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CHARLES A. REED

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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON: THE ORIGIN AND DESCENT OF DOMESTIC MAMMALS

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE ORIGIN AND DESCENT

OF DOMESTIC MAMMALS 1900-1955

SHIMON ANGRESS AND CHARLES A. REED

Peabody Museum of Natural History Yale University

FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY VOLUME 54, NUMBER 1

Published by CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM OCTOBER 26, 1962

Edited by LILLIAN A. Ross

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 62—21868

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM PRESS

Shimon Angress March 14, 1924—March 30, 1958

Shimon Angress was a rare individual who had many abilities and developed them equally over the years. Gifted in art, poetry, philos- ophy, the humanities, and the natural sciences, he was patiently nur- turing them all to intellectual maturity when his tragic death in a highway accident ended a most promising scientific career.

Shimon’s first 15 years were in the happy tradition of a typical intellectual German-Jewish family, but with the Nazi shadow darken- ing over them. An ardent Zionist who rightly feared the worst from his homeland, Shimon slipped across the Danish border on the first day of World War II; his parents lingered—to disappear into Ausch- witz. Abandoning school of necessity, Shimon and other Jewish youths learned farm work during the first months of the war, and again Shimon got away—this time to Palestine—before Denmark was overrun by the Nazis.

In the youth group at Ramat David, Shimon worked with the livestock, and his interest in domestic animals and their origins be- came one more among many. Working hours were long and the labor hard, but some time for reading was always to be found. In 1942 he moved to the kibbutz of Ma’ayan Ts’wi, where he was in charge of the dairy cattle, but he patiently continued his self-education, read- ing particularly at this time in philosophy and the humanities. Four years thus, milking and learning, and then he was chosen by his group to attend the Kibbutz Teachers Seminary, where for two brief years he resumed his formal schooling. Here he was intrigued by the natural sciences, particularly zoology, and here he caught up educa- tionally with the lost years.

Returning in 1948 to Ma’ayan T’s’wi, Shimon founded the first school there. The worth of a teacher is evaluated only over the long years by the achievement of his students, and one hears glowing tales of Shimon’s breadth of knowledge, his infectious enthusiasm, his clar- ity of presentation, and the answering responses of the children. During this time he built a museum collection of zoological, geolog-

5

6 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

ical, and archaeological specimens; patiently accumulated much of the information contained in the bibliography published here; tamed wild animals; joined in the activities of the kibbutz; and wrote poetry, drew incessantly, taught and inspired the children, and always learned more and more.

So outstanding a record was not to be unrewarded; in 1954 the kibbutz again supported Shimon’s necessity for further education. After several months in South America, he spent slightly more than a year at the University of Chicago. In spite of having had only two years of formal education since he was 14, Shimon received his mas- ter’s degree (in zoology) by June of 1955, and two departments— Zoology and Anthropology—wanted him to continue as a graduate student. The sense of duty called him home, however—that and a desire to put his new knowledge to use—and Shimon returned to his teaching and his natural history at Ma’ayan T’s’wi, while, amongst a multitude of other activities, he continued his graduate studies at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. His interests in zoology, archae- ology, and paleontology here combined to produce a thorough student of the animal remains dug from archaeological sites, and his few technical publications are in this field.

During this time, too, Shimon married. It was a most happy marriage, unfortunately brief; barely was there time for a daughter to be born.

The simultaneous role of teacher at Ma’ayan Ts’wi and graduate student in Jerusalem necessitated much highway travel. Shimon had no control over his instantaneous death, no chance for decision, as he was not driving.

I met Shimon Angress only once, in Chicago, in the summer of 1954. I have met many people only once, but no other such meeting has led me nearly half around the world to visit the small community where the person had his life. It was in June of 1960 that I visited the small jewel of a museum that the people of Ma’ayan Ts’wi have built to honor Shimon Angress and to keep his collections intact. I went through his files, where everything is meticulously in order, and looked over the small library of the working-man-scholar. Museum and library are open for any to use, but with Shimon’s knowledge and leadership gone, few there are who do so.

If the museum was built in honor, the rock garden on a jutting promontory of cliff was built in love, for it was built by the children whom Shimon had taught. They took a bit of the natural land that

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS

Shimon loved, and left it natural, adding but a path and stairway and a bench by a small pool. I walked down the path in the summer evening with Shimon’s widow and Shimon’s child and looked across the narrow strip of green coastal plain to the sun sinking into the Mediterranean. Below me the cliff dropped abruptly; behind me rose the limestone mass of Mt. Carmel, where Shimon had spent so many happy days studying and collecting. Wasps came to the edge of the pool, gaining mud for their nests, and a variety of small birds flitted above. Here was Shimon’s world, a world that he had helped to create, a world incomplete now because of his absence.

CHARLES A. REED

FOREWORD

In the growth of cultures, as Kroeber has pointed out, there are some basic factors that have profoundly influenced many societies. One of these fundamental elements has to do with farming and stock-raising.

The taming of animals for man’s use and pleasure constituted a revolutionizing innovation that enormously raised his subsistence level. Furthermore, by the process of domestication, man brought under control some of the natural forces about him. In effect, he created an artificial animal environment and by thus controlling his environment he assured himself of a more stable food supply and a great source of protein.

Since the subject of this paper has always been of great impor- tance to anthropologists and since the literature is difficult for us to find, we welcome the opportunity to place this monograph in the Anthropology Series.

We are greatly indebted to Dr. D. A. Hooijer of Leiden, who has abstracted some of the articles from the Dutch; his abstracts ‘are signed “D.H.”’ Abstracts contributed by Dr. Reed are signed “C. A. R.” Dr. Reed also read all proofs and made the indexes to this volume.

PAUL S. MARTIN

Chief Curator, Department of Anthropology February, 1962

a

CONTENTS

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11

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Origin and Descent of Domestic Mammals

INTRODUCTION

However a domestic animal may be defined, two factors at least, the animal itself and the human-controlled environment, must be in- cluded. Consequently, domestic animals, with respect to their origin and history, have been studied from two points of view. Origins of domestication, inseparably associated with the evolution of human civilization, have been investigated chiefly by students of cultural history. The descent of domestic species, their phylogenetic rela- tionships, and the aspects of speciation under the domestic environ- ment, have been considered mainly a subject for biological research. Additional studies on the ancestry of recent breeds have been made by students of animal husbandry.

Although these types of studies, each with its own methods, have been devoted to particular ends, it has been evident since the days of Rutimeyer, who laid the cornerstone for modern research in the history of domestication a century ago, that a co-operation of several sciences is imperative, and that the combined data of archaeological, historical and zoological research are essential to a comprehensive understanding of the fascinating problem.

At the dawn of this century, Keller (1902) included in his critical review the more important works that had been published prior to 1900 on the origin of domestic animals. Since then numerous man- uals on the subject have been issued. A wealth of information, the result of extensive exploration and research, has been published; it is scattered through archaeological, ethnological, biological and agri- cultural literature, incorporated in historical and zoological treat- ments of general nature, and attached to reports of excavations. Most of the data have never been considered within the scope of any abstracting journal.

The body of this report consists of abstracts and indexes of the ethno-zoological records published in the last five and a half decades that have been available to us. The work was undertaken in the hope that this compilation would be of some help to students of

13

14 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

domestication by providing a collection of references, of subjects dealt with, and of conclusions reached in the study of the descent and an- cestry of domestic mammals.

The nature of the study, which must include various fields of science, and the scope of this compilation set certain limits in the choice of the material to be abstracted. As indicated by the title, this bibliography is concerned with the study of the origin of domestic mammals rather than with the origin of domestication. Works based on zoological evidence form the primary listing, and few investiga- tions of pure epigraphical or linguistic nature are included. Even among zoological treatments only those that bear directly on the topic under consideration are cited. An extensive literature on the genetics, breeding experiments, and hybridization of domestic spe- cies exists but does not bear directly on the subject. A collection of those records would demand another bibliography equal in scope to the present work. The same applies to the studies on the effects of domestication, from which we have tried to select those presentations, mainly concerned with osteological effects, that may help the zoolo- gist to determine the domestic status of those animals whose sub- fossil remains have been discovered. The latter, arrayed with the stratigraphical and distributional data of the archaeologist, are re- garded as the most valuable basis for the study of the rise of domestic species, and thus this bibliography depends principally upon the zoo- logical treatments of material provided from archaeological, mainly prehistoric, sources and upon comparative studies of primitive liv- ing breeds and related wild forms in relation to those ethno-zoolog- ical facts.

Even within this defined scope, this collection is probably far from complete. The most obvious omissions are the numerous orig- inal papers in the Russian language, in particular the reports of exca- vations from the cultures of Tripolje and Minussinsk. These, like a number of other references, have not been available.

This work is merely descriptive. The view of the author is given without comment or evaluation. Chronologies and generic and specific nomenclature used in the original paper are retained in the abstracts, although in many cases these have been shown to be incorrect or inadequate by more recent evidence. Moreover, the recent evidence on chronology concerning the periods and re- gions to which most of the abstracted articles refer has been sum- marized by Charlesworth (1957, the Quaternary Era, vol. II), by Barendsen, Deerey, and Gralenski (Science, 1957, vol. 126, p. 917), by

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 15

Braidwood (1958, Science, vol. 127, pp. 1419-1430; 1958, Osterreich Akad. Wissensch., phil.-hist. Kl., Anz., no. 19, pp. 249-259), by Reed (1959, Science, vol. 130, pp. 1629-1639), by Braidwood, Howe, et al. (1960, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, vol. 31), and by Clark (1961, World Prehistory in Outline).

The determination of the correct names of the animals, with all the involved synonyms, is beyond the scope of the present work, and in no way has been attempted. For recent breeds the spelling recommended by Mason (1951, A World Dictionary of Breeds . . .) is used throughout the text. Where possible, foreign descriptive names have been translated, but sometimes translation was impossible (e.g., Heidschnucke, Préalpes du Sud, etc.).

Wherever possible, the references are abbreviated in the form used in the World List of Scientific Periodicals, 1900-1950 (third ed., 1952). Other references have been written out more fully. The date of the year under the author’s name designates in every case the year of publication of the work.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

When I presented myself at the University of Chicago in 1954 as a graduate student interested in the origins of domestic animals, and thus in their comparative anatomy, I was assigned to the direction of Dr. Karl P. Schmidt, then Chief Curator of the Department of Zoology at Chicago Natural History Museum, and Lecturer in Zool- ogy at the University. Dr. Schmidt suggested the present bibliog- raphy and its form as an annotated list in lieu of studies on the remains of domestic animals from archaeological sites, pointing out that it would in any case be an essential preliminary to further studies on the origins of domestication. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Schmidt for aid and advice, and also to Dr. Everett C. Olson, Professor of Vertebrate Paleontology at the University, who took an active in- terest in the project.

The study of the origins of domestication, and of domestic mam- mals in particular, combines essentially archaeological studies with zoological investigations, and these in turn must frequently refer to paleontological data. The study itself represents the co-operation between the University of Chicago and Chicago Natural History Museum. At the Museum, all of the resources of the Museum library were made available to me, and when these failed I had the ever ready aid of the library staff under the direction of Mrs. Meta P. Howell,

16 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

who searched for sources from which the required books and journals could be borrowed. Thus this paper is based on the riches of the library of Chicago Natural History Museum, quite as other studies are based on wealth of materials in the scientific departments. I wish to express my gratitude to the authorities of the Museum for placing these facilities at my disposal.

SHIMON ANGRESS

I have to thank, first of all, Shimon Angress himself, whose vision and industry started this annotated bibliography, which I have seen through into final published form, working from his first manuscript. Miss Lillian Ross, Editor of Publications at Chicago Natural History Museum, has borne a greater editorial load with this publication than she would ordinarily have to do, since the senior author was deceased and the junior one not always available for consultation; she has carried this load with cheer and fortitude. Lastly, I owe a great debt to Miss Roberta French, Secretary at the Peabody Museum of Yale University, who successfully assembled the Index in alpha- betical order from my numerous pages of handwritten notes.

CHARLES REED

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ABSTRACTS

Adametz, Leopold

1915. Untersuchungen iiber Capra prisca, einer ausgestorbenen Stammform unserer Hausziegen. Mitt. landw. Lehrk. Wien, Bd. III, Heft 1, pp. 1-21, 4 pls.

Detailed description of the skull, especially the horns, of a goat, found together with other Neolithic skeletal parts near Zloeczow (Poland). The specimen, charac- terized by the homonymously twisted horns in the male, is made the holotype of a new form, which is named Capra prisca.

A comparison of the crania of C. prisca and C. aegagrus shows that the majority of the European domestic goats agree in skull and horn features with the extinct C. prisca, which therefore is considered the probable ancestor of most of the Euro- pean domestic breeds.

1920. Herkunft und Wanderungen der Hamiten erschlossen aus ihren Haustier- rassen. Osten und Orient, Ser. I, Bd. Il; Wien, Verl. des Forschungsinsti- tuts fiir Osten und Orient. 107 pp., 24 pls., 44 figs.

Based on the origin and the distribution of ancient Egypt’s domestic animals, conclusions are drawn as to the origin of the Egyptian people and the Hamite immigration into Africa.

The most ancient domestic breeds kept among Egyptians and also among Sumerians were sheep (Ovis vignei cycloceros) and goat (Capra falconeri jerdoni). These point to Afghanistan, Baluchistan and northwestern India, where they first became tamed, as the region where the cradle of the Sumerian—Hamitie civilization should be sought. The tamed horse, not known to the Hamites when they invaded Africa, was introduced from Mesopotamia during the Eighteenth Dynasty. The earliest domestic cattle, however, were tamed by the ancient Egyptians from the indigenous Bos primigenius, whose later distribution—North and South Africa— indicates the dispersal of the Hamite race. The same is true in the case of the greyhound, which was tamed by Hamites in Africa.

1925. Uber den Schidelbau des Rindes der Auvergne und dessen Stellung im Riitimeyer-Wilkensschen Hinteilungssystem der Rinderrassen. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. II, pp. 163-177, 2 figs.

A study of eleven skulls from cattle of Auvergne (Salers, in Cantal, France) refutes their supposed relation to the brachycephalid type, which was suggested formerly for this breed. The skull characters are clearly of the primigenius type, and the breed seems to have originated from Bos primigenius hahni, which latter gave rise also to the Iberian cattle of southern Spain. The race of Auvergne is considered a connecting link, indicating the route of dispersal the breed took in prehistoric times from Spain via France to England.

Ib

18 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

1926. Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Tierzucht. Julius Springer (Wien).

The first chapter (pp. 5-49) is devoted to the origin of domestic animals and gives a short summary of information about the ancestors and history of the most important farm animals.

Table 2 summarizes the origin, distribution and time of first domestication of mammals; Table 3 does the same for the important kinds of domestic fowl.

1927. Uber die Herkunft der Karakulschafe Bocharas. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. VIII, pp. 2-64.

A study of the origin of the fat-rumped sheep of the Bukhara, the Karakul or “Arabi.’’ The radiation center for the breed is sought in the vicinity of Baghdad (Arabian tribes brought the sheep to Bukhara and Chiwa from Mesopotamia in the eighth century A.D.), its wild ancestor being of an urial type, probably Ovis vignet arkal.

1928. Uber neolithische Ziegen des dstlichen Mitteleuropas. Z. Tierz. Ziicht- Biol., Bd. XII, pp. 65-83, 1 table, 5 text figs.

The skull-fragment of a goat, discovered in a Neolithic cemetery (end of third millennium B.C.) at Zlota near Sandomirez (Poland), is identified as belonging to the Capra prisca type. Other Neolithic finds of C. prisca from Nauenburg, Schaffis (Switzerland), and Klausenburg (Transylvania) are described.

The occurrence of descendants from Capra aegagrus among the European races of the domestic goat is doubted by the author, who, however, takes C. aegagrus to be the ancestor of certain central Asian breeds.

1932. Uber die Stellung der Ziege von Girgentini im zootechnischen Systeme und ihre angebliche Herkunft von Capra falconeri. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XXV, pp. 231-236, 5 figs.

Investigation of shape and twisting of horns of the goats from Agrigento (Girgentini, Sicily), considered by Magliano in 1930 as a type of Capra falconert. Since the anterior keel is twisted in clockwise direction (homonymous) and not counter-clockwise as in the falconeri type, the Girgentinian goat is regarded by the author as a special but characteristic form of C. prisca.

1933. Die Bedeutung der Abzeichen des Banteng (Bibos banteng Raffl.) und des Urus fiir das Abstammungsproblem des Hausrindes. Biol. gen., Bd. IX, pt. 2, no. 3, pp. 33-47, 3 figs.

The author refutes the suggestion of a banteng ancestry for the European brachyceros cattle on the basis of similar color characters.

1936. Untersuchungen iiber den Schidelbau der Rinder Bocharas mit Riick- sicht auf deren Herkunft und Abstammung. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XXXV, pp. 239-266.

On the basis of a craniological study of Bukhara cattle the author contradicts the traditional view of a brachyceros ancestry for this breed. The main characters of the Bukhara cattle correspond closely to those of the Pleistocene Bos namadicus Lydekker.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 19

1937. Uber die Rassenzugehdrigkeit des ‘‘ziegenhérnigen Torfschafes’’ der neo- lithischen schweizer Pfahlbauten und seiner Abkémmlinge. Z. Tierz. Ziicht- Biol., Bd. XX XVIII, pp. 113-129, 4 figs.

The “‘goat-horned”’ type of the turbary sheep—previously regarded as a dis- tinct race—is considered as the female form of Ovis aries palustris or its derivative. Closely related to the turbary sheep is the southern European Zackel sheep, and since the latter is derived from the Asian Ovis vignei the former is also taken to be descended from a wild form of the urial. The primitive northern European breeds (Soay sheep, Heidschnucke) bear no relation to the turbary sheep but show close affinity to the European mouflon (Ovis musimon).

1941. Ursprung und heutiges Vorkommen der Rasse der Girgentiziege und ihre Beziehungen zur Angoraziege. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XLVIII, pp. 1-6, 7 figs.

The goat of Agrigento (cf. Adametz, 1932) is traced back to a screw-horned form represented at Ur, and the close relationship of both to the extinct Capra prisca is emphasized. The Angora goat of Asia Minor (cf. Vetulani, 1934) is seen as another surviving breed of this ancient stock, kept by Sumerians as early as the fourth millennium B.c.

Adlerberg, G. P. 1933. [On the origin of the domestic pig.] (Russ., Eng. summ.) Transcript of

the conference on the origin of domesticated animals, held at the Laboratory of Genetics, Acad. Sci. USSR, Leningrad, 1932, pp. 185-209.

On the basis of extensive, mainly craniological, material of wild boars it is assumed that the Asiatic pig (Sus orientalis) has to be considered as a mere sub- species of S. scrofa, which latter is subdivided into a western and an eastern com- plex. Also S. mediterraneus cannot be seen as a separate species. All European and most of the Asiatic races of the domestic pig (including the Chinese pig) originated from S. scrofa.

S. cristatus, the East Asian wild boar, is taken as the probable progenitor of the Indian domestic pig.

S. vittatus may have had a local influence on domestic breeds of the Indonesian islands, which, however, also show many characteristics of European breeds.

Albright, William F.

1940. From the stone age to Christianity. xi+363 pp. The Johns Hopkins Press (Baltimore).

After discussing archaeological records of the occurrence of the camel in western Asia (pp. 120, 121), the author concludes that its effective domestication cannot antedate the outgoing Bronze Age (end of second millennium B.Cc.), though partial and sporadic domestication may go back several centuries earlier.

1950. On the taming of the camel. Z. Alttestamentliche Wiss., Bd. LXII CSE) pe sl:

It is shown that the dromedary was well known in Egypt down to the begin- ning of the dynastic age, after which it disappeared. It is suggested that the animal

20 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

became domesticated during the late centuries of the second millennium B.c. in Arabia.

Allen, Glover M.

1920. Dogs of the American aborigines. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard University, vol. LXIII, no. 9, pp. 431-517, 12 pls.

A brief general outline of views on the origin of the domestic dog, in which a wolf ancestry is concluded, is followed by a detailed study of North American dogs and their origin.

In an extensive description of the breeds of American aboriginal dogs three main types are distinguished: (a) the large broad-muzzled Eskimo dog, (b) a large, and (c) a smaller Indian dog. The two latter types, both of which gave rise to several distinct local breeds, are compared to the large Canis intermedius and the small C. palustris, respectively, found in Eurasia from the Neolithic on, and it is suggested that these two general types of dogs were cultivated in Asia, reaching Europe as well as America at a very early period with the human immigrants. In a similar way the Eskimo dog, of a type common to Asia and Europe, has been introduced into America by the Eskimos.

Although hybridization of the larger dogs with wolf or coyote may have oc- curred occasionally, such crossing had no significant influence on the original stock.

Amon, Rudolf

1938. Abstammung, Arten und Rassen der Wildschweine Eurasiens. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XI, pp. 49-88, 5 figs., 4 maps, 6 tables.

While investigating Eurasian races of the wild boar, the author also attempts to create a background for solving questions as to the origin of the domestic pig. Three forms (‘“‘Artengruppen’’) of Eurasian wild pigs are distinguished: a northern group (Sus scrofa), a southern type (S. vittatus), and a third group (S. verrucosus). Only the first two are regarded as “‘hereditarily fixed.”

The origin of new populations is explained by ‘‘mutual penetration’’ of the two groups resulting from climatic changes during the glacial periods, which ulti- mately also caused the restriction of the vittatus group to its recent range.

Amschler, J. Wolfgang

1929a. Zur Revision der Abstammungsfrage der Hausziege. Ziichtungskunde, Bd. IV, pp. 466-469, 1 fig.

Two primitive types of the domestic goat—a saber-horned and a twisted- horned form—are described from the Caucasus. Both appear to be geographical variations derived from the same wild ancestor, the bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).

1929b. Gengeographische Studie am Hissarschaf. Ziichtungskunde, Bd. IV, pp. 336-341, 2 figs.

The Hissar sheep, kept in Tadzhikistan, USSR, is seen as an example of the most generalized type of sheep in terms of evolution, combining almost all the main characters of primitive domestic races; all transitions from hairy to fleecy fur are found and the weight ranges from 99 up to 440(!) pounds.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 21

Like the Tadzhikians themselves, the Hissar sheep were isolated for millen- niums and retained the characters of a type that gave rise to many breeds of domestic sheep in the Near and Far East.

1931. Beitrag zur Rassen- und Abstammungsfrage der Hausziege sowie zur Erforschung der Urzentren der Haustierwerdung. Biol. gen., Bd. VII, pp. 445-468, 16 figs.

Summary of the results of an expedition of the Siberian academy at Omsk under the direction of the author in the summer of 1930.

In the Siberian Altai (including the mountains of the Mongolian boundary ) a domestic type of Capra prisca is kept. Domestic forms of C. falconeri and C. aegagrus are also present, and the wild ancestor of the latter is still found in the eastern Dzungarian mountains today. Capra prisca was presumably imported from the north, while the dispersal of C. aegagrus and C. falconeri as domestic goats is supposed to have coincided with the spread of conquering armies from cen- tral Asia.

The Siberian Altai is seen as the primeval center and radiation area for all the forms of domestic goats.

1932. Zur Biologie und Kraniologie des Haus-Yak im Sibirischen Altai. Biol. gen., Bd. VIII, pp. 1-44, 15 figs.

A morphological and craniological description of the Siberian yak follows a discussion of the distribution of wild and tame yaks in general and the origin of the latter. The center of origin is found in the Koko-Nor region (northeastern Tibet), whence the domesticated yak spread in two main directions: westward into the Hindu Kush and via the Pamir plateau to eastern Turkestan, and north- ward to Mongolia, to a secondary radiation center. In a map of the area under discussion the distribution of wild and domestic yak is depicted.

1933. 2000-Jahrige Pferde in den Skythengrabern des Sibirischen Altai. Kos- mos, Jhg. 1933, Heft 11, pp. 382-387, 5 figs.

Short description of the horses from the Scythian tombs in the Altai and the Sajan, found frozen and almost completely preserved and dated to the fifth century B.c. The author holds that all the horses belong clearly to the tarpan type, which fact leads him to the conclusion that the tarpan did pass the Volga-line eastward and has to be considered ancestral also to the horses of the Kalmucks and the Kirghizes.

1934. Die altesten Nachrichten und Zeugnisse tiber das Hauspferd in Furopa und Asien. Forsch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., 10 Jhg., pp. 248-299, 2 figs.

After a short survey of the archaeological evidences for horse breeding in an- cient European (mainly Seandinavian) and Asian civilizations (especially from sites in Mesopotamia and Iran, and those of the Minussinsk culture of Siberia), it is concluded that the inner Asian-Iranian area has to be considered as the area of origin of the domestic horse.

1935. The oldest pedigree chart. A genealogical table of the horse and pictures of horsemen dating back 5000 years. J. Hered., vol. XX VI, no. 6, pp. 233- 238, figs. 5, 6.

bo bo

FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

An engraved seal from 3000 B.c., discovered by De Mecquenem near Ur, Mesopotamia, is taken as a pedigree record of horses representing the oldest known genealogical table. On the basis of this and other archaeological material the author concludes that horses—descendants of the Przewalski as well as the tarpan type—were known and used in the earliest Sumerian and Elamitic civiliza- tions. The supposition is expressed that the first crossbreeding between horse and ass took place at Ur.

1936. Die dltesten Funde des Hauspferdes. Wiener Beitrage zur Kulturge- schichte und Linguistik, Jhg. 4, pp. 497-516, 5 figs.

This preliminary description of the equid material from Kish in Mesopotamia distinguishes two forms of true horses (Hquus caballus) and also a type of ass. The presence of the horse in the Anau fauna (cf. Diirst, 1908) is confirmed. Finds of horse remains from various excavations—Ur, Susa, Minussinsk (Sajan in west- ern Siberia), and Tripolje (Kiew, Ukraine)—are summarized briefly.

1937. Goats from Ur and Kish. Antiquity, vol. 11, pp. 226-228, pls. V, VI.

A horn, found among animal bones from the early dynastic levels (ca. 3000— 2530 B.c.) at Kish, is compared with a goat’s horn portrayed in a sculpture dis- covered at Ur, and both are identified as belonging to Capra girgentana (cf. Adametz, 1932).

1939a. Die Knochenfunde aus dem Konigshiigel Shah Tepe in Nord-Iran. Forsch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., 15 Jhg., Nr. 9, pp. 115-116.

Preliminary report on the bone material from Shah Tepe (cf. Amschler, 1939b). The author emphasizes the frequency of sheep remains, the presence of bones of the horse and two-humped camel and especially the discovery of the wild ancestral type for the brachyceros cattle, named Bos brachyceros arnet.

1939b. Tierreste der Ausgrabungen von dem “grossen Kénigshiigel’’ Shah Tepe. The Sino-Swedish Expedition, vol. VII, part 4, pp. 35-129, pls. XIV-X XVI. Bokferl. Aktieblaget Thule (Stockholm).

A detailed discussion of the animal remains discovered in the mound of Shah Tepe on the Turkoman steppe, southeast of the Caspian Sea, during archae- ological excavations in 1932-33. The material, mainly prehistoric, from the fourth and third millenniums B.c., consisted of bones of wild and domestic animals. Among the latter, bones of sheep (30.1 per cent) were most frequent. Fewer remains were found of pig, horse, ass, and Bactrian camel.

The author takes the domestic pig of Shah Tepe to be derived from the wild Sus scrofa attila, finding both types as well as transition forms in the material of the site. The domestic dog seems to be closely related to the pariah dogs of today.

A special part (pp. 100-120) is devoted to the wild cattle of Shah Tepe (Bos brachyceros arnei) in which the author finds the progenitor of the short- horned domestic type (B. taurus brachyceros) present in the same strata.

1939c. Uranfinge der Tierzucht in Vorarlberg. Fosch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., 15 Jhg., Nr..17, pp. 222-228.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 23

A short report on animal remains collected at Bludenz in Vorarlberg (western Austria), mainly from the Bronze Age and the following urn-field culture (1500- 1000 B.c.). By far the most numerous bones were those of cattle, most of brachy- ceros type, but a larger form was also present about 1000 B.c.

Sheep possessed mouflon-like horns; among the few horse remains, a pony type and a larger ‘‘cold-blooded horse’’ could be distinguished; the dog bones belonged to the group of the large Canis familiaris inostranzewi. Pig remains were absent at the end of the Bronze Age.

1949. Ur- und Friihgeschichtliche Haustierfunde aus Osterreich. Archeol. Austriaca, Heft 3, 102 pp., 12 pls., 58 tables.

A study of the domestic fauna of prehistoric and early historic Austria, based upon an examination of over 10,000 skeletal remains from twelve sites, dating from the Neolithic (Attersee, Follik) up to the Turkish period.

Domestic species kept during the Neolithic comprised cattle, sheep, goat, pig, horse, and dog. The Neolithic ox belonged to the brachyceros type, the sheep was derived from the European mouflon and is referred to as Ovis aries var. musimon, the prehistoric goat is considered a descendant of Capra prisca Adam., and the Neolithic pig was an indigenous breed of the wild European boar, Sus scrofa ferus. The domestic horse of the Neolithic shows similarity to the Oriental race, Equus caballus orientalis, and the dog is of the Canis familiaris palustris type.

From the Bronze Age on, there occurred two additional races of the domestic dog, Canis familiaris matris optimae and C. familiaris inostranzewi, and after the Hallstatt period appeared cattle of the primigenius type and sheep belonging to the Ovis vignet group.

Anderson, J. G.

1943. Prehistory of the Chinese. Bull. Mus. far east Antiq., Stockholm, no. 15, 304 pp., 200 pls.

Animal remains, collected from prehistoric sites in Honan and Kansu in the Hwang-Ho (Yellow River) valley, are identified by E. Dahr (p. 43).

At Chih Kou Chai, one of the Ho Yin sites (Honan), the most common remains were those of pigs. Also well represented were domestic cattle; neither sheep nor goats were found.

Bones of the domestic pig were most abundant also at the site of Ma Chia Yao (Kansu). The only other domesticated animal there was the dog, while bones of large cattle from this site belonged to the wild Bos namadicus. However, at Ch’i Chia P’ing (oldest of the Kansu cultures), bones of domestic dog, pig, cattle, goat and sheep were present.

Andreeva, E.

1933. [The structure of the metapoda of some wild and domestic animals.} (Russ., Eng. summ.) Transcript of the conference on the origin of domes- ticated animals, held at the Laboratory of Genetics, Acad. Sci. USSR, Leningrad, 1932, pp. 263-311.

24 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Investigation of anatomical and histological structure of metacarpals of wild and domestic animals. A marked difference in tissue and shape (stouter and with thinner walls in domestic races) is found in bones of wild and domestic sheep, resulting in a more efficient blood supply in the metapodials of wild forms. Primitive breeds exhibit intermediate character. In the horse (przewalskii and domestic) the osteological changes due to domestication are much less obvious than in sheep.

Antonius, Otto

1918. Die Abstammung des Hauspferdes und des Hausesels. Naturwissen- schaften, 6 Jhg., Heft 2, pp. 13-18.

A short account of the paleontologic and historic evidence of the origin of the domestic horse. The Mongolian breed is derived from the Mongolian wild horse (przewalskii), and its cradle of domestication is sought either in the Mongolian steppe or in southern Asia among Aryan tribes, in which latter case the tarpan, Equus gmelini Ant., would be the ancestral type. An independent domestication of “Occidental”? breeds in prehistoric central or western Europe is suggested.

1919. Die Abstammung der Hausrinder. Naturwissenschaften, 7 Jhg., Heft 43, pp. 781-789.

A study of the origin of domestic cattle. The first part tries to give a sys- tematic outline of wild bovids, recent and extinct; the second part deals with domestic buffalo, banteng, gayal and yak; the third section covers the wild forms of the genus Bos sensu stricto.

The fourth and main part is devoted to the earliest domestic oxen and their origin. Domestic cattle are divided into three main stocks: (a) the brachyceros cattle, derived from a small, wild European bovid, Bos brachyceros europaeus (=B. longifrons Owen); (b) the primigene cattle of Europe and Africa, derived from B. primigenius, the large urus of Europe, North Africa, and southwestern Asia; (c) the zebu cattle of southern and central Asia, the ancestor being of an unknown race related to the urus. It is suggested that the domestication of ¢ took place much later than the taming of a and b.

1922. Grundziige einer Stammesgeschichte der Haustiere. xvi + 336 pp., 144 figs. Gustav Fischer (Jena).

The origin and history of the important domestic mammals are covered in a semi-popular manual, which is based to a great extent upon original investi- gations of the author.

The first section (pp. 1-50) evaluates the various sources that supply ma- terials for the study of domestication, and the different methods by which the problem is attacked; the second section (pp. 51-71) gives an account of the morphological and physiological changes that followed domestication. Another part deals comprehensively with cattle (divided into a primigenius and a zebu type), sheep, goat, camel and llama; more briefly with swine (three hearths of domestication—two in Europe, one in Asia—are suggested); and at great length with the horse and the domestic dog. To the Oriental (Equus orientalis) and the Occidental (EH. robustus) horses a third species (EH. ferus) is added, considered

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 25

to be a descendant of the Mongolian wild horse. The wolf is taken to be the true ancestor of the domestic dog.

The book is supplemented with a wealth of photographs.

1935a. Zur Abstammung des Hauspferdes. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XX XIII, pp. 359-398, 13 figs.

A discussion of recent views on the origin of the domestic horse. The author takes the tarpan ancestry as certain for the “Indo-European” breeds and as possible in the case of the Oriental horse, but as doubtful for the origin of the “cold-blooded”’ stock.

Special treatment is given to the taming of the half-ass in the ancient Near East, and earlier archaeological and zoological identifications of ‘‘horses’’ from this area are discussed.

1935b. Uber das Kladruber Pferd. Beobachtungen an Einhufern in Schén- brunn, XII. Der Zool. Gart., Heft 7, pp. 249-262.

A study of the Kladrub breed (‘‘a horse that belongs to the past’’) and its history. In the last section, dealing with the origin of the ancient Spanish (later Habsburgian) breed, the close correspondence of the Kladrub skull and dentition with those of the stout cold-blooded horses of Quaternary times (Equus mos- bachensis = E. abeli) is worked out.

1937. On the geographic distribution, in former times and today, of the recent Equidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, vol. 107B, pp. 557-564.

The author considers the geographical ranges of all known species and sub- species of equids (true horses, asses, onagers, and zebras) from the beginning of human history to the present. The story is one of continually decreasing ranges and diminishing populations (sometimes extermination). Of particular interest to students of animal domestication are the original ranges of the tarpan (Equus silvestris or E. gmelini), Przewalski’s horse (E. przewalskii), the Syrian onager (E. hemionus hemippus), the Atlantic ass (Asinus ‘‘atlanticus’’), and the Nubian ass (Equus asinus africanus), for these are the only wild equids which have been considered as ancestors of the domesticated ones.—C.A.R.

1944. Uber die Herkunft der Haustiere, insbesondere des Pferdes. Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, Jhg. 1940/41, Bd. 90/91, pp. 294-303.

A brief review of data on the ancestry of domesticated mammals. The domestic dog is considered to be derived exclusively from the wolf. For cattle three independent ancestors are supposed: Bos brachyceros, first tamed in Africa; B. primigenius, its probable domestication center on the Iberian Peninsula; and the Asiatic B. namadicus, which gave rise to the zebu stock.

The Iranian plateau is seen as the cradle for the domestic goat and sheep, derived from Capra aegagrus and Ovis vignei respectively. Screw-horned breeds of goats, derived from the extinct Capra prisca Adametz, and the race of the “‘copper-sheep,’’ a domestic form of Ovis musimon, were developed independently in late Neolithic or early Bronze Age Europe.

The riding of horses, preceded by the use of equids with chariots, was intro- duced into Europe from the East about 1000 B.c.

26 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Ash, Edward C.

1927. Dogs: their history and development. Vol. I, pp. i-xviii, 1-384; frontis- piece, pls. 1-108, 6 figs. Vol. II, pp. i-xvi, 385-778; frontispiece, pls. 109- 160; 7 figs. Houghton Mifflin Company (Boston).

The author attempts to include almost everything known about dogs, ex- clusive of detailed anatomy and physiology. The result is encyclopaedic but uncritical. Major emphasis is placed on the different breeds and their history, but there is much random information on the history of dogs in general, and on dogs in medicine, folklore, law, poetry, and art. The literature concerning the hybridization of dogs with wild canids is summarized.—C.A.R.

Ashton, E. H., and Thompson, A. P. D.

1955. Some characters of the skulls and skins of the European polecat, the Asiatic polecat and the domestic ferret. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, vol. 125, no. 2, pp. 317-333.

Skulls and skins of the domestic ferret, Mustela putorius furo, are compared with skulls and skins of the European polecat, M. p. putorius, and the Asiatic polecat, M. p. eversmanni. The domestic ferret resembles the European polecat in more characters than it does the Asiatic polecat, but the available data do not allow a final conclusion as to the ancestry of the domestic ferret. The skulls of the domestic ferrets are more variable than are those of the wild subspecies studied, primarily because of differences in human selection, since different breeders dis- agree on the proper form of a good hunting ferret.—C.A.R.

Auld, Robert

1927. Polled and horned cattle. J. Hered., vol. XVIII, no. 7, pp. 309-3821, figs. 10-19.

A summary of evidence about the appearance of polled cattle in ancient and recent times, and a discussion of the genetic factors involved. It is suggested that cattle were hornless when domestication started.

Baas, Josef

1938. Der dlteste Haushund der Welt im ‘‘Senckenberg.”’ Natur u. Volk, Bd. LX VI, Heft 10, pp. 469-475, frontispiece, 3 figs., 1 table.

A dog skeleton, found near Frankfort and dated by pollen analysis to about 9000 B.c., is regarded as the most ancient domestic dog. The animal shows a close relationship to Canis poutiatini and to the present Australian dingo.

The author holds that a small type of wolf became tamed in the earliest Mesolithic (or even Paleolithic) times, and that this type—transition forms not yet found—-gave rise to the European dogs of the poutiatini group as well as to the dingo, which was taken to Australia by man.

Bate, Dorothea M. 1932. A note on the fauna of the Athlit caves. J. R. anthrop. Inst., Gt. Brit. and Ireland, vol. 62, pp. 277-279.

This is a first report on animals associated with the Natufian culture (Palestine, Mesolithic). The author rejects the possibility that the horse and ox found were

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 27

domesticated. No domestic dog was found (but see Bate, 1937). Study of the Natufian culture would seem to indicate that agriculture was developed prior to domestication of animals.—C.A.R.

1937. The fossil fauna of the Wady El-Mughara caves. In The Stone Age of Mount Carmel, by D. Garrod and D. M. Bate, vol. 1, part 2, pp. 136-240. Clarendon Press (Oxford).

On pp. 175-177 (fig. 4a, b) the skull of a supposedly domestic dog from the Mesolithic of Palestine is described. The Palestine form seems to show closest resemblance to the type Canis matris optimae and to the dog from Anau (cf. Diirst, 1908).

1938. Animal remains from Megiddo. Orient. Inst. Publ. (Univ. Chicago), vol. 38, pp. 209-213, figs. 204-206.

Description of animal bones from tombs at Megiddo (Palestine), including deposits from late Neolithic to Late Bronze II. Domesticated specimens identi- fied are Bos cf. longifrons, Hircus mambricus, Ovis sp. and Sus sp.; designated “probably domesticated”’ are Canis sp. and a small equid (Hquus hemionus?).

1942. The fossil mammals of Shukbah. Proc. Prehist. Soc., vol. VIII, pp. 15-20.

Identification of a lower jaw of a domestic dog found among the skeletal mate- rial from the Mesolithic cave of Shukbah in the Judean hills (Palestine). Exca- vated by D. A. E. Garrod.

Remains of oxen, probably Bos primigenius, goat, pig and an equid (Hquus cf. hemionus?) are not considered as belonging to domestic species.

1949. The fauna of Esh Shaheinab. Arch. News Letter, vol. II, no. 7, pp. 128-— 129.

The author, who investigated the mammalian faunas of Early Khartoum and the nearby Esh Shaheinab, stresses the emergence of domestic animals in the latter site in contrast to the former, where domestic species were not found. From the presence of three forms (a dwarf goat with small horns, another goat with twisted horns, and a small sheep), all of which bear no relationship to local species and had to be imported, she concludes that stock-farming at Esh Shaheinab was a well- established custom. A northwest African origin of those three animals, which were accompanied probably by a domestic dog, is suggested (see Bate, 1953, for the full account of the fauna of Esh Shaheinab).

1953. The vertebrate fauna. Pp. 11-19, figs. 2-5, in Shaheinab: An account of a Neolithic occupation site carried out for the Sudan Antiquities Service in 1949-50, by A. J. Arkell. Published for the Sudan Government by Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press (London).

The site is on the west bank of the Nile, and is dated at approximately 3300 and 3900 B.c.; the climate was somewhat more humid than at present. Numerous bones of a dwarf goat and rare remains of what may be a larger goat or sheep con- stitute the earliest known record of domestic animals from the Sudan. Many of the goats, as indicated by the dentition, were immature at time of death. The dwarf goats were of almost the same size as present dwarf Nilotic goats but are

28 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

thought to be morphologically more like the remains of dwarf goats from Algerian cave-sites. Horn-cores of the dwarf goats from the predynastic site of Toukh in southern Egypt (cf. Gaillard, 1934) are quite different from those found at Esh Shaheinab.

No remains of the domestic dog were found.—C.A.R.

Batu, Selahattin

1939. Neue Feststellungen iiber die Geschichte, Herkunft und Abstammung der Hausziege. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XLIV, pp. 219-229, 2 figs.

A survey of ancient records shows that the Angora goat was unknown in its present distribution center (Anatolia) during the Hittite period and in classical times as well. The view of a Capra prisca origin (ef. Adametz, 1928, 1941, and Vetulani, 1934) is accepted, and the Angora goat is seen as a very ancient breed which originated in Asia and was already kept by Sumerians in the fourth and third millenniums B.c. It is suggested that the Angora goat reached Anatolia only in the thirteenth century A.D. with the invasion of the Turks.

Biumler, Hans 1921. Die morphologischen Veranderungen des Schweineschaédels unter dem Einfluss der Domestikation. Arch. Naturgesch., Bd. 87, Abt. A, Heft 12, pp. 140-178, 11 tables.

A craniological study of domestic and wild pigs, part of the latter brought up under captivity. The skull of the Sus vittatus type is seen as a retardation of an early ontogenetic stage of a primitive form, the further development of which pro- duced S. scrofa ferus. The skull of the European as well as of the Indian domestic pig resembles in its neotenic character the wild vittatus rather than the wild scrofa

type.

Belic, Jovan

1939. Die Abstammung des Balkanwildschweines. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XLII, pp. 151-214, 30 tables, 54 figs., 12 graphical charts.

Following an investigation of 130 skulls of wild boars from Eurasian countries (central Europe through southeastern Asia), the author concludes that a diphyletic origin of the domestic pig from Sus scrofa and S. vittatus is indicated. Both the latter are seen as distinct species; S. mediterraneus, however, is considered a sub- species of S. scrofa, and the Sardinian S. meridionalis probably a stunted form of the European wild boar.

Bishop, Carl Whiting 1933. The Neolithic age in North China. Antiquity, vol. 7, pp. 389-404, 8 pls., 2 figs.

The Neolithic of Europe had domestic cattle, goat, sheep, pig, and dog, but the Neolithic of north China had only the pig and dog. The chief activity of the people was probably agriculture, with no evidence of a pastoral type of life. The major source of protein seems to have been the pig.—C.A.R.

1939. The beginnings of civilization in eastern Asia. J. Amer. Orient. Soc., vol. 59, suppl. to no. 4, pp. 45-61.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 29

In a brief review of Far Eastern prehistoric cultures, the earliest types of farm- ing in the northern Chinese plains are outlined (pp. 48-49). On all save the latest Neolithic sites the only remains of domestic animals are those of dog and pig. At later sites, bones of sheep and ox also occur. Few if any of the domestic ani- mals appearing prior to and around the beginning of the Bronze Age were of native origin. Most of the domesticated breeds—ox, sheep (derived from the western Ovis vignet), horse (not derived from Equus przewalskiz), water-buffalo, and jungle fowl—were acquired as culture loans from abroad.

1940. Beginnings of civilization in eastern Asia. Antiquity, vol. 14, pp. 301-— 316 (ef. Bishop, 1939).

Bisschop, J. H. R.

1937. Parent stock and derived types of African cattle (with particular refer- ence to the importance of conformational characteristics in the study of their origin). S. Afr. J. Sci., vol. 33, pp. 852-870, 1 fig., 2 tables.

Summary of information on the derivation of African domestic cattle. The Hamitic longhorn is regarded as a descendant of the African urus, Bos opisthono- mus Pomel, which was domesticated in Egypt before and during the Neolithic. At the end of the Neolithic, brachyceros cattle, derived from Bos namadicus, were brought to Lower Egypt and forced the longhorn breeds westward. Longhorned zebus arrived in Ethiopia and Upper Egypt during the third millennium B.c. and by interbreeding with the Hamitic stock formed the Sanga type of cattle. Short- horned zebus arrived later, by the same route.

Boessneck, Joachim

1953. Die Haustiere Altégyptens. Verdff. zool. Staatssamml. Miinch., Bd. III, 50 pp., 22 tables with 45 figs.

An account of domestic and semi-domestic animals kept in predynastic and ancient dynastic Egypt, based mainly upon an evaluation of animal representations from prehistoric and early historic sites all over North Africa. An extensive bibli- ography and numerous illustrations are appended.

Bogaevsky, B.

1937. [The artifacts and the domestic animals of Tripolje.]| (Russ., Fr. summ.) Akademiia Nauk SSSR. Gruzinskii Filial. Institut iazyka, istorii i mate- rial’noi kul’tury im N. IA. Marra, Leningrad. 309 pp., 18 tables, 4 pls.

The second part of the book (pp. 144 ff.) attempts to reveal the origin and first stages in the development of stock-farming among the Tripolje cultures in the Dnieper basin. The study is based upon subfossil finds, animal representa- tions on vases, and animal figurines.

Domestication began at the beginning of Tripolje B; pig and sheep (both of the palustris type), goat and a primigenius race of cattle were kept everywhere. The horse had been a rare animal among the early Tripolje settlements, in contrast with dogs, numerous remains of which were found in most of the sites.

Boicoianu, C.

1932. Studien iiber das belgische Pferd. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XXIII, pp. 25-54, 5 figs.

30 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

A craniological, and especially odontological, study of the origin of the Belgian horse. Besides characters of the ‘“‘Occidental’’ breeds, features of tarpan-like (‘Oriental’) races are evident, and a hybrid origin from both groups is assumed for the Belgian strain.

Boule, Marcellin 1910. Les chevaux fossiles des grottes de Grimaldi et observations generales sur les chevaux quaternaires. Ann. Paléont., Paris, Tom. V, pp. 113-135, 7 figs.

Description of the equid remains from cave deposits of the French Aurigna- cian and discussion of European Quaternary horses in general. The Quaternary Equus caballus typicus—considered ancestral to recent horses—is derived from the Pliocene H. stenonsis. Remains of ass and half-ass (EZ. hemionus) from the caverns of Grimaldi are described and compared to those of the true horse.

Bourdelle, E. 1932. Notes ostéologiques et ostéométriques sur le cheval de Przewalski. Bull. Mus. Hist. nat., Paris; 2nd Ser., Tom. IV, pp. 810-821, 3 tables.

Osteometric characters of Equus caballus przewalskii are worked out and com- pared to those of the domestic horse and the domestic ass. Special emphasis is given to the limb bones, their measurements and indices. A table (no. 3) sum- marizes the osteometric features of the horse group as contrasted to the ass group.

1938. Essai d’une étude morphologique des equides préhistorique de France d’aprés les gravures rupestres. Mammalia, Tom. II, pp. 1-11, 8 figs., 2 pls.

A study of the numerous rupestrian engravings and sculptures of prehistoric equids discovered in France. The author finds few representations of ass- or onager-like forms, but distinguishes three types of horses according to the shape of the cranial profile. Pointing to the same variations of profile in Przewalski horses kept in captivity, he finds in Equus przewalskii the common ancestor for all those varieties, and regards the recent Camargue horse as one of its descendants.

Bourdelle, E., and Trombe, F. 1946. Les dessins d’équides préhistoriques de Ganties-Montespan, Haute- Garonne. Mammalia, vol. 10, pp. 13-25, 20 figs.

Equid images, depicted on gallery walls of the underground river Ganties- Montespan (in the Plantaurel range of the Pyrenees) and in caves frequented by Upper Paleolithic people, are described and analyzed.

The authors distinguish four types of equids among the representations. Most frequently portrayed and most primitive in type is the Przewalski horse, taken as the ancestor of the Arabian as well as of the Camargue breed. Other types recognized are the Celtic horse (the ancestor of the Shetland pony), the Nordic horse, and an ass-half-ass type. i

Braidwood, Robert 1952. The Near East and the foundations for civilization. Condon Lectures. Oregon State System of Higher Education (Eugene).

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 31

Animal remains from the site at Jarmo (see Braidwood and Braidwood, 1950) are described briefly (pp. 26 and 30). Ninety-five per cent of the animal bones fall in the sheep, goat, pig and ox categories, and many of the first two are those of yearlings.

1954, The Iraq-Jarmo project of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, season 1954-1955. Sumer, vol. 10, pp. 120-136.

On pp. 134-136, C. A. Reed outlines the necessary training and skills for a zoo-archaeologist who is studying, among other matters, the origin of domestic animals. Preliminary results are given of study of three sites in northeastern Iraq: M’lefaat (early village-farming), El] Khan (archaic Hassuna), and Banahilk (Halafian). Equid remains were found at none, dog was very rare; all three had sheep and/or goat (stated to be mostly domestic goat), and all three had medium- sized cattle. Remains of pigs were common at Banahilk, rare at M’lefaat, not found at E] Khan. (The supposedly domestic status of any animals from M’lefaat was later disclaimed: Science, vol. 130 [1959], p. 1639).—C.A.R.

Braidwood, Robert, and Braidwood, Linda

1950. Jarmo; a village of early farmers in Iraq. Antiquity, vol. 24, no. 96, pp. 189-195.

A brief report on the first excavation (1948) of Jarmo near Kirkuk (Iraq), a site dated to 5270-4630 B.c., and therefore preceding the earliest village assem- blages of the Near-Middle East. A preliminary study of the animal bones by Bryan Patterson revealed remains of sheep and/or goat, cattle, pig, and dog, and several equid teeth.

Breuil, M. H., and Kemal el Dine

1928. Les gravures rupestres du Djebel Ouenat. Rev. Sci., Paris, Ann. 66, No. 4, pp. 105-117, frontispiece and figs. 45-62.

Description of animal pictures found at Ouenat, a mountain mass in the heart of the Libyan desert. Among numerous other animals the pictures show cattle, horses, camels and dogs (or jackals). Besides engravings of a Paleolithic hunter- culture and modern additions (probably the depicted camels and dogs), the pic- tures range from the fifth to the first millennium B.c. and are divided by the author into two main cultures: V—a (proto-dynastic and Old Empire) and V-b (starting at about the Middle Empire). The big-horned Bos africanus is the only domestic type of cattle depicted in V—a; in V-b B. brachyceros appears beside B. africanus, which latter becomes gradually displaced.

Brinkmann, August

1920. Equidenstudien I, II. Bergens Mus. Aarbok 1919-20, Naturvidenska- belig rakke, Nr. 5, pp. 1-88, 1 fig., 3 tables.

Osteological study of the extinct Norwegian Lofoten breed of horse, which is described in the first part and compared to other prehistoric types. The author accepts the four basic types of horses, established by Ewart (cf. Ewart, 1904, 1907a, 1909), and considers the Lofoten horse a straight derivation from the small, broad- headed Equus caballus robustus, endemic in Europe since glacial times. The second part is a craniological investigation of asses, in which the racial significance of the cranial index is emphasized.

32 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

1921. Canidenstudien I, II, II]. Vidensk. Medd. dansk naturh. Foren. Kbh., Bd. 72, pp. 1-44, 3 pls. with 16 figs., 3 tables.

A study of several prehistoric dogs from Seandinavian sites, especially of a skeleton found near Errindley (Denmark) with close affinities to a greyhound type. The origin of the large greyhounds is discussed. They are derived from the Indian wolf, Canis pallipes, the Errindley dog representing a link between C. pallipes and recent greyhounds and borzois. C. pallipes is regarded as a sep- arate species clearly distinct from C. lwpus and its races.

1923-24. Canidenstudien V, VI. Bergens Mus. Aarbok 1923-24, Naturviden- skabelig rakke, Nr. 7, pp. 1—57, 4 pls., 4 tables, 3 figs.

An extensive investigation of the dog remains from Scandinavian Stone Age sites, collected by the Museum of K¢gbenhavn and the Bergen Museum. A large type of dog, belonging to the Canis inostranzewi group and considered the most ancient domesticated dog, occurred in all Danish sites from the Azilien (pre- Campignien) on. Beginning with the next culture period (Campignien, the Danish ‘‘kitchen-midden”’ time), this form is accompanied by C. palustris lado- gensis, which by that time already showed signs of advanced influence of a domestic environment. Jnostranzewi and palustris types are seen as the earliest forms of domesticated dogs, living throughout millenniums in northern Europe. The latter type in a dwarfed form constituted the turbary or peat-dog, Canis palustris proper, which either reached Switzerland by late Neolithic or developed there. The author holds that Canis palustris ladogensis is derived directly from a small type of wolf and is the result of thousands of years of domestication, while the inostranzewi type is identified with a wolf-dog hybrid.

A palustris type and wolf hybrid occur simultaneously in all the Neolithic sites throughout the Nordic countries until recent times, where they are repre- sented by the gray deerhound (wolf hybrid) and the Finnish dog (palustris type) respectively, both the latter breeds described in detail in part VI.

Brogger, A. W.

1940. From the Stone Age to the Motor Age. A sketch of Norwegian cultural history. Antiquity, vol. 14, pp. 163-181.

In the chapter ‘“‘Hunting, Catching and Farming,”’ the economic foundation of the Stone and Bronze Age in Norway is outlined. During the first few thousand years of the settlement of the country, when people lived in a hunting and catching stage, no domestic species besides the dog was known. Only from the third millennium B.C., with new civilizations invading from the south, additional do- mestic animals (cow, sheep and pig) became known and were kept.

Bronholm, H. C., and Rasmussen, J. P.

1931. Ein steinzeitlicher Hausgrund bei Strandegaard, Ostseeland. Acta Ar- chaeol., vol. II, pp. 265-278, 8 illus.

Remains of domestic cattle (Bos taurus domesticus) were found in a dwelling place dating to the end of the early Stone Age, and were identified by M. Degerbgl (p. 278).

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 33

Brunton, Guy, and Caton-Thompson, G.

1928. The Badarian civilization. British School of Archaeology in Egypt. x + 128 pp., 85 pls.

Report of excavation of the predynastic cemeteries and settlements at Badari (near Qau, Upper Egypt). Among the mammal remains found in the graves, skulls of an ‘‘ox-buffalo’”’ and a sheep were identified by D. M.S. Watson (p. 38). The faunal remains discovered at the settlements (North Spur Hamamieh, between Badari and Qau-el-Kebir) yielded bones of sheep (or goat), pig and ox (p. 77). Pottery from this site shows figures of a bovine (pl. XX XVIII). On pp. 92-94 an account of animal burials is given. They consisted of thirteen carefully ar- ranged piles, composed of the remains of young oxen (connected with one of the heaps was the skull of an ass), and masses of dog bones beneath blocks of limestone. All the ontogenetic stages were represented. Intermingled with the dog remains were jaw parts of (domestic?) cats.

Bryner, Jones

1932. The origin and development of British cattle. Proceedings of the First International Congress of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences, London, pp. 151-154. Oxford University Press (London).

An account of the origin of cattle, not only of Britain but in general. The Pleis- tocene Leptobos with horned males and hornless females—although descendants of a remote ancestor which was hornless in both sexes—is seen as the first representa- tive of the species from which all domesticated cattle were ultimately derived. From this early wild race sprang several forms, one of which, Bos primigenius, was domesticated at an early period in western Asia. This species has contributed the main share to the make-up of modern cattle in western Europe, including Britain, in which latter the wild Bos primigenius was found up to the Neolithic, although it was probably never domesticated there. From the late Neolithic onward there is found in abundance a smaller, more slightly built race, Bos longi- frons Owen, which also originated in Asia (found at Anau; ef. Diirst, 1908). It does not constitute a separate species but is a mere domestic breed of prehistoric times derived from the same primigenius ancestor. Intercrossing between the different forms had probably occurred already in prehistoric periods.

Burkhill, I. H.

1935 Origins of the cultivated plants of the Old World. Proc. Linn. Soc., London, vol. 164, part 1, pp. 12-42.

In the introductory pages to a comprehensive study on the origin and dis- persal of cultivated plants, the author devotes some discussion to the earliest breeding of sheep, which probably gave rise to the first tillage, when abundant spring pasture inspired the herdsmen to try to increase the supply of vegetation.

Burns, Robert, and Moody, E. C. 1935. The trek of the Golden Fleece. J. Hered., vol. X XVI, nos. 11-12, pp. 433-4438, 505-518. An account of the origin and history of the Merino stock throughout two

millenniums is preceded by a short section on the origin and ancestors of domestic sheep.

34 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Bylin-Althin, Margit 1946. The sites of Ch’i Chia P’ing and Lo Han T’ang in Kansu. Bull. Mus. far east. Antiq., Stockholm, no. 18, pp. 383-498, 6 pls., 18 figs.

Report of excavations in the prehistoric sites in the Hwang-Ho valley: Ch’i Chia P’ing (pre-Yang-Shao period) and Lo Han T’ang (Yang-Shao period). The bones, examined by E. Dahr (pp. 457-498), were mainly those of domestic mammals (the stratigraphic conditions are uncertain). The majority of the bones belonged to a small form of dog (one skull similar to Canis familiaris palus- tris), pigs (which displayed clear affinities to Sus vittatus), and a large type of cattle. There were fewer remains of sheep and goat.

Cabrera, Angel 1922. The domestic animals. 94 pp. Libro de la Naturaleza, Calpe (Madrid).

This popular guide to the origin and history of the common domestic mammals and birds and their influence upon human society is provided with numerous photos and drawings.

1932. Los perros domesticos de los indigenos. Actas Cient. Congr. Intern. Amer., La Plata, 25 (1931). Tom. I, pp. 81-93, 5 figs.

Brief description and discussion of bones of subfossil dog and of dog mummies from South America, especially Argentina. A common wild ancestor is sug- gested for South American, North American, and Old World dogs; the appearance of similar types of breeds in the Old and the New World is, however, explained by convergent evolution, due to similar adaptations and mutations.

Cardas, A.

1926. Essai sur l’origine des animaux domestiques de Roumaine. Ann. Sci. Univ. Jassy, Tom. XIII, pp. 409-423.

A brief survey of the important domestic species and their wild ancestors with special emphasis on the Romanian races. Treated are equids, oxen, buffalos, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs. The primitive Romanian horses (Hutsul, Moldavian breeds) are derived from the tarpan with some admixture of Przewalski’s horse; the indigenous cattle are considered as derived from Bos primigenius (the descent of the Montagne cattle from a brachyceros ancestor is refuted). The ancestor of the Tsigaia sheep is regarded as Ovis argali and that of the Tzourcana breeds as O. musimon. The Romanian domestic goat is derived from Capra prisca (cf. Adametz, 1915), and breeds of the primitive Mangalitsa pig are traced back to Sus ferus europaeus.

Cardoso, Anibal 1912. Antiguedad del caballo en el Plata. An. Mus. nac. B. Aires, Tom. XXII (Ser. III, Tom. XV), pp. 371-439, 16 figs. (Fr. summ.).

A review of historical sources on the introduction of Spanish horses into South America is followed by an osteological study of the Criollo horse and of fossil equid remains from South America. The author concludes that Hippidium is the ancestor of the Pleistocene Argentinian Equus rectidens, which gave rise to the domestic Criollo horse, which consequently is taken as an indigenous breed.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 35

Carruthers, Douglas

1949. Beyond the Caspian. A Naturalist in Central Asia. xx + 290 pp., 22 pls. Oliver and Boyd (Edinburgh and London).

In the tale of his wanderings beyond the Caspian the author deals at some length (pp. 41-50) with the Bukharian breeds of sheep and especially with the distribution and habits of the wild species (Ovis vignei and O. orientalis) considered ancestral to the domestic stock. A useful synopsis of the various classifications of the genus Ovis is appended (pp. 226-244).

Caton-Thompson, G. 1934. The camel in dynastic Egypt. Man, vol. XXXIV, no. 24, p. 21.

The presence of the camel in ancient Egypt is proved by a twist of cord made of camel hair, found among other objects from the third dynasty during excava- tions in the northern Fayum.

Caton-Thompson, G., and Gardner, E. W.

1934. The desert Fayum. 2 vols. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (London).

Report of excavations at predynastic and early dynastic sites in the desert oasis of Fayum (northern Egypt). Remains of animals from Kom W (predynastic) included those of pig and sheep (or goat), cattle, and five canid teeth or parts of jaws which may be dog or jackal; contrary to the assumptions of many later authors, there is no mention in the original report that these animals were presumed to be domestic.

Among the faunal remains from the Old Kingdom site of Umm-es-Sawan were horn cores of typical domestic longhorned cattle from the early dynasties. These contrast with the shorthorned cattle from Old Kingdom levels at Hemamiah (ef. Brunton and Caton-Thompson, 1928). Thus rock engravings of shorthorned cattle may be from the Old Kingdom period, contemporaneous with those of longhorned cattle.

A cord of camel-hair was found among the quarrymen’s debris of the Old Kingdom period (cf. Caton-Thompson, 1934), suggesting fairly common use of camel-hair by the poorer laborers.—C.A.R.

Chard, Thornton 1937. An early horse skeleton. J. Hered., vol. XXVIII, no. 9, pp. 317-819. The earliest horse skeleton from Egypt, found in a tomb of the time of the Queen Hatshepsut (early in the fifteenth century B.c.), is described. On the basis of the skull-likeness and estimated height the author relates the specimen to the modern Arabian type.

Childe, V. Gordon 1940. Prehistoric communities of the British Isles. xiv + 274 pp., 16 pls., 96 figs. W. & R. Chambers, Ltd. (London and Edinburgh).

Chapter III (‘The Neolithic Revolution’’) contains a description of the oldest Neolithic culture in the archaeological record of Britain, named after the site at Windmill Hill. Besides sheep (or goat) and pig, the occupants kept cattle, which

36 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

were smaller than the then native wild urus but were larger and provided with longer horns than the later Celtic shorthorn (Bos longifrons). The origin of this early breed of cattle from a cross of imported shorthorn with wild indigenous oxen is seen as conceivable (cf. also Bryner, 1932).

1941. Horses, chariots and battle-axes. Antiquity, vol. 15, no. 58, pp. 196-199.

On the basis of equid identifications from Tepe Sialk (cf. Vaufrey, 1939) the use of horses in southwestern Iran in the fourth millennium B.c. is taken as certain. The author also finds evidence for equids in Elam and Mesopotamia during the fourth and early third millenniums B.c.

Chlebaroff, G. S.

1929-30. Das brachycere Rodoporind in Bulgarien. Univ. i Sofia, Agronomi- cheski fakul’tet, Tom. VIII; special copy-print, 99 pp.

A craniological study of the brachyceros cattle of the Balkan breeds (Illyrian, Albanese, Macedonian, Montenegrin) and particularly of the Bulgarian Rhodope cattle. It is concluded that this race could not have been derived from the European Bos brachyceros but is probably of Asiatic origin. The Asiatic urus (B. namadicus) or one of its varieties is considered as a possible ancestor.

Chubb, S. H.

1913. The horse under domestication; its origin and the structure and growth of the teeth. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist., Guide Leaflet Ser., no. 36, ed. 3, part II, pp. 37-60, figs. 25-88.

An account of horse ancestry, in which the view of a diphyletic origin for the domestic horse is accepted. The ‘“‘Norseman’s”’ horse, from which both European draft horses and Shetland ponies were derived, is a descendant of the native horse of Europe and northwestern Asia, which in turn was perhaps a near relative of the Przewalski horse of Mongolia. In contrast, the ‘“‘Oriental’”’ stock (the Arabian type) originated from Equus lybicus in North Africa.

Clark, Grahame 1941. Horses and battle-axes. Antiquity, vol. 15, no. 57, pp. 50-70, 9 figs.

The introduction of horses into Asia Minor by 2500-2000 B.c., the earliest occurrence of horses in the Near East, is examined from the archaeological point of view. The area between the Baltic and the Black Sea is regarded as the home of horses and battle-axe people, who originally probably used their animals only as pack-horses. (See also Childe, 1941.)

1947. Sheep and swine in the husbandry of prehistoric Europe. Antiquity, vol. 21, no. 83, pp. 122-136.

A consideration of the position of pigs and sheep in prehistoric European husbandry, based upon a comparison of animal remains from successive levels at various archaeological excavations. Characteristic for most of the sites under consideration (mainly in the British Isles, Scandinavia, and Switzerland) is a relative abundance of the pig in the Neolithic, and a substantial decline in its frequency, together with a steady increase in sheep population, in the transition

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 37

time between the Neolithic and the Early Iron Age. It is suggested that the foliaceous forest, which formed the background for rearing pigs and also cattle, became reduced at about that period, forming thereby favorable conditions for sheep breeding.

1948. Fowling in prehistoric Europe. Antiquity, vol. 22, pp. 116-130, 7 figs.

Ancient man hunted nesting geese for food and feathers; it would seem prob- able that the young, after the parents had been killed, were taken to camp and kept alive for food and the down. In this way the domestication of the goose probably occurred.—C.A.R.

Glark, J. G. D.

1952. Prehistoric Europe, the economic basis. xix + 349 pp., 180 figs., 16 pls. Methuen & Co., Ltd. (London).

A survey of animal remains from prehistoric sites in northern, northwestern and central Europe (pp. 108-128). It becomes apparent that cattle and swine were the predominant domestic forms in Neolithic times, but from the Late Bronze Age sheep and goats came to play a part of increasing importance, a phenomenon explained by changes in the flora, due to settled farming. The European domestic pig (Sus scrofa palustris) is regarded as a stunted version of the European wild pig (S. scrofa ferus); the earliest European dog is considered a small race of Canis familiaris palustris; and the chief breeds of cattle kept by prehistoric farmers are divided into two main groups—the primigenius form with large horns and the longifrons group with short ones, both groups derived from the aurochs.

Coon, Carleton

1951. Cave explorations in Iran—1949. Univ. Monog. Univ. Mus., Univ. of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia).

A brief description (pp. 43-52, tables III-VI) of the animal bones found in northern Iranian Mesolithic and Neolithic caves (especially in the ‘‘Belt Cave’’). During late Mesolithic times remains of gazelle and (wild?) ox outnumbered by far those of sheep and goat, but the latter became more abundant and were appar- ently domesticated in the early Neolithic period. The increase in immature bones of goats in the later Neolithic phase was caused by a selective slaughtering of the young males, while the females were kept for milking. At this time, or somewhat later, oxen and pigs probably became domesticated also. The upper Mesolithic levels of the Belt Cave (layers 24-15) also yielded fragments of canids, and some of these bones were identified as belonging to the domestic dog.

1952. Excavations in Hotu Cave, Iran, 1951. <A preliminary report. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. 96, pp. 230-249, 23 figs., 2 tables.

A short account (pp. 243-246) of the faunal findings from the Hotu Cave (northern Iran). In the Neolithic levels (fifth millennium B.c.) domestic oxen, pigs, sheep and goats were represented. Both of the latter were present as domestic animals throughout the occupancy of the cave but pigs and cattle became tamed (or introduced) later. Remains of the wild urus, however, which apparently had been hunted from the very beginning, were detected in the lowest levels.

38 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

1954. The story of man. xiii-425 pp., 32 pls., figs. in text. Alfred A. Knopf (New York).

A popular account of the rise of garden tilling and animal husbandry is given (pp. 114-150). Archaeological data for the earliest farming, and zoological evi- dences for the ancestry of domestic farm animals, are summarized briefly.

Crawford, O. G. S.

1938. The Kish goat, Bulgaria. Antiquity, vol. 12, no. 45 (Notes and News). pp. 81, 82, pl. I.

The occurrence of goats of the Capra girgentana type (cf. Adametz, 1932) from Bulgaria is reported. The horns correspond also to the ‘‘Kish goat’’ (cf. Amschler, 1937), and a Capra prisca ancestry is suggested.

Curwen, E. Cecil 1938. Early agriculture in Denmark. Antiquity, vol. 12, pp. 135-153, 4 pls.

Bones from the Mesolithic of the Mullerup cultures (approximately 6000 B.c.) indicate that the dog was the only domestic animal; the domestic ox, pig, sheep, and goat first appear at the beginning of the Neolithic, simultaneously with wheat and barley, and must have been introduced from the south. The sheep is believed descended from a species domesticated in Turkestan about 6000 B.c., and the goat is regarded as derived from Capra aegagrus. The similarity between domestic and wild pigs was greatest in the Neolithic, with subsequent morphological divergence. The domestic cattle were either longhorned (thought to be derived from Bos primi- genius) or shorthorned (B. brachyceros). The origin of the latter is unknown. The horse seems not to have reached Denmark until the Megalithic period; poultry and cats did not appear until the Roman Iron Age.—C.A.R.

1946. Plough and pasture. Past and Present, vol. IV, 122 pp., 14 pls., 21 figs. Thomas Knight & Co. (Hoddesdon, England).

Cf. Curwen, E. C., and Hatt, G., 1953.

Curwen, E. Cecil, and Hatt, Gudmund

1953. Plough and pasture—the early history of farming. xii+529 pp., 14 pls., 24 figs. Henry Schuman (New York).

A semipopular outline of the story of food production from its earliest begin- nings. In the first part of the book Curwen deals with the origin of stock-breeding in Europe and the Near East (chap. 3, pp. 36-48) and gives a brief review of the ancestry of the earliest domestic animals—sheep, goat, ox and pig. Their hearth of domestication is sought at some point within the area bounded by the Nile on the west, the Indus on the east, and the forty-fifth parallel on the north. Nomadic tribes—not identical with the settled farmers, who started the cultivation of cereals in about the same area—are considered as the first animal-breeders. Tarpan- ancestry is accepted for the domestic horse, and its first domestication center is found in southern Russia as early as the fourth millennium B.c.

The second part, by Hatt, is a study of the economic cultures of non-European peoples in modern and historic times. In America (p. 199) two independent cen- ters of animal domestication are distinguished—Peru and Central America, llama and alpaca being characteristic of the former and never reaching the latter, where-

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 39

as domestic turkeys and tame bees were characteristic of Central America but never were found in Peru. Old World pastoralism (chaps. 15 and 18) arose in Asia. The first domestication (of bovids, reindeer, horse, camel) was done by hunters, who developed the use of animals for transport and for dairy purposes.

Dahr, Elias

1937. Studien iiber Hunde aus primitiven Steinzeitkulturen in Nordeuropa. Acta Univ. Lundensis, N. S., Avdelingen 2, Bd. 32, Nr. 4, pp. 1-63, 3 pls., 12 tables, 5 figs. (Eng. summ., pp. 58-61).

An osteological treatment of dog remains from pre-Neolithie (‘‘Miolithic’’) cultures of northern Europe (from among Baltic comb ceramics and Danish kitchen-middens), especially from the dwelling site at Sjgholmen in southern Sweden. In all these Stone Age cultures the only achievement in domestication is the dog, of which, however, there are several breeds, all closely related. On the basis of differences in the dentition and in other craniological features (e.g., the position of the orbital plane), wolves, jackals and coyotes are excluded from the pedigree of the Miolithic dogs, which are supposed to have been derived from an extinct species closely resembling or even identical with the dingo, assuming that the latter was represented in Asia during prehistoric times.

1942. Uber die Variationen der Hirnschale bei wilden und zahmen Caniden. Ein Beitrag zur Genealogie der Haushunde. Arkiv Zool., Bd. 33 A, Nr. 16, pp. 1—56, 3 figs., 7 tables.

The co-variation of length and breadth of the brain-case in wild and domestic dogs is investigated, and conclusions concerning the genealogy of the latter are drawn from the results. Neither true wolves nor typical jackals are considered ancestral to recent domestic dogs, which are supposed to have been derived from a dingo-like form, spread during early Quaternary time on the Eurasian continent.

Dalimier, Paul

1954. La morphologie de la chévre sous |’influence de la domestication. Bull. Inst. Sci. Nat. Belg., vol. 30, no. 13, pp. 1-12, 5 figs.

Following a discussion of the opinions of Keller and of Lydekker, the author concludes that the domestic goats of Kashmir and Tibet, with heteronymous horns, are derived from the markhor, Capra falconeri; most other domestic goats (and particularly those of Europe) are descended from the bezoar or pisang, Capra hir- cus aegagrus. There are aegagrus-derived dwarf goats in Lapland and West Africa. Human selection has had little influence on the behavior or morphology of the goat, aside from the retention of the lop ear and the development of different kinds of pelage. This lack of change under domestication, as contrasted with profound changes in most domestic mammals, is ascribed to the fact that the goat has always been kept in small groups by the poor, never in large flocks by rich stock- men who might have practiced selective breeding.—C.A.R.

Davis, Malcolm 1954. The history of the domestication of animals. All-Pets Magazine, Feb- ruary, 1954, pp. 21, 32-37.

A popular review of domestic mammals and birds and how they originated.

40 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Dawkins, W. Boyd, and Jackson, J. W. 1917. The domestic animals of the Lake Village. Jn A. Bulleid and H. G. Gray, The Glastonbury Lake Village, vol. II, chap. 26, pp. 648-661, pl. XCVII. The Glastonbury Antiquarian Society (Glastonbury).

Study of the faunal remains from excavations at a lake village near Glaston- bury (Great Britain), dated to the prehistoric Iron Age prior to the Roman occu- pation. Sheep bones constitute by far the most abundant remains and represent at least two distinct breeds. Sheep are followed in frequency by cattle (Bos longi- frons), while few remains belonged to the horse (a small breed, probably Equus agilis), dog and goat(?). The description of the lake village fauna follows a brief discussion on animals in prehistoric Britain in general; all of the domestic breeds —horse, cattle, sheep, goat, pig and dog—are considered as introduced species, brought by Neolithic herdsmen from the Continent.

Debono, Fernand

1948. El-Omari (prés d’Hélouan). Exposé sommaire sur le campagnes des fouilles 1943-1944 et 1948. Ann. Serv. Antiq. Egypte, vol. 48, pp. 561- 569, 6 pls.

The pre-dynastic site of El-Omari in Egypt yielded a fauna which included pig, goat, a bovid (presumably cattle), and a canid. It is suggested that the goat and the bovid were probably domesticated. The time of occupation of El-Omari probably lies between the times of occupation of Merimde and Maadi. —C.A.R.

Degerbol, Magnus 1927. Uber prihistorische diinische Hunde. Vidensk. Medd. dansk naturh. Foren. Kbh., Bd. 84, pp. 17-60, 6 tables, 4 pls.

Discussion of dogs from the Danish Stone Age and description of dog skulls from the Svardborg Moor (Ancylus period). Those skulls, remains of the most ancient domestic animal in Denmark, are regarded as a ‘‘palustris-svardborgensis”’ form distinct from the larger and stouter Canis palustris ladogensis. A dog skele- ton from the following (pre-Roman) period is described and identified with Canis familiaris inostranzewi, the occurrence of which in the Danish Campignien is dis- cussed briefly.

1933a. Danmarks Pattedyr i Fortiden i Sammenlingning med recente Former. (Danish mammals of old times in comparison with recent forms.) Festskr. i Anledning Hundredaarsdagen dansk naturhist. Foren., pp. 357-641, pls. xii-xxiv, 21 figs. (ef. Degerbgl, M., 1933b).

1933b. Danmarks Pattedyr i Fortiden. (Danish mammals of old times.) 284 pp., 21 figs., 24 pls., 50 tables in text, 13 tables appended. C. A. Reizels Forlag (K¢benhavn).

A detailed survey of the Danish mammal fauna from the last interglacial period up to the Neolithic, based primarily upon the subfossil material collected by the Zoological Museum of the University of Copenhagen.

The book deals almost exclusively with wild forms, but a special part (pp. 231— 237) is devoted to the domestic dog, the most ancient and up to early Neolithic

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 41

the only domesticated animal. Specimens found in Zealand settlements (Lundby Bog) are closely related to Canis familiaris inostranzewi. But beside this larger form the sites at Svardborg (cf. Degerbgl, 1927) and Mullerup (also early Neolithic) yielded a smaller dog related to the palustris type, which had been kept in Den- mark thousands of years before C. familiaris palustris appeared at Lake Ladoga. The new type is named C. familiaris palustris svardborgensis. The wolf is seen as ancestor for the large breeds of dogs, the jackal as probable progenitor for the small breeds.

1939. Dyreknogler. (Animal bones.) In T. Mathiassen, Bundsg. En yngre Stenalders Boplads paa Als; Aarbgger, 1939 (Kgbenhavn), pp. 85-198, 3 pls., 36 figs., 25 tables.

A detailed description and discussion of the faunal remains from a prehistoric dwelling place, Bunds¢ on Jylland (Denmark).

Bones of the wild urus and domestic cattle were found. Among the latter, primigenius and brachyceros (=longifrons) types are distinguished and their osteo- logical relationship is worked out in detail; trochoceros and frontosus forms are re- garded as variations of the primigenius type. Pig and sheep belonged to the tur- bary type (Sus scrofa palustris and Ovis aries palustris), and the few goat remains are identified as Capra hircus. The dogs at Bunds¢ showed closest resemblance to Canis familiaris palustris ladogensis.

Dobzhansky, Theodosius

1955. Evolution, Genetics, and Man. xi+398 pp. John Wiley & Sons, Ine. (New York).

In chap. 9 (pp. 191-221) a domestic form is tentatively defined as one that regularly reproduces in captivity and whose populations are controlled by man. The horse is discussed as an example. The European forest horse, the tarpan of the steppes, and the eastern Przewalski horse are regarded as no more than sub- specifically distinct, and all three populations have contributed to the gene-pool of the domestic horse.

A table (p. 193) of domestic mammals is presented, with the place and time of their domestication, as known. The reindeer is not included.—C.A.R.

Dottrens, E.

1946. La faune néolithique de la couche profonde de Saint-Aubin. I. Etude préliminaire: les phalanges osseuses de Bos taurus domesticus. Rey. suisse Zool., Tom. 53, no. 4, pp. 739-774.

Preliminary report of the cattle remains from Saint-Aubin (cf. Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947) and a detailed study of the phalanges from ten individuals.

Dirst, J. Ulrich

1900. Die Rinder von Babylon, Assyrien und Agypten—und ihr Zusammen- hang mit den Rindern der Alten Welt. 94 pp.,8 pls. Georg Reimer (Berlin).

Animal representations in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and osteological material from recent African and Asiatic cattle are studied and compared in order to trace the history and nature of the domestic cattle kept by Assyrians, Baby- lonians and Egyptians. The author suggests that the domesticated longhorned

42 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

races as well as the brachyceros breeds from the Near East, from North and East Africa, and from the Swiss lake dwellings originated in India, probably from Bos namadicus Falconer.

1904. Uber ein neues prahistorisches Hausschaf und dessen Herkunft. Vjschr. naturf. Ges. Ziirich, Jhg. 49, pp. 17-31, 2 pls. with 6 figs.

Description of the remains of a new type of domestic sheep from a Swiss lake dwelling, but found in other European Neolithic sites as well. The stouter bones and heavier horns clearly distinguish this type from the turbary sheep (Ovis aries palustris) and it is named by the author Ovis aries studeri; since it seems to appear at the threshold of the Copper Age it is referred to as ‘“‘copper sheep.”’

The copper sheep is seen as an offspring from a cross of the turbary sheep with the wild mouflon.

1908. Animal remains from the excavations at Anau, and the horse of Anau in its relation to the races of domestic horses. Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ. 73, vol. II, part 6, pp. 339-442, pls. 71-91.

Extensive and detailed treatment of the osteological material from the pre- historic site at Anau in southwestern Turkestan. Domestic species identified and described were dog, pig, cattle, sheep, goat, camel and horse. The dog of Anau is of the type Canis familiaris matris optimae, which resembles the dingo as well as the fossil Canis poutiatini (cf. Studer, 1906) and is derived from one of them. Remains of pig, very common in later strata, are close to Sus vittatus and regarded as the oldest trace of the turbary pig. The bovid of the lower layers from Anau is identified with wild Bos namadicus, but during later periods a domesticated long- horned type of cattle originated from this wild form. Among the sheep bones (about 20 per cent in all levels), the author distinguishes the wild Ovis vignei arkal and a domestic form, O. aries palustris, which is considered a direct descendant of the former. Domestic goat (Capra hircus) and camel yielded few fragments and only in the uppermost layers; it is suggested that both were imported from the Iranian plateau.

The numerous equid remains from Anau are designated as a desert type of horse—the oldest domestic breed of the Oriental group and named Equus caballus pumpellii. The horse of Anau, its genealogy and its connection with the other domestic horses are discussed in a special chapter (pp. 401-442). Three basic types for the domestic horse stock are suggested, all derived from FE. c. fossilis (a recent form of which is found in the Przewalski horse): (a) a steppe type (E. c. robustus), which gave rise to the Occidental horses; (b) a forest type (EH. c. neh- ringi), the ancestor of the Celtic pony; and (c) a desert type, the horse of Anau (ef. above).

1945. Zur Frage der Herkunft des Haushundes. Anthropos, Tom. 37-40 (1942-45), Analecta et Additamenta, pp. 318-319.

Serological tests showed that the jackal and the wolf have the same affinity to the domestic dog; both are considered ancestors. The Australian Canis dingo is seen as a wild, never domesticated animal, though a related form gave rise to the pariah type, found at a domestic stage in the Anau culture.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 43

Diirst, J. U., and Gaillard, C.

1902. Studien iiber die Geschichte des agyptischen Hausschafes. Rec. Trav. Rel. Phil. et Arch. Egypt. et Assyr., Paris, Tom. 24, pp. 44-76, 10 figs.

A zoological-archaeological study of the ‘‘goat-horned sheep,’’ which oc- curred in prehistoric Egypt. It was the original prototype for the famous “Ram of Mendes,”’ but was replaced later, after its extinction, by a goat (probably Hircus mambricus). The study shows the similarity of the African wild Ovis longipes and the Egyptian ‘‘goat-horned sheep’”’ named O. |. palaeoaegypticus, which is taken to be the oldest domestic form of the long-legged and horizontally screw-horned breeds (as represented by the recent Walachian sheep).

Dyson, Robert H.

1953. Archaeology and the domestication of animals. Amer. Anthrop., vol. 55, no. 5, part 1, pp. 661-671.

A brief summary of early archaeological evidence concerning the domestication of cattle, pig, goat and sheep, and a compilation of references to studies on their origin. It is concluded that a Neolithic economy, based in part on those four domestic animals, was first developed in the Near East, some time during or prior to the fifth millennium B.c.

A comprehensive bibliography is appended.

Epstein, H. 1933. Descent and origin of the Afrikaner cattle. J. Hered., vol. XXIV, no. 12, pp. 449-462, frontispiece, 5 figs.

The South African red Afrikaner cattle evolved from indigenous breeds by severe and careful selection. The nucleus was formed by the Hottentot cattle, which did not originate from a cross of Hamitie longhorn (primigenius type) with zebus, like most of the other African breeds (Zulu, Bechuana, Watusi and Damara cattle), but represents—according to craniological and other skeleton features — a pure zebu breed (derived from Bos namadicus), which is believed to have reached Africa via Bab-el-Mandeb and Ethiopia during the second millennium B.c. The author holds that the original characteristics of the zebu race are preserved in a purer form in the Afrikaner cattle than in the zebus of Asia, which have been exposed to the influence of shorthorned (brachyceros) breeds.

Erkes, Eduard

1940. Das Pferd im alten China. T’oung-Pao Archives, vol. 36, liv. 1, pp. 26- 63. E. J. Brill (Leiden).

Archaeological evidences are brought together to prove that the wild horse was known to man in China in early Paleolithic times and was tamed in China by the Neolithic. Also, on the basis of ethnological material, it is assumed that horse-breeding evolved in China from the taming of the indigenous wild horse. The ass, on the other hand, was introduced into China, together with mule and camel, by the Huns at the end of the third century B.c.

Etheridge, R. 1916. The warrigal, or ‘‘dingo’’ introduced or indigenous? Mem. geol. Surv. N.S. W., Ethn., no. 2, pp. 43-54, pls. x—xii.

dt FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Records dealing with discoveries of post-Pliocene dog remains from the Wel- lington and other bone caves in New South Wales are presented, and contradictory views concerning the status of the dingo—whether indigenous in Australia previous to the advent of man or introduced by the latter—are quoted. The “Wellington Caves Teeth” are compared with teeth of a modern domestic dog, and with those of the Tasmanian wolf and the Tasmanian devil. The author concludes that a dog did exist in New South Wales in Post-Tertiary times, and that some of the teeth are those of a dog.

Ewart, J. Cossar

1904. The multiple origin of horses and ponies. Trans. Highl. agric. Soe. Seot- land, vol. XVI, pp. 230-268, 24 figs.

An outline of the probable polyphyletic origin of domestic horses from several distinct species which persisted from pre-glacial times almost unaltered to recent days. Three distinct types of living horses are distinguished and described: the wild Equus przewalskii, the Celtic pony, and the Norse horse, the two latter called E. caballus celticus and E. c. typicus, respectively. In addition to these, several African and Oriental varieties are suggested as possible ancestors of modern breeds.

1907a. On skulls of horses from the Roman Fort at Newstead near Melrose, with observations on the origin of the domestic horse. Trans. roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. 45, part 3, pp. 555-587, 1 table, 17 figs., 3 pls.

Among the horse remains from the Roman Fort at Newstead, Scotland, dated to the first and second centuries A.D., three distinct kinds of skulls are distinguished. A comparative study of the skulls of living varieties with the skulls of Newstead proved that (a) long, bent skulls from Newstead are almost identical with the skull of Equus przewalskii; (b) very narrow skulls agree with those of typical Celtic ponies (and also some Arabian horses); (c) broad-faced skulls resemble closely the skulls of horses of the ‘‘forest type,” frequently met with in northern Europe and in northern and western Africa.

The new evidence confirms the previous view of the author on the origin of the tamed horse (ef. Ewart, 1904), and three groups of domestic horses are recognized: (a) The “steppe variety,’ which has either sprung from or is closely allied to Przewalski’s horse; this group comprises the Oriental horses, including the tarpan, which is taken to be a feral horse. (b) The “‘plateau variety,’’ which includes two races, the ‘‘Celtic,’’ adapted for a subarctic habitat and widely distributed in pre- historic Europe, and the “Libyan’”’ (identical with Equus caballus libycus; ef. Ridgeway, 1905), adapted for a subtropical region. (c) The “forest variety” (identical with the Norse horse; ef. Ewart, 1904), derived from the wild Equus robustus, found in alluvial deposits in France.

The Arabian horses are considered partly of the steppe and partly of the forest type. Most of the recent breeds, which are reviewed briefly, carry blood of sev- eral ancestors.

1907b. The derivation of the modern horse. Quart. Rev., vol. 206, no. 411.

After a short review of the theories on the origins of the domestic horse, evi- dence is produced to show that the three types of recent horses, forest, plateau,

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 45

and steppe types (cf. Ewart, 1907a), were already present in prehistoric times and go back to three distinct Paleolithic ancestors.

1909. The possible ancestors of the horses living under domestication. Science, vol. 30, no. 763, pp. 219-223.

In a brief discussion of the probable ancestors of the domestic races of horses the author claims a polyphyletic origin from several (at least five) Pleistocene forms. To the three forms previously established (cf. Ewart, 1907a, b), a “‘Si- walik”’ type is added, to include horses allied to Equus sivalensis of the Pliocene deposits found in the Siwalik Hills of India. Slender-limbed forms are derived either from EF. gracilis libycus (syn., E. caballus libycus; ef. Ridgeway, 1905) or from a cross of the latter with E. robustus.

1912. The principles of breeding and the origin of domesticated breeds of ani- mals. 27th Ann. Rep., Bur. Anim. Industry, 1910, Washington, pp. 125- 186, 7 figs.

In the second part of this article the author gives a detailed description of the characteristics of ancient domestic breeds and deals at length with the origin of sheep, cattle and domestic horses. It is suggested that some of the long-tailed European breeds of sheep descended from the urial or from mouflons, but the spiral-horned varieties were perhaps derived from the argali type (cf. Ewart, 1913, 1914). The Celtic shorthorn (Bos longifrons) is considered to be more intimately related to longhorned zebus than to Bos primigenius; other British races, however (Galloway, Cadrow cattle), are regarded as of the primigenius type; Aberdeen- Angus cattle are derived from an ancient Oriental race. Gaur and banteng are considered as descendants of Bos acutifrons of the Punjab.

A full description is given of the four types of domesticated horses distin- guished by the author: the forest, plateau, steppe and Siwalik types (cf. Ewart, 1907a, b, 1909). The latter is related to the Pliocene Equus sivalensis, or to its more specialized relative, E. stenonis of Europe.

1913. Domestic sheep and their wild ancestors. I. Sheep of the mouflon and the urial types. Trans. Highl. agric. Soc. Scotland, ser. V, vol. XXV, pp. 160-191, figs. 30-67.

After referring to characteristics and distribution of the present types of wild sheep, an attempt is made to indicate the part that the varieties of the mouflon (Ovis orientalis and O. musimon) and the urial (O. vignei) have played in forming modern breeds. Special attention is directed to the Shetland sheep of the peat or turbary type (O. aries palustris), which retains the main characteristics of the urial ancestor, and to the semi-wild sheep of the islands of Soay, some of which resemble the urial while others appear to be closely related to the mouflon or to its early domesticated ancestor, the so-called “‘copper sheep’”’ (cf. Diirst, 1904). It is suggested that a tame mouflon and the urial, the latter in the form of the domestic turbary sheep, met and blended early in the Bronze Age.

1914. Domestic sheep and their wild ancestors. II. Wild sheep of the argali type. Trans. Highl. agric. Soc. Scotland, ser. V, vol. XX VI, pp. 74-101, 8 pls. with 26 figs.

46 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

By examining sheep remains from alluvial deposits of the Thames Valley and by studying skeletons of wild and domestic forms, primitive and improved, evidences are obtained that besides the urial and the mouflon (cf. Ewart, 1913), the wild argali (Ovis ammon) has also contributed to domestic breeds of sheep. Argali characters are found in subfossil sheep material from the Thames alluvium and in the fat-rumped breeds of Bukhara and Turkestan.

Fairservis, Walter A., Jr.

1955. Wool through the ages: A research survey on the history of wool. 23 pp. The Wool Bureau, Ine. (New York).

A popular summary of the history of wool and the wool-industry, from the prehistoric period into the first millennium A.D. Included is a short account of the archeologie evidence, as known, for the origin of domestic sheep and for their early history (cf. Hilzheimer, 1936; Braidwood, 1952; Dyson, 1953).—C.A.R.

Feige, Ernst

1927. Das Haustierproblem. Naturwissenschaften, Jhg. XV, Heft 42, pp. 841-847.

A brief summary of information on the early dispersal of domestic mammals is followed by a discussion of zoogeographic aspects. Particular emphasis is given to the significance of pigmentation in relation to the original environment of domesticated animals.

1928. Die Haustierzonen der alten Welt. Petermanns Mitt., Nr. 198, 121 pp., 1 map.

The wild ancestors of domestic ungulates and their geographic distribution are investigated in order to localize the areas of domestication. ‘‘Natural areas’’ of domestication are marked for the various groups in Africa, Asia and Europe and contrasted to “economic areas’ of domestication in these continents. The dependence of pigments upon geographic and ecological factors is stressed (pp. 107-117). The author holds that the morphological influence of human culture on domestic forms has usually been insignificant in comparison with the influence of the natural environment. A geographical map schematizes the “natural areas”’ of domestication.

Flor, Fritz

1930. Haustiere und Hirtenkulturen. Wiener Beitr. i ae und Linguistik. Inst. Vélkerkunde, Univ. Wien, pp. 1-288.

This historical survey covers the origins of the domestic dog, reindeer and horse. The philological aspects are emphasized, but zoological information is considered. The author finds the cradle of the domestic dog (chap. 3) in the Protoeskimoid culture in arctic Siberia and associates with the rearing of the dog the earliest breeding of reindeer (chap. 4) among the Protosamojeds. The keeping of reindeer is considered to be the most ancient pastoral culture and it eventually gave rise to the domestication of the horse (chap. 6), practiced first in Asia by the Proto-Altaian tribes.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 47

Forbes, R. J.

1955. The coming of the camel. Jn Studies in Ancient Technology, vol. II, pp. 187-208. E. J. Brill (Leiden).

The camel and the dromedary are separate species, independently domesticated from different wild species. The camel was probably domesticated in central Asia in late Neolithic times, the dromedary in Arabia, perhaps somewhat earlier. Neither animal was adopted by peoples of historical cultures for several millen- niums, although both species were known to the Akkadians; the Egyptians, from pre-dynastic times onward, had rare contacts with dromedary-owning Bedouins.

The Assyrians were the first historical people to use these animals, the camel from about 1100 B.c. onward, the dromedary from approximately 800 B.c. Trans- desert traffic by means of dromedary caravans came only with the Persian Empire. Although the dromedary existed wild in northern Africa in prehistoric times, there is no evidence that it was domesticated there, and its use west of the Nile spread slowly, even after its introduction into Egypt about 300 B.c.—C.A.R.

Fraser, F. C., and King, J. E.

1954. Faunal remains. Jn Excavations at Star Carr: An Early Mesolithic Site at Seamer near Scarborough, Yorkshire, by J. G. D. Clark, pp. 70-95. Cambridge, at the University Press.

The Star Carr horizon of the Maglemosian (Mesolithic) culture belongs to an earlier period (a late phase of the pre-Boreal, or Zone IV) of post-glacial time than did the classic Maglemosian sites of Denmark and the shores of the Baltic. A wide variety of animal remains was found, but none were domestic species, although an earlier report (Proc. prehist. Soc., 1950, vol. 15, pp. 109-129) had suggested the presence of the domestic dog. However, all canid materials proved to belong to the wolf. The absence of a dog is particularly interesting in view of the C' determination (9488+350 years), which is so close to the suggested date of 9000 years ascribed to the dog found at Frankfort (cf. Baas, 1938).—C.A.R.

Free, Joseph 1944. Abraham’s camels. J. Near East. Stud., vol. III, pp. 187-197.

A collection of evidences (chiefly art representations) that point to the presence of camels in ancient Egypt in predynastic periods. Many items seem to offer evidence that the animals were domesticated.

Friederichs, Heinz

1933. Zur Kenntnis der friihgeschichtlichen Tierwelt Siidwestasiens. Alte Orient, Bd. 32, Hefte 3, 4, pp. 1—44, 26 figs.

Animal representations from four sites in southwestern Asia—Mohenjo-Daro near the Indus, Tell Halaf in northern and Ur in southern Mesopotamia, and Maikop in northern Caucasia—are described, and problems of domestication in the fourth and third millenniums B.c. in this area are worked out. Earliest domestic animals of southwestern Asia, according to their representations, are Bos primi- genius, spread over all the area and, in Mohenjo-Daro, accompanied by B. namad- icus; sheep (Ovis aries in India, O. vignei in Mesopotamia and O. orientalis in Maikop); and goat. Those species are followed somewhat later by camels (at Tell Halaf), horses and asses, both the latter indicated by the occurrence of mules.

48 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Funkenstein, Daniel H.

1955. The physiology of fear and anger. Sci. Amer., vol. 192, no. 5, pp. 74-78, 80, 7 figs.

Domestic mammals, mammals depending upon flight for survival, and very social animals such as baboons produce a high proportion of adrenalin to nor- adrenalin, whereas aggressive animals such as the lion have a higher proportion of nor-adrenalin. The domestic cat produces about equal amounts of each. Adren- alin and nor-adrenalin are both hormones secreted by the medulla of the adrenal gland; nor-adrenalin is associated with emotional and physiological reactions accompanying rage, whereas adrenalin is associated with those of fear.—C.A.R.

Fiirer-Haimendorf, C. von

1932. Zur Frage der Herkunft der Biiffelhaltung auf den Philippinen. Biol. gen., Bd. VIII, pp. 66-72.

The carabao, kept as an animal of the household and for cult purposes by the mountain tribes of the Philippines, cannot be derived from the only indigenous bovid (Bos mindorensis). Looking for the cradle of the domestic carabao and discussing the date of its introduction to the islands, the author concludes that Austro-Asiatie invaders brought the tamed animal from the Asian continent.

1955. Culture history and cultural development. Yearb. Anthr., vol. 1, pp. 149-168.

Based on recent archaeological evidence (cf. Dyson, 1953), there has been a complete reversal of ethnological theory concerning origins of domestication. Former ideas of the antiquity and independence of horse and reindeer breeding by nomads of central and northern Eurasia must be abandoned in favor of the concept of primary domestication of goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs by the early farmers (or their immediate ancestors) of southwestern Asia.—C.A.R.

Gaillard, Claude

1912. Les tatonnements des Egyptiens a la recherche des animaux a domesti- quer. Rev. Ethnogr. Sociol., Paris, Tom. III, pp. 329-348, 19 figs.

A survey of the domestic and semi-domestic fauna of Egypt at the time of the Old Kingdom as reflected by animal figurines, sculptures and paintings from the ancient monuments. Besides the domestication of sheep, mamber-goat and longhorned cattle, which are dealt with briefly, the author finds evidence in the animal representations for a taming of the Nubian wild goat (Ibex nubiana), the dorcas gazelle, the Beatrix antelope (Oryx), and the addax (Addax nasomaculata) during several dynasties.

1934. Contribution a l’étude de la faune prehistorique de l’Egypte. Arch. Mus. Hist. nat. Lyon, Tom. XIV, Mem. III, 126 pp., 12 pls., 55 figs.

A detailed study of the fossils from the Paleolithic site at Kom Ombo (north of Aswan) and the faunal remains from a Neolithic kitchen-midden deposit at Toukh (Upper Egypt). Besides remains of wild horse, ass, and buffalo among the faunal assemblage from Kom Ombo, those of Bos primigenius and B. brachy- ceros were identified; both species were considered to belong to wild and indigenous

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 49

races. Most of the species represented in Toukh are regarded as probably domes- ticated; they included cattle, pig, dog, buffalo, goat and sheep. Cattle remains were most frequent and belonged to the brachyceros type, the pig was of the turbary race (Sus scrofa aff. palustris), sheep were identified as Ovis longipes palaeoaegypticus (ef. Diirst and Gaillard, 1902), and among the goat remains two species were distinguished—the mamber goat (Hircus mambricus) and H. reversus.

Galbreath, Edwin C.

1947. Additions to the flora of the late Pleistocene deposits at Ashmore, Illinois. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 60-61.

The Indian dog is listed as being present with the following extinct mammals: giant beaver, ground sloth, American mastodon, and an undetermined ovibovid. The coyote was separately identified.—C.A.R.

Gandert, Otto F.

1930. Forschungen zur Geschichte des Haushundes. Mannus Bib., Nr. 46, 93 pp., 34 figs. C. Kabitzsch (Leipzig).

An archaeological-chronological analysis of the Neolithic comb-ceramic culture of northeastern Europe (third millennium B.c.) is followed by an investigation of its domestic stock. The finds from the Russian site at Bologoe (Gouv. Novgerod) are described and treated in detail. The only domestic animal of this culture was the dog, used for hunting. It also provided food and fur. The dog remains belong to two forms: Canis familiaris palustris and the larger C. f. inostranzewzt. The author opposes the view that the larger gave rise to the smaller turbary form and suggests that the reverse may have been true.

Gehl, Otto

1930. Postglaziale Haushunde aus Schleswig-Holstein—nebst einem Beitrag zur caniden Osteometrie. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. VIII, pp. 225-288, 5 figs., 12 tables, 4 pls.

Remains of Neolithic canids from northern Germany, especially from sites in Schleswig-Holstein, are described and discussed. In the early Neolithic sites (Kiel, Klausdorf) two forms appeared: Canis palustris ladogensis and C. intermedius. In the high Neolithic (Ellebeck, Husum) C. palustris appeared as the result of a more intensive domestication. A dog (the body preserved in peat) from the early Iron Age showed affinities to C. pallipes and a marked influence of the north European wolf.

The first part of the paper contains a discussion of the customary craniometric methods for canids, with a guide to new ones.

Gejvali, Nils G. 1937-38. The fauna of the different settlements of Troy. Kungl. Humanist. Vetenskaps. Lund, Arsberattelse 1937-38, pp. 50—57.

Preliminary report on the animal bones collected at Troy during the excavations from 1932 onward. From Troy I (early third millennium B.c.) the genera Bos, Sus, Ovis, Capra and Canis are recorded. In Troy II an increase in cattle breeding becomes evident. Equid remains, first recorded from Troy IV, belong probably to the domestic ass, while the horse appears only in Troy VI.

50 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

1938-39. The fauna of the successive settlements of Troy. Kungl. Humanist. Vetenskaps. Lund, Arsberattelse 1938-39, pp. 1-7.

The second preliminary report on the faunal remains from Troy (cf. Gejvali, 1937-88) confirms the occurrence of the horse in early Troy VI. The domestic horse seemed to become abundant soon after its first appearance. From Troy IX a skull of a domestie(?) cat is recorded.

1938. Uber ein Pferd aus der schwedischen Wikingerzeit. Ark. Zool., Bd. 30A, Nr. 17, pp. 1-16, 2 figs.

A detailed investigation of a skeleton belonging to a domestic horse of the Viking period, found in Uppland (Sweden). The measurements and indices point to a close affinity with the Arabian horse or the tarpan.

George, Naguib 1950. The camel in ancient Egypt. Brit. vet. J., vol. 106, no. 2, pp. 76-81, 5 figs.

Cervical vertebrae and ribs of camel were found in excavations at Helwan near Cairo, Egypt. They are regarded as evidence that the camel was present in Egypt during predynastic periods.

Gerbes, Eduard

1951. Uber die Rinderreste aus den keltisch-rémischen Niederlassungen der Engelhalbinsel bei Bern. Rev. suisse Zool., Tom. 58, no. 1, pp. 1-23.

On the basis of a study of the cattle remains from a Celtie site (400-58 B.C.) on the Engel Peninsula near Bern the conclusion is reached that the stout bovid of this site also belongs to the brachycephalus race, as cattle of primi- genius type are lacking.

Gromova, V. J. 1927. [Material on the knowledge of the fauna of the Tripolje culture.| Yezhe- godik Zoologicheskogo Muzeia, Akad. Nauk SSSR., pp. 83-121 (in Russian).

Detailed description and summary of the animal remains collected from five sites in the central sphere of the Tripolje culture (near Kiev, Ukraine). The great majority of the bones (86 per cent) belonged to domestic species, among which cattle were represented most frequently (37 per cent), followed by pig (23 per cent) and sheep or goat (15 per cent). Other animals recognized were domestic horse (6 per cent) and dog. The preponderance of cattle over pig, sheep and goat and the insignificance of horse-keeping are seen as main char- acteristics for the domestic fauna of this Tripolje (B) culture.

Among the wild fauna, Bos primigenius, apparently hunted in Tripolje A, was identified, and most of the domestic oxen from Tripolje are taken to be the direct result of domestication of the wild urus, though some cattle of brachyceros type were recorded as well.

Haag, Wm. G. 1948. An osteometric analysis of some aboriginal dogs. Univ. Ky. Rep. Anthr., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 105-264, 16 figs.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 51

The study is based on large collections of skeletons of domestic dogs from North American archaeological sites. These dogs resemble Old World domestic dogs, not native wild North American canids. North American aboriginal dogs are classified into 8 morphologic breeds, distinguishable primarily on a size basis (the husky is the largest). For any area, small size of dog is correlated with older archaeological horizon and also with poverty of human cultural remains. The necessity is stressed of making statistical analyses of large series before attempting conclusions. The study lends support to the idea that the dog was derived from a small wolf-like form not approximated by any of the living boreal wolves, and that domestication occurred not long before 6000 B.c. It is thought that the ancestors of the dog, as scavengers, adopted man long before man adopted and domesticated the dog. Probably the domestic dog was introduced to North America about 500 B.c. by a people with a late Mesolithic culture. —C.A.R.

Hahn, Eduard

1909. Die Entstehung der Pflugkultur. viii + 192 pp. Carl Winter (Heidel- berg).

In his ethnological study the author sees in religious rites and cult associations the origin of domestication of oxen, and, following it, the origin of plough-culture in general. Herd animals (and eventually pastoralism) as well as horse-breeding and camel-breeding came out of this early seed-and-plough agriculture, practiced first in Mesopotamia.

Haltenorth, Theodor

1953. Die Wildkatzen der Alten Welt, eine Ubersicht iiber die Untergattung Felis. 166 pp., 10 tables, 117 figs. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft. Geest & Portig (Leipzig).

A systematic treatment, based on morphology, of the Old World wild cats. In the last chapter the origin of the domestic cat is dealt with. The only truly domesticated cat is Felis silvestris ibyca Forster of Egypt, which appears in a stage of domestication from the beginning of the Middle Empire (2000 B.c.). When it was introduced into Europe, it may have mated with European wild cats occasionally.

Hancar, Franz

1951. Probleme und Ergebnisse der neuen russischen Urgeschichtsforschung. 33. Ber. Rémisch-Germanischen Komm. 1943-50, Deutsches Archaeol. Inst., Berlin, pp. 25-60, 3 pls., 10 figs.

A comprehensive survey of the Russian literature concerned with the latest archaeological excavations of the Tripolje settlements, the Neolithic complex of the Ukrainian steppe. Special attention is directed toward the change in the com- position of the domestic stock from the “classical” stage (Tripolje B), in which tillage appeared to have been the principal economic base, to the final stage (Tri- polje C, ca. 2100-1700 B.c.; demonstrated by the sites at Horodsk and Usatovo), which is characterized by a marked increase in the number of domestic animals (identified at Usatovo): sheep (48 per cent), cattle (28 per cent), horse (13 per cent), and goat, pig and dog (only a few fragments). The great increase in the frequency of sheep and horse (associated with a decrease of pig) becomes evident by a com- parison with the faunal composition from Tripolje B (ef. Gromova, 1927).

UNIVERS yunols Ul

(TY OF BRARY

52 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

The author traces in detail the transition from a culture of settled farmers and cattle-breeders to a nomadic pastoralism, based upon the rearing of huge herds and change of pastures.

1952. Stand und historische Bedeutung der Pferdezucht Mittelasiens im ersten Jahrtausend v. Chr. Wiener Beitr. Kulturges. und Linguistik, Jhg. IX, pp. 465-483.

A compilation of ethnological, historical and zoological data forms the back- ground from which a picture of horse-breeding in Bactria and adjacent inner Asia is drawn. Such breeding reached a high level in the early first millennium B.c. Inner Asia is seen as the radiation center for all the mounted invaders that haunted Europe.

Hatt, Gudmund

1919. Notes on reindeer nomadism. Mem. Amer. anthrop. Ass., vol. VI, pp. 75-133.

A collection of references on the biology of the reindeer and on the history of reindeer nomadism, based largely on Scandinavian literature. The nature of rein- deer nomadism is seen as responsible for the slight degree of domestication in the tamed reindeer (when compared to other domestic animals), and therefore does not indicate the recent origin of their domestication; however, it is not considered to be a very ancient achievement.

Havesson, D.

1933. On the domestic pigs of Tschuwasia (Russ.). Transcript of the confer- ence on the origin of domesticated animals, held at the Laboratory of Genetics, Acad. Sci. USSR, Leningrad, 1932, pp. 313-373.

A primitive, small breed of pig from Tschuwasia (Chuvash, former Gouv. Kazan) is investigated (46 skulls) and compared with wild and domestic pigs (fossil and recent) of other races. The Tschuwasian pig exhibits a close affinity to the Neolithic turbary pig (Sus scrofa palustris). It is distinct from the surround- ing domestic breeds but resembles wild forms. Presumably the breed was brought in by the ancestors of the Tschuwasians (of Turkish origin) and probably it was originally domesticated in the area of Kuen-Lun or Tien-Shan.

Hediger, H.

1938. Tierpsychologie und Haustierforschung. Z. Tierpsychol., Bd. II, pp. 29- 46, 302-3138, 2 figs.

A treatment of the psychical background of the origin of domestication. The author shows the transition from the wild via the tamed to the domestic stage and suggests the presence of a ‘‘psychical preadaptation”’ for the status of domestica- tion present in certain species and usually associated with a biological inferiority of those forms in their natural biocoenosis.

Hehn, Victor 1902. Kulturpflanzen und Haustiere in ihrem Ubergang aus Asien nach Grie- chenland und Italien sowie in das iibrige Europa. 7th ed., viili+651 pp., published and annotated by O. Schrader. Gebriider Borntrager (Berlin).

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 53

The work (first edition, 1870) is an attempt to investigate the history and dis- persal of civilization in general and of cultivated plants and domestic animals in particular on the basis of a study of comparative linguistics. The author comes to the conclusion that the domestication of numerous animals was started in the Orient, and that from there the idea of domestication together with the animals themselves spread to Greece, Italy, and later to the remaining European countries. Among the domestic mammals the story of the horse is examined at greatest length (pp. 19-54). Its cradle is found among Iranian tribes, whence it was received by Indo-Europeans only after they became established in their historical places of residence. Rabbit, cat and cattle are dealt with more briefly.

Heinrich, E.

1936. Kleinfunde aus den archaischen Tempelschichten in Uruk. Ausgra- bungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk-Warka, Bd. I. Leipzig.

The animal images from Uruk-Warka (Mesopotamia) are described in detail (pp. 17-28) and discussed from a zoological point of view by M. Hilzheimer (pp. 48-54). Major emphasis is given to the domestic sheep in comparison to the wild form. Goat and cattle are mentioned briefly.

Hermanns, Matthias 1949. Die Nomaden von Tibet. xvi+325 pp., 4 maps, 56 figs. Herold (Wien).

This book, based to a great extent upon original exploration, deals extensively with the sources and developments of the herdsmen-cultures in A mdo (=Tsing Hai, northwestern Tibet) and with the origin of cattle-breeding in general. The cradle of stock-farming is sought in western Asia (probably western Turkestan). The earliest breeds are sheep and goat, followed soon afterward by domestic oxen (in the ancient herdsmen-culture of A mdo only sheep and yak were known as breeds). Somewhat later, ass and onager became domesticated; much later, camel, horse and reindeer.

Appended are tables on the origin of the most important domestic breeds, chronological lists, maps and a comprehensive bibliography.

1952. Were animals first domesticated and bred in India? J. Bombay Br., R. Asiat. Soc., vol. X XVII, pp. 134-173.

A survey of various domestic animals of India and their related wild forms: gayal, banteng, water buffalo, yak, zebu, sheep, goat, camel, pig and kiang (Hquus onager indicus). The gayal (Bibos frontalis) is considered an offspring of the wild gaur male and the domestic cow. For the Indian humped cattle (zebu) a specific wild, probably indigenous ancestor (not Bos namadicus) is suggested. Cattle and sheep constituted the oldest domestic stock of prehistoric Asia, followed later by horse and reindeer.

The northwest Indian highlands together with the Iranian and Tibetan plateau are seen as the center where cattle-breeding originated, perhaps as early as the Mesolithic (9000 B.c.).

Hermes, Gertrud

1935-36. Das geziihmte Pferd im neolithischen und friihbronzezeitlichen Eu- ropa. Anthropos, Tom. 31, pp. 115-129.

54 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

A compilation of data on horse remains, horse representations and finds of artifacts associated with horse-breeding, from prehistoric Europe. Although of a doubtful character, the Neolithic ‘“‘evidences’’ and those of the Bronze Age lead to the assumption that the practice of horse-breeding was introduced into Europe by that time.

1936. Das gezihmte Pferd im alten Orient. Anthropos, Tom. 31, pp. 364-394, 2 figs.

Archaeological records of equids from the ancient Near East back to the fourth millennium B.c. are collected, and their historical background is traced. The development of the harness, especially the bridle, from the primitive halter to the bridoon-bit, is outlined in detail.

Herre, Wolf 1939. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Wildpferde. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XLIV, pp. 342-363, 11 figs.

A consideration of methods for solving problems of the origin of domestic ani- mals in general, and a study of some aspects of the distribution of wild horses and their relation to domestic species in particular. The author discusses the status of the Russian tarpan and considers it as a form of the przewalskii horse (now re- stricted to Mongolia).

1949. Zur Abstammung und Entwicklung der Haustiere. I. Uber das bisher alteste primigene Hausrind Europas. Verhandl. Deutschen Zool. in Kiel, August, 1948, pp. 312-324.

A description of the most ancient cattle of primigenius type from northern Europe, found in Schleswig-Holstein (Moor of Satrupholm) and dated to the early Neolithic (8000-1800 B.c.). The find seems to indicate domestication in northern Europe, and though the primigene character is dominant the skull shows also a slight resemblance to the brachyceros type. The author assumes that at the same time and in different localities primigenius and brachyceros groups were developed from the domesticated urus. Animals with mixed characters from the Neolithic are seen as the primitive material and not as results of later crosses.

1951. Kritische Bemerkungen zum Gigantenproblem der Summoprimaten auf Grund vergleichender Domestikationsstudien. Anat. Anz., Bd. 98, pp. 49- 65, 12 figs.

A comparative study of lower jaws and teeth in wild and domestic animals. The author points to the great variability in size and form of teeth and in size and powerfulness of lower jaw bones, which characters cannot be associated per se with general size and skull-form of domesticated races or their wild ancestors. Effects of domestication are considered to be due to selection rather than to physiologi- cal factors.

1952. Studien tiber die wilden und domestizierten Typlopoden Stidamerikas. Zool. Gart., Bd. 19, Hefte 2-4, pp. 20-98, 16 figs.

More than a hundred skulls of the wild and domesticated typlopods of South America—guanaco and vicugna on the one hand, llama and alpaca on the other—

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 55

are examined, in order to find the phylogenetic relationship of both of the ancient domestic breeds. On the base of the craniological differences, the wild vicugna is excluded as possible ancestor, and both the llama and the alpaca are traced back to the wild guanaco, Llama guanicée.

1955. Domestikation und Stammesgeschichte. Jn Die Evolution der Organis- men: Ergebnisse und Probleme der Abstammungslehre. Herausgegeben von Gerhard Heberer. 2. Erweiterte Auflage. 4. Lieferung. pp. 801-856; 24 figs. Gustav Fischer (Stuttgart).

This is an important summary of the literature on domestication, as evidenced by the bibliography of 11 pages in small print. The 44 pages of text are in them- selves an abstract of this literature. The subjects covered range far beyond the origins of domesticated mammals and birds to include much material on the effects of domestication upon the different species, parallel evolutionary trends under the influence of artificial selection, heredity in domestic animals, and other subjects. —C.A.R.

Hescheler, Karl

1920. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Pfahlbautenfauna des Neolithikums.— Die Fauna der Pfahlbauten im Wauwylersee. Vjschr. naturf. Ges. Ziirich, Jhg. 65, pp. 248-322.

The first part (pp. 248-281) gives a review of earlier investigations of the Swiss lake-dwelling fauna; the second part contains a description of remains from wild and domestic animals found in the palisade dwellings (Neolithic) of Lake Wauwy] in Switzerland. Goat and sheep—the former appearing in the lower strata more and in the upper ones much less frequently than the latter—are both of the turbary type; the ‘‘copper sheep’’ (Ovis artes studeri) is absent. Remains of the domestic turbary pig (Sus palustris) are very distinct from those of the wild boar (Sus scrofa) found in the same levels, so that a relationship is doubted. All the dog material belongs to Canis palustris, and cattle also are represented by the turbary form (Bos taurus brachyceros) only. The few fragments of equids are probably those of a wild horse.

Hescheler, Karl, and Riiger, J.

1939. Die Wirbeltierreste aus dem neolithischen Pfahlbaudorf Egolzwil II (Wauwielersee) nach den Grabungen von 1932-34. Vjschr. naturf. Ges. Zurich, Jhg. 84, pp. 307-330.

Report on the excavations at a settlement of lake-dwellers (Egolzwil, on Lake Wauwyl, Canton Luzern). The remains of domestic animals (33.4 per cent of the total fossil material) belonged to dog, pig, sheep, goat and cattle.

1940. Die Wirbeltierreste aus den Pfahlbauten des Baldeggersees nach den Grabungen 1938 und 1939. Vjschr. naturf. Ges. Ziirich, Jhg. 85, pp. 59-70.

A description of the faunal remains from Neolithic (Seematte) and Early Bronze Age (Baldegg) sites around Lake Baldegg in central Switzerland. Among the remains from Seematte those of cattle are the most frequent, followed by pig bones; there were fewer remains of sheep, goats and dogs. In Baldegg (Canton Luzern) bones of cattle are still dominant, followed closely by sheep and goat.

56 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Pig remains are rare. Two new arrivals, which appeared from the Late Bronze Age on—the horse and a new, larger race of dogs—are described in detail (see also Hescheler and Riiger, 1942).

1942. Die Reste der Haustiere aus den neolithischen Pfahlbaudérfern— Egolz- wil (Wauwielersee) und Seematte-Gelfingen (Baldeggersee), Kt. Luzern. Vjsehr. naturf. Ges. Ziirich, Jhg. 87, pp. 313-478, numerous tables in text, 5 tables appended.

A systematic study of the remains of domestic animals from two Neolithic sites Egolzwil (ef. Hescheler and Riger, 1939) and Seematte (ef. Hescheler and Riiger, 1940). Five main forms—cattle, sheep, goat, pig and dogs—are described in de- tail. The remains of dogs (skulls of which are the best preserved, since the animal did not serve for food) constituted about 9.5 per cent of the material; all belong to the palustris group. The turbary pig—remains of which were found in addition to those of the European wild boar—were 28 per cent of the total remains and were outnumbered only by cattle, the latter identified as Bos taurus brachyceros. Osteo- logical differences between the brachyceros oxen and the wild urus are worked out. Goats were all of the sable-horned Capra hircus type.

Hildebrand, Milton

1955. Skeletal differences between deer, sheep, and goats. Calif. Fish Game, vol. 41, pp. 327-346, 9 figs.

This paper, useful to the anatomist working with bones from archaeological sites, is concerned with the post-cranial skeletons of domestic sheep and goats, and a North American deer, Odocoileus. The applicability of the information on the latter to Old World deer remains to be tested. Domestic sheep are best set apart from domestic goats by characters of the metacarpal, scapula, pelvis, and ulna. The femur is the bone least distinguishable. Individual variations are strik- ing, and the necessity of using statistical techniques on large series is stressed.— C.A.R.

Hilzheimer, Max

1908. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der nordafrikanischen Schakale—nebst Bemerkun- gen tuber deren Verhialtnis zu den Haushunden insbesondere nordafrikanischer und altigyptischer Hunderassen. Zoologica (Stuttgart), vol. XX (1906- 1908), Heft 58, pp. 1-111, 4 tables, 10 pls.

After a detailed morphological (esp. craniological) examination of North Afri- can races of jackals and a discussion of their classification, skulls of domestic dogs from sites of ancient Egypt are described, and conclusions are drawn as to the origin of the breeds. One of the jackals, Canis lupaster, is considered to be certainly the ancestor for certain Egyptian domestic dogs, two others probable progenitors for the other ancient breeds in Egypt.

In four tables craniological data of wolves, jackals and domestic dogs are compared.

1909-10. Die Haustiere in Abstammung und Entwicklung. Naturwissen- schaftlicher Wegweiser, ser. A, Bd. 11, 126 pp., 1 pi., 56 figs. Strecker & Schroder (Stuttgart).

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS

~

or

A popular guide to domestic mammals and birds, their origin and history. After an introductory chapter, presenting general trends in the evolution of do- mestication, the book describes each of the domestic stocks and its history. Dog and horse are treated at considerable length; cat, rabbit, ass, pig, camel, llama, reindeer, cattle, sheep and goat are covered briefly. The text is well illustrated, from zoological and archaeological sources.

1913. Uberblick iiber die Geschichte der Haustierforschung, besonders der letzten 30 Jahre. Zool. Ann., Bd. V, pp. 233-254. Wiirzburg.

A critical survey of the literature on the origin and history of the domestic cat, camel, llama and reindeer. A bibliographical list of the literature on the origin of the first two animals is added.

1926. Natiirliche Rassengeschichte der Haussdugetiere. 235 pp., 124 figs. Walter de Gruyter & Co. (Berlin & Leipzig).

Problems, evidences—based largely upon investigations by the author—and recent views on the ancestry of domestic mammals are brought together in a semi- popular manual.

In the first section, which deals with the concept of domestication in general and the morphological changes in the domestic stage, special attention is devoted to the phenomenon of developmental arrest in skull-form due to domestication, which trend is traced through the various domestic groups and treated in the next section of the book.

The second part deals at length with the origin of dogs, equids, cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. The wolf is taken as the only progenitor of domestic dogs. The Russian tarpan is accepted as ancestor of the Oriental breeds, the Celtic pony re- garded as a special type. For the domestic ass a monophyletic origin is suggested; any connection with the half-ass (onager) group is contested.

A discussion of buffalo, Indian oxen and yak is followed by a detailed treat- ment of the relationship between the urus and domestic cattle and of the post- embryonic development of the bovine skull. The urus is taken as the only an- cestral form for domestic cattle, though domestication took place repeatedly in different localities and at various periods. Domestic sheep are derived mainly from the Ovis vignei group, argali and European mouflon being of only minor im- portance as ancestral forms. The domestic goat is traced back to Capra aegagrus, C. prisca and C. falconeri, the Kirghiz goat (cf. Philiptschenko, 1928) being seen as the only living derivation from the latter. The existence of a wild Mediter- ranean form of pigs (Sus mediterranaeus) is doubted, all the domestic breeds of pigs being descendants of Sus scrofa or S. vittatus. Camel (the question of mono- or diphyletic origin is left open), reindeer, cat and rabbit are treated more briefly.

1927. Rind. In M. Ebert, Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, Bd. XI, pp. 137-141.

A brief survey of the origin of European cattle and the cattle tribe in general. Since all the ancient as well as the now living races of domestic cattle (genus Bos) belong to the taurine group (parietals and interparietals displaced from forehead), all of them must be traced back to the only taurine wild ox known so far—the urus.

All primigenius, frontosus and longifrons (=brachyceros) forms are products of domestication; the hornless domestic forms, appearing in various groups of bovids

58 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

(yak, buffalo, ete.), cannot be derived from a single hornless ancestor (e.g., Bos taurus akeratos, as supposed by Arenander).

1928. Die Umbildung der Schaidelformen der Haustiere infolge der Domestika- tion.—Hin Beitrag zur Rassengeschichte der Haustiere. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XII, pp. 85-118, 24 figs.

Investigating the postembryonic development of the skull in domestic pigs, dogs and cattle, the author finds that wide variations in the form and shape of the skull of domestic mammals are caused by developmental persistence in different ontogenetic stages. This phenomenon of domestication is taken to explain cranio- logical distinction between certain races in spite of their monophyletic origin.

1932. Dogs. Antiquity, vol. 6, no. 23, pp. 411-419, 2 figs., 12 pls.

A discussion of certain problems related to the history of the domestic dog. The status of the dingo and of the pariah dog is examined, and a number of types belonging to different periods and countries— terriers from the Swiss lake-dwell- ings, mastiffs from the Neolithic Baltic countries, greyhounds from ancient Egypt —are described, mainly on the basis of pictorial evidence. It is suggested that all breeds of dogs, with the possible exception of ancient Egyptian races and their derivatives (the greyhounds), have evolved from the wolf.

1933. Untersuchungen tiber die Ziegen der Gattung Capra s. str. und deren Kreuzungen.—-Ein Beitrag zur Stammesgeschichte der Hausziegen beson- ders Zentralasiens. Wissens. Archiv der Landwirtschaft.—B’ Archiv fiir Ernahrung der Tiere und Tierzucht, Bd. VIII, pp. 323-371.

A study of skulls and horns reveals three sharply distinct groups of wild goats: Capra prisca Adam., C. hircus L. and C. falconeri Wagner. Being readily crossed mutually and giving rise to fertile offspring, the three types could have produced many transitional forms by cross-breeding; only the first two, however, are taken into consideration as ancestors for the domestic breeds of goat.

The goats in central Asia, with markhor horns and bezoar characters, origi- nated probably from a later cross-breeding with goats of the Capra prisca type.

1934. Eine altsumerische Fauna. Forsch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., Jhg. 10, pp. 336-337. Short preliminary report on the faunal remains from Tell-Asmar (cf. Hilz- heimer, 1941) and on the frequency of domestic species at the site. A brief account is presented of the position of the tamed onager in Sumer.

1935. The evolution of the domestic horse. Antiquity, vol. 9, no. 34, pp. 133- 139, 9 pls.

The author deals briefly with the taming of the Asiatic half-ass (Equus hemi- onus) by Sumerians around 3000 B.c. and with the occurrence of the domestic ass in the early periods of Egyptian history; the origin and dispersal of the domestic horse are also examined.

The habitats of the types under consideration—Przewalski’s horse (Equus equiferus Pallas) and the tarpan (E. gmelini Antonius)—are traced throughout

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 59

the critical periods, and the author concludes that both recent groups of breeds, the Oriental as well as the Occidental, are derived from the Russian tarpan.

1936. Sheep. Antiquity, vol. 10, no. 38, pp. 195-206, 8 pls.

A survey of the living groups of wild sheep is followed by an examination of archaeological and philological evidence concerning the origin of the domestic sheep. The author finds three possible lines of ancestry for them, all to be looked for in Asia: the Asiatic mouflon (Ovis orientalis), the urial (O. vignev) and the argali (O. ammon); the latter is not considered to have been important for Kuropean breeds.

1941. Animal remains from Tell Asmar. Stud. Ane. Oriental Civiliz., no. 20, xiii +52 pp., 20 figs., 8 tables.

A study of fossil material collected at the Northern Palace in Tell Asmar (Mesopotamia) in 1932, 1933 and 1934-35. The position of the Asiatic onager or half-ass (Equus onager hemippus)—bones of which constituted 9 per cent of the total skeletal material—and its relationship to the domestic ass and the domestic horse are discussed in detail in the light of the osteological material. Other do- mestie species identified and treated are: Sus sp. (29.1 per cent of the total), Ovis sp. and Capra prisca (together 27.7 per cent), Bos taurus primigenius (13.5 per cent) and Canis familaris palustris (8 per cent).

Table VIII (pp. 49-51) summarizes the findings and their sources.

Hooijer, D. A.

1947. Protohistoric mammals from the Linderbeek, Province of Overijssel, The Netherlands. Proc. K. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch., vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 3- 15, 2 pls., 13 tables.

A collection of subfossil mammals is dated at 650 B.C. on the basis of pollen analysis. A large dog is recorded, of the Great Dane-Newfoundland-St. Bernard type. The domestic cat is listed, on the basis of right humerus and tibia and left os coxae, all smaller than those of Felis silvestris, the European wild cat. This is the earliest record of the domestic cat in northern Europe, and also the earliest record of such a large breed of dog.—C.A.R.

Houbard, Albert

1934. Les chiens dans l’ancienne Egypte. Chron. Egypte, no. 17, pp. 28-34, 5 figs.

Brief discussions of representations of dogs from ancient Egypt, starting with a hunting scene on a vase from the fourth millennium B.c., which shows canids re- sembling a greyhound type. The author holds that by early dynastic times a great variety of dog breeds was known in Egypt.

Hrozny, Bedrik 1931. L’entrainement des chevaux chez les anciens Indo-Européens d’apres un texte Mitannien-Hittite pronenent du 14° siécle av. J.C. Archiv Orientalni, Prague, Tom. III, pp. 480-461.

60 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

The famous Kikkuli text from the fourteenth century B.c., found in Bogaz Koy (Anatolia), is translated and explained. The text—one of the earliest literary evi- dences of horse breeding—is written by a Mitannian and contains a detailed guide for the treatment of race- and draft-horses. The technical terms are, in part, of Indo-European origin.

Hue, Edmund

1906a. Etude sur un nouveau chien des palafittes de Clairvaux. Bull. Soe. préhist. frang., Tom. III, Ann. 1906, pp. 279-295, 1 pl.

Description of a dog-skull from the Neolithic lake dwelling at Clairvaux (Jura) and a comparison with other prehistoric canid skulls (Canis f. palustris, C. f. matris optimae, C. f. leineri, ete.). The new dog is craniologically distinct from all the other forms (high, convex forehead, broad jugals, slender palate) and is taken as a new type, called Canis le mirei Hue.

1906b. Note sur une mandibule de canide des palafittes de Chalain. Bull. Soe. préhist. fran¢., Tom. III, Ann. 1906, pp. 441-453, 2 figs.

Study of a mandible and teeth of a prehistoric domestic dog from the Neo- lithie dwelling places at Lake Chalain (Jura). Although few specific odontological characters are worked out, the dog is identified as belonging to the type of Canis familiaris palustris Rutim.

Hummerlink, Paul 1928. Westindische Hundetypen. Naturforscher, Bd. IV, Nr. 11, pp. 550-552.

Some data are given about two ancient dogs from the West Indies, not dealt with in most treatments. The extinct ‘‘aleo,’’ remains of which were found in caves on Jamaica, Haiti and San Domingo, was the domestic dog of the Arawak Indians and is regarded as ancestral to the Mexican pug. The “‘xibaro”’ (=hibaro) is very similar to the Aguara dog of Surinam (Netherlands Guiana), and its iden- tity with the Brasilian roe-dog is suggested.

Isserlin, B. S. J.

1950. On some possible early occurrences of the camel in Palestine. Palest. Expl. Quart., vol. 82, pp. 50-53.

Several cases of skeletal finds (mainly teeth) belonging to camels, discovered at Palestine sites (Gezer, Megiddo, Taanek) from the Early and Middle Bronze Age, are listed and seen as possible evidence for the occurrence of the domestic animal by that time.

Jackson, J. W.

1932. Prehistoric domestic animals. Proc. First Int. Congr. Prehist. Protohist. Sci., pp. 154-157. Oxford Univ. Press (London).

Evidence from Neolithic domestication in Britain and other European cul- tures is summarized briefly and problems connected with prehistoric animals—- especially ox and horse—are posed. The identity of the domestic cattle of pre- historic England (the longifrons type) with the Bos brachyceros stock of the Con- tinent is questioned. The domestic status of horses, remains of which were found

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 61

at Neolithic sites in Great Britain (Cotswolds, Glamorgan, northern Wales), is doubted, and the possibility of an independent domestication of at least two wild species of horses—somewhere north of the Iranian Plateau and somewhere near or in Seandinavia—is suggested.

1937. The osteology: Report on the animal remains. Jn R. Mond & O. H. Myers, Cemeteries of Armant, vol. I, pp. 254-258. The Egypt Exploration Society, London.

Bones of ox, sheep, and pig, from cultural levels of the Amratian period in the prehistoric cemeteries of Armant (near Luxor, Egypt) are assumed to be those of domestic animals. There is a useful summary of prior finds of animals (domestic and other) in prehistoric Egypt.—C.A.R.

Jettmar, Karl

1950. The Karasuk culture and its southeastern affinities. The Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm, Bull. no. 22, pp. 83-126, 16 pls.

In a short summary of publications (mainly from Russian literature) on the Karasuk culture of Minusinsk (northern Siberia), the author presents some details on the domestic stock as reflected by remains of animals sacrificed as mortuary food gifts. In graves from eighteen sites sheep constituted by far the major part of the remains, followed in frequency by cattle. Few bones belonged to horses. In one site forelegs of camels and in a grave from another site the full skeleton of a domestic dog were found.

The sudden importance of sheep-raising and its predominance in the Karasuk culture (1200-700 B.c.) contrasted with the former (Andronovo-) period, during which domestic animals were distributed about equally, is emphasized and seen as a significant feature, showing affinities to a similar process in northern Chinese cultures.

1952. Zu den Anfaingen der Rentierzucht. Anthropos, Tom. 47, pp. 736-766.

A review of the results of numerous Russian excavations, and a survey of re- cent views concerning the origin of the domestication of reindeer. All the data seem to prove that the taming of reindeer could never have influenced the domesti- cation of cattle, sheep or horses; the reverse could have been possible.

An extensive bibliography, especially from the Russian language, is appended.

Johansen, K. F. 1919. En Boplads fra den dldeste Stenalder i Svardborg Mose. Aarbgger, Bd. IX, pp. 106-235.

Among the numerous animal remains from an early Stone Age settlement in the moors of Svardborg (near Vordingborg, southwestern Zealand, Denmark), identified by H. Winge (pp. 127-134), there were bones of domestic dogs.

Jones, F. Wood

1921. Thestatus of the dingo. Trans. roy. Soc., S. Australia, vol. 45, pp. 254— 263.

62 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

A eraniological (mainly odontological) investigation of the dingo on the basis of much material (22 skulls). The author concludes that the dingo is not indige- nous—that it arrived relatively recently in Australia. It was brought by a sea route by man from the Asian continent as already a variety of the domestic dog, and it became feral thereafter. The name Canis dingo is therefore rejected, and the name Canis familiaris dingo is suggested.

Josien, Thérése

1955. La faune Chalcolithique des gisement Palestiniens de Bir Es-Safadi et Bir Abou Matar. Israel Expl. J., vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 246-256.

Description and evaluation of the skeletal remains collected during the exca- vations near Beer-Sheba (southern Israel) and dated to about 3000 B.c. The domestic fauna (95% of the determined material) is considered as typical for a semi-nomadie population at the dawn of domestication. It comprised mainly sheep (60.2%), followed by goat (16.7%) and ox (12.8%). Dog and horse were represented by a few fragments only.

Kacrkowski, B.

1928. Contribution to the studies of the origin of European sheep. Proce. roy. Soe. Edinburgh, vol. 48, part 1, no. 2, pp. 10-24.

Serological (iso-agglutination) methods were used to determine the origin of the European sheep. Two main groups, A and O, could be distinguished, the latter divided into two sub-groups, one with and the other without anti-A.

Mouflons (from the zoological gardens at Vienna and Budapest) proved to belong to group A. Since the majority of the Polish domestic sheep belong to the same group, a relationship to the mouflon is probable. English Southdown sheep show no serological affinity to mouflons.

Keller, Conrad

1902. Die Abstammung der dltesten Haustiere. 232 pp., 81 figs. Fritz Am- beyer (Ziirich).

A comprehensive manual on the derivation and origin of most domestic mam- mals. Chap. 1—4 explain the methods used and give the cultural background, the zoological aspects and a review of 19th century literature and research. Each of the next eight chapters is devoted to a specific animal group and is divided into three sections: (a) an account of the fossil and archaeological evidence; (b) infor- mation on the distribution of the related wild form; (c) a discussion and a phylo- genetic summary.

Dogs and cattle are dealt with extensively. Races of Old World dogs are traced back to two species of wolves (Canis sinensis and C. niger) and the jackal (C. aureus); the ancient New World dogs are regarded as indigenous and derived from the North American wolf (Lupus occidentalis). Domestic bovines are classi- fied into a European (Bos taurus) group, derived from Bos primigenius, and an Asiatic zebu group (B. indicus), descended from the banteng (Bos sondaicus). The banteng is also considered the ancestor of the southeastern European brachy- ceros type. For sheep a triphyletic origin is suggested, for goats and for horses a diphyletice descent; Frank’s classification of the latter into Oecidental and Oriental breeds is retained. The camel and the domestic cat are also treated.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 63

A discussion of the species concept and nomenclature for domestic animals is appended.

1919. Die Stammesgeschichte unserer Haustiere. Natur u. Geisteswelt, No. 252; 117 pp., 29 figs. Teubner (Leipzig, Berlin).

A popular discussion of general problems of domestication is followed by a treatment of specific animals and their phylogeny. Described are the ‘ancient domestic mammals”’ (dogs, equids, pigs, ruminants), the ‘“‘more recent achieve- ments”’ (reindeer, rabbit) and finally the domestic birds.

1922. Die Methoden der Haustierforschung. Jn Abderhalden, Emil, Hand- buch der biologischen Arbeitsmethoden, Abt. VII, part 1, pp. 77-90.

Brief description of methods used to investigate the origins of domestic spe- cies. The author distinguishes the following methods: (a) zoogeographical; (b) ana- tomical; (c) prehistoric (by investigation of fossil material); (d) physiological (using fertile hybrids as criteria of close relationship and serological methods); (e) ethnographical; (f) archaeological; and (g) linguistic.

Kelm, Hans

1938. Die postembryonale Schadelentwicklung des Wild- und Berkshire Schweines. Z. ges. Anat. 1. Z. Anat. EntwGesch., Bd. 108, pp. 499-559, 29 figs.

The wild boars of the scrofa-vittatus group are shown to belong to one species (formenkreis). Skulls of Sus scrofa scrofa (as representative of this wild form), from the new-born to the old animal, are compared with a corresponding onto- genetic sequence of skulls from the highly modified domestic Berkshire pig. Even at birth the skulls show a characteristic difference, but in the course of postembry- onic development distinct tendencies in growth cause increasing discrepancy be- tween the skulls of the wild boar and the Berkshire.

The author contests a “retention of juvenile characters’’ as solution for the characteristics of domestication, which latter he seeks to explain on the basis of a changed balance in the endocrine system.

1939. Zur Systematik der Wildschweine. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XLIII, pp. 362-369, 4 figs. A survey of the wild pigs of Eurasia. The scrofa-vittatus group is seen as a single species, the allopatric races of which form a clear taxocline from Europe (Sus scrofa scrofa) to eastern Asia (Sus scrofa vittatus).

Klatt, B.

1927. Entstehung der Haustiere. Handbuch der Vererbungswissenschaft, Bd. III, 107 pp., 15 figs. Gebriider Borntrager (Berlin).

A comprehensive treatise, dealing mainly with the origin of domestication in terms of the general aspects involved. The first part (‘‘genesis of domestication’’) tries to outline the human motives that led to the rise of domestication, and the zoological background that made it possible. In the second part (‘‘effects of do- mestication’’) the general morphological and physiological trends characteristic

64 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

of domestic animals are illustrated by rich comparative material, and an attempt is made to reveal the special evolutionary factors that seem to operate under the conditions of domestication. The third part (“history of domestic animals’) is subdivided into a general section, which deals with the various methods of research (zoological, culture-historical and philological), and a specific part, wherein is out- lined the origin of the main domestic mammals (in particular the dog and the ungulates).

1948. Haustier und Mensch. 95 pp., 33 figs. Richard Hermes (Hamburg).

A discussion of the evolutionary mechanism operating under domestication. After a short survey of the oldest historical civilizations and their domestic ani- mals, the pamphlet investigates the conditions of the domestic environment in relation to the morphological modifications recognized among domesticated ani- mals. The parallel occurrence of these modifications is regarded as the cardinal point in domestication and is explained by similar alterations of the hormone sys- tem, which becomes affected by the human-controlled environment.

Koby, F. 1954. Y a-t-il eu, a Lascaux, ‘‘un bos longifrons’’? Bull. Soc. préhist. frang., vol. 51, nos. 9-10, pp. 484-441, 3 figs.

The cattle depicted in the cave-paintings at Lascaux have been identified by prehistorians as Bos primigenius (the large forms with curved horns) and B. longi- frons (smaller, thinner, and with horns shorter and more horizontal). This latter, however, is nothing more than the female of B. primigenius. There was no sep- arate small species of Bos in the European Pleistocene. If the domestic cattle of the Neolithic and later are actually derived from small wild cattle these must have lived elsewhere, probably in western Asia, but there is no evidence for this supposition. (Zeuner [1953, Man, vol. 53, pp. 68-69] had already mentioned, in a discussion of the color of Bos primigenius, that the so-called Bos longifrons of Lascaux was actually the female of B. primigenius; Koby was presumably unaware of Zeuner’s paper.)—C.A.R.

Koch, W.

1937. Das Gehorn der Schraubenziege—Capra falconeri. Zool. Anz., Bd. 93, Nr. 7-10, pp. 275-278, 2 figs.

On the basis of differences in the shape of the horns, the markhor, Capra fal- conert Wagner, is excluded as an ancestral type for any domestic form of goat. The heteronymous twisting in the horns of the markhor is distinct from the ho- monymous type of the screw-horned domestic breeds, and the cross section of the horn (keel at hind edge) is contrary to the domestie Capra hircus type (keel at front edge).

Kolesnik, N. N. 1936. [The origin and the geographical distribution of cattle.| (Russ.; Eng. summ.) Akad. Nauk USSR, Leningrad, Ser. Biol., Nos. 2-3, pp. 375-414, 28 figs., 5 tables. A paleozoological survey of the evolution of the Bovinae in general and the genus Bos in diluvial and alluvial times in particular is followed by a study of

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 65

recent breeds of cattle, their geographical distribution, and their history. The author accepts the view that Bos primigenius and B. brachyceros are both imme- diate ancestors of domestic cattle, and he adds two more species: B. indicus, which is considered forefather of the Asiatic humped cattle, and B. turano-mongolicus, which gave rise to the different breeds of central Asia (Kalmuck, Mongol, Yakut and Kirghiz cattle).

Cattle-breeding probably originated in several regions, but southwestern Asia (i.e., Assyro-Babylonia) and northwestern India are regarded as the most ancient centers of domestication.

Koppers, Wilhelm

1932. Konnten Jagervolker Tierziichter werden? Biol. gen., Bd. VIII, pp. 179- 186.

In a brief discussion of the beginnings and motives of animal domestication the author holds that hunting tribes were the first breeders, that the first domestic animals were reindeer and horse, and that the cradle of domestication was the sub- arctic region of inner Asia; the motives were mainly practical and economic.

Koppers, Wilhelm, and Jungblut, L.

1942-45. The water-buffalo and the zebu in central India. Anthropos, Tom. 37-40, pp. 647-666, 11 photos, 4 drawings.

Anthropological observations on Indian zebus and buffalos. In conclusion J. U. Diirst sketches the zoological characters of both the forms and then dis- cusses their origin (pp. 661-666). The tame Indian water-buffalo (Bubalus in- dicus macroceros) is seen as the direct descendant of the wild arni buffalo (Bubalus arnit), which became domesticated in India and was brought to Persia, where it appeared in the second century B.c._ Much earlier (in the third millennium B.c.), domestic cattle of the Bos taurus type—direct descendants of the wild Bos namadi- cus—were introduced into India by the nomadic Chorwa from the Anau region via the Zufilear Pass, and gave rise to the zebu stock, the marked hump being a result of selection on religious bases.

Kramer, Hermann

1900. Die Haustierfunde von Vindonissa. Rev. suisse Zool., Tom. VII, pp. 143-272, 19 figs.

A history of domestic animals in Switzerland, outlined on the basis of the faunal remains from Vindonissa, which are described. The author compares the species of the Swiss lake-dwellings with the later forms introduced by the Romans, found in Vindonissa—large types of dogs, a new kind of sheep and big-horned goats. The discussion is based to a great extent also on representational art from early Roman times.

Krieg, H. 1929. Uber siidamerikanische Haustiere. Zool. Gart., Heft 1, pp. 273-284.

Information on the pre-Columbian domestic stock of South America. Llama, alpaca and guinea pig are dealt with briefly; the domestic dog is treated at length. A consideration of the dogs of the Indians from Gran Chaco, which live in a semi-

66 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

domesticated stage, leads to the conclusion that the desired properties of advanced breeding in the dog are deficiencies (“‘defect mutants’’) in terms of natural selection.

Kroll, Hubert 1928. Die Haustiere der Bantu. Z. Ethn., Bd. 60, pp. 177-290, 6 maps.

A detailed treatment of domestication, its role and significance, and the origin of domestie stock not only among the Bantu, but in southern and eastern Africa in general. Associated with the domestic forms all over the area, and therefore seen as the most ancient domestic animal, is a type of dog of African origin; only later a greyhound type was introduced, probably by the Hamites.

Besides the dog, cattle and goat are considered the most ancient breeds, the former being the animal of the stock-farmer, the latter associated with cultivation of plants. The first herdsmen invading the Bantu area did not possess sheep, which were introduced later. Much later, the ass, pig, horse and cat were brought. With the exception of the ass, which was descended from an indigenous form, all the breeds of southern and eastern Africa (horse, cat, pig) are regarded as of European origin.

Kronacher, C.

1928. Allgemeine Tierzucht. Abt. 1, xxvii+482 pp., 366 figs. (3rd ed.) Paul Parey (Berlin).

The second section (pp. 59-478) is devoted to the origin of domestication and to the descent and the prehistoric and historic evolution of domestic animals. Chap. 2 and 3 consider general aspects of domestication in terms of its origins, and the morphological, physiological and psychological changes caused in the process of domestication. In chap. 4 (pp. 183-478) extensive material on the origin of the important domestic species and their early evolution is brought together, and recent views are summarized. Horse, ass, mule, cattle, sheep, goat, pig and rabbit are treated at length.

Kriiger, W. 1939. Unser Pferd und seine Vorfahren. Verstiindliche Wissenschaften, Bd. 41, 164 pp.

A popular account of the domestic horse and the origin of its races.

Krumbiegel, Ingo 1947. Von Haustieren und ihrer Geschichte. Kosmos, 83 pp., 22 figs. In a popular pamphlet, the origin, significance and earmarks of domestication are discussed and a brief history of the domestic species is given. In a tentative

table (p. 34) the ancestry of the important domestic mammals and birds is sum- marized.

Kuhn, Emil

1932. Beitrige zur Kenntnis der Siugetierfauna der Schweiz seit dem Neo- lithikum. Rev. suisse Zool., Tom. 39, no. 18, pp. 531-768.

A survey of the Swiss prehistoric fauna, based on a study of animal remains from ten sites: seven Neolithic, three Celtic-Roman, and one from the La-Tene

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 67

period. Domestic animals constituted most of the material, among which cattle were most numerous (often more than 50 per cent) in Neolithic times, followed by pigs (about 30 per cent). Sheep and goats were of minor importance. In Roman times sheep (the heavy-horned Ovis aries studeri), pigs and cattle constituted most of the domestic fauna.

1935. Die Fauna des Pfahlbaues Obermailen am Ziiricher See. Vjschr. naturf. Ges. Zurich, Jhg. 80, pp. 241-330.

Systematic study of new animal remains, excavated from Obermeilen (Lake Zurich) in 1933. This was the first site of lake-dwellings, the faunal remains of which were described by Riitimeyer as early as 1860-61.

The faunal assemblage points to a late Neolithic period. Cattle and pig con- stitute the bulk of the domestic stock. The former is represented by two forms— a brachyceros and a primigenius type. The latter is identified as the turbary pig. All the dogs as well as the sheep belonged to the palustris type. The few equid remains were probably those of wild animals.

Kuschel, Paul 1911. Die Haustiere Agyptens im Altertum. Diss., Zootechnische Inst. der konigl. tierarztlichen Hochschule, Dresden, 42 pp. Publ. by “‘Gorlitzer Nachrichten und Anzeiger.”’

A historical survey of how cattle, camel, sheep, goat, dog, cat, horse, ass and pig were reared in ancient Egypt.

Kwaschnin, Samarin N.

1928. Kraniologische Untersuchungen iiber das Jitauische Pferd. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XII, pp. 249-287, 14 figs.

A detailed study of twenty skulls of the Lithuanian (Shmudic) horse breed, which is nearly extinct in its pure form. The skull of the Lithuanian horse shows it to be an autonomous, ancient branch of the Oriental group, which shows many affinities to Equus przewalskii and especially to the tarpan type and shows also

_some similarities to the Arabian horse.

1931. Studien iiber die Herkunft des osteuropdischen Pferdes, hauptsachlich auf Grund des baltischen Materials. Acta Comm. Univ. Tartuensis (Dor- patensis), Ser. A, Tom. X XI, pp. 1-138, 4 pls., 30 figs.

A detailed osteological treatment of recent Lithuanian horses and of fossil remains of horses from Baltic sites forms the basis for an investigation of the origin of the East European domestic horse, especially its relation to the tarpan and the Przewalski horse.

All types of recent and prehistoric horses can be traced back to two basic types—Oriental and Occidental. The Lithuanian-Polish-Esthonian horse group is seen as one unit belonging to the Oriental type, with close affinities to the Prze- walski horse. The South Russian tarpan is considered a feral horse.

La Baume, Wolfgang

1949. Die Altesten europiischen Haustiere. Verhandl. dtsch. zool. Ges., pp. 74-90, Aug., 1948, in Kiel.

68 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

A review of the literature on the first occurrence of domestic animals. Only the dog is surely known from Mesolithic time. It belonged to a culture of hunters and gatherers. The beginnings of all the other domestic animals (cattle, pig, sheep, goat and horse) are found in earliest Neolithic (proto-Neolithic) times, their origin probably associated with the first cultivation of plants.

Langton, N. and B.

1940. The cat in ancient Egypt. 89 pp., frontispiece, 19 pls. Cambridge University Press (London).

Essentially a catalogue of the Langton Collection (cat figures from ancient Egypt), but additional comments and suggestions give a framework of the earliest culture of the eat. Felis chaus and F. ochreata are suggested as probable originals for two distinet types—one long-eared and sharp-nosed, the other short-eared and blunt-nosed—which can be distinguished among the images of domestic eats from ancient Egypt.

Latcham, Ricardo

1924. Los animales domesticos de la America precolombiana. Publ. Mus. Etnol. Antr., Chile, Tom. III, pp. 1-199.

An account of the domestic stock of ancient South and Central America based upon archaeological excavations. Treated in detail among the mammalian fauna are dogs (chap. 1); species of the genus Auchenida—llama, alpaca, vicugna and guanaco (chap. 2); and the guinea pig (chap. 4). All those animals, kept as domestic breeds prior to the Spanish invasion, are without exception derived from indigenous wild forms. The dog had the widest distribution and therefore is regarded as the first animal that was domesticated. It is represented among the various cultures by many varieties.

Laufer, Berthold

1917. The reindeer and its domestication. Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Ass., vol. IV, pp. 91-147.

On the basis of ethnographical data (Russian and early Chinese sources) an attempt is made to determine where and when reindeer breeding originated. It is concluded that the first domestication of reindeer took place in the Baikal region and was practiced originally by Samoyeds in the early period of their history (prior to their migration into the present northern habitats). It was later transmitted to the Lapps.

Lawrence, Barbara

1944. Bones from the Governador area. Columbia Stud. Archaeol., vol. II, no. 1, pp. 73-78.

A description and craniological study of dog skulls and mandibles found among the mammal bones discovered at Governador, New Mexico. Most of the bones belonged to young individuals, suggesting that the animals were used as food. Three breeds of dogs are distinguished: Basket Maker, Techichi, and a short-nosed form.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 69

1951. Post-cranial skeletal characters of deer, pronghorn, and sheep-goat, with notes on Bos and Bison. Pap. Peabody Mus., vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 7-43, 20 figs.

This paper, with its lists of comparative characters and numerous sketches of the bones, is an aid to the archaeologist or mammalogist identifying fauna of the larger Artiodactyla from North American excavations. Only generic differentiation is attempted of Ovis, Capra, Antilocapra, Odocoileus, Bison, and Bos, except for a few characters where the mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) can be distinguished. No characters of the post-cranial skeleton were found that would separate domestic sheep and goat, so they are grouped as a unit. Little or no reliance can be placed upon characters of ribs, vertebrae or many of the smaller bones of the carpus and tarsus, so such bones are not considered. Bos and Bison are very similar in their skeletal parts, although not to the degree of Capra and Ovis.—C.A.R.

Lebel, L. D. 1939. Origin and quality of the Don-Danube goat. [Polish; English summ.| Sbornik rabot po raswed i sekr. owez, Woroschilowsk, vol. IX, pp. 63-76.

Short account of the Don-Danube goat, which is kept all over the Don Valley down to the Sea of Azov, and which is markedly distinct, not only from the breeds of the surrounding areas but also from all the other forms described in the literature. The goat shows characters, especially in the skull and horns, very close to the extinet Capra prisca Adametz.

Leister, Claude W. 1943. Before Montefiore Joash sunshine. ... Anim. Kingd., vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 63-70.

Popular guide to domestic cattle, their wild relatives, and their probable ancestors. Urus, zebu, and Celtic shorthorn (Bos longifrons) are seen as ancestors of present-day (taurine) domestic cattle. Brief discussion is also devoted to the yak, to the Bibovine group (gaur, gayal, banteng) and to the domestication of the water-buffalo.

Lengerken, H. von

1953. Der Ur und seine Beziehungen zum Menschen. Die Neue Brehm- Biicherei, Heft 105, 79 pp., 68 figs.

A monograph on the evolution of the urus and its bearing on man’s civilization. The author deals extensively with the role of the urus as the ancestor of domestic oxen and concludes that all existing cattle except yak, buffalo, and Bali cattle originated from Bos primigenius.

1955. Ur, Hausrind und Mensch. 191 pp., 253 figs. Deutscher Bauernverlag (Berlin).

A comprehensive survey of the knowledge about Bos primigenius, its speciation and domestication among various cultures. Compiled from zoological and paleon- tological as well as archaeological and ethnological sources. Hundreds of pictorial representations of the urus and domestic oxen throughout all ages and cultures are added.

70 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Lhote, Henri

1953. Le cheval et le chameau dans les peintures et gravures rupestres du Sahara. Bull. Inst. frane. Afr. noire, Tom. XV, no. 3, pp. 1138-1228, 20 figs.

A detailed description of the horse and camel representations in the rock paint- ings and rock engravings in the Sahara Desert forms the background for a dis- cussion of the place of these animals in North African civilizations during early historical times.

Liang, Ssu- Yung

1934. Human, animal, and bird skeletal remains, and shell-fish remains. Jn Li Chi and others, Ch’éng-tzii-yai [Report on the excavation of Ch’éng- tzu-yai, a Neolithic and, subsequently, Bronze-Age site in northeast China], Arch., Sinica, no. 1 [In Chinese]. English transl., 1956, Yale Publ. Anthrop., vol. 52, pp. 1-232; see particularly p. 152.

Human occupation at this site in Shantung Province continued approximately from 2000 to 200 B.c. Nine genera of mammals were identified: rabbit, pig, dog, horse, sheep, ox, and three kinds of deer; only the dog, Canis familiaris, could definitely be regarded as domestic. The sheep and ox are assigned to extinct species, and horse and pig were not specifically identified. Pig and dog bones were most numerous, horse and ox bones next, deer and sheep bones next; rabbit was rare.—C.A.R.

Linton, Ralph

1955. Domestication of plants and animals. Chap. 8, in The Tree of Culture. Alfred A. Knopf (New York).

This is a non-technical summary of what an anthropologist regards as essential knowledge concerning domestication. As such, there are correlations with human culture not always known to zoologists, as the possibility that chickens may have been kept originally to guard against ghosts.

Except for the dog and the reindeer, domestic animals were tamed by agri- cultural people. Man’s association with reindeer at first was that of herder only; all other domesticated animals are thought to have been kept first as young animals, probably as pets for children.

There were two major centers of animal domestication in the Old World: The dry, open country of Egypt and southwestern Asia and the jungle environment of southeastern Asia. In the latter area occurred the domestication of the chicken and probably an independent domestication of the pig. The Bactrian camel was domesticated in Mongolia, and the horse on the steppes somewhere west of Mon- golia; possible sites for the origin of the domestic dog and water buffalo are not mentioned.—C.A.R.

Lloyd, Seton 1940. Iraq government soundings at Sinjar. Iraq, vol. 7, pp. 13-21, pls. 2-4, 4 figs. The horn-cores of a water buffalo (Bubalus) are reported from the site of

Grai Resh in northern Iraq, occurring with artifacts of the Uruk culture period. —C.A.R.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 71

Lloyd, Seton, and Safar, Fuad 1945. Tell Hassuna. J. near East. Stud., vol. IV, pp. 255-289, 21 pls.

Account of an excavation by the Iraq government in 1943 and 1944 at the early site of Tell Hassuna in northern Iraq. In appendix I (p. 284) there is a preliminary report on the animal bones. Most numerous among the remains were those of goat and sheep; fragments of probably domestic animals belonged to ox and ass.

Lorenz, Konrad Z. 1955. Man meets dog. x + 211 pp., illus. Houghton Mifflin Company (Boston).

The domestic dog, as determined primarily on the basis of comparative be- havior, is considered to have been derived from the golden jackal, Canis aureus, after a long period of symbiotic relationship. As man finally moved into the far north, he cross-bred these jackal-ancestored dogs with wolves, C. lupus, thus establishing those breeds (Eskimo husky, chow chow, samoyed, and Russian Lajkas) which are mainly wolf-derived.

The domestic cat is descended with little change of morphology or behavior from Felis ocreata of Africa and Syria. This species is today easily tamed, even when caught adult, whereas the European wildcat, F. sylvestris, can never be tamed, even when hand-reared from a kitten.—C.A.R.

Lortet, L., and Gaillard, C.

1903-09. La faune momifée de l’ancienne Egypte. Arch. Mus. hist. nat. Lyon, Tom. VIII, viii + 205 pp., 8 pls., 82 figs.; Tom. IX, xiv + 126 pp., 184 figs.; Tom. X, 3386 pp., 223 figs.

A detailed study of the mummies excavated from animal graves in Egypt— mainly from around Roda, Thebes, Sakkara, Kom Ombo, and Gizeh—dating to the first millennium B.c.

Identified among the domestic animals are dogs, cats, oxen, sheep, and goats. Dogs, which were found together with jackals, are mostly of the pariah type; a few were a kind of greyhound. Among the numerous cat mummies two forms are distinguished: A large type, identified with the wild, indigenous Felis maniculata, and a smaller type, considered the domestic derivative of the former. Cattle are identified as Bos africanus Fitzinger and are seen as the race that supplied the “‘steer of Apis’’; sheep mummies are regarded as of two species: Ovis palaeo- aegypticus and a mouflon type.

Luho, V.

1948. Uber steinzeitliche Winterverkehrsmittel in Finnland. Acta Arch., vol. XIX, pp. 115-144, 22 figs.

Finds of various types of sledges from prehistoric Finland (pre-Comb-Ceramic to post-Comb-Ceramic periods) are described in detail, and conclusions are drawn as to the introduction and taming of the draft-animals (dog and reindeer) asso- ciated with sledge driving. The earliest sledges from the pre-Comb-Ceramic sites (Heinola, Rantasalami) were probably drawn by man only; from the Comb- Ceramic culture on, a new type of sledge occurs (Saarigirvi-Tarvala), together

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FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

with an increased frequency in the remains of dogs, three breeds of which are already known from this time.

The use of the reindeer as a draft-animal began later, possibly by the end of the late Stone Age.

Lundholm, Bengt

1949. Abstammung und Domestikation des Hauspferdes. Zool. Bidr. Uppsala, Bd. 27, pp. 1-292, 6 pls., 1 map, 9 tables, 45 figs. [Eng. summ. pp. 241-2651.]

An osteological comparison between fossil and recent wild horses and early domestic horses is the basis for a study of the origin of the domestic horse. Beside measurements collected from the literature, the author uses extensive new mate- rial from sub-fossil peat-bog finds—mainly from Sweden—from the Ancylus and Litorina time (7000-2000 B.c.) and from the Nordic Bronze Age (chiefly from the sacrificial site at Lake Bokarn, Uppland).

The division of the wild horse population into two groups—an eastern group, comprising the tarpan and the Przewalski horse, and a western one, represented by late- and post-glacial wild horses from central and northern Europe—is ex- plained by the biogeographical conditions during the Ice Age. The domesticated Nordic Bronze Age horse shows a close connection to the Nordic wild horse and no resemblance to the tarpan, which fact seems to refute the monophyletic origin of the domestic horse from the latter.

In the last chapter—‘‘domestication and its significance’’—the specific effects of domestication in general are traced, and their possible causes are discussed. A comprehensive bibliography is appended.

Lydekker, R.

1912a. The horse and its relatives. vi+281 pp., 11 figs. George Allen & Company, Ltd. (London).

In chap. 2 (pp. 71-116) various views as to the relation of the domestic horse to the wild tarpan are examined and discussed. The author finds signs of near relationship between the Mongolian tarpan (Equus caballus przewalskii) and the existent breeds of western Europe and their prehistoric ancestors, all of them de- rived from one species (Equus caballus typicus), which gave rise to the Mongolian ponies as well.

The differences between the eastern and western stock are only the results of different climatie conditions, modes of treatment and selection; ‘‘Oriental’’ and ““Oecidental’’ horses are derived from the same ancestral form. The Arab-Barb group, however, is regarded as markedly distinct from the original tarpan-like horses of western Europe and Mongolia. The origin of the Arab stock is traced back to Equus stenonis in the Pliocene (chap. 5, pp. 150-170). The author finds in this Arabian breed the original type from which both ‘‘Barb’”’ (the Libyan stock) and “Turk’’ (the Turkoman horses of Turkestan) were early derivatives.

When dealing with the domestic ass (chap. 9, pp. 215-225), the author accepts the view that the wild animal, whose original home may have been in northwest Africa, was probably first tamed in the eastern Mediterranean countries.

1912b. The ox and its kindred. xi+271 pp., 23 pls. with 46 figs., 7 text figs. Methuen & Co., Ltd. (London).

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 73

The volume contains detailed information on the zoological position and struc- ture of the ox, the distribution and history of wild bovines, and an account of the origin of domestic cattle and of the chief breeds by which they are represented. Special attention is devoted to the history of the extermination of the aurochs of Europe and western Asia (Bos taurus primigenius), taken as the principal ancestor of domestic cattle.

Humped cattle—a distinct species, Bos indicus—are regarded as a domesti- cated derivative from the wild banteng of southeastern Asia (cf. also Keller, 1902). Its connection with the brachyceros stock, however, is contested.

1912c. The sheep and its cousins. xv +315 pp., 14 pls., 61 figs. George Allen & Company, Ltd. (London).

Popular information about the races of wild and the breeds of domestic sheep and the origin and history of the latter. The Himalayan urial (Ovis vignez) is con- sidered progenitor of the ancient Oriental domestic breeds and also of O. aries palustris from the Swiss lake-dwellings, although a taming of the indigenous wild moufion (O. a. musimon) by the prehistoric inhabitants of Europe may have oc- curred. The specialized African breeds—the longipes type of ancient Egypt as well as the long-legged (O. a. longipes) and long-eared (O. a. catotis) breeds of today —are considered to be of Asiatic origin.

Mackay, E. J. H. 1938. Further excavations at Mohenjo-daro. Manager of Publication, Delhi.

A brief summary of the domestic animals represented on the seals of Mohenjo- daro from the excavations of 1927-31 (cf. Sewell, 1931) is given, and the identifi- cations of H. Friederichs (cf. Friederichs, 1933) are discussed (vol. I, appendix 1, pp. 669-671). The animal that appears most frequently is a form of cattle, show- ing the characters of both the primigenius and the namadicus type, which fact may indicate a crossing of the two in the Indus valley. Among the figurines and model animals (pp. 286-292), domestic dog (of a mastiff type), cattle, horse(?), sheep, goat and pig are identified.

Madsen, A., et al.

1900. Affaldsdynger fra Stenalderen i Danmark. [Stone Age kitchen middens from Denmark.| 196 pp., 11 pls., figs. and tables in text [Fr. summ. pp. 193— 196). C. A. Reitzel (Kjgbenhavn).

A study of the kitchen midden remains from Danish Stone Age sites (Ertebglle period), collected by the National Museum of Copenhagen. Skeletal remains of domestic mammals, identified by H. Winge, belonged to two types of dogs (Canis familiaris palustris and C. f. matris-optimae), pigs and sheep (both of the turbary type), and cattle (generally resembling Bos taurus brachyceros but with some fea- tures of the primigenius type).

Mallowan, M. E. L.

1936. Excavations at Tall Chagar Bazar and an archaeological survey of the Habur region. Second campaign. Iraq, vol. 4, pp. 91-154, pls. 12-19, 25 figs.

74 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

The area considered is part of northeastern Syria. The horse, sometimes with its trappings, is frequently represented by clay figurines, which, together with chariot wheels, are common in levels dated ca. 1900 B.c. (see Smith, 1928) and sug- gest the use of both draught and chariot horses.—C.A.R.

1946. Excavations in the Balih valley, 1938. Iraq, vol. 8, pp. 111-159.

Report on excavations from several sites in northeastern Syria in the valley of the River Balih (a tributary of the Euphrates), dated to the Halafian period. Proof of mixed farming was obtained as far back as the Chalcolithic; cows, sheep and goats were kept, and the domestic dog was also at the disposal of the herdsmen.

Some remains of domestic animals, found in or near Tell Mefesh, are identified by D. M. A. Bate (p. 128). They belong to a large ox, a small equid and a large goat with twisted horns—considered to be an example of an early stage in the development of the domestic Mamber goat.

1947. Excavations at Brak and Chagar Bazar. Iraq, vol. 9, pp. 1-266, 86 pls., 18 figs.

These sites are in northeastern Syria. From Brak, dated as not later than 3200 B.c., were identified a small Equus, pig, and ox; the latter two were probably domestic. Also from Brak, at about 2300 B.c., were identified a small Equus, and domestic dog, pig, goat, cattle, and probably sheep. The Hquus could be either the domestic ass or the Syrian onager.

Remains of a goat with twisted horns are thought to be those of the typical Mamber goat. A sheep is represented by a portion of a large twisted horn core, which resembles that of some domesticated races and differs from that of the wild species. Similar horn cores associated with the Mamber goat were also found at Megiddo, in levels dated as of Chaleolithic to Early Bronze age.—C.A.R.

Mangelsdorf, P. C. 1952. Evolution under domestication. Amer. Nat., vol. 86, pp. 65-77.

The same factors that operate in ‘‘natural evolution’’ (mutation, genetic drift, hybridization, selection, etc.) were effective in the speciation of domestic animals and plants, though evolution directed by man led to much quicker changes than natural evolution. Data are taken almost exclusively from cultivated plants.

Mason, I. L.

1951. A world dictionary of breeds, types and varieties of livestock. Technical Communication No. 8 of the Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 272 pp. Slough, Buckinghamshire, England.

A dictionary of the names which have been applied to groups of horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, buffaloes and asses on the basis of common origin, similarity or geographical proximity. Synonymous names are indicated and for each breed a brief discussion of origin, present distribution, breed characters and relationship to other breeds is given.

Mathiassen, Therkel

1944. The Stone Age settlement at Trelleborg. Acta Arch., vol. XV, pp. 77-98, 9 figs.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 75

Among artifacts from a settlement (dating from the passage-grave period) near Trelleborg on Zealand (Denmark), a few bone artifacts, made from skeleton parts of domestic oxen, are identified (pp. 81-82).

Matthey, Robert 1954. Chromosomes et systématique des canidés. Mammalia, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 225-230, 14 figs.

Since the domestic dog has a diploid chromosomal number of 78, whereas the golden jackal, Thos aureus, has only 74, it is concluded that dogs cannot have been derived from this species of jackal. The number of chromosomes in the wolf has not yet been determined.—C.A.R.

Meissner, B.

1926. Haustier. In M. Ebert, Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, Bd. V, pp. 216— 221. Walter de Gruyter & Co. (Berlin).

In the first part—a general consideration of the origins of domestication—it is assumed that the necessity for keeping animals as offerings for the gods had been the main motive for the taming of wild forms. This is followed by a brief account of archaeological evidences of dog, pig, and cattle from prehistoric Europe, and of cattle, sheep, goat, horse, ass and camel from the ancient Near Kast.

Melnyk, Oleska

1927. Das Wildrind Osteuropas und seine Domestikation. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. IX, pp. 475-483.

Fossil and recent material of the genus Bos from Ukrainian museums is investi- gated. The East European domestic cattle are of primigenius type (although with great variability) and are supposed to have descended from Bos urus primigenius in the early Stone Age, their domestication being already very advanced by late Neolithic. Cross-breeding with the Asiatic urus (B. namadicus) or with the ban- teng may occasionally have occurred.

1928. Die neolithischen Haustiere Siidosteuropas. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XI, pp. 15-25.

The author summarizes briefly the material (mainly figurines) of Neolithic domestic animals from southeastern Europe (especially Ukraine) and concludes that by the fourth millennium B.c. cattle (of primigenius type), sheep, goats(?) and horses(?) were domesticated in this area.

Menghin, Oswald 1931. Weltgeschichte der Steinzeit. xvi+648 pp. Anton Schroll & Co. (Wien).

The author claims three independent civilizations, which gave rise to animal breeding at the threshold of the Neolithic.

Widespread across southern Asia and southern Europe was a swine-breeding culture, associated with hoe-agriculture and lacking draft animals, the only do- mestic species besides the pig being the dog. Another civilization complex, rep- resented by the Anau culture, rose in western Turkestan, its domestic stock comprising cattle and sheep, the former derived from Bos namadicus, the latter

76 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

from Ovis vignei arkar. Later the goat was added. A third civilization is indicated by the domestication of riding animals—horse, ass and camel—its origin being sought in central Asia.

1933. Merimde-Benisalame und Ma’adi. Jn H. Junker, Vorlaufiger Bericht iiber die Grabungen von Merimde-Benisalame, Anz. Akad. Wiss., Wien, Jhg. 70, pp. 83-97.

In a preliminary report on the excavations at the Neolithic settlement of Merimde-Benisalame (western Delta region of Egypt) a short account of the faunal finds is given (pp. 88, 89) and their significance in tracing early stock- farming in Egypt is emphasized. The faunal remains show close resemblance to those from Ma’adi (ef. Menghin and Amar, 1932), especially in the abundance of bones of the domestic pig.

Pig, cattle, sheep, and goat(?) are also recorded. In spite of the great amount of skeletal material no trace of either equids or camels was detected.

Menghin, Oswald, and Amar, M.

1932. The excavations of the Egyptian University in the Neolithic site at Ma’adi. Egypt. Univ., Fac. Arts, Publ. 10, 59 pp., 78 pls.

The bone material from the Ma’adian culture (ca. 3000 B.c.) in Lower Egypt is discussed briefly (p. 52). A considerable number of oxen, sheep, goats and pigs could be distinguished. The importance of the high frequency of pigs in early Neolithic sites from Lower Egypt, as contrasted to the few faint traces of pig- breeding in Upper Egyptian sites from the same era, is emphasized, and the marshy Delta region is considered to be the pig-breeding center of prehistoric

Egypt.

Merkens, J.

1929. Die Abstammung des Java-Madurarindes—zugleich eine Untersuchung uber die Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen von anderen Rinderrassen nieder- landisch Indiens nach der Prazipitationsmethode. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XVI, pp. 361-400, 20 figs., 9 tables.

An extensive series of precipitation tests was made, in order to investigate the serological relationship of cattle in the Dutch East Indies in general and of the Java-Madurese cattle in particular. The results confirmed the view that the Java and the Madurese cattle originated from a cross between banteng and zebu; both are related mutually as well, with the zebu on one side and the banteng (Bali cattle, Bos sondaicus) on the other.

Zebu and Friesian-Dutch (Bos taurus) cattle show almost the same relation- ship reciprocally as each of them does with the banteng, the banteng being more closely related to the buffalo (Bos bubalis) than the two former. The buffalo shows less affinity to the bovines sensu stricto than those do among themselves. It is in an intermediate position between the investigated Bovinae and the sheep.

The high titer of Shorthorn and Jersey against anti-Friesian—Dutch serum on the one hand and anti-zebu on the other seems to confirm the view of a diphyletic origin of European breeds of cattle.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 7

~

Mikesell, Marvin W.

1955. Notes on the dispersal of the dromedary. Sthwest. J. Anthrop., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 2381-245.

Wild Camelus dromedarius occurred in northern Africa and probably in Pales- tine and Arabia in Pleistocene and prehistoric times, but it became extinct in northern Africa during Early Dynastic time without having been domesticated there, leaving only a few early evidences of its presence. The most probable site of domestication was southern Arabia (Yemen and Hadramaut), where agricul- tural people with domestic animals (goats, cattle, asses) lived in close proximity to the desert. The dromedary first appears clearly in the historical record in Mesopotamia during Assyrian times. The domesticated animal was then intro- duced into Egypt in numbers by the Persians, although some individuals had probably been taken there occasionally before (cf. Free, 1944, and Forbes, 1955). From Egypt the domestic dromedary spread across the Sahara, very possibly prior to the first century A.D., the time usually assigned to this event.—C.A.R.

Mirov, N. T.

1945. Notes on the domestication of reindeer. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 393-407.

Early records and archaeological evidences of the distribution of the reindeer in past and present times are summarized, and previous investigations on the origin of reindeer-breeding are critically reviewed. A map visualizing the recent distri- bution of reindeer is added.

Mohapl, Franz

1914. Untersuchungen iiber das prahistorische Rind Mihrens. Mitt. landw. Lehrk. Wien, Bd. II, pp. 75-97, 4 pls. with 8 figs.

Skull fragments of cattle from several Neolithic sites from Moravia (especially from the lake dwellings near Olmiitz) are investigated. Most of the domestic specimens belong to the brachyceros and only a few to the primigenius type. It is suggested that it had been principally the small brachyceros ox that was distrib- uted and kept among the Slavonian settlements during the Neolithic.

Mond, Robert, and Myers, Oliver H. 1934. The Bucheum. The Egypt Exploration Society, London.

J. W. Jackson reports on the remains of sacred cattle from the Baquaria and the Bucheum at Armant, Upper Egypt (New Kingdom and Roman period) (vol. I, chap. 17, pp. 137-142; pl. xevii in vol. III).

The skeletal parts examined resemble closely those of the Celtic shorthorn (Bos brachyceros=B. longifrons Owen).

Morrison-Scott, T. C.

1952. The mummified cats of ancient Egypt. Proc. zool. Soc. London, vol. 121, pp. 861-867.

About 200 skulls of mummified cats, excavated at Gizeh and dating from 600-200 B.c., form the basis for a study of ancient Egyptian cats and their identity.

78 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

A craniological examination and statistical analysis lead to the conclusion that two forms of cat were mummified. The larger form, the domestic status of which is questioned, represents Felis chaus. The smaller and by far the commoner mum- mies appear to represent a domestic form of the wild F. libyca Forster, called F. libyca bubastis.

Morse, E. W.

1912. The ancestry of domesticated cattle. U.S. Dept. Agr., 27th Ann. Rep., Bur. Anim. Ind., 1910, pp. 187-239, pls. XIII, XIV, 16 figs.

A treatise on cattle ancestry, introduced by a historical sketch of bovid evo- lution throughout the Pleistocene, wherein the probable progenitors for domestic oxen are sought. Bos namadicus is taken as the ancestor of B. primigenius, which gave rise to a number of domestic varieties (B. trochoceros, B. frontosus, B. longi- frons). Bos africanus Fitzinger, proposed to designate the ancient Egyptian cattle (ef. Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09), is regarded as a local race of the primigenius type. B. brachycephalus is seen as a derivative of a different species.

Munro, Robert

1902. On the prehistoric horses of Europe and their supposed domestication in Paleolithic times. Arch. Jour., vol. 59, pp. 109-143. London.

A consideration of the paleontological and archaeological evidence known at the dawn of the twentieth century on horses of the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods in Europe. The author suggests that horses were not tamed in Europe in pre-Neolithic times, but that in early Neolithic periods domesticated horses de- rived from wild Asian species were brought into Europe by Aryan immigrants.

Nachtsheim, Hans

1929. Die Entstehung der Kaninchenrassen im Lichte ihrer Genetik. Z. Tierz. ZichtBiol., Bd. XIV, pp. 53-109, 10 figs., 6 tables, 3 colored pls.

The origin of strains in the domestic rabbit is studied on the basis of the genetics of skin and hair characters. The author lists twenty factors influencing color pattern and hair character, which rose by mutations during domestication, and which were fixed by breeding.

The ancestor of the domestic rabbit is proved to be the wild rabbit of south- western Europe (Oryctolagus cuniculus) which probably was first tamed by the Romans in Spain.

1936. Vom Wildtier zum Haustier. viii+100 pp., 50 figs. Alfred Metzner (Berlin).

A survey of domestic animals and their origin. The rabbit is taken as a sam- ple species, and its genetic characters and mechanisms are compared with those found in other domestic animals. Special emphasis is given to the parallel char- acters which occur independently in various groups of domestic animals, and an attempt is made to work out their genetic and physiological background.

1938. Vom Wesen der Domestikation. Biologe, Jhg. VII, Heft 10, pp. 8321-329.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 79

It is explained that mere taming of wild animals never led to the stage of true domestication. The latter was reached only by selection of mutations, deleterious in the wild stage but useful for man, over many generations.

Nehring, Alfons

1936. Studien zur indogermanischen Kultur und Urheimat. Wiener Beitrige zur Kulturgeschichte und Linguistik, Jhg. 4, pp. 7-229.

Investigating the origin of the Indo-European civilization, the author deals (pp. 64-117) with the sources of its domestic stock, mainly from the linguistic point of view. In some forms a local origin from southeastern Europe is conceiv- able, as in the case of goat and pig, the latter being domesticated usually from the wild, indigenous animal everywhere. In most cases, however—sheep, dog, cattle, horse—the domestic breeds are clearly of Asiatic origin.

Newberry, P. E.

1928. The pig and the cult-animal of Set. J. Egypt. Archaeol., vol. XIV, pp. 211-225, 2 pls., 6 figs. London.

The first sections (1-3) contain a collection of archaeological, philological and ethnological evidences for the occurrence of the domestic pig in Egypt from pre- dynastic times. In section 4, which deals with the origin of the domestic pig, current views on the subject are given, and the point is stressed that pig breeding was associated with an agricultural but not with a pastoral life. Wild, domestic and feral pigs are compared, and the last is taken to be the cult-animal of Set.

Newbold, D.

1928. Rock-pictures and archaeology in the Libyan desert. Antiquity, vol. 2, pp. 261-291, 9 pls., 6 figs.

The area of this study is generally west of the big bend of the Nile at Don- gola. The rock-carvings probably range in time from late Paleolithic to relatively recent historical time. In the pre-Christian era, the domestic camel was unknown in these deserts, and transportation was by horse, ox, or donkey. The hunting dogs shown are very spirited, and probably are of Dynastic times. The big- horned Bos africanus of proto-dynastic and Old Kingdom times is the commonest type of cattle represented; it was replaced in the Middle Kingdom by B. brachy- ceros. Some of the sites have only B. africanus represented, but others have both.—C.A.R.

Nitsche, Max

1924. Untersuchungen tiber fossile Schweinereste B6éhmens und ihre Bezie- hungen zu dem iglauer Landschwein. Z. indukt. Abstammung- u. Vererb- Lehre, Bd. 35, pp. 59-94, 6 tables.

A study of three sub-fossil pig skulls found in the vicinity of Teplitz (Bohemia). Two skulls from the late Neolithic, identified as those of descendants of Sus scrofa ferus are in a stage of primitive domestication. The third skull—a peat find from Tschentschitz, belonging to the Bronze Age—is considered a feral pig and shows resemblance to a Swedish race of the turbary pig S. s. palustris.

80 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

1928. Untersuchungen tiber fossile Pferdereste Bohmens.— Ein Beitrag zur Ab- stammung der Pferderassen. Z. indukt. Abstammung- u. VererbLehre, Bd. 51.

A detailed description of three equid skulls, found in the environs of Teplitz and Aussig (northern Bohemia). One skull belongs to a tarpan-like form (wild), the second is regarded as a dwarfed horse of the prehistoric type found in Spain (the proposed ancestor of the Kladruber breed), and the third is related to a dwarfed form of the ‘Occidental’ race, close to the type Equus caballus fossilis var. germanicus Nehr.

In the first part new craniometrical methods and indices for equids are sug- gested, which—though using traditional measurements—express the image of the skull characters actually seen. Former data from the literature are revised and compared on the basis of the new methods.

Noack, Th.

1907. Wolfe, Schakale, vorgeschichtliche und neuzeitliche Haushunde. Zool. Anz., Bd. 31, Nr. 21-22, pp. 660-695.

An investigation of north African domestic dogs and of jackals and wolves kept in captivity shows that the new environment causes rapid changes in the skull of the wild animals, resembling partly the craniological modifications typical for the domestic dog. Jackals and wolves are therefore regarded as the only ancestors of the domestic dog, with pariah dogs and dingos representing feral types.

1909. Haustiere der Altai-Kalmiicken. Zool. Anz., Bd. 34, Nr. 4, pp. 683-695, 750-760, 782, 787.

In an investigation of the crania of certain domestic breeds of the Altai- Kalmucks (southeast of Biisk, the region around the head-waters of the River Ob) the author stresses the affinities of the Kalmuck dog with Canis familiaris inostran- zewi, of the Kalmuck cattle with Bos brachyceros, and the resemblance of the Kalmuck horse to Equus przewalskii.

The identification of the Kalmuck cat with a domestic variety of the East

Asian Felis microbis is followed by a discussion of the origin of the European do- mestic cat, the cradle of which is found in northern Africa.

1915a. Uber den mumifizierten Kopf eines Inkahundes aus dem Totenfelde von Ancon in Peru. Zool. Anz., Bd. 46, Nr. 2-3, pp. 62-64, 65-70, 6 figs.

A mummified head found in a pre-Spanish cemetery at Ancon (Peru) is de- scribed, and the skull identified as Canis ingae (Tschudi).

The author excludes the possibility that this type descended from an indige- nous South American canid and suggests a relationship to the European peat-dog group.

1915b. Uber die Schiidel vorgeschichtlicher Haushunde im Romermuseum zu Hildesheim. Zool. Anz., Bd. 46, Nr. 2-3, pp. 76-94, 9 figs.

Skulls and skull-fragments of dogs from Neolithic finds near Hildesheim (Ger- many) are compared to recent and fossil eanids and studied in terms of their phylo-

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 81

genetic relationship. In the remains of three large dogs, a resemblance to the Indian wolf Canis pallipes is found; this type is named C. pallipes domesticus and is seen as a connecting link in the evolution of the large domestic dogs. An achieve- ment of the Indo-European Aryans, it spread from east to west (contrary to the C. palustris group, which dispersed eastward) and became the ancestor of the shepherd-dog type.

Oppenheim, Leo, and Hartmann, L.

1945. The domestic animals of ancient Mesopotamia—according to the XIIIth tablet of the series Har.Ra-Hubullu. J. Near East. Stud., vol. IV, pp. 152— eT.

A translation and explanation of the famous Sumerian-Akkadian tablet which classifies sheep, goat, ox, and donkey, designating these animals with an abundance of names and attributes.

Otto, F.

1901. Osteologische Studien zur Geschichte des Torfschweines und seiner Stel- lung innerhalb des Genus Sus. Rev. suisse Zool., Tom. IX, No. 1, pp. 43— 130, pls. ili-ix.

A detailed study of the turbary pig (Sus scrofa palustris) from the Swiss lake- dwellings. In its first part the paper traces the evolution of the skull, noticeable in the different periods, from the earliest sub-fossils via the Celtic-Helvetian to the Bronze and Iron Age. In the second part, an examination of the crania of recent domestic pigs and wild boars, the turbary pig is represented as a probable derivative of the Asiatic boar Sus vittatus.

Pace, J- W.

1939. From hunter to husbandman. 256 pp., illus. George G. Harrap & Co., Ltd. (London).

A popular treatment, principally an attempt to trace the origins and develop- ment of pastoralism and agriculture, the ancestry of domestic cattle, sheep, goat and pig, and the origin and early evolution of the domestic ass, horse, camel and reindeer.

Patterson, Bryan

1937. Animal remains from Alishar Hiiyiik. Orient. Inst. Publ. (Univ. Chicago), no. 30, pp. 294-309, figs. 248-254.

Description of animal remains collected at Alishar Hiiyiik (Anatolia) during the excavations in 1927-32, ranging from Chalcolithic to Phrygian-Hellenistic layers. Most abundant among the bones of domestic animals were remains of sheep, which appeared to be represented by the “‘copper sheep”’ type in the Hittite levels, by a cross of the latter with the turbary sheep in the earlier strata.

Some remains of a domestic goat resembled Capra prisca, while horn-cores of cattle pointed to the brachyceros type. Pig remains—present at all levels— indicated that the Alishar swine belonged to the Sus scrofa group. Fragments of domestic dogs are referred to as Canis familiaris palustris ladogensis and C. f. inostranzewi respectively. quid remains, of indeterminable type, were scarce.

82 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Peet, T. Eric

1914. The Cemeteries of Abydos, Part II.—1911-1912. Egypt Exploration Fund (London), Mem. 34, pp. xvi+133, 39 pls., 89 figs.

According to the identifications of Kathleen Haddon (pp. 6-7), the Amratian levels from Abydos (30 km. north of Luxor, Egypt) yielded bones of large oxen, sheep (tentatively identified as Ovis palaeoaegypticus, but these could have been goats), part of a goat (Hircus mambricus), and a part of the mandible of a dog similar to that of a pariah dog. No statement as to possible wild or domestic status of the animals is made.—C.A.R.

Pequart, Marthe, et al.

1937. Téviec, station-nécropole mésolithique du Morbihan. Arch. Inst. Paléont. hum., Mem. XVIII, 227 pp., 19 pls., 20 figs.

In the faunal assemblage from the Mesolithic dwelling place at Téviee (on an island off the Bay of Quiberon, Morbihan, France) examined by M. Boule were remains of a domestic dog (pp. 101-102). The dog resembled Canis familiaris palustris from the Swiss lake-dwellings and the Danish kitchen middens.

Petters, V.

1934. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der siidafrikanischen Haushunde. Z. Siaugetierk., Bd. IX, pp. 142-1638, 11 figs.

The origins of South African Kaffir dogs are described and studied. Recent specimens show a strong influence of European breeds, but the original type points to a close relationship with the North African greyhounds.

Philiptschenko, J. A.

1928. Untersuchungen an Haustieren im Turkestan. Ziichtungskunde, Bd. III, pp. 398-417, 1 map, 7 figs.

Summary of some results of an expedition to eastern Kasakstan on the Russian- Chinese border (1926-27). The fat-tailed sheep of Kasakstan is seen as a descendant of the wild argali, first tamed in this area, where once a member of the argali group —Ovis ammon koslovi (now restricted to the Gobi desert)—had been indigenous. The Kirghiz goat is regarded as belonging to a markhor (Capra falconert) type.

1933. [Contributions to the origin of the domestic pig.|] (Russ., Eng. summ.) Transcript of the conference on the origin of domestic animals, held at the Laboratory of Genetics, Acad. Sci. USSR, Leningrad, 1932, pp. 157- 185, 11 figs.

Craniological studies led to the conclusion that three races of wild boars are ancestral to the domestic pig: (1) the European and Western Asiatic wild boar Sus scrofa, with three subspecies (S. s. scrofa, S. s. attila Thomas and S. s. nigripes Blanford); (2) the Eastern Asiatic wild boar S. orientalis, also with three sub- species (S. 0. continentalis, S. 0. raddeanus and S. 0. moupinensis); (3) the South- eastern Asiatic S. vittatus.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 83

Pia, Julius

1941. Rassenkundliche Untersuchungen an Schiadelresten des altigyptischen Hausrindes. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XLVIII, pp. 17-55, 14 figs., 10 tables.

Investigation of eleven skulls of domestic cattle from various Egyptian excava- tions, among them two from predynastic sites. On the basis of craniometrical comparison the ancient Egyptian cattle are taken to be of primigenius type, most resembling the Hungarian Grey Steppe breed. The animal sculptures confirm the view that this longhorned breed was dominant in prehistoric and early dynastic Egypt.

1942a. Untersuchungen iiber die Rassenzugehorigkeit der altagyptischen Haus- ziege. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. LI, pp. 295-307, 4 pls.

A study of about thirty skulls or skull fragments of goats from ancient Egypt, all of which are designated as typical prisca. Animal remains and representative art indicate that this species (Capra prisca), characterized by homonymous twisted horns, was the only one kept in Egypt from the first dynasty until the Late King- dom. In prehistoric times, another, dwarfish breed of goat occurred in Egypt.

1942b. Beobachtungen an Schadeln des altaégyptischen Hausschafs. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. LIII, pp. 171-179, 2 pls.

Description of more than fifty skulls from ancient Egyptian sheep, all belonging to a spiral-horned, fleecy race which appeared about the twelfth dynasty and com- pletely displaced the older, hairy, ‘“‘goat-horned”’ race (ef. Diirst and Gaillard, 1902). The horns described are similar to those of the ‘“‘Ram of Ammon,” rep- sented in Egyptian art from the twelfth dynasty on.

Pigsot, Stuart

1950. Prehistoric India. 293 pp., 8 pls., 32 figs. Penguin Books, Harmonds- worth, Middlesex.

A short summary of the domestic stock of prehistoric India, as reflected by the finds from Harappa (cf. Prashad, 1936) and Rana Ghundai in Baluchistan (pp. 155-158). The cradle of the domestic horse is discussed briefly (pp. 266-267).

Pilgrim, Guy E. 1947. The evolution of the buffaloes, oxen, sheep and goats. J. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vol. 41, no. 279, pp. 272-286, 6 figs., 1 diagram.

Essentially an outline of the evolution of the Bovidae as shown by the fossil record, but also an account of living representatives of wild oxen, sheep and goats and their probable relation to recent domestic forms. Ovis orientalis is seen as ancestor of the turbary sheep; some domestic sheep are derived from O. ammon, while O. vignei is taken to be the probable progenitor of the prehistoric domestic breeds from Turkestan.

Domestic goats are derived partly from the markhor and partly from the bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus) or from a cross of the latter with the descendants of the Pleistocene C. prisca.

Pira, Adolf

1909. Studien zur Geschichte der Schweinerassen, insbesondere derjenigen Schwedens. Zool. Jb., Allg. Zool., Suppl. 10, pp. 233-426, 52 figs., 10 tables.

84 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

An extensive study of prehistoric pig remains from peat-moors and Neolithic sites in Ringsj@n (Schonen), Gottland, Aloppe (Uppland) and Anneréd (Bohnslin). Osteological differences between wild and domestic forms are worked out (pp. 344-371).

The first domestic pigs appeared in the late Stone Age, where, besides the wild boar—Sus scrofa antiquus (already hunted in previous periods)—a form occurred intermediate between the latter and the turbary pig, which in its pure type (S. s. palustris) appears only much later. The long chain of transition stages from the wild boar to the domestic turbary pig may indicate that the tamed races have been developed in Sweden as a result of a local domestication from an indigenous wild stock.

1926. On bone deposits in the cave ‘‘Stora Férvar’’ on the isle of Stora Karlsé, Sweden. A contribution to the knowledge of prehistoric domestic animals. Acta Zool., Bd. VII, pp. 123-217, 18 tables.

A study of the skeletal fragments from a typical Stone Age kitchen midden, excavated in the cavern of Stora Férvar on the island of Stora Karls6 off the south- west coast of Gottland.

Remains of domestic animals are absent or rare in the lowest layers (mainly seal bones), but they become by far the majority in the upper strata, comprisiug bones of ox, dog, goat, sheep, pig and horse. The dog is of the peat-dog (palustris) type. The goat—a rare animal on Stora Karlsé—is taken to be derived from Capra aegagrus, while the Férvar sheep (much more frequent than goat) is con- sidered a derivative of the mouflon (Ovis musimon), the rams being horned, the ewes hornless. Cattle are of the brachyceros type, which is regarded by the author as a domestic variation of the wild Bos primigenius ferus.

Pittard, Eugene, and Reverdin, L.

1921. A propos de la domestication des animaux pendant la period néolithique. Arch. suisses Anthrop. gén., Tom. IV, no. 3, pp. 259-271.

A reconstruction of the domestic fauna in the Swiss Neolithic, based on a statistical review of animal remains from sites near the lake of Neuchatel.

Five domestic species—cattle, dog, pig, sheep and goat—were present from the lowest levels, the frequency of the first three decreasing in the later strata. Horses were absent. While the majority of pig bones were those of young animals, the remains of the other forms proved to be mainly those of adults.

Pohl, A. 1950-52. Das Kamel in Mesopotamien. Orientalia, vol. XIX (n.s.), pp. 251- 253; vol. X XI (n.s.), pp. 373-874.

Camel representations in Mesopotamia from the third millennium B.c. are listed and seen as evidence that tamed camels were kept during the corresponding periods.

Prashad, B. 1936. Animal remains from Harappa. Mem. Archaeol. Surv. India, no. 51, 62 pp., 7 pls.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 85

A systematic description of the animal remains from Harappa in the Indus valley, collected during the seasons from 1924-25 to 1930-31. The material dated back to the third millennium B.c.—contained skulls and other skeletal parts of dog, cattle, sheep and goat, besides fragments from the one-humped camel, the Indian pig (Sus cristatus, all parts of young animals), the domestic ass, the domesticated buffalo and an apparently domestic cat.

The dog—named Canis tenggeranus harappensis—showed marked skull- affinities to the Indian wolf (Canis pallipes) and is considered the ancestor of the Indian greyhound. Cattle found were of the humped zebu (Bos indicus) and the humpless type, both regarded as descendants of B. primigenius. Sheep were identified with Ovis vignei (domesticus). The goats of Harappa were regarded as derived from Capra aegagrus and their probable cradle of domestication is sought within the Indus valley.

Pycraft, F. Z. S. 1938. The origin of domesticated animals. Ill. London News, vol. 102, p. 444.

Popular discussion of some general aspects involved in the origin of domestic animals. Examples are taken mainly from domestic birds.

Ralph, Elizabeth K.

1955. University of Pennsylvania radiocarbon dates I. Science, vol. 121, pp. 149-151, 1 fig.

The C™ determinations for certain key levels in Belt cave, northern Iran (see Coon, 1951, 1952) are: (1) Earliest pre-pottery Neolithic, with sheep and goats supposedly domesticated (7790+330 years ago); (2) Mesolithic, which con- tained bones of a large breed of domestic dog (11,480+ 550 years ago).—C.A.R.

Randall-MaclIver, D., and Mace, A. C.

1902. El] Amrah and Abydos, 1899-1901. Egypt Exploration Fund (London), Mem. 23, pp. xiii+108, 60 pls.

Amratian graves from the prehistoric site of E] Amrah (north of Luxor, Egypt) yielded several clay figurines of cattle (pp. 16-17, 41; pl. ix), some of which were mounted four abreast on a single base and one of which showed a remarkably large udder. These figurines lack the kind of evidence (halters, ropes, stall, mangers, fencing, etc.) that would indicate domestication, but it would appear that the people who made these rough grave-goods knew the models as household animals. Figurines of pigs were rare; remains of goats are mentioned.—C.A.R.

Randhawa, M. S.

1946. Role of domesticated animals in Indian history. Sci. & Cult., Calcutta, vol. XII, no. 1, pp. 5-14, 4 figs.

A popular account of the domestic stock of ancient India. The first domesti- cated breeds, kept by the Negritos and by the Proto-Australoid population, com- prised dog, elephant and buffalo; with the invasion of Aryan-speaking tribes (around 1600 B.c.) the elephant-buffalo culture was replaced by a _ horse-cow culture, though the buffalo was retained in certain parts throughout later times.

Independent domestication centers are suggested for the Bactrian camel (central Asia) and the dromedary (northern Africa). Sheep and goat were prob- ably first domesticated in the mountains of Turkestan.

86 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Rathjens, Carl 1955. Die tierischen plastischen Darstellungen. Mitt. Mus. Vélkerk. Hamb., vol. XXIV, pp. 114-189, figs. 181-188.

In his report on three archaeological surveys in southern Arabia, the author deals with the first occurrence of cattle, sheep, ass, horse, camel, and dog on the Arabian peninsula. The domestication of the ass is seen as one of the most ancient achievements. It was introduced from eastern Africa, where its domestication originated. Also introduced very early were ox and sheep, the former by sea and the latter by the land route from the north. The domestic horse is regarded as a much later introduction.

The domestication of the one-humped camel started prior to the third millen- nium B.C. in northeastern Africa, where it later disappeared. It was probably introduced from Mesopotamia into Arabia before the beginning of the second millennium B.C.

Reinhardt, Ludwig

1912. Kulturgeschichte der Nutztiere. Jn L. Reinhardt, ‘‘Die Erde und die Kultur,’ Bd. III. Ernst Reinhard (Miinchen).

A comprehensive compilation of archaeological and ethnological data on all animals ever domesticated or tamed in the Old and the New World. Mammals, birds, and fishes as well as ‘‘domestic’’ invertebrates are treated, and their evolu- tion from the dawn of civilization throughout history is outlined. The text is illustrated by many reproductions of archaeological and zoological nature.

Reitsma, G. G.

1932. Het schaap. Zool. onderzoek d. Nederl. terpen. I. Wageningen. 46 pp., 65 figs. Fonds Landbouw Export Bureau 1916-1918.

All sheep bones encountered in the ‘‘terpen’’ (mounds of refuge in the pre- historic swamps of Holland) originate from one identical breed, the ‘‘Terp’’ sheep, which is still extant as the primitive ‘“‘Drentsch Heide” sheep. It is not plausible to regard the ‘“‘Terp”’ sheep as the ancestor of the ‘‘Frisian Milk”’ sheep.

The encountered skulls and skull fragments of Ovis aries palustris have all belonged to females. O. a. studeri never existed; the skeletal remnants ascribed to that breed are from male specimens of O. a. palustris. The so-called Bronze sheep never existed as an autonomous breed, but is merely a non-horned variety of the female O. a. palustris. The ‘‘Drentsch Heide”’ sheep is, through the ‘“‘Terp”’ sheep, the lineal descendant of O. a. palustris —D.H.

1935. Het varken. Zool. onderzoek d. Nederl. terpen. I]. Wageningen. 58 pp., 93 figs. H. Veenman & Sons.

In the “‘terpen,’’ as well as near Swiss lake-dwellings, remains have been found of wild boars and domesticated pigs. The wild form is Sus scrofa, the Euro- pean wild pig. The domestic pig is derived directly from S. scrofa; the names “S. verrucosus,”’ “S. vittatus,’’ and ‘SS. mediterraneus’’ are not to be considered, since these are also derived from S. scrofa.

The remains of domesticated pigs found in Swiss lake-dwellings show no essential differences; such variability as is present is due to individual variation,

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 87

differences in the degree of domestication, and differences in absolute size. Thus Sus scrofa palustris Riit. may be designated S. s. domesticus palustris. The small deviations that have been noted between this latter and the Dutch mound-hog, sometimes called S. s. domesticus tumulorum, are exclusively the results of differ- ences in the degree of domestication and in differences of environment. Both represent one domesticated form of Sus scrofa.—D.H.

Reverdin, Louis

1921. La faune néolithique de la station de Saint-Aubin, Port-Conty, Lae de Neuchatel. Arch. suisses Anthrop. gén., Tom. IV, no. 3, pp. 251-254.

A short summary of the animal remains from two layers (III and IV) of the Neolithic site at Saint-Aubin (Switzerland). Domestic animals constituted about 70 per cent of the total. Cattle (Bos brachyceros) occupied first place in both levels, followed by the dog in level IV, by the pig (Sus palustris) in Jevel III. Fewer remains belonged to the domestic sheep (4-9 per cent) and to the goat (Capra hircus) (4.4-6.6 per cent).

1927-28. Recherches sur les mandibles de chien du niveau inférieur néolithique lacustre. Bull. schweiz., Ges. Anthrop., Tom. IV, pp. 18-20.

Mandibles of ca. 54 dogs—a part of the faunal remains from the deepest stratum at Saint-Aubin (cf. Reverdin, 1921)—-are studied. The animals were apparently slaughtered and eaten. Most of the mandibles are in the variation range of the peat-dog Canis familiaris palustris; some, however, deviate significantly in their jaw indices, which fact leads to the assumption that more than one form of dogs were represented among the Neolithic fauna of Switzerland.

1928. Sur la faune du néolithique ancien et moyen des stations lacustres. Arch. suisses Anthrop. gén., Tom. V, no. 1, pp. 41—46.

A brief summary of the frequency of domestic species out of the total faunal remains from Saint-Aubin (ef. Reverdin, 1921) and Cortaillod, in which the relative decrease of domestic animals during the transition from the early to the middle (—late) Neolithic is shown. In Saint-Aubin domestic animals (ox, pig, sheep, goat, dog) constituted 67.8 per cent of the total fauna in layer IV, and only 55.6 per cent in layer III. At Cortaillod the corresponding percentages were 56.8 in layer IV and 54.5 per cent in layer III. The decrease affected especially sheep and goat (from 20.2 per cent to 11.2 per cent in Saint-Aubin) and dogs (in both sites from 11.6 to 3.7 per cent).

1930-31. Sur la faune du kjokkenmodding Morbihannais, Er Yoh, et ses rapports avec celle des stations lacustres de la Suisses. Arch. suisses Anthrop. gén., Tom. VI, no. 1, pp. 79-86.

A study of the animal remains from the Neolithic kitchen middens at Er Yoh (off the coast of Morbihan, France), the results of which are compared briefly with the fauna of the Neolithic sites from Lake Neuchatel. Most frequent remains among the domestic stock of Er Yoh were those of the turbary sheep (about 62 per cent) and small cattle of brachyceros type (28.5 per cent); a few remains were of a larger type of cattle and of the turbary pig (Sus scrofa palustris). The few equid remains are considered to belong to a wild horse.

88 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Revilliod, P.

1926. Sur les animaux domestiques de la station de l’époque de La Téne de Geneve et sur le boeuf brachycephale de l’époque Romaine. Arch. Sci. Phys. nat., vol. VIII, pp. 65-74.

The finds of La Tene—a settlement from the Iron Age near Geneva—are described (ef. Schwarz, F., 1918). Among 400 bones and bone fragments there were 148 of cattle, 149 of pig, 69 of sheep, 7 of goat and 26 of dog. All the eattle remains belonged to Bos taurus brachyceros. Pigs were represented by Sus palustris and sheep showed affinities to the larger specimens of the Neolithic Ovis palustris. The single skull of a dog seemed to be related to Canis inostranzewi, though in size it resembled C. intermedius.

Revilliod, P., and Dottrens, E.

1947. La faune néolithique de la couche profonde de Saint-Aubin. II. Les ossements de Bos taurus brachyceros Riitim. et de Bos primigenius Boj. Rev. suisse Zool., Tom. 54, no. 22, pp. 459-544, 12 figs.

A critical examination of the cattle remains from Saint-Aubin (cf. Reverdin, 1921, 1928; Dottrens, 1946) and a discussion of the remains of large cattle from the lake-dwellings, identified as a domestic race of the aurochs Bos taurus primi- genius. A biometrical study revealed that sexes of the small, Neolithic brachy- ceros race were much less distinct than they are in domesticated cattle today, while dimorphism in sexual size is marked in the wild urus.

The great majority of the remains from Saint-Aubin (stratum IV) belonged to the domestic Bos taurus brachyceros and the few primigenius bones are those of wild cattle, either males or females; no reason is seen to admit the existence of a domesticated race of the urus in the early Neolithic of this site.

Reynoids, Sidney H.

1939. The Bovidae. Monog. Brit. Pleist. Mamm., vol. 3, pt. 6, pp. 1-65, 5 pls., 20 figs.

Although the bulk of this monograph is devoted to a study of the distribution and osteology of Bos primigenius, consideration is also given to B. longifrons, the Celtic Shorthorn. This latter is clearly the domestic ox of the British Neolithic. It is unknown from the British Pleistocene, and was introduced as a domestic ani- mal to Ireland (which never had native cattle). The ancestry and place of domes- tication of B. longifrons are unknown; some think it was merely a domesticated and smaller variant of B. primigenius, but others think it a distinct wild species that became domesticated, whereas B. primigenius was never domesticated.

In a historical review it is shown that ‘‘urus’”’ (not ‘‘aurochs’’) is the correct common name for B. primigenius.—C.A.R.

Rice, Victor 1942. Breeding and improvement of farm animals. xx+750 pp., 212 illus. McGraw-Hill Book Co. (New York and London).

Chapters 2 and 3, section I, deal briefly and in a popular way with the evolu- tion of man and the domestic animals.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 89

Richter, Curt P.

1952. Domestication of the Norway rat and its implication for the study of genetics in man. Amer. J. Hum. Genet., vol. IV, pp. 273-285.

The Norway rat was domesticated for experimental purposes, and changes during the course of its domestication are analyzed. These domestic modifications seem to rest upon changes in the endocrine system and are associated with a hypo- function of the adrenals and a hyperfunction of the gonads.

It is suggested that a special selection mechanism may operate under the pro- tected and controlled environmental conditions found under domestication.

Ridgeway, William 1905. The origin and influence of the thoroughbred horse. xi+538 pp., 143 figs. Cambridge Univ. Press (London).

A wealth of data on horse breeding in prehistoric and ancient historical times is brought together (pp. 82-424). On the basis of these historical and of biological- morphological evidences as well, the author favors (pp. 425-477) a North African origin for a bay domestic horse, called Equus caballus libycus. This variety devel- oped during a long succession of time in Libya and came to Egypt prior to 1500 B.c., about the same time that the North Eurasian (originally dun or white) horse was brought into Mesopotamia. By 1000 B.c. the Libyan horse spread into the Near East, and by blending with the Eurasian stock gave rise to all the improved breeds of the world.

Riedel, Alfredo

1948. Resti di animali domestici neo-eneolitici della caverna Pocala (Aurisina) conservati nel Museo dell’ Istituto Geologico dell’ Universita di Padova. Accad. Naz. dei Lincei, Rome; Rendiconti, Cl. di sci. fis., mat. e nat., ser. 8 A, Tom. IV, pp. 445-459, 5 figs.

A study of the neo-eneolithical faunal remains from the Pocala cavern (near Trieste, Italy), in which typical domestic forms known from the Swiss lake-dwell- ings were represented.

Described are: Canis familiaris palustris, Sus scrofa palustris, Capra hircus, Ovis aries palustris, and Bos taurus brachyceros.

1951. Risultati e significato degli studi di paleontologia degli animali domestici. Natura, Milano, vol. 42, fase. 3-4, pp. 101-106.

A study of the fossil remains of prehistoric domestic animals found in Italy shows that most of the species—dog, pig, goat, sheep, and ox—belong to the tur- bary types, similar to the forms of the Swiss lake-dwellings. The significance of a statistical analysis in treating sub-fossil material is discussed briefly.

Ritzoffy, Nikola 1932. Prinos poznavanju Mangulice. [Study of the Mangalitza pig.| Vet. Arhiv, knjiga II, nr. 8-9, pp. 342-412, 21 figs., numerous tables in text, 2 tables append. (Ger. summ.) A short review of previous investigations on the origin of South Slavian breeds of swine is followed by a detailed craniological study of the Mangalitza pig, which

90 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

is kept in Croatia and Slavonia in addition to the primitive Siska pig. The cranio- logical measurements and indices lead to the view that the Mangalitza breed orig- inated from a cross between the European wild boar Sus scrofa scrofa and the Mediterranean boar S. mediterranus.

1933. Die Rolle der Inzucht in der turopoljer Schweinerasse. Z. Tierz. Ziicht- Biol., Bd. XX VII, pp. 419-429.

The pig breed from Turopolje in Croatia is derived directly from Sus mediter- raneus Ulmansky and as a result of inbreeding for centuries it retains ancient primitive characters.

Robinson, A. E. 1936. The camel in antiquity. Sudan Notes, vol. XIX, part I, pp. 47-69.

A collection of records, archaeological and ethnological, on the occurrence of the Bactrian camel and the dromedary in prehistoric and historic times. The author holds that the ancestor of both forms still lived in predynastie periods on the frontiers of Egypt, retreating later into Asia, where it speciated and where it became domesticated by 1200 B.c.

Rostafinski, Jan

1933. Proba systemtyki malych bosidow europy. [Systematics of the small European bovids.| Rozpr. biol. z Zak. Med. wet., vol. XI, nr. 3. (Eng. summ.)

A skull, found at Krzeszowice (Poland), is described and designated as a new race, named Bos colliceros Rostafinski, which in size and several characters occu- pies a somewhat intermediate position between Bos frontosus and B. brachyceros. In contrast with the latter the horn-cores of B. colliceros are keeled.

Roy, C. R.

1946. Unicorn in the seals of Mohenjo-Daro and its relation to the religion of the Indus valley civilization. Sci. & Cult., Caleutta, vol. XI, no. 8, pp. 408-411.

A discussion of the representations of the ‘“‘unicorn,’’ found in several sites of the ancient Indus valley cultures (Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, ete.). The author doubts the identification of the ‘‘unicorn”’ with the urus, and takes it rather to represent the wild ass. The wild ass is considered a native of the Indus valley from time immemorial, the domestic form being the result of an autochthonous breeding in association with cult-ceremonies.

Riger, Jakob

1942. Die Tierreste aus der spatbronzezeitlichen Siedlung Crestaulta nach den Grabungen 1935-38. Rev. suisse Zool., Tom. 49, no. 18, pp. 251-267.

A brief description of the bone material from Crestaulta (Graubunden, Switzer- land), a dwelling place from the Middle Bronze, the culture of which was main- tained probably up to the Late Bronze. Domestic mammals constituted the great majority of the faunal remains. The most frequent species were the sheep, fol- lowed by cattle and goat. Much fewer remains were those of the domestic pig. Bones of dog and horse(?) were scarce.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 91

Rumjancey, B. F.

1936. [Origin of the domestic horse.] (Russ.; Eng. summ.) Bull. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Biol., nos. 2-3, pp. 415-448, 21 figs., 2 tables. Moskva.

The disputed przewalski ancestry for domestic horses is investigated by an extensive morphological comparison of the przewalski horse, the Mongolian do- mestic horse, and the tarpan. It is assumed that the przewalski horse— showing a marked resemblance to the half-ass group—played no part in the evolution of the domestic horse. The Mongolian horses are considered, together with the under- sized breeds of northeastern Europe (Clepper, Finnish, Vyatka horses), to be a special ‘‘northern group” of domestic horses, which originated independently from the “southern group”’ (represented by Equus caballus pumpelly from Anau; cf. Diirst, 1908) and the ‘‘eastern group,”’ the heavy cart-horses of western Europe.

Sankalia, H. D., and Karve, I.

1949. Early primitive Microlithic culture and people of Gujarat. Amer. An- throp., vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 28-34.

Animal remains were recognized—associated with Microlithic artifacts—at the prehistoric site at Langhnaj (Gujarat, India). According to preliminary studies they comprised bones of sheep or goat, a large form of cattle, and pig, horse and dog.

Sasaki, Kiyoshuna

1934. Serological test for the blood relationship of some bovines with reference to the racial discernment. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XXIV, pp. 287-300, 8 figs.

The affinities of some races of cattle were tested by means of the precipitine reaction. Two races of European cattle—Holstein-Friesian (of the Bos taurus primigenius group) and Aberdeen-Angus (derived by Areander from the hypo- thetical Bos taurus akeratos)—could be distinguished by absorption tests. Hol- stein-Friesian, improved Japanese native, and their hybrids could not be distin- guished mutually.

The blood serum of the South Korean cattle could be distinguished from that of the Holstein-Friesian, but not from that of the Formosan zebu (Bos zebu in- dicus planus), so that the South Korean cattle can be considered a strain from the Indian zebu. The Formosan zebu, however, is more closely related to the Holstein- Friesian than the Formosan water-buffalo.

Sauer, Carl O.

1952. Agricultural origins and dispersals. vi+104 pp., 4 pls. American Geo- graphic Society (New York).

A review of “what man has done with the plants and animals at his disposal.” In chap. 2 the cradle of earliest domestication is found in southeastern Asia, where the origin of animals of the household (dog, pig) was associated with vegetative planting—in contrast to herd-animals (cattle, sheep, goat), whose origin has been related to seed farming, practiced first in southwestern Asia. Chap. 3 (pp. 40-61) describes a similar process in the New World, represented by the tropical north- western South American (dog and Muscovy duck) and Andean cultures (llama, alpaca, guinea pig), respectively.

92 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

The author accepts the view that sedentary fishing peoples became the first domesticators, that cult associations were the main cause of keeping herd-animals, and that the long and tedious work of domestication was accomplished before the Neolithic opened.

The origin of a series of herd-animals (Equidae and Bovidae) is outlined (pp. 91-95). Four maps show the hearths of domestication and the routes of dispersal of the domestic breeds.

Schafer, E. H.

1950. The camel in China down to the Mongol dynasty. Sinologica, Zeitschr. fiir chinesische Kultur und Wissens., vol. II, pp. 165-195 and 263-290.

A compilation of all Chinese records mentioning the camel, from the very beginning up to the Mongol dynasty (A.D. 1369). The first appearance of the camel as a domesticated animal in the historic Chinese sources is from the northern border countries by the end of the Chou period (the end of the fourth century B.C.).

Schmidt, Karl P.

1938. Our friendly animals and whence they came. 64 pp., frontispiece, 11 pls. M. A. Donahue & Co. (Chicago and New York).

A popular guide to the important domestic animals, their origin and their wild ancestors. Dog, cat, cattle, sheep, goat, horse, ass and pig are treated. The story of the domestic mammals is illustrated by twelve colored plates and many text figures.

Schmidt, W. 1951. Zu den Anfangen der Herdentierzucht. Z. Ethn., Bd. 76, pp. 1-41.

An examination and discussion of data and evidences concerning early herd- animals and their origin. Domestication of animals is seen as a gradual result of a primitive hunting civilization (‘‘Urkultur’’), nomadism associated with herd- animals being a necessary transitional stage. Man came in earliest touch with herd-animals in the steppe lands of central Asia, where the cradles of ancient domestication are sought.

Reindeer supplied the material for the earliest domestication, practiced by Samojedic Sojots by Mesolithic (or even late Paleolithic) times, followed by horses, the taming of which was started in the fifth millennium B.c. among Turk tribes in Iran. Domestic sheep and goats are secondary to horse or camel, the latter itself originally a mere follower of horse-breeding. Cattle-breeding arose also as a sec- ondary element, but its geographical origin remains obscure.

Schultze, Robert

1934. Beitrag zur Monographie der Soay-Schafe. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XXXI, pp. 229-237, 3 figs.

A morphological investigation of the Soay sheep, kept in a semi-domesticated stage on the Hebrides near the west coast of Scotland (ef. Ewart, 1913). Since skulls and horns exhibit the same characters as those of the wild European mouf- lon, the straight derivation from Ovis musimon is taken to be certain.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 93

Schwanégart, F.

1928. Zur Stammes- und Typenkunde der Hauskatze. Arbeiter Reichs-Zen- trale fiir Pelztier und Rauchwaren-Forschung, Nr. 9, 32 pp., 9 figs. Arthur Heber & Co. (Leipzig).

Felis silvestris and F. ocreata are seen as progenitors of the domestic cat, and the main characters of both species are worked out. The suggestion of a third ancestor, Otolobus manual, is contested.

1931. Neuere Hauskatzenforschung. Forsch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., Jhg. VII, Nr. 4, pp. 59-60.

The northern wild cat, Felis silvestris, is taken to be a secondary ancestor for the domestic cat besides the African F’. ocreata.

Schwarz, Ernst

1922. Uber europiiische fossile Pferde und den Ursprung der Hauspferde. Sitz. der palaio. Ges. zu Frankfurt a. M., 1921, Palaio. Zeitschr., Bd. IV, pp. 132- 134.

Two types of true horses, which roamed in western and southern Europe during the early Pleistocene, are distinguished: Equus caballus and E. stenonis (distin- guished by the degree of complexity in the enamel pattern). Both forms became displaced from Europe during the glacial periods. The latter migrated to Africa and could not come back to Europe, which got separated from North Africa (where E. stenonis persisted until the Neolithic). Several times in inter-glacial and post- glacial periods Equus caballus returned to Europe from central and eastern Asia.

The domestic ‘‘Oriental’’ breeds (Arabian, Barb) are traced back to Equus stenonis. E. caballus gave rise to the heavy ‘‘cold-blooded” horses and to the small eastern breeds as well.

1928. Uber diluviale Pferde der Equus caballus Gruppe. Jb. preuss. geol. Landesanst., Bd. 48.

A comprehensive study of the fossil equid material from glacial and _ post- glacial times, collected in museums of central Europe. The European wild horses are divided into three groups: A small form (Hquus caballus caballus, comprising E. robustus, the tarpan, and the Przewalski horse), an intermediate group (E. c. plicidens, often the undomesticated attendant of Paleolithic man), and a large type (HE. c. robustus=E. robustus, LE. mosbachensis, EL. abeli). The latter forms did not survive the last glacial period and had no part in the origin of the domestic horses, which in their primitive forms were all of small stature.

Domestication was either started independently in two centers, one in east- ern Europe and a second in central Asia, or in a large area comprising both the centers.

1935. On ibex and wild goat. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., vol. XVI (ser. 10), no. 94, pp. 433-437.

The genus Capra, considered to include all the goats, ibexes and turs, is divided into a northern (Capra ibex) and a southern (C. hircus) group. The author sees in C. hircus aegagrus the most primitive type, which gave rise to the majority of domestic goats.

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The origin of the screw-horned breeds and their relation to C. prisca (ef. Ada- metz, 1915) is discussed in detail, the latter being regarded as an already domes- tie goat.

Schwarz, F. 1918. Tierreste aus La Tene. Anat. Anz., Bd. 50, pp. 457-472, 12 figs.

Description and short summary of faunal remains from early excavations of the Iron Age site at La Téne near Geneva (for further excavations cf. Revilliod, 1926). Domestic animals listed include horses of the Oriental type, brachyceros cattle (with possible incross of Bos brachycephalus), turbary pig (cross with the European wild boar may have occurred), two forms of sheep (Ovis aries palustris and a hornless type), a big-horned race of goat and the large palustris type of dog. None of these animals is considered a result of local domestication from indigenous wild forms.

Schweinfurth, G.

1912. Tierbilder und Felseneinschriften bei Assuan. Z. Ethnol., Bd. 44, pp. 627-658.

Study and interpretation of the animal representations at Aswan, which date from prehistoric times on. Among the domestic animals are cattle, represented only by the longhorned form in most ancient times, and much later by a short- horned type, which was, however, never domesticated. Dogs are mainly of a grey- hound type, but pariah forms can be identified. The wild ibex is depicted fre- quently, but there are only few and unclear representations of a domestic goat. Camel images exist from the ancient dynasties. The pig is always shown as being hunted, which fact seems to prove its wild status.

Scott, J. P.

1954. The effects of selection and domestication upon the behavior of the dog. Jour. nat. Cancer Inst., vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 739-758.

On the basis of archaeological evidence and behavioral studies, it is assumed that the dog was domesticated from the wolf, Canis lupus, in Asia or northern Europe some time between 6000 and 8000 B.c. The jackal, C. aureus, is not con- sidered to be a possible ancestor of the dog.

Dogs and wolves have identical basic traits of behavior, but as the result of artificial selection there is a great deal of variability in behavior in different breeds of dogs. The only new character, however, is with regard to the tail carriage, which varies from sickle-shaped to curled in the dog, but in the wolf is almost straight when relaxed.

Wolves are scavengers as well as hunters, and could easily assume a com- mensal relationship with primitive man. The peaceful and socially cooperative home life of wolves would contribute to the ease of domestication once wolf pups were taken into the human home, where they would come to regard man as part of the social unit. Selection for docility and against wildness, with concomitant changes in the hormone production of the adrenal glands (cf. Richter, 1952), would inevitably follow.—C.A.R.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 95

Sewell, R. B., and Guhr, B. S.

1931. Zoological remains from Mohenjo-Daro. Jn Sir John Marshall, Mo- henjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization, vol. I, chap. 31, pp. 649-673. Arthur Probsthain (London).

An account of the animal remains from the excavations of 1922-27 at Mohenjo- Daro in the Indus valley. The considerable amount of bones from the humped eattle—most of them belonging to calves—seems to indicate that large herds of this animal were maintained. The pig was present in large numbers in this area from the very earliest time, although its status of domestication cannot be taken as certain. The pig is identified with Sus cristatus. A fragment of an equid skull shows similarity to the “horse of Anau’”’ (ef. Durst, 1908).

Shaw, W. B. 1936. Rock paintings in the Libyan desert. Antiquity, vol. 10, pp. 175-178, 4 pls.

The site is that of Gilf Kebir, a high plateau in the Libyan desert. The cattle portrayed, tentatively identified as Bos africanus, are thought to belong to Old Kingdom and pre-dynastic times. Some wear halters, so were undoubtedly do- mesticated. Prominent udders would indicate the importance of milk.

A center of animal domestication is suggested for the Abyssinian plateau.— C.A.R.

Sickenberg, Otto 1930. Eine Wildziege der Capra prisca-Gruppe aus dem Plistozan Niederéster- reichs. Palaeobiologica, vol. III, pp. 92-103, 1 fig., 2 tables, 1 pl. Description of a skull fragment of a wild male goat from the Pleistocene, found near Schleinbach (Lower Austria). The horns show the characters of Capra prisca, and are similar in shape and twisting to some domestic breeds (e.g., Pinz- gauer), which were considered previously of the aegagrus type. The ancestry of C. prisca for all European breeds is emphasized.

Simpson, George G. 1936. Horses and history. Nat. Hist., N.Y., vol. 38, pp. 276-289, frontispiece, 6 pls. A short and popular account of the domestic horse and its history from earliest times.

1951. Horses. xxi+247 pp., 13 pls., 17 figs. Oxford Univ. Press (New York).

A discussion of the derivation of the domestic horse; a monophyletic origin is suggested (pp. 24-33). A brief survey of early records on horse-breeding is given, and various opinions on the origin of the most ancient breeds (Barb, Arabian) are reviewed briefly (pp. 34-41).

Sirelius, U. T.

1916-20. Uber die Art und Zeit der Zihmung der Rentiere. Trav. ethnogr. Soe. finno-ougr., Tom. 33, pp. 1-5. Helsinki.

The author finds the very beginnings of reindeer domestication in the use of tame reindeer as decoys while hunting wild reindeer; the use of the animal as a

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beast of burden came next and the keeping of larger herds came later. Based upon a find of a drag-sledge in the moors of Saasigéroi (Finland) from the Finnish Stone Age, it is assumed that the reindeer was already in use as a draft animal at that time.

Slawkowski, Wilhelm 1933. Kleinasien, die Wiege der Haustierziichtung. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. X XVII, pp. 287-292.

In a brief historical review the Hittite Empire is seen as the cradle of origin of certain domestic animals. It is suggested that the first domestication of horses, shorthorned breeds of cattle, and fleecy sheep took place in Asia Minor at the beginning of the second millennium B.C.

1940. Die Haustiere Altkretas im minoischen Zeitalter. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XLVII, pp. 166-178, 19 figs.

Evidence is brought together to prove that the domestic animals of ancient Crete—cattle, goat, sheep, pig, horse—were all imported, mainly from Egypt and Asia Minor but also from Syria and Mesopotamia. The sources are animal repre- sentations and ancient literary records.

Slijper, E. J. 1948. Mens en Huisdier. [Men and domestic animals.| 2nd ed. pp. i-vi, 1-410, 22 pls., 298 figs. W.J. Thieme (Zutphen).

This book is intended for the intelligent layman; scientific terms, unsolved problems, and conflicting opinions are avoided as far as possible. The first few chapters deal with the history of the earth and its fauna, the vertebrates in par- ticular. One chapter is then devoted to each of the domestic animals: horse, cattle, goat and sheep, pig, dog, and cat. There are further chapters on the behavior of animals (particularly domestic animals), on the prehistory of the Netherlands, and on evolution. The book is well-edited and profusely illustrated, and has extensive bibliographies.—D.H.

Smith, Sidney 1928. Early history of Assyria, to 1000 B.c. xxvii+418 pp., 24 pls., 22 figs., 7 maps. Chatto & Windus (London).

A discussion (pp. 213 ff.) of the rise to power of the Mitanni kings and their nobles in what is now northern Syria; the date is ca. 1750 B.c. The Mitanni were the first to introduce the domestic horse onto the historical scene, although it had undoubtedly had a long prior history of domestication to the north (ef. Hrozny, 1931). Linguistic evidence indicates a previous and common Irano-Sanskrit ex- perience with horse-domestication, and the building of a technical vocabulary. —C.A.R.

Solanet, Emilio 1930. The criollo horse. J. Hered., vol. X XI, no. 11, pp. 450-480, 20 figs. A richly illustrated paper on the South American criollo horse, its origin and history. The author emphasizes the derivation of the criollo breed from the Spanish horse only.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 97

Sommerfeld, Kurt 1927. Das Madurarind. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. VIII, pp. 65-112, 9 figs.

A morphological comparison of banteng, zebu and Java-Madurese cattle. The last constitutes the most widespread breed in the Dutch East Indies and is a hybrid offspring of the others. The banteng is derived directly from the indige- nous Bos sondaicus, which was domesticated on Bali.

Sowerby, Arthur

1935. The domestic animals of ancient China. China Journal, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 233-243.

Popular account of the domestic stock of the ancient Chinese from the Shang dynasty (1776 B.c.) on, based mainly upon animal pictures on the ‘‘Oracle bones”’ and other Chinese artifacts, especially bas reliefs and tomb figures. Special dis- cussion is devoted to horse, cattle (three distinct breeds already recognized in the Han period), and sheep, all of which are considered introduced forms, and to the pig of ancient China, which, in contrast to other breeds, is derived from the native wild boar.

Staffe, Adolf

1938. Uber einen Hausschweineschidel aus dem friihdynastischen Agypten. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XLI, pp. 107-115, 4 figs.

A pig skull, found in the tomb of Hetep Heres (6th dynasty, 2400 B.c.), is described and considered to belong to a domestic form. In a brief discussion, the East Asian (vittatus) origin for the Egyptian domestic pig is contested. The latter is seen as a descendant of Sus mediterraneus.

1939. Die Haustiere auf den nordafrikanischen Feldbildern. Forsch. Fortschr. dtsch. Wiss., Jhg. 15, Nr. 27, pp. 344-346.

A study of the origin of the important African domestic breeds in the light of the rock paintings from eastern and western North Africa. The author accepts the view that domestication originated on a religious basis and sees in the repre- sentations primarily an illustration of sacrificial animals.

Both the primigenius and the brachyceros types of cattle are found from the prehistoric periods on; zebu representations are lacking. Two types of horses, the Oriental and the stouter Occidental, are distinguished, the latter dominating in earlier periods; an ancient domestication center for horses in northwest Africa is suggested. Sheep and goat are almost absent, a fact explained by their association with nomadic life, a settled culture being a basic condition for the practice of rock painting. One of the most frequently depicted domestic animals is the one- humped camel, which fact leads to the suggestion that the dromedary may have been a widely used beast of burden and a riding animal in North Africa in ancient times (from the third millennium B.c.).

1940. Die Frage der Herkunft des Kameles in Afrika. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. XLVI, pp. 135-141.

The domestication of the camel in Africa in prehistoric times is questioned by the author, who postulates an invasion of camel-breeding tribes from southern

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Arabia (via Bab el Mandeb) into eastern Africa during the third or second mil- lennium B.C.

1943. Uber zwei Funde vorgeschichtlicher Kurzhornrinder in Spanien. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. LIV, pp. 99-104, 10 figs.

Skull fragments from a Neolithie site at Tartaren (Lerida), from the Central Spanish grottos culture, are identified with a typical brachyceros type. The brachyceros breed is regarded as the earliest stock of domestic cattle kept in Iberia, long before the appearance of primigenius derivatives.

Stegmann von Pritzwald, F. P.

1924. Die Rassengeschichte der Wirtschaftstiere. viii+371 pp., 108 figs. Gustav Fischer (Jena).

Archaeological and zoological records concerning the origin and domestication of farm animals are summarized and examined in terms of their significance for studies in human history and civilization. The book deals with most of the do- mesticated ungulates and also with the elephant and the rabbit; numerous illus- trations.

Steinbacher, G.

1953. Zur Abstammung des Alpakka-Lama Pacos. Séugetierk. Mitteil., Bd. I, Heft 2, pp. 78-79.

On the basis of distinctive behavior, two groups of South American tylopods are distinguished: Alpaca and vicugna on the one side, llama and guanaco on the other. The domestic alpaca is derived from Vicugna vicugna.

Stekelis, M.

1950. A new Neolithic industry: the Yarmukian of Palestine. Israel Expl. J., Jerusalem, vol. I, pp. 1-19.

Among the finds of a Neolithic culture (8000 B.c.) near Sha’ar ha-Golan in the Jordan Valley, remains of calves, goats, sheep and dogs were found (p. 16), which are considered evidence that pastoralism was known by that time.

Studer, Th.

1901. Die prahistorischen Hunde in ihrer Beziehung zu den gegenwartig leben- den Rassen. Abh. schweiz. palaont. Ges., vol. 28, pp. 1-137, 9 pls., 16 figs., numerous tables.

A comprehensive investigation of the crania of subfossil and recent dogs, from which it is concluded that all the domestic breeds of today can be traced back to three main prehistoric forms, represented by Canis familiaris palustris, C. f. in- ostranzewi and C. f. leineri Studer, the latter being the ancestor of the deerhounds.

Views on the status of the pariah dogs and the dingo are reviewed briefly. A dingo-like ancestor (resembling Canis tenggeranus of Java) is suggested for the southern breeds of domestic dogs (pariahs, greyhounds, Tibet mastiffs), while the Palearctic breeds are thought to be derived from a small ecanid (Canis ferus Bourg) or from its cross with the wolf. An extensive 19th century bibliography on dog origin is appended.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 99

1906. Uber einen Hund aus der paleolithischen Zeit Russlands. Zool. Anz., Bd. 29, Nr. 2, pp. 24-35, 2 pls.

A skull and other skeletal remains of a dog, which were found associated with Mousterian artifacts near Bologoie (Russia), are compared with remains of other fossil canids and with the dingo. The dog of Bologoie, which resembles the dingo in shape and size, is named Canis poutiatini and regarded as a diluvial type, the first to become tamed by man; it is thought to have given rise to C. matris optimae (ancestor of the shepherd dogs) as well as to C. intermedium (progenitor of the hunting dogs) from the Bronze Age. By crossing with the wolf the breeds of large domestic dogs (mastiffs, deerhounds) originated, while a dwarfed form of the wild hound (C. mikii) gave rise to the Neolithic C. familiaris palustris.

1907. Schiidel eines Hundes aus einer prahistorischen Wohnstitte der Hall- stattzeit bei Karlstein, Amtsgericht Reichenhall. Mitt. naturf. Ges. Bern, Jhg. 1907, pp. 155-168, 2 pls.

Description of a dog skull from the Hallstatt period, found near Berchtes- gaden. The skull is taken to represent the first example of a prehistoric mastiff type and shows close affinities to Canis inostranzewt.

Swanton, John R.

1940. The first description of an Indian tribe in the territory of the present United States. Jn Studies for William A. Read: A Miscellany presented by some of his Colleagues and Friends. Edited by Nathaniel M. Caffee and Thomas A. Kirby. pp. 326-338. Louisiana State University Press (Baton Rouge).

On the basis of information derived from members of a Spanish expedition to South Carolina in 1521, and from an Indian taken back to the West Indies by that expedition, Pietro Martire de Anghierra, in his De Orbe Novo, reported that the Indians of the region had domestic deer. These deer, it was said, were milked, and cheese was made of the milk.

Although many other parts of this early account are shown to be accurate, Swanton denies this history of domestic deer without offering any reason for his opinion; presumably the lack of any confirmatory evidence from later periods leads him to his conclusion.—C.A.R.

Szalay, A. B.

1930. Polyphletische Rinderabstammung.—Eine historische Studie. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. IX, pp. 165-232.

Various views on the origin of domestic cattle (whether mono-, di-, or poly- phyletic) are reviewed and examined in the light of historical evidence. The author holds that the primitive domestic environment—essentially not distinct from the wild habitat—could not have caused great morphological changes (such as dwarfing) in the types of cattle, and concludes that at least five different species have been tamed in Africa and Asia, three of which (Bos primigenius, B. namadicus and B. brachyceros) are known. Zebus are regarded as derived from two or three independent groups, not related to the other European bovids.

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Teilhard de Chardin, P., and Young, C. C.

1936. On the mammalian remains from the archaeological site of Anyang. Palaeont. Sinica, ser. C, vol. XII, fase. 1, 86 pp., 8 pls.

A systematic study was made of the mammalian bones recovered at Anyang (northern Honan), the old capital of the semi-historic Shang culture (ca. 1400- 1100 B.c.). Remains of the dog, a ‘‘curious’”’ pig and a massive water-buffalo were abundant. Less frequently found were bones of sheep, goat, ox, elephant and tapir.

The pig is considered to be a highly specialized breed of southern origin (called Sus vittatus var. frontalis var. nov.); the ox is taken to be a domesticated race of the urus; and the primitive-looking buffalo (Bubalus mephistopheles Hopw.) is regarded as the descendant of a Pleistocene Chinese buffalo, raised by man. The elephant was apparently imported from southern regions.

Tackenberg, Kurt

1954. Zum Siedlungswesen der Tripolje-Kultur. Anthropos, vol. 49, fase. 1-2, pp. 67-87.

Summary of the Russian excavations of the Neolithic Tripolje civilization between the Sereth and Dnieper rivers. Among the skeletal material the remains of cattle, the domestic status of which was pointed out by numerous representa- tions and figurines of bovids, were by far the most numerous; in two sites they amounted to 67 per cent of all the animal bones. On the average (summary of five localities) cattle constituted 37 per cent of the remains, pigs 23 per cent, sheep and goats 15 per cent, and dogs 5 per cent. The remainder belonged to wild ani- mals. In the latest period a marked decrease of pig bones became obvious, while —besides oxen—sheep and goats became more numerous. This process seemed to be associated with a decline in grain culture and an increase in pastoral economy, which is explained by the bioclimatic changes during the Neolithic.

Teodoreanu, N.

1924. Recherches sur 2 cranes de Capra prisca. Bull. Sect. sci. Acad. roum., Tom. IX, pp. 21-24, 4 figs.

Two skulls of goats, found together with a skull of Ovzs aries at Kronstadt (=Brasov, central Rumania), are described. In the circumference of the horn- cores and the nature of their twisting, the skulls are similar to that of Capra prisca, which is seen as ancestral for all the breeds of domestic goats now distributed over central Europe, Hungary and the Balkan Peninsula. These goats also have horns twisted from outside inward.

1926. Uber ein Quartirpferd aus Siebenbiirgen— Equus transilvanicus. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. VI, pp. 269-276, 5 figs.

Two skulls—one of a horse, the second belonging to a dog—both from the Bronze Age, were found near St. Georghe-Bedehaza (Transylvania). The dog is identified as a variety of Canis poutiatini, and consequently named C. p. var. tran- silvanicus. The horse skull proved to be distinct, especially in its dental charac- ters, from all other Quaternary horses described, and is termed Equus transilvanicus.

1929. Beitrige zum Studium iiber die Abstammung der dobrudschaner Rinder. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. X VII, pp. 444-479, 9 figs., 8 tables.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 101

An investigation of the crania of cattle from Dobruja (Rumania) and a dis- cussion of their origin. The skulls examined showed no affinity to that of Bos taurus primigenius, but exhibited the typical characters of the brachyceros type. It is suggested that the brachyceros cattle were brought in prehistoric times from the southern Balkan to the Danubian region by Gothic and Thracian tribes.

Thevenin, René 1947. Origine des animaux domestiques. 127 pp. Presses Universitaires de France (Paris).

In a popular pamphlet, views on the origin of domestication and the rise of the domestic breeds are summarized. The first four chapters (pp. 5-24) are con- cerned with questions of general nature—definitions, motives, place and time of earliest domestication. Chap. 5 deals with the ‘‘companions and auxiliaries” of man (dog, cat, horse, ass, camel, llama and reindeer). In chap. 6 are discussed the origins of those animals (cattle, sheep, goat, pig and rabbit), reared for ali- mentary and industrial purposes.

Thilenius, G.

1900. Das agyptische Hausschaf. Recueil de Travaux Relatifs a la philologie et a l’archéologie Egyptiennes et Assyriennes, Ann. XX, n.s., Tom. VI, pp. 199-212.

In a survey of animal representations from predynastic and early dynastic Egypt, an attempt is made to trace the ancestry of the domestic sheep kept in North Africa during prehistoric and ancient historic time. It is concluded that the wild Barbary sheep (Ammotragus tragelocephalus), an autochthonous breed, was domesticated in the Neolithic period and constituted the first domestic sheep of the Egyptians. By the end of the Old Empire the fleecy sheep had been introduced from Babylonia and the autochthonous breed gradually became dis- placed.

Uhden, Richard

1929. Zur Geschichte des Kamels in Nordafrika. Petermanns Mitt., Jhg. 75, p. 307.

Brief account of camel representations in Egypt and Libya to show that camels were known and kept in Egypt during all the dynastic periods.

Ulmansky, S.

1914. Untersuchungen iiber das Wild- und Hausschwein des Pfahlbaues im Laibacher Moor und iiber einige von diesem Schweinen abstammenden rezenten Rassen. Mitt. landw. Lehrk. Wien, Bd. II, pp. 17-74, 6 tables, 4 pls.

Identifications of remains of wild and domestic pigs found in the kitchen mid- dens in a lake-dwelling in the moors of Laibach (Austria). The wild boar exhibits an intermediate (“‘independent’’) form between the scrofa and the vittatus types, and is termed Sus mediterraneus. The domestic pig is seen as a direct derivative from this wild form and shows close affinities to the turbary pig from the Swiss lake-dwellings.

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Van Buren, Elizabeth Douglas

1939. The fauna of ancient Mesopotamia as represented in art. Analecta Orientalia, vol. 18, xi+113 pp., 23 pls.

An account of animals reproduced in Mesopotamian art from the earliest times to the fall of the Assyrian empire. The various species are treated in their systematic sequence, and archaeological as well as zoological aspects are discussed. The domestic animals dealt with include dog, horse, ass, mule, camel, goat, sheep, cattle and pig.

Van Giffen, A. E.

1914. Die Fauna der Wurten. Tijdschr. ned. dierk. Ver., ser. II, Deel XIII, pp. 1-166, 9 pls., tables in text.

Comprehensive treatise on the faunal remains from the kitchen middens of the “terpen”’ (the artificial proto-historic hills in the lowlands along the Dutch and Frisian shore). The first section gives a topographical and chronological descrip- tion of the terpen. The second section deals in detail with the wild fauna; domestic animals are mentioned only briefly (see, however, Van Giffen, 1929).

Most frequent among the domestic mammals were cattle, followed by sheep, dog, horse, pig (in this sequence); remains of goat were rare. On the basis of a statistical study it is shown that primigenius and brachyceros cattle cannot be derived from two distinct ancestors.

1929. On the oldest domestic animal and its significance for palethnology. Koninklijke Akad. van wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Afd. nat., Proce. Sec. sci., vol. 32, pp. 321-329, 5 pls.

Statistical studies of three large populations of subfossil dogs from the Meso- lithic Danish kitchen middens, the Neolithic and Bronze Age Swiss lake-dwellings and the Frisian and Groningen terpen (late Iron Age; cf. Van Giffen, 1914); for comparison recent dogs and related wild canids (wolf, jackal) were added. It is shown that the terp-dogs, which appeared to betray much wolf blood, displayed smaller divergencies than recent dogs, but more than the lake-dwelling and kitchen midden specimens.

The earliest known European dogs (from the kitchen middens) have nothing in common with the analogous Asiatic forms (represented by the Anau material; ef. Diirst, 1908), which are derived from the Indian wolf Canis pallipes. The origin of the kitchen midden dogs is obscure, but they were not derived from C. palustris of the Swiss lake-dwellings. The terp-dogs, on the other hand, are taken to be the probable progenitors for the Cimbric-Megalithic and the recent Arctic dogs.

Vaufrey, R.

1939. Faune de Sialk. Mus. Louvre, Dept. Antiq. Orient., Ser. Archaeol., Tom. IV, vol. II, pp. 195-197, figs. 22, 23.

Short description of the skeletal remains found at Sialk (west of the city of Kashan, Iran), the lowest layers of which are estimated to belong approximately to the fifth millennium B.c.

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 103

The domestic animals from Sialk I (transition from the Neolithic to the Aeneo- lithic) included sheep, goat and cattle. From Sialk II on (already with copper artifacts), pig, dog and horse also appear. The sheep belongs to the Ovis vignei group, the goat is of the Capra aegagrus type and the horse is identified with Equus caballus pumpelli.

1951. Etude paléontologique. I.—Mammiféres. Arch. Inst. Paléont. hum., Mem. 24, pp. 198-217.

In a discussion of the fauna associated with Natufian (Mesolithic) culture at the site of El-Khiam in eastern Palestine, the goat is listed as domestic, a small ox as probably domestic, and the pig as perhaps domestic. The goat, Capra hircus, is represented by three horn-cores (resembling those of C. aegagrus) and a variety of limb-bones, Bos sp. by a fragment of mandible with two milk teeth, and Sus sp. by a single phalanx.—C.A.R.

Vetulani, Th.

1928. Tarpan und polnisches Landpferd (Konik). Beitrag zur Herkunft des europdischen Hauspferdes. Biol. gen., Bd. IV, pp. 387-402.

A critical examination of the skull material of fossil equids leads the author to set up a new subspecies of the Russian tarpan called Equus gmelini Ant. ssp. silvatica, or the “forest tarpan.’’ This form is regarded as the part of the steppe tarpan population that remained when most of the group retreated into southern Russia because of climatic changes in post-glacial times.

An analysis of the skull of a Polish country horse revealed characters of both tarpan types and also additional features peculiar to the Przewalski horse.

1934. Beitrag zur Characteristic und Abstammung der anatolischen Hauszie- gen. Z. Tierz. ZiichtBiol., Bd. X XIX, pp. 243-286, 6 tables, 29 figs.

The two races of Anatolian goats—the common Anatolian goat (kil-keci) and the Angora goat (tiftik-keci)—-are described and investigated as to their origin and relationship to the Anatolian wild goat, Capra aegagrus. It is shown that the latter form cannot be considered as having any part in the ancestry of the Ana- tolian domestic breeds, which are regarded as two races of the Capra prisca type; the “‘kil-keci’’ race resembles the fossil skulls from Zloezow (ef. Adametz, 1915), and the Angora goat is related to the fossil goats from Zlota (ef. Adametz, 1928) and from Schleinbach (ef. Sickenberg, 1930).

Vittor, D. R.

1933. Etude zootechnique de l’élevage et l’exploitation des bovins du Sud- Indochinos en Cochinchine. Bull. écon. Indoch., Nov.—Dee. 1933, pp. 947— 971, 44 figs.

An account of the wild bovids still existing in Cochin-China (southern Indo- China). A detailed description of the recent domestic stock of this area is followed by a short discussion of the origin of the latter.

Except for some introduced cattle, the main dairy stock kept in Cochin-China is derived directly or indirectly from Bos indicus. Domestic gaur and banteng are descendants of the wild Bibos gaurus and Bibos sondaicus respectively.

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Vogel, R.

1933. Tierreste aus vor- und friihgeschichtlichen Siedlungen Schwabens. Teil I: Die Tierreste aus den Pfahlbauten des Bodensees. Zoologica (Stuttgart), Bd. 31, Heft 82, Lief. 1, vii+109 pp., 14 pls., 3 tables, 4 figs.

An extensive osteological treatment of the faunal remains from the Neolithic lake-dwellings around Lake Constance, especially from the site at Sipplingen exca- vated by H. Reinerth in 1929-30. The domestic stock is composed of dog, cattle, sheep, goat and pig. The great speciation of the dog—the only animal not used for food purposes—seems to point to its very early domestication. The majority of the remains fall into the Canis familiaris palustris group, but those are often accompanied by a larger type (C. f. intermedius) and a dwarf form, identified with C. f. spaletti.

The small sheep (Ovis aries palustris) possessed horns in both sexes, which fact seems to exclude a mouflon ancestry but points toward an origin from the non- European O. vignei. A few remains were those of the domestic goat (Capra hircus, a screw-horned type), but the great number of bones from domestic cattle indicated their economic importance. The skeletal material is in part of primigenius, in part of brachyceros, and sometimes of mixed character.

The domestic animal found by far most frequently was the pig, the rearing of which was probably favored in prehistoric times by the then dominant oak forest. The pig is of the scrofa type and, showing no affinities to the Oriental Sus vitta- tus, is brought by the author in direct relationship to the European wild boar, S. scrofa ferus.

In the Bronze Age levels a few remains of a domestic horse appeared.

Wagner, K. 1930. Rezente Hunderassen. Vidensk. Akad. Skr. i Oslo; Matem.-Naturv. Kl., Bd. III, pp. 1-157, 36 figs., 12 pls., 14 tables appended.

The osteological racial peculiarities of recent domestic dogs are examined in detail and compared. No conclusions are reached regarding the origin of the domestic dog, but archaeological findings and their earlier treatments are evaluated by means of the new comparative material.

Walz, Reinhard

1951. Zum Problem des Zeitpunkts der Domestikation der altweltlichen Cameliden. Z. dtsch. morgenland. Ges., Bd. 101 (n. ser., Bd. 26), pp. 29-51.

A compilation of archaeological material on the early history of the one- humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in the Orient. On the basis of the records collected, the author assumes that the domestication of the dromedary probably originated in central Arabia in the last half of the second millennium B.c.

1954. Neue Untersuchungen zum Domestikationsproblem der altweltlichen Cameliden. Beitrage zur Geschichte des zweihéckrigen Kamels. Z. dtsch. morgenland. Ges., Bd. 104, Heft 1, pp. 45-87.

Data on the ancient history of the two-humped camel (Camelus bactrianus) are given, and historical as well as zoological aspects are examined. The evidence— results of archaeological excavations and early records from the areas under

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 105

consideration (China, western Turkestan, Iran, Mesopotamia)—seem to point to a central Asian origin of the domestic Bactrian camel.

Watson, D. M. S.

1931. The animal bones from Skara Brae. Jn V. G. Childe, Skara Brae, a Pictish village in Orkney, pp. 198-204, pls. lvii-lix. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. (London).

A study of the animal remains found during the excavations at Skara Brae, a Neolithic dwelling place in Orkney (Scotland). Among the numerous cattle bones three groups were distinguished, taken to be representative of bulls, cows and bullocks of a single breed, not corresponding with longifrons or with primigenius cattle from other Neolithic, Bronze or Iron Age sites. Abundant also were bones of a slender-limbed sheep, resembling the sheep of Soay (cf. Ewart, 1913). Very rare remains of pigs (uncertain whether domesticated) seemed to indicate lack of oak or beech woods in Skara Brae times.

The three characteristic features of this faunal assemblage, the abundance of sheep, the scarcity of pigs and the complete lack of dogs, are all features con- trary to those of Neolithic camps in England.

Weidenreich, Franz

1925. Domestikation und Kultur in ihrer Wirkung auf Schidelform und Korpergestalt. Z. ges. Anat., Z. KonstLehre, Bd. XI, pp. 1—52, 5 figs.

To determine the factors that caused the specific phenomena of domestication (and of human civilization as well), the nature of domestication and the parallelism between the changes produced by it are analyzed in different domestic animals. The author shows that the specific domestic adaptations were originally patho- logical (brachygnathy, dwarf forms) and were caused by the injurious factors of the changed environment, which led eventually to a racial fixation of body reactions to adjust this injury.

Werth, E.

1939. Grundsiatzliches zum Problem der Haustierwerdung. Naturwissen- schaften, Bd. 27, Heft 17, pp. 271-274.

From the chronological succession of important stages in human civilization conclusions are drawn as to the history of domestic mammals. Domestic breeds are completely lacking in the Paleolithic, but dogs and artiodactyls (bovids and pigs) were kept from the Mesolithic on. It is only in the Neolithic that the horse— first in Asia, later in Europe—was added to the domestic stock.

1940. Zur Verbreitung und Geschichte der Transporttiere. Z. Ges. Erdk. Berl., Hefte 5-6, pp. 181-204.

An account of the origin and dispersal of the common pack and draft animals. Bovids are regarded as the most ancient transport animals, appearing in the late Paleolithic and dominant throughout early history from the Caspian to southeastern India and also in northeastern Asia. Their center of origin is found in India. Cattle were replaced by horses in central Asia (considered the area where horse-taming originated) and northeastern Europe, while Ethiopia is seen as the original home of the domestic donkey.

106 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Two other transport animals—yak (Tibet) and llama (Peru)—were only of local significance. The use of reindeer rose probably by association with the domestication of the horse, and the northeast Asian dog-sledge was an outgrowth of the Mongolian plough-culture.

Wettstein, Ernst

1924. Die Tierreste aus dem Pfahlbau am Alpenquai in Ziirich. Vjschr. naturf. Ges. Zurich, Jhg. 69, pp. 78-127.

Description of animal remains in a lake-dwelling, recovered from the bottom of Lake Zurich. Most of the bones belonged to domestic species. Most frequently represented were cattle, closely followed by pigs; fewer remains were those of sheep (or goat) and dogs, with few bones of the horse. Among cattle three races could be distinguished (primigenius, brachyceros, and an intermediate type, resembling Bos trochoceros). Sheep were chiefly of the ‘‘copper’’ type (though hornless forms were represented). The goat was Capra hirca. The pigs of Alpen- quai exhibited the characters of the palustris form, the equid remains were closest to Equus caballus celticus, and all the dogs were identified with Canis familiaris inostranzewr.

Whitehead, G. Kenneth

1953. The ancient white cattle of Britain and their descendants. 174 pp., 48 pls. Faber and Faber, Ltd. (London).

The theory that the wild white cattle of Britain are direct descendants of Bos primigenius is rejected, as this latter species was probably extinct in England and southern Scotland by 1000 B.c. Instead, it is thought that longhorned white cattle were brought from Italy by the Romans, who may have kept and bred them for sacrificial purposes. With the collapse of Roman power and the turmoil of the Germanic invasions, these herds became feral in the forests, from where they were subsequently driven into enclosed parks, beginning in the thirteenth century. These cattle are unknown in Ireland.

The white color is genetically dominant. Only the Chillingham herd produces 100% white calves; it is the only herd that remains pure-bred and is representative of the wild white forest cattle of the post-Roman, pre-Norman period.

The domestic polled white cattle (‘“‘British Whites’), which are today a commercial breed, may be derived from the Fjallras cattle of Scandinavia, brought to England by the Vikings.—C.A.R.

Wiklund, K. P. 1918. Om renskétselns uppkomst. [On the origin of reindeer.] Ymer, Arg. 38, Heften 3, pp. 249-273.

Reviewing archaeological and paleontological evidence on the early sledge cultures, the author finds that reindeer-breeding arose independently among Chukchi and Koryak (Lapps), but in the Tungusian and Soyotian areas it was a result of cultural influence from Turko-Mongolian horse-breeding.

Wilckens, Martin 1905. Grundziige der Naturgeschichte der Haustiere. Revised and rewritten by J. U. Diirst. xi + 408 pp., 85 figs. Richard C. Schmidt (Leipzig).

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 107

A summary of information on the morphology, origin, and history of the domestic animals. The introduction contains a classification of the domesticated species and deals with their geographical distribution. An attempt is made to cover all the animals ever considered to be domestic—among them various birds, fishes and insects.

Major attention is directed to domestic mammals, which are treated according to their orders: odd-toed ungulates (horse, ass, mule), even-toed ungulates (pig, camel, llama, goat, sheep, cattle), rodents (rabbit) and carnivores (cat, dog). An outline of the zoological characters of each group is followd by a discussion on its origin and taming, and finally by an account of its domestic breeds.

Wilson, James

1909. The evolution of British cattle and the fashioning of breeds. pp. viii + 147, text figs. Vinton & Company, Ltd. (London).

No British cattle are directly descended from Bos primigenius, which was extinect—at least south of the Highlands—by the Bronze Age. B. longifrons were small black domestic Neolithic cattle, introduced from the mainland. The famous wild horned white cattle of Britain are descended from domestic white Italian cattle, which became feral after the Roman withdrawal. English medieval horned red cattle were introduced by the Angles and Saxons, and the small dun polled cattle of many coastal areas of Britain and Ireland were brought by the Norsemen. None of these cattle are economically important in the 20th century breeds, which are descended from Dutch importations, beginning in the 17th century.—C.A.R.

Winge, Herluf

1904. Om jordfundne pattedyr fra Danmark. [On excavated mammals from Denmark.] Vidensk. Medd. dansk naturh. Foren. Kbh., Arg. 1904, pp. 193-308, pls. vii-xiii.

An account of mammal remains from prehistoric Danish sites, listed in systematic, geographical and chronological sequence. Among the faunal remains from the early Stone Age appear domestic dog and cattle; by the later Stone Age pig, sheep and horse occur, and in the Bronze Age, in addition to the former, the domestic goat.

1919. Dyreknogler fra bronzealders bopladser. [Animal bones from Bronze Age settlement.| Jn S. Miiller, Bopladsfund fra Bronzealderen, Aarbgger for nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historia, Bd. 9, pp. 93-101.

Brief account of animal remains discovered at seven sites from Danish Bronze Age settlements. The domestic species identified comprised dog, ox, sheep and pig in all the sites; in five sites also was found the horse, among whose remains the author distinguishes members of the Oriental as well as of the Occidental race.

Winkler, Hans

1938-39. Rock-drawings of southern Upper Egypt. Vol. I, 44 pp., 41 pls., 1 map; vol. II, 51 pp., 39 pls., 1 map. Egypt Exploration Society (London).

108 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

The early inhabitants of the desert valleys east and west of the Upper Nile are studied in the light of their rock-drawings. Vol. I deals with the eastern desert between Quena and Aswan, vol. II with the western parts—the regions of Kharga, Dakhla and Uwenat. The author distinguishes two cultures that occurred in the desert valleys in predynastic times. The most ancient population consisted of hunters who kept the dog as their only domesticated animal. Those were followed by mountain dwellers (believed to be Hamites), who had cattle and some of whom became herdsmen in isolated pasture oases.

Wissler, Clark

1945. The domestication of animals. Nat. Hist. N.Y., vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 200— 206.

In a popular survey of domestication, its sources and the possible motives that caused it are discussed. The author considers it conceivable that not man’s activity but the behavior patterns of the animal to become domesticated may have been the first causes of domestication. Dog and pig are regarded as the first animals domesticated, next in order cattle and reindeer were tamed, then sheep followed by goat, still later ass followed by horse, and finally camel and elephant.

Woolley, C. Leonard

1934. The royal cemetery. Ur Excavations, vol. Il. Oxford University Press (London).

A report on the animal remains discovered at Ur (Mesopotamia) is given by R. I. Pocock (pp. 409-410). Material from cattle, pigs and sheep is described briefly. No definite remains of goats and no trace of bones from horses or asses were detected.

Yetts, Perceval

1934. The horse: a factor in early Chinese history. Eurasia septentrionalis antiqua, Helsinki. Vol. IX, pp. 281-255, 11 figs.

The author gives a short summary of archaeological and ethnological evidences of horse-breeding in most ancient China. Until the second century B.c. the only horse kept by the Chinese was a domesticated variety of the small, indigenous steppe horse, a breed which was shared with the nomadic neighbors. About 126 B.c. superior breeds were introduced from the ‘“‘countries of the West’”’ (prob- ably Bactria).

Zeuner, F. E. 1950. The cat. Oryx, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 65-71.

The three commonly accepted species of Old World small cats—Felis sil- vestris Schreber, of the forests of Europe and Asia Minor; F. manul Pall., the steppe eat of central Asia; and F. constantina Forst., the yellow cat of Africa and southern Asia—are hardly more than geographical and ecological subspecies of a single species. The majority of specimens cannot be distinguished osteologically, nor can the domestic cat usually be separated from these wild cats except by char- acters of the pelage. The cat is psychologically the least domestic of animals, and it has undergone the least anatomical change. The cat was first domesticated in Egypt—some claim as early as the Fifth Dynasty—but clear evidence of do-

ANGRESS AND REED: DOMESTIC MAMMALS 109

mestic status is lacking until the New Kingdom (16th century B.c.). The Romans carried domestic cats throughout much of Europe, where they have persisted and interbred with F. silvestris.—C.A.R.

1954. Domestication of animals. J A History of Technology, Vol. I, pp. 327 352, ‘“From Early Times to Fall of Ancient Empires.’”’ Ed. Charles Singer, et al. Clarendon Press (Oxford).

Domestication arose as a natural symbiosis between two species of social animals, the less intelligent of which became dependent upon the more intelligent. In the primary stages of domestication, there was no concept of purpose involved, as man could not foresee, several generations ahead, the values to be derived. Later, as with reindeer domestication and attempts during Old Kingdom times in Egypt to domesticate gazelles, antelopes, and hyenas, purposive planning is apparent.

Social animals that could become scavengers if the opportunity were pre- sented are the ones most likely to have become domesticated. The dog might best be derived from one of the smaller southern wolves, which tend to scavenge more and hunt less than do the larger northern ones. With the establishment of agriculture, there arose opportunities for symbiotic relations with the ungulates. Pet-keeping and use of pets as decoys to capture other individuals can perhaps explain the earliest phases of domestication in ungulates, but the species in- volved have to be psychologically adapted to breeding in captivity, must be physiologically adapted to surviving under difficult conditions (including almost complete neglect), and must then be so bred that they will become practically insensitive to the opportunity for personal freedom.

All domestic animals except the reindeer have become adapted to man’s behavior; with regard to the latter, however, man’s culture has become adapted to the behavior of the deer.

Much of the article is concerned with the effects of artificial selection upon different domestic mammals.—C.A.R.

1955. The goats of early Jericho. Palest. Expl. Quart., Apr., 1955, pp. 70-86, 37 figs.

Animal bones from the pre-pottery Neolithic of Jericho, Palestine, are identi- fied as wild cattle (Bos primigenius), gazelles, antelopes, wild pigs, domestic goats, and domestic dogs. Neither sheep nor ibex has been identified. The goats are of the Capra aegagrus type, with straight and upright horns. One male and two female horn-cores were recovered; comparison of these with a large series of cores from known wild and domestic straight-horned and screw-horned goats indicates that the horns of the females are useless in attempting to determine domestication. The male core is much thinner and with lateral, medial, and posterior surfaces more rounded than in any wild male C. aegagrus, and is corre- spondingly ovoid-shaped, instead of being irregularly angular. This cross section of the Jericho male horn-core more closely resembles that of domestic goats than that of the wild C. aegagrus, and so it is very possible that the goat of pre-pottery Jericho was domesticated.

The Neolithic goat with straight horns was replaced by goats with twisted horns early in the Bronze Age, throughout the areas of the Fertile Crescent and the eastern Mediterranean.—C.A.R.

110 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Zurowski, Josef 1930. Neue Ergebnisse der neolithischen Forschung im _ stidwestpolnischen Loéssgebiet. Priahist. Z., Bd. X XI, Hefte 1-2, pp. 1-26, 16 figs. Among finds of Neolithic sites from Zlota (Sandomierz, Poland) animal bones belonging to cattle (hornless and shorthorned breeds), pig, dog, sheep, and horse were identified.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX

Addax nasomaculata Gaillard, 1912 Ammotragus tragelocephalus Thilenius, 1900 Antilocapra Lawrence, 1951 Asinus atlanticus Antonius, 1937 Auchenida Latcham, 1924

Bibos banteng Adametz, 1933 Bibos frontalis Hermanns, 1952 Bibos gaurus Vittor, 1933 Bibos sondaicus Vittor, 1933 Bison Lawrence, 1951 Bos Gejvali, 1937-88 Kolesnik, 1936 Lawrence, 1951 Melnyk, 1927 Bos sp. Vaufrey, 1951 Bos acutifrons Ewart, 1912 Bos africanus Breuil and el Dine, 1928

Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09

Morse, 1912 Newbold, 1928 Shaw, 1936

Bos brachycephalus Gerbes, 1951 Morse, 1912 F. Schwarz, 1918

Bos brachyceros Antonius, 1944 Breuil and el Dine, 1928 Chlebaroff, 1929-30 Curwen, 1938 Degerbgl, 1939 Diirst, 1900 Epstein, 1933 Gaillard, 1934 Gromova, 1927 Herre, 1949 Hilzheimer, 1927

Jackson, 1932

Keller, 1902

Kolesnik, 1936

Kuhn, 1935

Lydekker, 1912b Mohapl, 1914

Mond and Myers, 1934 Newbold, 1928

Noack, 1909 Patterson, 1937

Pira, 1926

Reverdin, 1921, 1930-31 Rostafinski, 1933

F. Schwarz, 1918 Staffe, 1939, 1943 Szalay, 1930

Van Giffen, 1914 Vogel, 1933

Wettstein, 1924

Bos brachyceros arnet

Amschler, 1939a, 1939b

Bos brachyceros europaeus

Antonius, 1919

Bos bubalis

Merkens, 1929

Bos colliceros

Rostafinski, 1933

Bos frontosus

Degerbgl, 1939 Hilzheimer, 1927 Morse, 1912 Rostafinski, 1933

Bos indicus

Keller, 1902 Kolesnik, 1936 Lydekker, 1912b Prashad, 1936 Vittor, 1933

Bos longifrons

1a

Antonius, 1919

Bate, 1938

Bryner, 1938

Childe, 1940

Clark, 1952

Dawkins and Jackson, 1917 Degerbgl, 1939

Ewart, 1912 Hilzheimer, 1927 Jackson, 1932

Koby, 1954

Leister, 1943

Mond and Myers, 1934

112 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Morse, 1912 Reynolds, 1939 Watson, 1931 Wilson, 1909

Bos mindorensis von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1932

Bos namadicus Adametz, 1936 Anderson, 1943 Antonius, 1944 Bisschop, 1937 Chlebaroff, 1929-380 Diirst, 1900, 1908 Epstein, 1933 Friederichs, 1933 Hermanns, 1952 Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 Mackay, 1938 Melnyk, 1927 Menghin, 1931 Morse, 1912 Szalay, 1930

Bos opisthonomus Bisschop, 1937

Bos primigenius Adametz, 1920 Antonius, 1919, 1944 Bate, 1942 Bogaevsky, 1937 Bryner, 1932 Cardas, 1926 Clark, 1952 Curwen, 1988 Degerbgl, 1939 Epstein, 1933 Ewart, 1912 Friederichs, 1933 Gaillard, 1934 Gerbes, 1951 Gromova, 1927 Herre, 1949 Hilzheimer, 1927 Keller, 1902 Koby, 1954

Female of Color of

Kolesnik, 1936 Kuhn, 1985 Lengerken, 1953, 1955 Mackay, 1988 Melnyk, 1928 Mohapl, 1914 Morse, 1912 Pia, 1941 Prashad, 1936 Reynolds, 1939 Staffe, 1939, 19438 Szalay, 1930 Van Giffen, 1914 Vogel, 1938 Watson, 1931 Wettstein, 1924

Whitehead, 1953 Wilson, 1909 Zeuner, 1955 Bos primigenius ferus Pira, 1926 Bos primigenius hahni Adametz, 1925 Bos sondaicus Keller, 1902 Merkens, 1929 Sommerfeld, 1927 Bos taurus Keller, 1902 Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 Merkens, 1929 Bos taurus akeratos Hilzheimer, 1927 Sasaki, 1934 Bos taurus brachyceros Amschler, 1939b Hescheler, 1920 Hescheler and Riiger, 1942 Madsen, 1900 Revilliod, 1926 Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 Riedel, 1948 Teodoreanu, 1929 Bos taurus domesticus Bronholm and Rasmussen, 1931 Dottrens, 1946 Bos taurus primigenius Hilzheimer, 1941 Lydekker, 1912b Madsen, 1900 Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 Sasaki, 1934 Teodoreanu, 1929 Bos trochoceros Degerbgl, 1939 Morse, 1912 Wettstein, 1924 Bos turano-mongolicus Kolesnik, 1936 Bos urus primigenius Melnyk, 1927 Bos zebu indicus planus Sasaki, 1934 Bubalus Lloyd, 1940 Bubalus arnii Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 Bubalus indicus macroceros Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 Bubalus mephistopheles Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936

Camelus bactrianus Walz, 1954

Camelus dromedarius Mikesell, 1955 Walz, 1951

SYSTEMATIC INDEX

Canis Gejvali, 1937-38

Canis sp. Bate, 1938

Canis aureus Keller, 1902 Lorenz, 1955

_ Seott, 1954

‘Canis dingo Diirst, 1945 Jones, 1921

Canis familiaris Liang, 1934

Canis familiaris dingo Jones, 1921

Canis familiaris inostranzewt Amschler, 1939c, 1949 Degerbgl, 1927, 19338b Gandert, 1930 Noack, 1909 Patterson, 1937 Studer, 1901 Wettstein, 1924

Canis familiaris intermedius Vogel, 1933

Canis familiaris leinert Hue, 1906a Studer, 1901

Canis familiaris matris optimae Amschler, 1949 Diirst, 1908 Hue, 1906a Madsen, 1900

Canis familiaris palustris Amschler, 1949 Bylin-Althin, 1946 Clark, 1952 Degerbgl, 1933b Gandert, 1930 Hue, 1906a,b Madsen, 1900 Pequart, 1937 Reverdin, 1927-28 Riedel, 1948 Studer, 1901, 1906 Vogel, 1933

Canis familiaris palustris ladogensis Patterson, 1937

Canis familiaris palustris svardborgensis Degerbgl, 1933b, 1939

Canis familiaris spaletti Vogel, 19338

Canis ferus Studer, 1901

Canis ingae Noack, 1915a

Canis inostranzewt Brinkmann, 1923-24 Revilliod, 1926 Studer, 1906

Canis intermedius (or intermedium) Allen, 1920

Gehl, 1930 Revilliod, 1926 Studer, 1906

Canis le miret

_ Hue, 1906a

Canis lupaster Hilzheimer, 1908

Canis lupus Brinkmann, 1921 Lorenz, 1955 Seott, 1954

Canis matris optimae Bate, 1937

_ Studer, 1906

Canis mikii Studer, 1906

Canis niger Keller, 1902

Canis pallipes Brinkmann, 1921 Gehl, 1930 Noack, 1915b Prashad, 1936 Van Giffen, 1914

Canis pallipes domesticus Noack, 1915b

Canis palustris Allen, 1920 ™ Brinkmann, 1923-24 Gehl, 1930 Hescheler, 1920 Hescheler and Riiger, 1942 Kuhn, 1935 Noack, 1915b Biray 1926 F. Schwarz, 1918 Van Giffen, 1929

Canis palustris ladogensis Brinkmann, 1923-24 Degerbgl, 1927 Gehl, 1930

Canis poutiatint Baas, 1938 Diirst, 1908 Studer, 1906

Canis poutiatini transilvanicus Teodoreanu, 1926

Canis sinensis Keller, 1902

Canis tenggeranus Studer, 1901

Canis tenggeranus harappensis Prashad, 1936

Capra Gejvali, 1937-38 Lawrence, 1951 E. Schwarz, 1935

Capra aegagrus Adametz, 1915, 1928 Amschler, 1929a, 1931 Antonius, 1944 Curwen, 1938

114 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Hilzheimer, 1926 Pilgrim, 1947 Pira, 1926 Prashad, 1936 Sickenberg, 1930 Vaufrey, 1939, 1951 Vetulani, 1934 Zeuner, 1950 Capra falconeri Adametz, 1932 Amschler, 1931 Dalimier, 1954 Hilzheimer, 1926, 1933 Koch, 1937 Philiptschenko, 1928 Capra falconeri jerdoni Adametz, 1920 Capra girgentana Amschler, 1937 Crawford, 1938 Capra hircus Degerbgl, 1939 Diirst, 1908

Hescheler and Riiger, 1942

Hilzheimer, 1933 Koch, 1937 Reverdin, 1921 Riedel, 1948 E. Schwarz, 1935 Vaufrey, 1951 Vogel, 1933 Wettstein, 1924 Capra hircus aegagrus Dalimier, 1954 BE. Schwarz, 1935 Capra ibex E. Schwarz, 19385 Capra prisca

Adametz, 1915, 1928, 1932, 1941

Amschler, 1931, 1949 Antonius, 1944 Batu, 1939

Cardas, 1926 Crawford, 1938

Hilzheimer, 1926, 1933, 1941

Lebel, 1939 Patterson, 1937 Pia, 1942a Pilgrim, 1947

E. Schwarz, 1935 Sickenberg, 1930 Teodoreanu, 1924 Vetulani, 1934

Equus Mallowan, 1947 Equus abeli Antonius, 1935b E. Schwarz, 1928 Equus agilis

Dawkins and Jackson, 1917

Equus asinus africanus Antonius, 1937 Equus caballus Amschler, 1936 E. Schwarz, 1922, 1928 Equus caballus caballus E. Schwarz, 1928 Equus caballus celticus Ewart, 1904 Wettstein, 1924 Equus caballus fossilis Diirst, 1908

Equus caballus fossilis germanicus

Nitsche, 1928 Equus caballus libycus Ewart, 1907a, 1909 Ridgeway, 1905 Equus caballus nehringi Diirst, 1908 Equus caballus orientalis Amschler, 1949 Equus caballus plicidens E. Schwarz, 1928 Equus caballus przewalskit Bourdelle, 1932 Lydekker, 1912a Equus caballus pumpellii Diirst, 1908 Rumjancev, 1936 Vaufrey, 1939 Equus caballus robustus Brinkmann, 1920 Diirst, 1908 Equus caballus typicus Boule, 1910 Ewart, 1904 Lydekker, 1912a Equus equiferus Hilzheimer, 1935 Equus ferus Antonius, 1922 Equus gmelini Antonius, 1918, 1937 Hilzheimer, 1935 Equus gmelini silvatica Vetulani, 1928 Equus gracilis libycus Ewart, 1909 Equus hemionus Bate, 1938, 1942 Boule, 1910 Hilzheimer, 1935 Equus hemionus hemippus Antonius, 1937 Equus libycus Chubb, 19138 Equus mosbachensis Antonius, 1935b E. Schwarz, 1928 Equus onager hemippus Hilzheimer, 1941

SYSTEMATIC INDEX

Equus onager indicus Hermanns, 1952 Equus orientalis Antonius, 1922 Equus przewalskii Andreeva, 1933 Antonius, 1918, 1937 Bishop, 1939 Bourdelle, 1938 Ewart, 1904, 1907a Herre, 1939 Kwaschnin, 1928 Noack, 1909 Rumjancev, 1936 Equus rectidens Cardoso, 1912 Equus robustus Antonius, 1922 Ewart, 1907a, 1909 E. Schwarz, 1928 Equus silvestris Antonius, 1937 Equus sivalensis Ewart, 1909, 1912 Equus stenonis Boule, 1910 Ewart, 1912 Lydekker, 1912a Equus transilvanicus Teodoreanu, 1926

Felis chaus Langton, 1940 Morrison-Scott, 1952 Felis constantina Zeuner, 1950 Felis libyca bubastis Morrison-Scott, 1952 Felis maniculata Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 Felis manul Zeuner, 1950 Felis microbis Noack, 1909 Felis ochreata (or ocreata) Langton, 1940 Lorenz, 1955 Schwangart, 1928, 1931 Felis silvestris Hooijer, 1947 Lorenz, 1955 Schwangart, 1928, 1931 Zeuner, 1950 Felis silvestris libyca Haltenorth, 1953

Hippidium Cardoso, 1912 Hircus mambricus Bate, 1938 Diirst and Gaillard, 1902 Gaillard, 1934 Peet, 1914

Hircus reversus

Gaillard, 1934

Ibex nubians Gaillard, 1912

Leptobos Bryner, 1932 Llama guanicée Herre, 1952 Lupus occidentalis Keller, 1902

Mustela putorius eversmanni Ashton and Thompson, 1955 Mustela putorius furo Ashton and Thompson, 1955 Mustela putorius putorius Ashton and Thompson, 1955

Odocoileus Hildebrand, 1955 Lawrence, 1951

Oryctolagus cuniculus Nachtsheim, 1929

O

ryx Gaillard, 1912 Otolobus manual Schwangart, 1928 Ovis Carruthers, 1949 Gejvali, 1937-38 Lawrence, 1951 Ovis sp. Bate, 1938 Hilzheimer, 1941 Ovis ammon Ewart, 1914 Hilzheimer, 1936 Pilgrim, 1947 Ovis ammon koslovi Philiptschenko, 1928 Ovis argali Cardas, 1926 Ovis aries Friederichs, 1933 Ovis aries catotis Lydekker, 1912c Ovis aries longipes Lydekker, 1912¢ Ovis aries musimon Amschler, 1949 Lydekker, 1912c Ovis aries palustris Adametz, 1937 Bogaevsky, 1937 Degerbgl, 1939 Diirst, 1904, 1908 Ewart, 1913 Kuhn, 1935 Lydekker, 1912¢ Reitsma, 1932 Riedel, 1948

115

116 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

F. Schwarz, 1918 Vogel, 1933

Ovis aries studeri Diirst, 1904 Hescheler, 1920 Kuhn, 1932 Reitsma, 1932

Ovis canadensis Lawrence, 1951

Ovis longipes Diirst and Gaillard, 1902

Ovis longipes palaeoaegypticus Diirst and Gaillard, 1902 Gaillard, 1934

Ovis musimon Adametz, 1937 Antonius, 1944 Cardas, 1926 Pira, 1926 Schultze, 1934

Ovis orientalis Carruthers, 1949 Ewart, 1913 Friederichs, 1933 Hilzheimer, 1936 Pilgrim, 1947

Ovis palaeoaegypticus Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 Peet, 1914

Ovis palustris Revilliod, 1926

Ovis vignet Adametz, 1937 Amschler, 1949 Antonius, 1944 Bishop, 1939 Carruthers, 1949 Ewart, 1913 Friederichs, 1933 Hilzheimer, 1926, 1936 Lydekker, 1912ce Pilgrim, 1947 Vaufrey, 1939 Vogel, 1933

Ovis vignei arkal Adametz, 1927 Diirst, 1908 Menghin, 1931

Ovis vignei cycloceros Adametz, 1920

Ovis vignei domesticus Prashad, 1936

Sus Gejvali, 1937-38 Sus sp. Bate, 1938 Hilzheimer, 1941 Vaufrey, 1951 Sus cristatus Adlerberg, 1933 Prashad, 1936

Sus ferus europaeus Cardas, 1926

Sus mediterraneus Adlerberg, 1933 Belic, 1939 Hilzheimer, 1926 Reitsma, 1935 Ritzoffy, 19382, 1933 Staffe, 1938 Ulmansky, 1914

Sus meridionalis Belic, 1939

Sus orientalis Adlerberg, 1933 Philiptschenko, 1933

Sus orientalis continentalis Philiptschenko, 1933

Sus orientalis moupinensis Philiptschenko, 1933

Sus orientalis raddeanus Philiptschenko, 1933

Sus palustris Bogaevsky, 1937 Hescheler, 1920 Reverdin, 1921 Revilliod, 1926 Wettstein, 1924

Sus scrofa Adlerberg, 1933 Amon, 1938 Belic, 1939 Hescheler, 1920 Hilzheimer, 1926 Patterson, 1937 Philiptschenko, 1933 Reitsma, 1935 Ulmansky, 1914

Sus scrofa attila Amschler, 1939b Philiptschenko, 19338

Sus scrofa antiquus Pira, 1909

Sus scrofa domesticus palustris Reitsma, 1935

Sus scrofa domesticus tumulorum Reitsma, 1935

Sus scrofa ferus Amschler, 1949 Baiimler, 1921 Clark, 1952 Nitsche, 1924 Vogel, 1933

Sus scrofa nigripes Philiptschenko, 1933

Sus scrofa palustris Clark, 1952 Degerbgl, 1939 Gaillard, 1934 Havesson, 1933 Nitsche, 1924 Otto, 1901 Pira, 1909

Reitsma, 1935 Reverdin, 1930-31 Riedel, 1948

Sus scrofa scrofa Kelm, 1988, 1939 Philiptschenko, 1933 Ritzoffy, 1932

Sus scrofa vittatus Kelm, 1939

Sus verrucosus Amon, 1938 Reitsma, 1935

Sus vittatus Adlerberg, 1933 Amon, 1938 Baiimler, 1921 Belic, 1939

SYSTEMATIC INDEX 117

Bylin-Althin, 1946 Diirst, 1908 Hilzheimer, 1926 Otto, 1901 Philiptschenko, 1933 Reitsma, 1935 Staffe, 1938 Ulmansky, 1914 Vogel, 19338

Sus vittatus frontalis Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936

Thos aureus Matthey, 1954

Vicugna vicugna Steinbacher, 1953

GENERAL INDEX

A, blood-group, sheep; Kacrkowski, 1928 Absence of:

dog, Star Carr, England; Fraser and King, 1954 northern Scotland, Neolithic; Watson, 1931

horse, prehistoric northern Iraq; Braidwood, 1954

primigene cattle, Celtic period, Switzerland; Gerbes, 1951

Adaptations to domestication; Weidenreich, 1925 Addax, Egypt; Gaillard, 1912

Adrenalin, role in socialization; Funkenstein, 1955 Aggressive animals; Funkenstein, 1955

Agricultural association with pigs; Newberry, 1928 Agricultural people and domestication; Linton, 1955

and dromedary, Arabia; Mikesell, 1955

Agriculture:

China; Bishop, 1933

Denmark; Curwen, 1938

preceding animal domestication; Bate, 1932 world; Curwen and Hatt, 1953

Allopatrie races, pig; Kelm, 1939

Alpaca; Curwen and Hatt, 1953; Herre, 1952; Krieg, 1929; Steinbacher, 1953

Ammon, Ram of, Egypt; Pia, 1942b Anatomy, general:

eats; Zeuner, 1950

cattle, East Indies; Sommerfeld, 1927 horses; Rumjancev, 1936

sheep, Soay; Schultze, 1934

Anatomy, detailed:

brachygnathy; Weidenreich, 1925 brain-case, eanids; Dahr, 1942 craniometrical methods and indices, equids; Nitsche, 1924 craniometry, cattle; Pia, 1941 dentition; Herre, 1951 dingo; Jones, 1921 Equus transilvanicus; Teodoreanu, 1926 horses; Boicoianu, 1932; E. Schwarz, 1922 dwarfing, cattle; Szalay, 1930 dwarfism; Weidenreich, 1925 endocrine balance, domestic animals; Klatt, 1948 pigs; Helm, 1938 gonads, hyperfunction, rat; Richter, 1952 horn-cores, goats; Bate, 1953; Teodoreanu, 1924; Zeuner, 1955 keeled, Bos colliceros; Rostafinski, 1933 hump, zebu, origin of; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 mandible; Herre, 1951 dog; Hue, 1960b; Reverdin, 1927-28 metapodials, of wild and domestic sheep; Andreeva, 1933 osteology, animals in Switzerland; Vogel, 1933 cattle; Degerbgl, 1939; Hescheler and Riiger, 1942 dogs; Dahr, 1937; Wagner, 1930 goats; Hildebrand, 1955 horse; Kwaschnin, 1931; Lundholm, 1949; Brinkmann, 1920; Cardoso, 1912 Odocoileus; Hildebrand, 1955 pig; Pira, 1909

118

GENERAL INDEX 119

Anatomy (continued): osteology, sheep; Hildebrand, 1955 urus; Reynolds, 1939 osteometry, cattle; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 dogs; Haag, 1948 equids; Bourdelle, 1932 pathologica! characters; Weidenreich, 1925 phalanges, cattle; Dottrens, 1946 precipitine reaction, cattle; Sasaki, 1934 serology, canids; Diirst, 1945 eattle; Merkens, 1929; Sasaki, 1934 sheep; Kacrkowski, 1928 skeleton, cattle; Epstein, 19338 skeletons, Artiodactyla; Lawrence, 1944 skull, eattle; Herre, 1949 dog; Hue, 1906a Don-Danube goat; Lebel, 1939 goat; Sickenberg, 1930 growth, cattle; Hilzheimer, 1926 domestie animals; Hilzheimer, 1928 skulls, asses; Brinkmann, 1920 canids; Gehl, 1930; Hilzheimer, 1908 canids, effects of captivity; Noack, 1907 eats; Morrison-Scott, 1952 cattle; Chlebaroff, 1929-30; Noack, 1909; Teodoreanu, 1929 developmental arrest; Hilzheimer, 1926 dingo; Jones, 1921 dog; Lawrence, 1944; Degerbgl, 1927; Noack, 1909; Studer, 1900 equids; Vetulani, 1928 goats; Pia, 1942a growth, pig: Helm, 1938 horse; Kwaschnin, 1928; Noack, 1909; Boicoianu, 1932; Nitsche, 1924 pig; Otto, 1901; Philiptschenko, 1933; Ritzoffy, 1932; Baumler, 1921; Belic, 1939 variability, ferrets and polecats; Ashton and Thompson, 1955 statistical studies, cattle; Van Giffen, 1914 statistics, dogs; Van Giffen, 1929 teeth (see dentition) Ancestry of cattle; Morse, 1912 Ancient domestic mammals; Keller, 1919 Anger, physiology of; Funkenstein, 1955 Animal behavior; Slijper, 1948 Animal breeding, independent; Menghin, 1931 Animal representation: rock-drawings, figurines, paintings, seals, art, etc: Africa, north, rock-drawings, horse and camel; Lhote, 1953 north, rock-paintings, domesticants; Staffe, 1939 northeast, representations of camel; Uhden, 1929 northeast, rock-drawings of domesticants; Breuil and Kemal el Dine, 1928 Asia, southwestern, representations of domesticants; Friederichs, 1933 China; Sowerby, 1935 Crete; Slawkowski, 1940 Egypt, engravings, cattle; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934 figurines, cattle; Randall-MacIver and Mace, 1902 figurines, sculptures, paintings, domesticants; Gaillard, 1912 representations of cats; Langton, 1940 of dogs; Houbard, 1934 of domesticants; Pia, 1941, 1942a, b; Schweinfurth, 1912 of fauna; Boessneck, 1953 of sheep; Thilenius, 1900 rock-drawings, dog and cattle; Winkler, 1938-39 Europe, representations of horse; Hermes, 1935-36

120 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Animal representation (continued): France, cave-paintings, cattle; Koby, 1954 representations of equids; Bourdelle, 1938; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 Indus Valley, seals, domesticants; Mackay, 1938 Mesopotamia, images, domesticants; Heinrich, 1936 representations of camel; Pohl, 1950—52 of domesticants; Van Buren, 1939 Near East, representations of cattle; Diirst, 1900 Palaearctic, representations of dogs; Hilzheimer, 1932 Sudan, rock-drawings, domesticants; Newbold, 1928 Sumeria, sculpture of goat; Amschler, 1937 Switzerland, representations of domesticants; Kramer, 1900 Ukraine, figurines, cattle; Tackenberg, 1954 figurines, domesticants; Melnyk, 1928 representations of domesticants; Bogaevsky, 1937 Antelope, Beatrix, Egypt; Gaillard, 1912 domestication of, Egypt; Zeuner, 1954 Anti-A, sheep; Kaerkowski, 1928 Apis, steer of; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 Archaeological sites (see Local place names) Arni buffalo; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 Artifacts: Denmark; Mathiassen, 1944 Mesopotamia, with water buffalo; Lloyd, 1940 Artiodactyla, bones of, North America; Lawrence, 1951 Aryans and origin of dog; Noack, 1915b Asino-hemion, type of equid; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 Ass, domestic; Antonius, 1918; Bourdelle, 1932; Lydekker, 1912a Asia, central; Menghin, 1931 China; Erkes, 1940 Egypt; Hilzheimer, 1935 Iraq; Lloyd and Safer, 1945 Syria; Mallowan, 1947 Ass, half-ass; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 Ass, wild: Africa, northwestern; Lydekker, 1912a Egypt; Gaillard, 1934 France; Boule, 1910; Bourdelle, 1938 Indus valley; Roy, 1946 Aurochs (see Urus; also Reynolds, 1939) Autochthonous domestication, pig, Sweden; Pira, 1909

Baboons; Funkenstein, 1955 Banteng; Adametz, 1933; Ewart, 1912; Keller, 1902; Melnyk, 1927 East Indies; Merkens, 1929; Sommerfeld, 1927 Indo-China; Vittor, 1933 Battle-ax; Childe, 1941 Battle-ax people, Europe, eastern; Clark, 1941 Beatrix antelope, Egypt; Gaillard, 1912 Beaver, giant; Galbreath, 1947 Bees, Central America; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 Behavior, dog and wolf; Scott, 1954 Bergen Museum, dogs in; Brinkmann, 1921 Bibliography of camel; Hilzheimer, 1913 of eat; Hilzheimer, 1913 of dog, 19th century; Studer, 1900 of domestic animals, Near East; Dyson, 1953 of fauna of ancient Egypt; Boessneck, 1953 of horse; Lundholm, 1949 of reindeer; Jettmar, 1952; Hatt, 1919 Bibovine group; Leister, 1948 Biocoenosis, natural; Hediger, 1938 Biogeographical conditions, glacial; Lundholm, 1949

GENERAL INDEX 121

Biological inferiority and domestication; Hediger, 1938 Birds, domestic; Reinhardt, 1912; Wileckens, 1905 origin of; Pycraft, 1938 Blood-groups, sheep; Kacrkowski, 1928 Bones, identification; Lawrence, 1944 individual variation; Hildebrand, 1955 Bovidae, evolution; Pilgrim, 1947 Bovids, wild; Antonius, 1919 evolution of; Morse, 1912 Indo-China; Vittor, 1933 Bovinae, evolution; Kolesnik, 1936 inter-relationships among; Merkens, 1929 Breeds of domestic animals; Mason, 1951 Bridoon-bit; Hermes, 1936 Buffalo, African, in Egypt; Gaillard, 1933 water; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 China; Bishop, 1939 East Indies; Merkens, 1929 Formosa; Sasaki, 1934 Iraq; Lloyd, 1940 Philippines; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1932

Camel and/or dromedary; Forbes, 1955; Hilzheimer, 1913 Africa, north; Lhote, 1933; Staffe, 1939, 1940 northeast; Robinson, 1936 Arabia; Walz, 1951 Asia; Robinson, 1936 central; Menghin, 1931; Walz, 1954 China; Erkes, 1940; Schafer, 1950 Egypt; Caton-Thompson, 1934; Free, 1954; George, 1950 Mesopotamia; Pohl, 1950-52 Near East; Albright, 1940; Mikesell, 1955 Palestine; Isserlin, 1950 Sahara; Newbold, 1928 Camel-hair, Egypt, early Dynastic; Caton-Thompson, 1934 Camelidae, South America; Herre, 1952; Latcham, 1924; Steinbacher, 1953 Canids, wild, North America; Haag, 1948 Captivity, effects on skull; Noack, 1907 Carabao (see Buffalo, water) Caravans, desert travel by; Forbes, 1955 Carbon-14 determinations, Iran; Ralph, 1955 Cart-horse, Europe, west; Rumjancev, 1936 Cat; Haltenorth, 1953; Hilzheimer, 1913; Lorenz, 1955; Schwangart, 1928, 1931; Zeuner, 1950 adrenal physiology; Funkenstein, 1955 Anatolia; Gejvali, 1938-39 Asia, central; Noack, 1909 Denmark; Curwen, 1938 Egypt, Brunton and Caton-Thompson, 1928; Langton, 1940; Morrison-Scott, 1952 Holland; Hooijer, 1947 Cattle-breeders, Ukraine; Hanear, 1951 Cattle, breeds and/or types; Lydekker, 1912b Aberdeen-Angus; Ewart, 1912; Sasaki, 1934 Afrikaner; Epstein, 1933 Albanese; Chlebaroff, 1929-30 Bechuana; Epstein, 1933 brachycephalid; Adametz, 1925 brachyceros, Egypt; Bisschop. 1927 brachyceros-type; Adametz, 1933 British white; Whitehead, 1953 Cadrow; Ewart, 1912

122 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Cattle, breeds and/or types (continued):

Celtic shorthorn: Childe, 1940; Ewart, 1912; Mond and Myers, 1934; Reynolds, 1939

Damara; Epstein, 1933

dun-polled; Wilson, 1909

Fjallras; Whitehead, 1953

Friesian-Dutch; Merkens, 1929

Galloway; Ewart, 1912

Hamitic longhorn; Epstein, 1933

Holstein-Friesian; Sasaki, 1934

horned red; Wilson, 1909

Hottentot; Epstein, 1933

Hungarian Grey Steepe; Pia, 1941

identification of; Bronholm and Rasmussen, 1931

Illvrian; Chlebaroff, 1929-30

Japanese native; Sasaki, 1934

Java-Madurese; Merkens, 1929; Sommerfeld, 1927

Jersey; Merkens, 1929

Kalmuck; Kolesnik, 1936; Noack, 1909

Kirghiz; Kolesnik, 1936

Korean, south; Sasaki, 1934

longhorn, Hamitic; Bisschop, 1937; Epstein, 1933

long-horned; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934; Curwen. 1938; Diirst, 1900; Newbold, 1928; Schweinfurth, 1912; Pia, 1941

longhorned white; Whitehead, 1953; Wilson, 1909

Macedonian; Chlebaroff, 1929-30

Madurese; Sommerfeld, 1929

Mongol; Kolesnik, 1936

Montagne; Cardas, 1926

Montenegrin; Chlebaroff, 1929-30

oriental; Ewart, 1912

polled; Auld, 1927

polled white; Whitehead, 1953

Rhodope; Chlebaroff, 1929-30

Sanga; Bisschop, 1937

short horned; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934; Curwen, 1938; Epstein, 1933; Schweinfurth, 1912; Slawkowski, 1933; Merkens, 1929

Watusi; Epstein, 19338

wild white; Whitehead, 1953

Yakut; Kolesnik, 1936

Zulu; Epstein, 1933

Cattle, domestic and/or possibly domestic; Antonius, 1919; Diirst, 1900; Ewart,

1912; Hahn, 1909; Hilzheimer, 1927; Koby, 1954; Kolesnik, 1936; Leister, 1943; von Lengerken, 1953, 1955; Lydekker, 1912b; Morse, 1912; Pilgrim, 1947; Sauer, 1952; Szalay, 1930

Africa; Bisschop, 1937 south; Epstein, 1933

Anatolia; Slawkowski, 1933

Balkans; Chlebaroff, 1929-30

British Isles; Reynolds, 1939; Whitehead, 1953; Wilson, 1909

Bukhara; Adametz, 1936

Denmark; Bronholm and Rasmussen, 1931; Mathiassen, 1944

East Indies; Merkens, 1929; Sommerfeld, 1927

Egypt; Adametz, 1920; Winkler, 1938-39

Egypt, southwest;*Shaw, 1936

Eurasia; Bryner, 1932

Europe; Clark, 1947; Jackson, 1932

Europe, northern; Herre, 1949

France; Adametz, 1925

Holland; Van Giffen, 1914

Indo-China; Vittor, 1933

Indus Valley; Sewell and Guhr, 1931

Iran; Amschler, 1939a, b

GENERAL INDEX 123

Cattle, domestic and/or possibly domestic (continued): Iraq; Lloyd and Saber, 1945 Mesopotamia; Heinrich, 1936 Moravia; Mohapl, 1914 Pakistan; Mackay, 1938 Palestine; Vaufrey, 1951 Spain; Adametz, 1925; Staffe, 19438 Sudan; Newbold, 1928 Switzerland; Dottrens, 1946; Gerbes, 1951; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 Turkestan, western; Menghin, 1931 Ukraine; Melnyk, 1927 Cattle, wild; Lydekker, 1912b Egypt; Gaillard, 1934 Eurasia; Bryner, 1932 France; Koby, 1954 Palestine; Bate, 1932, 1942 Chariot-horses; Mallowan, 1936 Cheese from deer milk, South Carolina; Swanton, 1940 Chicken (see Fowl, jungle) Chromosome number, canids; Matthey, 1954 Chronology of domestication (see Sequence of domestication) Civilization, general; Hehn, 1902 Africa, north; Lhote, 1953 Indo-European; Nehring, 1936 Civilization and cattle; von Lengerken, 1953 and domestication; Stegmann von Pritzwald, 1924; Weidenreich, 1925 Civilizations, independent; Menghin, 1931 Classification of animals, Sumeria; Oppenheimer and Hartmann, 1945 Climatic change, Sudan; Bate, 1953 and pig distribution; Amon, 1938 and tarpan distribution; Vetulani, 1928 Ukraine, Neolithic; Tackenberg, 1954 Color similarities, banteng and brachyceros cattle; Adametz, 1933 Commensalism, wolf and man; Scott, 1954 Convergent evolution: Cabrera, 1932 Co-operative social life, wolves; Seott, 1954 Co-variation, length and breadth of brain-case, canids; Dahr, 1942 Coyote; Dahr, 1937; Gaibreath, 1947 Cross section of horn of goat; Koch, 1937 Cult-animal of Set, Egypt; Newberry, 1928 Cult-association, oxen; Hahn, 1909 Cultivated plants; Mangelsdorf, 1952 Cultivation of plants, Africa, and goats; Kroll, 1928 Cultural background, domestication; Keller, 1902 loans, China; Bishop, 1939 Culture: Amratian. Egypt, cattle figurines; Randall-MacIver and Mace, 1902 domestic animals; Jackson, 1937 fauna; Peet, 1914 Anau, Turkestan, SSR, domestic animals; Menghin, 1931 Andronovo, northern Siberia, domestic animals; Jettmar, 1950 Badarian, Egypt, fauna; Brunton and Caton-Thompson, 1928 comb-ceramic, northeastern Europe, domestic animals; Gandert, 1930 Ertebgle, Denmark, domestic animals; Madsen, 1900 Halafian, Syria, domestic animals; Mallowan, 1946 Karasuk, northern Siberia, domestic animals; Jettmar, 1950 Maglemosian, England, fauna; Fraser and King, 1954 Minussinsk, Siberia, origin of horse; Amschler, 1934 Mullerup, Denmark, domestic animals; Curwen, 1938 Natufian, Palestine, dog; Bate, 1937 fauna; Bate, 1932, 1937; Vaufrey, 1951 Protoeskimoid, arctic Siberia, dog; Flor, 1930 Protosamojed, arctic Siberia, reindeer; Flor, 1930

124 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Culture (continued): Shang, northern China, fauna; Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936 Tripolje, Ukraine, domestic animals; Bogaevsky, 1937; Hancar, 1951

fauna; Gromova, 1927; Tackenberg, 1954

Uruk, Iraq, water buffalo; Lloyd, 1940 Yarmukian, Palestine, domestic animals; Stekelis, 1950

Culture, swine-breeding, southern Asia and Europe; Menghin, 1931 adapted to reindeer behavior; Zeuner, 1954

Dairy purposes and origin of domestication; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 Dawn of domestication, Palestine; Josien, 1955 Deer, domestic, South Carolina; Swanton, 1940 Defective mutations, dogs; Krieg, 1929 Degree of domestication, pigs; Reitsma, 1935 Desert travel by animals; Forbes, 1955 Desert valleys, culture of, Egypt; Winkler, 1938-39 Dingo (see Dog, breeds, dingo) Diphyletic ancestry, horse; Chubb, 1913 Diphyletie origin of cattle, Europe; Merkens, 1929; Morse, 1912 of dog; Noack, 1907 of goats; Keller, 1902 of horses; Keller, 1902 of pig; Belic, 1939 Dispersal, routes of; Sauer, 1952 Docility, selection for; Richter, 1952; Scott, 1954 Dog, breeds and/or types; Ash, 1927; Hilzheimer, 1932 African, ancient; Kroll, 1928 Aguara; Hummerlink, 1928 aleo; Hummerlink, 1928 Arctic; Van Giffen, 1929 basket maker; Lawrence, 1944 borzoi; Brinkmann, 1921 Brazilian roe-dog; Hummerlink, 1928 Cimbric-Megalithic; Van Giffen, 1929 deerhound; Brinkmann, 1923-24; Studer, 1901, 1906 dingo; Baas, 1938; Dahr, 1937. 1942; Diirst, 1945; Etheridge, 1916; Jones, 1921; Noack, 1907; Studer, 1901 Russia; Studer, 1906 Egyptian; Houbard, 1934 Eskimo; Allen, 1920 Finnish; Brinkmann, 1923-24 gray deerhound; Brinkmann, 1923-24 Great Dane-Newfoundland-St. Bernard; Hooijer, 1947 greyhound; Brinkmann, 1921; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09; Studer, 1901 Africa; Kroll, 1928 Egypt; Schweinfurth, 1912 Indian; Prashad, 19386 North African; Petters, 1934 husky; Haag, 1948 Kaffir; Petters, 1934 Kalmuck; Noack, 1909 mastiff, Pakistan; Mackay, 1938 mastiffs; Studer, 1906, 1907 Mexican pug; Hummerlink, 1928 “nalustris-svardborgensis;’’ Degerbgl, 1927 pariah; Amschler, 1939b; Diirst, 1945; Noack, 1907; Peet, 1914; Studer, 1901 Egypt; Schweinfurth, 1912 peat-dog; Brinkmann, 1923-24 Sweden; Pira, 1926 Switzerland; Reverdin, 1927—28 pug, Mexican; Hummerlink, 1928 roe-dog, Brazilian; Hummerlink, 1928

GENERAL INDEX 125

Dog, breeds and/or types (continued):

shepherd; Noack, 1915b; Studer, 1906

short-nosed; Lawrence, 1944

Techichi; Lawrence, 1944

terp-dogs; Van Giffen, 1929

Tibetan mastiffs; Studer, 1901

turbary; Brinkmann, 1923-24; Gandert, 1930

Dog, domestic and/or possibly domestic; Ash, 1927; Cabrera, 1932; Hilzheimer, 1932; Linton, 1955; Lorenz, 1955; Matthey, 1954; Scott, 1954; Studer, 1901; Wagner, 1930

Africa, north; Noack, 1907

China; Bishop, 1933, 1939; Liang, 1934

Denmark; Degerbg!, 1927, 1933; Johansen, 1919

Egypt; Adametz, 1920; Hilzheimer, 1908; Winkler, 1938-39

England; Fraser and King, 1954

Eurasia; Dahr, 1942

Eurasia, southern; Menghin, 1931

Europe; Dahr, 1937; Hue, 1906a; Van Giffen, 1929 northeastern; Gandert, 1930

Finland; Luho, 1948

France; Hue, 1906b; Pequart, 1937

Germany; Baas, 1938; Gehl, 1930

Holland; Hooijer, 1947

Illinois; Galbreath, 1947

Iran; Bate, 1937

North America; Allen, 1920; Haag, 1948

Palestine; Bate, 1932, 1937, 1942; Zeuner, 1955

Russia; Studer, 1906

Seandinavia; Brinkmann, 1921, 1923-24

Siberia; Flor, 1930

South America; Krieg, 1929

Sudan; Bate, 1949, 1953

Switzerland; Brinkmann, 1923-24

West Indies; Hummerlink, 1928

Dog head, mummified, Peru; Noack, 1915a Dog, wild, Australia (see Dingo) Dogs, semi-domesticated, Grand Chaco; Krieg, 1929 used as food; Gandert, 1930; Lawrence, 1944; Reverdin, 1927-28 Domestic animals, surveys of:

General: Adametz, 1926; Antonius, 1922, 1944; Cabrera, 1922; Coon, 1954; Curwen and Hatt, 1953; Davis, 1954; Dobzhansky, 1955; Feige, 1927, 1928; Hehn, 1902; Herre, 1955; Hilzheimer, 1909-10, 1913, 1926; Keller, 1902, 1919; Klatt, 1927; Kronacher, 1928; Krumbiegel, 1947; La Baume, 1949; Linton, 1955; Page, 1939; Pycraft, 1938; Reinhardt, 1912; Rice, 1942; K. P. Schmidt, 1938; W. Schmidt, 1951; Slijper, 1948; Stegmann von Pritzwald, 1924; Thevenin, 1947; Werth, 1939; Wilckens, 1905; Wissler, 1945; Zeuner, 1954

Regional:

Africa, east; Kroll, 1928 north; Staffe, 1939 south; Kroll, 1928 Anatolia; Gejvali, 1937-38; Patterson, 1937 Arabia; Rathjens, 1955 Asia, central; Hermanns, 1949 southwest; Friederichs, 1933; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1955 Austria; Amschler, 1939c¢ British Isles; Childe, 1940; Dawkins and Jackson, 1917 Central America; Latcham, 1924 China; Sowerby, 1935 north; Anderson, 1943; Bylin-Althin, 1946; Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936 Crete; Slawkowski, 1940 Denmark; Curwen, 1938; Degerbgl, 1939; Madsen, 1900; Winge, 1904, 1919

126 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Domestic animals, surveys of (continued): Regional:

Egypt; Adametz, 1920; Boessneck, 1953; Brunton and Caton-Thompson, 1928; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934; Debono, 1948; Gaillard, 1912, 1934; Jackson, 1937; Kuschel, 1911; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09; Menghin, 1933; Menghin and Amar, 1932; Peet, 1914; Schweinfurth, 1912

Eurasia; Meissner, 1926; Nehring, 1936

Europe; Clark, 1952

France; Reverdin, 1930-31; Revilliod, 1926

Holland; Van Giffen, 1914, 1929

India; Hermanns, 1952; Randhawa, 1946; Sankalia and Karve, 1949 northwestern; Piggot, 1950; Prashad, 1936

Indus Valley; Sewell and Guhr, 1931

Iran; Amschler, 1939a, b; Coon, 1951, 1952; Vaufrey, 1939

Iraq; Braidwood, 1952, 1954; Braidwood and Braidwood, 1950

Italy; Riedel, 1948, 1951

Libyan Desert; Breuil and el Dine, 1928

Mesopotamia; Hilzheimer, 1941; Oppenheim and Hartmann, 1945; Van Buren, 1939; Woolley, 1934

Near East; Dyson, 1953

Norway; Brégger, 1940

Pakistan; Mackay, 1938

Palestine; Josien, 1955; Stekelis, 1950

Poland; Zurowski, 1930

Roumania; Cardas, 1926

Seotland; Watson, 1931

Siberia, northern; Jettmar, 1950

South America; Latcham, 1924

Sweden; Pira, 1926

Switzerland; Hescheler, 1920; Hescheler and Riiger, 1939, 1940, 1942; Kramer, 1900; Kuhn, 1932, 1935; Pittard and Reverdin, 1921; Reverdin, 1921, 1928; Riiger, 1942; F. Schwarz, 1932; Vogel, 1933

Syria; Mallowan, 1946, 1947

Turkestan, southwestern; Diirst, 1908

Ukraine; Bogaevsky, 1937; Gromova, 1927; Hancar, 1951; Melnyk, 1928; Tackenberg, 1954

Domestication, dawn of, Palestine; Josien, 1955 definition of; Dobzhansky, 1955 determination of, by goat horn-cores; Zeuner, 1955 Domestication, effects of; Antonius, 1922; Feige, 1928; Herre, 1951, 1955; Hilz- heimer, 1926; Klatt, 1927; Kronacher, 1928; Lundholm, 1949; Weidenreich, 1925; Zeuner, 1954 dog, behavior; Scott, 1954 goat; Dalimier, 1934 pig; Pira, 1909 crania; Baumler, 1921 Domestication, mode of origin; Keller, 1919, 1922; Klatt, 1927; Kronacher, 1928; Lundholm, 1949; Weidenreich, 1925 agricultural people; Linton, 1955 behavior of domesticable animals; Wissler, 1945 decoy-use in hunting; Sirelius, 1916-20; Zeuner, 1954 economic use of young; Clark, 1948 hunters; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 hunting tribes, importance of; Koppers, 1932 nomadism, importance of; W. Schmidt, 1951 pet-keeping; Linton, 1955; Zeuner, 1954 psychological factors; Hediger, 1938 reindeer, herding of; Linton, 1955 influence of; Jettmar, 1952 on horse-breeding; Werth, 1940; Wiklund, 1918 religious; Meissner, 1926; Roy, 1946; Sauer, 1952; Staffe, 1939 with cattle; Hahn, 1909 scavenging, in dog; Haag, 1948

GENERAL INDEX 12

~]

Domestication (continued): selection, artificial, after taming; Nachtsheim, 1938 social factors, man and animals; Zeuner, 1954 symbiosis, natural; Zeuner, 1954 taming, followed by selection; Nachtsheim, 1938 Domestication, origins of; Meissner, 1926 Domestication, site of; Feige, 1927, 1928 Geographical: Abyssinia; Shaw, 1936 Anatolia; Slawkowski, 1933 Asia, southeastern; Linton, 1955; Sauer, 1952 Asia, southwestern; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1955; Linton, 1955; Sauer, 1952 Egypt; Linton, 1955 Orient; Hehn, 1902 South America; Sauer, 1952 sub-Arctic; Koppers, 1932 Turkestan, western; Hermanns, 1949 Domestication, study of: Antonius, 1922; Braidwood, 1954; Herre, 1939, 1955; Keller, 1902; Klatt, 1927 Domestication of various animals: alpaca, Peru; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 ass, Africa, eastern; Rathjens, 1955 Ethiopia; Werth, 1940 Mediterranean area, eastern; Lydekker, 1912a banteng, Java; Sommerfeld, 1927 buffalo, water, India; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 camel, Asia, central; Forbes, 1955; Randhawa, 1946; Walz, 1954 Mongolia; Linton, 1955 eat, Africa, north; Noack, 1909 Egypt; Zeuner, 1950 cattle, Asia, southwestern; Kolesnik, 1936 Bactria and periphery; Hermanns, 1952 Europe, north; Herre, 1949 India; Diirst, 1900; Werth, 1940; Kolesnik, 1936 dog, Egypt; Hilzheimer, 1908 Russia; Studer, 1906 Siberia, northern; Flor, 1930 domesticants, earliest, Near East; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 dromedary, Africa, north; Randhawa, 1946 Africa, northeastern; Rathjens, 1955 Arabia; Albright, 1950; Forbes, 1955; Mikesell, 1955; Walz, 1951 fowl, jungle, Asia, southeastern; Linton, 1955 goat, Turkestan; Randhawa, 1946 “herd animals,’ Asia, southwest; Sauer, 1952 South America; Sauer, 1952 horse, Africa; Ridgeway, 1905; Sommerfeld, 1927 Asia; Flor, 1930; Linton, 1955; Werth, 1940; Jackson, 1932 China; Erkes, 1940 Eurasia, north; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1955 Europe, eastern; Clark, 1941 Iran; Hehn, 1902 Oriental, Africa, north; Chubb, 1913 Russia, southern; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 Seandinavia; Jackson, 1932 sub-Arctic; Koppers, 1932 “household animals’’ Asia, southeast; Sauer, 1952 llama, Peru; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 pig, Asia, southeastern; Linton, 1955 pig, Tschuwasian breed, Tien-Shan; Havesson, 1933 rabbit, Spain; Nachtsheim, 1929 reindeer, Asia, central; Laufer, 1917 Siberia, northern; Flor, 1930 sub-Arctic; Koppers, 1932

128 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Domestication of various animals (continued): sheep, Africa, north; Thilenius, 1900 Asia, central; Philiptschenko, 1928 Turkestan; Randhawa, 1946 turkey, Central America; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 Donkey (see Ass, domestic) Doreas gazelle, Egypt; Gaillard, 1912 Draft animal; Menghin, 1931; Werth, 1940 dog used as; Luho, 1948 reindeer used as; Sirelius, 1916-20 Draft horses, European; Chubb, 19138 northeastern Syria; Mallowan, 1936 Drag-sledge, use with reindeer, Finland; Sirelius, 1916-20 Drift, genetic; Mangelsdorf, 1952 Dromedary (see Camel) Dromedary, wild, extinction of; Mikesell, 1955 North Africa; Mikesell, 1955 Dry environment and domestication; Linton, 1955 Dwarf dog; Brinkmann, 1923-24 Switzerland; Vogel, 1933 Dwarf goats; Dalimier, 1954 Egypt; Bate, 1953; Pia, 1942a Sudan; Bate, 1949, 1953 Dwarf pig; Clark, 1952 Dwarfed horses, Bohemia; Nitsche, 1924 Dwarfed hound, Neolithic; Studer, 1906 Dwarfing in cattle; Szalay, 1930

Ecologic factors, pigmentation; Feige, 1927 Ecological subspecies, cats, wild; Zeuner, 1950 Economic areas, domestication; Feige, 1928 Elephant, China, north; Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936 Elephant-buffalo culture, India; Randhawa, 1946 Environment, arid, and domestication; Linton, 1955; Klatt, 1948 differences in, and variation in animals; Reitsma, 1935 effect of; Weidenreich, 1925 original, of domestic animals; Feige, 1927 of primitive domestication; Szalay, 1930 Equid, wild, Europe; Boule, 1910 Palestine; Bate, 1942 Equids, distribution; Antonius, 1937 Ethnological data, horse; Hanear, 1952 Ethnology and domestication; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1955 of eattle; Hahn, 1909 Evolution; Slijper, 1941 of Bovidae; Morse, 1912; Pilgrim, 1947 of Bovinae; Kolesnik, 1936 convergent; Cabrera, 1932 of domestic animals; Kronacher, 1928; Reinhardt, 1912; Rice, 1942 under domestication; Mangelsdorf, 1952 of man; Rice, 1942 natural; Mangelsdorf, 1952 parallel; Herre, 1952 Evolutionary factors in domestication; Klatt, 1927, 1948 Extermination of urus; Lydekker, 1912b Extinction of wild dromedary; Mikesell, 1955

Farmers, Ukraine; Hanecar, 1951 Farming, Europe; Clark, 1952

mixed, Syria; Mallowan, 1946 Fauna, wild, China; Liang, 1934 Fear, physiology of; Funkenstein, 1955

GENERAL INDEX 129

Feral canids; Noack, 1907 Feral cattle, British forests; Whitehead, 1953 British Isles; Wilson, 1909 Feral dog (dingo), Australia; Jones, 1921 Feral horse, Russia; Kwaschnin, 1931 Feral pigs of Set, Egypt; Newberry, 1928 Ferret, domestic; Ashton and Thompson, 1955 Figurines, cattle, Egypt; Randall-MacIver and Mace, 1902 domestic animals, Indus Valley; Mackay, 1938; Melnyk, 1928 horse; Mallowan, 1936 pigs, Egypt; Randall-MaclIver and Mace, 1902 First known appearance, dating, etc.: cat, northern Europe; Hooijer, 1947 dog, Denmark; Degerbgl, 1927 Germany; Baas, 1938 large type, northern Europe; Hooijer, 1947 Iran; Ralph, 1955 domestic animals, Denmark; Curwen, 1938 dromedary, Assyria; Mikesell, 1955 goat, Iran; Ralph, 1955 horse, southwestern Asia; Smith, 1928 sheep, Iran; Ralph, 1955 Fish, domestic; Reinhardt, 1912; Wilckens, 1905 Fishing peoples as first domesticators; Sauer, 1952 Flight for survival; Funkenstein, 1955 Flora, Europe; Clark, 1952 Food, dogs used as; Gandert, 1930; Lawrence, 1944; Reverdin, 1927-28 gifts, mortuary; Jettmar, 1950 Forest, Europe; Clark, 1947 Forest tarpan, Russia: Vetulani, 1928 Fort, Roman, Scotland; Ewart, 1907a Fowl, jungle (poultry, chickens); Adametz, 1925 Asia, southeastern; Linton, 1955 China; Bishop, 1939 Denmark; Curwen, 1938 Freedom, avoidance of; Zeuner, 1954

Garden tilling; Coon, 1954 Gaur; Ewart, 1912 Indo-China; Vittor, 1933 Gayal, India; Hermanns, 1952 Gazelle, dorcas; Gaillard, 1912 Gazelles, domestication of, Egypt; Zeuner, 1954 Genealogical table, horses, Ur; Amschler, 1935 Geographic distribution of Bovinae; Kolesnik, 1936 of domestic animals; Feige, 1927, 1928 of wild equids; Antonius, 1937 Genetic characters, independent occurrence of; Nachtsheim, 1936 Genetic dominant, white, in cattle; Whitehead, 1953 Genetic drift; Mangelsdorf, 1952 Genetics, polled cattle; Auld, 1927 rabbit; Nachtsheim, 1929, 1936 Germanic invasions and British cattle; Whitehead, 1953 Ghosts, chickens guard against; Linton, 1955 Giant beaver; Galbreath, 1947 Goats, breeds and/or types: Anatolian; Vetulani, 1934 Angora; Adametz, 1941; Batu, 1939 Angora, Anatolia; Vetulani, 1934 Asia, southwest; Zeuner, 1955 big-horned; Kramer, 1900 Don-Danube; Lebel, 1939 Girgentinian goat; Adametz, 1932, 1941

130 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Goats, breeds and/or types (continued): Kirghiz; Hilzheimer, 1926; Philiptschenko, 1928 Mamber; Gaillard, 1934; Mallowan, 1946, 1947 Pinzgauer; Sickenberg, 1930 serew-horned (see spiral-horned) spiral-horned; Antonius, 1944; Bate, 1940; Koch, 1937; Mallowan, 1946, 1947; E. Schwarz, 1935 straight-horned, Asia, southwest; Zeuner, 1955 twisted-horned (see spiral-horned) Goats, domestic and/or possibly domestic; Adametz, 1928; Dalimier, 1954; Hilz- heimer, 1933; E. Schwarz, 1935 Altai; Amschler, 1931 Anatolia; Vetulani, 1934 Asia; Batu, 1939 Caucasus; Amschler, 1929a Egypt; Adametz, 1920; Pia, 1942a; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 Europe; Adametz, 1915 Europe, central and southeastern; Teodoreanu, 1924 Iraq; Lloyd and Safer, 1945 Kashmir; Dalimier, 1954 Mesopotamia; Heinrich, 1936 Palestine; Vaufrey, 1951; Zeuner, 1934 Poland; Adametz, 1915 Sicily; Adametz, 1932 Sudan; Bate, 1949, 1953 Sumeria; Amschler, 1937 Tibet; Dalimier, 1954 Turkestan, western; Menghin, 1931 Goats, wild; E. Schwarz, 1935 bezoar; Amschler, 1929a; Bate, 1942 (possibly ibex); Dalimier, 1954; Pilgrim, 1947; Vetulani, 1934 markhor; Dalimier, 1954; Koch, 1937; Philiptschenko, 1928; Pilgrim, 1947 Gods, offerings for; Meissner, 1926 Golden Fleece, history of Merino sheep; Burns and Moody, 1935 Goose; Clark, 1948 domestication of; Clark, 1948 Grain-culture, decline of, in Ukraine; Tackenberg, 1954 Grave-goods, figurines, cattle, Egypt; Randall-MaclIver and Mace, 1902 Graves, Amratian, animal figurines; Randall-MaclIver and Mace, 1902 animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 Ground sloth; Galbreath, 1947 Group A and Group O, sheep; Kaerkowski, 1928 Guanaco; Herre, 1952; Steinbacher, 1953 Guinea-pig; Krieg, 1929; Latcham, 1924

Hair, rabbit, genetics of; Nachtsheim, 1929

Half-ass (see Onager)

Halters, cattle, Libyan Desert; Shaw, 1936

Hand-sledges; Luho, 1948

Hare (see Rabbit)

Har. Ra-Hubullu tablet, Mesopotamian animals; Oppenheim and Hartmann,

1945

Hatshepsut, Queen; Chard, 1937

Herders, reindeer; Linton, 1955

Herdsmen, mountain, with cattle, Egypt; Winkler, 1938-39 Syria; Mallowan, 1946

Herdsmen-cultures, Tibet; Hermanns, 1949

Heredity, domestic animals; Herre, 1952

Heteronymous horns, goats; Dalimier, 1954

Heteronymous twist, horn of goat; Koch, 1937

History and domestication; Stegmann von Pritzwald, 1924

History of domestication, 19th century; Keller, 1902

GENERAL INDEX 131

Hoe-agriculture; Menghin, 1931 Homonymous twist, horn of goat; Koch, 1937 Horse-breeding, Bactria; Hanear, 1952 Europe; Hermes, 1935-36 literary evidence of; Hrozny, 1931 Horse, breeds and/or type; Lydekker, 1912a Arabian; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Chard, 1937; Chubb, 1913; Ewart, 1907a; Kwaschnin, 1928; E. Schwarz, 1922; Simpson, 1951 Barb; E. Schwarz, 1922; Simpson, 1951 Belgian; Boicoianu, 1932 Camargue; Bourdelle, 1938; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 Celtic; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Ewart, 1904, 1907a Clepper; Rumjancev, 1936 cold-blooded; Antonius, 1935a, b; E. Schwarz, 1922 criollo; Cardoso, 1912; Solanet, 1930 eastern; E. Schwarz, 1922; Lundholm, 1949; Rumjancev, 1936 Finnish; Rumjancevy, 1936 forest type; Ewart, 1907a, b, 1912 Hutzel; Cardas, 1926 Indo-European; Antonius, 1935a Kalmuck; Noack, 1909 Kladrub; Antonius, 1935b; Nitsche, 1924 Libyan; Ewart, 1907a; Ridgeway, 1905 Lithuanian; Kwaschnin, 1928, 1931 Lithuanian-Polish-Esthonian group; Kwaschnin, 1931 Lofoten; Brinkmann, 1920 Moldavian; Cardas, 1926 Mongolian; Antonius, 1918 Nordic; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Lundholm, 1949 Norse; Ewart, 1904, 1907a Norseman’s; Chubb, 19138 northern group; Rumjancev, 1936 Norwegian Lofoten; Brinkmann, 1920 Occidental; Antonius, 1918; Boicoianu, 1932; Hilzheimer, 1935; Kwaschnin, 1931; Nitsche, 1924; Winge, 1919 Oriental; Antonius, 1935a; Chubb, 1913; Ewart, 1907a; Hilzheimer, 1935; Kwaschnin, 1928, 1931; Schwarz, 1922; Winge, 1919 Plateau variety; Ewart, 1907a, b Polish country horse; Vetulani, 1928 Przewalski; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Cardas, 1926; Chubb, 1913; Ewart, 1907a; Hilzheimer, 1935; Kwaschnin, 1931; Lundholm, 1949; Rumjancev 1936; E. Schwarz, 1928; Vetulani, 1928 Shetland; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Chubb, 1913 Shmudiec; Kwaschnin, 1928 Siwalik; Ewart, 1909, 1912 “southern group’’; Rumjancev, 1936 Spanish; Antonius, 1935b; Solanet, 1930 steppe; Yetts, 1934 steppe variety; Ewart, 1907a, b, 1912 Vyatka; Rumjancev, 1936 western group; Lundholm, 1949 tarpan: Amschler, 1933; Antonius, 1918, 1935a; Cardas, 1926; Curwen and Hatt, 1933; Dobzhansky, 1955; Ewart, 1907a; Herre, 1939; Hilzheimer, 1935; Kwaschnin, 1928, 1931; Lundholm, 1949; Lydekker, 1912a; Nitsche, 1924; Rumjancev, 1936; E. Schwarz, 1922; Vetulani, 1928 Horse-cow culture, India; Randhawa, 1946 Horse, domestic and/or possibly domestic; Bourdelle, 1932; Ewart, 1904, 1907a, b, 1909, 1912; Herre, 1939; Hilzheimer, 1935; Kriiger, 1939; Lundholm, 1949; Lydekker, 1912a; Sauer, 1952; E. Schwarz, 1922, 1928; Simpson, 1936, 1951 Africa, north; Lhote, 1953; Ridgeway, 1905 Anatolia; Clark, 1941; Gejvali, 1938-39; Hrozny, 1931; Slawkowski, 1933 Asia; Flor, 1930

’

132 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Horse, domestic and/or possibly domestic (continued): Asia, central; Amschler, 1933; Menghin, 1931 Asia, southwest; Smith, 1928 Asia Minor (see Anatolia)

Bactria; Hanear, 1952

China; Erkes, 1940; Yetts, 1934

Egypt; Adametz, 1920; Chard, 19387

Eurasia; Amschler, 1934, 1936; Antonius, 1918; Jackson, 1932; Rumjancey, 1936

Europe; Hermes, 1935-36; Munro, 1902 east; Kwaschnin, 1931

India, northwestern; Piggot, 1950

Iran; Amschler, 1935; Childe, 1940

Mesopotamia; Childe, 1940; Ridgeway, 1905

Seythia; Amschler, 1933

Sumeria; Amschler, 1935

Horse, harness, riding, ete. bridle; Hermes, 1936 chariots; Antonius, 1944; Childe, 1941 chariot wheels; Mallowan, 1936 harness; Hermes, 1936; Mallowan, 1936 riding; Antonius, 1944

Horse, wild; Herre, 1939; Lundholm, 1949; Lydekker, 1912a; E. Schwarz, 1922,

1928; Simpson, 1951 China; Erkes, 1940 Egypt; Gaillard, 1934 Eurasia; Dobzhansky, 1955 Europe; Brinkmann, 1920; Chubb, 1913 France; Reverdin, 1930-31 Palestine; Bate, 1932 Pyrenees; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946

Hunters with dogs, Egypt; Winkler, 1938-39

Hunting pigs, Egypt; Schweinfurth, 1912

Hybridization; Mangelsdorf, 1952 banteng and zebu; Merkens, 1929 Bos primigenius and B. namadicus; Mackay, 1938 cattle; Melnyk, 1927 dogs; Ash, 1927 gauer and cow; Hermanns, 1952 turbary sheep and mouflon; Diirst, 1904 wolf and dog; Brinkmann, 1923-24

Hyena, domestication of, Egypt; Zeuner, 1954

Ibex; E. Schwarz, 1935; Schweinfurth, 1912 Egypt; Gaillard, 1912 Identification of bones, Artiodactyla; Lawrence, 1944 Indians (American) and domestic deer; Swanton, 1940 Indices, mandibles, dogs; Reverdin, 1927-28 Indo-Europeans and origin of dog; Noack, 1915b Inferiority, biological, and domestication; Hediger, 1938 Insects, domestic; Wilckens, 1905 Introduction and/or dispersal of: buffalo, water, to Persia; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 into Philippines; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1982 eat into Europe; Haltenorth, 1953 cattle, Auvergne breed, to France and England; Adametz, 1925 brachyceros, into Egypt; Bisschop, 1937 longhorn, out of Egypt; Bisschop, 1937 taurus, to India; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 dingo into Australia; Baas, 1938; Etheridge, 1916; Jones, 1921 dog, greyhound, into eastern Africa; Kroll, 1928 dog into North America; Haag, 1948 dogs, Eurasia; Noack, 1915b into Europe; Allen, 1920

GENERAL INDEX 133

Introduction and/or dispersal of (continued): dogs, into Finland; Luho, 1948 into North America; Allen, 1920 domestic animals, into Africa; Adametz, 1920 into British Isles; Dawkins and Jackson, 1917 into Europe; Hehn, 1902 into southern Arabia; Rathjens, 1955 dromedary, North Africa; Mikesell, 1955 into eastern Africa; Staffe, 1940 goat, Angora, into Anatolia; Batu, 1939 goats, Asia, central; Amschler, 1931 horse, into Anatolia; Clark, 1941 into Egypt; Ridgeway, 1905 into Near East; Ridgeway, 1905 to historical peoples; Smith, 1928 pack and draft animals, Asia; Werth, 1940 reindeer to Finland; Luho, 1948 to Lapps; Laufer, 1917 sheep, fat-rumped, to Bukhara; Adametz, 1927 yak, Asia, central; Amschler, 1932 zebu, into northwestern Africa; Bisschop, 1937 into Africa; Epstein, 1933 Invaders, mounted; Hanear, 1952 Invertebrates, domestic; Reinhardt, 1912 Irano-Sanskrit vocabulary and horse domestication; Smith, 1928 Italian white cattle, British Isles; Wilson, 1909

Jackal; Dahr, 1937, 1942; Degerbgl, 1933b; Diirst, 1945; Keller, 1902; Matthey, 1954; Noack, 1907; Scott, 1954; Van Giffen, 1929 Africa, north; Hilzheimer, 1908 Egypt; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 Palestine; Bate, 1937 Jungle and domestication; Linton, 1955 Jungle fowl (see Fowl, jungle)

Keel of horn, goat; Koch, 1937

Kikkuli text; Hrozny, 1931

“Kish” goat; Crawford, 1938

Kgbenhavn Museum, dogs in; Brinkmann, 1921 sub-fossil materials in; Degerbgl, 1933b

Linguistic evidence and domestication; Nehring, 1936 Linguistics, comparative; Hehn, 1902 Lion; Funkenstein, 1955 Literary evidence of first horse-breeding; Hrozny, 1931 Llama; Curwen and Hatt, 1953; Herre, 1952; Hilzheimer, 1913; Krieg, 1929; Stein- bacher, 1953; Werth, 1940 Local place names, archaeological sites, ete.: Abydos, Egypt, fauna; Peet, 1914 Agrigento, Sicily, spiral-horned goat; Adametz, 1932, 1941 Alishar Hiiyiik, Anatolia, domestic animals; Patterson, 1937 Aloppe, Sweden, pigs; Pira, 1909 Alpenquai, Switzerland, domestic animals; Wettstein, 1924 Altai Mts., Siberia, goats; Amschler, 1931 horses; Amschler, 1933 Anau, Turkmen SSR, dog; Bate, 1932; Diirst, 1908; Van Giffen, 1929 fauna; Diirst, 1908 horse; Amschler, 1936; Rumjancev, 1936 Ancon, Peru, mummified head of Canis ingae; Noack, 1915a Anneréd, Sweden, pigs; Pira, 1909 Anyany, northern China, fauna; Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936

134 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Local place names, archaeological sites, ete. (continued): Armant, Egypt, cattle; Mond and Myers, 1934 domestic animals; Jackson, 1937 Ashmore, Illinois, U.S.A., dog; Galbreath, 1947 Asmar (see Tell Asmar) Assuan (see Aswan) Aswan, Egypt, animal representations; Schweinfurth, 1912 rock-drawings; Winkler, 1938-39 Athlit caves, Palestine, fauna; Bate, 1932 Badari, Egypt, shorthorned cattle; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934b Baldegg, Switzerland, domestic animals; Hescheler and Riiger, 1940 Balih (valley), Syria, domestie animals; Mallowan, 1946 Banahilk, Iraq, fauna; Braidwood, 1954 Beer-Sheba, Palestine, domestic animals; Josien, 1955 Belt Cave, Iran, Carbon-14 determinations; Ralph, 1955 fauna; Coon, 1951 Berchtesgaden, Germany, dog; Studer, 1907 Bern, Switzerland, cattle; Gerbes, 1951 Biisk, central Asia, domestic animals; Noack, 1909 Bir Abou Matar (see Beer-Sheba) Bir Es-Safadi (see Beer-Sheba) Bludenz, Austria, fauna; Amschler, 1939¢c Bogaz Koy, Anatolia, Kikkuli text found; Hrozny, 1931 Bokarn (Lake), Sweden, horses; Lundholm, 1949 Bologoie, Russia, Canis poutiatini; Studer, 1906 dog; Gandert, 1930 Brak, Syria, domestic animals; Mallowan, 1947 Bukhara, Turkestan, fat-rumped sheep; Adametz, 1927 Bunds¢ on Jylland, Denmark, fauna; Degerbgl, 1939 Chagar Bazar, Syria, horse; Mallowan, 1936 Chalain (Lake), France, dog; Hue, 1906b Ch’éng-tzt-yai, Shantung, China, fauna; Liang, 1934 Ch’i Chia P’ing, Kansu, China, domestic animals; Bylin-Althin, 1946 Clairvaux, France, dog; Hue, 1906a Constance (Lake), Switzerland, domestic animals; Vogel, 1933 Cortaillod, Switzerland, domestic animals; Reverdin, 1928 Crestaulta, Switzerland, domestic animals; Riiger, 1942 Dakhla, oasis, Egypt, rock-drawings; Winkler, 1938-39 Djebel Ouenat (see Ouenat) Dobruja, Rumania, cattle; Teodoreanu, 1929 Egolzwil, Switzerland, domestic animals; Hescheler and Riiger, 1939, 1942 El Amrah, Egypt, cattle figurines; Randall-Maclver and Mace, 1902 El Khan, Iraq, fauna; Braidwood, 1954 El-Khiam, Palestine, fauna; Vaufrey, 1951 Ellebeck, Germany, dog; Gehl, 1930 El-Mughara (see Wadi El-Mughara) El-Omari, Egypt, fauna; Debono, 1948 Engel Peninsula, Switzerland, cattle; Gerbes, 1951 Er Yoh, France, fauna; Reverdin, 1930-31 Errindlev, Denmark, dogs; Brinkmann, 1921 Esh Shaheinab (see Shaheinab) Fayum, Egypt, camel hair; Caton-Thompson, 1934 fauna; Caton-Thompson and Gardner, 1934 Frankfort, Germany, dog; Baas, 1938 Ganties-Montespan river, Pyrenees Mts., horses; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946 Gezer, Palestine, camel; Isserlin, 1950 Gilf Kebir, Libyan Desert, animal representations; Shaw, 1936 Girgentini (see Agrigento) Gizeh, Egypt, cats; Morrison-Seott, 1952 mummified animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-1909 Glamorgan, Wales, horses; Jackson, 1932 Glastonbury, Great Britain, domestic animals; Dawkins and Jackson, 1917 Gottland, Sweden, pigs; Pira, 1909

GENERAL INDEX 135

Local place names, archaeological sites, ete. (continued):

Governador, New Mexico, U.S.A., dogs; Lawrence, 1944

Grai Resh, Iraq, water buffalo; Lloyd, 1940

Grimaldi, caves of, asses; Boule, 1910

Groningen, Holland, terpen dog; Van Giffen, 1929

Gujarat, India, domestic animals; Sankalia and Karve, 1949

Habur (valley), Syria, domestic animals; Mallowan, 1946

Halaf (see Tell Halaf)

Harappa, Indus Valley, domestic animals; Piggot, 1950; Prashad, 1936 unicorn; Roy, 1946

Hassuna (see Tell Hassuna)

Hebrides, Scotland, Soay sheep; Schultze, 1934

Heinola, Finland, hand-drawn sledges; Luho, 1948

Helwan, Egypt, dromedary; George, 1950

Hemaniah (see Badari)

Hildesheim, Germany, dogs; Noack, 1915b

Hotu Cave, Iran, fauna; Coon, 1951

Husum, Germany, dog; Gehl, 1930

Jarmo, Iraq, fauna; Braidwood, 1952; Braidwood and Braidwood, 1950

Jericho, Palestine, goats; Zeuner, 1955

Kashan, Iran, domestic animals; Vaufrey, 1939

Kharga (oasis), Egypt, rock-drawings; Winkler, 1938-39

Kiel, Germany, dog; Gehl, 1930

Kiev, Ukraine, fauna; Gromova, 1927

Kish, Mesopotamia, equids; Amschler, 1936 Girgentini goat; Amschler, 1937

Klausdorf, Germany, dog; Gehl, 1930

Klausenberg, Transylvania, Capra prisca; Adametz, 1941

Koko-Nor, Tibet, yak; Amschler, 1932

Kom Ombo, Egypt, fauna; Gaillard, 1934 mummified animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09

Kom W (see Fayum)

Krzeszowice, Poland, Bos colliceros; Rostafinski, 1933

Kronstadt, Rumania, Capra prisca; Teodoreanu, 1924

Ladoga (Lake), Denmark, dog; Degerbgl, 1933b

Laibach (moors), Austria, pigs; Ulmansky, 1914

“Lake Village’ (see Glastonbury)

Langhnaj, India, domestic animals; Sankalia and Karve, 1949

Lascaux cave, France, cattle; Koby, 1954

La Téne, France, domestic animals; Revilliod, 1926; F. Schwarz, 1918

Lerida, Spain, cattle; Staffe, 1943

Linderbeek, Holland, dog and cat; Hooijer, 1947

Lo Han T’ang, Kansu, China, domestic animals; Bylin-Althin, 1946

Lundby Bog, Denmark, dogs; Degerbgl, 1933b

Ma’adi, Egypt, fauna; Menghin, 1933; Menghin and Amar, 1932

Maikop, Caucasus Mts., animal representations; Friederichs, 1933

Mefesh (see Tell Mefesh)

Megiddo, Palestine, camel; Isserlin, 1950 goat; Mallowan, 1947

Merimde-Benisalame, Egypt, fauna; Menghin, 1933

Minusinsk, northern Siberia, domestic animals; Jettmar, 1950

Minussinsk (Sajan), Siberia, horse; Amschler, 1936

M’lefaat, Iraq, fauna; Braidwood, 1954

Mohenjo-Daro, Indus Valley, animal representations; Friederichs, 1933 domestic animals; Mackay, 1938; Sewell and Guhr, 1931 unicorn; Roy, 1946

Morbihan (see Er Yoh)

Mullerup, Denmark, dog; Degerbgl, 1933b

Nauenberg, Capra prisca; Adametz, 1941

Neuchatel (Lake), Switzerland, domestic animals; Pittard and Reverdin, 1921

Newstead, Scotland, horse; Ewart, 1907a

Obermeilen, Switzerland, domestic animals; Kuhn, 1935

Olmiitz, Moravia, cattle; Mohapl, 1914

136 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Local place names, archaeological sites, ete. (continued): Omsk, Siberia, Academy of; Amschler, 1931 Ouenat, Libyan desert, fauna; Breuil and Kemal el Dine, 1928 Pocala (cave), Italy, domestic animals; Riedel, 1948 Quena, Egypt, rock-drawings; Winkler, 1938-39 Rana Ghundai, Baluchistan, domestic animals; Piggot, 1950 Ringsjén, Sweden, pigs; Pira, 1909 Roda, Egypt, mummified animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 Rantasalami, Finland, hand-drawn sledges; Luho, 1948 Saasigéroi (moors), Finland, drag-sledge; Sirelius, 1916-20 Saint-Aubin, Switzerland, cattle; Dottrens, 1946; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 dogs; Reverdin, 1927-28 domestic animals; Reverdin, 1921, 1928 St. Georghe-Bedehaza, Transylvania, dog and horse; Teodoreanu, 1926 Sakkara, Egypt, mummified animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 Salers, France, cattle; Adametz, 1925 Sandomierz, Poland, domestic animals; Zurowski, 1930 Satrupholm Moor, Germany, cattle; Herre, 1949 Schaffis, Switzerland, Capra prisca; Adametz, 1941 Schleinbach, Austria, goat; Sickenberg, 1930; Vetulani, 1934 Seematte, Switzerland, domestic animals; Hescheler and Riiger, 1940, 1942 Sha’ar ha-Golan, Palestine, domestic animals; Stekelis, 1950 Shaheinab, Sudan, fauna; Bate, 1953 Shah Tepe, Iran, fauna; Amschler, 1939a, b Sialk, Iran, domestic animals; Vaufrey, 1939 Sinjar (see Grai Resh) Sipplingen, Switzerland, domestic animals; Vogel, 1933 Sjgholmen, Sweden, dog; Dahr, 1937 Skara Brae, Scotland, domestic animals; Watson, 1931 Star Carr, England, fauna; Fraser and King, 1954 Stora Forvar (cave), Sweden, fauna; Pira, 1926 Stora Karlsé (island), Sweden, fauna; Pira, 1926 Strandegaard, Denmark, cattle; Bronholm and Rassmussen, 1931 Susa, Iran, horse; Amschler, 1936 Svardborg Moor, Denmark, dogs; Degerbgl, 1927, 1933b; Johansen, 1919 Taanek, Palestine, camel; Isserlin, 1950 Tall Chagar Bazar (see Chagar Bazar) Tartaren, Spain, cattle; Staffe, 1943 Tell Asmar, Mesopotamia, domestic animals; Hilzheimer, 1934, 1941 Tell Halaf, Mesopotamia, animal representations; Friederichs, 1933 Tell Hassuna, Iraq, fauna; Lloyd and Safer, 1945 Tell Mefesh, Syria, domestic animals; Mallowan, 1946 Tepe Sialk, Iran, equids; Childe, 1941 (see also Sialk) Teplitz, Bohemia, horses; Nitsche, 1928 pigs; Nitsche, 1924 Téviec, France, dog; Pequart, 1937 Thebes, Egypt, mummified animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 Toukh, Egypt, fauna; Gaillard, 1934 goats; Bate, 1953 Trelleborg, Denmark, cattle; Mathiassen, 1944 Tripolje, Ukraine, horses; Amschler, 1936 Troy, Anatolia, domestic animals; Gejvali, 1937-38, 1938-39 Tschuwasia, Kazan, pig; Havesson, 1933 Turopolje, Croatia, pig; Ritzoffy, 1933 Umm-es-Sawan (see Fayum) Ur, Mesopotamia, domestic animals; Woolley, 1934 Ur, Sumeria, animal representations; Friederichs, 1933 Girgentini goat; Amschler, 1932 horse genealogy; Amschler, 1935 spiral-horned goat; Adametz, 1932, 1941 Uwenat (oasis), Egypt, rock-drawings; Winkler, 1938-39 Vindonissa, Switzerland, domestic animals; Kramer, 1900 Wadi El-Mughara caves, Palestine, dog; Bate, 1937

GENERAL INDEX

Local place names, archaeological sites, etc. (continued): Wauwy! (Lake), Switzerland, domestic animals; Hescheler and Ruger, 1939 fauna; Hescheler, 1920 Wellington caves, New South Wales, dingo; Etheridge, 1916 Windmill Hill, England, fauna; Childe, 1940 Wurten, Holland, fauna; Van Giffen, 1914 Zloezow, Poland, Capra prisca; Adametz, 1915 goats; Vetulani, 1934 Zlota, Poland, Capra prisca; Adametz, 1928 domestie animals; Zurowski, 1930 goat; Vetulani, 1934 Zufilear Pass, cattle through to India; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 Ziirich, Switzerland, domestic animals; Wettstein, 1924 Lop ear, goat; Dalimier, 1954

Man, evolution of; Rice, 1942 Man’s behavior adapted to reindeer behavior; Zeuner, 1954 Markhor horns; Hilzheimer, 1933 Mastodon, American; Galbreath, 1947 Mechanism of evolution and domestication; Klatt, 1927, 1948 Mendes, Ram of; Diirst and Gaillard, 1902 Migrations, dog; Noack, 1915b Milking, cattle, Libyan Desert; Shaw, 1936 deer, South Carolina; Swanton, 1940 goats; Coon, 1951 Mitanni kings and introduction of horse; Smith, 1928 Mixed farming, Syria; Mallowan, 1946 Modifications of cranium, dog; Noack, 1907 Monophyletic ancestry, cattle; Van Giffen, 1914 origin, horse; Lundholm, 1949 Mortuary food-gifts; Jettmar, 1950 Mounds of refuge, Holland; Reitsma, 1932, 1935 Mounted invaders, radiation center of; Hancar, 1952 Mousterian artifacts with dog, Russia; Studer, 1906 Mule, Asia, southwest; Friederichs, 1933 China; Erkes, 1940 first occurrence; Amschler, 1933 Mummies, animals; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-1909 dogs, South America; Cabrera, 1932 Mummified cats, Egypt; Morrison-Scott, 1952 Mummified head, dog, Peru; Noack, 1915a Mutations; Mangelsdorf, 1952 defective, dogs; Krieg, 1929 deleterious in wild; Nachtsheim, 1938 in domestication, rabbit; Nachtsheim, 1929 selection of; Nachtsheim, 1938

Names of breeds; Mason, 1951

Natural area, domestication; Feige, 1928

Natural evolution; Mangelsdorf, 1952

Neolithic cattle, British Isles; Wilson, 1909

Neoteny, pig; Baumler, 1921; Kelm, 1938

Nomadic pastoralism, Ukraine; Hancar, 1951 Nomadic, semi-, population; Josien, 1955

Nomadism, reindeer; Hatt, 1919

Nomads and domestication; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1955 Nomenclature, domestic animals; Keller, 1902 Nor-adrenalin, role in socialization; Funkenstein, 1955 Nubian wild goat; Gaillard, 1912

O, blood-group, sheep; Kaecrkowski, 1928 Oases, cattle in, Egypt; Winkler, 1938-39

137

138 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Offerings for the gods; Meissner, 1926 Onager; Rumjancev, 1936 France: Boule, 1910; Bourdelle, 1938 Mesopotamia; Hilzheimer, 1934, 1935, 1941 Near East; Antonius, 1935a Syria; Mallowan, 1947 Ontogenetice sequence, pig; Kelm, 1938 stages; Hilzheimer, 1928 Oracle bones, pictures on; Sowerby, 1935 Orbital plane, canids; Dahr, 1937 Origins of domestication; Meissner, 1926 Ovibovid, Illinois; Galbreath, 1947 Ox-buffalo, Egypt; Brunton and Caton-Thompson, 1928 Oxen (see Cattle)

Pack animal, reindeer used as; Sirelius, 1916-20 Pack animals; Werth, 1940 Pack horses, Europe, eastern; Clark, 1941 Parallel characters, domestic animals; Nachtsheim, 1936 under domestication; Weidenreich, 1925 Parallel evolution; Herre, 1952 Parallel modifications; Klatt, 1948 Pastoral culture; Flor, 1930 Pastoralism, Asia; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 and domestication; Page, 1939 increase of, in Ukraine; Tackenberg, 1954 lack of, in China; Bishop, 1933 not associated with pigs; Newberry, 1928 Ukraine; Hanear, 1951 Pasture oases, cattle in, Egypt; Winkler, 1938-39 Pathological characters, fixation of; Weidenreich, 1925 Pedigree chart, horse, Ur, Mesopotamia; Amschler, 1935 Pelages of cats, wild and domestic; Zeuner, 1950 Peoples: Akkadians, camel; Forbes, 1955 Arawak, “aleo’’ dogs; Hummerlink, 1928 Aryan tribes, southern Asia, horse; Antonius, 1918 Assyrians, cattle; Diirst, 1900 camels; Forbes, 1955 Babylonians, cattle; Diirst, 1900 Bantu, domestic animals; Kroll, 1928 Bedouins, dromedary; Forbes, 1955 Chorwa, southwestern Asia, cattle; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 Chukchi, reindeer-breeding; Wiklund, 1918 Egyptians, origin of domestic animals; Adametz, 1920 eattle; Diirst, 1900 dromedary; Forbes, 1955 Hamites, dispersal, Africa; Adametz, 1920 Egypt, eattle-herders; Winkler, 1938-39 greyhound into eastern Africa; Kroll, 1928 Koryak (Lapps), reindeer-breeding; Wiklund, 1918 Lapps, acquiring of reindeer; Laufer, 1917 Mitanni, introduction of horse; Smith, 1928 Negritos, India, original domestic animals; Randhawa, 1946 Persians, dromedary into Egypt; Mikesell, 1955 Proto-Altaian, central Asia, horse; Flor, 1930 Proto-Australoids, India, domestic animals; Randhawa, 1946 Romans, cats into Europe; Zeuner, 1950 Samoyeds, origin of reindeer domestication; Laufer, 1917 Sumerians, Girgentini goat; Adametz, 1941 onager; Hilzheimer, 1934, 1935, 1941

GENERAL INDEX 139

Peoples (continued): Sumerians, sheep and goat; Adametz, 1920 Physiological adaptations to survival, domestication; Zeuner, 1954 Physiological background of domestication; Nachtsheim, 1936 Physiological factors in domestication; Herre, 1951 Pig-breeding center, Egypt; Menghin and Amar, 1932 Pigmentation of domestic animals; Feige, 1927, 1928 Physiology: absorption tests, cattle; Sasaki, 1934 adrenal production, wolf and dog; Scott, 1954 adrenals, hypofunction, rat; Richter, 1952 Pigs, breeds and/or types: Berkshire; Kelm, 1938 Dutch mound-hog; Reitsma, 1935 Mangalitza; Cardas, 1926; Ritzoffy, 1932 Siska; Ritzoffy, 1932 South Slavian; Ritzoffy, 1932 Tschuwasian; Havesson, 1933 turbary; Gaillard, 1934; Havesson, 1933; Madsen, 1900; Nitsche, 1924; Otto, 1901; Pira, 1909; Ulmansky, 1914 Pigs, domestic and/or possibly domestic: Austria; Ulmansky, 1914 Bohemia; Nitsche, 1924 China; Bishop, 1933, 1939 Egypt; Menghin, 1933; Menghin and Amar, 1932; Newberry, 1928; Randall- Maclver and Mace, 1902; Staffe, 1938 Eurasia; Adlerberg, 1933; Belic, 1939; Philiptschenko, 1933 southern; Menghin, 1931 Europe; Clark, 1947; Reitsma, 1935 central; Ritzoffy, 1932, 1933 Holland; Reitsma, 1935 Indonesia; Adlerberg, 1933 Iran; Amschler, 1939b Palestine; Vaufrey, 1931 Sweden; Pira, 1909 Switzerland; Otto, 1901 Pigs, wild: Sire Adlerberg, 1933; Amon, 1938; Belic, 1939; Kelm, 1939; Philiptschenko, i Europe; Reitsma, 1935 Palearctic; Kelm, 1938 Palestine; Bate, 1942 Sweden; Pira, 1909 Pisang (see Goat, bezoar) Place names, local (see Local place names) Plants, cultivated; Mangelsdorf, 1952 Plough-culture; Hahn, 1909 Mongolian; Werth, 1940 Polecat, Asiatic; Ashton and Thompson, 1955 European; Ashton and Thompson, 1955 Polled cattle, genetics; Auld, 1927 Polyphyletie ancestry of cattle; Szalay, 1930 Polyphyletic origin of horse; Ewart, 1904, 1909 Pony, Mongolian; Lydekker, 1912a Shetland; Bourdelle and Trombe, 1946; Chubb, 1913 Post-glacial climatic change and tarpan; Vetulani, 1928 Poultry (see Fowl, jungle) Pre-adaptation for domestication; Hediger, 1938; Zeuner, 1954 Precipitation tests, cattle; Merkens, 1929 Protein, pig as major source, China; Bishop, 19338 Purpose, lack of in origin of domestication; Zeuner, 1954

140 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Purposive planning, domestication, Egypt; Zeuner, 1954 Queen Hatshepsut; Chard, 1937

Rabbit, Europe; Nachtsheim, 1929

Racial fixation of characters; Weidenreich, 1925

Radiation center, mounted invaders; Hanear, 1952

Rage, endocrine factors in; Funkenstein, 1955

Ram of Ammon, Egypt; Pia, 1942b

Ram of Mendes; Diirst and Gaillard, 1902

Rat, domestication of; Richter, 1952

Refuge mounds, Holland; Reitsma, 1932, 1935

Reindeer; Flor, 1930; von Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1955; Hatt, 1919; Hilzheimer, 1913; Jettmar, 1952; Laufer, 1917; Linton, 1955; Luho, 1948; Mirov, 1945; W. Schmidt, 1951; Sirelius, 1916-20; Werth, 1940; Wiklund, 1918; Zeuner, 1954

Riding animals; Menghin, 1931

Routes of dispersal; Sauer, 1952

Saarigarvi-Tarvala sledge; Luho, 1948 Sacred eattle, Egypt; Mond and Myers, 1934 Sacrificial animals and domestication; Staffe, 1939 Sacrificial purpose for breeding cattle; Whitehead, 1953 Sahara Desert, transportation across; Newbold, 1928 and dromedary; Lhote, 1953; Mikesell, 1955 and horse; Lhote, 1953 Seavenger wolves as potential dogs; Zeuner, 1954 Seavengers and domestication of wolves; Scott, 1954 Seulpture, animal, Egypt; Pia, 1941 Seals, Sweden; Pira, 1926 domestic animals on, Indus Valley; Mackay, 1938 with horse pedigree, Ur; Amschler, 1935 Selection; Herre, 1951 artificial; Epstein, 1933; Herre, 1952; Klatt, 1927, 1948; Mangelsdorf, 1952; Nachtsheim, 1929, 1938; Richter, 1952; Seott, 1954 artificial, religious; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 natural; Krieg, 1929 Selective breeding; Dalimier, 1954 Selective slaughtering, goats; Coon, 1951 Semi-domesticated dogs, Gran Chaco; Krieg, 1929 Semi-nomadic population, Palestine; Josien, 1955 Sequence of domestication; Werth, 1939; Wissler, 1945 Set, cult-animal of, Egypt; Newberry, 1928 Settled culture and rock-painting; Staffe, 1938 Sexual differentiation in cattle; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 Sheep, breeds and/or types; Lydekker, 1912c bronze; Reitsma, 1932 Bukharian; Carruthers, 1949 copper; Antonius, 1944; Ewart, 1913; Diirst, 1904; Patterson, 1937 Drentsch Heide; Reitsma, 1932 English southdown; Kacrkowski, 1928 fat-rumped; Adametz, 1927; Ewart, 1914 fat-tailed; Philiptschenko, 1928 fleecy; Slawkowski, 1933 Forvar; Pira, 1926 Frisian milk; Reitsma, 1932 goat-horned; Adametz, 1937; Pia, 1942b Heidschnucke; Adametz, 1937 Hissar; Amschler, 1929b long-tailed; Ewart, 1912 merino; Burns and Moody, 1935 Montagne; Cardas, 1926

GENERAL INDEX

Sheep, breeds and/or types (continued): peat (see turbary) Polish; Kacrkowski, 1928 primitive; Amschler, 1929b screw-horned (see spiral-horned) Shetland; Ewart, 1913 Soay; Adametz, 1937; Ewart, 1913; Schultze, 1934 southdown, English; Kacrkowski, 1928 spiral-horned; Diirst and Gaillard, 1902; Ewart, 1912; Mallowan, 1947 terp; Reitsma, 1932

141

turbary; Adametz, 1937; Diirst, 1904; Ewart, 1913; Madsen, 1900; Patterson,

1937; Pilgrim, 1947 twisted-horned (see spiral-horned) Tzourcana; Cardas, 1926 Wallachian; Diirst and Gaillard, 1902 Zackel; Adametz, 1937

Sheep, domestic and/or possibly domestic; Burkhill, 1935; Burns and Moody, 1935; Ewart, 1912, 1913, 1914; Fairservis, 1955; Hilzheimer, 1936; Lydekker, 1912c

Afriea, north; Thilenius, 1900 Bukhara; Adametz, 1927

Egypt; Adametz, 1920

Eurasia; Adametz, 1937

Europe; Clark, 1947

Holland; Reitsma, 1932

Iran; Amschler, 1939a, b

Iraq; Lloyd and Safer, 1945 Mesopotamia; Adametz, 1927; Heinrich, 1936 Siberia, northern; Jettmar, 1950 Sudan; Bate, 1949, 1953

Sumeria; Adametz, 1920 Switzerland; Diirst, 1904 Tadzhikistan; Amschler, 1929b Turkestan, western; Menghin, 1931

Sheep, wild; Carruthers, 1949; Heinrich, 1936; Hilzheimer, 1936; Lydekker, 1912c.

argali; Ewart, 1912, 1913, 1914; Philiptschenko, 1928 Barbary; Thilenius, 1900

mouflon; Adametz, 1937; Diirst, 1904; Ewart, 1912, 1913, 1914; Kacrkowski,

1928; Pira, 1926

urial; Adametz, 1937; Ewart, 1912, 1913, 1914 Sites, archaeological (see Local place names) Skin, rabbit, genetics of; Nachtsheim, 1929 Sledge, dog; Werth, 1940

use with reindeer, Finland; Sirelius, 1916—20 Sledge-cultures, Eurasia, north; Wiklund, 1918 Sledge-driving; Luho, 1948 Sledges, Finland; Luho, 1948 Slender-limbed horses; Ewart, 1909 Small wild cattle, Eurasia; Koby, 1954 Social animals’ adaptations to domestication; Zeuner, 1954 Social animals and adrenal hormones; Funkenstein, 1955 Social life, wolves, cooperative; Scott, 1954 Speciation of camel, Asia; Robinson, 1936

of domestic animals; Mangelsdorf, 1952 Spirited dogs, Sudan; Newbold, 1928 Statistical analyses of sub-fossil materials; Riedel, 1951 Statistical study, cattle ancestors; Van Giffen, 1914 Statistics; Dahr, 1942

of cat skulls; Morrison-Scott, 1952

large series; Hildebrand, 1955 Steer of Apis; Lortet and Gaillard, 1903-09 Steppe tarpan, Russia; Vetulani, 1928 Stock-farmer, Africa; Kroll, 1928 Stock-farming, Egypt; Menghin, 1933

142 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY, VOLUME 54

Stunted pig; Belic, 1939

Subspecies, ecological, of cats; Zeuner, 1950 Survival by flight; Funkenstein, 1955 Swine (see Pigs)

Swine-breeding culture; Menghin, 1931

Tail carriage, dog; Scott, 1954 Tamed horse, Paleolithic; Munro, 1902 Tamed reindeer; Hatt, 1919 Taming, domestication not following; Nachtsheim, 1938 Taming of wild animals; Meissner, 1926 Tasmanian devil; Etheridge, 1916 Tasmanian wolf; Etheridge, 1916 Tapir, China, north; Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936 Taurine cattle; Leister, 1943 Taxocline, pig; Kelm, 1939 Teeth, Wellington Caves, New South Wales; Etheridge, 1916 Terpen, dogs from, Holland; Van Giffen, 1929

fauna of, Holland; Van Giffen, 1914

pig from, Holland; Reitsma, 1935

sheep from, Holland; Reitsma, 1932 Tillage, Ukraine; Hanear, 1951 Transition stage, pig, wild to domestic; Pira, 1909 Transport purposes and origin of domestication; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 Transportation, Sahara, pre-Christian; Newbold, 1928 Triphyletic origin of sheep; Keller, 1902 Turkey, Central America; Curwen and Hatt, 1953 Tylopoda, South America (see Camelidae, South America)

Udder of cow, figurine; Randall-MaclIver and Mace, 1902 Udders, cattle, Libyan Desert; Shaw, 1936 Ungulates, domestic; Feige, 1928 Unicorns, Indus valley; Roy, 1946 Urus; Clark, 1952; Hilzheimer, 1927; von Lengerken, 1953, 1955; Lydekker, 191 2a Africa; Bisschop, 1937 Asia; Chlebaroff, 1929-30; Melnyk, 1927 British Isles; Childe, 1940; Whitehead, 1953; Wilson, 1909 Denmark; Degerbgl, 1933b Europe; Hescheler and Riiger, 1942; Herre, 1949 France; Koby, 1954 Indus Valley; Roy, 1946 Iran; Coon, 1952 Switzerland; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 Ukraine; Gromova, 1927

Variability, skulls, polecats and ferrets; Ashton and Thompson, 1955 Variation, cattle; Melnyk, 1927 in behavior, dogs; Scott, 1954 individual, bones; Hildebrand, 1955 individual, pigs; Reitsma, 1935 range of, in dog mandibles; Reverdin, 1927-28 sexual, cattle; Revilliod and Dottrens, 1947 Varieties (see Breeds) Vegetative planting and domestication; Sauer, 1952 Vicugna; Herre, 1952; Steinbacher, 1953 Viking invasions and British cattle; Whitehead, 1953

Water buffalo (see Buffalo, water)

White, genetic dominant in cattle; Whitehead, 1953 Wild animals, taming of; Meissner, 1926

Wildness, selection against; Richter, 1952; Seott, 1954

GENERAL INDEX 143

Wolf; Antonius, 1944; Baas, 1938; Brinkmann, 1923-24; Dahr, 1937, 1942; Deger- bgl, 1933b; Diirst, 1945; Hilzheimer, 1908, 1932; Keller, 1902; Matthey, 1954; Noack, 1907; Van Giffen, 1929

England; Fraser and King, 1954

Eurasia; Scott, 1954

Europe, north; Gehl, 1930

Indian; Brinkmann, 1921; Noack, 1915b; Prashad, 1936 Wool; Fairservis, 1955

Tadzhikistan; Amschler, 1929b

Yak, Asia, central; Amschler, 1932 history of; Amschler, 1932 Tibet; Werth, 1940

Zebu; Epstein, 1933; Ewart, 1912; Szalay, 1930 Africa; Antonius, 1919; Bisschop, 1937 Asia; Kolesnik, 1936 East Indies; Merkens, 1929; Sommerfeld, 1927 Formosa; Sasaki, 1934 India; Koppers and Jungblut, 1942-45 northwestern; Prashad, 1936 Indo-China; Vittor, 1933 Indus Valley; Sewell and Guhr, 1931 Zoogeography (see Geographic distribution)

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