminates in a tendon, which first appears on the
under side of the muscle not far from the base of the fork, and extends as the direct
continuation of the muscle forwards in the tip.

The lingualis is confined to the free part of the tongue; it begins near the point of
attachment, fig. 1, a, occupies the dorsal portion of the muscular core, above the trans-
versus superior, fig. 8, and extends forwards, at first increasing in diameter, fig. 7, then
slowly diminishing as the tongue tapers, fig. 6. At the fork, fig. 9, it divides into two
portions which become the superior longitudinal muscles of the tips, in which they are
much more voluminous than their antagonists, the ceratoglossi. The lingualis is cut up
by muscular septa, formed by the ¢ransversi and verticalis. These septa are more prom-
inent in the tips than in the body of the tongue.

The verticalis is at first, 7. ¢., posteriorly, entirely distinct, fig. 10, v, arising dorsally
from the lower side of the transversus superior, and inserted ventrally directly into the
common fascia of the lingual muscles, thus separating not only the two ceratoglossi, but
also the two transversi inferiores. The inferior attachment is retained up to the fork of
the tongue, but is there lost, the lower end of the vertical muscle becoming gradually
more and more interwoven with transverse fibres. The upper end on the contrary soon
begins to interlace with the superior transverse muscle, fig. 8.

The transversi can be best described together, although at the posterior extremity of
the tongue they are absolutely distinct, fig. 10. In Hutaenia sertalis exactly the same
relation exists, as will be recognized by comparing cut 1, with fig. 10. Further forward
the three transversi fuse around the base of the free part of the tongue, fig. 9. They
form a continuous layer of annular fibres. The upper segment corresponding to the
transversus superior attains predominance, and is divided into two portions by the nerves,
(lingual?) figs. 9, 8, 7, B, and the arteries and tissues which accompany them. Still
further forward, the upper segment is forced down into the middle of the core, by the
lingualis above it, fig. 8. At the same time the transverse or annular fibres disappear
from the ventral side, and those which correspond to the transversi inferiores assume a
vertical position at the sides of the tongue, fig. 7. Before the forking takes place, the
intermingling of the various transverse and vertical fibres becomes so complex that the
component muscles cannot be distinguished, there being besides many oblique fibres, two
systems of vertical and transverse fibres distinguishable, fig. 6.

From the disposition of the muscles, we may conclude that the tongue is thrust out,
first by pullmg forward the base of the tongue by the genio-hyoid portion of the con-
strictor, and especially by the genio-vaginii; and second by the elongation of the tongue by
the contraction of the transversi and verticalis. The retractors are, first, the longitudinal
lingualis and ceratoglossi, and second, the retractors of the hyoid, namely the vertebro-
and costo-hyoid portions of the constrictor, and Dumeril’s “ peaussier”’ (paniculus), the

\Tip” is used to designate the two forks or branches of the tongue, and refers to the whole branch, and not to the extremity.

10 MINOT ON THE TONGUE

fibres of which are longitudinal and attached anteriorly to the hyoid. None of the
ntrinsic muscles have been, so far as I] am aware, previously described, and the elon-
gation of the tongue itself has not been hitherto taken into account.

My own observations upon the nerves which supply the tongue are fragmentary and
unsatisfactory, as I have unfortunately been unable to obtain sufficient material for dissec-
tion. I therefore reproduce the figure, cut 2, and description given by Bendz, the Danish!
original being inaccessible to many readers. Bendz’s account refers exclusively to the
common snake, 7ropidonotus natrix, of Europe.

“The united nervus glossopharyngeus and vagus arise by three or four small roots from
the sides of the medulla, and pass out together through a special opening of the skull.
After it appears outside (of the cranium) it receives a small anastomising branch from the
nervus communicans ; a little below, it gives off a considerable branch, the largest part

Cur 2. Head of Tropidonotus natrix 34 nat.
size, after Bendz. 1, cerebellum; 2, medulla;
4, anastomosis with N. communicans; 5,
N. communicans; 6, N. laryngeus superior et
glossopharyngeus; 7, Ganglion radicis vagi;
9, vagus; 21, hypoglossus,—23, its front branch,
—24, its hind branch. The'branch from which
23 springs receives a branch from N. alveola-

part of which is equivalent to the n. laryngeus supe-
rior, of the higher animals, but is perhaps at the same
time the analogue of n. glossopharyngeus, although I
have been unable to discover a ganglion, comparable to
the g. petrosum. This branch runs, like all nerves in
this region, because of the variability of the organs in
volume and position, in manifold curves down over the
neck to the anterior part of the tracheae, and along the
sides of which it runs to the glottis. Here it sends a small
branch along the sides of, and back to the front end of
the trachea, while the main stem is lost upon the glottis

is inferioris.

and the mucous membrane. Close below the origin of this
branch arises the stem of the vagus, with its Ganglion radicis a little above, which gives
off a tolerably thick branch to the hypoglossus, which last descending from above crosses
the vagus at this point. The trunk of the vagus runs backward between the arteria
carotis, and the vena jugularis,” ete., p. 1380-151.

“The hypoglossal nerve arises by two roots from the anterior columns of the
medulla oblongata. These unite outside the cranium, to form a single trunk, which
immediately crosses the vagus trunk, from which it receives a considerable branch.
Past this it descends and divides at the side of the trachea into two nearly equal
branches, an anterior and posterior. The anterior branch lies in many curves upon the
sides of the trachea, gives off a fine branch to the muse. genioglossus, and receives
a branch which comes from the n. alveolaris inferior; this last comes out near the middle
of the inner surface of the ramus of the lower jaw, and runs backwards and inwards over
the muscles of the regio submentalis, before making the above-mentioned anastomosis.
The continuation of the anterior branch enters, and can be followed even to the
tips. The posterior branch goes to the musc. ceratoglossus, most of the branch pressing
into the muscle, and following its axis backward; while a smaller branch passes backward
upon the same muscle superficially.” p. 132.

17 must beg indulgence for this translation, which I have
made with the assistance of a dictionary, and without pre-
vious knowledge of the language, circumstances that are

certainly unfavorable; I had however, no other resource.
Dr. H. Hagen had the kindness to explain a difficult pas-
sage to me.

OF REPTILES AND BIRDS. ili

The nervus glossopharyngeus is, in most reptiles, a distinct nerve ; but in some it does
not have this independence, and is then always united with the vagus.’ p. 137.
Desmouslins (1. Pt. 463, 6) states that it is wanting in Ophidia; Bendz, as we have
seen, found it united with the vagus in Tropidonotus, while Vogt (xvi, 44, 49) says it is
distinct in Crotalus horridus and Coluber siculus.

“The trunk” (of the hypoglossus) “ usually forms two branches, of which the anterior
supplies the muscles of the tongue, the posterior the JZ. sternohyoideus and omo-hyoideus.
In snakes, I found that the lingual branches enter into anastomosis with a branch from
the NV. alveolaris inferior, N. trigemini. Desmouslins (11, 1, 455), has made a similar
observation upon Crotalus, where he describes a communication with the WN. lingualis,
NV. vagi; but since he denies (the presence of) the hypoglossus in Ophidia, I
shall therefore make no close comparison with what I have found in Tropidonotus and
Lacerta.” p. 148. .

The observations of previous observers contain, as far as I am aware, no mention of the
three nerves, fig. 7, A, B, C, which enter the tongue, but only of the third, C, the hypo-
glossal. Bendz makes no reference to a lingual branch of the glossopharyngeal. As
regards the trigeminal lingual nerve, it has been said to be wanting, a statement which is
repeated by Stannius in his Lehrbuch. Bendz (vide supra) states that the hypoglossal
receives a communicating branch from the WV. alveolaris inferioris, by which the tongue is
indirectly supplied with trigeminal fibres.

The hypoglossus, fig. 1, C, runs backward beside the tongue, fig. 10, C, before pen-
etrating the muscle, which it does immediately behind the point where all the transverse
lingual muscles stop. As it enters, 1t separates into the two branches already described
by Bendz (vide supra); 1, a smaller one running backwards along the outside of the
ceratoglossus, fig. 11, ¢”; 2, a larger one which penetrates into the substance of the
ceratoglossus, and then runs forward in the midst of that muscle, giving off branches as
it goes. The main trunk is surrounded by a vascular fibrous connective tissue, which is
very distinct from the muscular fibres around it, fig. 10. This same figure also shows
the hypoglossus upon the outside of the tongue, occupying the same relative position
which is held further forward by the nerve B, and still further forward by the nerve A.
The amount of connective tissue around the hypoglossal nerve in the tongue gradually
diminishes, becoming hardly more than a sheath of the nerve in the free part of the
tongue. At the level of the fork the nerve is reduced to a few hardly distinguishable
branchlets. ,

I am unable to say what is the origin and distribution of the other two nerves, Fig. 1,
Band A. From analogy with mammalia, they are the lingual branches respectively of
the glossopharyngeus and trigeminus.

The anterior nerve, fig. 1, A, enters the sheath, penetrates underneath the JZ. genio-
vagineus, and runs backwards, immediately underlying the sub-mucosa of the sheath, to
the point where the sheath and the tongue unite. Further than this I have not followed
its course with certainty, but I think it probably bends forward, and runs along the side of
the tongue, outside of the muscular core, where there is a nerve, fig. 9, A, which how-
ever, appears only in sections through the base of the free part of the tongue, and not
further forward, and therefore is apparently distributed to the side of the base. If these

12 MINOT ON THE TONGUE

suppositions are correct it is to be expected that this nerve will be found to be the glos-
sopharyngeus, which has a similar distribution in mammals.

The middle nerve, fig. 1, B, I have also not succeeded in following satisfactorily, but I
consider it probable that it is continuous with the nerve marked B, figs. 4-11. This
latter lies in the midst of the JZ. transversus superior, and runs straight forward to the
fork, without giving off any branches; but there, beginning to divide and sub-divide, it
enters the fork of the same side to which it is distributed. The nerve is accompanied
through the body of the tongue, by an artery of about the same diameter as itself. The
nerve and artery are surrounded by connective tissue which divides the A/usc. transversus
superior into two parts (cf. figs 9-7). The tissue on either side is separated from that on
the other by the vertical muscle, so that the transverse partition is mcomplete. As with
the first nerve so with the second ; we make from its distribution, which is to the tips of
the tongue, an inference, namely: that it is homologous with the mammalian lingualis.

Il. Tongure or AMEIVA.

The tongue of Ameiva surinamensis, is, in proportion to the size of the animal, both
shorter and much thicker than that of the snakes. It tapers from the base and divides
into two forks, each of which consists of a basal portion with corneous epithelium, and a
more delicate and almost thread-like, darkly pigmented tip. The main body of the tongue
is flattened and expanded above, the upper surface being entirely covered by diamond
shaped scales, so disposed as to form rows extending from the sides obliquely backwards.
These rows are not perfectly regular. The effect produced, in the alcoholic specimen I
have examined, is of the back of the tongue being crossed by two oblique systems of pale
lines. The scales also extend forwards to the tips, and downwards a little way to the
underside of the tongue, whlch is smooth, but with two longitudinal ridges, separated by a
median depression, and corresponding to the large ceratoglossal muscles. On the outer
side of each ceratoglossal ridge is a longitudinal furrow, homologous with the lateral
furrow of the snake’s tongue, which divides the smooth ventral, from the upper scaly
surface. At the anterior end of the under side there are two scales, attached by their
posterior and median edges, but otherwise entirely free. They lie one at the base of each
fork. As shown by transverse sections they are duplicatures of the epidermis, supported
by an extension of the cutis. Upon the outer, 7. ¢., ventral surface of these scales, both
the corneous and mucous layers of the epithelium are considerably thickened. What the
possible function of these singular structures may be, I cannot surmise. The posterior
part of the underside of the tongue serves for its attachment to the floor of the mouth.
The division of the forks into two parts is striking, and the horny epidermis must prevent
any bending or change of length in the basal part. The formation of small scales on the
body of the tongue permits freedom of motion. The last mentioned scales are quite
peculiar, being fungiform, with a broad flat horny top and a thick stalk, which has a thick
dermal core, with numerous ramified pigment cells (fig. 12). From the above description
it is evident that the tongue of Ameiva differs considerably from that of snakes ; neverthe-
less the arrangement of the muscles within the free part is almost identical in both, the
principal difference being in the proportions.

OF REPTILES AND BIRDS. 13

A transverse section (fig. 12) through the tongue of Ameiva a short distance behind the
fork, closely resembles a section from the corresponding part of the ophidian tongue
(fig. 8). The upper part of the tongue is expanded, and separated from the lower part
by a longitudinal furrow. The verticalis forms a median partition, and its fibres spread
out fan-like above, intermingling with those of the transversi and forming septa which
divide up the Jingualis, which lies directly underneath the dorsal skin. The divisions of —
the lingualis are smaller and more numerous in Ameiva than in Ancistrodon. The trans-
versi inferiores extend from the lower end of the verticalis along the lower surface and
the sides of the tongue, around the ceratoglossi, and also spread out fan-like above. The
transversalis superior extends across the. tongue above the ceratoglossi, but is not very
distinct, being closely interwoven with the fibres of the verticalis and transversi inferiores.
The ceratoglossi are large, and occupy the lower part of the tongue, and in Ameiva are
gathered into distimct bundles, which is not the case in Ancistrodon. The nerves in
fig. 12 are drawn black. The hypoglossus lies in the midst of the ceratoglossal muscles.
The lingualis lies just above and outside of the same muscle, and underneath the
M. transversi. It is already divided into two branches, one, the superior, considerably the
largest; both branches are surrounded by connective tissue. In the snake, fig. -8, the
lingual nerve is separated from the ceratoglossal muscle by a layer of fibres belonging to
the transversus superior, but in Ameiva this layer is wanting, and the nerve and the
connective tissue accompanying it le, not in the midst of, but entirely below the superior
transverse muscle. The epithelium is most developed on the upper surface, whichs is
scale bearmg in Ameiva. All the muscles are enclosed in a common sheath, but the limit-
ation of the muscular core is less conspicuous than in the snake, there being less
adenoid tissue separating it from the epithelium.

II. Toneur or THE CHAMAELEON.

The peculiarities of the Chamaleon’s tongue are so great that I was particularly
desirous of examining it, and through the kindness of Mr. 8. W. Garman I obtained a
tongue of C. dilepis. My hope of being able to homologize the muscles with those of
the moccasin and the Ameiva, has unfortunately been annulled by unexpected compli-
cations of the disposition of the fibres. The chamaeleon’s tongue has been the subject of
several investigations. The amusing speculations of the French Academicians reported
by the famous Perrault (x11) were followed after a long interval by the more valuable
researches of Duvernoy and Houston ( x1.)

Duvernoy’s observations and conclusions appear to me the most accurate and valuable,
and remarkably trustworthy. The memoir of Mivart (x11) must also be mentioned, as it
contains a description of the muscles of the hyoidean apparatus.

I give a figure, fig. 2, and description of the general form of the chamaeleon’s tongue,
to spare the necessity of consulting Duvernoy, (v and vi). The tongue is cylindrical
with the tip enlarged, and has three distinct divisions: 1, basal, only partly represented
in the figure, with transverse folds; 2, middle, with a smooth surface; both these parts
are extensile; 3, the bulky tip, glandular and not extensile; called la massue,-by Du-
vernoy. A cylindrical extension of the hyoidean apparatus traverses the two extensile

14 MINOT ON THE TONGUE

portions and enters the tip. The upper surface of the tip has a deep frontal fissure, and
is thrown into fine transverse folds, behind which is a broad flattened median dorsal ridge ;
fig. 2, a, narrow posteriorly but widening frontwards. Duvernoy (V, p. 11), considered
this ridge (d in his figure HZ) to be the posterior extension of the glandular portion, but
in C. dilepis it is entirely muscular.

A transverse section, through the line 2, of fig. 2) is represented in the accompanying
cut 3. The whole upper half is strongly pigmented. The extension H, of the hyoid,
occupies the centre of the lower part of the section; its structure is noteworthy. Its core
is composed of loose parenchymatous tissue, somewhat
resembling that of the vertebrate chorda dorsalis, in
that it consists of thick walled cells, having only a very
loose sarcodic network, and a protoplasma “ Hof”
around the nucleus. <A similar tissue fills, as will
presently be described, the hyoid bones and cartilages
of the mocking bird (Mimus polyglottus). The ques-
tion therefore arises, whether this form of the medulla
ossium is general among the Sauropsida. Around the
parenchymatous core is a sheath of circular fibres or
perhaps elongated cells. Outside of this follows a layer

Cur 3. Transverse section of the tongue of Of longitudinal fibres, which from their distinctness
pee cep Te ae hlineeesen Se and considerable diameter, I at first thought might
cular muscles; m muscular cylinder around the ; ’ Pays
hyoid, H. x 12 diam. be muscular, but I could not observe any striae, or

indications of fibrillar structure, so that I am uncer-
tain as to their nature. Entirely surrounding this layer is a thick fibrillar sheath.
The extension of the hyoid therefore consists of four parts. It lies in a distinct space,
apparently, though perhaps not really, a cavity, which is limited by a fibrous wall, that
gives rise to two obliquely radiating systems of muscular fibres, JZ, forming a thick cylin-
der, Duvernoy’s “muscle annulaire,”’ which is not composed of circular fibres as he
believed. Upon the outside, as upon the inside, this cylinder is bounded by a connective
fibrous sheath, which gives insertion to the muscular fibres. These last have a disposition
for which I know no parallel whatsoever. At every point they are inclined to the radius of
the cylinder at about 40°, one set to one, the other to the other side. Moreover, the
fibres form laminae, each consisting of a single row of curving fibres, all nearly parallel
and of uniform thickness, not only between themselves, but also throughout the length of
each fibre. Finally, the laminae do not extend at right angles to the axis of the cylinder,
but lie in oblique planes. What advantage this extraordinary arrangement offers, I am
unable to suggest.

There are four distinct longitudinal muscles, two large ones, /’, at the sides of the cylin-
der, and two smaller ones /”, above the cylinder, and below the ridge A. The first one
probably the cerato-glossi, the latter perhaps the homologues of the J/. hyoglossi of
birds. A few circular fibres, c, lie at either side directly under the dermis, and spread out
above the large longitudinal muscles.

The ridge, A, is separated by a layer of transverse fibres of connective tissue, and is
entirely occupied by a double system of curvmg muscular fibres, each of uniform thick-

OF REPTILES AND BIRDS. 15

ness throughout. They run obliquely downwards, one set from left to right, the other
from right to left, crossing the first at nearly right angles. :

In a section further back, the ridge is wanting, but the other differences are less
important.

A section further forward through the line 1 of fig. 2, presents the following
peculiarities, requiring especial notice, cut 4. The ridge A has grown broader, and
at the same time thinner in the median line and thicker
at the sides. Immediately underneath it are two small
bundles of longitudinal fibres, probably the continuation
of 7”in cut 2. The principal longitudinal muscles, /’
are still of considerable size, but lie more to the upper
side. The circular fibres, c, are much reduced. An addi-
tional pair of longitudinal muscles, /”, appear at the
sides, and I think must correspond to Duvernoy’s longi-
tudinal lingual muscle (VI, plate 5, figs. 6 and 7, b).
The muscular sheath of the extension of the hyoid, has
separated into two portions, one, J/’, superior, triangular
in section (the apex poiting upwards), the muscular
fibres running all transversely and nearly parallel to
one another; the second, JZ”, inferior, the fibres circular Po incnoeer Ge eee oN

dorsal ridge; 1/,1//, 1//, longitudinal muscles;

in direction and also approximately parallel among them- —4¢7, upper— avi, lower seament of the mus.
selves. From the examination of these sections it is evi- — fillenodt, xis diame 1° YO) Wich has
dent that Duvernoy’s description is very far from complete.

It is impossible to trace in the Chamaeleon, as could so readily be done in Ameiva,
the homologies with the snake’s tongue, from the mere comparison of transverse sections.
I therefore the more regret that I had no material to study the origin of muscles and the
structure of the hyoidean apparatus more accurately. It is also unfortunate that the
single tongue which I obtaimed was not sufficiently well preserved to permit making
sections thin enough for a proper histological examination. The large longitudinal and
circular muscles are, it may be conveniently asswmed in default of positive knowledge
homologous with the somewhat similar muscles of Ameiva and Ancistrodon. The dorsal
muscular ridge, and the remarkable central cylinder appear to be special adaptations
as is also the strangely constructed extension of the hyoid.

I hope that some European naturalist, more favorably circumstanced for obtaining
fresh material, will investigate the structure of this very singular and extremely
interesting tongue.

IV. Tue Toneurt or Mimus.

The tongue of MWimus, fig. 3, has the typical avian peculiarities. Its base is supported
by the hyoid and its cornu,—the free portion by the double entoglossum. The
general shape of the tongue is sufficiently shown in fig. 3, A, B. The two sections
represented in cuts 5 and 6, were taken approximately in the planes indicated
respectively by the lines 1 and 2, on fig. 3 B. The first section cut 5, is through the

16 MINOT ON THE TONGUE

basal portion, at the point where the cornu are just separating from the body of the
hyoid, the three forming a triangular central bone, Hy, which contains a number
of medullary cavities, filled with a peculiar tissue, which oc-
curs also in the other bones of the hyoidean apparatus. This
tissue consists of numerous large, clear spaces, separated from

pa < one another by thin partitions —I think each space must be

(| bo ate a large vesicular cell, for I can occasionally see a small nucleus
ay SZ as i A aes AAO 5 =

ay, eae. | lying against one of the partitions. The tissue is permeated

by numerous blood-vessels, which can be easily seen passing
in and out among the clear spaces (cells ?) of the tissue. The

epithelium is quite thick, with a well-developed corneous
eee othe Minus polugiottns; ‘erg, layer, and is thicker on the under, than on the upper,
ufos) Ly ee th dorsal (side. The break below is an accidental injury. In this
meee ie Peete part of the tongue there are only longitudinal muscles, the
large I’ above, and the small l’ below. Under the dorsal -epithelium is a layer of
conglobate glands, gl’, which open by short ducts directly upon the upper surface.
These glands, which are not mentioned by previous observers, are probably homol-
ogous with the glands on the back of the mammalian tongue. Laterally and ventrally,
are two long and tubular glands, gl", with follicular walls. They are oval in
section, have a rather small lumen and a fibrous tunica propria, which sends up partitions
between the follicles, which make the principal part of the walls of the glands. The fol-
licles are narrowest at their mouth, and widen towards the base, the height of the liming
cylinder epithelium increasing, but there is no marked separation of duct and gland in
the follicles. I first noticed these glands in sections, and cannot say where they open.
The epithelium of the tongue is moderately thick, and has a well developed corneous
layer, in which all trace of cellular structure has disappeared. Picrocarmine dyes the
corneous layer bright yellow, the mucous layer red. A large blood vessel V, lies under

the hyoid bone.

A section through the back part of the free flattened portion of the tongue, through
the m. transversus linguae, is figured in cut 6. The section is, roughly speaking, triangu-
lar, the broadest side corresponding to the upper sur-
face of the tongue. The epithelium is very much
thickened above, both the corneous and mucous lay-
ers having increased; the latter sends down rounded
papillae into the cutis. At the sides, the epithelium.
rapidly diminishes in height, becoming quite thin
underneath, where the corneous layer is not differ-
entiated. In the centre is the section of the basihyal,
Git. Minne ygetne, Trnerene section of Hy, and at the sides in the superior angles, the ento-
muscle, (cf. line 2, Fig. 3. B). x 29 diam. glossi, En. From these last arises the powerful trans-
verse muscle, running from one entoglossum to the other; its fibres curve downwards to
pass under the hyoid, with which it has no connection. The remainder of the section is
occupied by connective and vascular tissue. The free flattened portion of the tongue con-

tain no glands.

OF REPTILES AND BIRDS. 17

In a section nearer the tip, the transverse muscle is wanting, but there are a few longi-
tudinal fibres, which perhaps represent the lingualis muscle of snakes. The epithelium
of the upper surface is still more thickened, and its follicles longer than in the region of
the transverse muscle, cut 5.

The epithelium on the flattened or free portion of the tongue, consists, like the epithe-
lium on the tip of the tongue of Ancistrodon, of four distinct and quite sharply limited
layers, viz.:— 1, a basal row of columnar cells, upon which rests 2, a layer of polygonal
cells; 3, a stratum of cells, considerably flattened; 4, the corneous layer. The three
lower layers correspond to the mucosa of the round part of tongue.

V. CoNncLusion.

There are a few generalizations to be drawn from the preceding observations, but which
must be confirmed by further research, before they can be considered definitely estab-
lished. ‘This limitation applies to the following remarks.

The tongue is to be defined as a projection of the floor of the mouth, capable of inde-
pendent motion; with special intrinsic muscles; free in front; supported posteriorly by
the hydoidean apparatus, from which the principal longitudinal lingual muscles arise.

The tongue is supplied with three pairs of nerves; 1, the lingual, a branch of the fifth
pair or trigeminal, which runs above the longitudinal hyo-(cerato-)glossal muscles, and is
distributed to the tip of the tongue; 2, the glossopharyngeal, distributed to the mucous
membrane at the side of the base of the tongue, (but not supplying any of the muscles);
3, the hypoglossal, running to the cerato-glossal muscle, together with which it enters the
tongue.

The tongue is covered by a stratified epithelium, which is thinnest and simplest pos-
teriorly, but is thickened towards the tip, where it is further characterized in reptiles
birds and mammals, by two peculiarities, 1, the formation of epidermal papillae or fol-
licles, which project into the dermis; 2, the presence of enlarged transparent vesicular
nuclei, which might at the first glance of a microscopical examination, be readily taken
for the sections of vessels or gland ducts. The sense organs connected with the lingual
epithelium I have not studied.

The tongue may be roughly divided into three parts; 1, the base, which is supported
by the hyoidean apparatus, in snakes withdrawn behind the sheath and under the floor of
the mouth, in birds pushed well forward, but not including the free portion supported by
the entoglossum; 2, the middle or movable muscular portion, covered by a stratified epi-
thelium, but little differentiated, except when glands are developed, and perhaps at the
sides where the glossopharyngeus is distributed; 5, the tip, upon which the organs of
touch and taste are especially developed. These three parts might also be termed, from
the nerves, whose distribution respectively predominates in each part, the hypoglossal,
glossopharyngeal and lingual areas. The distinction is real, though not very definite, the
three regions having no precise boundaries.

18 MINOT ON THE TONGUE

VI. Summary.

I give a brief summary of the anatomy of the snake’s tongue. It is long and eylindri-
eal, tapering behind, forked in front. Its anterior portion can be retracted within a
sheath, which opens on the floor of the mouth in front of the glottis. The upper surface
upon the front half of the free part of the tongue, is somewhat expanded and flattened,
and is separated from the lower surface by a shallow longitudinal furrow, which faces
downwards. The epithelium of the mouth is continuous with that of the sheath and of
the tongue. The lingual epithelium is stratified and has a follicular structure on the ante-
rior part of the tongue, where it is also much thickened, and further characterized by con-
taining cells with peculiar clear nuclei. Upon the front half of the free segment of the
tongue, the epithelium is thickened along nine longitudinal lines, three dorsal, two on the
furrows, and two on each side below the furrows. The tongue receives three pairs of
nerves; the anterior, probably the lingualis trigemini, goes first to the sheath, in the
walls of which it runs backwards, being finally distributed to the (tip of the tongue);
the middle enters the attached portion of the tongue and is. distributed to the sides of
the tongue (?); the third pair, the hypoglossals, enters at the posterior extremity of the
tongue, and send, each, a larger branch forwards in the midst of the ceratoglossus muscle
within the tongue, and a smaller branch backwards along the outside of the same muscles.
The muscles of the tongue are five, three single, and two paired, of which one pair only,
the ceratoglossi, arise extrinsically. The ceratoglossi take their origin from the posterior
ends of the hyoid cornu, run straight forward into and through the body of the tongue
along the under half, and enter the tips. There is a dorsal longitudinal muscle, the lin-
gualis, confined to the free part of the tongue. A median verticalis divides the tongue
into symmetrical halves, right and left. There are three transverse muscles, one supe-
rior lying above the ceratoglossi, and, in the free part of the tongue, below the lingualis.
The transversi inferiores may be considered parts of one muscle. The transverse muscles
and the vertical are all distinctly separated in the posterior part of their tongue, but
anteriorly their fibres interlace in a very complicated manner. All the muscles are united
to form the fleshy core of the tongue, and are encased in a common fascia. At the fork,
the core also divides to furnish a core for each tip. The muscular core is separated from
the epithelium of the tongue by highly vascular adenoid tissue. Two nerves lie in the
midst of the muscles, the hypoglossus in the ceratoglossus, the lingualis (?) in the trans-
versus superior. The third nerve, the glossopharyngeus (?), lies in the adenoid tissue at
the side of the core.

The tongue of Ameiva closely resembles that of the snakes, being forked in front; it
differs principally in having scales above, and two peculiar scales underneath, at the base
of each tip. Its upper surface is expanded and separated from the lower surface by a
longitudinal furrow. In sections the muscles are seen to be precisely the same in num-
ber and general disposition as in corresponding sections from the snake, the differences
being only of proportions and in details. (Cf. figs. 8 and 12.)

The tongue of the Chamaeleon is constructed upon another type altogether, and its
muscles cannot at present be homologized with those of Ancistrodon and Ameiva. There
are three pairs of longitudinal muscles, one pair resembling the transversi inferiores of

OF REPTILES AND BIRDS. 19

snakes; there is a peculiar dorsal ridge upon the front part of the tongue, which Duver-
noy considered glandular, but really it is composed of two sets of muscular fibres.
Around the rod-like extension of the hyoid there is a muscular cylinder composed of two
distinct sets of radiating fibres, the very extraordinary arrangement which I endeavored
to render clear by word and drawing, (pp. 14-15).

In Mimus the posterior and anterior parts of the tongue are distinguished by pecu-
liarities in the epithelium, similar to those observed in snakes, but the bird is distinguished
by the glands on the back portion of the tongue, numerous small conglobate ones above,
two large tubular ones below. The bones and muscles conform to a third distinct type,
and were correctly described by Duvernoy.

LITERATURE.

I. Benpz,H. Bidrag til den sammenlignende anatomie af nervus glossopharyngeus, vagus, acces-
sorius willisii og hypoglossus, hos Reptilierne. K. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Afh. x (1843) 113-152.
Tab. 1x.
Cuvier, G. See VIII Duvernoy.
II. Desmoutrys. Anatomie du Systéme nerveux des animaux 4 vertébres. Paris, 1825.
Ul. Duers, Anr. Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur la déglutition dans les reptiles. Ann.
Sci. Nat., xm. (1827) 337-395 Pl, xiv.
IV. Dvumerm, Aveuste et Jacguart, Henri. Mémoire sur la Déglutition chez les Ophidiens. Robin.
Journ. de Anat. et Physiol. m (1865) 56-71, Pl. xx—xx1.
V. Duvernoy, G. L. De la langue considérée comme organe de préhension des alimens. Mém. Soc.
VHist. Nat. Strassbourg, 1 (1830). Mémoire F. de la premiére livraison, pagination separée
1-20, avec 5 planches.

VI. , Mémoire sur quelques particularités des organes de la déglutition de la classe des Oiseaux
et des Reptiles. Mém. Soc. d’Hist Nat., Strassbourg, m (1832), paginat. separ. 1-24. Pl. -v.
VII. , Mémoire sur les caractéres tirés de Panatomie pour distinguer les serpens venimeaux des
serpens non venimeaux. Ann. Sci. Nat., xxvi, (1832), 113-157. Pl. v—x.
Vill , Legons @anatomie comparée de Georges Cuvier,2me Ed., Tome ty, Ire Partie. Paris, 1835

De lHyoide et de ses muscles. p. 451-548. :
De la langue considerée comme organe mobile. p. 548-593.
IX. HEN tg, . Vergleichend-anatomische Beschreibung des Kehlkopfes. Leipzig, 1839.
X. Hesse, Fr. Ueber die Muskeln der menschlichen Zunge. Zeitschr. f. Anat. Entwges. 1. (Leip-
zig, 1876) 80-106. Taf. mtv.
XI. Hovusron, Jonx. On the structure and mechanism of the tongue of the Chameleon, Edinb, New
Phil. Journ., vi (1829), 161-177. 1 plate.
Jacquart, Henri1,—see Duméril, Auguste.
XII. Mivarr. On the myology of Chamaeleon parsonii. Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1870. p. 850.
XIII. Perravir. Mémoires pour servir & Vhistoire naturelle des animeaux. Premiére Partie. Conte-
nant :— Description anatomiqne de trois chamaeleons, p. 34-68. avec Pl. v, v1, (la langue p. 57.)
Mém. Acad. R. Sci., m1. Ire partie (1733).
XIV. Verrer, Bensamin. Untersuchungen zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Kiemen- und Kiefer-mus-
culatur der Fische. Jena. Zeitschr. f. Nat. wiss., vat (1874), 405-458. Taf. xrv—xv.
: . Dasselbe. Zweiter Theil im Bd. xu, (1878) 481-550. Taf. x1—xty.
XVI. Voer, C. Beitriige zur neurologie der Reptilien. Neuchatel, 1840.
XVII. Weser, EK. H. Anatomia comparata nervi sympathici. Lipsiae, 1817.

20 MINOT ON THE TONGUE OF REPTILES AND BIRDS.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

The figures are all taken from Ancistrodon piscivorus, excepting Figs. 1, 2,3 and 12. The magnifica-
tion, when the figures are not natural size, is given on the plate itself. The outlines of all the drawings
taken from microscopical preparations, were made with the camera lucida. The minuter details were orig-
inally not drawn with entire accuracy. In the lithograph the minuteness and finish of the original draw-
ings is lost, and the figures are not faithful except in their gross effect.

Fig. 1. Crotalus durisus. Tongue and its sheath, seen from the dorsal surface, the floor of the mouth
having been removed except around the opening of the sheath, m, out of which, projects the forked extrem-
ity of the tongue; @, point where the sheath and the tongue unite. A, B, C, first, second and third pairs of
lingual nerves, each nerve is accompanied by connective tissue and an artery; Hy, hyoid cartilage.

Fig. 2. Dorsal view of the tongue of Chamaeleon dilepis, retracted.

Fig. 3. Mimus polyglottus. Tongue. A, dorsal — B, lateral view.

All the remaining figures, except fig. 12, are from Ancistrodon.

=r)

.4, Enlarged view of part of the nerve B, in fig. 5.

. 10. Section taken a little in front of the entrance of the hypoglossal nerve, fig. 1, C, into the tongue.
*. 11, Section some distance behind the entrance of the hypoglossal nerve into the tongue (fig. 1. C).

Fig

Fig. 5. Section through the base of tip.

Fig. 6. Section just behind the fork.

Fig. 7. Section through the anterior portion of the free segment of the tongue.
Fig. 8. Section through the middle of the free segment.

Fig. 9. Section a short distance in front of the point of attachment.

Fig

Fig

—

N.B. Figs. 5-9 are through an extended, figs. 10-11 through a retracted tongue. The levels at which the
sections represented in figs. 7-11, were taken, are approximately indicated by the numbered transverse lines
in fig. 7.

Fig. 12. Ameiva surinamensis. Transverse section through the middle of the free part of the tongue; to
compare with fig. 8.

Fig. 13. Transverse section of the wall of a lingual artery, to show the lining endothelium, ep.

Fig. 14. Epithelium near the fork of the tongue.

Fig. 15. Epithelium from the base of one of the tips.

EXPLANATION OF THE LETTERING ON THE PLATE.

a. Point where the tongue and sheath unite. fs Furrow.

A, Anterior lingual nerve. Ty. Hyoid cartilage.

B. Middle lingual nerve. lm. Lingualis.

C. Posterior lingual nerve, the hypoglossus. m. Opening of the lingual sheath.
C’ Anterior lingual branch of the hypoglossus. TP, Tunica propria.

C” — Posterior lingual branch of the hypoglossus. tr.i.m. Transversus inferioris.

C. gl. Ceratoglossal muscle. tr.sm. Transversus superioris.

Ep. Epithelium. v. Verticalis.

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STRUCTURE OF THE TONGUE IN REPTILES.
|

1830, ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY, 1880,

ON THE IDENTITY

OF THE

ASCENDING PROCESS OF THE ASTRAGALUS IN BIRDS

WITH THE INTERMEDIUM.

BY EDWARD 8. MORSE,

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

On THE IDENTITY OF THE ASCENDING PROCESS OF THE ASTRAGALUS IN BIRDS WITH
THE INTERMEDIUM. By Epwarp S. Morsz.

FROM the time that Hermann Von Meyer, fifty years ago, first recognized that the
Triassic reptiles had characters which removed them widely from living forms, anato-
mists and palaeontologists have been diligently at work defining with greater exactness
the anatomical features of these early animals. The results of these labors have been to
increase the distinctions between these forms and their supposed living representatives,
and to erect for some of them new orders in the old class of Reptiles. Nor has this been
the only result; through Professor Cope’s (1, 2,3) studies of the Dinosaurs of the Greensand
of New Jersey, avian affinities were pointed out which were subsequently and independently
confirmed by Professor Huxley (4, 5).

With the gradual unfolding of these features, the unquestionable reptilian character of
the group with its unmistakable avian pelvis and hind limb became evident.

The birds whose affinities with other classes had been so obscure as to have caused
them to be designated as a closed type, became better understood ; for the key to their
mysterious affinities was found in the rocks of the Mezozoic age, and in the transient
features of their own embryos.

With the closer approximation of the Reptiles and Birds by Huxley, under the greater
division Sauropsida, our only wonder is that relationships so plain had never before been
recognized. Gegenbaur’s (6) determination of the more important elements of the tarsus
in Birds, and the rapid growth of our knowledge of the Dinosaurians through the labors
of Leidy, Cope, Marsh and Huxley, have gradually strengthened the conviction that
among the Dinosaurs, or closely related forms, we were to look for the progenitors of the
present birds.

Professor H. G. Seeley (7), in a lecture on the Dinosauria, delivered before the Scientific
Club of Vienna, while admitting for them a few avian characters, considers that some
relations have been overrated, and that the avian affinities of the Dinosaurians were not
so strong as had been supposed. It seems to me, however, that he does not give sufficient
importance to the fact that some of these relations have been based on the characters
presented by birds in an advanced stage of embryonic growth, that is to say in embryos
so far advanced, that all the leading avian features had been established.

While Professor Seeley admits certain avian characters in the hind limbs of some
Dinosaurians, he says that they are limited to two points: “ First, the development of a
strong anterior crest, which is directed forward and outward, so as to extend in front of

4 EDWARD 8S. MORSE ON

the fibula, is a Dinosaurian character met with to some extent among birds, but quite as
well marked in mammals. Secondly, the shape of the distal end of the bone is birdlike ;
but that form is found in no adult bird, and is only to be detected in the young
bird before the tarsus had become blended with it, so that while it might go to show,
perhaps, that birds are descended from a common stock with Dinosaurs, it would be
misleading to regard it as altogether avian, since the character is lost in the adult bird’s
skeleton” (page 57). And furthermore, he says, “ But when the tarsus, or rather, the
astragalus, is closely applied to the tibia, as in Megalosaurus, Poecilopleuron, Laelaps,
or Iguanodon, it gives the bone a resemblance to the birds which is almost convincing,
since the parallel extends to nearly every detail. The character, however, is shorn of
much of its importance, when we remember that there are many Dinosaurs in which
there is an os calcis, or heel-bone, placed side by side with the astragalus.”

Professor Seeley is aware that in Laelaps the hour-glass shaped tarsal bone represents
the os calcis and astragalus connate ; also that Prof. Cope shows that these two bones are
ankylosed in Ornithotarsus.

The memoir of Gegenbaur on the Tarsus and Carpus of Birds had, for the moment,
probably escaped the attention of Prof. Seeley. In this contribution of Gegenbaur’s the
separation of the tarsal portion into two bones, the upper and under tarsal bone, is clearly
pointed out. Furthermore, Gegenbaur shows two centres of ossification in the upper,
or proximal bone, which he rightly infers to represent the tibiale and fibulare (these
names are used in preference to those of astragalus and os calcis, as better defining the
relations existing between them and the tibia and fibula). These demonstrations were
based on an examination of the chick at a late stage of embryonic growth.

In my memoir (8), on the Tarsus and Carpus of Birds, I not only fully confirmed
the observations of Gegenbaur, but showed the absolute separation of these two
elements as tibiale and fibulare, based on an examination of a number of species of birds
at an earlier stage than those examined by Gegenbaur. Figures of these were also given,
showing the fibula, with the same length as the tibia, and nearly approximating to the
fibulare.

While preparing the memoir above alluded to, Prof. Wyman kindly sent me some
observations of his on the tarsus of the embryo Heron, which he generously allowed me
to incorporate with my paper. Briefly, these consisted in his finding a long style-
shaped bone, broadest at its distal extremity, lying in front, and at the distal end of the
tibia, which he believed to represent the so-called ascending process of the astragalus,
but which was shown to have an independent centre of ossification in the embryo, and
to remain free from the other tarsal bones till the young had left the egg; when
it appeared attached to the coéssified tibiale and fibulare, and presented the appearance
not unlike that shown by Huxley in the young ostrich.

My interpretation at the time was that this new tarsal bone represented the inter-
medium, a tarsal bone which is clearly seen in the salamanders as océupying a position
between the tibia and fibula, and indeed with half its length forced up, as it were, between
these two bones.

I have previously shown that as the proximal series of tarsal bones became united, the
fibula diminished in size proportionally with the rapid increase of the tibia, and became

THE INTERMEDIUM IN BIRDS. 5

finally a splint bone, with its attenuated distal extremity far removed from the tarsus; the
tibia on the contrary, enlarging, so that its distal extremity equalled in transverse
diameter the two tarsal bones, which formed a cap on the end of the tibia, like an
epiphysis, and finally became merged with it. The intermedium, while occupying its
proper position between the tibiale and fibulare, and finally uniting with them, became
apparently displaced, so to speak, by standing in front of the tibia.

This could be stated at the time with certainty: Namely, that the ascending pro-
cess of the astragalus was an independent bone, which finally united with the proxi-
mal series of tarsal bones, and that a similar process in the young chick and ostrich, as
figured by Huxley, and a similar spur or process as seen in the astragalus of Laelaps and
some other Dinosaurs, was to be looked upon as of the same nature.

To prove the correctness of this interpretation as to whether this bone was the inter-
medium, it was necessary to examine the early embryo, and to find, if possible, the bone
occupying its true position in the tarsal series, and between the distal extremity of the
tibia and fibula.

Believing that low aquatic birds would more readily yield these evidences, a visit was
made to Grand Menan, at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, and at that place were
obtained the embryos of the razorbill auk, eider duck, sea pigeon, herring gull and
petrel.

At Penikese Island in Buzzard’s Bay, an opportunity was offered of examining the
embryos of the tern. Through the courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, I had the
gratification of examining embryos of the southern black-backed gull, and the large
penguin collected by Dr. Kidder at Kerguelen Island, during the U.S. Transit of Venus
Expedition, and the results of these examinations were communicated verbally at the
meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1874 (9) and
1875.

With the hope of making these observations more complete, their publication was
withheld at the time. Finding the opportunity of studying other aquatic birds still
uncertain, these results, slight though they may be, are given.

The accompanying plate presents in outline the tarsal joint of the following birds:
The common Tern, Sterna hirundo ; Petrel, Procellaria pelagica; Eider Duck, Somateria
mollissima; Sea Pigeon, Uria grylle; Common Guillemot, Lomvia troile; Herring Gull,
Larus argentatus ; Razor bill Auk, Utamania torda; Southern black backed Gull, Larus
dominicanus, and Great Auk, Aptenodytes Pennanti.

An additional figure is added of the right hand limb of the Sea-pigeon, as it shows the
appearance of rudimentary nails on the second and third fingers.

In the figures of Sterna hirundo, figs.1-4), different stages of the tarsus are represented.
Fig. 1 shows the intermedium distinctly wedged between the tibia and fibula, with
its distal end in line with the distal margins of the tibiale and fibulare. The centrale
is still small. In a later stage, as represented in figs. 2, 3, and 4, the tibia has widened
considerably, though the tibiale and fibulare have not yet united. The intermedium
now appears in front of the tibia, though still on a line with the tibiale. The separation
of the distal end of the fibula and its tarsal bone has increased. The centrale has
slightly increased in size. In fig. 2, the tibiale and fibulare have coalesced. The

6 EDWARD 8. MORSE ON

intermedium has been crowded out and up, so that its distal end is on a line with
the proximal margin of the tibiale and fibulare. The centrale has increased in size
so that its transverse diameter is equal to that of the three metatarsals, to which it finally
becomes attached at a later stage.

In the Petrel, Procellaria pelagica, fig. 5, a stage is represented, similar to that
of the Tern, fig. 2. A new tarsal bone appears (indicated on the plate with a
question mark), corresponding to the rudimentary first toe. This bone was clearly defined
in both legs. In appearance it looks like the proximal end of the first metatarsal bone,
with its corresponding tarsal. In only one other bird has a bone at all resembling
this been seen, and that is shown in the figure of the Eider Duck (fig. 8, indicated
by a query mark). In this case it appears like a second tarsale. In both cases this
bone appears on the tibial side of the leg. It will be unsafe to hazard a conjecture
as to what this bone represents, without further examination of other species.

In the Sea Pigeon, Uria grylle, the intermedium is a prominent, wedge-shaped bone,
and quite separate from the other tarsal bones, though the embryo was. far advanced.
Its large size is interesting im connection with the fact that the fore limb shows
conspicuous rudimentary nails on the second and third fingers. (See figs. 11, 12.)

In fig. 8, the tarsus and a portion of the other bones of the leg of the Eider Duck,
Somateria mollissima, are represented. In this embryo the intermedium was clearly seen
between the tibia and fibula, the tibiale and fibulare being widely separated.

In the Herring Gull, Larus argentatus, the intermedium is not large, the near tarsal
bones are about uniting, yet the intermedium is still free, and somewhat removed from
them.

In the Southern Black backed-Gull, Larus dominicanus, the intermedium is in nearly
the same condition. In the Great Auk, Aptenodytes Pennunti; the appearance of the
very short metatarsal bones, and the short square phalangeal bones, is extremely inter-
esting. The embryo was far advanced, as indicated by the long and prominent claws
tipping the toes. Yet the bones composing the foot are very rudimentary.
~ The embryo of this species, and also that of the Southern Black-backed Gull, had been
preserved in strong alcohol for several years, and the cartilaginous portion of the tarsus
was so opaque that nothing definite could be made out in regard to the other tarsal bones.
The intermedium, however, in both species, was very distinct.

From these observations it is seen that the intermedium is present in embryo birds as a
distinct tarsal bone; that at first it is in line with the near tarsal series, that is to say
with the tibiale and fibulare, and also between these two bones, and consequently
between the distal extremities of the distal ends of the tibia and fibula. As the tibiale
and fibulare coalesce, the intermedium is crowded outward and upward, the tibia widening
at the same time to an extent equal to the transverse diameter of the near tarsal series ;
the intermedium occupies a position in front of the tibia, and fills a groove which is seen
on the anterior face of the tibia. It is seen, furthermore, that the intermedium is the
last bone to unite with the codssified tibiale and fibulare.

The intermedium varies greatly in size in the embryos of different species. It will
probably be found of more common occurrence among the lower birds.

THE INTERMEDIUM IN BIRDS. 7

In young birds of certain species it is seen as an ascending spur occupying the fossa on
the lower anterior face of the tibia. In mature birds, as far as I have discovered, it
becomes absorbed.

The wide, oblique, tendon-like bridge, which spans the fossa in the heron and many
other birds, has no relation with the intermedium.

In Laelaps and some other Dinosaurian Reptiles, this bone is seen as an ascending spur
of the codssified tibiale and fibulare. In Ornithotarsus, as figured by Professor Cope, an
appearance of the tarsus is represented, which is not unlike that shown in the early
stages of the Tern. See plate, fig. 1.

It is possible that the intermedium in Ornithotarsus was a separate bone, and that it has
been lost in the fossil, as a distinct grove or fossa is seen on the lower anterior face of
the tibia, while no corresponding spur is seen on the tibiale, a slight elevation only being
discernible.

Professor Marsh (10), in a paper on the Limbs of Sauranodon, an animal related to
Ichthyosaurus, has presented some novel views in regard to the homologies of the
intermedium.

The fore limb is there figured with the femur of the usual character. Its distal face
having, however, three articular surfaces, to which are applied three bones in the shape
of irregular formed disks; these he interprets as tibia, intermedium and fibula.

He suggests that the imtermedium belongs to the epipodial, or second series of bones
represented by the radius and ulna, and tibia and fibula, and that in the process of differ-
entiation the intermedium has been crowded down into the mesopodial or first series of
tarsal bones.

My interpretation, based on the admirable figure he presented, would be that the bone
which he indicates as the intermedium is really the fibula, and the bone which he repre-
sents as the fibula, is an outer tarsal bone, which, with its metatarsal and phalangeal
bone in series becomes obliterated in time; that in the process of differentiation the
intermedium is as likely to be partially compassed by the distal extremities of the tibia
and fibula, as that a third bone of this segment had been crowded down into the tarsal
series. However this may be, Professor Marsh has discovered a most interesting stage in
this highly primitive condition of the bones as shown in Sauranodon.

In the following outlines, figures are presented of a portion of the leg of a salamander,
a number of embryo birds, young birds, and Dinosaurian reptiles. These are given in
series, so that a comparison may be made between the different stages of the inter-
medium in each of these forms. In the first series, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, the intermedium
is seen as a separate bone. In the second series the intermedium has united with the
other tarsal bones and assumes the appearance which has been described as the ascending
process of the astragalus. In the third series a similar condition is seen.

For explanation of lettering, see explanation of plate. The lettering being the same
with the exception that ¢f indicates the tibiale and fibulare connate.

8 EDWARD S. MORSE ON

ApuLT SALAMANDER AND Empryo Brirps.

f Al fl “Lan fit iv
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Salamander. Tern. Sea Pidgeon. Blue Heron.

Fig. 1. Fore leg of Salamandra maculosa, showing the intermedium, i, in its position
between the distal ends of the tibia and fibula.

Fig. 2. Portion of leg of common Tern from an embryo, showing the appearance of
the intermedium between the distal ends of the tibia and fibula.

Fig. 3. Portion of leg of the Sea Pigeon from an embryo with the intermedium in
front of the tibia, from the widening of the tibia so as to compass in width the tarsal
bones.

Fig. 4. Distal extremity of the tibia of the Blue Heron from an advanced embryo.
In this figure only the intermedium is shown. Its distal end had not yet codssified with
the other tarsal bones.

Youne Birps.

T
8
Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 9.
a —— =" Young Blue Heron.
Young Ostrich. Young Fowl.

Figs. 5 and 6. Front and side views of the distal end of the tibia and tarsus of a
young ostrich. From a figure of Professor Huxley’s in Quarterly Journ. Geological Soc.,
above referred to. These figures show the tarsal bones including the intermedium
ankylosed together; the intermedium appearing as an ascending spur or process of the
other tarsal bones.

Figs. 7 and 8. Front and side views of the distal end of tibia and tarsus of a young
fowl, from Huxley’s Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, p. 253, fig. 88. The condition
and general appearance are the same as in the figures of the young ostrich.

THE INTERMEDIUM IN BIRDS. 9

Fig. 9. Side view of the distal end of tibia and tarsus of a young Blue Heron.
The intermedium, as in the case of the young Ostrich and young fowl, has the appearance
of an ascending spur from the other tarsal bones.

DinosavurRiAN REprTicEs.

T
wlll
|!
tf
Fig. 11. Fig. 12.
Ornithotarsus. The “ Honfleur Reptile.” Laelaps.

Fig. 10. Distal extremities of the tibia and fibula of Ornithotarsus, after Cope’s figure
in Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. xtv, fig. 55, page 122. The tibiale and fibulare are
codssified. Whether the intermedium is represented by the enlargement of the tibiale
in front, or was a separate bone which occupied the fossa on the anterior face of the tibia,
is a matter of doubt. Ornithotarsus certainly presents a number of features that warrants
its name.

Fig. 11. Distal end of tibia and tarsus of the “ Honfleur Reptile,’ reduced from a
figure in Cuvier’s Ossemens Fossiles, described by Cuvier under the general head of
Megalosaurus, without identification, afterwards named by Cope Laelaps gallicus. The
intermedium is seen as a blunt portion ascending from the other tarsal bones.

Fig. 12. Distal end of tibia and tarsal bones of Laelaps; side view. Reduced from
Cope’s figure in Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. xiv., plate 9. In this figure the intermedium
is again seen as a long ascending spur in front of the tibia, but the codssified tibiale and
fibulare occupy a far different position in relation to the distal articular face of the tibia
from what is seen in birds.

WORKS REFERRED TO.

1. On the Anomalous Relations existing between the Tibia and Fibula in certain of the Dinosauria as
illustrated by the genus Laelaps. Prof. Cope. Proce. Philad. Acad. of Sciences, Dec. 1866, p. 317.

2. An Account of the Extinct Reptiles which approach the Birds. Prof. Cope. Proc. of the Philad.
Acad. of Sciences, Dec. 1867, p. 234.

3. Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia, Reptilia and Aves of North America. Prof. Cope. Transactions
of the American Philosophical Society, read Sept. 18, 1868, and April 2, 1869.

10 MORSE ON THE INTERMEDIUM IN BIRDS.

4, On the Animals which are most Intermediate between Birds and Reptiles. Prof. Huxley. The
Popular Science Review, No. xxvu, p. 237; being a Lecture delivered before the Royal Institution, Feb. 7-
1868.

5. Further Evidence of the Affinity between the Dinosaurian Reptiles and Birds. Prof. Huxley.
Quart. Journ. Geological Soe. of London. Vol. xxvr. 1870.

6. Untersuchungen zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbeltheire. Erstes Heft; Carpus und Tarsus.
Prof. Gegenbaur. Leipzig, 1864.

7. The Dinosauria. Prof. Seeley. The Popular Science Review, Jan. 1880, p. 44; being originally a
Lecture delivered at the Scientific Club at Vienna, on the 19th of April, 1879.

8. On the Tarsus and Carpus of Birds. E.S. Morse. Annals of the Lyceum of Nat. Hist. N. Y., vol. 10
Art. vir. Read Jan. 29, 1872. -

9. On the Ascending Process of the Astragalus in Birds. E.§. Morse. Meeting of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science. Hartford, 1874.

10. On the Limbs of Sauranodon. Prof. Marsh. American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xix,
Feb. 1880.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Portion of left leg of embryo Tern.

Fig. Os 6c i. 1 rn | sd “c 6c

Fig. 3. “ (ee ee ee 6c 6é

Fig. 4, “c [1 ee | 3 “c 4

Fig. 5. Portion of right leg of embryo Petrel.

Fig. 6. Be NG Sea Pigeon.

Fig. 7. ce Ge Go © Herring Gull.

Fig. 8. Be Be oo © Kider Duck.

Fig. 9. CoG ae Southern black-back Gull.
Fig. 10 C5 me BG Gs ee Penguin.

Bic: 11. « « right wing of embryo Sea Pigeon,

Fig. 12. ah ay ae BG oo: Gs ce sc third finger more enlarged.

EXPLANATION OF LETTERS.
Fe, femur; 7, tibia; #, fibula; ¢, tibiale; f fibulare; Z, intermedium; c, centrale; ? tarsal bone of the
second series? U,ulna; &, radius; wu, ulnare; 7, radiale; 3, 4, third and fourth carpal bones; I, II, III, IV,
metacarpals.

a

;

i om BL
=
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A) 5

eae

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7 t
ie
(ons

oa
ear ea
a ce }

ee eee,

as)

THE INTERMEDIUM IN BIRDS.

1830. ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1880.

NOTES ON

THE CRANIA OF NEW ENGLAND INDIANS.

T(" ‘ Ip
By LUCIEN CARR,
ASSISTANT CURATOR, PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY,
CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

4 CARR ON THE CRANIA

This similarity in language, appearance and customs, justifies the treatment of the collec-
tion of crania under consideration as a whole, even if a line of demarcation could be
established among them by which it would be possible to assign any special form of skull
to a particular tribe; but this cannot be done. The number of crania from any given

TABLE I. CraniaA oF New ENGLAND INDIANS. MAtss.
8 Pa ea besos. te fail eel oie oi [Ee ee eos Z
Z & | S| 6 | 8 | 85 | B2| a |] a | a7 (SelB | Selec les| 68/ Ee] Fé
1 1393 | 170 | 1438 841 18% J
2 1335 | 184 | 130 | 126 | .707 | .684 | LOO | 106 |1.06 | 52 | 30 | .57 | 39 | 84] .87] 97 cs
3 1325 | 174] 184] 141] .770| .810] 104] 98] .94]52] 30] 57/39] 387] .94] 92 «“
4 1475 | 172 | 188 | 137 | .802 |..767 | 100 | 98] .98] 51} 27| .52| 40) 37) .92] 98 %
5 1375 | 178 | 140 | 141] .787 | .792] 96] 98 |1.02 | 52] 25] .48] 39] 38] .97] 98 “
6 1370 | 170 | 134 | 184 | .788|.788| 96) 94] .97 | 54] 26] .48 | 39] 388] .97] 100 us
7 186 | 146 | 180 | .785 | .699 | 99} 97] .98 39 | 3 .92| 96 GS
8 186 | 142 | 148 | .763 | .796 | 108} 106] .98 41/37] .90} 95 ut
9 1595 | 194 | 142 | 141 | .732 | .727| 110 | 101] .91 | 53 | 25 | .47 101] Mass
10 1610 | 192 | 187 | 140 | .714 | .729 | 112 | 102 | -.91 | 55 | 25) .45 | 41) 37] .90] 96 “
11 188 | 187 | 183 | .729|.707 | 108 | 106] .98| 50 | 26] .52 | 42} 36] .85!| 100 «“
12 196 | 135 | 142] .689 | .719 52|26].50/ 41/34] .82] 92 “
13 178 | 141 | 1380| .792 | .730 es
14 1435 | 186 | 133 | 185 | .715 | .726 | 106 | 104| .98 | 52) 26] 50] 41 | 84) .82}] 92 ce
15 168 | 182 | 142 | .786 | .845 66
16 1690 | 187 | 144 | 142 | .774 | .763 o7 | 26') .45'| 41 || 42) |1.02)| 99 Gb
17 LOZ ONG) | LIS ABQ SDT oO OT OON Ose ol bn AON SHS 2s eso Ke
18 1520 | 174 | 188 | 144 | .793 | .828 | 104) 99) .95)53 | 24) .45| 48) 34) .79| 97 we
19 1450 | 178 | 183 | 142 | .747]| .798 | 118] 108] .95|54| 26] .48|44]36] .81 “
20 1280 | 171 | 134] 180] .784|.760] « 52 | 292] .42| 41 | 34] .82 “
21 178 | 144 | 140] .809] .787/ 105] 101] .96| 52/28) .53] 41| 35] .85 “
22 1390 | 178 | 140 | 133 | .787 | .747 | 100 | 106 |1.06 | 50 | 26 | .52 | 37 | 32| .86 «“
93 181 | 133 | 188 | .735 | .762}105) 93] .88)| 51 | 25] .49| 42) 36] .85 “
24 1660 | 181 | 144 | 140 | .796 | .773 | 110 | 100] .90| 55 | 33 | .60°| 42 | 35 | .838 “
25 1490 | 176 | 140 | 142 | .795 | .807 | 110] 105] .95 | 55] 30] .54 92 ca
26 170 | 146 | 154 | .859 | .906| 107] 98} .91] 55 | 25) .45|388) 34] .89] 91 oe
27 173 | 183 | 186 | .769 | .786 | 103 | 97] .94)] 53] 26] .49| 389) 36) .92] 94 &
28 1220) 273") 184) 130) e775 rol 41 | 33] .80] 90 &
29 1485 | 186 |} 131 | 189 | .704| .741| 98] 94] .95| 53] 27) .50)40)37) .92)| 97 ce
30 1320 | 182 | 136 | 180 | .747 | .714 | 107 | 104] .97 | 57 | 30| .52| 41] 35] .85| 108] Maine.
31 1375 | 187 | 140 | 189 | .749 | .7438 49 | 23 | .46|39|35)] .89| 94 a
32 1271 | 181 | 134 740 90 «“
33 1310 | 170 | 129] 188] .759| .812] 98] 91] .92/ 47] 24] .51] 40] 34] .85}] 91 “
3o4 1470 | 194 | 134] 188 | .691 | .711 | 110 | 100 |. .90 | 57 | 23 | .40 95 cc
35 1325 | 173 | 142 | 182 | .821 | .763 39 | 39 |1.00 Conn.
36 1440 | 172 | 142 | 142 | .896 | .826/ 105/100] .95]| 54) 26) .48/ 39) 36) .92] 91 ce
37 186 | 140 noo &
38 1920 | 194 | 162 | 140 | .835 | .722 Vermont.
Average | 1436 | 180 | 138 | 137 | .767 | .761 | 104] 100} .96 | 53 | 26| .49| 40/35] .88| 95
Maximum | 1920 | 196 | 162 | 154 | .859 | .906 | 113 | 108 |1.06 | 57 | 30 | .60 | 44 | 42 |1.02 | 108
Minimum | 1220 | 168 | 129 | 126 | .689 | .684| 96] 92] .88| 49] 22] .40| 37] 32) .79| 90
Range 700 | 28} 38| 28) .170|.222| 17] 16| .18| 8| 8].20) 7] 10| .23] 18

place is too small to enable us to set up a standard by which to judge the others, and even
if it were not so, the historical evidence of admixture between the different tribes is too
plain to admit.of any sweeping generalizations. Indeed, if we bear in mind the roving

1In these measurements the metric system is used, capacity being given in cubic centimeters, and length ete., in millimeters.

OF NEW ENGLAND INDIANS. 5

habits of the Indians, the proximity to each other of the village sites’ even of the differ-
ent tribes, and then consider how frail was the tie that bound the savage to his Sachem,’
it will at once be seen that such a state of affairs must have existed as would make it un-
safe to say of any particular cranium that it belonged to a member of this or that tribe.

TaBLeE II. CrAniA oF New ENGLAND INDIANS. FEMALES.
: eee eres (eel rer || pcs Foes Ce ee een Pena
2 Sel | Sie | eee |) Stren SS |S gulsa las | 83 MBS| gs
5 & § 2 o | vs 38 : ass 2g/=S)ou | £e [es] £2
A Ss) = 2) m | 85 Si || ee |hSi Pes l =e fd s= BSI (NK ta === [==
1 1260 | 168 | 128 | 142 | .762| .845 | 101 | 104/1.03) 5 .54| 39 | 39 | 1.00] 95 | Mass.
2 L20ON 72) || 1265) 0300) ares | 3756) 100) 100 1 200-58 .48 | 39 | 34 .87 | 88 ce
3 1AD5 etal | WS 1325) .8OL | 2772) 102) 95) 293')5 55)5) |) B30 33 1.05} 94 re
4 WAAR MSD On) ein) LOS | LODE y 99) 54 46 | 42 | 40 .95 “
5 1310 | 181 | 180 | 182 | .718| .729| 99] 92 .92 | 46 541 41 | 33 .80 =
6 1380 | 174 | 184 | 129 | .770| .741 | 103 | 1041.01 | 51 AQ) 41 | 35 85 ne
7 1390 | 180 | 131 | 184) .728| .744 | 101 | 102 | 1.01 | 46 54| 40 | 35 87 ; &¢
8 1450 | 178 | 134 1386 | .753 | .764|) 99/101] 1.02 | 4¢ 53 | 39.| 37 94) 94 oe
9 52 48 | 39 | 3 .92| 89 | «
10 181 | 128 . 107 45 51) 36 | 34 94) 93 a
11 IGS MA LBS LOOM iio dole “O8nl 96s) 98ukb2, AA | 3% | 89 94] 84 6c
12 1268 | 180 | 1388 | 186] .767 | .756 51 52| 39 | 38 .97 | 92 =
13 178 | 129 5a) 51 SHDN at, || G4: .91 |) 92 O:
14 1250 | 174 | 126 | 184] .724] .770 | 102 | 106| 1.038 40 | 35 .87 | 87 G3
15 1265 | 172 | 128} 188 | .744] .802 58 | 25 |.47| 37 | 35 94} 91 ce
16 12057) 172) 128 144 109 | 102] .93/|53)| 26 |.49] 38 | 33 86 | 88 cr
17 1255 | 170 | 135 | 129| .794|] .759] 99) 96] .97| 56} 25 |.44) 42 | 36 85 | 94 | Maine.
18 1182 | 174 | 182 | 126) .759 | .724/104/105)1.01 | 50| 26 |.52| 38 | 33 86} 95 ce
19 187 | 127 | 130 |..679 | .695 | 108 | 108 | 1.00 | 52 | 22 |.42] 38 | 36 94 | 92 | Mass.
20 1425 | 182 | 134 | 130 | .736]| .714/101) 98] .97) 49) 25 |.51] 39 | 37 .94| 96 | RIL
Zit 1445 | 183 | 188 | 143 | .754] .781|100] 90] .90)| 47) 29 |.61| 40 | 37 .92| 97 «
22 1315 | 165 | 186 | 184] .824] .812| 97] 96] .99|48| 27 |.56)| 36 | 34 94] 89 “
23 1295 | 174 | 189 | 180 | .799 | .747| 96] 94] .97/|45)| 24 |.53| 36 | 32 .88 | 89 ce
24 1225 | 184 | 122 | 128 | .663 | .696 49 | 28 | 57) 38 | 36 94 «
25 1580 | 178 | 142 | 186 | .798 | .764|103/100} .97/ 50) 26 |.52] 88 | 37 .97 | 93 «
26 1320!) 1702) 182))1382)) 776) .776)| 102)| 102)) 1.00} 52) 26 |.50) 37 | 87 | 1.00) 90 «
27 1380 | 176 | 133 | 184] .756| .761 | 104] 105|1.01] 50] 31 |.62) 42 | 36 85 Mass.
28 1248 | 178 | 133 | 180 | .747 | .730 | 104 | 104/ 1.00] 52} 27 |.51] 438 | 34 79 | 94 | Maine.
29 1323 | 177 | 186 | 1384] .768| .757) 92) 96|1.04) 57) 24 |.42) 33 | 39 84] 98 | Mass.
Average | 1319 | 175 | 132| 133 | .752| .758| 101/100 .99/50| 25 |.51] 38 | 85] .91) 91
Maximum | 1580 | 187 | 142 | 143 | .824]| .845/] 109 | 108|1.04|57]| 31 |.62] 43 | 39 | 1.05] 98
Minimum | 1182 | 165 | 122 | 126 | .663| .695| 96] 90) .90/]45)| 22 |.42) 33 | 32 .80] 84
Range SI | BRP BAN) bz || SPxant | altaya}, ale} 6 Wee || 1 9 |.20| 10 Uf .25| 14

Of course the presumption is in favor of some member of the tribe that formerly inhabited
the locality where it was found, and yet for reasons given above, this conclusion might be

far from correct.

1Mr. Gallatin estimates the Indian population within the
present boundaries of the states of New Hampshire, Massa-
chusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut ‘to have been from
thirty to forty thousand souls, before the epidemic disease
which preceded the landing of the Pilgrims.” He thinks
that this population, “ principally along the seacoast between
the old Plymouth Colony and the Hudson River, was much
greater in proportion to the extent of territory, than was
found any where else on the shores of the Atlantic, or, with
the exception perhaps of the Hurons, in the interior parts of
the United States’’; and he ascribes “this greater accumu-

In view then of the impossibility of discriminating between the skulls

lated population to the greater and more uniform supply of
food afforded by fisheries than by hunting”’, and to the fact
“that the Indians along the seacoast had been driven away
from the interior and compelled to concentrate themselves
in order to be able to resist the attacks of the more warlike
Indians of the Five Nations.” Archaeologia Americana,
Vol. 11, p. 37.

2 These Sachems have not their men in such subjection,
but that very frequently their men will leave them upon dis-
taste or harsh dealing and go and live under other Sa-
chems.” Gookin, l. c., p. 154.

6 CARR ON THE CRANIA

of the different tribes, and of the linguistic and other evidence of the identity of the peo-
ple formerly inhabiting this region, I am led to treat this entire series of crania as having
belonged to one race. Considered in this light, there is of course a large increase in the
number of specimens upon which to base a conclusion, and to this extent, that conclusion
is strengthened.

In accordance with this plan the tables on pages 4 and 5 have been compiled from meas-
urements made upon crania now in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the
Army Medical Museum at Washington City, the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and
Ethnology in Cambridge, Mass., and in the Museums of the Harvard Medical School, the
Boston Society for Medical Improvement, and in the private collection of the late Dr.
Warren of Boston.!’ In them I have endeavored to separate these skulls according to the
features that distinguish the sexes, and also according to the localities whence they were
derived. It must not be forgotten, however, that this latter classification is tended simply
to facilitate future reference, and does not carry with it any ulterior significance whatever.

Aside from the brief historical sketch given above, there is but little known as to the
precise age of any of these crania. Two of them, No. 22, Table I? and No. 38, Table L?
belonged to Indians whose deaths are matters of record, and in the case of some others
When-

ever this occurs, the burial must, of course, have been subsequent to the arrival of the

glass beads and other articles of European manufacture were found in the graves.

whites.

One calvarium, No. 13, Table I, (Peabody Museum, No. 10,259) was found wader a shell
heap near Salem, Mass., from which circumstance Mr. Putnam has concluded it to be the
oldest skull yet found in New England. It is mesaticephalous though verging very closely
on brachycephalous and resembles the crania found: in the Florida Mounds.* Of the
rest we know nothing, except perhaps, some of the circumstances of their burial.
These silent revelations of the spade and pickaxe, however, indicate their origin
most unmistakably ; and although it is possible that some of the more recent specimens
may belong to persons of mixed (Indian and White) blood, yet the skulls themselves do
not show it, and the chances of such admixture are so small as scarcely to merit recog-
nition. Except when such mixed unions have taken place on a large scale and been con-
tinued for a long period of time, as is the case to-day with some of the Indian tribes of
the United States and Spanish America, the presumption as to any single skull found as
these were, is always in favor of its being of pure Indian origin.

Referring now to the preceding tables, it will be seen that the average cranial capacity

1In this connection I desire to return my thanks to Mr.
Parker of the Philadelphia Academy, to the late Mr. Caleb
Cook of Salem, to Dr. J. C. Warren of Boston, and to Mr.
Applegate and Dr. Wm. F. Whitney of the Harvard Medical
School. To the latter gentleman I am under special obliga-
tions for practical aid in the work of measurements and for
many valuable suggestions. x

2'This is No. 3274 of the Warren Anatomical Museum of
Boston, and is the skull of ‘‘Qualish, a New England Indian
who died and was buried in Dedham, Mass., in 1774, aet. 68.

Every tooth in place.”

8This is No. 1560 of the Army Medical Museum at
Washington Clty, and is said to be the skull of an Indian
basket maker who was killed during the Revolutionary war.
Ina note to the writer, Dr. Otis, the Curator of that Mu-
seum, says “it has the largest internal capacity of any North
American Indian skull I have ever measured, and is, more-
over, extraordinarily brachycephalic.’’

4Tenth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum of Amer-
ican Archaeology and Ethnology. Cambridge, Mass., 1877

OF NEW ENGLAND INDIANS. Tf

of the 29 supposed adult females is 1,519 cubic centimeters and of the 38 supposed adult
males 1,456 c.c., showing a difference of 117 c.c. in favor of the latter. The smallest skull
in the collection is No. 18, Table H (Peabody Mus., No. 12,350) from a shell heap on Great
Deer Island, Maine, which measures 1182 ¢.c.; and the largest is No. 38, Table I,’ (Army
Medical Museum No. 1560) which reaches the enormous size of 1920 ¢.c. The range or
difference between the two extremes amounts to 738 c.c., which is less than that of the
Indians of the Santa Barbara Islands, California, or of the Moundbuilders of the Cumber-
land valley. Assuming, with Dr. J. Aitken Meigs, 1376 ¢.c. to be the average of the
North American Indian,’ it will be seen that the mean of the two sexes, 1377 c.c., as given
above, accords with it ina striking manner. This is greater than the Indians from the
Santa Barbara Islands,* 1310 c.c., the Tennessee Moundbuilders, 1341 c¢.c.,° or the Peru-
vians of the coast, 1230 c.c.,° but does not equal the Eskimos of Greenland, 1392 c.c., or
of Alaska, 1404 c.c.’ Of the entire series, twenty-five are below 1350 c.c., or microceph-
alic, and thirteen above 1450 e.c., or macrocephalic, and thirteen are between the two,
or mesocephalic, to which class the collection taken as a whole also belongs.®

The index of breadth,’ or the relation of the greatest breadth between the parietals, to
the length measured through the glabella to the most prominent point of the occiput, is
.767 for the males, and .752 for the females; or, taking the mean of the two sexes and leav-
ing off the fraction, .759 for the whole collection. This brings them within the class of me-
saticephali, though by a very narrow margin. Of the entire collection, twenty-six have an
index below .750, and hence may be classed as dolichocephali; nine have an index greater
than .800 and are, therefore to be ranked among the brachycephali or short skulls, whilst
the remaining thirty-one have indices ranging between these limits and thus, of course,
belong to the mesaticephali. Of this last group, the index is .775. The females are,
however, slightly more dolichocephalic than the males, the figures being .771 for the for-
mer and .779 for the latter.

1 Notwithstanding the very unusual size of this skull, I
have not felt at liberty to omit it from the table for the fol-
lowing reasons: Ist, its history is pretty well known ; 2d,
there are crania of undoubtedly aboriginal origin now in the
Peabody Museum of Cambridge, i. e., one from San Clemente
Island, California, that measures 1747 c.c., and one from a
mound in Tennessee that reaches 1825 c.c., that are ab-
normally large when compared with the averages from their
respective localities; 3d, it is equalled, if not surpassed, by
other specimens in the Peabody Museum, in the measure-
ments of length, breadth and height, respectively, though
none of them equals it when all the measurements are taken
together. It is proper to add that the capacity of this skull
was measured with No. 8 shot, whilst in all the others
selected peas of nearly uniform size were used. This, of
course, to a certain extent, vitiates the comparison, as very
different results. are obtained when different materials are
used ; but it is believed that the excess of this skull over the
one next to it in point of size, No. 16, Table I (a Natick In-
dian in the collection of the Philadelphia Academy) which
measures 1690 c.c., is so great as to allow a very wide mar-

gin for the inequality caused by using different methods of
measurement. Be this as it may, my object in singling out
this particular skull, was to mark the differences rather than
to institute a comparison where surely none exists.

2 Twelfth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum, 1880.

8Catalozue of Human Crania in the Collection of the
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, p. 10.

4Check-list of the Army Medical Museum. Washington,
1876. Twelfth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum, pp.
498 et seq.

5 Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum,
pp- 224 and 361. 1878. :

6 Fourth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum, p. 18.
1871.

7 Check-list of the Army Medical Museum, Washington,
1876.

8 For this classification see Prof. Wm. H. Flower, in the
Osteological Catalogue of the Royal College of Surgeons,
Part 1, Man. p. 252. London, 1879.

9Index of breadth = breadth x 1000—length.

«
8 CARR ON THE CRANIA

As was to have been expected in a collection, composed as this is of the crania of differ-
ent tribes, the range is very wide, extending from .859, No. 26, Table I, (Boston Society for
Medical Improvement, No. 1376) to .663, No. 24, Table II (Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia, No. 1040). This latter specimen is catalogued as “a woman aetat 70, with
a singularly elongated head.’ Upon examination, the sagittal, coronal and lamboidal
sutures were found to be closed. This may have been due to the age of the woman, and
hence the peculiarly elongated form of the cranium cannot be ascribed to the premature
closing of the sagittal suture, though that, of course, is possible. However, there are in
this collection other perfectly normal crania that approach it too closely in this respect,
e.g. No. 19, Table H, and No. 12, Table I (Peabody Museum, Nos. 660 and 10,249), to jus-
tify us in rejecting it as an aberrant form.

The index of height for the males is .761, for the females .758, and for the two sexes
taken together .759. Compared with the indices of breadth, as is done in order to get at
the shape of the head, we find that among the former the height is less than the
breadth, whilst among the latter it is greater. The difference, however, is very small,
amounting in either case to only 1 m.m. actual measurement. Taking the collections as
a whole, and the indices of breadth and height are found to be equal, but if the skulls be
considered singly, twenty-seven of them have the index of breadth greater than that of
height, whilst in twenty-nine the reverse is the case.

Coming now to the facial measurements, and beginning with the alveolar index or the
relation of the basi-nasal length to the basi-alveolar, estimating the former at 100, and it
will be found to be in the males .96, and in the females .99.1_ Of the entire collection,
twenty-six are orthognathous, twenty mesognathous, and only three that can be called
strictly prognathous. Taking the two sexes together, the index of the whole is .975, or
orthognathic with a strong tendency to mesognathism.

The nasal index of the males is .49, and of the females .51, which brings them both,
when considered either separately or together, among the mesorhine. There are, how-
ever, in the series fourteen that have an index below .48 or are leptorhine, twelve with
an index above .55 or platyrhine, and thirty that are within these limits or mesorhine.

The orbital index is .88 for the males and .91 for the females, or .895 for the two. This
classes them with the megaseme, though just within the limits.? As is usually the case,
the orbit among the females is proportionately more open than among the males.

Summing up the result of these measurements, the average skull of this series is found
to be of medium capacity and mesaticephalic, with a decided tendency towards dolicho-
cephalism. It is orthognathic, mesorhine and megaseme, but by very small margins.
These measurements and the technical description based upon them are believed to be cor-
rect ; in fact they agree so closely with those made by Dr. Wilson upon a number (30) of
skulls* of the same people that there can be little doubt as to their accuracy ; and yet
after all it must be admitted that, in point of fact, so far as this collection is concerned, the

1 Prof. Flower, of the Royal College of Surgeons, prefers 1.030 as prognathous. In the first of these classes are to be
this method of estimating the forward projection of the face found most Europeans, and in the last most negroes.

for the reason that it is easy of application, “and if in some 2Below .840 is microseme; above .890 is megaseme;
cases not strictly accurate, in the large majority it certainly | between the two is mesoseme.
gives the desired information.” He classifies all below .980 § Prehistoric Man, p. 186. London, 1876.

as orthognathous. From .980 to 1.030 mesognathous. Above

OF NEW ENGLAND INDIANS. 9

typical cranium, as adduced from the measurements, has no real existence. Undoubtedly
there are skulls in the collection that unite many of the characteristic features indicated by
the above measurements, and it is possible that there may be a few which combine them
all, but the variations are so great that the eye is hardly able to single out any one form
as typical. For this purpose one will do as well as another, but not one is satisfactory. In
this respect there is a marked difference between this collection and those from some other
localities. Take for instance, the crania from the stone graves of Tennessee now in the
Peabody Museum, or those from Greenland, now in the Army Medical Museum, and there
runs through each series a certain prevailing form which is at once recognized. Here,
however, no such uniformity exists. The crania differ among themselves in every possible
way ; and, in their distinguishing features, are so hopelessly mixed, that even though the
range, or difference between the different extremes is no greater than in either one of the
other collections, yet the entire series, judged by the eye, is too colorless to permit of the
recognition of any type or standard save that furnished by the calipers and the “rule of
three.’ These, however, do give us rather a solid foundation upon which to build, and
justify us in asserting that, whilst the entire series considered with reference to the index
of breadth does not supply us with sufficient data to reconstruct the typical prehistoric
Indian skull of New England, granting such a thing to have existed, it does indicate an ad-
mixture of the different forms such as might be looked for in a collection made from the
potter’s field of London or New York. This is in accord with what is known of the exist-
ence of different forms of crania among the American aborigines, and of the circumstances
under which this collection was made. It is, as has been said, composed of crania from
different tribes (though belonging perhaps to the same linguistic family) and it contains
skulls that range from the extreme of dolichocephalism to a moderate degree of brachy-
cephalism. Though, strictly speaking, it occupies a medium position between these two
classes, yet the tendency is so decidedly to the former that it may be said partially to bear
out the conclusion of Dr. Busk as to the prevalence of the dolichocephalic form of skull
upon the Atlantic coast of North America."

As a matter of interest and for the sake of comparison the following table of mean
measurements of crania has been added. It might have been indefinitely extended, but
for obvious reasons it was deemed best to limit it to crania from North America. Num-
bers 1, 2 and 3 are taken from Dr. Wilson’s Prehistoric Man; Nos. 6 and 7 are made up
from the check-list of the Army Medical Museum, and Nos. 4 and 5 are from the records of
the Peabody Museum of Ethnology at Cambridge.

1 Journal of the Anthropological Institute of London, for April, 1873, p. 95.

10 CARR ON CRANIA OF INDIANS.

Tasie III. Mean MEASUREMENTS OF CRANIA oF AMERICAN INDIANS.
oa ia «4 | re) ‘S.a Se Yi Ft eI § =
Sa) 3 | | S| ma) ee) we lee esa) Cae
Ba eS er \ a | ee see SR eed ee
1. Huron—Males 39 187 | 139) | 189) |" 7743) 1743
Females 18 AW BPA I) TB |) Bs aoe
2, Troquois—Males 8 187 | 140 | 140 | .749 | .749
Females 2 1G) slp ye |) asses || See .760
3. Algonkin Lenapé — Males 19 182 | 140 | 138 | .769 | .758
Females 4 By) BP) BBs I SiO: .769
4, Santa Barbara—Males LO) WTB |) aS | alsi/ |) IRAE .760 ie |) GB .99 | .48 | .92
Females bye I aie Nh al A ale isy Nal |) errr (27 =| 89 .99 | .49 | .93
5. Tennessee Mounds ! —Males SB l4or | 164 |) 146) | W455 sor .886 | 95
Females 384 | 1301 159 | 142 | 140 .893 | .871 | 90
6. Greenland—Males 5b | 11433) | 186 || 132) | 141 .710 .755
Females DAL |) iperesy | AUN |) AN BBS |) sre) | 725
7. Alaska—Males 81 | 1449 | 177 | 148 | 181 | .835 | .748
Females UO | TH | GO SE NN ae BT |) ey
8. New England—Males 38) 1436 | 180) | 138) 137% | iG |) iG) | 9on i e2960 | ee on ess
Females 295 ABTO MN a7: |) 132) 13884 72 ea so8 || Oil 2 99R | eeol eal

1Flattened posteriorly.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

The figures on the accompanying plates were drawn by means of Broca’s Stereograph, from two Indian
crania in the collection of the Peabody Museum, and are reproduced at one half their diameters. Figures 1
and 2 of each plate represent different views of skull No. 14, Table I (P. M. No. 11,249), and figures 3 and
4 were taken from No. 11, Table II (P. M. No. 10,281).

Wa lired

DPD AWN
SEAS ENE
1GLOWCl

usus, Me

D1 9
Anntvers. Viemoirs, Bost.Soc.Nat-Hist Carr, Pl. @

ENGLAND CRANTIA

NE

1&2 .Man from West Andover,Mass

=

3&4.Woman from Sauéus,Mass

1830, ANNIVERSARY MEMOIRS OF THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT.

By WILLIAM JAMES, M_D.,

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.
1880.

1880,

i D

AP Ss Ip ey ed ae eet

eo |
Pea
i ahs eg a5 5-5 eit 4

Tue Frevinc or Errort. By WILLIAM JAMES.

La locomotion animale n’a nul rapport direct
avec ce qu’on appelle volonté. . L’effort,
le nisus, ne doit pas étre fixé dans le rapport de
la volition avec lacte propre du mobile matériel.

L’effort, dans l’acception rationelle de
ce mot, est le rapport de la représentation avec
elle méme. RENOUVIER.

I propose in the following pages to offer a scheme of the physiology and psychology of
volition, more completely worked out and satisfactory than any I have yet met with.
The matter is a little intricate, and I shall have to ask the reader to bear patiently a
good deal of detail for the sake of the importance of the result.

That we have a feeling of effort there can be no doubt. Popular language has suff-
ciently consecrated the fact by the institution of the word effort, and its synonyms exer-
tion, striving, straming. The difference between a simply passive sensation, and
one in which the elements of volition and attention are found, has also been
recorded by popular speech in the difference between such verbs as to see and
to look; to hear and to listen; to smell and to scent; to feel and to touch.
Effort, attention, and volition are, in fact, similar elements of Feeling differimg all
in the.same generic manner from its receptive, or simply sensational elements;
and forming the active as distinguished from the passive parts of our mental
nature. This distinction is styled by Bain the most vital one within the sphere of
mind; and at all times psychologists of the a priori school have emphasized the utter
opposition between our consciousness of spontaneity or out-going energy, and the con-
sciousness of any mere impression whatever.

Fully admitting the feelings of active energy as mental facts, our question simply is of
what nervous processes are they the concomitants? As the feeling of effort is nowhere
more coarsely and obviously present than in the phenomenon of muscular exertion, let
us limit our inquiry first to that.

I. MUSCULAR EXERTION AN AFFERENT FEELING.

Johannes Miiller was, so far as I know, the first to say' that the nerve-process accom-
panying the feeling of muscular exertion, is the discharge from the motor centre into the
motor nerve. The supposition is a most natural and plausible one ; for if afferent nerve
processes are felt, each in its characteristic way, why should not efferent processes be
felt by equal right, and with equally characteristic qualities? Accordingly we find in
writers of all nations since Miiller’s time, repetitions implicit or explicit, of his suggestion.

1 Physiologie, 1840, Bd. ii, p. 500.

4 WILLIAM JAMES ON

But the authors who have most emphatically insisted on it, and raised it to the position
of a fundamental doctrine, are Bain, Hughlings Jackson and Wundt.

Bain says: “ The sensibility accompanying muscular movement coincides with the out-
going stream of nervous energy, and does not, as in the case of pure sensation, result
from any influence passing inwards, by incarrying or sensitive nerves.”

Jackson writes: “Sensations, in the sense of mental states, arise, I submit, during
energizing of motor as well as of sensory nerve processes — with the outgoing, as well as
with the ingoing current.’

Wundt separates the feeling of force exerted, from the feeling of effected movement.’
And in later writings he adopts the term Jnnervationsgefiihl to designate the former in
relation to its supposed cause, the efferent discharge. Feelings of innervation have since
then become household words in psychological literature. Two English writers only, so
far as I know, Dr. Charlton Bastion, and Dr. Ferrier, have expressed skepticism as to the
existence of any feelings connected with the efferent nervous discharge. But their argu-
ments being imperfect, and in the case of Bastian rather confusedly expressed, have
passed unnoticed. Lotze in Germany has also raised a skeptical voice, but has not backed
his doubts by many arguments. The notorious existence of the feeling of effort in mus-
cular exertion; the fact that the efferent discharge there plays the principal ré/e, and the
plausibility of the postulate so often insisted on by Lewes that identity of structure
involves identity of function, have all conspired to make us almost believe, as a matter of
course, that motor cells when they discharge into motor fibres, should have their own
“specific energy” of feeling, and that this should be no other than the sense of energy
put forth.

In opposition to this popular view, I maintain that the feeling of muscular energy put
forth is a complex afferent sensation coming from the tense muscles, the strained liga-
ments, squeezed joints, fixed chest, closed glottis, contracted brow, clenched jaws, etc.,
etc. That there is over and above this another feeling of effort involved, I do not deny ;
but this latter is purely moral and has nothing to do with the motor discharge. We
shall study it at the end of this essay, and shall find it to be essentially identical with the
effort to remember, with the effort to make a decision, or to attend to a disagreeable task.

First then, let us disprove the notion that there is any feeling connected with the motor
or efferent nervous discharge. We may begin by asking: Why should there be? Even
accepting Lewes’s postulate in the abstract, what degree of “identity”? should be de-
manded between the afferent and efferent nerve apparatus, to msure their being both
alike, “sentient?” Even to our coarse optical examination, the sensory and the motor
cells are widely different. But apart from a priori postulates, and however strange to
logic it may appear, it is a fact that the motor apparatus is absolutely insentient in an
afferent direction, although we know that the fibres of the anterior root will propagate
a disturbance in that direction as well as in the other. Why may not this result from

1 The Senses and the Intellect. 3d edition, p. 77. 8 Beitriige zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung, p. 420.
2 Clinical and Physiological Researches on the Nervous Physiologische Psychologie, p. 316.
System. (Reprinted from the Lancet, 1873). London, 4 See his Metaphysik, 1869, p. 589. See also Revue

J. & A. Churchill, p. xxxiv. See also this author’s very Philosophique, t. iv, p. 359.
original though somewhat obscure paper on Aphasia in
Brain for October, 1879, p. 351.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 5

a true insentiency in the motor cell, an insentiency which would accompany all action
there, and characterize its normal discharges as well as the unnatural irritations made
by the knife of the surgeon or the electrodes of the physiologist upon the motor nerve.

Plausibility accrues to this presumption when we call to mind this general law :
that consciousness seems to desert all processes where it can no longer be of
any use. The tendency of consciousness to a minimum of complication is in fact
a dominating law in Psychology. The logical law of parsimony is only its best
known case. We grow unconscious of every feeling which is useless as a sign to
lead us to our ends, and where one sign will suffice, others drop out, and that one
remains to function alone. We observe this in the whole history of sense perception,
and in the acquisition of every art. We ignore which eye we see with, because
a fixed mechanical association has been formed between our motions and each retinal
image. Our motions are the ends of our seeing, our retinal images the signals to
these ends. If each retinal image, whichever it be, can suggest automatically a
motion in the right direction, what need for us to know whether it be in the right
eye or the left? The knowledge would be superfluous complication. So in acquiring
any art or voluntary function. The marksman thinks only of the exact position
of the goal, the singer only of the perfect sound, the balancer only of the point
in space whose oscillations he must counteract by movement. The associated
mechanism has become so perfect in all these persons, that each variation in the
thought of the end, is functionally correllated with the one movement fitted to bring
the latter about. Whilst they were tyros, they thought of their means as well as their
end; the marksman of the position of his gun or bow, or the weight of his stone,
the pianist of the visible position of the note on the keyboard, the singer of his
throat or breathing, the balancer of his feet on the rope, or his hand or chin under
the pole. But little by little they succeeded in dropping all this supernumerary
consciousness, and they became secure in their movements exactly in proportion as they
did so.

Now if we analyze the nervous mechanism of voluntary action, we shall see that
by virtue of this principle of parsimony in consciousness, the motor discharge ought
to be devoid of sentience. The essentials of a voluntary movement, are: 1, a preliminary
idea of the end we wish to attain; 2, a “fiat;” 3, an appropriate muscular contraction ;
4, the end felt as actually accomplished. In man, at any rate, it is admitted that the
idea of the end and the muscular contraction were originally coupled by empirical
association; that is to say, the child with his end in view, made random movements until he
accidentally found one to fit. This movement awakened its own characteristic feeling
which thenceforward remained with him as the idea of the movement appropriate to that
particular end. If the man should acquire a million distinct ends, he must acquire a
million such motor ideas and a million connections between them and the ends.
But one such connection, subserved by an exclusive nerve tract used for no other purpose,
will be enough for each end. ‘The end conceived, will when these associations are formed,
always awaken its own proper motor idea. As for the manner in which this idea
awakens its own proper movement — the one which will convert it from an idea into an
actual sensation—the simplest possible arrangement would be to let it serve directly,
(through its peculiar neural process) as a stimulus to the special motor centre, the ultimate
sensible effect of whose discharge it prefigures and represents.

6 WILLIAM JAMES ON

The ordinary theory, however, makes the matter much more complicated. The
idea of the end is supposed to awaken first a feeling of the proper motor innervation,
and this, when adjudged right, to discharge the muscular combination.

Now what can be gained by the interposition of this second relay of feeling between
the idea and the movement? Nothing on the score of economy of nerve tracts; for it
takes just as many of them to associate a million ideas with a million motor feelings,’
each specific, as to associate the same million ideas with a million insentient motor centres.
And nothing on the score of precision; for the only conceivable way in which they might
further precision would be by giving to a mind whose notion of the end was vague, a sort
of halting stage with sharper imagery on which to collect its wits before uttering its fiat.
But not only are the conscious discriminations between “ ends”’ much sharper than any
one pretends the shades of difference between feelings of innervation to be, but even
were this not the case, it is impossible to see how a mind with its end vaguely conceived,
could tell out of a lot of Jnnervationsgefiihle, were they never so sharply differentiated,
which one fitted that end exactly, and which did not. A sharply conceived end will on
the other hand directly awaken a distinct movement as easily as it will awaken a distinct
feeling of innervation. If feelings can go astray through vagueness, surely the fewer
steps of feeling there are interposed, the more securely we shall act. We ought then on
a priori grounds alone to regard the Innervationsgefiihl as a pure encumbrance.

Let us turn now to a posteriori evidence.

It is a notorious fact, recognized by all writers* on voluntary motion, that the will seems
concerned only with results and not with the muscular details by which they are exe-
cuted. But when we say “results,” what is it exactly that we mean? We mean of
course, the movements objectively considered, and revealing themselves (as either accom-
plished or in process of being accomplished), to our sensible perceptions. Our idea, notion,
thought, of a movement, what we mean, whenever we speak of the movement, is this
sensible perception which we get of it when it is taking place, or has completely occurred.

What then is this sensible perception ?

What does it introspectively seem to be? JI unhesitatingly answer: an aggregate of
afferent feelings, coming primarily from the contraction of muscles, the stretching of ten-
dons, ligaments and skin, and the rubbing and pressing of jomts; and secondarily, from
the eye, the ear, the skin, nose or palate, any or all of which may be indirectly affected
by the movement as it takes place im another part of the body. The only idea of a
movement which we can possess is composed of images of these, its afferent effects. By
these differences alone, are movements mentally distinguished from each other, and these
differences are sufficient for all the discriminations we can possibly need to make, when
we intend one movement rather than another.

The recent writers who have been prompt to recognize the fact that volition is directed
only to results, have hardly been sensible of the far-reaching consequences of this admis-
sion, — consequences which will develop themselves as our inquiry proceeds. Meanwhile

1 The association between the two orders of feeling being ? By no one more clearly set forth than by Hume himself
of course brought about by a separate neural connexion. in his essay on the Idea of Necessary Connection. The best
between the tracts supporting each. recent statement I know is by Jaccoud: Des Paraplegies et

de l’'Ataxie du Mouvement. Paris, 1864. p. 591.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 7

one immediate conclusion follows: namely, that there are no such things as efferent feel-
ings, or feelings of innervation: These are wholly mythological entities. Whoever says
that in raising his arm he is ignorant of how many muscles he contracts, in what order of
sequence, and in what degrees of intensity, expressly avows a colossal amount of uncon-
sciousness of the processes of motor discharge. Each separate muscle at any rate cannot
have its distinct feeling of innervation. Wundt,’ who makes such enormous use of these
hypothetical feelings in his psychologic construction of space, is himself led to admit that
they have no differences of quality, but feel alike in all muscles, and vary only in their
degrees of intensity? They are used by the mind as guides, not of what movement, but
of how strong a movement it is making, or shall make. But does not this virtually sur-
render their existence altogether ?

For if anything be obvious to introspection it is that the degree of strength of our
muscular contractions is completely revealed to us by afferent feelings coming from the
muscles themselves and their insertions, from the vicinity of the joints, and from the gen-
eral fixation of the larynx, chest, face and body, in the phenomenon of effort, objectively
considered. When a certain degree of energy of contraction rather than another
is thought of by us, this complex aggregate of afferent feelings, forming the material of
our thought, renders absolutely precise and distinctive our mental image of the exact
strength of movement to be made, and the exact amount of resistance to be overcome.

Let the reader try to direct his will towards a particular movement, and then
notice what constituted the direction of the will. Was it anything over and
above the notion of the different feelings to which the movement when effected,
would give rise? If we abstract from these feelings, will any sign, principle,
or means of orientation be left, by which the will may innervate the right
muscles with the right intensity, and not go astray into the wrong ones? Strip
off these images of result? and so far from leaving us with a complete assortment
of directions into which our will may launch itself, you leave our consciousness in
an absolute and total vacuum. If I will to write “Peter” rather than “ Paul,”
it is the thought of certain digital sensations, of certain alphabetic sounds, of certain
appearances on the paper, and of no others, which immediately precedes the motion
of my pen.

If I will to utter the word Paul rather than Peter, it is the thought of my
voice falling on my ear, and of certain muscular feelings in my tongue, lips and larynx,
which guide the utterance. All these feelings are afferent, and between the thought
of them, by which the act is mentally specified with all possible completeness, and
the act itself, there is no room for any third order of mental phenomenon. Except,
indeed, what I have called the fiat, the element of consent, or resolve that the
act shall ensue. This, doubtless, to the reader's mind, as to my own, constitutes
the essence of the voluntariness of the act. This fiat will be treated of in detail
farther on. It may be entirely neglected here, for it is a constant coefficient, affecting

all voluntary actions alike, and incapable of serving to distinguish them.

1 Leidesdorf u. Meynert’s Vierteljsch. f. Psychiatrie Bd. i,
Heft i, S. 36-7. 1867. Physiologische Psychologie, 8. 316,
2 Harless, in an article which in many respects forestalls
what I have to say, (Der Apparat des Willens, in Fichte’s
Zeitschrift f. Philos., Bd. 38, 1861) uses the convenient

No one

word Effectsbild to designate our idea of this sensory result
of a movement.

8 We speak here only of the muscular exertion, properly so
called. The difficulty often involved in making the jit still
remains areserved question.

8 WILLIAM JAMES ON

will pretend that its quality varies according as the right or the left arm, for example,
is used.

So far then, we seem free to conclude that an anticipatory image of the sensorial
consequences of a movement, hard or easy, plus the fiat that these consequences
shall become actual, ought to be able to discharge directly the special movement
with which in our past experiences the particular consequences were combined as
effects. Furthermore, there is no introspective evidence whatever of the existence
of any intermediate feelings, possessing either qualitative or quantitative differences,
and accompanying the efferent discharge.’

Is there, notwithstanding, any circumstantial evidence? At first sight, it appears
as if the circumstantial evidence in favor of efferent feelings were very strong. Wundt
says, that were our motor feelings of an afferent nature, “it ought to be expected
that they would increase and diminish with the amount of outer or inner work
actually effected in contraction. This, however, is not the case, but the strength
of the motor sensation is purely proportional to the strength of the impulse to
movement, which starts from the central organ innervating the motor nerves. This
may be proved by observations made by physicians in cases of morbid alteration in
the muscular effect. A patient whose arm or leg is half paralyzed, so that he can
only move the limb with great effort, has a distinct feeling of this effort: the limb
seems to him heavier than before, appearing as if weighted with lead; he has, therefore,
a sense of more work effected than formerly, and yet the effected work is either
the same or even less. Only he must, to get even this effect, exert a stronger
innervation, a stronger motor impulse than formerly.”

In complete paralysis also, patients will be conscious of puttmg forth the greatest
exertion to move a limb which remains absolutely still upon the bed, and from which of
course no afferent muscular or other feelings can come.’

Dr. Ferrier in his Functions of the Brain, (Am. Ed. pp. 222-4) disposes very easily of
this line of argument. He says: “It is necessary, however, to exclude movements
altogether before such an explanation [as Wundt’s] can be adopted. Now, though the
hemiplegic patient cannot move his paralyzed limb, though he is conscious of trying hard

1 The various degrees of difficulty with which the fiat is
given form a complication of the utmost importance, reserved
for discussion further on.

have experienced if his muscles had naturally responded to
his volition. He will tell us rather that he has a sense only
of his utter powerlessness, and that his volition is a mere
mental act, carrying with it no feelings of expended energy
such as he is accustomed to experience when his muscles are
in powerful action, and from which action and its consequen-

2 Vorlesungen iiber Menschen und Thierseele, Bd. i, p.
222.

3 Tn some instances we get an opposite result. Dr. H.
Charlton Bastian (British Medical Journal, 1869, p. 461,
note) says: —

‘Ask a man whose lower extremities are completely
paralyzed, whether, when he ineffectually wills to move
either of these limbs, he is conscious of an expenditure of
energy in any degree proportionate to that which he would

ces alone, as I think, he can derive any adequate notion of
resistance.”

Dr. J. J. Putnam has quite recently reported to me a case
of this sort of only a few months standing. Many amputated
patients who still feel their lost limbs are unable to make
any conscious effort to move them. One such case informs
me that he feels more able to will a distant table to move,

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 9

yet he will be found to be making powerful muscular exertion of some kind. Vulpian has
called attention to the fact, and I have repeatedly verified it, that when a hemiplegic
patient is desired to close his paralyzed fist, in his endeavors to do so he unconsciously
performs this action with the sound one. It is, in fact, almost impossible to exclude such
a source of complication, and unless this is taken into account very erroneous conclusions
as to the cause of the sense of effort may be drawn. In the fact of muscular contraction
and the concomitant centripetal impressions, even though the action is not such asis desired,
the conditions of the consciousness of effort exist without our -being obliged to regard it
as depending on central innervation or outgoing currents.

“ It is, however, easy to make an experiment of a simple nature which will satisfactorily
account for the sense of effort, even when these unconscious contractions of the other side,
such as hemiplegics make, are entirely excluded.

“Tf the reader will extend his right arm and hold his forefinger in the position required
for pulling the trigger of a pistol, he may without actually moving his finger, but by
simply making believe, experience a consciousness of energy put forth. Here, then, is a
clear case of consciousness of energy without actual contraction of the muscles either of
the one hand or the other, and without any perceptible bodily strain. If the reader will
again perform the experiment, and pay careful attention to the condition of his respiration
he will observe that his consciousness of effort coincides with a fixation of the muscles of
his chest, and that in proportion to the amount of energy he feels he is putting forth, he is
keeping his glottis closed and actively contracting his respiratory muscles. Let him place
his finger as before, and continue breathing all the time, and he will find that however
much he may direct his attention to his finger, he will experience not the slightest trace of
consciousness of effort until he has actually moved the finger itself, and then it is referred
locally to the muscles in action. It is only when this essential and ever present
respiratory factor is, as it has been, overlooked, that the consciousness of effort can with
any degree of plausibility be ascribed to the outgoing current. In the contraction of the
respiratory muscles there are the necessary conditions of centripetal impressions, and these
are capable of originating the general sense of effort. When these active efforts are
withheld, no consciousness of effort ever arises, except in so far as it is conditioned by the
local contraction of the group of muscles towards which the attention is directed, or by
other muscular contractions called unconsciously into play in the attempt.

“Tam unable to find a single case of consciousness of effort which is not explicable in
one or other of the ways specified. In all instances the consciousness of effort is

than to exert the same volition over his acutely-felt lost leg. idea of an End for the fiat to knit itself to. Such a supposi-

Others, on the contrary, (Vide Weir Mitchell’s book on Gun-
shot Injuries to Nerves), say they can not only will, but, as
far as their feeling is concerned, execute, movements of their
amputated limbs. It would be extremely interesting to
unravel the causes of these divergences. May it be that in
recent cases with the recollection of varied movements fresh
in the mind, the patient has a stock of distinct images of
position on which to base his fiat; while in an inveterate
case, either of paralysis with contraction, or of amputation
with consciousness of the limb in an invariable position,
reminiscences of other positions have through long desuetude
become so incapable of revival that there is no preliminary

tion conforms well to the utterances of two amputated
persons with whom I have conversed. They said it was like
“‘ willing into the void,” they ‘did not know how to set
about it,’’? and so forth. The recency of Dr. Putnam’s case
above mentioned seems, however, to conflict with such an ex-
planation and I only make the suggestions in the hope that

“some one with better opportunities for observation than I

possess, may become interested in the matter. I may add
that in teaching a new and unnatural movement, the starting
point is to awaken by its passive production a distinct sense
of what the movement, if effected, would feel like. This

defines the direction of the exertion the pupil is to make.

10 WILLIAM JAMES ON

conditioned by the actual fact of muscular contraction. That it is dependent on
centripetal impressions generated by the act of contraction, I have already endeavored to
show. When the paths of the centripetal impressions, or the cerebral centres of the same,
are destroyed, there is no vestige of a muscular sense. That the central organs for the
apprehension of the impressions originating from muscular contraction, are different from
those which send out the motor impulse, has already been established. But when Wundt
argues that this cannot be so, because then the sensation would always keep pace with the
energy of muscular contraction, he overlooks the important factor of the fixation of the
respiratory muscles, which is the basis of the general sense of effort in all its varying
degrees.”

To these remarks of Ferrier’s I have nothing to add. Any one may verify them, and
they prove conclusively that the consciousness of muscular exertion, being impossible
without movement effected somewhere, must be an afferent and not an efferent sensation,
a consequence, and not an antecedent of the movement itself. An idea of the amount of
muscular exertion requisite to perform a certain movement can consequently be nothing
other than an anticipatory image of the movement's sensible effects.

Driven thus from the body at large, where shall the circumstantial evidence for the
feeling of innervation lodge itself? Where but in the muscles of the eye, from which
last small retreat it Judges itself imexpugnable. And, to say the truth, it may well be
excused for its confidence ; for Ferrier alone, so far as I know, has ventured to attack it
there, and his attack must be deemed a very weak failure. Nevertheless, that fastness
too must fall, and by the lightest of bombardments. But, before trymg the bombard-
ment, let us examine the position with a little care, laying down first a few general prin-
ciples about optical vertigo, or illusory appearance of movement in objects.

We judge that an object moves under two distinct sets of circumstances:

1. When its image moves on the retina, and we know that the eye is still. :

2. When its image is stationary on the retina, and we know that the eye is moving.
In this case we feel that we fol/ow the object.

In either of these cases a mistaken judgment about the state of the eye will produce
optical vertigo.

If in case 1, we think our eye is still when it is really moving. we shall get a move-
ment of the retinal image which we shall judge to be due to a real outward motion of
the object. This is what happens after looking at rushing water, or through the windows
of a moving railroad car, or after turning on one’s heel to giddiness. The eyes, without
our intending to move them, go through a series of involuntary rotations, continuing
those they were previously obliged to make to keep objects in view. If the objects had
been whirling by to our right, our eyes when turned to stationary objects will still move
slowly towards the right. The retinal image upon them will then move like that of an
object passing to the left. We then try to catch it by voluntarily and rapidly rotating the
eyes to the left, when the involuntary impulse again rotates the eyes to the right,
continuing the apparent motion, and so the game goes on.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. ial

If in case 2, we think our eyes moving when they are in reality still, we shall judge
that we are following a moving object when we are but fixating a steadfast one. Illu-
sions of this kind occur after sudden and complete paralysis of special eye muscles, and
the partizans of feelings of efferent imnervation regard them as experimenta crucis.
Helmholtz writes:' “‘ When the external rectus muscle of the right eye, or its nerve, is
paralyzed, the eye can no longer be rotated to the right side. So long as the patient
turns it only to the nasal side it makes regular movements, and he perceives correctly
the position of objects in the visual field. So soon, however, as he tries to rotate it out-
wardly, i. e., towards the right, it ceases to obey his will, stands motionless in the middle
of its course, and the objects appear flying to the right, although position of eye and
retinal image are unaltered.’

“Tn such a case the exertion of the will is followed neither by actual movement
of the eye, nor by contraction of the muscle in question, nor even by increased tension
in it. The act of will produced absolutely no effects beyond the nervous system,
and yet we judge of the direction of the line of vision as if the will had exercised
its normal effects. We believe it to have moved to the right, and since the retinal
image is unchanged, we attribute to the object the same movement we have erroneously
ascribed to the eye. * id = These phenomena leave no room for doubt
that we only judge the direction of the line of sight by the effort of will with which
we strive to change the position of our eyes. There are also certain weak feelings
in our eyelids, ‘< of ‘ i and furthermore in excessive lateral
rotations we feel a fatiguing strain in the muscles. But all these feelings are too
faint and vague to be of use in the perception of direction. We feel then what impulse
of the will, and how strong a one, we apply to turn our eye into a given position.”

Partial paralysis of the same muscle, paresis, as it has been called, seems to point
even more conclusively to the same inference, that the will to innervate is felt
independently of all its afferent results. I will quote the account given by a very recent
authority,’ of the effects of this accident :

“When the nerve going to an eye muscle, e. g., the external rectus of one side, falls
into a state of paresis, the first result is that the same volitional stimulus, which under
normal circumstances would have perhaps rotated the eye to its extreme position
outwards, now is competent to effect only a moderate outward rotation, say of 20°.
If now, shutting the sound eye, the patient looks at an object situated just so far
outwards from the paretic eye that this latter must turn 20°, in order to see it
distinctly, the patient will feel as if he had moved it not only 20° towards the side,
but into its extreme lateral position, for the impulse of innervation requisite for bringing
it into view is a perfectly conscious act, whilst the diminished state of contraction
of the paretic muscle lies for the present out of the ken of consciousness. The test
proposed by von Graefe, of localization by the sense of touch, serves to render evident
the error which the patient now makes. If we direct him to touch rapidly the
object looked at, with the fore finger of the hand of the same side, the line through

1 Physiologische Optik, p. 600. ever, learns to see correctly before many days or weeks are
2 The left and sound eye is here supposed covered. If Over. W. J.
both eyes look at the same field there are double images 3 Alfred Graefe,in Handbuch der gesammten Augenheil-

which still more perplex the judgment. The patient, how- kunde, Bd. vr, S. 18.

2, WILLIAM JAMES ON

“a

which the finger moves will not be the line of sight directed 20° outward, but will
approach more nearly to the extreme possible outward line of vision.”?

A stone cutter with the external rectus of the left eye paralysed, will strike his hand
instead of his chisel with his hammer, until experience has taught him wisdom.

It appears as if here the judgment of direction cow/d only arise from the excessive
innervation of the rectus when the object is looked at. All the afferent feelings must be
identical with those experienced when the eye is sound, and the judgment is correct.
The eye ball is rotated just 20° in the one case as in the other, the image falls on the same
part of the retina, the pressures on the eyeball and the tensions of the skin and conjunc-
tiva are identical. There is only one feeling which can vary, and lead us to our mistake.
That feeling must be the effort which the will makes, moderate in the one case, excessive
in the other, but in both cases an efferent feeling, pure and simple.

Beautiful and clear as this reasoning seems to be, it, is based on an incomplete invent-
ory of the afferent data. The writers have all omitted to consider what is going on in
the other eye. This is kept covered during the experiments to prevent double images,
and other complications. But if its condition under these circumstances be examined, it
will be found to present changes which must result in strong afferent feelings. And the
taking account of these feelings demolishes in an instant all the conclusions which the
authors from whom I have quoted, base upon their supposed absence. This I will now
proceed to show.

Take first the case of complete paralysis and assume the right eye affected. Suppose
the patient desires to rotate his gaze to an object situated in the extreme right of the
field of vision. As Hering has so beautifully shown, both eyes move by a common act of
innervation, and in this instance both move towards the right. But the paralyzed right
eye stops short in the middle of its course, the object still appearing far to the right of
its fixation pomt. The left sound eye, meanwhile, although covered, continues its rotation
until the extreme rightward limit thereof has.been reached. 'To an observer looking at both
eyes the left will seem to squint. Of course this continued and extreme rotation pro-
duces afferent feelings of rightward motion in the eyeball, which momentarily overpower
the faint feelings of central position in the diseased and uncovered eye. ‘The patient feels by
his left eye-ball as if he were following an object which by his right retina he perceives
he does not overtake. All the conditions of Optical vertigo are here present: the image
stationary on the retina, and the erroneous conviction that the eyes are moving.

The objection that a feeling in the right eyeball ought not to produce a conviction that
the left eye moves, will be considered ina moment. Let us meanwhile, turn to the case
of simple paresis with apparent translocation of the field.

Here the right eye succeeds in fixating the object, but observation of the left eye will
reveal to an observer the fact that it squints just as violently inwards as in the former
case. The direction which the finger of the patient takes im pointing to the object, is
the direction of this squinting and covered left eye. As Graefe says (although he fails to
seize the true import of his own observation), “ It appears to have been by no means suffi-
ciently noticed how significantly the direction of the line of sight of the secondarily
deviating eye, [7.e., of the left,] and the line of direction of the pointed finger agree.”

1 Ibid, p. 21.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 13

The translocation would, in a word, be perfectly explained, could we suppose that the
sensation of a certain degree of rotation in the left eyeball were able to suggest to the
patient the position of an object whose image falls on the right retina alone. Can then,
a feeling in one eye be confounded with a feeling in the other?

Not only Donders and Adamiik, by their vivisections, but Hering by his exquisite
optical experiments, have proved that the apparatus of innervation for both eyes
is single, and that they function as one organ—a double eye, according to Hering,
or what Helmholtz calls, a Cyclopenauge. Now the retinal feelings of this double
organ, singly innervated, are also to a great extent absolutely indistinguishable,
namely, where they fall in corresponding points. But even where they are numerically
distinguishable, they are indistinguishable with respect to our knowing whether they
belong to the left retina or to the right. When, as so often happens, part of a
distant object is hidden from one eye by the edge of an intervening body, and seen
only by the other eye, we rarely know by our spontaneous feeling that this is the
case, nor when we have noticed the fact can we tell which eye is seeing and which
is eclipsed. If the reader will hold two needles in front of his nose, one of them
behind the other, and look at the distant one with both eyes, the near one will
appear to him double. But he will be quite unable by his mere feeling, to say
to which eye either of the double images belong. If he gives an opinion, he will
probably say the right image belongs to the right eye, the reverse being really the
ease.’ In short, we use our retinal sensations indifferently, and only to tell us where
their objects lie. It takes long practice directed specially ad hoc, to teach us on
which retina the sensations respectively fall. .

Now the different sensations which arise from the positions of the eyeballs are also
used exclusively as signs of the position of objects; an object directly fixated, being
localized habitually at the intersection of the two optical axes, but without any separate
consciousness on our part that the position of one different from
another. All we are aware of is a consolidated feeling of a certain “strain” in the
eyeballs, accompanied by the perception that just so far in front and so far to the
right or to the left, there is an object which we see. This being the case, our
patient paretic of the right external rectus, might be expected to see objects, not
only transposed to the right, but also nearer because the intersection of his squinting axes
is nearer, and smaller because a retinal image of fixed size awakens the judgment of an
object small in proportion as it is judged near. Whether paretic patients of this kind are
subject to this additional illusion remains to be discovered by examinations which
ophthalmologists in large practice alone have the opportunity of making? It is

axis is

1 See also W. B. Rogers, Silliman’s Journal, 1860, for other
curious examples of this incapacity.

2Tn three recent cases examined for me by opthalmologi-
eal friends this additional delusion seemed absent, and I also
found it absent in a case of paralysis of the external rectus
with translocation which, by Dr. Wadsworth’s kindness, I
lately examined at the hospital. The “ absence’ spoken of
was in all these cases a vacillating and uncertain judgement
rather than a steadfastly positive judgment that distance
and size were unaltered.

The extraordinary vacillation of our judgments of size
and distance will be noticed by any one who has experi-
mented with slightly concave, convex or prismatic glasses.
The most familiar example is that of looking at the moon
through an opera glass. It looks larger, so its details are
more distinctly seen; being so distinct it looks nearer, and
because it seems nearer it is also judged smaller. (Aubert’s
secundare Urtheilstdéuschung). Many experiments may be
devised by which the left eye may be made to converge by
a prism whilst the right looks either at the same object or sees

14 WILLIAM JAMES ON

worth while to observe, however, that the feeling of accommodation and the knowledge
of the true size of the object conspire with the feeling of convergence to give the
judgment of distance. And where the convergence is an altogether abnormal one,
as in the paretic squint, the feeling of the left eyeball bemg excessive, might well
simply overpower all other feelings and leave no clear impression whatever save a general
one of looking far towards the right.

The only thoroughly crucial test of the explanation here proposed of the paretic
translocation, would be a case in which the left eye alone looked at the object whilst
the right, looking at nothing, strongly converged. Since, however, the only way
of making a normal eye converge, is to give it an object to look at, it would
seem at first sight as if such a case could never be obtained. It has occurred
to me, notwithstanding, that slight atropinization of one eye might cause such strong
accommodative innervation, that the convergent muscles might sympathetically contract,
and a squint tend to occur. The squint would be steadfast, and situated in the
non-atropinized eye, if it were covered and the poisoned eye alone made to fixate
a near object. And if under these circumstances the object thus monocularly seen were
translocated outwardly, we should have a complete verification of the explanation
I present. The innervation is wholly different from that m paresis, and the only point the
two cases have in common is the covered eye rotated nasalwards. Probably it would
not be easy to find the patient, or the dose of atropia just fitted for producing the
squint. But one positive instance would outweigh a hundred negative ones. I have
had a chance to experiment on but one person. <A large needle was stuck in a
horizontal board, whose edges touched the face, the needle being from eight to twelve
inches in front of the right atropinized eye. The subject was told to touch with her
finger the under surface of the board, just beneath the needle. The results were
negative, — no well-marked squint bemg perceptible, — but on the third day after
the atropinization, the patient regularly placed her finger from one-half to three-quarters
of an inch too far to the right. Other observations ought to be made.

There seems meanwhile to be a very good negative instance by which to corroborate our
arguments. If we whirl about on our heel to the right, objects will, as above-mentioned,
seem to whirl about us to the left as soon as we stand still. This is due to the
fact that our eyes are unwittingly making slow movements to the right, corrected
at intervals by quick voluntary ones to the left. There is then in the eyes a permanent
excess of rightward innervation, the reflex resultant of our giddiness. The intermittent
movements to the left by which we correct this, simply confirm and intensify the impres-
sion it gives us of a leftward whirling in the field of view: we seem to ourselves to be

one of the double images of amore distant object whose other The only experiment capable of proving the theory advanced

double image is cut off by a screen from the left retina.
Under these circumstances we get translocations which may
be similar to those in paresis but they prove nothing to our
purpose, for the moment the prism is introduced before the
left eye, altering its convergence, the right eye moves
sympathetically, giving rise to a translation of its retinal
image, which of course suggests translocation of the object.

in the text would be one in which no shifting of the image
on the right retina accompanied the turning inwards of the
left eye. The experiment without prisms mentioned by
Hering, (Lehre vom binocularen Sehen, pp. 12-14), seems
the nearest approach which we can make to this, but there
both eyes fixate the same objects, and there is some trans_

lation of the image.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 15

periodically pursuing and overtaking the objects in their leftward flight. Now if we con-
vert this periodic voluntary action into permanent action, by holding the eyeballs still in
spite of their reflex tendency to rotate, (7. e., by using such an excess of leftward volun-
tary innervation as would keep us fixating one object), we ought, if truly conscious of
the degree of our voluntary innervation, to feel our eyes actually moving towards the
left. And this feeling should produce in us the judgment that we are steadily following
with our gaze a leftward moving field of view. Asa matter of fact, however, this never
happens. What does happen is that the field of view stops its motion the moment our
eyes stop theirs.1. Nothing could more conclusively prove the inability of mere inner-
vation, (however complex or intense) to influence our perception. Nothing could more
completely vindicate the idea that effected movements, through the afferent sensations
they give rise to, are alone what serve as premises in our motor judgments.”

Il. Ipro—Moror Action.

So far then, so good. We have got rid of a very obstructive complication in relegating
the feeling of muscular exertion properly so called, to that vast and well known class of
afferent feelings, none of whose other members are held by any one to be especially con-
nected with the mysterious sentiments of effort and power, which are the subjects of our
study. All muscle feelings eliminated, the question stands out pure and simple: What
is the volitional effort proper? What makes it easy to raise the finger, hard to get out
of bed on a cold morning, harder to keep our attention on the insipid image of a proces-
sion of sheep when troubled with insomnia, and hardest of all to say No to the temp-

1 The subject of optical vertigo has been best treated by
Breuer in Stricker’s Medizinische Jahrbiicher, Jahre. 1874.
1 Heft. (See also 1875, 1 Heft). Hoppe’s more recent work
“ Die Scheinbewegungen,” I have not seen. I ought to say
that Mach (Grundlinien der Lehre von den Bewegunesemp-
findungen, 1875, pp. 83-5) denies that in his case fixating a
point causes the apparent movement of objects to stop. His
case is certainly exceptional, but need not invalidate in the
least our theory. The eye-motions in all cases are reflex
results of a sensation of subjective whirling of the body due
most probably to excitement of the semi-circular canals.
This is not arrested in any one by fixing the eyes; and per-
sisting in Mach with a constant field of view, may in him be
sufficient to suggest the judgment that the field follows him
in his flight, whilst in the average observer the further addi-
tion of a moving retinal image may be requisite for the full
production of that psychic impression. All the feelings in
question are rather confused and fluctuating, while the nausea
which rapidly supervenes stands in the way of our becoming
adepts in their observation.

2 Let it not be objected that the involuntary richtward
motion of the eyeballs which misled us, after standing still,
into the impression that the world was moving, was

“ effected”? and ought to have given us afferent sensations
strong enough to prevent our being deluded by the
image passing over the retina. No doubt we get these
afferent sensations and with sufficient practice would rightly
interpret them. But as the experiment is actually made,
neither they nor the moving image on the retina, (which far
overpowers them in vivacity of impression,) are expected.
When we intend a movement of the eyes, the world being
supposed at rest, we always expect both these sensations.
Whenever the latter has come unexpectedly we have been in
presence of a really moving object, and every moment of our
lives moving objects are giving us unexpectedly this experi-
ence. Of prolonged unexpected movements of the eyes we
never under normal circumstances lave any experience
whatever. What wonder then that the intense and familiar
sensation of an unexpectedly moving retinal image should
wholly overpower the feeble and almost unknown one of an
unexpected and prolonged movement of the eyeballs and be
interpreted as if it existed alone. I cannot doubt however
that with sufficient practice we should all learn so to attend
to and interpret the feelings of the moving eyeballs as to
reduce the retinal experience to its proper signification.

16 WILLIAM JAMES ON

tation of any form of instinctive pleasure which has grown inveterate and habitual. In a
word what is the nature of this fiat of which we have so often spoken?!

In our bed we think of the cold, and we feel the warmth and lie still, but we all the
time feel that we can get up with no trouble 7f we will. The difficulty is to will. We
say to our intemperate acquaintance, “ You can be a new man, if you will.’ But he finds
the willing impossible. One who talks nonsense under the influence of hasheesh, realizes
all the time his power to end his sentences soberly and sensibly, if he will. But his will
feels as yet no sufficient reason for exerting itself. A person lying in one of those half
trance like states of immobility not infrequent with nervous patients, feels the power to
move undiminished, but cannot resolve to manifest it. And cases might be multiplied
indefinitely in which the fiat is not only a distinct, but a difficult and effort-requiring
moment in the performance.

On the other hand cases may be multiplied indefinitely of actions performed with no
distinct volitional fiat at all,—the mere presence of an intellectual image of the move-
ment, and the absence of any conflicting image, being adequate causes of its produc-
tion. As Lotze says:? “The spectator accompanies the throwing of a billiard ball, or
the thrust of the swordsman with slight movements of his arm; the untaught narrator
tells his story with many gesticulations; the reader while absorbed in the perusal of a
battle scene feels a slight tension run through his muscular system, keeping time as it
were with the actions he is reading of. These results become the more marked the more
we are absorbed in thinking of the movements which suggest them; they grow fainter
exactly in proportion as a complex consciousness, under the dominion of a crowd of other
representations, withstands the passing over of mental contemplation into outward action.
* * * We see in writing or piano-playing a great number of very complicated move-
ments following quickly one upon the other, the instigative representations of which
remained scarcely a second in consciousness, certainly not long enough to awaken any
other volition than the general one of resigning oneself without reserve to the passing

over of representation into action. All the actions of our daily life happen in this wise:

serve as the term which resists our fiat that it become real.
M. de B.’s giving such a monstrous monopoly to the muscu-

lar feelings is a consequence of his not having completed the
discrimination I make in the text between all afferent sensa-

1 The philosophic importance of clearing the ground for
the question may be shown by the example of Maine de
Biran. This thoroughly original writer’s whole life was
devoted to the task of showing that the primordial fact of
conscious personality was the sentiment of volitional effort.
This intimate sense is the selfin each of us. “ It becomes
the self by the sole fact of the distinction which establishes
itself between the subject of the effort and the term which
resists by its own inertia. The ego cannot begin to know
itself or to exist for itself, except in so far as it can dis-

tions together on the one hand, and the fiat on the other.
Muscle feelings for him still occupy an altogether singular
hybrid and abnormal sort of position.

2? Medicinische Psychologie, 1852, p. 293. In his
admirably acute chapter on the will this author has most
explicitly maintained the position that what we call mus-

tinguish itself as subject of an effort, from a term which
resists.” ((uvres Inédites, Vol. 1, pp. 208, 212). Maine
de Biran makes this resisting term the muscle, though it is
true he does not, like so many of his successors, think we
have an efferent sense of its resistance. Its resistance is
known to us by a muscular sensation proper, the effect of the
contraction (p. 213). We shall show in the sequel that this
sensation resists our fiat or volitional effort proper in no
degree gud muscular, but simply quad disagreeable. Any
other disagreeable sensation whatever may equally well

cular exertion is an afferent and not an efferent feeling:
“ We must aflirm universally that in the muscular feeling we
are not sensible of the force on its way to produce an effect,
but only of the sufferance already produced in our moveable
organs, the muscles, after the force has, in a manner unob-
servable by us, exerted upon them its causality.” (p. 311.)
How often the battles of psychology have to be fought over
again, each time with heavier armies and bigger trains,
though not always with so able generals.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 17

Our standing up, walking, talking, all this never demands a distinct impulse of the will,
but is adequately brought about by the pure flux of thought.”

Dr. Carpenter has proposed the name ideo-motor for these actions without a special
fiat. And in the chapter of his Mental Physiology bearing this title may be found a very
full collection of instances.t| It is to be noted that among the most frequent cases
of this sort are those acts which result from ideas or perceptions, intercurrent as
it were to the main stream of our thought, and it may be logically disconnected
therewith. I am earnestly talking with a friend, when I notice a piece of string
on the floor. The next instant I have picked it up, with no deliberate resolve to
do so, and with no check to my conversation. Or, I am lying in my warm bed,
engrossed in some revery or other, when the notion suddenly strikes me “it is
getting late,’ and before I know it, 1am up in the cold, having executed without
the smallest effort of resolve, an action which, half an hour previous, with full
consciousness of the pros and the cons, the warm rest and the chill, the sluggishness
and the manliness, time lost and the morning’s duties, I was utterly unable to decide upon.

I then lay it down as a second corner-stake in our inquiry, that every representation
of a motion awakens the actual motion which is its object, unless inhibited by some
antagonistic representation simultaneously present to the mind.

It is somewhat dangerous to base dogmatic conclusions on the experiments so far
made on the cerebral cortex, nevertheless they may help to confirm conclusions
already probable on other grounds. Munk’s vivisectional experiments on the cortical
centres seem much the most minute and elaborate which have yet been reported.
Now Munk concludes from them that the so-called motor centres of Hitzig and
Ferrier, each of which, when electrically irritated, provokes a characteristic movement
in some part of the body, are sensory centres,—the centres for the feelings of
touch, pressure, position, and motion of the bodily parts in question. The entire
zone which contains them is called by him the Fiihlsphiire of the cerebral surface,
and is made codrdinate with the Sehsphdre and Hérsphiire?

Electric excitement of the fore paw centre can then only give us an image of the paw
in some resultant state of flexion or extension. And the reason why motor effects occur
like clock-work when this centre is irritated, would be that this image is awakened with
such extraordinary vivacity by the stimulus that no other idea in the animal’s mind can
be strong enough to inhibit its discharging into the insertient motor centres below.

Now the reader may still shake his head and say: “ But can you seriously mean that
all the wonderfully exact adjustment of my action’s strength to its ends, is not a matter
of outgoing innervation? Here is a cannon ball, and here a pasteboard box: instantly
and accurately I lift each from the table, the ball not refusing to rise because my inner-
vation was too weak, the box not flying abruptly into the air because it was too strong.

1 Prof. Bain has also amply illustrated the subject in his
work on the Senses and Intellect, 3d edition, pages 336 to
343. He considers that these facts prove that the ideas of
motion inhabit identical nerve tracts with the actualized
motions.

2H. Munk (Du Bois-Reymond’s Archiv fiir Physiologie,
1878, pp.177-8 and 549). It is true that Munk still believes

in the Innervationsgefihl, only he supposes it to be a result
of the activity of the lower motor centres, not coming to
consciousness in situ, but transmitted upwards by fibres to
the zone in question, and there perceived along with the
passive feelings of the part involved. ‘It is needless to say
that there is not an atom of objective ground for the belief in
these afferent innervation feelings — even less than for the
efferent ones ordinarily assumed.

18 WILLIAM JAMES ON

Could representations of the movement’s different sensory effects in the two cases be so
delicately foreshadowed in the mind? or being there, is it credible that they should, all
unaided, so delicately graduate the stimulation of the unconscious motor centres to their
work ?” Even so! I reply to both queries.
owing of the sensory effects.

We have a most extremely delicate foreshad-
Why else the start of surprise that runs through us, if
some one has filled the light seeming box with sand before we try to lift it, or has sub-
stituted for the cannon ball which we know, a painted wooden imitation? Surprise can
But the truth
is that when we know the objects well, the very slightest difference from the expected
weight will surprise us, or at least attract our notice. With unknown objects we begin by
expecting the weight made probable by their appearance. The expectation of this sensa-
it rather small at first.

only come from getting a sensation which differs from the one we expect.

re)

An instant verifies whether
Our expectation rises, 7. e., we think im a twinkling of a setting of
the chest and teeth, a bracing of the back, and a more violent feelmg in the arms.
Quicker than thought we have them, and with them the burden ascends into the air.
Bernhardt ! has shown in a rough experimental way that our estimation of the amount of
aresistance is as delicately graduated when our wills are passive, and our limbs made to
contract by direct local faradization, as when we ourselves innervate them.

tion innervates our lift, and we “set
it is too small.

Ferrier” has
They admit of no great precision, and too much
stress should not be laid upon them either way, but at the very least, they tend to show
that no added delicacy would accrue to our perception from the consciousness of the effer-
ent process, even if it existed.

repeated and verified the observations.

Il. Tue InscrutTaBLe Psycno-puysic NEXUS IS IDENTICAL IN ALL INNERVATION

AND LIES OUTSIDE THE SPHERE OF THE WILL.

On the ordinary theory, the movements which accompany emotion, and those which we
call voluntary, are of a fundamentally different character. The emotional movements are
admitted to be discharged without imtermediary by the mere presence of the exciting
The voluntary motions are said to follow the idea only after an intermediate con-
scious process of “innervation” has been aroused. On the present theory the only dif

ference lies in the fact that the emotions show a peculiar congenital connection of certain

idea.

forms of idea with certain very specially combmed movements, largely of the “ involun-

tary ” muscles, but also of the others —as in fear, anger, etc.—such connection being non-

congenital in voluntary action; and in the further fact that the discharge of idea mto
movement is much more readily inhibited by other casually present ideas in the case
of voluntary action, and less so in the case of emotions; though here too inhibition

takes place on a large scale.’

1 Archiv fiir Psychiatrie, 111, 618-635. Bernhardt strangely
enough seems to think that what his experiments disprove is
the existence of afferent muscular feelings, not those of effer-
ent innervation — apparently because he deems that the
peculiar thrill of the electricity ought to overpower all other
afferent feelings from the part. But it is far more natural to
interpret his results the other way, even aside from the cer-

tainty yielded by other evidence that passive muscular feel-
ings exist. This other evidence is compendiously summed
up by Sachs in Reichert und Du Bois’ Archiv, 1874, pp.
174-188.

2 Functions of the Brain, p. 228.

8 Witness the evaporation of manifestations of disgust in the
presence of fear, of lust in the presence of respect, ete., etc.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 19

That one set of ideas should compel the vascular, respiratory, and gesticulatory symp-
toms of shame, another those of anger, a third those of grief, a fourth those of laughter,
and a fifth those of sexual excitement, is a most singular fact of our organization, which
the labors of a Darwin have hardly even begun to throw light upon. Where such a pre-
arrangement of the nerve centres exists, the way to awaken the motor symptoms is to
awaken first the idea and then to dwell upon it. The thought of our enemy soon
brings with it the bodily ebullition, of our loss the tears, of our blunder the blush. We
even read of persons who can contract their pupils voluntarily by steadily imagining a
brilliant light — that being the sensation to which the pupils normally respond.

“ Tt is possible to weep at will by trying to recall that peculiar feeling in the trigeminal
nerve which habitually precedes tears. Some can even succeed in sweating voluntarily,
by the lively recollection of the characteristic skin sensations, and the voluntary repro-
duction of an indescribable sort of feeling of relaxation, which ordinarily precedes the
flow of perspiration. Finally, it is well known how easily the thought of gustatory stim-
uli excites the activity of the salivary glands. This capacity to indirectly excite activi-
ties usually involuntary, is much more pronounced in certain diseases. Hypochondriacs
know well how easily the heart-beat may be made to alter, or even cramps of single mus-
cles, feelings of awra, and so forth, be brought about in this way, which no doubt in the
religious epidemics of the Middle Ages, led to the imitative spread of ecstatic convulsions,
from one person to another.” * It suffices to think steadily of the feeling of yawning, to
provoke the act in most persons; and in every one in certain states, to imagine vomiting
is to vomit.

The great play of individual idiosyneracy in all these matters, shows that the
following or not followmg of action upon representation is a matter of connections
among nervous centres, which connections may fluctuate widely in extent. The
ordinary “voluntary” act results in this way: First, some feeling produces a
movement in a reflex, or as we say, accidental way. ‘The movement excites a sensorial
tract, causing a feeling which, whenever the sensorial tract functions again, revives as an
idea. Now the sensorial and motor tracts, thus associated in their actions, remain
associated forever afterwards, and as the motor originally aroused the sensory, so the

“sensory may now arouse the motor (provided no outlying ideational tracts im connection

with it prevent it from sodoing). Voluntary acts are in fact nothing but acts whose motor
centres are so constituted that they can be aroused by these sensorial centres, whose
excitement was originally their effect. Acts, the innervation of which cannot thus run
up its primal stream, are not voluntary. But the line of division runs differently in
different individuals.

Now notice that in all this, whether the act do follow or not upon the representation
is a matter quite immaterial so far as the willing of the act represented goes. I will to
write, and the act follows. I will to sneeze, and it does not. I will that the distant table
slide over the floor towards me; it also does not. My willing representation can no
more instigate my sneezing centre, than it can instigate the table, to activity. But in

1 Lotze, Medicinische Psychologie, p. 303.

20 WILLIAM JAMES ON

both cases, it is as true and good willing as it was when I willed to write. In a word,
volition is a psychic or moral fact pure and simple, and is absolutely completed when
the intention or consent is there. The supervention of motion upon its completion is a
supernumerary phenomenon belonging to the department of physiology exclusively, and
depending on the organic structure and condition of executive ganglia, whose functioning
is quite unconscious.

In St. Vitus’ dance, in locomotor ataxy, the representation of a movement and the
consent to it take place normally. But the inferior executive centres are deranged,
and although the ideas discharge them, they do not discharge them so as to reproduce
the precise sensations which they prefigure. In aphasia the patient has an image of
certain words which he wishes to utter, but when he opens his mouth, he hears himself
making quite unintended sounds. This may fill him with rage and despair — which
passions only show how intact his will remains."

Paralysis only goes a step farther. The associative mechanism is not only deranged
but altogether broken through. The volition occurs, but the hand remains as still as the
table. The paralytic is made aware of this by the absence of the expected change in his
afferent sensations. He tries harder, 7. e., he mentally frames the sensation of muscular
“ effort” with consent that it shall occur. It does so: he frowns, he heaves his chest, he
clenches his other fist, but the palsied arm lies passive.?. It may then be that the thought
of his impotence shall make his will, like a Rarey-tamed horse, forever afterwards cowed,
inhibited, impossible, with respect to that particular motion.’

The special case of the limb being completely anesthetic, as well as atactic, curiously
illustrates the merely external and quasi-accidental connection between muscular motion
and the thought which instigates it. We read of cases like this:

“ Voluntary movements cannot be estimated the moment the patient ceases to take note
of them by his eyes. Thus after having made him close his eyes, if one asks him to
move one of his limbs either wholly or in part, he does it but cannot tell whether the
effected movement is large or small, strong or weak, or even if it has taken place at all.
And when he opens his eyes after moving his leg from right to left, for example, he
declares that he had a very inexact notion of the extent of the effected movement. . . .
If, having the intention of executing a certain movement, J prevent him, he does not per-
ceive it, and supposes the limb to have taken the position he intended to give it.”* Or
this :

1Jn ataxy it is true that the sensations resultant from a state. The undoubtedly true theory is best expounded by

movement are usually disguised by anasthesia. This has led
to false explanations of the symptom (Leyden, Die graue
Degeneration des Riickenmarks, 1863). But the undeni-
able existence of atactics without a trace of insensibility
proves the trouble to be due to disorder of the associating
machinery between the centres of ideation and those of dis-
charge. These latter cases have been used by some authors
in support of the Innervationsgetiihl theory: (Classen: das
Schlussverfahren des Sehactes, 1863, p. 50); the spas-
modic irregular movements being interpreted as the result of
an imperfect sense of the amount of innervation we are
exerting. There is no subjective evidence whatever of such

Jaccoud: Des Paraplegies et de l’Ataxie Motrice, 1864,
part iii, chapter ii.

2 A normal palsy occurs during sleep. We will all sorts
of motions in our dreams, but seldom perform any of them.
In nightmare we become conscious of the non-performance,
and will the ‘effort.’ This seems then to occur in a
restricted way, limiting itself to the occlusion of the glottis
and producing the respiratory anxiety which wakes us up.

8 Vide supra, p. 8, note 3.

4 Landry: Mémoire sur la Paralysie du Sens Musculaire,
in Gazette des Hopitaux, 1855, p. 270.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 21

“ The patient when his eyes were closed in the middle of an unpractised movement,
remained with the extremity in the position it had when the eyes closed and did not com-
plete the movement properly. Then after some oscillations the limb gradually sank by
reason of its weight (the sense of fatigue being absent). Of this the patient was not
aware, and wondered when he opened his eyes, at the altered position of his limb.” 1

In the normal state of man there is always a possibility that action may not occur in
this simple ideo-motor way. The motor ideas may awaken other ideas which inhibit the dis-
charge into the executive ganglia. But in the state called hypnotism we have a condition
analogous to sleep in so far forth that the ideas which turn up do not awaken their habit-
ual and most reasonable associates. Their motor effects are therefore not inhibited, and
the hypnotized subject not only believes everything that is told him, however improb-
able, but he acts out every motor suggestion which he receives. The eminent French
philosopher, Renouvier, as early as 1859, expressly assimilated these facts of hypnotism
to the ordinary ideo-motor actions, and to those effects of moral vertigo and fascination
which make us fall when we are on heights, laugh from the fear of laughing, etc., ete.
His account of the psychology of volition? is the firmest, and in my opinion, the
truest connected treatment yet given to the subject by any author with whom I am
acquainted.

IV. Tue Witt connects TERMS IN THE MENTAL SPHERE ONLY.

We must now leave behind us the cases of extremely uncomplicated mental motivation,
which we have hitherto considered, and take up others where the tendency of a particular
motor idea to take effect is arrested or delayed. These are the cases where the fiat, the
distinct decision, or the volitional effort, come in; and we find them of many degrees of
complexity.

First there are cases with no effort properly so called, either of muscle or resolution :
Shall I put on this hat or that? Shall I draw a horse or a man on the sheet of paper
which this amusement-eraving child brings me? Shall I move my index finger, or my
little finger to show my “ liberum arbitrium indifferentie?’ In the mountains, in youth,
on some intoxicating autumn morning, after invigorating slumber, we feel strong enough
to jump over the moon, and casting about us for a barrier, a rock, a tree, or any object on
which to measure our bodily prowess, we perform with perfect spontaneity feats which at
another time might demand an almost impossible exertion of muscle and of will.

Both of these exertions are present in a vast class of actions. Exhausted with fatigue
and wet and watching, the sailor on a wreck throws himself down to rest. But hardly
are his limbs fairly relaxed, when the order “ to the pumps!” again sounds in his ears. Shall

.

1 Takacs. Ueber die Verspiitung der Empfindungsleitung.
Archiv fiir Psychiatrie Bd. X, Heft 2, p. 533.

2Essais de Critique Générale; 2me Essai, Psychologie
rationelle, pp. 237 and following. 2me Edition, 1875.
Tome I, pp. 367-408. Heidenhain, in an interesting pamph-
let (Der sogennante thierische Magnetismus, Leipzig,

1880), has recently propounded the opinion that in hypnot-
ized subjects the hemispheres are thrown entirely out of gear
and no ideas whatever awakened. ‘This opinion is so much
at variance with that of English and French observers that
further corroboration is required.

22 WILLIAM JAMES ON

he, can he, obey it? Is it not better just to let his aching body lie, and let the ship go
down if she will? So he lies on, till, with a desperate heave of the will, at last he staggers
to his legs, and to his task again.

Again, there are instances where the volitional fiat demands great effort though the
muscular exertion be insignificant, e. g., the getting out of bed and bathing oneself on a
cold morning. ,

Finally, we may have the fiat im all its rigor, with no motor representation what-
ever involved, or one so remote as not to count directly at all in the mental motivation.

Of the former class are all resolutions to be patient rather than to act. Such a one we
have to make in the dentist’s chair: The alternatives are a state of inward writhing, and
mental swearing, coupled with spasmodic respiration, and all sorts of irregularly antag-
onistic muscular contractions —a state of shrinking and protest in a word, on the one
hand; and on the other a state of muscular relaxation and free breathing, a sort of
mental welcoming of the pain, and the elated consciousness that be it never so savage,
we can stand it. This is a state of consent, and the passage from the former state to it,
not the passage the other way, is in this stance the one requiring the fiat, and char-
acterized by the mental “ click” of resolve.

As examples of the last class, take Regulus returning to Carthage, the priest who
decides to break with his church, the girl who makes up her mind to live single with her
ideal, rather than accept the good old bachelor who is her only suitor, the embezzler who
fixes a certain day on which to make public confession, the deliberate suicide, yea the
wretch who after long hesitation, resolves that he will put arsenic into his wife’s cup.
These pass through one moment which like a knife-edge parts all their past from all their
future, but which leads to no immediate muscular consequences at all.

Now if we analyze this great variety of cases, we shall find that the knife-edge moment
where it exists, has the same identical constitution in all. It is literally a fiat, a state of
mind which consents, agrees, or is willing, that certain represented experiences shall con-
tinue to be, or should now for the first time become, part of Reality. The consent comes
after hesitation. The hesitation came because something made us imagine another alter-
native. When both alternatives are agreeable, as in the intoxication of the mountain morn-
ing, or the liberum arbitrium indifferentie, the hesitation is but momentary; for either
course is better than delay, and the one which lies nearest when the sense that we are
uselessly delaying becomes pungent, is the one which discharges into act — thus no men-
tal tension has time to arise.

But in other cases both alternatives are images of mixed good and evil. Whatever
is done has to be done against some inhibitory agency, whether of intrinsic unpleas-
antness in the doing, or of represented odiousness of the doimg’s fruits: the fiat has to
occur against resistance. Volition then comes hand in hand with the sentiment of effort,
and the proper problem of this essay lies before us.

What does the effort seem to do? To bring the decisive volition. What is this
volition? The stable victory of an idea, although it may be disagreeable, the permanent
suppression of an idea although it may be immediately and urgently pleasant.

What do we mean by “victory”? The survival in the mind in such form as to consti-
tute unwavering contemplation, expectation, assent, or affirmation. What do we mean by

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 23

“ suppression” ? Either complete oblivescence, or such presence as to evoke the steady
sentiment of aversion or negation.

Volition with effort is then incidental to the conflict of ideas of what our experience
may be. Conflict involves those strange states or general attitudes of feeling, which
when we speak logically or intellectually, we call affirmation and negation, but when
we speak emotionally, we call assent and refusal. Psychologically of course, like every
other mental modification, these attitudes are feelings swi generis, not to be described,
but only labelled and pointed out. What they are in se, what their confliet is, and what
its decision and resolution are, we know in every given case introspectively with an abso-
lute clearness that nothing can make clearer. But what forms of cerebral nerve-process
correspond to these mind-processes is an infinitely darker matter, and one as to which I
will here make no suggestion except the simple and obvious one that they and volition
with them are subserved by the ideational centres exclusively and involve no downward
irradiation into lower parts. The irradiation only comes when they are completed.

In the dentist’s chair, one idea is that of the manliness of enduring the pain, the
other is that of its intolerable character. We assent to the manliness, saying, “let it be
the reality,’ and behold, it becomes so, though with a mental effort exactly proportionate
to the sensitiveness of our nerves. To the sailor on the wreck, one idea is that of his
sore hands, and the nameless aching exhaustion of his whole frame which further
pumping involves. The other, is that of a hungry sea ingulfing him. He says: “ rather
the former!’ and it becomes reality, in spite of the inhibiting influence of the
comparatively luxurious sensations of the spot in which he for the moment lies.

To the sinner in the agony of his mind, one idea is of the social shame and all
the outward losses and degradations to which confession will expose him, the other is that
of the rescue from the damned unending inward foulness to which concealment seems
to doom him. He says to the confession, “fiat! with all its consequences,” and sure
enough, when the time comes, fit, but not without mental blood and sweat.

Everywhere the difficulty is the same: to keep affirming and adopting a state of mind
of which disagreeableness is an integral factor. The disagreeableness need not be of the
nature of pain; it may be the merely relative disagreeableness of insipidity. When the
spontaneous course of thought is to exciting images, whether sanguine or lugubrious, loy-
ing or revengeful, all reasonable representations come with a deadly flatness and coldness
that strikes a chill to the soul. To cling to them however, as soon as they show their
faces, to consent to their presence, to affirm them, to negate all the rest, is the character-
istic energy of the man whose will is strong. If on this purely mental plane his effort
succeeds, the outward consequences will take care of themselves, for the representation
will work unaided its motor effects. The simplest cases are the best for illustrating the
point, and in the case of a man afflicted with insomnia, and to whose body sleep comes
through the persistent successful diversion of the mind from the train of whirling
thoughts, to the monotonous contemplation of one letter after another of a verse of
poetry, spelled out synchronously with the acts of respiration, we have all the elements
that can anywhere be found: a struggle of ideas, a victory of one set and certain
bodily effects automatically consequent thereon. 7'o sustain a representation, to think, is
what requires the effort, and is the true moral act. Maniacs know their thoughts to be

24 WILLIAM JAMES ON

insane, but they are too pressing to be withstood. Again and again sober notions come,
but like the sober instants of a drunken man, they are so sickeningly cadaverous, or
else so still and small and imperceptible, that the lunatic can’t bear to look them fully in
the face and say: “let these alone represent my realities.’ Such an extract as this will
illustrate what I mean:

“A gentleman of respectable birth, excellent education, and ample fortune, engaged in
one of the highest departments of trade . . . . and being induced to embark in one of
the plausible speculations of the day . . . . was utterly ruined. Like other men he could
bear a sudden overwhelming reverse better than a long succession of petty misfortunes,
and the way in which he conducted himself on the occasion met with unbounded admi-
ration from his friends. He withdrew, however, into rigid seclusion, and being no longer
able to exercise the generosity and indulge the benevolent feelgs which had formed the
happiness of his life, made himself a substitute for them by daydreams, gradually fell into
a state of irritable despondency, from which he only gradually recovered with the loss of
reason. He now fancied himself possessed of immense wealth, and gave without stint his
imaginary riches. He has ever since been under gentle restraint, and leads a life not
merely of happiness, but of bliss; converses rationally, reads the newspapers, where every
tale of distress attracts his notice, and being furnished with an abundant supply of blank
checks, he fills wp one of them with a munificent sum, sends it off to the sufferer, and
sits down to his dinner with a happy conviction that he has earned the right to a little
indulgence in the pleasures of the table ; and yet, on a serious conversation with one of
his old friends, he is quite conscious of his real position, but the conviction is so exquis-
itely painful that he will not let himself believe it.”

Now to turn to the special case of the decision to make a muscular movement. This
decision may require a volitional effort, or it may not. If I am well, and the move-
ment is a light one (like the brushing of dust from my coat-sleeve), and suggests no
consequences of an unpleasant nature, it is effortless. But if unpleasant consequences
ure expected, that effective sustaining of the idea which results in bringing the motion
about, and which is equivalent to mental consent that those consequences become real,
involves considerable effort of volition. Now the unpleasant consequences may be
immediate —, my body may be weary, or the movement violent, and involve a great
amount of that general and special afferent feeling which we learned above to constitute
muscular exertion. Under these circumstances the idea of the movement is the
imagination of these massively unpleasant feelings, and nothing else. The willing of the
movement is the consent to these imagined feelings becoming real, — the saying of them,
“fiant.’ The effort which the willmg requires is the purely mental transition from the
mere conception of the feelings to their expectation, steadfastly maintaining itself before
the mind, disagreeable though it be. The motor idea, assuming at last this victorious
status, not only uninhibited by remote associations, but mhibited no longer even by its
own unpleasantness, discharges by the preappointed mechanism into the right muscles.
Then the motor sensations accrue in all their expected severity, the and muscular effort
as distinguished from the volitional effort has its birth.

1 The Duality of the Mind, by A. L. Wigan, M. D., p. 123.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 95

It is needless after this to say what absolutely different phenomena these two efforts
are, or to expatiate upon the unfortunateness of their being confounded under the same
generic name. Muscular feelings whenever they are massive, and the body is not
“fresh,” are rather disagreeable, especially when accompanied by stopped breath,
congested head, bruised skin of fingers, toes, or shoulders, and strained joints. And it is
only as thus disagreeable that the mind has difficulty in consenting to their reality.
That they happen to be made real by our bodily activity is a purely accidental
‘circumstance. A soldier standing still to be fired at, expects disagreeable sensations
engendered by his bodily passivity. The action of his will, in consenting to the
expectation, is identical with that of the sailor rising to go to the pumps. What is hard
for both is facing an idea as real.

The action of the will must not be limited to the willing of an act. To exert the will
and to make soft muscles hard, are not one thing, but two entirely different things.
Extremely frequent association may account for, but not excuse their confusion by the
psychologist. The represented disagreeableness of a muscular motion may often be that
which an exertion of will is called on to overcome ; but as well might a cook, who daily
associates the burning of the fire with the boiling of the potatoes, define the inward
essence of combustion as the making of hard potatoes soft.

The action of the will is the reality of consent to a fact of any sort whatever, a fact in
which we ourselves may play either an active, or a suffering part. The fact always
appears to us in an idea: and it is willed by its idea becoming victorious over inhibiting
ideas, banishing negations, and remaining affirmed. The victorious idea is in every case
whatsoever built up of images of feelings afferent in their origin. And the first philo-
sophical conclusion properly so-called, into which our inquiry leads us, is a confirmation of
the older sensationalist view that all the mind’s materials without exception are derived
from passive sensibility. Those who have thought that sensationalism abdicated its throne
and mental spontaneity came in when Prof. Bain admitted a “sensation of energy
exerted by the outgoing stream,’”*have rejoiced in the wrong place altogether. There is
a feeling of mental spontaneity, opposed in nature to all afferent feelings; but it does not,
like the pretended feeling of muscular innervation, sit among them as among its peers.
It is something which dominates them all, by simply choosing from their midst. It may
reinforce either one in turn—a retinal image by attending to it, a motor image by willing
it, a complex conception, like that of the world having a divine meaning, by believing it.
Whatever mental material this element of spontaneity comes and perches on, is sustained,
affirmed, selected from the rest; though but for the feeling of spontaneous psychic effort,
which thus reinforces it, we are conscious every moment that it might cease to be. The
whole contrast of a@ priori and empirical elements in the mind lies, I am fully convinced,
in this distinction. All our mind's contents are alike empirical. What is a priori is only
their accentuation and emphasis. This greeting of the spirit, this acquiescence, conni-
vance, partiality, call it what you will, which seems the inward gift of our selfhood, and no
essential part of the feelings, to either of which in turn it may be given,— this psychic
effort pure and simple, is the fact which a@ priori psychologists really have in mind when
they indignantly deny that the whole intellect is derived from sense.

WILLIAM JAMES ON

bo
lor)

V. No Conscious Dynamic CONNECTION BETWEEN THE INNER AND OUTER WoR LDS.

Now if we take this psychic fact for just what on the face of it it seems to be, namely,
the giving to an idea the full degree of reality it can have in and for the mind, we are
led to a curious view of the relations between the inner and the outer worlds. The
ideas, as mere representatives of possibility, seem set up midway between them to form
a sort of atmosphere in which Reality floats and plays. The mind can take any
one of these ideas and make it ifs reality—sustain it, adopt it, adhere to it. But
the mind’s state will be Error, unless the outer force “backs” the same idea. If it backs
it, the mind is cognitive of Truth ; but whether in error, or in truth, the mind’s espousal
of the idea is called Belief. The outer force seems in no wise constrained to back
the mind’s adoptions, except in one single kind of case,— where the idea is that of bodily
movement. Here the outer force (with certain reservations) obeys and follows the
mind’s lead, agreeing to father as it were every child of that sort which the mind may
conceive. And the act by which the mind thus takes the lead is called a Volition.

The ideas backed by both parties are the Reality ; those backed by neither, or by the
mind alone, form a residuum, a sort of limbo or no-man’s land, of wasted fancies and
aborted possibilities.

But is it not obvious from this that the difference between Belief and Volition is not
intrinsic ? What the mind does in both cases is the same. It takes an image, and says,
«*so far as ] am concerned, let this stand; let it be real for me.’ The behavior of the
outer force is what makes all the difference. Generally constrained in the case of the
motor volition, it is independent in the case of the belief. It is true that volition may be
impotent and belief delusive ;— but be they however never so false or powerless, by
their inward nature they are eusdem farinw, — beliefs and volitions still.

Belief and Will are thus concerned immediately only with the relation between pos-
sibilities for the mind, and realities for the mind. The notion of reality for the mind,
becomes thus the pivotal notion in the analysis of both. To analyze this notion itself »
seems at present an impossible task. Professor Bain has exerted his utmost powers upon
it, but, to our mind, without avail; and what J. 8. Mill says! still remains true, that when
we arrive at the element which makes a belief differ from a mere conception, “ we
seem to have reached as it were, the central point of our intellectual nature, presupposed
and built upon in every attempt to explain the more recondite phenomena of our being.”

The sense of reality must then be postulated as an ultimate psychic fact. But we know
that it may come with effort, or without, in the theoretic as well as in the motor sphere ;
and the reader who has had the patience to follow our study of effort as far as this, will
not object to going on now to consider it in both spheres together.

Hume said that to believe an idea, was simply to have it in a lively manner. We, on
our part, have seen the ideo-motor cases in which to will an idea is simply to have it.
But a moment’s reflexion shows that such spontaneous belief and will are possible only
where the mind’s contents are at a minimum of complication. In the trance-subject’s mind

1 His edition of James Mills’ ‘‘Analysis.” Vol. i., p. 428. his Emotions and Will.
Bain’s reply is in the chapter on Belief in the 3d edition of

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. oF

any simple suggestion will be both believed and acted on, because none of its usual asso-
ciates are awakened. Bain! and Taine? have beautifully shown how in the normal sub-
ject all ideas taken per se are hallucinatory or held as true. Doubt never comes from any
intrinsic insufficiency in a thought, but from the manner in which extrinsic ideas conflict
with it, or in Taine’s phrase, serve as its reductive. Before they come we have the primal
state of theoretic and practical innocence.

But wider suggestions bring the fall, and turn the simple credulity to doubt and the
fearless spontaneity to hesitation. A stable faith, a firm decree, can then only come after
reflection, and be its fruits. What is reflection? A conflict between many ideas of
possibility. During the conflict the sense of reality is lost or rather the connexion
between it and each of the ideas in turn. The conflict is over when the sense of reality
returns, like the tempered steel, ten times more precious and invincible for its icy bath in
the waters of uncertainty. But why and how does it return? and why does it so often
return with the symptom of effort by its side? Is it an independent entity which merely
took its flight at the first alarm of the battle, and which now with effort as its ally and
affirmation at its right hand and negation at its left, comes back to give the victory to one
idea? Or is it a simple resultant of the victory which was a foregone conclusion decided
by the intrinsic strength of the conflicting ideas alone ?

We stand here in the presence of another mighty metaphysical problem. If the latter
alternative be true there is no genuine spontaneity, no ambiguous power of decision, no
real freedom either of faith or of act. The effort which seems to come and reinforce one
side, endowing it with the feeling of reality, can be no new force adding itself to those
already in the arena. It can only be a sort of eddy or derivative from their movement,
whose semblance of independent form is illusory, and whose amount and direction are
implicitly given the moment they are posited.

This has been the doctrine of powerful schools. The ideas themselves: and their con-
flict have been held to constitute the total history of the mind, with no unaccounted-for
phenomenon left over. Long before mutual inhibition by nerve processes had been dis-
covered, the inhibitions and furtherances of one idea by another, had by Herbart been
erected into a completely elaborated system of psychic statics and dynamics. The English
associationist school, without using the word inhibition, and in a much less outwardly
systematic, though by no means less successful way, had also represented choice and
decision as nothing but the resultant of different ideas failing to neutralize each other
exactly. Doubt, fear, contradiction, curiosity, desire, assent, conviction, affirmation, nega-
tion and effort, are all alike, on this view, but collateral products, incidents of the form of
equilibrium of the representations, as they pass from the oscillating to the stable state.

This is of course conceivable; — and to have the conception in a lively manner,
(as Hume says), may well in us as in so many others, carry the sense of reality with it,
and command conviction. But still the other alternative conflicts, and may reduce this
conception to one of mere possibility, degrading it from a creed to an hypothesis. It
seems impossible, if our minds are in this open state, to find any crucial evidence which
may decide. * I shall, therefore, not pretend to dogmatize myself, but close this essay by a

1 Emotions and Will. 3d Ed. pp. 511-517. ? De I’'Intelligence. Part i, Book ii, Chap. i.

28 WILLIAM JAMES ON

few considerations, which may give at least an appearance of liveliness to the alternative
notion, that the mental effort with which the affirmation, of reality so often comes con-
joined, may be an adventitious phenomenon, not wholly given and pre-determined by the
ideas of whose struggle it accompanies the settlement.

A little natural history becomes here necessary. When outer forces impinge upon a
body we say that its resultant motion follows the line of least resistance, or of greatest
traction. When we deliberately symbolize the mental drama in mechanical language,
we also say that belief and will follow the lines of least resistance, or of most attractive
motivation. But it is a curious fact that our spontaneous language is by no means com-
patible with the law that mental action always follows lines of least resistance. Of course,
if we proceed a priori and define the line of least resistance, as the line that is followed,
the law must hold good. But in all hard cases either of belief or will, it seems to the
agent as if one lme were easier than another, and offered least resistance, even at the
moment when the other line is taken. The sailor at the pumps, he who under the sur-
geon’s knife represses cries of pain, or he who exposes himself to ostracism for duty’s
sake, feels as if he were following the line of greatest temporary resistance. He speaks
of conquering and overcoming his impulses and temptations.

But the sluggard, the drunkard, the coward, never talk of their conduct in that way
or say they resist their energy, overcome their sobriety, conquer their courage and so forth.
If in general we class all motives as sensual on the one hand and moral on the other, the
sensualist never says of his behavior that it results from a victory over his conscience, but
the moralist always speaks of his as a victory over his appetite. The sensualist uses terms
of inactivity, says he forgets his ideal, is deaf to duty and so forth; which terms seem to
imply that the moral motives per se can be annulled without energy or effort, and that the
strongest mere traction lies in the line of the sensual impulse. The moral one appears
in comparison with this, a still small voice which must be artificially reinforced to prevail.
Effort is what reinforces it, making things seem as if, while the sensual force were
essentially a fixed quantity, the moral might be of various amount. But what determines
the amount of the effort when by its aid moral force becomes victorious over a great
sensual resistance ? The very greatness of the resistance itself. If the sensual impulses
are small, the moral effort is small. The latter is made great by the presence of a great
antagonist to overcome. And if a brief definition of moral action were required, none
could be given which would better fit the appearances than this: It is action in the
line of the greatest resistance.

The facts may be most briefly symbolized thus, 8 standing for the sensual motive, M for
the moral and E for the effort :

M per se <8.
M+E>S.

In other words, if E adds itself to M, S immediately offers the least resistance, and
motion occurs in spite of it.

But the E does not seem to form an integral part of the M. It appears adventitious
and indeterminate in advance. We can make more or less as we please, and if we make
enough we can convert the greatest mental resistance into the least.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 29

Now the question whether this appearance of ambiguity is illusory or real, is the
question of the freedom of the will. Many subtle considerations may be brought to prove
that the amount of effort which a moral motive comports as its ally, is a fixed function of
the motive itself, and like it, determined in advance. On the other hand, there is the
notion of an absolute ambiguity in the being of this thing, and its amount, sun-clear to
the consciousness of each of us. He who loves to balance nice doubts and probabilities,
need be in no hurry to decide. Like Mephistopheles to Faust, he can say to himself,
“ dazu hast du noch eine lange Frist,” for from generation to generation the evidence for
both sides will grow more voluminous, and the question more exquisitely refined. But
if his speculative delight is less keen, if the love of a parti pris outweighs that
of keeping questions open, or if, as a French philosopher of genius! says, “7? amour de la
‘vie qui sindigne de tant de discours,” awakens in him, craving the sense of either peace
or power; then taking the risk of error on his head, he must project upon one of the
alternatives in his mind, the attribute of reality for him. The present writer does
this for the alternative of freedom. May the reader derive no less contentment if he
prefer to take the opposite course !

Only one further point remains, but that is an important one philosophically. There is
no commoner remark than this, that resistance to our muscular effort is the only sense
which makes us aware of a reality independent of ourselves. The reality revealed to us
in this experience takes the form of a force like the force of effort which we ourselves
exert, and the latter after a certain fashion serves to measure.” This force we do
not similarly exert when we receive tactile, auditory, visual and other impressions, so the
same reality cannot be revealed by those passive senses.

Of course if the foregoimg analysis be true, such reasoning falls to the ground. The
“muscular sense” being a sum of afferent feelings is no more a “ force-sense”’ than any
other sense. It reveals to us hardness and pressure as they do colour, taste, smell,
sonority, and the other attributes of the phenomenal world. To the naive consciousness
all these attributes are equally objective. To the critical all equally subjective. The
physicist knows nothing whatever of force in a non-phenomenal sense. Force is for him
only a generic name for all those things which will cause motion. A falling stone, a
magnet, a cylinder of steam, a man, just as they appear to sense, are forces. There is
no supersensible force in or behind them. Their force is just their sensible pull or push,
if we take them naturally, and just their positions and motions if we take them
scientifically. If we aspire to strip off from Nature all anthropomorphic qualities, there
is none we should get rid of quicker than its “ Force.” How illusory our spontaneous
notions of force grow when projected into the outer world becomes evident as soon as we
reflect upon the phenomenon of muscular contraction. In pure objective dynamic terms
(i. e., terms of position and motion), it is the relaxed state of the muscle which is the
state of stress and tension. In the act of contraction, on the contrary, the tension

1J. Lequier: La Recherche d’une Premiere Vérité, 1865. on “the Force behind Nature,” by Dr. Carpenter, reprinted
p- 90. in the Pop. Se. Monthly for March, 1880; Martineau’s Review
2 See for example, Psychology, Part VII,Chaps. XVI and of Bain; Mansel’s Metaphysics. pp. 105, 346.
VII; Herschel’s Familiar Lectures, Lecture XII ; an article

30 WILLIAM JAMES ON

is resolved, and disappears. Our feeling about it is just the other way,—which shows how
little our feeling has to do with the matter.

The subject has an interest in connection with the free-will controversy. It is an
admitted mechanical principle that the resultant movement of a system of bodies linked
together in definite relations of energy, may vary according to changes in their collocation,
brought about by moving them at right angles to their pre-existing movements; which
changes will not interfere with the conservation of the system’s energy, as they perform
work upon it. Certain persons desiring to harmonize free will with the theory of
conservation, have used this conception to symbolize the dynamic relations of will with
brain, by saying that the mental effort merely determines the moment and the spot at
which a certain molecular vis viva shall start, by a sort of rectangular pressure
which plays the part of an independent variable in the equations of movement required
by the principles of conservation. Thus free will may be conceived without any of the
internal energy of the system being either augmented or destroyed.

Now so long as mental effort in general was supposed to have a particular connection
with muscular effort, and so long as muscular effort was supposed to reveal to us behind
the resistance of bodies, a “force” which they contained, there was a ready reply to all
this speculation. Your will, it could be said, is doing “ work” upon the system. “ Work”
is defined in mechanics as movement done against resistance, and your will meets
with a resistance which it has to overcome by moral effort. Were the molecular
movements brought about by the will, rectangular to pre-existing movements, they
would not resist, and the volition would be effortless. But the volition involves effort,
and since according to the will-muscle-force-sense theory, its effort is an inner force which
overcomes a real outer force, since, indeed, without this antagonism we should be
without the notion of outer force altogether, why then the effort, if free, must be an
absolutely new contribution and creation so far as the sum of cosmic energy is con-
cerned. The only alternative then (if one still held to the will-muscle-force-sense
theory) was either with Sir John Herschel,' frankly to avow that “force”? may be
created anew, and that “ conservation” is only an approximate law; or else to drop free-
will, in favor of conservation, and suppose the ego in willing, to be merely cognitively
conscious, in the midst of the universal force-stream, of certain currents with which
it was mysteriously fated to identify itself.

To my mind all such discussions rest on an anthropomorphization of outward force,
which is to the last degree absurd. Outward forces so far as they are anything,
are masses in certain positions, or in certain movements, and nought besides. The
muscular “ force-sense’’ reveals to us nothing but hardness and pressure, which are sub-
jective sensations, like warmth or pain. The moral effort is not transitive between the
inner and the outer worlds, but is put forth upon the inner world alone. Its point of
application is an idea. Its achievement is “reality for the mind,” of that idea. That,
when the idea is realized, the corresponding nerve tracts should be modified, and so
de proche en proche, the muscles contract, is one of those harmonies between inner and

>

outer worlds, before which our reason can only avow its impotence. If our reason tries to
interpret the relation as a dynamic one, and to conceive that the neural modification is

1 Loe. cit., p. 468.

THE FEELING OF EFFORT. 831

brought about by the idea shoving the molecules of the ganglionic matter sideways from
their course, well and good! Only we had better assume ourselves unconscious of the
dynamism. We are unconscious of the molecules as such, and of our lateral push as such.
Why should we be conscious of the “force” as such, by which the molecules resist the
push? They are one thing, and the consciousness which they subserve is always an idea
of another thing. The only resistance which the force of consciousness feels or can feel,
is the resistance which the idea makes to being consented to as real.

CONCLUSIONS.

1. Muscular effort, properly so called, and mental effort properly so called, must be
distinguished. What is commonly known as “muscular exertion,” is a compound of the
two.

2. The only feelings and ideas connected with muscular motion are feelings and ideas
of it as effected. Muscular effort proper, is a sum of feelings in afferent nerve tracts,
resulting from motion being effected.

3. The pretended feeling of efferent innervation does not exist —the evidence for
it drawn from paralysis of single eye muscles, vanishing when we take the position of the
sound eye into account.

4. The philosophers who have located the human sense of force and spontaneity in
the nexus between the volition and the muscular contraction, making it thus join the inner
and the outer worlds, have gone astray.

5. The poimt of application of the volitional effort always lies within the inner
world, being an idea or representation of afferent sensations of some sort. From its
intrinsic nature or from the presence of other ideas, this representation may spontaneously
tend to lapse from vivid and stable consciousness. Mental effort may then accompany
its maintenance. That (being once maintained) it should by the connection between
its cerebral seat and other bodily parts, give rise to movements in the so-called
voluntary muscles, or in glands, vessels, and viscera, is a subsidiary and secondary matter,
with which the psychic effort has nothing immediately to do.

6. Attention, belief, affirmation and motor volition are thus four names for an identical
process, incidental to the conflict of ideas alone, the survival of one in spite of the
opposition of others.

7. The surviving idea is invested with a sense of reality which cannot at present be
further analyzed.

8. The question whether, when its survival involves the feeling of effort, this feeling
is determined in advance or absolutely ambiguous and matter of chance as far as
all the other data are concerned, is the real question of the freedom of the will, and
explains the strange intimateness of the feeling of effort to our personality.

9. To single out the sense of muscular resistance as the “force sense” which alone can
make us acquainted with the reality of an outward world is an error. We cognize outer
reality by every sense. The muscular makes us aware of its hardness and pressure,
just as other afferent senses make us aware of its other qualities. If they are too
anthropomorphic to be true, so is it also.

39 THE FEELING OF EFFORT.

10. The ideational nerve tracts alone are the seat of the feeling of mental effort. It
involves no discharge downward into tracts connecting them with lower executive centres;
though such discharge may follow upon the completion of the nerve processes to which the

effort corresponds.

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