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THE FOOT-PRINTS OF THE CREATOR ; or, the Asterolepsis of Stro:
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COMPARATIVE PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY ; or, the
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KITTO’S POPULAR CYCLOPADIA OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE, OCon-
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A ¥Y/REATH AROUND THE CROSS; or, Scripture Truth Illustrated. By
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and consolation to enquiring sinners.”

GUYOT’S MURAL MAP OF THE WORLD, on a large scale, (5 by 7 feet,) for

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THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPECIES; its typical forms and
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will be matured, by being employed on objects so entirely within his reach as the words which he
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5000 learn to reflect on the thoughts which these words represent.”

(From Hon. J.C. Spencer,}
ALBANY, June 18th, 1851.

More than twenty years 4 I procured the Quarto edition, and have used it constantly ever
since. My pursuits in life have rendered it necess to consult it frequently, as well as other
works of 2 kindred or similar character, particularly Dr. Johnson’s Quarto, of the latest and best
edition, Richardson’s Dictionary, Crabbe’s Synonyms, and Horne Took’s Diversions of Purley.
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while in many cases, perhaps in the majority of them, the works referred too have failed to give
the desired information, that of Dr. Webster has always furnished precisely what has been desired,
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It is wnquestionably the very best Dictionary of our language extant. It is a model of copious-
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shea Q, :

“Yn revising and publishing an enlarged edition of this invaluable work at so cheap a rate as to

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Published by G. & C. MERRIAM, Springfield, Mass., and for sale by Booksellers generally.

AOGQUATVE Oty pt

hens

~

| SCIENTIE

or

I hitig Sh

47
ay .

7 be «eae |
A LIST OF RECENT SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS; A CLASSIFIED LIST OF
PATENTS; OBITUARIES OF EMINENT SCIENTIFIC MEN; NOTES ON
THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE PURING THE YEAR 1ésg, ETO, ETO.

‘er a

; EDITED BY

DAVID A. WELLS, A. M.

| BOSTON;
GOULD AND LIN@®OLN,-

59 WASHINGTON STREET.

ites ll oe 853. ry 4xveil 5 5

Po

~g

2

; 5) F y

j fpr f F

Bee: ah 2 Spine ae Sees
/

Gould & Lincoln, Ihoston,

ANNUAL

or

SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY:

YEAR-BOOK OF FACTS IN SCIENCE AND ART,

FOR 1802.

EXHIBITING THE

MOST IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS

IN

MECHANICS, USEFUL ARTS, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,
ASTRONOMY, METEOROLOGY, ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, MINER-
ALOGY, GEOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, ANTIQUITIES, &e.

TOGETHER WITH

A LIST OF RECENT SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS; A CLASSIFIED LIST OF
PATENTS; OBITUARIES OF EMINENT SCIENTIFIC MEN; NOTES ON
THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE DURING THE YEAR 1852, ETC. ETC.

EDITED BY

DAVIDA. WELLS; #4. °M,

BOSTON:
GOULD AND LINGOL®M,
59 WASHINGTON STREET.

1853.

Entered according to an Act of Congress, in the year 1858,
Br GOULD & LINCOLN,
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusettr.

\

G. C. Rann, Printer, 8 Cornhill, Boston.

PREFACE.

THE present number completes the fourth yearly vol-
ume of the Annual of Scientific Discovery. In its
preparation, the Editor has followed the general plan
indicated and developed in the former numbers of
the work. :

The mental activity at present displayed in developing
new principles and modifying old ones, to meet the
wants of practical industry, in cheapening and improving
the production and preparation of all raw materials, and
disseminating useful knowledge, is probably greater than
at any former period of the world’s history. Under
these circumstances, the labor of preparing an annual
retrospect has been greatly increased. The Editor has,
however, endeavored to present as faithful an abstract
of the progress of science and the useful arts during
the year eighteen hundred and fifty-two, as the limits
of the present volume would allow. The field for

26 (oF

4 PREFACE.

enlargement is ample, and would willingly be entered
upon, were sufficient promise of encouragement afforded
by the public.

The annual summary of ‘“ Notes by the Editor on the
Progress of Science ” has been considerably enlarged,
and embraces several topics of interest, which could not
conveniently be included in the body of the work.

We present our readers for 1853 with a portrait of
Prof. ALEXANDER Dauuas BacuHeE, President of the
American Association for 1850-51, and Superintendent
of the United States Coast Survey.

Boston, February, 1853.

NOTES BY THE EDITOR

ON THE

PROGRESS OF SCIENCE IN 1852.

In reviewing the progress of Science during the past year, 1852, it is
especially to be remarked, that the annual record of discoveries in all the
branches of science and the useful arts, is more characterized by its utility
than by its brilliancy. The following remarks, appositely observed of the
transactions of the British Association for 1842, apply equally well to the
general scientific progress of the year 1852 :— “ We have this year no great
scientific novelty, theory, or discovery, brought upon the tapis, and claim-
ing the attention of philosophers. There is no voyage to the South Pole
to be promoted, — there is no hypothesis of glaciers to astonish the world,
— there are no observations of the nature of storms to throw a light on those
terrible visitations, —there is no doctrine and measurement of waves, or on
the form of vessels, — there is no new feature in the grand research into the
mysteries of magnetism, —in short, except the idea of following up the
investigation of meteorological phenomena by means of balloons, we have
heard of nothing very particular. Let it, however, be understood, that in
all branches of science, steady progress has been made and recorded. Data
of high consequence are collected, both to check future mistakes, and
advance future information. Induction, the true basis of all truth, will
flourish upon these ; and therefore, though there is nothing extraordinary
in this stage of the onward journey, the distances and milestones are fairly
marked so far, and the prospects in the distance are rendered much more
clear and distinct. The way to the field is beaten, and its ample survey
defined. There is nothing needed but to march on, take time, and labor to
a useful end.”

Europe, as if her energies were overtasked by the demands of the Great
Exhibition year of 1851, has given us in 1852 nothing particularly new,

6 NOTES BY THE EDITOR

striking, or wonderful ; no new application of science to art,and no mechan-
ical or chemical discovery of striking interest have been announced in the
United States during the same period. Notwithstanding, many great plans
are now in the process of development, many new ideas are germinating,
and many old ones, which have long slumbered in the domains of theory
are passing into real, substantial, practical facts. During the year 1852,
more than one thousand patents for discoveries, inventions, and applications,
“new and useful” were granted by the United States. More than three-
fourths of these patents were granted to citizens of the five states of Massa-
chusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. As many as
three applications for patents from the same sources were probably rejected,
where one was granted. The public journals are filled with accounts of the
commercial prosperity induced by the gold discoveries .of Australia and
‘California; but the journalists and the public little know how many secret
springs and incentives to invention and practical application, the same influx
of gold, and the consequent revival of manufactures, has occasioned.
There is an intensity of mental action and thought, devoted to the realiza-
tion of the useful and the new, now pervading some portions of our country,
especially in Massachusetts, the like of which the world has never before
witnessed. The American operatives, mechanics and manufacturers, who
have in vain sought protection from the National Government, are now
creating protection for themselves; educated industry, and skill are rapidly
forming a tariff, which in a few years will undoubtedly put foreign compe-
tition at defiance. Another curious fact in relation to this subject, is the
intensity of competition which the mental activity referred to has engen-
dered. An original thought, or a new idea, admitting the possibility of a
practical application, when once promulgated becomes common property.
A hundred minds at once seize upon it, elaborate it, perfect it. The engines
of Ericsson had barely made a successful revolution before an improvement
by another was announced in the New York Journals. The U.S. Court
were recently occupied at Boston with a closely contested case respeeting
the validity of two patents for cotton-gins; the trial had not concluded
before a new gin was put in operation which will undoubtedly render all
others valueless. The discussions and experiments in England respecting
the manufacture of flax by new processes, have awakened great interest in
the subject in the United States, and more is probably known here at pres-
ent in relation to this matter, than in Europe. We believe the day is not
far distant, when the manufacture of flax will be conducted in the United
States upon a most gigantic scale. We turn, however, from these generali-
zations to some of the more particular events of the past year.
The annual meeting of the American Association, for 1852, appointed to
be held in Cleveland, in August, was postponed on account of the prevail-

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. T

ing cholera in that region, and the great heat of the season. The place and
time for the next regular meeting have not yet been determined by the
Executive Committee. :

The twenty-second annual meeting of the British Association, for the
Advancement of Science, was held at Belfast, Ireland, September Ist ; Col
Sabine presiding. The attendance was somewhat less numerous than in
1851, and the papers read, had for the most part, a local rather than a gen-
eral*interest. Among the important measures taken by the Association,
was a strong representation to the British Government, respecting the
importance of sending out an expedition for the purpose of studying the
phenomena of tides, especially those of the Atlantic Ocean. The President
elected for 1853 is William Hopkins, President of the Geological Society,
and of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.

From the annual address of the President we copy the following passa-
ges: —‘‘ Hitherto the researches of Sidereal Astronomy, even in their
widest extension, had manifested the existence of those forces only with
which we are familiar in our own solar system. The refinements of modern
observation and the perfection of theoretical representation had assured us
that the orbits in which the double stars, immeasurably distant from us,
revolve around each other, are governed by the same laws of molecular
attraction which determine the orbits of the planetary bodies of our own
system. But the Nebulz have revealed to us the probable existence in the
yet more distant universe, of forces with which we were previously unac-
quainted. The highest authorities in this most advanced of all the sciences
acknowledge themselves unable even to conjecture the nature of the forces
which have produced and maintain the diverse, yet obviously systematic,
arrangement of the hosts of stars, which constitute those few of the Spiral
Nebulz which have been hitherto examined. Hence the importance of
increasing our knowledge of the variety of forms in which the phenomena
present themselves, by a similar examination of the Southern Heavens to
that which Lord Rosse is accomplishing in the Northern Heavens. In
addition we can scarcely forbear to covet at least an occasional glance at
bodies which from their greater proximity have more intimate relations with
ourselves, and which, when viewed with so vast an increase of optical power,
may afford instruction of the highest value in many branches of physical
science. In our own satellite, for example, we have the opportunity of
studying the physical conformation and superficial phenomena of a body
composed, as we believe mainly at least, of the same materials as those of
our own globe, but possessing neither atmosphere nor sea. When we
reflect how much of the surface of the earth consists of sedimentary
deposites, and consequently ‘how large a portion of the whole field of geo-
logical research is occupied with strata which owe their principal charac-

2

8 NOTES BY THE EDITOR

teristics to the ocean in which they were deposited, we cannot but anticipate
many instructive lessons which may be furnished by the points of contrast,

as well as of resemblance, which the surface of the moon, viewed through
Lord Rosse’s telescope, may present to the best judgment we are able to
form of what the appearance of the earth would be if similarly viewed, or
— with ‘what may be more difficult perhaps to imagine — what we may
suppose the earth would appear if it could be stript of its sedimentary strata,
which conceal from us for the most part the traces of that internal aétion
which has played so large a part in moulding the great outlines of the
present configuration of its surface. It is understood that Lord Rosse him-
self participates in the wish that such an examination of the surface of the
moon should be made, and, should the desire of the Association be
expressed to that effect, is willing to undertake it in conjunction with one
or two other gentlemen possessing the necessary physical and geological
knowledge. It will be for the Association to determine the form in which
a report on the “Physical Features of the Moon, compared wath those of
the Earth,” may most appropriately be requested.

The German Association for the advancement of Science held its 29th
annual meeting at Wiesbaden, commencing September 18th. The attend-
ance was very numerous, nearly 800 members being present. Dr. Fresen-
ius was President of the Association, and Prof. Sandberger, Secretary. A
public address was delivered by Prof. Nees von Esenbeck, of Breslau.

To be a privileged member of this Association, with the right of speak-
ing and voting in the meetings, it is necessary to have written some work
bearing on natural history, physics, or medicine; but to become a temporary
associate, with the right of being present as a listener merely at all the
scientific meetings, as well as of taking part in all the festive social reunions,
is free to every one on the very moderate payment of two Prussian dollars.
The next meeting of the Association was appointed to be held at
Tubingen. P

A “Hygienic Congress,” consisting of gentlemen of different countries,
who take an interest in promoting the health of towns and the welfare of
the working classes, was held in Brussels, in September About 200 gen-
tlemen, Belgians and foreigners, were present, —nearly all the Scientific
Societies of Europe being represented. The work was done in four differ-
ent sections :— one, charged to occupy itself with workmen’s houses, baths,
wash houses, and hospitals; another, with sewers, &c., the distribution of
water, and ventilation; the third, with the organization of public health, the
maintaining of children, interments, and cemeteries; and the fourth, with
the adulteration of food, the labor of children in work shops, and
prostitution.

The Scientific Congress of France, held its annual session at Toulouse,

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 9

commencing on the 13th of September. Count de Peyronnet, of the Acad-
emy of Bordeaux, was elected President of the meeting.

A new Geological Institufe has been formed during the past year at
Vienna, the principal object of which will be, the production of a series of
geological maps of the Austrian dominions :— the whole of which gigantic
undertaking may be completed, it is to be hoped, within thirty years, —
beginning} with Austria proper, and proceeding gradually to the Italian,
Hungarian, and Bohemian dominions. The institution is under the direc-
tion of Prof. Haidinger.

A circular has been issued by several of the prominent geologists of our
country, proposing the organization of an Association of American geolo-
gists, somewhat on the plan of the Geological Societies of England and
France. It is not intended, that the members of the society should sever
their connection with the American Association, but it is thought, that by
means of meetings or sittings of the Society, or of its Committees, to be
held at regular and irregular intervals, to be fixed by the Association, and
at places where interesting and disputed questions arise, or even of ambu-
latory character, in the field, quicker and surer results would be arrived at;
and the conclusions would be more satisfactory at home, as well as more
respected abroad.

A National Agricultural Society composed of delegates from the different
States and Territories, has been formed at Washington, during the past
year. Marshall P. Wilder, of Massachusetts, has been elected President,
with a Vice President from each State.

The French Government have recently instituted a General Horticultural
Society for all France, which is to consist of titular and honorary members,
and of an unlimited number of foreign correspondents. It is to occupy
itself with all matters connected with horticultural science; to publish a
monthly volume of “ annals” thereon ; to give prizes for elementary works ;
and to grant certificates of horticultural merit.

A most noble and princely donation to the cause of science and art has
been made by Mr. Peter Cooper, of New York. The plan proposed is
essentially educational in its features, and has in view the moral and intel-
lectual elevation of the youth of the city of New York.- A large building
is now erecting in New York as the nucleus of the institution, the cost of
which, together with the land will amount to $300,000; the building is to
contain a “sculpture and picture gallery, exhibition hall, library, lecture-
room and observatory. Books, apparatus, instructors, &c., are to be provided,
and it is intended that the institution shall enjoy an annual income of
$25,000.”

Among the other donations made in behalf of Science in the United
States during the past year, we would mention the following : — George

10 NOTES BY THE EDITOR

Peabody, Esq., the eminent London banker, has given to the town of Dan-
vers, Mass., which is his native place, the sum of twenty thousand dollars
for the establishment of a lyceum and library and the erection of the neces-
sary buildings.

The sum of $50,000 has also been given by Joshua Bates Esq., of London,
to the city of Boston, to aid in the establishment of a free public library.

Dr. George C. Shattuck, of Boston, has presented Dartmouth College
with $7,000, to be used in the erection of an observatory, on condition that
the trustees of the college will raise the further sum of $8,000 for the pur-
chase of instruments.

The sum of $1,000 has been given by Hon. Jonathan Phillips, of Boston,
to the American Academy, for the purpose of defraying the expense of its
publications.

The expenses of a new Expedition in search of Sir John Franklin and
for Arctic exploration, are to be defrayed by Henry Grinnell, of New York,
and George Peabody, of London.

Five hundred dollars have been voted by the Board of Underwriters to
the Geographical Society, at its solicitation, to be devoted to a series of
magnetic observations to be made under the direction of Dr. Kane, the
Arctic Explorer on his next expedition.

Within a few years, a number of projects have been set on foot in New
York, for the establishment of an astronomical observatory in that city or
vicinity, but they have all failed, mainly from want of means and encour-
agement. A new enterprise has recently been started, with a fair prospect
of success. The “American Observatory Association,” issue a prospectus
for the establishment of an Observatory on the Palisades, above Fort Lee,
on the basis of a joint-stock association, self-governed. Four hundred
shares are to be offered at twenty-five dollars each, and the names of many
prominent citizens of New York are pledged to the work. The originator
of the plan is Mr. Leon Lewenberg, of New York, who proposes to endow.
the Observatory with a sufficient tract of land, one mile distant from Fort
Lee. He also offers a Telescope of his own manufacture, as an additional.
donation. The building to be erected will be 150 feet in height; giving the
Telescope, with the elevation of the ground — 320 feet above the River —
an altitude of 500 feet. This height will be sufficient to relieve the instru-
ment from the influence of a smoky or impure atmosphere, and will insure
a wide range of vision.

In relation to the progress of astronomy in England, Prof. Piazzi Smyth,
observes, that if it were not for private enthusiasm, Kngland would be left
quite behind in some branches of astronomy; for while the Russians, Ger-
mans, and Americans, are continually ordering for their observatories the
largest telescopes that can be made, the English Government will not supply

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 11

any such to those of Britain. The recommendation of the Britsh Asso-
ciation, and of the Royal Society to the Government, to send a superior
telescope to the clear climate of Australia, has been refused; the East
India Company have also shown themselves unwilling to do anything
towards aiding the establishment of an observatory on the Nilgheny Hills,
India, 6000 feet above the level of the sea. The great purity of the atmos-
phere which prevails in these regions, would undoubtedly lead to many
important and signal discoveries. What the East India Company have
refused to do, Capt. Jacobs is endeavoring to do on his private responsibility.

At the session of the French Academy on the 22d of March, the prize in
Astronomy for 1851, was divided between Mr. Hind, and M. Gasparis, the
former for the discovery of the new planet Irene, and the latter for that of
Eunomia. The Cuvierian prize, (a triennial prize, and never before
awarded,) was given to Prof. Agassiz, for his researches on fossil fishes.

Among the prizes offered by the Academy is one for 1854 in the depart-
ment of Mathematics, as follows: —To determine the equations of the
general movements of the earth’s atmosphere, having in view the rotation
of the earth, the calorific action of the sun, and the attraction of the sun
and moon. The authors are desired to exhibit the concordance of their
theory with the best observations on the atmospheric movements. Even if
the whole question is not resolved, but some important steps are made
towards its solution, the prize will be awarded by the Academy. The prize
is a medal of 3,000 francs. There is also an extraordinary prize for 1853,
on the application of steam tonavigation. It is offered “for the best work
or memoir on the most advantageous employment of steam for steam-
ships, and upon the best system of mechanism, stowage and armament for
such vessels.” The prize is 6,000 francs. /

The French Government, through the Moniteur, have officially offered a
prize of 50,000 francs for the discovery that “shall render the voltaic pile
applicable, with economy, to industry, as a source of heat—to lighting,
chemistry, mechanics, or medical practice. All nations are admitted to
compete during five years.

The Germanic Diet at Frankfort, have voted a sum of £3,500 to M
Schonbein, and others, the inventors of gun-cotton, as a reward for the
discovery.

An Exhibition of the Industry of ali nations will be opened in the city of
New York, in May of the present year. The plan of the Exhibition, as
well as the building erected for the purpose, is essentially that of the Great
Exhibition of 1851. The enterprise has been entered into with great spirit,
and the display of the products of American science and art, together with
the agricultural and mineral productions, of the United States will be proba-

bly unequalled. The productions of foreign countries will be also well
represented. 2%

12 NOTES BY THE EDITOR

The scientific expeditions, surveys and explorations prosecuted, or pro-
jected during the year 1852, have been numerous, and attended with valua-
ble results. _ :

The survey of the coast of the United States, under the superintendence
of Prof. A. D. Bache, has been prosecuted with great energy. With only
one link of twenty-six miles south of the Chesapeake to be filled up, an
unbroken triangulation now extends from the mouth of the Kennebec river,
in Maine, to the harbor of Beanfort, in North Carolina. The topography
and hydrography have made corresponding progress. In afew years an
unbroken series, with points well determined by astronomical aud other
observations, will cover the coast from the Penobscot river in Maine, to the
St. Mary’s in Florida. The progress of the survey on the Florida reef
and the shores of the Peninsula is entirely satisfactory, in view of the
limited appropriations, compared with the vast extent and variety of the
whole work. The entire reef and western shore has been examined ina
preliminary way, and nearly one-half of the survey of the reef has been
made. A reconnoissance has been made of about one-half of the distance
between St. Mark’s and Mobile bay, and the triangulation and topography
now extend from Mobile bay to Lake Ponchartrain, and nearly all the
hydrography has been.completed, and an examination made of the delta of
the Mississippi. Galveston bay has been surveyed excepting a small por-
tion of the hydrography, and the triangulation now extends to the vicinity
of Matagorda bay. On the western Coast, in consequence of the extraor-
dinary difficulties in securing hands and means owing to the discoveries of
gold, the survey did not fairly get under way till about three years since.
A very good preliminary reconnoissance has been made of the whole coast,
from San Diego to the Straits of San Juan del Fuca, and of nearly every
important harbor. In connection with this rapid progress of the survey on
this coast, observations have been made for latitude and longitude, and the
magnetic variation. ‘The geographical position of the coast, from the
Straits of San Juan del Fuca to San Diego, has been established ; the lati-
tude and longitude of the most important headlands having been determ-
ined by sufficiently numerous and reliable preliminary observations. ©

The exploration of the Gulf Stream has been continued. Great progress
has been made in publishing the results of the survey. Forty-two charts,
elaborate and highly finished, and forty-two preliminary charts have already
been published, and twenty-seven sheets are in various stages of engraving.
The geographical positions determined by the survey from its commence-
ment to July, 1851, have been published. The latitude and longitude of
over 3,200 points have thus been given to the public, furnishing infor-
mation of great value for general and local purposes.

Under the direction of the U. S. Government a strong naval expedition

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 13

has sailed for the purpose of endeavoring to establish relations of amity and
commerce with the Empire of Japan. Looking to the magnitude of the
undertaking, and the great expectations which have been raised both in this
country and in Europe, in reference to its results, this expedition is full
of interest, and will undoubtedly be productive of many valuable results,
scientific, as well as commercial and moral. The expedition has on board
a variety of articles as presents to the Emperor of Japan, to conciliate him
and ‘prepare the way for the desired negotiation. A locomotive and a
quantity of railroad iron have been taken with which to show the operations
of a railroad; telegraph apparatus with which to demonstrate how the
lightnings have been converted to the use of civilization. An apparatus for
taking daguerreotypes will also be used and explained for the information
of His Majesty. A beautiful barge is on board to be presented to him.
Also, boxes of domestic goods, comprising a great variety of manufactured
articles, which are to give the Emperor an idea of the industrial pursuits of
this country, and perhaps awaken a desire on his part for an exchange of
commoditics between Japan and the United States.

Somewhat allied in character and importance to these projected operas
tions of the Japan squadron, is the expedition now prepared for the explor-
ation and survey of the China seas, the Northern Pacific, and Bhering’s
Straits. This expedition, in aid of which $125,000 has been appropriated
by Congress, is provided with a corps of scientific men, an astronomers
hydrographer, botanist and naturalist.

Under the direction of the Navy department, Lt. Lynch, well-known from
his connection with the Dead Sea Expedition, has been detailed on a tour of
African exploration, especially of that portion of the Continent lying east of
the settlements of Liberia. Itis supposed that an exploration of this region
would lead to the discovery of a broad tract of fertile and healthy country,
well adapted to the extension of that system of colonization, which for
some years past has greatly interested public attention in the United States.
Lt. Lynch will land at Liberia, Cape Palmas, and other points, and will pur-
sue his inquiries as far as the river Gaboon, with a view to the ascertain-
ment of such localities on the margin of the African continent as may
present the greatest facilities, whether by the river courses or by inland
routes, for penetrating with the least hazard into the interior. He will col-
lect information touching the geographical character of the country; its
means of affording the necessary supplies of men and provisions ; the tem-
per of the inhabitants, whether hostile or friendly; the proper precautions to
be observed to secure the health of a party employed, and all other items
of knowledge upon which it may be proper hereafter, to prepare and com-
bine the forces essential to the success of a complete and thorough explor-
ation of the interior.

14 : NOTES BY THE EDITOR

A fourth expedition under the direction of the United States Government,
commanded by Capt. Page, has sailed to explore the long-sealed and exclu-
ded countries lying on the tributaries of the river La Plata, South Americaa.
By a decree of the Argentine Government, there has recently been opened
to the access of all nations, a vast territory of boundless resource, prover-
bial for its treasures of vegetable and mineral wealth, extending, like the
Mississippi from south to north, and reaching through twenty-four parallels
of latitude, with every climate between the temperate and torrid zones, and
with every variety of product which may be gathered from the alluvial
plains of the ocean border to the height of the Andes.

An expedition under the charge of Lt.’s Herndon and Gibbon, U. S. N.,
charged with the exploration of the Amazon and its tributaries, has in part
returned. These officers were directed to cross the Cordileras in Peru and
Bolivia, and by a selection of the most judicious routes of travel, with a
small company of men, to explore the valley of the Amazon, and to de-
scend that river to the sea. More than a year has has been spent in the
active prosecution of this duty. Lieut. Herndon reached the United States
in July last, bringing with him a large amount of interesting and useful
facts, industriously collected by him in the course of his long and hazard-
ous journey, embracing many valuable statistics of the country, and adding
most important contributions to the hitherto unknown geographical charac-
ter of this region. He is now engaged in preparing a full report of the
incidents and discoveries of his travels.

Another expedition to the Arctic Sea under the charge of Dr. Kane, in
search of Sir John Franklin, and for scientific exploration, is now fitting
out under the auspices of our countrymen, Mr. Henry Grinnell, and Mr.
George Peabody, of London. Their endeavor will be directed to an ex-
ploration of the upper coasts of Greenland, by land as well as sea, and will
furnish occasion for valuable scientific observation tending to the ascertain-
ment of the magnetic poles and the intensity and dip of the needle; and
interesting also, as regards geological questions connected with the sup-
posed existence of an open polar sea, and other subjects of much impor-
tance in the natural history of our globe.

The course adopted by the British Government in relation to the discove-
ries made by the last American Expedition under Lieut. De Haven, is in
the highest degree discreditable and dishonorable. In the Charts published
by the authority and under the direction of the Admiralty, the localities
discovered up Wellington Channel, by the Americans in Sept., 1850, are
for the most part ignored, or altered. The “ Grinnell Land” first seen by
De Haven in 1850, and subsequently by Capt. Penny in 1851, has had its
original name, given in honor of a noble American merchant, changed to

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 15

that of “ Prince Albert’s Land.” Courtesy, if no other motive, should have
prevented a change.

Lieut. Gillis, who, for more than three years past, has been employed, in
pursuance of the directions of Congress, in conducting in Chili the obser- -
vations recommended to be made by the American Philosophical Society
and the Academy of Arts and Sciences, has recently returned to the United
States, bringing with him a rich contribution to science, in a series of ob-
servations, amounting to nearly forty thousand, and embracing a most
extensive catalogue of stars.

Under the auspices of the American Antiquarian Society, Worcester,
Mass., Mr. Lapham has recently made series of complete surveys of numer-
ous ancient mounds now existing in the State of Wisconsin. Mr. Lapham’s
report will be shortly published by the Smithsonian Institution.

An expedition under the charge of M. Deville, is about to be sent out
by the French Government, for the purpose of exploring some parts of
Brazil, Paraguay and the provinces of Para, Pernambuco, and Bahia.

A mission is about to start, under the auspices of the Geographical So-
ciety of St. Petersburgh, for Kamschatka, the Kurile Islands and Rus-
sian America. The objects are—to study the ethnography of these
districts, to collect specimens of their Flora and Fauna, to report on their
physical characteristics, and to make maps and plans of their roads, coasts,
and other topographical features.

An English exploring expedition, consisting of two vessels under the
charge of Capt. Denham, R. N., sailed for the South Pacific in June last.
The cbject of the expedition is to survey and explore all the islands be-
tween Australia and Valparaiso, and particularly the Fejee Islands. Mr.
McGillivray, the well known naturalist, was appointed to take charge of
the department of Natural History, and Mr. 8S. G. Wilson was appointed.
artist, to make drawings of any objects in these islands likely to prove
interesting, and for which purpose he has been supplied with a photo-
graphic apparatus.

_ Some months ago a Scientific Expedition was sent out from Copenhagen

to explore the hills of Greenland and report on their mineral resources.
This expedition has recently returned to Denmark, with a cargo of miner-
als as the fruits of their industry. The explorers have failed to find any of
the more precious metals ; but they have brought back iron, lead, nickel,
tin, and copper mixed with a little silver: —the whole valued at nearly
two thousand pounds. The society appears to be encouraged by these
first-fruits of its enterprise to renewed exertions ; but the rigors of the
climate of Greenland deter even the Norwegian miners from embarking in
the adventure.

The exploration of different portions of Africa have been continued with

16 NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

such success, that even in the brief space of a year the vast blank on all
former maps has been materially reduced. Mr. Oswell, and the mission-
ary Livingston, his companion, to both of whom we are indebted for our
acquaintance with the Ngami Lake, have pushed their researches north-
wards to 17 deg. 25 min. S. latitude, and between 24 deg. 30 min., and
26 deg. 50 min. E. longitude, and have traversed a considerable track,
watered by deep and constantly flowing streams, which they believe to be
feeders of the river Zambesi. We learn from them, that the Zonga, which
was to the east from Lake Ngami, is dissipated and absorbed in sands and
Salt-pans, and the travellers passed over a large salt incrustation of about
100 miles in length and 15 miles in width, and saw many others lying
to the north of the spot where the Zonga loses itself. Considerably to
the north of these great natural salt pans, a population was met with,
more advanced in intelligence than most of the tribes of South Africa.
They also relate as a striking incident, that shortly before their arrival,
the slave-dealers had, for the first time, penetrated from the west coast,
and through the temptation of gaudy European goods had purchased
many children.

Researches made in Africa by Mr. Galton, an English traveller, between
latitude, 17 deg. 58 min. 8., and longitude, 21 deg. E., taken also in con-
nection with the explorations of Messrs. Oswell and Livingston, show,
that the central region of Southern Africa, instead of being mountainous,
is a watershed of no great elevation, and that the most central portion of
it is occupied by a succession of lakes, of which Ngami is the southern-
most.

Under the direction of the Swedish Government, a topographical survey
extending over 8700 geographical miles is now in progress. Levellings
and trigonometrical surveys from Torneo to Alten, in the North Sea, will,
when finished, give not only the relative heights of the Gulf of Bothnia,
and the North Ocean, but will also serve as fixed data from whence to
calculate the greater or less irregularity of the rise, or depression of the
Scandinavian lands.

The most perfect topographical and geographical maps which perhaps
have ever been produced, are those of the cantons of Appenzel and St.
Gallen, in Switzerland, brought out during the past year, by M. Ziegler.
These maps, the part only of a large survey, are on a scale of 2 1-2 inch-
es to amile, or 1-25,000. The lights are all thrown in perpendicularly, and
the altitudes of each terrace, valley, or mountain-top is inserted in num-
bers on a most exquisitely finished lithographic relief.

The great military map of France is also in active progress ; and 149
sheets out of 258 have been already published. As an illustration of the
gigantic nature of this work, it may be stated, that since this survey was

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 17

commenced in 1818, 2250 officers have been employed on it—ji.e., in
the geodesic and topograpical operations alone. _ The annual expense is
about $150,000 per year.

Mr Bartlett, Commissioner for running the boundary between the United
States and Mexico, has devoted much attention to the Indian vocabularies
of the districts visited during the progress of the survey. His researches
have corresponded exactly with those submitted to philological inquiry by
the lamented Albert Gallatin, with the addition of forty words discovered
by Mr. Bartlett during the progress of this Commission. The number of
words now ascertained is two hundred. Mr. B. will return accounts of
the Vocabularies of nineteen languages west of the Rio Grande. These
results will prove highly important and useful.

Considerable interest has been of late excited in Russia among the scien-
tific men in regard to the prosecution of meteorological investigations, and
at their request observations are now being constantly taken in England,
France, Prussia, and other parts of Europe. The Russian Government
has liberally encouraged the desire of its savants to investigate thoroughly
this important branch of science, which has hitherto not received so much
attention as others. It has established for them not fewer than ten magnetic
and meteorological observatories ; viz., one at St. Petersburgh, another at
Catharineburg in the Ural Mountains, two at Barnoual and Nertschinsk
on the Chinese frontier, one at Sitka in North America, one at Tiflis, anoth-
er at Pekin, two others at Bogoslowsk and Zlatouste on the western side of
the Oural mountains, and one at Lougan in the steppes of the Don. In
addition there are also a considerable number of stations in different parts
of the Empire. At all these establishments observations are taken at every
hour of the day and night.

An important step in relation to the system of weights and measures,
was recently taken by the Bank of England. The only weights to be here-
after used in the Bullion Office of that establishment will be ‘‘ the Troy
ounce and its decimal parts,’ — superceding by that change the present
system of pounds, ounces, pennyweights and grains. Practically the
change will be one of great convenience.

Among the scientific publications of 1852, issued by the United States
Government are the following: Report on the Iron Region and the Lake
Superior Mining District, by Messrs. Foster and Whitey, U. 8. Geologists ;
Part second, with volume of maps ; Patent Office Report for 1851, 2 vols.
Mechanical and Agricultural, by Thomas Ewbank ; Expedition to the
Great Salt Lake, by Capt. Howard Stansbury, U. 8. N.; Maury’s Winds,
Currents, and Sailing directions — new and enlarged edition ; Scientific
Report of the Dead Sea Expedition, Lieut, Lynch, U. S. N.; U. 8. Explor-
ing Expedition, Conchology, Dr. A. A. Gould ; Chart of the Arctic Re-

18 NOTES BY THE EDITOR

gions, with the explorations and track of the Grinnell Expedition ; Amer-
ican Nautical Almanac, Lieut. Davis; Annual Report of the Smithsonian In-
stitution; Report on the Geology of Wisconsin, lowa and Minnesota, by
Dr. D. D. Owen, U. 8. Geologist.

The Mechanical volume of the Report of the Patent Office contains a
Report on the Great Exhibition, by Edward Riddle, U. S. Commissioner,
and is by far the best publication, both as regards contents and typo-
graphy that has been issued by the Patent Office. The agricultural volume
is also superior to any that has preceeded it, and contains valuable papers
on wool and sheep-breeding by P. A. Browne, Esq., and on the American
Ruminants, by Prof. §. F. Baird; the remainder of the volume consist of
odds and ends, of little or no value, apparently made up by supplying suffi-
cient paste to agglutinate scraps of paper taken from all sources, to a
substratum of stout grocer’s paper. ‘The letter-press of the Conchology of
the U. 8. Exploring Expedition, by Dr. A. A. Gould, has been published
during the past year; the accompanying volume of plates, is also ina
state of forwardness. Of the published results of this expedition, twelve
volumes quarto and four volumes of plates, have already beenissued, leay-
ing fifteen yet in the course of preparation. The series already published
embraces the Narrative, 5 vols. and atlas ; Zoophites, 1 vol. and atlas;
Philology; Races of Men ; Mammals and Birds ; Geology and Mineralogy,
1 vol. with atlas ; Meteorology ; Charts ; Conchology. Those yet to ap-
pear will embrace the following subjects ; Herpetology, Ichthyology, Crus-
tacea, Medusz, Echinoderms, Annelids, Insects, Ferns, Fungi, Alge,
Botany, (Phanerogams,) Mosses, Geographical Distribution of Species,
Hydrography, Astronomy and Magnetism, Charts. Naturalists, generally,
who have been watching the progress of this great national work, will
learn with deep regret that all the undistributed copies of the first
seven volumes already published were destroyed in the same fire which
consumed the library of Congress in December, 1851. This is the more
melancholy, since but seventy copies were distributed.

The first volume of the American Nautical Almanac, for 1855, publish-
ed by authority, has been issued. It has been prepared under the super-
vision of Lt. C. H. Davis, and is a material improvement on the British
Nautical Almanac ; it having more correct lunar tables, which give more
accurate predictions, as tested in the case of the solar eclipse of July,
1851. At Washington, the British Almanac was in error for the beginning
of the eclipse, 78 seconds, and for the end, 62 seconds. The American
Almanac was in error for the beginning only 18 seconds, and for the end
only one second and a half. Theerrors exposed in this eclipse may give rise to
an error of from 15 to 20 miles in the determination ‘of the longitude at
sea by means of lunar distances, and to an uncertainty of twice that

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 19

amount. The possibility of such an error, arising from this source,
is removed in the American ephemeris. There are other points of su-
periority ; one of the principle being ‘‘ a more complete, full and accurate
table of latitudes and longitudes, particularly of American latitudes and
longitudes, than is now anywhere to be found,’’ and the other relates to
the tide tables and other practical information concerning the tides.

Under resolutions of the two Houses of Congress, the valuable report of
Dr. D. D. Owen on the geography of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, (and
incidentally of the ‘‘ Mauvaises Terres ’’ in Nebraska,) has been published.
Its preparation reflects the highest credit upon the author, while the me-
chanical execution of the work is excellent, and forms a striking contrast
with the usual style adopted for Government publications. The report is
voluminous and constitutes a quarto of about 650 pages, with a volume of
maps. A report has also been submitted to Congress by Dr. Owen,
recommending a geological survey of Oregon and a special reconnoissance
of that singular region of Nebraska, known as the ‘‘ Mauviases Terres.’’
The interest awakened throughout the Scientific world by what has been
already made known respecting the latter district is very great. Itisa
tertiary deposite, abounding to a most extraordinary extent with the fossil
remains of extinct animals, some of which combine the distinctive char-
acteristics of several existing and distinct races. The discovery of an
entirely new family of mammalia, embracing eight new genera, is one re-
sult of the examinations already made by Dr. Leidy. In reference to this
region, Dr. Owen states that ‘‘ it is not too much to assert that since the
disclosures by the opening of the gypsum quarries of Montmatre, in
France, that made us first acquainted with those singular extinct fossil
races entombed in the Paris basin, no discovery in geology has divul-
ged such extraordinary and interesting results in palwontology.

The Legislature of Massachusetts have published during the past yeara
new and enlarged edition of Dr. Harris’ valuable work on ‘* Insects Inju-
rious to Vegetation,’’ and the Legislature of New York, ‘‘ A Report on the
Great Exhibition of 1851,’ by B. P. Johnson, Esq.

We would also in this connection call attention to the following scientific
works of great interest, issued during the past year in this country, by pri-
vate individuals. ‘‘ Mastodon Giganteus,”’ a description of the skeleton of
the Mastodon Giganteus of North America, with plates. This elegant and
costly work, the fruit of many years’ investigation, has been brought out
by Dr. J. C. Warren of Boston, and is intended for private distribution.
Several valuable geological and zoological memoirs have been publishd by
Isaac Lea, Esq., of Philadelphia, and a valuable ‘* Catalogue of shells
collected at Panama with notes on their synonomy, station and geographi-
cal distribution,’’ has been issued by the late Prof. C. B. Adams. The num-

3

20 NOTES BY THE EDITOR

ber of specimens of Mollusks collected by Prof. Adams, while at Panama,
amounted to 41,830, embracing 516 species, of which 160 were new and
undescribed. The department of mechanics and civil engineering has been
enriched by the publication of a work entitled ‘* The naval Dry Docks of
the United States,’’ by Charles B. Stuart, Engineer in Chief of the U.S.
Navy.

Two new scientific periodical publications have been started during the
past year ; ‘‘ The Annals of Science, being a record of the inventions and
improvements in applied science,’? conducted by Hamilton L. Smith,
Cleveland, Ohio ; and the ‘‘American Polytechnic Journal,’’ conducted
by Messrs. Page, Greenough & Co., Washington, D. C. Within the same
period, the Journal known as the New York Farmer and Mechanic has
been discontinued. '

A descriptive catalogue of the plants indiginous to is Ohio in the course
of preparation by James W. Ward, Esq., of Cincinnati.

Chemists and others interested in the progress of science will regret to
learn that the reprinting and translating into English of Liebig and Kopp’s
<< Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry ’’ has failed, after a trial
of three volumes, for want of sufficient encouragement.

Under the auspices of the French Government, a Chinese work on the
production of silk has been translated by M. Julien, an eminent scholar
of Paris ; in consequence of which the Chinese method has been intro-
duced with great benefit into some of the silk-growing districts of France.
M. Julien has also translated a Chinese manual on the fabrication of por-
celain, which, it is anticipated, will be equally beneficial to that branch of
industry.

The Smithsonian Institution, at Washington, has continued silently, but
effectually, to enlarge the sphere of its influence and usefulness, and to
elicit from every part of the civilized world commendations, not only of the
plan of organization it has adopted, but also of the results it has produced,
By a judicious management on the part of the Regents, the funds of the
Institution have been increased by the interest on the original bequest,
until they now amount to a little more than 750,000. <A portion of the
original bequest is also yet remaining in England, as the principle of an
annuity settled upon the mother of the nephew of Smithson. The Insti-
tution is also by the recent decease of a citizen of New York made contin-
gent legatee of an estate of considerable magnitude, depending on the de-
mise without issue of a single individual.

Since the adoption of the plan of organization, nearly fifty original me-
moirs, purporting to be additions to the sum of human knowledge, have
been presented to the Institution for publication. Though a number of
these have been returned to their authors, principally on account of not

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 21

falling within the restricted class of communications accepted for publica-
tion, yet they have generally been productions of much merit, and have
evinced a surprising activity of mind, and manifesta growing attention in
this country to original research. The probable success of this part of the
plan of organization was not overrated ; for, were the whole income of the
institution devoted alone to publishing the results of the labors of men of
literature and of science, which otherwise would never see the light, it
could be profitably expended. In this respect, the Smithsonian bequest
supplies the wants which in Europe are met by richly endowed academies
and national societies.

Each memoir is printed separately, and with a separate title and paging,
so that it can be distributed to persons most interested in its perusal as
soon as it comes from the press, without waiting for the completion of the —

‘volume to which it belongs. In this way, the author is enabled to present
a full account of his discoveries to the world with the least possible delay,
while, by the rules of the Institution, he is allowed to publish an abstract
of his paper in the proceedings of the American Association for the ad-
vancement of science, or in those of any other properly organized society.
The number of copies of the Smithsonian Contributions distributed, is
greater than that of the transactions of any scientific or literary society,
and therefore, the Institution offers the best medium to be found for diffus-
ing a knowledge of scientific discoveries. Every memoir published by the
Institution is issued with a stamp of approval of a commission of compe-
tent judges, and in order to secure a cautious and candid opinion, the
name of the author, and those of the examiners, are not made known to
each other unless a favorable report is given; and, in this case, the names
of the commission are printed, as vouchers for the character of the me-
moir, on the reverse of the title-page.

This plan secures an untrammelled expression of opinion, while it
induces caution on account of the responsibility which it involves.
~ That the encouragement of the discovery of new truths, the publication
of original memoirs, and the establishment of new researches, are in con-
formity with the design of Smithson, is not only manifest from the terms
of his will, but also from the fact, which has lately come to our knowledge,
that he at first left his property to the Royal Society of London, for the very
object embraced in this part of the plan. And what prouder monument
could any man desire than the perpetual association of his name with a
series of new truths! This building and all its contents may be des-
troyed, but the volumes of the Smithsonian Contributions, distributed as
they are among a thousand libraries, are as wide-spread and lasting aS
civilization itself.

The following memoirs have been recently published by the Smithsonian

y NOTES BY THE EDITOR

Institution, or are now in the course of preparation. On the ‘‘Dip, Intensi-
ty, and Inclination of the Magnetic Force in several parts of the United
States,’? by Dr. John Locke of Cincinnati. ‘‘ On the Winds of the South-
ern Hemisphere,’’ by Prof. James Coffin. The data used in the prepara-
tion of this memoir have been collected with great labor, and consist of
observations made at no less than five hundred and seventy-six different
Stations on land, and a large number taken during numerous voyages at
sea. The field of observation includes a zone which extends from the
equator to nearly the parallel of 85 deg. north latitude, and occupies a
period, taken in the aggregate, of 2,800 years.

A memoir is also in the course of preparation on the extinct family of eri-
noids found in the!vicinity of Nashville, Tenn., founded on drawings, collec-
tions, and descriptions left by the late Dr. Troost of Nashville. The labor of
preparing this work has been gratuitously undertaken by Prof.’s Agassiz &
Hall. A memoir by Dr. Leidy, ‘‘ The Flora and Fauna of Animals.’? This
is an elaborate history of a most remarkable series of plants, in many cases
accompanied by parasitic animals, found growing, as an ordinary or natu-
ral condition, within the interior of the bodies of living animals. In some
of the latter, it is stated, growing plants are never absent; and in a
species of insects, viz: Papulus Cornutus, a forest of vegetation is always
found covering the inner surface of the ventriculus or second stomach,
The plants of course are Cryptogamic, and are algoid in their character.
Some are as long as half an inch, but usually they are very much smaller.
They grow attached to the mucous membrane of the cavities in which they
are found, and occasionally from the exterior covering of worms infesting
the same cavities. The researches are prefaced by some observations on
the laws of parasitic life in general, which are presented in a highly philo-
sophical manner, and entirely free from hypothesis — the whole forming
one of the most remarkable papers on physiology, which has ever been
produced by our countrymen. ‘‘ On the Dynamic Effect of the Tides,’’ by
Lieut. Chas. H. Davis.

A volume of tables of use in Meteorolgy and other branches of scientific
observations, has been prepared, under the direction of the Institution, by
Prof. Guyot. The following are the contents of this volume, viz: 1,
Thermometrical tables for the conversion of the scales of different ther-
mometers into each other. 2. Hygrometrical tables, giving the elastic
force of vapor, the relative humidity, &c. 3. Barometrical tables for the
comparisons of different scales, reduction of observations to the freezing
point, and correction for capillary action. 4. Hypsometrical tables for
calculating altitudes by the barometer, and by the difference of the boiling
point. 5. Tables of the corrections to be applied to the monthly means to
obtain the true mean. 6. A set of miscellaneous tables frequently re-

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 73

quired in physical investigations. ‘These tables supply a desideratum in
the English language, and will doubtless be highly prized by all engaged in
physical research. It is proposed to extend their number so as to include
a wider range of objects, and to publish them in parts to suit different
purposes. .

«¢ Researches on Electrical Rheometry,’’ by Prof. Secchi; ‘* Description
of Ancient Works in Ohio,’’? by Charles Whittlesy; ‘* On the Ancient
Works at Prescott, Canada West,’’ by William E. Guest. The great size
of the remains of trees which occupy the ground, evince the long time
which must have elapsed since these works were constructed, and the
entire absence of stone pipes and arrow heads has induced the belief that
they are of a higher antiquity than those in the Ohio valley.

List of occultations and tables of reductions have been published from
1848 to 1852, inclusive. The primary object of these tables is, to facilitate the
accurate determination of the longitude of places within the territory of
the United States; and in this respect they have done good service, espe-
cially in the hands of the officers of the coast survey, and the explorers
and surveyors of our new possessions on the coast of the Pacific. Their
extension will render them useful to geographers in every part of the
world.

It will be recollected that Mr. Sears C. Walker, astronomical assistant
of the United States coast survey, prepared for the Smithsonian Transac-
tions a memoir containing a determination of the true orbit of the planet
Neptune, and that from this orbit, and the mathematical investigations of
Professor Pierce, an ephemeris of Neptune was compiled. The epheme-
ris has been generally adopted by the principal astronomers of the world;
and Professor Airy, the astronomer royal of Great Britian, has undertaken
the labor, in his last volume of Greenwich Observations, of critically
comparing his observations on the planet in the heayens with the predic-
tions of the Smithsonian ephemeris. From these comparisons it is found
that the ephemeris gives the position of the planet with a degree of pre-
cision not inferior to that with which the planets longest known are
calculated. The labors, therefore, of Mr. Walker on the elements, and
Professor Pierce on the theory of the planet Neptune, have been crowned
with complete success. It is proposed hereafter to collect all the observa-
tions which may haye been made on the planet, and compare them with
the ephemeris, in order, if necessary, still further to correct the orbit.

The general system of meteorology now in operation in this country un-
der the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, is continually enlarging
and extending. The Institution has at the present time a corps of trained,
intelligent men, between two and three hundred in number, extended over
the entire continent, and making frequent observations, many with stand-

Ox
or

Q4 NOTES BY THE EDITOR

ard instruments. All the observations at the military ports and naval
stations, as well as the vessels of the mercantile and goverment marine
(through the National Observatory,) are freely at its command, and are
used. The returns for each month fill a large folio volume. Nor does this
matter accumulate unused. A competent gentleman has been long engaged
in noting down the observations for particular days of interest, upon a large
physical map of North America and the Atlantic Ocean, developeing laws
of great importance. No institution or government in the world is now
doing anything like as much for Meteorology as the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. The results already obtained give promise of interesting and valua-
ble additions to our knowledge of the nature of the storms, which traverse
this continent during the winter seasons, and will probably serve to
settle definitely several theoretical questions of much interest to the mete-
orologist.

Considerable progress has been made in the formation of the library
and museum of the Smithsonian Institution. The whole number of books,
pamphlets, engravings, &c., at present collected is nearly twelve thou-
sand ; of these 4,608 were obtained by purchase; 8,218, by donations;
8,196 by copyright law; and 875 by deposite. The number of books re-
ceived by exchange is large; an unique feature in this system of exchange
consists in the number of academical publications received from almost all
the Universities of Europe. The series from many are very full, particu-
larly for later years ; and very few are to be found in any other American
library. These works are generally of great value to the student.

The museum of natural history, besides plants and minerals, numbers
eighteen hundred and fifty jars, containing specimens in spirits, of mam-
malia, reptiles, fishes, articulata, mollusca, and radiata, amounting in all
to twenty-five hundred species. Besides these, there are about nine hundred
specimens of skulls and skeletons, and three thousand skins of European
and American birds.

A magnificent collection of Scandinavian mammalia has been presented
by the Swedish Academy, at Stockholm. Some very valuable European
mammalia have also been received from Mr. Steenberg, of Elsinore, includ-
ing skins of wolves, seals, arctic foxes, &c., and several skulls of the rein-
deer of Greenland.

The following statistics, obtained from official documents, afford some
idea of the present resources, wealth, and commerce of the thirty-one
United States at the present time;

The annual value of the agricultural, mineral and manufacturing pro-
ductions of the country is supposed to at least equal three thousand mil-
lions of dollars, (3,000,000,000.) A large portion of these productions
are transported by river, canal, or coasting vessels, or on railroads, and

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 25

which in the course of trade changes hands several times before reaching
the domestic consumer ; making, in the aggregate, an amount of traffic
counting by thousands of millions; whilst the whole amount shipped to
foreign countries is but $140,000,000, being only one-thirtieth part of
the entire production of the country, which thus finds an outlet in foreign
markets.

The single article of coal annually transported coastwise, and in canal
boats, or on railroads, is of sufficient bulk to furnish full cargoes for four
times the quantity of all the American tonnage employed in foreign com-
merce, and probably affords the means of livelihood to a greater number
of persons than the latter.

The coastwise trade to and from the American ports in the Gulf of Mex-
co is of itself, probably, nearly equal, in point of value, to the entire
export of American productions to foreign nations.

The statistics of exports during the year 1847, when famine prevailed
so extensively in Europe, furnish some curious illustrations respecting the
home markets and the foreign ones. There was some difficulty, at that
time, in procuring sufficient shipping, including both American and for-
eign, to convey our breadstuiffs to the famishing nations of Europe, and
yet our entire exports during that year of the two principal articles of
food—Indian corn (maize) and flour—were only about three per cent. of
the former, and about ten per cent. of the latter, estimated on the whole
crop produced in the United States ; leaving ninety-seven per cent. of the
Indian corn, and ninety per cent of the wheat crop, for the supply of the
home market, where it was actually consumed. Our exports of bread-
stuffs at present are only about one-third of what they were during the
above year of unusual demand; exhibiting, in a still more striking con-
trast, the immense difference between the home and foreign markets in
favor of the former.

The mere tolls collected by the canals and railroads on the transporta-
tion of merchandise for the internal trade of the country, exceeds in
amount the total value of all the breadstufis purchased from us by foreign
nations.

The annual value of the crop of Indian corn, of wheat, and of hay,
each respectively, is fully equal to the entire value of our productions ex-
ported to foreign countries. The annual amount of the manufactures in
the States of New York or Pennsylvania, in either of those States, greatly
exceeds the value of such exports; and even those of the comparatively
small State of Massachusetts are fully equal to all the productions of the
country consumed by foreign nations. The latter State probably con-
sumes breadstuffs that are produced in the middle and western States to a
greater amount than is shipped to all Europe.

26 NOTES BY THE EDITOR

The manufacture of beet-root sugar is at present receiving great atten-
tion in some parts of Europe, and in consequence of some valuable
improvements in evaporation and purification recently effected, its manu-
facture has greatly extended, accompanied with a reduction of prices.
In France, especially, this branch of industry is increasing beyond prece-
dent. The following statistics were recently published officially in the
Moniteur. The factories at work in France on the Ist of December in .
1851, were 254, and on the Ist of December of 1852, they numbered 835,
an increase of 81. The quantity of sugar made in 1851 was 10 millions
of pounds, while that of 1852 will not be far from 87 millions of pounds.
The best quality retails at 16 cents a pound.

Beet-root sugar has also made its appearance for the first time during
the past year in American ports, asan article of traffic.

The scarcity and high price of all kinds of animal oils, have within a
few years past called into requisition and use the various kinds of vegeta-
ble oils, especially those derived from rosin. ‘The uses to which this oil is
already appliedare innumerable, and a great number of patents for improy-
ments in its manufacture and purification have been granted. A process
has been recently brought out, first in France, lately in the United States,
by which the rosin is made to yield a substance resembling tallow in many
respects, which can be advantageously and cheaply applied for the lubri-
cation of heavy gearing, and other coarse machinery. This process has
not yet been made public.

Napthaline, formerly a chemical’product of great rarity, is now extracted
in considerable quantities, from the refuse coal tar of gas works. This
substance in external appearance greatly resembles purified stearine,
and the use to which it is applied is somewhat curious. Put up in cakes,
and enclosed in waxed cloths to prevent evaporation, it is sent to California
and other distant regions, where dissolved in weak alcohol it furnishes the
best of burning fluids,—a great saving being thus effected in freights,
risks, &c.

American Madder, grown in the valley of the Connecticut, has been in-
troduced to some extent during the past year into the Merrimac Print
Works, and found to be superior in some respects to the best foreign
article. The introduction of madder as a staple production of the United
States, is greatly to be desired, and that it can be raised profitably and suc-
cessfully by the agriculturalist, is beyond a doubt.

The preparation and manufacture of flax-cotton, introduced in 1851 by
Chevalier Claussen, and from which so much was anticipated, is generally
regarded as a failure. The most serious objections to the plan proposed
seem to be these: it has for its object the conversion of a superior article
into an inferior one, or in other words, the changing of the long and strong

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. it |

fibre of flax into a short and weak fibre, inferior to cotton ; the product so
prepared is wanting in any regularity of staple, or length of fibre ; the
fibres of the flax are not split longitudinally as has been represented, by
the expansive action of a gas generated within them, but they are merely
separated from one another, and brokenirregularly. If it is desired to
reduce the flax fibre to a condition resembling the short fibre of cotton, it
can be accomplished more expeditiously, cheaply and securely, by mechan-
ical, rather than by chemical agents. With a view of examining into the
plans and projects proposed by Claussen and others for the improved
manufacture of flax, agents have been sent to Europe from time to time by
several of the large manufacturing corporations of New England, but their
report has been uniformly unfavorable as regards the success of the under-
taking. The introduction and discussion of the subject of the manufacture
of flax in Europe, has excited much interest in the United States, and a
variety of new machines and processes for preparing and dressing flax
have been invented during the past year, most of which have not yet been
made public.

Some new improvements in the manufacture of paper have been brought
out, or attempted during the past year. The consumption of this article
in the United States at the present time is immense, and is continually on
the increase. It is already a matter of some difficulty to obtain stock in suffi-
cient quantities to supply the various mills now in operation; a large pro- —
portion of the rags used in this country are derived from the rag-producing
countries of the South of Europe, the home supply not being at all com-
measurate with the consumption of paper. Vast quantities of fibrous
materials imported from the East Indies, such as refuse gunny, manilla,
jute, coir, &c., are also worked into the poorer qualities of paper.
There is, however, in all these substances, an inherent difficulty which
prevents their being made available for the manufacture of white paper;
they all contain a natural fixed color, which, hitherto, it has not been
found possible to eradicate, except by the use of expensive chemical
agents, as chlorate of potash, oxalic acid, and the like.

The number of patents issued by the Patent Office in 1852, was upwards
of one thonsand, a number exceeding that of any former year. The num-
ber of Patents issued in 1851, was eight hundred and sixty-five ; the
number of applications for patents during the same period was two thousand,
two-hundred and fifty-eight. An important measure has been recommended
to Congress, both by the Secretary of the Interior, and the Commissioner
of Patents, viz: the preparation of an analytical and descriptive index of
all inventions for which patents have been issued by the United States.
In regard to this index, the late Commissioner says: ‘‘ its importance,
utility and necessity are becoming more and more apparent. No State

28 NOTES BY THE EDITOR

paper, and no mere human yolume.can ever surpass it in immediate
and enduring value. A greater boon to science, to inventors, and to the
world at large, could hardly be named. It would be consulted as long as
the arts are cherished, and would rather increase than diminish in interest
as time rolls on.’’

Among the inventions for which patents have been applied for during
the past year, are two of more than ordinary interest :—The first for an
improved grain reaping machine. This machine not only cuts regularly
and completely the grain, but also collects it, bundles it in nearly equal
quantities, binds and delivers. The other is for a wool-combing machine,
which entirely supersedes the old method of hand-combing. This ma-
chine accomplishes the labor of from six to eight men, separating the
long from the short fibres in the most perfect and thorough manner.

Among the various important contributions made to Science during 1852,
other than mechanical, we would call attention to the following: the re-
searches of M. Melsens, of Brussels, on the production and formation of
artificial cellular tissue ; the researches of Arago, on the physical con-
stitution of the sun, one of the most brilliant and interesting of the publi-
cations of this eminent astronomer; the researches and discoveries of
Prof. Stokes, on the ‘‘ epipolic dispersion of light,’’? and of M. Niepce, of
France, on the production and fixation of colored photographs. Some
interesting researches have been also published by Renault, the Director
of the Veterinary School of Alfort, France, ‘‘ On the Effects of Swallow-
ing virulent matters in the digestive organs of man and animals.’? This
author shows that the baking and roasting of meats, and the boiling of
liquids arising from animals affected with contagious diseases, have the
effect of completely annihilating the virulent properties of these substances
The practical value of this fact will be appreciated by many of the inhab-
itants of large cities, who are obliged to use milk and some other articles
of food, which are not of the best quality.

The year 1852, will also be memorable for the discovery of eight new
asteroidal planets, making the whole number of planets now known to
exist between Mars and Jupiter twenty-three.

The following geological surveys have been authorized or continued dur-
ing the past year:

The legislature of Massachusetts have authorized a re-survey of some
portions of the State under the direction of its geologist, Pres. Hitchcock.
Steps have also been taken for the completion of the survey of Vermont,
commenced by the late Professor C. B. Adams. The State of Mississippi
has also authorized a survey under the direction of Messrs. Wailes and
Millington, and has appropriated $6,000 per annum, for the maintainance |
of the same. The survey of Illinois has been commenced under the direc-

ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 29

tion of Dr. Norwood. Surveys are also continuing at present in North
Carolina under Dr. E. Emmons ; in Alabama, under Prof. M. Tuomey; in ©
Canada under Mr. Logan; and in Pennsylvania, under Prof. H. D. Rog-
ers. The report of this last elaborate survey will appear in two quarto
volumes, with a large map, and among other points of special interest,
will contain a monograph of the coal plants of the United States by Mr.
Lesquereaux. The States of Missouri and Florida, are now the only ones
which have not yet authorized surveys.

A geological reconnoissance of the Territory of Oregon, is now being
made under the direction of the General Land Office, by Dr. Evans.

The obituary register for 1852, both in the United States and in Europe,
contains the names of many who have been distinguished in the annals of
science, and have been useful to their fellow-men. The American list
includes the names of Norton, Downing, James Rogers, Johnson, Overman
Woods Baker, Drake, Lassel, and others. We have also to record since
the commencement of 1853, the death of Prof. C. B. Adams, and the dis-
tinguished American astronomer and mathematician, Sears C. Walker.

Satisfactory information has also been obtained during the past year
respecting the fate of Jaques Compagnon, the long lost African traveller,
and of Dr. Ludwig Leichardt, the missing explorer of Central Australia.
The first named died in captivity in the interior of Africa, among the tribe
of Kommenis. He departed from Senegal in 1758 and was last heard from
in 1760. Dy. Leichardt left Sidney a few years since for the purpose of
exploring the interior of Australia, the extent of Sturt’s desert, and the
character of the western and north-western coast, and to observe the gradual
change in vegetation and animal life, from one side of the continent to the
other. This expedition was expected to occupy two and half years in
reaching Swan River. One letter only was received from him by a friend
in Sidney, when he was eleven days out, closing with these words: ‘‘ See-
ing how much I have been favored in my present progress, I am full of
hope, that our Almighty Protector will allow me to bring my darling
scheme to a successful termination.’’ Since then his fate has remained a
mystery, until within a recent period it has been definitely ascertained
that he was killed by the natives, after haying penetrated 1200 miles into
the interior of Australia.

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THE Ni « >

ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS.

DRAINAGE OF THE GREAT LAKE OF HAARLEM.

Tue drainage of the great lake of Haarlem by the Dutch Govern-
ment, a work which stands unrivalled in the history of hydraulic
engineering, and which has been prosecuted with energy since 1848,
has been nearly completed within the past year. The origin and
history of this great enterprise is as follows :—

In the year 1539, the North Sea, long restrained by artificial dams
and dikes, as well as by some natural ridges of sand, suddenly burst
its barriers, and brought horror and desolation into the fertile flats of
North Holland. Twenty-six thousand acres of rich pasture land, with
meadows, cattle and gardens, were covered by the waves, and the
village of Nieuweinkirk was submerged and all its inhabitants lost in
the tremendous calamity. The inundation resulted at first in the
formation of four lakes, but the barriers of soft alluvial soil which
separated them were gradually destroyed, and the four lakes became
merged into one. The degradation of the shores also continued,
until, at the commencement of the 18th century, the waters covered
an area of 45,000 acres, with an average depth of 13 feet below low
water in the Zuyder Zee. This lake constituted what has since been
known as the Haarlem Meer, or Sea. The people of Holland saw
with much alarm, the rapid extension of its boundaries, and, at an
expense of about £33,000, succeeded in partially arresting its pro-
gress; an expense of about £4,000 per year was moreover entailed,
for the preservation and repair of the works of defence. More than
two centuries elapsed from the time of the first inundation before any
one began to dream of recovering this vast tract of country, and then,
for a long period, all plans proposed were deemed impracticable. At
length, on the 9th of November, 1836, a furious hurricane from the
west drove the waters of the Lake upon the city of Amsterdam, and .

4

ae ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

drowned upwards of 10,000 acres of low land in the neighborhood.
On the 25th of December following, another hurricane from the east
drove the waters in an opposite direction upon the city of Leyden,
the lower parts of which were submerged forty-eight hours, and 19,000
acres of land were inundated. The enormous loss occasioned by these
two storms induced the government to determine on the drainage of
the Lake, and a credit of 8,000,000 florins was voted by the States
General. In May, 1840, a commission was appointed to superintend
the work.

The first operation was to cut a canal round the Lake, to isolate it
from the neighboring waters, and to afford the means of navigation to
the enormous traflic which previously passed over the Lake, amount-
ing to 700,000 tons per annum. ‘This canal was 37 miles long, 130
feet wide on the west side, and 115 feet on the east side of the Lake,
with a depth of 9 feet water. On the side next to the Lake, the
mouths of all water-courses entering it, were closed by earthen dams,
having an ageregate length of 3,000 yards, made in 10 feet depth of
water. Other great works were executed by enlarging the sluices at
various points, and in erecting powerful steam engines to assist in
discharging the water from the canal during the time of high water.
The water of the Lake has no natural outfall, being below the lowest
practicable point of sluicage. The area of water enclosed by the
canal was rather more than 70 square miles, and the quantity to be
lifted by mechanical means, including rain water and springs, leak-
age, &c., during the time of drainage, was estimated at 1,000,000,000
tons. In determining the motive power to be employed, two points
were to be kept in view; first, the cost of draining the Lake; second,
the cost of annual drainage; for, when once the work was accom-
plished, the site of the Lake could only be kept dry by mechanical
power. With the exception of a few steam engines, the wind had
hitherto been the motive power employed to work the hydraulie ma-
chines used in the Netherlands to keep the country dry. And the
power of 12,000 wind-mills, having an average aggregate power of
60,000 horses, is required to prevent two-thirds of the kingdom from
returning to the state of morass and lake, from which the indomitable
energy and perseverance of the Dutch people have rescued what is
now the most fertile country in Europe.

The Haarlem Meer Commissioners were convinced that the old
means must be laid aside, and new ones adopted to suit the magnitude
and peculiarities of their work. They accordingly determined to
erect three gigantic steam engines of a peculiar construction, which
was accordingly done, and the whole put in operation in 1848. These
engines consume but two and a half pounds of coal per hour, for each
horse power, and are capable of raising 112 tons of water 10 feet high
at each stroke, or of discharging 1,000,000 tons in 254 hours.

A short description of one of these engines may prove interesting.
It has two steam cylinders, one of 84 inches diameter, placed within
another of 144 inches diameter; both are fitted with pistons; the
outer piston is of course annular, and the two pistons are united to a

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 33

great cross-head, or cap, which is furnished with a guide-rod, or spin-
dle; both pistons and cross-head are fitted with iron plates, and
together, with parts of the engine attached, have an effective weight
of nearly 90 tons. The Engine House is a circular tower, on the
walls of which are arranged 11 large cast-iron balance-beams, which
radiate from the centre of the engine. Their inner ends, furnished
with rollers, are brought under the circular body of the great cap,
and their outer ends are connected to the pistons of 11 pumps of 63
inches diameter each; the stroke of both ends is 10 feet; and the
discharge from the pumps 66 cubic metres, or tons, of water per stroke.

The action of the engine is very simple ; it is on the high-pressure-
expansive-condensing principle. The steam is admitted first beneath
the small piston; and the dead weight of 90 tons is lifted, carrying
with it the inner end of the pump balances, and of course allowing
the pistons to descend in the pumps.

The equilibrium valve then opens, and the steam in the cylinders
passes round to the upper surface of the small and annular pistons ;
puts the former in a state of equilibrium, and presses with two-thirds
of its force upon the annular piston, beneath which a vacuum is
always maintained: thus, the down stroke of the engine, and the eleva-
tion of the pump pistons and water, is produced by the joint action of
the descending dead weight in the cap and pistons, and the pressure
of steam on the annular piston. The engine has two air pumps, of 40 |
inches diameter, and 5 feet stroke each. The water is lifted by the
pumps into the canal, from which it passes off towards the sea sluices.

The total weight of iron employed for the engine, pumps, &c., is
640 tons. The cost of the machinery and buildings, £36,000.

The pumping was actively commenced in May, 1848, and has been
continuously carried on up to the present time. The Lake is now
nearly dry; much of the bottom is exposed, only large pools of water
being left. The remains of the unhappy village of Nieuweinkirk have
been found, with a mass of human bones, on the very spot where the
old charts of the province fixed its site. From May, 1848, up to
April, 1851, the Lake was lowered 7 feet 3 inches. The level reached
at the end of October of the same year was 9 feet 7 inches below the
original surface, or at an average rate of 4.79 inches per month. In
November, 1851, a great quantity of snow and rain fell, raising the
level of the Lake about four inches, and in December the weather
was still unfavorable, so that at the end of that month, the level stood
at 9 feet 5.38 inches below the original surface, showing a total gain
since April of 2 feet 5.58 inches, or 3.32 inches per month. This pro-
gress may appear to some inconsiderable ; but when it is recollected
that the lowering of the Lake one inch involved the raising of up-
wards of 4,000,000 of tons of water, and allowing for rain and snow
falling during these eight months, there could not have been less than
186,000,000 tons of water pumped up during that period, the per-
formance will appear great indeed. ‘To give a better idea of this, it is
stated that 186,000,000 tons of water are equal to a mass of solid rock,
one mile square, and 100 feet high, allowing 15 cubic feet to a ton.

34 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The average progress has been less during the last year than during
the preceding ones, but this is readily accounted for, by the increased
lift of the pumps, and by the difficulty of forming the channels which
lead the water to them.

The annual drainage hereafter, is estimated at 54,000,000 tons of
water, which must be lifted on an average 16 feet; it may eccur,
however, that as much as 35,000,000 of this amount must be dis-
charged in one month, in order to preserve and render the space
formerly occupied by this Lake habitable.

CRYSTAL PALACE IN NEW YORK.

Ir having been determined to open an Exhibition of the Industry
of all Nations in the city of New York, during the summer of 1853,
the following plan of an edifice suitable for the purpose has been
adopted; the plan being furnished by Messrs. Carstensen & Gilde-
miester, of New York. The general idea of the edifice is a Greek
ross, surmounted by a dome at the intersection. Each diameter of
the cross will be 365 feet 5 inches long. There will be three similar en-
trances—one on the Sixth Avenue, one on Fortieth, and one on
Forty-second Street. Each entrance will be 47 feet wide, and that on
the Sixth Avenue will be approached by a flight of eight steps. Each
arm of the cross is on the ground-plan 149 feet broad. This is divided
into a central nave and two aisles, one on each side; the nave 41 feet
wide; each aisle 54 feet wide. On each front is a large semi-circular
fanlight, 41 feet broad and 21 feet high, answering to the arch of the
nave. The central portion, or nave, is carried up to the height of 67
feet, and the semi-circular arch by which it is spanned is 41 feet broad.
There are thus, in effect, two arched naves, crossing each other at
right angles 41 feet broad, 67 feet high, to the crown of the arch, and
365 feet long; and on each side of these naves is an aisle, 54 feet broad
and 45 feet high. The exterior of the ridgeway of the nave is 71 feet
The central dome is 100 feet in diameter—68 feet inside from floor to
spring of arch, and 118 feet to the crown; and on the outside, with the
lantern, 149 feet. The exterior angles of the building are filled up with
a sort of lean-to, 24 feet high, which gives the ground-plan an octagonal
shape, each side or face being 149 feet wide. At each angle isan octa-
gonal tower, 8 feet in diameter, and 75 feet high. Each aisle is covered
by a gallery of its own width, and 24 feet from the floor. The building
contains, on its ground floor, 111,000 square feet of space, and in its
galleries, which are 54 feet wide, 62,000 square feet more, making a
total area of 173,000 square feet for the purposes of exhibition. There
are thus in the ground floor two acres and a half, or exactly two acres
and 52.100; in the galleries, one acre and 44.100; total, within an
inconsiderable fraction of four acres. There are on the ground floor
190 columns, 21 feet above the floor, 8 inches diameter, cast hollow, of
different thicknesses, from half an inch to one inch thick; on the
gallery floor there are 122 columns.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 35

NAVAL DRY DOCK AND RAILWAY AT PHILADELPHIA.

THE Journal of the Franklin Institute gives the following description
of the U. S. Dry Dock and Railway, recently completed at Philadel-
phia; the dock and its appendages being the largest in the world.

The lifting power consists of nine sections, six of which are 105 feet
long inside, and 148 feet over all, by 32 feet wide, and 113 feet
deep; three of them are of the same length and depth as the others,
but two feet less in width; the gross displacement of the nine sections
is 10,037 tons, gross weight 4,145 tons, leaving a lifting power of 5,892
tons, which far exceeds the weight of any vessel yet contemplated.
The machinery for pumping out the sections consists of two engines
of 20, and two of 12 horse power. In connection with the sections
(which form the lifting power of the dock,) is a large stone basin, 350
feet long, 226 feet wide, and 12 feet 9 inches deep, with a depth of
water of 10 feet 9 inches at mean high tide. At the head of this basin
are two sets of ways, each being 350 feet long, and 26 feet wide.
These ways are level, and consist of the bed pieces, which are three
in number, and firmly secured to a stone foundation; the central way
supports the keel, while the side ways receive the weight of the bilge ;
these ways are of oak, and are finished off to a smooth surface. On
the top of the bed pieces or fixed ways, comes the sliding ways or
eradle, which are also 350 feet leng and 26 feet wide, so constructed
as to admit of being adjusted to the length of any vessel. The opera-
tion of the dock is as follows:—The sections are sunk so as to allow
the vessel to be floated in; as soon as she is secured in the proper
position, the pumps are put in operation, when the sections begin to
rise, and as soon as they come to a bearing on the keel, the bilge
blocks are run in until they fit the ship. When all is secure, the sec-
tions are pumped out until the keel is some two or three feet above
the water. If repairs that will only require a short time are contem-
plated, the vessel is kept en the sections, and no other portions of the
dock used. When this is accomplished, the sections are filled with
water, and rest on the bottom of the basin, which is of stone. Bed
ways are now laid on the sections in line with those before mentioned.
When they are secured they are greased, and the cradie is now slid
under the ship, and she is blocked up on the cradle, and the blocks on
the sections are removed. At this point of the operation a new instru-
ment of power is brought forward for the purpose of hauling the ship
from the sections to the bed ways in the Navy Yard. It consists of a
large hydraulic cylinder, having a ram of 15 inches diameter and 8
feet stroke, and a power of 800 tons. On the top of this cylinder,
and attached to it, are two vertical direct acting engines, with cylin-
ders 16 inches in diameter and 16 inches stroke, connected at right
angles to one shaft, on which are four eccentrics for working four
hydraulic pumps of 14 inches bore, and 6 inches stroke; the tank
which carries the water for the press is also on the top of the cylinder,
and forms the bed on which the pumps are secured. The boiler
which supplies these engines with steam, is on a sliding cast iron bed

4*

36 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

way, some 12 or 15 feet ahead of the hydraulic cylinder, and connected
to it by two cast iron rods. This boiler is of the usual locomotive
form, and has 85 tubes of 2 inches diameter, and 9 feet long. To get
ready for operation, the hydraulic cylinder is slid down to the edge
of the basin, its ram is run in, and a connection made by means of two
side rods of wrought iron from the cross head of the ram to the sliding
cradle which carries the ship. The central bed way has key holes
mortised through it horizontally, every 8 feet, and there are projec-
tions from the hy draulic cylinder, which have corresponding key holes
in them. Two cast iron keys, 24 inches wide, and 6 inches thick,
are slid through the key holes on small wheels; these keys secure the
cylinder to the central bed way; the engines and pumps being now
put in operation, a pressure is brought on the 15 inch ram, and as
soon as the pressure overcomes the resistance, the vessel must move.
As soon as the vessel has been moved 8 feet, the keys which hold the
cylinder to the central way are withdrawn, and by means of a screw
which is attached to the head block of the ram, and driven from the
engine, the cylinder and boiler are in their turn rapidly slid ahead,
(the water in the cylinder being allowed to escape into the tank,)
when the cast iron keys are again slid in place, and the vessel moved
another 8 feet. To push the vessel off, the cylinder and appendages
are moved to the head of the ways, put on a turn-table and reversed,
when it is again brought down to the cradle, and the cylinder being
secured as before, the head of the ram is applied directly to the cradle,
and the vessel shoved back on to the sections, which requires the same
time and power as to haul them off. The capacity of this dock ex-
ceeds that of the stone docks at New York, Boston, and Norfolk,
combined, for united they can take but three vessels, while here, two
of our longest war steamers may be hauled out on the ways, and two
frigates lifted on the sections. The advantages that must ‘result from
the facilities of repairing a vessel elevated into light and air over one

sunk in a stone dock, are very great, and have only to be seen to be
appreciated.

BEACON ON ROMER SHOALS.

A NEW beacon, having some peculiarities of structure, has recently
been erected on ‘the Romer Shoals, at the entrance of New York
Harbor, under the direction of Mr. J. W. Lewis, C. E. The Beacon
is built on the southeast crest of the Romer Shoal, about two miles
from Sandy Hook Light, in 13 feet water, and is in plan an octagon
20 feet in diameter and 50 feet in height. The principle of its con-
struction consists in screwing into the sand of the shoal, at each angle
of the octagon, and in the centre, one of Mitchell’s screw piles; the
blade of each screw being 2 feet in diameter, and entering the sand
toa depth of 10 feet; attached to the screw are nine wrought-iron
shafts or piles, each 6 inches in diameter and 324 feet in “length,
extending to a height of 83 feet above high water mark; on “the
top of these piles, heavy Cast iron sockets are keyed, to ahdek are

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 37

attached also by keys the cast iron shafts, which rising form the pile
heads, and uniting in a centre frame at the tops, form the supporting
braces for the basket frame, or distinctive mark of the Beacon, which
is secured to a prolongation of the centre pile at a height from the
level of the sand of 63 feet. The whole of the piles and shafts are
securely braced and counter-braced by wrought iron tie-rods, keyed
to the sockets, rings or pile heads, forming altogether one of the most
efficient systems of frame work ever erected for such a purpose. The
whole weight of the structure is but 75 tons, and it cost the Govern-
ment but $10,000, whereas a stone structure would not cost less than
$35,000, that being the cost of a stone beacon on the same shoal, and
but 40 feet in height.

GREAT TUNNEL IN HUNGARY.

OnE of the longest, if not the longest tunnel in the world, is now in
a forward state of completion. It is situated in Hungary, and leads
from the shores cf the river Gran, not far from Zarnowitz, to the
mines in the Schemnitzer hills; it is two geographical, or about ten
English miles, long; it is intended to answer the double purpose of a
channel to drain off the water accumulating in the works, and of a
railway to transport the ore from the mines to the river.

MODERN CYCLOPEAN WALL.

A RECENT number of the Allgemeine Zeitung contains an interesting
account of a visit which the writer had made to inspect the progress
of building a wall in the manner called Cyclopean, near Kiel, in
Schleswig-Holstein. He considers the effect of the work and the
style of execution far superior to any of the numerous remains called
by the same name which he had seen in Italy, and goes so far as to
give it the preference over any other kind of wall, so far as the plain,
vertical surface of the material, apart from ornamental accessories, is
concerned. He thinks that the polygonal stones, exerting their pres-
sure in all directions, must insure stronger work than squared stones,
however closely jointed, which only act in the direction of gravity.
Indeed, the imnumerable many-sided and multangular stones of all
sizes seem run together into one compact mass, of which neither time
nor age will get the better. Neither mortar nor any other means of
binding the stones together is employed ; but the greatest care is taken
im fittme the granite blocks one into the other, the vacant spaces in
the wall as it is carried up being accurately taken off with a lead tape
forced with a hammer into all the angles of the openings, and then
applied to the flat hewn face of the block best suited, and next to be
brought to its proper shape by the workman. From the workmen he
learned that the directions given them by the architect were, “ Five-
sided and six-sided blocks, seldom four-sided; straight lines, obtuse
angles, joint upon angle and angle upon joint; all according to the
lead tape, and only inclined junctions.” In fact, all the junctions be-

38 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

tween the blocks were found to be in every gradation between the
perpendicular and the horizontal, without coinciding with either of
them. In this obliquity of the jomts the author detected the arch
principle of construction as applied to the work, and the workmen
pointed out to him, that each stone either pressed or supported, with
every one of its sides, however numerous. Generally, the writer
holds this polygonal or Cyclopean kind of building to be especially
applicable in, first, hydraulic works, as it offers nowhere a continuous
joint to the water; second, in fortifications; third, for railways in
substruction and steep coverings, and in the cellar story and even in
the next story of large buildings and palaces. In these mortar would
be used, not as a means of connecting the stone, but only as pointing
to the joints, so that the immediate contact of the stone should not be
interrupted. In conclusion, the writer recommends the adoption of
this method of building according to determined and clearly defined
principles and rules, as altogether practical, wherever the material for
polygonal blocks is found,—a method which is at least to us a new
one, and not simply a more careful execution of the long-used rock
walls, or an ornamental imitation of

WHITE’S WOODEN SUSPENSION BRIDGE.

By this invention the Patentees claim to have solved the problem
of spanning broad and rapid rivers with a structure which requires no
piers, yet is suitable for railroad purposes, and can be built at a rea-
sonable and practical cost. The principal feature of the invention is
the substitution of wooden stringers constructed of boards cemented,
dowelled and bolted, for iron chains or wire cables. There is no
question as to the strer ngth which may thus be attained; a reference
to any tables of the streneth of materials will show that the tensile
strength of hard wood is much greater in proportion to its weight than
bar iron. Any number of these stringers considered necessary for a
given structure may be placed one above another and each be ‘firmly
anchored beyond the points of support, by back stays fastened into
the abutment; the only question seems to be, whether the stringers
can be locked to the back stays with a suflicient degree of firmness.
The principal advantage whic +h is claimed for this invention is that it
can be entirely freed from that tendency to vibration, which is fatal to
the use of the iron suspension bridge upon railroads. ‘The means used
to effect this are very simple, and certainly seem to be effectual.
Perpendicular oscillation is partly overcome by springing a direct arch
from one abutment to another which in the centre rises nearly to the
road bed, and which is firmly connected with the stringers above by
the suspension rods which sustain the floor; and lateral oscillation is
overcome partly by making the bridge diminish in width from the
extremities to the centre; “while all possibility of vibrations would
seem to be avoided by the mode of cover ing. This is done as follows:
the entire structure 1s covered with a double di: agonal boarding, and
the planks of the road bed are also laid double, crossing the floor. Joists
also diagonally.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 39

The weight of the structure decreases in a geometrical ratio as the
distance from the towers increases, so that at the centre, though the
full strength of the stringers and the direct arch below them is retained,
the weight of the structure is diminished to an exceedingly low point.
As to economy of construction this bridge can be surpassed by none,
especially where a great span is required. ‘There is no heavy timber,
the entire structure being built of plank and boards. No piers are
necessary, the only stone work being the laying the abutments, etc.

The manner of constructing the stringers speaks well also for their
durability, being put together with oil cement between each_board
which will render decay next to impossible; it is very well known
that wood prepared in this way has been excavated from the ruins of
old cities, after being buried more than three thousand years, ina state
of perfect preservation —airoad Journal.

FLYING RAILROAD BRIDGE.

Tue Scientific American states that C. B. Hurcurnson, of Water-
loo, N. Y., has invented and taken measures to secure a patent for a
valuable improvement on Railroad Bridges for navigable waters.
The object of the invention is to have a bridge perfectly open and
free at all times for vessels to pass, except the few minutes required
for a train to pass over, and to carry over trains expeditiously and
safely. A certain number of piers or abutments are built in the river,
with space between them for the passage of vessels. Instead of having
a stationary platform to the roadway extending across on the piers,
he employs a flying or running platform, which carries the train
spanning and springing over the successive spaces between the piers
from the one side to the other. There are tracks or rails on all the
piers, and on the flying platform there are wheels that run on the
tracks, like a long railroad car. The length of the flying platform is
in proportion to the width of space between the abutments, so that it
will be impossible to overbalance it while springing from one pier to
the other like a sliding drawer. The flying train is stationary at one
side or the other, when the train is not passing. It is to be propelled
across by having stationary power on itself, or to have it so constructed
that the locomotive of a train may propel it across. It may be called
“a flymg railroad bridge.”

THE GENESEE HIGH BRIDGE.

TuE bridge by which the Buffalo and New York Railroad crosses
the Genesee river, near Portageville, is one of the most gigantic
structures in this country, being eight hundred feet in length, and
two hundred and thirty-four feet above the stream. About one hun-
dred feet below the bridge is a perpendicular fall in the river of
sixty-six feet; hence, from the top of the bridge to the bed of the
river below the fall, it is three hundred feet. The Genesee High
Bridge towers above all similar structures in America; even the sus-

40 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

pension bridge at Niagara is only two hundred and thirty feet high,
and no longer than this. Some more definite idea of this immense
structure may be gathered from the following statistics ; — rising from
the bed of the river are eight stone abutments, each thirty feet high.
On these rest the truss work of wood, extending one hundred and
ninety feet above the abutments. On the top of this structure stands
the bridge itself, which is fourteen feet. high. The base of the truss
work is seventy-five feet in width, and the top of the bridge, twenty-
five feet. To furnish the timber for it, over two hundred and fifty
acres of land have been required. More than a million and a half *
feet of timber, board measure, have been used in the construction,
together with sixty tons of iron in bolts. The work was completed in
eighteen months at a cost of about $140,000. The bridge was
designed by Mr. H. C. Seymour, and so perfect is the model, that from
the supporting truss-work any piece of timber can be removed, in
case it becomes defective, and a new one placed in its stead, without
affecting the strength of the work, or displacing any other timber.
The truss-work is composed chiefly of timbers placed on their ends in
an upright position, and so braced, and counter-braced, and the whole
structure made so firm, that it is estimated it will sustain with safety
twenty times the weight of any train that can pass over it.

NOVELTIES IN SHIP BUILDING.

THERE is now building at the Clyde, at Carts’ Dyke, an immense
iron steamship, to be called the Atrato, of much greater capacity and
considerable larger, than that leviathan steamer, the Great Britain ;
indeed so large is the Atrato to be, that the Cunard steamship Arabia,
of 2,400 tons, might be put inside the new steamer, with a good deal
of room to spare.

The origin of the Atrato is somewhat singular. Her builders, hay-
ing constructed the engines (of 850 horse power) for the Demerara,
which got jammed across the Severn, and had to be broken up in
strains she received, got an order from the West India Mail Steam-
ship Company, to whom the Demerara belonged, to build a vessel of
iron instead of wood, to which the new engines might be adapted.
They were permitted to modify the design of the hull so far as the
length was concerned, although the retention of the original paddle-
shafts compelled an adherence to the same breadth of beam at that
line as the original vessel. The result has been that the engineers
submitted plans which were approved of, and are now being carried
out in the building of the largest vessel ever afloat. The entire length
of the keel is laid resting on blocks. The enormous bar is in nine
pieces, joined by scarf-joints, and firmly riveted together. The stern
post is in one piece, and so is the stem, which runs for about ten feet
into the horizontal keel. The stem alone weighs 65 ewt. Only one-
half of the ribs or frames are as yet in place, and even with the long
length of bare keel terminated by the stem standing up some forty
feet or more, the enormous dimensions of the vessel can hardly be

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 41

appreciated, but they will be understood from the principal measure-
ments of the Atrato, and those of the largest ship-of-war in the British
service, the Windsor Castle, now on the stocks at Pembroke Dock
Yard, which is stated to be “ the largest vessel in the world.” Their
principal measurements are :

THE ATRATO. Feet. WINDSOR CASTLE. Feet.
Length of keel, 310 | Length extreme, 278
Do. of keel and forerake, 340 | Do. of keel and forerake, 2404
Breadth of beam, 52 | Breadth, 25
Depth of hold, 34 | Depth of hold, 24

It would thus appear that the Atrato will be about 60 feet longer
than the “largest vessel in the world,” and about 10 feet deeper in
the hold ; the only dimension by which she is exceeded by the Wind-
sor Castle being in the breadth of beam, and in that particular the
builders were bound down by the existing machinery, which as above
stated, was made for the Demerara, a much shorter vessel. The floor
of the new steamer will have a rise of four feet at the flattest part, so
that the easy curves afforded by such a sweep of midship section,
combined with the enormous length, can only be appreciated by those
conversant with ship-building. There are to be four decks; the upper
or spar deck being flush from stem to stern, and presenting a prom-
enade of about 330 feet in length, by about 38 in breadth. The hull
is to be divided into seven compartments by six iron water-tight bulk
heads, extending from the keel to the main deck. This will give
rigidity to the hull, and afford security against sinking.

A new and beautiful steamer, called the “ Light of Heaven,’ has
been recently launched at Glascow, for the Pacha of Egypt. Her
engines are of 300 horse power, and of the most beautiful make and
fish. The fittings of the interior are gorgeous beyond comparison,
consisting of papier-mache ornaments and rich brocaded silks, which
will alone cost $125,000. The ceiling of the saloon will be divided
intoa number of panels of rich white silk, having upon the centre the
device of the crescent and the star, encircled with most elaborate and
richly colored wreaths of Eastern flowers of silk. The borders of
the panels are to be richly ornamented Raffaelesque decorations.
Other portions of the ceiling between the beams, are to be covered
with a silk of a white ground and groups of flowers of gold thread.
The panels on the sides are of papier-mache. The ottomans in the
saloon are covered with cloth of gold, formed with a warp of gold and
a weft of glass thread. The awning of the deck is to be formed of
entirely brocaded silk, the fringe being of gold and costing twenty
guineas per yard. ‘The cost of the silk for the awning alone will not
be less than $10,000.

A new steamer has recently been built in England, with the follow-
ing remarkable proportions. Her length exceeds 200 feet; while her
breadth is little more than 13 feet. She is fitted with engines of 80
horse power. Her wheels, which are on the feathering principle, are

42 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

remarkably small, and, to a casual observer, appear totally adequate
to the propulsion of a boat of such great length; this, however, we
are assured is not the case.

STEAMBOAT PROPELLERS.

THERE have been brought to light, recently, two new inventions:
the one adapted to give increased speed to screw, the other to paddle
navigation. Mr. G. Bovill’s screw propeller, described in the Mining
Journal, is an entirely novel affair. Its central portion is fitted up
with a hollow sphere, occupying one-third of the entire diameter of
the propeller, and the blades are made narrower at the outer extrem-
ity than at the base. The blades are also made to revolve, so as to
admit of the pitch being altered to meet the various circumstances of
speed and power. Froma table of the comparative result of trials
on three different boats, it appeared that important advantages have
been obtained from the new propeller.

The paddle invention is that of a Liverpool shipwright named
Hampson. <A piece of wood, perhaps about a foot square, and con-
nected to a movable framework, so as to be capable of being moved
to and fro, was fixed to the stern of the boat; the paddle, so to speak,
being covered by the water, and assuming a slightly diagonal position.
By moving two handles rapidly with his hands in the direction of his
body from the stern, Mr. H. brought the paddle in rapid motion,
the action resembling that of the fin of a fish, the result being to pro-
pel the boat with great speed through the water. Mr. Hampson
contends, that by this simple appliance alone he can propel row-boats
at much more than their ordinary speed, and with infinitely less
manual labor; but his grand object is to apply it to sea-going vessels
by means of steam and machinery.

The Sidney papers contain accounts of a new propeller invented
by Sir Thomas Mitchell, the Surveyor-General of New South Wales,
a trial of which in a small steamer at that port had excited great
interest. It is called the Bomerang propeller, and is constructed on
the principle of the weapon of that name used by the natives to kill
game. Although the experiment was only on a small and imperfect
scale, a speed of 12 knots an hour against a head-wind-is stated to
have been obtained. The instrument is described to combine great
strength and simplicity, while it has also the advantage that its motion
in the water causes but a comparatively slight agitation, so that it is
capable of being adapted to canal boats as well as to other vessels.
At the conclusion of the trial Sir Thomas Mitchell expressed his con-
viction “that the weapon of the earliest inhabitants of Australia has
now led to the determination, mathematically, of the true form, by
which alone, on the screw principle, high speed on water can be
obtained.”

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 43

NEW BOAT LOWERING APPARATUS.

THE want of a ready means of lowering boats from vessels in dis-
tressed circumstances, has been of late years exemplified in numerous
cases of the most tragical character. Mr. W. 8. Lacon of the East
India Company’s Service, has recently invented a plan for making the
boats attached toa ship quickly available, which seems likely to be
entirely successful. Mr. Lacon takes as his principle the well-known
axiom in mechanics, that what is gained in power is lost in time; and
although he approves of the method at present in use, as being the
best for hoisting up boats; he (seeing that the hoisting need never be
a hurried operation) substitutes two single ropes or chains, which
being secured to two broad slings passing round the body of the boat,
are then brought inboard on davits, and carried to two concave bar-
rels connected together by means of a shaft. The ends of the ropes
or chains are secured to the barrels in such a manner that they will
support any amount of weight until such time as the boat has reached
the water, when they will disconnect and fall away from their attach-
ment by their own weight, by which means he prevents the possibility
of a ship, in its onward progress through a rough sea, dragging forward
a lowered boat sideways, and capsizing or swamping it. By means, ~
then, of a friction strap and pulley round the shaft, one man is ena-
bled to regulate the descent of the boat, which will go down by its
own weight; and by means of the parallel action of the two barrels,
he lowers both ends uniformly, and insures the boat falling ina proper
position on the water.

Two several trials made at Folkestone on this method of lowering
boats, gave great satisfaction to a committee of nautical men. In the
first trial, a boat was lowered from the steamer by one man, with sev-
eral persons on board, and alighted on the water, abaft of the larboard
paddle-box, with the utmost safety and apparent comfort, the tackle
being released momentarily by the weight of the boat’s descent, the
vessel at the time steaming at the rate of 12} knots per hour. It was
afterwards hoisted up again by twomen. At the second trial, the
boat was lowered and cleared from the ship by one man, with Mr.
Lacon and three men on board, the vessel at the time maintaining
full speed.

PATENT SELF-ACTING SAFETY-PLUG FOR BOATS.

THE self-acting safety-plug for ships’ boats, river barges, lighters,
&e., invented by Mr. Lisabe, consists of a hollow brass box, with per-
forations at the top and bottom, let into one of the lower planks of a
boat or barge. In the interior is a loose ball, with sufficient room for
play, so that when the boat is immersed the pressure of the external
water urges and retains the ball lightly against an India Rubber seat-
ing at the top, thereby effectually closing the upper perforations
against the admission of water; while, on the boat being suspended,
the ball, by its own gravity, rests upon the bottom of the chamber,

)

44 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

and allows any rain or other water which may accumulate in the boat
while in suspension to drain out through the upper perforations. Pro-
vision is also made for the retention of water in boats when in the
davits, as often such is rendered necessary, by the addition of a
“turn-table” at the top, which, being turned round, closes the upper
perforations, and retains the water in the boat. ‘The object of this
simple but important invention is to guard against the frequent casual-
ties which occur when, in cases of shipwreck, or vessels striking on
rocks, the ships’ boats are suddenly lowered into the water to afford
means of escape to the passengers and crew; but in too many instan-
ces the boats become immediately filled, and swamp, owing to the
neglect or forgetfulness of stopping the plug-holes which all boats have
in their bottoms for their drainage, while suspended along the ship’s
side. The patent accomplishes this important result with unerring
certainty, and by its self-acting pr inciple requires no attention ; and,
while it answers the object of drainage of the old method of plug-
holes while in suspension, the act of immersion instantaneously closes
the orifice by the pressure of the external water against the ball.

ERICSSON’S CALORIC ENGINE.

WE copy the following popular description of this much talked-of
engine, from Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine.

This invention, by Capt. John Ericsson, was first brought before
the public in 1833, at London, where he made an engine of five
horse power, and exhibited it in operation to several scientific gentle-
men. It was timidly, but generally, approved, by intelligent men ;
but Brunel (the engineer of the Thames tunnel) and Prof. F araday,
decided against the feasibility of the machine, and by means of the
powerful indirect influence of that decision, the English Government
— which had at first seemed inclined to vive the matter their atten-
tion — let it drop, and it was soon forgotten by the public. Latterly
Mr. E. has revived the Caloric Engine i in this country, and built two
or three, which have been in successful operation.

It is stated in the journal above referred to, that his Caloric
Engines are at work in the foundry of Messrs) Hogg and Delamater,
in New York; the one of five, and the other of sixty horse power.
The latter has four cylinders. Two, of seventy-two inches in diame-
ter, stand side by side. Over each of these is placed one much
smaller. Within these, are pistons, exactly fitting their respective
cylinders, and so connected that those within the lower and upper

cylinders move together. Under the bottom of each of the lower
cylinders a fire is applied. No other furnaces are employed,
Neither boilers nor water are used. The gio d = is called the working
cylinder; the upper, the supply cylinder. As the piston in the sup-=
ply cylinder moves down, valves placed in its top open, and it
becomes filled with cold air. As the piston rises within it, these
valves close, and the air within, unable to escape as it came, passes
through another set of valves, into a receiver, from whence it has to

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 45

pass into the working cylinder, to force up the working piston within
it. As it leaves the receiver to perform this duty, it passes through
what is called the regenerator, which we shall soon explain, where it
becomes heated to about four hundred and fifty degrees, and upon
entering the working cylinder, it is further heated by the fire under-
neath. We have said the working cylinder is much larger in
diameter than the supply cylinder. Let us, for the sake of illustration
merely, suppose it to contain double the area. The cold air which
entered the upper cylinder will, therefore, but half fill the lower one.
In the course of its passage to the latter, however, we have said that
it passes through a regenerator, and let us suppose, that as it enters
the working cylinder, it has become heated to about four hundred
and eighty degrees. At this temperature, atmospheric air expands to
double its volume. The atmospheric air, therefore, which was con-
tained within the supply cylinder, is now capable of filling one of
twice its size. With this enlarged capacity it enters the working
cylinder. We will further suppose the area of the piston within this
cylinder to contain a thousand square inches, and the area of the
piston in the supply cylinder above, to contain but five hundred.
The air presses upon this with a mean force, we will suppose, of
about eleven pounds to each square inch; or in other words, with a
weight of 5,500 pounds. Upon the surface of the lower piston, the
heated air is, however, pressing upward with a like force upon each
of its one thousand square inches; or, in other words, with a force
which, after overcoming the weight above, leaves a surplus of 5,500
pounds, if we make no allowance for friction. This surplus furnishes
the working power of the engine. It will be readily seen that, after
one stroke of its pistons is made, it will continue to work with this
force, so long as sufficient heat is supplied to expand the air in the
working cylinder to the extent stated; for, so long as the area
of the lower piston is greater than that of the upper, and a like
pressure is upon every square inch of each, so long will the greater
piston push forward the smaller, as a two pound weight upon one end
of a balance will be quite sure to bear down one pound placed upon
the other. We need hardly say, that after the air in the working
cylinder has forced up the piston within it, a valve opens, and as it
passes out, the pistons, by force of gravity, descend, and cold air
again rushes into, and fills the supply cylinder, as we have before
described. In this manner the two cylinders are alternately supplied
and discharged, causing the pistons in each to play up and down, sub-
stantially as they do in the steam engine.

The most striking feature of the Caloric Engine consists in what is
called the regenerator. Before describing this, we will present the
idea upon which it is based. First, let it be remembered that the
power of the steam engine depends upon the heat employed to pro-
duce steam within its boilers. It will be seen that from the very
nature of steam, the heat required to produce it, amounting to about
1,200°, is entirely lost by condensation the moment it has once
exerted its force upon the piston. If, instead of being so lost, all the

46 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

heat used in creating the steam employed could, at the moment of
condensation, be reconveyed to the furnace, there again to aid in
producing steam in the boilers, but a very little fuel would be neces-
sary ; none, in fact, just enough to supply the heat lost by radiation.
The reason is obvious. Let us suppose the steam has passed from the
boiler, has entered the cylinder, has driven the piston forward, and is
about to pass into the condenser, there to change its form, and to be
again converted into water. This steam, yet in the cylinder, and
uncondensed, possesses all the heat it contained before passing out of
the boiler. It has driven the piston forward, but in that effort it has
lost no heat. That source of power it still contains. Let it be sup-
posed that the heat contained in the steam could, at the moment it is
converted into water within the condenser, be saved, and by some
device be again used to create steam from water main the boiler,
with what exceeding cheapness could the power of the steam engine
be employed. But it is quite impossible thus to re-employ the heat
of steam; it cannot thus be saved: and hence every effort to econo-
mize in this manner would be unavailing.

Let us now attempt to describe the regenerator, to which we have
referred. Without this, the machine we examined would possess, in
point of economy, no advantage over the best constructed steam
engine. With it, the advantage is incalculable.

We have before stated that atmospheric air is first drawn into the
supply cylinder, whence it is forced into a receiver, and that from this
it proceeds toward the working cylinder, before reaching which, it
passes through the regenerator. This structure is composed of wire
net, somewhat like that used in the manufacture of sieves, placed side
by side, until the series attain a thickness, say of twelve inches.
Through the almost innumerable cells, formed by the intersection of
these wires, the air must pass, on its way to the working cylinder. In
passing through these, it is so minutely subdivided that the particles
composing it are brought into close contact with the metal which
forms the wires. Now, let us suppose, what actually takes place, that
the side of the regenerator nearest the working cylinder is heated to
a high temperature. Through this heated substance the air must
pass “before entering the cylinder, and in effecting this passage, it
takes up, as is demonstrated by the thermometer, about 450° of the
480° of heat required, as we before stated, to double its volume. The
additional 30° are communicated by the fire beneath the cylinder.
The air has thus become expanded; it forces the piston upward; 1
has done its work — valves open — and the imprisoned air, heated to
480°, passes from the cylinder, and again enters the regenerator,
through which it must pass before leaving the machine. We have

said that the side of this instrument nearest the working cylinder is
hot, and it should be here stated that the other side is kept cool, by
the action upon it of the air entering in the opposite direction at cach
up-stroke of the pistons. Consequently, as the air from the working
cylinder passes out, the wires absorb the heat so effectually that, when
it leaves the regenerator, it Has been robbed of it all, except about

———

‘

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 47

30°. In other words, as the air passes into the working cylinder, it
gradually receives from the regenerator about 450° of heat; and as
it passes out, this is returned to the wires, and is thus used over and
over, the only purpose of the fires beneath the cylinders being to
supply the 30° of heat we have mentioned, and that which is lost by
radiation and expansion. Extraordinary as this statement may seem,
it is nevertheless incontrovertibly proved by the thermometer, to be
quite true.

The regenerator contained in the sixty-horse engine we have
examined, measures twenty-six inches in height and width internally.
Each dise of wire composing it contains 676 superficial inches, and
the net has ten meshes to the inch. Each superficial inch, therefore,
contains 100 meshes, which multiplied by 676, gives 67,600 meshes,
in each disc, and as 200 discs are employed, it follows that the regen-
erator contains 13,520,000 meshes, and consequently, as there are as
many small spaces between the discs as there are meshes, we find that
the air within it is distributed in about 27,000,000 minute cells.
Hence, it is evident, that nearly every particle of the whole volume
of air, in passing through the regenerator, is brought into very close
contact with a surface of metal, which heats and cools alternately.
The extent of this surface, when accurately estimated, almost sur-
passes belief. The wire contained in each disc is 1,140 feet long, and
that contained in the regenerator is consequently 228,000 feet, or 41}
miles in length, the superficial measurement of which is equal to the
entire surface of four steam-boilers, each forty feet long, and four feet
in diameter; and yet the regenerator, presenting this great amount of
heating surface, is only about two feet cube — less than 1-1920 of the
bulk of these four boilers.

Involved in this process, of the transfer and retransfer of heat, is a
discovery which justly ranks as one of the most remarkable ever
made in physical science. Its author, Captain Ericsson, long since
ascertained, and upon this based the sublimest feature of his caloric
engine, that atmospheric air and other permanent gases, in passing
through a distance of only six inches, in the fiftieth part of a second
of time, are capable of acquiring or parting with, upward of four
hundred degrees of heat. He has been first to discover this marvel-
lous property of caloric, without which, atmospheric air could not be
effectively employed as a motive power. ‘The reason is obvious.
Until expanded by heat, it can exert no force upon the piston. If
much time were required to effect this, the movement of the piston
would be so slow as to render the machine inefficient. Captain Erics-
son has demonstrated, however, that heat may be communicated to,
and expansion effected in, atmospheric air, with almost electric speed ;
and that it is, therefore, eminently adapted to give the greatest desir-
able rapidity of motion to all kinds of machinery.

In order to afford a practical trial of the caloric engine upon a
large scale, asgigantic vessel has been built, and fitted with engines
constructed on the principles described. ‘This vessel is said to be the
finest specimen of naval architecture, (especially in point of strength

5*

48 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ever created in this country. The engines being placed in the centre
of the vessel, admit of a better form of midship section than in
steamships. Of this the builders have availed thentselves, by giving
such a rise to the floor, that strength and easy lines for passing
through the water, are appropriately combined. The floor of the
vessel is built entirely solid from stem to stern, and in order to give
additional strength to the ample timbers, the entire frame is banded
by a double series of diagonal braces, of flat bars of iron, let into the
timbers at intervals of about three feet, each series being riveted
together at all the points of intersection. In addition to the ordinary
central keelsons, there are six engine keelsons, bolted on the top of
the floor timbers, for three-fourths of the length of the ship. On
these keelsons the bed-plates of the engines are secured by bolts
passing through the floor timbers. These bed-plates extend over the
entire area occupied by the engines, and present a continuation of
iron flooring, not witnessed in any steamship. The security thus
attained is further enhanced by dispensing entirely with the numer-
ous holes through the bottom of the vessel, which in steamers are
necessary, and have often brought that class of vessels to a sinking
condition. The engines being arranged in the centre of the vessel,
the decks are not cut off as in steamers; and as the whole of the
machinery is confined within a vertical trunk 76 feet long and 18 feet
wide, ample space is left on each side of the ship for state-rooms along
its entire length, with unbroken passages, fore and aft, on either side.
The freight deck also presents an unbroken area fore ‘and aft, dimin-
ished only i in width in the central part of the vessel. The coal being
carried in the bottom, at each side of the engines, the fore and att
hold are clear for freight. The central arrangement of the engines
involves, of necessity, a ceniral crank, and thus the spar- deck - pre-
sents an uninterrupted area, on both sides, the ordinary objectionable
crank hatches being dispensed with. The slow combustion peculiar
to the caloric engines renders the huge smoke funnel unnecessary.
A short pipe to carry off the gases produced by the combustion in the
furnaces takes its place in the caloric ship. The absence of steam in
every form is sufficiently important in producing a more pleasant
atmosphere than in steamers, but far more remarkable is the fact that
the quantity of air which will be drawn out of the ship by the action
of the supply cylinders of the engines, will exceed sixty tons in weight
every hour! Each supply piston presents an area of 102 superficial
feet, with a stroke of six feet. 612 cubic feet of atmospheric air
will therefore be drawn into the engine at each stroke ; and when
the engine makes fourteen strokes per minute, 8,568 cubic feet. But
as there are four supply cylinders, they will in this space of time
draw in 34,272 cubic feet. ‘The weight of atmospheric air is nearly
134 cubic feet to the pound ; and thus it will be seen that 68 tons of
air are drawn from the interior of the ship, through the engines, and
passed off into the atmosphere, every hour. The effect of such an
extraordinary system of ventilation, i purifying the atmosphere of
the ship, is self-evident.

:
g
‘

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 49

The simple construction of the caloric engine, and the small quan-
tity of coal to be handled, will reduce the number of engineers and
firemen, in the aggregate, to less than one-fourth the compliment
required for steamers. This great reduction in the number of men,
whose duties are incompatible with strict cleanliness, will still further
promote a purer state of atmosphere in caloric ships than in steamers.
Again, as no smoke whatever is produced, when anthracite coal is
employed, the masts and rigging of the caloric ship will be as clean
as in sailing vessels.

The following are some of the dimensions and statistics of this ship:
Length, 250 feet; beam, 40; hold, 27; tonnage, 2,000 to 2,200;
diameter of wheels, 32 feet; face of wheel, 114 feet; power of
engines, 600 horse; consumption of coal per day, (24 hours,) 8 tons;
number of men in engine department, 10; number of sailing crew,
20; passenger accommodation for 200, with room for enlargement to
double the capacity ; room for 1,500 tons freight; cost, im the neigh-
borhood of $300,000.

The scientific and commercial world will watch with deep anxiety
the result of this grand experiment with the caloric engine. Should
it fail, a contingency, by the way, which its friends deem most improb-
able, the world will lose nothing, and the experimenters comparatively
little, since the strong and beautiful ship may be put to other uses m
ordinary steam navigation. Should it succeed, the days of steam are
numbered.

ON CERTAIN POINTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF MARINE BOILERS.

Mr. J. Scor Russet1, the celebrated ship architect of England,
having arrived at certain theoretical results relative to the construc-
tion of marine boilers, put them into practice, about ten years back,
in designing the boilers for the Royal Mail Steam Packets Clyde,
Tay, Tweed, and Teviot; and as they have been in constant work
ever since, running from 42,000 miles to 48,000 miles per annum,
without material repairs, he believes their durability, combined with
effective combustion, and economy of fuel, to have been fully estab-
lished. ‘The principles upon which these boilers are constructed,
differ from those generally recognized. In the first place, it was
considered that a judicious distribution of the most intensely heated
surfaces would be conducive to durability; and for this purpose,
instead of returning the flues over the furnaces, the top of the fur-
naces and the hottest flues were brought to the surface of the water,
and the cooler, or return flues, were taken to the bottom of the water.
The water was admitted at the bottom, and was gradually warmed as
it rose, the greatest heat being imparted at the last moment, by which
means the bubbles of steam were prevented from accumulating in
contact with intensely heated metal. In the next place, the capacity
of the furnaces, or fireboxes, was unusually large, and their height
above the incandescent fuel much greater than usual. The evapo-
rating surface in these boilers was also much more than customary,

50 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

there being no less than three feet of evaporating surface for every
foot of furnace bars. The process of blowing off was provided for
by arranging, under the flues and furnaces, large water spaces, as
reservoirs for the collection and blowing off of brine, and other
deposit. — Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.

DIAPHRAGM STEAM GENERATOR.

THE principle upon which this steam generator, invented by M.
Boutigny, is based, is that “bodies evaporate only from their sur-
faces.” This being received as an axiom, it must necessarily follow,
that in the construction of steam boilers, either the evaporating sur-
face of metal should be extended to its utmost limit, or the water
should be so divided, and its evaporating surfaces be so multiplied, as
to arrive at the same end, of obtaiing the greatest amount of steam,
by the expenditure of the least amount of fuel. ‘The steam generator
is described as consisting of a vertical cylinder of wrought 1 iron, 25
inches high, by 122 inches diameter ; the base terminating in a hemi-
spherical end, and ‘the upper part closed by a curved lid, upon which
was attached the usual steam and safety valves, feed, steam, and other
pipes, &c. The interior contains a series of diaphragms of wrought
iron, pierced with a number of fine holes and having alternately con-
vex and concave surfaces. T hey were suspended by three iron rods,
at given distances apart, in such a manner as not to be in contact with
the heated exterior, or shell of the boiler. When any water was
admitted through the feed- -pipe, it fell upon the upper (convex) dise,
which had a tendenc -y to spread it to the periphery, the largest quan-
tity falling through the perforations in the shape of globules ; the
second diaphragm, being concave, tended to direct the fluid from the
circumference to the centre, and so on, until, if any fluid reached the
bottom of the cylinder, it mingled with a thin film of water, in a high
state of ebullition, that being the hottest part of the boiler. “It
appeared, however, that in its transit through these diaphragms, the
water was so divided, that, exposing a very large surface to the caloric,
it was transformed into steam with great rapidity, and with great
economy of fuel. The boiler described has been worked for a long
time at Paris with great success, giving motion to a steam engine of
two horse-power. ‘The consumption of coal is stated to be very
small; 789 pounds of water having been converted into steam by 182
pounds of coal in nine hours, under a pressure of ten atmospheres.
The chemical part of the question has been carefully examined, and
it has been shown that at that temperature the iron was exactly in the
best condition to bear strain. M. Boutigny has only proposed this
system for small boilers, and under circumstances of wanting to obtain
a motive power in situations of restricted space, and where first cost
was a great object. — Civil Engineer’s and Architect’s Journal.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 51

NEW TUBULAR BOILER.

Mr. Farrparren, at the last meeting of the British Association,
described a new tubular boiler, which consists of two furnaces, the
same as the double-flue boiler, but with this difference, that the cylin-
drical flues which contain the grate bars are united at a distance of
eight feet from the front of the boiler into a circular flue which forms
the mixing chamber, and which terminates in a disc plate, which
contains a series of three-inch tubes, eight feet long, and similar to
the locomotive boiler. These tubes in a boiler seven feet diameter
are 104 to 110 in number, and, from the thinness of the metal, become
the absorbents of the surplus heat escaping from the mixing chamber
and the furnace. On this principle of rapid conduction, the whole of
the heat, excepting only what is necessary to maintain the draught,
is transmitted into the boiler, and hence follows the economy of
entirely dispensing with brickwork and flues, — an important desider-
atum in those constructions.

CORNISH ENGINES.

THE following statistics of the famous Cornish engines of England,
for the months September, October, and November, 1851, are given
in Lean’s Engine Reporter. These engines, it is well known, are
among the most perfect and powerful ever constructed, and the
result of their working strikingly illustrates the wonderful precision
and magnitude of the steam power. ‘They are employed in raising
water from the deep mines of Cornwall. The number of pumping
engines employed in September was 21; consumption of coal, 1,512
tons; water raised, 13,000,000 tons, ten fathoms high. Average duty
of the whole is, therefore, 50,000,000 pounds lifted one foot high by
the consumption of 94 Ibs. of coal.

October, — number of engines employed was 20; consumption of
coal, 1,960 tons; water raised, 16,000,000 tons, ten fathoms high.
Average duty, 49,000,000 lbs., lifted one foot high, by 94 lbs. of coal.

November, — engines employed was 213; consumption of coal,
1,525 tons ; water raised, 13,000,000 tons, ten fathoms high. Average
duty, 49,000,000 Ibs., by 94 lbs. of coal.

MILLER’S MONOZYMATIC CONDENSER.

THE object of this condenser is to condense the steam as it passes
from the exhaust pipe of the cylinder, by the application of cold
water to the outside of the metal, separate from the steam, and to
return the condensed steam — pure water —as feed, to the boiler.
The primary object of a condenser is to obtain a vacuum behind the
piston, by the sudden reconversion of the steam into water, thereby
reducing iis bulk. The vacuum obtained in common condensing
engines, in good order, is about 13 Ibs. to the square inch, which is
just about 2 Ibs. less than the pressure of the atmosphere, and is

52 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

therefore so much gain to the engine, excepting the power required
to work the air-pump, which must be deducted. The common
method of condensing, is to let the steam come in direct contact
inside of the condenser, with the cold condensing water, and keep
pumping out the hot, at 100°, and supplying the condenser with cold
water. The principle of condensing the steam by the outside appli-
cation of water, is older than the injecting of cold water among the
exhaust steam, but it has always been considered an inferior mode of
condensation. In Miller’s condenser an exhaust pipe conveys the
steam from the cylinder, after it has acted upon the piston, to the con-
denser. This exhaust steam, however, is allowed to pass into a
heating vessel, before entering the condenser, where it is condensed
in the inside of the tubes of the condenser, by the application of a
constant stream of cold water to the outside of the tubes. The con-
densed steam inside falls to the bottom of the condenser in the state
of water, from which it is pumped, and forced into the bojler, as pure
feed water, by two air pumps, which thus serve as feed pumps.
Before entering the boiler, it passes through a metallic vessel, and is
there raised by the exhaust steam to about the boiling point. The
great object in condensing the exhaust steam to save power, is to get
a good vacuum behind the piston, and the great object in saving fuel
is to return the water to the boiler as hot as it is possible to do so,
and in as pure a state as possible ; this 1s believed to be successfully
accomplished by this arrangement. There is an air chamber on the
top of the heater, to let the accumulated elastic gas and air in the
water escape from time to time ; this can easily be done by the engi-
neer, according to where the heater is situated, by the cock on the
top of the air chamber. It was a great improvement in sudden con-
densation, when the cold water was first applied inside of the cylinder
— injected among the steam — instead of on the outside, because it
requires so much cold water to condense the steam —no less than
22.24 cubic inches of water to one of water converted into steam.
Watt endeavored, by his first condenser, to obtain enough of cooling
surface to condense the steam inside by using thin hollow chambers,
but he soon resorted to mixing the cold water with the steam again.
Hall’s condenser, for the same purpose, consisted of a faggot of small
copper tubes, but this condenser, we believe, is nowhere in use.
Plenty of cooling surface can be obtained by pipes, &c., but owing
to the expansion and contraction of the metal, at the joints, there is
a continual tendency to leakage, and a leak destroys the whole object
of the condenser. To construct a condenser upon principles to
obviate the evils of leakage by the expansion and contraction of the
metals, has been the object and aim of Mr. Miller. The tubes of the
condenser are united by screw joints, with vulcanized india-rubber
between the flanges. ‘The steam coming from the boiler, through the
heater, has free passage at once to all the condensing tubes. ‘These
tubes are of a peculiar construction; each one is double, and the
interior end, where the steam at first strikes it, is round and uncon-
nected, and free to expand and contract without affecting the joints.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 53

The steam passes into each pipe, and the cold water is applied both
upon the outside, and also upon the inside surfaces ; there is therefore
a double cooling surface for the steam in each pipe. ‘This arrange-
ment is said to work excellently in practice, and to save a large:
amount of fuel.

HYDRAULIC REGULATOR FOR STEAM-ENGINES.

THIS regulator, 1 invented by Messrs. Thurston and Green of New
York, is a cast iron cylinder, about 18 inches high, and 6 in diameter.
This cylinder contains two brass cylinders, with plungers and_ piston
rods attached, one being 3 inches in diameter, and 4 inches high, and
the other is 2 inches in diameter, and 12 inches high. Connected
with the two inch cylinder at the bottom is an escape taucet, by which
the fluid which is forced into that cylinder may escape when open.
The piston rod connected with the plunger of the two inch cylinder
or pump, is connected at the top with a lever attached to the stem of
the steam valve of the engine, and the piston of the three-inch cylin-
der is connected with the engine in such a manner as to drive the
pump’s plunger 100 motions per minute. This pump forces the fluid
from the outer cylinder into the two-inch cylinder at the bottom, and
the faucet is opened just far enough to allow the fluid forced into the
two-inch cylinder to escape without the plunger of the cylinder being
raised more than four inches, being the amount of play or vacillation
allowed this rod and plunger when the engine makes the number of
revolutions per minute required. Attached to the upper part of this
piston rod is a weight capable of opening the valve at all times when
there is not fluid enough forced in to hold the plunger up high enough
to close the valve. By this means engines can be held, regardless ‘of
the kind of work to be performed, so as not to vary more than half of
one revolution per minute ; for when the engine increases in speed,
by machinery being thrown out of gear, or on account of a higher
pressure of steam, the pump is driven “faster, more fluid is thrown into
the two-inch cy linder than provided for, the plunger in the cylinder
is thrown higher up, and the top of the piston rod of the plunger
being connected with the steam valv e, the valve is partially or entirely
closed, so that no more steam can pass the valve than just enough to
give the desired number of revolutions. If the engine does not run
so as to drive the pumps at one hundred rev olutions, there is not fluid
enough forced into the two-inch cylinder to keep the plunger up;
consequently it drops down and opens the valve, until the exact vol-
ume of steam to drive the engime the desired number of revolutions
is received. — N. Y. Farmer 5 Mechanic.

IMPROVED GOVERNOR FOR STEAM ENGINES.

JOHN TremMPER, of Buffalo, N. Y., has invented a very simple
and beautiful improvement on Governors for steam engines. It can
be made at a very small cost in comparison with the common governor.

54 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

A vertical spindle receives motion from the main shaft; on this is
placed a sliding collar, which is connected by a rod to the throttle
valve. The slide, however, has no flexible arms attached to it, to ele-
vate the rod by centrifugal action. The construction and operation
are different in principle, entirely, from the common governors. Two
straps are attached to the top of the spindle opposite one another, and
the lower ends secured to balls on horizontal rigid arms, which are
secured to the sliding collar. The straps partake in a moment of the
motion of the spindle, and act upon the balls at once on the outer
ends of the horizontal arms and lift up the sliding collar in an instant.
The action of this governor is by velocity and gravity, the velocity
of the spindle and the gravity of the sliding collar. A sudden increase
of velocity in the spindle makes the cords of the arms wind around
the top of the spindle, and this lifts the sliding collar instantly, when
the steam is cut off, and then the gravity of the balls and collar, when
the velocity of the spindle is thus checked, soon restores the cord to
its angular rigidity. It is a unique system of checking and balancing
for governing the quantity of steam required for the engine, so as to
preserve a uniform motion of machinery. — Scientific American.

WILLIAMS’ ALARM WATER GUAGE.

Tus water guage is constructed simply on the principle, that
water will find its own level. A tube, containg a float, is brought into
connection with the boiler by two pipes, through which the water
flows ; a glass tube at one side shows the height of the water. When
the water falls to a certain level in the boiler, the float within the tube
rests on an arm — that opening a valve produces a whistle or warning
to the engineer. The lower cock of the instrument is attached to
the boiler on a line with the top of the flues or lowest water line; the
tube is sufficiently long to make allowance for the proper fluctuations
ot water —10 to 20 inches. No matter how the water foams within
the boiler, the indications of the guage are those of solid water.

IMPROVED SAFETY VALVE. ~

Tue following is a description of an apparatus patented in Eng-
land by Messrs. Bloomer & Co., for the prevention of steam-boiler
explosions. It consists of a valve, which is screwed to the top of the
boiler, over which stands a hollow fluted column about three feet high,
forming a box to contain the weights on the valve, and a pillar for a
wheel, over which works a flat chain connected with the buoy in the
boiler, having at equal distances. two long links, one on each side of
the pillar.

Two levers, connected with the valve, and fixed on centres, pass
between the long links, so that the water in the boiler, rising or fall-
ing beyond a given level, depresses the lever, opens the valve, and
permits the steam to escape. An index is fixed on the wheel which
gives the height of the water in the boiler; the steam is also weighed

pets:

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 55

without the addition of levers, and the weights are securely locked in
the pillar to prevent alteration.

MAMMOTH LOCOMOTIVE.

A MAMMOTH locomotive has recently been built for the Camden
and Amboy Railroad, weighing 30 tons, and of 350 horse power. The
Railway ‘Times gives an account of the mechanical peculiarities of
this engine, as follows: This engine differs from other locomotives in
several particulars. ‘The first is, the manner in which the motive
power is communicated to the wheels, namely, by connecting the cross-
head by a rod, with a pendulum, or long lever suspended from a shaft,
supported by pedestals fixed on top of the boiler. This lever, vibra-
ting, gives a very slight angle to the first connection rod, and conse-
quently occasions very little friction, between the cross-head and
guide. The main connection takes hold with a fork, at the lower
extremity of the first connection, and passes back to a wrist in the
third pair of wheels; from this passes another connection rod to the
fourth or rear wheels — then to complete the arrangement forward,
the third pair of wheels has fixed on the centre of the axle, a spur
gear, communicating through an intermediate wheel to another fixed
on the axle of the second pair or rear truck wheels; these wheels are
connected by side rods to the front truck wheels, making the whole
eight wheels, or four pairs, driving wheels. Another striking pecu-
liarity of this engine is the manner of heating the water before it
enters the boiler. In the first place, the tank is connected by hose to
the ash pan, which is made with a double bottom, so as to form a space
of three inches between the sheets, to contain water; from this the
water passes through an internal pipe, enclosed by the exhaust pipe ;
thence to the smoke-box, where it passes out to the pumps, which are
vertical, and fixed on the outside of the smoke-box, and worked from
an arm fixed on the pendulum shaft; by this arrancement the water
is heated to nearly the boiling point before it enters the boiler.

The engine is calculated for freight trains, having wheels only four
feet in diameter. The boiler is 24 feet in length, and 50 inches in
diameter, tapering each way, forming a line on the bottom. The fur-
nace is 47 inches wide and 7 feet long, having a bridge 12 inches
from the tube sheet.

4

IMPROVEMENTS IN LOCOMOTIVES.

Messrs. ReMsSEN, and Hurron, of Troy, N. Y., have taken
measures to secure a patent for improvements in Locomotives. The
steam is admitted to the cylinders on one side of the pistons only, so
that the cylinders are single-acting — the piston rod only acts upon
the crank and driving-wheel during one half of the revolution, and
that while the crank pin is above the axis. To insure a constant
application of power, three cylinders are employed, with their pistons
acting upon cranks placed at an angle of 120°, to each other. Each

6

56 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

cylinder, however, is so constructed, that the pistons can be operated
in both directions, for reversing the motion. One immovable eccen-
tric for each cylinder is made to work the engine both ways, and thus
the complicated mechanism of the ordinary reversing gear is dis-
pensed with. Each cylinder is furnished with two valve boxes and
two valves, one valve opening and closing the steam and exhaust pas-
sages leading to and from one end of the cylinder, and the other,
those leading to and from the other end of the cylinder. Both valves
are attached to the same rod, and both are always moved when the
engine is working, but the steam is only admitted to one valve box at
atime. Two steam pipes and two exhaust pipes are thus rendered
necessary to each cylinder, one steam and one exhaust communicating
with either end. Two main steam pipes only are required, each
branching to the separate cylinders, and each provided with a valve
for opening and closing its communication with the boiler. By simply
opening one valve, and closing the other, the engine may be worked
in either direction, according to which valve is opened and closed. —
Scientific American.

NEW RAILROAD CAR FOR GRAIN, COAL, ETC.

Tue American Railway Times gives the following description of a
new car, for the transportation of grain, coal, &c., ’ the invention of
Mr. Myers, of Philadelphia.

This car consists of two wrought ir on cy linders, of sufficient length
to suit the track, with the felloe or rim of a railway wheel, slipped
over each end and substantially riveted to it. In the centre of each
cylinder is placed a partition, the whole length and depth of the same.
On the head of each cylinder is fastened the journal, which rests on,
and works in boxes placed underneath the frame, and thus connected
together. The door extends lengthwise the cy ‘linder, between the
wheels ; ; 1s in four equal parts, and hinged in the usual manner, and
is secured by an iron rod, passing through the wheels and over the
same. ‘The contents thus revolve with the cylinder, and their abra-
sion is prevented, by the centrifugal force produc ed by the usual
velocity attained on railways, and the partition placed in the cylinder
also effectually prevents the same during the necessary slow motions
on the road.

IMPROVED CAST IRON SLEEPERS FOR RAILWAYS.

Mr. Gopwin at the British Association suggested an improvement
in cast iron sleepers for railways, which consists in substituting a cast
iron chair and sleeper for the permanent way of railways, in cases
where, from the decay of the wood sleeper, it may be necessary to
reconstruct the line. “The fastening of the rail to the sleeper is the
main feature in the invention, and consists in driving a cast iron wedge
between the rail and chair, forcing the rail upwards, and thus produc-
ing a simple and permanent fastening. Mr. Godwin suggested, as a

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;

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 57

further security against the wedges shaking loose, that they may be
driven in with sal ammoniac, and thus ensure an immovable and _per-
manent line of road.

IMPROVEMENTS IN VENTILATING RAILROAD CARS.

Paine’s Ventilating Car.— The principle upon which this improve-
ment is founded, differs from that of the ordinary systems of ventila-
ting cars in this respect: that, with Mr. Paine’s apparatus, the currents
of air which pass through the car enter at the top, and pass out through
the windows at the side. Hitherto the open windows of cars have
been relied upon for supplying fresh air, and the ventilators in the
top of the car have been exhaustive, designed to draw out the impure
air.

The car to which this system is applied is built like any other car,
with the exception of the windows, and these form an important part
of the apparatus. Instead of opening like a common house window,
they open like a door, and each one is opened, say two inches, the
opening looking outward, in the opposite direction to which the car is
running. The car being set in motion, the friction of the external air
upon the points where it comes in contact with the air within the car
has the tendency to exhaust the latter, or exercise a traction, if we
may so express it, upon the whole volume that the car contains. The
second part of the invention has for its object, the supplying of
external air to the constantly exhausting volume within, free from
dust, and in the proper quantity. This is done by apparatus fixed
upon the roof of the car. Suppose a tin pan full of water upon the
roof, with an opening into the car around and beneath it. Over this
tin pan place a lid, made up of short, aggregated tubes, which stand
perpendicularly to the water. Now adjust it so that all the air that
enters the car at this point, shall enter through this lid, or screen of
tubes, and set the car in motion. The air rushes in through the tubes
and must take its direction perpendicularly to the water, striking the
surface of the water at a right angle, and projecting and depositing
upon its surface the dust for the time suspended in it. The air itself
passes over the edge of the pan, the lid not coming down to the edge,
and enters the car pure. The roof of the car is supplied with a series
of ventilators, each of which has wings attached to receive as much
air as possible. The air entering these, it will be observed, is not
strained of the dust and cinders it contains by passing through the
water, but the whole mass of air merely comes in contact with the
surface of the water, before it passes over the edge of the pan, and
thus deposits its dust, or the dust, by its superior weight, possesses a
momentum which carries it through the current as it shifts to pass
over the pan, and throws it upon the water before the new current
changes its direction.

The advantages of the car are obvious. A fine ventilation is
secured, and all dust is obviated. Both these advantages are invalua-
ble, but added to these is the advantage of stillness in the car, all the

58 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

noise from the outside being obliged to enter the car against the strong
current of air passing out of the windows.

There are also two objections to this system of ventilation. The
first is that when the car is not moving, (for instance in the station-
house,) the passengers will be in danger of becoming stifled, since the
rapid motion of the car is necessary in order to force any considerable
quantity of air into the car through the ventilators.

The other objection is, that in cold weather the new apparatus will
force too much cold air down upon the heads of passengers ; and that
the open windows, which form an essential part of the plan, will then
be found disagreeable.

The New Haven Courier gives the following description of another
invention designed to promote the comfort of passengers travelling by
railroad: “The invention consists merely in a connection formed
between all the cars by inclosing the platforms, so that the external
air, with the dust, smoke and cinders, are entirely excluded from the
usual ways of ingress. The front of the baggage car is open, but pro-
tected from the smoke of the locomotive by a screen. ‘The air rushes
in through the front of the car, and circulates freely through the whole
length of the train, keeping up at all times a gentle motion of the
air, without the possibility of annoyance from dust, &c. It has its
advantage over Mr. Paine’s ventilator, that when the air is at rest,
the passengers have the free use of the ordinary means of ventila-
tion by doors and windows, and thus the intolerable heat is avoided,
while there is no fear of the admission of smoke, which forces itself
into Paine’s ventilators when passing under bridges, or on a wet day,
when the wind is dead ahead, and rolls it along the roof.”

At the Fair of the American Institute in October, 1852, at New
York, some twenty-five different models of improvements for ventila-
ting cars were on exhibition. ‘The two of most apparent importance,
were those mentioned above. — Editor.

RAILWAY IMPROVEMENTS.

Trink’s Double Acting Brake. — The principle of this is to raise
the wheels off the track in this manner: The brake, which is made of
transverse pieces of wood, forming a frame, is placed behind the
wheels, and is connected by a rope or chain with the screw or lever
on the platform of the car, by which the brake or frame can be drop-
ped or raised instantly. On this frame or brake are inclined planes
forming part of a circle, and when the frame is dropped for the pur-
pose of stopping the train, the momentum of the train causes the cars
to run on the axles of the wheels up the inclined plane, thus lifting
the wheels off the rails and throwing the weight of the cars on the
frame, pressing it on the rails, and acting as a brake. The frame
when down, rests upon iron shoes, three upon each side, which are
prevented from sliding off the rails by means of flanges on the imside,
similar to those on car wheels. The brake thus unites two capacities :
First, in raising the cars, by which operation, although the wheels

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 59

may revolve, yet it is without effect, as they do not rest upon the rails ;
and secondly, the frame is a heavy brake, creating an immense fric-
tion on the shoes, by which, though the train will slide a short distance,
it will very soon be stopped. The application of the brake can be
done by the engineer, conductor, or passengers, by simply pulling a
rope which passes through and on the top of the cars, and a slight
pull will detach the catch on the lever, when the frame-work drops
from its own weight. One advantage here i is, that in case an axle or
wheel breaks, the car will rest upon : the frame, checking the speed of
the train, and communicating intelligence to the engineer that some
accident has happened. The winding up of the frame can be done
by hand, or steam power, if desired.

Railroad Car Replacer.— This invention, by Mr. S. H. Bean, con-
sists of an inclined plane, constructed of wood, or iron, attached to
each end of an axle, which is placed in front ‘of each wheel of the
ear that has run off the track, which inclined plane extends some
distance above the tops of the rail, and by the gravity of the car,
slides down a transverse inclined plane to its proper position on the
track, after which the replacer is attached to the car, it being of an
easy portable nature.

Locomotive Mirrors. — The practice of placing a looking-elass
before the engineer in a locomotive, inclined in such a way as to
enable him to see the whole train behind him without turning, is
gradually becoming universal on the continent of Europe. Many
roads in France have adopted this plan, the greater part of those in
Austria have tried it successfully, and the locomotives on the line from
Brussels to Antwerp have been just fitted with the necessary reflec-
tors. Should a car or any portion of the train become detached,
should an axle break, or in short any accident happen, the engineer
sees it at once.

Improvement in Boxes for Azles.— An improvement in boxes for
axles of railroad cars, has been inv ented by Messrs. Provest and
Smith, of Germantown, Pa., which is thus described : The steps in
which the spindles of the car axles run are made in two pieces, so
that when any strain may come upon them in the line of the running
of the car, they may be ‘forced apart sufficiently to allow the axle to
come up into proper position, to prevent the otherwise twisting of it
by being cramped between the rails. The two-part step may have a
tongue both upon the top and bottom, which may work in correspond-
Ing grooves in the top and bottom of the box, or it may slide ina
rebate ; ; in either the box may be so provided with flanges as to form a
receptacle for the oil. Behind each of these parts of the step, springs
are arranged, which admit of the step being opened when turning
curves, and closing it when coming on straight lines, thus allowing the
axle to adjust itself as the nature of the case may requir e. ‘The spring
behind the step also allows it to yield slightly when the wheels strike
against any obstruction on the road, thus taking the sudden jar or strain
upon the springs instead of the spindles of the ax xsle, as in cases where
the boxes are tight, and which often bend or bre alk the spindle.

Ge

60 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Several premiums for improvements in railroad cars, &c., having
been offered by Mr. Ray, of Brooklyn, N. Y., through the American
Institute, a great number of inventions and improvements were
brought out ‘at the fair of the Institute, in October, 1852, at New
York. Ne early one hundred different novelties in methods for ventila-
tion, brakes, seats, spark catchers, wheels and axles, rails, &c., were
brought forward, all of which seemed to embrace decided improve-
ments on the methods now in vogue. Among them was a sheet or
plate iron car, constructed and designed by Mr. F. E. Warren, of
New York. The poimts arrived at in this instance, are greater
strength in the car, combined with less weight than is requisite in all
passenger cars now in use; ereater durability; an increased width
(‘in the clear”) cf nine inches, which will enable the ear to be fitted
up so that three rows of berths or sleeping places for passengers, three
tiers high, may be placed in each car, with two passage ways, sufli-
ciently wide to admit of free locomotion in the carriages. The result
of this arrangement is, that in one of these cars desioned to seat sixty
passengers during the day, quite as many can be comfortably and
conveniently bedded at night. They can also be orn namented with
east iron ornaments even more beautifully than they are now
embossed and ornamented, and at far less expense. In case of an
overturn or collision they cannot fly into splinters as at present, and
are therefore hardly ever to be so damaged by accident as to be ren-
dered worthless. As a matter of course, they can be finished or fitted
up and lighted in any desired style. By the use of non-conducting
lining they may be made as impervious to heat in summer as to cold
in winter ; and they will receive and permanently retain any deserip-
tion of ornamental painting now in vogue for cars or coaches. The
supports and braces of these cars are made of plate or drawn iron
tubes standing in cast iron plates, and the joints of the thin plate
metal, which takes the place of the panelling, floors, and roof of wood
in the cars now in use, are made close and very strong by a system of
flange riveting. It is ‘understood that. this description of car can be
afforded at a consider ‘ably less cost than the ordinary first class passen-
ger cars now in use, and when no longer serviceable, the materials of
which they are constructed will be valuable for other purposes.

SUBSTITUTE FOR THE COW CATCHER.

AN invention has been made by Mr. Darling, of Utica, N. Y.,
designed as a substitute for the cow catcher now generally used in
front of locomotives on railroads. The object is to clear the track not
only from cows, but all other objects obstructing the passage of the
cars.

The cow catcher now in use does not invariably succeed in throw-
ing the obstacle from the track. It frequently passes over it, suffering
the obstacle to remain, when the whole train passes over it, often
throwing the cars from the track. The desion of Mr. Darling’s inyven-
tion is to render more certain the work of clearing the track, and

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 61

preventing these disastrous occurrences. This is accomplished by
setting in motion in front of the locomotive a horizontal wheel which
with quick motion sweeps over the track. This wheel runs close to
the rails, and either throws aside the opposing obstacle at the instant
of contact, or if it falls upon the wheel, it is no less instantly disposed
of. The wheel is connected by gearing, to the front axle of the loco-
motive, and receives a swift circular motion from its mevement. An
apron of plate iren is wrapped round in front covering about one
half ef the disc of the wheel and presenting the convexity of its arch
ferward ; so that any ebject falling upon the wheel is instantly brought
against the opposing front of the apron. This, sloping back at the
side, the quick motion of the wheel instantly throws the object side-
ways from the track.— NV. Y. Farmer & Mechanic.

STRAINS UPON THE DIAGONALS GF LATTICE BEAMS.

Tue London Journal of Arts and Sciences gives an account of
experiments recently made in London upon lattice beams.

The experiments were made on a model 12 feet in length, so con-
structed that the diagonals in compression, (which were strips of
mahogany, let into the top and bottom, but not fastened to them, and
the ties which were ef heop iron chains,) must of necessity take their
respective bearing and strain; and by the substitution of a dynamo-
meter for any one of the ties, the strain on it could be accurately
measured.

The results of the investigation were, that for a parallel beam of
one span, supported at each end and leaded at the centre, the strains
throughout the diagonals were uniform, and the herizontal strains
were greatest at the centre, decreasing uniformly at the points of
suppert. For a similar beam, uniformly loaded ever its entire length,
the strains at the diagonals commenced at the centre, increasing uni-
formly to the points of suppert; while the herizontal strains decreased
from the centre to the ends in the ratio ef the ordinates of a parabola.
These results were arrived at by different methods of reasoning. and
the formula derived from them were stated to be applicable to the
more complex form of a closely intersected lattice, taking into consid-
eration the mcreased number ef triangulatiens.

ON THE FORM CGF IRON FOR MALLEABLE IRON BEAMS, OR
GIRDERS.

Tue following is an abstract of a paper read before the British
Association, by Mr. T. M. Gladstone: —It is, said Mr. Gladstone, on
the application of wrought iren beams or girders I propose to make
some remarks, by contrasting their powers and properties with those of
cast iren ; to shew what form ef iron I conceive best adapted for such
use, and to state, as a manufacturer, what may be expected as the capa-
bilities of iron works to produce the same beyond previous efforts, so
as te meet the increased requirements of the times. It is found that,

62 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

by converting iron from a cast, into a malleable state, the adhesion of
the fibres of the metal, under tension, becomes increased from 7 to 27,
and indeed much beyond that when the best quality of material is
manufactured. At the same time, it is stated that the compressive
strength is somewhat reduced. In this latter assumption I do not alto-
gether concur, from a permanent feature in the experiments not being
sufficiently taken into account — namely, that in experimenting with
wrought iron, at a given extension, from pressure, it is necessary,
before you obtain even a medium value of the resistance, a modicum of
deflexion must take place to bring into play each of the fibres; conse-
quently, not like as in a rigid cast beam, where the full action of com-
pression acts at once, some allowance must be made for the change
from the first position, in calculating the compressive forces. Assum-
ing generally that the increased strength of tensive power of wrought
compared with cast iron is 27 to 7, it at once reduces the sixfold area
of the bottom web of the iron beam, and nearly reduces to one-
half the required sectional area throughout, yet retaining an equal
strength for every purpose. In many cases this increase of strength,
enabling to reduce the weight, will fully compensate for the difference
in price, so that up to this point the market and effective value of both
may be said to be equal. ‘The wrought iron beam, however, posseses
this material advantage, and that is, it will always give good warning
before the point of danger is reached, and this, mainly from its vastly
increased deflective power, — indeed, before its maximum is reached a
great deflexion can safely take place ; therefore, both for life and prop-
erty its advantage is most conspicuous. With regard to the best form
for carrying the greatest weights with the least metal, I have come to
the conclusion, from actual experiment on a large scale, that the double
T section is the best, provided the flanges are sufficient to prevent lat-
eral action from the load. At the Belfast Iron Works the members
can see iron of the section shown in bars of twenty-six feet long, and
weighing nearly half a ton, so that it will be seen the mills are now
constructed so as to roll iron almost any dimensions which may be
required, and such bars, from the breadth of the flanges, have never
before been attempted, in the three kingdoms. When I had the honor,
some four years ago, to read a paper at the Society of Arts on a means
of constructing bridges without any centering of such proportions of
iron, no ironmaker would attempt to produce such a proportion of
material, while now I have accomplished it, and would have no hesita-
tion in making them much larger if required. I have not a doubt for
warehouses, mills, public buildings, and bridges, its value will now
become extensively applied and appreciated. As these bars are rolled
solid throughout, on comparison I have found they will bear nearly one-
third more than any made beams of equal sectional area,—- that is,
with a beam of which the centre rib is of plate iron and the flanges of
angle iron, and riveted thereto, and so distributed as to make the dou-
ble T form. This is easily accounted for, as you necessarily weaken
he whole by its being requisite to introduce riveting, while a due and
equal resistance is offered from all parts by the solidly rolled bar.

‘
a

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 63

STRENGTH OF IRON.

Tue following result of an experiment on coupling chains lately
made at Manchester, in England, by the London and North-Western
Railway Company, will be interesting to the consumers of iron : —

Best Staffordshire Iron — first experiment — diameter of chain 1}
inch; stretched 32 inches; broke with 27 tons, 10 cwt.

Best Staffordshire Iron —second experiment — diameter of chain
1, inch; stretched 44 inches; broke with 25 tons, 0 cwt.

Lowmoor Iron — diameter of chain 13 inch; stretched 7 inches;
broke with 55 tons, 16 cwt.

The Staffordshire Iron was made expressly for the trial, and when
great strength is desired, it is proper so to state, as there is a wide dif-
ference in the preparation of the different qualities. The New York
Herald contains an account of several highly interesting experiments
which have recently been made, with a view of testing the strength of
iron manufactured from the Franklinite ore of New Jersey. The fol-
lowing table exhibits the strength of this iron, compared with the best
manufactures of other countries :—

Best Swedish bar iron, - - - Ib. 72,804
Inferior Swedish bar iron, - - - 53,224.
Best English bar iron, - - - 61,660
Inferior English bar iron, - - 55,000

American manufactured from N. J. Franklinite bariron, 77,000

Tren manufactured of Franklinite, drawn down from a bar about one
inch square, and accurately gauged, required a weight equal to 77,000
ibs. per square inch, to tear it asunder. This shows it to be nearly
fifteen per cent. better than any other iron known to commerce.

The annexed assay on a bar of iron made from Franklinite, sent to
the national forges of the government of France, from the mines in
New Jersey, is the best evidence of its importance and immense value :

“The bar obtained by direct treatment of the ore in the Catalan
forge, is 25 millimetres by 24.5 millimetres, and presents a section in
square millimetres of 612, m. 50.

Kilograms. M.
Charge under which bar began to stretch, —-- 15,000
Elastic force per millimetre, - - - 24 5
Charge under which the bar broke, - - 25,000
Absolute tenacity per millimetre, - . - 4Q 8
Elongation of the bar at the moment of fracture,
per millimetre, - - - - 3

Aspect of the fracture, all nerves; the bar was imperfectly welded
and contained fissures which diminished the real surface exposed to
fraction, in consequence of the absolute tenacity. Had the bar been
sound, it would have been greater than here appears ; — at the moment
of fracture but little heat was disengaged.”

64 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

IMPROVEMENTS IN IRON SMELTING.

THE mode of smelting iron consists in mixing the ore with lime and
coal; the former producing a glass or slag with the impurities of the
ore, while the coal reduces the oxide of iron to its metallic state.
Much heat is required in the process of smelting, but the cold air
blown in, as the blast, lowers the temperature and compels the addi-
tion of fuel, as a compensation for this reduction. Science pointed to
this loss, and now the air is heated before being mtroduced to the
furnace. The quantity of coal is wonderfully economised by this
application of science; for instead of seven tons of coal per ton of
iron, three tons now suffice, and the amount produced in the same
time is nearly sixty per cent. greater. Assuredly this was a great
step in advance. Could Science do more ?

Prof. Bunsen, in an inquiry, in which I assisted, has shown that she
ean. We examined the furnaces, in each portion of the blazing
mass, so as to fully expose the operation in every part of the blazing
structure. This seemingly impossible dissection was accomplished by
the simplest means; the furnaces are charged from the top, and the
materials gradually descend to the bottom; with the upper charge a
long graduated tube was allowed to descend, and the gases streaming
from ascertained depths, were collected and analyzed. Their com-
position betrayed with perfect accuracy the nature of the actions at
each portion of the furnace, and the astonishing fact was elicited, that,
in spite of the saving produced by the hot blast, no less than 81} per
cent. of fuel is actually lost, only 184 per cent. being realized. If, in
round numbers, we suppose that four-fifths of the fuel be thus wasted,
no less than 5,400,000 tons are every year thrown uselessly mto the
atmosphere ; this being nearly one-seventh of the whole coal annually
raised in Great Britain. ‘This enormous amount of fuel escapes in the
form of combustible gases capable of being collected and economised ;
yet in spite of well ascertained facts, there are scarcely half a dozen
furnaces in Great Britain, where this economy is realized by the utili-
zation of the waste gases of the furnace.

Large quantities of ammonia are annually lost in iron smelting,

-which might readily be collected. Ammonia is constantly increasing
in value, and each furnace produces and wastes at least one ewt. of its
principle salt daily, equivalent to considerable money lost——DProf-
Playfair, on the Results of the Great Exhibition.

THE MINIE RIFLE.

Tue following is a description of this weapon, which has lately been
ntroduced into the British service. The Minie musket or rifle, most
approved and ordered to be generally introduced into the service, is
a remarkably well finished article, and lighter and more easily used
than the previous percussion muskets. The Minie rifle has four
grooves inside, and the mode of loading it is first to bite off the twisted
waste paper at the end of the cartridge, pour in the powder at the

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 65

mouth of the barrel, and by a turn of the thumb and finger, holding
the cartridge, reverse the ball that the conical point may be upwards.
The ramrod is then drawn and reversed, and the head being concave,
or cup form, it has a good purchase over the ball, which is easily
rammed home, and does not require a second, or subsequent ram-
mings. ‘The piece is then fired with great ease, and is said to be
capable of carrying the ball 1,200 yards, and with correct aim up to
900 yards, the aim for all distances from 300 to 900 yards being taken
correctly by a parallel groove marked with the respective distances
it is wished the ball should be carried when directed at an object, a
slide in the groove being raised or lowered to take the “ sight.”

Mr. Fairbairn, at the meeting of the British Association, observed
that, until of late years, all the gun barrels for the army, and other
descriptions, had to be welded upon mandrils, some of them formed
by a bar of iron rolled upon the mandril, in a spiral direction, and
then welded, by repeated beatings from the muzzle to the breech.
Others were differently constructed, by welding the bars longitudi-
nally, in the line of the barrel, and not in the spiral direction adopted
in the former process. Now the whole is welded at one heat, and
that through a series of grooves in the iron rollers, specially adapted
for the purpose. This, with other improvements, has rendered the
manufacture of rifles and other arms a matter of much greater cer-
tainty and security than at any former period. Admitting the advan-
tages peculiar to this manufacture, it does not, however, affect the
principle of the rifle itself, in which there is no alteration, but in every
respect sunilar, even to the spiral grooves, which, I believe, are not
altered, but are the same as in the old rifle. This being the case, it
has been a question of much interest to know wherein consists the
great difference in the practice with the new rifle, as compared with
that of the old one. It is not in the gun, and naust, therefore, be in
the ball, or that part of the charge which generates the projectile
force. But, in fact, the improvement consists entirely in the form of
the ball, which is made conical, with a hollow recess at the base, into
which a metallic plug is thrust by the discharge. The plug is so con-
structed as that when driven into the ball, it compresses the outer
edges against the sides of the barrel, and, at the same time, forces a
portion of the lead, from its ductility, to enter the groove, and to give
the ball, when discharged, that revolving motion which carries with
such unerring certainty to the mark. In the practice which I wit-
nessed, with one of those rifles, on the marshes at Woolwich, the
following results were obtained. Out of twelve rounds, at a distance
of 700 yards, as near as I can remember, only one bullet missed the
target, and the remaining eleven rounds were scattered within dis-
tances of about six inches to four feet from the bull’s eye. At 800
yards three shots missed the target, and the remaining nine went
through the boards, two inches thick, and lodged themselves in the
mounds behind, at a distance of about twenty yards. The same re-
sults were obtained from a distance of 900 yards, and at 1,000 yards
there were very few of the bullets but what entered the target. In

66 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

these experiments I have to remind you that the end of the rifle was
supported upon a triangular standard, and the greatest precision was
observed in fixing the sight, which is graduated to a scale in the ratio
of the distance, varying from 100 to 1,000 yards, which latter may be
considered the range of this destructive instrument.

IMPROVEMENT IN FIRE ARMS, ORDNANCE AND PROJECTILES.

A NINE-POUNDER field battery gun has been proved at the Royal
Arsenal, Woolwich, on the rifle principle, and experiments will be
shortly made with it to ascertain its merit, compared with the usual
nine-pounder field battery gun when charged with spherical shot.
The four grooves in the rifle cannon are about half an inch deep by
half an inch broad each, and the shot and shell intended to be fired
from it are made of the cylindro-conical or sugar loaf shape, with four
projecting parts on each, to enter and fill the grooves. Both shot and
shell are galvanized, and not lable to rust, and are so smooth that
they may be rammed home with the greatest ease, the simple pressure
of the hand being sufficient to place them an arm’s length into the
mouth of the cannon, although they are made to fit more fully than
the spherical shot does, and consequently they will have less windage
and require a less charge of powder. ‘The sugar-loaf shape of the
new galvanized iron shot renders it of afar greater weight than a
nine-pounder spherical shot, and the principle on which it will pro-
ceed, after being fired from a rifle cannon, being similar to an arrow,
instead of revolving in the same manner as spherical shot, is expected
to cause it to go more directly to the mark, and to have a much longer
range.

Another large piece of ordnance has also been recently constructed
at the Royal Arsenal, England. Some idea of its strength may be
formed, when it is stated that it is 32 inches in diameter, and has 13
inches of solid metal round the bore, which is only 8 inches in diam-
eter. It is intended for firing solid shot, or shells of the elongated or
sugar-loaf form, similar to the Minie rifle balls. This metal has only
two grooves, placed horizontally opposite each other, which are of an
oval, without any flat part, as in small rifled arms. The weight of this
piece of ordnance is 114 ewt.

Some experiments have been made during the past year in Prussia
with an explosive ball, that may be fired from the gun as easily as its
peculiar cartridge, and that explodes the moment it strikes the object ;
if combustible, setting it on fire. Experiments made with this missile
were perfectly successful. Cases filled with powder or inflammable
matter were set on fire, or blown up with certainty, at several hun-
dred paces distance, or nearly full range of the weapon, which is a
very long one. The object of the invention is the capability of blow-
ing up an enemy’s powder,wagons by a weapon that can be more
rapidly and easily handled than a rifle if they come within reach.

Improved Rifle Barrel—Benjamin D. Sanders, Brooke Co., Va.,
has taken measures to secure a patent for an improvement in rifle

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 67

barrels. The improvement consists in making the grooves of the
barrel of a form somewhat resembling the letter V in their transverse
section, that is to say, the bottom of a groove is formed by a single
angle, stead of by two angles in the ordinary way. The object of
the improvement is to make the patch, when inserted with the ball,
fill the grooves more tightly than can be done by the common grooves.
The barrel, by the new grooves, is kept more clean, as each patch
cleans out the barrel completely in its course, and the explosive force
of the powder is more directly confined and exerted upon the bullet
than can be done in a barrel where the grooves are not so tightly
packed by the patch Scientific American.

COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF GREAT BRITAIN,

Mr. BrairHwairT Poorer, in a recent work, gives the following
interesting statistics of Great Britain. Pitt and Canning stated
the yearly production of the agricultural and mechanical interests of
Great Britain at an amount equal to the national debt; but nobody
knew how they made it out. The summary of these statistics, how-
ever, prove that these great statesmen were right.

Mr. Poole shows that the Railways of Great Britain have cost £240,-
000,000; the Canals, £26,000,000; and the Docks, £30,000,000.

The Mercantile Marine consists of 35,000 vessels, 4,300,000 tons,
with 240,000 men; and one vessel is lost on an average with every
tide. The ‘navy consists of 585 vessels, 570,000 tons, and 48,000 men.
Yachts, 250, and 23,000 tons.

The ancient Britons knew only six primitive ores, from which
metals were produced; whereas the present scientific generation use
fifty. The ageregate yield of minerals is equivalent in value to about
£25,000,000 annually.

The agricultural produce of milk, meat, eggs, butter and cheese, is
3,000,000 tons, of the value of £50,000,000. The ale, wine and spirits
consumed annually exceed 3,300,000 tons, and £54,000,000; while
sugar, tea and coffee scarcely reach 450,000 tons, and £27,000,000. The
Fisheries of Great Britain net £6,000,000, annually. In Manufac-
tures, the cotton, woolen, linen and silk altogether amount to 420,000
tons, and £95,000,000; while hardwares exhibit 360,000 tons, and
£20,000,000; in addition to which 1,250 tons of pins and needles are
made yearly, worth £1,100,000.

Earthenware, 100,000 tons, £350,000,000; glass, 58,000 tons,
£1,600,000. The Gazette shows an average of four bankrupts daily
throughout England and Wales.

TIN PLATES.

Tix Pxates, thin plates of iron dipped into molten tin, which
covers the iron completely, are manufactured in South Wales and
Staffordshire, to the extent now of about 900,000 boxes annually =
56,000 tons, value £1,500,000; affording employment to upwards of

7

68 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

20,000 individuals. In England, almost every article of tin ware is
formed from these plates. Nearly two-thirds of the total manufacture,
are exported, principally from Liverpool to the United States, where
they are also used considerably instead of slates for the roofs of build-
ings. The trade has been rapidly increasing. The exports of tin
plates were for the years ending the 5th J anuary, 1847, declared
value, £639,223 ; 1848, 2462.689; 1849, £532,149: 1350: £711, 649 5
£651, 928,181 Poole’ s Statistics.

THE LOCK CONTROVERSY.

Tue London Practical Mechanics’ Journal thus reports a paper
which was read before the Society of Arts, London, by Mr. Hobbs,
the ingenious Amefican lock-picker: Mr. Hobbs began by showing
the construction of the old form of what is called the Eey ptian or pin-
lock; he also showed how readily, by obtaining wax impressions of
its vulnerable points, it readily yields up the treasures it would not
have touched by profane hands. The first modification of this form
was made about forty years ago, and another by Mr. Williams in 1839.
The objections to its use were pointed out by the facilities they all
afforded in being picked with false keys, which were easily made.
These, therefore, were in the abstract without utility for purposes of
’ perfect security.

The ring-lock and the letter-lock were also shown to be in the same
pr edicament. Each ring was moved to that position where it was
found not to “ bind,” and retained there until all the rings had been
similarly treated, when the ‘open sesame ” formed the best proof of
what he said. T he letter padlocks, indeed, Mr. Hobbs alledged to be
really less secure than the pin-lock. He greatly amused those present
in detailing his adventures in picking a lock of something of this de-
scription in the Great Exhibition. There were a number of different
locks exhibited in one foreign department. Mr. Hobbs was there
with a friend. Mr. Hobbs took up the identical thing that was to
puzzle the nations, and examining it with educated lock-pic ‘king eyes
and fingers, soon conceived a means of overcoming the power ob-
jected to him. Cutting off a splinter from a wooden bench near him,
and quickly forming it to his purpose, and accomplishing that purpose
while his friend was otherwise engaging the attention of the exhibitor,
he brought forward the lock, and “requested him to show the secret of
opening “it. The exhibitor twisted the rings about, and got the letters
into their proper order. ‘“ ‘There !” said the exhibitor. But the
charm had no effect. The exhibitor, in despair, consulted his memo-
randum. That was the magical word—there was no doubt—but the

cause of the non-success was inexplicable, until Mr. Hobbs kindly
explained, that in less than the three minutes in which he began and
finished his manipulations, he had discovered the key-note, and had
altered it! Mr. Hobbs showed the construction of the celebrated
Bramah lock, which he had succeeded in picking—to the pocket-loss
of £200 to the celebrated and too confident patentee. Mr. Hobbs

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 69

next demonstrated the non-perfect security of the no less distinguished
Chubb form of lock, in which great ingenuity is displayed in the com-
bination of what are called ‘tumblers ;” and concluded by suggesting
that the true mode of construction consisted not in multiplying difh-
culties which, with patience, might be overcome, but by the applica-
tion of new principles; and he shortly pointed out the advantages
resulting in this respect from the elaborate performance, for which
his peculiar genius must be held in high respect.

An interesting discussion followed, in which Professor Cowper, Mr.
Gregory, Mr. Hodge, and others, took part. The result of which
seemed to indicate, that as long as it required so much time and so
great Ingenuity, in a practised hand, to pick locks, and as long as it
would be necessary to give £40 or £50 to become the owner of one
of Mr. Hobbs’ unpickable locks, the locks of Bramah and Chubb—the
best of which, for ordinary purposes, might be obtained for less than
£3—would lose nothing of their true value for the common purposes
to which they are applied.

NEW MILITARY TACTICS.

Sir Cuarrtes SHAw, in a recent letter toa London Journal, on
the changes necessarily made in military tactics consequent on the
introduction of new and improved weapons into the service, states,
that the improved musket-rifle can render cavalry and artillery use-
less at nine hundred yards distance, and the nail ball, out of the old
musket, can do the same (as [ have witnessed,) at a distance of six
hundred and fifty yards. But suppose I am said to be mistaken as to
cavalry and artillery; I believe at this moment there is not a regi-
ment of cavalry that could be brought to make an effective charge
against a well served field-battery, owing to the confusion and fear of
the horses at the noise and smoke of the cannon. To remedy this,
and give the horses confidence, the Russians, in the wars of the
Caucasus, in drilling, had batteries before the watering places of the
cavalry. The cavalry got no water the morning of the drill, but
after some hours of hard work, the horses became thirsty. The cay-
alry were posted in front of the field batteries, which began to play.
Loose reins were given, and, at full gallop, the cavalry passed between
the guns of the batteries, and thus lost fear of artillery.

IMPROVEMENTS IN LIFE-BOATS.

WITHIN a comparatively recent period, a circular was issued by
the Duke of Northumberland, England, offering a premium of 100
guineas for the best model of a life-boat, and pointing out, as the
three principal defects of existing life-boats, the want of self-righting
power, inability to free themselves from water, and a heaviness which
prevented their being transported along the beach. In consequence
of this offer, no less than 280 models and plans were submitted, by
different inventors throughout Great Britain. In addition to the

TO ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

three desirable improvements pointed out in the circular, the commit-
tee to whom the award of the prize was referred, indicated two other
essential qualifications for the prize boat, viz., smallness of cost, and
the capability of rowing well.

These qualities were found combined only in the boat constructed
by Messrs. Beeching, of Great Yarmouth, to which the prize was
adjudged, and on which experiments, thoroughly testing its powers,
have been made during the gales of the past year.

A curious instance of the REINVENTION which is of such frequent
occurrence, is, that the power of self-righting, the demand for which
was received with ridicule by the boat builders of 1850, was actually
possessed by a life-boat, for which their silver medal and twenty
guineas were given by the Society of Arts, in 1809, to the Rev.
James Bremner, of Orkney, who had then for many years had his
boat in use, and under severe trial, on the Scotch coast. The Society
gave a gold medal and fifty guineas, in 1802, to Mr. Greathead, of
South Shields, who designed and built for the then Duke of North-
umberland, a life-boat which has hardly been since surpassed.

NEW DRILLING MACHINE.

Durine the past season, a gigantic machine has been constructed,
for the purpose of cutting or “hori ing a tunnel through the Hoosae
Mountain, Massachusetts, to afford a passage for the contemplated
Troy and Boston Railroad. This machine was planned with a view
of cutting a circular passage or tunnel, 24 feet in diameter. Its
construction is as follows: A large wheel, having a thin rim project-
ing forward from its outer edge, is attached to a revolving shaft. "The
rim of the wheel is mounted with steel cutters, which are of such
size, and so arranged, as to cut, when in motion, a circular trench or
groove in the face of the rock, one foot in width, and of the diameter
of the tunnel. The shaft of the drill is supported on a sliding frame,
which rests upon a main bed, supported upon flanged carrying wheels
53 feet in diameter. The main shaft is fed forward with the sliding
frame, by means of a powerful screw. The distance through which
the shaft, with its wheel and cutters, is made to pass, is five feet for
each adjustment of the machine, this distance being the depth
of the rim upon the main wheel. Upon the end of the shaft;
and in the centre of the circle described by the motion of the cutters,
a drill of six inches diameter is attached. This drill enters with the
cutters, and to the same distance in the rock. On the rim of the
main wheel are buckets to conduct the rock cut away into an adit, or
receptacle. The machine is intended to operate as follows: When
the approaches to the tunnel are prepared, the drill will be brought
up to the face of the rock, upon a track laid for the purpose. The
shaft with its wheel and cutters will be put in motion, and fed forward
into the rock. The circular trench will be cut, and the small central
drill will enter at the same time. When the rim of the wheel has
entered the rock to its full depth, the machine will be drawn back, a

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. Th

charge of powder placed in the central hole, and the rock within the
circular trench will be removed at one blast. One of the arms of the
main wheel is made removable, so as to allow a car to pass under the
machine to the rock. The fragments broken away by the blast will
then be loaded and drawn back to the mouth of the tunnel. The
machine is again fed forward and its successive operations will be the
same as already described. ‘The main carriage is properly braced so
as to be immovable. ‘The weight of the whole machine is from eighty
to ninety tons, the weight of the shaft eleven tons, and the weight of
the main wheel is thirty tons. It is to be driven by two stationary
engines, of forty horse-power each. The designer and inventor of the
machine is Charles Wilson, Esq., of Springfield, Mass.

The practical operation of the machine above described, has not, as
yet, been wholly successful. The cutters proved too frail to stand the
quartz found in the mica slate, of which the mountain is composed,
and were soon broken, and rendered unfit for service. It is proposed
to replace these cutters with others of a firmer and more substantial
charactcr. The machine has, however, cut into the rock to the depth
of about four feet, very smoothly and successfully. The wheel cuts
from a 16th to an 8th of an inch at each revolution, and makes five or
six revolutions in a minute; which more than meets the warrant of the
builders. The core of the rock is blasted while the machine remains
close by, but there is no apprehension that it will be essentially injured
by the exploding masses of rock. A difficulty, however, presents
itself in the disposal of the rock, after it is cut and blasted out, it being
a slow and tedious process to break it and draw it out through the
machine. ‘This difficulty will prevent the working of the machine for
more than a third or half of the time, all the remainder being occupied
in removing the stone.

We copy from the Scientific American the following notice of a new
drilling machine, invented by Mr. C. W. Coe, of Ohio. There are
two improvements in this invention. The first has reference to the
feeding motion, and also to the mode of raising the drill from the work.
The nut which works the feeding screw has on it a pinion capable of
sliding up and down, but causing the nut to revolve by means of a
groove and feather. This pinion gears into the driving-wheel when
at the upper part of the nut; a rapid motion is then given to the
screw, which draws the drill quickly upwards. But when it is desired
to give the feeding motion, the pinion is depressed by a lever, and
thus released from the teeth of the driving-wheel. The pinion is
then moved by two lugs or dogs attached to the inner part of the
driving-wheel; now, if the driving-wheel has a motion given to it the
reverse way to that used when raising the drill, it is evident a slow
feeding motion will be given to the screw. If desirable, of course,
more than the two lugs can be used.

The second part of the invention embraces a mode of holding the
work to be drilled in any oblique direction. A clutch is employed for
this purpose of a hollow conical shape, with a screw on the outside —
this clutch is cut open in a vertical direction, so that if the work be

i* ;

72 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

placed within, it can be compressed by a taper nut working in the
outside screw. A spring is used to open the clutch, when the nut is
relaxed, and, as it is attached by arms to the bed of the machine, this
clutch can be set to any angle. The bed of the machine is movable,
so that the work can be shifted horizontally.

CONVERTING ROTARY INTO RECIPROCATING RECTILINEAR
MOTION.

Henry Baker, of Catskill, N. Y., has taken measures to secure a
patent for a new method of converting rotary into reciprocating rec-
tilimear motion. The invention is more particularly designed for the
purpose of driving the bed of a printing press, or the bed of any part
of a machine to which it is desired to communicate a reciprocating
rectilinear motion from a revolving shaft, but it is also applicable in
almost any case where the said change of motion is required. The
motion is communicated in the first place from the revolving shaft to
one or two wheels or pulleys, around which an endless belt or chain is
placed, the said wheels and belt being so arranged that the belt will
move in a direction parallel, or nearly so, with the desired reciprocat-
ing movement. ‘To the bed or object which is to receive the recipro-
cating movement, there 1s attached a ring which lies near to the belt,
its inner diameter being about equal to that of the wheels or pulleys
on which the belt runs. ‘Two pins slide freely through the periphery
of the ring on opposite sides, both pins being parallel with the band,
and made to project by springs a short distance into the ring. A stud
is attached to the endless band, and is made to project into the ring
close within its periphery, at right angles to the pins mentioned. As
the band moves, this stud cate ches one or other of the pins, and pro-
pels the ring, and whatever is connected with it. One part of the
endless belt or chain, on one side of the wheels, moves in the opposite
direction to the other side, alternately, and the sliding pins are so
placed, that, when the stud spoken of moves in one direction, it catches
with one, and when it moves in the other direction it catches with the
other, and the pins are drawn back from the ring. At the time the
stud on the running belt reaches either of the pulley s, it runs around
it on the beit and catches the other pin, and by its reversed movement
drives back the ring in the opposite direction to that in which it moved
before, and thus by an alternate reversal of the ring by the action of
the stud on the pins, there is a continual change of motion from rotary
to the reciprocating rectilinear, and there is also an intermittence of
the motion, which is very desirable. i in the working of some machines.
— Scientific American.

NEW COMPACT GEAR.

THE Scientific American thus notices a new compact gear invented
by Messrs. Dibben and Bollman, of New York, and exhibited at the
Fair of the American Institute. This inv ention, exhibiting great

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 73

ingenuity and skill, consists of an arrangement of cog-wheels; and the
main advantage claimed over the system now in use, is the capability
which this new plan imparts of varying the speed of shafting, whilst
only a pair of geared wheels is used for all the different speeds
required. The inventors have three models, each showing a different
application of the principle: one is applied to a horse-power, another
is for increasing the speed of a prcpeller, and the third is for an appli-
cation to water-wheels. A few words will explain the invention as
adapted to the latter use; the motion here, however, is compound ;
two small wheels being employed, we should presume, to reduce the
dimensions to a commodious size. On the main shaft is fixed a wheel,
which gears into another of the same size, both resembling crown
wheels, although the shape of the teeth is somewhat different. Around
the rim of the driven wheel is another larger one, of the same descrip-
tion, and in fact, it is all one casting; this last named wheel gears into
another fixed one of the same diameter. But now follows the main
departure from the old routine; the shaft which carries the driven
wheels, instead of being in line, and having its further extremity to
revolve in a fixed bearing, is thrown, at that extremity, out of line,
and is attached at that end to the face of a wheel at some distance
from the centre on which the wheel rotates —%in short, it is a crank
‘motion, with the shaft acting as a connecting rod. The consequence
is, as the shaft is forced round by the cog-wheel, a species of rocking
motion is given to the crown-wheel on the shaft, so that the teeth are
alternately thrown in and out of gear — when the teeth on one side
are liberated, those on the other are thrown into gear. Such isa gen-
eral account of the plan; the inventors, according to circumstances,
using a universal joint, &c., as may be required, to allow of the pecu-
liar motion. They say, in their statement, that they can vary the
speed as many times as the wheel has teeth, without changing the pair
of wheels. Another advantage is, that the axis of the driving shaft is
in a line with the shafting that is to be driven.

MACHINE FOR CRIMPLING IRON BARS.

Messrs. Stocum and Sates, of Lansingburgh, N. Y., have
recently invented a machine for bending bars of iron into a shape
that is often employed, particularly for ornamental fences, house work,
&e., — the zig-zag shape. The rolling mill employed for this purpose
consists of two under rollers placed side by side, and of two upper
rollers, — the latter two running in becrings which can slide up and
down in the framing, so as to recede fiom, or advance to, the under
rollers. Between these two sets of rollers there slides a bed, which
carries the dies intended to impress the desired form on the iron. The
invention particularly applies to the construction of these dies. They
are formed in pairs, so that the projections of the upper die fit into
the recesses of the lower one. Their shape, in general, is angular ;
and the upper die is so formed with joints, that each angular piece can
be forced into its corresponding cavity in the lower die, without the

T4 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

necessity of its fellow projections partaking of the motion. The bar
of iron being placed between the dies, which are fixed on the movable
table, a chain or cord is attached from the table to the further of the
lower rollers, so that the former may be drawn along as the rollers
revolve. ‘The upper rollers, which give the pressure, are forced down
to their work by weighted levers; hence, when the machine is set in
motion, the table and dies are drawn between the rollers, and the first
jointed projection of the top die is forced into its recess in the lower
die, thus giving the iron bar the desired shape. The table continuing
to advance, is caught between the second pair of rollers, which hold
the bar from shifting whilst the second projection is descending; and
in this manner the process goes on, until the whole length of the bar
is fashioned into the shape required. ‘The inventors do not confine
themselves to this sort of die alone, but propose another mode also, in
which both top and bottom dies are made flexible. — Scientific
American.

NEW PRESSES FOR BALING COTTON.

Tue Mobile Tribune notices an invention of a new press for baling
cotton. The only drawback upon it is, that the bales are round, and
round bales are pretty generally proscribed. The Tribune says :—
“ By connecting it to the gin, the cotton is made up at once into bales,
by the same power, and at the same time. ‘To appreciate the great
degree of compactness to which a bale may be pressed by this machine,
one has only to take a small piece of cotton, and press it shg¢htly while
rolling it between the flngers. The principle embraced in this machine
is precisely similar — and by a continuous layer of cotton revolving
round itself under constant pressure, while the rollers are turning,
the bale is formed of extreme compactness, requiring no after com-
pressing. It is thought that this mode of forming the bale will super-
sede the necessity of roping.” A further description of this arrange-
ment is given by the inventor as follows:

“The operating part of my press consists mainly of three wooden
or iron rollers or cylinders, the length of each being equal to that of
the bale which it is intended to form. ‘These cylinders are placed so
as to represent a triangle at equal distances apart, and parallel to each
other. When used for pressing, their surfaces at first approach so
closely together as to be nearly in contact; and as the cotton which
forms the bale accumulates between them, they recede from each other
under any required pressure, the cotton being fed in between them
directly from the cotton gin, by means of an endless apron.

“ An endless chain operating on each side of the machine, imparts
motion to the cylinders.

“ The cotton, in passing into the space between the rollers, revolves
upon itself so as to form a cylindrical bale, which goes on accumulating
until it is of suflicient size and compactness. At this time, the bale is
easily secured by passing the bagging so as to surround the bale
and the next moment, by knocking away the catches, the cylinders

es

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 16

recede into slots left in the frame of the machine for the purpose,
and the bale hes at your feet, ready for market.”

A new cotton press, the invention of Nathan Chipman, of Conn.,
is also described in the Scientific American. This press is intended
to supply the desideratum of a quick motion for the follower, when
the cotton is first compressed. As is evident, the cotton yields at first,
with comparative facility to the compressing power, but on the bale
becoming more compact, it is necessary to employ a greater intensity
of power when a less amount of speed is required. The inventor
attains his object by employing spiral cams, or, in other words, conical
drums with a spiral groove cast or cut around the periphery. Two of
these cams are employed, one on each side of the press, and chains
winding round them raise the follower, which slides longitudinally
within the box containing the cotton. As the chains are attached to
the larger part of the cam or conical drum, it is evident that on begin-
ning to work the press with a regular motion, the chains will have to
wind around a larger circumference at first than afterwards, and thus
their speed, and consequently that of the follower, will gradually
diminish, while, in accordance with the well known law of mechanics,
the intensity of the power will increase in the same ratio. The
motion is transmitted through the agency of geared wheels, and the
box for the cotton has a cover capable of being removed at pleasure.

ADORNO’S CIGARETTE MACHINE.

Tuts machine consists of two travelling chains, whose parts are
made with great accuracy. Each link is composed of 12 pieces, which
are cut out of iron by machinery. One portion of the link is fixed on
the chain, and the other portion is moveable. It is necessary that the
machine be so adjusted as to provide for the proper quantity of tobacco
and paper, and which must be regulated to the thickness of very thin
paper.

The machine makes and finishes the cigarrettes with greater neat-
ness and periection than by manual labor; and the economy of
tobacco is so great, that, solely in this respect, the price of the entire
manufacture by hand labor is wholly saved. More than eighty
cigarettes may be made by this machine in a minute. Paper of the
proper width and thickness is caused to pass over one of the travelling
chains, consisting of links corresponding with the scantling of the
cigarette. When the paper has a suflicient number of indents, fine
tobacco is put into them, and the waste falls into a trough beneath the
machine. As the chain on which the paper is first placed moves for-
ward, a knife, by means of a reciprocating motion across the machine,
separates the paper to.form the cigarettes, which are finally folded
entire, by passing to the other travelling chain; and by pressure from
above the cigarettes are completed ready to be removed from the
machine. In the English market there is scarcely any demand for
cigarettes, but in Spain and the American republics its importance is
great. This will be better understood, when we state, that, in Mexico,

76 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

8,000,000 dollars worth of cigarettes are consumed in the course of a
single year. The consumption of cigarettes in Spain and Havana is
proportionably greater.

NEW TYPE-CASTING MACHINE.

At the Fair of the American Institute, N. Y., H. H. Green exhibited
a new type-casting machine, which is thus described by the Scientific
American. The principal intention of the inventor of this curious
little machine has been to cast type under a powerful pressure, so
that the letter formed may be a more exact and sharp counterpart of
the matrice. The apparatus, which is placed on a stand so as to be
conveniently worked* by the hand, consists, in the first place, of a
small furnace, in which a quantity of type metal is maintained ina
molten state by a fire beneath, the fire door being at the side of the
furnace. In the midst, and rising above the molten metal, is a force
pump, intended to inject a small portion of the fluid metal into the
moulding-box. To the pump is fixed a pipe running through the
furnace so as to connect with a corresponding aperture in the mould-
ing-box, when the latter is brought forward to the furnace to receive
the metal. The moulding-box is made of steel, and the top of it
moves on hinges so that it can be lifted up to set the matrice in its
place. The matrice or die consists merely of a piece of copper, the
shape of the type, and having the particular letter, which is to be cast,
sunk into it. As in every description of type, it is only the size of the
letter which differs, it follows that the copper matrice alone has to be
shifted when it is required to cast a different letter. The moulding-
box is made to slide between guides to and fro, and is moved forward
to receive the metal by a cam fixed on a shaft, which is worked by
hand. On approaching the force pump, motion is given to the plunger
by levers acted on by the above-mentioned shaft, and sufficient metal
to form a letter is thereby injected into the matrice. This latter
operation is aided by a stop-valve, which prevents the flow of metal,
and as the shaft withdraws from the furnace, it falls back and permits
the injection of the metal as above described. During this operation
the box is held together by a species of clamp or spring; a spiral
spring then forces the box back, the hold of the clamp is relaxed, and
a spring, acting on the newly-cast letter, loosens it so as to allow it to
fall into a spout, and from there into a receiving box. The inventor
estimates that this machine will cast, on an average, 175 letters per
minute. The operation is altogether very unique, and is deserving of
high commendation. We therefore willingly award our meed of
praise to the inventor for the improvement that he has made in the
work of type-casting. The great benefit derived by this machine is
that it casts metal 10 per cent. harder than any in use.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. TT

-NEW METHOD OF MAKING SHOT.

AN apparatus for manufacturing shot by means of centrifugal action,
has been devised by M. Bonnet, “of New York. It is intended asa
substitute for shot-towers, and other apparatus now employed for this
purpose. It consists in substance of the following parts: A circular
trough made of iron, is secured on a vertical shaft, which is made to
revolve. The upper part of the trough is of a funnel-shape, and there
is a pipe inserted in this funnel for conveying the molten lead into
the trough. The sides of the trough are perforated with a number of
small holes of different sizes. The “metal being poured into the trough,
and the shaft made to revolve at the rate of 350 revolutions per min-
ute, the molten lead will fly from the centre to the circumference and
through the holes against a circular partition of cloth surrounding the
apparatus, at a suitable distance, which depends altogether on the
fluidity of the metal and rapidity of the motion.

NEW PRINTING PRESS.

Tue Lowell Courier gives an account of a new Printing Press
recently invented by Mr. Keach of that city. Its main advantage
over other presses is said to be its cheapness; and the following is a
brief description of its construction: “ The method of operating dif
ferent from the Adams press is that the nippers are rotary, being
carried round the platen by a chain geared upon pullies — there being
two pairs, by which means impressions are given as fast as_ the rollers
are driven across the form one way — one»nipper taking in a sheet
while the other is carrying out the first on the opposite “side. The
sheet, after being printed, “is carried by the nipper over a fly and
thrown off, without any belting or bellows arrangement. The impres-
sions are given by the moving up of the bed of the press, operated by
the common toggle- joint, while the lever which drives up the toggle is

‘ shipped’ from one pin or driver in the side of the main shaft gear, to
another on the opposite side. A stationary frisket keeps the sheet
from dropping upon the inking rollers. The nippers are simple clamp
fingers, operated by a spiral wire spring.”

Ani improvement in Printing Presses is also announced by Mr. Dins-
more, of Pennsylvania. The object of this invention is to make a
cheap press of a convenient form to be worked by hand, but capable
of doing a greater amount of work in a given time than the common
press. “The printing is performed by passing the paper round a cylin-
der hung in a carriage, which is moved backwards and forwards along
a stationary frame or railway, upon which is fixed a type-bed which
carries the form, and at each end of which there isa feeding-board,
from which the sheets are supplied to the cylinder. The cylinder is
made to revolve by the movement of the carriage revolving in opposite
directions. It is furnished with two sets of fingers, which take a sheet
from each feeding-board, alternately, the cylinder carrying the sheet
over the form and printing it as the said carriage moves towards the

78 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

feeding-board ; the fingers release the sheet at the proper time by suit-
able mechanism. — Scie ntific American.

IMPROVEMENT IN POWER LOOMS.

Tue Scientific American describes the following improvements in
Power Looms, devised by Mr. Reynolds, of Columbia County, N. Y.
The first part of the improvements relates to the harness motion usually
employed in plain weaving; he attaches the leaves above and below
to straps, cords, or chains, which are connected to the peripheries of
two rollers, whose axes are hung in suitable bearings one above and
the other below the harness, in a ‘plane which equally « divides the space
between the front and back leaves; the straps or cords, from the two
leaves of the harness, pass in opposite directions around the rollers
spoken of, hence, if a rocking motion be given to one roller, and the
other be left free, one leaf will be raised and the other dex ressed
alternately. It is a desideratum, in weaving at a high speed, that the
warp be alway s opened to a certain width at the line where the shuttle
passes through, and that the upper and lower threads of the shed
always occupy the same position when the shed is open; if a suitable
motion be given to keep the shed open, it only requires to be opened
just wide enough for the shuttle to pass through; to do this the back
leaf —that furthest from the filling or weft — must be moved further
than the front leaf. The way to produce this difference in motion,
consists in making that portion of the periphery of each of the rollers
mentioned, to which the back leaf is attached, and which are termed
compensating rollers, of a larger diameter than the portion to which
the front leaf is attached ; by properly reculating this difference in the
parts of a roller, the required effect 1s produced. Another improve-
ment relates to the stop motion of a loom; the fork of the common
stop motion, to arrest the action of the loom when a weft thread breaks,
is made in one piece of steel or iron, and must really be made stronger
than the work it has to perform, as the shuttle frequently strikes against
them, if, by any accident, it is thrown from the raceway of the lay;
when this happens, the tines are either bent or broken, and to repair
this, the loom” has to be stopped for a considerable time. The tines
are detached by Mr. Reynold’s plan, and they are inserted in an elas-
tic socket, in which they can easily be placed; this allows of their being
made of metal or wood, whalebone, or split rattan — the last material

is preferable. The irl attending the loom keeps a number of spare
tines on hand, and when one becomes bent or broken, she puts in
another, and thus saves the labor of machinist and tenter in repairing
the said stop motion ; the bent tines can be straightened again, and
very slight interruptions are thus occasioned to repair such bre akages.

The improvements of Mr. Reynolds, enables power looms to be
driven at a far higher velocity, than they now can be, and thus a most
important impulse will be given to the art, as it respects economy in
repairs, saving of time in stoppages, and the greater quantity of work
done in a given time.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 79

MANUFACTURE OF BAGS BY MACHINERY.

Tue Stark Mills, of Manchester, N. H., are now engaged in the
weaving of bags, which is accomplished by the so-called “ seamless
bag-loom.” This loom produces a bag of any required length or size,
weaving sides and bottom without seam, of strong and durable mate-
rial, in the space of a few minutes. About one hundred and twenty
hands are now employed in the manufacture, and 30,000 bags a week
are made, which can be afforded at 25 cents each, or four per cent. off
for cash.

IMPROVEMENTS IN SPINNING.

Mr. W. Rovss, of Taunton, Mass., has recently made some valua-
ble improvements on the self-acting spinning mule, which are thus
described in the Scientific American. The improvements of Mr.
Rouse are designed to simplify the construction of the mule, in relation
to governing the revolution of the spindles in laying the thread on the
cops, and in backing off, preparatory to the said laying on, by a cam
barrel having an irregularly formed periphery, both in its length and
circumference. The cam is made to give motion to the spindles, by
means of a finger which bears continually on its periphery, and which
is attached to a swinging frame, furnished with toothed segments that
gear with toothed wheels upon a shaft, which, through a train of gear-
ing, drives the spindles. The cam is made to revolve at the time the
backing off should be performed, and also during the time the mule is
running up to the beam, when the winding of the thread on the spin-
dle is to be performed. Its periphery is of such a form, cireumferen-
tially, that the finger will be running towards the axis at the
proper time for backing off, and from the axis at the proper
time for laying on. Thus, by causing the segments to move in oppo-
site directions, it drives the spindles in opposite directions. The cam -
is of such a form on that part where the finger bears during the running
of the carriage, as‘to drive the spindles with a constant accelerated
motion, which is necessary, owing to the decreasing diameter of the
cop towards the top, where the laying on of the thread finishes ; its
circumferential form varies at different parts of its length, which gives
it the longitudinal irregularity of form spoken of before ; this is to suit
the degree of speed, and the amount of back-off, at different stages of
the building of the cop, the form of which is a constantly changing
one, from the commencement to the termination of laying on the last
inch of thread. The finger spoken of having a slow movement from
end to end of the cam, it gives a changing movement to the seoments,
and consequently to the spindles of the cops. There are some other
minor improvements connected with the working of this cop-making
cam. It is well known that the self-acting spinning mule is a compli-
cated machine, and does not produce such good work as the carriage
worked by hand. The improvements of Mr. Rouse greatly simplify
the construction of the mule by reducing the number of parts, and

8

80 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

substituting other mechanical devices, which make a better thread and
also build a better cop.

CROSSLEY’S PATENT CARPETS.

TuE following is a description of a new style of Carpets invented
by Mr. Thomas Crossley, of Roxbury, Mass., and recently patented.
First. The Patent Ingrain Carpeting is woven plain, without colors
fizure, in two or more substantial plys or layers of cloth, and
ingrained or connected together at various points, which is done by
causing the warp of one ply or layer at such points to be woven in and
become a part of the other ply or layer.

By thus ingraining together the several plys of cloth, great strength
and firmness is given to the fabric. And generally the nearer such
points of ingrained cloth come together, the better may the carpet be
expected to wear. In the patent ingrain carpeting this ingraining
occurs at short intervals. In ordinary ingrain carpeting, the ingrain-
ing or connecting together of the several “plys i is regulated wholly by
the kind or size of the figure woven ; as, for instance, in large figures
where the several objects combined to make up the pattern are bold
and striking, there will be found great quantities of plain or open
cloth in sections of considerable size when the several plys of cloth are
not at all connected together. This absence of ingraining is wholly
unavoidable, as when the pattern is woven the contrast between the
figure and the ground cannot be preserved but by keeping the colors
of the several plys, and therefore the plys themselves, entirely separate.
Hence people generally prefer small figures to large ones, owing to the
ereater amount of ingraining, and consequently of service contained
in the former over the latter.

Secondly. The cloth after being sheared and dressed, receives the
pattern and colors from blocks or rollers, upon one or both sides.
When both sides are figured, the back or under surface is stamped first
with one style of pattern and colors, and the face or upper surface with
an entirely different style of pattern and colors, — giving a variety of
style never before obtamed in any other kinds of carpeting.

Another new and important feature in the Patent Ingrain Carpeting
is discovered in the fact that the colors stamped upon one surface do
not appear through on the other side. This is prevented by the pecu-
liar construction of the cloth. No other fabric of woolen, or where
wool is a component part, has ever been printed upon one side, with-
out more or less showing through upon the other surface.

Felt Carpets. — This novel style of Carpets manufactured at the
Bay State Mills, Lawrence, are printed in block work, and designed

according to weight either asa floor cloth or drugget. The threads of wool -

are not spun or woven, but drawn out and laid together, the whole
mass being felted like a hat body. Fabrics of this character are also
put tovether, showing a different color on either side, and designed for
coats to be made up “without lining. The Bay State Mills make this
cloth with a white ground, about 40 inches wide, weighing from 4 to

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 81

24 ounces per yard, ard print it in elegant carpet designs, showing the
richest combination of brilliant colors, ‘and furnish it at 75 to 90 cents
per yard.

SEWING MACHINES.

Tue effect of the introduction of the power-loom and spinning
frame upon hand labor, seems about to be repeated so far as the needle
woman is concerned, in the introduction and general use of the various
sewing machines. Six of these machines are now in general use viz:
That of Elias Howe, Jr., patented Sept., 1846, sold for ‘$125. 2. That
of I. M. Singer, sold for Sh Ree That of A. B. Wilson, patented
Nov., 1850, sold for $50. 4. That of J. M. Magnin, —a French inven-
tion. 5. That of Morey and Johnson, of Massachusetts. 6. That of
Dr. Otis Avery, patented Oct., 1852, sold for $25.

The machine of Mr. Howe was the first practical invention of the
kind, and it is claimed that all the subsequent inventions infringe upon
his patent. He uses two threads, and an accurate idea of his seam
will be formed by twisting two threads together and imagining them so
disposed as that the point where they cross each other is always in the
cloth, one of them forming the visible portion of the stitch on one side,
and the other on the other. The machines of Singer, Wilson, and
Morey and Johnson, use needles of a kind different from Howe’s, but
produce the same stitch as his. Of these four, all are equally correct
and good in respeet to mechanical principles, but as they differ widely
in many particulars, one being vertical and another horizontal, one
carrying its own cloth and another requiring that it should be carried
by hand, actual trial can alone decide which is the best for practical
use. The N. Y. Tribune states, “that it has seen shirts, pants, coats,
shoes, and the like, made by them, in all of which the strength of the
seams are satisfactory. In most, if not in all cases, the material would
give way and tear, but the sewing would not rip. The perfect regu-
larity of the stitches made by these machines renders them very useful
for fancy work like shirt bosoms. For an inch of seam, three inches
of thread are used. A person with a machine will do from five to ten
times as much work as with the needle. In several large shops they
are used, and many persons wear garments made by them without a
suspicion of the fact.”

Magnin’s machine operates with a single thread, and produces what
is known as the tambour stitch. It may do for embroidery, and has
even been arranged with several needles and used for that purpose,
but it is worth nothing for sewing. Its principal defects are, that when
one stitch is broken the whole seam will unrav el; that it requires eight
inches of thread for every inch of sewing ; and ‘that in fancy work it
gives different results on the two sides of the cloth.

The machine invented by Dr. Avery was first exhibited at the Fair
of the American Institute in New York, in October, 1852. The
arrangement is comprised in two cam wheels, two shafts, two spools,
two needles, two crank wheels, and a weight. The crank wheels turn

82 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the cam wheels, and these communicate motion to the shafts, and the
shafts work the needles, between which the cloth to be al is
placed. The cloth is held in its place and drawn along as fast as it is
sewed by the weight. The spools contain the thread, and unwinding,
furnish a supply as fast as it is needed. The peculiarity of the
machine, however, consists in the stitch, which is of such a nature
that each is independent of the other. ‘The seam will not rip if a few
stitches be cut; and seams of all shapes and kinds can be sewn with
equal facility. It uses more thread than either of the other American
machines, but less than the French. In respect to rapidity of work,
there is no great difference. The great advantages of Avery’s
machine are its more simple mechanism and its ereater cheapness.
The Scientific American furnishes a description of an additional
sewing machine recently invented by Mr. Titeman of New York. In
this machine two_threads are used to form the stitch, one being in the
form of a loop, and the other thread being passed through the whole
series of loops, thus preventing them from following the needle when
it is withdrawn. The arrangement is very compact, and is well
adapted to sew, besides the ordinary sort of work, any thing in a cir-
cular or endless form, ‘To admit of this variety of sewing the work
is placed around the outer circumference of a hollow cylinder, as on
a bed, and is moved forward for another stitch by an endless chain
revolving inside, which is furnished with a number of points or teeth
projecting through a slot that grasps the cloth which is being sewed.
On the cylinder are fixed a vertical standard and slides from which
the needle works like wire vertically. This needle has two eyes, one
near the point and the other close to the head. Within the cylinder
is placed the apparatus for forming the thread (which is carried into
the cloth by the needle,) into a loop, and then securing the loop by a
longitudinal thread. This last mentioned art rangement consists prin-
cipally of a circular shuttle (or, rather, the shape is of an oblate
spheroid,) with one part cut away, so as to forma point, which is used
to open a way for the shuttle to pass through the loop. The shuttle
has a recess, which contains a bobbin for supplying the longitudinal
or lock thread. When the needle is made to descend with its attached
thread (which is supplied from a bobbin,) it perforates the cloth, and
continuing its course, passes through an aperture in the cylinder.
Whilst in the act of returning a portion of the thread (which at that
moment is rather slack,) is caught by the point of the shuttle and
extended into the form of a loop. By a novel arrangement, the loop
is freed from the shuttle, although the thread from the shuttle bobbin
remains within the loop, thus holding it from re- -passing the cloth.
The work is pressed down in the cylinder by a spring, and is moved
at each successive stitch by an endless chain, as before mentioned, the
motion of which is repeated by a ratchet wheel ; all of which gearing
as well as the main driving shaft, &c., is contained within the ey ylinder.
We must mention that the proper tension of the vertical thread is
maintained by two neatly contrived fingers, which grasp it until the

a es

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MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 83

needle has entered the cloth, when they relinquish the duty to the
needle.

WEAVING AND PRINTING CARPETS AND SHAWLS.

JAMES MeEtLvi tf, of Renfrewshire, Scotland, has enrolled a patent
for an invention, the peculiarity of which is, the weaving a duplex
fabric, or, in other words, two foundations or backs of fabrics, con-
nected together by a long pile of the material, forming the face of the
pieces—the pile being afterwards severed transversely, to form distinct
pieces of pile fabrics—without the use of intermediate slips or needles
for raising and adjusting the pile. This important system of weaving
is as simple as it is ingenious. Instead of weaving both backs, so that
each shot of weft in the upper and lower backs is thrown at the same
time, in the same vertical line, the lower back is always kept several
shots ahead of the upper one; that is to say, the woven portion of the
lower back always extends several shots further forward on the reed
side than the upper one. Then, during the process of weaving, the
angular distance between the two sheds of the upper and lower backs,
regulates the length of the intervening pile of wool. This system is
carried out by adding to the ordinary reed a species of secondary
reed, carried by the slay in front of the usual reed. The latter acts
only on the lower shed, whilst the secondary reed, the dents of which
project down from the lower edge of their frame-bar, is similarly con-
fined to the upper shed, and each shot of weft in the upper shed is
held until secured by the succeeding one, by a row of hooks ona
holding-frame passing across the piece.

Another portion of the improvements embodies a system of printing
shawls and other goods, by stretching the fabric on an impression
cylinder of large diameter, such cylinder being arranged to work in
concert with a printing roller, on which the “repeat” of the pattern
is engraved. In printing a border by this plan, the two opposite
parallel edges of the piece are stretched on the large cylinder ina
line with the cylinder ends, and the color apparatus being set on a
rail in front of the cylinder, the two borders are printed in succession ;
and the printing apparatus being then detached, is removed to another
cylinder, to make way for the succeeding color on the first. The
printing roller is so contrived as to be capable of the most accurate
adjustment to the impression cylinder on each change, so as to keep
perfect register; and the attendants are thus enabled to print all the
colors in a series of pieces by continually running through a series of
impression cylinders, with the corresponding color rollers, one after
the other. By another modification, Mr. Melville also prints shawls
and other fabrics stretched upon a square table, hung vertically, the
printing roller revolving in fixed bearings, whilst the table traverses
m contact with it. But the most curious process is that in which the
pattern is engraved upon a conical printing roller, and the fabric is
stretched on a square table, revolving on a vertical plane. Ifa shawl
corner is to be printed, the pattern is so placed on the roller that the

gt

84 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

angle shall be on the widest end of the cone, a diagonal line drawn
through the center of the corner coinciding with the axial line of the
cone. Then, as the shawl revolves on its table, the i impression is suc-
cessively laid on, so that the corner device shall exactly fill up the
corners of the fabric. Another peculiar plan consists in stretching
some classes of square fabrics upon a round table, when wet, so that
the square temporarily assumes a circular form. In this state it is
printed by a conical roller, and a peculiar distorted effect is obtained
by reason of the corners of the piece being very little stretched, whilst
the parallel sides, which have undergone excessive stretching, will
shrink to their original state in drying, thus contracting the impression
at those parts. We are, of course, enabled to give but a mere outline
of these valuable improvements here.

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER.

Tue following is a description of a process lately brought out in
England for the manufacture of paper, by Messrs. Coupier and Mellier.
The first part of this invention consists in manufacturing pulp for paper-
making from straw and other similar vegetable matters, and from the
bark of the osier or chestnut-tr ee, by the use of a boiling solution of
hydrate of soda or potash, in conjunction with other chemical means,
and without mechanical operations.

The patentees conduct their processes as follows :—They make use
of an open vessel with a perforated false bottom, on which are placed
the materials to be operated on, previously cut or otherwise divided
into short lengths. From the top of this vessel (which is to be closed
while the operation is proceeding) a pipe leads to a second vessel
capable of holding from 60 to 70 gallons, in which is placed the alka-
line solution, and “which is employ ed at a streneth of from 7° to 10°
Baume. The end of the pipe in the first vessel is provided with a
rose-head. When the process is to be commenced, steam is to be
turned on into the alkaline solution, and its temperature raised to the
boiling point. An excess of steam is then admitted, and the solution
forced through the pipe, and dispersed in a shower over the straw;
when the solution is exhausted in this way, a fresh supply is introduced,
and this operation repeated. A communication is established between
the vessels by another pipe from underneath the false bottom of the
first, and a circulation of the heated liquor is thereby maintained for
about eight hours. Hot water is then forced through, and this washing
is continued until the liquor comes off of a strength of about 1° Baume.
Cold water is then supplied to the materials, and passed through until
it comes off clear. In order to bleach and disaggregate the fibres,

they are then submitted to the action of a solution of hypochlorite of

alumina, or other hypochlorite, of a strength of about 3° Baume, and
again washed in hot water in order to remove the superfluous bleach-
ing liquid. This reduces the mass to the condition of half stuff which
is Manufactured into paper according to the usual modes, operating
with or without the addition of rag pulp. The quantity of alkaline

il,

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 85

solution consumed by the above process will be about thirty to forty
gallons for every hundred weight of fibre, and of hypochlorite about
25 per cent. of the weight of fibre. The hydrate for the alkaline
solution may be obtained by dissolving soda or potash in lime water,
and decanting the clear liquor; and the hypochlorite of alumina for
the bleaching process by dissolving sulphate of alumina in a solution
of hypochlorite (common chloride) of lime. The waters obtained by
the first process when evaporated, yield a resinous soap, which may be
mixed with other materials, and burnt as fuel, or used in the unmixed
state. The above process is applicable also to flax waste, cotton waste,
hemp, tow, &c., but does not supersede the necessity of first converting
these materials into half stuff.

The second part of the invention consists in treating wood shavings
(pine, ash, elm, and beech are suitable for this purpose) with nitric
acid in order to obtain therefrom a pulp to be used in the manufacture
of paper.

In carrying this part of the invention into effect, the patentees em-
ploy two vessels in connection with each other, having perforated false
bottoms on which the shavings to be operated on are placed in a damp
state, and pressed. About 80 per cent. by weight of white nitric acid,
(of astrength of 36° Baume,) diluted to about 5° or 6° Baume, is then
added to the shavings in one of the vessels, and after standing about
four hours, heat is applied until ebulition commences, and. nitrous
fumes are evolved. ‘These fumes are caused to pass into the second
vessel, where they come in contact with the damped shavings, and are
partially converted into hyponitric acid. When the boiling has been
continued for a sufficient time, the shavings are subjected, for about
two hours, to the action of solution of hydrate of potash or soda, of a
streneth of about 2° Baume, in the manner before described, are
washed, and they are then bleached by hypochlorite of alumina, using,
however, only about two per cent. by weight of the materials in mak-
ing the solution. This last operation, with the aid of subsequent
washings, converts the shavings to a state of half stuff, which may be
used alone or with rag pulp, according to the usual methods. The
acid liquor employed in operating on the first batch of shavings, after
having about 40 per cent. of the weight of the materials added to it, is
used for treating another quantity, the nitrous fumes evolved being
applied as before described. By evaporating the used acid liquors,
oxalic acid may be obtained, as well as an acid of a character analogous
to nitropicric acid.

PAPIER-MACHE.

Mr. C. BreLeFreLD, of London, has obtained a patent for the man-
ufacture of papier-mache, of which the following is a description, as
given in Newton’s Patent Journal. “Sheets of papier-mache, of

‘considerable thickness, have been commonly produced by causing

numerous sheets of paper to be successively pasted together and dried,
until the required thickness of sheet is obtained. The desired thick-

86 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ness of sheet has also been obtained by piling a suitable number of
sheets of paper in a wet state (as they come from the paper-mould or
seive) one upon another, and then expressing the water by a press,
and drying the sheet, so produced, whilst in a state of compression,
between metal plates. Sheets of less thickness have been made by
running the pulp on to a mould or seive, having a frame thereon cor-
responding in depth to the thickness of sheet required, and then
pressing such sheets between felts and drying them. Moulded orna-
ments, and other articles of papier-mache have been usually manufac-
tured by reducing fibrous and other matters by grinding, in a suitable
machine, to the consistency of stiff dough or putty, and then moulding
and drying the same. The above remarks are made in order to point
out more clearly, the nature of this invention, which consists in rolling
or pressing fibrous and other matters, ground to the state of stiff dough
or putty, into sheets, and treating such sheets with oil and heat, in like
manner to that in which sheets and moulded articles of papier-mache,
made by the above methods, have been heretofore treated.

Either flat or roller presses may be used in carrying out this inven-
tion. The press which the patentee prefers to employ consists of a
rectangular moving table, with a pressing-roller above it. The table
has a rack on each side, and is supported in such a manner that it
may be moved to and fro at the same surface speed as the pressing-
roller; for which purpose two cog wheels are fixed on the axis of the
roller, and gear into the racks affixed to the table; and the roller is
kept pressed down upon the table by weighted levers. The table
supports a wooden platform, somewhat larger than the intended sheet
of papier-mache ; over this platform is spread a sheet of moistened
canvass or other suitable fabric; and upon the fabric is laid a rectan-
cular or other frame of wood, corresponding in height to the thickness
of the sheet of papier-mache, or substance in the nature thereof, to
such an extent, that considerable pressure will be necessary to reduce
the same to the level of the frame. Over the composition another
sheet of moistened canvass or other fabric is laid ; and then the press-
ing-roller being caused to rotate, the table carries the platform, with
the plastic papier-mache thereon, beneath the roller. ‘The composition
is passed several times beneath the roller, until it is considered to be
sufficiently pressed; after which the upper sheet of moistened fabric
is removed, and a flat frame or rack of wood (composed of numerous
bars) is laid upon the sheet of papier-mache; then the wooden rack
and platform, with the sheet of papier-mache between them, are turned
over; and the platform and the first-named sheet of canvass are now
removed,—leaving the papier-mache upon the rack to dry. During
the process of drying, the sheets are turned over from time to time ;
and the patentee prefers, when time and season will permit, to dry by
the ordinary atmosphere in sheds, or otherwise in rooms, heated to a
slight degree above summer heat; the longer the time allowed for
drying the better will be the result. The sheets, by day, are placed
in a stove, heated from 150° to 180° Fahr., and left therein until
heated throughout; and they are then immersed in boiled oil, which

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 8T

is kept at a temperature of ten 150° to 180°. The sheets are kept
in the oil for a greater or less time, according to the thickness thereof
and the degree ‘of’ saturation desired ; for sheets of one inch thick,

half an hour has been found sufficient. After saturation with oil, the
sheets are again dried on racks, either by the atmosphere in sheds or
in heated rooms; and when they appear to be dry, they are kept for
some time in a stove, heated to 180°. The patentee states, that the
above is the practice pursued by him when the sheets are to be used
for forming partitions in steam and other vessels, and for panelling
and other work of the cabins of such vessels, or the parts of railway
and other carriages, and for making furniture and other structures
where it is desirable to use a material that shall be little affected by
extremes of temperature.

The sheets, produced as above described, may be cut into the de-
sired forms, and framed together in panels or otherwise; and the
surfaces may be planed, smoothed, and polished, as when oper ating on
other papier-mache; and they may be varnished without painting, in
which case various effects may be obtained by mixing colors with the
fibrous materials employed ; or the papier- -mache may be painted and
ornamented in ke manner to carriage-painting. Various composi-
tions of fibrous with other matters may be used in carrying out this
invention; but the patentee prefers the following, although he does
not confine himself thereto :—He makes a paste by boiling together 80
Ibs. of water, 32 lbs. of flour, 9 lbs. of alum, and 1 Ib. of copperas ; with
this paste he mixes 15 Ibs. of rosin, dissolved by 10 lbs. of boiled oil,
adding 1 lb. of litharge; and then ‘he adds to the mixture from 55 to
60 lbs. of dry rag-dust or other suitable fibre, and grinds the whole
together. He has found that paper makers’ “ half stuff” or pulp may
be used, when deprived of fluidity to such an extent that it is of a like
consistency to stiff dough or putty. When size is used in preparing
the fibrous and other matters, it is best to employ a hollow pressing
roller, heated by steam. In the manufacture of sheets of papier-mache
by the above process, if one or both of the fabrics, which are used
when pressing, be left adhering to the surface or surfaces of the sheet,
instead of removing the same previous to drying, the fabric or fabries
will continue to adhere when the sheet is finished and form part
thereof.

VALUE OF PAPER IN ARCHITECTURE.

THERE is, says Dickens’ “ Household Words,” a paper church
actually existing near Bergen, which can contain nearly one thousand
persons. It is circular within, octagonal without. The relievos out-
side, and the statues within, the “roof, the ceiling, the Corinthian
capitals, are all of papier-mache, rendered water- proof by saturation
in vitriol, lime water, whey, and white of egg. We have not yet
reached this pitch of audacity in our use of paper; but it should
hardly surprise us, inasmuch as we employ the same material in pri-
vate houses, in steamboats, and in some public buildings, instead of

$8 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

carved decorations and plaster cornices. When Frederick II. of
Prussia set up a limited papier-mache manufactory at Berlin, 1765,
he little thought that paper cathedrals might, within a century, spring
out of his snuff boxes, by the sleight of hand of advancing art. At
present, we old- fashioned English, who haunt cathedrals and build
churches, like stone better. But there is no saying what we may
come to. It is not very long since it would have seemed as impossible
to cover eighteen acres of cround with glass, as to erect a pagoda of
soap bubbles; yet the thing is dones When we think of a psalm
sung by one thousand voices, pealing through an edifice made of old
rags, and the universal element bound down. to carry our messages
with the speed of light, it would be presumptuous to say what can
and what cannot be achieved by science and art, under the training
of steady old ‘Time.

QUARTZ CRUSHING MACHINE

A NEw and very well contrived machine has been constructed in
New York, by Mr. John A. Collins, for the purpose of extracting
gold from quartz rocks. On a round cast iron plate, which forms the
bed plate of the machine, six or more conical wheels, whose axes con-
verge toward the center, are made to travel round, and to crush in
their way the pieces of rock which are e put under them.’ The neces-
sary pressure and the motion are given by an ingenious contrivance,
which consists of another ‘circular plate resting on the wheels, and
which is fixed by keys on the axis, this axis being put in motion by a
steam engine. Above the second plate i isa third, connected with the first
by vertical columns, and held down to the required pressure by india-
rubber springs, so that if a piece of rock is harder than the others,
the wheel, rising over it, presses the springs, which give back a
stronger counter pressure, suilicient to crush the piece; at least, it
prevents any danger of breaking the machinery.

By the above “arrangement, “there is no friction in the machine,
either by rotary axes, or by sliding pieces. There is only rotation
of wheels on plane surfaces, so that very little power is consumed by
the machine itself. There are necessary contrivances to make a cur-
rent of water pass over the powdered rock.

LATH CUTTING MACHINE.

Tre following is a brief description of a lath cutting machine
invented and patented by Henry C. Smith, of Cleveland, Ohio.

A series of rotating knives are keyed into a cy linder, which is
placed over the log to ‘pe cut. The cylinder is one foot in diameter,
and the length of ‘the log is four feet. Grooves are planed in this
cylinder, about one inch ‘deep, for the reception of the knives. These
knives, when placed in the cylinder, are of such width as to set out
from its face one-half of an inch, and are some twenty-five in number,
being placed the width of the lath apart, and are the length of the log or

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MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 89

cylinder. As the log rotates under these knives, they are caught in
the same, and revolve similar to one roller rolling under another, and
are forced into the log by the action of a rack. The knives are thus
constantly in the log, and feed upon the same at the rate of the thick-
ness of a lath at one revolution of the log, or say one-third of an inch, so
the surface that passes under them comes over cut into the thickness of
the lath ; it will also be observed that these cuts are just the width
of the lath apart, and this surface is presented to the clipping knife,
which has a reciprocating motion, and cuts the laths from the log as it
revolves against its edge. This knife also advances to the log at the
same rate that the rotating knives move downward; this is done by
means of the screws at the sides, cut upon the shafts which move the
iron frame forward toward the log, and upon which another iron frame
is placed for securing the clipping knife, the edge of which advances
on a center with the log. This iron frame rests upon rollers, so that
the friction is but little, while the knife is playmg back and forth. It
will be observed, that the laths are cut off from the log, similar to
cutting of veneering. By the inclination of the apron under the log
upon which the laths fall, they are conveyed to the end of the
machine. The reciprocating motion of the clipping knife prevents
any chicking or shivering of the lath, which makes them equal to
sawed lath.

NEW BRICK MACHINE.

Tuts machine, the invention of Messrs. Mower and Woodworth,
of Boston, operates as follows: — The clay used, enters the machine
dry, and by means of a combination of rollers and sieves is reduced
to a uniform degree of fineness. The pulverized clay then passes
into the press of the machine, where there are moulds for six bricks,
into which it falls, and immediately receives two severe blows from
above, succeeded by powerful pressure from below. These blows and
pressure give it the shape and character of bricks directly. The
clay, in the shape of bricks, is now delivered from the machine upon
a little frame so rapidly, that it requires the constant labor of two men
to put the bricks into wheelbarrows. They are thus forthwith con-
veyed directly to the kiln, without the necessity of any intermediate
process whatever. The moulds being exactly shaped, and made of
metal, and the clay being, by the immense force brought to bear upon
it, perfectly fitted to the moulds, these unburnt bricks have a marble-
like smoothness of surface, and an exquisite accuracy of shape, alto-
gether surpassing those made in the ordinary way. The number of
bricks which this invention is capable of making in a given time can
easily be estimated. At each revolution of the machine, six new
bricks are delivered ; and the number of revolutions is seven or eight
ina minute. The number made in an hour thus certainly exceeds
twenty-five hundred. When it is recollected that this number can be
continued day after day, without regard to the accidental changes of
weather, the great capacities of the machine for accomplishing a large

90 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

amount of work in a short time, are apparent. It should be observed,
that although it is no part of the plan that the clay used in the
machine should be at all wet, yet the pulverization of the lumps of the
material in the first part of the process brings out a slight degree of
moisture, so that the powder which is subjected to pressure is slightly
damp; and this doubtless adds somewhat to the tenacity and firmness
of the bricks. This dampness, however, does not exceed that which
_is usual in bricks when they are considered dry. enough to be placed
in the kilns.

The hammer or ram which descends upon the clay inethe moulds
weighs about four thousand pounds. ‘The mechanical force which is
brought to bear upon each brick is estimated at one hundred pounds.
The whole weight of the machine, including the pulverizer and
screens, exceeds | twenty tons. The cost is $3,200.

. The bricks, when burnt, are found to have shrunk Jess than those
made in the ordinary way, probably on account of their greater den-
sity ; and, for the same reason, they retain their smoothness of surface
and accuracy of form. On breaking one, its compactness and sound-
ness are immediately obvious. As they thus can absorb but little
moisture, they are capable of standing the frost of the severest climate
without injury. An experiment ina “crushing machine, by the super-
intendant of the Capitol at Washington, showed the streneth of the
bricks to be sixteen thousand six hundred pounds to the square inch.
At the same time it was found that, by the absorption of one of the
bricks and the atmospheric evaporation together, during fourteen
hours, there was consumed less than half a gili out of a gallon of
water.

The actual use of the bricks, so far as we have heard, justifies all
the expectations which would be formed from a knowledge of the
process of their manufacture, and shows that they are in no respect
inferior to those made in the ordinary way. Indeed, they are unques-
tionably better. We are told that they have been used in buildings
with entire satisfaction, and that some of them exposed during the
last winter, in sidewalks in Boston, remain as perfect as when “they
were laid. The best quality of bricks can be made by these machines
at a less expense than the coarse common bricks made by the ordinary
processes.

The present invention is so different, both in principle and opera-
tion, from all former machines, and is so perfect in theory, simple in

construction, and successful in its results, that we can hardly doubt
that its use will eventually entirely supersede that of all other
processes.

We derive the foregoing facts from the Boston “ 'To-Day.” — Editor.

A CIRCULAR SAW RUN WITHOUT AN ARBOR.

AN invention has recently been made by Mr. A. C. George, of New
Hampshire, by which a circular saw can be run without an arbor, in
such a manner as to cut a board nearly the width of the saw. The

da

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 91

main principle by which this is effected, is, we understand, by the
application of small trucks applied to the "external part of the dise,
and by which the necessary motion is communicated, and the saw held
at the same time in place.

IMPROVED PLOUGH.

MEASURES to secure a patent for improvements in ploughs have
been taken by J. B. Wilder, of Belfast, Me. The nature of the in-
vention consists in employing a rev olving mould-board, so arranged
and attached to the share and land-side plate, that it may be turned
independently of the share, which also revolves. By this improvement
both the mould-board and share can be shifted to either side of the
land-side plate, so that the dirt or sod may be turned in either direc-
tion. The object in making the mould-board in this manner is to
allow of its having an independent motion irrespective of the share,
which hitherto has not been done. In every improvement of this
kind, with revolving share and mould-board, the two have been
always connected, so that the efficacy of the latter has been materially
sacrificed in order to make it suit in the opposite positions to which it
* may be required to be altered.—Scientific American.

MACHINE FOR PICKING UP STONES.

Tae New England Farmer describes a machine recently devised
for picking up stones, one of the most laborious duties of the farmer.
The arrangement consists of a large cylinder on a common axle and
cart wheels, containing four rows of teeth or lifters. Gearing on the
hubs of the wheels and on the ends of the cylinder, gives the latter a
rotary motion, when the teeth pick up the stones and deposit them in
a box. When the box is full, the cylinder is raised and the load
carried off and upset as from a common cart.

PLASTERING MACHINE.

A MACHINE for the purpose of superseding manual labor in the
operation of plastering walls, has been invented by Isaac Hussey, of
Ohio. It consists of a movable frame upon rollers that can be adjusted
to suit any height, and of a smaller frame sliding within it. The latter
serves to support a mortar box containing the ‘tr owel, which is raised
and lowered by means of a drum and endless chain. When in opera-
tion the trowel is supplied with mortar by a rod and follower, which
are worked by a lever, the quantity being regulated or shut off, as
required, by a slide that covers the opening in “the box. For plaster-
ing ceiling it is only requisite to raise the mortar box to the top of the
frame, and for side walls it is adjusted accordingly by turning it to a
proper position. For this last-named operation the box is shifted by
the sliding frame, which is moved back and forth for that purpose by
means of the already mentioned lever. There are also various cords

92 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

and pulleys attached to the machine for facilitating the operations of
the different parts, which are included in the invention and form a
part of it— Scientific American.

DITCHING MACHINE.

THE following is a description of a machine recently invented by
Charles Bishop, of Ohio, for the purpose of excavating ditches by
horse power. The machine is provided with a revolving excavator,
the shaft or axle of which lies in the direction of the length of the
ditch. The excavator is of a screw form, and is operated by an end-
less chain. The ditch is cut of a semi-circular form, and it deposits
the cut clay or other kind of excavated earth in a box, from whence
it is delivered at one side of the road by scrapers attached to the end-
less chain, the machine being propelled forward by a friction wheel,
or roller, moving in the ditch, and operated by the excavator’s shaft.
— Cleveland Visiter.

PATENT SPOONS.

INVENTIONS generally claim the attention of the public from their

real, or fancied importance, but occasionally some are brought into
notice from their very insignificance, or from some inherent absurdity
in their design or object. Of such a character as the latter class, is
an invention of Mr. I. C. Taylor, of Ohio, of a spoon for administer-
ing medicine, which is thus described in the claim of the patent
granted February, 1852. “I claim the particular construction of my
spoon with a sliding bottom, and a piston slide, exactly fitting the cay-
ity of the spoon, and the sliding rod so arranged, that it may be slid
in the same moment that the slide tongue or bottom is drawn out,
thereby quickly emptying the spoon of its contents.

‘“‘T do not claim that my spoon should be a graduating or measuring
spoon, but merely for administering medicines already graduated by a
physician.”

MANUFACTURE OF GUTTA-PERCHA.

Tue following is a general description of the method of preparing
and manufacturing gutta-percha, as followed in the large English
establishments. ‘The crude blocks of gutta-percha, as received from
the docks, are in the first place cut into slices by means of a machine
formed of a circular iron plate of about sixty inches diameter: in this
iron plate are three slots placed radially for the reception of as many
knives or cutters; the blocks being placed in an inclined wooden
shoot, an end of each is set in the plane of rotation of the cutters ;
the slices thus cut off are transferred in baskets, though machinery
might readily be applied for the purpose, to a wooden tank containing
hot water, in which they are left to soak until they are found to be ina
plastic state. The next part of the process is to subject the material

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 93

to the action of a mincing cylinder, somewhat similar to that used by
paper makers for the conversion of rags into pulp; afterwards, the
whole is thoroughly cleaned in cold water tanks; and when the gutta-
percha is found to be very impure, which is frequently the case as an
article of commerce, a solution of common soda or chloride of lime is
added to the water. From the cold water tanks the material is con-
veyed to the masticating machine, in which it is secured by the doors
being bolted down. By this operation it is subjected to very great
pressure, and this part of the process is the same as that used in the
manufacture of caoutchouc. From the masticating machine it is
passed between large metal rollers, and thus converted into extensive
sheets, of thicknesses regulated by the distance between the rollers.
Sometimes it is passed two or three times between the rollers. These
sheets are cut into bands of various widths by vertical knives placed
at the end of the web or cloth by which the sheets are moved away
from the rollers. The sheets are either cut into the proper width for
lathe bands, or are stamped out for shoe soles, and various other
purposes.

MANUFACTURE OF COMBS.

_ THe greatest comb manufactory in the world is in Aberdeen, Scot-
land ; it is that of Messrs. Stewart, Rowell & Co. There are 36 fur-
naces for preparing horns and tortoise-shell for the combs, and no less
than 120 iron screw presses are continually going in stamping them.
Steam power is employed to cut the combs, and an engine of fifty
horse power is barely suflicient to do the work. The coarse combs
are stamped or cut out— two being cut in one piece ata time, by a
machine invented in England in 1828. The fine dressing combs and
all small tooth combs, are cut by fine circular saws, some so fine as to
cut 40 teeth in the space of one inch, and they revolve 5,000 times in
a minute. There are 1,928 varieties of combs made, and the agere-
gate number produced, of all these different sorts of combs, average
upwards of 1,200 gross weekly, or about 9,000,000 annually ; a quan-
tity that, if laid together lengthways, would extend about 700 miles.
The annual consumption of ox horns is about 730,000; the annual
consumption of hoofs amounts to 4,000,000 ; the consumption of tor-
toise shell and buffalo horn, although not so large, is correspondingly
valuable ; even the waste, composed of horn shavings and parings of
hoof, which from its nitrogenized composition, becomes a valuable
material in the manufacture of prussiate of potash, amounts to 350
tons in the year; the broken combs in the various stages of manufac-
ture average 50 or 60 gross in a week; the very paper for packing
costs $3,000 a year.

A hoof undergoes eleven distinct operations before it becomes a
finished comb. In this great comb factory, there are 456 men.and
boys employed, and 164 women — in all 620 hands. ae

Ap

94 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

NORMANDY’S FRESH WATER CONDENSER.

AN apparatus has been devised in France by M. Normandy, for
converting sea water into fresh, for use on ship-board.

Briefly “deser ibed, it is a series of discs, placed one above the other,
communicating by concentric galleries, and placed in a vapor bath at
a pressure a little above that of the atmosphere. “ The sea water,”
says the inventor, “circulating in the galleries heated by the surround-
ing vapor, gives off a certain “quantity of vapor, which, mingling with
the atmospheric air, introduced by a tube from the outside, finally
condenses as perfectly aerated fresh water in a refrigerator, which 1 is
also in communication with the atmosphere. No other means of agi-
tation or percolation is so efficacious or economical.” The apparatus
which is free from the defect of depositing salt while distillation is
going on, is rather more than three feet in height, and eighteen inches
diameter. It will yield two pints of water per minute, at an expen-
diture of about 24 Tbs. of coal for each 45 Ibs. of water.

MACHINE FOR PRINTING CALICO.

A NEW calico machine has been invented by Dr. R. L. Hawes, of

Worcester, which will print twelve different colors at one operation.
In relation to this machine the Boston Transcript says : —

It was but quite recently — within five years, we believe — that it
was not thought practicable to print calico with the use of more than
six colors at one operation. If additional colors were required to
complete the design, they were given by hand blocks. Latterly, how-
ever, the English, inventors have produced machines that will print
eight and ten “colors, but it has remained for an American to outstrip
them all in this important branch of mechanic art. The principal
improvements introduced into this machine (for which application for
a patent has been made,) consists in the mode of applying pressure
to the print rollers, by which a yielding pressure of several tons may
be given to each roller with great ease ; also in the construction of
the frame work in a peculiar manner, so that either print roller may
be removed from the machine without disturbing the others. By means
of these improvements, this machine is made to operate with nearly
the same facility and ease as any six color machines hitherto con-
structed. The weight of the machine is eight or ten tons, standing
some nine or ten feet high, and necessarily has, not only great strength,
but a very nice adjustment of its parts to enable the operator to print
twelve colors on the cloth, so that each shall be exactly in its place,
and this, too, when cloth is passing through the machine at the rate of
a mile per hour.

MANUFACTURE OF BEET ROOT SUGAR IN IRELAND.

Tue subject of cultivating the beet root, with a view to the manu-
facture of Sugar, is now engrossing a good deal of public attention.

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MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 95

Treland is said, by Mr. Sullivan, the chemist to the Museum of Irish
Industry in Dublin, to possess great capabilities for the production of
beet root in large quantities, “and of very superior qualities — the
Trish root possessing at least as much saccharine matter as that of
France or Germany. The statistics of beet root sugar are curious
and instructive. In-1841, the production of this article in Europe
was estimated at 55,000 tons; in 1847, it was said to be 100,000 tons,
and in 1850, 190,000 tons. The manufacture is said to be rapidly
increasing, and realizing a great profit to those who are engaged in it.

IMPROVEMENT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR.

Tue following is a description of some new processes for the manu-
facture of sugar, recently patented in England, and introduced with
success into Cuba.

The new processes are fourfold in their character, comprising, first,
a new mode of obtaining the saccharine juice from the cane 3 secondly,
a new mode of defecating and filtering the juice so obtained ; thirdly,
the boiling and concentrating of the juice; and fourthly, the cry ystal-
lization and final curing of the sugar. By the first improvement, in
the construction of the cane press, a difference in the yield of the
cane is obtained, as compared with the old rolling mill, of about 20
per cent. In the new machine, the pressing tubes are reduced in
length from 30 inches to 12, the first four of which are parallel, and
3 inches wide — the next four inches of their length being taper, and
terminating with a width of but 13 inch, the smaller contracted point
extending as far as the exit end of. the tube. By this change of form,
the entire removal of the elasticity in the “ magas,” occupying the
tubes is removed, and after the cane has been collapsed by the severe
pressure, and its breadth at the same time gradually lessened, every
fibre and cell is made to assume new relative positions — not one
remains unruptured, and an increased quantity of the juice is conse-
quently expelled at the trough. In addition to this advantage, there
is obviously a more equal distribution of power in each revolution of
the machine; the deleterious chlorophyl, or coloring matter, of the
outer portion of the cane is not expelled with the juice, as in the
ordinary apparatus ; the machine may be more easily fed, and weighs
considerably less than rolling machines generally in use.

The juice, when expelled from the cane, is unavoidably mixed with
numberless minute fragments of cellular tissue, albumen, and other
extraneous matters, which, if not speedily removed, tend to produce
the atidification of the liquid. The present mode of defecation and
filtration consists in raising the temperature of the liquor to 150° Fahr.,
when a quantity of lime 1s thrown in for the purpose of neutralizing
the free acid, and assisting in the coagulation of the albumen ; the
temperature is increased to 180° Fahr., when n, after allowing time for
settling, the scum is remov ed, and the clear liquor drawn off’ into the
f evand” copper, where it is subjected to boiling heat, when the fecn-
lent and other albuminous matters are kept constantly removed from

Qe

96 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

its surface. The more completely these impurities are removed, the
greater will be the brightness and value of the finished product. In
the new process the juice passes through a wire strainer direct from
the spout of the mill imto the clarifiers, where it is raised to boiling
heat by the application of steam, at which temperature it is kept for
about three minutes, by which time the whole of its albuminous con-
stituents and feculent matters will have been co agulated and chemi-
cally separated, but will, of course, still remain mechanically mixed,
and, in the form of lieht fleck, pervade the entire bulk of the fluid.
These substances are then effectually removed by a process similar to
that employed in the manufacture of paper. A drum of about two
feet in diameter and from four to five feet in length is made to revolve

slowly in a small semi-circular tray or vessel. This drum is covered
with fine wire cloth, through which the water forces its way, leaving a
muddy coating of extraneous matters on the other side, which coming
in contact as it revolves with a fixed scraper, similar in principle to
the “ doctor” employed in calico printing, is made to fall off in a state
something like dry mud into a receptacle prepared for it. The pro-
cess is self-acting. It takes in its own supply of foul liquor from an
elevated cistern, delivers the clear juice into the evaporating pan, and
discharges the refuse as we have already stated.

Up to this stage the advantages obtained must be evident to all who
are acquainted “with this interesting branch of manufacture. The
liquor being received direct from the press, avoids the necessity of the
use of liquor pumps; the clarifiers, not being used as subsiding vessels,
are not required to be so large; the loss of juice in the removal of
the scum and in the sediment is prevented; the use of the “ mont-
jus” is rendered unnecessary; the coagulation of the albuminous
matter is more rapidly obtained ; the evaporating process may follow
immediately after the pressing of the canes; and finally, the self
cleansing filter performs its work much better than any continuous
process of skimming, and renders unnecessary that watchful attend-
ance which is now so imperatively necessary in order to obtain the
required brightness and color of the sugar. The sav ing of manual
labor by these improvements is self-ev ident.

On the various modes of boiling and concentrating the juice at
present in use, whether by a series of semi-globular pans, the vacuum
pan, Gadsden’s pan, or the apparatus of Mr. Crossly or Mr. Schroder,
it is not necessary now to speak, the principle involved in one and all
of them being the same — that of evaporating the fluid from the sac-
charine matter. ‘The inventor of the process now under consideration,
contends that, in all the existing arrangements for the separation of
the water from the sugar, boiling under any form, or the use of
surfaces or pipes heated by steam, must be totally excluded, if the
formation of molasses is to be prev ented. It is a well established fact
that a thermometer placed in a solution heated by steam or the direct
action of fire furnishes no indication of the temperature to which the
liquid is exposed, as a vast amount of latent heat is absorbed by fluids
in their formation into steam. To the forgetfulness of this simple fact

7
7
—..
aes
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MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 97

are to be traced many of the fatal mistakes at present confected with
the manufacture of sugar.

Thus, while the temperature of the syrup during ebullition ina
vacuum pan indicates as low perhaps as 180° Fahr., the copper
worm, against which portions of the sugar are constantly brought into
contact, is equal to and often above 220° Fahr.; the consequence
of which is the destruction of the color, and an injury to the erystal-
lizing powers of the sugar. By an arrangement which Mr. Bessemer
terms a hot air evaporator, the concentration of saccharine fluids may
now, however, be effected without the slightest injury to color or
quality, and in an increased quantity.

This apparatus consists of a tank of thin plate iron, of about 10
feet by 8 feet, and 24 feet in depth, which has a false bottom, curved
so as to form two parallel segments of a cylinder. Above these and
coincident with them is a hollow drum of 18 inches in diameter,
mounted on an axis, and upon which is formed a broad spiral blade in
the shape of a screw, or “creeper,” the thread of which is about
fifteen inches in depth, and the convolutions three-quarters of an inch
apart; and between each of the blades or threads of the screw, holes
are formed spirally from one ead of the drum to the other. At one
end of the hollow drum, air, supplied by a blowing fan, and heated to
150° by passing along a flue, is made to enter, which escapes through
the holes in the drum in a radical direction, and sweeps like the hot
breath of the simoon over the wet surfaces of the various revolving
blades, absorbs the moisture thus exposed to its action, and passes off
in an invisible vapor. Upwards of six thousand square feet of evap-
orating surface is thus obtained in the small space of 10 feet by 8 feet.
The screws make about eight revolutions per minute, and as they
revolve, the more concentrated portions of the fluid are washed off
as they descend into the fluid, and fresh portions are being constantly
brought up on the surface of the screw, to be in like manner sub-
jected to the hot-air blast. Finally, after three or four hours, the
whole of the surplus liquor is carried off; the remaining fluid is
sufficiently concentrated, and assumes a thick gelatinous appearance ;
and the screw, made to revolve in the opposite direction, expels the
solution from the tank ready for the process of crystallization. By
this process the sugar is not at any time exposed to a hotter surface
than 140°. No boiling, consequently, takes place, no slea is formed,
and not one grain of crystallizable sugar is converted into molasses.
The entire cost of fuel for evaporation is saved, the waste heat of the
chimney and waste steam of the engine being alone employed, and
the apparatus costs less than the ordinary vapor pans; it can be
worked with a small amount of wind or water power. Three hogs-
heads of sugar, it is stated, can be obtained where two only are now
produced, whilst the quality will be superior in color and taste, and
will be perfectly free from molasses.

The separation of the crystals from the mother liquor in which they
are found is effected in a most ingenious and efficient manner by the
use of the air pump. The transformation from the most repulsive

98 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

and unwholesome-looking black sugar into a fine white sugar is com-
pleted in one-seventh of a second by this process. The principle
adopted is precisely that employ ed in “ gassing” lace —an operation
resorted to for the purpose of removing the minute filaments of cotton
adhering to the surface of the fabric. In the case of the crystals of
sugar, a “thin film of fluid matter is required to be removed from the
surface of the erystal, and this is effected by bringing it in contact
with water—a material which would as quickly dissolve the er ystal
itself, as the flame of the gas would destroy the delicate and fragile
web of the bobbin net. Tow can the water be thus brought into
contact with the sugar for such a short period, and in such a ‘manner
as only to remove the outer coating of molasses, and leave the crystal
uninjured ? The process is a very simple one. A table of nine feet
in circumference is made to revolve eight times per minute, having a
coating of sugar spread over it to the om of half an inch, and
which “consequently moves over a space of 72 feet per minute. At
one part of its revolution the table is made to pass under a pipe of
two inches in diameter, from which a shower of water is falling, and
as the pipe is but one-sixth of a foot in diameter, and the table passes
it at the rate of 72 feet per minute, it follows that each portion which
comes under the falling water will be retained only 1-432 of a minute
in each revolution. ‘This table being covered with thin brass wire

gauze, has placed immediately under ita vacuum chamber, into which
the falling water, carrying w ith it the semi-fluid co oating of molasses,
is drawn as the table rev olves, the crystallized sugar remains on the
surface pure and white, and is delivered by a scraper into the hogs-
head placed for its reception.

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF ROSIN OIL.

By an improved process patented by Mr. Thuck, of England, the
acid, naphtha, and oil, are produced successively from the rosin as
follows : —

A still is filled to about two-thirds its contents with rosin, amongst
which, by means of a pipe fitted with a perforated coil near the bot-
tom of the still, a jet of steam is introduced at or before the time of
lighting the fire. As in the first stage of heating, the rosin is very
apt. to boil over, the still must be disconnected from the condenser to
avoid the injury and explosion that might ensue, were the boiling
rosin to enter the condenser. The heat must be oradually increased
till it reaches 325° Fahr., when acid will be discharged, and the
temperature must not be kept stationary till the acid ceases to flow.
During the whole of the distillation, steam is injected by the pipe
above “mentioned ; it passes through the rosin, and carries off the
naptha with it in the form of vapor. The quantity of naphtha so
produced is about 15 per cent. of the bulk of the rosin under
treatment.

The acid and naphtha being run off, the temperature is raised to
550° Fahr., and oil passes off as vapor, and is condensed, being in

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 99

quantity about 25 per cent. of the rosin. When the oil ceases to
flow, the temperature is raised to 600° Fahr., when more oil will be
produced, to the extent of about 125 per cent. of the rosin; after
this, the fire may be extinguished. The residuum left in the still
resembles pitch, and may be put to similar uses; it is run off by a
duct at the bottom of the still, The oil is partially purified as it
passes off, by the injection of steam by means of a pipe entering the
still near the top, and fitted with a rose.

The patentee next proceeds to describe his processes for purifying
the oil, and qualifying it for lubricating purposes. The oil produced
at a temperature of 550° Fahr. is re-distilled, being mixed with 5 per
cent. of slacked lime. The heat is gradually raised to 550° Fahr. ;
but steam is injected by both of the pipes already mentioned, when
it is at about 300°, and by this means the oil is bleached and purified.
It is, however, again passed through this process, caustic being substi-
tuted for the slacked lime. The oil is then placed in a bleaching
kettle, or pan of any convenient form, and heated to 225° Fahr. by
a steam pipe entering and coiled in the lower part of the kettle.
Steam is also injected through another pipe and rose, till the oil is
fused, when the coloring matter produced in it by the atmosphere
will be expelled, and the oil will be ready for use.

The oil originally produced at a temperature of 600° Fahr., is treated
in the same way as that produced at 550°, except that at 300° steam
is injected only by the lower of the two steam pipes —it being
injected by the other at 600°. ‘The oil produced in this case is
called by the patentee, “ currier’s or tanner’s oil.” A still finer oil
for painters is obtained from oil originally produced at 650° —the
same being treated as in the last process — the steam being injected
by the upper pipe, only when the heat reaches 650°. This oil is
afterwards boiled, and suitably prepared for admixture with pigments.

NEW USE OF THE LEAVES OF THE PINE, (PINUS SYLVESTRIS.)

WE publish the following, as one of the scientific curiosities of the
year, without in any way vouching for its correctness. Our informa-
tion is, however, derived from a usually reliable source, the National
. Intelligencer, of Washington.

Not far from Breslau, in Silesia, in a domain called the Prairie of
Humboldt, there exist two establishments as astonishing for their
produce as for their union. One is a manufacturer which converts
pine leaves into a sort of cotton or wool; the other offers to invalids,
as curative baths, the waters used in the manufacture of that vegetable
wool. Both have been erected by M. De Pannewitz, inventor of a
chemical process by means of which it is possible to extract from the
long and slender leaves of the pine a very fine filaceous substance
which he has named woody wool, because, like the ordinary wool, it
can be curled, felted, and woven. All the aucular leaves of the pine
fir, and of the coniferz in general, are composed of a bundle of fibrillae
extremely fine and tough, surrounded and held together by a resinous

100 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

substance under the form of a thin pellicle. When by decoction and
the use of certain chemical agents the resinous substance is dissolved,

it is easy to separate the fibres, to wash them and free them from all
foreign substances. According to the mode of preparation employed,

the woolly substance acquires a quality more or less fine, or remains
in its coarse state; im the first instance it is used as wadding, m the
second to stuff mattresses. Ifthe pme has been preferred to the other
kinds of pitch trees, it is on account of the length of its needle-shaped
leaves. Itis thought that a similar result might be obtamed from other
trees of the same species. The tree can be stripped of its leaves when
quite young without any injury. The operation takes place when
they are still green. A man can gather two hundred pounds of leaves
aday. It was first advantageously substituted for cotten and wool in
the manufacture of blankets. The hospital of Vienna bought five
hundred, and, after a trial of several years, has adopted them entirely.

It has been remarked, among other advantages, that no kind of insects

would lodge in the beds, and its aromatic odor was found agreeable
and beneficial. These blankets have since been adopted by the
penitentiary of Vienna, the charity hospital of Berlm, the maternity
hospital, and the barracks of Breslau. Its cost is three times less than
that of horsehair, and the most experienced upholsterer, when the
wool is employed in furniture, could not tell the one from the other.
This article can be spun and woven, resembling the thread of hemp
for its strength; it can be made into rugs and horse-blankets.

In the preparation of this wool an ethereal oil of a pleasant odor is
produced. This oil is at first green ; ‘exposed to the rays of the sun,
it assumes an orange yellow tint ; replaced in the shade, it resumes its
former green color: rectified, it becomes colorless. Jt differs from
the essence of turpentine extracted from the same tree. It has been
found efficient in rheumatism and gout; also as an anthelmintic, and
in certain cutaneous diseases. Distilled, it is used in the preparation
of lac of the finest kind. It burns in lamps like olive oil, and dissolves
caoutchouc completely in a short time. Perfumers in Paris use it in
large quantities. It is the liquid left by the decoction of the pine
leaves which has been so beneficial in the form of bath. The bath
establishment is a flourishmg one. The membranous substance, ob- -
tained by filtration at the time of the washing of the fibres, is pressed
in bricks and dried; it is used as a combustible, and produces, from
the rosin it contains, a quantity of gas suflicient for the lighting of the
factory. The production of a thousand quintals ef wool leaves a
quantity of combustible matter equal in value to sixty cubic metres of
pine wood.

Experiments made in the United States since the publication of the
above process, have entirely failed in producing any practical result,
and we have little faith in the value of the scheme.

i

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 101

CURIOUS EXPERIMENT IN WOOL GROWING.

Iva lecture recentlyt delivered by Mr. Owen at the Society of Arts,
the professor detailed he particulars of a highly interesting experi-
ment, which resulted in the establishment of one of the very few
instances in which the origination of a distinct variety of domestic
quadruped could be satisfactorily traced, with all the circumstances
attending its development well authenticated. We must premise it
by stating that amongst the series of wools shown in the French
department of the Great Exhibition, were specimens characterized
by the jury as a wool of singular and peculiar properties; the hair,
glossy and silky, similar to mohair, retaining, at the same time, certain
properties of the merino breed. This wool was exhibited by J. L.
Graux, of the farm of Mauchamp, Commune de Juvincourt, as the
produce of a peculiar variety of the merino breed of sheep, and it
thus arose : —

In the year 1826, one of the ewes of the flock produced a male
lamb, which, as it grew up, became remarkable for the long, smooth,
straight, and silky character of the fibre of the wool, and for the
shortness of its horns. It was of small size, and presented certain
defects in its conformation, which have disappeared in its descend-
ants. In 1829, M. Graux employed this ram with the view to obtain
other rams, having the same quality of wool. The produce of 1830
included one ram and one ewe, having the silky quality of the wool ;
that of 1831 produced four rams and one ewe, with the fleece of that
quality. In 1833, the rams, with the silky variety of wool, were sufli-
ciently numerous to serve the whole flock. In each subsequent year
the lambs have been of two kinds — one preserving the character of
the ancient race, with the curled elastic wool, only a little longer and
finer than in the ordinary merinos; the other resembling the rams
of the new breed, some of which retained the large head, long neck,
narrow chest, and long flanks of the abnormal progenitor, whilst
others combined the ordinary and better formed body, with the fine
silky wool. M. Graux, profiting by the partial resumption of the
normal type of the merino in some of the descendants of the mal-
formed original variety, at length succeeded, by a judicious system of
crossing and interbreeding, in obtaining a flock, combining the long
silky fleece with a smaller head, shorter neck, broader flanks, and
more capacious chest. Of this breed the flocks have become sufli-
ciently numerous to enable the proprietor to sell examples for expor-
tation. The crossing of the Beauchamp variety with the ordinary
merino has also produced a valuable quality of wool, known in France
as the Mauchamp Merino.

The fine silky wool of the pure Mauchamp breed is remarkable for
its qualities, as combining wool, owing to the strength as well as the
length and fineness of the fibres. It is found of great value by the
maufacturers of Cashmere shawls, being second only to the true
Cashmere fleece in the flexible delicacy of the fabric, and of particu-
lar utility when combined with the Cashmere wool, in imparting to

102 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the manufacture qualities of strength and consistence, in which the
pure Cashmere is deficient. Although the quantity of the wool
yielded by the Mauchamp variety is less than in the ordinary merinos,
the higher price which it obtains in the French market— 25 per cent.
above the best merino wools— and the present value of the breed,
have fully compensated M. Graux for the pains and care manifested
by him in the establishment of the variety, and a council medal was
awarded to him.

PROTECTOR GAS METERS.

Ir is well known that the meter in general use is open to man
objections, among which may be enumerated that it is not infallible,
and that it can be tampered with to defeat the purpose for which it is
intended. Mr. J. Laidlaw, of New York, has recently devised a
meter for the purpose of obviating these defects, his object being to
guard the gas companies against fraud on the part of a dishonest
consumer, and also to make the public certain that they receive the
amount of gas for which they pay. The most common manner by
which the gas companies were defrauded was by tilting the meter. to
one side, so that more gas was consumed than was actually reoistered. —
On the part of the consumer it was complained that it was in the power
of the company, by altering the level of the water in the meter to
make him pay for more gas than he had used. These proceedings
are prevented by such an arrangement, chiefly in the disposition of
the pipes, that all unfair attempts are useless or defeat their own
object. The proper quantity of water is maintained by using a pipe,
down which the water flows when too much is poured into the meter ;
this pipe leads the water into a lower chamber, where it is drawn off
by a syphon to the outside of the meter, provision being made that
the gas cannot force the water out. Ifthe meter is tilted to one side
it is still quite efficient, and if tilted forward, the gas is cut off and
cannot act on the drum, consequently the lights are extinguished.
There is also a very handsome apparatus intended to test each meter
before it leaves the hands of the maker or the gas company ; this
apparatus is on the principle of the gasometer, in fact it is a small one.
There is a clock-faced index attached to it, which serves to check the
accuracy of the meter. — Scientific American.

AMERICAN CHRONOMETERS.

UntTiL within a recent period the chronometers of the best character
used in the American marine, were exclusively of English manufac-
ture. Chronometers are now, however, manufactured in this country
equal, if not superior to any produced elsewhere. The Grinnell
Arctic Expedition was supplied with the best English chronometers,
and also with American ones, manufactured by Bliss & Creighton, of
New York. On the return of the expedition it was found ‘that the
error of the English instruments was five times greater than that of

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 103

the American. One of the New York chronometers, in particular,
was subjected to the severest tests to which it is possible to subject
instruments of such delicate construction ; yet so exquisitely was it
provided with adjustments and compensations for the very great
extremes of temperature to which it has been subjected, that, having
suffered all sorts of exposure to which such instruments are liable in a
Polar winter, it was returned with a change in its daily rate, during a
year and a half, of only the eighteen thousandth part of one second in
time. In stating this fact it will be born in mind that the temperature
registered during the winter in Wellington Straits was actually 46°
below zero.

NEW ILLUMINATING APPARATUS FOR LIGHTHOUSES.

A new illuminating apparatus for lighthouses, has been recently
brought out by Mr. Wilson, of Providence, and Dr. Meacham, of
Cincinnati. The improvement consists in a combination of the
dioptic and catoptic methods of illumination, and the arrangement of
the lamp and reflector is thus described in the Providence Journal :—
“The lamp, which is of great illuminating power, has three concen-
tric wicks, the diameter of the larger being 22 inches, with a
separate oil chamber for each, and to which, by a simple arrange-
ment of the conveying tubes, the oil is carried and constantly kept at
its proper level, thereby dispensing with the rack-and-pinion for
raising the wicks, as well as all the clock-work and pumps heretofore
found indispensable in lamps of this kind.

The reflectors, which are arranged both above and below the light,
are constructed upon a die, the form of which is obtained by the
revolution of a parabola around an axis perpendicular to its own, and
passing through its vertex; and the diameter of the lamp and the
focal distance of the reflectors are so graduated to each other, that
the most luminous portion of the light shall always be in this univer-
sal focus.

To prevent the escape of any radiant light, a cylindro-plano-convex
lens, having the same common focus, is placed between the middle
and lower reflectors, which transmits and refracts it in a line parallel
to a horizontal plane passing through the light. By this arrangement
all the light evolved is thrown out in a horizontal belt, and is equally
luminous or brilliant at all points. The cost of this apparatus is
about $300.”

SAFETY FLUID LAMPS.

Two inventions have been brought out during the past year,
designed to obviate and prevent the frequent explosions of lamps
containing and burning the various fluids known as camphene, burn-
ing fluid, &c. These two inventions, by Prof. Horsford, of Harvard
University, and Mr. Newell, of Boston, are founded to a greater or

10

104 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

less extent upon the principles developed by Davy, in the Safety
Mining Lamp.

The lamp constructed by Mr. Newell is made as follows :— In the
center of the lamp, extending to the bottom, is a fixed cylinder of
fine tinned wire gauze, having a mesh of 500 to the inch. A tube
of like gauze screws on to the wick disc, and confines the wick ; this
tube slips down inside of the gauze cylinder spoken of. The can for
containing the camphene, or turpentine and alcoholic mixture, is
made with a disc of this wire gauze in the spout and under the ld.
The wick disc is also perforated with a number of fine holes, which
thus establish a communication with the interior of the lamp and the
external air. Should the contents of the lamp at any time be fired,
as during the filling, the combustion is wholly confined within the
gauze tube running up the centre of the lamp, or rather, to the nar-
row space between the external and internal tubes; and all flame is
prevented from reaching the fluid contained in the body of the lamp.
On the other hand, the small perforations in the wick disc, at once
relieve the interior of the lamp from the pressure of gas, or vapor
generated by overheating, and at the same time prevent the passage
of flame from without.

The arrangement in the lamp devised by Prof. Horsford, is some-
what different from that of Mr. Newell’s, but is intended to accomplish
the same purpose.

DISINFECTING LAMP.

A SIMPLE and economical apparatus for disinfecting apartments,
and purifying the air, has been used for some time by various medical
gentlemen in Boston. It is simply this:— Take one of any of the
various kinds of glass lamps — for burning camphene, for example —
and fill it with chloric ether, and light the wick. In a few minutes,
the object will be accomplished. In dissecting rooms, in the damp,
deep vaults, where vegetables are sometimes stored, or where drains
allow the escape of offensive gases, in outbuildings, and in short, in
any spot where it is desirable to purify the atmosphere, burn one of
these lamps. One tube, charged with a wick, is quite sufficient.
This suggestion is really worth remembering for the comfort of a sick
room, because it is easily accomplished, agreeable, and more econom-
ical for purifying than any process now known.

ON THE LIGHTHOUSE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. -

THE almost universal complaint of the utter inefficiency of our
lighthouses, has at length led Congress to take measures for an exam-
ination into the truth of the reports, and the causes of the defects, if
such existed. In accordance, therefore, with a resolution, a Board
of officers was appointed with instructions to inquire into the condi-
tion of the lighthouse establishment of the United States, and make
a general detailed report and programme to guide legislation in

|

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 105

extending and improving our present system of construction, illumi-
nation, inspection, and superintendence. The Board consisted of
Commodore Shubrick and Commander Du Pont, of the Navy, Gen.
Totten and Col. Kearney, of the Engineers, Prof. A. D. Bache,
Superintendent of the Coast Survey, and Lieut. Jenkins, of the Navy
as Secretary. The results of the investigations of these officers have
been given in a voluminous and valuable report to Congress, which
discloses a state of things in reference to our lighthouses, which is
highly discreditable to the nation, and requires instant change. It
appears that there is no system whatever, no proper mode of deter-
mining the position or character of the lights; that the lights them-
selves are of a kind obsolete in Europe, badly placed, badly con-
structed, badly furnished, and badly tended ; that the towers are not
always well placed, and are very frequently badly built; and that
with a very low useful effect, our lighthouses cost as much as, or more
than, a proper system of first rate hghts. The remedy proposed is a
simple one,—the establishment of a permanent Lighthouse Board,
properly constituted, who shall supermtend the arrangement of all
lights; employ competent persons to select proper sites, and deter-
mine the character ef the lights, which are to be of the most efficient
construction ; competent engineers to design the lighthouses, and super-
intend their construction; proper persons to test the quality of the sup-
plies purchased, and to deliver them in proper quantities to the keepers ;
and, finally, shall draw up a set of proper regulations for light keepers,
and see them attended to.

We also learn from the Report, that there is not in useful effect, a
single first class light on the coast of the United States. That the
lights at Neversink, (two lens,) New York, and the second order lens
light at Sankaty Head, Nantucket, are the best lights on the coast of
the United States. That there are few, if any, reflector lights on the
coasts of the United States, better in useful effect than the third
order lens light, erected by the Topographical Bureau, on Brandy-
wine shoal, while the economy of the lens light is in the ratio of at
least 4 to 1. That the Fresnel lens is greatly superior to any other
mode of lighthouse illumination, and in point of economy is nearly
a times as advantageous as the best system of reflectors and Argand

mps.

The whole subject of lighthouse illuminations and improvements,
although one of occasional discussion in Congress, and in certain cir-
cles, within the last ten years, has not occupied the public mind to
any great extent in this country; while in Europe generally, but
more especially in France, England, Scotland, and Ireland, the ablest
and most distinguished statesmen, philosophers, and philanthropists,
have devoted themselves, for the last twenty-five years, to this subject,
in endeavoring to apply practically the aids which science and the
mechanic arts have developed. Experiments to ascertain the truthful
practical test of the relative useful and economical value of illuminat-
ing apparatus, and their accessories, in the most minute detail, have
been made by Fresnel, Faraday, Stevenson, and other distinguished
individuals ; the results of their investigations have been published

106 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

to the world, and their conclusions have served for the formation of a
system for lighthouse illumination, approximating to perfection. Leg-
islation, too, ‘has taken a prominent part in this “important branch of
the public service in Europe. In 1825, the French government
adopted definitely the French system on ‘the coasts of France, and
took, as the basis of their future lighthouse establishment, the pro-
gramme proposed by the Board organized for that purpose, at the
head of which was Admiral Rossel, of the French navy. About this
time the subject, which Sir David Brewster had foreshadowed in
1811, was revived in England and Scotland, through Col. Colby and
Mr. Beeason, the engineer of the Nor thern lights, (and the distin-
guished architect of the Bell Rock sag however, no important
step was taken on the English side of the Channel, to introduce the
Fresnel apparatus, until after a most careful and rigid examination,
and until after trials of comparative usefulness and economy with that
and the reflector apparatus. Although the Fresnel lens has met with
much favor in England, and has been gradually getting into use, until
nearly one-half of “the sea coast lights have been. changed since 1837,
still Scotland has introduced a larg ger number in pr oportion to extent
of coast, than the ‘Trinity Board. Notwithst tanding these improve-
ments in the lights of Great Britain, the subject was again taken up
by the House of Commons in 1845, and since then a large number of
lens apparatus have been introduced both in Great Britain and in the
colonies, and the rape-seed oil, on account of its superiority and
economy, has been substituted for the best sperm oil, im most of the
lighthouses of the kingdom. While improvements in illuminating
apparatus, and constr uction, ventilation, combustibles, &c., have made
rapid progress in lighthouse engineering in Europe, hardly any
attempt has been made i in this country to impr ove the lights, and no
efficient protection is now afforded to the immense foreign and domes-
tic commerce, which is now daily risked upon our danger ous and ill-
lighted coasts.

TO PREVENT WOOD FROM WARPING.

Francois Tacuer, of Paris, has taken out a patent for the fol-
lowing method of preparing wood, to prevent it from warping or
shrinking. The ordinary method of doing this is to employ two or
more thin pieces, which are united together with the grain er Oss-Wise,
by means of glue or liquid cement, but this only partially answers its
intended purpose, as glue, or cement, applied in a liquid state, is
always liable to be affected by a moist atmosphere, and the expansion
produced thereby, and the subsequent unequal contraction in drying,
causes a certain amount of warping. Now the object of the patentee
is to unite pieces of wood together, so as to render them independent
of atmospheric influences, and this he effects by employing the cement
in a dry and powdered state, and applying heat to the exterior of the
pieces of wood to be united, so as to effect the melting of the cement
by transmission. ‘The cement which the patentee employs i is gum lac,

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 107

alone or in combination with other materials. This he reduces to a
powder, and sprinkles evenly over the surface of one of the pieces of
wood to be united. He then lays the other pieces of wood on the
cement-covered surface, and repeats the process of sprinkling cement
and applying thicknesses of wood, according to the ultimate required
thickness to be produced. He then clamps the pieces of wood
together, and applies sand, heated to about 300° Centigrade, to the
exterior surfaces, and continues this applicaiion of heated sand until
the cement is melted, when the sand is removed, and the air admitted
to cool the wood and set the cement. When quite cold, the prepared
wood is removed from the clamping press, and may then be applied
to any useful purpose. — London Mechanic’s Magazine.

EFFECT OF STEAM ON TIMBER.

Mr. VrouitTeER has lately presented to the Academy of Science
in Paris, a communication on the dessication of different kinds of
wood by steam. He stated that steam raised to 482° Fahr., was
capable of taking up a considerable quantity of water, and acting
upon this knowledge, he submitted different kinds of oak, elm, pine,
and walnut, about 8 inches long, and half an inch square, to a current
of steam at 74 pounds pressure to the square inch, but which was
afterwards raised to 482°. The wood was exposed thus for two hours.
It was weighed before it was exposed to the steam, and afterwards put
into close stopped bottles until cool, when the samples of wood were
again weighed, and showed a considerable loss of weight, the loss of
which increased with the increase of the temperature of the steam.
For elm and oak, the decrease in weight was one-half, ash and walnut
two-fifths, and pine one-third. The woods underwent a change of
color as the heat was rising from 392° to 482°; the walnut became
very dark, showing a kind of tar, formed in the wood by the process,
which was found to have a preserving effect on the wood.

It was found that wood thus treated became stronger — having an
increase in the power of resisting fracture. The maximum heat for
producing the best resisting fracture power for elm, was between 302°
and 347°, and between 257° and 302° for the oak, walnut and pine.
The oak was increased in strength five-ninths, walnut one-half, two-
fifths for pine, and more than one-fifth for elm. These are but pre-
liminary experiments, which may lead to very important results, and
are therefore interesting to architects especially. By this process, the
fibres of the wood are drawn closer together — and maple and pine
treated in the steam to a temperature of 482°, were rendered far
more valuable for musical instruments, than by any other process
heretofore known.

ENCOURAGEMENT OF THE FINE ARTS.

Tue British Society of Arts, in order to afford the greatest facili-
ties for the study and prosecution of painting and drawing, have
10*

108 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

recently had prepared under their direction, boxes of colors, and sets
of mathematical instruments, which are sold at the following prices.
The box of colors retails for one shilling, and contains the following
colors — gamboge, lake, light red, ultramarine, vermillion, mdigo,
yellow ochre, Vandyke brown, sepia, burnt sienna, —and three hair
pencils. The cases of instruments are of two kinds:—1. Those
necessary for learning the elements of geometric construction ; viz., a
graduated boxwood ruler and set-square, a pair of six inch compasses,
with moveable pen and pencil legs in a slide box; these are sold to
the public for half a crown. 2. Those necessary for affording artisans
and others who have some knowledge of drawing, the means of
putting their drawing into practice in their various trades, viz., a
pair of six inch compasses, with pen and pencil legs, a drawing pen,
a bow pencil, a bow pen, and a boxwood protractor: these are sold
for six shillings.

INSTRUMENT FOR OBTAINING CORRECT REPRESENTATIONS
FROM NATURE.

At the Belfast meeting of the British Association, Mr. H Twining
presented an ingenious instrument, designed to aid in obtaining cor-
rect representations of objects from nature. This little instrument
was on the principle of a theodolite; by which the angular positions
of the several objects in a scene in nature, which the artist had
resolved to transfer to his canvas, could be accurately recorded in his
note-book, and afterwards, at leisure, by the aid of a square frame of
crossing threads, accurately placed in a picture of any determined
size, according to certain simple rules, which the author pointed out.

CULINDRON PIANO.

THE above is the name applied to a new form of the piano, invented
by Messrs. Speer & Marx, of N. J. ‘The novelty of this instrument
consists in the form of the sounding board and the consequent
arrangement of the strings, &c. In order to obtain a larger surface
for sound than would otherwise be possible, the sound board is shaped
cylindrically, forming an upright pillar, with the strings keyed on the
exterior. There is, accordingly, a great difference in the arrange-
ment from that of the ordinary piano, as the strings, &c., are placed
in a vertical instead of a horizontal position. But the chief improve-
ment consists in the sounding board, which from its peculiar shape,
presents many advantages of tone as well as of larger surface. There
is a pedal attachment for piano and forte in the usual manner, which
is connected with the top of the cylinder.

ON THE PRESERVATION OF FRUIT.

AT a late meeting of the Farmers’ Club of New York, Mr. W. R.
Smith, of Wayne County, Pa., gave an explanation of a new method

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 109

which he had adopted for preserving fruit. He introduced no foreign
substance, but preserved the fruit entirely in its own juice, extracted
by a chemical process, without sugar or alcohol. He had a few thou-
sand bottles, all produced from his own farm. About three years ago
he commenced experiments to attain a superior method of preserving.
At first they failed, and hundreds of bottles spoiled in color or taste ;
but now they had, though not brought to perfection, attained a very
superior degree of preservation. It was a principle that two fluids,
with a porous substance between them, would unite. So, in preserv-
ing fruits in alcohol, the weightier fluid, or juice contained in the fruit,
was replaced by the lighter fluid, alcohol; and we eat alcohol instead
of fruit; while in preserving them in Sacharine juice the flavor went
entirely into the syrup, leaving the fruit comparatively tasteless.
The plan pursued of preserving the fruit in its own juice, obviated
these difficulties, by making the syrup of equal density with the juice
within the fruit, thereby preserving both aroma and flavor. Success,
Mr. Smith said, depended not so much on skill, as on close attention
to every manifestation, and choosing the fruits and vegetables at the
moment they were fit for the dessert. The cherry, as generally
brought to market, was not wholesome, but when ripe and fresh it
was very healthy. From the various specimens produced, tomato,
raspberry, quince and peach were remarked as most perfectly pre-
served, containing the natural aroma and taste of the fruit.

PRESERVATION OF EGGS.

M. Cuamportp im the Belgique Industrielle gives the following
receipt for the preservation of eggs : —

“ By submitting a thin stratum of the white and yolk of eggs about
1-12 inch thick upon glass or porcelain plates, to the heat of an oven,
a mass will be obtained after 24 hours drying, readily pulverized, and
which is not altered by the action of the air after drying again a day.
Each pound of powdered eggs thus prepared, when desired for use
requires two pounds of cold water, with which it is to be beaten up,
and is equivalent to fifty eggs, and may be used for omeletts, pastries,
or other culinary purposes.”

A MUSEUM OF DOLLS.

M. Jutes LecomrTe, in the Courier des Etats Unis, gives the
following account of a collection of dolls which is soon to be exhibited
in Paris. He says, “ At first there seems only a fanciful and useless
idea in such a collection. But reflection and examination soon
demonstrate how curious, instructive, philosophical, geographical, and
historical is this collection which at first seems so puerile. The
attempt has been to bring together an incredible variety of types of
races, of dresses and customs, which comprehends all countries and
several centuries. There are, for example, five dolls of the fifteenth
century, which give an exact representation of the fashions of that

110 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

time, and a carefully prepared picture of the kind of beauty then
admired, and tell more about that epoch than many great books,
which it would take a great while to read, could do. Here is the doll
with which a noble young lady under Charles VI. amused herself
at the time the council of Constance was burning John Huss. Here
is the model of Yseult with the white hands, giving the prize of the
tournament to the valiant Chevalier Jean de Bethencourt, who was
not long after to discover the Canary Islands; here is the model of
the proposed costume of the soldiers of Lancaster, the defenders of the
red rose at the battle of Wakefield. Here is, on the hurdle, the
figure in miniature of a sufferer of the first inquisition of Spain
in 1478. Here is the exact costume worn by the Princess Mary,
daughter of Charles the Bold, on the day of her marriage with
Maximilian, of Austria. I remarked that the hair of the Princess is
red, and. I imagine this is the local color. You can thus see the
interest of this odd museum. Spain has furnished for it almost all her
religious orders, and under the hair-shirt or the robe, the type of the
monk, his head covering, his complexion, his air. There is a puppet
which enabled the nobles to judge how Montesquieu killed the Prince
of Conde at the battle of Jarnac, a dancing figure of that time, making
undoubtedly a part of some popular spectacle, which represents
Charles IX. armed with the contested arquebus which Catherine de
Medicis put into his hand on the day of Coligny’s death. The image
of the dead Marguerite de Valois, the first wife of Henry IV., on her
bed of state. Models of the native inhabitants which were found by
the Dutch in the Indies, when they founded Batavia. Puppets, with
which noble misses under Casimir V., King of Poland, amused them-
selves. The model presented to the king for the grand uniform of
the order of St. Michel, founded in 1665. The costume of the Doge
Francesco Erizzo in 1631. A figure dressed as did the widow of
James HI., of England, who died at St. Germain. The state-dress of
the Doge’s wife, Gremani, or her way to throw the ducal ring into the
waves of the Lido. Here are four dolls found at Ecouen in the cells
of the pupils there: one represents a young musqueteer. And,
finally, the puppet arranged by David, by which he submitted to the
Emperor Napoleon the model of the coronation dress. These indica-
tions may give some idea of the extreme curiosity of this singular
collection. It furnishes a type of almost every part of the world.
Savages are represented by figures of great simplicity of execution.
There are religious images and pagan idols, Egypt and Hindostan,
the Bosphorus and the Mississippi, Canada and China, all are repre-
sented. Wood, paste-board, paste, earth, skin, porcelain, wax, are
materials of which all these bodies are made; the remains of all epochs
of all countries. The ingenious collector purchased costumes at the
Crystal Palace Exhibition, at great expense, of Swiss, Italians, Indians,
Laplanders, and even the exact costume of rose-colored satin in which
Queen Victoria was crowned. He has spent more than 100,000
crowns in forming this museum of the human race, and human
coquetry. ‘The latest individuals placed in his glass cases, are beauti-

os

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 11

ful dolls, half a metre in height, showing models of the various fashions
of the last winter.

NEW METHOD FOR TAKING IMPRESSIONS OF STAMPS, SEALS, &eé.

To TAKE exact impressions of stamps, or in fact of any device,
raised or imprinted, that is sunk upon paper, cut a piece of card-board,
say to the breadth of half an inch, with which form a ring just the
dimensions of the impression to be taken ; then pour within the said
ring, which surrounds the spot, melted fusible metal; the carding will
prevent the metal from running away, and in a few minutes it
will cool and take the impression, without the slightest injury to the
paper from which it was taken. It need not be said that the impres-
sion, &c., taken, must be the same as the original. Fusible metal is a
compound of eight parts of bismuth, five of leadfand three of tin,
which liquifies at 212°, and below that if one part of quicksilver be
added. — London Chemist.

IMMENSE MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENT IN ENGLAND.

Tue London Times gives the following account of a new and
immense establishment now ‘erecting at Bradford, England, for the
manufacture of alpacas. The magnitude of this concern, says
the Times, may be inferred from the fact that it is calculated to cover
six statute acres of ground. The principal building will be a massive
stone edifice, with considerable architectural pretensions, having a
single room in it of 540 feet long, and the machinery will include the
latest inventions of acknowledged merit. The engines to move the
immense mass of machinery required are calculated at 1,200 horse
power. The gas works alone will be equal to those of a small town,
and will be erected upon White’s hydro-carbon system, at a cost
of £4,000; it is estimated that 5,000 lights will be required, and the
gas works are constructed for a supply of 100,000 cubic feet of gas
per diem. In addition to this extensive factory, Mr. Salt is building
seven hundred cottages for the workpeople in the immediate neigh-
borhood. The site is at a place which has been named Salt-Aire,
being on one of the banks of the river Aire, and will be approached
by a tubular bridge over the river, which is also to be of elegant
construction. The estimated cost of the whole is not known, but has
been spoken of as upwards of half-a-million sterling. Unrivalled for
extent as these works are at present, perhaps, in the world, and with
masonry also of the most substantial character, and machinery the
most perfect, it is said that a cotton mill is in contemplation at Bolton,
of nearly, if not quite equal magnitude.

REDUCTION OF PRICES BETWEEN 1810 AND 1851.

Amip the busy innovations of this active time, it is very difficult to
appreciate as it deserves the great social progress which has been

112 = ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

made in defiance of all obstacles within the last forty years. The
immense fall, for example, which lias taken place in the cost of all
articles of food and clothing that enter into the consumption of the
working and middle, as also of the higher classes, is in its effect
equivalent to a social change of the most important kind. The London
Athenzum furnishes the following differences in the cost of commodi-
ties in England in the year 1810, and in the year 1851. The price of
a hat in 1810 was 20 shillings, and in 1851, it had fallen to 7 shillings
—or if a laborer’s weekly wages had been paid for in hats, he would
have had three times as ereat a supply in the present year as he had
forty years ago. A gown cost 21 shillings in 1810—and only 6
shillings in 1851. Calico was 2 shillings and 9 pence a yard against
6 pence at present. Tea was 8 shillings per pound against 4 shillings
now. Brown sugar was 10 pence—now 4 pence. Salt was 18
shillmgs per bushel, and has now fallen to 1 shilling. A bushel of
flour was 20 shillings i in 1810, — and 5 shillings in 1851. In reply to
these facts it may be said that ‘this rate of money wages has fallen with
money prices. ‘This assertion is difficult of proof. “In some few cases
money wages has declined, but as a general result, they have not
declined in the same ratio as money prices. Therefore the condition
of the people is materially improved, inasmuch as the real or commodity
price of the labor of the English working classes is probably as much
as one-half, or three-fourths better than it was in 1810.

MISCELLANEOUS NOVELTIES.

Dipthera Bonnets. — 'This name has been applied to a new style of
bonnets, brought out during th@ past year in Paris, which are manu-
factured from the well known polished or “ patent leather.”

Improved Slates. — A manufacturer in Wurtemburgh has invented
a mode of applying a surface coating to sheet-iron, which enables it to
take freely the mark of a slate pencil. It is said to be much lighter,
and much less lable to injury, than a common slate.

New Enamel for Cards.— Zinc white, instead of the lead salt, is
now used with great success for the enameling of cards.

Improvement in Purifying Gas. — Peat charcoal has been substituted
with economy and success in some of the English gas works instead of
the lime ordinarily used.

The London Atheneum states, that an architect of that city, has
found that the ordinary window-sashes may be made of glass, instead
of wood or iron as at present ;— and from the greater beauty of the
material, it is obvious that sashes of red, blue or green glass — accord-
ing to the taste of the glaizer or according to the other decorations of
the window — would add considerably to ‘the brilliant effects of a fine
shop front.

———— bs

Root BAG... 1 LOSOPR TY.

NEW ARRANGEMENT OF THE VOLTAIC PILE.

M. La GRANGE in the Comptes Rendus of April 5th, states that
he has found a means of rendering the current of the voltaic pile per-
fectly constant and invariable, even for weeks or months, of whatever
metals the electrodes may be formed, and whether they be set in
action by two liquids as in the combination of Bunsen, or by one, as
in that of Volta. This continuity of electric action is obtained in the
same way that we obtain the continuity of the calorific action of a
stove, which is furnished below with a grating to let the ashes fall,
whilst we continually add fuel at the top. The method which he
employs is simple and fulfils all the conditions which can render it
practicable in an industrial point of view — instead of increasing the
expense it diminishes it.

Let us first see the disposition of a single pair with one liquid.
Take a vessel with a hole in the centre of the bottom, such as a flower
pot, and round the hole let one end of a cylindrical diaphragm of
cloth be attached by cement to the bottom of the pot. ‘The axis of
the hollow cloth cylinder when erect, will coincide with the axis of
the vessel, and its height is somewhat less than the walls of the latter.
Within the diaphragm is placed a stick of very hard coke, such as is
found in the gas-retorts, surrounded by small grains of the same coke,
and round the diaphragm a cylinder of amalgamated zinc, and some
acidulated water, furnished drop by drop from a reservoir above.
Let us now unite the two poles by a conducting wire, and see what
takes place in the interior of the apparatus. The acidulated water,
which continues to drop into the vessel, will pass in part over the
margin of the cloth diaphragm on to the grains of coke, which will
thus be continually bathed by the movement of the liquid, without
being inundated, so that the polarization will be suspended, and the
bubbles of hydrogen will be freely disengaged through the interstices
between the particles; besides which, the lower strata of the acidu-
lated water, in consequence of the pressure which they have to sup-
port, will filter slowly through the cloth, which will not be the case
to any extent with the upper and middle strata. Now these lower

114 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

strata are precisely those which contain the sulphate of zinc, which it
is necessary to eliminate. The result is an electric current, which is
perfectly constant until the entire disappearance of the zinc, and
which is obtained with no more care than that of keeping the reser-
voir filled.

His method of uniting a number of pairs is as follows: The stone
ware pots in which they are contained, which are three or four diam-
eters in length, and consequently have the appearance of tubes, are
united and cemented into a bundle or block, which is readily trans-
ported from place to place. The upper surface being horizontal,
small gutters are employed to convey the acidulated water to each
pot. With this arrangement by placing a second reservoir above the
pile and altering the nature and elevation of the diaphragm, it is easy
to employ a second liquid, which may be made to fall directly drop
by drop on the grains of coke, such as nitric acid;—it may be used
with advantage when very weak, and when it will no longer serve for
the battery of Bunsen, from its ceasing to absorb hy drogen. The
liquids on leaving the pots are collected, vand may continue ‘to be used
until saturation.

IMPROVED TELEGRAPHIC BATTERIES.

A sERIES of experiments was recently made on the sub-marine
telegraph between England and France, by Mr. Reid, of London, for
the purpose of testing a pair of double needle instruments and two
new batteries which he had constructed. One of these instruments
was placed in the company’s office at Dover, and the other in the
French office at Calais, with a battery to each. Two of the sub-
marine wires were then connected with the instruments, and put in
circuit with the batteries. The length of the sub-marine cable in the
channel is about 24 miles, and about five miles of land telegraph on
each side, making in round numbers a circuit of 68 miles. The bat-
tery that was to work this distance tormed a strong contrast to the
present battery now in use, the length being only 4 inches by 13 deep,
and the weight 1 lb. 5 oz., while the old common battery used on the
lines is 36 inches long, 74 Fei ee wide, 84 inches deep, and weighs 64
Ibs. Some of the aN clerks in the office smiled iner edulously
when Mr. Reid connected the miniature battery with the instrument,
but were surprised to find the signals to and from Dover and Calais
quite equal to the signals they were receiving from their former batte-
ries. The next experiment was for the purpose of testing an improve-
ment in the double needle instrument, and will require the utmost
stretch of faith on the part of our readers to believe. It was as
follows :— The miniature batteries were removed from the instruments
on each side of the channel, and a piece of zinc, three-fourths of an
inch square, and a piece of silver to correspond, were then introduced
into the mouth of the operator at the office in Dover, and instructions
sent to do the same at Calais. The wires, attached to these pieces of
metal were then connected with the instruments, and by this simple

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 115

means, and by the simplest of all batteries, the telegraph clerks sent
several messages to and fro from England to France. The next
experiment was similar to this, only a larger piece of zinc and a
larger piece of silver were introduced into the mouth of the operator.
The result was an improvement of the signals. Ona subsequent
occasion, in the presence of a large number of scientific gentlemen,
the instruments with the miniature batteries transmitted all the com-
mercial messages, prices of stocks, funds, &c. It was thought that
during these operations the miniature battery would become exhausted ;
on the reverse, it improved, and seemed perfectly to maintain its
character.

An improvement of the well-known Grove’s batteries has been
recently introduced on one of the telegraphic lines between Boston
and New York. It has been found that in the battery, if stead of
immersing platinum strips of one or two square inches in the exciting
fluid, platinum wire be used, an equally powerful effect is produced.
If the zinc element be as small, it will, so long as it lasts, be of equal
avail. But since the zine is constantly and necessarily decomposed
by the action of the acid, so great a reduction in size is not advisable.
But the platinum never wastes. In the prime cost of a battery, the
platinum is by far the largest item, and by its reduction, the expense
of a battery is diminished about one-half. In order to retain the pla-
tinum in its place, the end of the wire that is immersed in the fluid,
may terminate in a bead, either of platinum or of glass. The weight
of this bead will counteract all tendency of the wire to bend or curl,
and will keep it constantly immersed in the fluid. The reduction in
the size of the plates, does not modify, in the least, the nature of the
working current.

The London Athenzeum gives the following account of a new gal-
vanic battery recently exhibited in that city by Mr. Martyn Roberts.
The battery consisted of fifty plates of tin about six inches by four,
—each plate being adjusted between two plates of platinum of the
same size. These were placed in stone-ware cells about two feet
deep, which were filled with diluted nitric acid. The object of these
deep cells was, to obtain a marketable product which should be suffi-
ciently valuable to cover the cost of the agents employed to effect the
development of electricity. The upper stratum of nitric acid acts on
the tin, and forms with that metal an oxide, which falls off from the
plate the moment it is formed, and is precipitated as a hydrated oxide
of tin to the bottom of the cell. This oxide is combined with soda;
and as stannate of soda is extensively employed in dyeing and calico
printing; it is stated that this product will yield a profit of 20 per
cent. on the cost of the battery but this is a point which we are not
at present in a position to determine. The electrical action of the
fifty pairs of plates was considerable. The current was employed to
exhibit the electrical light, and the effects produced were certainly
very brilliant. It was not possible to compare it with the result
obtained froma Grove’s battery, but we judge their powers to be
nearly equal. An experiment made on the decomposition of water

116 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

gave about 27 cubic inches of the mixed gases, oxygen and hydrogen,
per minute. We cannot but regard this very ingenious arrangement
as an improvement on the ordinary batteries, as far as economy is
concerned, where an electric current is required, since the stannate
formed must always be of considerable commercial value. It is curi-
ous, too, that the stratum of fluid in the immediate neighborhood of
the voltaic plates is kept uniformly of the same specific gravity, not-
withstanding that the acid is rapidly removed. The oxide of tin
formed takes down water with it, and at the same time establishes a
current by which fresh acid is applied to the plates. We were
informed that the battery continued in most uniform action for sixteen
hours.

KILLING WHALES BY ELECTRICITY.

Tue New Bedford Mercury describes a process invented at Bre-
men, and brought forward at New Bedford, for killing whales at the
moment of striking them with the harpoon, by means of electricity.
The object of the expedient is to produce an immediate paralysis of
the vital powers of the whale at the moment at which he is struck, so
as to obviate the danger, the labor, and the hazard of loss, from the
struggles of the whale after he isstruck. The process is thus described
by the Mercury.

“The electricity is conveyed to the body of the whale from an electro-
galvanic battery contained in the harpoon, and so arranged as to re-con-
duct the electric current from the whale through the sea to the machine.
The machine itself is simple and compact in construction, enclosed in
a strong chest weighing about 350 pounds, and occupying a space in
the boat of about three and a half feet long by two feet in width, and
the same in height. It is capable of throwing into the body of the
whale, eight tremendous strokes of electricity in a second, or 950
strokes in a minute, paralyzing in an instant the muscles of the whale,
and depriving it of all power of motion, if not actual life.”

This invention has been partially tried by the Captain of a Dutch
whale ship, which left for the Pacific in July, 1851. This vessel was
provided with three rotation machines of various sizes, in order to
ascertain the degree of power necessary to secure sperm, or right
whales ; one machine containing one magnet, another four, and another
fourteen.

The Captain, in a letter dated New Zealand, Dec., 1851, writes as
follows : —

“The first experiment we made with the new invention was upon a
shark, applying the electricity from the machine with one magnet.
The fish after being struck, instantly turned over on its side, and after
we had poured in upon him a stream of electricity for a few moments
by turning the handle of the machine, the shark became stiff as a
piece of wood. We next fell in with a black fish. As soon as the
whale iron was thrown into him, and the machine handle turned, the
fish began to sink. The operator then ceased turning the machine,

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 117

and the fish immediately rose, when the machine was again set in
motion, upon which the fish lay stiff on the surface of the water, and
was taken alongside of the ship. At this time we made use of the
four magnet machine.

“We saw sperm, and other whales, and lowered our boats, but were
unsuccessful in getting fast to them,as they disappeared on our
approaching them ; while at all other times the weather was too bois-
terous to permit us to lower our boats. ‘Thus we had but one chance
to try the experiment upon a whale, which was made with the four
magnet machine. The whale upon being struck made one dash onward,
then turned on his side and was rendered perfectly powerless.
Although I have as yet not been fortunate enough to test the invention
in more instances, I have the fullest confidence in the same, and doubt
not to be able to report the most astonishing results on my return from
the Arctic Seas, where I am now bound.

THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF FLAME.

Pror. Burr, of the University of Giessen, has recently published
an interesting paper on the electrical properties of flame. He has
come to the conclusion that gaseous bodies, which have been rendered
conductable by strong heating, are capable of exciting other conduc-
tors, solid as well as gaseous, electrically.

Two small strips of platinum were introduced into a glass tube
closed at one end; they were separated by an interval of a thin line
of air. The air within the tube could not be heated to a degree suffi-
cient to permit the electricity of two of Daniell’s cells to pass through
it. When the glass became soft by heating, and both pieces of plati-
num were permitted to touch it, a strong deflection of the needle of
the galvanometer was the consequence.

When the strips of platinum were exposed to the direct action of
the flame of a spirit lamp, the first notice of the passage of the elec-
tricity was obtaimed, when they were placed at about three inches
above its extreme point, and began to show signs of redness. The
deflection increased as the strips were lowered in the flame. When
the flame was strongest there was a permanent deflection of 70°. The
flame current passed always from the hottest platinum strip through
the separating interval of gas to the other strip. When the metallic
wires or other conductors, connected at one end, are brought into con-
tact with highly heated gas, it formed an electric circuit. One
platinum wire was introduced into the obscure centre of the flame of
a lamp, and the other wire was brought near the outer surface of the
flame, a current of electricity immediately exhibited itself, which
passed through the flame from the inner to the exterior wire. By
properly connecting a platinum wire, which was dipped into the cen-
tre of the flame, with a condensing plate, the latter became charged
with negative electricity, and hence Prof. Buff concluded that positive
electricity is given off by the outer surface of the flame.

118 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ANIMAL ELECTRICITY.

Pror. BECKEINSTEINER, of Lyons, in investigating the origin of
the electrical power exhibited by the Torpedo, Gymnotus, &c., was
struck by the analogy of the cells of electric fishes with certain minute
vessels, united by nerves and moistened by mucus, which exist in
nearly all kinds of animals, and are found most developed in man at
the period of the greatest strensth, but collapsed and dried up in old
age. He began a series of experiments, and after three years’ inves-
tigation has lately published the following results: When the temper-
ature is below 32°, the wind north and the sky clear, expose a cat to
the cold until his fur lies close to the skin and appears greasy ; expose
your hands to make them equally cold; then take the anal on your
knees, apply the fingers of your left hand on its breast, and pass your
right hand down its back, pressing moderately ; at the fifth or sixth
pass you will receive a slight electric shock. “At first the cat appears
pleased, but as soon as it ‘feels the shock it jumps away, and will not
stand a repetition of the experiment during the same day. After the
experiment the animal looks tired; some days after it loses its appe-
tite, seeks solitude, drinks water at rare intervals and dies in a fort-
night. The same experiment has succeeded with rabbits; they die
the same day. It is unsuccessful with dogs. Once only it has been

made on a cow; she was tied to an iron ring; the ground was frozen ;
one hand was placed on the breast, and the other passed down the
back, when such an electric shock occurred that Mr. B. was thrown
to the ground. The cow appeared very much irritated, but it was
impossible to know if she suffered from it, since she was killed by a
butcher three days afterwards.

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MOTIVE POWER.

A PATENT has been taken out in England, by Dr. Kemp, for an
arrangement of machinery for the obtaining of a maximum power
from numerous short strokes of electro-magnetic power, acting on one
long piston-rod in the cylinder of a hydraulic press, thus neutralizing
the difficulty which is presented of the rapid decrease of force with
the increase of the magnetic distance. This result is obtained by an
arrangement of cylinders and pistons, in pairs, connected by levers,
in such manner, that as one ascends, the other descends, and forces
water, in acontinuous circle, through valves into a chamber in connex-
ion with a long cylinder and piston, or hydraulic press, in connexion
with the prime moving crank of the engine. — London Builder.

ON THE HEATING EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Tue following is an abstract of a lecture delivered before the Royal
Institution, England, by Mr. Grove, the eminent writer and experi-
menter on electri icity and magnetism.

After remarking on the predisposition, during the early periods of

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 119

philosophy, to refer all unusual phenomena to preternatural causes,
and on the like disposition in later times to introduce, or at all events
to develope, the notion of fluids as agents which effected the more
mysterious phenomena of nature, such as light, heat, electricity and
magnetism, Mr. Grove, continues: — Air being proved analogous in
many of its characters to fluids as previously known, the idea of fluids,
or an ether was carried on to other unknown agencies appearing to
present effects remotely analogous to air or gases. Sound was included
by, some in the same category with the other affections of matter, and
as late as the close of the last century, a paper was written by
Lamarck to prove that sound was propagated by the undulations of
an ether. Heat was at an early period so viewed. Mr. Grove, how-
ever, in a communication published in 1847, shewed that what had
hitherto been stumbling blocks in this theory of heat, viz., the phenom-
ena presented by what have been called latent and specific heat,
might be more simply explained by the dynamic theory. His object
at present was to extend this view to electricity and magnetism, which
extension was, in his opinion, supported by many analogies. The
ordinary attractions and repulsions of electrified bodies present no
more difficulties when regarded as being produced by a change in the
state or relations of the matter affected, than did ‘the attraction of
the earth by the sun, or of a leaden ball by the earth; the hypothesis
of a fluid is not considered necessary for the latter, and need not be
so for the former class of phenomena.

In the cases of heating, or ignition of a conjunctive wire, or con-
ducting body, through which what is called electricity is transmitted,
we have many ev idences that the matter itself is affected, in some
eases temporarily, in others, permanently changed; thus if a wire of
lead is ignited to fusion by a voltaic battery, the fused lead being kept
in a channel to prevent its dispersion, it gradually shortens, and the
molecules seem impressed with a force, acting transversely to a line of
directions, of the electricity ; at length the lead gathers up in nodules
which press on each other, to use a familiar illustration, as do a string
of figs. With magnetism we have many instances of the molecular
change which a ferreous or magnetic substance undergoes when mag-
netised. If the particles are free to move as for instance iron filines,
they arrange themselves symmetrically. An objection may be made
arising from the peculiar form of the iron filings, but Mr. Grove has
shown, that the supernatant liquid in which magnetic oxide had been
formed, and which contains magnetic particles, ‘hot mechanically, but
chemically divided, exhibits when magnetised a change in the arrange-
ment of the molecules, as may be seen by its effect on transmitted
light ; a molecular change is also evidenced by the note or sound pro-
duced by magnetism, and by other effects.

Assuming that the molecules of iron change their position inter se,
upon magnetisation, then by repeated magnetisation in opposite direc-
tions, something analogous to friction might be produced ; — and just
as a piece of caoutchoue when elongated _produces heat, so a bar of
soft iron when subjected to rapid changes in its magnetic state, might

11* .

120 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

be expected to exhibit thermic effects. (This Mr. Grove has been
enabled to effect in a sensible degree.)

_ The effect of electricity im the ‘disr uptive discharge, as in the voltaic
are and the electric spark, would seem at first sight to offer greater
difficulties of explanation on the dynamic theory. The brillant phe-
nomenal effects of the electric discharge, and the apparent absence of
change in the matter affected by it, would at first lead the observer to
believe that electricity was a specific entity. With ordinary flame, or
the apparent effects of combustion, however, the idea has to a great
extent been abandoned that such visual effects are due to specific 1 mat-
ter, and it is regarded by many as an intense motion of the particles
of the burning ‘body. So with electricity. If in regard to the disrup-
tive discharge it can be shown that the matter of the ter minals, or of
the intervening medium is changed, the necessity for the assumption
of a fluid or ether ceases, and to say the least, a possibility of viewing
electricity as a motion or affection of or dinary matter is opened. To
make evident the relation of the electrical discharge to combustion,
and the fact that the terminals were themselves affected, the voltaic
are was taken first between silver, and then between iron terminals ;
in the first case a brilliant green-colored flame was produced, and in
the second a redish scintillation, as in the ordinary combustion of the
metals. The known transport of particles of the terminals from one
pole to the other, and the different effects of different intervening
media on induction, are instances of the train of molecular changes
consequent upon electrical action.

Hitherto the polarity of the gaseous medium existing between the
metallic or conducting terminals of the electrical circuit was only
known asa _ physical ‘polarity and not shown to have an analogous
chemical character with that existing in electrolytes anterior to elec-
trolysis ;— but Mr. Grove stated, that he had recently shown, that
mixture of gases having opposite electrical, or chemical relations, such
as oxygen and hydrogen, or compound gases such as carbonic oxide,
were electro-chemically polarized, or had their electro-negative, or
electro-positive elements thrown in opposite directions; thus, if a
silvered plate be made positive in such gases it is oxidized ; if negative,
the dark spot of oxide is reduced. Here, as in other experiments, was
an effect on the terminals, and an effect of polarization of the inter-
medium. In the experiments hitherto referred to, solid terminals had
been used ; it became important to examine what would be the effect
of liquid terminals, for instance, water: the spark, or disruptive dis-
charge of electricity was readily obtained fr om its surface, but hitherto
no voltaic batter y had been found to show a discharge at any sensible
distance from the surface of water. <A nitric acid ‘battery consisting
of 500 cells had been constructed by Mr. Gassiot, which as regards
intensity of action was probably the most powerful ever constructed.
With this Mr. Grove was able to shew an experiment which he had
first made when experimenting with Mr. Gassiot some time ago, and
which produced the effect he had long sought for, viz., a quantitative
or voltaic discharge at a sensible distance from the surface of water.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 121

The experiment was made as follows : —a platinum plate forming the
anode of the battery was immersed in a capsule of distilled water, the
temperature of which was raised. A cathode, or negative terminal of
platinum wire, was now made to touch for an instant the surface of the
water, and immediately withdrawn to a distance of about a quarter of
an inch; the discharge took place, the extremity of the wire was fused,
and the molten platinum attached to the wire, but kept up by the
peculiar repulsive effect of the discharge, was exhibited as it were sus-
pended in mid-air, giving an intense light, throwing off scintillations
in directions away from the water, and only detaching itself from the
wire when agitated. Here water in the vaporous state must be trans-
ferred, for the immersed electrode gave off gas, without doubt oxygen,
and the molecular action on the negative fused platinum resembled, if
it were not identical in character with, the currents observed on the
surface of mercury when made negative in an electrolyte. It may be
objected to the theory proposed, that electrical effects are obtained in
what is called a vacuum, where there is no intermedium to be polar-
ized ; but this objection though not applicable to the projection of the
terminals, could hardly be discussed until experimenters had gone
much farther than at present in the production of a vacuum. The
experiments of Davy and others had shown that we are far from
obtaining any thing like a vacuum where delicate investigations are
concerned. ‘The view of ancient philosophers, that nature abhors a
vacuum, which had been much cavilled at, and was supposed to be
exploded by the discovery of Torricelli, Mr. Grove thought had been
unjustly censured ; giving the expression some degree of metaphori-
cal license, it afforded a fine evidence of the extent and accuracy of
observation of those who were unacquainted with inductive philosophy
as a system, but who necessarily pursued it in practice. Whether a
vacuum was possible might be an open question; experimentally it
was unknown.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

Cor. SABINEe, in his address before the British Association at their
last meeting, gives the following summary of the recent progress of the
study of terrestrial magnetism.

The magnetic phenomena, or as it is now customary to call them,
the three magnetic elements, declination, inclination and magnetic
force, appear to be everywhere and in both hemispheres the resultants
of a duplicate system of magnetic forces, of which one at least under-
goes a continuous and progressive translation in geographical space,
the motion being from west to east in the northern hemisphere, and
from east to west in the southern. It is to this motion that the secular
change in all localities is chiefly, if not entirely, due; affecting syste-
matically and according to their relative positions on the globe the
configurations and geographical positions of the magnetic lines, and
producing conformable changes in the direction and amount of the
magnetic elements in every part of the globe. The comparison of the

122 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

earlier recorded observations with those of the present epoch gives
reason to believe, that viewed in its generality, the motion of the
system of force which produces the secular change has been uniform,
or nearly so, in the last two or three centuries. Under favorable
conditions the regularity of this movement can be traced down to
comparatively very minute fractions of time. By the results of careful
observations continued for several years at the observatory of St.
Helena, — where, in common with the greater part of the district of
the South Atlantic, the secular change of the declination exceeds
eight minutes in the year, and from its magnitude therefore may be
advantageously studied, — every fortnight of the year is found to have
its precise aliquot portion of the annual amount of the secular change
at the station. This phenomenon of secular change is undoubtedly
one of the most remarkable features of the magnetic system; and
cannot with propriety be overlooked, as it too frequently has been,
by those who would connect the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism
generally, mediately or immediately with climatic circumstances,
relations of land and sea, or other causes to which we are assuredly in
no degree entitled to ascribe secular variation, and who reason there-
fore as if the great magnetic phenomena of the earth were persistent,
instead of being, as they are, subject to a continual and progressive
change. It may confidently be affirmed that the secular magnetic
variation has no analogy with, or resemblance to, any other physical
phenomenon with which we are acquainted. We appear at present
to be without any clue to guide us to its physical causes, but a way is
preparing for a future secure derivation of its laws to be obtained by
a repetition, after a sufficient interval, of the steps which we are
now taking to determine the elements corresponding to a definite epoch.

The periodical variations in the terrestrial magnetic force, are small
in comparison with the force itself; but they are highly deserving of
attention on account of the probability that by suitable methods of
investigation they may be made to reveal the sources to which they
owe their origin and the agency by which they are produced. To
investigate these variations by suitable instruments and methods, to
separate each from the others, and to seek its period, its epochs of
maximum and minimum, the laws of its progression, and its mean
and numerical value or amount, constituted the chief purposes for
which magnetic observatories were established for limited periods at
certain stations in Her Majesty’s dominions, selected in the view that
by a combination of the results obtained at them a general theory of
each at least of the principal periodical variations might be derived,
and tests be thus supplied whereby the truth of physical theories pro-
pounded for their explanation might be examined. We are just
beginning to profit by the collocation and study of the great body of facts
which has been collected. Variations corresponding in period to the
earth’s revolution around the sun, and to its rotation around its own
axis, have been ascertained to exist, and their numerical values approx-
imately determined in each of the three elements, the Declination,
Inclination, aud Magnetic Force. We unhesitatingly refer these

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 123

variations to the sun as their primary source ; since we find in what-
ever part of the globe the phenomena are observed, the solstices and
equinoxes are the critical epochs of the variation whose period is a
year, whilst the diurnal variation follows in all meridians nearly the same
law of local solar hours. To these unquestionable evidences of solar
influence in the magnetic affections of the earth, we have now to add
the recently ascertained fact, that the magnetic storms, or disturbances,
which in the absence of more correct knowledge were supposed to be
wholly irregular in their occurrence, are strictly periodical pheno-
mena, conforming with systematic regularity to laws in which the
influence of local solar hours is distinctly traced.

But whilst we recognise the sun as the primary cause of variations
whose periods attest the source from whence they derive their origin,
the mode or modes in which the effects are produced constitute a
question which has been and may still be open to a variety of
opinions: the direct action of the sun as being itself a magnet, its
calorific agency occasioning thermo-electric and galvanic currents, or
in alternately exalting and depressing the magnetic condition of sub-
stances near the earth, or in one of the constitutents of its atmosphere,
—have been severally adduced as hypothesis affording plausible
explanations. Of each and all such hypothesis the facts are the only
true criterion; but it is right that we should bear in mind that in the
present state of our knowledge, the evidence which may give a
decided countenance to one hypothesis in preference to others does
not preclude their possible co-existence. The analysis of the collected
materials and the disentanglement of the various effects which are
comprehended in them, is far from being yet complete. The corres-
pondence of the critical epochs of the annual variation with the solstices
and equinoxes rather than with the epochs of maximum and minimum
temperature, which at the surface of the earth, in the subsoil beneath
the surface, or in the atmosphere above the surface, or separated by
a wide interval from the solstitial epochs, appears to favor the
hypothesis of a direct action ; as does also the remarkable fact which
has been established, that the magnetic force is greater in both the
northern and southern hemispheres in the months of December,
January, and February, when the sun is nearest to the earth, than in
those of May, June, and July, when he is most distant from it ;
whereas if the effect were due to temperature, the two hemispheres
should be oppositely instead of similarly affected in each of the two
periods referred to. Still there are doubtless minor periodical irregular
variations which have yet to be made out by suitable analytical pro-
cesses, which, by their possible accordance with the epochs of maxi-
mum and minimum temperature, may support in a more limited
sense, not as a sole but as a co-ordinate cause, the hypothesis of calo-
rific agency so generally received, and so ably advocated of late in
connexion with the discovery by our great chemist and philosopher,
of the magnetic properties of oxygen, and of the manner in which
they are modified and affected by differences of temperature. It may
indeed be difficult to suppose that the magnetic phenomena which we

124 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

measure at the surface of the globe, should not be in any degree
influenced by the variations in the magnetic conditions of the oxygen
of the atmosphere in different seasons and at different hours of the
day and night ; but whether that influence be sensible or not, whether
it be appreciable by our instruments or inappreciable by them, is a
question which yet remains for solution, by the more minute sifting of
the accumulated facts which are now undergoing examination in so
many quarters.

To justify the anticipation that conclusions of the most striking
character, and wholly unforseen, may yet be derivable from the
materials in our possession, we need only to recall the experience of
the last few months, which have brought to our knowledge the exist-
ence of what may possibly prove the most instructive, as it is certainly
at first sight the least explicable of all the periodical magnetic variations
with which we have become acquainted. I refer to the concurrent
testimony which observations at parts of the globe the most distant
from each other bear to the existence of a periodical variation or
inequality, affecting alike the magnitude of the diurnal variations, and
the magnitude and frequency of the disturbances or storms. The
cycle or period of this inequality appears to extend to about ten of our
years; the maximum and minimum of the magnitudes affected by it
being separated by an interval of about five years, and the differences
being much too great, and resting on an induction far too extensive,
to admit of uncertainty as to the facts themselves. The existence of
a well-marked magnetic period which has certainly no counterpart in
thermic conditions, appears to render still more doubtful the supposed
connexion between the magnetic and calorific influences of the sun.
It is not a little remarkable that this periodical magnetic variation is
found to be identical in period and in epochs of maxima and minima
with the periodical variation in the frequency and magnitude of the
solar spots which Mr. Schwabe has established by twenty-six years of
unremitting labor. From acosmical connexion of this nature, suppos-
ing it to be finally established, it would follow, that the decennial period
which we measure by our magnetic instruments is, in fact, a solar period,
manifested to us also by the alternately increasing and decreasing
frequency and magnitude of obscurations on the surface of the solar
disc. May we not have in these phenomena the indication of a cycle
or period of secular change in the magnetism of the sun, affecting visibly
his gaseous atmosphere or photosphere, and sensibly modifying the
magnetic influence which he exercises on the surface of our earth.

We recognise in terrestrial magnetism the existence of a power
present everywhere at the surface of our globe, and producing every-
where effects indicative of a systematic action; but of the nature of
this power, the character of its laws, and its economy in creation, we
have as yet scarcely any knowledge. The apparent complexity of
the phenomena at their first aspect may reasonably be ascribed to our
ignorance of their laws, which we shall doubtless find, as we advance
in knowledge, to possess the same remarkable character of simplicity
which calls forth our admiration in the laws of molecular attraction.

aie te ey a

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 125

It has been frequently surmised, and the anticipation is, I believe, a
strictly philosophical one, that a power which, so far as we have the
means of judging, prevails everywhere in our own planet, should also
prevail in other bodies of our system, and might become sensible to
us, in the case of the sun and moon particularly, by small perturbing
influences measurable by our instruments, and indicating their respec-
tive sources by their periods and their epochs. As yet we know of
neither argument nor fact to invalidate this anticipation ; but, on the
contrary, much to invest it with a high degree of probability.

ON THE MOTION OF FLUIDS FROM THE POSITIVE TO THE
NEGATIVE POLE, OF THE CLOSED GALVANIC CIRCUIT.

WIEDEMANN has communicated to the Prussian Academy of
Sciences, a memoir on the mechanical action of the voltaic circuit
which is of essential interest and importance. The apparatus employed
consisted of a porous earthenware cell, closed at the bottom and
terminated above by a glass bell firmly cemented to the upper edge
of the cylinder. Into the tubulure of the bell a vertical glass tube was
fitted, from which a horizontal tube proceeded so as to permit the
fluid raised to flow over into an appropriately placed vessel. A wire
serving as the negative pole of a battery passed down through the
glass bell into the interior of the porous cylinder, where it termi-
nated in a plate of platinum or copper. Outside the porous cylinder
another plate of platinum was placed and connected with the positive
pole of the battery. The whole stood in a large glass vessel, which, as
well as the interior porous cylinder, was filled with water. The inten-
sity of the current was measured by a galvanometer. As soon as the
circuit was closed, the liquid rose in the porous cylinder and flowed
out from the horizontal tube into a weighed vessel. The results
obtained by means of this apparatus were as follows :—

1. The quantity of fluid which flows out in equal times is directly
proportional to the intensity of the current.

2. Under otherwise equal conditions, the quantities of fluid flowing
out are independent of the magnitude of the conducting porous
surface.

To avoid any uncertainty arising from the laws of the flow of liquids
through small orifices, Wiedemann measured the intensity of the
mechanical action of the current by determining the height of a
column of mercury which would hold the transferring force in equili-
brium. For this purpose a graduated tube or manometer filled with
mercury was attached to the extremity of the horizontal tube above
mentioned: with different currents and porous surfaces of different
extent, the mercury in the manometer rose to different heights. By
the measurements of these heights the following results were ob-
tained : —

3. The height to which a galvanic current causes a fluid to rise, is
directly proportional to the intensity of the current and inversely pro-
portional to the extent of the free porous surface.

126 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The mechanical action of a galvanic current may also be referred
to its simplest principles by the following proposition : —

4. The force with which an electric tension, present upon both
sides of a section of any given fluid, urges the fluid from the positive
to the negative side, is equivalent to a hydrostatic pressure which is
directly proportionable to that tension.

In this manner, therefore, we obtain a simple measure of electric ten-
sion and its mechanical action in terms of atmospheric pressure, and
consequently of gravity.

The above laws hold good only for fluids of the same nature. When
different fluids are subjected to the action of the currents, the mechan-
ical action is greatest upon those which oppose the greatest resistance
to its passage. ‘The requisite data are still wanting to determine the
precise connection between the mechanical action and the resistance ;
but observations made with sulphate of copper, of different degrees of
concentration, appear to show that the quantities of fluid transferred
in equal times by currents of equal intensity, are nearly proportional
to the squares of the resistances.

MAGNETIC SCIENCE.

AN article in the London Builder, alluding to the discovery made
by Mr. George Little, electrical engineer, in which continuous streams
of electricity can be produced from single magnets, and be made to
decompose water, produce constant power in electro-magnets, and
work the chemical printing and double needle telegraph, states that
the magnetic science is still in its infancy, and starts the idea that it
may be possible to witness such a temporary subversion of the cohesive
forces in a deal board, or a stone wall, as would enable a magician like
Faraday to pass through it as if it were so much air or so much dust
in the sunbeam.

EXTENSION AND USE OF THE MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH.

From the report of the Superintendent of the U. S Census, and
from other sources, we derive the following facts relative to the exten-
sion, construction and use of the magnetic telegraph in the United
States and elsewhere. ‘The telegraphic system is carried to greater
extent in the United States than in any other part of the world; and
the numerous lines now in full operation form a net-work over the
length and breadth of the land. ‘The receipts of the “ Magnetic Tel-
egraph Company” extending from Washington to New York, from
its organization in January, 1846, to July, 1852, were $385,641.
This company was the first organized in this country and its capital
stock is only $370,000. It has six wires from Washington to Phila-
delphia, and seven from Philadelphia to New York. The number of
messages sent over this line in the six months ending July, 1852, was
154,514, producing $68,499 23. It is perhaps the most productive
line in the world.

a ef erry

o

ke glides

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 127

The amount of business which a well-conducted office can perform
isimmense. Nearly seven hundred messages, exclusive of those for
the press, were sent in one day over the Morse Albany line, and, a
few days after, the Bain line at Boston sent and received five hundred
communications. Another office with two wires, one five hundred,
the other two hundred miles in length, after spending three hours in
the transmission of public news, telegraphed, in a single day, four
hundred and fifty private messages, averaging twenty-five words
each, besides the address, sixty of which were sent in rotation, without
a word of repetition. The instruments cannot be worked successfully
without skilful operators, good batteries and machines, and thorough
insulation of the conductors. The expense of copper wire, which was
at first used, has caused it to be superseded by that of iron, which is
found to answer the purpose as well, though the wire in this case must
be of increased size. About 300 pounds of iron wire are required to
amile. The cost of construction, including wire, posts, labor, &c., is
about $150 per mile. The average performance of the Morse instru-
ment is to transmit from 8,000 to 9,000 letters per hour.

In the majority of electric telegraphs in actual use, batteries com-
posed of heterogeneous metals, chiefly zinc and platinum, moistened
by a liquid or hquids, are employed for the generation of force. The
earth itself has been made to furnish a supply of electric force; in
other words, a single pair of zine and copper plates have been buried
sufficiently below the surface to be in the wet subsoil, when the earth,
saturated with water, represents the sand saturated with acid-water of
an ordinary battery cell. By this means a current of low intensity
can be obtained, even when the plates are miles apart. The earth
acts as the return wire to any given number of distinct wires, without
in the least affecting the regularity of the action of any of them.

The only constant and economical battery which is used in the
United States is Grove’s, of cups of zine with strips of platinum in an
earthenware or porcelain cup, which cup is filled with nitric acid,
which is placed inside of the zinc cup, in a tumbler containing diluted
sulphuric acid. The main battery on a line (from 30 to 50 cups)
requires renewing only once in every two weeks, and daily in local
batteries of two or three cups.

Messages passing from one very distant point to another have
usually to be rewritten at intermediate stations; though by an im-
proved method the sea-board line has in good weather transmitted
communications direct between New York and Mobile, a distance of
nearly 1,800 miles, without intermediate re-writing. By the Cincin-
nati route to New Orleans, a distance of nearly 2,000 miles, the news
brought by an Atlantic steamer at+8 o’clock, A. M., has been tele-
graphed from New York to that distant point, and the effects produced
on the market there returned to New York by 11 o’clock, A. M.
The Congressional reports from Washington are usually received
simultaneously in Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York; and all
that is necessary at the intermediate stations is the presence of an

12

128 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

operator to receive the message as it is developed en paper by the
instruments.

To show the great extent to which telegraphing is now carried, and
its importance to the community, reference may here be made to the
arrangements of the newspaper press in New York, and their expenses
for telegraphic dispatches. The Associated Press, consisting of the
seven principal morning papers published in New York, paid during
the year ending November, 1852, nearly $50,000 for dispatches, one-
third of which was for foreign news. The several newspapers com-
posing this Association paid during the same time about $14,000 for
special and exclusive dispatches.

The telegraphs in England are the next in importance and extent
to those in this country. They were first established in 1845, and
there is about 4,000 miles of wire in operation.

The charge for transmission of dispatches is much higher than in
America, one penny per word being charged for the first fifty miles,
and one farthing per mile for any distance beyond one hundred miles.
A message of twenty words can be sent a distance of 500 miles in the
United States for one dollar, while in England the same would cost
seven dollars.

In June, 1852, the sub-marine telegraph between Dover and Ostend
was completed, and on the 1st of November the first electric commu-
nication was established direct between Great Britain and the conti-
nent of Europe. By a line of wires between London and Dover, via
Rochester and Canterbury, in connection with the sub-marine cable
across the Straits of Dover, instantaneous communication is obtained
between London, Paris, Sweden, Trieste, Cracow, Odessa and Leg-
horn. The wires are also being carried onward to St. Petersburg ;
also to India and into the interior of Africa.

A project has been formed for constructing a sub-marine telegraph
between Great Britain and the United States. It is proposed to
commence at the most northwardly point of Scotland, run thence to
the Orkney Islands, and thence by short water lines to the Shetland
and Faroe. Thence, a water line of 200 to 300 miles conducts the
telegraph to Iceland; from the western coast of Iceland, another sub-
marine line conveys it to Kioge Bay, on the eastern coast of Green-
land; it then crosses Greenland to Juliana’s Hope, on the western
coast of that Continent, in 60° 42/, and is conducted thence by a
water line of about 500 miles, across Davis’s Straits to Byron’s Bay,
on the coast of Labrador. From this point the line is to be extended
to Quebec.

The entire length of the line is approximately estimated at 2,500
miles, and the sub-marine portions of it at from 1,400 to 1,600 miles.
The peculiar advantage of the line being divided into several sub-
marine portions is that if a fracture should at any time occur, the
defective part could be very readily discovered and repaired promptly
at a comparatively trifling expense. From the Shetland Islands it is
proposed to carry a branch to Bergen, in Norway, connecting it there
with a line to Christiana, Stockholm, Gottenburg and Copenhagen;

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 129

from Stockholm a line may easily cross the Gulf of Bothnia to St.
Petersburg. The whole expense of this great international work is
estimated considerably below £500,000.

Another enterprise has been actually started, with every prospect
_ of consummation. A portion of the line is being prosecuted with
vigor, and the company propose transmitting intelligence between the
Old and New World in four or five days. A charter has been granted
by the British Colonial Government to the “ Newfoundland Electric
Company,” with a capital of £100,000, to construct a line of telegraph
from Halifax, N. S., to Cape Race, touching at St. Johns, and crossing
the Island of Newfoundland to Cape Ray, thence by a sub-marine
line of 149 miles, across the gulf of St. Lawrence, a ‘landing being
made at Cape East, on Prince Edward’s Island and going through
that island, it crosses Northumberland Straits Aas another sub-marine
line of 10 miles, landing at Cape Torment in New Brunswick, and so
on to the boundary of the United States, whence by an independent
line to New York, the connection is completed. The total distance
traversed by this line will be between 1,400 and 1,500 miles, of which
150 are sub-marine. It is stated that steamers can make ordinary
passages between Cape Race, Newfoundland, and Galway, Ireland, in
five days.

Three several attempts have been made to connect England and
Treland by a telegraphic line, but as yet the enterprise is unsuccessful.
In the last attempt, the contractors had got within seven miles of the
Irish coast all right; and when they found they could not reach the
land, they began to ar range for marking the end of the rope with
buoys,—when it unfortunately slipped away from them and sank in
deep water :—and the whole task must be commenced anew.

The telegraph between Paris and Bordeaux is probably the most
perfect line of magnetic communication in existence. The wires, ten
in number, go the whole distance under ground. They are five inches
a part, and form a hollow square. To guard against humidity, they
are supported upon wooden blocks, with the necessary isolation, and
encased in a coating of gutta percha and lead.

A sub-marine line between France and Algiers, a distance of 400
miles, is about to be constructed by the French Government.

In Prussia the wires are generally buried about two feet below the
surface, and carried through rivers in chain pipes. About 1,700
miles of telegraphic lines are in operation.

In France about 750 miles, and in Germany about 3,000 miles are
completed. ;

In Austria, Saxony, Bavaria, Tuscany, Holland, Italy, Spain and
Russia, great progress has already been made in establishing lines of
telegraph, and communication will soon be had between the capitals
of every State on the European Continent.

In India, a line has been laid between Calcutta and Kedgeree, 71
miles, and an extensive system is projected for that country.

The following interesting description of the telegraph’ in India is
given for the instruction and encour agement of those interested in the

130 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

prosecution of telegraph lines through somewhat similar regions of
our own country:

From Calcutta to Rajmoole, the conductor is laid under ground, in
a cement of melted resin and sand. From that village through the
remaining distance to Kedgeree it is carried ever ground on bamboo
poles, 15 feet high, coated with coal-tar aad pitch, and strengthened
at various distances by posts of saul wood, teak and iron wood from
America. The bamboo posts are found to resist the storms which
have uprooted trees, the growth of centuries. Though the bamboo
soon decays, its amazing cheapness makes the use of it more economi-
cal than that of more durable and more costly materials. The branch
road from Bishlopore to Moyapore passes through a swamp; the
country is little less than a lake for five months; the conductor runs
on the foot paths between the island villages, and for some miles
crosses rice swamps, and creeks on which no road or embankment
exists.

The most difficult and objectionable line was selected to test the
practicability of carrying the conductors through swampy ground, and
it has been perfectly successful. The Huldee River crosses the Ked-
geree line half way, and varies in breadth from 4,200 to 5,800 feet.
A gutta percha wire, secured in the angles of a chain cable, is laid
across and under the river, and the chain is found to afford perfect
protection from the grapnels of the heavy native boats which are con-
stantly passing up and down.

The overground lines differ totally from those in use in any other
country in this important respect. No wire is used. Instead of wire
a thick iron rod, 2 of an inch diameter, weighing one ton to a mile, is
adopted —the heaviest wire elsewhere used being only one ewt. to the
mile. The advantages of these substantial rods are these: they pos-
sess a complete immunity from gusts of wind or ordinary mechanical
violence; if accidentally thrown down they are not injured, though
passengers and animals may trample on them; owing to the mass of
metal, they give so free a passage to the electric currents that no
insulation is necessary; they are attached from bamboo to bamboo
without any protection, and they work without interruption through
the hardest rains; the thickness of the wire allows of their being
placed on the posts without any occasion for the straining and wind-
ing apparatus, whereas the tension of wire exposes them to fracture,
occasions expense in construction and much difficulty in repairs; the
thick rods also admit of rusting to take place without danger to an
extent which would be fatal to a wire; and lastly, the rods are no
more costly than thin wire, and the welding occasions no difficulty.

The importance of this discovery of the superiority of rods over
wire will be fully appreciated in a country like India, where the line
must often run through a howling wilderness, tenanted by savage
beasts or more savage men. ‘The lines must therefore protect them-
selves, and this is secured by the use of thick rods.

The entire expenditure on this line was about 450 rupees a mile,
and it is estimated that the future overground lines will be at the rate

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Bes |

of 350 rupees a mile for a double line, river crossings and erection of
offices being a separate charge. ‘The pecuniary returns from the
Calcutta and Kedgeree line were originally calculated at about 200
rupees a month, but they have been more than three times that
amount. <A rupee is about 56 cents U. 8. currency.

BATCHELDER’S IMPROVED TELEGRAPHIC REGISTER.

Tue following account of a new telegraphic register, invented by
Mr. Batchelder, of Boston, we copy from the “ To-Day.” This
instrument, like those used in the Morse and Bain offices, requires
the employment of the telegraphic alphabet of dots and lines. It
consists of a cylinder, about six inches in diameter, around which is
rolled a rectangular sheet of pink tissue or silver paper, exactly as it
is bought, since it requires no peculiar preparation. ‘This cylinder
slowly revolves ; and the writing is effected by means of a pointed
copper wire, heated by a small alcohol lamp, which is pressed against
it, and withdrawn at intervals, according as the circuit is opened or
broken. It proves that the heat of the wire is sufficient to blanch the
paper as it touches it, and thus turn its pink color to yellow; and so
the characters appear in yellow upon a pink ground. Effecting the
change of color in this simple way, is not, however, the only merit of
the invention. The wire and lamp are upon a stand, so connected
with the clock work machinery necessary for the other parts
of the apparatus, of whatever form, that they move very slowly
down the cylinder; so that, after it has made one revolution,
the second line does not fall again upon the first, and interfere with
it, but comes a short space below. The result of this is, that, when
the paper is full, it can be removed from the cylinder, and read like a
common printed page, across from left to right, in lines following
under each other. ‘These papers can thus be conveniently preserved
for future reference.

The operation of the machine is beautiful, and its simplicity is
apparent from the few words we have found it necessary to employ in
describing it. -In stating its further advantages, we expect only to be
understood by those who are acquainted with the technical terms of
telegraphing, when we say that 1t does not require the use of a local
or office circuit, and can be used with a closed or open circuit, as may
be preferred; and that the motion of the recording part, of the
instrument is produced by the action of an axial magnet, or a deflect-
ing needle.

The advantages enjoyed by this instrument, in simplicity, accuracy,
and legibility, are so apparent, that it would seem as if it must com-
mend itself at once to the attention of the telegraph companies, and
be introduced into those offices, at least, where the telegraphic alpha-
bet is employed.

12*

132 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ON THE PHYSICAL LINES OF MAGNETIC FORCE.

Tuer following is an abstract of a lecture recently delivered before
the Royal Institution, England, by Prof. Faraday, “on the physical
lines of Magnetic Force.” A magnet presents a system of forces
perfect in itself, and able, therefore, to exist by its own mutual rela-
tions. It has the dual and antithetic character belonging to both
static and dynamic electricity ; and this is made manifest by what are
called its polarities — 7. ¢., by the opposite powers of like kind found
at and towards its extremities. These powers are found to be abso-
lutely equal to each other; one cannot be changed in any degree as
to amount without an equal change of the other; and this 1s ‘true
when the opposite polarities of a magnet are not related to each other,
but to the polarities of other magnets. The polarities, or the north-
ness and southness of a magnet, are not only related to each other,

through or within the magnet itself, but they are also related exter-*

nally to opposite polarities, (in the manner of static electric induction, )
or they cannot exist; and this external relation involves and necessi-
tates an exactly equal amount of he new opposite polarities to which
those of the magnet are related. So that if the force of a magnet a
is related to that of another magnet 0, it cannot act on a third magnet
c, without being taken off from 0, to an amount proportional to its
action onc. ‘The lines of magnetic force are shown by the moving
wire to exist both within and outside of the magnet; also, they are
shown to be closed curves passing in one part of ‘their course through
the magnet; and the amount of those within the magnet, at its equa-
tor, 1s exactly equal in force to the amount in any section, including
the whole of’ those on the outside. The lines of force outside a mag-
net, can be affected in their direction by the use of various media
placed in their course. A magnet can in no way be procured, having
only one magnetism, or even the smallest excess of northness or south-
ness one over the other. When the polarities of a magnet are not
related oar to the forces of other magnets, then they are related
to each other; 7. ¢., the northness or southness of an isolated magnet
are externally Hependanit on and sustained by each other. Now all
these facts, and many more, point to the existence of physical lines of
force external to the magnets as well as within. They exist in
curved, as well as in straight lines; for if we conceive of an isolated
straight bar magnet, or more especially of a round disc of steel mag-
netized recular ly, so that its magnetic axis shall be in one diameter,
it is evident that the polarities must be related to each other exter-

nally, by curved lines of force ; for no straight line can at the same
time touch two points having northness and southness. Curved lines
of force can, as I think, only consist with physical lines of force. The
phenomena exhibited by the moving wire confirm the same conclu-
sion. As the wire moves across the lines of force, a current of elec-
tricity passes or tends to pass through it, there being no such current
before the wire is moved. ‘The wire when quiescent has no such
current, and when it moves, it need not pass into places where the

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 133

magnetic force is greater or less. Jt may travel in such a course that
if a magnetic needle were carried through the same course it would
be entirely unaffected magnetically, 7. e., it would be a matter of
absolute indifference to the needle whether it were moving or still.
Matters may be so arranged, that the wire, when still, shall have the
same diamagnetic force as the medium surrounding the magnet, and
so in no way cause disturbance of the lines of force passing through
both; and yet when the wire moves, a current of electricity shall be
generated in it. The mere fact of motion cannot have produced this
current; there must have been a state or condition around the mag-
net and sustained by it, within the range of which the wire was
placed; and this state shows the physical constitution of the lines of
magnetic force. What this state is, or upon what it depends, cannot
as yet be declared. It may depend upon the ether, as a ray of hght
does, and an association has already been shown between light and
magnetism. It may depend upon a state of tension, or a state of
vibration, or perhaps some other state analogous to the electric cur-
rent, to which the magnetic forces are so intimately related. Whether
it of necessity requires matter for its sustentation will depend upon
what is understood by the term matter. If that is to be confined to
ponderable or gravitating substances, then matter is not essential to
the physical lines of magnetic force, any more than to a ray of light
or heat; but if, in the assumption of an ether, we admit it to be a
species of matter, then the lines of force may depend upon some
function of it. Experimentally, mere space is magnetic; but then
the idea of such mere space must include that of the ether, when one
is talking on that belief; or if, hereafter, any other conception of the
state or condition of space rise up, it must be admitted into the view
of that, which just now, in relation to experiment, is called mere
space. On the other hand, it is, I think, an ascertained fact, that
ponderable matter is not essential to the existence of physical lines of
magnetic force.

ON THE LOCATION OF COMPASSES IN IRON SHIPS.

Tue following paper was read at the meeting of the British Asso-
ciation, Belfast, by Capt. E. W. Johnson, of the iron ship of war,
Trident. He says: — While the Trident was in the basin at Wool-
wich, it occurred to me to try whether a position could be discovered
where the influences of the ship’s iron upon the compass were so
equalized, as to render the amount of deviation so small as to be of no
practical importance. The correct magnetic direction of the ship’s
head. having been determined by a compass on the shore, and that
proving to be near to one of the points of maximum deviation, (the
standard compass on the quarter deck there indicating 20° westerly
deviation,) I moved the standard compass several feet further forward
in the centre line of the ship, and there found the westerly deviation
increased to 29°. I now commenced to move the compass aft, six
or seven feet at a time, observing the deviation at each position, and

134 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

found the westerly deviation decreased ; and on placing the tripod of
the compass directly over the rudder-head, easterly deviation was pro-
duced; and hence it followed that there must be a position somewhere
between the last two places of observation where there would be no
deviation while the ship’s head remained in the same direction. This
position I practically discovered by moving the compass a few inches
at a time, till it indicated the correct magnetic direction of the ship’s
head. The question which now remained to be proved was, to what
extent the deviations of the said compass had been lessened (or what
they actually were) when the ship’s head was placed upon different
points; and I was gratified to find that after swinging the vessel, and
observing upon the ‘eight principal points, the compass ‘placed as before
described, proved to be correct within a quarter of a point. It is
necessary to mention, that the Trident has wooden beams under the
quarter deck, aud therefore it remains to be seen to what extent such
observations may be useful in vessels which have iron beams. It will
also be requisite to ascertain, by actual observation, how far a position
so selected shall prove advantageous when the ship changes her geo-
graphical position; and as the Trident is about to proceed to the
southern hemisphere, and is amply provided with instructions and the
means of ascertaining such changes, and as I shall swing her again on
every point before she leaves, we may hope for much useful informa-
tion on this important subject. I must observe, that it may not always
be practicable to find the position of no deviation, or where the influ-
ences of the iron in the ship upon the magnetic needle are equalized,
because such a point might be found in a tnost inconvenient position,
or be too near movable ironwork, machinery, &c.; but if we succeed
in approximating towards it, and thereby reduce the deviations within
moderate limits, « a point of ereat practical importance will be gained
in navigation.

Mr. John Gray, of Liverpool, has published a letter, in which he
proves, by the example of the Sarah Sands, that the compass can be
as accurately adjusted in iron vessels as in those of wood. He says:
“ This steamboat has been a most valuable agent for the determination
of a mooted point now being investigated, whether iron ships undergo
a very important change after crossing the equator, or not. For years
I have entertained the opinion that, for all practical purposes, the
adjustment on Professor Airy’s principle will answer equally well in
both north and south latitudes, and which this vessel has demonstrated
beyond all doubt. Simultaneous bearings were taken by Captain
Thompson and his chief officers, in various parts of the Straits of
Magellan, and the result clearly showed that no deviation whatever
took place.”

RELATION BETWEEN THE SPOTS ON THE SUN AND THE MAG-
NETIC NEEDLE.

ACCORDING to observations made by M. Rodolphe Wolf, Director
of the Observatory at Berne, it appears that the number of spots on

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 135

the sun have their maximum and minimum at the same time as the
variations of the needle. It follows from this, that the cause of these
two changes on the sun and on the earth must be the same, and con-
sequently, from this discovery, it will be possible to solve several
important problems, whose solution has hitherto never been attempted.

ARAGO ON THE PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF THE SUN.

FRomM a paper recently submitted to the French Academy by M.
Arago, we copy the following extracts. They embody many of the
author’s investigations and results, and are of the most interesting
character.

After briefly reviewing the phenomena of the solar spots, and the
peculiar radiance, less luminous than the rest of the orb, with which
they are surrounded,—the penumbra,—M. Arago says :— This
penumbra, first noticed by Gallileo, and carefully observed by his
astronomical successors in all the changes which it undergoes, has led
to a supposition, concerning the physical constitution of the sun, which
at first must appear altogether astonishing. According to this view
the orb would be regarded as a dark body, surrounded at a certain
distance by an atmosphere, which might be compared to that envelop-
ing the earth, when composed of a continuous bed of opaque and
reflecting clouds. To this first atmosphere would succeed a second,
luminous in itself, and which has been called the photosphere. This
photosphere, more or less removed from the interior cloudy atmos-
phere, would determine by its circumference the visible limits of the
orb. According to this hypothesis, spots upon the sun would appear
as often as there were found in the concentric atmospheres corres-
ponding vacant portions, which would permit us to see exposed the
dark central body. Those who have studied with powerful instru-
ments, professional astronomers, and competent judges, acknowledge
that this hypothesis concerning the physical constitution of the sun,
supplies a very satisfactory account of the facts. Nevertheless, it is
not generally adopted; recent authoritative works describe the spots
as scorie floating on the liquid surface of the orb, and issuing from
solar volcanoes, of which terrestial volcanoes are but a feeble type.

It was desirable then, to determine, by direct observation, the nature
of the incandescent matter of the sun, but when we consider that a
distance of 95,000,000 of miles separates us from this orb and that
the only means of communication with its visible surface are luminous
rays issuing therefrom, even to propose this problem seems an act of
unjustifiable temerity. The recent progress in the science of optics,
has, however, furnished the means for completely solving the problem.

None are now ignorant that natural philosophers have succeeded in
distinguishing two kinds of light, viz., natural and polarized. A ray
of the former of these lights exhibits, on all points of its surface, the
same properties ; whilst, with regard to the polarized light, the prop-
erties exhibited on the different sides of its rays are different. These
discrepancies, manifest themselves in a multitude of phenomena which

136 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

need not here be noticed. Before going further, let us remark, that
there is something wonderful in the experiments which have led nat-
ural philosophers ‘legitimately to talk of the different sides of a ray of
light. The word “ wonderful” which I have just used, will certainly
appear natural to those who are aware that millions and millions of
these rays can simultaneously pass through the eye of a needle, with-
out interfering one with the other. ‘Polarized light has enabled
astronomers to augment the means of investigation by the aid of some
curious instruments, from which great benefit has accrued already, —
among others, the polarizing telescope, or polariscope, merits attention.
In looking directly at the sun with one of these telescopes, two white
images of the same intensity, and the same shade will be seen. Let
us suppose the reflected image of this orb to be seen im water, ora
glass mirror. In the act of reflection the rays become polarized, the
lens no longer presenting two white and similar images; on the con-
trary they are tinged with brilliant colors, their shape having experi-
enced no alteration. If the one be red, the other will be green; if
the former be yellow, the latter will present a violet shade, and so on ; $
the two colors being always what are called complementary, or sus-
ceptible, by their mixture, of forming white. By whatever means
this polarized light has been produced, the colors will display them-
selves in the two images of the polarizing telescope, as when the rays
have been reflected by water or glass. The polarizing telescope, thus
furnishes a very simple means of distinguishing natural from polarized
light.

“Tt has been long believed, that light emanating from meandescent
bodies, reaches the eye in the state of natural light, when it has not
been partially reflected, or strongly refracted, in its passage. The
exactitude of this proposition failed, however, in certain points. A
member of the Academy has discovered that light emanating under a
sufliciently small angle, from the surface of a solid or liquid ‘incandes-
cent body, even when unpolished, presents evident marks of polariza-
tion; so that in passing through the polarizing telescope it is decom-
posed into two colored pencils. The hght emanating from an
inflamed gaseous substance, such as is used im street illummation, on
the contrary, is always in its natural state, whatever may have been its
angle of emission. The means used to decide whether the substance
which renders the sun visible is solid, liquid or gaseous, will be noth-
ing more than a very simple application of the foregoing observations,
im “spite of the difficulties which appeared to arise ‘from the immense
distance of the orb.

The rays which indicate the margin of the disc, have evidently
issued from the incandescent surface under a very small angle. The
question here occurs,— The margins of the two images, which the
polarizing telescope furnishes, do they, when viewed dir ectly, appear
colored ?— then the hght of these margins proceeds from a liquid
body ; for any supposition which would make the exterior of the suna
solid body is definitely removed by the observations of the rapid changing
of the form of the spots. Have the margins maintained their natural

——

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 137

whiteness in the glass? then they are necessarily gaseous. The incan-
descent bodies which have been studied by a polariscope, the light
being emitted under angles, are the following : — of solids, forged iron
and platinum ; of liquids, fused iron and glass. From these experi-
ments it may be said, you havea right to affirm, that the sun is neither
fused iron nor glass; but what authority have you further to general-
ize? My response is this; following the two explanations that have
been given of the abnormal polarization which presents rays emitted
under acute angles, all ought to be the same, with the exception of the
quantity, whatever be the liquid, provided that the surface of emer-
gence has a sensible reflecting power. There would remain only the
case, in which the incandescent body would, as to its density, be anal-
ogous to a gas; as for example, the liquid of an almost ideal rarity,
which many geometricians have been led to place hypothetically, at
the extreme limit of our atmosphere, where the phenomena of polar-
‘zation and colorization may perhaps disappear. I shall however,
anticipate a difficulty which may suggest itself: It ought to be observed,
that the lights proceeding from two liquid substances, may, according
to the special nature of these substances, not be identical in reference
to the number and position of the black bands of Frauenhofer, and
which these prismatic hues offer to the eye of the philosopher. These
discrepances are of a nature to be considerably augmented by the
differently constituted atmospheres through which the rays have to
travel before reaching the observer.

Observations made any day of the year, looking directly at the sun,
with the aid of powerfully polarizing telescopes, exhibit no trace of
colorization. The inflamed substances then, which defines the cireumfer-
ence of the sun, is gaseous. We can generalize this conclusion, since,
through the agency of rotation, the different points of the surface of the
sun come in succession to form the circumference. This experiment
removes out of the domain of simple hypothesis the theory we have
previously indicated concerning the constitution of the solar photo-
sphere. These results, let it be loudly proclaimed, are entirely due
to the united efforts of the observers of the 17th and 18th centuries,
and also in a certain measure to those of our cotemporary astrono-
mers. And, here, let me make a remark, which, when endeavoring
to determine the physical constitution of the stars, we shall have occa-
sion to apply. If the material of the solar photosphere were liquid,
if the rays emitted from its margin were polarized, the two images
furnished by the polarizing telescope would not only be colored, but
they would be different in different parts of the circumference. Is
the highest point of one of these images red, the point diametrically
opposite will be red also. But the two extremities of the horizontal
diameter will each exhibit a green tint, and so on. If, then, one suc-
ceeds in concentrating toa single point, the rays emitted from all parts
of the sun’s limb, even after their decomposition in the polarizing tel-
escope, the mixture will be white.

The constitution of the sun, as I have just established it, may equally
well serve to explain how, on the surface of the orb, there exist some

138 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

spots not black but luminous. These have been called facule, others
of much smaller dimensions and generally round, have been called
lucules. These latter cause the surface of the sun to appear spotted.
It is a singular fact; but I may trace the origin of the discovery of the
faculee and lucules, to an administrative visit to a shop of novelties on
the Boulevards. “I have to complain,” said the master of the estab-
lishment, ‘of the Gas Company ; it ought to direct on my goods the
broad side of the bat-wing burner, whilst, by the carelessness of their
serv ants, it is often the edge which is dir ected on them.” ‘“ Are you
certain,” said one of the assistants, “that in that position the flame
gives less light than in the other 2” The idea, appearing ill-founded,
and I would say, absurd, it was submitted to accurate experiment ; and
it was determined that a flame sheds upon any object as much light
when it illuminates by its edge as when its broad surface was presented
to it. Thence resulted the conclusion, that a gaseous incandescent
surface of a determined extent is more luminous when seen obliquely
than under perpendicular incidence. Consequently, if, ike our atmos-
phere, when dappled with clouds, the solar surface presents undulations,
the parts of these undulations which are presented perpendicularly to
the observer, must appear comparatively dim, and the inclined portion
must appear more brilliant; and hence every conic cavity must appear
alucule. Itis no longer necessary in accounting for these appear-
ances, to suppose that there exists on the sun millions of fires more
incandescent than the rest of the disc, or millions of points distinguish-
ing themselves from the neighboring regions by a greater accumula-
tion of luminous matter.

After having proved that the sun is composed of a dark central
body, of a cloudy -retlecting atmosphere, and of a photosphere, we
should naturally ask if there is nothing besides. If the photosphere
terminates abruptly and without being surrounded by a gaseous atmos-
phere, less luminous in itself, or feebly refracting ? Generally, this
third atmosphere would disappe ar in the ocean of light with which the
sun always appears surrounded, and which pr oceeds from the reflec-
tion of its own rays upon the particles of which the terrestrial atmos-
phere is composed. A means of removing this doubt presented itself;
it was selecting the moment, when, during a total eclipse, the moon
completely obscures the sun. Almost at the moment when the last
rays emanating from the margin of the radiant orb, disappeared under
the opaque screen formed by “the moon, the atmosphere, 1 in the region
which is projected between the moon, the ear th, and the neighboring
parts, ceased to be illuminated. In all our researches upon solar
eclipses, innumerable unexpected appearances invariably present
themselves; thus the observers were not a little surprised when, after
the disappearance of the last direct rays of the sun behind the margin
of the moon, and after the light reflected by the surrounding terrestr rial
atmosphere had also disappear ed, to see rose-shaped prominences from
two to three minutes in height, dart, as it were, from the circumference
of our satellite. Each astronomer, following the usual bent of his
ideas, arrived at an independent opinion regarding the causes of

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 139

these appearances. Some attributed them to the mountains of the
moon ; but this hypothesis would not bear a moment’s examination.
Others wished to discover in them certain effects of diffraction, or of
refraction. But -the touch-stone of all theories is calculation; and
uncertainty the most indefinite must follow, in reference to their appli-
cation to the remarkable phenomena specified, those, namely, of which
we have just been speaking. Explanations, giving neither an exact
account of the height, the form, the color, nor the fixity of a phenom-
enon, ought to have no place in science. Let us come to the idea, much
extolled for a short time, that the protuberances were solar mountains,
whose summits extend beyond the photosphere covered by the moon
at the moment of observation. Following the most moderate compu-
tations, the elevation above the solar disc of one of these summits,
would have been 19,000 leagues. I am well aware that no argument
because based on the vastness of this height, should lead to the rejec-
tion of the hypothesis, but it may be much shaken by remarking that
these pretended mountains exhibit considerable portions beyond the
perpendicular, which, consequently in virtue of the solar attraction
must have fallen down.

Let us now take a rapid glance at the hypothesis, according
to which the protuberances would be assimilated to solar clouds float-
ing in a gaseous atmosphere. Here we find no principle of natural
philosophy to prevent our admitting the existence of cloudy masses
from 70,000 to 90,000 miles in length, with their outlines serrated, and
assuming the most distorted forms, only in further pursuing this hypoth-
esis, one could not fail to be astonished that no solar cloud had ever
been seen entirely separate from the circumference of the moon. It
is towards this determination, the subject otherwise eluding us, that the
researches of astronomers should be directed. A mountain being
incapable of sustaining itself without a base, the fortuitous observation
of a prominence, separated in appearance from the margin of the
moon, and, consequently, from the real margin of the solar photosphere,
should be sufficient utterly to overthrow the hypothesis of solar moun-
tains. Such an observation has really been made. M. Kutochi who
observed the eclipse of July 8th, 1850, writes: — “the slender and
redish striated appearance which was found near the northern promi-
nence seemed to be completely detached from the margin of the
moon.” In the eclipse of the 28th of July, 1851, Messrs. Mauvais
and Soujon, of Dantzic,and the celebrated foreign astronomers who
had repaired to the different parts of Norway and the north of Ger-
many, saw in all the selected stations without exception, a spot uni-
formly red, and separated from the limb of the moon. These obser-
vations put a definite termination to the explanations of the
protuberances, founded on the supposition that there existed in the
sun, mountains whose summits would reach considerably above the
photosphere. When it shall be clearly demonstrated that these lumi-
nous phenomena cannot be the effect of the inflexions which the solar
rays might experience in passing near the rough parts which fringe
the circumference of the moon; when it shall be demonstrated that

13

140 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

these rosy tints cannot be assimulated to simple optical appearances,
and have, in truth,a real existence, that they are not real solar clouds,
it will then be necessary to add a new atmosphere to the two of which
we have spoken; for these clouds cannot be sustained in vaccuo. The
existence of a third atmosphere is moreover established by phenomena
of quite another nature, namely, by the comparative intensity of the
border and the centre of the sun, and also in some respects by the
zodiacal light, so perceptible in our climate during the equinoxes.

TRUE PLACE OF THE SUN IN THE UNIVERSE.

Ty addition to the remarks contained in the foregoing article on the
physical constitution of the sun, M. Arago submitted the following
observations on the true place of the sun in the universe.

Archelaus, who lived in the year 448, B. C., was the last philoso-
pher of the Ionian Sect; he said, regarding the sun, —“ It is a star,
only it surpasses in size all other stars.” ‘lhe conjecture, for what is
not based upon any measurement, or any observation, deserves no
other name, was certainly very bold and very beautiful. Let us pass
over an interval of more than two thousand years, and we shall find
the relation of the sun and the stars established by the labors of the
moderns, upon a basis which defies all criticism. During nearly a
century and a half, astronomers endeavored to determine the distance
between the stars and the earth; the repeated failures with which
their researches were attended, seemed to prove that the problem was
insolvable. But what obstacles will not genius, united to perseverance,
overcome ? We have discovered within a very few years the distance
which separates us from the nearest stars. ‘This distance is about
206,000 times the distance of the sun from the earth, more than
206,000 times 95,000,000 of miles. The product of 206,000 by
95,000,000, would be too much above the numbers we are in the habit
of considering, to warrant its annunciation. This product will still
more strike the imagination, when I refer to the rapidity with which
light travels. Alpha, in the constellation of the Centaur, is the star
nearest to the earth, if it be allowable to apply the word near to such
distances as those of which Iam about to speak. The light of Alpha,
of the Centaur, takes more than three years to reach us, so that were
the star annihilated, we should still see it for three years after its
destruction. Recall to your recollection that light travels at the rate
of 192,000 miles in a second; that the day is composed of 86,400 sec-
onds, and the year of 365 days, and you will feel as thunderstruck
before the immensity of these numbers. Furnished with these data,
let us transport the sun to the place of this, the nearest star, and the
vast circular disc, which in the morning rises majestically above the
horizon, and in the evening occupies a considerable time in descend-
ing entirely below the same line, would have dimensions almost imper-
ceptible, even with the aid of the most powerful telescopes, and its
briliancy would range among the stars of the third magnitude, you
will thus see what has become of the conjecture of Archelaus. One

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 141

may perhaps feel humiliated by a result which reduces so far our

osition in the material world; but consider that man has succeeded
in extracting every thing from his own resources, whereby he 1s ele-
vated to the highest rank in the world of thought.

We would remark that in the recent works of complete astral cata-
logues, we shall find that the number of stars visible to the naked eye
in a single hemisphere, namely the northern, is less than three thou-
sand. A certain result, and one, which notwithstanding will strike
with astonishment, on account of its smallness, those who have only
vaguely examined the sky on a beautiful winter night. The character
of this astonishment will change, if we proceed to the telescopic stars.
Carrying the enumeration to the.stars of the fourteenth magnitude,
the last that are seen by our powerful telescopes, we shall find by an
estimate which will furnish us the minor limit, a number superior to
40,000,000, (40,000,000 of suns!!) and the distance from the farthest
of them is such that the light would take from three to four thousand
years to traverse it. Weare then, fully authorized to say, that the
luminous rays, — those rapid couriers, — bringeus, if I may so express
it, the very ancient history of these distant worlds. A photometric
experiment, of which the first indications exist in the Cosmotheoros
of Huygens, an experiment resumed by Wollaston a short time before
his death, teaches us that 20,000 of stars the same size as Sirius, the
most brilliant of the firmament, would need to be agglomerated to shed
upon our globe a light equal to that of the sun. On reflecting upon
the well-known fact, that some of the double stars, are of very differ-
ent and dissimilar colors, our thoughts naturally turn to the inhabitants
of the obscure and revolving planetary bodies which apparently circu-
late around these suns; and we would remark, not without real anxi-
ety for the works, the paintings, of the artists of these distant worlds,
that to a day lightened by a red light, succeeds not a night but a day,
equally brilliant, but illuminated only by a green light.

But abandoning these speculations, however worthy they may be of
admiration, we shall come back to the chief question, which I have
proposed to treat in this account, to try, if possible, to establish a con-
nection between the physical nature of the sun and of the stars. We
have succeeded by the help of the polarizing telescope in determining
the nature of the substance which composes the solar photosphere,
because by reason of the great apparent diameter of the orb, we have
been able to observe separately the different points of its circumfer-
ence. If the sun were removed from us toa distance where its diam-
eter would appear as small to us as that of the stars, this method would
be inapplicable, the colored rays proceeding from the different points
of the circumference would then be intimately mixed, and, we have
said already, their mixture would be white. It appears, then, that we
must not apply to stars of imperceptible dimensions, the process which
so satisfactorily conducted us to the result in regard to the sun. ‘There
are, however, some of these stars, which supply us with the means of
investigation. I allude to the changing stars. Astronomers have
remarked some stars whose brilliancy varies considerably ; there are

142 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

even some which, in a very few hours, pass from the second to the
fourth magnitude ; and there are others in which the changes in inten-
sity are much more decided. These stars, quite visible at certain
epochs, totally disappear, to. reappear in periods longer, or shorter,
and subject to slight irregularities. Two explanations of these curious
phenomena present themselves to the mind; the one consists in sup-
posing that the star is not equally luminous on all parts of its surface,
and that it experiences a rotatory movement upon itself; thus it is
brilliant-when the luminous part is turned towards us, and dark when
the obscure portion arrives at the same point. According to the other
hypothesis, an opaque, and, in itself non-luminous satellite, circulates
round the star, and eclipses it periodically. In accordance with one
or the other of these suppositions, the hght which is exhibited some
time before the disappearance, or before the reappearance of the star
has not issued from all points of the circumference. Hence, there can
be no doubt of the complete neutralization of the tints of which we
have just spoken.

If a changing star, when examined by a polarizing telescope remains
perfectly white in all its phases, we may rest assured that its light
emanates from a substance similar to our clouds, or our inflamed gas.
Now, such is the resu!t of the few observations that have been hitherto
made, and which will be highly useful to complete. This means of
investigation demands more care, but succeeds equally well, when
applied to those stars which experience only a partial variation in
their brilliancy. ‘The conclusion to which these observations conduct
us, and which we may, I think, without scruple generalize, may be
announced in these terms; our sun is a star, and its physical constitu-
tion is identical with that of the millions of stars with which the firma-
ment is strewed.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW EYE-PIECE FOR THE SUN, WITH
REMARKS ON SOLAR SPOTS. :

Tue following is a report of some remarks recently made at the
London Astronomical Society, accompanied with the exhibition of a
new solar eye-piece, by the Rev. W. R. Dawes. The principal pecu-
liarity of this eye-piece consists in a metallic slide, with perforations of
different sizes, which crosses the eye-tube at right angles, just at the
focus of the object-glass. There are contrivances, which can easily be
imagined, for rapid manipulation, and though the slide is of course
greatly heated when the sun is viewed, the conduction is cut off by
interposing a plate of ivory. The perforations vary in diameter from
0.5 to 0.0075 of an inch; and, with a small field, single lenses are pre-
ferred to complicated eye-pieces. Mr. Dawes finds that, in general,
apertures which exceed 0.3 inch cannot be safely used for a long time
under a hot sun. Where the usual proportions are retained between
the aperture and focal length of an object-glass (seldom exceeding 1
to 16 in large telescopes,) a focal diaphragm of 0.3 inch transmits a
portion of the sun’s image, the size and heat of which is nearly equiv-

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 143

alent to that of the whole image of the sun in a refractor of thirty-two
inches focal length, and of two inches aperture. This may usually be
employed without injury to the dark glasses, and the field is quite large
enough for sweeping over the sun’s disc in searching for spots or other
phenomena. In careful scrutinies, the suitable aperture must be
employed. In some very large spots, the nuclei alone may thus be
examined, without any disturbance frem the bright surface. “ By this
mode of observation I have ascertained the existence of a stratum of
comparatively faint luminosity, which, as far as I know, has not been
previously noticed. For this I would propose the appellation of the
cloudy stratum. Its appearance gives the impression of considerable
depth below the second luminous stratum which forms the shallow, or
penumbra, usually seen round the nucleus of a spot; and from all the
examinations I have hitherto made, it seems to me probable that it is
not self-luminous, but of such a nature as to absorb a vast quantity of
light, and reflect very little. Its faint illumination is rarely uniform,
presenting rather a mottled or cloudy surface; and occasionally some
small patches are very decidedly more luminous than the rest, though
still incomparably less bright than even the stratum forming the penum-
bra; from which it also differs essentially in being destitute of the
striated or ridged appearance so frequently presented in that stratum.
Tn all spots of considerable size, and in many small ones, a_black
opening is perceivable in the cloudy stratum. In no instance have I
perceived any light in these openings which excéeded the illumination
of the earth’s atmosphere by the sun’s rays. It is obvious that any
degree of light inferior to this cannot be rendered visible by any con-
trivance we can employ; just as the red projections from the sun’s
border cannot be seen except when the solar illumination of our atmos-
phere is nearly extinguished by the intervention of the moon. In
order to obtain a measure of this illumination of the atmosphere, and
to ascertain the limit which it sets to our researches, I have usually
directed the telescope, with a very small field, to the sky close
to the sun’s edge, using the lightest shade of darkening glass
which my eye could comfortably bear. Then, using the same shade,
the telescope is directed with the smallest diaphragm to the dark part
of a large spot. In this way the cloudy stratum will in general become
visible, frequently occupying by far the greater part of what has been
‘hitherto considered the nucleus of the spot, and imagined to be, in fact,
the body of the sun itself. A portion of it, however, will commonly
be found to appear perfectly black, whence we may conclude that, if
luminous at all, it is less so than our own atmosphere when illuminated
by the direct rays of the sun. To this black part only the appellation
of nucleus appears to be strictly applicable. A remarkable instance
of rotatory motion was observed in a spot which was sketched on Jan-
nary 17 and January 23. The rotation was not of the smaller round
the larger portion. The whole spot had rotated round the small black
nucleus.” On examining the surface of the sun carefully, using a
very small field, Mr. Dawes is persuaded that “the apparent rapid
fluctuation of the porous structure is not real, but the effect of dis-
13*

144 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

turbance in our own atmosphere.” Mr. Dawes states his conviction 0
the superiority of large apertures with high powers in viewing the sun.
which this reductiou of the field makes easy. The facule, too, are
seen far better with large apertures, especially when the power is no’
proportionally high. “These are best seen near the east and” wes:
edges of the sun’s disc, where they give the impression of narroy.
ridges, whose sides are there presented to view. They usually he
nearly in the direction of a circle of latitude on the sun’s surface, and
are rarely high enough to be seen as actual projections from his limb.
On one occasion, however, the 22d of January last, [ had an oppor-
tunity of observing a satisfactory confirmation of the idea that they
are ridges, or heapings up of the luminous matter; and as the requisite
circumstances are extremely rare, I will advert more particularly to
the observation. A large bright streak, or facula, was observed to run,
as usual, nearly parallel to the sun’s edge for some distance, and very
near it; and then to turn rather abruptly towards the edge and pass
over it. The limb was at times very well defined; and when it was
most sharp and steady, the bright streak was seen to project slightly
-beyond the smooth outline of the limb, in the manner of a mountain
ridge nearly parallel to the sun’s equator.” This eye-piece was
applied to Mr. Lassell’s 20 foot reflector last September, and the sun
was examined with the whole of the 24 inch mirror. The eye-piece
did not become more than sensibly warm after two hours’ exposure to
a bright sun. Mr. Dawes points out the utility of this contrivance in
examining the surface of the moon, in observing occultations of small
stars, and the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, and in observing or
detecting the faint satellites of planets. By such means, too, Venus
and Mercury may be more pleasantly observed when near the sun;
and, as the author remarks, “to the practised observer such applica-
tions will readily occur,” and need not be here insisted on.

ON THE FORM OF IMAGES PRODUCED BY LENSES AND MIRRORS
OF DIFFERENT SIZES.

A PAPER on theabove subject was read before the British Associa-
tion by Sir David Brewster, the object of which was to show, that the
photographic portraits taken with cameras with large object-glasses or
large mirrors must necessarily be distorted and hideous, as in fact it is
notorious they are; and that hence all persons engaged in this new
and most important art should receive with gratitude any scientifi
discovery which promised to correct so serious a defect — which by
some has been attributed to the imperfection of the lenses employed,
— by others to the unsteadiness of the sitter who is having his portraii
taken, — by others, again, to the constraint of features and limb unde
which he submits to the operation; but it is by all admitted and
deplored. If we consider that the pupil of the human eye is onl)
about 2-10ths of an inch in diameter, it is obvious that the imace.
formed by the eye of those solid objects placed in front of it, and by
which we are accustomed to see them, to judge of them, and to recog:

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 145

nize them, cannot embrace any of the rays of light which come from
those parts of the object which lie in such positions towards the sides,
top, bottom, or hinder parts as cannot pass in straight lines to an aper-
ture of the size of the pupil, — in fact, unless it agree almost exactly
with the exact perspective form of the object, the pupil being the point
of sight. If, then, an object be placed before a lens, the part of the
lens towards its centre of the size of the pupil is capable of forming
a correct image of that object, consisting of rays coming from pre-
cisely the same parts of it as an eye would receive were its pupil in
the same position. But all the parts of the lens or mirror of the same
size which lie around and at a distance from this portion of it, would
receive rays coming from parts of the solid object which the true eye
could not receive, and which must therefore form as many unnatural
images as there were such parts; and the photographic picture which
embraces and confounds into one hideous mass all these, any one of
which by itself would be correct, must in the very nature of things
give a most confused and displeasing representation of the object.
Sir David illustrated and proved these assertions by a diagram of a
lens with a simple solid form, a cylinder topped by a cone behind,
placed in front of the lens, pemting out the parts which alone could
be embraced in acorrect perspective view of it, and what parts the
large lens or mirror would moreover receive and transmit rays from,
to be jumbled in the photographic picture with that which would alone
give a correct idea of the object as seen. He showed from the now
familiar illustration afforded by the binocular stereoscope, how very
dissimilar were the pictures of the same object received by small
lenses placed as near as the two pupils of the human eye; mages se
distinct that a child could readily distinguish them ; and yet multitudes
of such images were all received and jumbled together in those pho:
tographic pictures where lenses or mirrors of that or larger— say
three or four inches— aperture were used. ‘The photographer,
therefore,” said Sir David Brewster, ‘“ who has a genuine interest in
the perfection of his art will, by accelerating the photographic pro-
cesses with the aid of more sensitive materials, be able to make use of
lenses of very small aperture, and thus place his art in a higher posi-
tion than that which it has yet attamed. The photographer, on the
contrary, whose interests bribe him to forswear even the truths of
science, will continue to deform the youth and beauty that may in
ignorance repair to his studio, adding scowls and wrinkles to the noble
forms of manhood, and giving to a fresh and vigorous age the aspects
of departing or departed life.” He then produced an exact diagram
of photographic images of a simple object produced by Mr. Buckle of
Peterborough. The acting diameter of the lens was 33 inches; ang
by using it with all covered, except a central space of 2-10ths of an
inch diameter, and then along with this space exposing circular spacer
of the same size towards the outer circumference of the aperture, the
effect of the combination of the marginal pictures was most distinctly
exhibited and demonstrated, by halos extending round the true image,
and the sharp cross lines ruled on the object and shown in the image

146 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

with the small lens, but all confused in that with the surrounding
apertures.

ON THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF A RECENTLY DISCOVERED SALT
OF QUININE.

THE above is the title of a paper read before the British Associa-
tion, Belfast, by Prof. Stokes. The salt referred to is stated by Dr.
Herapath, to be easily formed by dissolving bi-sulphate of quinme in
warm acetic acid, adding a few drops of a solution of iodine in alco-
hol, and allowing the liquid to cool; when the salt crystallizes in thin
scales, reflecting (while immersed in the fluid,) a green light with a
metallic lustre. When taken out of the fluid the crystals are yellow-
ish green by reflected light, with a metallic aspect. The following
observations were made with small crystals formed in this manner:
— The crystals possess in an eminent degree the property of polariz-
ing light, so that Dr. Herapath proposed to employ them instead of
tourmalines, for which they would form an admirable substitute, could
they be obtained in sufficient size. They appear to belong to the pris-
matic system; at any rate, they are symmetrical (so far as relates to
their optical properties and to the directions of their lateral faces,)
with respect to two rectangular planes perpendicular to the scales.
These planes will here be called respectively the principal plane of
the length, and the principal plane of the breadth, the crystals being
usually longest in the direction of the former plane. When the crys-
tals are viewed by light directly transmitted, which is either polarized
before incidence or analyzed after transmission, so as to retain only
light polarized in one of the principal planes, it is found that with
respect to light polarized in the principal plane of the length the crys-
tals are transparent and nearly colorless, —at least when they are as
thin as those which are usually formed by the method above men-
tioned But with respect to light polarized in the principal plane of
the breadth, the thicker crystals are perfectly black, the thinner ones
only transmitting light, which is of a deep red color. When the crys-
tals are examined by light reflected at the smallest angle with which
the observation is practicable, and the reflected light is analyzed, so
as to retain, — first, light polarized in the principal plane of the length,
and secondly, light polarized in the other principal plane, — it is found
that in the first case the crystals have a vitreous lustre, and the
reflected light is colorless, while in the second case the light is yellow-
ish green, and the crystals have a metallic lustre. When the plane of
incidence is the principal plane of the length, and the angle of inci-
dence is increased from 0° to 90°, the part of the reflected pencil
which is polarized in the plane of incidence undergoes no remarkable
change, except perhaps that the lustre becomes somewhat metallic.
When the part which is polarized in a plane perpendicular to the
former is examined, it is found that the crystals have angle of polari-
zation, the reflected light never vanishing, but only changing its color,
passing from yellowish green, which it was at first, toa deep steel

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 147

blue, which color it assumes at a considerable angle of incidence.
When the light reflected in the principal plane of the breadth is
examined in a similar manner, the pencil which is polarized in the
plane of incidence undergoes no remarkable change, continuing to
have the appearance of being reflected from a metal, while the other
or colorless pencil vanishes at a certain angle and afterwards reap-
pears, so that in this plane the crystals have a polarizing angle. If,
then, for distinction’s sake, we call the two pencils which the crystals,
as belonging to a doubly refracting medium, transmit independently
of each other, ordinary and extraordinary, the former being that
which is transmitted with little loss, we may say, speaking approxima-
tively, that the medium is transparent with respect to the ordinary
ray, and opaque with respect to the extraordinary; while as regards
reflection, the crystals have the properties of a transparent medium or
of a metal according as the refracted ray is the ordinary or the extra-
ordinary. If common light merely be used, both refracted pencils
are produced, and the corresponding reflected pencils are mixed
together ; but by analyzing the reflected light, by means of a Nicol’s
prism, the reflected pencils may be viewed separately, — at least when
the observations are confined to the principal planes. The crystals are
no doubt biaxal, and the pencils here called ordinary and extraor-
dinary are those which in the lancuage of theory correspond to differ-
ent sheets of the wave surface. The reflecting properties of the
crystals may be embraced in one view, by regarding the medium as
not only doubly refracting and doubly absorbing, but doubly metallic.
The metallicity, so to speak, of the medium of course alters continu-
ously with the point of the wave surface to which the pencil consid-
ered belongs, and doubtless is not mathematically null even for the
ordinary ray. If the reflection be really of a metallic nature, it ought
to produce a relative change in the phases of vibration of light. polar-
ized in and perpendicularly to the plane of incidence. This conclu-
sion the author has verified by means of the effect produced on the
rings of calcareous spar. Since the crystals were too small for indi-
vidual examination in this experiment, the observation was made with
a mass of scales deposited on a flat black surface, and arranged at
random as regards the azimuth of their principal planes. The direc-
tion of the change is the same as in the case of a metal, and accord-
ingly the reverse of that which is observed in total internal reflection.
In the case of the extraordinary pencil the crystals are least opaque
with respect to red light, and accordingly they are less metallic with
respect to red light than to light of higher refrangibility. "This is
shown by the green color of the reflected light when the crystals are
immersed in fluid; so that the reflection which they exhibit as a trans-
parent medium is in a good measure destroyed. The author has
examined the crystals for a change of refrangibility, and found that
they do not exhibit it. Safflower red, which possesses metallic optical
properties, does change the refrangibility of a portion of the incident
light ; but the yellowish green light which this substance reflects is
really due to its metallicity, and not to the change of refrangibility,

148 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

for the light emitted from the latter cause is red, besides which it is
totally different in other respects from regularly reflected light. In
conclusion, the author observed that the general fact of the reflection
of colored polarized pencils had been discovered by Sir David Brews-
ter in the case of chrysammate of potash; and in a subsequent com-
munication he had noticed in the case of other crystals the difference
of effect depending upon the azimuth of the plane of incidence.
Accordingly, the object of the present communication was merely to
point out the intimate connection which exists (at least in the case of
the salt of quinine,) between the colored reflection, the double absorp-
tion, and the metallic properties of the medium.

Specimens of Sensitive Media were exhibited by Prof. Stokes.
These were : — A crystal of green fluor spar, which, by the develop-
ment of blue light within it, changed its color ;— the solution of the
common bi-sulphate of quinine in acidulated water, which, by its
action on the invisible rays developed blue light; and the solution of
the green coloring matter of leaves in alcohol, which by a similar
action became blood red.

PROF. STOKES’ RESEARCHES ON LIGHT.

Tue researches of Prof. Stokes took their origin from an unex-
plained phenomenon discovered by Sir John Herschel, and communi-
cated by him to the Royal Society in 1845. A solution of sulphate
of quinme examined by transmitted light, and held between the eye
and the light, or between the eye and a white object, appears almost
as transparent and colorless as water; but when viewed in certain
aspects and under certain incidences of light, exhibits an extremely
vivid and beautiful celestial blue color. This color was shown by Sir
John Herschel to result from the action of the strata which the light
first penetrates on entering the liquid; and the dispersion of light
producing it was named by him epipolic dispersion, from the circum-
stance that it takes place near the surface by which the light enters.
A beam of light having passed through the solution was to all appear-
ance the same as before its entrance; nevertheless, it was found to
have undergone some mysterious modification,—for an epipolized
beam of light—meaning thereby a beam which had once been trans-
nutted through a quiniferous solution, and had experienced its disper-
sive action—is incapable of further epipolic dispersion. In speculating
on the possible nature of epipolized light, Prof. Stokes was led to
conclude that it could only be light which had been deprived of certain
invisible rays which in the process of dispersion had changed their
refrangibility and had thereby become visible. The truth of this
supposition, novel and surprising as it at first appeared, has been con-
firmed by a series of simple and perfectly decisive experiments ;
showing that it is in fact the chemical rays of the spectrum, more
refrangible than the violet, and invisible in themselves, which produce
the blue superficial light in the quiniferous solution. Prof. Stokes has
traced this principle through a great range of analogous phenomena,

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 149

including those noticed by Sir David Brewster in his papers on “ In-
ternal Dispersion ;’ and has distinguished between “cases of false
internal dispersion,” or “ opalescence,” in which the luminous rays are
simply reflected from fine particles held in mechanical solution in the
medium, and those of “true internal dispersion,” or “ fluorescence,”
as it is termed by Prof. Stokes. By suitable methods of observation
the change of refrangibility was detected, as produced not only by
transparent fluids and solids, but also by opaque substances; and the
class of media exhibiting “fluorescence ” was found to be very large,
consisting chiefly of organic substances, but comprehending, though
more rarely, some mineral bodies. The direct application of the fact,
as we now understand it, to many highly interesting and important
purposes, is obvious almost on the first announcement. The facility
with which the highly refrangible invisible rays of the spectrum may
be rendered visible by being passed through a solution of sulphate of
quinine or other sensitive medium, affords peculiar advantages for the
study of those rays; the fixed lines of the invisible part of the solar
spectrum may now be exhibited to our view at pleasure. The con-
stancy with which a particular mode of changing the refrangibility of
light attaches to a particular substance, exhibiting itself independently
of the admixture of other substances, supplies a new method of analysis
for organic compounds which may prove valuable in organic chemistry.

DOVE’S THEORY OF LUSTRE.

Smr Davip Brewster, at the British Association, explained the
theory of Dove respecting the origin of lustre, which was, that the
lustre of bodies and particularly the metallic lustre arose from the
light coming from the one stratum of the superficial particles of bodies
interfering on the eye with the light coming from other and deeper
strata,—the regular symmetrical arrangement of the particles in these
bodies producing effects somewhat analogous to that of mother-of
pearl. But the opinion which Sir David himself seemed to incline to,
was, that since we know from the phenomena of very thin metallic
leaves that lights of very different colors are transmitted through strata
of different kinds of matter and of different thicknesses, and since
from the different refrangibility of lights of these colors, the same lens
will not bring them to a focus at the same distance,—metallic lustre
was caused by the effort used to accommodate the eye to the distinct
vision of these colors.

ART OF SEEING THE INTERIOR OF THE EYE BY THE EYE ITSELF.

Tue following paragraph has recently been published in several.
journals, relative to a discovery said to have been made by M.
Andraud, an eminent French engineer.

“Some attention has been excited by the alleged discovery, by a
French engineer of some celebrity named Andraud, of some means of
seeing the air. If, says he, you take a piece of card, colored black, of

150 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the size of the eye, and pierce with a fine needle a hole in the middle,
you will, on looking through that hole at a clear sky or a lighted lamp,
see a multitude of molecules floating about ; which molecules consti-
tute the air. We shall see whether the theory will obtain the sanction
of the Academy of Sciences, to which it has been submitted.”

An ingenious writer in the New Orleans Delta, who has given this
subject much attention, has published the following communication.
The atomic globules which were rendered visible to M. Andraud, by
means of the perforated card, are not wrial molecules. I have been,
for some months past, familiar with this interesting experment. The
beautiful globules seen by means of the hole in the card are the atomic
colorless globes which constitute the crystalline fluid within the eye.
M. Andraud supposes they are external and in the air, when the truth
is they are internal and within the chamber of the eye.

The experiment may be tried, and the fact verified by any person,
in the following manner: Take a thick visiting-card and black it with
ink, or a piece of pasteboard opaque enough to forbid the transmission
of light through it, and perforate the center with a pin-hole. Place
the card between the eye and a candle-flame, or a globe-lamp, and not
more than two inches from the eye, and the same distance from the
light; but this distance will vary according to the convexity or flatness
of the seer’s eye, who must adjust it till he finds his focus. Instead of
seeing the flame of the candle, the beholder now discerns a circular
disc the size of the iris of the eye. This dise is bright and planet-like,
and is crossed by innumerable lines like the fibres visible on the sur-
face of a magnified rose-leaf. It appears to be beyond the eye, between
the card and the light; and it is this illusion which deceived M.
Andraud, and led him to suppose that he saw a portion of the atmos-
phere magnified. But this visible disc is, in fact, a spherical section
of the fluidal crystalline lens within the chamber of the eye, strongly”
illumined by the concentrated pencil of light, passing from the candle
into it through the minute hole in the card; and the veined appear-
ance of its surface is the reticulated materia of the ordinarily transpa-
rent coat of the cornea rendered visible. The chamber of the eye
thus lighted up by the intense line of light passing into it through the
minute orifice, (which acts as a strongly magnifying lens,) there is
conveyed to the optic nerve an image (exactly the size of the pupil
through which the ray passes) of a circular section of the crystalline
fluid, with its atomic particles intensely magnified. The spectacle is
one of surpassing wonder and beauty. Myriads of illuminated mole-
cules distinctly appear in tremulous motion in the bright fluid; some
of them are simple globes, others are encircled by two or more con-
centric rings like exquisite miniatures of the planet Saturn, as seen
through a telescope. Some of them are transparent, like infinitely
small soap bubbles, and float about as lightly, while others are of the
white color of pearls.

By contracting the eye, or by gently moving the head from side to
side, these beautiful millions of globular atoms are made to undulate
within the chamber of the eye, and change places, some ascending and

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 151

others descending; while others thrown nearer the focus of the light,
dart across the dise like shooting stars in a lesser firmanent; while
others revolve about each other in orbits of infinite diversity. The
experiment is a highly interesting as well as a philosophical one, and
will well recompense whoever attempts it. It will require some prac-
tice in a tyro to adjust the card to the proper focus, so as to obtain
the clearest disc ; but any one who knows how to use a microscope
will easily discover when the card is in focus. If the flame of the
candle is seen through it it is out of focus, and it must be advanced or
drawn back until a round planet-like shape is discernible. This
planet-like shape, which will appear crossed by a net-work, is the
cornea coating of the eye magnified. The pupil of the eye must now
be expanded, as when one examines closely a very minute object,
when the atomic world of globules that compose the crystalline fiuid
will be discerned behind the net-work surface of the cornea; and the
steadier one gazes, the clearer is this wonderful and beautiful spectacle
perceived in all its surprising variety of fotm, beauty, and motion.

A better medium than the card proposed by M. Andraud I have
used in making this experiment. It is a small lens, (the eye-piece of
a broken spy-glass,) with an inch and a half focus. This held toa
solar lamp or candle, at six feet distance, or turned towards the full
moon, (which is better still,) the chamber of the eye is far more
intensely illumined than by means of the perforated card. The lens
of ordinary magnifying spectacles will serve equally as well as the
eye-piece named, by covering the surface with opaque paper, having
in the center a clear space to transmit the light throughout into the
pupil of the eye.

A writer in the National Intelligencer remarks upon the above
described experiment as follows: The best manner of detecting the
globules is with a lens; though the perforated hole shows an interest-
ing spectacle. The iris of the eye is also superbly magnified and
rendered beautifully visible with two lenses, a small and a large one,
placed five feet apart; the larger one directed to the moon or a lamp,
and looking at it with the smaller (inch focus) placed close to the eye.
Indeed, the experiments may be varied so as to produce the finest
effects, at once novel and beautiful. Next to a telescopic view of the
heavens, I know nothing in science so interesting and at the same
ee so simple as this “seeing the interior of the eye” with the eye
itself.

HARMONY OF COLOR IN DRESS.

A CORRESPONDENT of the London Art Journal, in treating upon
the subject of dress, says that “the optical effect of @ark and black
dresses is to make the figure appear smaller, hence it is a suitable
color for stout persons; black shoes diminish the apparent size of the
feet. On the contrary white and light-colored dresses make persons
appear larger. Large patterns make the figure look shorter, longitu-
dinal stripes, if not too wide, add to the height of the figure, horizontal

14 ;

152 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

stripes have a contrary effeet, and are very ungraceful. Incongruity
may be frequently observed in the adoption of colors without reference
to their accordance with the complexion of the wearer, as a light blue
bonnet and flowers surrounding a sallow countenance, or a pink
opposed to glowing red; a pale complexion associated with a canary
or lemon-yellow, or one of delicate red and white rendered almost
colorless by the vicinity of a deep red. If the lady with the sallow
complexion had worn a transparent white bonnet ; or if the lady with
the glowing red complexion had lowered it by means of a bonnet of
deeper red color; if the pale lady had improved the cadaverous hue
of her countenance by surrounding it with pale green, which, by
contrast, would have suffused it with a delicate pink hue; or had the
face of delicate red and white been arrayed in a light blue, or light
green, or in a transparent white bonnet, with blue or pink flowers on
the inside—how different and how much more agreeable would have
been the impression of the spectator! In general the broken and
semi-neutral colors are productive of an excellent effect in dress.
They may be enlivened by a little positive color, but the contrasting
color should bear but a small proportion to the mass of principal color.
A blue bonnet and dress may be contrasted with an orange colored
shawl, but the blue to contrast the orange must be of a very deep
tone; a pink bonnet may be worn with a green dress, but the hue of
each should be carefully assorted according to their exact contrast.
Colored shawls are instances in which a great variety of colors may
be arranged with harmonious and rich effect. It is always necessary
that if one part of the dress be highly ornamented or consist of various
colors, a portion should be plain, to give repose to the eye. The
French manufacturers pay great attention to this subject, and the
good effects of this study are visible in the textile fabrics which are so
highly valued.”

THE PSEUDOSCOPE.

A NEW instrument, contrived by Mr. Wheatstone, of London, for
producing the conversion of the relief of any solid to which it is
directed, 1s called the Pseudoscope, as it conveys to the mind false
perceptions of all external objects. It consists of two reflecting prisms,
placed on a frame, with adjustments, so that, when applied to the eyes,
each eye may separately see the reflected image of the projection
which usually falls on that eye. This is not the case when the reflec-
tion of an object is seen in a mirror; for then, not only are the pro-
jections separately reflected, but they are also transposed from one
eye to the other, and therefore the conversion of relief does not take
place. The psendoscope being directed td an object, and adjusted so
that the object shall appear of its proper size and at its usual distance,
the distances of all other objects are inverted; all nearer objects
appear more distant, and all more distant objects nearer. ‘The con-
version of relief of an object consists in the transposition of the
distances of the points which compose it. With the pseudoscope we

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 193

have a glance, as it were, into another visible world, in which external
objects and our internal perceptions have no longer their habitual
relations with each other. Among the remarkable illusions it occasions,
the following are mentioned :—The inside of a tea-cup appears a solid
convex body; the effect is more striking if there are painted figures
within the cup. A china vase, ornamented with colored flowers in
relief, appears to be a vertical section of the interior of the vase, with
painted hollow impressions of the flowers. A small terrestrial globe
appears a concave hemisphere; when the globe is turned on its axis,
the appearance and disappearance of different portions of the map on
its concave surface has a very singular effect. A bust regarded in
front becomes a deep hollow mask; when regarded en profile, the
appearance is equally striking. A framed picture hung against a
wall appears as if imbedded in a cavity made in the wall. An object
placed before the wall of a room, appears behind the wall, and as if an
aperture of the proper dimensions had been made to allow it to be
seen; if the object be illuminated by a candle, its shadow appears as
far before the object as it actually is behind it.

BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE.

Tue following notice of a new form of microscope, is taken from
the New Orleans Medical Register. “At a meeting of the Medical
Society, Oct. 1852, Prof. J. L. Riddell called the attention of the
society to an instrument of his own invention and manufacture, which
promises to be of incalculable advantage in microscopic researches,
especially in the prosecution of microscopic anatomy and physiology.

“He remarked that he last year contrived, and had lately constructed
and used, a combination of glass prisms, to render both eyes serviceable
in microscopic observation. The plan is essentially as follows: Behind
the objective, and as near thereto as practicable, the light is equally
divided, and bent at right angles and made to travel in opposite direc-
tions, by means of two rectangular prisms, which are in contact by
their edges, that are somewhat ground away. ‘The reflected rays are
received ata proper distance for binocular vision upon two other
rectangular prisms, and again bent at right angles, being thus either
completely inverted, for an inverted microscope, or restored to their
original direction. These outer prisms may be cemented to the inner,
by means of Canada balsam; or left free to admit of adjustment to suit
different observers. Prisms of other form, with due arrangement, may
be substituted.

“This method proves, according to Prof. Riddell’s testimony, equally
applicable to every grade of good lenses, from Spencer’s best sixteenth,
to a common three-inch magnifier, with or without oculars or erecting
eye-pieces, and with a great enhancement of penetrating and defining
power. It gives the observer perfectly correct views, in length, »
breadth and depth, whatever power he may employ ; objects are seen
holding their true relative positions, and wearing their real shapes.
In looking at solid bodies, however, depressions sometimes appear as

154 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

elevations, and vice versa, forming a curious illusion; for instance, a
metal spherule may appear like a glass ball silvered on the under side,
and the margin of a wafer may seem to ascend from the water into the
air.

With this instrument the microscopic dissecting knife can be
exactly guided. The watchmaker and artist can work under the
binocular eye-glass with certainty and satisfaction. In looking at
microscopic animal tissues, the single eye may perhaps behold a con-
fused amorphous, or nebulous mass, which the pair of eyes instantly
shape into delicate superimposed membranes, with intervening spaces,
the thickness of which can be correctly estimated. Blood corpuscles,
usually seen as flat discs, loom out as oblate spheroids. Prof. R.
asserted, in short, that the whole microscopic world could thus be
exhibited i in a new light, acquir ing a ten-fold greater interest, display-
ing in every phase, a perfection “of beauty and symmetry jndeseri-

bable.”

GIGANTIC TELESCOPE.

A NEW and gigantic telescope, rivalling that constructed by Lord
Rosse, is now erecting upon Wandsworth Common, by Mr. Gravatt,
for the Rey. Mr. Craig. It consists of a plain tower, with a long tube
slung at its side. The tower, consisting of brick, is 64 feet in height,
15 feet in diameter. Every precaution has been taken in the con-
struction of this building, to prevent the slightest vibration; but, if
any disappointment in this respect should arise, additional weight can
be obtained by loading the several floors, and the most perfect steadi-
ness will be thus insured. By the side of this sustaining tower hangs
the telescope. The length of the main tube, which is shaped some-
what like a cigar, is 76 feet; but with an eye-piece at the narrow
end, and a dew-cap at the other, the total length in use will be 85
feet. The design of the dew-cap is to prevent obscuration by the
condensation of moisture which takes .place during the night, when
the instrument is most in use. Its exterior is of “bright metal, the
interior is painted black. The focal distance will vary from 76 to 85
feet. The tube at its greatest circumference measures 13 feet, and
this part is about 24 feet from the object-glass. The determination of
this point was the result of repeated experiments and minute and
careful calculations. It was essential to the object in view that there
should not be the slightest vibration in the instrument. Mr. Gravatt,
reasoning from analogy, applied the principle of harmonic progression
to the perfecting of an instrument for extending the range of vision,
and thus aiding astronomic research. By _ his improvements, the
vibration at one vend of the tube is neutralized by that at the other,
and the result is, that the utmost steadiness and precision are attained.
The ironwork of the tube was manufactured by Messrs. Rennie,
under the direction of Mr. Gravatt. ‘The object-glasses are also of
English construction, and throw a curious light on the manner in
which an enlightened commercial policy has reacted upon and pro-

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 155

moted the advancement of science. Up toa recent period, the flint
glass for achromatic telescopes was entirely of foreign manufacture.
Since the reduction in the duty, great improvements have been made
in this department. The making of the large flint glass was intrusted
to Mr. Chance, of Birmingham, who at first hesitated to manufacture
one larger than 9 inches in diameter. On being urged, however,
by Mr. Craig, he succeeded in producing one of 24 inches; perfeetly
clear, and homogeneous in structure. Besides this, there is a second
of plate glass of the same dimensions, cast by the Thames Plate Glass
Company. ‘The tube rests upon a light wooden framework, with iron
wheels attached, and is fitted to a circular iron railway at a distance
of 52 feet from the centre of the tower. The chain by which it is
lowered is capable of sustaining a weight of 13 tons, though the
weight of the tube is only 3. Notwithstanding the immense size of
the instrument, the machinery is such that it can move either in azi-
muth, or up to an altitude of 80°, with as much ease and rapidity as
an ordinary telescope, and, from the nature of the mechanical arrange-
ments, with far greater certainty as to results. The slightest force
applied to the wheel on the iron rail, causes the instrument to move
horizontally round the central tower, while a wheel at the right hand
of the observer enables him to elevate or depress the object-glass with
the greatest precision and facility. With respect to the magnifying

ower of this novel instrument, it is only necessary to state that,
though the focus is not so sharp as it will be shortly, it has already
separated the nebulz in the same way as Lord Rosse’s. It has also
separated some of the double stars in the Great Bear, and shown dis-
tinctly a clear distance of 50° or 60° between them, with several
other stars occupying the intervening space. Ordinary readers will
better understand the extraordinasy magnifying power of the tele-
scope, when we inform them that by it a quarter-inch letter can be
read at the distance of half a mile.

The London Observer furnishes the following additional particulars
relative to the power of this new instrument; it says: —“ It has been
already ascertamed, that, as a measuring instrument, or for penetrat-
ing space, its powers are unapproachable by all other instruments. It
separates minute points of light so distinctly, that its qualifications as
a discovering telescope must be extremely valuable. It resolves the
milky way, not simply into beautiful and brilliant star-dust, to use the
Janeuage of astronomers, but subdivides this ‘dust’ into regular
constellations, showing counterparts of the Orion, the Great Bear,
and the other brilliant galaxies of our system, adorned, in addition,
with the most varied and gorgeous colors. The lenses are so perfectly
achromatic, that the planet Saturn appears of milk-like whiteness ;
and, as regards this planet, a good deal of scientific interest has been
recently attached to it, in consequence of the distinguished American
astronomer, Bond, of the Cambridge Observatory, Massachusetts,
having stated he believed he saw a third ring or belt round the planet.
Professor Challis brought the Northumberland telescope at Cambridge
to bear upon it, og failed in discovering it. Lord Rosse’s gigantic

14 j

156 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

telescope was also employed upon it in vain; and it became a matter
of great interest to the astronomical world, to ascertain whether there
was a third ring or not; and this question has been solved by the
Craig telescope ; the third ring, ofa clear, brilliant gray color, having
been distinctly seen. This is owing to the -great quantity of light
which the Wandsworth telescope brings to the eye of the observer
from this planet, giving a bright appearance to what, in an instrument
of less power, would have been completely invisible.

“Some idea of its powers may be formed from the fact, that it mag-
nifies the light of the moon 40,000 times; and in coarse objects, like
the outlines of the lunar mountains and the craters, the whole of these
rays may be allowed to pass at once to the focal point, as they do not
in such objects confuse it in any appreciable degree. In the Craig
telescope, the moon is a most magnificent object, and perfectly color-
less, enabling the beholder to trace the outlines of the various
mountain ranges with such vivid distinctness as to make us long for
fine clear weather, in order to bring the whole powers of this marvel-
lous instrument upon our satellite. It is positively asserted that of a
favorable evening, if there was a building or object of the size of
Westminster Abbey in the moon, the whole of its parts and propor-
tions would be distinctly revealed. As an illustration of its space-pen-
etrating powers, and the manner in which it grasps in the lght, it may
be stated, that soon after it was erected it was directed to a test object,
a minute speck of light in one of the constellations, which is not to be
seen at all times by the most excellent instruments, though guided by
first rate observers, and in profound darkness. The Craig telescope
at once discovered that this test object was not a minute speck of
light, but a brilliant double star. As soon as it is finally adjusted, Mr.
Craig proposes to direct the instrument to the planet Venus, to exam-
ine it minutely, in the hope that he may be able to settle the question
of whether she has a satellite or not. We need not say what an
advantage the solution of this fact would be to science.

“ But wonderful as are the effects of this telescope, it is not yet
perfect, and it has been found that a part of one of the lenses is too
flat by about the five-thousandth part of an inch! To many it may
appear incredible that the five-thousandth part of an inch ean be
estimable so as to be appreciable and measured; but the indistinct-
ness of a portion of the image revealed the fact. The rays of light
which fall upon that part of the lens go beyond the focal length, and
render the object indistinct, and confuse the image. This portion of
the lens has to be “stopped out” when extraordinary accuracy of -
definition is required ; as, for instance, in observing so fine a point
as the third ring of Saturn; and, as the aperture is so large, the
absence of this small portion of the rays is not important, the quan-
tity of light being so great. It was at first feared that the attempt to
correct this defect might produce the inconvenience of over correct-
ing it, and produce an error on the other side; but Mr. Gravatt has
devised a plan by which the lens, which was polished in the first
instance by four workmen, may now be repolished by machinery upon

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Loy

such accurate mathematical principles as will prevent the possibility
of error. The machinery is somewhat similar to that by which the
reflector of Lord Rosse’s gigantic telescope was polished, with the
difference, that, the reflector being concave, and the Craig lenses
convex, the machinery will act reversely.” r

The Observer states the following additional facts of an interesting
character, relative to the improvements made by the two scientific
gentlemen above named, the benefits of which will perhaps be even
more widely extended than those resulting from the single instrument
already perfected. ‘“ Not the least of the benefits which Mr. Craig
has conferred upon astronomical science, is the practical demonstra-
tion of the fact, that achromatic telescopes of this vast size and extra-
ordinary range, may be constructed at a@ comparatively small cost,
thus doing away with the necessity for the more expensive and elabo-
rate arrangements required for the great reflecting telescopes. The
simple and effective mechanism devised by Mr. Gravatt is another
illustration of the advance we have made in the mechanical arts, and
fully justifies the soundness of the judgment evinced by Mr. Craig
in his selection of an engineer.”

TRAVELLER’S CAMERA.

Mr. Fox Taxsor publishes the following description of a portable
photographic apparatus arranged by him, and called “ The Traveller’s
Camera.”

He says: I first mount the camera itself upon a board of its own
breadth, but two or three inches longer than it. I then make a kind
of table, or support, beneath the surface of which are sunk or con-
cealed three troughs, which are retained in fixed positions. One of
these is intended to hold a solution of nitrate of silver; the second,

’ either a solution of gallic acid, or sulphate of iron; and the third,

water. The usual paper holder is dispensed with, but instead of it
there is a simple frame, to which a sheet of paper or a pane of glass
ean be attached from behind, and taken away again, while the frame
remains in the camera. The upper part of the frame carries a long
handle, passing through the lid of the camera, which may either stand
upright, or, if it be jointed, it can be folded down on the camera.
When the camera is placed on its table, or support, it can move upon
it in one direction only, backward and forward, being confined to
that motion by two parallel strips of wood, upon which are placed
certain marks corresponding to a mark upon the camera, indicating
that when either of these marks are brought into union, then the
paper holding frame of the camera is in a vertical line over the centre
of one of the troughs. Now, when the photographer sets out of a
morning upon his excursion, he carries with him two boxes, one con-
taining the plates of glass (or the sheets of iodized paper) he intends
to use, which of course may be freely exposed to light, not being in a
sensitive state; and the other box to hold the pictures which he
expects to make. When arrived at the scene of action, the modus

158 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

operandi is this: having first filled the troughs with their respective
liquids, the camera is placed upon its table or support, and this again
upon a stand which is usually required to give it a due elevation from
the ground. The camera is pointed at the object, and a sheet of
ground glass is placed in the frame from behind, to obtain the focus,
and is then removed, and a sheet of prepared iodized paper, or a
plate of iodized glass (which of course must not be at all sensitive) is
put in its place. A door is then shut at the back of the camera,
which places the prepared paper of glass in the dark. ‘The camera is
then moved on its support to the mark indicating the trough of nitrate
of silver. The object-glass of the camera is then closed. The ope-
rator then takes hold of the frame by its handle, and pushes it down
into the trough below, which he is enabled to do by reason of a narrow
slit in the bottom of the camera, which allows a passage. He then
draws it up again immediately. He then opens the object-glass of the
camera, and after a due time closes it again. He then moves the
camera on its support to the mark indicating gallic acid, or sulphate
of iron. He then, as before, pushes the frame down and lifts it up
again, either immediately or after a due length of time. He then, in
a similar way, drops the frame into and out of the trough of water.
He then opens the door at the back of the camera, and takes out and
examines the picture he has obtained, which for that purpose he may
freely expose to the light. If not satisfied with it, he tries again, cor-
recting his process by his first experience. But if he is satisfied with
his picture, he deposits it in his box. It is not yet quite finished, but
the finishing process is deferred without inconvenience until after his
return in the evening. In practice, I find that this simple arrange-
ment works delightfully, and I should be glad to be allowed to name
it the Traveller’s Camera.”

ON THE SOLAR AGENCY PRODUCING CHEMICAL CHANGE.

From Mr. Hunt’s late work on Photography, we copy the following
passage relative to the solar agency, which produces the chemical
change.

“The operation of the antagonistic forces of light is somewhat
remarkably shown over different regions of the earth. Advancing
from our own lands towards the tropics, it is found that the difficulties
of obtaining pictures by the solar influences increase; and, under the
action of the glowing light of equatorial climes, a much longer period
is required for impressing a photograph, than is occupied in the pro-
cess either in London or Paris. It has been stated by Dr. Draper,
that in his progress from New York to the Southern States, he found
the space protected from chemical change by the yellow rays regularly
increasing. ‘The same result is apparent in the differences between
the spring and summer. Usually m April and March photographs
are more readily obtained, than in June and July. It is worthy of
notice, that the morning sun, between the hours of eight and twelve,
produces much better effects than can be obtained after the hour of

rt =

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 159

noon; this was observed at a very early period by Daguerre. For
drawings by application, this is but slightly, if at all, felt, but with the
camera it is of some consequence to attend to this fact. We are not
yet in a position to record more than the fact— the cause of the dif-
ference is not yet determined; probably it may be found to exist in a
greater absorptive action of the atmosphere, caused by the elevation
of aqueous vapor from the earth. But the experiments of M. Mala-
guti seem to imply the contrary, this philosopher having found that
the chemical rays permeate water more readily than they do air;
some experiments of my own, however, are not in accordance with
M. Malaguti’s results. In the neighborhood of large towns it might
be accounted for by the circumstance of the air becoming, during the
day, more and more impregnated with coal smoke, &c., which offers
very powerful interruption to the free passage of the chemical rays.
This will, however, scarcely account for the same interference being
found to exist in the open country, some miles from any town. Until
our meteorological observers adopt a system of registering the varia-
tions of light and actinic power by means of some well devised instru-
ment, we cannot expect to arrive at any very definite results.”

IMPROVEMENTS IN PHOTOGRAPHY.

PHOTOGRAPHY has made rapid progress during the last two years,
especially in the mode of operating on paper and glass. ‘To M. Niepcee
must be accorded the merit of having contributed to the perfecting of
this art, by his beautiful discovery of the process of albumen on glass.
Proofs have been obtained by this means, which, for beauty of design,
clearness and fineness of detail, leave nothing to be desired. There
are, however, serious inconveniences attendant upon this process.
The length of exposure in the camera necessary for obtaining an
image, has hitherto compelled us to limit its application to landscapes
and architecture, and renounce its employmentin portraiture. These
difficulties have at last been overcome by Mr. Bingham, of London,
who substitutes a layer of collodion instead of the albumen of M.
Niepce. ‘This process, it is stated, rivals in beauty the albumenized
plate, and even surpasses the daguerreotype in sensibility to light.
The manner of operating with collodion resembles, in many respects,
the albumen process, and no operator accustomed to the manipulations
of the albumen on glass, can fail to succeed with collodion. The
details of the process are described at length by Mr. Bingham, in. the
Comptes Rendus of May, 1852, and in the London Chemist for July,
1852.

Photographs on Glass. — According to a process described by M.
Pucker, in the Archiv der Pharm. \xix., a thin film of iodide of sul-
phur is formed upon plate glass, by covering the glass, which must be
perfectly clean, with a very thin coating of sulphur, and then impreg-
nating this’ for a few seconds with the vapor of iodine. The glass
plate is then placed in the camera, where at the same time the vapor
of some quicksilver in an iron cup in the bottom of the camera, acts

160 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

upon the iodide of sulphur with which it is coated, and it receives the
photographic image within a minute. The glass plate, when taken
out of the camera, only exhibits a trace of the picture, but this
immediately comes out on exposure to the action of the vapor of bro-
mine. If the picture be now held over alcohol, and some of the same
liquid be poured upon it, it will be fixed.

The glass plates must be breathed upon and well rubbed with a soft
linen rag several times before use. ‘They are coated with sulphur by
burring sulphur sticks, made on purpose, ina proper tube, and hold-
ing the plates over it at a distance of about three inches. These
sulphur sticks are prepared by dipping pieces of rush pith into a
melted mixture of sulphur and mastic, with which they become
incrusted. For use, these sulphur sticks, which are about the size
of a lucifer match, are stuck on a brass needle, introduced into the
middle of a glass tube, and kindled, so that the vapor of the sulphur
may come in contact with the glass plate held over it.

These glass plates are so sensitive, that the coating of iodide of
sulphur becomes instantly changed on exposure to direct sunlight,
and give a Moser’s image within five minutes when laid in a book.
The figures thus obtained are most easily read by candlelight. In
daylight, the blue letters can be recognized on the yellow ground
only by looking through the plate towards the middle of the window,
or towards a sheet of paper fastened in that place, the sulphur not
having been removed either by vapor of bromine, or by alcohol.

If a glass plate, covered with a solution of gum and exposed to the
vapor of iodized sulphur, be placed in the camera, a positive picture,
with ail its details, is obtained, the outlines of which can be laid bare
by an etching point capable of scratching the glass. If a glass plate,
so marked, be rubbed in with printing ink, the outlines will be filled,
and the ink will remain in them when the glass is freed from the
coating of gum by means of water. The picture is then easily trans-
ferred to paper, which is to be laid on the plate and rubbed over with
a paper-knife.

Improvements in preparing photographic paper.—M. Legray, in a
recent communication to the French Academy, describes a new
method of preparing photographic paper, which he claims to possess
superior qualities. The substance first used in the preparation of the
paper, is virgin wax, which is kept at a temperature of 100° Centi-
grade, in a large, flat vessel, and the paper is immersed therein until
completely saturated with the wax. The sheet of paper is then
withdrawn, and laid between several pieces of blotting paper, over
which a moderately heated iron is passed, which causes the blotting
paper to absorb the superfluous wax. If the paper is properly pre-
pared, there will be no gloss whatever on its surface, and it will be
perfectly transparent. '

The waxed paper is then immersed in a warm solution, composed
as follows ? —

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 161

- 1,000 parts of rice water,
40 « « sugar of milk,
15 “¢ « jodide of potassium,
0.80 “ * eyanide of potassium,
0.50 “ fluoride of potassium.

n

The sheet of paper should be laid in this solution for half an hour,
and it may then be withdrawn, and hung up to dry.

The paper is then immersed in a clear solution of aceto-nitrate of
silver, which is thus formed : —

300 parts of distilled water,

20 “ * acetate of silver,

24 “ erystallizable acetic acid,
5 “ animal charcoal.

The animal charcoal serves to render the paper more susceptible to
receive impressions, and decolorizes the solutions when they have
been previously used. The paper should remain three minutes in this
solution, and in order to insure contact with the liquid, the two sides
of the sheet should be rubbed over with a brush. The paper is then
washed several times with distilled water, and well dried between
pieces of blotting paper. Paper thus prepared may be taken imme-
diately into the dark chamber, and it is not necessary to subject the
image to the action of gallic acid on its removal from the camera;
this may be deferred till the evening, or even the next day, or the
day following.

The paper may be kept in a dark place for more than a fortnight,
without undergoing any alteration; and in this respect offers greater
advantages than any of the photographic papers hitherto known.
The solution of gallic acid is composed of one part of gallie acid, half
part (0.5) of nitrate of silver, and 200 parts distilled water. The
image is fixed, as usual, by the hyposulphite of soda.

Whipple’s Chrystalotype. — The following is the outline of a process
discovered by Mr. J. A. Whipple, of Boston, for the production of a
picture on paper, to which the name chrystalotype has been given.
A glass plate is first prepared with a sensitive coating, and on this the
picture is taken. As in all such pictures, when prepared after Tal-
bot’s process on paper, the light objects are here represented the
darkest, and the dark ones the lightest. A black man with a white
hat becomes a white man with a black one. The lights in this glass
picture are transparent. The shades are opaque. In the preparation
of this plate, we presume, is Mr. Whipple’s invention. Now, take
this plate, place under it a sheet of paper prepared with one of the
photographie solutions, and let the sun strike through. The light
parts of the plate are copied dark, and vice versa. Of course, the
black man gets a black face again, and a white hat.

The pictures taken by this process upon paper are of marvellous
delicacy and finish, and surpass anything of the kind we have here-
tofore examined.

162 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

DAGUERREOTYPES WITHOUT MERCURY.

M. NarTerer, of Vienna, has discovered a process for obtaining
proofs on iodized plates with the chloride of sulphur, without the use
of mercury. A plate of silver is iodized in the usual manner, and
then placed on the top of a vessel 6 or 8 inches high, having at the
bottom, in a small cup, a few drops of chloride of sulphur; it should
remain exposed to the action of the vapor until the sombre yellow
color is changed to a red, after which it is brought to a focus in the
camera, where it is left for a time, depending upon the luminous
strength of the focus of the objective. (With the objectives of Voigt-
lander, not less than ten seconds and not more than two minutes.)
The plate is then taken out and examined in the camera by the light
ofa candle. It often occurs that no trace of the image is as yet per-
ceptible, but if the plate is heated by placing over a spirit lamp the
unprepared side, or if left for some time in the dark, or, lastly, if
exposed only for a few seconds to a weak cimmed light, the positive
picture then appears with all its shades. Of these three modes of
bringing out the image, the second is superior to the others.

ENGRAVED PHOTOGRAPHS.

THE idea of the prospective advantages of bringing the photographie
process into immediate connection with the engraver’s art, and the
probable chance of fitting it for the part of the engraver’s draftsman,
in actually pencilling out the lines for the wood engraver, the etching
needle or the burin, has been often discussed. The London Practical
Mechanic’s Magazine for May, contains two wood engravings,
engraved from photographic designs taken upon a collodion film,
which was subsequently transferred to wood. The design of the
picture was thus, as it were, pencilled upon the block by the action of
light. This result has been accomplished by Mr. Urie, of London, in
the following manner: The picture is first obtained upon a collodion
film upon glass in the usual manner. The film is then carefully
detached, and laid upon the prepared wooden block. The engraver
then engraves through the film, as if he were treating an actual draw-
ing upon the wood surface. It is obvious that the whole process, more
especially the transfer of the pictorial film from its original foundation
to the block, is a matter involving extreme nicety of manipulation.
The operator proceeds by floating off the film in water, by placing the
glass plate horizontally therein, and with the picture upwards, assisting
the dislodgment of the film, when necessary by a slight mechanical
action. ‘Then, the wood block, having its surface previously prepared
with the white of an egg and lamp-black,—the darkening being
necessary to throw out the picture from its translucent ground — the
film is carefully laid upon the block ; the white of an egg having suf-
ficiently adhesive power to hold it firmly down. At first, the very
obvious difficulty of the peeling off, or disintegration of the film,
opposed the efforts of the engraver in his subsequent treatment of the

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 163

block, but this brittleness has been overcome by a slight wash of var-
nish. Engravings produced in this way are light-drawn pictures
indeed. In his execution of them, the engraver is freed from the
mannerisms, or imperfections of the artist, or mechanical draftsman,
escaping on the one hand the dangers of the lack of “life,” or the
missing of expression; and on the other avoiding all inconvenience
from chance, error, or neglect.

Since the above was laid before the public, the process has been
still further improved, by taking the photographic picture directly
upon the wooden surface to be engraved. ‘This is best effected by
drying on a coating of lamp-black and white of egg, and varnishing
this over with a coat of pure white of ege, before laying on the collo-
dion. After collodionizing the wood, it is dipped into nitrate of silver
and placed at once in the camera, the picture being subsequently
developed, by dipping in sulphate of iron, and nitric acid, washing in
pure water, and finally fixing with hyposulphite of soda. ‘To preserve
the picture a final coat of mastic varnish is laid on.

GAUDIN ON ENGRAVING FROM DAGUERREOTYPES.

DAGUERREOTYPES combine all the necessary conditions for engrayv-
ing by means of acids, being composed of an unchangeable coating
deposited upon a sheet of silver that several chemical agents easily
corrode. By this means, the parts protected correspond to the lights,
and those corroded, to the shades — precisely as the picture requires,
and as is the case with aqua fortis engravings; moreover, the impres-
sions taken upon paper would be in their right position. But practice
is far from realizing the promises of theory. ‘The reason of this want
of success arises primarily from the extreme delicacy of the dotted
parts which form the half-tints, and again, from the deficiency of depth
in shades of any extent. In fact, an engraving fit for taking impres-
sions is composed of deep furrows, produced, either directly, by the
cutting of the graver, or indirectly, by the interstices of the grain
formed on the plate, or by the scraping of the point, as in etching.
The shades are owing to the vast number of these irregularities on the
same spot, while the biting of the acid on a daguerreotype may plough
deep without leaving any irregularities necessary to retain the ink for
the impression. For example, if there happen to be in the daguerreo-

e open windows, forming shades of some extent, the acid will
make a hollow of the same extent, but the bottom of it will be smooth,
and the ink will scarcely adhere. M. Donne was the first who thought
of engraving daguerreotypes. His first attempts were very remarka-
ble, and no one doubted their ultimate success. He employed a very
simple and expeditious process. Over a daguerreotype taken ona
double-silvered plate and carefully washed with hyposulphite of soda
and afterwards finished with distilled water, he poured a mixture
composed of three parts of pure nitric acid and four of distilled water,
having first covered the edges of the plate with a thick coat of engra-
vers’ wax, so as to make a flat disc of it. In the course of a short

15

164 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

time there was a lively effervesence owing to the disengagement of
nitrous gas during the disappearance of the silver. As soon as he
judged the engraving deep enough he washed the plate well in water.
By this means he obtained very delicate engravings, from which as
many as forty copies could be taken; they were, however, deficient in
vigor, and had a gray tint, almost uniform.

Attempts have been since made to take copies by the battery,
placing the daguerreotype in an acid, or metalliferous bath communi-
cating with the carbon pole of a cell of Bunsen’s battery, which is the
pole of oxidation or departure. There were produced engravings of
a high finish, but of a texture that might be called impalpable, and
from which copies could not be taken by a copper-plate press. To
remedy this defect, M. Fizeau thought of covering an engraving which
had undergone the first biting process, with an oily substance that
would fill up the smallest cavities and leave untouched the prominent
parts, which he cut out with the greatest care; in this state it was
gilded by means of the battery, and then stripped of its oily coating
by a suitable dissolvent. After this operation, the part already bitten
was strongly acted upon by the nitric acid, which left untouched all
the parts that had been gilt. By means of this improvement, M.
Fizeau succeeded in obtaining a few engravings, possessing a certain
vigor, of casts illuminated by the sun. Delicate views subjected to
the same operation have always been far inferior to photographs on
paper. The increasing progress of these latter, have led to the neglect
of engraving daguerreotypes ; indeed, the small number of indifferent
copies that can be taken, is a great obstacle to this mode of employ-
ment. It might be remedied by taking pictures on hardened steel
silvered by the battery. I silvered a sheet of hardened steel, by
rubbing it with a solution of chloride of silver dissolved in the hypo-
sulphite of soda. The daguerreotype was successful, but not the’
engraving, from deficiency, no doubt, of the silvering. With the
resources at present offered by the battery, it is certain that the copy-
ing of engravings ina similar manner would be much increased.
There would be required however great’ manual strength; it would
be a very delicate operation, which could be executed only with a
diamond graver. No attempts have been made, that I know of, to
copy daguerreotypes by means of lithography, yet the art might, not-
withstanding, furnish all the required vigor, for the shades depend in
lithography only on the chemical nature of the surface, and not at all
on its confirmation. I propose, however, to do this ;—Cover a piece
of silk, waxed, of the size of the engraving to be lithographed, with an
exceedingly thin coating of lithographic ink dissolved in alcohol. On
this waxed silk take by pressure a copy of the daguerreotype merely
washed with hyposulphite of soda and rinsed with distilled water.
With the waxed silk alone, the operation has succeeded very well; it
is a precedent of flattering promise. If the coating of lithographic
ink is exceedingly thin, the catching property of the waxed silk will
be only increased, and the taking of the impression will be easier.
The taking of the impression having been successful is a great step.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 165

toward completion ; all that remains to be done, is to transfer it on the
lithographic stone. For this purpose the stone should be finely pol-
ished with water and pumice stone; then the waxed silk covered with
a few sheets of unsized paper, is pressed down tightly with a screw,
but not too much. For greater success, the stone is warmed, and the
whole left in the press for several hours, to give the lithographic ink
time to react upon the stone. It is evident, wherever the photogenic
coating covers the silk the lithographic ink cannot act upon the stone,
and besides, its dryness will prevent it from sticking, so that when the
silk is taken off, the stone will be clean wherever it touched. There
remains nothing else to be done but to submit the stone to a slight
acidulation with a large quantity of gum arabic. Actually, the result
of taking the copy will be quite different from what it would be with
the plate engraved by means of acids. Every portion of silver uncoy-
ered, and represented on the waxed silk by a continued coating of
lithographic ink, will produce on the stone an oleaginous place of the
same extent, which will give the shading. It is for the purpose of not
erring in the other extreme, that the waxed silk should be covered
with an infinitely fine coating of lithographic ink, to prevent its
destruction, which might blur the lights and shades.

FIXATION OF COLORED PHOTOGRAPHS.

M. Nrepce DE Sarnt Victor laid before the Paris Academy of
Sciences, at the sitting of the 8th of November, daguerreotypes upon
which he had succeeded in fixing, in a manner more or less perma-
nent, colors by the camera obscura. M. Niepce states, that the pro-
duction of all the colors is practicable, and he is actively engaged in
endeavoring to arrive at a convenient method of preparing the plates.
“JT have begun,” he says, “by reproducing in the dark chamber
colored engravings, then artificial and natural flowers, and lastly dead
nature —a doll, dressed in stuffs of different colors, and always with
gold and silver lace. I have obtained all the colors; and, what is still
more extraordinary and more curious is, that the gold and the silver
are depicted with their metallic lustre, and that rock-crystal, alabaster,
and porcelain, are represented with the lustre which is natural to
them. In producing the images of precious stones and of glass we
observe a curious peculiarity. We have placed before the lens a deep
green, which has given a yellow image instead of a green one; whilst
a clear green glass placed by the side of the other is perfectly repro-
duced in color.” The greatest difficulty is that of obtaining many
colors at a time; it is, however, possible, and M. Niepce has frequently
obtained this result. He has observed, that bright colors. are produced
much more vividly and much quicker than dark colors :—that is to
say, that the nearer the colors approach to white the more easily are
they produced, and the more closely they approach to black the
greater is the difficulty of reproducing them. Of all others, the most
difficult to be obtained is the deep green of leaves; the light green
leaves are, however, reproduced very easily. After sundry other

166 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

remarks, of no peculiar moment, M. Niepce de Saint- Victor informs
us, that the colors are rendered very much more vivid by the action
of ammonia, and at the same time this volatile alkali appears to fix the
colors with much permanence. These results bring much more near
than hitherto the desideratum of producing photographs in their
natural colors. The results are produced upon plates of silver which
have been acted upon by chloride of copper, or some other combina-
tion of chlorine.

M. Niepce stated a curious fact, namely, that the colors become
more rapidly effaced by the light in the mornings than in the after-
noons. In connexion with this subject, it may be mentioned that
there have been presented to the Academy a number of lithographic
designs on sheets of gutta-percha, pressed as thin as ordinary letter

aper.

The following remarks upon the above announcement are taken
from the Paris Journal, ‘‘ Cosmos.”

Formerly, for fixing the colors, M. Niepce de St. Victor operated
by means of contact, that is to say, he placed on the chlorided plate
the painted image that he wished to copy. The colors were outward ;
the luminous rays in passing through them were in their turn colored,
and shaded the plate by exercising on it their photogenic action. — It
is therefore certain that hitherto, M. Niepce had operated only on flat
objects—by means of contact, and not at a distance—without the aid
of a camera.

These conditions for success appeared so essential for the produc-
tion of colors, that very skilful practitioners doubted obtaining any
thing more. Indeed, we have been told that M. Regnault had chal-
lenged M. ‘Niepce ever to succeed in obtaining the colored image of a
boquet of flowers. The challenge was accepted, and much has been
accomplished. M. Niepce took a bouquet of hollyhocks with its
leaves, flowers and buds; he filled up the empty parts with vine
leaves, suspended the bouquet in the air, directed his camera towards
it, received its image on the chlorided plate, and before half an hour
had passed, the buds and flowers—red, rose-color and yellow, &c., had
painted themselves with their various shades quite discernible, and we
have seen, ourselves, these encouraging proofs. The leaves alone,
particularly the vine leaves, of a dark green, remained refractory ;
their forms were depicted black. This negative result will not astonish
any one, for every one knows that the photogenic action of green rays
is almost nothing; it is not however entirely so, and every thing leads
us to hope that success will be obtained in overcoming this difficulty.
Before operating with a bouquet, M. Niepce had operated with figures,
with a colored bust of the Prince President, and had obtained proofs
really perfect, in the camera, with the perfect outline that flat pictures
did not give.

The reason of M. Regnault’s imagining that it would be fruitless to
copy the natural colors of bodies, such as flowers, for example, was
this; he considered them too much weakened, or diluted with white—
that the prominent influence of the white ight would destroy the tint,

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 167

and create an unconquerable uniformity. Mr. Niepce, however, is
able to prove by a number of very curious experiments, that, far from
being injurious, the influence of the white hght is very useful, and
that it assists considerably in copying colors.

The Hilotype.—It will be remembered, that some two years since,
it was asserted that a discovery had been made by the Rev. Mr. Hill,
of Westkill, N. Y., by which the images of objects in all their natural
colors could be copied photographically from nature in a few seconds.
The failure of Mr. Hill to substantiate his assertions by the exhibition
of results, has caused the whole subject to be discredited, and the
announced discovery has generally been considered as fabulous.*
Within the past year, howev er, testimonials have been published by
various artists, who have seen the pictures taken by Mr. Hill, which
renders it certain that something has been accomplished. The course
pursued by Mr. Hill in relation to the discovery is a most singular
one, and forms a striking contrast to the open and manly conduct of
M. Niepce in regard to the same subject. Mr. Hill appears to be
actuated by pecuniary motives, rather than by a true scientific spirit.
The honor of the discovery, in any event, will now undoubtedly be
awarded to M. Niepce. Had a different course been pursued it might
have belonged to Mr. Hill and his country.—ditor.

NIEPCE’S SECOND MEMOIR ON HELIOCHROME.

In the Annual of Scientific Discovery for 1852, pp. 126-131, we
published a memoir submitted to the French Academy by M. Niepce,
on the subject of Heliochrome, or the production of colored photo-
graphic pictures. The following is a second memoir on the same
subject, subsequently read to the Academy, by the same author, and
containing some additional details respecting ‘his extraordinary and
interesting investigations. ‘The memioir is copied from Humphries’
Daguerrean J ournal, for which it was translated : — My later experi-
ments have proved to me that these phenomena of coloring by light
only held good according to the proportion of chlorine or chloride of
which the baths were composed in which I prepared my silver plates.
It is known from the experiments of M. E. Becquerel that chlorine
water impresses the silver plate by a simple immersion so as to
render it susceptible of copying afterwards, by means of the light, the
colors of the solar spectrum: but there will be produced one or
another predominant color, according to the quantity of chlorine that
the water serving to prepare the ‘silver plate may contain. For
example, [ produce the yellow ray by the feeblest quantity of chlo-
rine, and the red and orange by water completely saturated with
chlorine, or I add to some liquid chlorine a salt of copper, and even
perchloride of iron. The former of these substances gives much
liveliness to the colors, for they are very feeble when the chlorine is
employed alone. Many chlorides have no influence 6n the silver

ee See Annual of Scientific Discovery, 1852, p 181.
1

168 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

plate, such as the chlorides of sodium, aluminum, magnesium, &c.,
but if there be added to their solution a salt of copper, they become
fit for giving an impression on the plate of silver, and producing
colors, those colors predominating, at the will of the operator, aecord-
ing to the quantity of the chloride added to the salt of copper; the
proportions of the salt of copper vary according to the chlorides
employed. This result is the more remarkable because the salts of
copper employed without a chloride exercise no influence, and this
influence varies according to the quantity of chlorine or chloride put
into the bath with a quantity of salt of copper remaining the same.
In like manner, by varying the proportions of the salt of copper,
with a given quantity of chlorine or chloride, remaining the
same, the effects can be changed; but in this case the results
will be similar to those of the former; however, it is preferable
to take 100 grammes of sulphate of copper, with 400 parts of
water, and add variable proportions of chlorine or chloride, according
to the color required. ‘To obtain all the colors at once, there must
be taken the proportion of chlorine or chloride corresponding to the
yellow and green rays, and in this case there will be several colors
by allowing the plate to become suitably prepared in the bath; that
is to say, the bath ought always to be at a temperature of 10° Centi-
grade, at the least, and the plate should be immersed in it for about
five minutes. The thickness of the coating laid on, as well as the
absorption of the bath, causes a difference in the effect; it is there-
fore very essential to operate always in the same condition if the
same results are desired. (The mixture of the chloride with the salt
‘of copper should be made cold, or at least at a moderate tem-
perature. )

When several colors are obtained on the plate they are much less
vivid than when only one predominant color is required. This is the
reason that it is so difficult to obtain several colors at once, of great
intensity, particularly with white grounds, and to copy the dark parts
at the same time. I mentioned that the feeblest quantity of chlorine
or chloride furnished yellows; but to have indigo and very bright
violet, there will be no yellow. ‘The red, alone, is always produced,
because this color is caused by the heat of 100° Centigrade, to which
the plate has been first of all exposed before any action of the light;
however, with yellows, the red is very feeble. The finest reds are
obtained with a large quantity of chlorine or chloride, except with
the acid chlorides, such as those of zine and tin, and hydrochloric
acid, which furnish very good results when they are mixed witha
salt of copper in suitable proportion; but if in excess, there will be
produced only a violet color. In this case the ground of the picture
is very clear, and the lines very pure. With the neutral chlorides,
when united to a salt of copper, it happens that, if in excess, they
produce very bright colors, particularly the reds and those of an
orange tint, but the ground of the, plate is always dark; this is the
case particularly with the perchloride of iron. If a mixture is made

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 169

of one part of chloride of iron with four of a salt of copper in 300
parts of water, all the colors will be obtained, with white grounds,
but they are not very bright. If a mixture is made of 100 parts of
chloride of magnesium with 50 parts of sulphate of copper, all the
colors will be copied, and they will be brighter than the preceding,
but the ground will always be dark or pink.

I shall now speak of the experiments that I have made on colored
flames, and on the relations of the color of these flames with the
colors that are developed on the silver plate prepared with the bodies
that give colors to these same flames.

It has been observed that chlorine alone gave to a silver plate the
property of being differently colored when exposed to the influence
of the light. It was therefore of importance, according to my idea,
to dye with it alone flames of all the colors, which I did by means of
the following experiments. If there is placed in pure alcohol a small
quantity of pure hydro-chloric acid, there will be obtained on burn-
ing it, at first a yellow flame ; then, if there be gradually added new
hydro-chloric acid, by shaking the liquor in a capsule, there will be
successively obtained flames of all the colors of the spectrum, begin-
ning from the yellow ray to the violet, which will be produced by the
greatest quantity of hydro-chloric acid that can be placed in the
alcohol without extinguishing it; only I premise that the flames are
not very brilliant. They will be rather more so if there be substi-
tuted for the hydro-chloric acid a chloric ether, or Holland gin, and
preferably, the chlorides of carbon, particularly the sesqui-chloride,
which has given me colored flames from the yellow ray to the violet;
but I have not been able to obtain red and orange-colored flame.
That arises probably because the heat was not sufficiently strong, or
because I did not employ sufficient chloride. The proto-chloride of
carbon has given me flames of a rather_great intensity of color, by
exposing it on a sheet of platinum, or by saturating a stout match of
asbestos, heated by the flame of an eolipile lamp. I have by this
means obtained violet flames of a deepish tinge, but nothing further.
This arises, no doubt, from the great volatility of the proto-chloride
of carbon, which does not allow of maintaining it at a sufficiently
high temperature to produce red and orange rays, as can be done
with the chloride of copper. It resists, however, much better the
action of fire than the sesqui-chloride of carbon, which, being treated
in the same manner, immediately volatilizes, producing only a yellow
flame.

Having formed a chloride of silver with nitrate of silver and
chloride of magnesium, which, having been previously well washed,
was afterwards exposed to the flame of the eolipile lamp, there was
produced a fine yellow flame. But to obtain flames of all the colors
of the spectrum, with a great depth of color, a chloride of copper
must be formed, by mixing hydro-chloric acid (or a chloride whose
base does not give coloring to flame) with a salt of copper, or prefer-
ably, by adding one of these two things to the per-chloride of cop-
per. Colored flames of all the rays of the spectrum can be by this

170 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

means obtained, either by varying the proportion of chlorine or
chloride, or by varying the temperature, and the results will be the
same. If, for example, there is placed in pure alcohol a salt of
copper, to which.hydro-chioric acid is gradually added, there will be
produced at first a yellow flame, and all the other colors as far as
violet will be successively obtained. If, instead of a salt of copper,
there be taken some neutral per-chloride of copper, there will be
produced at first a yellow flame, and afterwards a green; but there
will be no blue flame, except by adding hydro-chloric acid, and by
increasing the quantity of the above acid the violet will be attained ;
at last, a red flame will be produced by the largest quantity that can
be added without extinguishing the alcohol. Now, if I take some
neutral deutochloride of copper, (dry) and expose it on a sheet of
platinum to the flame of a spirit lamp, —the alcohol quite pure, —I
shall produce successively colored flames from the yellow to the red,
which latter is produced by the strongest heat that I can obtain. But,
having thought that with a higher temperature I could perhaps obtain
an orange colored flame, I made use of a Gaudin lamp with a current
of oxygen, and by that means obtained on a sheet of platinum, not

only a red flame, but a very fine orange colored flame, from the high ~

temperature that I was able to obtain —a result that I had foreseen.
(A strong eolipile lamp may be used for this experiment.)

if I take the same deutochloride of copper and throw it into a very
fierce fire, such as one composed of pit coal and wood, there will be
produced, almost simultaneously, flames of all the colors of the spee-
trum, according to the strength of the fire: and if only indigo, violet,
red, and orange colored flames are required to be produced, we have
only to add to the per-chloride of copper some hydro-chloric acid, or
some chloride of magnesium, in a rather large quantity. In this case
there will be produced jets of red flame in certain parts of the fire,
which will be as bright as those produced by strontium ; “but in this
last case, there will be scarcely any green flames, and still less yellow.
These two latter will be only produced towards the end of combustion,
or in the less heated parts of the fire; and if there is a sufficiently
powerful heat, there will be produced an orange colored flame. It 1s
evident that to obtain in a fire flames of all the colors of the spectrum,
it is necessary to take a chloride of copper which contains only the
quantity of chlorine suitable for producing only a green flame by
burning some alcohol, and I will observe that this ray becomes the
middle of the solar spectrum, and that it is the same in producing all
the colors by light; for it will be recollected that I have said that
there should be taken in this case the quantity of chlorine or chloride
that preferably produced the yellow and green rays. Then all the
colors will be produced, according to the luminous strength of each
ray, as the variation of heat produces flames of different colors. The
intensity of the heat may be (as has been seen,) recruited by a greater
or smaller quantity of chlorine; and with the same quantity of chlo-
rine, the heat may produce the yellow flame, being the minimum, and
the orange, the maximum. In like manner it is observable that the

—** ——

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 171

smallest quantity of chlorine produces the yellow ray by the light,
and the greatest quantity the orange ray ; or in other words, with a
given quantity of chlorine, the light will develop all the colors, accord-
ing to the intensity of the lumimous rays.

To sum up, the chlorine, alone, produces only flames of a weak
color compared with those produced by a chloride of copper ; and it
is the same with the helio-chromatic colors, that is to say, those pro-
duced by the light on a sensitive plate. It is therefore very remarka-
ble that the same relations exist between colored flames and images
colored by the light, since, according to the quantity of chlorine that
I place in my bath to prepare a silver plate, I obtain one or the other
predominant color. The others will be scarcely observable ; only one,
or at the most, two, will have any strength. I have found only two
metals that afford flames of different colors when combined with chlo-
rine; they are copper and nickel. This last, however, gives colors by
no means vivid, compared with those of copper. I have not been able
to get a change of color from the chloride of strontium, the chloride
of sodium, the bi-chloride of potassium and uranium, or bromic acid,
by increasing the quantity of chloride or the intensity of the heat.
It may be said that this theory cn the obtaining of colored images by
the light differs from that which I gave in my first memoir; yet it is
clear that the basis is still the same, and that what I attributed to the
color given to the flame by the base of the chloride added to the sub-
stance in combustion, was true only in regard to the quantity of chlo-
rine or chloride that I employed to form the bath in which I prepared
the silver plate.

COLORS MOST FREQUENTLY HIT DURING BATTLE.

Ir would appear, from numerous observations, that soldiers are hit
during battle according to the color of their dress, in the following
order :— Red is the most fatal color ; the least fatal, Austrian grey.
The proportions are, Red 12; Rifle Green 7; Brown 6; Austrian
Bluish-Grey 5.— Jameson’s Journal.

ACCOUNT OF A ROCK CRYSTAL LENS AND DECOMPOSED GLASS
FOUND IN NINEVAH.

Smr Davip Brewster at the last meeting of the British Asso-
ciation, said that he had to bring before the meeting, an object of
so incredible a nature that nothing short of the strongest evidence was
necessary to render the statement at all probable : — it was no less than
the finding im the treasure house at Ninevah of a rock crystal lens,
where it had for centuries lain entombed in the ruins of that once
magnificent city. It was found in company with several bronzes and
other objects of value. He had examined the lens with the greatest
care and taken its several measurements. It was not entirely circular
in its aperture, being 1 6-10ths inches in its longer diameter and 1
4-10ths inches in its shorter. Its general form was that of a plano-

172 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

concave lens, the plane side having been formed of one of the original
faces of the six-sided crystal of quartz, as he had ascertained by its
action on polarized light, — this was badly polished and scratched.
The convex face of the lens had not been ground in a dish-shaped
tool in the manner in which lenses are now formed, but was shaped on
a lapidary’s wheel, or in some such manner. Hence it was unequally
thick, but its extreme thickness was 2-10ths of an inch, its focal length
being 43 inches. It had twelve remains of cavities which had originally

contained liquids or condensed gases; but ten of those had been ©

opened probably in the rough handling ‘which it received in the act of
being ground; most of them therefore had dischar ged their gaseous
contents. Sir David concluded by assigning reasons why this could
not be looked on as an ornament, but a true ‘optical lens.

Sir David then exhibited specimens of the decomposed glass found
in the same ruins. The surface of this was covered with iridescent
spots more brilliant in their colors than Peacock copper ore. Sir
David stated that he had several years since explained how this pro-
cess of decomposition proceeded, on the occasion of having found a
piece of decomposed glass at St. Leonard’s. It had contained man-
ganese, which had separated from the silex of the glass, at central
spots round which circles of most minute crystals of true quartz
had arranged themselves; bounded by irregular jagged circles of
manganese, these being arranged in several concentric rings. When
this process reached a certain “depth j in the glass it spread off laterally,
dividing the glass into very thin layers, and new centres seemed to
form at certain distances, and thus the process extended.

RECENT INVESTIGATIONS ON HEAT.

Tue theory of Heat has made great advances within the last ten
years. Mr. Joule has by his experiments confirmed and illustrated
the views demonstrated about the end of the last century by Davy
and Rumford regarding the nature of heat, which are now beginning
to find general acceptance. He has determined with much accuracy
the numerical relation between quantities of heat and of mechanical

work. He has pointed out the true principles upon which the mechan-

ical value of any chemical change is to be estimated, and by very care-
ful experiments he has arriv red at numerical expressions for the
mechanical equivalents in some of the most important cases of chemi-
eal action, in galvanic batteries, and in combustion. These researches
appear to be layi ing the eround work for the ultimate formation of a
Mechanical Theory of Chemistr y, by ascertaining experimentally the
mechanical equivalents expressed in absolute motive force of the ther-
mic, electric, and magnetic forces. Mathematical developments of
the theories of heat and electro-dynamic s, in accordance with these
principles, are given in various papers by MM. Helmholz, Rankine,
Clausius, and ‘Thompson, published principally within the last two
years.

Mr. Hopkins, F. R. §., is at present engaged in investigating the

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 3

possible influence of high pressure on the temperature at which sub-
stances in a state of fusion solidify — an inquiry which was shown by”
Mr. H., in a report recently presented to the British Association, to
have an important bearing on the questions of the original and pre-
sent state of the interior of the earth. It is well known that the tem-
perature of the earth increases as we descend, and it has been calcu-
Jated that at the rate at which the increase takes place in such depths
as are accessible to us, the heat at a depth of 80 or 100 miles would
be such as to fuse most of the materials which form the solid crust of
the globe. On the hypothesis of original fluidity, and assuming that
the rate of increase known to us by observation continues farther
down, and is not counter-balanced by aconsiderable increase in the tem-
perature of fusion occasioned by pressure, the present state of the
earth would be that of a solid crust of 80 or 100 miles in .thickness
enveloping a fluid nucleus. Mr. Hopkins considers this state to be
inconsistent with the observed amount of the precession of the equi-
noxes, and infers that if the temperature of fusion be not increased
considerably by pressure, the hypothesis of internal high temperature
being due to primitive heat cannot be correct; whilst, on the other
hand, if the temperature of fusion be considerably heightened by
pressure, he considers the conclusion to be unavoidable, that the earth
‘must be solid at the centre.

Mr. Hopkins is assisted in these experiments, which are carried on
at Manchester, by the well-known engineering knowledge of Mr. Fair-
bairn, and the equally well-known experimental skill of Mr. Joule.
The principal difficulties attending the experiments with substances of
low temperatures of fusion have been overcome, and strong hopes are
entertained of success with substances of more difficult fusibility. The
pressures employed are from three to four tons to eight and ten tons
on the square inch ‘The latter is probably equal to the pressure at
several miles beneath the earth’s surface.

HEAT OF THE SUN.

M. Seccut, of Rome, has made a series of photometric experi-
ments on the disc of the sun, by means of a thermo-electric pile. He
has found that the heat of the borders of the disc is nearly half that
of the centre, which confirms, as regards radiation of heat, what was
already known for light and chemical action. But he observed further,
that the heat was not the same at all points equi-distant from the
centre; and that the place of maximum temperature was 3! above the
centre ; the isothermal curves were a species of parabola. The sun’s
surface differs in temperature not only because of the absorption due
to its atmosphere, but also from certain inherent differences in the
surface itself. But M. Secchi also remarks that at the time of the
observations, the 20th, 21st, and 23d of March, the solar equator was
raised about 2.6/ above the centre, and hence the inferior part of the
disc presented the south pole of the sun, while the north pole was con-
cealed ; and, moreover, the ascertained point of its greatest heat lies

174 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

in the equator. The conclusion therefore follows that the equatorial
regions of the sun are hotter than the polar. M. Secchi’s observations
did not extend to the spots of the sun; yet in a few trials they. were
found to produce a sensible diminution of temperature. He says that
the prevalence of the spots about the equatorial region corresponds
well with the view that this part is the hottest in the sun.

NEW MODE OF MEASURING HIGH TEMPERATURES.

THE pyrometers of Wedgewood and Daniell, have both been found
inapplicable to measure readily the high temperatures of furnaces and
melted metals, as they are not easily obtained. A very ingenious
method of doing this, and within the means of every one, has been
proposed by Mr. John Wilson. According to his plan, a given weight
of platinum is exposed for a few minutes to the fire, the temperature
of which is required to be measured, and then plunged into water of
a determined weight and temperature. The number of degrees of
heat, measured by a small thermometer in the liquid, thus communi-
cated by the heated platinum to the liquid, becomes the index to the
actual temperature of the fire.

In practice, the quantity of water by weight may be just double
that of the platinum, and the amount of heat indicated in this case for
each degree that the temperature of the water is raised, is readily
found by direct experiment, and when once found, we have the con-
stant value of 1° of this pyrometer. ‘The weight of water being to
that of the platinum as 2 to 1, each degree will equal 314° Fahr.

To obtain accurate results, one must allow for the heat absorbed
by == °

ae The merctiry of the thermometer in the water.

2d. The glass bulb and stem of the thermometer.

3d. The vessel containing the water.

4th. The heat retained by the piece of platinum.

The portion of total heat absorbed by the several bodies compared
to the portion received by the water will be in proportion to their sev-
eral weights and the specific heat of each compared with water.
If the platinum weigh 1,000 grains, the tinned iron vessel, 3 inches
diameter and 2 inches deep, 658 grains, the mercury in the thermom-
eter 200 grains, and the glass bulb and stem immersed 35 grains, then,
since the platinum compared with an equal weight of water will only
have to absorb 1-32 part of the actual heat that water will, in order
that both may exhibit the same temperature, iron only 1-9, mercury
1-30, and glass 1-6, the correction is thus obtained :

Equivalent grains

of water.
Platinum 1,000 grains X 1-32 specific heat — 31
Tron 658 6 X 1-9 «é oc = 7
Mobneury::.' :200'4 E130 Gly ES al
Glass abiy xX 1-6 “ 6 == 6

Total, 117

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 175

Therefore, the effect of these bodies is equivalent to the addition of
117 grains to the 2,000 grains of water, and 1-17 must be added as a
correction to all temperatures obtained by the instrument; in other
words, the value of a degree will be increased from 314° to 33° Fahr.
A piece of fire clay may be substituted for the platinum, and a direct
experiment, either with this, or the platinum, will give the value of a
degree. The author found that a piece of Stourbridge clay, 200
grains weight, plunged in melted silver, and then into the tinned ves-
sel containing 2,000 grains of water, raised the temperature of the
water 41°.

Now if 1,890° Fahr., the melting point of silver, be divided by 41°,
we obtain 56° as the equivalent to 1° of this pyrometer.

In measuring temperature by means of platinum, it must not be
plunged into melted metals, as it readily alloys even with melted lead,
it must be put in the fire, or the clay employed instead.

In practice it will be found best to determine at once the value of a
degree in the manner we have described, viz : by submitting the piece
of metal, or clay, to some heat already known, and then observing
how much the temperature of the water is raised; always employing
the same vessel, and using the same thermometer. — Brewster’s Journal.

MELLONI ON DEW.

WE copy the following observations on dew, from the recently
published memoir of M. Melloni.

Dew is not an immediate effect of the cooling produced by the
nocturnal radiation of vegetables on the vapor of the atmosphere, as
most treatises on physics and meteorology assume, but the result of 4
series of actions and reactions between the cold due to the radiation
of plants, and the cold transmitted to the surrounding air. The
grass is cooled but little below the temperature of the air, but it very
quickly communicates to it a portion of the acquired cold; and since
the difference of temperature between the radiating body and the
surrounding medium is independent of the absolute value of the pre-
vailing temperature, the grass surrounded by a colder air still further
lowers its temperature, and communicates a new degree of cold to the
air, which reacts in its turn, on the grass, and compels it to acquire a
temperature still lower, and so on in succession. Meanwhile the medium
loses its state of equilibrium, and acquires a sort of vertical circula-
tion, in consequence of the descending motion of the portions con-
densed by the cold of the upper foliage, and the ascending motion of
the portions which have touched the surface of the earth. Now, the
gradual cooling and the contact of the soil evidently tend to augment
the humidity of the stratum, and thus bring it by degrees towards the
point of saturation. Then, the feeble degree of cold produced directly
by the radiation of bodies, suffices to condense the vapor contamed in
the air which surrounds them; and since the causes which give rise to
the circulating movement, and to the humidity of the air, continue

16

176 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

through the whole of the night, the quantity of water deposited on
the leaves increases indefinitely.

The greatest part of the nocturnal cooling is due to the develop-
ment of the leaves, which present to the sky an immense number of
thin bodies having large surfaces, and almost completely isolated ; this
is the reason why the dews are so feeble in winter, and less copious in
the nights of the early parts of spring, than in the long nights of
autumn. Dew is more abundant in autumn, because the days being
then warmer than in spring, and the vapor increasing more rapidly
than the temperature, the same degree of cold (such as the invariable
depression of the temperature of plants below that of the atmosphere)
condenses a greater quantity of vapor. The slightest breath of wind
disturbs the circulation of the lower stratum, and necessarily dimin-
ishes the accumulation of dew. A strong wind impedes the formation,
by bringing fresh supplies of heat, and especially by renewing inces-
santly the stratum of air comprised between the summit of the plants
and the surface of the earth, and thus taking away from it the possi-
bility of gradually acquirig that high degree of humidity necessary
to the precipitation of the vapor, by reason of the small degree of
cold which the plants contract with regard to the surrounding medium.

The differences of the quantity of dew on different substances all
arise, either from their difference of emissive power, or from the
diversity of their situation, with regard to the heavenly vault, or from
the hygrometric condition of the surrounding space, or from the
ereater or less obstacles which retard the descent of the air, and thus
more or less favor its frigorific reaction; or lastly, from the proximity
of the soil, which permits the return of the air on the radiating sub-
stances, and gives rise to that aerial circulation, whence results the
gradual cooling and successive augmentation of humidity in the lower
stratum of the atmosphere.

Copiousness of Dew in Tropical Countries. — Laying aside every-
thing depending on the alternations of the seasons in our temperate
climates, and on the differences of vegetation in countries situated in
the same latitude, it is easy to convince ourselves, that the greatest
difference between the temperature of the day and that of the night,
will occur under the torrid zone, and that there also, the dews will, in
general, be more abundant than in any other part of the globe. In
fact, in cold and temperate countries, the two principal elements of
nocturnal radiation proceed (so to speak) in opposite directions ; since
the night is long when the earth is destitute of vegetation, and short
when the plants are richly clothed with foliage. But, under the equa-
tor, vegetation never fails—the night is always long, and almost
entirely without twilight; and in the neighboring countries forming
the torrid zone, properly so called, when the night time slightly
exceeds the period of daylight, the rain falls in torrents, and plants
are more richly clothed with leaves, than at any other season of the
year. ‘The greatest difference, then, between the temperature of the
days and that of calm, clear nights, will occur in the equatorial regions,
a short time after the rainy season ; and as there will then prevail in

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 177

the atmosphere a high degree of humidity, the dew itself will be very
abundant at this season. On the other hand, since the torrid zone
possesses the highest known atmospheric temperature, the nocturnal
cooling ought to precipitate there a larger quantity of water than in
any other country, by reason of the divergence above mentioned
between the progression of the vapor and that of the temperature.
Tn fact, the dews are so copious in the equatorial regions, that Hum-
boldt does not hesitate to compare their effects with those of rain itself.

Want of Dew in Polynesia. — A curious fact, and one not much
known, which seems at first sight to contradict what we have been
saying, is the extreme feebleness, or absolute non-existence of dew, in
that extensive assemblage of small islands in the torrid zone, generally
fertile, and more or less rich in plants, which geographers have denom-
inated Polynesia. But with little attention it will be seen that this
apparent anomaly affords one of the most striking confirmations of the
truth of the theoretical views unfolded in this memoir. In fact, what-
ever may be the humidity of these small islands, scattered here and
there in the vast ocean, and their tendency to the cooling produced
by the long nights and the luxurious vegetation, the small extent ot
their territories renders the atmospheric column superincumbent on
each of them easily permeable even to its centre by the air of the
surrounding sea. This invasion is, moveover, favored by the trade
winds which prevail constantly in those latitudes. Now, we know
that the air in the midst of vast seas preserves a nearly uniform tem-
perature. The stratum of air cooled by the contact of the soil, will
then be warmed by mixing with the air which is constantly reaching
it from the sea, and the difference between the temperatures of the
day and night being extremely small, dew can scarcely be formed at
all, or at any rate, in very small quantity.

Perfectly analogous causes prevent the formation of dew on ships
which traverse the vast solitudes of the ocean. But what is truly
singular, is the appearance of the phenomena, on board these same
ships, on arriving afterwards in the neighborhood of terra firma.
Thus the navigators who proceed from the Straits of Sunda, to the
Coromandel Coast, know that they are near the end of their voyage
when they perceive the ropes, sails, and other objects placed on the
deck, become moistened with dew during the night. ‘The reason of
this strange phenomena will be readily seen, if we start from the fact,
(well established by experience,) that in the equatorial regions, the
sea air preserves not only a nearly constant temperature by day and
night, but also an hygrometric state, considerably removed from the
point of saturation; and that the reverse is the case with regard to
the air on land, which, in the day-time, is drier than the air of the sea,
but which, in the night, may readily acquire in countries sufficiently
abounding in water, or near enough to the coast, a much greater
humidity, in consequence of the frigorific actions and reactions of
which we have before spoken. Now, the land wind, which always
_ blows by night on the borders of tropical countries, when the sky is
clear, transports the humid air to a certain distance out at sea. Then,

178 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the feeble degree of cold acquired by substances freely exposed on
the deck, totally unable as it is to condense the vapor of the sea atmo-
sphere, is nevertheless sufficient for that of the air which has been in
nocturnal contact with the soil.

. Dew becomes more abundant as-we approach the equator. — We con-
clude that dew, feeble or non-existent towards the poles, by reason of
the extreme brevity of the summer nights, becomee more and more
abundant as we approach the equator ; that, notwithstanding the gen-
eral course of the phenomena is very much modified by the
extent, the nature, and the position of the land, according as it is
more or less surrounded by the sea, more or less covered by moun-
tains, lakes, meadows, mar:hes, and running streams. The borders of
Egypt, of the Red Sea, of the Persian Gulf, of Chili, and of Bengal,
are celebrated for the richness of their dews; the deserts of Central
Africa, and the interior provinces of Bahia, Brazil, and Persia, by the
almost total absence of this nocturnal phenomenon.

The appearance of dew may serve in certain cases to make known the
proximity of a mass of water concealed from the eye of the observer. —
Thus, the dew which is almost completely wanting in certain sterile
valleys traversed by the Euphrates, becomes of sufficient intensity to
form visible drops of waters, whilst at a distance of some miles from
the borders of this river, concealed by the land. And Mr. Denham
says, that independently of the suffocating heat, and of the intense
cold that he endured during the night, in his memorable journey
across the Sahara, he also suffered from the extreme dryness of the air,
until he reached a certain distance from Lake Tchad, where,
though there was not the slightest appearance of water on any part
of the horizon, the dews began to appear, feeble at first, then more
and more copious, and so abundant on arriving near the banks of this
great African lake, that the clothes of those persons who remained
some time outside the tents were completely soaked with it.

With regard to the intense cold experienced by Denham, during
the night in the desert, it is occasioned (in my opinion) neither by
the extreme clearness of the sky, nor by an excess of cutaneous per-
spiration, but from the great nocturnal calm of this desolate region,
which allows the soil to act strongly on the air, and to receive, with
equal force, the reaction of that fluid. Observe, first, thata dry, flat,
monotonous, horizontal, and uniformly extended country, like this
immense plain of Northern Africa, presents no cause capable of dis-
turbing, during the night, the equilibrium of the air; so that this must
remain in a state of absolute rest some time after the setting of the
sun; the soil of the desert being, moreover, composed of dry, sandy
earths, of bad conducting quality, can receive from the interior but a
very poor compensation in exchange for the heat it has lost. The
solid body radiating by night towards space and the surrounding
medium, will therefore be unmoving and isolated, and thus be in
highly favorable conditions for reacting with energy on each other,
and considerably lowering their temperature.

Another phenomenon resulting from the combination of the two —

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 179

frigorific actions, successively excited in the radiating body, and the
medium which envelopes it, is the congealation of water, produced
artificially in Bengal, during the calm and clear nights. And it is
also in consequence of these same frigorific actions that the buds of
plants, and the shallow waters of ditches and ponds, scattered here
and there over the country, often freeze during the calm, clear nights
of spring, whilst the thermometer marks several degrees higher than
the freezing point.

ON THE CAUSES OF THE EXCESS OF THE MEAN TEMPERATURE
OF RIVERS ABOVE THAT OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

Mr. RAnxKINE, at the Belfast meeting of the British Association,
stated: M. Renou having for four years observed the temperature of
the river Loire, at Vendome, as compared with that of the atmos-
phere, has found that the mean temperature of the river invariably
exceeds that of the air, by an amount varying from 13° to 3°
Centigrade, and averaging 2.24° Centigrade, and a similar result has
been deduced from observations made by M. Valin on the Loire at
Tours. M. Renou and M. Babinet account for this fact by the re-ra-
diation from the bed of the river of solar heat previously absorbed by
it. Mr. Rankine thinks this supposition inadequate to account for
the facts; because the excess of temperature of the river over the
air was considerably above its mean amount in November, and very near
its maximum in December; and because the mean diurnal variation
of temperature of the river was much less than that of the air. He
considers that friction is more probably the principal cause of this
elevation of temperature ; for if water descends in a uniform ehan-
nel, with a uniform velocity, from a higher level to a lower, the whole
power due to its descent is expended in overcoming friction; that is
to say, is converted into heat, as the experiments of Mr. Joule have
proved. This must cause an elevation of temperature, which will go
on until the loss of heat by radiation, conduction, and evaporation,
balances the gain by friction, and at this point the temperature of the
river will remain stationary.

ON THE REFRACTION OF SOUND.

THE unequal rapidity of the propagation of sound in different
mediums, enables us to show the refraction of the sonorous undulations
when it passes from one medium to another. The existence of such a
refraction, though placed beyond doubt by the theoretical researches
of Poisson and Green, was never shown by direct experiment before
the investigations of M. Sondhauss. Upon examining the action of a
lens upon sonorous waves, M. Sondhauss verified the existence of this
refraction. As solid lenses were not suitable for the experiment, he
was led to prepare gaseous ones, by filling a membranous envelope in
the form of a sphere, or lenticular shaped, with gas. At first he pre-
pared a globe of gold-beater’s skin, about one foot diameter, filled with

16*

180 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

carbonic acid ; this globe was suspended about one foot distance from
a common watch; on placing the ear upon the opposite side it was
found that a focus existed where the intensity of the sound was much
more remarkable than elsewhere, but he was not able to obtain
definite results. r

In a second experiment the globe of gold-beater’s skin was replaced
by a lens, made of very thin letter paper, it answered no better, and
the author abandoned, for a time, his researches. The discovery of
collodion, (a solution of gun cotton in ether, which leaves in evapor-
ation a very thin, strong, and transparent pellicle, which can be readily
separated from the surface on which it is deposited,) determined him
to undertake new experiments. On cutting from a very large globe
of collodion, two equal segments which were fixed at their bases upon
an iron hoop, he fashioned a sort of lens; or, rather, it was made for
him by M. Mullen, of Breslau, so that the interior could be filled with
any gas. The iron ring was 307 millimeters in diameter, and 61
millimeters in width; one of the two segments of collodion hada height
of 60 millimeters when the apparatus was filled with gas, the other
57.5 millimeters.

The experiment was made by placing a watch at a certain distance
from the lens in the direction of its axis, and observing on the other
side the place where the tick was heard with the greatest intensity.
It was easy to perceive the tick very distinctly, when the ear was
placed in the axis, though it was scarcely perceptible when it was
removed. In another experiment the ear being located in a position
for hearing plainly, the lens was removed, the ticking ceased entirely ;
upon replacing the lens it was again heard distinctly.

To. prevent illusion, the eyes of the observer were closed in such a
manner as not to perceive when the Jens was removed or replaced. In
fine, it was observed that the point where the ticking ceased to be per-
ceptable in the direction of the axis of the lens became more and more
distant as the watch was brought nearer, though it was impossible to
assign with precision the point where the intensity was a maximum,
and consequently to verify the formulz relative to the foci of lenses.

These experiments were not only made by M. Sondhauss, but by
other persons accustomed to observe; MM. Bunsen, Kuchof, and
others, who obtained the same results. Besides, to remove all doubts,
M. Sondhauss sought to verify these results, without the aid of the ear,
which he accomplished in the following manner :— Instead of the
watch the sonorous body employed, was the mouth piece of a flute or
flageolet, and the vibrations of the air through the lens were observed
by means of a membrane stretched at the end of a kind of acoustic
cornet. The undulations arriving at the opening, were thrown upon
the membrane and were rendered apparent by the movement of a small
quantity of fine sand sprinkled upon its surface. In this way the
phenomena were observed very distinctly.

He was able, in short, by- means of the lens of carbonic acid, to
make an experiment analagous to that of the conjugate mirrors. Two
persons placed on opposite sides of the lens, were enabled to hold a

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 181

conversation in a low whisper, which those standing about could
not hear.

MONOCLAVE OR UNI-TOUCH.

Sucu is the name of a very ingenious but complicated instrument
invented by Mr. Acklin. Its object is to enable any person to play
on the piano, organ or accordion by making a band of paper pass,
with a velocity regulated by the time of the tune, across the instru-
ment. This paper is pierced with holes corresponding to the notes,
and is prepared by means of a peculiar machine, by simply playing the
tune once on the piano. The inventor indicates many other useful
applications of this instrument: that it may be worked with the foot,
so that a good player may play on two pianos at the same time.

UNIVERSAL MUSICAL LANGUAGE AND ACOUSTIC TELEGRAPHING,

A sysTEM of universal musical language and acoustic telegraphing
has recently been brought forward by M. Sudre in France and Eng-
land. The principle of the universal language is the expression of
ideas by the seven musical notes, do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, played onany
instrument, or spoken, or written, or indicated by signs. By representing
the notes on parts of the fingers, the deaf and dumb can communicate
by the same method. Since the time of Leibnitz, who proposed the
adoption of universal characters to be used for all sciences, as algebraic
notation is for mathematics, the subject has received much notice from
learned men. Previous to that, George Dalgairns, a Scotchman, and
Bishop Wilkins, one of the originators of the Royal Society, had pro-
posed a philosophical language. But the difficulties of the scheme
have hitherto proved insurmountable. M. Sudre’s ingenious and
pleasant system has obtained high encomium in France, the author
having received the crown and medal of the Atheneum of Arts in
Paris at the annual meeting in 1845, a commission of the French Insti-
tute having also reported favorably of it. M. Sudre represents that
two or three months study is sufficient for any one of ordinary ability
to have perfect command of the language. The acoustic telegraph is
an invention likely to prove of more practical and immediate impor-
tance, and has been recommended by special commissions in France,
named by the ministers both of War and of Marine. Three sounds,
sol, do, sol, are alone used, and with these, either by bugle, drum, or
cannon, every signal can be perfectly conveyed. The same notes,
represented by three lights, white, red, and green, form a system of
night signals superior to any hitherto used.

HUMAN VOICES IMITATING MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

A BAND of singers calling themselves Organophonics have lately
made their appearance in London. A critic thus speaks of them :—
“The novel announcement of an orchestral performance without

182 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

instruments drew a considerable audience to this theatre last night.
Many, doubtless, went incredulous as to the possibility of so instruct-
ing the human voice — flexible as it is —as to imitate, with proximate
fidelity, a variety of wind and stringed instruments in harmonious con-
cert; and such persons were not disappointed. It seems that nature
will only submit to a certain amount of torture, beyond which she
vindicates her rights. ‘This was very much the case last night with
the ‘ Organophonic Band’ —a company of twelve German perform-
ers, who, without any mechanical aid, executed, by voice, several
pieces of music, some of them of no small difficulty. A person, who
only heard and did not see what was going on, would certainly say that
he listened to music, and to the music of well known instruments, but
of such tender stop and weak volume, that he would remark that they
were instruments that had lost their wind — in fact, instruments in the
last stage of consumption. ‘That these new visitants are ingenious and
surprising, that they must have undergone considerable and laborious
training, in order to give such wonderful intonation and modulation
to the human organ, is an acknowledgement to which they are justly
entitled ; but as is the case with almost all exhibitions of this kind,
from which action and variety are absent, they are not calculated to
afford an evening of sustained and continuous amusement.

“The ‘ Huntsman’s Chorus,’ from ‘ Der Freischutz,’ with an echo,
in imitation of the musical box, was, perhaps, the best executed piece
in the entire programme, the echo being wonderfully true. A solo
unitative of the piccoli, was likewise admirably done, full of energy
and action but necessarily deficient in the sharp piercing tones of that
instrument. Both of these performances were ehcored, though there
was a very just and considerate feeling against repetitions from the
evident effort and strain which these displays occasioned to the per-
formers. Polkas, marches, waltzes, fantasias were all executed with
equal facility, and there seems scarcely an instrument, from the cym-
bal and drum to the Scotch bagpipes, which they are not capable of
imitating with more are less fidelity and exactness. Some of them can
imitate three or four instruments almost without a pause.”

NEW WIND GUAGE.

Mr. W. C. Bucnanan, C. E., of Glasgow, has designed an improved
anemometer, or wind guage, the object of which is to remove as far
as possible friction from the working parts, by the weight of the vane and
tube to which it is attached being removed from the axis on which they
turn by means of a float which bears up that weight, and that the axis
be reduced to about one-quarter inch in thickness, the under one work-
ing at the foot of the apparatus, and the upper one ina hole in the centre
of strong iron supports, crossing each other at right angles, and allow-
ing room for the vane to traverse without touching them, the axis to
work loosely both above and below. ‘The vessel containing the float
to be placed betwixt the vane and the index apparatus, and filled with
water or oil. The wind passing down the tube acts upon an inverted

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 183

vessel in water, and this vessel carries a rod with a pencil, which
marks the force of the wind on a cylinder which is moved by clock-
work. There is another cylinder which is moved by a connection
with a wheel in the upright tube, which gives the direction of the
wind ; so that the time, force, and direction of the wind are given by
the instrument.

HYDROBAROMETER.

A NEw instrument with the above name has been constructed by
M. Walferdin, of Paris, for ascertaining the depth and temperature of
the sea. M. Walferdin shows that the bulb of an ordinary thermome-
ter, formed by being blown on the extremity of a tube, is compressible
between the finger and thumb so far as to cause the mercury to ascend
appreciably, and that consequently the ordinary arrangement for
ascertaining the temperature at depths is faulty. At the artesian well
of Grennelle, before the jetting of the waters, six mazima thermome-
ters (“thermometers a maxima a deversement” of M. Walferdin)
protected from pressure and sunk to a depth of 505 meters, indicated
as the mean temperature 26° 43 C. A seventh thermometer at the
same time was sunk, unprotected from the pressure, and it indicated
39° 50 C. <A pressure of 50.5 atmospheres had thus increased the
result by 13.07°, equivalent as the arbitrary scale of the instru-
ment to 4° an atmosphere. This experiment was performed by
Arago and M. Walferdin.

It hence follows that a minima thermometer, protected from the
action of pressure, will indicate the true temperature of depth; while a
maxima inverting thermometer exposed to the pressure, and sunk
with the other, may indicate the pressure of the sea. Such is the
principle upon which M. Walferdin constructs his new instrument
which he calls a hydrobardmeter.

The best means of avoiding the effects of pressure on a thermometer,
according to careful trials, is by enclosing the instrument in tubes of
glass, more or less thick according to the pressure they will have to
endure, and hermetically sealing the tubes.

MEAN DENSITY OF THE EARTH.

=

Rercu has published the results of a second series of experiments
on the mean density of the earth, undertaken principally with a view
of determining the cause of the difference between his own previous
results and those of Baily. (It will be remembered that Cavendish
found 5.48, Reich 5.45, Baily 5.66.) Three series of experiments,
making in all 70 single determinations, were made. ‘The first gave as
mean 5.5712 with a probable error of 0.0113, the second gave 5.6173
with a probable error of 0.0181, the third gave 5.5910 with a proba-
ble error of 0.0149. The general result of these three series is
5.5832 with a probable error of 0.0149. The third series was made
with a bifilar suspension wire, but the results did not correspond better

184 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

than those obtained by the single wire. To determine whether mag-
netic or diamagnetic action interfered with the results, two series of
experiments were made, one with a magnetic sphere of iron, the other
with a diamagnetic sphere of bismuth. The sphere ‘of iron gave
5.6887 with a probable error of 0.0312; the sphere of bismuth gave
5.5266 with a probable error of 0.0402. It would appear probable
that the magnetism of the iron exerted some influence, but none could

be attributed reasonably to the diamagnetism of the bismuth. — Pogg.
Ann., Ixxxv.

ON THE RE-CONCENTRATION OF THE MECHANICAL ENERGY OF
THE UNIVERSE.

A cURIOUS paper on this subject was read before the British Asso-
ciation by Mr. Rankine, in which he stated that it has long been con-
jectured, and is now being established by experiment, that all forms of
physical energy, whether visible motion, heat, ight, magnetism, elec-
tricity, chemical action, or other forms not yet understood, are mutually
convertible : that the total amount of physical energy in the universe
is unchangeable, and varies merely its condition and locality, by con-
version from one form to another, or by transference from one portion
of matter to another. Prof. W. Thomson has pointed out, that in the
present condition of the known world there is a preponderating ten-
dency to the conversion of all the other forms of energy into heat, and
to the equable diffusion of all heat; a tendency which seems to lead
towards the cessation of all phenomena, except stellar motions. The
author of the present paper points out that all heat tends ultimately to
assume the radiant form; and that, if the medium which surrounds
the stars and transmits radiation between them be supposed to have
bounds encircling the visible world, beyond which is empty space, then
at these bounds the radiant heat will be totally reflected, and will ulti-
mately be re-concentrated into foci; at one of which if an extinct
star arrives, it will be resolved into its elements, and a store of energy
re-produced.

EFFECT OF THE EARTH’S ROTATION ON LOCOMOTION.

Mr. CLARKE in the London Mechanic’s Magazine calls attention
to the remarkable influence of the earth’s rotation on locomotion. It
is well known that as the earth revolves on its axis once in twenty-four
hours, from west to east, the velocity of any point on its surface is
greater nearer the equator and less farther from it in the ratio
of the cosine of the latitude. Mr. Clarke says:—‘ Some rather
important conclusions in relation to railway travelling arise out of the
view now taken. The difference between the rotative velocity of the
earth in surface motion at London and at Liverpool is about twenty-
eight miles per hour; and this amount of lateral movement is to be
gained or lost, as respects the locomotive in each journey, according
to the direction we are travelling in from one place to the other ; and

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 185

m proportion to the speed will be the pressure against the side of the
rails, which, at a high velocity, will give the engine a tendency to
climb the right hand rail in each direction. Could the journey be
performed in two hours between London and Liverpool, this lateral
movement of rotative velocity of the locomotive would have to be
increased or diminished at the rate of nearly one-quarter of a mile
per minute, and that entirely by side pressure on the rail, which if not
sufficient to cause the engine to leave the line, would be quite sufficient
to produce violent and dangerous oscillation. It may be observed, in
conclusion, that as the cause above alluded to will be inoperative
while we travel along the parallels of latitude, it clearly follows that a
higher degree of speed may he attained with safety on a railway run-
ning east and west, than on one whicl,runs north and south.”

VISIBLE ROTATION OF THE EARTH.

M. Foucavttt, the originator of the ingenious pendulum experi-
ment, for affording ocular proof of the rotation of the earth upon its
axis, has recently presented to the French Academy an account of
another method for establishing his theory, which is reported in the
Journal des Debats for October, 1852. M. Foucault says : —

“‘ Nobody now questions the apparent deviation of the pendulum,
and few hesitate to regard that deviation as a demonstration of the
earth’s rotation. But, when we try to explain the experiment, difli-
culties arise in the minds of many persons who cannot comprehend
how it is that the plane of oscillation is said to be fixed. Since the
point of attachment travels with the earth’s surface, since a line drawn
perpendicularly to the horizon of the place of operation must change
its inclination in space every moment, how can the plane of oscillation
remain fixed, or even preserve its original direction? Here is the
stumbline-block of all who, without taking into account the decompo-
sition of the movements of rotation, confidently advance into the
domain of mechanical science, relying only on the illuminations of
common sense. The error of such persons arises from their taking
as an absolute fact that fixity of the plane of oscillation which is only
a fact relatively to the vertical line of the place of operation.

“‘ But if in the experiment we substitute for the plane of vibration
of the pendulum, the plane of rotation of a body freely suspended by
its centre of gravity, we rid ourselves of this embarrassing relative
fixity of plane, and have only to consider a plane physically defined,
which really enjoys an absolute fixity of direction. If, at the moment
of putting it in rotation, the axis of this body points toa given star
in the sky, then during the whole time of the rotation the axis will
continue to point towards the same point of the firmament, and this
in virtue of the inertia of matter; or, for this simple reason, that it is
unable to displace itself, or, so to speak, incapable of wn-east-ering
itself alone. If, then, we select.a star, or if we fix upon one of those
points in the heavens which seem to have the swiftest movement, the
axis of rotation of our freely suspended body, when attentively exam-

Bs ila hs dies

186 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ined, will be seen to share the same apparent displacement, and so
will give a manifest sign of the movement of the earth. To obtain
this effect in the highest perfection, we should give to our axis of
rotation a perpendicular direction, and we should be very careful not
to select the pole-star as our point of direction ; for, as that star has no
apparent motion, one instrument would ‘ refuse to exhibit.’ To verity
the earth’s rotation by theaid of such an instrument is equally possible
at the poles and at the equator. The only necessary condition to this
experiment is, that we shall support the revolving body by its centre
of gravity, without imposing upon it any bond attachmg it to the
earth, so that it shall be as it were more free than a planet, a kind of
isolated little globe lost in space and disengaged from all perturbatory
action.

“‘ But who, we may ask, will undertake to furnish us with the means
of fulfilling this solitary condition? The question might have gone
unanswered, had not that incomparable artificer, M. Froment, come to
our rescue. ‘ Mount,’ we said to him, ‘mount upon a steel axis a crown
of bronze, in such wise that it may turn swiftly within acircle, which shall
rest, by means of blades of steel, upon a second exterior circle; which
again shall be itself suspended in the air, by means of a thread, without
torsion. Arm the whole system with screw-balance weights, in order to
secure a perfect equilibrium; and then, if the earth really does turn, we
shall see it with our microscopes.’ After eight months of steady applica-
tion, M. Froment has furnished us with an instrument so perfect that
the massive pieces which compose it move upon each other at the
faintest breath. This admirable mobility, however, disappears as soon
as the bronze crown begins to revolve ; for then, in virtue of the fixity
of the plane of rotation, the whole system consolidates itself with sur-
prising force. When in this condition, the revolving body ceases to
take part in the earth’s diurnal motion; and, although the steel axis,
in consequence of its shortness, seems to preserve its primary direc-
tion relatively to terrestrial objects, we have only to bring the micro-
scope to bear upon it, in order to discover an apparent uniform and
continuous movement, which causes it to follow exactly the movement
of the celestial sphere. Thus, with a deviation of a new kind, we
obtain a new proof of the earth’s rotation; and this with an instru-
ment of no great size, and easy of transportation, — an instrument,
too, which offers us an image of the continuous movement of the globe
itself. In the case of the pendulum, you have before you only the
progressive displacement of an ideal plane, more or less well defined
by the curve described by an oscillating mass. But, in our new instru-
ment, you have material masses really withdrawn from the influence
of the diurnal motion, and which return under the general law only
in consequence of the decay in the velocity of the moving body.”

M. Foucault now goes on to describe another set of experiments
which may be made with this new instrument, the result of which is to
make apparent in bodies revolving on the surface of the earth what
he calls “a force of orientation,” a power, that is, of “ taking their
bearings,” as we may say. These experiments are carried on by sup-

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 187

pressing the play of one or the other of the articulations, which leave
the crown or circular plate of bronze at liberty to move around its
centre of gravity. If we stop the play of the blades which represent
the horizontal diameter, about which one of the concentric circles
moves, the axis of the revolving body is brought down into the hori-
zontal plane, where it may “ take its bearings,” in the manner of the
ordinary declination compass. Supported by the vertical suspension,
the body, turning swiftly, shows itself to be solicited by a directing
force, which tends to recall its axis into the plane of the meridian, the
plane of the pole-star, of the midday sun, of the axis of the earth.
And when it has reached its position of equilibrium, the body turns,
like the earth, from west to east. Thus we may almost find our meri-
dian without lifting a glance to the heavens. If, on the contrary, we
check the suspending thread, we restore the blades to their function,
and permit the axis of the revolving body to incline only in some ver-
tical plane arbitrarily chosen. We launch it into motion, and watch
the effect. Soon the axis inclines in one direction or in the other;
and, when it takes a definite position, we find that the axis points to
the poles of the earth, and thus we discover the inclination of the axis
of the earth. These facts can be seen without the microscope. After
mentioning as a means of verification inherent in the instrument, the
artificial acceleration of the compounding efficacy of movement com-
municated to the instrument through its base by the earth, whereby
the phenomena of “orientation” are exaggerated without being
altered, M. Foucault goes on to express the general principle, that,
when a force, or system of forces, acting upon a revolving body tends
to produce a new rotation not parallel to the first, the resulting effect
is a progressive displacement of the axis of primary rotation, which
directs itself towards the axis of new rotation by a path which tends
to make them parallel. “By this principle,’ he says, “we may
equally well explain the precession of the equinoxes, and the pirou-
ettes of a teetotum on a parlor table. We account thus for the singu-
lar reactions we experience when we agitate with the hand a swiftly
revolving body. We may foresee in the motion of a railway train
along a curved line, a cause of dislodgement added to the centrifugal
force, and which tends to spin off all the wheels driven by so rapid a
rotatory motion. We discover, that contrary to the received opinion,
the whirligig which, with the help of a mirror, has been thought to
furnish an artificial horizon, does not tend exactly towards the verti-
cal position, but leans northward or southward, according as it turns to
the right, or left; and that always on a perfectly horizontal surface it
mustadvance slowly tothe east, so that really to demonstrate experiment-
ally the motion of the earth, we shall soon only have to choose among
a thousand ways of doing so. Meanwhile, thus much is acquired, viz:
the apparent deviation of the plane of rotation, and the phenomenon
of orientation, which reveal the direction of the earth’s axis. As all
these facts depend on the earth’s rotation, we propose to give this
new instrument which has served to establish them, the name
gyroscope.” — To-Day,
17

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS.

Dr. T. Woop, at the British Association stated, in a paper on the
above subject, that he conceived that there was a mutual dependence
or relation between the space and the matter which compose a body,
such relation causing the distance between the particles to be definite ;
that, therefore, if the nature of the matter changes, the distance
between its particles must also change ; that, if two bodies be mixed
or brought together, at insensible distances, as in solution, they are no
longer two but one body,— and, as they were dissimilar previously
to being mixed, the one body they form must be dissimilar from either
separately, and so the distance between the particles must be different.
It must also be less; for, if greater, the bodies could be brought
nearer at sensible than insensible distances, and so could not form one
body at all, which is contrary to our supposition. But,as every molec-
ular movement is accompanied by its opposite, this lessening of dis-
tance between combining particles is attended with expansion among
others, and this expansion is the heat.

MOLECULAR PECULIARITIES OF CERTAIN BODIES.

Dr. TyNDALL, at the British Association, Belfast, stated, that
drawn by former researches to the contemplation of molecular action,
he had commenced a series of inquiries on this subject, the first
fruits of which were here laid before the meeting. Organic substan-
ces naturally suggest themselves as likely to afford instructive exam-
ples of molecular action ; for here nature, to attain her especial ends,
has arranged her materials in a peculiar manner, which arrangement
makes itself manifest when the substance is made the vehicle of a
force. Wood was first examined; cubes were cut from a number of
trees, four faces of each cube being parallel to the fibre, and conse-
quently two perpendicular toit. Further, two opposite faces were par-
allel to the ligneous layers and two perpendicular to them. The problem
to which Dr. Tyndall addressed himself was as follows: If a source of
heat of definite measurable amount be brought close up to the face of the
cube required the quantity transmitted through the mass of the cube to

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 189

the opposite face in a minute of time. This quantity will of course
depend upon conductive power of the wood in the given direction.
To measure it, a new instrument has been devised by Dr. Tyndall,
whose indications are capable of extreme accuracy. ‘This instrument
has very little in common with Fourier’s thermometer of contact. It
is applied to ascertain the velocity of the transmission of heat through
either solids or liquids. The mass to be examined is reduced to the
cubical form, and the instrument enables us to bring a source of heat
of a strictly measurable character against one face of the cube, and to
determine the relative quantity transmitted to the opposite face in a
given time. By means of this instrument— which the Doctor
minutely described — the author examined the conductivity of various
bodies. Fifty-seven different kinds of wood have been examined by
means of this instrument; the heat travels with a maximum velocity
along the fibre, but its flux is not the same in all directions perpen-
dicular to the fibre; it travels with greater speed across the ligneous
layers than along them. The complete law of action may be
expressed as follows: At all points situate in the centre of growth,
wood possesses three unequal axes of calorific conduction, which are
at right angles to each other. The first and greatest axis is parallel
to the fibre ; the second and intermediate axis is perpendicular to the
fibre, and also perpendicular to the ligneous layers; while the third
and least axis is perpendicular to the fibre and parallel to the layers.
Dr. Tyndall further shows that in this single substance there aré four
systems of axes coinciding with each other. The axes of elasticity,
established by Savart, and the axes of calorific conduction, of fluid
permeability and of cohesion, established by himself. Wood, in fact,
furnishes us with one of the most instructive examples of the influ-
ence of molecular aggregation with which we are acquainted.
Among crystalline bodies, rock crystal or fine silica is the best con-
ductor. While wood at the end of a minute causes only a deflection of
10° or 12°, a cube of silica of the same size produces a deflection of
90°. ‘This fact accounts for the steadiness of temperature in one-set
districts, and the extremes of heat and cold presented by day and
night on such sandy wastes as Sahara. The sand, which is for the
most part silica, speedily drinks in the noon-day heat, and loses it by
night just as speedily. Muscular tissue is an extremely bad conductor ;
and to this, in a great measure, the constancy of temperature of the
human body in various zones is to be attributed. To this fact also Sir
Charles Blagden and Chantrey owed their safety in exposing their
bodies to a high temperature ; owing to the almost impervious charac-
ter of the tissues of the body the irritation produced was confined to
the surface.

ON THE ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF PLATINUM AND BARIUM.

At the British Association, Dr. Andrews read a paper on the
above subject. No determination of the atomic weight of platinum
having been made since the recent revision of atomic weights, and

190 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the number adopted by chemists for that metal resting on the author-
ity of a single experiment of Berzelius, the author considered it of
importance on practical as well as theoretical grounds to institute some
new experiments on the subject. The salt of platinum selected was
the double chloride of potassium and platinum; which, after being
dried in vacuo, at a temperature of 105° Centigrade, was decomposed by
digestion with metallic zine and a small quantity of water, the action
being assisted by the application of heat towards the end of the pro-
cess. After the complete precipitation of the platinum and the
formation of chloride of zinc from the decomposition of the double
salt, the excess of zinc was removed by the addition, first, of acetic,
and subsequently, of nitric acid. The precipitated platinum was then
removed by means of a small and carefully washed filter, and the
amount of chlorine in the solution of chloride of zine ascertained by
Gay Lussac’s process, which has been of late so successfully applied
by Pelouze to the determination of several other atomic weights. The
double chloride of potassium and platinum was found to retain
55-10,000ths of its weight of moisture, even when dried at a temper-
ature considerably superior to the boiling point of water. In three
experiments performed by this process, the numbers obtained were
98.93, 98.84, and 99.06 ; the mean number 98.94 expresses, therefore,
the atomic weight of platinum. For the atomic weight of barium, the
author obtained from two closely accordant experiments the number
68.789; and concluded with some general observations as to the
importance of a systematic series of experiments to settle, if possible,
definitively whether the law of Prout, that the atomic weights of all
bodies are multiples of that of hydrogen, be universally true. He
concluded by reading an interesting extract from a letter which he
had received from Baron Liebig. “It is not certain that Prout’s law
may not be true for oxyen, nitrogen, and carbon, without its being
necessary to assume, as a consequence, that other bodies behave simi-
larly, —that is, that their atomic weight must be exactly multiples by
whole numbers of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The law is cer-
tainly not true of all bodies, but it may be true of certain groups,
whose members, in respect to atomic weight, stand in a simple numer-
ical relation to each other. The atomic weights of silicium, cobalt,
strontium, tin, arsenic, and lead, are in the same ratio as the numbers,
1: 2:3:4:5:7. We do not see the necessity of this relation, but only
the possibility. Why should fractional numbers only occur, and not
whole numbers also? Iconsider these relations only as facts : the law
of the numbers themselves is quite unknown to us, — as unknown as
the absolute weights of the atoms.”

EARLY EGYPTIAN CHEMISTRY.

Tue following facts elicited by the recent unrollment of a mummy
at Bristol, England, were communicated to the Philosophical Maga-
zine, by Dr. Herapath. He says, ‘on three of the bandages were
hieroglyphical characters of a dark color, as well defined as if written

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 191

with a modern pen; where the marking fluid had flowed more copi-
ously than the characters required, the texture of the cloth had
become decomposed and small holes had resulted. I have no doubt
that the bandages were genuine, and had not been disturbed or
unfolded: the color of the marks were so similar to those of the pres-
ent “marking ink,” that I was induced to try if they were produced
by silver. With the blowpipe I immediately obtained a button of that
metal; the fibre of the lnen I proved by the microscope, and by
chemical re-agents, to be linen; it is therefore certain that the ancient
Egyptians were acquainted with the means of dissolving silver, and of
applying it as a permanent ink ; but what was their solvent? I know
of none that would act on the metal and decompose flax fibre but
nitric acid, which we have been told was unknown until discovered
by the alchemists in the thirteenth century, which was about 2200
years after the date of this mummy, according as its superscription
was read.

The yellow color of the fine linen cloths which had not been
stained by the embalming materials, I found to be the natural colorig
matter of the flax ; they therefore did not, if we judge from this spec-
imen, practise bleaching. ‘There were, in some of the bandages near
the selvage, some twenty or thirty blue threads; these were dyed by
indigo, but the tint was not so deep nor so equal as the work of the
modern dyers; the color had been given it in the skein.

“One of the outer bandages was of a reddish color, which’ dye I
found to be vegetable, but could not individualize it; Mr. T. J. Hera-
path, analyzed it for tin and alumina, but could not find any. The
face and internal surfaces of the orbits, had been painted white, which
pigment J ascertained to be finely powdered chalk.”

CHEMICAL ACTION OF LIGHT.

THE following account of experiments on the chemical action of
light have been published by J. W. Slater in the Chemical Gazette,
Sept., 1852. They were undertaken chiefly in order to examine the
law proposed by Grothuss, that substances are most readily de-color-
ized by rays of light of a color complementary to their own. The
solutions used for isolating the different rays were, bichromate of pot-
ash for yellow, mixed chlorides of copper and iron for green, ammonio-
sulphate of copper for blue, sulphuric tincture of roses for red, and
water with a little nitric acid for white. The vessels containing these
solutions stood on a shelf about 12 feet from the ground, and had free
sunshine through the day. In the first place, five test tubes contain-
ing a strong solution of permanganate of potash were placed
respectively in the five rays. The order of decomposition was blue,
red, white, green, yellow. The two first were nearly colorless on the
third day, and on the seventh, when opened and tested, contained no
manganese in solution. ‘The white and green were not entirely
decomposed till the twenty-second day, and the yellow after eight
weeks still contained much permanganic acid. In order to determine

17*

192 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

what was the effect of free contact with the atmosphere upon actinic
decompositions, two tubes containing solution of permanganate, the
one sealed, the other open, were fixed in phials of the ammonio-sul-
phate of copper, and cemented to the necks so as to prevent the
escape of ammoniacal fumes. In about eight hours the solution in the
sealed tube had become colorless, whilst the other retained a deep red
tinge. Peroxide of mercury exposed to blue light in a sealed tube
was much blackened in four days, whilst a similar portion in an open
tube was not affected. Periodide of mercury (prepared by tritura-
tion) in sealed tubes and dry, gave the following order of action —
blue, red, white, green, yellow, the action of the two latter rays being
hardly perceptible, and possibly due to small portions of blue and red
light which had not been absorbed by the solutions. In unsealed ves-
sels the action was rather less rapid. Covered with water, the iodide
was not affected by any of the rays. This salt is far more stable than
is generally asserted. The sample used in these experiments had been
kept for ten years in diffused light without any alteration, and even in
the blue ray an exposure of several weeks was required to produce
any great effect. Periodide obtained by precipitation seemed rather
less stable.

lodide of starch, perfectly dry, gave the following order: Blue, red,
white, yellow, green. The decomposition under the two latter rays
was very slow and imperfect. When moist, the iodide was bleached
far more rapidly than when dry; more rapidly also in open than in
closed tubes. Perchloride of mercury was acted on as follows:— Blue,
red, white, green. The yellow ray caused no perceptible formation
of protochloride. This substance, under the blue ray, gives false
results if not perfectly screened from ammoniacal vapors. Peroxide
of mercury gave blue, red, (considerable,) white, green, yellow, (very
slight.) Alcoholic tincture of the green coloring matter of leaves
was decomposed very rapidly, and almost simultaneously in all the
rays; apparent order, white, red, yellow, green, blue. Alcoholic sul-
phocyanide of iron gave — white, blue, yellow, green, red. To deter-
mine whether the actinic decomposition of solutions was in any way
influenced by their degree of concentration, seven sealed phials were
placed in white light, each containing 40 parts by measure of concen-
trated aqueous solution of perchloride of mercury. To No. 2 had
been previously added 20 volumes of distilled water ; No. 3, 40 pts.;
No. 4, 80 pts.; No. 5, 120 pts; No. 6, 160 pts.; No. 7, 330 pts. The
decomposition was most rapid in No. 6, then Nos. 5 and 4. The
statement that the blue ray deprives salts of their water of crystal-
lization, could not be verified with oxalate of ammonia and ferrocyanide
of potassium. Weighed portions of these salts, placed respectively
under blue, white and green glasses, were found at the end of a month
to have suffered no change in weight. It has been observed by Hunt,
that a solution of bichromate of potash gives a greenish yellow precip-
itate with sulphate of copper in the sunshine. ‘This was found to take
place almost equally in all the rays, whether in sealed or open vessels,

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 193

though a little earlier in the former. The action was found more
rapid and more complete in dilute than in concentrated solutions.
The latter, after having ceased to deposit, give a further amount of
precipitate if diluted. There is a considerable effervescence in the
liquid, caused by the escape of oxygen gas. The precipitate is at first
of a greenish yellow, but becomes a yellowish brown when dry, and
shrinks greatly in bulk. Solutions of sulphate of copper and of
bichromate, exposed to the sun, and then mixed in the dark, give the
same precipitate ; but if prepared in the dark, no perceptible precipitate
is obtained, even on long standing. If the mixture is boiled, however,
a precipitate appears. If the precipitate formed by the action of the
sun is removed and the liquid boiled, a precipitate appears of a redder
shade, probably identical with Bensch’s chromate of copper. I have
not as yet obtained a quantity sufficient for analysis, either of this or
of the former precipitate. Whether the electric and hygrometric
conditions of the atmosphere exert any influence upon actinic decom-
positions, I have not been able to determine with certainty.

ON THE APPLICATION OF CERTAIN OPTICAL, PHENOMENA TO
. CHEMISTRY. ~

Pror. Sroxes at the British Association stated that he had found
in experimenting on prismatic fringes, and the dark lines of the spec-
trum, that by the interposition of small portions of chemical substances
in solution, and in other cases, as by the beads formed by the blow-
pipe, optical means would discover the presence of many bodies by
their power upon light... Arguing upon the advantage of this auxiliary
power to the chemist, he pointed out the facility with which trials
could be made. The salts of per-oxide of uranium, for instance, has
a property of showing dark lines in a certain portion of the spectrum,
and on one occasion he discovered on a blowpipe bead the lines that
were usually associated with the presence of uranium ; in that instance
he had no reason to expect it could be present, and upon careful
attention he found that he had used a platina wire that had been
employed with experiments where uranium had been present; and a
minute quantity must have remained attached to the wire, and thus
become evident. He took a single case of difficulty and where doubt
still remained, to call the attention of chemists to the value of optical
research where ordinary tests did not avail. He found that manga-
nesic acid in solution had a certain power over light, giving dark
bands. There was a class of crimson solutions of manganese which
some chemists supposed the per-oxide in solution, and others a differ-
ent oxide ; but Mr. Pearsall, had shown the probability that manga-
nesic acid was present: this was a fair case, and accordingly by optical
means he decided that manganesic acid was not present. He had
considered the effects of acids and bases, but sulphuric acid and potassa
made no difference if added to manganesic acid. He considered this
a fair case, when no test had been devised to settle the point. Prof.

194 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Stokes showed the effect of cobalt, uranium, solution of chlorophylle,
sulphate of quinia, and other substances, and gave this verbal state-
ment of the application of optical researches to abridge chemical labor.

PHOSPHORESCENCE OF BODIES.

Pror. Draper, of New York, has communicated to the Philo-
sophical Magazine, a paper of experimental researches, “ On the
Phosphoresence of Bodies,” whence we obtain the following general
conclusions : —

ist. That the methods employed in these experiments are not suf-
ficiently delicate to detect any increase of the dimensions of a phos-
phorescent while it is in a glowing state.

2d. No structural change can be discovered by resorting to polar-
ized light; but there is reason to believe, from the change of color
which certain bodies exhibit when the quality of shining is communi-
cated to them, and from the manner that vapors condense on their
surfaces, that such has actually taken place.

3d. That phosphorescence is attended with a minute rise of
temperature.

4th. That it is not necessarily connected with any electrical
disturbance. ¥

On comparing these conclusions, it is obvious, that if the third be
correct, there must necessarily be a change of volume ; and that the
reason the dilatation is not discovered by direct experiment, is owing
to the insufficiency of the means employed.

The general definition given of phosphorescence is, that it is the
extrication of light without heat, (Gmelin.) But these results show
that such definition is essentially incorrect; for, if the experiment be
made with due care, a rise of temperature can be detected, though its
absolute amount may be very small.

With respect to the absolute quantity of light emitted by phosphori,
Prof. Draper, from an experiment several times repeated, concludes
that the intrinsic brilliancy of phosphori is very small; a fine specimen
of chlorophane, at its maximum of brightness, yielding a light
three thousand times less intense than the flame of a very small oil
lamp.

sort certain experiments and considerations it is to be inferred,
that there is an intimate connection between temperature and phos-
phorescence, which may be conveniently expressed in the following
terms : —

The quantity of light a substance can retain is inversely as its
temperature.

Again, this principle leads to the conclusion, that the quantity of
light that a body can receive is directly as the intensity and quantity
of light to which it has been exposed.

In conclusion, Prof. Draper is led to believe, that all the facts of
phosphorescence can be fully explained on the principles of the com-

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 195

munication of vibratory motion through the ether; that, as upon that
theory, an incandescent body, maintained at incandescence, would
eventually compel a cold body in its presence to come up to its own
temperature, by making its particles execute movements like those of
its own, — so the sunshine, or the flash of an electric spark, compels a
vibratory movement in the bodies on which its rays fall; that these
movements are interfered with by cohesion in the case of solids, but
that they are instantly established and almost as instantly cease in the
ease of gases and liquids; that reducing the cohesion of a solid, by
raising its temperature, permits a resumption of the movement ; and
that the condition of opacity, either melantic or otherwise, is a bar to
the whole phenomenon.

SULPHATE OF IODO-QUININE.

In March last, Dr. Herapath announced the discovery of a beautiful
crystalline compound, possessing the optical properties of the tourma-
line, and even in a superior degree to this mineral. It also, at certain
angles of rotation, would act as selenite, viz., depolarize a ray.

This remarkable body was procured in the following way :— About
10 grains of di-sulphate of quinine (ordinary sulphate of quinine) were
dissolved in half a fluid ounce of pure acetic acid, and gently warmed; a
spirituous solution of iodine was then cautiously added, a few drops at
a time; the whole again gently heated to dissolve the cimnamon-
brown precipitate first produced, and the mixture set aside for several
hours to crystallize. When these crystals were examined by reflected
light, they were found to possess a brilliant emerald-green color,
sunilar to murexide, or the fragments of the elytra of cantharides ; but
by transmitted light, they were almost colorless and transparent,
having a slight olive-green tint only. The forms of these crystals are
very various; prismatic plates, parallelopipeds, rhomboidal parallelo-
grams, and hexagonal plates very perfect ; but by very careful mani-
pulation and slow crystallization, the author obtained large compound
plates composed of many flat prisms, joined edge to edge, and all in
the same plane; by which means he was enabled to produce crystals
large enough to furnish his microscope with artificial tourmalines, and
to perform all the experiments usually exhibited by the polarizing
microscope. Upon submitting this substance to chemical analysis, he
discovered the fact of its being a compound of iodine, sulphuric acid,
and quinine; many experiments prove that all these constituents are
absolutely essential to its production, and the removal of either will
destroy the compound. These crystals are exceedingly small and
delicate, requiring considerable magnifying to show their remarkable
optical character. When placed upon the selenite stage, or a thin

of mica, in a beam of polarized light under the microscope, they
exhibit the most vivid and beautiful colors. Even without any polariz-
ing apparatus, they serve very well to demonstrate the phenomena of
polarization, for when two of the crystals are crossed, at right angles,

196 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

an intense blackness is produced where they are superimposed; if,
however, they overlap, in the direction of their long diameters the
light passes through unaltered; when again, a third crystal happens
between two others, at an angle of 45°, it depolarizes the light and
appears colored, like a plate of selenite between two tourmaline plates ;
the color depending upon the thickness. When the solution of disul-
phate of quinine is strong, and heated so that no precipitate occurs in
adding the tincture of iodine, the crystals are formed as soon as the
liquid cools, like a bright green film on the surface, and glittering like
so many spangles; a few may be removed cautiousky with as little of
the fluid as possible by means of a loop of thread, and deposited on a
glass plate, and if any liquid remains on the plate it must be cautiously
removed by touching it with the corner of a bit of bibulous paper;
being well dried, the glass may be cautiously warmed, for the crystals
dissolve at a low heat, and a small drop of Canada balsam placed upon
them, and the thin glass cover in the usual way of mounting microsco-
pic objects. Or a drop of the hot solution may be placed on a cold
glass slip and as soon as the crystals have formed sufficiently, the thin
glass cover applied so as to exclude bubbles of air, and the edges
sealed with the gold size, or other cement.

When the crystals are placed upon a glass slide in an excess of the
mother liquid, tufts of radiating sulphate of quinidine are formed
below them, these when placed in a beam of polarized light with a
film of selenite or mica intervening, furnish a most gorgeous exhibition
of colors, varying as the polarizer 1s turned on its axis, and unsurpassed
by anything we have ever witnessed.

By very careful manipulation Dr. Herapath has succeeded in
obtaining the crystals sufficiently large to answer instead of the tour-
maline plates and Nicols’ prism; these are, however, exceeding rare
at present, indeed the largest the Dr. has yet produced is only one-fourth
of an inch in diameter. Upon submitting these artificial plates to micro-
metrical measurement, it was found that those which possessed sufli-
cient thickness to adhere together in clusters, and to raise themselves
upon their edges so as to exhibit their thickness, were none of them
more than 1-300th of an inch, many of them 1-600th or 1-900th of an
inch only; but even these were much thicker than any of the broad,
thin plates, so readily broken, some of which were successfully
mounted; these could not have been more than 1-1000th of an inch ;
and when it is recollected, that tourmalines, as sold for optical pur-
poses, are generally from 1-100th to 1-50th of an inch, it is at once
apparent that this newly discovered salt of the vegetable alkaloid
quinine, is the most powerful substance known as a polarizing
crystal.

DETECTION OF SODA BY POLARIZED LIGHT.

Tue double chloride of potassium and platinum, crystallizing in
regular octahedrons, exercises, when placed in a dark field of the

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 197

polariscope, no depolarizing action; and the same remark applies to
the bichloride of platinum, in consequence probably of its imperfect
crystallization ; on the other hand, the chloride of sodium and platinum
in thin crystalline plates, is remarkable for its depolarizing power ;
and a trace of this salt, which is invisible to the naked eye, may be at
once detected by the brilliant display of prismatic colors which it
exhibits under the action of polarized light. This property may be
applied to the detection of soda in the following way :— The other
bases having been removed by the ordinary methods, and the alkalies
converted into chlorides, a drop of the solution is placed on a glass
slide, and a very small quantity of a dilute solution of the bichloride of
platinum added, avoiding, as far as possible, an excess of that re-agent.
The drop is then evaporated by a gentle heat till it begins to crystal-
lize, and afterwards placed in the field of a microscope furnished with
a good polarizing apparatus. On turning the analyser till the field
becomes perfectly dark, and excluding carefully the entrance of light
laterally, the crystals remain invisible if either potash, or no alkali
whatever, be present, while the presence of the shghtest trace of soda
is at once indicated by the depolarizing action of its platinum com-
pound. With a drop of solution of chloride of sodium weighing
0.0015 grm. and containing 1-10,000th of its weight of chloride of
sodium, a very distinct effect was obtained. The quantity of soda
thus detected was only 1-13,000,000th of a gramme, or about 1-1,000,-
000th of a grain.

ELECTRO-CHEMICAL RESEARCHES ON THE PROPERTIES OF
ELECTRIFIED BODIES.

Fremy and Becquerel contributed the following paper to the
Comptes Rendus, March, 1852.

For several years the attention of chemists and physicists had been
directed to the very remarkable modifications which certain bodies
present when submitted to the action of a very moderate temperature.
We know that, under this influence, sulphur and phosphorus acquire
new properties. We propose to investigage whether electricity, like
heat, can change the physical and chemical properties of different
bodies. We must examine, in the first place, into the singular effects
presented by oxygen in various circumstances, and referred to the
formation of what has been called ozone ; this body appears to be pro-
duced in all cases in which oxygen is submitted to the influence of
electricity. Without wishing to cast doubt upon the sagacity of those
who have examined into the properties of ozone, it cannot be denied
that there still exists great uncertainty in the minds of chemists and
philosophers as to the interpretation of the phenomena observed ; we
have therefore thought it was important to submit these phenomena to
new experiments.

__ After going over all the experiments made on ozone, mentioning in
particular the important researches of Schonbein, Marignac, and De

198 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

la Rive, we have examined, first, the oxidizing properties of the
oxygen procured by the decomposition of water by the galvanic pile ;
the result of these researches is that the pile cannot be employed to
determine the nature of ozone, because the active principle is found
only in very small proportion, in the oxygen of the pile. We have,
therefore, been obliged to study successively all the methods that can
be employed to electrify oxygen. The are which is formed upon
the interruption of the voltaic circuit does not appear to modify the
oxygen in the same manner as the ordinary spark, because the eleva-
tion of temperature which accompanies it probably destroys that
which the electricity might produce; but according to our observa-
tions, this are may determine the combination of gases among them-
selves, acting thus as spongy platinum and as electricity ; under its
influence we have combined nitrogen and oxygen directly, to form
nitric acid, nitrogen and hydrogen and ammonia, and sulphurous acid
and oxygen to form anhydrous sulphuric acid.

Pure oxygen, enclosed in glass tubes, together with a band of
starched and iodized paper, was electrified by means of a series of
sparks striking the outer surface of the tube; the paper began to
become blue after the passage of a few sparks. This colorization
depends on electrization of the oxygen, and not on the decomposition
of the iodide; for no effect takes place when the iodide is placed in
hydrogen, and operated on. ‘This fact, is so much the more remark-
able, as the oxygen is electrified without the intervention of metallic
wires, and consequently without the presence of particles transported
by the electric spark. Oxygen, prepared by the most different
modes, acquires a very distinct odor, and strongly marked oxidizing
properties when it is subjected to the influence of electricity ; these
properties are manifested by oxygen as pure as it is possible to obtain.
The oxygen thus electrified loses its oxidizing properties when exposed
to iodide of potassium, but regains its odor and chemical activity when
again electrified ; this experiment may be repeated indefinitely on the
same gas.

All these facts show that the oxidizing power of electrified oxygen
is not due to the presence of a foreign body contained in the gas;
when pure and dry oxygen is enclosed in a series of glass tubes and
subjected to the action of electric sparks, if after a time we break the
extremities of these tubes to ascertain the volume of gas that has
become immediately absorbable by alkaline iodide, we shall find that
during several hours the modification increases in proportion to the
time of electrization, and that afterwards it appears to diminish,
probably because the spark destroys that which at first it pro-
duces.

The difficulties presented in the preceding experiment induced us to
study the deportment of electrified oxygen with certain absorbing bodies,
capable of immediately seizing the modified oxygen and of withdraw-
ing this gas from the decomposing action of an excess of electricity ;
we, therefore, passed a series of electric sparks into small eudiometric

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 199

tubes full of moist oxygen, and placed either over mercury, or a solu-
tion of iodide of potassium, or containing in their interior a moistened
leaf of silver; we then saw the oxygen become absorbed in a regular
manner by the action of the electric spark, aud in many experiments
obtained a complete absorption. Lastly, to get rid of all doubts about
the particular activity imparted to oxygen by the electric spark, we
wished to verify the preceding experiments in closed tubes. We,
therefore, introduced into tubes filled with pure oxygen some iodide of
potassium and moistened silver. We submitted these tubes for
several days to the action of electricity ; the spark, which, during the
first days was very brilliant, became paler‘and paler, and at last almost
invisible. At this moment on breaking the tubes, under water, we
saw this liquid rush into their interior and fill them completely, thus
showing that a vacuum had been produced, and consequently that the
oxygen had become completely absorbable without heat, by the silver
and iodide of potassium. We must add, that to render these experi-
ments decisive, we had previously ascertained — Ist, that pure water,
the surface of glass and the platinum wires conducting the sparks,
could not absorb oxygen ; 2d, that water is not necessary to develope
the activity of oxygen, but to cause the active oxygen to react upon
metals or iodide of potassium; 3d, that the electric spark does not
decompose the iodide of potassium. We think, therefore, that we
have shown, by rigorous experiments, that oxygen under the
influence of electricity, can become completely absorbable in the cold
by iodide of potassium and several metals, such as mercury and silver.
These facts confirm the researches of Schonbein and others, and show
that electricity, in acting upon oxygen, developes properties in it
which did not exist before its influence; we propose, therefore, simply
to give the name electrified oxygen to the gas, which having been sub-
mitted to the action of electricity acquires a particular state of chemi-
cal activity, and to abandon the name ozone, which expresses the idea
of the transformation of the oxygen into a new body.

OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO THE ELECTRO-CHEMICAL PROPER-
TIES OF HYDROGEN.

a Tue following paper was lately read before the French Academy of
cience : —

It is known that when two sheets of platinum have been previously
placed in contact, one with hydrogen gas and the other with oxygen,
and are immersed in water mixed with sulphuric acid, they constitute,
momentarily, a voltaic pair — the sheet covered with hydrogen serving
as the zine side of an ordinary pair. By arranging on the conducting
quid two tubes, half filled, one with hydrogen the other with oxygen,
and immersing the sheets of platinum partly in the liquid and partly
in one of the gases, the pair gives out electricity until there is no more
gas in the tubes. By uniting several pairs, there is formed what has
been called a gas battery ; it is worthy of notice that in this battery,

18

200 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

when a circuit is closed, the gases contained in the tubes of each pair
diminish in volume, the hydrogen twice as rapidly as the oxygen, so
that the re-composition of water is effected in each element. Many
eminent philosophers — Faraday among others — have directed their
attention to this subject, and their experiments prdve that the proba-
ble cause of the disengagement of electricity is the combination of the
oxygen dissolved in the liquid with the hydrogen adhering to the pla-
tinum by the intervention of this metal. The oxygen adhering to the
second sheet is therefore only opposed to the polarization that would
be produced by carrying oyer this sheet, the hydrogen that procedes
from the decomposition of the conducting liquid. Therefore the plat-
inum, like other solid bodies employed under some circumstances,
instead of this metal, is only the medium that determines the combina-
tion of the gases, and permits the circulation of electricity. It appears
from this that the nature of the conducting liquids, must have an
influence on the development of electricity, and the new results that
are found mentioned in that part of the treatise of M. Edmond Bec-
querel, which speaks of the action of hydrogen on the chloride of gold
as well as in that entitled “electric current developed,” confirm the
truth of this assertion. The following experiment is corroborative of
the first: — If a tube of very small diameter, filled with hydrogen gas
be placed in a vessel containing a concentrated solution of chloride of
gold, at the end of a few days the temperature not having sensibly
varied, the level of the chloride of gold, inside the tube will be very
little different from what it was at first. Then introduce a piece of
platinum wire, one part in the gas and the other part with its extremity,
immersed in the chloride of gold; the gas is seen slowly to diminish in
volume, and even at the end of a certain time to disappear completely,
when the platinum wire rises to the top, but at the same time as the
hydrogen gas disappeared, gold is precipitated in the metallic state on
that part of the platinum wire immersed in the chloride. It is to be
observed that the liquid does not contain, in solution, any platinum,
therefore it is not acted upon by the neutral chloride of gold, at least
as far as analysis proves; moreover, the exterior air is not an agent in’
the manifestation of the phenomenon, since it is produced likewise in
close vessels. To be able to judge of the different results obtained,
M. Becquerel gives the following conclusions :—

1st. Platinum wire that does not reduce a neutral solution of chlo-
ride of gold, may acquire this property when the solution is placed in
contact with hydrogen gas, and the wire immersed partly in the gas and
partly in the solution ; gold is precipitated in the metallic state on that
part of the wire immersed in the liquid, and the gas is absorbed while
the deposit is going on.

2d. This action is manifested equally in close vessels not exposed
to atmospheric influence. As the liquid, after the reaction, does not
contain any platinum in the solution, it results that the metal under-
goes no alteration —that it only serves as a conductor, and it acts
only by its pressure. These experiments appear to prove that in

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 201

this circumstance there is produced between a liquid and a gas (the
chloride of gold and hydrogen,) when platinum is present, an action
of the same kind as between oxygen and hydrogen, under the influ-
ence of the same metal.

3d. A piece of wire, with a sheet of gold under the same conditions,
does not furnish any noticable effect.

4th. A voltaic pair may be formed with a single liquid, two sheets
of platinum and one gas (hydrogen,) but this latter to be in contact
with one of the sheets and the liquid; by uniting several pairs there is
then a gas battery composed of a sinale gas, one > metal and one liquid.
Hitherto it had been laid down as a law, that with the platinum and
acid solution, two gases (oxygen and hy drogen) were necessary to
obtain this result ; only the elements of the battery formed with the
chloride of gold, have a feebler intensity of action than the usual
gas pairs.

5th. The solution of chloride of gold, chemically pure, may there-
fore be considered definitively as superseding the acid solution and
oxygen in the gas battery. The remarkable effects that are manifested
in this circumstance should not be confounded with those that would
be produced by certain gaseous solutions or liquids, such as nitric
acid absorbing hydrogen at the ordinary temperature, without the
apphance of platinum.

ON THE SPHEROIDAL STATE OF BODIES.

AT a lecture before the Royal Institution, England, M. Boutigny
remarked that the simple phenomena of the subject would seem to
have necessarily attracted attention from the most ancient times, and
endeavoring to discover some record of the fact, he had found the
possible expression of it in the Wisdom of Solomon, xix.’ 20:—
“ The fire had power in the water, forgetting his own virtue ; and the
water forgat his own quenching nature.” Eller and Leidenfrost,
however, about the middle of the last century, first truly observed
the simple phenomena; but nothing had since been done, either to
increase our knowledge of the singular facts, or to suggest an explan-
atory theory concerning them. "M. Boutiony then exhibited the
experiments which he had recently made. He placed some nitrate
of ammonia, which is inflammable at a very low temperature, upon a
capsule of platina, greatly heated, but it assumed the spheroidal con-
_ dition without ignition. On removing the lamp, however, and when
the substance was cooled down to the ordinary temperature, it ignited.
The beautiful violet colored vapor of iodine was produced also “in the
same manner, as also distilled water, which passed into steam as soon
as the metal disc was sufficiently cooled. He then proceeded, by
experiment, to show how the fact as relates to water, readily explains
the occasional bursting of steam boilers, when, by the cooling of the
boiler after the introduction of water into it when overheated, the
contents are immediately and violently converted into steam.

202 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The singular fact of the universal decrease of temperature in the
liquid, when in a spheroidal state, was then adverted to. Numerous
experiments had proved it. This phenomenon has given a result
wholly unforeseen, and most remarkable. The chemist knows that
liquid anhydrous sulphurous acid boils at a very low temperature.
M. Boutigny, in submitting this acid to similar conditions in a slightly
humid atmosphere, the acid first took an opaline appearance, then lost
its transparence, and finally solidified. The solid formed was ice!
As a variation of this experiment, some drops of water were thrown
upon the acid while in the spheroidal state, and the water immediately
congealed. In order to demonstrate that liquids, when im this state,
do not touch the surface of the metal, some concentrated nitric acid
was dealt with, but it did not act upon the copper disc on which the
experiment was made, until the copper was cooled. A cylinder of
silver, at a white heat, was also plunged into water; it was distinctly
observed for many seconds (the room being darkened) not to be
affected by the surrounding medium. The lecturer then insisted that
it was not alone to such physical results that we are to look on the
curious phenomena he has unveiled, but to the new method of chem-
ical analysis and synthesis which they suggest. He has thus found
that some bodies, which are not decomposed at boiling heat, are so
when put in a spheroidal state ; while others, placed in contact under
the influence of this new molecular state, produce new combinations.
When wine and alcohol are in a spheroidal state, their elements are
found to be in a new order; ether is decomposed, and disengages
aldehyde; chloride of ethyle decomposes nitrate of silver; ammonia
dissolves iodine, &e.

PREPARATION OF MAGNESIUM.

BunsEN has observed, that fused chloride of magnesium is readily
decomposed by the voltaic current, so that it is possible, in a short
time, by the employment of a battery of a few pairs only, to obtain a
mass of metal weighing several grammes. For the preparation of the
chloride, Liebig’s method is recommended ; particular care must be
taken, however, in drying the mixture of magnesia and sal-ammoniac,
to avoid the formation of a basic chloride. As a decomposing cell,
Bunsen employs a porcelain crucible divided into two parts by a dia-
phragm reaching to half the depth of the crucible. In this manner
the chlorine set free at one electrode is prevented from again com-
bining with the magnesium deposited upon the other. The electrodes
used are of carbon, in the form in which it is prepared for Bunsen’s
battery ; into the surface of the negative pole kerfs are cut to prevent
the magnesium set free from floating to the surface of the fused liquid
and there taking fire. To determine the quantity of magnesium
formed in a given time, the author introduces a tangents-compass into
the circuit, and deduces by a well known formula the relation between
the chemical and the magnetic effects of the current, so that the latter
being observed, the former may easily be calculated. Magnesium, as

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 203

obtained by electrolysis, is upon a fresh fracture sometimes faintly
crystalline in large plates, at others fine grained; in the first case, it
is silver-white and very brilliant, in the last more bluish gray and
without lustre. Its hardness is nearly that of cale-spar. It fuses at
a moderate heat; in dry air it is wholly unchangeable, and does not
lose its lustre ; in moist air it soon becomes covered with a coating of
magnesia. Heated to whiteness in the air, it takes fire and burns
with an intense white light; the evolution of light by combustion in
oxygen is of unusual intensity — about 500 times that of a wax can-
dle. The metal decomposes pure cold water very slowly, acidulated
water rapidly. Thrown upon aqueous muriatic acid the metal
instantly ignites. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves it slowly; a
mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids has no action in the cold. The
density of magnesium was found to be 1.7430 at 5° Centigrade.
Calculated from this, the atomic volume of magnesium is 86, or
exactly double that of nickel. The metal, as obtained by electrolysis,
may easily be filed, bored, sawed, or somewhat flattened by hammer-
ing, but is hardly more ductile than zinc, at ordinary temperatures.
The magnesium obtained by means of potassium, contains a small
quantity of that metal, and is ductile; that reduced by electrolysis,
almost always contains traces of aluminum and silicon.— Ann. der
Chemie und Pharmacie, \xxxii. 137.

TITANIUM AND ZIRCONIUM IN MINERAL WATERS.

Dr. Mazanpe, of Valence, states that he has detected in the mine-
ral waters of Neyrac, France, both titanium and zirconia. He had
previously announced his having found in the same waters, molybde-
num, tin, tungsten, tantalum, cerium, yttrium, glucinium, nickel, and
cobalt. — L’ Institut, No. 964.

ON THE PASSIVE STATE OF METEORIC IRON.

WoHLER states, that he has observed the curious fact, that the
greater portion of the meteoric iron he has had an opportunity of
examining, is in the so called passive state, that is to say, it does not
reduce the copper from a solution of the neutral sulphate of copper,
but remains bright and uncoppered therein. But if touched in the
solution with a piece of common iron, the reduction of the copper
commences immediately upon the meteoric iron. It also becomes
active instantaneously on the addition of a drop of acid to the solution
of copper; but if the reduced copper be filed away, the new surface
is again passive. I convinced myself by experiments on meteoric
iron, which had never been in contact with nitric acid, and neverthe-
less was passive, that this state could not have been produced by the
corrosion of the surface by the acid, for the production of the Wid-
mannstattean figures. I thought first that this deportment might be
employed as a means of distinguishing true meteoric iron; but it soon
appeared that some undoubtedly genuine meteoric iron was not in this

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204 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

state. Seven specimens, from different parts of the world, examined,
were found to be passive ; six reducing, or active ; and four which do
not become coated with copper immediately, but on which the reduction
gradually commences, after a longer or shorter contact with the
cupreous solution, and usually from one point, or from the margins of
the fluid.

These peculiarities appear to have no connection either with the
presence of nickel, or the property of forming regular figures on
corrosion. JI also found that an artificially prepared alloy of 1ron and
nickel, which on corrosion acquired a damasked surface, reduced the
copper from solution in the same manner as common iron. Whether
this state is proper to all meteoric iron on its reaching the earth, and,
as may have happened in the case of the active kinds, have only been
lost in the course of perhaps a very long period of time, and what
probable opinion can be formed of these phenomena must be settled
by experiments and observations of a more extended nature. —
Pogg. Ann.

PRODUCTION OF BRITISH IRON.

Mr. SAMUEL BLACKWELL, an eminent English iron-master, esti-
mates the gross annual production of iron in Great Britain to be
upwards of 2,500,000 tons. Of this quantity, South Wales furnishes
700,000 tons; South Staffordshire, 600,000; and Scotland, 600,000.
The remainder is divided among the various smaller districts. The
number of furnaces in blast in England and Wales during the year
1850, was 336.

ON THE COMPOSITION OF WOOTZ, OR INDIAN STEEL.

Woorz, or Indian Steel, has for a long time been held in high
estimation from the supposition that the celebrated scimitars of
Damascus were made from it. A chemical examination was made of
wootz in 1819, by Faraday, who came to the conclusion that the
peculiar excellence of this steel depended chiefly on a small quantity
of aluminum combined or alloyed with it; two separate analyses
yielding 0,0128, and 0,0693 of aluminum. On the other hand, Kar-
sten could only detect dubious traces of aluminum in wootz, and
Elsner attributed the improvement in the quality of the steel pro-
duced in Faraday’s experiments, not to the small quantity of foreign
metals, aluminum, silver, platinum, &c., alloyed with them, but
entirely to the operation of remelting, and this seems to be the prac-
tical conclusion come to at Sheffield, Eng., at the present day. The
fact that the alloys produced by Faraday possessed a perfectly dam-
asked surface, closely resembling wootz, seems to militate against
the conclusions of Elsner. M. Breaut attributes the damask
of the Eastern blades to the crystallization of two distinct com-
pounds of iron and carbon, and draws a distinction between the
oriental damask, and that produced by alloys of steel. This

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 205

is confirmed by the experiments of M. Anocoff, a Russian
engineer, published a few years since in the Annuaire des
Mines de Russie. He pretends to have produced blades so nearly ©
emulating those of Damascus, as to allow of their being bent
at a right angle, and capable of dividing a film of gauze floating
in the atmosphere. Mr. Henry, of England, has recently made seve-
ral analyses of wootz, and failed to detect in it the presence of alu-
mina; he, however, found sulphur, silicon, and arsenic, in apprecia-
ble quantities.

SEPARATION OF SILVER FROM OTHER METALS.

The following is an abstract of the specification of a patent granted
to Alexander Parks, of England, for improvements in the separation
of silver from other metals. The invention consists—first, of certain
improvements in the mode of employing zinc for the purpose of
separating silver from lead. Secondly, of improvements in separa-
ting the silver from the alloy of zinc and other metals thus produced.
The patentee states that he has found when lead contains 14 ozs. of
silver to the ton, the most suitable proportion is 1 per cent. of zinc;
thus, for each ton of lead containing 14 ozs. of silver, he uses 23 lbs.
4 ozs. of zinc; for each ton of lead containing 21 ozs., 33 Ibs. 6 ozs. of
zinc; and for each ton of lead containing 28 ozs. of silver, 44 Ibs. 8
ozs. of zinc. The process is conducted as follows :—The lead, in the
state it is received from the smelting-house, is melted in an iron pot,
and heated to the temperature of melted zinc ; the zinc, in a melted
state, is then added, and the whole well mixed; the contents of the
pot are then stirred in the usual way, with a piece of green wood, to
remove any impurities ; it is then cooled; the alloy of silver, zine &c.,
rises to the surface, and is removed by the means of ladles pierced
full of holes. A previous assay of the lead will indicate the right
proportion of zinc to be employed; a larger quantity will be found
necessary in cases where the lead is very impure. The lead which
has thus been desilverised by means of zinc, often retains a small
portion of that metal, which has the effect of rendering it brittle : this
defect is remedied by the following process :—

The melted lead is run into a reverbatory furnace, and raised to a
dull red heat, when the zinc rises to the surface and becomes oxy-
dised ; the furnace is then tapped and the lead run into an iron pot,
when it is stirred with a piece of green wood, to remove any oxide of
lead which may have formed; after which, it is ladled into moulds in
the usual way. By this means, 3 tons of lead may be deprived of the
zine it contains in the course of from 2 to 24 hours; the surface of
metal exposed being from 25 to 30 square feet. The oxide of zine
remains in the furnace, whence in may be afterwards be removed.

In order to separate the silver from the other portions of the alloy
the patentee proceeds as follows :—The silver is first concentrated by .
removing as much of the lead as possible, by placing it in an iron pot,
the bottom of which is preforated with holes, the top being, at the

206 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

same time, covered with a tight-fitting lid; heat is then applied, and
when the metal is nearly red hot a large quantity of the lead in the alloy
will escape, and thus the mass of alloy will become much reduced in
size. If care be taken that the heat be not carried to too great a
degree, the lead which thus escapes will be found to contain but a
very minute quantity of silver. The alloy thus concentrated may
next be treated by either of the following methods: First the alloy is
placed in closed retorts, or muffles, and exposed slowly to a low heat,
and continually stirred, by which means the metal is partly oxydised
and falls down in fine powder ; the heat is then increased, and when
all the metals (except silver) in the alloy become completely oxy-
dised, the whole is transferred to tanks containing dilute sulphuric
or muriatic acid, which dissolves the oxides, leaving the silver in the
metallic state. Secondly, the alloy is placed in suitable retorts, or
distillatory apparatus, formed of Stourbridge clay, or of iron set in
clay retorts and lined with powdered bone and charcoal, and by which
means the zinc is distilled off in the usual way, after which the back
part of the retort is tapped and the residue treated by cupellation, in
the way well known.

By the process of desilvering lead, known as that of Pattinson’s,
many of the English lead mines which are now workable with profit,
must otherwise have been abandoned. The chief ore from which lead
is extracted is that known as galena, or the sulphuret of lead, furnish-
ing from 75 to 80 parts of the metal according to purity. It usually,
though not always contains silver in various proportions. Upon the
quantity of silver often depends the profitable raising of the ore.—
Previous to the invention of Mr. Pattinson, about 20 ounces of silver
in a ton of lead were required to render the extraction of that metal
worth the cost; since then as little as three or four ounces in the ton
of lead will repay extraction. Now, as so many ores contain small
quantities only of silver, the importance of the process is evident.
In a scientific point of view it is one of much interest, as it consists in
so conducting the work that portions of lead can be crystallized, by
which the silver becomes excluded, in the manner in which in many
crystallizing processes, foreign substances are excluded during crystal-
lization, thus by degrees a mixed mass of silver and lead is left,
extremely rich in the first metal. When this richness in silver arrives at
the point desired, that metal is extracted in the usual manner by
cupellation. In one of the lead works in England, in which arrange-
ments exist by which the fumes of the furnaces are prevented from
escaping, the damage to the surrounding country is obviated, and lead
to the amount of 33 per cent. is obtained from the deposits or “ fume.”

ZINC OXIDE AS A PIGMENT.

Tuts branch of industry has already arrived at much importance
in this country through the action of the New Jersey Zinc Company,
whose works are dependant upon the red zine ore and Franklinite so
long known to mineralogists. The products of this manufacture are

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 207

chiefly two, the white oxide, dry or ground in oil, and of several
grades of quality, and the colored pigments formed mainly by grind-
ing the raw ore. The zine white is made in large oven-shapen retorts
of brick, around which the heat of an anthracite fire is conducted
both above and below. These ovens are very low, but of large superfi-
cial area. A wide pipe of sheet iron connects each with a very large
horizontal tube in which a current of air is kept moving by the
revolution of a fan-wheel. This current flows first through the
retorts, furnishing air to burn the zinc and means of transportation to
the oxyde formed, which is delivered by the current in large cooling
chambers. The charge in the ovens is one thousand pounds of
crushed red zinc and Franklinite mixed with its own bulk of the dust
of anthracite coal. The heat is raised to full redness and so managed
as to be hottest on the upper surface of the charge. Reduction of the
zine is probably effected by the action of the hot carbon, but the
metal is immediately burned by the atmospheric oxygen drawn in by
the mechanical action of the blower before named. All the volatile
products of this chemical action are drawn through the long tubes
and partly delivered into capacious sacks of closely woven muslin
suspended in well ventillated apartments. The heat retained by
the oxide is not sufficient to scorch the muslin. From the proper
openings in the sack the material is collected in casks. In the retorts
the residue consists of undecomposed Franklinite and of metallic iron
mingled with unchanged carbon. When the best results are obtained
the ore yields half its weight of oxide. This oxide is never quite pure,
as a small quantity of dust and foreign materials are drawn in with
the current of air. Dissolved in acetic acid this residue remains on
the filter and perfectly pure carbonate of zinc may be precipitated
from the acetate. Chemists will regard this as an important means of
procuring chemically pure zinc.

It is curious that the carbonate of zine obtained by precipitation
when mingled with oil has no “ body,” or does not cover the surface
on which it is laid, while the anhydrous oxide obtained in the furnace
process covers very well. Water added even in small quantity to the
zine oxide ground in oil, will cause the whole mass to solidify. The
greater cheapness of zinc oxide, its freedom from poisonous quality, and
the fact that sulphuretted hydrogen does not discolor it, are causes
which must -lead to the general use of this material in place of
lead. The New Jersey Zinc Co. are at present manufacturing about
5,000 pounds of zine oxide daily, from 18 furnaces or retorts, only
one-half of which are usually in operation at the same time. The
colored paints formed by grinding the crude ore, are sold at very
cheap rates and found to possess remarkable power to prevent the
oxidation of metallic iron.—Silliman’s Journal.

208 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ON THE PRODUCTS OF SMELTING FURNACES, AS PROOFS OF GEO-
LOGICAL HYPOTHESES.

A PAPER on the above subject was read before the German Scien-
tific Association at Wiesbaden, by Prof. Leonhard, of Heidelberg, of
which the following is an abstract: “ For a long period of time,”
began the author, “ no particular attention was devoted to scoriz and
slags, the secondary productions of all smelting works. As useless and
unprofitable, they were thrown aside after the metal had been extrac-
ted, as the miner in his shaft gets rid of all waste and unproductive
rock.” He then showed how, until lately, the study of lavas them-
selves was neglected. ‘The same was the case with scoriz and slags ;
they are not, as was formerly supposed, ‘“ accidental combinations of
several materials, nor arbitrary mixtures of earths and metallic oxides,
which, however occurring again and again in this or that smelting
produce, show nevertheless in a quantitative point of view the most
endless varieties. ‘The scientific foundation of a theory of the for-
mation of scoriz and slags is the work of Mbitscherlich. The
production of mineral substances by means of fire, or as the produce
of high furnaces by the gradual diminution of the temperature of
materials melted together in given proportions, or from vapors, attrac-
ted more and more attention. ‘The influence of temperature on the
resulting substances is most important, bringing about new combina
tions and new conditions out of the same material. ‘These phenomena
are most remarkable in the combination of iron and charcoal.

““ Space, quiet, and freedom of motion,” said the author, “are the
most important conditions and necessary requisites for the parti-
cles of matter to be able to arrange themselves in regular order to
produce well-formed crystals; this the chemist had taught us. All
products of this kind are subject to unchangeable laws. The more
gradual the reduction of the igneous fluid to a solid mass, the more
favorable are the conditions of crystallization. If proportions and
conditions are the same, we always see the same forms reproduced.”
After these words the author described the process of late chemists
with regard to the melting and reduction of various rocks, and then rap-
idly noticed the numerous minerals and combinations of minerals found
in the scoriz and slags of smelting furnaces. “ All scorie,” he added,
“have a similarity of substance and degree of flexibility (?) sufficient
to enable the metalic particles thus obtained to sink by means of their
greater specific gravity. Scoriw have a less specific weight than the
products to.be gained by smelting; the latter are pure metals, or a
combination of metal with charcoal, sulphur, &e.—the former consist
entirely or chiefly of earths. We can thus understand how a cover-
ing of slag is formed over the melted treasure as a protection against
the influence of fire and of atmosphere.” After mentioning some of
the principal minerals obtained from furnaces, and which are the
principal ingredients of the most extensively found rocks, he observed
that “in a geological point of view these products are of the greatest
importance. They point out how nature has ever worked in her

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 209

mysterious abodes, on a still larger scale and with an overwhelming
force. ‘These substances will open up a new field for inquiry and
investigation for observation and experiments. They will play an
important part in all future geological hypotheses, when we have to
argue from the known to the ‘unknown. They will fill many a gap in
imperfect observations, they will explain various phenomena, explode
rash assertions and imaginary assumptions. We may also hope, too,
for further information on the question, whether the fundamental
rocks of our planet, the form of which presumes a fluid state, were
soluble in water; or whether the temperature of the earth was once
so high, that the ingredients of certain rocks were ina melted state ?”
He concluded by mentioning that, “‘ amongst the products of smelting
furnaces there are some which have not yet been found in a natural state
Some of the artificial productions, however, have been subsequently
discovered in the realms of nature, and there is no reason why we
may not expect, with future investigations, te find the others.”

NEW TEST FOR MERCURY.

Mr. ArtHur MorGan in a paper read before the Dublin Medico-
chirurgical Society says, —if a strong solution of iodide of potassium
be added to a minute portion of any “of the salts of mercury, placed
on a clean bright plate of copper, the mercury is immediately depos-
ited in a metallic state, appearing as a silvery stain on the copper,
which cannot be mistaken, as no other metal is deposited by the same
means. By this method corrosive sublimate may be detected in a
drop of solution unaffected either by caustic potash, or iodide of
potassium. In amixture of calomel and sugar inthe proportion of one
grain to two hundred, a distinct metallic stain’ will be obtained with
one grain of the mixture, which of course contains 1-200 of a grain
of calomel; in like manner, 1-400 of a grain of peroxide of mercury
may be detected, although the mixture with sugar is not in the least
colored by it, with preparations of mercury in the undiluted state, this
process acts with remarkable accuracy, the smallest quantity of
calomel in peroxide of mercury, such as would almost require a mag-
nifying lens to perceive, placed on copper and treated with iodide of
potassium, will give a distinct metallic stain.

The advantages of this test may be briefly stated as follows: — It is
a delicate test inferior only to chloride of zinc and the galvanic test of
zinc and gold. It is easy of application. It requires a very small
portion of the substance to be examined—a matter of no small impor-
tance. Acting on the insoluble as well as the soluble salts, it obviates
the intermediate process of solution. When it acts, its indications are
decisive. As to its disadvantages, the only one which seems tenable
is, that although it acts on minute portions, still that must be in a con-
centrated condition.

=

210 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ON THE PREPARATION OF PURE SILVER FROM CHLORIDE OF
SILVER. BY C. BRANNER.

Ir has long been known that pure silver for chemical purposes is
best prepared by the decomposition of chloride of silver. This decom-
position can be performed in various ways: Poggendorff, several years
ago, described a process in which it was effected by galvanism ; this
appears to me to be preferable to all others hitherto known, and the
one here described can only be regarded as a modification of it.
Well-washed precipitated chloride of silver is to be put into a cup of
silver, platina or copper the outer surface of which is covered with
wax in such a manner that only a round space of one or two inches
in diameter, according to the size of the cup, remains uncovered. On
the bottom of a larger earthen cup a disc of amalgamated zinc is to be
laid, on the middle of which the cup containing the chloride of silver
is placed, in such a manner that the portion not covered with wax
may come in contact with the zinc. Water slightly acidulated with
sulphuric acid is now poured into the apparatus, until it rises above
the margin of the inner cup, so that this will be completely sunk in
the water. The decomposition of the chloride of silver immediately
commences at the edge of the cup containing it and proceeds inwards
to the middle ; this is readily known by the dark gray color assumed
by the silver as it separates ; the decomposition will be completed in
from 24 to 48 hours; its completion may be known by there being no
longer any chloride of silver visible on stirring the precipitate. The
silver thus procured is to be washed with water, and any small residue
of chloride of silver which it sometimes retains may be got rid of by
diluted ammonia. The silver thus prepared is perfectly pure. It is
readily seen that any foreign metals that may be contained in the
zinc, can never mix with it, as the disc of zinc lies during the whole
operation below the cup containing the silver and never comes in
contact with it.

CRYSTALLIZATION OF GLASS. °

SomE interesting experiments on this subject have been made by
M. Leydolt, in the course of his investigations upon the crystallization
of the silicates. He had examined agate by subjecting it to the
dissolving action of fluohydric acid, and obtained a surface with pro-
jecting crystals of quartz, that were left untouched by the acid. On
subjecting glass in the same manner, he was surprised to see that it
was far from homogeneous in its texture. All the kinds of glass
examined contain more or less perfectly distinct crystals, regular and
transparent encased in an amorphous base. ‘The crystals were
brought out by exposing it to the vapors of fluohydric acid and vapor
of water, and arresting it when the crystals appear; the amorphous
part is a little the most soluble in the acid. M. Leydolt observes also
that some natural crystals pure and transparent and apparently

>
CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 211

homogeneous, present similar deficiency in homogeneity with the
glass ; and he has the subject under further examination.

ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF IODINE.

A MEMOIR, it is well known, has been recently published in the
proceedings of the French Academy by M. Chatin, on the existence
of iodine in the atmosphere, in rain-water, soils, &.* Mr. McAdam,
of Edinburgh, ina letter to Prof. Jameson, published in the Philosoph-
ical Journal for July, states that he has endeavored with great care
to verify the results obtained by M. Chatin, but without success. As
the fixed alkalies and their carbonates were re-agents made use of by
M. Chatin, Mr. McAdam is inclined to refer the iodine found, to
these bodies, Mr. McAdam’s success in detecting iodine in pearl
ashes leads to the belief that this substance will be found more gen-
erally distributed in the vegetable kingdom than it has hitherto been
supposed to be; and this opinion is strengthened by the fact that it
has in several instances been detected in charcoal.

RESEARCHES ON THE SULPHURETS WHICH ARE DECOMPOSABLE
BY WATER. BY E. FREMY.

THE object of this paper is to make known the production and
principal properties of a class of sulphurets hitherto little examined,
and the study of which is alike interesting to chemists and geologists,
from the light which it throws on the formation of mineral waters.
When we consider the action of water on the sulphurets, we find that
these compounds may be divided into three classes; the first com-
prises the sulphurets of the alkalies and of the alkaline earths which
dissolve in water; the second is formed of the insoluble sulphurets ;
the third consists of the sulphurets of boron, silicon, magnesium and
aluminum, which are decomposed by water; these latter are scarcely
known, owing to their preparation having hitherto been accompanied
with great difficulties. In order to a thorough investigation of all the
questions which are connected with the decomposition of the sul-
phurets by water I first sought for a method by which they might be
easily prepared, which is as follows. It is well known that sulphur
exerts no action upon silica, boracic acid, magnesia and alumina. I
imagined it might be possible to replace the oxygen in these substances
by sulphur by the intervention of a second affinity, as that of carbon
for oxygen. Such decompositions, produced by two affinities are not
rare in chemistry ; and in some yet unpublished experiments on the
fluorides, I had observed that the sulphuret of carbon completely
decomposed the fluoride of calcium mixed with silica, producing
sulphuret of calcium, I was therefore led to presume that the sulphuret
of carbon, acting by its two elements upon the preceding oxides,
would remove the oxygen by means of the carbon which it contains,
and would at the same time form sulphurets ; this supposition I found

* See Annual of Scientific Discovery for 1851, p. 231.

212 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

confirmed by experiment. In fact, I have obtained the sulphurets of
boron, silicon, magnesium and aluminum, by submitting boracic acid,
silica, magnesia and alumina to the action of sulphuret of carbon at a
high temperature. To facilitate the reaction, and remove the sul-
phuret from the decomposing action of the alkalies contained in the
porcelain tubes, it is sometimes useful to mix the oxides to be reduced
with charcoal, and to form them into little balls similar to those which
are used in the preparation of chloride of silicon. ‘These sulphurets
correspond to the oxides from which they are derived.

The sulphuret of silicon had been obtained in small quantities by
Berzelius in the reaction of sulphur upon silicon, and by M. Pierre
in the decomposition of chloride of silicon by hydrosulphuric acid.
I have obtained this substance with the greatest ease, by passing the
vapor of sulphuret of carbon over pellets of charcoal and gelatinous
silica placed in a porcelain tube heated toa bright red. The sulphuret
of silicon condenses in the tube in beautiful white silky needles, which
are not very volatile, but are readily carried along by the vapor. To
show the interest which attaches to the examination of this substance,
it will suffice to mention here two of its reactions. When sulphuret
of silicon is heated in a current of moist air, it is decomposed and
furnishes silky crystals of anhydrous silica ; it is evident that we may
explain by means of this experiment the natural production of certaim
filamentose crystals of silica. The sulphuret of silicon in the presence
of water is decomposed with a brisk evolution of hydrosulphuric acid
into silica, which remains entirely dissolved in the water, and is not
deposited until the liquid is evaporated. It is impossible not to con-
nect this curious property with those natural conditions under which
certain mineral waters and siliceous incrustations are formed. As the
sulphuret of silicon is probably produced in all those cases where
silica is submitted to the double action of a bmary compound which
cedes sulphur to it, and at the same time appropriates its oxygen, this
sulphuret is probably not so rare as has been hitherto thought; and
by admitting its presence in those rocks in which sulphurous springs
occur, we might explain the simultaneous existence of silica and
sulphuretted hydrogen im the principal sulphurous waters. This
hypothesis is in some measure confirmed by the interesting observa-
tions of M. Descloizeaux, which show that the siliceous springs of the
Geysers of Iceland contain a large quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen.
In explaining the formation of sulphurous and siliceous waters by the
decomposition of the sulphuret of silicon, I am only extending the
ingenious theory proposed by M. Dumas to explain the formation of
boracic acid. ‘The sulphurets of boron and aluminum were prepared
like the sulphuret of silicon, and are likewise decomposed by water.
The sulphuret of magnesium I obtained by passing sulphuret of car-
bon over pure magnesia; in this case the presence of charcoal does
not appear to be of any use. Thissulphuret crystallizes and is soluble
in cold water; when its solution is kept at the ordinary temperature,
there is but a feeble disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen; but

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 213

when heated to ebullition, a lively effervescence of sulphuretted hydro-
gen takes place and there is an immediate deposition of magnesia.—
Comptes Rendus, July, 1852.

ON -THE SEPARATION OF MANGANESE.

Dr. Gress in a communication to Silliman’s Journal, September,
1852, gives the following statements in regard to the precipitation ot
manganese : —

Schonbein in a memoir on the relations of peroxide of lead and
ozone, has pointed out the remarkable fact that peroxide of lead
precipitates manganese completely from its solutions in chloro-hydric
and sulphuric acids, a compound of peroxide of lead and peroxide of
manganese being formed. A portion of the lead is at the same time
reduced to protoxide and unites with the acid with which the manga-
nese was combined. Schonbein appears not to have remarked the
importance of this observation in an analytical point of view.

In investigating the subject carefully, I have been led to the con-
clusion that the peroxide of lead constitutes one of the most valuable
re-agents in analytical chemistry, since by means of it the oxide ot
manganese may be easily and completely separated from a number
of other bases, without the employment of ammoniacal salts. The
use of ammonia, as is well known, frequently renders analyses con-
ducted by the ordinary methods laborious and inaccurate, either from
the number of operations involved, from the absorption of carbonic
acid from the air, or from the unavoidable loss in driving off the
ammoniacal salts by heat. The fact which I have determined, and
which serve as the basis of the analytical application of the peroxide
of lead are as follows : —

Peroxide of lead completely precipitates manganese from neutral
solutions in chloro-hydric, sulphuric and nitric acids, slowly in the
cold, but very rapidly by digestion or by boiling. The presence of
an excess of chloro-hydric or sulphuric acid does not prevent the com-
plete precipitation of the manganese; in these cases, however, chlo-
rine or oxygen is set free, and the quantity of lead dissolved is
greater than that which corresponds to the quantity of manganese
precipitated. Such an excess of acid should be avoided as far as
possible. ;

The presence of an excess of nitric acid prevents the precipitation
of the manganese, since hyper-manganic acid is formed and remains
in solution. Tartaric acid, and those organic substances which are
burned at the expense of the peroxide of lead, do not interfere with
the precipitation of the manganese. The organic matter is first
destroyed by the oxygen of the peroxide of lead, and afterwards the
manganese is precipitated by the excess of the peroxide added.
When the quantity of organic matter present is large, it is always
better to separate the manganese by means of sulphydrate of ammo-
nium in the usual manner. When, however, oxalic acid is present,
we may avoid the use either of an inconvenient quantity of peroxide

214 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

of lead, or of sulphydrate of ammonium, by means of chlorine or
bromine. Lither of these agents readily converts oxalates into
carbonates by a well known reaction. ‘The presence of an excess of
free acetic or succinic acid, does not prevent the complete precipita-
tion of manganese by peroxide of lead. The same observation applies
to the presence of sulphate, nitrate, and chloride of ammonium, and
therefore, probably to all ammoniacal salts. Salts of protoxide of iron
are oxidized and partially precipitated by peroxide of lead. The
same remark applies to the salts of cobalt. The precipitation is not
complete even after long digestion upon the sandbath.

The salts of nickel and zinc are not precipitated by peroxide of
lead, and the nickel undergoes no higher oxidation. Peroxide
of lead when perfectly free from protoxide does not precipitate baryta,
hme, magnesia, strontia, alumina from their solutions. The same
remark applies, as might be supposed, a fortiori, to the alkaline bases.
The application of these facts to the quantitative separation of manga-
nese from the above mentioned bases, with the exception of iron and
cobalt, is obvious.

Dr. Gibbs then proceeds at some length to consider the several
cases separately.

ROSIN OIL.

WE derive the following facts relative to the manufacture and use
of rosin oil for mechanical purposes, from a report submitted to the
manufacturing companies of Lowell, Mass., by a committee appointed
to investigate the subject. Dr. Samuel L. Dana, chairman.

The committee have considered this subject in relation to its
manufacture, lubricity, and economical use. Dr. Dana after carefully in-
vestigating the subject states as follows : — “ It was early evident to me
that the amount of practical information on the subject was very limited,
and rested on no fixed principles. I therefore devoted my time to the
investigation of principles relating to the process. I am satisfied, after
producing about 1,000 gallons, that, with due care guided by principles
which have been established, rosin oil of a uniform quality may be con-
tinuously produced at a very low rate per gallon. It was desirable, for
some purposes, that rosin oil should be deprived of its characteristic
odor without detriment. This difficult point has been completely
effected, and many gallons have been thus prepared, which have been
used by the companies. Deodorization will not probably materially
increase the cost of the oil. The first oily product of the distillation of
rosin, by a slight and cheap process, becomes applicable to all heavy
machinery when mixed with its bulk of sperm oil. The Merrimac
Manufacturing Company have used constantly, for several months,
this mixture on all parts of their steam engines, except the cylinder,
&c., on all their blowing fans, revolving at a speed of 600 or 700 turns
per minute, and on all the bearings in the print yard. No evil has
resulted from its use. It spends nearly the same as pure sperm oil.
It was found, moreover, that while first run rosin oil was found per-

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 215

fectly applicable to all heavy bearings, after undergoing a slight pro-
cess, yet when deodorized, a chemical change or motion among its
particles was induced, by which it oradually thickened and became
unfit for lubrification. This fact led me to believe that rosin oil, under
certain circumstances, is an unstable compound. Hence, ‘it was
desirable, to put it into a stable state by removing the body or bodies
which caused motion to occur. This was effected, and a perfectly
limpid and fixed oil was obtained, quite free from the peculiar odor of
rosin oil.

In reply to certain queries propounded by the committee to an
eminent French chemist, communications have been received, which
fully show that we are not behind the French manufacturers of rosin
oil, either in quality or quantity of product; they have brought to our
knowledge a new preparation from rosin oil, in a semi-solid or lardy
state, now much used in France, with a ‘steady annual increasing
demand. This preparation is a substitute for the various well known
substances used in a fatty or soft-solid state for greasing wheels, gear-
ing and heavy shafting. Following the specific ‘directions for the pre-
paration of this substance, it was found that a hard body like shoe-
maker’s wax was produced; an almost instantaneous solidification
occurring. After many trials, however, with great modifications of
proportions and time, the desired compound was produced, possessing
the properties described, and appearing like the samples received from
France. ‘This rosin fat has been used with success on iron gearing,
and my opinion is favorable to its use as a substitute for tallow, and at
a cost much below the average price of that article. The consumption
of tallow at the Merrimac Cotton Mills, for the year ending Novem-
ber 15th, 1851, was 4,500 lbs., which may be, probably, replaced by
the rosin oil substitute.

In regard to the lubricity of the oil, the committee states, that rosin
oil can be used for lubrification, only when mixed with its bulk of
pure sperm oil. By accurate experiments it appears that spinning
machinery requires more, and weaving machinery less power, when
rosin and sperm oil are used, than when pure sperm oil alone is
employed. This may be explained by reference to the kind of
machinery, looms consisting chiefly of cam movements. Machinery
falls naturally into two classes ; 1st. That with fine or light bearings.
2d. That with cam movements, or with heavy bearings. ‘All machines
of the first class will probably require more, and all of the second
class less power with the mixture of rosin and sperm oil, than with
pure sperm only. Deducting the less pewer required by some
machines, from the oreater demanded by others, the committee would
avoid the question, whether the cheaper mixed oil would not pay for
the balance of greater power, by throwing out all the fine machinery,
as a class to which the rosin mixed oil is inapplicable.

Experiments made with great care, with the same dynamometer,
and under the same circumstances gave the following results :— The
average from the trials on nine spinning frames, shows that 13 8-10

19* .

216 _ ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

per cent. more power is required with the mixture of rosin and sperm
oil, than with sperm alone.

The average from the trials on six stretchers, shows that 3 7-10 per
cent. more power is required with the mixture, than with sperm alone.

The average from the trials on five looms, shows that 4 6-10 per cent.
less power is required with the mixture, than with the sperm alone.

In regard to the economy of rosin oil, itis stated that the mixed oil
spends about as economically as pure sperm, and no serious evil has
resulted from mixed oil in the long experience of the use of this
article. It will be recollected that rosin oil can be used only when
mixed with its bulk of sperm oil. Under this division, therefore,
the committee have considered to what extent rosin oil my be substi-
tuted for sperm in the cotton mills of Lowell. As the bases of their
calculation, the oil statistics of the Merrimac Company have been
assumed. ‘The total sperm oil used for lubrification by the Merrrimac
Cotton Mills for the year ending November 15th, 1851, was 6,772
gallons, — of this amount rather more than one-quarter (26,722 0-0)
. . . . . or 1,813 gallons were used for spinning, leaving a balance
of 4,959 gallons. Of this balance, rather less than one-fourth, or 1,192
gallons, were used in weaving, which requires by experiment 4 6-10
less power with mixed oil, than with sperm alone, leavmg 3,767
gallons applicable to machinery, which the committee class among
those with heavy bearings, and which requiries, at least, no more
power with the mixed oil, than with sperm oil only. We have, then,
in the Merrimac Company’s Mills 4,959 gallons, or about three-
fourths of all the sperm oil used there, for which may be substituted a
mixture of equal parts of rosin and sperm oils, thus diminishing the annual
amount of sperm oil by 2,479.5 gallons, or nearly three-eights of the
whole. The Merrimac Mills are using about one-stxth of the power of
the Lowell Corporations. If the other mills use oil in about the propor-
tion above, the total annual diminution of sperm oil, by substituting rosin
oul, will be 14,877 gallons.”

Small as the annual saving in sperm oil thus appears, the committee
are of opinion, that it will have been highly important that this result
has been approximated, since that amount will probably be multiplied
by all heavy bearing machinery in the country now oiled with sperm,
and thus an amount of that article will be thrown into the market,
which may tend to lower its price and improve its quality.”

ON THE TREATMENT OF FAT FOR THE PREPARATION OF
CANDLES.

MM. Masse and Treboullet, in a communication to the Bulletin
de la Societe 1 Encouragement, states :— It is well known that fat may
be made to acquire a soapy character by the influence of sulphuric
acid. In the manufacture of candles the fat is heated with sulphuric
acid, or subjected to mechanical friction therewith ; it is then washed,
and the mass being placed in a still, is heated to between 200° and
250° Centigrade to drive off the aqueous vapor and with it the fatty
acids. With palm oil, the effect of this treatment is as follows :—

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 217

Palm oil melts at 30° Centigrade ; after the action of sulphuric acid at
38° ; aftér the washing with water at 44.5° Centigrade ; after the distil-
lation at 46°. The first product of distillation liquefies at 53.5°, the
point of liquefacation then sinks, and the product comes gradually
more and more to have a tendency to crystallize. Ifthe entire pro-
duct be pressed together, the mass has a melting point of 54.5°, the
same as that which first passed over. Some fats, however, present
considerable differences in these respects.

IMPROVEMENT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF GAS.

SoME improvements have been recently patented in England, by
Messrs. Barlow and Gore for the manufacture of gas, which are high,
spoken of by the London Mining Journal. ‘The processes are based,
1st, upon an improved method of rendering luminous the gases result-
ing from the perfect decomposition of water or steam ; and, 2d, upon
the conservative influence which hydrogen exercises in protecting
the matter upon which the illuminating power of gas depends from
decomposition by heat. The first has been often attempted, with
dulfous and disputed success. The failures are all traceable to the
same sources — first, to the impossibility of securing the complete
decomposition of water or steam by any of the means employed, and
to the consequent production of a large quantity of vapor, exercising
a fearfully destructive influence over the carbonaceous matter under-
going decomposition for the purpose of rendering the water gases
luminous ; and, secondly, to the presence in the water gases of from
10 to 15 per cent. of carbonic acid, the injurious effects of which upon
the flame need not be alluded to, and the expenses of abstracting which
by any of the ordinary methods are so considerable as materially
to augment the cost of manufacture, besides diminishing the volume of
saleable gas. The present patentees propose to obviate these difficul-
ties by first condensing the water gases, so as to deprive them of all
excess of vapor, and then to pass them through a heated retort con-
taining carbonaceous matter, by which the whole of the carbonic acid
gas will be converted into twice its bulk of carbonic oxide gas, and the
pure hydrogen and the carbonic oxide gases in equal volumes, free from
carbonic acid, are afterwards admitted in regulated quantities into
retorts where carbonaceous matter is undergoing distillation or decom-
- position, and by which they are rendered highly luminous. ‘The con-
servative effect of hydrogen upon olefiant gas has not, we believe,
hitherto been noticed by chemists. It may, however, be demonstrated
by the following very simple experiment : — If olefient gas be passed
through a red hot tube, the carbon will be deposited, and the gas be
thereby converted into light-carburetted hydrogen, a gas of very low
illuminating power. If, however, hydrogen be added to the olefiant
gas, the same process may be repeated without causing any deposition
of carbon, and with only a diminution of illuminating power in the
mixed gases, due to the increased volume of the non-illuminating gas
— hydrogen.

\

218 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The practical effect of this property, when applied to gas making, is
to reduce the quantity of combustible products, such as tar, &c., and
entirely to prevent the deposition of carbon on the interior surface of
retorts. The importance of these discoveries will be readily under-
stood, when we state that the experience of the patentees leads them
to the conclusion that upwards of fifty per cent. may be added to the
volume of gas yielded by all descriptions of materials ordinarily used
for that purpose, without any diminution of the illuminating power, so
that 15,000 cubic feet will be the probable future product from one
ton of Newcastle coal, and 75,000 cubic feet of London gas from the
same quantity of Boghead Cannel. — London Mining Journal.

FLAX COTTON.

A PARLIAMENTARY document lately published in England, con-
tains a report made by Sir Robert Kane, on Claussen’s invention for
the production of flax cotton. Experiments were made by Sir
Robert, on a smaller scale than had been intended, in consequence of
the want of a sufficient supply of flax. The experiments made were
of two kinds, of the results of which the following account is giver —

The first was as to the direct preparation of flax cotton from flax
straw, in which the separation and cleansing of the fibre from the
refuse part of the stalk was made a part of the process, and this was
not by any means satisfactorily done. The second was as to the
conversion of tow or low priced flax into flax cotton ; and, although in
this material the fibre has been already prepared and cleaned by
the previous dressings, the product obtained did not approach in fine-
ness of texture, uniformity of structure or cleanness of mass to the
quality of the specimens of flax cotton that are usually exhibited by
M. Claussen’s agents. Under these circumstances, Sir Robert Kane
considers the trials “to have been in so far negative as the agents
acting for M. Claussen found it impossible to produce satisfactory
results in those works which they had themselves selected, and where
_ they had been working previously.” At the same time it is admitted
that much weight must be conceded to the defective mechanical
arrangements. In winding up his report, after mentioning incidentally
that when the trials had been concluded and found unsatisfactory, a
letter was received from M. Claussen declining to be responsible for
the results, and stating that he would prefer that the inquiry should be
conducted at some works he had erected near London, Sir Robert
Kane observes : —

“In regard to the more purely scientific portion of the inquiry, I
beg leave to report that several interesting facts have been already
ascertained as to the real nature of the material produced, and as to
the true action of the materials used. Without being understood to
announce a positive conclusion, which in a report of progress would
be premature, I beg to state that I am pretty well satisfied that M.
Claussen’s process does not at all produce a material approaching in
structure or organic quality to cotton. ‘The views of the bursting up

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 219

of the fibres put forward by some persons who have come forward to
explain the process in public do not appear to be well founded. The
flax fibres are in M. Claussen’s process excessively finely divided and
separated from each other, but each remains still a thorough and com-
plete flax fibre, and quite unlike cotton, and the same amount of
division, and the same fineness and pliability of fibre may be given,
and often is given, to flax by simple dressing, especially if the flax had
been overretted. This point as to structural character is, however,
so fundamental to the value and quality of the flax cotton, that [deem
it indispensable to follow up still further the careful microscopic
examination of the material in all its stages, and shall, therefore,
reserve for a future complete report details and drawings.”

M. Hamel lately delivered an address before the Imperial Academy
of Russia, on the subject of flax cotton, in which he gives a different
account of its invention to what is generally supposed. According to
him, a native of Holstein, named Ahnesorge, by trade a dyer and
bleacher, had applied himself for several years to improvig flax
spinning, as well as to turn to account the tow, which is of little
value. For this purpose he made several journies, and in 1838 went to
St. Petersburgh with a sample of about a dozen pounds of a cottony
material from flax tow. In 1846 the king of Denmark, having been
informed of M. Ahnesorge’s industrious efforts, sent him a sum of
money to help in establishing a manufactory, but just as he had begun,
at Neumeistler, the manufacture of cotton and woolen fabrics, mixed with
his cotton from flax tow, the disastrous war of the Duchies broke out,
and M. Ahnesorge sought refuge in London, where he arrived in
October, 1848.

Having applied to one of the principal patent agents for advice, on
what steps he should take to procure a patent for his invention, he
was introduced to M. Claussen, who, delighted with his project, made
an agreement with him, by which he was to take out the patent in his
name. Ahnesorge commenced his labors in M. Claussen’s house, in
London. His articles were highly spoken of, but he wanted the
necessary funds to develope the manufacture. A native of Hamburgh,
named Auguste Quitzow, resolved to carry on the manufacture in a
large: way in Yorkshire. He bought a place between Bradford and
Leeds, and with the consent of Claussen, engaged Ahnesorge to pre-
a the flax, and make the cotton according to his method. M.

mel says that all the samples, both white and dyed, exhibited at the
Crystal Palace in the name of Claussen, as well as in that of Quitlow,
Schelennger & Co., were made by M. Ahnesorge ; the public were not
informed of this circumstance. The attempts to card and spin
Ahnesorge’s products were made near Rochdale, in a factory that Mr.
Bright, the well-known politician had placed at the disposal of M.
Claussen, who had, in fact, taken out the patent in his own name.
The high price of cotton, at the time of the Great Exhibition, had led
to the hope that a project for substituting flax would easily find
purchasers, and this was the reason why M. Claussen, described, in this
patent, a process for cutting the cotton flax into small pieces, of the

— 220 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

same length as the cotton rovings, so as to be able to card and spin
them on the machines constructed for cotton. Besides, he wishes it to
be supposed that, by placing the flax thus cut up, after it has been
boiled in a solution of bi-carbonate of soda, into sulphuric acid diluted
with water, it will split, from developing carbonic gas, in appearance
resembling cotton. M. Claussen has started a company with a capital
of £250,000 to £500,000, to carry on the manufacture, and he exerts
every possible effort to obtain purchasers for his patent. To exhibit
his patented process of splitting the flax, he has rented a place at
London, where M. Ahnesorge (who is never named) has first to
prepare the flax or tow by boiling it in a solution of soda, and where
afterwards, the experiment of chemical effervescence is made before
visitors. This is called the splitting process.

M. Hamel declares it to be impossible to change the flax into a fibrous
matter resembling cotton, which is the work of nature. He is decidedly
opposed to the project of cutting up the dressed flax into a sort of tow.
The superiority of flax over cotton consists, in a great measure, in
the greater length of its fibres. The result, therefore, would be to
convert a primary valuable material into a very inferior one.

PREPARATION OF CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM.

M. CiemAn, of Paris, gives the following detailed account of the
process for obtaining this salt in a pure state, the accomplishment of
which is a matter of some difficulty : —

Mix intimately eight parts of ferro-cyanide of potassium, perfectly
de-hydrated by calcination, and three parts of perfectly dry carbonate
of potash, and heat the mixture in a covered crucible, or what is
better an iron pot, until the fused mass attains a red heat, when it
will become limpid, and a sample taken out with the rod and cooled,
will appear perfectly white, in this state all the ferro-cyanide is
reduced. If the crucible be now taken out of the fire, the disengage-
ment of the gas ceases when the mass has become a little cool, and the
iron which has been separated in the operation so disposes itself, that
with a little address and slight tapping of the crucible, the principal
part of the cyanide of potassium may be poured off from the iron
which remains in the crucible. To obtain the cyanide perfectly free
from iron, place it across an iron ladle, pierced with fine holes, and
strongly heated beforehand, in a vessel also heated, of greater height
than width, either of silver, iron, or porcelain, or even fire ware, but
with smooth sides, and let it gradually cool. In this state the ferru-
ginous portion may be extracted by means of a sharp instrument
from that which is free from iron. The purity of the cyanide of
potassium entirely depends on the purity of the materials employed ;
the presence of sulphur in the carbonate of potash should therefore
be avoided ;. the ferro-cyanide of potassium of commerce almost inva-
riably contains sulphate of potass, the presence of which is objection-
able. The use of purified tartar might perhaps be advantageously
substituted for that of carbonate of potash. Should any sulphur be

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. OFT

present, a sulphuret of potassium would be formed in the cyanide of
that metal, from which considerable inconvenience would arise in the
employment of the cyanide in chemical analysis, and in its application
to the preparations of the gold, silver, and copper solutions employed
in the electro-plating processes. When the mixture is melted, as
before mentioned, there is at first formed only cyanide of potassium
and carbonate of the protoxide of iron ; but this last quickly changes,
at the temperature to which it is exposed, into carbonic acid, carbonic
oxide, and sesqui-oxide of iron; and this last, when the cyanide of
potassium is melted, becomes converted into metallic iron. It is only
by a long sustained heat that the carbonate of protoxide of iron is
decomposed, so that long after the decomposition of the ferro-cyanide
of potassium, and the formation of cyanide of potassium has taken
place, there is still a disengagement of gas. Consequently, the pro-
portion of cyanide of potassium, which is simultaneously formed,
should entirely depend on the duration of the fusion. The iron which
remains after a prolonged fusion of the cyanide of potassium, out of
contact of air, bemg washed with hot water, disengages, when an acid
is poured on it, not only hydrogen, but always a litle carbonic acid
as.

If we follow the directions given in most chemical works, in which
it is stated that the materials must be melted, so that the mass submit-
ted to a bright red heat becomes tranquil, — only a grey colored pro-
duct will be obtained.

If a closed iron vessel be employed, and the disengaged gases col-
lected, it will be seen that in proportion as the temperature rises, the
relative proportion between the carbonic acid and the carbonic oxide
changes, the latter constantly increasing. It is evident that at a high
temperature, one portion of the carbonic acid, which passes through
the cyanide of potassium, should be reduced into carbonic oxide, and
this reduction, without doubt, extends even in part to the carbonic
oxide itself; that is to say, that its carbon is separated, and that this
renders the product of a grey color. If we dissolve in cold water
some cyanide of potassium completely free from particles of iron, and
which has thus become grey, and filter the solution, there remains in
the filter a black substance, which, being dried, burns away completely
on a slip of platinum, and in fact, possesses all the qualities of char-
coal. This carbon, in a state of extreme division, does not separate,
either by fusion or repose, from the cyanide of potassium, on account
of its feeble specific gravity. Ifa little of this grey cyanide be added
to each new melting, it may be purified from this carbon, and no injury
done to the product of the new materials employed, as the iron in
separating, withdraws the finely-divided carbon, and leaves the cyanide
in a state of purity.

LIQUID GLUE.

M. DuMmo tin publishes the following article on the preparation
and nature of liquid glue,in the Comptes Rendus, Sept., 1852. Chem-

>

222 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ists well know that heating and cooling repeatedly a solution of glue,
(gelatine,) in contact with the air, it looses its property of becoming a
jelly. M. Gmelin has shown, that a solution of fish glue in a sealed
tube, placed in a water bath heated to the boiling point for several
days, exhibits the same phenomena, 7. e. the glue remains liquid, does
not gelatinize upon cooling.

The change effected, is one of the most difficult problems to resolve,
of organic chemistry. It appears to be a product of the action of the
oxygen of the air and the water upon the glue, as demonstrated from
the action of a small quantity of nitric acid, on a solution of strong
glue. We know that on treating gelatine with an excess of this acid
in the presence of heat, it is conv verted into malic and oxalic acids, fat,
tannin, &c. This does not occur when we treat the glue dissolved in
its weight of water, with a very small quantity of nitric acid; we
obtain only a strone glue which preserves a long time its primitive
qualities, and which no longer has the property of celatinizing. In this
manner the glue sold in France under the name of liquid and
unchangeable glue, is fabricated. This glue is exceedingly conven-
ient for cabinet makers, joiners, pasteboard manufacturers, toy makers,
&c., since it can be used cold. It is prepared as follows : —

Dissolve two pounds of strong glue in one quart of water in a glue
kettle, or in a water bath, when the glue is entirely melted, add
little by little, to the amount of ten ounces of strong nitric acid. ‘This
addition produces an effervescence due to the disencagement of hypo-
nitric acid, when the whole of the acid is added, 1 remove the vessel
from the fire, and leave it to cool. I have preserved glue thus pre-
pared, more than two years in a stoppered flask, without -its under-
going any alteration. This liquid glue is very convenient in chemical
operations. I have employed it with adv antage in my laboratory, for
the preservation of different gases, the same as s lute, covering the little
bands of linen with the glue.”

PERFUMERY AND THE ARTIFICIAL EXTRACTS OF FRUIT.

Dr. PLAYFATR, in his lecture on the Results of the Great Exhi-
bition, thus briefly notices a new class of perfumes and essences,
which of late have attracted no little attention.

Much aid has been given by chemistry to the art of perfumery. It
is true that soap and perfumery are rather rivals, the increasé of the
former diminishing the use of the jatter. Costly perfumes, formerly
employed as a mask to want of cleanliness, are less required now that
soap has bécome a type of civilization. Perfumers, if they do not
occupy whole streets with their shops, as they did in ancient Capua,
show more science in attaining their perfumes than those of former
times. ‘The jury in the exhibition, or rather two distinguished chem-
ists of thaf jury, Dr. Hoffman and M. De la Rue, ascertained that
some of the most delicate perfumes were made by chemical artifice,
and not, as of old, by distillimg them from flowers. The perfume of
flowers often consists of oils and ethers, which the chemist can com-

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 238

pound artificially in his laboratory. Commercial enterprise has
availed itself of this fact, and sent to the exhibition in the form of
essences, perfumes thus prepared. Singularly enough, they are gen-
erally derived from substances of intensely disgusting odor.
A peculiarly fetid oil, termed ‘“ fusel oil,” is formed in making brandy
and whisky. This fusil oil, distilled with sulphuric acid, and acetate
of potash, gives the oil of pears. The oil of apples is made from the
same fusel oil, by distillation;with sulphuric acid and bichromate of
potash. The oil of pine apples is obtained from a product of the
action of putrid cheese on sugar, or by making a soap with butter, and
distilling it with alcohol and sulphuric acid, and is now largely employed
in England in the preparation of the pine apple ale. Oil of grapes
and oil of cognac, used to impart the flavor of French cognac to Brit-
ish brandy, are little else. than fusel oil. The artificial oil of bitter
almonds now so largely employed in perfuming soap, and for flavor-
ing confectionery, is prepared by the action of nitric acid on the fetid
oils of gas tar. Many a fair forehead is damped with eau de mille-
fleurs, without knowing that its essential ingredient is derived from
the drainage of cow houses. The wintergreen oil, imported from New
Jersey, being produced from a plant indigenous there, is artificially
made from willows, and a body procured in the distillation of wood.
All these are direct modern appliances of science to an industrial pur-
pose, and imply an acquaintance with the highest investigations of
organic chemistry. Let us recollect that the oil of lemons, turpentine,
oil of Juniper, oil of roses, oil of copaiba, oil of rosemary, and many
other oils, are identical in composition ; and it is not difficult to con-
ceive that perfumery may derive still further aid from chemistry.

Prof. Fehling, in the Wurtemberg Journal of Industry, gives the
following abstract of what is at present generally known respecting
the composition and production of some of the artificial extracts of
fruit. He says:

Amongst the chemical preparations exposed at the London Exhibi-
tion, the artificial extracts of fruits were particularly deserving of
attention. Although some of these extracts, as, for instance, butyric
ether, have already found applications, their use has been hitherto
only on a very limited scale. It is now, however, no longer to be
doubted but that the majority of our artificial organic compositions
will, ere long, be extensively applied, and their practical applications
cannot but have a very stimulating effect on the study of organic
chemistry, which will again most probably lead to the discovery of
technical applications for the new organic compositions, which the
investigations of our modern chemists have furnished us with. Among
the extracts of fruit exhibited by a London manufacturer, those which
more particularly attracted attention were pine apple oil, bergamot
pear oil, apple oil, grape oil, cognac oil, &c. Several of these oils
have been analyzed by M. Faiszt, of Stuttgardt. We give here a
succinct description of some of these extracts, and of their manu-
facture.

Pine Apple Oil.— 'This product consists of a solution of 1 part of

20

224 - ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

butyric acid ether, in 8 to 10 parts of spirits of wine. For preparing
butyric acid ether, pure butyric acid is required, and this is obtained
most readily, and in the greatest purity, by the fermentation of sugar
or of St. John’s bread, (siliqua dulcis.) For preparing butyric acid
from sugar, M. Bentch takes a solution of 6 pounds of sugar, and half
an ounce of tartaric acid in 26 pounds of water, which is left to stand
for some days; at the same time about a quarter of a pound of old
decayed cheese is diffused in 8 pounds of sour milk, from which the
cream has been removed; and after this has also stood for some days,
it is mixed with the first solution, and the whole is kept from four to
six weeks at a temperature of about 24° to 28° Reaumer, water being
added from time to time to replace that which is lost by evaporation.
After the evolution of gas has entirely ceased, the liquid is dissolved
with its own bulk of water, and finally 8 pounds of crystallized soda,
dissolved in 12 pounds to 16 pounds of water, are added toit. The
liquid is then filtered and evaporated till it weighs only 10 pounds,
when a quantity of 54 pounds of sulphuric acid, (nordhausen, or fum-
ing sulphuric acid,) diluted with 53 pounds of water, is carefully
mixed with it by small portions at atime. The butyric acid, in the
state of an oily substance, will now appear on the surface of the liquid,
from which it may be skimmed off; but as the remaining liquid still
contains some butyric acid, it is submitted to distillation, by which
means another portion of diluted butyric acid is obtained, which may
be concentrated by means of melted chloride of calcium, or by satu-
rating it with carbonate of soda, evaporating and decomposing by
sulphuric acid. By this method 13 pounds of pure butyric acid are
obtained from 6 pounds of sugar.

M. Marsson says that the same product may be obtained from St.
John’s bread, (siliqua dulcis,) by taking 4 pounds of mashed St. John’s
bread, and mixing it with 10 pounds of water and 1 pound of chalk;
the liquid matter must be maintained from three to four weeks ata
temperature of frgm 25° to 35° Reaumer, and be often and well
stirred, and from time to time the water that has evaporated must be
replaced. After all fermentation has ceased, a quantity of water equal
to the bulk of the liquid is added to it, and afterwards a concentrated
solution of 24 pounds to 23 pounds of carbonate of soda, when it is
finally evaporated. To the concentrated liquid is then added 1}
pounds to 2 pounds of sulphuric acid, diluted with 2 pounds of water ;
and the remainder of the process is performed in the same manner as
already described. By this method a little more than half a pound of
colored butyric acid will be obtained. ‘The acid, however, retains a
peculiar smell from the St. John’s bread, which continues even in the
ether prepared from the same, whereas that prepared from sugar gives
an ether of a very pure smell. It will be found advantageous to agi-
tate the oily butyric acid with chloride of calcium, in order to deprive
it entirely of its moisture.

For preparing butyric acid ether, (butyrate of oxide of ethyle,)
from butyric acid, 1 pound of butyric acid is dissolved in 1 pound of
rectified alcohol, (95° Tralles,) and is mixed with one-half to one-

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 995

fourth of an ounce of concentrated sulphuric acid; the compound is
heated for some minutes, when the butyric acid ether will form a thin
layer on the top. The whole is then mixed with half of its bulk of
water, and the upper layer taken off; the remaining liquid being sub-
mitted to distillation, yields another quantity of butyric acid ether,
which is mixed with that obtained in the first instance, and the whole
well agitated with a very diluted, solution of soda, in order to deprive
it of all the acid; which operation should be repeated several times
if a very pure ether is desired to be obtained. Care should be taken
to use but small quantities of the diluted soda solution at a time, so as
not to lose too much ether, this latter being in some measure soluble
in water. When large quantities are to be acted upon, the washing
water (eau de lavage,) is collected, mixed with an equal volume of
spirits of wine, and distilled, by which means a solution of pure buty-
ric acid ether in spirits of wine is obtained.

Butyric acid ether may be also obtained immediately from butyrate
of soda, by dissolving 1 part of this salt in 1 part of rectified alcohol,
adding 1 part of sulphuric acid, and heating some minutes. The ether
collects on the top of the liquid, and is purified by washing with water
and with diluted soda solution.

For preparing pine apple oil, 1 pound of butyric acid ether is dis-
solved in 8 pounds to 10 pounds of spirits of wine, which should have
been previously deprived of its empyreumatic or fusel oil. Pure
French spirits of wine will be found best suited for this purpose.
According to the purpose for which the pine apple oil is to be applied,
either rectified alcohol of 80° to 90° Tralles, or brandy of 40° to 50°,
should be used for dissolving the ether. 20 drops to 25 drops of such
an extract will suffice for giving a strong pine apple odor to 1 pound
of sugar solution; to which some acid, such as tartaric or citric acid, is
generally added.

Bergamot Pear Oil. — What is called pear oil is an alcoholic solu-
tion of acetate of oxide of amyle, and acetate of oxide of ethyle, pre-
pared from potato fusel oil, (the hydrate of oxide of amyle.) The
potato fusel oil, or oil of potato spirits (in German, /fuseloel,) is the
compound distilled over towards the end of the first distillation of
spirits made from potatoes, and is an oily liquid of a very strong and
nauseous odor. This oil, in the state in which it is obtained from large
potato brandy distilleries, is never pure; but it may be purified by
agitating it with a diluted soda solution, when the pure fusel oil collects
as an oily layer on the top of the liquid; this oily substance is then
submitted to distillation, and that part which distils over at 100° to
112° Reaumer, is collected, and forms the pure fusel oil.

For preparing acetate of oxide of amyle from this fusel oil, 1 pound
of pure ice vinegar is mixed with an equal quantity of fusel oil, to
which is added half a pound of sulphuric acid ; the liquid. is digested
for some hours at about 100°, when the acetate of oxide of amyle
separates, particularly on being mixed with a small quantity of water.
The remaining liquid, when mixed with more water, yields, on being
submitted to distillation, a further quantity of acetate of oxide of

226 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

amyle. The entire mass of acetate of oxide of amyle thus obtained is
now agitated several times with water, and a little soda solution, in
order to deprive it of all free acid.

The acetate of oxide of amyle may also be obtained by taking 1
part of fusel oil to 14 part of dry acetate of soda, or 2 parts of dry
acetate of potash, with 1 to 14 parts of sulphuric acid. The liquid
having been kept for some time at a gentle heat, the acetate of oxide
of amyle is separated by adding water, and proceeding as above
explained. 15 parts of acetate of oxide of amyle are mixed with 13
part of vinegar ether (vinegar naptha, acetate of oxide of ethyle,) and
dissolved in 100 to 120 parts of spirits of wine, as in the case of pine
apple extract ; an acid, for instance, tartaric or citric, should be added
to the sugar solution, on making use of the pear extract, which addi-
tion makes the flavor of the bergamot pear better distinguishable, and
he taste acquires at the same time more of the refreshing qualities of

ruit.

Apple Oil. — What is called apple oil, is a solution of valerianate of
oxide of amyle in spirits of wine, which may be obtained as a secon-
dary product when fusel oil is distilled with chromate of potash and sul-
phuric acid for the preparation of valerianic acid. The light solution
which collects in the tops of the distilled liquid contains valerianate
of oxide of amyle, together with other liquids, such as aldehyde, which
gives to the product a less agreeable taste and smell. It is therefore
to be preferred for preparing pure valerianate of oxide of amyle.

For preparing valerianic acid, 1 part of fusel oil is mixed by small
portions with 3 parts of sulphuric acid, and afterwards 2 parts of water
are added. At the same time, a solution of 23 parts of bichromate of
potash in 43 parts of water, is heated in a tubular retort; the first
liquid is then permitted to flow very slowly into the liquid of the retort
in such manner that the boiling continues but very slowly. The hquid
which is distilled over is saturated with carbonate of soda, and
is evaporated either to dryness for obtaining valeriarate of soda, or to
the consistency of syrup, when sulphuric acid is added, (say two parts
of concentrated acid diluted with the same quantity of water, for every
three parts of crystalline carbonate of soda.) The valerianic acid
forms an oily layer, on the upper part of the liquid ; which latter will
still yield some valerianic acid, on being submitted to distillation. For
preparing valerianate of oxide of amyle,1 part by weight of pure
fusel oil (hydrate of oxide of amyle,) is mixed carefully with an equal
quantity by weight of common English sulphuric acid; the resulting
solution is added to 14 parts of oily valerianic acid, or to 13 parts of
dry valerianate of soda, and is treated by a water bath, and then mixed
with water, by which means the impure valerianate of the oxide of
amyle will be separated; this is washed several times with water,
afterwards with a solution of carbonate of soda, and finally again with
water. In preparing this compound, it is essential, that the mixture
of sulphuric acid and fusel oil, with valerianic acid, should not be
heated to a too high degree, or too long, as the product would thereby
acquire an insufferably pungent smell, when required for use. 1 part

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. O27,

of valerianate of oxide of amyle is dissolved in 6 or 8 parts of spirits ,
of wine, and acid is added in the same manner, as has been before
explained in the preparation of other extracts.

Artificial Oil of Bitter Almonds.— When Mitscherlich, in 1834,
discovered nitro-benzole, he little thought, after twenty years to find
this body in an industrial exhibition. He certainly, at that time
pointed out the remarkable resemblance which the odor of nitro-ben-
zole had to that of oil of bitter almonds; but the only sources for
obtaining benzole at that time, viz., the oil of compressed gas, and the
distillation of benzoic acid, were much too expensive, and put an end
to the idea of substituting the use of nitro-benzole for oil of bitter
almonds. Mansfield, however, in 1849, showed by careful investiga-
tion, that benzole may be procured easily and in large quantities from
oil of coal tar, and this discovery has not been lost sight of in the arts.
Among the articles of French perfumery in the Great Exhibition,
with the title of artificial oil of bitter almonds, and the fanciful name
of essence of Mirbane, there were several specimens of oils, which
consisted of more or less pure nitro-benzole. The apparatus used in
the preparation of this substance is that proposed by Mr. Mansfield.
It consists of a large glass worm, the upper end of which branches
into two tubes, which are provided with funnels. A stream of con-
centrated nitric acid flows slowly through one of these funnels, whilst
the other is for the benzole, (which for this purpose need not be abso-
lutely pure.) At the point at which the tubes of the funnels are
united, the two bodies come in contact, the chemical compound formed
becomes sufficiently cooled in passing through the worm, and only
requires to be washed with water, and finally with some weak solution
of carbonate of soda, to be ready for use. Although the nitro-benzole
closely resembles oil of bitter almonds, in physical properties, it pos-
sesses, however, a somewhat different odor, readily recognized by a
practised person. However it answers well for scenting soap, and
would be extensively applicable for confectionary and for culinary
purposes. For the latter purpose it has the special advantage over oil
of bitter almonds, that it contains no prussic acid.

The application of organic chemistry to perfumery, is still in its
infancy ; and we may expect that a careful survey of those ethers and
etherial compounds with which we are at present acquainted, and
those which are daily being discovered, will lead to further results.
The interesting caprylic ethers which M. Blouis has lately discovered
are remarkable, for their extremely aromatic odor, (thus the acetate of
caprylic oxide possesses an odor as strong as it is agreeable,) and
promises, if they can be obtained in larger quantities, to yield mate-
rials for perfumery. — Hoffman’s letter to Liebigq.

The subject of the composition and artificial production of the
various extracts of fruit and other similar perfumes and essences,
strikingly illustrates the wonderful progress which has been made in
organic chemistry within the last few years. A position has been
taken by some chemists who have carefully investigated this subject,
which cannot at present be controverted, that the extracts or perfumes

20*

228 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

- of the various fruits which can be artificially prepared in our labora-
tories from the basic organic radicals, are identical, and the same with
those which nature carefully elaborates in the apple, the pear, the pine
apple, banana, and the like. The whole subject has been investigated
more carefully, and has been applied to more practical purposes than
the public is generally aware of. ‘Take for instance the well known
perfumes, known as “ Lubin’s Extracts,” extract of geranium, mille-
fleurs, new-mown hay, and many others ; all of these are stated to be
prepared from two or three of the common and cheap essential oils,
and from the organic radicals. In addition to perfumes the most
agreeable, odors of the most disgusting and nauseous character can
also be produced by like means; as for instance, the odor of the bed-
bug, squash-bug, and of many of the common weeds and plants. As
an odor, or perfume of a different character can be produced by the
action of each different acid on the different oxides of the organic
radicals, the number of bodies of this character capable of being pro-
duced is almost innumerable, and may possibly embrace every known
odor, or perfume, which is now recognized in the animal, vegetable,
or mineral kingdom.

The various artificial extracts of fruit have been applied to the
flavoring of an agreeable species of confectionary known as the
“acidulated fruit drops.” These have been denounced as poisonous
by some persons, on the ground that fusel oil is known to produce
deleterious effects; and asa natural consequence the confectionary
referred to has been discarded. ‘There is, however, no foundation for
such statements or belief, and if the confectionary flavored with these
extracts has in any case produced injurious effects, it 1s undoubtedly
to be referred to an injudicious consumption of it, and not to any
inherent deleterious property. — Editor.

POISONOUS CHLOROFORM.

Tue following is a extract from a letter addressed to the Boston
Medical and Surgical Journal, by Dr. C. T. Jackson, respecting the
poisonous qualities of chloroform, when the so-called fusel oil is con-
tained in it.

Dr. Jackson says: — I have had a strong suspicion that the very
sudden deaths resulting from the inhalation of chloroform must have
been produced by the presence of some poisonous compound of amyle,
the hypothetical radical of fusel oil, or the oil of whisky ; and I began
a series of researches upon this subject several years ago, but was
called off from my work by unexpected persecutions. This work I
have resumed, and I will now state what facts and inductions I am
able to lay before the public :

1. When chloroform, and the alcoholic solution of it ealled chloric
ether, was made from pure alcohol diluted with water, no fatal acci-
dents occurred from its judicious administration.

2. When chloroform was made, as it now too frequently is, from

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 229

common corn, rye and potato whisky, death began to occur, even
when the utmost care was taken in its administration.

From these data, it might justly be inferred that some poisonous
matter exists in the cheap chloroform of commerce, and I suspected
that it arose from the fusel oil which exists in the whisky. Having
succeeded in procuring some very pure fusel oil, (of whisky,) I
undertook the researches which have resulted in the conviction that
it is the amyle compound that produces the poisonous matter of certain
kinds of chloroform. When mixed with hypochlorite of lime
(bleaching powder) and water in the same way as we prepare alcohol
for the production and distillation of chloroform, I found that the
mixture in the retort, after agitation and standing some time, became
warm, indicating that a reaction was taking place between the fusel
oil and the hypochlorite of lime.

After some hours the retort was placed in a water bath, and distil-
lation was effected, the volatized liquid being copdensed by means of
one of Liebig’s condensers. A clear colorless hquid came over, which
was at once recognized as having the peculiar odor of bad chloroform.
It is perhaps a ter-chloride of amyle, but has not yet been submitted
to analysis. It is so powerful that merely smelling of it makes one
dizzy. ‘In order to make sure that the fusel oil was all decomposed, I
again mixed the product of distillation above mentioned, with a new
lot of bleaching powder and water; and after three hours, with
frequent agitation, it was again distilled, and gave what I regard as
the pure unmixed poison.

If my views are correct, it follows :

1. That all chloroform intended for inhalation as anesthetic agent,
should be prepared from pure rectified alcohol, to be diluted with
water when used for distillation from hypochlorite of lime.

2. That no druggist should sell for anesthetic uses, any chloroform
which is not known to have been properly prepared as above
suggested.

3. That the mixture of chloroform and alcohol, commercially
known under the name of strong chloric ether, must be made with
the same precaution as chloroform.

The following experiments were subsequently made by Dr. Jackson,
which conclusively prove the poisonous effects of fusel oil when
mixed with chloroform : — A full grown rat, confined in a quart glass
jar, inhaled the vapor of the fusel oil compound 40 minutes without
any apparent injury.

A kitten seven days old inhaled the vapor of this compound nine-
teen minutes, without apparent effect.

Three kittens, of the same litter, were confined in three separate
vessels, also saturated with this vapor, thirty-three minutes, and when
released appeared as unharmed as a fourth kitten, of the same litter,
confined in a similar vessel supplied with atmospheric air.

A person inhaled this vapor. twelve minutes without any effect.

The rat, of the above mentioned experiment, was then exposed to
the mixed vapors of chloroform and of the fusel oil compound. In

230 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

fifty-five seconds he rolled upon his side, and in three and a quarter
minutes he was taken out dead.

A half-grown cat, in a vessel of equal capacity, bore the vapor of
chloroform alone but thirty seconds before he fell on his side, and was
taken out dead in two minutes.

A kitten, of the litter above mentioned, exposed to the vapor of
chloroform, became insensible in two minutes. It was taken out in
two minutes and twenty-three seconds and partially revived. It was
again returned to the jar, and in two minutes became insensible, but
continued to breathe slowly for nine minutes, when it was taken out,
and finally recovered.

In all the above experiments the air in the jars was repeatedly
removed with the aid of a bellows.

CHLORIC ETHER, CHLOROFORM, AND TINCTURE OF CHLOROFORM.

THE following statement prepared by Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Boston,
at the request of Dr. Warren, and published in the Boston Medical
Journal, clearly sets forth the distinction between the various
anesthetic agents, chloric ether, chloroform and tincture of chloroform.

Chloric Ether. — This substance is the product arising from the
action of hypochlorites of the alkalies, alkaline earths, on a large excess
of alcohol, much diluted with water.. It is obtained by distillation,
and when carefully prepared contains chloroform, chlorinated ether,
and alcehol. In its formation, a large quantity of acetic acid is pro-
duced, and unites with chlorine and the base of the hypochlorite used
in producing it.

It is a permanent compound, possessing the grateful odor and sweet
taste of chloroform ; when evaporated from the hand, or clean linen,
it leaves no odor adhering to the surface. In this state it is efficient
and convenient for use, as an anesthetic agent. It is indefinite in
composition, but when decomposed by mixture with two bulks of
water, it should deposit about one-third of its original bulk of heavy
oily fluid. The extended use of this substance by some of the sur-
geons of the Massachusetts General Hospital, has led to the attempt to
substitute for it, the tincture of chloroform. It will be seen that these
are not like bodies, and as it is more difficult to prepare chloric ether
than chloroform, the manufacture of the former will doubtless remain
in the hands of the skilful pharmaceutists.

Chloroform.— This substance, as a secondary product, is found
after many reactions, in which chlorine and hydrocarbons are present.
When obtained from hypochlorites and alcohol, the proportion of the
latter substance is very small relatively to that of the hypochlorite
used. After careful purification it is a definite compound of well-
known physical characters. There is, however, an important chemical
character recently observed, which should form a part of its history—
it is decomposed by solar light. In the early stages of its changes,
the odor remains fragrant for some time, but is succeeded by a suffo-
cating and corrosive vapor, arising from the action of hydrochloric

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 231

(muriatic) acid on hydrocarbons present. If the remaining chloro-
form is carefully washed and purified, and again exposed, the same
changes succeed ; conclusively proving that the property is inherent.

The risk attending the use of compounds having the same odor,
but really foreign in composition arising from the use of alcohol,
which contains fusel oil, in the manufacture of chloroform, is obvious.
There is, however, a preparation sold under the name of tincture of
chloroform, which is objectionable, and as it has been substituted for
chloric ether, has been examined.

When chloroform is added to alcohol of 85 per cent., it dissolves
until about double the value of the alcohol has been mixed. After
subsidence, a singular change has taken place; the water, fusel oil,
and some alcohol, unite to form a layer on the surface of the dense
alcoholic solution of chloroform. This may be removed, but the solu-
tion remains too strong for use. Any alcohol of the shops added,
introduces water, hastening the change which chloroform undergoes.
When anhydrous alcohol is used, unless distillation has been a resort,
the tincture is subject to the same change from neutral 'to acid state, as
chloroform exhibits. After such change hydrochloric acid may be
found in it uncombined, unfitting it for any use.

Theoretically and from observation, the compound chloric ether
seems to be the most permanent and convenient form in which the
power of chloroform can be exhibited, and as such, should take the
place of chloroform, in medical and surgical practice.

The following correct method of preparing chloric ether, is furnished
by Mr. Atwood, of Boston, a chemist of much experience in the sub-
ject. He says: —

“Tn my process for the production of chloric ether, the alcohol is
perfectly freed from fusel oil. A larger proportion of alcohol and
water are also employed than in the manufacture of chloroform. The
following are the proportions I use, viz: — Chloride (hypochlorite) of
lime, 10 Ibs.; water, 8 gallons; pure alcohol, 1 gallon; carbonate of
soda, (crystallized,) half pound. Break down the chloride of lime in
the water until the excess of hydrate of lime is in a uniform pulpy
mass, and the chloride is perfectly dissolved. Place the mass ina still
capable of containing twice the quantity, and introduce the alcohol.
Mix perfectly and apply a moderate fire under the still until distil-
lation commences. Continue the distillation as long as a portion of
the distillate will deposit chloroform on being mixed with its bulk of
sr then change the receiver and collect one gallon of alcoholic

quid.

Add water to the first portion of the distillate as long as chloroform
is precipitated. Separate the light liquid from the chloroform, and
wash the latter in twice its bulk of water containing the carbonate
of soda. Separate the chloroform from the carbonate of soda and
weight it.

Mix the chloroform, washings, and alcoholic liquid in a still placed
in a water-bath. After twenty-four hours’ repose, distill three times

232 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the weight of the chloroform, and mix perfectly. Preserve in well-
stopped bottles.

The ‘chloric ether’ must not redden litmus paper, or give rise to
a precipitate when mixed with a solution of nitrate of silver.”

ON THE VULCANIZATION OF INDIA RUBBER.

Aw elaborate memoir on the sulphuration of caoutchouc has been
communicated to the French Academy by M. Payen, of which the
following is an abstract. The principal conditions of success, says
M. Payen, in the practical operation of sulphuration have been care-
fully determined in England, America and France, but it has not
been known in what the chemical action consisted; there was no ac-
curate idea concerning what has been called the desulphuration ;
finally, certain alterations, especially the rigidity and fragility of
several objects after sometimes a very short duration of the use for
which they were destined, could not be comprehended, nor, conse-
quently, prevented. The researches I have undertaken, will, I think,
clear up this point of applied science ; I will first describe what occurs
in one of the first processes of vulcanization, still employed by several
manufacturers. If a sheet of caoutchouc, two or three millimetres
in thickness, be kept for two or three hours immersed in sulphur,
liquified at the temperature of 201° to 208° Fahr., the liquid will pene-
trate into the pores as water or alcohol would do, and the weight of
the sheet will be increased 10 or 15 per cent. No considerable mod-
ification, however, will have been made in the properties of the
organic matter; it may be fashioned, and its recent sections joined the
same asin the normal state. Solvents will attack it with the same
energy. It is, however, less porous. If, then, we raise in any
medium whatever, inert of itself, the temperature to 275°, 302°, or
320° Fahr., the conversion will be effected in a few minutes. The mark
would be overshot by prolonging the action of the heat; the product
would become gradually less supple and less elastic, and would very
soon be hard and brittle. This last alteration would be more com-
plete if the caoutchouc were maintained at the same temperature,
(275° to 320° Fahr.,) in fused sulphur ; the proportion of the latter body
absorbed would gradually increase, until it became, in 24 hours,
almost equal to the weight of the organic matter, or would constitute
48 per cent. of the compound. From the commencement of the
action of the sulphur at this temperature, a slight but continuous
disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen occurs. At the same time
an equivalent quantity of organic matter, containing more carbon
than caoutchouc does, is separated, and may be extracted with a hot
solution of caustic potassa or soda, which do not perceptibly attack
the mass of caoutchouc combined with the sulphur. Liquid sulphur,
at the temperature of 302° absorbs, and may retain, a volume of
sulphuretted hydrogen almost equal to its own. A curious phenome-
non results from the foregoing facts. At the moment when the
abatement of temperature allows the sulphur to crystalize, every

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 233

crystalline particle liberates a bubble of gas; the latter is sometimes
disengaged, and sometimes is interposed among the crystals; so that
the entire mass gradually swells up, increases from 15 to 20 per cent.
in its original bulk, instead of diminishing, as it should have done
during a normal crystallization of sulphur.
Instead of making the liquid sulphur penetrate at a temperature
approaching its fusing point, caoutchouc may be mixed by means of a
mechanical grinding, with 12 or 20 times its weight of sulphur in fine
powder; the properties of the organic substance are not changed, it
may be modelled and joined as in the normal and unmixed state. If
the temperature be then raised to the degree at which, the vulcaniza-
tion is effected, it takes place as in the first case, and the above
mentioned alterations would likewise be manifested. In regard to
the composition and properties of the caoutchouc vulcanized by the
means above indicated, it has been found, that when the suitable term
has not been exceeded, the organic matter contained sulphur in two
different states; from 1 to 2 per cent. are retained in intimate combi-
nation, and the surplus remains simply interposed between its pores.
The sulphur in excess, uncombined, is gradually eliminated from the
caoutchouc by the mechanical action alternately exerted by the
extension which closes the pores, and the contraction which opens
them. This effect lasts for several months. Many chemical agents
more or less quickly or completely effect the elimination of the
interposed sulphur, especially solutions of caustic potassa or soda,
with the aid of heat, (and even without heat if renewed several times
within a month,) sulphuret of carbon, essence of turpentine, benzine
and anhydrous ether. These liquids swell up the organic matter to
such an extent that its volume is very soon increased eight. or
nine times. Ether removes sulphur in a very peculiar manner; a
small portion is first dissolved, and then carried out, when it is separ-
ated into crystalline particles; other particles successively dissolved in
the interior follow the same course, and the crystals soon become very
bulky, affecting the octahedral form. Neither essence of turpentine,
or benzine bring to the outside the crystalline particles of sulphur
carried into the thickness of the swelled-up substance. Ether and sul-
phuret of carbon, kept for a long time in contact with vulcanized
caoutchouc retain in solution 4 or 5 hundredths of caoutchouc, which
may be isolated by evaporating several times and redissolving in ether
which eliminates the free sulphur, and then by alcohol which removes
from 1 to 1-50 per cent. of fatty matter. The caoutchouc thus ex-
tracted may be separated into two parts; one, very ductile dissolved
by benzine, which deposits it in evaporating ; the other more tena-
cious, and less extensible, is not dissolved. These two parts come
from the interior of the plates, at a certain depth where the combi-
nation is less intimate and less abundant in sulphur than near the
surface. After vulcanization, caoutchouc is also formed of two parts
endowed with unequal cohesion and solubility ; this is recognized by
keeping a strip steeped for two months in a mixture of 10 parts of
sulphuret of carbon and one part of anhydrous alcohol; the portion

234 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

dissolved consists of interposed sulphur, which is removed after
dessication by a solution of caustic soda; there then remains the least
ageregated and least resistant organic substance, which is yellowish and
translucent. The undissolved portion then remains under the form of
a tenacious strip, which has become brown and less transparent. The
following are the proportions obtained, besides the fatty matter: tena-
cious insoluble portion, 65 ; soft soluble portion, 25; sulphur in excess, 10.

The process of vulcanization in the cold way, imvented by Mr.
Parker, of England, consists in immersing the sheets, or tubes of
caoutchouc ina mixture of 100 parts of sulphuret of carbon, and 2.5
protochloride of sulphur. The liquid in penetrating into the organic
substance, swells it, and deposits the sulphur, which combines with the
caoutchouc, abandoning the unstable combination which it formed in
the chloride. The- superficial portion would be too strongly vulcan-
ized and become brittle, if these objects were not removed in one or
two minutes, and immediately immersed in water. In this case the
chloride of sulphur, decomposed by its contact with the water, ceases
to act on the surface, while the portions which have entered farther in
continue their sulphurizing action on the interior. ‘This is an ingen-
ious means of regulating this kind of vulcanization by the cold way.

A process, which seemsstill more preferable, as regards the healthi-
ness and regularity of the operation, is due to the same inventor. It
is effected by keeping the objects to be vulcanized immersed for two or
three hours in close vessels, in a solution of 25° Baume, of polysul-
phuret of potassium, at a temperature of 284° Fahr., and submitting to
a washing in an alkaline solution, and then in pure water. We are
thus enabled to combine caoutchouc with a useful proportion of
sulphur, without allowing an excess of it to be interposed in its pores,
thus avoiding the inconveniences of the unequal sulphurization of the
organic substance.

COMPOSITION FOR SILVERING GLASS.

PREPARE a mixture of 30 grains ammonia, 60 grains nitrate of
silver, 90 grains spirit of wine, and 90 grains of water. When the
nitrate of silver is completely dissolved, filter the liquid and add a
small quantity of sugar, for example, 15 grains of the grape sugar
previously dissolved in a mixture of 14 ounces of water, and 13
ounces spirit of wine.

For silvering a glass it is sufficient to leave this solution in contact
with the glass during two or three days. — Civil Engineer and Archi-
tect’s Journal.

PREPARATION OF PURE METHYLIC ALCOHOL.

Wouter has given a very simple and elegant method of preparing
pure wood-spirit from the raw material of commerce, which is of
interest both to the chemist and pharmaceutist. Raw wood-spirit is to
be mixed with an equal weight of sulphuric acid, avoiding an elevation

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 235

of temperature. The mixture is to be allowed to stand a day, then
distilled from two parts by weight of binoxalate of potash. A volatile
fluid at first passes over, after which the oxalate of methyl condenses
in the neck of the retort. The receiver is now to be changed and the
distillation continued as long as the ether comes over. The neck of
the retort is then to be gently warmed and the oxalate allowed to flow
into the receiver when it is to be strongly pressed between folds of
bibulous paper, and then freed from volatile products by long fusion.
In this way it is obtained directly perfectly colorless. The liquid
which passes over first contains also oxalate of methyl which is readily
obtained by evaporation and crystallization. The pure oxalate of
methyl prepared in this manner is now to be distilled with water ;
pure wood-spirit passes over and oxalic acid remains in the retort.
[ This method obviously presents great advantages over the tedious
processes of Dumas and Kane.]— Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie,
Ixxxi.

FORMATION OF SULPHURIC ACID FROM SULPHUROUS ACID AND
OXYGEN.

Wouter has published a few observations relating to the formation
of sulphuric acid, which, although involving no new principle, promise
to be of great importance in a manufacturing point of view. The
action of spongy platinum at a high temperature upon a mixture of
sulphurous acid and air or oxygen, has long been known. A patent
was even granted to Peregrine Phillips for the manufacture of sul-
phuric acid by this process, the anhydrous acid formed being condensed
and united to water in an appropriate receiver. The method was
however abandoned as a more extended experience showed that the
platinum speedily lost its power of condensation. Wohler has now
found that various metallic oxides possess in a high degree the property
of causing the union of mixed gases. When the oxides of copper,
iron, or chromium, are heated to a low fedness in a glass tube and a
mixture of sulphurous acid and air or oxygen is caused to pass over
them, thick white vapors of anhydrous sulphuric acid are formed. A
_ mixture of the oxides of chromium and copper prepared by precipi-
tation was found to be particularly efficient; the same quantity of
oxide appeared capable of converting an unlimited quantity of the
mixed gases into sulphuric acid, and the production of sulphuric acid
was so easy and rapid as to lead to the idea of practical application on
a large scale. Metallic copper in a state of powder produces sulphuric
acid in a similar manner, but only when heated and when its surface
has become converted into oxide. No hydrate of sulphuric acid is
formed by passing the vapor of water over the oxide at the same time
with the gaseous mixture. Platinum foil polished and cleaned acts
upon the gaseous mixture like spongy platinum, but not at ordinary
temperature. A mixture of the oxides of copper and iron prepared
by precipitation and ignited, becomes and remains incandescent when

21

236 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

warmed and held in a current of hydrogen gas.— Ann. der Chemie
und Pharmacie, 1x xxi. |

ON THE DECOLORIZING POWER OF CHARCOAL AND OTHER BODIES,

Ir is generally said that charcoal is the only simple body which
possesses the property of absorbing coloring matters dissolved in a
liquid ; it results, moreover, from the labors of Bussy and Payen, that
decoloration by charcoal is a purely physical phenomena, a phenomena
of dyeing. Several compound bodies, (alumina, sulphuret of lead
prepared by the humid way, and hydrate of lead) also possess the
property of decoloring liquids ; but chemists for the most part, regard
the action which the oxides exert on coloring matters in the prepar-
ation of lakes as a chemical action, different from that of charcoal.
However, Berzelius thought he might compare the decoloration by
the oxides and the metallic salts with that produced by charcoal. In
a communication submitted to the French Academy by M. Filhol, the
author proves that charcoal is not the only simple body which possesses
the property of decoloring liquids ; sulphur, arsenic, and iron, resulting
from the reduction of hydrogen, have appreciable decoloring power.
The number of compound bodies endowed with an appreciable decol-
oring power is much greater than has been supposed, as this property
seems to depend much more on the state of division of these bodies
than on their chemical qualities. It was also shown thata certain body
which easily appropriates one coloring matter, may have very little
tendency to remove another; thus bone phosphate of lime (artifically
obtained) with difficulty decolors a solution of sulphindigotate of soda,
whilst it acts on tincture’ of litmus more energetically than animal
black. The decoloration is in the great majority of cases, a purely
physical phenomena; thus, the same coloring matter is absorbed by
metalloids, metals, acids, bases, salts, and organic substances, besides it
is easy, by employing suitable solvents, to procure the color unaltered
from the body by which it had been absorbed. — Comptes Rendus, 1852.

DEODORIZING PROPERTIES OF COFFEE.

THE London Medical Gazette gives the result of numerous experi-
ments with roasted coffee, proving that it is the most powerful means,
not only of rendering animal and vegetable effluvia innocuous, but of
actually destroying them. A room in which meat in an advanced
degree of decomposition had been kept for some time, was instantly
deprived of all smell, on an open coffee roaster, being carried through
it, containing a pound of coffee newly roasted. In another room
exposed to the effluvium occasioned by the clearing out of a cess pit,
so that sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonia in great quantities could
be chemically detected, the stench was completely removed within half
a minute, on the employment of three ounces of fresh roasted coffee,
whilst the other parts of the house were permanently cleared of the

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 237

same smell by being simply traversed with the coffee roaster, although
the cleansing of the cess pit continued several hours after.

The best mode of using the coffee as a disinfectant is to dry the raw
bean, pound it in a mortar, and then roast the powder on a moderately
heated iron plate until it assumes a dark brown tint, when it is fit for
use. Then sprinkle it in sinks or cess pools, or lay it on a plate in the
rooms which you wish to have purified. Coffee acid or coffee oil acts
more readily in minute quantities.

ADULTERATION OF BEER WITH STRYCHNINE.

GRAHAM and HorrMan, at the instance of a prominent English
brewer, Mr. Alsopp, and in consequence of reports, originating in
Paris, that English ale and beer occasionally derived its bitterness
from strychnine, have carefully tested various specimens of these bey-
erages, but without discovering a trace of the poisonous alkaloid.
Strychnine when present in no greater quantity than 1-1,000 of a
grain may be detected by the following process. The suspected pow-
der is to be moistened with a drop of undiluted sulphuric acid and a
few fragments of bichromate of potash added. An intense beautiful
violet color immediately appears at the points of contact which quickly
spreads through the whole fluid, and after a few minutes again vanishes.
The presence of small quantities of organic matter prevents this
reaction ; in testing beer the authors adopted the following process.
Half a gallon of beer to which half a grain of strychnine had been added
was shaken with two ounces of animal charcoal, and the fluid allowed
to stand over night. The next day the beer was found to be almost
free from bitterness, the strychnine having been precipitated with the
coal. The coal was thrown on a filter, washed, boiled with alcohol
and the alcoholic filtrate distilled. The residue in the retort was
shaken with a few drops of a solution of caustic potash and about an
ounce of ether. The etherial solution evaporated on a watch glass
gave a mass in which the presence of strychnine was easily detected by
the test above given Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie.

ADTLTERATION OF ANCHOVIES.

THE London Lancet gives the result of the investigation of the
Analytical Sanitary Commission into the composition_of “Anchovies,”
as vended in the metropolis. Having analyzed 28 samples, the follow-
ing conclusion has been arrived at: That seven of the samples consisted
entirely of Dutch fish. That two of the samples consisted of a mix-
ture of Dutch fish and anchovies. That the brine in 23 of the
samples was charged with either bole Armenian or Venetian red, the
quantity varying considerably in amount; but in most cases the brine
was saturated with these earthy powders to such an extent that they
might be obtained and collected from the botton of the bottles almost
by teaspoonfulls. The commissioners add : —‘ It is not to be inferred
that these samples in which no Dutch fish were detected consisted of

238 ANNUAL OF. SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the true anchovy, since we have ascertained that two other kinds of
fish besides the Dutch are commonly imported and sold as ‘true
anchovies,’ and ‘real Gorgonas’ —namely French and Sicilian fish.”
A further investigation established the fact, that not one-third of the
28 samples consisted of Gorgona anchovies.

ON THE ANALYSIS OF OPIUM, ESPECIALLY WITH REFERENCE TO
THE PROPORTION OF MORPHIA CONTAINED IN IT.

Tue following new process for the examination of opium is given by
Dr. Riegel, of Carlsruhe, in the Jahrbuch de Pharmacie, Nov. :
Half an ounce of opium to be examined is cut in small pieces and
bruised in a mortar with alcohol at 71°; the fluid is then expressed
through linen, and the refuse washed with from ten to twelve drachms
of the same alcohol ; the alcoholic solution is then to be filtered into a
glass containing one drachm of spirits of ammonia. In twelve hours’
time, all the morphia, with some narcotine and meconate of ammonia,
will have become deposited. In order to effectually separate the mor-
phia, the adhering meconate of ammonia must be removed by washing
in water and then shaking the crystals in pure ether, or better still in
chloroform, in which the narcotine is readily dissolved, while the mor- .
phia remains entirely insoluble. After this treatment the morphia
remains behind in large gritty crystals, slightly discolored. This
process may be varied by employing boiling alcohol and powdered
opium, and adding the solution still hot, to the solution of ammonia.
According to good authorities, 15 grammes of opium should yield at
least 1.25 grammes, or 8.33 per cent. Reich estimates 10, and others
12 percent. The author gives the percentage of morphia which is
obtained by the various processes of different experiments, and states
that the largest proportion (13.50 per cent.) is procured by the pro-
cess above described, which he considers also to be the simplest and
most certain for ascertaining the proportion of morphia. ;

The following process is also recommended by Dr. Riegel for the
detection of small quantities of opium. To the suspected substance
some potash is to be added, and then shaken with ether. A strip of
white blotting paper is to moistened with the solution several times
repeated. When dry, the paper is to be moistened with muriatic
acid, and exposed to the steam of hot water; if opium be present, the
paper will be more or less colored red.

METHOD FOR DETECTING THE ORGANIC ALKALOIDS.

THE following paper, by Prof. Stass, of Brussels, is published in
the Bulletin de ? Academie Royal de Medecine de Belgique.

Whatever certain authors may have said on the subject, it is possi-
ble to discover, in a suspected liquid, all the alkaloids, i whatever
state they may be. I am quite convinced that every chemist, who
has kept up his knowledge as to analysis, will not only succeed in
detecting their presence, but even in determining the nature of that

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 239

which he has discovered, provided that the alkaloid in question is one
of that class of bodies, the properties of which have been suitably
studied. Thus he will be able to discover coniine, nicotine, aniline,
picoline, petinine, morphine, codeine, narcotine, strychnine, brucine,
veratrine, colchicine, delphine, emetine, solanine, aconitine, atrophine,
and hyoscyamine. Ido not pretend to say, that the chemical study
of all these alkaloids has been sufliciently well made to enable the
experimenter who detects one of them to know it immediately,
and affirm that it is such an alkaloid, and no other. Nevertheless, in
those even which he cannot positively determine or specify, he may
be able to say that it belongs to such a family of vegetables, the Sola-
nacez, for example. In case of poisoning by such agents, even this
will be of much importance. The method which I now propose for
detecting the alkaloids in suspected matters, is nearly the same as that
employed for extracting those bodies from the vegetables which con-
tain them. The only difference consists in the manner of setting
them free, and of presenting them to the action of solvents. We
know that the alkaloids form acid salts, which are equally soluble in
water and alcohol; we know, also, that a solution of these acid salts
can be decomposed, so that the base set at liberty remains either
momentarily or permanently in solution in the liquid. J have observed
that all the solid and fixed alkaloids above enumerated, when maintained
in a free state and in solution in a liquid, can be taken up by ether when
this solvent is in sufficient quantity. Thus, to extract an alkaloid from
a suspected substance, the only problem to resolve consists in sepa-
rating, by the aid of simple means, the foreign matters, and then find-
_ing a base which, in rendering the alkaloid free, retains it in solution,
in order that the ether may extract it from the liquid. Successive
treatment by water, and alcohol of different degrees of concentration,
suffices for separating the foreign matters, and obtaining in a small
bulk,-a solution in which the alkaloid can be found. The bicarbo-
nates of potash or soda, or these alkalies in a caustic state, are
convenient bases for setting the alkaloids at liberty, at the same time
keeping them wholly in solution, especially if the alkaloids have been
combined with an excess of tartaric or of oxalic acid.

To separate foreign substances, animal or otherwise, from the sus-
pected matters, recourse is commonly had to the tribasic acetate of
lead, and precipitating the lead afterwards by a current of sulphu-
retted hydrogen. As I have several times witnessed, this procedure
has many and very serious inconveniences. In the first place, the
tribasic acetate of lead, even when used in large excess, comes far
short of precipitating all the foreign matters; secondly, the sulphu-
retted hydrogen, which is used to precipitate the lead, remains in
combination with certain organic matters, which undergo great
changes by the action of the air, and of even a moderate heat; so
that animal liquids, which have been precipitated by the tribasic ace-
tate of lead, and from which the lead has been separated afterwards
by hydrosulphuric acid, color rapidly on exposure to the air, and
exhale at the same time a putrid odor, which adheres firmly to the

21*

240 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

matters which we extract afterwards from these liquids. The use of
a salt of lead presents another inconvenience, viz: the introduction
of foreign metals into the suspected matters, so that that portion of
the suspected substance is rendered unfit for testing for mineral sub-
stances. The successive and combined use of water and alcohol at
different states of concentration, permits us to search for mineral sub-
stances, whatever be their naturc; so that in this way nothing is
compromised, which is of immense advantage when the analyst does
not know what poison he is to look for.

It is hardly necessary to say, that in medico-legal researches for the
alkaloids, we ought never to use animal charcoal for decolorizing the
liquids, because we may lose all the alkaloid in the suspected matters.
It is generally known that animal charcoal absorbs these substances at
the same time that it fixes the coloring and odoriferous matters.

The above observations do not proceed from speculative ideas only,
but are the result of a pretty long series of experiments which I have
several times employed for discovering these organic alkaloids. ‘To
put in practice the principles which I have thus explained, the follow-
ing is the method in which I propose to set about such an analysis : —
I suppose that we wish to look for an alkaloid in the contents of the
stomach or intestines; we commence by adding to these matters
twice their weight of pure and very strong alcohol;* we add after-
wards, according to the quantity and nature of the suspected matter,
from 10 to 30 grs. of tartaric or oxalic acid — in preference, tartaric ;
we introduce the mixture into a flask, and heat it to 160° or 170°
Fahr. After it has completely cooled, it is to be filtered, the insoluble
residue washed with strong alcohol, and the filtered liquid evaporated
in vacuo. If the operator has not an air-pump, the liquid is to be
exposed to a strong current of air at a temperature of not more than
90° Fahr. If, after the volatilization of the alcohol, the residue con-
tains fatty or other insoluble matters, the liquid is to be filtered a
second time, and then the filtrate and washings of the filter evapo-
rated in the air-pump till nearly dry. If we have no air-pump, it
is to be placed under a bell jar over a vessel containing concentrated
sulphuric acid. We are then to treat the residue with cold, anhy-
drous alcohol, taking care to exhaust the substance thoroughly; we
evaporate the alcohol in the open air at the ordinary temperature, or
still better, in vacuo ; we now dissolve the acid residue in the smallest
possible quantity of water, and introduce the solution into a small
test tube, and add, little by little, pure powdered bicarbonate of soda
or potash, till a fresh quantity produces no further effervescence of
carbonic acid. We then agitate the whole with four or five times its
bulk of pure ether, and leave it to settle. When the ether swimming

* When we wish to look for an alkaloid in the tissue of an organ, as the liver,
heart, or lungs, we must first divide the organ into very small fragments, moisten
the mass with pure strong alcohol, then express strongly, and_ by further
treatment with alcohol exhaust the tissue of every thing soluble. The liquid so
obtained is to be treated in the same way as a mixture of suspected matter and
alcohol

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 241

on the top is perfectly clear, decant some of it into a capsule, and
leave it in a very dry place to spontaneous evaporation.

Now, two orders of things may present themselves — either the
alkaloid contained in the suspected matter is liquid and volatile, or
solid and fixed. I shall now consider these two hypotheses.

Examination for a Liquid and Volatile Alkaloid.— We suppose
there exists a liquid and volatile alkaloid.. In such a case, by the
evaporation of the ether, there remain in the inside of the capsule
some small liquid striz:, which fall to the bottom of the vessel. In this
case, under the influence of the heat of the hand, the contents of the
capsule exhale an odor more or less disagreeable, which becomes,
according to the nature of the alkaloid, more or less pungent, suffo-
cating, irritant ; it presents, in short, a smell like that of a volatile
alkali, masked by an animal odor. If we discover any traces of the
presence of a volatile alkaloid, we add then to the contents of the
vessel, from which we have decanted, a small quantity of ether, 1 or
2 fiuid drachms, of a strong solution of caustic potash or soda, and
agitate the mixture. After a suflicient time, we draw off the ether
into a test-tube, exhaust the mixture by two or three treatments with
ether, and unite all the etherial fluids. We pour afterwards into this
ether, holding the alkaloid in solution, 1 or 2 drachms of water, acidu-
lated with a fifth part of its weight of pure sulphuric acid, agitate it
for some time, leave it to settle, pour off the ether swimming on the
top, and wash the acid liquid at the bottom with a new quantity of
ether. As the sulphates of ammonia, of nicotine, aniline, quinoleine,
picoline, and petinine are entirely insoluble in ether, the water acid-
ulated with sulphuric acid contains the alkaloid in a small bulk, and
in the state of a pure sulphate; but as the sulphate of coniine is
soluble in ether, the ether may contain a small quantity of this alka-
loid, but the greater part remains in the acidulated watery solution.
The ether, on the other hand, retains all the animal matters which it
has taken from the alkaline solutions. If it, on spontaneous evapora-
tion, leaves a small quantity of a feebly colored yellowish residue, of
a repulsive animal odor, mixed with a certain quantity of sulphate of
coniine, this alkaloid exists in the suspected matter under analysis.
To extract the alkaloid from the solution of the acid sulphate, we
add to the latter an aqueous and concentrated solution of potash
or caustic soda; we agitate and exhaust the mixture with pure ether;
the ether dissolves ammonia, and the alkaloid is now free. We
expose the etherial solution at the lowest possible temperature to
spontaneous evaporation ; almost all the ammonia volatilizes with the
ether, whilst the alkaloid remains as residue. To eliminate the last
traces of ammonia, we place, for a few minutes, the vessel containing
the alkaloid in a vacuum over sulphuric acid, and obtain the organic
alkaloid, with the chemical and physical characters which belong to
it, and which it is now the chemist’s duty to determine positively. I
applied the process which I have described to the detection of nico-
tine in the blood from the heart of a dog poisoned by 2 cubic centims.
(0.78 eubic inch) of nicotine introduced into the xsophagus; and

242 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

I was able, in a most positive manner, to determine the presence of
nicotine in the blood. I was able to determine its physical characters,
its odor, taste, and alkalinity. I succeeded in obtaining the chloro-
platinate of the base perfectly crystallized in quadrilateral rhomboidal
prisms of a rather dark yellow color, and to ascertain their insolubility
in alcohol and ether.

I have applied the same process to the detection of coniine in a
very old tincture of hemlock, and I was equally successful in extract-
ing from the liquid colorless coniine, presenting all the physical and
chemical properties of this alkaloid. I was also able to prove that the
ether which holds coniine in solution, carries off a notable portion of
this alkaloid, when the solvent is exposed to spontaneous evaporation.

Examination for a Solid and Fixed Alkaloid. — Let us now suppose
that the alkaloid is solid and fixed; in that case, according to the
nature of the alkaloid, it may happen that the evaporation of the ether
resulting from the treatment of the acid matter, to which we have
added bicarbonate of soda, may leave or not a residue containing an
alkaloid. If it does, we add a solution of caustic potash or soda to
the liquid, and agitate it briskly with ether. This dissolves the vege-
table alkaloid, now free, and remaining in the solution of potash or
soda. In either case, we exhaust the matter with ether. Whatever
be the agent which has set the alkaloid free, whether it be the bicar-
bonate of soda or potash, or caustic soda or potash, it remains, by the
evaporation of the ether, on the side of the capsule as a solid body,
but more commonly as a colorless milky liquid, holding solid matters
in suspension. The odor of the substance is animal, disagreeable, but
not pungent. It turns litmus paper permanently blue.

When we thus discover a solid alkaloid, the first thing to do is to
try and obtain it in a crystalline state, so as to be able to determine
its form. Put some drops of alcohol in the capsule with the alkaloid,
and leave the solution to spontaneous evaporation. It is, however,
very rare that the alkaloid obtained by the above process, is pure
enough to crystallize. Almost always it is contaminated with foreign
matters. To isolate these substances, some drops of water, feebly
acidulated with sulphuric acid, are poured into the capsule, and then
moved over its surface, so as to bring it in contact with the matter in
the capsule. Generally we observe that the acid water does not
moisten the sides of the vessel. The matter which is contained in it
separates into two parts; one formed of greasy matter which remains
adherent to the sides; the other alkaline, which dissolves and forms
an acid sulphate. We cautiously decant the acid liquid, which ought
to be limpid and colorless, if the process has been well executed; the
capsule is well washed, with some drops of acidulated water, added
to the first liquid, and the whole is evaporated to three-fourths in
vacuo, or under a bell jar over sulphuric acid. We put into the
residue a very concentrated solution of pure carbonate of potash, and
treat the whole liquid with absolute alcohol. This dissolves the
alkaloid, while it leaves untouched the sulphate of potash, and excess
of carbonate of potash. The evaporation of the alcoholic solution

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. ee)

gives us the alkaloid in crystals. It is now the chemist’s business to
determine its properties, to be able to prove its individuality. I have
applied the principles which I have just expounded to the detection
of morphine, iodine, strychnine, brucine, veratrine, emetine, colchi-
cine, aconitine, atrophine, hyoscyamine; and I have succeeded in
isolating, without the least difficulty, these different alkaloids, previ-
ously mixed with foreign matters. I have thus been able to extract
by this process, morphine from opium, strychnine and brucine from
nux vomica, veratrine from extract of veratrum, emetine from extract
of ipecacuanha, colchicine from tincture of colchicum, and the like.
Thus it is in all confidence that I submit this process to the considera-
tion of chemists who undertake medico-legal researches.

ON THE DETERMINATION OF PHOSPHORIC ACID BY MOLYBDATE
OF AMMONIA.

SILLIMAN’s Journ: 1 for May contains the followimg article by Mr.
W. J. Craw, of New Haven, on the determination of phosphoric
acid by molybdate of ammonia:

The determination of phosphoric acid has always been one of the
most important and most difficult problems of analytical chemistry.
The bases with which it is most frequently united, are iron, alumina,
the alkalies and alkaline earths. Several of these combinations are
decomposed with very great difficulty, the phosphate of alumina in
particular, resisting nearly every effort to reduce it to its component
parts. Although good methods have been proposed for the analysis
of many of the simple phosphates, that of phosphate of lime for
instance, yet it usually happens that several of these occurs together ;
and until very recently no process has been devised which could effect
the separation of phosphoric acid from all the bases previously men-
tioned, when incompany. A great amount of labor has been spent
by chemists, within the last few years, in the effort to overcome this
difficulty. Numerous ways have been tried with greater or less
success, but most of these contain inherent difficulties, which in many
cases prevent their applications. Even Rose’s process by carbonate of
baryta, though a monument of profound knowledge and admirable
research, is yet too complicated to yield good results, except in the
hands of those who have practised it so often as to be perfectly famil-
iar with all the necessary precautions. The great desideratum of a
simple and accurate method for the determination of phosphoric
acid, with whatever substances it may be combined, has been supplied
by Sonnenschein. He states that the yellow precipitate produced by
molybdate of ammonia in the solution of a phosphate, contains phos-
phoric acid as an essential constituent, and not, as asserted by
Svanberg, and Struve, an accidental admixture. From several
analyses of this compound he finds it to contain about three per cent.
of phosphoric acid. A number of trials were also made to find
whether by this means phosphoric acid could be separated and deter-
mined quantitatively which were completely successfull. For this pur-

244 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

pose a large quantity of the molybdate solution is prepared as follows :
one part of molybdic acid is dissolved in eight parts of ammonia, and
twenty of nitric acid. The phosphate is dissolved in nitric acid, and
there is added to it, a quantity of molybdic acid equal to about thirty
times that of the phosphoric acid. The solution with the precipitate
is digested for some hours with the aid of a very gentle heat, filtered,
and washed with the same solution which was used for the precipita-
tion. The whole is then dissolved in ammonia, and the phosphoric
acid thrown down by a magnesian salt. The presence of molybdic
acid is not injurious, as the double molybdate of ammonia and mag-
nesia is easily soluble. Sonnenschien’s experiments on the separation of
ee acid from alumina and other bases all gave very good
results.

With a view of confirming this discovery, and also of ascertaining
with more precision the cause of the peculiar behavior exhibited by
this substance towards re-agents, numerous trials have been made with
it by Mr. Craw. Solutions of the caustic alkalies, and the alkaline
carbonates and phosphates, dissolve the yellow compound even in
the cold. So do also chloride of ammonium, and oxalate of ammonia.
The mineral acids also act upon it to some extent. Cold water
dissolves it with great difficulty, though it is soluble in hot water. It
appears to be decomposed to a small extent by the combined influence
of air and moisture, as it turns blue when dried in the atmosphere after
washing with water. Its behavior towards solvents is changed by the
presence of molybdate of ammonia, so that it becomes nearly insoluble
in acids even on boiling. The act of solution is probably in all cases
attended with decomposition and removal of molybdie acid which is
prevented by the presence of molybdate of ammonia. Some quanti-
tative experiments were also made on the separation of phosphoric
acid from the bases, and the results obtained confirm those of Sonnen-
schein, and show that the method as regards accuracy, is all that can
be desired, while in point of simplicity, it is superior to any of the old
processes. It will prove of especial advantage in cases where, as in
the analysis of soils, a small quantity of phosphoric acid is associated
with a variety of other substances existing in much larger proportion.
It may be important to remark, that when effecting the precipitation
by means of molybdate of ammonia, this, as well as nitric acid, should
be in decided excess. To ascertain when this is the case, before fil-
tering off the solution, a drop of it may be transferred to a solution of
sulphuretted hydrogen, when a brown precipitate of sulphuret of
molybdenum will appear. After separating the yellow precipitate
from the solution, the latter should be always allowed to stand for
some time in a warm place, to see whether any additional precipitate
is formed.

ON A SPECIAL ACID OF THE LUNGS.

M. Dumas recently presented a paper to the academy, giving an
account of his and M. Verdiel’s researches on a special acid secreted

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 245

by the pulmonary parenchyna in most animals, and which may be
found free, but is usually combined with a salt of soda. Obtained in
the crystalline form, it is a brilliant body, strongly refracting light. It
does not lose its water of crystallization at a temperatue of 100°
Centigrade ; but when heated still more, it decrepitates, melts and is
decomposed, giving rise to empyreumatic products. Much coal re-
mains, which disappears without leaving any traces of ash. It is
soluble in water and boiling alcohol, but not in cold alcohol or ether.
Its ultimate analysis exhibits definite proportions of carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. It forms crystallized salts with
bases, and expels carbonate acid from the carbonates. The existence
of this substance is of high physiological interest; for the acid thus
secreted by the parenchyma comes in contact with the carbonate of
soda of the blood, transported by the capillaries, and decomposes it,
uniting with the soda and setting free the carbonic acid which is
-exhaled. The presence of a portion of this acid in the free state, in
the parenchyma, indicates that it is really there that it is formed, and
not in the blood, which is an alkaline fluid. By uniting with the soda
of the blood, the acid does not change the reaction of that fluid, since
it merely takes the place of the carbonic acid which is expelled dur-
ing expiration. — Journ. de Chemie Medicale. ;

ON CHROMIC ACID AS AN ESCHAROTIC.

Curomic acid has been on the recommendation of Dr. Heller tried
in many cases as an escharotic, and the results thus far obtained justify
a further trial of it in cases in which a deeply penetrating, gradual
caustic, and ene constant in its effect would be indicated. When
employed in substance, its action is exceedingly slow and gradual,
eccupying many hours; nevertheless in intensity it exceeds that of
the caustic alkalies. In extremely concentrated solution, its action is
less penetrating and less gradual, but at the same time, it is more con-
tinuous than that of all other known caustics; on the other hand, the
more dilute the solution, the more transient and superficial is the
effect. The facility with which its action can thus be graduated ren-
ders it in all cases a suitable escharotic. The method of application
is as follows: the surrounding parts having been protected by folds of
lint, adhesive plaster, &c., the chromic acid is spread with a spatula on
the part to be cauterized, so as to form a layer scarcely a line in thick-
ness, which is covered with lint, kept in its place by adhesive plaster.
The concentrated solution may be applied by means of a glass rod, or
hair pencil, and the part after a few moments’ exposure covered with
lint. If chromic acid be applied to sound parts, a moderate sensation
of burning commences in ten or fifteen minutes after the application,
increasing for three or four hours, and then diminishing for about an
equal space of time. Its application to ulcerated parts excites similar
sensations instantaneously. Undissolved chromic acid causes severer
and more permanent pains; these are also more violent when the
cutis vera itself, and not morbid growths is cauterised. The pain does

246 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

not disturb the patient’s sleep, and is incomparably less than that
caused by other caustics, such as sulphuric or nitric acids, nitrate of
silver, corrosive sublimate, caustic potassa, &c. According to Dr.
Heller’s experiments, all organic compounds are soluble in the easily
deoxidable chromic acid, their ultimate elements being raised to a
higher degree of oxidation, and partly uniting with the acid. An
elevated temperature accelerates this process. Smaller animals, mice,
birds, &c., were so completely dissolved by chromic acid in fifteen or
twenty minutes, that no trace of their bones, skin, hair, claws or teeth
could be discovered.

WHY BREAD BECOMES STALE.

“Av a late meeting of the French Academy a discussion took place
respecting the grave yet apparently simple question why bread
becomes stale. M. Boussingault laid down that staleness is not, as is
generally supposed, caused by the proportion of water diminishing ;
but arises from a molecular state which manifests itself during the
cooling, becomes afterwards developed, and persists as long as the
temperature does not exceed a certain limit. M. Thenard said, that
it is cause by bread being a hydrate which heat softens, and to which
a lower temperature gives more consistency.

PRESERVATION OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.

Tue following is an abstract of a communication to the French
Academy, by M. Blandet : —

The hyposulphite of soda and the chloride of zinc are both employed
for the preservation of dead bodies by injection. I placed blood in a
concentrated solution of each of these salts, and in about a fortnight,
after exposure to the air, the blood appeared bad in the hyposulphite,
though still liquid and black ; while the chloride of zinc gave a precipi-
tate, but without bad odor. I experimented with another’ salt, a
chloride like the salt of zinc, and alkaline the same as the salt of soda
—the chloride of barium. This salt maintains the blood liquid the
same as the salt of soda, and preserves it without odor the same as the
salt of zinc. The author thinks that by employing it for the injection
of the human subject, we may preserve the aspect of the living body,
the blood being rendered imputrescable by the chloride of barium —
Comptes Rendus.

A NEW STYPTIC.

A PHARMACIEN, at Rome, Signor Pagliare, has recently succeeded
in discovering a liquid possessing so extraordinary a power of coagulat-
ing blood, that if to a large basin containing this fluid one drop of the
styptic be added, complete solidification ensues, so that the basin may
be inverted without causing any blood to be lost. The practical
advantages of this styptic are consequently very great, inasmuch as,

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. QAT

by its timely application, the bleeding from large and dangerous
wounds may be immediately staunched. In addition to the other
valuable qualities of this liquid, it is totally devoid of poisonous agency,
and easily prepared as follows:— Take 8 ounces of gum benzoin, 1
pound of alum, and 10 pints of water. Boil all together for the space of
eight hours in an earthenware glazed vessel, frequently stirring the mass,
and adding water sufficient to make up the original quantity of that
lost by ebullition, taking care, however, to add the water so gradually
that boiling may not be suspended. ‘The liquid portion of the com-
pound is now to be strained off, and preserved in well-corked bottles.
It is limpid, like champagne as to color, possessing a slightly styptic
taste, and an agreeable odor.

ALKALIES IN PLANTS.

AT a recent meeting of the Botanical Society, London, Dr.
Daubeny detailed some experiments undertaken by him at the Oxford
Botanic Garden, with the view of determining whether the usual
_ quantity of potash and soda existing in barley might be made to vary
by causing the plant to grow in soil impregnated with more than the
ordinary quantity of one or the other of these alkalies. He found that
when the barley had grown in a soil which had been dressed with a
strong solution, either of carbonate of soda or of chloride of sodium, the
ashes of the plant contained about eight per cent. more soda than was
present when the plant had grown in a soil impregnated with carbon-
ate of potash, or left unimpregnated. ‘This difference may admit of
explanation by supposing one alkali capable of replacing the other
within the organism of the plant; but the author thinks it more
probable that it arose from the sap circulating through the plant at the
time when it was cut, containing in the one case more soda than it did
in the other. The saline contents of the fluid of the sap would of
course be confounded with those which had been actually assimilated
by the plant, and hence, from the variation in its composition, must
tend to modify the amount of the alkalies obtained from the ashes of
the plant in each instance, according to the nature of the material with
which the soil had been impregnated.

ON THE EFFICACY OF BURNT CLAY.

Dr. VOELCKER publishes a communication in the Chemical Gazette,
for April, on the causes of the agricultural efficacy of burnt clay, in
which he shows conclusively, that the change effected, and benefit
resulting, is entirely of a chemical nature.

Prof. Johnson, the well known Agricultural Chemist, had previously
expressed the opinion that the mechanical effects of the burning upon
clay, were insufficient to explain its efficacy, and first pointed out the
true solution of the phenomena in the chemical changes which the soil
undergoes.

Pure clay, silicate of alumina, is rarely found; such a soil could

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248 _ ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

never be improved by burning. The ordinary clay soils, however,
contain besides this chief ingredient, a considerable proportion of
sand, undecomposed fragments of felspar, mica, granite, and other
minerals, with more or less sand, carbonate of lime, magnesia, free or
uncombined alumina, oxide of iron, silicate of potash, traces of phos-
phorus, and sulphuric acid, and chlorine. Now of these substances,
the silicate of alumina, pure clay, does not of itself contribute at all
to the direct nurture of plants, as it is not found in the ashes of culti-
vated plants. We must look, therefore, for the direct fertilizers of
this soil, amongst the accessory or foreign ingredients of agricultural
clays. Of these, the lime, magnesia, sulphuric acid, silica, and chlo-
rine, which are essential to the growth of plants, are found im most
soils, or 1f deficient, can be supplied at a cheap rate. The chief value
of an agricultural clay, depends, therefore, on the proportion ef phos-
phoric acid, potash, and soda it contains. Potash is a most essential
element, and its chief source in ordinary soils is the clay. Clay is in
many cases, derived from felspar, a double silicate of alumina and
potash; and frequently contains some undecomposed fragments of
felspar and other minerals. Plants can only avail themselves of the
soluble potash, and not that which occurs in the form of felspar, which
must first be decomposed by long exposure to air and water; but, as
the soluble potash in the clay soil, sooner or later, will be exhausted
by the removal of the crops grown upon it, the soil becomes gradually
more and more sterile. Although by long exposure felspar may be
decomposed, yet it is now demonstrated that moderate calcination much
accelerates this action. In burning clay properly, a large amount of
potash is liberated by the action of the carbonate of lime present,
upon the double silicate of potash and alumina. This chemical reac-
tion, which occurs at a high temperature, results in the formation of
silicate of lime, and carbonate of potash. Those clays, then, which
are improved by burning, must be the ones that contain the foreign
ingredients named, and undecomposed felspar. ‘The pure pipe and
porcelain clays, would not be improved at all, by the process of soil
burning.

We can now understand, why burnt clays, especially improve the
root crops, such as turnips, carrots, swedes, mangolds, potatoes, &c.,
which require much potash as nutriment, the ashes of these plants,
containing nearly half their weight of this alkali. ;

ON THE ABSORPTION OF THE SOLUBLE HUMATES AND ULMATES
BY PLANTS. °

M. SovusErraNn demonstrated some time since the important fact, so
long denied by Liebig and his supporters, that alkaline ulmates and
humates are absorbed by vegetation. The experiments of Soubeiran
have been recently verified in the fullest extent by M. Malguti.

A plant of Lampsana, whose roots were immersed in a solution of
ammonia, continued to vegetate and prosper. The solution, which
was changed every day, was partially discolored. Oats passed very

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 249

well through all the stages of vegetation in a soil deprived of organic
matters, and containing a little sulphate and phosphate of lime, and
which was watered from time to time with ulmate of ammonia. Those
who do not believe in the absorption of humus will accept with diffi-
culty results obtamed with a plant (Lampsana) which was found in
an abnormal state. They will add that there is nothing to prove that
oats accomplish their vegetation under the influence of ulmate of
ammonia, since in the soil it must find phosphate and sulphate of that
base. Indeed, if we put sulphate of lime, or powdered calcined bones
(or more properly artificial tribasic phosphate of lime,) in contact with
ulmate of ammonia, ulmate of lime is formed, and at the same time,
sulphate and phosphate of ammonia; and again, when we put sulphate
and phosphate of ammonia in contact with ulmate of lime, a double
decomposition ensues. In all cases there is a division, and four salts
are formed.

An experiment detailed by Maleuti was as follows: I half filled two
large funnels with gravel, and the other half with powdered brick,
- containing one per cent. of calcined bones, and as much chalk. I
sowed in these two artificial soils, moistened with distilled water, the
same quantity of cress seed. During germination I prepared by
means of turf, perfectly neutral ulmate of ammonia, which I divided
inte two equal lots, each about two quarts. One of these was set
aside, and the other was kept for watering the two soils. The seeds
having sprung up four days after they were sown, I began to water
them every day, ene with 100 cubic centimetres of distilled water, and
the other with the like quantity of ulmate of ammonia. After five
waterings, the difference between the two vegetations was very evi-
dent. That which had been watered with the ulmate was of a deep
green; the other which had been treated with water was of a light
green. After eighteen waterings, that is to say after the experiment
had lasted twenty-two days, the most luxuriant plant threatening to
fall, i cut it down. ‘The twocrops dried in the air-and under the same
circumstances weighed, that watered with water, 12,550 grs.; that
watered with the ulmate of ammonia, 15,150 grs. The soil impreg-
nated with the ulmate was then washed until the water passed out
colorless and limpid; dilute hydrochloric acid was then added and the
washing continued until the water became neutral. The treatment
with acid was succeeded by treatment with ammoniacal water, and
the two treatments were alternated, until it was quite certain that the
soil did not centain a trace of ulmic acid. All the waters colored by
ulmate of ammonia were combined with the rest of the lot employed
and the whole brought to a state of neutrality, and to the bulk of two
quarts. Two lots of liquid were thus produced; the first containing
a quart, one-half of the ulmate of ammonia originally produced, and
kept for comparison ; the second, a liquid containing all the ulmic acid
remaining in the soil; over and above what might have been extracted
by the plant. The ulmic acid in both was then precipitated in the
form of ulmate of lime, and separately washed, dried and weighed
under like circumstances. It was found that the ulmate of ammonia

250 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

used for watering the cress had lost 2,367 grammes of ulmic acid, as

it was given by the ulmate of lime dried in vacuo. It might be sup-
posed that the ulmic acid might have remained in the soil, under an
unknown form, which might escape the action of re-agents; but this
transformation could not be the result of the contact of the ulmic
acid either with the earthy matter, or with the external parts of the
roots. Now, this is a question of proving that this acid 1s absorbed,
and not of saying what becomes of it after the absorption.

This experiment and those of M. Soubeiran, seem to me to prove
the absorption of the soluble ulmates during vegetation, and at the
same time their utility. — Comptes Rendus, 1852.

RAIN, A SOURCE OF THE NITROGEN IN VEGETATION.

M. Barrat, from some analyses of rain-water collected at two
distinct spots in the grounds of the Observatory at Paris, during the
last five and six months of the past year, has shown us that the rain-
water is there charged with nitric acid, ammonia, chlorine, lime and
magnesia, to an extent scarcely to be credited, were it not the actual
result of experiment. Taking the average of these analyses, and
reducing the French weights to our own standard of 7,000 grains to
the pound, it will be seen, in these six months, the rain which fell on a
space of ground at the Observatory at Paris, equal in area to an
English acre, contained, as nearly as possible, 7.75 pounds of ammonia ;
36.50 pounds of nitric acid ; 5.56 pounds of chlorine ; 12.60 pounds of
lime ; 4.81 pounds of magnesia.

From July to December is usually the drier half of the year, as well
as that in which the less fuel is consumed, so that we may safely double
these quantities, in estimating the annual supply per acre of nitrogene-
ous compounds, gradually distributed over the country by the rain.
For the sake of illustration, we have calculated the amount of the
solid constituents of the rain falling on an area equal in extent to
Great Britain, and balancing the various causes likely to lessen or
to increase the quantity of these matters, which would so fall on this
island, we may venture to set one against the other, and apply the
above statement to our own country, as the basis of an estimate, which
singularly manifests the “power of littles,’ as well as the grand
scale on which even the minutest of natural phenomena proceed.
Thus, on the Parisian data, the weights of these fertilizing materials
annually supplied to the soil of this island by the rain, amount to
about 400,000 tons of ammonia; 1,850,000 tons of nitric acid ; 279,-
000 tons of chlorine ; 640,000 tons of lime; 244,000 tons of magnesia.

Making every allowance for errors of experiment, which, however,
would rather increase than diminish these quantities, excepting, it may
be, the amounts of the two last on the list, these researches of M.
Barrel prove to us that, the amount of fertilizing matter conveyed to
the soil by the rain, must exercise a constant and most important
influence on the vegetation of a country. These facts also tend to
throw still further doubt upon the peculiar efficiency of the salts of

’

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 251

ammonia, and of the acid of the nitrates as manures; for we find in
rain-water a constant supply of these nitrogeneous matters, not applied
once, or at most twice, in the year, as is the case with the various
artificial manures, such as the nitrates of potash and of soda, Peruvian,
and those guanos which contain a large proportion of soluble ammo-
niacal salts, and the various ammoniacal composts, made and sold in this
country, the utility of which must chiefly depend on the concurrence
of several favorable conditions of the plants, the soil and the weather ;
for we find that the nitrogen required for the growth of the plant is
supplied in the fittest state for assimilation (viz., that of great dilution,)
and at all stages of its growth, by every shower that falls. The later
opinions entertained by Liebig, of the superior value of the alkaline
and earthy constituents of manures, 7. ¢., the potash, soda, lime,
magnesia, and the phosphates and sulphates of these bases, to that of
their nitrogeneous compounds, derive much weight from these experi-
ments of M. Barral, which show that a vast amount of nitrogeneous
fertilizing matter is distributed by the rain but none of the fixed
alkalies, or of the salts of phosphoric and other acids, equally important
to the due growth of vegetables, and which, unless naturally existing
in sufficient amount in the soil, must be supplied by the application of
manure, or the plant will either dwindle, or yield an imperfect produce,
owing to an insufficient supply to one portion of its requsite constit-
uents, however much it may be stimulated by an abundant applica-
tion of ammoniacal fertilizers. The prevailing use of these manures,
which are so highly charged with the salts of ammonia, readily account
for the increasing “ steeliness” which is observable in English wheat,
arising in great measure, as remarked by Liebig, froma superfluous and
unnecessary supply of the ammoniacal stimulants, and a deficiency in
the more important constituents of the cereals, viz—the earthy phos-
phates and alkaline salts, which are not brought to the growing corn
in the rain, like the nitrogeneous constituents. — London Critic.

ON THE SEPARATION OF BUTTER FROM CREAM BY CATALYSIS.

At the American Association, Albany, President Hitchcock read
the following paper, on the separation of butter from cream by
catalysis : —

It is well known that the separation of butter from cream, during
the winter months, by the ordinary process of churning, is often very
difficult, from some chemical changes in the proximate principles.
From my own small kitchen dairy, the complaint on this subject had
so often reached me, that I was led a few years since to inquire
whether there were not some remedy. My thoughts were turned to
that principle in chemistry, to which Berzelius gave the name of
catalysis. In observing the process of churning with the old-fashioned
cylindrical churn, I had noticed that along the handle, when the
cream had been subject to a more powerful agitation, butter would
show itself much earlier than in the body of the churn. Hence I
inferred that by acting on asmall quantity of the cream, the separation

22*

252 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

might be easily effected in that portion: and it seemed not improbable
that by seizing the exact moment when the separation was taking
place, and adding more cream, the process might be communicated to
that also in a catalytic manner; and if so, perhaps any quantity might
in like manner be made to yield its butter.

I made the experiment, and was successful. I put a small quantity
of cream in the churn at first, and, by a few moments strong agitation,
brought it to that state, familiar to a practised eye, when the butter is
separating. An assistant stood with the principal mass of the cream,
ready to pour it gradually into that where the butter was in a nascent
state, which I continued to agitate with even increased briskness as
more and more cream was added. The effect was magical; for ina
few minutes, I several times had the pleasure of seeing several quarts
of cream give up its butter. I found, however, that if the fresh cream
were poured in too fast, it would stop the process; and that it would
not answer to let the agitation cease for an instant.

I have delayed for two or three years to state these facts publicly,
because I had hoped to make additional experiments on the subject ;
but more important matters have prevented. I cannot, therefore, say
of how much practical value my statements may be. I tried experi-
ments enough to convince me, that although the requisite manipula-
tions would require some skill, it would not be greater than many
other processes common upon farms. The common churn, however,
is not adapted to the experiment. I think one might be invented that
would meet the case; but I must leave the whole matter to any others
who may feel interest enough in it to carry forward what I have only
suggested.

It was suggested by those who took charge of the butter thus
eliminated, that it seemed more difficult to separate and the whey
completely, than when obtained by the ordinary process. ‘To this
point, therefore, the attention of the experimenter should be turned.

FORMATION OF ARTIFICIAL CELLULAR TISSUE.

NorwitHsTANDING chemistry has made us acquainted with the
composition of organic bodies, and the microscope has pointed out
their structure, we have yet much to learn with regard to the particu-
Jar operations by which definite forms are assumed by the elementary
tissues. Many considerations concur to establish the probability of
the proposition, that the fluid state is necessarily the first in which the
elements of a tissue must exist previously to their undergoing a
morphic determination, precipitation, histomorphosis, or whatever
analogous term may be assumed to denominate the simplest change
which may be supposed to occur in the passage of a perfectly amor-
phous fluid into a tissue of definite shape. We owe to Ascherson a
-knowledge of the interesting fact, that the contact of two homogeneous
fluids, oil and albumen, results invariably in the immediate production
of elementary forms. Still more recently, M. Melsens, by a series of
observations and -experiments, has established the possibility of one of

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 258

these fluids undergoing distinct and very remarkable histomorphosis.
In regard to this interesting phenomena, M. Melsens says : — “ We
know that many feeble acids do not precipitate albumen from its
solution ; my experiments have reference especially to the trihydrated
phosphoric and acetic acids; this ceases to be the case when albumen
is present with those salts which have no apparent chemical action on
it; the reactions change for acetic acid as well as the phosphoric, with
their equivalents of base, and some acid phosphates as well, precipitate
it more or less completely. The following is the process by which I
prepare the salified solution of albumen :— The white of an egg
is mixed with its volume of water and filtered; this constitutes the
normal solution of albumen, with a specific gravity of 1,020. The
filtered liquor is saturated with salts, which are added in excess, after
which the fluid is filtered again, to separate the excess of salts; the
fluid resulting from this second filtration, may be denominated
the normal saturated albumen. The normal albumen saturated with
chloride of sodium has a specific gravity of about 1,200.”

My experiments have been made with almost all the salts which are
without an apparent action on albumen, as well as with those which
begin to precipitate it, but whose precipitations are soluble either in
an excess of albumen or of the salt. I will not pronounce on the
nature of the precipitates obtained ; but it will appear evident that we
must in the generality of cases admit, that the albumen is precipitated
in consequence of a particular physical disposition of the liquid; that
if at times the precipitation does not occur immediately, in dilute
liquor for example, agitation may cause a troubled condition of the
fluid, as occurs in precipitation, crystallization, solidification of water,
of sulphate of soda, &c.. Tribasic phosphoric acid precipitates normal
albumen saturated with salts; certain salts, among which are borax,
phosphate of soda, acetates of soda, and potassa, form an exception to
this rule ; however, if the fluid be agitated with a glass rod, a troubled
condition is slowly produced by the mechanical action. The solutions
of albumen with other salts are all precipitated by phosphoric acid ;
these precipitates are soluble in an excess of the acid. ‘The presence
of the salts, therefore, permits us to make with albumen and the tri-
hydrated phosphoric acid an experiment which requires with normal
albumen, the monohydrated phosphoric acid which precipitates it, and
the trihydrated, which dissolves the precipitate formed.

“Tf,” says M. Melsens, “after the preceding experiments I am
induced to believe that the particular physical constitution of the
liquids plays some part in the precipitation of albumen, those which
' follow cannot leave the least doubt as to the action of agitation. Some
very dilute liquids remain limpid until beaten with a glass rod, when
they become troubled, and immediately parcels of fibres may be
seen to form under the influence of agitation; under the microscope
these appear as very distinctly organized forms, which by juxta-
position and felting together constitute actual membranes. We
have thus a phenomena conformable to the production of mineral
precipitates by the influence of agitation. In another experiment

254 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

a current of air was passed through a solution of normal salified
albumen, sufficiently dilute not to allow of the froth passing out of
the vessel. This froth was seen- to be transformed into a solid
body insoluble in ammonia, potassa, water, or dilute acids. To
obviate two objections which might be started to this experiment,
air saturated with the vapor of water, and hydrogen purified by
caustic potassa and saturated with vapor, were successively employed.
Lastly, to avoid all sources of error, a solution of albumen diluted
with water was agitated in vacuo by converting the vessel into a
sort of water hammer, after expelling the air by heat and an air-
pump, the orifice being subsequently hermetically sealed. The
solution, perfectly limpid at first, became troubled after a few agita-
tions, and a membrane was rapidly formed.”

The solid bodies thus formed from a limpid solution of albumen
by the simple effect of agitation, have been subjected to microsco-
pic examination of M. Gluge, from whose report we make the
following extracts:—‘“The albumen of the white of an egg, soli-
dified by mechanical actions resembles false membranes, and even
serous. It is presented to our view under the form of membranes
covered with granulations from one-half to one millimetre, in diame-
ter, white semi-transparent, about one-fourth or one-half millimetre
thick, and sufficiently elastic. With a magnifying power of three
hundred we can distinguish an amorphous substance, finely punctuated,
in which are found fibres, sometimes isolated, sometimes united in
bundles like the fibres of cellular tissue, more often easily isolated and
elastic. More rarely there may be seen large and transparent fibres,
analogous to those which are met with in fibrine. In the middle of
these fibrous bundles may be observed granulations composed of little
globules of 1-400 to 1-800 of a millimetre in size, and enclosing some
bubbles of air. ‘These globules are sometimes very regularly grouped
and then form rounded masses.”

Dr. Lyons who has carefully examined a specimen of albuminous
membrane prepared by M. Melsens, with a high magnifying power,
says: —‘ The granular base constituted a very considerable portion
of the entire specimen, but did not appear to be uniformly disposed
throughout it, as in some portions it formed nearly the entire, while in
others it was almost altogether replaced by fibres. The solidifying
force would thus appear not to have acted with uniformity. To deter-
mine what modifications of it produced granular matter — what fibres
— what again caused the formation of the little spherical bodies — are

uestions, perhaps, of too delicate a nature to admit of ready solution.

ould we arrive even at an approximate explanation, a great step
would be achieved in the history of the obscure process of histogenesis.
The most interesting of all the structures observable in this prepara-
tion are the spherical bodies. They are nearly uniform in size,
grouped quite close to each other, and present nearly uniform
characters. Under all conditions of light, both as to mtensity and
obliquety, they presented a sort of nucleus, which in all was of a long
elliptical shape, although the bodies themselves appeared as nearly as

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 255

possible spherical. This nucleus was in length equal to about one-
half the diameter of the sphere, and in breadth about one-eighth.
What was the nature of these bodies? They were certainly not
either spheres of oil, or bubbles of air; there was not the slightest
probability of the former substance being present; air bubbles they
also could not be; the specimen had been at rest in spirit for a very
considerable time, while as more positive evidence of their cell structure
I would adduce the peculiar nucleus, which in all was oblong, and did
not disappear under any conditions of light. May we then regard
them as nucleolated nuclei, or small nucleated cells ? These dis-
coveries have filled me with the highest hopes of seeing before long
some large advances made in this hitherto almost unworked fleld of
investigation.”

ON SPONTANEOUS HUMAN COMBUSTION.

MM. Biscuorr and Lirsic, employed as experts in the recent
celebrated case of the Countess of Gorlitz, not only declared that
her case presented an example of post mortem burning, which proved
to be true, but took the occasion absolutely to deny the trustworthi-
ness of any of the cases of spontaneous human combustion on revord.
This position M. Devergie combats, founding his argument upor the
consideration of a case which occurred to himself, and of the vari-
ous accounts of other examples that have been recor ded by trustworthy
persons. Although the term spontaneous is not strictly a correct one,
masmuch as there has always been an immediate cause of the combus-
tion, he retains it for want of a better; and he considers the leading
characteristic of these cases to be the absence of harmony between the
mass of the parts burned and the feebleness of the agent of combus-
tion. He enumerates the following peculiarities, as exemplified by
most of the facts on record: 1. The extent and depth of the burns,
as compared with the feeble proportion of combustible matter employed
in their production. 2. Indulgence in spirituous liquors by the vic-
tims. 3. The far greater frequency of the occurrence in women, and
especially in old women. 4. The presence of an accidental determin-
ing cause. 5. So complete is the combustion in some cases that
nothing but the ashes remain, and these are always of the same fatty
soot. 6. The combustion while acting on a mass of flesh and fat has
any. ‘spared highly inflammable bodies in the vicinity. 7. The
flame when seen has always been described as of a blueish color and
as inextinguishable. M. Devergie points out how these circumstances
differ from those observed in the Countess’s case and in death from
ordinary combustion. When this extends from the clothes to the
person, very large superficial burns are produced, which from their
very size prove “fatal ; but there is no instance of bodies becoming
completely carbonized or reduced to the condition in which they are-
found in these cases. It is true, that when the amount of combustible
body exists in due proportion to the body to be burned we may see
such effects produced, but the absence of this relation is the prime

256 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

characteristic of these cases. A mere lamp or hot cinder suffices ;
while in the experiments made upon the Countess’s body 125 pounds
of wood had to be used. The other capital point is, the isolation of
the combustion amidst combustible bodies, the most inflammable substan-
ces remaining uninjured. In the Countess’s case the floor and chairs,
even at a distance, were burned. In M. Devergie’s case, complete
combustion of the body had taken place in a little wooden room five
or six feet broad by eight or nine feet long, and yet two muslin
curtains at the window were uninjured. In all the cases, too, abuse of
alcohol is mention; and although Bischoff laughs at this as a mere
invention of the persons of the vicinity, for the purpose of pointing a
moral, it is too particularly specified in all the cases to admit of doubt,
and it is to this abuse of alcohol that M. Devergie is disposed to at-
tribute the production of the phenomenon. ‘The quantity excreted
by the urine and,sweat is probably not in due relation to that imbibed ;
and a vital modification is impressed upon the tissues, by reason of
which they become endowed with a greater combustibility, either
mechanically, or by the transformation of the absorbed alcohol com-
bined with the tissues into a new substance. — Annales d’ Hygiene.

CHEMICAL TESTIMONY IN CASES OF POISONING.

M. OrFiLa, in a recent capital case for poisoning in France, took
occasion to represent to the court the reason why experts could not
reply to the question so often put to them, as to whether a suflicient
quantity of poison to cause death had been administered, and the
danger, in reference to the suppression of crime, the insisting upon
such a question gave rise to. ‘The chemist may only be able to detect
the thousandth, or the twenty-thousandth part that has been adminis-
tered, when the poison has been evacuated or excreted, and the dis-
charges have not been preserved. If all the poison has been thus
expelled he may not be able to detect even a trace, and yet, although
in the one case, what he has detected has been insufficient to cause
death, and in the other he has found none at all, so that the jury may pro-
nounce that no poisoning has occurred, yet has the person died of such
poisoning. To ascertain the whole amount of poison that remains in the
body, the entire frame would have to be submitted to analysis, which
is clearly impracticable; while calculations of the quantity existing
in the whole body from that which has been obtained from a part,
would give rise to the greatest errors, inasmuch as the poison is not
equally distributed over the whole frame, some portions of this absorb-
ing and retaining much more of it than others. Different processes
also employed by the same hand afford very different quantities, as
does the same process performed by chemists of different degrees of
expertness. The French law, too, does not require any decision on
this point, as it punishes the attempt to poison by any substance that
may cause death — this applying not to the proportion employed, but
to the substance used.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 25T

ON THE ELIMINATION OF CERTAIN POISONS.

Tue following is an abstract of a paper recently read before the
French Academy by M. Orfila :—

When a poison has been absorbed and carried into the tissues of a
living being, does it remain indefinitely within these tissues? or is it
expelled from them? In the latter case, in how long a time does the
animal economy effect the expulsion? Finally, in what way is the
poison conveyed out ? ‘

These three questions include all that relates to the diminution of
poisonous substances. The experiments relative to the study requires
a very long time. in eighteen months I was able to experiment on
only four poisonous substances— bichloride of mercury, acetate of
lead, sulphate of copper, and nitrate of silver. These experiments
have taught me that when the above poisonous substances are admin-
istered to animals, that mercury disappears in general from the organs
in eight or ten days. In only one case I found it to take eighteen
days. Lead and copper are found in the intestinal parietes and in the
bones eight months after they have ceased to be introduced into the
stomach. Silver, whose presence in the liver may in some cases be
demonstrated after six months, is not found in any organ of other
animals, seven months after the administration of nitrate of silver. In
the course of these researches I have seen that lead, copper, and
mercury pass into the urime; but whilst the two former are carried
away by the renal secretion, only two days after the administration of
the copper or lead compound, the mercury continues to be carried off
by this excretion eight days after the introduction of the mercurial
preparation. I have never been able to detect silver in the urine of
animals which have taken nitrate of silver.

I beg for a moment to call attention to the applications which may
be made by the medical jurist of a knowledge of the elimination of
poisonous substances. When I began this work, I had especially the
view of facilitating the solution of some problems which might impede
or stop the course of justice, if the practitioner did not possess the
most precise knowledge on this portion of toxicological physiology. A
few examples will suflice to show the benefit to be derived from the
study in medical jurisprudence.

A. An individual who had been subjected to a mercurial treatment
by corrosive sublimate, died four months after the cessation of the
treatment, being poisoned by a mercurial preparation. The analysis,
which is performed by the processes hitherto known, detects mercury in
the organs. The detence is able, in consequence of these antecedents,
to raise strong doubts, as to the origin of the metal. According to my
experiments we can ascertain that the mercury does not proceed from
the mercurial medicaments taken four months previous to death ; for
after the administration of corrosive sublimate, the mercury does not
remain in the animal tissues more that eighteen days.

B. Should a man survive a poisoning by corrosive sublimate for
fifteen days, it is very possible that the chemists consulted in the case

258 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

would find no mercury in the organs. They would, however, commit
a great error should they conclude that there had been no attempt to
poison. This error is impossible when we are acquainted with the
above-named facts.

C. A workman in a white lead factory died two months after
having ceased to manipulate saturnine preparations. In his organs the
chemist finds lead. Had this lead been given criminally, or does it
proceed simply from the compounds absorbed by the workman in the
factory? To give a satisfactory reply to this question, the operator
must carefully study the development and the symptoms of the malady
which preceded the death, and combine these facts with those furnish-
ed by the study of elimination.

It is rational to make a comparison of the process hitherto proposed
for the detection of lead, copper, and mercury contained in organic
compounds, before studying their elimination. Three processes are
employed in the search for lead and copper, they really differ from
each other only in the agents employed for the carbonization of the
animal matter. These agents are nitric acid, nitric acid mixed with one-
fifth of chlorate of potassa, and sulphuric acid. From my experiments I
conclude that the carbonisation by nitric acid is superior to the others ;
that the mixture of nitric acid and chlorate of potassa does not give good
results, and, finally, that carbonisation by sulphuric acid is far inferior
to the others. When we seek for mercury, the best-of known pro-
cesses consist in carbonising the organic matter with sulphuric acid.
M. Lanaux proposes the destruction of this matter by a current of chlo-
rine. Comparative experiments have shown me that this last process
is more sensible than the former.— Comptes Rendus.

ON THE ACTION OF OZONE ON MIASMATA. BY M. SCHONBEIN.

M. ScHonBern’s additional researches have still further developed
the analogy of this substance to chlorine, and leave no doubt of the
injurious effects it may exert on the respiratory organs when in excess.
Mice soon perish in an atmosphere containing 1-6,000. The quantity
which prevails in the atmosphere is very variable, being proportionate
to the amount of electricity, and therefore at its maximum in winter,
and its minimum in summer. It is, however, highly probable that,
when existing only in minute quantities, it exerts a purifying effect
on the atmosphere by destroying various deleterious miasmata. There
are a great number of inorganic gaseous bodies, which when diffused
in scarcely appreciable quantities, yet render the airirrespirable. An
incessant source of miasmata exists in the variety of gaseous com-
pounds which are incessantly liberated by the decomposition of the
innumerable masses of organic beings which’ perish on the surface of
our globe. Although the composition of most of these is unknown, it
is supposed that their accumulation would render the air unfit for
respiration. Nature has, however, provided the means of destroying
such deleterious compounds as fast as they are generated, for M.
Schonbein regards ozone, which is so constantly generated under

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 259

electrical influence, and is so powerful an agent of oxidation even at
ordinary temperature, as specially destined to that end. His experi-
ments prove that air containing 1-6,000 of ozone can disinfect 540
times its volume of air produced from highly putrid meat: or that air
containing 1-3,240,000 of ozone can disinfect an equal volume of air so
corrupted. Such experiments show how little appreciable by weight
miasmata may be, which are yet sensible to the smell, and how small is
the proportion of ozone necessary for the destruction of all the mias-
mata produced by putrifaction of organic matter and diffused in the
atmosphere. We may admit that the electrical discharges which occur
incessantly in different parts of the atmosphere and determine there
the formation of ozone, purify the air by ridding it of oxidizable
miasmata, at the same time that these are destroyed by ozone, the
organic miasmata cause its own disappearance, and prevent dangerous
accumulation of it. The opinion that storms purify the air may not
be without foundation, as a large quantity of ozone is then produced.
In the authors experiments, he has always found a large proportion of
ozone in the vicinity of the stormy clouds of Jura; and the air ozon-
ized by phosphorus by experiment, gives forth a similar smell to that
perceived amidst storms in mountainous regions. It is very propable
that in certain localities the balance between the ozone and the mias-
mata does not prevail and disease may be the consequence. As a
general rule, however, numerous experiments have shown that the
air contains free ozone, so that no free oxidisable miasmata can there
exist. M. Schonbein recommends that the atmosphere should be
tested for ozone, in localities and at periods where fevers and other
forms of disease prevail, so that the results of accumulated observations
may be obtained. — Arch. des Sciences.

Dr. Moffatt, of England, in a paper read before the Meteorological So-
ciety, shows by a series of very elaborate tables, thatan apparent connex-
ion is discoverable between the first appearance, increase, decrease and
disappearance of atmospheric ozone with the decrease and increase of the
readings of the barometer and thermometer and the state of the weather
generally. Also that prevalent diseases form groups corresponding with
certain meteorological conditions. In the formation of these tables Dr.
Moffatt has paid strict attention to all the lesser fluctuations of the barom-
eter and thermometer, being convinced that there exists a great necessity
for so doing, from the slightest variations in the reading of the barometer
being followed by a change in the direction of the wind, and the
appearance and increase, or decrease and disappearance, of ozone.
Ozone Dr. Moffatt considers to be intimately connected with falls of
rain, hail, snow, and sleet, and dynamic electricity, but that it is not
necessary for any of these to occur for ozone to be produced ; for if
the barometer reading increases, and a current of air sets in from the
northern points of the compass after or with any of these, ozone will
disappear, but if the barometer reading decreases and the wind comes
from southward it appears to increase in proportion to the decrease of
the reading of the barometer and the force of the current. The fall
of ie aie ee ozone he thinks is possibly attributable

260 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

to the wind becoming north during the continuation of an ozone
period or at its termination. According to the observations contained
in this paper, the potato and other diseases occur at the same time and
appear to be produced by the same causes. As ozone is invariably
attendant upon these causes, Dr. Moffatt was induced to try its effects
upon vegetable life by means of actual experiments. In August, 1851,
two plants were placed under a glass case, so resting upon slips of
wood as to permit the air freely to pass beneath and an ozone test-
paper was fixed in the crown of each glass. A watch-glass containing
a piece of phosphorus was placed upon the soil in the pot which con-
tained a longiflora. In the course of ten hours the test-paper became
tinged and the interior of the glass was bedewed with moisture. At
noon on the following day, or eighteen hours from the first action of the
etc dew drops were perceived to hang from the points of the
eaves; the test-paper in the other glass did not show the slightest
change. In two days the leaves began to assume a brownish tinge,
and became darker, until nine days after the commencement of the
experiment the branches began to droop, and on the tenth the whole
plant was completely withered ; the ozone paper was not deeply tinged,
less so than was frequently found to be the case in twenty-four hours
in common atmospheric air. The other plant continued healthy.
The experiment was repeated upon two geraniums with the same
result ; that which was exposed to the influence of ozone, although
the stronger of the two plants, perished in seven days, whilst the other
remained possessed of its vitality and continued to blossom. The
principal conclusions arrived at by Dr. Moftatt from the observations
contained in his paper are,—that the greatest number of diseases
occur with decreasing readings of the barometer and thermometer,
and with appearance and increase of ozone, — that certain diseases
would appear peculiar to certain directions of the wind, — that epi-
lepsy and sudden deaths occur most frequently at the commencement
of an ozone period, — that the potato disease accompanies the diseases
in the animal kingdom, — and that atmospheric ozone is injurious not
only to animal but to vegetable life.

ON A PECULIAR PROPERTY OF ETHER, AND OF SOME ESSENTIAL
OILS.

Tu1s property, which has just been made known by Prof. Schon-
bein, so well known by his discovery of ozone, is similar to that
possessed by phosphorus, when put in contact under certain circum-
stances with pure oxygen, or of atmospheric air, of developing that
powerful oxidising agent, which has received the name of ozone. If,
says M. Schonbein, a little ether is poured into a bottle of pure
oxygen, or of atmospheric air, and exposed to the diffused hght,
agitating it from time to time, the ether, after an interval of four
months will have acquired new properties. Although it does not act
on litmus paper, it decolors the solution of indigo, converts pure
phosphorus into phosphoric acid, eliminates the iodine from iodide of

CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 261

potassium, changes sulphate of protoxide of iron, into bibasic sul-
phates and acids, transforms yellow cyanide of potassium into red
cyanide, and converts sulphuret of lead into sulphate, etc. The
essential oil of turpentine, and that of citron produce the same effects,
if treated in the same way. Accordingly to M. Schonbein this new
property is due to the presence of oxygen in an exalted chemical
condition. — Jour. de Chemie.

ANALYSIS OF PERSPIRATION.

THE analysis of perspiration has hitherto given contradictory
results to the several analysts who have examined it; it is still
doubtful. M. Favre has, however, presented to the French Academy
an important memoir upon this subject, in which he establishes some
facts and exhibits results new in the history of secretions. He has
isolated from perspiration two immediate principles, whose existence
in that liquid was never suspected ; one is wrea, a composition found
in several other humors, and an azotic acid discovered by M. Favre,
and which he calls sudrique acid. Among the elements whose exist-
ence remained an object of doubt to physiologists was lactic acid. M.
Favre was so skilful and he had so large a quantity of perspiration to
operate on (no less than 80 pounds!) he succeeded in obtaining six
grammes of lactate of zinc. M. Favre ascertained that the chlorure
of sodium, by its large proportion, must be considered as the essential
mineral element of the liquid secreted by the sudoriparian glands.
The almost absolute absence of other inorganic materials (such as
phosphates and sulphates) in perspiration throws new light upon the
secreting functions, and proves this singular fact: the saline sub-
stances dissolved in the blood are eliminated one to the exclusion of
another, by the different glandular apparatus of the system. For
example, in analysing two equal proportions of urine and of perspira-
tion, 28 pounds of each coming from the same subject, the first gave
21 grammes of alkaline sulphates and the second only one decigramme.

ON A METHOD OF GETTING RID OF SAL-AMMONIAC IN ANALYSIS.

WE copy the following communication by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith,
from Silliman’s Journal, Jan., 1853. There is nothing in mineral
analysis more embarrassing than the accumulation of sal-ammoniac
towards the end of an analysis, especially where potash or soda are to be
estimated. The only method now adopted to get rid of this ammoniacal
salt, is to volatilize it by heat, which if the quantity be considerable, is
attended by no little annoyance, and a certain loss of more or less of
the fixed alkalies which may be present. I have recently discovered a
mode of overcoming that difficulty, and much experience has proved
its value, the method is simply to add nitric acid to the solution
containing the sal-ammoniac and alkalies, and heat it gently overa
lamp or sandbath in a glass flask or porcelain capsule. The nitric
acid may be added either before the liquid is eoncentrated, or after

262 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

concentration ; a most quiet decomposition ensues, and the liquid
readily evaporates to dryness leaving nothing but the fixed alkalies if
they be present. Iam in the habit of using a little more than three
grammes of pure nitric acid of ordinary strength to every gramme of
sal-ammoniac supposed to be present in the liquid. The exact nature
of the decomposition which ensues cannot now be stated, but there is
doubtless formed, besides other things — chlorine, hyponitric acid and
nitrogen.

-GEOLOGY.

THE FUTURE OF GEOLOGY.

REGARDING the geological scale of formations as an artificial scheme,
founded on local considerations, although an instrument and scale of
great value when used judiciously, the questions have to be answered,
whether the terms of its graduation be required, and whether, as
we have them, they are complete. See those broad stripes of demar-
cation printed on every geological diagram between the terms palezo-
zoic and secondary, secondary and tertiary. These lines are popularly
understood to mark boundaries between a complete cessation of one
great system of types of species, and the commencement of an entirely
new series of creatures, animal and vegetable. They really mark pro-
digious gaps in our knowledge of the sequence of formations and the
procession of life. One of these supposed impassible boundaries, that
between “tertiary” and “ cretaceous,” threatens rapidly to give way,
and to vanish in due time, as speedily as artificial social distinctions in
society. In France, Belgium, Germany, and England, there are
symptoms of an intergrowth between the long separated “ chalk” and
“eocene.” Strata are coming to light which rudely insist on finding
elbow-room among our neatly-packed systems and formations, Janus-
like fossils are turning up with two sets of features. Our preconceived
notions of what ought to be are sadly disconcerted. An already exten-
sive terminology is threatened with an inundation of new terms, too
necessary to be evaded. If we are not mistaken, there are little clouds
rising on the geological horizon that indicate revolutions elsewhere in
the series. ‘That narrow black line drawn on geological diagrams
between the words “ Trias” and “ Permian,” has more meaning Mm it
than its dimensions indicate. The line between “ Eocene” and “ Cre-
taceous,” has swollen out, broken up, and is enlarging fast into inter-
mediate sections. But all its changes and increase will be as nothing
compared with those that must take place by and by in its representa-
tive lower down. If we interpret aright, the signs indicated by extinct
organisms preserved to us in paleozoic rocks, and the comparison of
them with others in the lowest mesozoic or secondary strata, there is a
gap in our knowledge of the succession of formations, the extent of

23*

264 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

¢

which it is almost disheartening to think upon. Although the paleo-
zoic fauna and flora, are assuredly portions of the same unique system
of organized nature, with the assemblages of creatures of after-date in
time, they exhibit differences in detail so great that, on superficial
consideration, we might almost be inclined to regard them as belonging
to some other world than our own. ‘These differences are such as at
present set all our calculations respecting the climatal conditions of the
primeval (paleozoic) epochs at defiance. But that these oldest of
creations were linked with ‘those that came after, and those amidst
which we live, is evident in the number of géneric types common to
all, and expressed yet more strongly in the presence of straggling
representatives of types of life, characteristically paleeozoic, among
the very lowermost strata of the secondary period. All analogy
teaches us, however, that there is a graduation of one geological
period into another; and every day’s advance in research goes to
confirm this belief. The facts to which we have alluded indicate
evidences of such a graduation of paleozoic into secondary. But the
stages of that graduation, the intermediate formations, have not yet
been discovered. Calculating from the amount of blank in the series
of organized types, there must have been a vast interval of time inter-
vening between the Permian and Triasic epochs, during which, doubt-
less, sediments were being ‘deposited in seas, sea-beds upheaved,
animals and plants flourishing, generations and generations, nay more,
creations and creations, appearing, succeeding and disappearing; and
yet of all these universal accumulations and organized assemblages,
there has not been as yet a fragment found.

“They are but ill-discoverers,” wrote Lord Bacon, “ that think
there is no land when they can see nothing but sea.” Columbus had
fewer signs to warrant his belief in a new continent than we have to
indicate an unexplored and as yet unseen geological world. Such
signs cannot be dissipated by any appeal to the series of strata already
investigated. If we jot out on the map of the world those portions
which have been sufliciently examined, at once paleontologically and
geologically, the space covered by our ink makes but a poor show. Our
hope lies in ‘the rapidly advancing progress of comparative geology,
especially through the aid and sure operations of organized surveys.
All over Europe such surveys are in progress, or about to commence,
sanctioned as they ought to be by governments of every shade of
opinion.» Some three or four years ago, it was publicly declared that
the geology of England was completed; a plausible announcement,
since almost every corner has been subjected to the tramp and ham-
mers of geologists. Yet, if we are not greatly mistaken, even the
geology of England has much still to be done. Itis ably sketched out ;
portions of it have been developed with skill and ability ; but by far
the greater part will yield a luxuriant harvest of discovery to those
able and willing to enter upon the task. The nearer we come to
geologizing by square miles or leagues, the more interesting will be
the results of our labors, and the economical value of geological
researches depends mainly upon such works. — Westminster Review,
1852.

GEOLOGY. 265

ON THE CAUSES OF THE CHANGE OF CLIMATE AT DIFFERENT
GEOLOGICAL PERIODS.

Tue following is an abstract of the recent address of Mr. Hopkins,
President of the Geological Society of England The author first con-
siders the influence on the earth’s superficial temperature of a central
heat, supposed to be the remains of a former and very much greater
heat which has been gradually diminishing during some indefinite
period of time. The effect on the superficial temperature due to this
cause may have been formerly of any amount, but is now reduced to
within one-twentieth of a degree of Fahrenheit, of that ultimate limit
to which it would be reduced in an indefinite period of time, suppos-
ing the external conditions under which the earth is now placed, such
as the amount of radiation from the sun and stars, and the state of the
atmosphere, to remain as at present. Poisson has calculated that it
would require 100,000 millions of years to reduce the present temper-
ature by about one-fortieth of a degree of Fahrenheit. It is probable,
therefore, that many millions of years must have elapsed since the
central heat can have elevated the earth’s superficial temperature by
a single degree. The author also explained that any very sensible
increase of superficial temperature from this cause must have been
attended with an exceedingly rapid rate of increase of the internal
temperature in descending below the earth’s surface. It is only, how-
ever, to the more remote geological periods that we can refer for any
very sensible change in the climatal conditions of our globe due to this
cause. Such changes, also, must manifestly be continually from a
higher to a lower temperature ; and, therefore, we must appeal to some
other cause to account for such oscillations of temperature as those of
the glacial period. Poisson suggested that the present internal tem-
perature of our globe might not be due to its primitive heat, but to the
fact of the solar system having passed through some region of stellar
space of which the temperature, owing to stellar radiation, is much
greater than that in which it is now placed. Without professing to
say how far this cause may have influenced the climatal conditions of
the earth at former remote periods, the author shows that, reasoning
from all we know respecting the relative positions of the stars and the
probable motion of the solar system, this cause cannot have produced
a change so great as that which must have taken place during the gla-
cial epoch, at a time so recent as we have reason to believe that epoch
to have been. The author next proceeds to examine the effects of
changes in the disposition of land and sea, and of the consequent
changes in the direction of ocean currents. The map of isothermal
lines, recently published by MM. Humboldt and Dove, enables us to
estimate the influence of the existing configuration of land and sea,
and that of currents superinduced thereby, and thus we are enabled
to estimate approximately the effects of like causes in different hypo-
thetical cases. The isothermal lines have thus been constructed by
the author for the following cases: 1. When the progress of the gulf
stream into the North Sea is supposed to be intercepted. by land con-

266 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

necting the northern point of Scotland with Iceland, and that island
with the continent of Greenland. 2. The next case assumes the ele-
vation of the land now constituting western Europe to a sufficient
height to produce such glaciers as those the effects of which we recog-
nize in that region as having been produced during the glacial period.

3. The northern portion of the Atlantic is supposed to be converted
into dry land by the elevation of its bed. 4. In the last case, the
absence of the gulf stream with its ‘nAtSeE upon the western coast
of Europe is assumed, together with the submergence beneath the sea
of a large portion of northern and western Europe. In this part of
his memoir the author restricts himself chiefly to the consideration of
these cases with the view of ascertaining how the cold of the glacial
epoch can be best accounted for, together with its consequent glaciers
of sufficient magnitude to pr oduce the phenomena now so universally
attributed to them. Having constructed the isothermal lines in any
of the above cases for January and July, he deduces the mean annual
temperature at any proposed place. He can then calculate the height
at that place of an imaginary surface in the atmosphere, the tempera-
ture of which, at every point, is equal to 32° Fahr. This imaginary
surface must of course meet the surface of the earth along a line for
every point of which the mean annual temperature is that just men-
tioned; and any line upon this imaginar ry surface (as that in which it
intersects the surface of a mountain, ) is called a line of 32° Fahr.

In estimating the height of this line, the author adopts the results
given by Humboldt and others, as to the decrease of temperature for
an assigned increase of height in ascending from the earth’s surface.

The next step is, to ascertain the position of the snow-line in refer-
ence to the line of 32°. In tropical regions the former line is below
the latter; in higher latitudes it is generally above it. Whenever the
difference between the summer and winter temperature is small, the
snow line has a comparatively low position with respect to the line of
32°. By means of these and other inferences, drawn from existing
cases, we are able to estimate approximately the relative positions of
these two lines in our hypothetical cases, and thus knowing by calcu-
lation the height of the line of 32° at any proposed place, we can
estimate that of the snow line at the same place. Now, it appears by
observation that nearly all the well known glaciers, of sufficient mag-
nitude to be considered of the first order, descend about 4,000 or
5,000 feet below the snow line, and that the smaller glaciers descend
only to smaller distances below that line. We are thus enabled in any
hypothetical case to form an approximative estimate of the distance
which a glacier would probably descend beneath its snow line; or,
knowing the height of that line by the means above stated, we can
thus estimate the height above the sea level to which the lower extrem-
ity of the glacier would probably descend. The author then proceeds
to apply these principles to cases 2, 3, and 4 above mentioned, and to
determine the conditions under which glaciers, sufficiently large to
produce certain observed glacial phenomena, would exist in Western

Europe. In ease 2 it would be necessary that that region should be

GEOLOGY. 267

elevated into a mountainous range of not less than 10,000 feet in
height; a conclusion inadmissible, on account of the entire absence of
all independent geological evidence in support of it. The hypothesis
of case 3, Mr. Hopkins rejects for a similar reason. Case 4 is then
discussed at length. It is shown that glaciers of the required magni-
tude would in that case exist in the region of Western Europe, if in
addition to the absence of the gulfstream we suppose the existence of
a cold current from the north of a moderately refrigerating influence.
This latter current, however, might not be essential. The entire
diversion of the present gulf stream into some other channel, which is
required by this view of the subject, would be the necessary conse-
quence of that submersion of the North American continent, of which
we have such conclusive evidences during the glacial period; for in
such case the current which sets into the Gulf of Mexico would mani-
festly continue in its north-westerly direction along the present valley
of the Mississippi and the range of the Rocky Mountains to discharge
itself into the Atlantic Ocean. This would correspond to the glacial
period on this side the Atlantic; but along the new course of the
gulf stream there would be a much warmer climate than at present,
—and that such a climate has there existed ata recent geological
epoch seems to be abundantly proved by vegetable remains which
have been found between Hudson’s Bay and the Rocky Mountains,
precisely in the line which the warmer current would take.

A subsidence of the American Continent, of less than 2,000 feet
would render the ocean continuous from the Apalachian chain, on the
east, to the Rocky Mountains on the west, and there seems reason to
believe that the subsidence may possibly have attained to a consider-
ably greater amount. Now, it is manifest that the gulf stream is
reflected in a north-easterly direction across the Atlantic, by the con-
tinent of North America, which arrests the north-westerly course by
which the current reaches the Gulf of Mexico. But when that con-
tinent was submerged, as above supposed, the current would necessa-
rily continue its north-westerly course, and probably along the foot of
the Rocky Mountains directly into the Arctic Sea. This is the man-
ner in which it is conceived the gulf stream was diverted from the
shores of Western Europe. This diversion of the current is not to
be regarded as a mere hypothesis adopted to account for any particu-
lar fact, but as a necessary consequence of that submergence of the
North American continent.

Again, if this enormous current discharged itself into the Arctic
Sea, it would seem extremely improbable that it should not give rise
to some great determinate counter-current out of that sea. Now it
appears highly probable that a considerable tract of land must have
existed at the period of which we are speaking in the present region
of north-eastern America, and Greenland. If this were the case, the
only practicable outlet for a great current from the Arctic Sea would
be across the submerged portion of northern Europe, or along the
present North Sea, between Greenland and Norway ; for the passage
through Behring’s Straits, even with a considerable subsidence of the

268 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

land on either side, would be neither sufficiently wide nor deep to
form a considerable outlet. Under such circumstances, it would
scarcely seem more necessary that the gulf stream should hold its
original north-westerly course over the submerged continent of Amer-
ica, than that it should complete its circuit by passing through the
Arctic Sea, and returning to the Atlantic across the submerged land
of Europe, as it now completes a more circumscribed circuit by being
constrained to pass along the northern portion of the Atlantic itself.
The effect of this diversion of the gulf stream from its present
course, would not be less remarkable in elevating the temperature of
the northern shores of America and Asia, than in reducing that of
western Europe. It can be shown that the mean annual temperature
of Iceland is increased 18° or 20° Fahr., and the January tempera-
ture 34°, by the influence of this important current. There can be
no reasonable doubt, therefore, of its raising the temperature of the
north-western coast of America, from the Mackenzie river to Behr-
ing’s Straits, by an amount at least equal to that by which it now ele-
vates the temperature of Iceland. Further, it is highly probable that
the principal course of the current in the Arctic Sea would not be
far from the coasts of northern Asia, the temperature of which would
thus be affected in a manner similar to that of the coast of America
eastward of Behring’s Straits. The temperature of winter immedi-
ately east of the Ural Mountains, would also be considerably moder-
ated, as already stated, by the extension of the European sea towards
their western flanks. The climate of the low lands of northern Asia
would thus differ from the present climate of that region, as much as
the existing climate of the western coast of Norway differs from that
which would desolate that region in the absence of the gulf stream.
According to this view of the subject, the former existence in
northern Asia of the immense numbers of large Mammalia indicated
by the abundance of their fossil remains, no longer presents the
slightest difficulty ; and the theory receives a still further confirmation
from an observation made by Sir John Richardson in his “Arctic
Searching Expedition,” just published. The author observes, “ The
existence of these numerous testimonials of an ancient fauna is sug-
gestive of many curious speculations, and geologists seem hitherto to
have failed in explaining the circumstances under which accumula-
tions so vast could occur in such high latitudes. The difficulty is
increased when we consider that these bones have not been detected
to the east of the Rocky Mountains in high latitudes.” This increased
difficulty, however, is at once removed by the theory now proposed,
for the region in which these remains are not found, must either have
been covered with the waters of the ocean to the foot of the Rocky
Mountains at the period when these Mammalia occupied the region to
the westward, or if land existed on the north-east of the present
American continent, it was probably too cold to be inhabited by them.
Their disappearance from the country bounding the Arctic Sea, from
the Rocky Mountains to the Ural, would be the consequence of the
withdrawal of the gulf stream from the more eastern, and of the Euro-

\

GEOLOGY. 269

pean ocean from the more westerly portion of that region. Fossil
plants also, belonging to a comparatively warm climate, have been
found east of the Rocky Mountains, on the coast of the North Sea;
and extensive beds of lignite exist along the eastern flank of those
mountains. So far as these phenomena may be of Pleistocene origin,
they may be ai once accounted for by this theory. °

Before the depression of the North American continent was sufli-
cient to admit the gulf stream to flow freely to the Arctic Ocean, the
northern part of that continent would be converted into an Arctic sea,
and this would correspond to the first part of the glacial drift period
in that region. On the gradual elevation of the land after its greatest
depression the north-western course of the gulf stream would be again
arrested, and the northern portion of the American continent would
be again converted into an Arctic sea. The temperature of the region
of the eastern portion of North America would probably not be much
affected by the alteration in the course of the gulf stream, nor would
it probably be very different from that which obtains at present along
its eastern coasts. It may also be added, that the continued course of
the gulf stream into the Arctic Ocean would very probably generate
a cold counter-current from the North Sea across the submerged por-
tion of Europe, such as has been above alluded to. The author is
anxious to direct the attention of geologists to this view of the subject,
in the hope that it may be tested by such further observations as may
bear more immediately upon it. Jt appears to him to satisfy better
than any other theory the present known conditions of the great
problem which the glacial epoch presents to us.

DRIFT OF THE NORTHERN AND WESTERN STATES.

M. Dezsor, who has devoted much time to the examination of the
drift, or quarternary deposits of the Northern States, recently pre-
sented an abstract of his observations to the Geological Society of
France. M. Desor classifies the superficial and non-indurated rocks of
the waters of the St. Lawrence, and the Upper Mississippi, as follows ;

1st, Alluvium; 2d, marine drift; 3d, fresh-water drift; 4th, drift
proper, or diluvium. M. Desor proceeds as follows:

Alluvium is here, as everywhere, the least developed member ; com-
prising the deltas of rivers, sand banks, shallows, and dunes. The
marine drift passed at first among the American geologists, under the
name of Tertiary, and comprises deposites of clay, sand and gravel,
containing marine shells.

I propose to call them by the name of Laurentian, because these
deposites are largely developed in the littoral valleys of the Atlantic ;
and principally in the great valley of the River “ St. Laurent,” (Law-
rence,) and its affluents. It is thus I distinguished them from the
similar deposites, that contain any fresh water fossils. Along the
side of the Laurentian beds, and almost in contact with them, but at
a little higher level, is found a series of deposites, externally very
much like them, but without marine shells. This formation has no

270 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

analogue in the continent of Europe ; and it constitutes in America,
the most marked feature in the geology of the quarternary period.
Coming from the sea coast, we meet with it first, on the shores of
Lake Erie, where it forms slopes, and terraces, composed at the lower
parts of blue clay, and hard pan, surmounted by loam and gravel. A
moment’s observation convinces any one, that these ridges, terraces
and slopes, are not the result of violent action; but that they were
deposited in quiet waters. As the fossils are rare, as they differ in
many respects from the Laurentian, doubts naturally arise as to their
origin, and their age. Are they marine, or are they lacustrine ? The
same doubts rest upon the loamy deposites, that form the surface
material over the vast space, occupied by the States of Wisconsin,
Illinois, and Iowa, and the shores of the Mississippi Some geologists
have called them by the name of loess, from their resemblance to the
‘loess ” of the Rhine.

But these doubts have recently been removed, by the discovery by
Mr. Whittlesey, in the blue marly clay of Lake Erie, at Cleveland, of
fresh water and terrestrial shells, (Heleciance and Planorbis,) at 25 to
50 feet above the level of the water. The same gentleman has col-
lected numerous specimens of buried timber and leaves, from the same
deposites, in which they are very abundant. M. Lesquereux has
recognised among them, the leaves of the spruce (Abies nigra,) the
common cranberry (Vaccinium) which now grows in that country,
and many species of Cyperaceec.

Mr. Whittlesey soon atter discovered fresh water shells in the loess-
like deposites, on the shores of the Mississippi, including many species
of Planorbis, one of Cyclas, and a Physa, at 60 to 180 feet above the
level of the river. The same shells have been recently observed near
St. Louis, (250 to 300 feet above the stream,) and at New Harmony
upon the Wabash. Very lately, Dr. Rigsby has found on the banks
of the river Notawassaga, that empties into the Bay of St. George of
Lake Huron, in Canada, a bed of fresh water shells, (Unios) covered
with deposites of much thickness, but he has not given us their eleva-
tion above the lake. Mr. Murray, of the Canadian Geological Society,
has explored the northern shore of Lake Erie, and finds that the
superficial deposites are composed of the same materials as those upon
the southern shore opposite ; and although he has not discovered there
any shells, he does not doubt but the marly clays of Canada, and the
sandy and loamy beds resting upon them, were deposited by the same
waters, as those on the American side. If we examine the map, and
the position of these deposites, and remember the elevation at which
the fossils are found, at different points, we must infer, that there
existed at the quartenary epoch, two immense sheets of fresh water in
North America; one occupied the basin of the Upper Mississippi, the
other, that of the Canadian Lakes, but both formed one vast sea of
fresh water ; from which, however, we must exclude the basin of Lake
Ontario, which was marine, or salt water. The comparison of the
levels, where the shells were found, at Cleveland, and on the Mis-
sissippi, shows that these great basins were not then isolated, but com-

GEOLOGY. 271

municated with each other by many valleys, such as the Wabash and
the Illinois; so that the basin of the lakes, which is now separated
from that of the Mississippi, at that epoch discharged its waters into
the basin of this great river. Mr. Hubbard, of the Michigan Survey,
says, there exists a depression between Lakes Huron and Michigan,
through the valley of Saginaw Bay, where there was a connection of
the waters.

The existence of these fresh water deposites being now demon-
strated, it becomes necessary to give them a specific name, to distin-
guish them from the marine, or Laurentian formation. The geological
corps of the United States, in Michigan, propose to call them Algonquin,
from a powerful nation of Indians, who heretofore inhabited the region
- of the lakes, and the heads of the Mississippi. It has not been defi-
nitely adopted, because there are doubts whether the drift proper that
occupies the central and elevated parts of Ohio, Wisconsin and Mich-
igan, is not of the same age. It was at first admitted, that the lacus-
trine deposites of Lake Erie, (on which Cleveland is situated,) although
at a lower level, was nevertheless more recent than the “ drift,’ and
perhaps, contemporary with the “ Laurentian.” More recent researches
have not confirmed this view; and many geologists, at the head of
whom is Mr. Whittlesey, are now inclined to think, that the lacustrine
or the “ Algonquin ” beds, are members of the “ drift proper,” modi-
fied by local action and circumstances, and that they pass insensibly
into each other. If this is really so, it will follow, not only that the
Laurentian is more recent than the lacustrine formation ; but what is
more important, the whole drift beds of the West must be regarded as
a fresh water deposit. The difficulty in this case arises, in conceiving
of banking, or highlands sufficiently elevated, to hold the waters of
such a basin, for the drift deposites attain the height of 1,600 feet
above tide, between Lake Superior and Lake Michigan, without
including the erratic blocks, or “ boulders ” that are found still higher.
Unfortunately, there have no shells been found in the elevated coarse
drift. The only fossils that these beds have furnished, are parts of
trees, leaves, &c. It is to be hoped that shells may be discovered ;
but until then, the identity of the drift with the Algonquin, or lacus-
trine formation, must remain in suspense. I should remark, that there
is found on the surface of the lacustrine, as well as on the Laurentian,
and on the proper “drift,” boulders of all dimensions. The mere
statement of this fact, proves that they were not transported by the
same agent that has scratched, striated and polished, the rocks in
place. If this agent was a glacier, we can no longer attribute to it the
transportation of boulders, for in that case, their transportation should be
contemporary with the polishing of the rocks; but there is between them
the whole period, during which the lacustrine beds were being depos-
ited. There are also, on the surface of the lacustrine of Lake Erie, (and
other lakes) ridges and elongated hillocks, like the “ osars ” of Sweden,
showing like them, traces of stratification, which proves that they were
all formed under water. Neither the lacustrine or the Laurentian

contain the bones of mammiferous animals, such as the Mastodon, Ele-
24

212 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

phant, &c.; it being now established, that at the Big-bone lick, and in
uumerous other places at the west, heretofore referred to the drift
period, are more recent deposites, such as “ valley drift ” and Alluvium.

M. Verneuil remarked, that he had never met with the fresh water
drift, far from the great lakes and rivers of North America; and that
it appeared to him, to be attributable to an ancient extension of their
waters.

GEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES IN SOUTH AFRICA.

Amone African discoverers little known to the general public, is
Mr. Bain, surveyor of roads in Cape Colony. This gentleman, in
the course of his duties, has made some remarkable observations and
discoveries in the geological structure of South Africa. He _ has
shown that the oldest rocks form a broken coast fringe around the
southern extremity of Africa, and are surmounted by sand stones,
which from the fossils they contain, are the equivalents of the Silu-
rian rocks. These primeval strata, occupying the highest grounds,
of which Table mountain is an example, and dipping inland from
all sides, are overlaid by carboniferous strata. Above all these
ancient strata, says Mr. Murchison, in his address before the
Geographical Society, and occupying, therefore, a great central
trough or basin, strata occur which are remarkable from being
charged with terrestrial and fresh-water remains only ; and it is ina
portion of this great accumulation that Mr. Bain disinterred fossil
bones of most peculiar quadrupeds. One of the types of these,
which Professor Owen named Dicynodon, from its bidental upper
jaw, is a representative, during a remote secondary period, of the
lacustrine associates of the hippopotami of the present lakes and
waters. The contemplation of these discoveries, has therefore led
me to point out to you how wide.is the field of thought which the
labors of one hard-working geologist have given rise to, and to
express, on my part, how truly we ought to recognize the merits of
the pioneer among the rocks, who enables us, however inadequately,
to speculate upon the entirely new and grand geographical phe-
nomenon, that such as South Africa is now, such have been her
main features during countless past ages, anterior to the creation of
the human race. For the old rocks which form her outer fringe,
unquestionably circled round an interior marshy or lacustrme country
in which the Dicynodon flourished at a time when not a single animal
was similar to any living thing which now inhabits the surface of our
globe. The present central and meridian zone of waters, whether
lakes, rivers, or marshes, extending from Lake Tchad to Lake
Negami, with hippopotami on their banks, are, therefore, but the great
modern, residual, geographical phenomena of those of a mesozoic
age. ‘The differences, however, between the geological past of Africa
and her present state are enormous. Since that primeval time the
lands have been much elevated above the sea-level—eruptive rocks
piercing in parts through them; deep rents and defiles have been

GEOLOGY. 273

suddenly formed in the subtending ridges, through which some rivers
escape outwards, whilst others flowing inwards are lost in the interior
sands and lakes; and with those great ancient changes entirely new
races have been created.

Travellers, continues Mr. Murchison, will eventually .ascertain
whether the basin-shaped structure, which is here announced as
having been the great feature of the most ancient, as it is of the
actual geography of Southern Africa, (7. e., from primeval times to
the present day,) does, or does not extend into Northern Africa.
Looking at that much broader portion of the Continent, we have
some reason to surmise, that the higher mountains also form, in a
general sense, its flanks only. Thus, wherever the sources of the
Nile may be ultimately fixed and defined, we are now pretty well
assured that they lie in lofty mountains at no great distance from its
east coast. In the absence of adequate data, we are not yet entitled
to speculate too confidently on the true sources of the White Nile ;
but judging from the observations of the missionaries, and the position
of the snow-capped mountains called Kilmanjaro and Kenin, (only
distant from the eastern sea about 300 miles,) it may be said that
there is no exploration in Africa, to which greater value would be
attached than an ascent of them from the east coast, possibly from
near Mombas. The adventurous travellers, who shall first lay down
the true position of these equatorial snowy mountains, and shall
satisfy us that they not only throw off the waters of the White Nile
to the north, but some to the east,—and will further answer the query,
whether they may not also shed off other streams to a great lacus-
trine and sandy interior of this continent, will justly be considered
among the greatest benefactors of this age to geographical science.

The great east and west range of the Atlas, which in a similar
general sense forms the northern frontier of Africa, is, indeed,
already known to be composed of primeval strata, and eruptive rocks,
like those which encircle the Cape Colony on the south, and is
equally fissured by transverse rents. As to the hills which fringe the
west coast, and through the apertures of which the Niger and the
Gambia escape, we have yet to learn if they are representatives of
similar ancient rocks, and thus complete the analogy of Northern
with Southern Africa. But I venture to throw out the general sug-
gestion of an original basin-like arrangement of all Africa, through
the existence of a grand encircling girdle of the older rocks, which,
though exhibited at certain distances from her present shores, is still
external as regards her vast interior.

With no region of the old world have we been, till very lately, so
ill-acquainted as Africa. But now the light is dawning quickly
upon us from all sides; and in the generation which follows, I have
no doubt that many of the links in the chain of inductive reasoning,
as to the history of the successively lost races of that part of the
globe, will be made known, from the earliest recognizable zones of
‘animal life, through the secondary and tertiary periods of geologists.
Passing thence to the creation of mankind, and to the subsequent

(274 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

accumulation of the great delta of the Nile, we have recently been
put in the way of learning, what has been the amount of the wear
and tear of upland or granatic rocks, and what the additions to the
great alluvial plain of Lower Egypt, since man inhabited that most
holy region, and erected in it some of his earliest monuments. But
how long will it be before we shall be able to calculate backwards by
our finite measure of time, to those remote periods, in which some of
the greatest physical features of this continent were impressed upon
it,—when the lofty mountains from which the Nile flows, were
elevated, and when the centre of Africa was a great lacustrine jungle, '
inhabited by the Dicynodon, and other lost races of animals ?

WESTERN HIMALAYA AND TIBET.

In the years 1847-8, an expedition was fitted out by the East India
Company, for the exploration of the western Himalaya and Tibet.
A journal of these travels and geological researches, has recently
been published in England, by Dr. Thomson, one of the party, and
a son of the celebrated chemist of that name. From this book,
which contains much new and interesting scientific information, we
derive the following extract. Many of the places examined and
described, have never before been visited by any European traveller.
The old, and still popular notion of Tibet, is that of a great mountain
table land, or a series of table lands, at the back of the Himalaya, by
which mighty chain its southern boundary is made, a barrier broken
through by the Indus at one extremity, and the Brahmaputra at the
other, while its northern limit is similarly walled in by the Kouenlun
chain; the country thus supposed to exist is entirely imaginary.
There is, indeed, no such table land. Nor is there, indeed any such
great continuous chain as the Himalaya itself. The line of snowy
peaks running parallel to the plains of India are not so many sum-
mits of one Alpine chain, but are separated from each other by deep
ravines, through which flow large and rapid rivers. Between the
Indus and the plains of north-west India is a rugged and mountainous
track 150 miles broad. Kashmir is the only plain of any extent
among these mountain ranges. The mountains between the Indus
‘and the. plains may be referred to two great groups, which may be
respectively termed the Cis-Sutle} and Trans-Sutlej Himalayas.
Tibet is the region among and of these mountains between their outer
ramifications and the great chain of Kouenlun beyond the Indus.
This chain separates Tibet from Yarkand and Kohoten. Over this
stupendous barrier there are said to be only four passes, all crossing
regions of eternal snows, and two traversing enormous glaciers. The
Karakoram Pass is one of these, and is 18,200 feet above the level of
the sea. ‘The visit to this extraordinary locality is thus described by
Dr. Thomson :—

“ On the 19th of August, I started to visit the Karakoram pass, the
limit of my journey to the northward. The country round my halt-
ing-place was open, except to the north, where a stream descended
through a narrow valley from a range of hills, the highest part of

GEOLOGY. Zt

which was apparently about 3,000 feet above me. All the rivers had
formed for themselves depressions in the platform of gravel which
was spread over the plain. I ascended this valley for about six miles:
its width varied from 200 yards to about half a mile, gradually
widening as I ascended. The slope was throughout gentle. An
accumulation of alluvium frequently formed broad and gently-sloping
banks, which were cut into cliffs by the river. Now and then large
tracts covered with glacial boulders were passed over; and several
small streams were crossed, descending from the northern mountains
through narrow ravines. About eight miles from my starting-point
the road left the bank of the stream, and began to ascend obliquely
and gradually on the sides of the hills. The course of the valley
beyond where I left it continued unaltered, sloping gently up toa
large snow-bed, which covered the side of a long sloping ‘ridge four
or five miles off. After a mile, I turned suddenly to the right, and,
ascending very steeply over fragments of rock for four or five
hundred yards, I found myself on the top of the Karakoram pass—
a rounded ridge connecting two hills which rose somewhat abruptly
to the height of perhaps 1,000 feet above me. The height of the pass
was 18,200 feet, the boiling point of water being 180.8°, and the
temperature of the air about 50°. ‘Towards the north, much to my
disappointment, there was no distant view. On that side the descent
was steep for about 500 yards, beyond which distance a small streamlet
occupied the middle of a very gently sloping valley, which curved
gradually to the left, and disappeared behind a stony ridge at the
distance of half a mile. The hills opposite to me were very abrupt,
and rose a little higher than the pass; they were quite without snow,
nor was there any on the pass itself, though large patches lay on the
shoulder of the hill to the right. To the south, on the opposite side
of the valley which I had ascended, the mountains, which were
sufficiently high to exclude entirely all view of the lofty snowy moun-
tain seen the day before, were round-topped and covered with snow.
Vegetation was entirely wanting on the top of the pass, but the loose
shingle with which it was covered, was unfavorable to the growth of
plants, otherwise, no doubt, lichens at least would have been seen.
- Large ravens were circling about overhead, apparently quite unaffected
by the rarity of the atmosphere, as they seemed to fly with just as
much ease as at the level of the sea.

“The great extent of the modern alluvial deposit concealed, in a
great measure the ancient rocks. At my encampment a ridge of very
hard limestone, dipping at a high angle, skirted the stream. Further
up the valley a hard slate occurred, and in another place a dark blue
slate, containing much iron pyrites, and crumbling rapidly when
exposed to the atmosphere. Fragments of this rock were scattered
over the plain in all states of decay. On the crest of the pass the
rock in situ was lime-stone, showing obscure traces of fossils, but too
indistinct to be determined; the shingle, which was scattered over the
ridge, was chiefly a brittle black clay slate.”

Conceive a vast tract of country, the lowest valley of which is as

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276 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

high as the summit of the Faulhorn in Switzerland, and many of
whose habitable spots are nearly as lofty as the summit of Mont
Blanc, composed of prodigous mountain chains from 17,000 to 19,000
feet above the sea, with occasional peaks exceeding 22,000 feet,
winding and interlacing, intersected by deep and narrow valleys—
ravines on an enormous scale—with too arid a climate to support
forests, or any coniferous tree except alpine junipers—covered by a
sky cloudy in winter, clear and bright in summer, and a powerful sun
heating the bare black rocks, whilst the air is rent by winds of fearful
violence—and we can forma picture of Western Tibet, the region
explored by Dr. Thomson.

Among the discoveries of our traveller is that of the locality
whence the borax imported from Tibet is procured. The plain of
Pugha is the result of the drying up or drainage of an ancient lake.
It is covered to the depth of several feet with white salt, principally
borax. By digging below the superficial layer, the borax is obtained
in a tolerably pure state.

CRYSTALLINE FORM OF THE GLOBE.

M. pe HAvsLas in a recent publication, after discussing the direc-
tion of mountains, and of dykes and of cleavages among rocks, deduces
some general principles with regard to their direction, and then
explains his hypothesis that the surface of the globe presents approx-
imately the faces of the great octahedron. In an octahedron there
are three axial planes intersecting one another at right angles; and
the positions of the circles on the earth’s surface which he lays down
as the limits of these planes (or their intersection with the surface) are
as follows. The jist circle is that of Himalaya and Chimborazo,
passing from Cape Finisterre to the Himalaya, Borneo, eastern chain
of New Holland, (leaving on its sides a parallel line in Mallacca, Java
and Sumatra,) to New Zealand, thence to South America near Chim-
borazo, the chain of Carracas, the Azores to Cape Finisterre. The
second, passes along the South American coast and the north and
south ranges of the Andes, the mountains of Mexico, the Rocky
mountains, Behrings’ Straits, the eastern Siberian chains, going to the
south of Lake Baikel, the Altai, Himalaya, the mountains of Bombay
in Hindostan, a point in the northeast of Madagascar (where the
summits are 12,000 feet high,) the mountains of Nieuwedfeld, 10,000
feet high, Cape Caffres, to Brazil, the rapids of La Plata, Paraguay,
Parana, the elevated basin of Titicaca, the Andes, Illimani and the
defile of Maranova. ‘The third circle cuts the two preceding at
right angles, and passes by the Alps, the Islands of Corsica and Sar-
dina, along the basin of the Mediterranean, the mountains of Fezzen,
Lake Tchad, the Caffre mountains of Nieuwedfeld, the Southern
Ocean near Kerguelen’s Land, the eastern or Blue mountains of
New Holland, straits of Behring, Spitsbergen, Scandinavia, Jutland, ete.

These three great circles point out the limits of the faces of the
great hypothetical octahedron. Each of the faces may be divided

GEOLOGY. QTT

into eight others by means of line of accidents of minor importance,
so as to make in all forty-eight irregular triangles, a form of the dia-
mond. Atthe intersections, M. de Hauslabobserves that there are nodes
of dykes, and along the lines or near them, all the mountains of the
globe occur. The author gives an extended illustration of his subject
and afterwards considers the particular history of the configuration of
the earth’s surface in accordance with his hypothesis.

M. Boue who adopts similar views adds as a note, that we should
remember in this connection that the metals crystallize either in the
tesserel or rhombohedral system, and that native iron, the most com-
mon constituent of meteorities, is octahedral in its crystals.

ON THE STABILITY OF THE EARTH’S AXIS OF ROTATION.

Tue following is a communication read before the Royal Society,
by Henry Hennessy, Feb., 1852.

The author refers to a communication to the Geological Society, by
Sir John Lubbuck, in which he appeals in support of the possibility
of a change in the earth’s axis, to the influence of two disturbing
causes, which appear to have almost entirely escaped the notice of
Laplace and Poisson, in their investigations on the stability of the
earth’s axis of rotation;—1. The neeessary displacement of the
earth’s interior strata, arising from chemical and physical actions
during the process of solidification. 2. The friction of the resisting
medium in which the earth is supposed to move. With reference to
the first of these disturbing causes, the author states, that he has been
led to conclusions which may assist in clearing up the question. From
an inquiry into the process of the earth’s solidification, which appears
to him most in accordance with mechanical and physical laws, he has
deduced results respecting the earth’s structure which throws some
light on the changes which may take place in the relation which is
capable of being expressed by means of a function which depends on
the arrangement of the earth’s interior strata. He then states that he
has found strong confirmation of his peculiar views respecting the
theory of the earth’s figure in the experiments of Bischof of Bonn on
the contraction of granite and other rocks or passing from the fluid
to the solid crystalline state. From the results of these experiments,
he has been led to assign a new form to the function expressing the
relation of the earths’ principal moments of inertia. Referring to his
paper for the mathematical processes by which he has arrived at this
result, he states that from the theory he has ventured to adopt, it
follows, that as solidification advances, the strata of equal pressure in
the fluid spheroidal nucleus of the earth, acquires increased elliptic-
ity, and each stratum of equal density, successively added to the
inner surface of the solid crust, is more oblate than the solid strata
previously formed.

From these considerations alone, he remarks, it is evident that the
difference between the greatest and least moment of inertia of the
earth, would progressively increase during the process of solidification.

278 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

It follows, therefore, that if the earth’s axis of rotation were at any
time stable, it would continue so forever. But, from the laws of fluid
equilibrium, the axis must have been stable from the epoch of the
first formation of the earth’s crust; consequently, it continued undis-
turbed, as the thickness of the crust increased during the several
geological formations. Thus it appears that the displacement of the
earth’s interior strata, instead of having a tendency to change its axis
of rotation, tends to increase the stability of that axis. With reference
to inequalities arising from the friction of a resisting medium at the
earth’s surface, the author observes that this could not exist, if, as in
the manner here shown, the axis of rotation coincided from the origin
with the axis of the figure. In conclusion, he remarks, that if we
could assume for the planets a similarity of physical constitution to
that of the earth, the theorem as to the greatest and least moments of
inertia of the earth would be applicable to all the planets; and thus
we should be as well assured of the stability of our system, with
respect to the motion of rotation of its several members, as we are
already respecting their motion of translation.

In reference to a third cause of disturbance in the place of the
earth’s axis of rotation, namely, the effects of local elevations and
depressions at the earth’s surface, the author says: — If with Hum-
boldt, we regard the numbers expressing the mean heights of the
several continents, as indicators of the plutonic forces by which they
have been upheaved, we shall readily see that these forces are of an
inferior order, to those affecting the general forms and structure of
the earth. If the second class of forces acted, so as not to influence
in any way the stability of the earth’s axis of rotation, the former
class might, under certain conditions, produce a sensible change in the
position of the axis. But when the tendency of the second class ef forces
is to increase the stability of the earth’s axis, it would not be easy to
show the possibility of such conditions, as to render the operation of
the other forces, not only effective in counteracting that tendency,

but also producing a sensible change in the place of the axis of rota-
tion. — Proc. Royal Society.

SHOWERS OF SAND IN CHINA.

Tue following account of sand showers in China is given by Dr.
D. J. Macgowan, of Ningpo :—
The Phenomenon of falling sand is occasionally observed through a
reat extent, if not the entire portion, of the vast Plain ef China. It
1s of such frequent occurrence that the Chinese regard it with no
more surprise than they do the flitting meteor. Probably no year
passes without several of these showers, though frequently so minute
as to escape general observation. Perhaps as often as once in three
years they are very heavy, but it is seldom that sand falls in such a
large quantity as during the last shower. The phenomenon was wit-
nessed three times during the present year, within a period of five
weeks; the last. and greatest commenced on the 26th of March, and

GEOLOGY. 279

continued four days without intermission, varying however, in inten-
sity. The wind blew from the north, northeast, and northwest, fre-
quently shifting between these points, and varying in strength from a ~
perfect calm to a brisk breeze. The altitude of the barometer was
from 29.40 to 30.00 (rather lower than before and after the shower.)
The thermometer ranged from 36° to 81° Fahr. No rain had fallen
for six weeks, and the hygrometric state of the atmosphere was very
high. Neither cloud, fog, nor mist obscured the heavens, yet the sun
and moon were scarcely visible, the orb of day appeared as if viewed
through a smoked glass, the whole sky presenting a uniform rusty
hue. At times this sameness was disturbed, exhibiting between the
spectator and the sun the appearance of a water-spout, owing to the
gyratory motions of the impalpable mineral. The sand penetrated
the most secluded apartments; furniture wiped in the morning would
be so covered with it in the afternoon, that one could write on it
lecibly. In the streets it was annoying, entering the eyes, nostrils and
mouth, and grating under the teeth. My ophthalmic patients gener-
ally suffered a relapse, and an unusual number of new cases soon
after presented. Were such heavy sand storms of frequent occur-
rence, disease of the visual organs would prevail to a destructive
extent. The effect was the same when observed from the Ningpo
Tower, and from the summit of the low mountains in the neighborhood
of the city. :

The specimens I gathered fell on a newspaper placed on the roof
of a house. The whole quantity which fell was about ten grains to
the square foot. It should be remarked, however, that during the
four days the dust seemed suspended in the air for several hours at a
time, scarcely an appreciable quantity falling during these intervals.
The Chinese call it yellow sand; it is an impalpable powder of that
color.

It was observed at sea, at Hangchau, and at Shanghai. Whence
did it originate ? The opinion of the Chinese on this subject may, I
think, be regarded as correct. They assert that it comes from Peking.
We know that the sand of Sahara is sometimes elevated by whirlwinds
into the upper current of the air, and deposited in the Atlantic twelve
hundred miles, sometimes directly opposite to the trade winds. Over
against the vast alluvial Plain of Eastern Asia is the ocean of sand—
the Desert of Gobi or Shamoh, extending from near the sea westerly
2,300 miles, and 3 to 400 broad—including the conterminous sandy
districts. Like its counterpart in Africa, it is subject to whirlwinds
which raise its fine dust like the waves of the sea, and doubtless at
times waft it into the upper currents of air, and transport it to distant
regions. I have been informed by intelligent natives of Kiangsi and
Honan, that the phenomenon occurs in those provinces also. Assum-
ing the Mongolian steppes to be the source whence these showers
descend, the amount of sand which is annually conveyed hither must
be prodigious to cover such an extensive area. Regarded in a mete-
orological and in a geological point of view, these showers possess no
small interest.

280 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

GNEISS AND SURPENTINE FORMATIONS.

Lronarp and Bronn’s Jahrbuch state that they have observed
gneiss associated with conglomerate, and great veins of gneiss travers-
ing gneiss. These facts have been verified by the discovery of similar
phenomena in other countries, and gneiss 1s now divided into the
following formations : — 1, Primary Gneiss, that associated with certain
granites, and forming the fundamental or oldest formation of the
crust of the earth; 2, Transition Gineiss, that which rests upon transi-
tion rocks, as greywacke, clay slate, and old red sandstone, and even
alternates with them; 3, Secondary Gneiss, this formation rests upon
lias, and is well seen in Switzerland. We have no intimation that
gneiss has been met with in the tertiary group.

Many years ago, Jameson noticed the gradual transitions from trap
to serpentine, both in Germany and Scotland. Very lately the cele-
brated Rose, of Berlin, has illustrated this view in a very interesting
manner.

ON THE EVOLUTION OF GAS IN WALLSEND COLLIERY, ENG.

Pror. Puts at the British Association remarked that the
Wallsend Colliery was one of the numerous coal mines in Yorkshire
which have been rendered remarkable for the frequent explosion of
the inflammable and noxious gas with which they are filled, and the
loss of life which has in so many cases been the consequence. In
every coal-pit there are two shafts, one of which serves to admit the
pure air, whilst the foul gases are made to escape by the other. The
ascent of the foul gases is frequently facilitated by creating a draft by
fires placed near the bottom of one of the shafts. The coal is arranged
in perpendicular layers, between which the gases exist in a highly
compressed state. In order to detach these layers with the least pos-
sible danger, it is usual to cut through them endways, by which means
the gases are allowed to make their escape at once froma considerable
portion of the coal. A district of this colliery, covering about fifty
acres, was effectually walled up, in consequence of the immense dis-
charge of gas that was continually taking place. A pipe was led
from this enclosed portion up through the mine and for forty feet
above the surface, and from this pipe there has been a constant dis-
charge of gas for the last eighteen years. This gas has been inflamed,
and in the roughest and most stormy weather it has burned without
intermission ; and were it as rich in naphtha as ordinary carburreted
hydrogen, it would illuminate the country for miles round. Two
water-pressure gauges were fixed to the brick walls, one at the surface
of the earth, and the other at the bottom of the mine, and the results
were that, whilst the pressure in the mine was only 9-10ths of an inch
on an average, that at the top of the pit was upwards of four inches.
From observation in these minés, it 1s seen that discharges of fire-
damp, governed by atmospheric pressure, take place before being indi-
cated by the barometer, and that, as an indicator that instrument can-

GCOLOGY. 281

not be relied on. A fact somewhat similar was first observed by Prof.
Daniels, in his researches at the Royal Society, where the water bar-
ometer indicated the change of pressure an hour earlier than the
usual mercurial standard barometers constantly used for observations.

GEOLOGY AND PALZONTOLOGY OF A PART OF THE ROCKY
MOUNTAIN REGION.

Pror. HAtt, in the Report of Stansbury’s Expedition to the Great
Salt Lake, furnishes some notes on the Geology and Palzontology of
a part of the Rocky Mountain Region, from specimens collected in the
course of the Expedition.

The first specimens furnished are from the west side of the Missouri
River, near and above Fort Leavenworth (39° 21! N., 94° 44! W.)
They are all from limestone of the Carboniferous period, and appar-
ently from the upper of the two great limestones of this period in the
West. The most conspicuous fossils are Productus and Terrebratula.
The route from the Missouri westward, shows a continuation of this
limestone as far as the Big Blue river. Here it disappears, and is soon
succeeded by strata of the Cretaceous age, which extends for a consid-
erable distance on the route. Among the cretaceous fossils are a
species of Pholadomya, and the Incceranaus, which is so abundant in
numerous localities in this region.

It would appear that the character of the country from near Fort
Kearney to near Fort Laramie is uniform, and no deposites of older
date than the Tertiary were observed. Of the specimens collected,
there is but a single individual indicating the character of a marine
formation. From the condition of the bones it may even be ques-
tioned, whether the deposit containing them is not of post tertiary age.
. The specimens from the vicinity of Fort Laramie are all from lime-
stone of the carboniferous period. Some of the fossils are identical
with species collected between the Missouri and the Big Blue, and we
‘an only suppose, from the great similarity of the specimens, that it is
a continuation of the same formation. The specimens collected two
days’ march north-west of Fort Laramie, (105° W..,) are a feldspathic
granite with little quartz or mica. The rocks in this locality are
doubtless of metamorphic origin, probably rocks of the Silurian age.
The specimens collected three days’ march in advance of this place,
(105° 25’ W.,) are shaly sandstones and thinly laminated sandstones
containing fossils. These beds are recorded as dipping at the rate of
15° to the N. E., and are probably Devonian. ‘The specimens col-
lected at 105° 50! W., are precisely like those collected at Fort Lara-
mie and contain the same species of fossils; red and gray sandstones
were also seen here. On the following day, (near 106° W..,) is
recorded a bed of coal, three or four feet thick, with Sigellaria and
Calamites. The specimens collected here are those of bituminous coal,
and soft shale, without any well marked vegetable remains. From the
proximity of limestone of the age of the coals, and the records ot
sigillaria and calamites occurring in the same connection, it may be

282 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

resumed that this coal belongs to the true coal measures ; and this
locality is probably an exposure indicating the existence of a great
basin. This point itself, and the surrounding country are well worthy
of a more extended examination, since the discovery of workable
beds of coal in this region would be a matter of national importance.
From the Wind River Mountain to Fort Bridget, (in 41° 18! N., 110°
32! W.,) the collections are all marine tertiary, including many speci-
mens of nautilus and other marine shells. West of Fort Hall are
chert and limestone of the carboniferous period.

The specimens collected in the islands and shores of the Great Salt
Lake, are sufficient to give a very good idea of the general geological
features. The specimens are of metamorphic rocks, consisting of tal-
cose and mica slates, hornblende rocks, and a few specimens of granitic
and syenitic character. From the facts in my possession, it would
appear that these metamorphic rocks are distinctly stratified and highly
inclined, but do not attain any great elevation. The direction of the
ranges, corresponding to that of the elevating forces, appears nearly
to conform to north by west, and south by east. From the form of
the lake and the different localities at which rocks of this character
occur, we may infer that there were two lines of elevation, corres-
ponding with the divisions of the lake. The more elevated portions
of the lake shore, and the mountain ranges consist of carboniferous
limestone. In some localities this limestone is partially altered, losing
its granular character, and becoming sub-crystalline, or threaded by
numerous veins of calcareous spar. In most localities the limestone
abounds in fossils, particularly corals of the Cyathophillide.

It will be seen from these facts that we have very satisfactory infor-
mation that the limestone of the carboniferous period is widely distrib-
uted in the region around the Great Salt Lake. Its position relative
to the coal bed on the north fork of Platte River has not been
determined ; but since no beds of coal have been observed on the
slopes of the mountains in the region of the Salt Lake, we are left to
infer that the coal is to be sought (as elsewhere) above the limestone.
Since the existence of coal is proved at one point (admitting the evi-
dence in favor of its age being that of the carboniferous period,) we
are warranted that it once existed over a much wider area, and can
be, sought with success in the proper situations. The importance of
coal in that distant region cannot be too highly estimated, and the geo-
graphical position and extent of the beds, should be one of the first
points ascertained in thelocation of any route of communication
between the east and the west.

RESEARCHES IN NEW ZEALAND.

ACCORDING to recent accounts from this interesting country, true
palzeozoic coal has been discovered in the north part of the Middle
Island. The accounts are too vague to be entirely decisive of the
important question, whether in those remotest masses of dry land,
remains of the ancient carboniferous floras are buried. Fossils are

GEOLOGY. 283

stated to have been found in a white, fine sandstone grit, but their
nature is not specified, except that remains of some kinds of Pecop-
teris and Sphenophyllum were mentioned, but the species are not
named.

In the south and south-west regions of the Middle Island, Mr. Wal-
ter Mantell, in an arduous exploration for three months, as government
Surveyor in the almost uninhabited and dreary tracts of that country,
_ kept up an active search for the rare indigenous birds, and for fossils;
but with the exception of a large parrot, believed to be unknown to
naturalists, no additions were made to the fauna of New Zealand. A
diligent hunt for vestiges of the Moas, and for a live specimen of
Notornis, was unattended with success. The last accounts from Mr.
Mantell stated that the servants he had sent out to the localities which
native traditions pointed out as the habitat of the Notornis, had
returned birdless, and reported that the wild dogs occupied the country
to such a degree, that it was hopeless to expect the wingless birds could
escape. The stuffed specimen of Notornis in Dr. Mantell’s possession
(in London,) bids fair, therefore, like the last of the Dodos, to be the
sole representative of its race.

MINNESOTA SALT REGION.

PROBABLY there is not aricher salt region on the face of the earth,
than the one in Minnesota. The territory is generally supposed to be
valuable for its agricultural resources alone ; nothing, however, can be
more erroneous. ‘True, its natural agricultural wealth is probably
second to nene in the Mississippi valley, but its mineral wealth is not
less extensive and valuable. Among the latter, its salt stands pre-
eminent. The region lies between 47° and 49° north latitude, and
97° and 99° west longitude. Its exact locality was ascertained and
defined by an expedition sent out from Fort Snelling, by Major Long,
in 1822-3. A description of that salt region, together with its local-
ity, will be found in the Topographical department at Washington.

Our first information of that salt yegion was from a soldier in the
expedition. He says that they had been travelling for several days
over a vast rolling plain, with no trees or water; the troops and horses
were almost famishing with thirst, when they came suddenly upon the
shore of a beautiful lake, about half a mile in diameter, sunk down
deep in the plain. It resembles more a vast sink hole. From the
height above the waters a vast snow bank appeared to line its shore,
but upon examination it proved to be an incrustation of salt as pure
and as white as snow. The waters of the lake were like the strongest
brine. So strong was it that one bathing in it, upon coming out, in a
few minutes would be covered with the white crystallization of salt.

If this salt region be as rich as it is supposed to be, a railroad pro-
jected into it would prove to be the best stock in the country. There
are mines of undeyeloped wealth more extensive, more durable, and
more important than all the gold regions beyond the Rocky Mountains.
Weare informed also, that a very short distance below the surface the

25

284 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

pure rock salt lies in a strata like coal or lime rock. We hope the
attention of the public and the Government will be turned to the
subject. There is a region lying in our immediate neighborhood,
almost unknown, containing more intrinsic wealth than any State in
the Union, and which would yield an annual income probably equal-
ling the entire revenue of the country. — St. Louis Union.

SALT LAKE OF UTAH.

Lr. STANsBuRY in his report of the “ Expedition to the Valley of
the Salt Lake” says: — No one, without witnessing it, can form any
idea of the buoyant properties of this singular water. A man may
float, stretched at full length upon his back, having his head and neck,
both his legs to the knee, and both arms to the elbow, entirely out of
the water. Ifa sitting position be assumed, with the arms extended to
preserve the equilibrium, the shoulders will remain above the surface..
The water is, nevertheless, extremely difficult to swim in, on account
of the constant tendency of the lower extremities to rise above it.
The brine, too, is so strong, that the least particle of it getting into
the eyes produces the most acute pain, and if accidentally swallowed
rapid strangulation must ensue. I doubt whether the most expert
swimmer could long preserve himself from drowning, if exposed to
the action of a rough sea.

Upon one occasion a man of our party fell overboard into the lake,
and, although a good swimmer, the sudden immersion caused him to
take in a few mouthfuls of water before rising to the surface. The
effect was a violent paroxysm of strangling and vomiting, and the
man was unfit for duty for a day or two afterwards. He would inevit-
ably have been drowned, had he not received immediate assistance. Af-
ter bathing it is necessary to wash the skin with fresh water, to prevent
the deposition of salt arising from evaporation of the brine. Yet a bath
in the water is delightfully refreshing and invigorating. The analy-
sis of this water by Dr. L. D. Gale, has shown that it contains rather
more than 20 per cent. of pure chJoride of sodium, and not more than
2 per cent. of other salts, forming one of the purest and most concen-
trated brines known in the world. Its specific gravity was 1.17, but
this will slightly vary with the seasons, being doubtless affected by the
immense floods of fresh water which come rushing down into it from
the mountains in the spring, caused by the melting of the snows in
the gorges. The ancient extent of the lake must have been far
greater than its present limits indicate. As many as thirteen distinct
marks of ancient levels, successive terraces formed by ancient beaches,
the highest as much as two hundred feet above the plain, were count-
ed in one place. These appearances, comparable with the famous
“ parallel roads” of Glenroy, in Scotland, would lead to the inference
that the Great Salt Lake was formerly vastly more extensive, stretch-
ing for hundreds of miles, studded with huge island, now forming
~the isolated mountains that rise amid the surrounding plains. The
immense miry flats, consisting of soft mud, traversed by rills of salt

GEOLOGY. 285

and sulphurous water, that bound its western shores, would them-
selves, if submerged for a few feet, convert the lake into a far-extend-
ing inland sea. At present they glisten with salt-crystals, whose
brilliant glare is interrupted occassionally by oases of artemisa and
greasewood. The two valleys that lie at the southern end of the lake
are the only parts of its shores adapted for human habitation.
Although not directly stated, several facts are given, in the report ot
the expedition which seem to imply that there are no fish in the lake
itself. A curious feature in its zoology is the immense accumulation
on its shores of the larva-cases and other exuvie of dipterous insects,
prebably preserved in such quantities through the peculiar qualities of
the water. No mention is made of molluscous animals or their shells.
The mammals collected from the neighborhood are stated to belong
to the Rocky Mountain series. The most interesting is the great-
tailed fox, Vulpes Marcrourus, described for the first time. Several
interesting new plants were gathered. The difficulty of finding fresh
water around its shores, the necessity of carrying with them all
their previsions, the barren and savage character of a great part of
the region traversed, rendered the survey unusually arduous and pro-
tracted, and would have proved fatal to its progress had not the
climate been one of exceeding salubrity, so that, with all their trials
and fatigues, the members of the exploring party enjoyed uninter-
rupted good health. .

EARTHQUAKES OF 1852.

Tue following is a record of the various earthquake phenomena
which we find reported through different sources, as having occurred
during the year 1852.—Editor.

January 10. In Massachusetts. In this imstance, which has not been
generally noticed, the shock was sensibly felt throughout the whole
length of the State, from New Bedford to Springfield, on the Connec-
ticut River. Shock, very slight.

Jan. 17. Slight shock at Galveston, Texas.

Jan. 26. Throughout the State of Mississippi, and in the south of
France. At Bordeaux, the shocks were very severe, though momen-
tary. On the same day, also at Messina, Sicily, and at this latter place
throughout the month, shecks were frequent.

March 31. Throughout northern India.

April. 10. At St. Michaels, Azores, at 2 A. M., producing great
devastation.

April 14. At the Sandwich Islands. Severe shocks, followed on the
fifteenth by a volcanic eruption.

April 27. At Valparaiso.

April 28. At the Azores.

April 29. Smart shocks experienced in Maryland, Virginia and
North Carolina.

May 9. In South Wales.

286 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

May 11. At Apalachicola, Florida.

May 26. In the province of Shookingah, China ; 300 persons killed,
and property to a great amount destroyed.

June 19. In Berne and Friburg, and throughout Switzerland gen-
erally.

June 20. At the Bermudas.

June 30. In New Hampshire and Vermont, slight shock.

July 7. At Jamaica, several severe shocks, continuing three min-
utes, and causing much damage.

July 17. At St. Jago de Cuba. This shock was also felt at sea by
the ship Tropic, 70 miles west of Jamaica.

August 1. At Groton, Connecticut.

‘August 2. At Bathurst, Canada. Shock sufficient to break glass,
etc. etc.

August 4. In Northern India.

August 14. At Spezzio, Italy.

August 17 and 18. At Port au Prince; severe shocks.

Aucust 18. Throughout St. Domingo.

August 20. Great “earthquake in St. Jago de Cuba. This earth-
quake was one of great violence and occasioned great loss of property
and life. The same day occurred the great eruption of Mount Etna.

August 21. At Jamaica. Also at Ezeroum, Asia Minor. Loss, 306
houses and 17 lives.

August 25. At Augusta, Georgia, and in various parts of the
United States.

August 27. In Turkey.

Aueust 28. At St. Domingo ; also at St. Jago de Cuba.

August —. In the province of Kalsuch, China; a terrific earth-
uake.

: September 16 to 21. At the Phillipine Islands; severe and repeat-
ed shocks, causing great damage and alarm. These earthquakes
were also felt at sea for a great distance.

October 1. At Malaga, Spain.

October 9. South of England; slight shock.

October 11 and 12. At Manilla and the Phillpine iaexice severe.

October 15. In the North of Hungary; a series of shocks.

October 22. At St. Lucia.

November 8. In Sicily ; particularly at Reggio.

November 19. At Valparaiso, Chili.

November 22. At Lima, Peru.

November 26. At St. Jago de Cuba; severe.

December 4. Throughout Mexico.

December 9. At Acapulco, and the whole west coast of Central
America ; shocks in many places severe, and accompanied with vol-
canic eruptions.

December 17. At St. Jago de Cuba.

GEOLOGY 287

GREAT ERUPTION OF MOUNT ETNA.

Mount Etna, which for some years has remained dormant, experi-
enced a very violent and long continued eruption during the past
year. The eruption commenced on the 20th of August, the same day
on which the terrific earthquake of St. Jago de Cuba occurred, and
continued with greater or less activity until the 17th of November
following.

The indications of its approaching activity were, as usual, the drying
up of wells in the neighborhood, the duration of most dense clouds of
white smoke which rose like a vast pine tree, hollow rumbling sounds,
and three violent shocks, as of an earthquake. Shortly after, towards
the east, two new mouths were opened in the site which is known
under the name of the Valle del Leone. At first only clouds of a very
fine ash were thrown up; which completely covered all the land near
the mountain, and quantities of which being taken up still higher by
an impetuous wind, were carried far off into the sea. These, however,
were but a small instalment of what was to follow. Immediately after-
wards an immense body of lava was vomited forth ; which precipitating
itself down the mountain with the violence of a torrent, divided into
three streams. One of these flowed in the direction of Zaffarana —
another in the direction of the Comune of Giarra, more particularly
on an estate called Milo, near Giarra. To give an idea of the
immense quantity of liquid fire that was thrown out, official state-
ments describe this river of lava as being two miles in breadth at the
greatest, and ten palms in depth, whilst the rapidity with which it
moved was such as to cover in one hour a space of not less than 160
palms in extent. It seems, that in a very short time, in consequence
of the increasing strength of the eruption, the new mouths were
broken up so as to form one only; frem which masses of rock and
cinder were thrown into the air to a great height, and falling on the
wide extent of country round, carried with them the most fearful
ruin. The utmost intensity of the eruption perhaps took place on the
25th, 29th, and 30th of August, and on the 4th of September. The
rumbling subterraneous thunders were then incessant, as was also
the shaking of the ground. To this add the clouds of smoke and
flame which rested like an imperial diadem on the summit—and we
may form some faint idea of the magnificent and awful spectacle which
Etna on those days presented.

The accidents of the land, and the greater or less quantity of materi-
als thrown out of the mountain, produced a great variety in the
course of the streams of lava. Sometimes they appeared to drag their
slow length along, sometimes to precipitate themselves with threaten-
ing violence, expanding widely till they covered vast spaces of land,
or twisting and twining into the most capricious sinuosities, and accord-
ing to the varying rapidity of their movements varying their depth
and extent. On the 22d of August the running lava is stated to have
been 18 palms deep, whilst on the 30th it had mcreased to 240 palms
in some places. On the 31st of August the eruption still continued

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288 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

very violent. The lava advancing on the village of Ballo, completely
swallowed up several houses on that day, as also the road which divides
it from Zaffarana. During the next two days it diminished in power,
and hopes were entertained that one or two neighboring villages might
be saved. On the 4th of September, however, it again burst forth
with unusual fury, thundering, shaking, and vomiting forth new
matter in the direction of Milo. Thus the mountain continued its
activity with greater or less violence throughout the whole month. If
the lava flowed in smaller quantity, denser clouds of smoke arose, and
a greater quantity of ashes and sand were thrown out. During
the month of October much activity was manifested, though greater
hopes were entertained that the eruptions might soon cease.

A correspondent of the London Athenzeum says, the damage which
has been inflicted is difficult to estimate, for the course of the lava lay
through a country of extraordinary fertility, and abounding in every
species of vegetation. Had nothing but ashes been thrown out, all the
saints in the callender would have been /esteggiati, for nothing 1s so

ropuctive of fertility as volcanic ashes, but what can make any
impression on large masses of indurated lava but the slow operation of
the elements, or what root for centuries will ever be able to pierce it
except the prickly pear ?

An extraordinary feature of the eruption was the vomiting forth
from the crater of a large quantity of sal ammoniac, rendering the air
so impure as to threaten the lives of seamen on the coast. Vessels in
the vicinity of the mountain were covered with cinders, and ashes
and volcanic dust were wafted by the wind as far as Malta.

GREAT VOLCANIC ERUPTION AT THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.

ONE of the greatest volcanic eruptions on record, —that of the
voleano of Mauna Loa, at the Sandwich Isiands, took place in Feb-
ruary, 1852, commencing on the 17th of the month. The eruption
appears to have been scmewhat unexpected, and was not heralded by
any of the accustomed premonitory signs. ‘Phe current seems to have
broken out through an old fissure, about one-third down the side of
Mauna Loa, on the north-west side, and not from the old crater on the
summit, called Mokuoweoweo. ‘The altitude of the eruption was about
10,000 feet above the level of the sea, and at a distance from the Bay
of Hilo, of about 60 miles. A writer who witnessed the eruption from
Hilo, thus describes some features of it:

“ By an accurate measurement of the enormous jet of glowing lava,
where it first broke forth on the side of Mauna Loa, it was ascertained
to be five hundred feet high! This was upon the supposition that it
was thirty miles distant. We are of the opinion that it was a ereater
distance, say from forty to sixty miles. With a glass, the play of this
jet, at night, was distinctly observed, and a more sublime sight can
scarcely be imagined. A column of molten lava, glowing with the
most intense heat, and projecting into the air to a distance of five hun-
dred feet, was a sight so rare and at the same time so awfully grand,

GEOLOGY. 289

as to excite the most lively feelings of awe and admiration, even when
viewed at a distance of forty or fifty miles. How much more Aawe-in-
spiring would it have been at a distance of one or two miles, where
the sounds accompanying such an eruption could have been heard. The
fall of such a column would doubtless cause the earth to tremble; and
the roar of the rushing mass would have been like the mighty waves
of the ocean beating upon a rock-bound coast. The diameter of this jet
is supposed to be over one hundred feet, and this we can easily believe,
when we reflect that from it proceeded the river of lava that flowed
off from it toward the sea. In some places this river is a mile wide,
and in others more contracted. At some points it has filled up ravmes
one hundred, two hundred, and three hundred feet in depth, and still
it flowed on.”

Mr. Coan, a missionary, residing at Hilo furnishes another graphic
description. He says: “ On the 17th instant, at twenty minutes past
3, A. M., a small beacon light appeared on the summit of Mauna Loa.
This light increased until it looked like a rising moon. In half an
hour, brilliant columns of lava shot up against the heavens, and a gen-
eral burst of blood red fusion poured out of the same orifice appar-
ently, which disgorged such awful floods in 1843. We were awakened
at about 4 o’clock, and saw a glare of light streaming through our
windows. Our first thought was that some building near us was on
fire, but on rising we soon perceived that the whole summit of the moun-
tain was irradiated, and that a vast furnace was there glaring with
vehement heat. The molten flood rolled down the side of the moun-
tain so rapidly that in two hours we judged its progress to have been
fifteen miles, the whole lava glaring with great brilliancy. This flow
continued through the day, but with decreasing energy. It became
sluggish at night, and the next day, or after twenty-four hours, no
traces of it were visible from the station; no smoke by day and no
fire by night. At six o’clock, A. M., on the 20th, yesterday, we per-
ceived fire issuing from the side of the mountain toward Hilo, and
about half way down the mount. This lateral crater soon became
intensively active, pouring out a gory flood which soon reached the
base of the mount. At first the stream shot directly down towards
Hilo ; but meeting some obstacle near the foot of the mount its direc-
tion was changed to the north, and it is still flowing towards Mauna
Loa. A vast area between the mountains is already filled with fire,
and the scene by night is one of terrible sublimity. The red hot lava
still rolls out of the side of the mountain in awful floods. It seems as
if the bowels of Pluto were being disgorged. While I write, our
whole atmosphere is filled with lurid smoke, through which the sun
looks down upon us with a yellow and baleful light. The horizon is
hung in murky drapery; detonations, like distant thunder, are heard
from the mountain, and capilliform filaceous vitrifactions are filling
our streets.”

On the 6th of March the lava was still flowing, and the light emitted
by the stream was so intense, that small objects could be most clearly
seen at midnight in Hilo. e

.

290 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

It must be noticed as one of the incidents of this eruption, that the
most striking display of the Aurora, witnessed in the United
States during the year 1852, took place on the 20th of February, dur-
ing the progress of this great eruption.

A letter from Mr. Fuller published in Silliman’s Journal, Sep-
tember, gives the following picture of the intensity of the eruption.
There played a fountain of liquid fire of such dimensions and such
awful sublimity, shaking the earth with such a constant and deafening
roar, that no picture can give any adequate conception of its grandeur.
A few figures may assist the imagination in its attempts to paint the
scene. I made the following calculations, after careful observations
during nearly twenty-four hours, from different points within a mile
of the crater. The diameter of the crater, which has been entirely
formed by this eruption is about 1,000 feet, its height from 100 to 150.
One part of the crater was raised fifty feet during our presence on
the spot. The height of the column of red hot liquid lava, constantly
sustained above the crater, varied from 200 to 700 feet, seldom falling
below 300. Its diameter was from 100 to 300 feet, rarely perhaps
reaching 400 feet. The motions of this immense jet of fire were beauti-
ful in the extreme, far surpassing all the possible beauties of any water
fountain which can be conceived; constantly varying in form, in
dimensions, in color and intensity ; sometimes shooting up and taper-
ing off like a symmetrical Gothic spire, 700 feet high; then rising in
one grand mass, 300 feet in diameter, and varied on the top and sides
by points and jets, like the ornaments of Gothic architecture. The
New Yorker, as he gazes on the spire of Trinity Church, can imagine
its dimensions increased three-fold, and its substance converted into
red hot lava, in constant agitation, may obtain a tolerable idea of one
aspect of this terrific fire fountain. But he should stand at the foot
of Niagara Falls, or on the rocky shore of the Atlantic when the sea
is lashed by a tempest, in order to get the most terrific element in this
sublime composition of the great artist. For you may easily conjecture
that the dynamical force necessary to raise 200,000 to 500,000 tons
of lava at once into the air, would not be silent in its operations.

A NEW MINERAL AND EARTH.

Dr. D. D. Owen, U S. Geologist, gives the following communi-
cation respecting a supposed new mineral and a new earth, discovered
_ by him, in Silliman’s Journal, May, 1852.

While examining, in the summer of 1848, the north shore of
Lake Superior, situated in Minnesota, particularly in the vicinity of
Baptism River, I observed a peculiar, soft green mineral diffused in
the amygdaloidal traps. ‘Though not in large masses, the mineral was
so abundantly disseminated in some of these rocks, that the least blow
of the hammer indented the rock, and left a whitish-green mark from
the easily crushed particles of the soft green mineral in question.
Chemical analysis of the mineral showed it to be essentially a hydrated
silicate of magnesia, and what appeared to be a new earth, interme-

GEOLOGY. 991

diate in its properties between magnesia and manganese. The color
of the mineral when pure, is of a pale yellowish-green, consistence and
hardness about that of wax. Specific gravity, 2.548. It has not been
found crystallized. Treated with hydrochloric acid, chlorine is evolved,
and the greater part of the constituents, except silica, dissolved.
About 10 per cent. of the mineral is made up of the supposed new
earth, which when separated has the following properties and reac-
tions with re-agents:—It dissolves either in hydrochloric or nitric
acid evolving chlorine from the former acid. The solution in hydro-
ehlorie acid, when concentrated, has a beautiful pea-green color, and
the salt crystallizes either of a slightly paler green, or a light chrome
yellow, depending on the degree of heat at which the evaporation is
completed. The peculiar color of its saits, together with the appear-
ance of the residue left in the analytical process after treating with
caustic potash to separate the alumina, was what first attracted my
attention to this earth. When separated. and still slightly contamin-
ated with magnesia, the earth has a pale, flesh color, not unlike yttria.
When freed from magnesia, it has more the appearance of powdered
dried albumen. The earth differs from alumina and glucina in being
insoluble in caustic potash. From magnesia in producing colored
salts ; in being only slightly soluble in ammoniacal salts ; in the pecu-
liar vesicular character of the precipitate with phosphate of soda; in
being precipitated with oxalate of ammonia. From yttria it differs
in not giving a precipitate with oxalic acid in slightly acid solutions ;
in being precipitated by succinate of ammonia, even before the solu-
tion is quite neutral, which prevents this re-agent being applied to
separate iron from it, as is recommended by Berzelius for separating
oxide of iron from yttria. It differs from zirconium in being soluble
in nitric and muriatic acids after ignition. From cerium, in not turn-
ing a brick-red after ignition, and in the color of its salts which are
not amethystine, but shades of green and yellow, except the nitrate,
which is almost colorless. The nitrate crystallizes in prisms, which
seem to be right-rhombic. Its salts, like the corresponding ones of
magnesia seem to be deliquescent. From the quantity of chlorine
evolved during the solution of the mineral and earth in hydrochloric
acid, it appears that this earth must exist in at least two degrees of
oxidation ; the chlorine being disengaged, just as in the case of the
solution of the higher oxides of manganese when treated with hydro-
chloric acid. From these and other consideration Dr. Owen con-
cludes, that the earth contained in the mineral, which is nearly inso-
luble in sal-ammoniac, insoluble in caustic potassa, and producing the
above reactions with re-agents, and green and yellow salts, must be
either a new earth or else a modification of some known earth not
previously known. The name Thalium is proposed for the base of
this earth, Thalio for the earth itself, aud Thalite for the mineral from
which it is extracted.

The new metal Donarium,* the discovery of which was announced
last year by Bergemann, proves to be nothing but Thorina.

* See Annual of Scientific Discovery, 1852, p 176.

292, ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE DIAMOND.

Sir Davin Brewster at the Belfast meeting of the British Asso-
ciation stated that his opinion had been requested by Prince Albert
respecting different forms into which it was proposed to reduce
the Koh-i-noor diamond, in order to make it an ornamental
gem. In the state in which it then was, it exhibited an inferior dis-
play of colors to its glass model, and it was only by surrounding it
with a number of vivid lights that its colored refractions could be
developed. Having had occasion to observe some remarkable phe-
nomena in small portions of diamond, I was desirous of examining so
large a mass of diamond as the Koh-i-noor before it was reduced in
size, and covered with facets which would not permit it to be exam-
ined. -His Royal Highness readily granted my request, and I had
thus an oppportunity of submitting it to the scrutiny of polarized
light. In place of producing no action upon this species of light, as
might have been expected from its octahedral structure, it exhibited
streaks of polarized tints, generally parallel to one another, but in
some places of an irregular form, and rising to the yellow of the jirst
order of colors. These tints and portions of polarized light were
exactly the same as those which I had Jong ago found in many other
diamonds. In placing the Koh-i-noor under a microscope of consid-_
erable power, I observed in it, and also in each of the two small dia-
monds which accompanied it, several minute and irregular cavities,
surrounded with sectors of polarized light, which could only have been
produced by the expansive action of a compressed gas, or fluid, that
had existed in the cavities when the diamond was in a soft state. In
an external cavity, shown in the model, and which had been used for
fixing the gold setting, I observed, with common light, a portion of
yellow light, indicating a yellow substance. Mr. Garrard and others
considered it as gold rubbed off the gold setting; but as gold is never
yellow by transmitted light, I considered the color as produced by a
yellow solid substance of unknown origin. Sir De la Beche having
suggested to me that it would be desirable to make a general examina-
tion of the principal diamonds in London, I went next day tothe *
British Museum, and found there an interesting specimen, which threw
some light on the yellow solid to whieh I have referred. This speci-
men was a piece of colorless diamond, uncut, and without any crys-
talline faces, about three or four tenths of an inch broad, and about
the twelfth of an inch thick, and on its surface there lay a crystal of
yellow diamond, with the four planes of semi-octahedron. This singu-
lar fact was illustrated by a large model placed beside it. Upon
examining the original, I noticed a pretty large cavity in the thickness
of the specimen, with the extremity of which the yellow octahedron
was connected ; and finding a portion of amorphous yellow diamond
in the other end of the cavity, I had no doubt that the yellow crystal
had emerged, in a fluid state, from the cavity when it was accidentally
opened, and had immediately crystallized on the surface of cleavage.
Iam well aware that such an opinion makes a good demand upon the

GEOLOGY. 293

faith of the mineralogist ; but to those who have seen, as I have done,
the contents of fluid cavities in crystals solidifying and even crystal-
lizing on the face of cleavage, while another portion of the con-
tents of the cavity escaped in gas—to those who have seen in
topaz cavities numbers of regularly formed crystals, some of which,
after being fused by heat, instantly re-crystallized—the conclusion I
have drawn will be stripped of much of its apparent extravagance.
In examining a number of diamonds in the Museum of the East India
Company, and about forty or fifty in the possession of Messrs. Hunt &
Roskill, I found many containing large and irregular cavities of the
most fantastic shapes, and all of them surrounded with irregular
patches of polarized light, of high tint, produced undoubtedly, by a
pressure from within the cavities, and modified by their form. Among
these specimens I found one or two black diamonds, not black
from a dark coloring matter, like that in smoky quartz, but black from
the immense number of cavities which they contam. Tavernier has
described a large and curious diamond which throws some light on the
subject of this notice. It contained, in its very centre, a large black
cavity. The diamond merchants refused to purchase it. At last a
Dutchman bought it, and, by cutting it in two, obtained two very fine
diamonds. The black cavity through which he cut was found to con-
tain eight or nine carats of what Tavernier calls black vegetable mud!
Mr. Tennant, the celebrated geologist, stated that at the last meeting
of the British Association, Dr. Beke read a paper “ On the Diamond
Slab supposed to have been cut from Koh-i-noor.” He stated: — “ At
the capture of Coochan there was found among the jewels of the
harem of Reeza Kooli Khan, the chief of that place, a large diamond
slab, supposed to have been cut from one side of the Koh-i-noor, the
great Indian diamond now in the possession of Her Majesty. It
weighed about 130 carats, showed the marks of cutting on the flat and
largest side, and appeared to correspond in size with the Koh-i-noor.”
Prof. Tennant was induced to record his opinion of the probability of
this being correct. He had made models in fluor spar, and afterwards
broken them, and obtained specimens which would correspond in
cleavage, weight, and size with the Koh-i-noor. By this means he was
enabled to include the piece described by Dr. Beke, and probably the
large Russian diamond, as forming altogether but portions of one large
diamond. The diamond belongs to the tesselar crystalline system ; it
yields readily to cleavage in four directions, parallel to the planes
of the regular octahedron. Two of the largest planes of the Koh-i-
noor, when exhibited in the Crystal Palace, were cleavage planes —
one of them had not been polished. This proved the specimen to be
not a third of the weight of the original crystal, which he believed to
have been a rhombic dodecahedron; and if slightly elongated, which
is a common form of the diamond, would agree with Tavernier’s
description of it, bearing some resemblance to an egg. Referring to
the diamonds procured in the Brazils, he related a fact which, he said,
was told to him by a gentleman from Brazil. A slave in that country
was one day wading in a river in search of the precious gems to be

294 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

found imbedded in the strand, when he struck his crow bar in a spot
which surprised him by its hollow sound. He repeated its blows, and
soon struck the iron through a crust of siliceous particles cemented
together by oxide of iron. On removing the concrete mass, the slave
discovered a bed of diamonds, which were afterwards disposed of for
£300,000. Such an immense number of diamonds being thrown upon
market, so overstocked it that nearly all the dealers became bankrupt,
and upon the diamonds being introduced into England, the glut was
so great that the results to the trade were equally disastrous, only
three English houses being able to stand up against it. One of these
persons was a gentleman in Leadenhall street, who was so largely
engaged in the trade, that he had actually shown him (Mr. Tennant)
a peck full of diamonds.

A London journal furnishes the following account of the re-cutting
of the famous Koh-i-noor diamond : —

This precious stone, which was the synosure of the World’s Exhi-
bition of 1851, attracted, from the multitudes who last year gazed
upon it, expressions of disappointment at the somewhat dim radiance
of its lustre, not fulfilling the expectations entertained from the high
flown descriptions which had been given of the Mountain Light —a
title which many beholders held to be a misnomer. ‘This disappoint-
ment having come to the knowledge of those into whose possession it had
passed, suggested the desirability, if practical, of effecting such altera-
tion in the shape of the diamond as would remove the admitted defects
of the oriental cutting, to which it had been subjected by its original
proprietors. With this view, the opinions of various scientific gentle-
men were taken, and some doubts having been expressed as to the
possibility of cutting the gem without incurring, a great risk of its
destruction, Professor Tennant and Mr. Mitchell were especially
requested to examine and report upon the practicability of the sug-
gestedimprovement. These scientific gentlemen accordingly prepared
a report, wherein they admitted the improvement which the proposed
alteration in shape would effect upon the Koh-i-noor, but expressed
fears that any lateral cutting would endanger its integrity. It was
then determined to submit the matter to the opinions of practical
lapidaries; and with that view the Crown jewellers, Messrs. Garrard,
were instructed to obtain a report from competent persons versed in
diamond cutting. Those gentlemen thereupon consulted Messrs. M.
& E. Coster, of Amsterdam, (the diamond cutting trade having been
entirely lost to this country,) who, while admitting the accuracy of the
fears expressed in the report of Professor Tennant and Mr. Mitchell,
nevertheless were of opinion that the dangers were not so formidable
as to prevent the intended operation from being safely effected, pro-
vided the necessary skill of superior artists was employed. ‘This opin-
ion was sufficiently encouraging to induce an order for the preparation
of the requisite machinery to be erected on the premises of Messrs.
Garrard, and accordingly a smail steam-engine of from two to four-
horse power was erected, and put in operation. As this is the largest
diamond which has been cut in Europe for a long period, the com-

GEOLOGY. | 295

mencement of the work was personally undertaken by the Duke of
Wellington, in the fellowing manner: — The Koh-i-noor having been
embedded in lead, with the exception of one small salient angle
intended to be first submitted to the cutting operation, his Grace
placed the gem upon the soaife—an horizontal wheel revolving with
almost incalculable velocity — whereby the exposed angle was
removed by the friction, and the first facet of the new cutting was
effected. This, the first step in the operation, forms but a small item
of progress, as it is expected that the work, under the hands of the
two Dutch artists to whom it has been entrusted, will occupy a period
of some months, it being, as may be conceived, a work of great deli-
cacy, involving an equal amount of skill and care. The Koh-i-noor
is intended to be converted into an oval brilliant, and the two smaller
diamonds which accompany it, are to be similarly treated as pendants.
The present weight of the principal gem is 186 carats, and the pro-
cess now in course of progress will not, it is anticipated, diminish in
any material degree its weight, while it will largely increase its value,
and develope its beauty. Some conversation has occurred respecting the
doubts imputed to have been cast by Sir D. Brewster upon the iden-
tity of the Koh-i-noor; but the general opinion amongst those best
acquainted with the subject appeared to be, that it was impossible for
Dhuleep Singh to have palmed off a fictitious diamond, when his con-
stantly wearing it on state occasions must have rendered it perfectly
familiar to thousands who would instantly have detected any attempt
at substitution. ‘The more probable assumption was stated to be, that
the weight of the Mountain of Light had been more Orientale some-
what exaggerated.

The business of cutting diamonds is now chiefly confined to
Amsterdam, and is thus described in a late number of the London
News :—

It was on a Sunday, in the early part of 1847, that, being at
Amsterdam, we wandered out from our hotel on a chance excursion
through the town. Before we had gone far the noise of machinery
arrested our attention, and, on making inquiries, we found that it pro-
ceeded from the celebrated diamond-cutting establishment of the
place. Let not the reader picture to himself a clean, neat, well-look-
ing establishment, such as one of our paper or cotton mills, but as an
old lumbering shed, in which, impelled by the labor of four or five
sorry horses, revolved a horizontal wheel. This was the only source
of motion by which the grinding machinery was kept at work; and
its primitive nature ina century when the steam-engine 1s made to spin
cotton, grind corn, and weave cloth, could not but suggest to the
looker-on how remote from ordinary wealth — wealth selt-developing
and expansive — was the conventional wealth represented by the
diamond trade. The operation of cutting is performed in several dilap-
idated rooms up stairs. There are seen in rapid revolution some
scores of horizontal metal wheels, each about a foot and a half in
diameter. Their surfaces being smeared from time to time with a
mixture of diamond dust and olive oil, and set in revolution, the dia-

26

296 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

mond to be ground is brought in contact with the revolving metallic
surface. It need hardly be said, that the task of holding a diamond
to be ground firmly against the revolving wheel for so long a period
of time as is necessary, would be impossible. Continuous pressure is
effected in another and very simple manner: the diamonds are
imbedded, all except the parts to be ground, in a heavy mass of very
fusible solder shaped like a hammer, the handle of which being fixed
as to horizontal motion, but free by means of a hinge to move up and
down, and the face of the hammer being brought flat upon the side
of the horizontal wheel, the operation of grinding, cutting as it is
_ called, proceeds without further trouble.

ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD MINES OF MIDDLETOWN, CONN.

Axsout two miles below the city of Middletown, Connecticut, on
the banks of the Connecticut river, are several excavations, some 18
to 30 feet deep, made during the Revolutionary war by a company,
for the purpose of procuring lead ore, so as to supply the American
troops with lead. It was worked for some time, the ore smelted, and
the lead separated from the rock in which it was found imbedded.
Not being found sufficiently profitable to make it an object, the work-
ing of the mines was discontinued. A recent examination having
been made of these old workings, a considerable quantity of silver
was found associated with the lead, and the persons interested became
satisfied, that it could be worked profitably, and that the quantity of
silver would fully pay the whole expenses of working the mines,
leaving the large quantity of lead obtained to form the profit of the
mining operations. ‘Thus far, although they have worked but a few
months, with a small force, and cannot be supposed to have but
tested the richness of the veins of silver—yet it is paying its way, and
even more than that. Lately, some rich veins of silver ore have been
discovered—and some pure native silver—the former being nearly
free from the lead mixture. The ore is broken up and then fed to a
mill, where it is pounded fine—the pounders, of which there are four,
being operated by an overshot water wheel, which is carried by water
from a dam, with a fall of some 15 or 25 feet. As fast as the ore is
pounded sufliciently fine, a stream of water carries it into troughs,
where it is washed. From these troughs it is taken out, and sent to
New York, where the metals are separated.

MINERALOGICAL NOTICES.

The following mineralogical notices have been communicated to
Silliman’s Journal, July, by Mr. W. 'T. Blake.

Apatite—During the past winter a shaft has been sunk upon the
vein of crystalline phosphate of lime at Hurdstown, Essex Co., N. Y.,
and large blocks of massive apatite have been raised; some of the
largest of these masses weighed not less than 200 pounds, and were
nearly pure apatite,—the specimens have very little color, portions of

GEOLOGY. 297

the masses being translucent and nearly transparent, and resembling
the “asparagus-stone” variety of the mineral. The more compact
and opaque masses frequently cleave into hexagonal prisms, some of
them having lateral planes three inches wide. Rhombohedrons
resulting from cleavage are not uncommon.

Brown Tourmaline—Beautiful transparent crystals of brown tour-
maline occur disseminated in the massive and concretionary phos-
phorite at the “eupyrchroite” locality, Crown-point, Essex Co.,
N. Y.; terminated crystals are rare, but the few found are highly
modified, and are crystallographically similar to the crystals from
Gouverneur, N. Y., described and figured by Rose. (See Dana’s
Mineralogy, p. 136.) The color is a light clove-brown, and the
crystals exhibit dichroism. Specimens cut and polished have much
beauty as gems.

Red Zine Oxide —Fine cabinet specimens of lamellar red zine oxide
can be obtained at the zine mine, Stirling Hill, Sussex Co., N. Y.
The lamellar masses are disseminated in the highly crystalline lime-
stone which has frequently a delicate pink hue and translucent,—
cleaving readily into large rhombohedrons; the contrast between the
red zinc and the gangue adds greatly to the beauty and mineralogical
value of these specimens. These distinct nodules of oxide are found
at the junction of the vein of red zine ore and the limestone, but the
oxide is free from any admixture with Franklinite crystals; good
crystalline specimens of Franklinite are now very rare at the mine.

Fluor-Spar Locality—Shawneetown, Gallatin Co., Ill, has long
enjoyed a reputation among American mineralogists as a locality for
fluor-spar. Having had occasion, a few months since, to visit the
southern portion of Illinois, I explored this locality. It was found,
however, that the fluor-spar did not occur, as reputed, at Shawnee-
town, but ten to fifteen miles farther down the Ohio, and a half a mile
to a mile north of the river.

The fiuor occurs in the carboniferous limestone, it forms numerous
veins, many of which are from ten to twenty feet in thickness. It is
highly crystalline, and often very fetid; beautiful crystallized speci-
mens are found in pockets in the veins, which are sometimes entirely
colorless, frequently of a blue, a violet, or a pink tint, and more
rarely of an emerald-green. The localities have been quite exten-
sively worked for lead, which, under the form of galena, is associated
with the fluor. The amount of galena is quite considerable, although
no regular vein has as yet been found; it is somewhat argentiferous,
yielding, on an average of several specimens examined, about four
ounces of silver to the ton. The mining of these veins has devel-
oped, besides some fine crystallizations of fluor, as a compact variety
in which the associated galena also has the compact structure. An
immense amount of a remarkably fine quality of fluor-spar could be
obtained from these veins should there be a demand for it in the arts.
—Com. to Silliman’s Journal by S. J. Brush.

Platinum in Canada.—This metal was detected last summer, in the
gold washings of the Riviere du Loup, where it is found sparingly

298 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

mixed with the gold, in minute scales and grains. Associated with it
there was another metal which resisted completely the action of the
acid. It forthed small plates of a tin-white, generally hexagonal, and
so hard as to resist steel; these characters show it to be widosmine,
the native alloy of the rare metals iridium and osmium, which is
found with the gold of South America, and is from its extreme hard-
ness, employed “to form the points of gold ‘pens. —heport Canadian
Geologists.

LARGE DEPOSITE OF GRAPHITE.

Ar St. Johns, N. B., near the new suspension bridge over the St.
John’s river, a very extensive deposite of graphite has been opened
and explored to a considerable extent. The vein, or bed as it might
more properly be called, is nearly vertical, and inclosed between beds
of highly metamorphic schists. It is entered near the water on the
face of a precipitate cliff about seventy feet high, the walls of the
lode being in the main parallel to the graphite deposite. This bed has
been explor ed by a gallery or adit level over a hundred feet, and by
cross cuts at right angles to this some twenty or more feet. All these
are in the graphite mass, and of course the floor and roof of the
levels are of the same mineral. The quartzose walls have occa-
sionally approached, and in some cases masses of quartz, or schist,
have been included in the graphite. The course of this deposite is
about northeast and southwest, or nearly in the direction of the strike
of the strata of schist. The graphite i is not of a very superior quality
as a mass, though portions of it are quite pure. As yet no solid and
perfectly homogenous masses have been taken out. It has a foliated
structure more or less highly marked. Iron pyrites is too abundantly
diffused in it to admit of its use for crucibles. The chief economical
use made of it has been in facing the sand moulds for iron castings,
for which purpose it is ground to a fine powder. Some of the finer
parts are also used to manufacture pencils. Many hundred tons of
graphite from this deposite have already been taken out since the
mine was opened two years ago, and the supply may be esteemed
- inexhaustible. The vein or bed re- appears on the opposite side of the
St. John’s river, and on the side now opened it has been traced over
amile. The position of the deposite in conformable metamorphic
schists, suggests the conjecture that this deposite of graphite may
represent a ‘former coal bed.

LAKE SUPERIOR COPPER MINES.

Tue National Intelligencer publishes a few facts to show the advan-
tage of a judicious prosecution of the copper mining business. The
Intelligencer says :—

The mine which has thus far been the most productive is called the
Boston and Pittsburg Mining Company. Work was commenced in
1848. A capital of $110, 000 was paid in, or about $18 50 per share on

GEOLOGY. i 999

6,000 shares. In 1849, $60,000 was divided among the shareholders ; in
1850, $84,000; in 1851, $60,000, and in 1852, $60,000 more will be
divided. In another view, shares which cost $184 have received
back in dividends $34 and are worth $100 in the market.

The Northwest Mining Company ranks next in value. Mining was
here commenced in earnest in 1849. About $80,000 have been paid in.
In 1849 the net proceeds from the sale of copper amounted to some
$5,000 ; in 1850 to about $32,000; and in 1851 to something over
$50,000. This company owns a large tract of mineral territory, upon
which two valuable veins have been opened and a number of others
discovered. The property owned by this company is of immense
value, and magnificent fortunes will in a few years doubtless be
realized from it.

The Minnesota Mining Company is located near the Ontonogon
River, some forty miles westward of the two preceding. Immense
blocks of pure copper are taken from this mine. It commenced in the
autumn of 1848, and has a capital paid in of some $90,000, or $300na
share —there being but three thousand shares. They command $150
ih the’ market. A large dividend will, we think, be paid from the
earnings this year.

The gain reaped from the workings of a successful mine is free-
quently 500 per cent. Shares in the Boston and Pittsburg Company,
which cost $18 50, sell for $100. In the Minnesota for $30 the owner
can now receive $150. The Northwest shares will probably increase
100 per cent. in value in a year.

NEW METEORITES.

PROFESSOR SHEPARD, of Amherst College, has recently added to
his collection of meteorites a very valuable specimen, which is des-
cribed as a mass of compact malleable iron weighing 178 pounds, of an
elongated ovoidal form, covered with the usual indentations, and
exhibiting the characteristic crystalline figures. It was discovered on
the Great Lion River, in the Nemaqua Land, in South Africa, and,
having beeen transported several hundred miles in wagons to the
Cape of Good Hope, was shipped to London. Prof. Shepard, being
fortunately in that city at the time of its arrival, immediately entered
into negotiations to obtain it, and with considerable difficulty, succeed-
ed. He also has another specimen from Newberry, South Carolina,
weighing fifty-eight pounds. His collection of extra terrestrial sub-
stances weighs more than 350 pounds, and includes two hundred
specimens from more than a hundred different localities.

Prof. Root in a communication to Silliman’s Journal, November,
1852, states, that a mass of malleable iron weighing nine pounds, was
found last fall in digging a ditch on a farm near the free bridge on the
Cayuga side of the Seneca River. It was drop shaped, about four
inches in diameter and seven inches in length. When found it was
coated with oxide of iron. The surface was uneven, and some of the
prominent ait ta terminated by planes of octahedral crystals. It

300 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

may be an interesting fact, that the locality where this iron was found is
only a few miles from Waterloo, in Seneca county, where a meteorite
fell in 1827, as has been stated by Prof. Shepard.

GOLD DISTRICTS OF CANADA.

From the recent reports of the Provincial Geologists, we derive
the following facts relative to the existence and production of gold in
Canada: — The auriferous district has been found by examination to
spread over an area probably comprising between 3,000 and 4,000
square miles. It appears to occupy nearly the whole of that part of
the Province which lies on the southeast side of the prolongation of
the Green Mountains into Canada, and extends to the boundary
between the Colony and the United States. Two general lines of
exploration were followed, one of them up the Chaudiere and Riviere
du Loup and the other from Lake Etchemin to Sherbrooke on the St.
Francis. The former, running transverse to the rock ranges measur-
ed about forty-five miles, and the latter with them about ninety miles.
The transverse line was more closely examined than the other, and
traces of the precious metal were met with at moderate intervals
throughout the whole distance. ‘They were not confined to the chan-
nels of the main streams merely, but those of various tributaries
furnished indications sometimes for a considerable distance up. It is
not supposed that the limits of the auriferous district have been ascer-
tained, but that it very probably extends much farther to the north-
east, and attains the valley of the river St. John, while to the south-
west it is known to reach Vermont, and to be traceable at intervals
through the United States, even, it is said, as far as Mexico. In its
breadth, however, it does not appear to cross the range of mountains
with which it runs parallel, and no traces of it have been met with on
their northwestern flank. The deposite in which the gold occurs is
part of an ancient drift, probably marine, and supposed to be of higher
antiquity than that which occupies the valley of the St. Lawrence
and some of its tributaries. In this, alluded to in various reports as
tertiary and post-tertiary, the remains of whales, seals, and two species
of fish,and many marine shells of those species still inhabiting the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, are found. ‘These shells on the Mountain of
Montreal attain a height of about 470 feet above tide level in Lake St.
Peter, which is the greatest altitude known; none of the remains
have yet been found in the Canadian gold drift, and as this appears in
its lowest undisturbed parts to be at a height of about 500 feet above
the sea, it is probable what is now exposed of it, had emerged from the
ocean before the Laurentian drift was placed, while in lower levels it
would be covered up by it.

During the five months of the summer of 1851, the whole amount of
gold collected by fifteen men at the washings on the River de Loup at
its junction with the Chaudiere, was about 1,900 penny-weights.
From among a few ounces of fine gold obtained, there were collected
small grains both of platinum and iridosmine, the value of the

GEOLOGY. | 301

former being below, and of the latter double that of gold ; almost all of
this fine gold was at first of so white a color that it was considered
probable the circumstance might be owing to the presence of a very
large proportion of silver; some of the larger pieces also obtained
were spotted white from the same supposed cause; but, Mr. Hunt, on
heating this white gold, found that it quickly turned to a good golden
yellow, and that the discoloration was occasioned by a thin coating of
mercurial amalgam. As the spots were perceived on some of the
larger pieces immediately on their being first obtained on the shovel,
it is supposed they must have been spotted with the mercury while
still undisturbed in the drift; and as no mercury had been used on
the ground, it leads to the supposition that some ore of mercury may
possibly be one of the mineral products of the country, though not a
grain of cinnabar, the commonest form of the ores of mercury, has been
observed in the gravel. Among the substances obtained in separating
the gold, lead shot of various sizes, from partridge to swan shot, has
been nearly as abundant as the gold. Not a vanning was made of the
concentrated material without obtaining some of it ; its presence is no
doubt due to the operations of those who have followed the chase, and
to judge from the quantity of the shot the place must have been one of
favorite resort. Whether the hunters may at any time have brought
quicksilver with them and spilt it, is a question that cannot be deter-
mined.

The Geologist concludes, from the evidence collected, that the de-
posites are not generally sufficiently rich to render their working re-
munerative to unskilled labor; and that the agriculturist and others
engaged in ordinary occupations of the country, would only lose their

time and labor by turning gold hunters.

GOLD AND ITS PRODUCTION.

FIveE years have hardly elapsed since the gold yield in California
became a fixed fact, and within that short period of time between a
hundred and ninety and two hundred millions worth of gold dust has
been added to the wealth of the world, and a trade has sprung up
between the Atlantic States and San Francisco of the greatness of
which some idea may be indirectly formed, from the fact that the im-
ports from all other parts of the world to that port have increased
from three and a half millions in 1851, to ten and a half millions in
1852. The California movement has made its influence felt all over
the world; but now even California itself seemes to be eclipsed and
outstripped in its productiveness by the more recent and more magni-
ficent discoveries of gold fields in Australia. They completely throw
into the shade all the mines of Peru, Mexico, or California. So
extensive are the gold deposites distributed in Australia, that the very:
streets of Melbourne are found, in a manner, to be paved with them.
The broken quartz rocks which have been used to MacAdamize the
streets are found to contain gold. :

302 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

While Melbourne is thus favored, mines of immense value have
been opened at Mount Ballaret and Mount Alexander, about eighty
to one hundred miles north of the city. The treasure taken from
these two deposites alone, from the 1st of December, 1851, to the 1st of
April, 1852, amounted to about $9,000,000.

The first discovery of gold was made near Bathurst, in New South
Wales, on the 22d May, 1851, from 150 to 164 miles west of Sidney.
The localities first worked were at Summerville Creek, Abercrombie
river, from whence further discoveries have been made over a vast
mountain region of country. From May to the 6th September the
shipments reached $750,000, and on the 8th November about $1,000,-
000. Lumps were occasionally found weighing from twenty to
twenty-seven pounds. In December, 1851, the parties at the diggings
in Victoria were estimated at from eight to ten thousand, and near
Bathurst, at four thousand. The whole amount sent to England since
the discover y in May, 1851, is estimated at twenty millions. The gold
region already discovered in Australia promises to yield double ‘and
triple the quantity of gold, by the same number of laborers, over that
obtained in California. Good observers suppose it to extend over an
area of not less than 15 to 20,000 square miles, the whole area of the
island being estimated at about three million square miles.

Accounts from Australia to November, 1852, state that the produc-
tion of gold is on the increase, and many of the stories which are
received would seem almost incredible, were they not fully corrobo-

rated by actual receipts. Not only do the old diggings yield abun-
dantly, but new ones are found daily of wide extent. To show that the
recent accounts must be founded in truth, it is said that the receipts
from Mount Alexander and Ballarat diggings alone, are given in the
Australia papers at one million seven hundred thousand nine hundred
and seventy-four ounces, or between seventy-three and seventy-four
tons, in ten months. From the entire Victoria gold fields, in the same
period, the receipts had been one hundred and five tons. The
amount of gold actually exported from the country from October,
1851, to September, 1852, amounted to over forty millions of dollars.

The assays made of the Australian gold show that it is somewhat
purer than that obtained in California. The assays of the United
States Mint, at Philidelphia, give a fineness of 966 thousandths. Making
an allowance for melting, “this gives a value to the native grains of
about $19 60 per ounce. ‘Assays. that have been made in England
are reported to have given the result of 938 thousandths fine. Upon
these facts, it is pre esumed that Australian gold is better than Califor-
nia or, in other words, that it contains less silver by six or seven per
cent. on the average.

Gold in Australia.— A report has been presented to the Imperial
Geological Society of Vienna relative to the production of gold in
Austria. Austria produces the most gold of any European State. It
amounts yearly to 7,500 marks, which promises asum of 603,000
ducats. Much of this j is obtained by the Gipseys by sand-washing i in
Hungary and Siebenburgen. There are two ways in which the gold

GEOLOGY. 303

is found —one is in the deposites of sand and soil; the other in the
strata of ore. The latter is the most common method of finding it in
Hungary and Siebenburgen.

Gold in Vermont. — Specimens of gold have been found during the
past season in Bridgewater, Vermont, by Mr. Mathew Kennedy, of
Plymouth, Vt. They were taken from a quartz vein in mica and talcose
slate, and the gold is associated and intermingled with the white quartz,
ferruginous quartz, galena, and iron and copper pyrites. In occurs in
scales and grains of various sizes, and is of a beautiful clear yellow.
The vein has been traced some 50 or 100 rods, and farther explora-
tions will soon be made to prove it at other points. The gold forma-
tion is known to extend nearly the whole length of the State, and this
discovery may lead to a fair examination of the formation.

Gold in Demerara.— Advices from Demerara state, that gold has
been discovered in that colony up the Cuyuni river, and that about
£200 had already been brought in. It is alleged to be remarkably
pure and to consist of small lumps, and also of scales and dust. The
locality is said to be not more than two or three days’ journey into the
interior.

In addition to the gold discoveries made within a recent period in
Australia and California, it is stated that valuable deposites have been
found on the St. John’s river, near Liberia, in Africa; howéver this
may be, it is undoubtedly true, that the exportation of gold from the
west coast of Africa has greatly increased within the last two years.
The amount received in Liverpool alone from this source, was estimat-
ed for the year 1851, to exceed £300,000.

Consumption of Gold. —'The following curious statistics relative to
the consumption of gold were stated in a lecture lately delivered at the
Geological Society at London. The entire amount in circulation is
said to be £48,000,000; of which the wear and waste is stated to be
33 per cent., annually £1,680,000. The consumption of gold in arts
and manufactures is as follows : —

inthe Umited Kingdom, .... 6. 25.9) jays, » «py.s)4a24000,000
France, . RE Ra et age AT Ne . 1,000,000
ERIN ari sf otek ne, wate ih oak alas coll alls Seu Oe
iMher parts of Hnrope,.. (joey <) sicsji eons 4y2e 1,600,000
ALCS a aes s \iisitle Ae Siackh, aifle om <ipee ges. ORO

£6,050,000

In Birmingham alone there is a weekly consumption of gold for chains
only amounting to 1,000 ounces. The weekly consumption for gold
leaf in London is 400 ounces; in other places in Great Britain, 184
ounces.

One of the potteries in Staffordshire consumes $3,500 worth of gold
annually in gilding; and the whole consumption for gilding porcelain
in England is estimated at about 500 ounces annually.

The London Times gives some elaborate tables concerning the
comparative production of gold and silver, for the last few years.

304 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

From these tables it appears that the produce of gold in the world
rose from 114,674 pounds in 1846, to 365,950 pounds in 1850. In
those five years the increase was at the rate of 219 per cent., while
silver only increased from 1,979,084 pounds in 1846, to 2,663,386
pounds in 1850, or 343 (34.5) per cent. The former metal was in
1850, therefore, apparently increasing at the rate of 44 (43.8) per cent.
per annum, and the latter at 7 (6.9) per cent.

The following is the estimated produce of the precious metals, in
tons, in 1801, 1846, 1850, 1851, and the probable amount of 1852 :—
1801, gold, 19 tons; silver, 856 tons, or 1 Ib. of gold to 45 lbs. of
silver. 1846, gold, 42 tons; silver, 727 tons, or 1 Ib. of gold to 17 lbs.
of silver. 1850, gold, 134 tons; silver, 978 tons, or 1 lb. of gold to
7 Ibs. of silver. 1851, gold, 180 tons; silver, 1,002 tons, or 1 lb. of
gold to 5 Ibs. of silver. 1852, gold, 242 tons; silver, 1,027 tons, or 1
lb. of gold to 4 lbs. of silver.

ON THE FOOT TRACKS IN THE POTSDAM SANDSTONE OF LOWER
, CANADA.

Mr. Loean, the Canadian Geologist, in his report on the progress
of the Survey for 1851 — 2, furnishes the following facts relative to the
foot tracks of the Potsdam Sandstone of Lower Canada.* The results of
the survey have shown, that a geological trough exists between the
Ottawa and the St. Lawrence on the north and south, and between Mt.
Calvaire and the Johnson District on the east and west ;— that the
Potsdam sandstone, resting on the gneiss, encircles this trough, and
that zones of higher and more fossiliferous formations follow this in
succession, the Utica slates occupying the centre ;— that the Potsdam
sandstone is characterized by Scolithus linearis around the perimeter,
associated, in some parts, with Lingula antiqua, and with the tracks in
every locality in which the latter occur. These localities are six in
number. At one locality, on the Riviere du Nord, where the tracks
are abundant, in the space of a mile and three-quarters, the Gneiss,
the Potsdam sandstone, the Calciferous sand-rock, (the last containing
characteristic fossils,) are found supporting one another. The sur-
faces on which the tracks of these animals are impressed, are some-
times smooth and sometimes beautifully ripple-marked. | On the
ripple-marked surfaces the tracks have often beat down the ripple,
and the sand of the ridge has been dragged into the furrow, in such
a way as to show the direction in which the animal was progressing.

In the most abundant locality of these tracks, there are four exposed
areas in the space of four chains. The first shows ten tracks, running
in different directions and sometimes intersecting one another ; they
vary in breadth from four inches and a-quarter to five inches and
a-half, and, added to one another, measure 108 feet in length; the
second displays eleven tracks of five to six inches wide, and measur-
ing about 108 feet; the third shows five tracks of from four to six

* See Annual of Scientific Discovery for 1851, pp. 314-15.

GEOLOGY. 305

inches wide, and altogether sixty-one feet long; the fourth, five tracks
from three-quarters of an inch to five and a-half inches wide, and
giving an aggregate length of eighteen feet ; and another area in the
next field has ten tracks of four to six and a-half inches wide, with a
total length of fifty-six feet.

Prof. Owen, of London, in a recent communication to the Geolog-
ical Society, stated that he had been enabled to distinguish five well-
marked varieties of imprints, to which, for the sake of convenience,
he has given the following appellations :— Protichnites septemnotatus,
P. octonotatus, P. multinotatus, P. lineatus, and P. alternans. After an
elaborate detailed description of the several tracks, (which have cer-
tain characters in common, such as a more or less regularly marked
longitudinal furrow, accompanied on either side by numerous closely
set imprints,) the Professor proceeded to observe, that, from their
peculiar arrangements, neither to a quadrupedal creature nor a fish-
like animal could these imprints be assigned; and yet, said the Pro-
fessor, with respect to the hypothesis, that each imprint was made by
its independent limb, I confess to much difficulty in conceiving how
seven or eight pairs of jointed limbs cculd be aggregated in so short a
space of the sides of the animal ; so that I incline to adopt as the most
probable hypothesis, that the creatures which have left these tracks
and impressions on the most ancient of known sea shores belonged to
an articulate, and probably crustaceous, genus, either with three pairs
of limbs employed in locomotion, each limb having its extremity either
divided into three or more processes, or bifurcate merely, some of the
imprints, described as “ supplementary,” and usually of smaller size,
being made by a small and simple fourth, or fourth and fifth, pair of
limbs. - The shape of the pits in one of the slabs accords best with the
hard, sub-obtuse, and sub-angular terminations of a crustaceous ambu-
latory limb, such as may be seen in the blunted legs of a large Palinu-
rus or Birgus ; and it is evident that the animal of the Potsdam sand-
stone moved directly forwards, after the manner of the Macrura, and
not sideways, like the Brachyurous crustaceans. One specimen favors
the supposition of the median groove having been formed by a caudal
appendage, rather than by a prominent part of the under surface of
the trunk. With reference to the conjectures that might be formed
respecting the creatures that have left these tracks, the Professor
observed, that the imagination is baffled in the attempt to realize the
extent of time passed since the period when these creatures were in
being that moved upon the sandy shores of the Silurian sea, and we
know that, with the exception of the most microscopic forms, all the
actual species of living beings disappear at a period geologically very
recent in comparison with the Silurian epoch. The forms of animals
present modifications more and more strange and diverse from actual
exemplars as we descend into the depths of time past. Of this the
Plesiosaur and the Ichthyosaur are instances in the reptilian class, and
the Pterichtnys, Coccosteus, and Cephalaspis in the class of fishes. If
then the vertebrate type has undergone such inconceivable modifica-
tions during the secondary and Devonian periods, what may not have

306 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

been the modifications of the articulate type during a period probably
more remote from the secondary period than this is from the present
time ? In all probability there is no living form of animal, bearing
such a resemblance to that which the Potsdam sandstone foot-prints
indicate, as to enable us to illustrate its shape or its precise instruments
and mode of locomotion.

The ripple-marks, which occur on surfaces so close in succession
among the track beds, run in a different direction on each surface, as
if they had been caused not by a current in deep water, running in
one general direction, but by a tide ebbing and flowing, and obeying
the influence of varying local accidental causes. On one surface was
observed the natural edge or termination of the ripple-ridges, with a
track coming up to it and there ceasing, as if the wave had reached
no farther, and one part of the surface had been dry while the water,
operating on another close by, had obliterated the track in producing
the ripple-mark.

In connection with the discovery of these footprints, another singu-
lar discovery has been made, viz., the existence of phosphatic nodules
(containing between 36 and 67 per cent. of phosphate of lime, giving
off ammonia and an odor of burnt horn,) at the summit of the Hudson
River Group, at the base of the Chazy Limestone, and a little lower
in the calciterous sand-rock, where Lingule and Pleurotomarie are
sometimes imbedded in the nodules. These nodules have also been
found in a conglomerate, which, from its position, is considered to be
older than the Cambrian, that constitutes the copper rocks of Lake
Huron, and also crystals of phosphate of lime, (apatite,) have been
noticed in a highly crystalline limestone interstratified with the gneiss,
which is the base rock of the country.

Mr. Hunt, the chemist of the Survey, gives some additional facts
relative to those interesting discoveries. He states, that while recently
examining a coarse grained silicious sandstone and conglomerate,
which occurs near the river Ouelle, I detected several hollow cylin-
drical bodies which I supposed to be some hitherto unknown fossils,
and which you from their form, suggested to be possibly bones. A
chemical examination shows them to consist in great part of phosphate
of lime, and thus gives countenance to the idea that they are the
rémains of vertebrate animals. The longest fragment found is about
an inch and a-half long, and one-fourth of an inch in diameter. It is
hollow throughout, and filled with the earthy matter in which it is
obliquely imbedded, the disintegration of which by the weather, has
exposed the larger extremity of the foreign body, and a portion of its
interior. ‘The smaller extremity is cylindrical and thin, but it grad-
ually enlarges from the thickening of the substance, and at the other
extremity becomes externally somewhat triangulariform; the cavity
remains nearly cylindrical, but its sides are somewhat rough and
irregular. Two other fragments, presenting horizontal sections of
similar cylinders, were detected, having their other extremities in the
rock. The texture of these substances is compact, and the fracture
earthy. Their color is dark brown, but exhibits a yellowish-brown

. GEOLOGY. 307

translucency in thin layers; the powder is light ash-grey, becoming
reddish by ignition; when exposed to heat in a tube, ammoniacal
water is evolved, with a strong odor of animal matter, like that of
burning horn. . A fragment of one of the cylindrical bodies was freed
as much as possible from the sandstone which adhered to the interior,
pulverized, dried and submitted to analysis. It dissolved in hydro-
chloric acid with slight effervescence, from the presence of carbonate
of limie, derived in part from the adherent rock which is calcareous,
and left a considerable residue of quartzose sand. The analysis gave
in 100 parts, 87.53 phosphate of lime, 2.15 volatile matter, with a
little carbonate of lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron.

Many of the cylindrical bodies found in this locality have an axis of
foreign matter, and others have a singular resemblance to different
bones ; others again from their form and homogenous texture resem-
ble coprolites. They are generally very compact, with a fine grained
conchoidal fracture; their color is dark blackish-brown, or bluish-
black, and that of the powder ash-grey, becoming reddish-brown by
heat. Heated in a tube, a strong odor of burning horn is evolved.
Sections of these substances have been made, and submitted to micro-
scopic examination. The hollow cylindrical mass appears homogen-
eous and finely granular in its texture, while a fragment from the
conglomerate bed, consisted of a finely granular matrix, in which are
imbedded angular grains, apparently of quartz. Throughout the
mass of the latter specimen are found imbedded small transparent cyl-
inders, which are almost colorless, and appear to be silicious. Some
are nearly uniform in diameter, with hemispherical extremities ; oth-
ers are thicker in the middle, and taper to the ends, which are either
rounded or conical; they are generally more or less curved, and are
from 1-100 to 2-100 of an inch in length. Some of them exhibit
traces of a longitudinal cylindrical axis, which appears to be a canal
filled up with some granular matter. According to Dr. Bacon, of
Boston, they resemble the silicious spicule which occur in some of
the sponges and other zoophytes, but he regards his examination as
yet incomplete. The results are conclusive as to the absence of any
bony structure in the specimens. At the same time the external form,
connected with their peculiar composition, which is identical with that
of fossil bones, prompts the inquiry whether any metamorphic agen-
cies could not have so far acted upon the animal remains as to induce
an incipient crystallization of the phosphate of lime, thus obliterating
the organic structure. Such a change is well known to take place in
fossils consisting of carbonate of lime, as the stems of crinoids, which
are often highly crystalline in their texture.

Further examinations have also enabled Mr. Hunt to detect these
phosphatic nodules and cylinders in various other localities, in the
ancient palzozoic sandstones. Although the presence of these pecu-
liar animalized phosphatic. masses, in different parts of the Lower
Silurian rocks, points to the existence of vertebrate animals at that
geological epoch, as the only hypothesis which in the present state of
our knowledge, can account for the origin of such substances, it will

27

308 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

be felt that a suggestion, so novel and so much at variance with hith-
erto established facts and recognized ideas in geology, is not to be
received without great hesitation, nor until further investigations shall
have thrown more light upon the subject than is afforded by the pre-
ceding observations and experiments.

GEOLOGY OF THE SHEEP.

THE recent progress of paleontology adds a new element to the
elucidation of this question, which was so ably discussed by Buffon
and the naturalists of the last century. At present, however, the
evidence which paleontology yields is of the negative kind. No
unequivocal fossil remains of the sheep have yet been found in the
bone caves, the drift, or the more tranquil stratified newer pliocene
deposites, so associated with the fossil bones of oxen, wild-boar, wolves,
foxes, otters, &c., as to indicate the coevality of the sheep with those
species, or in such an altered state as to indicate them to have been of
equal antiquity. Ihave had my attention particularly directed to this
point, in collecting evidence fora history of British Fossil Manmalia.
Whenever the truly characteristic parts, viz., the bony cores of the
horns, have been found associated with jaws, teeth, and other parts of
the skeleton of a ruminant, corresponding in size and other characters
with those of the goat and sheep, in the formations of the newer
pliocene period, such supports of the horns have proved to be those of
the goat. No fossil core-horns of the sheep have yet been any where
discovered; and so far as this negative evidence goes, we may infer that
the sheep is not geologically more ancient than man; that it is not a
native of Europe, but has been introduced by the tribes who car-
ried hither the germs of civilization in their migrations westward from
Asia. — Prof. Owen. :

ARTIC FOSSILS FROM ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY.

In 1816, Kotzebue, in the course of his voyage round the world,
visited a bay situated a short way southwards of the Arctic circle,
which afterwards excited great interest on account of the remarkable
character of the cliffs by which it was surrounded. This bay was
named after Eschscholtz, one of the naturalists of the Russian Expe-
dition. ‘The cliffs were described as consisting entirely of masses of
ice, covered by the soil in which flourished an Arctic vegetation. To
add to the interest which such an account was likely to create, it was
stated that the cliffs abounded with the remains of mammoths, horses,
oxen, and reindeer. This remarkable bay was visited by Capt.
Beechey in conjunction with Mr. Collie inthe year 1836: their at-
tention was directed to these iceberg cliffs ; but, on digging into them,
they came to the conclusion that the cliff was composed of mud and
gravel in a frozen state, and that the ice formed only a casing above
it. In the recent voyage of H.M.8. Herald, under the command of
Capt. Kellett, this district was again visited ; and this intelligent com-

GEOLOGY. 309

mannder knowing the different conclusions arrived at by those who
had seen the spot before, determined to make a thorough investigation
of the matter. The result has been, the confirmation of the original
view of Kotzebue, Eschscholtz, and their companion Chamisso, — that
the foundations of these cliffs are truly ice. They have undergone
considerable alteration since the time when they were visited by
Kotzebue and Capt. Beechey. M. Seeman, the naturalist of the expe-
dition, describes them as being from 40 to 90 feet high, —and con-
sisting of three distinct layers, the lower one being ice, the middle one
clay containing fossil bones, and the upper one peat. The icy basis is
from 20 to 60 feet in height ; and Capt. Kellett states that on digging
into the soil at a distance of a quarter of a mile from the edge of the
cliff, he found pure ice at a depth of not more than 3 or 4 feet. The
data are at present insufficient for obtaining an idea of the extent of
this mass of ice ; but sufficient is known to afford interesting materials
for estimating the influence of such a formation on the conditions of
the earth’s surface of which it forms a part. Eschscholtz Bay posses-
ses an additional interest, apart from the physical structure of its cliffs,
in the vast number of fossil bones found in this locality. These re-
mains, M. Seeman states, were in no instance found imbedded in the
ice ; but they generally lay upon the surface —the huge tusks and
horns not unfrequently showing through the soil, — whilst many were
gathered from the sand at the base of the cliffs where they were
exposed to the wash of the tide. The animals to which these remains
belong seemed to have formed part of that great mass of which so
many indications exist in extreme Northern latitudes. The discovery
of the entire carcass of a rhinoceros and of those of two mammoths in
Arctic Siberia is a fact familiar to most persons, — while inexhaustible
deposites of organic remains are known to exist in the Kotelnoi, or
New Siberian Archipelago. The remains from Eschscholtz Bay have
not their soft parts so well preserved as many of the other specimens ;
but when dug out of the soil in which they are contained, they exhal-
ed “a strong and disagreeable odor of decomposing animal matter,
like that of a well-filled cemetery.”

The history of the creatures that have left these remains forms an
interesting problem. They belong to families which now inhabit
tropical and sub-tropical regions. Are we, then, to conclude that they
have been brought from warmer parts of the earth by some great
flood? Their perfect state of preservation in some instances forbids
this conclusion, for they could not have been brought from tropical
regions preserved in ice. Can we suppose that the Arctic regions
were once warmer than now, and actually produced a vegetation
sufficient to support a vast creation of herbiverous animals such as we
now find entombed therein? This is the conclusion to which we are
driven; and without supposing that the temperature of these regions
was tropical, it was probably yet warm enough to encourage a vegetation
on which these creatures could live. By some catastrophe — some
vast deluge, or wave of succession — we must suppose that they were
suddenly engalphed on the shores of asea wherein they had their pasture-

310 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

grounds. Such is the theory to which Sir J. Richardson gives his
adhesion, —and which must be adopted as the most probable till fur-
ther light shall be thrown upon the subject.

The number of species of animals brought from Eschscholtz Bay
are not numerous, — but they belong chiefly to an order of the Mam-
malia— the Ruminantina— whose identity it is more diflicult to
determine by the structure of their skeletons. The principal animals
to which the remains are supposed to belong are the Mammoth
(Elphas primigenius), the Horse (Equus fossilis), the Moose-deer
(Cervus alces), the Reindeer (Cervus tarandus), the Musk-ox ( Ovibos
moschatus), several species of Bison, the Big-horn Ram (Ovis mon-
tana), and some Cetaceans.

FOSSIL REMAINS OF THE MASTODON GIGANTEUS.

- Tue fossil remains of a mastodon have recently been discovered in
a gravel bank near Zanesville, Ohio, making the third of this species
taken from the same locality within a comparatively recent period.
The one last discovered, was in a state of preservation much better
than the former two, and may, when completely exhumed, show
almost the entire bones and frame of animal. The molar teeth, four
in number, all that the species possess, were found in the jaws sound
and unbroken; two of them weigh twenty pounds each. ‘The tusks
were not in as good condition, one only being sound enough to bear
moving. This one, eight feet in length, measures at its base, 263
inches in circumference, and at the point eight feet distant, where it
is broken off, 163 inches in circumference, the whole length of which
was probably 12 feet more.

During the past year, a nearly entire skeleton of a mastodon has
been found near Easton, Pennsylvania. ‘The bones belonged to an
animal of advanced age, as is shown by the condition of the grinders ;—
the surfaces of these being nearly smooth and even. Many portions
of this skeleton were in an excellent state of preservation, and the
tusks especially are among the finest that have yet been discovered.
These remains are to be deposited in the cabinet of Williams College,
Massachusetts.

Bones of the mastodon were also discovered in New Britain, Conn.,
in October last. They were discovered on the land of a Mr.
Churchill, not far from the main street of the village. The skeleton
in this case was quite imperfect.

REMAINS OF REPTILES IN THE OLD RED, OR DEVONIAN FOR-
MATION OF SCOTLAND.

CoNSIDERABLE interest has been excited among British geologists,
by the announcement of the occurrence of the remains of two or
more orders of reptiles, in the old red sandstone of Scotland,
inasmuch as no vestiges of animals of a higher order than fishes had
been observed hitherto in the Devonian formation, in any part of the

GEOLOGY. 311

world. The communication by Capt. Brickendon, with descriptions
of the fossils by Dr. Mantell, read before the Geological Society of
London, gives the following particulars respecting a discovery of the
highest interest in a paleontological point of view. The old red
sandstone strata are largely developed along the coast of Morayshire,
and the yellowish crystalline sandstone is extensively quarried in
several localities near Elgin Spynie, &c. These strata, although for
years dilligently explored by several competent local observers, had
yielded but a solitary specimen of organic remains, viz., the impres-
sions of a series of large scales of a new genus of ganoid fishes. In
the summer of 1850, Capt. Brickendon, obtained from the yellow
sandstone near Elgin, a slab bearing the distinct impressions of Che-
lonian footsteps. These are thirty-four in number, and extend several
feet across the stone. The impressions of the right feet alternate
with those of the left, from which they are separated laterally by an
interval of three inches, the length of each space or stride being
about four inches. The imprints of the fore and hind feet are nearly
in contact; the size of the former in relation to the latter, is as three
to four. The hinder prints are an inch in diameter. The foot-prints
are obtuse and rounded, and indicate a close connection of the articu-
lations, for no distinct markings of the joints are shown. The dis-
covery of these foot-prints, which in every respect resemble those
from the Triassic, and other rocks, that are ascribed by paleontolo-
gists, to turtles or tortoises, is alone an important fact, since it demon-
strates the probability, if not certainty, that reptiles existed during
the Devonian epoch; hence the attention of those collectors who
were aware of the discovery, was especially directed to the rocks of
Morayshire, in the hope of obtaining other vestiges of reptilians, but
without success, until in November, 1851, Mr. Duff, of Elgin, pro-
cured from the sandstone a most extraordinary fossil. This fossil con-
sists of the impression of a great part of the skeleton of a four-footed
reptile, about six inches long, in a block of crystalline sandstone
which is broken into three pieces. Fortunately the stone is split in a
direction parallel with the plane of the spinal column, so that one
piece exposes the imprints of the vertebre and ribs, and hinder
extremities, and the other, the corresponding mould of the upper
part. Dr. Mantell, by a careful investigation, has been enabled to
give restored figures of the vertebree, ribs, femora, &c.; but the origi-
nal contains no remains of osseous substance, except of the cranium,
and that part of the skeleton is crushed, and in a great measure con-
cealed by the investing stone. The skull appears to have been of an
oval form, resembling that of a small lizard, or aquatic salamander ;
but the true outline cannot be determined. There are remains of
two or three very minute and smooth conical teeth, but their mode of
implantation in the jaw is not obvious. The spinal column from the
occiput to the pelvis, appears to have consisted of twenty-four ver-
tebr, each vertebra having a pair of very slender ribs; there are no
remains of the scapular arch, but there are imprints of the left
humerus, radius and ulna; and of the right and left femur, tibia and
2T*

a} & 4 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

fibula. There are ten or twelve caudal vertebre exposed, the
remainder of the series being buried in the stone; the length of the
tail did not probably exceed an inch anda half. Dr. Mantell con-
siders that the original animal was a peculiar type of air breathing
oviparous quadruped, presenting in its osteology certain characters
that are found in Lacertians, combined with others that occur in the
skeleton of Batrachians. From the evidence afforded by a mere
impression of part of the skeleton, and in the absence of any knowl-
edge of the structure of the feet, scapular arch, bones of the cranium,
&c., the natural aflinities of the original cannot be precisely deter-
mined. Dr. Mantell therefore distinguishes this most ancient reptile
hitherto discovered by a name simply expressive of its remote
antiquity, viz., Telerpeton.

The original reptile appears to have had a general resemblance in
its physiognomy to an acquatic salamander, with broad dorsal region
and longer limbs than the ordinary Tritons, fit alike for progression
on land, or through the water; the tail appears to have been wide.
The entire length of the animal did not exceed six or seven inches.
By the discovery of these remains, and the impressions before
described, we have thus, for the first time, obtained unquestionable
evidence that two orders of the class Reptilia existed during the
Devonian epoch.

ON THE SUPPOSED FOSSIL OVA OF BATRACHIANS OF THE
LOWER DEVONIAN.

In connection with the discoveries above referred to, Dr. Mantell
has recently brought to notice certain fossils which abound in the
lower Devonian shales of Forfarshire, and are figured and described
by Sir. Charles Lyell, as probably the ova of gasteropodous mollusca.
These are clusters of small roundish carbonized bodies, which gen-
erally occur with remains of aquatic plants. With the exception of
the Cephalaspis and other ganoid fishes peculiar to the old red, no
other fossils but the ova have been found in these beds. The
resemblance of these organic remains to the carbonized spawn of
recent frogs, which Dr. Mantell had found in the inspissated mud of a
dried up pond, led him to suspect that they might be the fossil ova of
Batrachians ; and for reasons detailed at length in his recent memoir,
he is of the opinion, that if the fossil bodies of Forfarshire be of
animal origin, they are unquestionably referable to Batrachians,
allied to the Ranide or frog family, and not to Gasteropoda; larger
ova occur singly or in pairs, and often attached to the foliage, (in
like manner as the eggs of our Tritons,) and these in all probability
belong to aquatic salamanders. In confirmation of his conjecture,
Dr. M. particularly dwells upon the fact that im the numberless strata
of shales, limestones, clays, &c., abounding in shells often in a state of
great perfection, with the ligament, epidermis, and even the soft parts
preserved in the state of molluskite, no ova had ever been detected ;
while in the shales of Forfarshire, which swarm with these eggs,

GEOLOGY. 313

neither shells, or even casts of shells, had been discovered. An
important geological inference was supported by Dr. M., as deducible
from these facts. Here we have ova with aquatic plants, (apparently
fluviatile,) and the remains of ganoid fishes, which, for aught we
know to the contrary, may, like the recent Lepidostei, have been
inhabitants of rivers; and with no vestiges of shells or other marine
organisms ; phenomena which lead us to inquire whether the lower
Devonian strata of Forfarshire may not be of fluviatile, or fluvio-
marine origin; whether, in fact, we have not here indications of the
intercalation of a series of fresh water deposites in the marine forma-
tion, called the old red-sandstone of Scotland ? Future observations
will determine the solidity of this novel, but highly probable, sug-
gestion. Should this view be established by future discoveries, Dr.
Mantell will have the singular good fortune to be the first geologist
who predicated the presence of fresh water deposites in the palozoic
formations of Scotland, as he established by his own researches the
fluviatile character of the Wealden of the south-east of England.—
Suliman’s Journal.

FLORA OF THE TERTIARY FORMATION.-

Tue Flora of the tertiary formation has been hitherto, compara-
tively speaking, far less known than that of the coal formation which
is of a far older date: and even in Silesia, notwithstanding its
numerous and important deposites of brown coal, the entire amount of
leaves, blossoms and fruits belonging to this formation exclusive of
stems of trees, did not exceed forty-three species up to the close of
last year. Since then, however, a discovery has been made which in
a few months has already brought more treasures to light, than Monte
Bolea in Italy, and the celebrated deposit of Oeningen in Germany,
have dene ina century. ‘This new deposite was discovered by the Su-
perior Councillor of Mines, Von Oeynhausen, near the end of January,
of this year, in the immediate neighborhood of Breslau, at Schossnitz
near Kauth on the railroad: it is a bed of fossil plants in tertiary
clay, and is unique in richness, variety and admirable preservation.
From the end of January up to the beginning of March, there
were already discovered no less than 130 species in about six ewt. of
clay, and every fresh quantity examined gave additional results. Dr.
Goppert has read a very interesting paper upon the results of the
examination thus far made before the natural history section of the
Breslau Society. The clay is of a whitish color; the plants seldom
preserve their original texture, but usually occur as impressions of a
pale brown color, in which, however, they are displayed with such
precision that even the delicate anthers of the catkins of the willow
tribe are readily distinguished. These anthers, as well as those of the
male catkins of the plane tribe, occasionally exhibit the pollen. With
respect to the families and genera, it may be said that they agree,
speaking in a general way, with those of the other local floras of the
brown coal formation. The species are, for the most part different,

,

314 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

only one species has been hitherto observed. Libocedrites Salicorni-
oides, that is met with in Silesia in amber, and in the brown coal
formation. Of the 130 species that have been found at Schossnitz,
up to the beginning of March, there are no less than 118 which are
new. Asa peculiarity in this tertary flora, may be cited the consid-
erable number of oaks, of which already 25 varieties have been
observed, whereas at present, only 13 are known to occur in Eu-
rope, and for most part, the species discovered, belong to those with
incised leaves. There are, morever, no less than 17 varie-
ties of elm, some unquestionably planes and varieties of maple perfect-
ly distinct from any hitherto discovered. It need hardly be observed
t hat our acquaintance with the riches of this recently discovered deposite
isas yet, necessarily very imperfect. Palms, which are not within other
tertiary deposits in the immediate neighborhood, have not thus far,
been found ; indeed, no monocctylidons have been observed with the
exception of a few leaves of grass. The origin of the deposite has
been explained on the supposition that there existed here formerly an
inland lake, inta which, the leaves and blossoms of the trees that per-
ished on the banks were carried by the wind and became subsequently,
imbedded in the clayey mud. This recently discovered deposite bears
eut the idea, that although the majority of the genera of the plants
occurring in the tertiary formation are similar to these now met with im
Europe, although the species are different and agree rather with
African forms than ours, yet that this formation, speaking generally,
contains a flora distinct from that of the actual flora of the districts
mentioned, and analagous rather te that ef countries, situated several
degrees more to the South; the flora of the deposite at Schossuitz,
answering, it will be seen, to that of the vegetation in the Southern
portion of the United States er to that of the North of Mexico.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE COAL FORMATION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Pror. Rocers, at the Bosten Society of Natural History, 1852,
presented some observations of Dr. Les Quereux on the coal formation
of the United States.

The coal deposites of the central, southern, and western portions of
the United States are found to rest on the same foundation rock,
which is usually a coarse sandstone, with occasional pebbles, some
siliceous gravel and igneous quartz. Such an extensive deposit can-
not be accounted for by the theory that it is a bed of ancient estuary-
Some of its materials must have come from a source a least one
thousand miles distant. It is of great value to geologists from its
extent, as giving a fixed period in geological time. In two localities
—jin Ohio and the western part of Pennsylvania — several beds of
coal are found beneath this formation, indicating a condition of things
favorable to the production of coal anterior to the rush of waters from
the north, over which the rest is built up.

Dr Jackson remarked that it would be very interesting to trace such
a wide-spread deposite to its original source. In New Bunswick, on
the Peticodiac River, he had found a hard green slate, with pieces of

GEOLOGY. 315

syenite, quartz, and occasionally of trap rock, the pebbles being but par-
tially rounded-; he had traced this deposite to a mountain of syenite and
green slate, fourteen miles to the west of north, known as Caledonia
Mountain. The eoal basin of that region is made up of sandstone,
with limestone and white gypsum. Above this lies a richly bituminons
shale, soft, even flexible, filled with remains of fishes. Dr. Jackson
inquired if, in the widely-spread formation spoken of by Prof. Rogers,
there was any gradation of fineness in the materials, their fineness
increasing in proportion to the distance from their probable source,
indicating the action of the water rather than ice in their distribution.

Prof. Rogers replied that such is the case.

Dr. Jackson referred to the opinion of some geologists that the
Stigmaria are the roots of Sigillaria. From his own study of them he
still had his doubts of this. At the New Brunswick coal mines he.
had seen the trunks of sigillaria imbedded in the rocks; he had even
passed beneath them in the coal mines, and seen their roots branching
over his head, and they certainly were not Stigmaria. He had notic-
ed, also, in the centre of the markings of Stigmaria one and some-
times two little points. In the Mansfield coal mines he had seen
similar points in the adjacent rock. He was, therefore, inclined to the
belief that these markings are leaf scars. If the Stigmaria are roots,
then their rootlets must have been deciduous.

Dr. Jackson mentioned the curious fact that, at the South Joggings,
immediately beneath the Sigillaria and coal, there are myriads of
fossil marine shells of a mytiliform character.

ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF COAL.

Mr. TESCHEMACHER, has presented to the Boston Natural History
Society, some-additional observations* on the origin and composition
of coal, with a view of showing the existence of coniferous plants in
the carboniferous period, as well as the general resinous nature of coal
of all descriptions. For this purpose he submitted the following
specimens.

1st. A slice of Southern pine (pinus australis) in which, owing to
its resinous nature, the glandular vessels of the coniferous tribe are
very clearly visible. 2d. A slice of the same carbonized, in order to
show the appearance of these glands when changed by this action. 3d.
A specimen of anthracite and one of Cumberland coal, in which these
glandular vessels are extremely distinct. Such specimens are quite
common in Pictou coal. 4th. Impressions in the shale from Carbondale,
Pa., of the leaves of a species of pinus. 5th. A specimen of the same
shale showing an impression of the base of a bunch of leaves and its
sheath at the junction with the stem.

On comparing the latter with the accompanying specimen of the
pinus australis of the present day, its close resemblanee is very evi-
dent ; it fitting the impression almost as if moulded from it. On the
side of the recent specimen adjacent to the axis of the branch is 4

* See Annual of Scientific Discovery, 1852, pp. 308-9.

816 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

protuberance formed by the vessels which penetrate the bark, and
depressions on each side thereof, to which the impressions of these in
the Shale, although faint, bear a close resemblance. In many of the
leaves of the recent fir tribe, there are rows of glands extending from
the base to the summit, and in some, very minute spines on each edge.
It cannot be expected that these microscopic characters should be visi-
ble in impressions on so coarse a material as the Shale, but no doubt
they will be found when similar impressions are discovered in the
coal itself.

Other impressions of leaves of coniferee are in my collection, some
in the anthracite; but although I have no doubt of their being leaves,
they are not so undeniable as to be exhibited as proofs. I pass on to
the chemical evidence. Lehmann states that formic acid is found in coal
during the process of decay (eremacausis), and also that is found in
the berries of the Juniperus and the cones of several of the fir tribe.
Redtenbacher finds formic acid in the leaves and twigs of the fir tribe
during fermentation (incipient eremacausis.) A few years ago,
Pelletier and Walther examined the tar produced by the distillation
of resin, and found therein two substances which they named
retinnaptha and retinnyle, and then the well-known napthaline. The
progress of organic chemistry has since shown the two former sub-
stances to be the Toluole and the Cumole of the present day. I will
now simply advert to the opinion of Goppert, in his prize essay. He
supposes the origin of the coal to be from a fermentation and conse-
quent eremacausis of vegetable matter. Others suppose this vegetable
matter to have been chiefly mosses, such as form the large accumula-
tions of peat.

My view is that coal, is chiefly composed of resinous trees, (Conifers)
and oleaginous trees, (Palms) the latter being in excess in the Cannel
coal. I now wish to show that all coal has been formed from nearly the
same original materials, and probably nearly under the same circum-
stances, from the anthracite to the most bituminous. This I propose
to do by exhibiting these specimens, selected from many hundreds
im my possession, of anthracite coal from Pennsylvania, of bituminous
coal from Cumberland basin, and from Hillsboro’; specimens from Pic-
tou and other localities might have been added. The comparison of
these, their exact similarity in their structure, marks of organisms, and
peculiar fracture, can leave but little doubt on the subject. They
exhibit, however, but a small portion of the resemblances manifest on a
minute and extended investigation.

From what cause, then, can arise the difference in various coals ?
At present only three characters of diversity are apparent: specific

avity, quantity of Carbon, and quantity of hydrogen. To show
this, the descending scale may be used thus :

GEOLOGY. 317 ,

Hydrogen. ! Carbon. Specific Gravity.
Asphaltum 9 per ct. 78.10 1.063
Hillsboro’ Coal 1.09 to 1.12
Cannel 5.66 to 6.00 81.00 1.20
Bituminous 4.80 to 5.60 81 to 86 1.29 to 1232
Anthracite 2.40 to 4.20 89 to 92 1.34 to 1.47
Graphite none 99 2.27

The difference in specific gravity and carbon would seem to depend
on the diminution of the hydrogen. How this has been separated,
whether by the process of time, of pressure, of heat, or, as is most
probable, by a process of which we are entirely ignorant, must be a
subject for future investigations.

It must be obvious that the foregoing is but a very faint outline of
some of the result of my yet imperfect examination of this subject —
imperfect mainly because the means of a more perfect one are yet out
of reach. The chemical analysis of coal have hitherto been under-
taken chiefly with commercial views, and altogether to obtain ultimate
principles. But the daily operations of the gas works exhibit pro-
ducts showing that yet much has to be done in these analyses to satisfy
the increased progress in the science of organic chemistry. My own
experience has also led me to the conclusion, that much more remains
yet to be accomplished in the study of the internal structure and
contents of coal,* and that the vast and varied coal formations of this
immense Continent are chiefly to be relied on as the fields for their
study.

*On the application of heat many anthracites separate into lamine as thin as
paper. These are alternate layers of hardened resinous hydro-carbon, and of vege-
table matter, often retaining in its state of ashes its original forms ; this last is the
first burned out, leaving the laminz of the former exposed.

BOTANY:

ON THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE VITAL FUNCTIONS OF THE
ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE KINGDOMS.

Tuer Journal of the Chemical Society, of London, contains a
detailed account of some investigations by Robert Warington, Esq.,
which illustrate in a marked degree, that beautiful and wonderful pro-
vision which we see displayed throughout the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, whereby their continued existence and stability are so admir-
ably sustained, and by which they are made mutually to subserve, each
for the other’s nutriment, and even for its indispensible wants and
vital existence. ‘The experiments have reference to the healthy life
of fish preserved in a limited and confined portion of water, and were
continued for nearly twelve months. ‘Two gold fishes were placed in
a. large glass receiver, about half filled with ordinary spring water and
supplied at the bottom with sand and mud, together with some loose
stones, so arranged that the fish could get below them if they wished.
At the same time that the fish were placed in this miniature pond, a
small plant, vallis neria spiralis, wasintroduced, its roots being inserted
in the mud and sand, and covered by one of the loose stones, so as to
retain the plant in its position. The vallis neria is a delicate aquatic
plant, which throws out an abundance of long, wiry, strap-like leaves,
about a quarter of an inch in breadth, and from one to three feet in
length; these, when the sun shines on them, evolve a continued stream
of oxygen gas, which rises in a current of minute bubbles, particularly
from any part of the leaf which may have received an injury. The
materials being thus arranged, all appeared to go on*well for a time,
until circumstances occurred which showed that another very material
agent was wanting to perfect the adjustment. The circumstances
alluded to arose from the internal decay of the leaves of the vallis neria,
which became yellow from having lost their vitality, and began to
decompose ; this rendered the waters turbid, and caused a srowth of
green, slimy matter, on the surface of the water, and on the sides of
the receiver. To remove this decaying matter, recourse was had to

BOTANY. 319

a very useful little scavenger, whose beneficial functions have been
too much over-looked in the economy of animal life, viz., the water
snail. The natural food of these animals is the very green mucus and
decaying vegetable matter, which threatened to destroy the object of
the experiment. Five or six of these creatures, the Himnea stagnalis,
were consequently introduced, and by their rapid and continued loco-
motion, and extraordinary velocity, soon removed the cause of inter-
ference, and restored the whole to a healthy state, thus perfecting the
balance between the animal and vegetable inhabitants, and enabling
both to perform their functions with health and energy. The vallis
neria attained to a luxuriant and healthy growth, the fish appeared
lively and bright in color, while the snails, judging from the enormous
quantities of eggs deposited by them, appeared to thrive wonderfully,
and besides their functions in sustaining the perfect adjustment of the
series, afforded large quantities of food to the fish in the form of young
snails, which are devoured as soon as they exhibit signs of vitality, and
before their shell has become hardened. Thus we have that admirable
balance sustained between the aninial and vegetable kingdoms,
and that ina liquid element. The fish, in its respiration, consumes
the oxygen held in solution by the water as atmospheric air; furnishes
carbonic acid ; feeds on the young snails, and excretes materials well
adapted for the food and growth of the plant. The plant, by its res-
piration, consumes the carbonic acid produced by the fish, appropriat-
ing the carbon to the construction of its tissues and fibres, and liber-
ates oxygen in its gaseous state to sustain the healthy functions of
animal life, at the same time that it feeds on the rejected matter, which
has fulfilled its purposes in the nourishment of the fish and snail, pre-
serving the water in a clear and healthy condition. The slimy snail,
finding its proper nutriment in the decomposing vegetable matter,
prevents its accumulation by removal from the field, and by its vital
powers, converts what would otherwise act as a poison, into a rich and
fruitful nutriment, again to constitute a pabulum for the vegetable
growth, whilst it also acts the important part of a purveyor to its finny
neighbor.

INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATIONS ON PLANTS.

At the British Association, Belfast, Dr. J. H. Gladstone made a
_report on the influence of the solar radiations on the vital powers of
plants growing under different atmospheric conditions. As a prelim-
inary matter of inquiry, the mere effect of colored media in accelerat-
ing or retailing the growth of various kinds of plants was tried. Hya-
cinths were chosen as the sample of bulbous-rooted plants. Roots of
as nearly as possible the same size and description in every respect
were grown under the various bell glasses. Certain differences were
described, both in the rootlets and the leaves, which might fairly be
attributed to the character of the light; the time of flowering, and the
flowers themselves, were not affected by it; and the greatest growth,
(estimated quantitatively in each instance,) took place in the plant
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320 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

exposed to all the rays of the solar spectrum; the next greatest was
under the blue glass. Wheat was also grown in a similar manner ;
the method of arrangement of apparatus being minutely detailed, and
the character of the corn plants which appeared under the various
glasses. Those under the yellow were the most sturdy in their
growth; those under the blue the least healthy; whilst some grown
under a nearly darkened shade grew quickly nine inches long, put
forth no secondary leaves, and died in a month. Mallows were grown
ina similar manner. The detailed observations were of much the
same purport as in the preceding instance. As it had been formerly
observed by the author and his brother, that plants kept in an
unchanged atmosphere appear to enter intoa sort of lethargic condi-
tion, experiments were instituted for the purpose of ascertaining
whether the alteration in light produced by colored media made any
marked variation in this matter. The pansy and the Poa annua were
the plants selected ; and comparative experiments were made witha
darkened shade, and with no covering at all. The results were vari-
ous,— but scarcely conclusive, unless in reference to the fact that
lants survive much longer for being in unchanged air. The color-
ess and yellow media appeared most favorable to the healthiness of
the plants. As experiments on growing plants must stretch over a
considerable time, the author’s observations were not put forth as foun-
dations for any generalization, but just as samples of his preliminary
attempts.

ON THE MORPHOLOGICAL ANALOGY BETWEEN THE DISPOSITION
OF THE BRANCHES OF EXOGENOUS PLANTS AND THE VENATION
OF THEIR LEAYES. -

Pror. McCosu, at the British Association, brought forward an
interesting communication on this subject, and endeavored with great
ingenuity to generalize and reduce to a common law the peculiarities
which are manifested in the branching of exogenous plants, starting
with the theory propounded by Goethe, that all the appendages of
plants, whether leaves, bracts, sepals, petals, or stamens, are formed
after a common type, and that that type is the leaf. Prof. McCosh
attempted to show that this theory might be extended further, and
that the type of the leaf is not only that of all the appendicular organs,
but of the buds and of the branches, and therefore eventually of the
whole plant itself ‘The leaf is to the plant as the microcosm to the

‘macrocosm — it is the plant in miniature —a common law governs the
two, and therefore whatever disposition we find in the parts of the
leaf, we may expect to find in the parts of the plant, and vice versa.
Now, the veins of the leaf are the analogue of the branches of the
plant, and therefore the venation and the ramification must essentially
harmonize with one another. In illustration of the law, the Professor
pointed out that in reticulated leaved plants (to which alone he
referred) there is a correspondence between the distribution of the
branches along the axis, and the distribution of the venation of the

BOTANY. 321

leaf. In some plants the lateral branches are disposed pretty equally
along the axis, whereas in others a number are gathered together at
one point, and the plant becomes in consequence verticillate or
whorled. The Professor stated, that wherever the branches are
whorled, the leaves of the plant, as in the rhododendron, or the veins
of the individual leaf, as in the common sycamore and lady’s mantle,
are also whorled. When the leaf has a petiole the tree has its trunk
unbranched near the base, as in the case of the sycamore, apple, &c.;
and when the leaf has no petiole the trunk is branched from the root,
as in the common ornamental low shrubs, the bay, laurel, holly, box,
&e. Prof. McCosh exhibited an instrument for the measurement of
the angles at which branches, &c., go off, and in 210 species of plants
he found the angles of the branches with the stem and those of the
veins with the midrib to coincide. The Professor stated in conclusion,
that he believed there was a similar unity running through linear-
leaved plants and monocotyledons. If substantiated, these views will
give greater exactness to our distinctions of genera and species, and
will lend more exactness to our ideas of the physiognomy of plants ;
they will at the same time exhibit an unity of design in the skeleton
of the plant, similar to that which exists in the animal world, and so
subserve the purpose of the natural theologian.

SLEEP OF PLANTS IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS.

Mr. SEEMANN, the naturalist of Kellett’s Arctic expedition, states
a curious fact respecting the condition of the vegetable world during
the long day of the Arctic summer. Although the sun never sets
whilst it lasts, plants make no mistake about the time, when, if it be
not night, it ought to be; but regularly as the evening hours approach,
and when a midnight sun is several degrees above the horizon, droop
their leaves, and sleep even as they do at sunset in more favored
climes. “If man,” observes Mr. Seemann, “should ever reach the
Pole, and be undecided which way to turn, when his compass has
become sluggish, his timepiece out of order, the plants which he may
happen to meet will show him the way ; their sleeping leaves tell him
that midnight is at hand, and that at that time the sun is standing in
the north.”

THE POTATO NOT INDIGENOUS TO SOUTH AMERICA.

A CORRESPONDENT of the New England Cultivator, states that
Col. Mure, of Caldwell, county of Renfrew, Scotland, has raised pota-
toes from the germ, obtained from clay thrown up from a depth of
forty feet, while digging for water. The clay, it is said, was placed
under a glass, and in due time signs of vegetation began to manifest
themselves. These were various in character. Among them a few
were taken, when strong enough to withstand the process, and trans-
planted. One, in particular, presented indications showing it to be a
specimen of the solanum tribe. After careful cultivation, it finally

a2, ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

produced a series of tubers. The following year these tubers were
planted, and produced their kind, but the size was larger. Succeed-
ing years’ cultivation improved both bulk and quality; and now the
produce is regularly grown in the vicinity of Col. Mure’s residence,
and prized as first class potatoes.

CHINESE RICE PAPER PLANT.

Ir was long thought that the beautiful and well known “ rice-paper ”
of China was made from the pith of an d%schynomene: but this has
been shown to be incorrect. ‘Two years ago Sir Wm. Heoker pub-
lished, in his Journal of Botany, some selections from a series of
Chinese drawings, respecting its manufacture from a strange looking
vegetable, which, it now appears, must have been a hoax upon Euro-
peans. For at length Sir Wim. Hooker has obtained, from the island
of Formosa, where alone it is known to grow, some imperfect speci-
mens (stems and foliage) of the true plant; from which is made a
figure, published in the January number of his Journal; and an
account is given in the February number. Enough is now known to
render it most probable that the plant is Araliaceous ; and it is pro-
visionally named Aralia? papyrifera, Hook. ‘The stems are arbores-
cent or frutescent, and are filled with a very large and beautifully
white pith, from which the paper is made.

ON THE TALLOW TREE AND INSECT WAX OF CHINA.

Ty an account of the tallow tree (styllingia sebifera) and the insect wax
of China, given in the June number of Hooker’s Journal of Botany,
it is stated, as exhibiting the vast commercial importance of these two
vegetable substances, that in a single stearine candle factory of Lon-
don, nine hundred hands are employed, producing one hundred tons
of candles weekly, valued at £7,000, from the wax and tallow of veg-
etable origin.

The insect wax is obtained from three different species of trees or
shrubs, being an exudation, caused by the puncture of an insect belong-
ing to the cicada family, and known in entomology as flata limbata.
In time, this exudation becomes dry and powdery, resembling, “ hoar
frost,” in which state it is scraped off, and “ the crude material freed
from impurities by spreading it on a strainer covering a cylindrical
vessel of boiling water. ‘The wax is received in the former vessel,
and on congealing is ready for market.” It is worth from 22 to 25
cents per pound, and the total product is estimated at 400,000
pounds, worth more than 1,000,000 Spanish dollars. It seems to be
yet undetermined whether the waxy matter is yielded by the animal,
or exuded by the plant in consequence of its puncture.

The vegetable tallow is obtained from the styllingia sebifera, a native
of China, but which is now fully acclimated in South Carolina, and
grows abundantly in the neighborhood of Charleston. Indeed, so
hardy is it, and so well pleased in its new situation, that it has taken

BOTANY. 323

possession, in a great measure, of the road-side banks and hedges, for
two or three miles in the environs of the city. It seems to delight
in the vicinity of the saline atmosphere, having extended but sparingly
upwards in the country. This may be owing, however, in part, to its
meeting the more robust forest growth, which it is unable to exclude.

It is chiefly from the two proximate principles which are the con-
stituents of animal tallow, the stearine and elaine contained in the
fruit, that the plant is so much valued. The nuts or capsules, when
ripe, are gently pounded in a mortar, to loosen the seeds from the
shells, from which they are separated by sifting. To facilitate the
separation of the white sebaceous matter enveloping the seeds, they
are steamed in tubs, with convex open wicker bottoms, placed over
eauldrons of boiling water. When thoroughly heated, they are
reduced to a mash in a mortar, and thence transferred to bamboo
sieves, kept at a uniform temperature over hot ashes. This operation
of steaming and sifting is repeated, as the first does not deprive the
seeds of all their tallow. The article thus obtained becomes.a solid
mass, on falling through the sieve, and, to purify it, it is melted and
formed into cakes for the press. These receive theiy form from bam-
boo hoops, a foot in diameter and three inches deep, which are laid on
the ground over a little straw. On being filled with the hot liquid,
the ends of the straw beneath are drawn up and spread over the top,
and when of sufficient consistence are placed, with their rings, in the
press. This apparatus is of the rudest description, constructed of two
large beams, placed horizontally, so as to’ form a trough capable of
containing about fifty of the rings, with their sebaceous cakes; at one
end it is closed, and at the other adapted for receiving wedges, which
are successively driven into it by ponderous sledge-hammers, wielded
by athletic men. The tallow oozes, in a melted state, into the recep-
tacle below, where it cools. It is again melted, and poured into tubs
smeared with mud, to prevent its adhering. It is now marketable, in
masses of about eighty pounds each, hard, brittle, white, opaque,
tasteless, and without the odor of animal tallow. Under high pressure
it scarcely stains bibulous paper, and melts at 104° Fahr.

The process of pressing the oil, (elaine,) which is carried on at the
same time, is as follows. ‘This is contained in the kernel of the nut,
the sebaceous matter which lies between the shell and the husk having
been removed in the manner described. ‘The kernel, and the husk
covering it, are ground between two stones, which are heated, to pre-
vent cloging from the sebaceous matter still adhering. The mass is
then placed in a winnowing machine, when the chaff being separated,
the white oleaginous kernels, after being steamed, are placed in a mill
to be mashed. The machine is formed of a circular stone groove, in
which a solid stone wheel revolves perpendicularly, by the aid of an
ox. Under this ponderous weight the seeds are reduced to a mealy
state, steamed in the tubs, formed into cakes, and pressed by wedges
in the manner already described; the process of washing, steaming
and pressing being repeated with the kernels likewise. ‘The kernels
yield about 30 per cent. of oil. The cakes which remain after the oil

28*

324 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

is pressed out are used as manure. The Chinese color their candles
red by a minute quantity of akanet root, (anchusa tinctoria, brought
from Shangtung.) Verdigris is employed to dye them green. Their
stearine candles are worth about eight cents per pound.

THE SNAKE PLANT OF SOUTH AMERICA.

A CORRESPONDENT of Chambers’ Edinburgh Journal gives the
following account of the “guaco” of Central, and South America,
and its efficacy as an antidote against the bites of venomous reptiles.
The guaco is a species of willow. Its root is fibrous, the stem straight
and cylindrical when young ; but as it approaches maturity, it assumes
a pentagonal form, having five salient angles. The leaves grow length-
wise from the stem, opposite, and cordate. They are of a dark-green
color mixed with violet, smooth on the under surface, but on the
upper rough with a slight down. ‘The flowers are of a yellow color,
and grow in clusters — each calyx holding four. The corolla is
monopetalous infundibuliform, and contains five stamens uniting at
their anthers into a cylinder which embraces the style with its stigma
much broken. The guaco is a strong healthy plant, but grows only
in the hot regions, and flourishes best in the shade of other trees,
along the banks of the streams. It is not found in the colder uplands
(tierras frias ;) and in this disposal nature again beautifully exhibits
her design, as here exist not the venomous creatures against whose
poisons the guaco seems intended as an antidote. That part of the
plant which is used for the snake-bite is a sap or tea distilled from its
leaves. It may be taken either as a preventive or cure ; in the former
case, enabling him who has drunk of it to handle the most dangerous
serpents with impunity.

The writer of the communication says : —

Being at Margarita some time ago, I heard of this singular plant,
and was desirous of witnessing the test of its virtues. Among the
slaves of the place there was one noted as a skilful snake-doctor; and
as I enjoyed the acquaintance of his master, I was not long in obtain-
ing a promise that my curiosity should be gratified. A few days after,
the negro entered my room, carrying in his hands a pair of coral-
snakes, of that species known as the most beautiful and venomous.
The negro’s hands and arms were completely naked ; and he manipu-
lated the reptiles, turning them about, and twisting them over his
wrists with the greatest apparent confidence. I was for a while under
the suspicion that their fangs had been previously drawn ; but I soon
found that I had been mistaken. The man convinced me of this by
opening the mouths of both, and showing me the interior. There,
sure enough, were both teeth and fangs in their perfect state; and yet
the animals did not make the least attempt to use them. On the
contrary, they seemed to exhibit no anger, although the negro handled
them roughly. They appeared perfectly innocuous, and rather afraid
of him I thought. Determined to assure myself beyond the shadow
of a doubt, I ordered a large mastiff to be brought into the room and

BOTANY. 325

placed so that the snakes could reach him. The dog was sufficiently
frightened, but being tied he could not retreat; and after a short
while one of the serpents “struck,” and bit him on the back of the
neck. ‘The dog was now set loose, but did not at first appear to notice
the wound he had received. In two or three minutes, however, he
began to limp and howl most fearfully. In five minutes more he fell,
and struggled over the ground in violent convulsions, similar to those
occasioned by hydrophobia. Blood and viscous matter gushed from
his mouth and nostrils, and at the end of a quarter of an hour by the
watch he was dead.

Witnessing all this, I became extremely desirous of possessing the
important secret — which, by the way, was not so generally known. I
offered a good round sum; and the negro, promising to meet my
wishes, took his departure.

On the following day he returned, bringing with him a handful of
heart-shaped leaves, which I recognized as those of the bejuce de quaco
or snake-plant. These he placed in a bowl, having first crushed them
between two stones. He next poured a little water into the vessel.
In a few minutes maceration took place, and the “tea” was ready. I
was instructed to swallow two small spoonfuls of it, which I did. The
negro then made three incisions in each of my hands at the forking
of my fingers, and three similar ones on each foot between the toes.
Through these he inoculated me with the extract of the guaco. He
next punctured my breast, both on the right and left side, and per-
formed a similar inoculation. I was now ready for the snakes, several
of which, both of the coral and cascabel species, the negro had brought
along with him. With all my wish to become a snake-charmer, I must
confess that at sight of the hideous reptiles I felt my courage oozing
through my nails. The negro, however, continued to assure, and as
I took great pains to convince him that my death would cost him his
life, and I saw that he still entreated me to go ahead, I came at length
to the determination to run the risk. With a somewhat shaky hand I
took up one of the corals, and passed it delicately through my fingers.
All right. The animal showed no disposition to bite, but twisted itself
through my hands, apparently cowering and frightened. I soon grew
bolder, and took up another and another, until I had three of the rep-
tiles in my grasp at one time. I then put them down and caught a
snake of the cascabel species—the rattlesnake of the north. This
fellow behaved in a more lively manner, but did not show any symp-
toms of irritation. After I had handled the reptile for some minutes,
I was holding it near the middle, when, to my horror, I saw it sud-
denly elevate its head, and strike at my left arm! I felt that I was ©
bitten, and, flinging the snake from me, I turned to my companion with
a shudder of despair. The negro, who with his arms folded had stood
all the while calmly looking on, now answered my quick and terrified
inquiries with repeated assurances that there was no danger whatever,
and that nothing serious would result from the bite. This he did with
as much coolness and composure as if it had been only the sting of a
mosquito. I was more comforted by the manner of my companion

326 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

than by his words; but to make assurance doubly sure, I took a fresh
sup of the guaco tea, and waited tremblingly the result. A slight
inflammatory swelling soon appeared about the orifice of the wound,
but at the expiration of a few hours it had completely subsided, and I
felt that I was all right again.

On many occasions afterwards I repeated the experiment of dand-
ling serpents [ had myself taken in the woods, and some of them of
the most poisonous species. On these occasions I adopted no farther
precaution than to swallow a dose of the guaco sap, and even chewing
the leaves of the plant itself was sufficient. ‘This precaution is also
taken by those — such as hunters and wood-choppers — whose calling
carries them into the thick jungles of the southern forest, where dan-
gerous reptiles abound.

So a ll a

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS IN CONNEC-
TION WITH THE PROGRESS OF HUMAN CIVILIZATION.

Tuer above formed the subject of a communication read at the last
meeting of the British Association, by Mr. Ogilby, who took the
ground that the less civilized nations of the world, were so, from the
absence of animals capable of domestication. America and Australia,
were the great types of this deficiency. The following conclusion of
his paper will give an idea of the general argument and style.“ Let
uis now examine the facilities which the natives of Europe, Asia, and
Africa possessed for developing civilization, compared with those of
America and Australia. The former had those great collaborateurs in
their social progress, they had the horse, the ass, and the camel, for
beasts of burden; and they had the sheep, the ox, and the goat, for
food and a thousand other useful purposes. The consequence of
this was, that at a very early period—at a period of which there
are few authentic historical documents extant—the nations of Western
Asia had advanced in civilization to an extent which is now only
beginning to be thoroughly understood and appreciated. The
researches of such eminent men as Dr. Layard into the antiquity of
Assyria and Egypt, prove this beyond question ; and show that those
nations had advanced to a power which, in modern times, has scarcely
been equalled, and that we are only now in the same state with
regard to civilization that they were three or four thousand years ago,
whilst the less fortunate inhabitants of America and Australia would
be obliged, by want of those facilities possessed by the former, to
remain in their original condition for eternity.”

Prince Canino said, that there were some points on which he
coincided with the author, but there were others also on which he
differed. He did not consider that it was the animals who were to be
blamed for the backward state of the aborigines of America and New
Holland, but the people themselves. As a beast of burden, he
thought the American bison might be tamed, and made to serve that
purpose as well as the ox, for it was a stronger animal, and possessed

328 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

many useful qualities which the ox did not. As another example of
what the people of those countries might do in this way, he would re-
fer to the American grapes, which at one time were thought so useless
that there was a proverb to that effect; but now it was found that a
good wine can be made from them. In confirmation of Mr. Ogilby’s
opinions as to the origin of domestic animals, he might say that the
prototype of the common cat was that kept in the temples of Egypt

ON THE ADAPTATION OF COLOR TO THE WANTS OF THE
ANIMAL.

WE take the following remarks upon the adaptation of color to the
wants of the animal, from a recent scientific publication by Mr.
Broderip, of England:—‘ Throughout the animal creation, the
adaptation of the color of the creature to its haunts is worthy of admi-
ration, as tending to its preservation. ‘The colors of insects, and of a
multitude of the smaller animals, contribute to their concealment.
Caterpillars which feed on leaves are generally either green, or have
a large proportion of that hue in the color of their coats. As long as
they remain still, how difficult it is to distinguish a grasshopper or
young locust from the herbage or leaf on which it rests. The butter-
flies that flit about among flowers are colored like them. The small
birds which frequent hedges have backs of a greenish or brownish
green hue, and their bellies are generally whitish, or light-colored, so
as to harmonize with the sky. Thus they become less visible to the
hawk or cat that passes above or below them. ‘The wayfarer across
the fields almost treads upon the skylark before he sees it rise warbling
to heaven’s gate. The goldfinch or thistlefinch passes much of its
time among flowers, and is vividly colored accordingly. The partridge
can hardly be distinguished from the fallow or stubble upon or among
which it crouches, and it is considered an accomplishment among
sportsmen to have a good eye for finding a hare sitting. In northern
countries, the winter dress of the hares and ptarmigans is white, to
prevent detection among the snows of those inclement regions.

“Tf we turn to the waters, the same design is evident. Frogs even
vary their color according to that of the mud or sand that forms the
bottom of the ponds or streams which they frequent — nay, the tree-
frog (Hyla viridis) takes its specific name from the color, which
renders it so difficult to see it among the leaves, where it adheres by
the cupping-glass-like processes at the end of its toes. It is the
same with fish, especially those which inhabit the fresh waters.
Their backs, with the exception of gold and silver fish, and a few
others, are comparatively dark ; and some practice is required before
they are satisfactorily made out, as they come like shadows, and so
depart, under the eye of the spectator. A little boy once called out to
a friend to ‘ come and see, for the bottom of the brook was moving
along. The friend came, and saw that a thick shoal of gudgeons, and
roach, and dace, was passing. It is difficult to detect ‘the ravenous
luce,’ as old Izaak calls the pike, with its dark green and mottled

ZOOLOGY. 329

back and sides, from the similarly tinted weeds among which that
fresh water shark lies at the watch, as motionless as they. Even
when a tearing old trout, a six or seven-pounder, sails in his wanton-
ness, leisurely up stream, with his back-fin partly above the surface,
on the look out for a fly, few, except a well entered fisherman, can
tell what shadowy form it is that ripples the wimpling water. But
the bellies of fish are white, or nearly so; thus imitating in a degree
the color of the sky, to deceive the otter, which generally takes its
prey from below, swimming under its intended victim. Nor is this
design less manifest in the color and appearance of some of the largest
terrestrial animals; for the same principle seems to be kept in view,
whether regard be had to the smallest insects, or the quadrupedal
giants of the land.”

Prof. Agassiz has stated that the coloration of the lower animals
living in water depend upon the condition, and particularly upon the
depth and transparency of the water in which they live; that the
coloration of the higher types of animals is intimately related to their
structure ; and that the change of color which is produced by age in
many animals is connected with structural changes. Coloration is
valuable as an indication of structure; and it isa law universally
true of vertebrated animals, that they have the color of the back
darker than that of the sides; and that the same system of coloration
prevails in all the species of a genus, partially developed in some, but
recognizable when a large number of species is examined.

MICROSCOPIC LIFE.

Proressor EHRENBURG, of Germany, lays down the following
positions as the result of his long and laborious researches : —

1. That microscopic life, in the forms constituting earth and rock,
appears to exist in the same manner over the whole earth.

2. That everywhere, in all climates, zones, elevations, depths, and
in the smallest particles of humus, microscopic life not only exists but
abounds.

3. That there is such a relation between European microscopic
organism, and those of other parts of the earth, that new orders,
classes, and families, are nowhere found, but the forms all belong to
the generally silicious and non-silicious.

4. There are also found in soil and calcareous strata everywhere,
undecomposed parts of larger organisms, either silicious or calcareous,
of vegetable and animal origin, closely resembling in character the
flora or fauna of the localities.

5. There are peculiar local genera, not numerous, and also numer-
ous peculiar species of widely distributed genera.

6. Certain geographical latitudes have their characteristic forms of
minute animal life.

7. All over the earth there is distributed a considerable number of
perfectly identical forms.

8. The so-called inorganic constituents of the body and shells ot

330 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

animaleules are chiefly carbon, silica, lime and iron, with traces of
alumina and manganese. Magnesia and other substances are only
present as mechanical mixtures.

9. The quantity of iron in the minutest organisms is sometimes sur-
prisingly great. It is never united with the lime, but only with the
silica; and then rather mechanically than chemically, and as an
organic deposite of the metal in closed silicious cells.

10. In consequence of the uniform and excessive development of
minute organic life, it exerts a great influence on other conditions of
the surface of the earth, and on the formation of humas in the valleys
of rivers.

ON THE FORCES INFLUENCING THE CIRCULATION OF THE
BLOOD.

Tue following fact brought before the British Association by Mr.
Wharton Jones, contains a physiological discovery of great importance.
In the wing of the bat, the main impulse to the circulating fluid is, as
in other animals, given by the heart, but in addition, Mr. Jones has
discovered that the walls of the veins in this animal contract rhythmi-
cally like those of the heart, and any regurgitation being prevented
by numerous and appropriately placed valves, they thus assist very
materially in forcing the blood onwards. The existence of this
rhythmical contractility in the walls of the veins is a fact new to
physiological science.

THE SPIRAL ,STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE, AND THE MUSCULAR
STRUCTURE OF CILIA.

In the year 1842, Dr. Barry, of England, in a memoir published in
the transactions of the Royal Society, recorded his discovery of the
spiral structure of muscle. By many the truth of this statement was
doubted, and by some it was flatly denied. ‘The celebrated German
physiologist Purkinje, however, has recently shown that not only has
muscle a spiral structure, but that cilia also are no other than little
muscles. ‘This is a confirmation of Dr. Barry’s observations made nine
years ago. ‘That cilia also have a truly muscular character and struc-
ture is demonstrable, not only in cilia from the gill of the oyster
and the common sea-mussel, but in those of the Infusoria. —Jameson’s
Journal.

ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES.

Mr Arrnur Henrrey in his recent work on “The Vegetation
of Europe, its conditions and causes,” thus speaks of the original
creation of a one or a number of individuals. “Some naturalists
contend that the original creation must have consisted of a number of
individuals ; but it seems more in accordance with the simplicity of
nature, to suppose that a single parent or pair of parents alone was

ZOOLOGY. 331

produced for each species. A more weighty difference of opinion
arises from a series of facts, exceptional to those above announced of
the endemic or local distribution of plants, namely, the instances,
which are numerous, of what is called a sporadic or universal distribu-
tion of a species, as, for instance, of the sea sedge (Scirpus maritimus,)
which occurs in similar situations nearly all over the world; as is the
case almost to an equal extent with Samolus Valerandi, and in a less
degree with many others. Such very wide distribution of certain
plants has led to the opinion that species were created in different
places, at different centres, either simultaneously or at different
epochs, and that thus different families or stocks of the same species
co-exist and share in populating the area inhabited by the species.
The instances, however, on which this hypothesis rests, and the almost
unlimited powers of diffusion that exist, together with our ignorance
of the steps of the migration of plants and the absence of chrono-
logical data of the distribution of plants, appear to me to render this
view unsatisfactory, and like the preceding to involve supererogatory
creative acts, not according with the simplicity so characteristic of
the laws under which the natural forces are made to act. Admitting,
then, this hypothesis of creation at specific centres, let us see what
are the consequences to be deduced from it. We may suppose the
species to have been pretty equally apportioned to equal latitudes
over the globe, and located in the different regions according to their
physiological characters. As they spread they would become mingled
together like the circles from rain-drops in a pond, and complex con-
ditions at any particular point after the lapse of a long space of time
would be explicable by the influence of external agencies upon the
individual species, and their influence upon one another, as exerted
by those of more vigorous growth bearing down and repressing the
growth and dissemination of the more tender. How far the facts we
meet with agree with such a view is the test by which the hypothesis
must be tried, and the researches of botanical geographers appear to
give a favorable verdict in the present state of the inquiry. It is
necessary, however to be very comprehensive in our examination
of the phenomena, since the interfering causes are so numerous that
false conclusions may readily be drawn from the investigation of
small areas, or from too little weight being attributed to what often
seem to be very trivial external agencies. It would naturally be
supposed that the dissemination of species would go on most freely
and copiously over large continents, and that the present condition of
nature would exhibit more instances of peculiarity in the floras of
given regions in proportion as those regions were cut off by some
natural barrier, such as mountain ranges, oceans, &c., from other
lands; moreover, that islands would present a more characteristic
vegetation than tracts of equal extent on a continent, and would
approximate in their characters most closely to the main lands nearest
to which they were situated. Such is actually the case. The conti-
nents lying in the northern hemisphere are almost continuous in their
most northern regions, and we find the greatest agreement in their
29

332 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

vegetation at those points. In proportion as we pass south, the Old
and New Worlds become more and more unlike, while the great
continent of Australia, lying off, in such different parallels, from the
tropical and sub-tropical parts of Asia, is eminently singular and
peculiar in the character of the plants which inhabit it. The opposite
sides of large continents, even where there is continuity of land
between the regions, display great diversity of vegetation under
almost similar climates, while mountain ranges interposing climatal
barriers, cut off closely adjacent countries. Islands lying in the
Atlantic exhibit peculiar plants intermixed with others which have
come from Africa, Europe, or America, and in proportions agreeing
with the contiguity and the identity of climate, modified perhaps by
epee! constituted diffusing agencies of winds, ocean currents, or
irds, in particular cases.”

ON THE ANALOGY BETWEEN THE LIFE OF AN INDIVIDUAL AND
THE DURATION OF A SPECIES.

THE following paper was recently read by Prof. Edward Forbes
before the Royal Institution, England.

In natural history and geology, a clear understanding of the rela-
tions of individual, species, and genus to geological time and geograpi-
cal space is of essential importance. Much, however, of what is
generally received concerning these relations will scarcely bear close
investigation. Among questionable, though popular notions upon
this subject, the lecturer would place the belief that the term of
duration of a species is comparable, and of the same kind, with that
of the life of an individual. The successive phases in the complete
existence of an individual are birth, youth, maturity, decline, and
decay, terminating in death. Whether we regard an individual as a
single self-existing organism, however produced, or extend it to the
series of organisms, combined or independent, all being products of
a single ovum, its term of duration can be abbreviated but not pro-
longed indefinitely, nor can the several phases of its existence be
repeated. Conditions may arrest or hasten maturity, or prematurely
destroy, but cannot, however favorable, reproduce a second maturity
after decline has commenced. Now, it is believed by many, that a
species, (using the term in the sense of an assemblage of individuals,
presenting certain constant characters in common, and derived from
one original protoplast or stock) passes through a series of phases,
comparable with those which succeed each other in definite order
during the life of a single individual,—that it has its epochs of origin,
of maturity, of decline, and of extinction, dependent upon the laws
of an inherent vitality. If this notion be true, the theory of geology
will be proportionately affected ; since, in this case, the duration of
species must be regarded as only influenced, not determined, by the
physical conditions among which they are placed ;—and thus species
should characterize epochs or sections of time, independent of all
physical changes and modifying influences short of those which are

ZOOLOGY. ee

absolutely destrictive. Now, geological epochs, as at present under-
stood, are defined by peculiar assemblages of species, and the amount
of change in the organic contents of proximate formations or strata
is usually accepted as a measure of the extent of the disturbances
that affect them. Yet this latter inference, involving as it does the
supposition that the spread and continuity of species in time is
dependent upon physical influences, is adverse to the notion of a
life of a species as stated above. If we seek for the origin of this
notion we shall find that it has two sources, the one direct, the other
indirect. It is not an induction, nor pretended to be, but an hypo-
thesis assumed through apparent analogies. Its first and principal
source may be discovered in the comparison suggested by certain
necessary phases in the duration of the species with others in the
life of an individual, such as each has its commencement, and each
has its cessation. Geological research has made known to us that
prior to certain points in time, certain species did not exist, and
that after certain points in time, certain species ceased to be. The
commencement of a species has been compared with birth, the
extinction with death. Again, many species can be shown to have
had an epoch of maximum development in time. This has been
compared with the maturity of the individual. Between the birth of
an individual and the commencement of a species in the first appear-
ance of its protoplast, the analogy is more apparent than real. We
know how the former phenomenon takes place, but we have no
knowledge of the latter. Between the maturity of the individual
and the maximum development of a species there is no true analogy,
since the latter can easily be proved to be entirely dependent on the
combination of favoring conditions, and during the period of duration
of a species, there may be two or more epochs of great or even equal
development, and two or more epochs of decline alternating with
epochs of prosperity. The epoch of maximum of a species may also
occur during any period in its history short of the first stage. Geo-
logical and geographical research equally show that the flourishing of
a species is invariably coincident with the presence of favoring, and
its decline with that of unfavorable conditions. Hence, there is no
analogy between the single and definite phase of maturity of the
individual, and the variable and sometimes often-repeated epochs of
luxuriant development in the duration of a species. Between the
death of the individual and the extinction of a species, there is an
analogy only when the former event occurs prematurely through the
influence of destroying conditions. But in their absence, an indi-
vidual, after its period of vitality has been completed, must neces-
sarily die; whereas, we have no right to assume that such would be
the fate of a species so circumstanced, since in every case where we
can either geologically or geographically trace a species to its local or
general extinction, we can connect the fact of its disappearance with
the evidences of physical changes. ‘The second and more indirect
source of the notion of the life of a species may be traced in apparent
analogies, half-perceived, between the centralization of generic groups

334 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

in time and space, and the limited duration of both species and indi-
vidual. But in this case ideas are compared which are altogether and
essentially distinct. The nature of this distinction is expressed among
the following propositions, in which an attempt is made to contrast
the respective relations of individual, species, and genus to geological
time and geographical space. A. The individual, whether we restrict
the word to the single organism, however produced—or extend it to
the series of organisms, combined or independent, all being products
of a single ovum—has but a limited and unique existence in time,
which, short as it must be, can be shortened by the influence of
unfavorable conditions, but which no combination of favoring circum-
stances can prolong beyond the term of life allotted to it according
to its kind. B. The species, whether we restrict the term to assem-
blages of individuals resembling each other in certain constant charac-
ters, or hold, in addition, the hy ‘pothesis, (warranted, as might be
shown from experience and experiment,) that between all the mem-
bers of such an assemblage there is in the relationship of family, the
relationship of descent, and consequently that they are all the
descendants of one first stock or protoplast—(how that protoplast
appeared, is not part of the question)—is like the individual in so
much as its relations to time are unique: once destroyed, it never
reappears. But, (and this is the point of the view now advocated,)
unlike the individual, it is continued indefinitely so long as conditions
favorable to its diffusion and prosperity—that is to say, so long as
conditions favorable to the production and sustenance of the indi-
vidual representatives or elements are continued coincidently with its
existence. [No amount of favoring conditions can recall a species
once destroyed—on this conclusion, founded upon all facts hitherto
observed in paleontology, the value of the application of natural
history to geological science mainly depends.] C. The genus, in
whatever degree of extension we use the term, so long as we apply it
to an assemblage of species intimately related to each other in com-
mon and important features of organization, appears distinctly to
exhibit the phenomenon of centralization in both time and space,
though with a difference, since it would seem that each genus has a
unique centre or area of development in time, but in geographical
space may present more centres than one. a. An individual is a

positive reality. b. A species is a relative reality. ec. A genus is an
abstraction—an idea—but an idea impressed on nature, and not
arbitrarily dependant on man’s conceptions. a. An individual is one.
8. A species consists of many resulting from one. y. A genus con-
sists of more or fewer of these manies resulting trom one linked
together not by a relationship of descent but by an_ affinity depend-
ent on a divine idea. And, lastly, a. An individual cannot manifest
itself in two places at once; it has no extension in space ; its rela-
tions are entirely with time, but the possible eS of its existence
is regulated by the law of its inherent vitality. 6. A species has cor-
respondent and exactly analogous relations Ee time and space,—

the duration of its existence as well as its geographical extension is

ZOOLOGY. 335

entirely regulated by physical conditions. c. A genus has dissimilar
or only partially comparable relations with time and space, and occu-
pies areas in both, having only partial relations to physical conditions.
The investigation of these distinctions and relations form the subject
of a great chapter in the philosophy of natural history. That
philosophy contemplates the laws that regulate the manifestation of
life exhibited in organized nature, and their dependence upon and
connection with the inorganic world and its phenomena. None
teaches more emphatically the difficulties with which man’s mind
must contend, when attempting to comprehend the wisdom embodied
in the universe, and none holds out a more cheering prospect of future
discovery in fresh and unexpected fields of delightful research.

ON THE STATE OF THE MIND DURING SLEEP.

Ar the British Association, Dr. Fowler read a paper on the ques-
tion, “ what is the state of the mind and vitality during perfect sleep
and the sleep in which we dream ;” the object of the paper was to
show that mind was a force similar to light, heat, and electricity, —
and that the body was the means by which it made itself apparent.

Prof. M’Cosh said that he should like to see the Section divided, so
that the speculative or transcendental portion of it might be distinct
from the rest. He was of opinion that Dr. Fowler had gone far
beyond the facts of physiology. It was, of course, quite true that
mind has a power over matter, and in that respect it might be deserib-
ed as a force, but it is a force very different from the physical forces
with which it had been compared. Mental power did not require a
‘coil, and in this sense it was very different from electricity or grav-
itation. Sir D. Brewster said that a friend of his was at present busy
investigating on the subject of Dr. Fowler’s paper. He fixed his atten-
tion on a certain object; and, by marking the time with a watch,
recorded his sensations between the period of perfect wakefulness
and profound sleep. It might be mentioned, asa fact, that different
parts of the body fall asleep at different times; andit might, perhaps,
be argued by analogy that different parts of the brain fall asleep at
different times. It was.a fact equally well known, that different parts
of the body get intoxicdted sooner than others. F irst, the eyes begin
to glaze, then the tongue to get flabby, then the muscles begin to give
way in the arms, then in the limbs, and so on. Experiments had also
recently been made to ascertain the different sensitiveness of various
parts of the human body, by means ofa pair of compasses. At a dis-
tance of only one-eight of an inch between the legs of the compasses,
the two points will be distinguished on some parts of the body, whilst
on the back the effect will be that of only one point, unless the com-
pass is stretched several inches.

29*

336 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SUGGESTION IN MODIFYING AND DIRECT-
ING MUSCULAR MOVEMENT, INDEPENDANTLY OF VOLITION.

THE following paper on the above subject was recently read before
the Royal Institution, England, by Dr. Carpenter, the well-known
physiologist.

Public attention has recently been so much attracted to a class of
phenomena which have received the very inappropriate designation of
Electro-Biological or simply Biological, and so much misapprehension
prevails regarding their true nature and import, that it becomes the
phy siologist tomake known the results of scientific investigation,
directed in the first place towards the determination of their genuine-
ness, and in the second to the elucidation of the peculiar state of the
nervous system on which their production depends. With regard to
the genuineness of the phenomena themselves, the lecturer stated that
he could entertain no doubt whatever ;_ since they had been presented
to himself and to other scientific enquirers, by numerous individuals,
on whose honesty and freedom from all tendency to deceive themselves
or others implicit reliance could be placed. But from the account
commonly given of these phenomena —to the effect that the will of
the “ biologized ” subject is entirely subjected to that of the operator,
he entirely dissented. All the phenomena of the “ biologized” state
when attentively examined, will be found to consist in the occupation
of the mind by the ideas which have been suggested to it, and in the
influence which those ideas exert upon the actions of the body. Thus,
the operator asserts, that the “ subject ” cannot rise from his chair, or open
his eyes, or continue to hold a stick; and the “ subject ” thereby be-
comes so completely possessed with the fixed belief of the impossibility
of the act, that he 1s incapacitated from executing it, not because his
will is controlled by that of another, but because. “his will is in abey-
ance, and his muscles are entirely under the guidance of his ideas.
So again, when he is made to drink a glass of “water, and is assured
that it is coffee, or wine, or milk, that assurance, delivered in a decided
tone, makes a stronger impression on his al than that which he
receives through his taste, smell, or sight; and not being able to
judge and compare, he yields himself up to the “ dominant idea.”
The same with what has been designated as “control over the mem-
ory.” The subject is assured that he cannot remember the most
familiar thing, his own name for example ; and he is prevented from
doing so, not “by the will of the operator, but by the conviction of the
impossibility of the mental act, which engrosses his own mind, and by
the want of that voluntary control over ‘the direction of his thoughts
which alone can enable him to recall the desiderated impression. The
same with the abolition of the sense of personal identity. Now,
almost every one of these peculiar phenomenatas its par allel in states
of mind whose existence is universally to he Thus, the com-
plete subjection of the muscular power to the “dominant idea”
precisely what is experienced in nightmare ; in which we are settee
ted from moving so much as a finger, notwithstanding a strong desire

ZOOLOGY. 337

to do so, by the conviction that the least movement is impossible.
The misinterpretation of sensory impressions is continually seen in
persons who are subject to absence of mind, who make the most ab-
surd mistakes as to what they see or hear, taste or feel, in consequence
of the pre-occupation of the mind by some train of thought which
renders them unable rightly to appreciate the objects around them.
In such persons, too, the memory of the most familiar things —as the
absent man’s own name, for example, or that of his most intimate
friend — is often in abeyance for a time ; and it requires but a more
complete obliteration of the consciousness of the past, through the
entire possession of the mind by the intense consciousness of the pres-
ent, to destroy the sense of personal identity. This, indeed, we often
do in effect lose in ordinary dreaming and reverie. The essential
characteristic of both these states, as of the “ biological” condition,
is, the suspension of voluntary control over the current of thought, so
that the ideas follow one another suggestively ; and however strange or
incongruous their combinatious or sequences may appear, we are
never surprised at them, because we have lost the power of referring
to our ordinary experience. There is one phenomenon of the “ bio-
logical” state, which has been considered pre-eminently to indicate
the power of the operator’s will over his subject; namely, the induc-
tion of sleep, and its spontaneous determination at a given time
previously ordained, or by the sound of the operator’s voice, and that
only. It is well known that the expectation of sleep is one of the
most powerful means of inducing it, especially when combined with
the withdrawal of the mind from everything else which could keep its
attention awake; both these conditions are united in an eminent
degree in the state of the biologized subject whose mind has been
possessed with the conviction that sleep is about to supervene, and is
closed to every source of distraction. The waking at a particular time
may also be explained by the influence of expectation. Thus, how-
“ever strange the phenomenon of the “biological” state may at first
sight appear, there is not one of them which, when closely scrutinized,
is not found to be essentially conformable to facts whose genuineness
every physiologist and psychologist is ready to admit. It is not, how-
ever, in any large proportion of individuals that this state can be
induced; probably not more than one in twenty, or at most one in
twelve. Males appear equally susceptible of it with females; so that
it cannot be fairly set down as a variety of “ hysterical” disorder.
The lecturer proceeded to inquire, whether any such physiological
account can be given of this state as shall enable us to refer it to any
of the admitted laws of action of the nervous system ; and in order to
prepare his auditors for the reception of his views, he gave a brief ex-
planation of those phenomena of “reflux” action (now universally
recognized by physiologists) in which impressions made upon the
nervous system are followed by respondent automatic movements. The
movements which we term voluntary or volitional differ from the
emotional and automatic, in being guided by a distinct conception of
the object to be attained, and by a rational choice of the means em-

838 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ployed. And so long as the voluntary power asserts its due predomi-
nance, so long can it.keep in check all tendency to any other kind of
action save such as ministers directly to the bodily wants, as the
automatic movements of breathing and swallowing. The cerebrum is
universally admitted to be the portion of the nervous system which is
instrumentally concerned in the formation of ideas, the excitement of
the emotions, and the operations of the intellect; and there seems no
reason why it should be exempted from the law of “ reflex action,”
which applies to every other part of the nervous system. And as the
emotions may act directly upon the muscular system through the
motor nerves, there is no a priori difficulty in believing that ideas may
become the sources of muscular movement, independantly either of
volitions or of emotions. Now, if the ordinary course of external
impressions — whereby they successively produce sensations, ideas,
emotions, and intellectual processes, the will giving the final decision
upon the action to which they prompt— be anywhere interrupted, the
impression will then exert its power in another direction, and a “reflex ”
action will be the result. This is well seen in cases of injury to the
spinal cord, which disconnects its lower portion from the sensorium
without destroying its own power; for impressions made upon the
lower extremities then excite violent reflex actions, to which there
would have been no tendency if the current of nervous force could
have passed upwards to the cerebrum. So, if sensations be preven-
ted by the state of the cerebrum from calling forth ideas through its
instrumentality, they may react upon the motor apparatus in a manner
which they would never do in its state of complete functional activity.
This the lecturer maintained to be the true account of the mode in
which the locomotive movements are maintained and guided in states
of profound abstraction, when the whole attention of the individual is
so completely concentrated upon his own train of thought, that he does
not perceive the objects around him, although his movements are
obviously guided by the impressions which they make upon his senso-
rium. On the same grounds, it seems reasonable to suppose that
when ideas do not go on to be developed into emotions, or to excite
intellectual operations, they, too, may act (so to speak) in the tranverse
direction, and may produce respondent movement, through the instru-
tality of the cerebrum; and this will of course be most likely to
happen when the power of the will is in abeyance, as has been shown
to be the case in regard to the direction of the thoughts in the states of
electro-biology, somnambulism, and all forms of dreaming and reverie.
Thus the ideo-motor principle of action, as contrasted with the excito-
motor and sensorio-motor, finds its appropirate place in the physiolog-
ical scale, which would, indeed, be incomplete without it. And when
it is once recognized, it may be applied to the explanation of numerous
phenomena which have been a source of perplexity to many who have
been convinced of their genuineness, and who could not see any mode
of reconciling them with the known laws of nervous action. The
phenomena in question are those which have beea recently set down
to the action of an “ od-force,” such, for example, as the movements

ZOOLOGY. 339

of the “ divining-rod,” and vibration of bodies suspended from the
finger; both which have been clearly proved to depend on the state
of expectant attention on the part of the performer, his will being
temporially withdrawn from control over his muscles by the state of
abstraction to which his mind is given up, and the anticipation of a
given result being the stimulus which directly and involuntarily
prompts the muscular movements that produce it.

INFLUENCE OF THE NERVOUS ACTION UPON HEAT.

Tue following is an abstract of a paper read before the French
Academy, by M. Bernard, taken from the Comptes Rendus, xxxiv.

“« When we cutin the region of the neck of a mammiferous animal, a
dog, a cat, a horse, or a hare, for example, the nervous thread of com-
munication which connects the cervical superior, and the cervical in-
ferior ganglion, we will find, immediately, an increase of temperature
on the corresponding side of the face of the animal. This elevation of
temperature makes its appearance instantaneously, and is developed so
quickly, that in a few moments, and under certain circumstances, we
shall find a difference of temperature between the two sides of the face
of 3° or 4° Centigrade, (5° or 7° Fahr.) This difference of heat
is perfectly appreciable by the hand, though determined more con-
veniently by introducing, for the purpose of comparison, a small ther-
mometer into the nostrils or auditory conduits of the animal.

This difference of 3° or 4° of temperature, is remarkable as a rela-
tive difference of heat between the two sides of the face. If, however,
we compare the heat of the nostril or auditory conduit, (although
warmed by the section of the nerve,) with the heat of the rectum, or
central parts of the body, the thorax or the abdomen, we see that it is
almost the same. Thus the section of the cervical fillet of the
sympathetic nerve of the hare, elevates the temperature of the corres-
ponding ear as high as 40°, while the normal temperature of the rec-
tum of the same animal, does not vary much from 38° or 39°
Centigrade.

The whole of the side of the face warmed by the section of the
nerve, becomes the seat of a very active circulation of the blood, the
arteries become much more full, and appear to pulsate stronger, as
may be distinctly observed in the vessels of the ear of the hare. But
in a few days, sometimes the next day, this vascular turgescense is
considerably diminished, or disappears entirely, although the heat of
the cut side of the face, continues as at first. This circumstance leads
us to infer that the elevation of temperature, is not altogether an
effect of the increased activity in the circulation of the blood. Still,
after observing, for a long time, the animals which present this
phenomena, (and I have observed during twelve or fourteen days in
the hare, and for many more in the dog,) I have never seen it happen,
after the experiment, that the parts became more warm without con-
gestion, and those morbid phenomena we are accustomed to associate
with what we call inflammation.”

340 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Upon placing the animal, after the experiment, in a temperature
elevated considerably above the normal temperature of the body,
Bernard found that the side already warmed did not appear to
exhibit any effect of the increased heat, like the rest of the body, so
that finally, both sides of the face exhibited the same temperature.
The opposite happened upon placing the animal in a medium consider-
ably cooler than the normal temperature, the cut side retained its
heat, while the other side and the rest of the body became cooler,
until finally there was a difference of 3° or 4° Centigrade as already
mentioned.

This singular phenomenon of resistance to cold, appears connected
with an exhaltation of the vitality of the part. Thus, upon causing
death to happen in a manner that should not affect the nerves of
sense, poisoning in a certain manner, for example, or by section of the
pneumogastric nerve, in proportion as the end of the animal approach-
ed, the temperature of the body became lower and lower, though the
eut side still remained sensibly warmer, and at last, when the normal
side of the face presented the cold and immobility of death, the other
half, that on which the sympathetic nerve was cut, was still sensibly
warm, and repeatedly exhibited that species of involuntary movements,
dependant upon sensation without will, and to which we give the
name of reflected motions.

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE LIFE.

AmoneG the most important and novel communications brought
before the last meeting of the British Association, that which combined
the most elaborate research into details with the broadest generaliza-
tion, and which must be considered to be the first attempt to reduce
all the facts of the distribution of living creatures upon the surface of
the earth to general laws, was the explanation of “A New Map of the
Geographical Distribution of Marine Life,” by Prof. Edward Forbes.
Two modes of classifying facts of distribution have been hitherto
adopted; either the geographical areas to which peculiar assemblages
of animals and plants are confined have been marked out as “ proy-
inces,” the classification in this case being natural, but purely biologi-
eal; or certain parallels of latitude, or certain isothermals, bemg taken
as boundary lines, animals and plants have been considered to be dis-
tributed according to the “zones” thus marked out, — a convenient,
but hitherto an artificial arrangement, though, since the distribution of
life must greatly depend upon the climatal conditions indicated by
latitudinal and isothermal lines, it had a certain broad and loose corres-
pondence with nature.

The great problem has been to unite these two methods, to ascer-
tain what is the common condition by which the limits both of the
“ provinces” and of the “ zones” are governed ; for since the distribu-
tion of life in provinces is governed by climatal conditions, and since
the climatal phenomena of any one portion of the earth’s surface are

ZOOLOGY. | 341

continuous (approximatively) in a zone round its surface, it is clear
that there must be some such general agreement.

Now, Prof. Férbes finds that if we lay down the marine provinces
according to the knowledge we have of the distribution of species, the
lines bounding such provinces latitudinally may be connected across
the land by lines which, in the main, correspond with the great fea-
tures of the arrangement of terrestrial vegetation and animal life. In
general the lines on land are drawn in accordance with the isothermal
of the month in which the greatest development of animal and vege-
table life taken together is manifested within the region. By “ great-
est development” of life, Prof: Forbes means that the greatest number
- of vertebrata and articulata are out and active at the same time, and
the greatest number of plants are in flower— phenomena which are
co-existent. ‘To the zones included between the lines thus drawn
the Professor gives the name of homoiozoic belts. From north to
south such a belt corresponds with only a single province, but from
east to west it may include several. The various provinces included
within any given belt, if they are geographically approximated, resem-
ble one another in consequence of the identity of many of their species ;
but if they are geographically distant, the resemblance consists in the
representation of species of the one by species of the other. Nine
homoiozoic belts are to be distinguished, one of which is central and
equatorial, and the other eight are contained, four in the northern, and
four in the southern hemisphere. These belts are: —1. The north
polar homoiozoic belt ; its southern limit corresponds very nearly with
the isotherm of 54° 5/ in the month of June in Dove’s map. It
includes only the arctic province. 2. The north cireumpolar homoio-
zoic belt; its southern limit (exclusive of the British area) answers
nearly to the isotherm of 59° in June. It contains the Boreal, Sitch-
ian, and Ochotyian provinces, which are wholly representative, any
identical species being derived from the arctic province. 3. The
northern neutral homoiozoic belt, whose southern limit is the isotherm
of 63° in June, and 68° in July. It comprehends the Celtic and
Virginian, and the Mantchourian and Oregonian provinces. The
Celtic and Virginian provinces represent one another, as also proba-
bly do the Mantchourian and Oregonian. 4. The northern circum-
central homoiozoic belt has the isotherm of 68° in May for its southern
limit. It contains six provinces, the Lusitanian, Carolinian, Mediter-
ranean, Japonian, Californian, and Aralo-Caspian. 5. The central
homoiozoic belt contains the West African, Caribbean, and Panamian
areas, besides the largest of all marine provinces, the Indo-Pacific. 6.
The southern circumcentral homoiozoic belt is limited northward by
the isotherm of 68° in October, though this does not quite exactly
coincide with its marine boundary. It represents very forcibly the
northern circumcentral belt, and contains the Peruvian, Urugavian,
South African, and Australian marine provinces. 7. The southern
neutral homoiozoic belt, limited by the isotherm of 59° in January,
contains the east Patagonian and Araucanian provinces. 8. The
southern circumpolar homoiozoic belt has for its northern limit the

342 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

December isotherm of 50°, and contains the Fuegian province. 9.
The southern polar homoiozoic belt consists of the antarctic province.
lis limit is the isotherm of 41° for December.

The provinces which are referred to were also defined by the learned
Professor, but we can here merely enumerate them. They are 25 in
number: —1. Arctic; 2. Boreal; 3. Celtic; 4. Lusitanian ; 5. Medi-
terranean; 6. West African; 7. South African; 8. Indo-Pacific; 9.
Australian; 10. Japonian; 11. Mantchourian; 12. Ochotyian; 13.
Sitchian; 14. Oregonian; 15. Californian; 16. Panamian; 17. Peru-
vian ; 18. Araucaman; 19. Fuegian; 20. Antarctic; 21. East Pata-
gonian; 22. Urugavian; 23. Caribbean ; 24. Carolinian; 25. Virgin-
ian. Full reference was made to the authorities from whom the data
for the establishment of these provinces were taken.

The Professor further laid before the Association, a new nomencla-
ture and re-arrangement of the facts ascertained with regard to the
distribution of marine creatures in depth. He now divides the regions
of depth into five bathymetrical zones: — 1. The littoral zone, char-
acterized by Littorine and Purpure, and occupying the whole space
between high and low water marks. In the Celtic province this zone is
clearly divided into four sub-regions. 2. The circumlittoral zone,
between low water mark and a depth of about fifteen fathoms. It is
the zone of Laminarie in the Northern Atlantic, of Zostera and Cau-
lerpa in the Mediterranean, and of the reef-building corals in the Indo-
Pacific province. 38. The median zone, between fifteen fathoms and
fifty. This is the coralline zone of the Celtic seas. 4. The infra-
median zone ranges from fifty fathoms to a hundred. It is the region
of the deep-sea corals in the Celtic seas, and of the red coral of the
Mediterranean. 5. The abyssal zone extends from one hundred
fathoms downwards. It contains no plants, and animal life seems
gradually to disappear in it. In the Celtic seas this region has not
yet been properly explored. Asa general law it may be said, that as
we descend in the sea the regions of depth become of greater extent,
and the range of species is greater.

EFFECTS OF SWALLOWING VIRULENT MATTERS IN THE DIGES-
TIVE ORGANS OF MAN AND ANIMAL.

Tue following conclusions have been arrived at by M. Renault,
director of the veterinary school of Alfort : —

“That the dog and the pig may eat, without danger to their health,
all the products of secretion, whatever they may be, all remains,
cooked or uncooked, of animals affected with contagious diseases
referred to in these investigations, namely, glanders, the pestilential
diseases called blood of the spleen, madness, contagious typhus, and
the pneumonia of cattle, and the contagious epizootia of gallinacious
animals.

“That it is the same with what follows with regard to the same dis-
eases, with the exception of that which is proper to themselves, and
on which it could be necessary to experiment out of the epizooticatmo

ZOOLOGY. 343

sphere, which I have not been able to do, before coming toa conclu-
sion on this point.

“ That the virulent matter of glanders and acute farcy, which com-
pletely lose their contagious properties in the digestive organs of the
dog, the pig, and the fowl, retain them, although much diminished in
energy in those of the horse.

“That the virulent matter of the blood of the spleen, which the
dog, the pig, and the fowl may eat without inconvenience, often give
rise to carbuncular symptoms when it is swallowed by the herbivora,
such as the sheep, the goat, and the horse.

“ That this immunity, as regards contagion, which the carnivora and
omnivora fed with virulent matters enjoy, whilst the latter may produce
all their effects when they are swallowed by the herbivora, might be
owing to the virus being evidently from their origin, principles of
animal nature, would undergo, in organs destined for digesting ani-
mal food, modifications which by altering them profoundly, would
make them loose their deleterious properties, which, from their organ-
ization, are capable of digesting only vegetable aliments.

“ That whatever their explanation may be, it is proved, indeed, that
pigs and fowls, do not undergo, either in their health or in the quality
of the products which they furnish for the consumption of man, any
alteration in consequence of having been fed with matter from ani-
mals which have died of glanders or farcy, carbuncle or madness, and
that man may eat without danger the flesh and products of these
animals thus nourished.”

“ That the baking and roasting of meats, and the boiling of liquids
arising from animals affected with contagious diseases have the effect
of annihilating the virulent properties of these meats and liquors to
such an extent, that not only may the glandered matter be swallowed
with impunity by the horse, the sheep, and the goat, and the remains
of fowls which have died of epizootia by fowls, but also that all these
matters which are so active, whose contagious power is so energetic,
and so certain when they are inoculated in the fresh state, remain
completely inert on every animal, even after their inoculation, when
they have been cooked.

“ The practical consequence of the facts explained in this memoir
is therefore : —

“That there exists no sanitary reason why pigs and fowls should
not be fed with the remains of the clos d’ ecarissage whatever they
may be.

“That, however comprehensible may be the repugnance of man
to consume meat or milk from cattle, pigs, sheep, or fowls, affected
with contagious diseases, there is in reality no danger in his eating
cooked flesh or boiled milk, furnished by these animals.” — Journal de
Chimie Medicale, March, 1852.

30

844 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF FISH.

WITHIN a comparatively recent period a discovery has been made
in France, by which fish may be produced, or breed, in lakes and
rivers, to an almost incalculable extent, and which is now being
actively prosecuted under the direction of the French Government.
The details of the process and discovery are as follows: — Some two
years ago, two fishermen, named Gehlin and Remy, of La Bresse, in
the department of the Vosges found that from various causes the
stock of trout, for which the rivers and lakes of that department are
famous, greatly declined; and they attentively studied the habits of
the male and female trout at spawning time, with the view, if possible,
of discovering the means of checking the evil. After long and patient
observations, they found that not one in a hundred of the eggs depos-
ited in the bed of the rivers, feeunded by the milt of the male, came
to maturity —the rest being devoured by other fish, washed away or
destroyed by mud. They found also that of the fish which had become
excluded or hatched, the greater part were destroyed by the larger
fish of their own or different species. It then struck them that if
they were to collect the eggs and apply the milt themselves, instead of
leaving the fish to do it, and afterwards to secure the young fish from
the voracity of the larger ones, they would, in the course of a few
years, obtain an inexhaustible supply.

Accordingly, they seized a female trout, just as they perceived she
was about to spawn, and by pressure on her belly, caused her to
deposite her eggs in a vessel containing fresh water. They afterwards
took a male, and by pressing his belly in the same way, caused his
milt to spurt on the eggs. It is by pressure on the belly that female
and male always relieve themselves at spawning time. These two
men, then, in imitation of the fish, placed the eggs on a layer of gravel,
which they deposited in a box full of holes. This box was fixed ina
bed of a flowing stream, and covered it with pebbles. The fish them-
selves in the natural way, cover the eggs with pebbles, and then leave
them. In due time the eggs excluded, and almost every one was found
to be good. They thus obtained from one female several hundred
fish. ‘They took precautions for keeping the little creatures in water
where they were out of danger, and supplied them with fitting food.
Applying this operation the year after to a great number of fish, they
obtained several thousand trout; and in a year or two more the
numbers had literally increased to millions. After they had stocked
the rivers and streams of the Vosges, some streams in their depart-
ments, the attention of Government and of the French Academy was
drawn to the discovery. The Academy declared that it was of an
immense national importance, though it had been long known to sci-
entific men as a scientific curiosity, not, however, as of practical utility.
The government on its part, saw that the application of it to the rivers
and streams of France would not only afford employment to a vast
number of persons, but would enable an immense addition to be made
at scarcely any expense, to the people’s food. It accordingly took the

wind

ZOOLOGY. 345

two men into its service and made them apply the system to different
waters. They have done so with the most singular success ; rivers and
lakes in which there were no fish are now teeming with them. Nor
have they confined their operations to trout alone, but have extended
them to salmon, pike, tench and perch, and in each case with com-
plete success. Indeed, their system is applicable to all sorts of fresh
water fish, and to those which after spawning in rivers, descend to the
sea.

Among the rivers that they have already stocked, are those of the
Isere, Haute Loire, Allier, Lozere, Meuse, Meurthe, and the Haute
Saone. Several gentlemen of property have also tried the system
with success on the estates in Burgundy, Brie, and Normandy. In
addition to the breeding of fish, different species can be naturalized in
strange waters or removed from river to river. So great is the import-
ance which the government attaches to the plan, that it has nominated
a commission of eminent scientific men to superintend the operations
of Gehin and Remy. The Moniteur announces that the minister of
Marine and Colonies has also ordered that experiments shall be made
to apply it to salt water fish, at the mouth of rivers, and off the coasts,
especially to lobsters. M. Valenciennes, an eminent ichthyologist,
and member of the Institute, has been charged to examine the mouths
of the rivers and the coasts from Havre to La Teste, and to state in
what places the experiments may be tried with most chances of
advantage. Milne Edwards and M. Coste, both members of the Insti-
tute, have been directed to make similar investigations.

From the discussions in the French Academy, and from other sources
we obtain the following additional particulars relative to this sub-
ject : — “ The loves of fishes,” says Cuvier, “are cold like themselves,
cold like their abode. As for most species, it is remarked that the
stronger sex does not seek the society of the more feeble. The only
object of concern with the male fish is the eggs of the female, and the
spot where she has deposited them. These eggs he fecundates, with-
out knowing their mother; nor cares he afterwards to behold the
progeny they are to produce. The mother herself is equally indiffer-
ent. Unknown to her are the pleasures of maternity. The role
assigned to her by nature is simply the laying of the eggs, which are
often immediately devoured by a neighboring fish; and sometimes
even by a famished father himself” The productive power of fishes
is greater than that of any of the higher animals. In the spawn of
the tench there have been counted 38,000 eggs at once; a perch of
common size contains 70,000 eggs; a pike weighing 20 Ibs. 166,000 ;
in a carp weighing 24 lbs. 167,000; in another carp weighing 10 lbs.
were found 621,600 eggs. Rousseau estimates at 7,635,200 the num-
ber of eggs in a sturgeon ; and Leuwenhock has counted 9,344.000 in
one codfish. The numerous causes which prevent the maturing of
the greater portion of the eggs that have been laid by the female: the
failure to be fecundated by the milt of the male ; destruction by other
fish ; freshets which wash them away; droughts which leave them dry ;
of late years the passage of steamers on all navigable rivers, causing

346 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

an unnatural agitation of the water and a washing of the banks,
against which the instinct of fishes does not teach them to provide, &c.

“« Artificial fecundation,” says M. Quatrefages, “will remove all
these causes of destruction of the eggs; and “the employment of it
offers no difficulty whatever.” The pr ocess employed by MM. Gehin
and Remy is of very simple and easy execution. In the case of the
trout for example, they proceed as follows : — It is in November or the
beginning of December that the reproduction of trouts takes place.
To obtain the eggs intended for artificial fecundation, it suffices to
press slightly, from the front towards the rear, when the moment for
spawning has arrived, the abdomen of the female fish. The eggs
which fall should be received in a vessel of water; and upon them

should be poured the milt or soft roe, obtained in an exactly similar
manner, by pressing it from the abdomen of the male fish into another
vessel of water. If these products have not arrived at maturity when
this operation is attempted, they will not flow out except under the
application of strong pressure. In such cases the fish should be kept
several days longer before operating this sort of forced accouchement ;
for neither the eggs nor the sperm can be profitably used in a state of
immaturity, and the lives of the parent fishes would be endangered by
any violent procedures. Immediately upon contact with the water
into which the sperm has been ejected, the eggs change color. Prior
to fecundation they are transparent, and ofa y yellowish color. As soon
as they are fecundated they become whitish, or rather opaline. A
trout of the age of two years only, and weighing about 125 grammes,
(4.40 ounces avoirdupois,) may furnish say 600 eggs; a trout of three
years from 700 to 800 eggs. It is to be remarked that the milt of one
male suflices to fecundate the eggs supplied by half a dozen, or even a
greater number of females.

MM. Gehin and Remy place the eggs thus fecundated on a bed of
gravel in tin boxes pierced with holes. These boxes are say six inches
broad and three inches deep, and can contain about one thousand
eggs each. They are placed in some little stream whose waters are
quick and clear, but not deep. They are partially interred in the bed
of the stream, and so arranged that the current will be perpetually
renewing the water which “bathes the eggs; for the agitation of the
water is necessary not only to assure the respiration of the embryos,
but also to prevent the formation of byssus or hair-weed, (conferves,)
which would rapidly appear and determine the death of ‘the spawn if
the water were allowed to become stagnant. ‘The development of
these embryos lasts about four months, and it is generally about the
end of March or in April that the exclusion or hatching takes place.
During the six first weeks the young trouts bear under the belly the
umbilical or vitelline vesicle which contains the remains of the nutri-
tive substance, analogous to the yolk of the eggs of birds ; 3 and it is at
first by the consumption of this substance that the fr y is nourished.
But when the absorption of this is completed, the little fish requires
other ailment; and he must then be made to quit the box which has
served as his cradle, and allowed to swim about freely in the stream or

ZOOLOGY. 347

pond which it is intended to stock. Finally, in order to supply these
little animals with an abundant aliment suited to their wants, it suffices
to allow to remain or to introduce into the stream or pond where the
fish are placed a number of frogs. ‘The spawn of these batrachians is
a food which the fish seek with avidity; and the tadpoles constitute
also an excellent aliment for the trouts of a more advanced age.
When the small trouts which have been bred in this way are destined
to be used for stocking a river, they should be placed in the brooks or
small streams tributary to the river; and those streams should be
selected in preference which flow rapidly and noisily over a pebbly or
rocky bed. In proportion as the fish grow they descend spontaneously
to deeper waters, but do not reach them till they are sufficiently active
to escape by flight from the enemies they meet there Were they
placed immediately in the midst of other voracious fish very few would
escape destruction. When it is in ponds or nurseries that it is pro-
posed to rear the fish, care must be taken to separate totally the
products of each year; for the big trouts devour the little ones, and
to prevent this it is necessary to keep together in the same enclosure
all that are of the same age. To get up, therefore, in regular style an
enterprise of this sort, one should have at least three ponds, from
which the fish should be gathered alternately three years respectively
after each has been stocked, and new generations placed in the pond
just vacated.

M. Quatrefages states, that it is not necessary, in order to produce
fecundation of eggs, that the fish employed should be alive. M. Gol-
stein succeeded in fecundating the eggs of a trout which had been
dead four days. It is probable that the spermatic liquor also preserves
its virtue for a length of time after the death of the male. At any
rate, this is a fact which I have often verified in the case of inverte-
brated animals. Small fish after their exclusion are nourished for a
considerable length of time by the vitelline substance contained in
their intestines. Salmon in particular seem to have no need of other
aliment for a month or six weeks after exclusion.

To the other advantages presented by the process under discussion
must be added that of facilitating the dissemination of the various spe-
cies. Our rivers, ponds, and lakes could easily be stocked with species
of fish, valuable either for the delicacy of their flesh or for their
extreme fecundity. The naturalization of foreign fish has rarely been
attempted, and yet the success of some attempts which have been
made in this direction is of a nature to encourage experiments. The
gourami of China has been naturalized in the ponds of the Isle of
France and of Cayenne. China has supplied us with those red fishes
(cyprinus auratus) so common in our ornamental fish-ponds. ‘The
carp itself, at present so generally diffused all over Europe, is very
probably a native of Persia. Introduced first into Southern Europe,
it was not till the middle ages that the carp was carried into Prussia,
where it has become the object of an important commerce. This fish
was not known in England and Denmark till some time in the six-

teenth century. It was imported at a still later date into Sweden and
30*

348 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Russia, where, though diminished a little in size, it still supports very
well the rigor of the northern winters.

The following conclusion of Milne Edwards’ report to the French
Government applies equally well to the United States as to France :
He says: “ Experiments on this subject seem to me especially desira-
ble from the consideration of various circumstances which are tending
daily to diminish the value of our river fisheries as contributing to our
alimentary resources. The increasing rarity of fish in many of our
rivers does not depend exclusively upon the mode in which fishing is
practised. There are other causes, and among them must be men-
tioned the extension of our manufacturing industry. The dams which
have been constructed in such great numbers for obtaining hydraulic
motive power are so many hindrances to the reproduction of the
various species of fish whose habits cause them to ascend to the very
sources of streams in order to find there suitable places for receiving
their spawn. The parent fish arriving in less numbers at the small
streams, the icthyologic population of ‘the rivers consequently suffers,
for the eggs no longer encounter conditions favorable to the growth of
the young, and the recruiting elements of the whole fauna rapidly
decay. If, as in Scotland, and even in England, there existed in
France many wealthy land owners possessing water courses of very
considerable extent, we could safely leave to private enterprise the
execution of all the works relative to the amelioration of river fishery,
for the individual to whom these rivers belonged would have a direct
interest in augmenting their products. But with us it is otherwise, and
the individual who should busy himself with stocking a river with fish,
could hardly hope to reap for himself any profit from his undertaking.
He would augment the alimentary resources of his fellow-countrymen,
and in this way would render a real service to his country, but his
own share in the benefits obtained would be small, and would not con-
stitute a sutficient motive to induce him to undertake the work. The
stocking our rivers with fish would be a public benefit. It should,
therefore, I think, be a public charge. Experiments upon a large scale,
but conducted judiciously and by intelligent men, would not “involve
much expense, and might lead to important results.”

NEW COCHINEAL INSECT.

Atv a recent meeting of the British Entomological Society, the Presi-
dent, Mr. Westwood presented specimens of the so called “new
eochineal insect, Coccus abe,” which, it appears, feeds on the com-
mon bean, and yields a most brilliant color, in all respects resembling
the cochineal of Central America. Mr. W. stated that the “c ultivation
of the insect had been commenced on a large scale in the south of
France, where it would supply a new and profitable opening to the
labor of the peasantry.”

4

ZOOLOGY. 349

WOOL IN THE UNITED STATES.

By recent scientific researches on the part of P. A. Brown, Esq.,
of Pennsylvania, it has been established that the United States can
out-rival the world in wool as well as in cotton. Thus, Spanish sheep,
yielding naturally wool 2,000 to the inch, carried to England, degene-
rated to 900 to the inch, and brought to the United States recovered
to 2,100, or finer than the original. The fact being once established
that our climate and soil produce finer wool than other countries, will
give to our manufactures inevitably the superiority in cloths, if the
manufacturer is allied in his interest to the grower.

GOULD’S COLLECTION OF HUMMING BIRDS.

Mr. Gou_p, the distinguished British ornithologist, has exhibited,
during the past summer, at the London Zoological Gardens, his col-
lection of humming-birds, for the acquisition “of which years have
been spent. The “collection is contained in twenty-four cases, and
embraces upwards of two thousand specimens, comprising three
hundred and twenty species. Ten species only were known to Lin-
neus. In 1824, Mr. Bullock had collected a hundred species. In
1842, Mr. Loddiges possessed a hundred and ninety-six species.

The splendor ‘of plumage, which forms so well-distinguished a fea-
ture in this group, has probably given rise to the popular error that
humming-birds are found in the East. The truth, is, however, that
humming-birds exist only on the continent of America, i in the West
India Islands, and in two islands of the Pacific. The form, therefore,
is essentially American ; one beautiful little species is well known in
the United States, and passes through the whole extent of that vast
territory from its winter quarters in Mexico, until it reaches Canada,
which is the extreme northern limit on the eastern side of America.
On the western side, a similar species, but much more brilliant in
color—in fact, the most intensely brilliant of the whole group—
migrates from Mexico, through California, to Nootka Sound, and
probably even as far as Sitka. From Bolivia, on the other side of
the equator, another brilliant species migrates to the south, and pene-
trates as far as Terra del Fuego, where ‘the officers of her Majesty’s
ship Beagle found them feeding on insects in the blossoms of the
fuschia while snow was lying upon the ground ; for humming-birds do
not necessarily require a high temperature, and that they can support
an intense degree of cold is abundantly proved by the very altitude
to which several species are entirely limited in the Andes. Some
species are found in the West Indian Islands; two in the Island of
Juan Fernandez ; one in Chiloe, in the Pacific. In the vast range of
the Andes, at a height of seven or eight thousand feet, they are most
abundant. They clitter even above the snow line, at an elevation of
fourteen or fifteen thousand feet. Chimborazo has its peculiar bird ;
and so has Pichinoha. Every valley of those wild regions—each a
world in itself from its prodigious depth—exhibits some variety in
form or color.

350 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The temperate regions of the Andes, from 7,000 to 10,000 feet of
altitude, produce the greatest number of these birds, which for the
most part are distributed throughout that mountain range in locally —
defined limits, which are pr obably marked out for the various species
by the peculiar features of soil and aspect which control the production
of vegetation, and consequently, of the insects which derive their
existence from that source, and form, in their turn, the main suste-
nance of humming-birds.

SINGULAR LOCALITY FOR A BIRD’S NEST.

TuE following paper was read at the Belfast meeting of the British
Association, by ‘Dr. Barry.

At the railway station in Giessen, Hesse Darmstadt, in May, 1852, it
was found that a bird had built its nest on the collision spring of a
third-class carriage which had remained for some time out of use.
The bird was the black red-start, (Sylvia Tithys,) and the nest
contained five eggs. The discovery was made by the “ wagenmeis-
ter,” who humanely desired his men to avoid as long as possible, the
running of that carriage. Atlength, when it could no longer be dis-
pensed “with, the car riage was attached to a train, and sent “to Frank-
fort-on- -the-Maine, distant between thir ty and forty English miles. At
Frankfort it remained for six-and-thirty hours, and was then brought
back to Giessen ; from whence it went to Lollar, distant four or five
English miles, and subsequently again came back to Giessen, having
been kept a while at Lollar; so “that four days and three nights
elapsed between the bringing of the carriage into its use, and its last
return to Giessen. Stephanij now finding ‘the nest not to have been
abandoned by the parent birds, and to contain young ones, which he
describes as feathered, he removed it from the carriage to a secure
place of rest which he had prepared, saw the parent birds visit it,
and visited it from time to time himself, until at first three and then
the other two young birds had flown; none remaining at the end of
four or five days. Now, while the carriage was trav elling, where
were the parent birds? It will hardly be said that they remained at
Giessen awaiting its return, having to examine by night as well as by
day hundreds of passing carriages in order to recognize it ; the young
birds in their nests quietly awaiting food. (!) There seems little
doubt that, adhering to the nest, one, at least, of the parent birds
travelled with the train. Nor, when it is remembered how gently, and
how slowly an enormous railway carriage is pushed into connection
with a train,—how gradually a train is ‘brought into full speed, and
how equable the movements are upon a railway ,—will it appear
incredible that at such a time a parent bird should continue with its
nest, that nest being quite concealed, and containing young.—Not
until after the above was written, did the author of this communica-
tion become acquainted with the important fact that while the car-
riage in question was at Frankfort, as well as during its short stay at
F riedebere , on the way to F rankfort, the conductor of the train saw

ZOOLOGY. 351

a red-tailed bird constantly flying from and to the part where the
nest was situated in that particular carriage. Is further evidence
required that a parent bird did indeed travel with the train ?

THE SWALLOW TREE.

Dr. Tuomrson, of Burlington, Vt., furnishes the Boston Traveller
with the following account of a curious object called the “ Swallow
Tree,” recently found in Middlebury, Vt. He says :—At the time
the first settlements were made in the western parts of Vermont,
these swallow trees were quite common here, and several of them are
described by Dr. Williams in his history of the State. They were
usually very large elms, or sycamores, having extensive hollows
within, and an opening in the side, at a considerable height from the
ground, at which the swallows entered and made their egress. Early
each spring, and about sunrise in the morning, myriads of swallows
were seen to issue from the holes in these trees, and disperse them-
selves over the country, and, in the dusk of the evening, they were
observed to return again to their common roosting places in the hol-
lows of the trees. Thus they continued to disperse themselves in the
morning and collect together again in the evening, till they com-
menced pairing and rearing their young in the spring, and the same
phenomena were also observed again just before the final disappear-
ance of the swallows in the fall; and for a long time the opinion pre-
vailed that they passed the winter in these trees in a torpid state.
But it is now, I believe, well settled that this resort to particular
trees, in early times, and to particular old chimneys in modern, as
common roosting places, is only a temporary arrangement attending
their arrival in spring, and their migration southward in autumn.

_ These swallow trees, which were so common in early times, had,
probably many of them, been resorted to by thousands of birds,
year after year, fer centuries. The natural consequence would be,
for the cavities in which they roosted, to become gradually filled up
with excrement, cast off feathers, exuvia of insects and rotton wood,
and, accordingly, trees have been found in this condition long after
the swallows had ceased to resort to them. One of this kind, in
Ohio, is described in Harris’ Journal, and quoted in Wilson’s Orni-
thology. The tree was a hollow sycamore, five feet in diameter, and
had been blown down. Its immense hollow was found to be filled,
for the space of fifteen feet, with “a mass of decayed feathers, with a
small admixture of brownish dust, and the exuvia of various insects.”

The tree recently found in Middlebury resembled, in most respects,
the one above mentioned. The tree had been blown down, and had,
afterwards, nearly all rotted away, leaving little remaining, excepting
the feathery mass, which had filled its hollow, and which was now
bedded in leaves and moss. The tree was, probably, an elm, and,
judging from the size of the cylindrical mass of the contents, the
diameter of its hollow must have been about fifteen inches, which
had been filled some six or seven feet. Of the materials which had

352 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

filled it, about one-half consists of feathers, being, for the most part,
the wing and the tail feathers of the chimney swallows, ( Cypselus
pelasgius, Tem.) The other half is made up of the exuvia of insects,
mostly the fragments and eggs of the large wood ant, and a brownish
dust, probably derived from the decay ed wood of the interior of the
tree.

Now, while the discovery at Middlebury is, on many accounts, an
interesting one, there would be nothing very remarkable in it, were
the materials which had filled the hollow of the tree jumbled promis-
cuously and disorderly together. It would be just what we should
expect to find in a hollow tree, which had been for centuries, per-
haps, the roosting place of myriads of swallows. But this is not the
case. Asa ceneral thing, the large feathers have their quills pointing
outward at the surface of the cylindrical mass, while the plumes, or
ends containing the vanes, point inward. This arrangement might,
perhaps, arise from the nesting of small quadrupeds in the hollow,
making the feathers their bed. But in addition to this, we find in
various por tions of the mass, in some cases all the primary feathers of
the wing, and in other cases all the feathers of the tail, embedded in
the mass, lying in contact, and precisely in the order and position in
which they are found in the living swallow. In a mass of the mate-
rials, measuring not more than 7 inches by 5, and less than 3 mches
thick, I could trace at least, 5 wings and 2 tails, and in one of the
wings the secondary quills were also plainly arranged in their true
position with regard to the primaries. Now it is not possible to con-
ceive that these feathers were shed by livmg birds in the order in
which they are found. But if the birds died “there, what has become
of their beaks, claws and bones? We should think that these, or
portions of them, would be as durable as the feathers; but I do not
learn that a particle of any of these has been found in any part of
the mass. How, then, have these been removed, while the wing and
tail feathers remain in their true natural position? It could hardly
be done by any violent means without disturbing them. But if done
quietly, what did it? Would any insects devour the bones and not
the quills? Does the formic, or any other acid, which might be
generated within the hollow of the tree, decompose bone ?

THE TSETSE, OR ZIMB, OF SOUTH AFRICA.

TuHE following interesting facts are derived from a communication
made to the American Geographical Society, by Rev. Mr. Livingston,
the distinguished English missionary, and explorer of South Africa.

“ The Tsetse is the name given to an insect found im the interior of
Africa. In size it is between the common house- fly and the honey-
bee, and is of a drab color, having some yellow bars across the hinder
part of the body. They seemed to be confined to certain districts,
generally along the banks of rivers, where reedy swamps, intermingled
with trees, prevail. They are very numerous, and, from their devas-
tations among domestic ‘cattle, have been termed the scourge of

ZOOLOGY. 303

Africa. It is supposed that the “ zimb,” mentioned by Bruce, is the
same as the Tsetse.

The most curious fact about this insect is, that while its sting is
harmless to man and wild animals, it is certain destruction to horses,
cattle, sheep, dogs, or any other domesticated brute, except goats and
young calves. Several instances are known where all the cattle,
horses and dogs of a traveller have been swept off by it. A horse
was taken among them by a doubter; about fifty settled on him, and
immediately he began to lose flesh; in eleven days he was dead.
When an ox is bitten, at once the countenance stares, the eyes run,
he loses strength, swells under the jaw, staggers, grows blind, and
becomes emaciated, which continues, sometimes, for months, when
death ensues. Upon removing the skin, a great many air bubbles
are found on the surface of the body, under the cellular membrane.
The fat is of an oily, glary consistence, and of a greenish yellow
color. The heart is soft and pale, lungs and liver diseased, and the
gall bladder unusually distended with bile. The muscles are flabby,
the blood contains very little coloring matter, and not a pailful is
found in the body.

There is no such thing as becoming accustomed to them, and the
natives, in localities where they abound, are unable to raise a single
domestic animal. In these same districts, elephants buffaloes, zebras,
gnus, &c., live unaffected by the Tsetse. A dog fed on the meat of
game, lives; one reared on milk, falls a victim to them. It is said
that game meat is possessed of a peculiar acid found but sparingly in
tame animals; perhaps this may be the antiseptic. But then why do
calves, who subsist on milk, escape ? Sometimes an entire herd of
cattle is cut off excepting the calves, and these follow likewise, if
kept in the region for a year or two.”

FATTENING CATTLE IN STALLS AND IN SHEDS.

AN experimeut has been made in Scotland to try the comparative
value of these two modes of fattening cattle. Ten animals having
been chosen were divided as equally as possible ; five were put in a shel-
tered court with plenty of shed room, and the others into boxes. At
the beginning of October it was soon found that those in the court eat
134 pounds per day, while those in the boxes eat only 112 pounds, or
22 pounds less, thus proving that a certain degree of warmth is
equivalent to food. After seven months, toward the end of April,
they were all slaughtered, and the following results were found :

Cattle fed in boxes.......... Beef 3,262 lbs. Tallow 6,678 Ibs.
Cattle fed in courts.......... Beef 3,416 lbs. Tallow 6,054 lbs.

These results show the superiority of feeding in boxes. It is thought
that in a less mild winter they would have been more striking. In the
course of the experiment the thermometer rose to 50 degrees, and the
cattle under cover seemed to suffer from being too warm. It was
found a trifling expense to comb them regularly, which speedily pro-
duced a very marked improvement.

354 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

VARIOLA AND VACCINATION.

A COMMITTEE appointed by the Medical Society of the State of
Pennsylvania, has lately made a report, through Dr. Emerson, respect-
ing the effects of vaccination. ‘The committee was appointed to ex-
amine into the statements which had been put forth by Dr. Gregory,
of London, and Dr. Caznave, of Paris, who had written and published
statements respecting the growing insufficiency of vaccination as a
preventative for dangerous small pox. The opinions set forth by
these eminent foreign physicians were calculated to unsettle the views
of physicians, and shake their confidence in the protective powers of
vaccination. The principal points to be considered were, first,
whether persons vaccinated lose, through lapse of time, any protective
power once afforded against small pox ; second, whether the prophyla-
tic powers of vaccination, performed during infancy, are restricted to
the first fifteen years of life, and of no avail afterwards; third,
whether the accumulated evidence of the present day is calculated to
sustain Dr. Gregory in his belief that the efficacy of cow pox asa
protection against small pox, has diminished, and a large increase of
small pox resulted from the extension of vaccination ; fourth, whether,
as asserted by Drs. Gregory and Caznave, inoculation, after the
fifteenth year of age, of persons previously vaccinated, produces a
specific papular eruptive disease, of a non-contagious character, unat-
tended with danger, and giving protection in after life against
small pox ; fifth, whether circumstances exist which render it most
advantageous to substitute inoculation for vaccination, after the
fifteenth year of age, as proposed by Dr. Gregory.

It was stated that the agent for producing small pox had for a long
time been kept in check, and its total extermination nearly completed,
but that within a few years a new form of disease “ varioloid,” had
arisen, and Dr. Gregory promulgated statements to show that vaccina-
tion was diminished in potency by a lapse of time, and that this small
pox of late years had greatly increased.

In England, the Epidemiological Society were startled by Dr.
Gregory’s views, and it also appointed a committee to examine into
the subject; that society has received 430 replies from practicing
physicians in different parts of England, and only one expresseda
doubt about the eflicacy of the cow pox; they were adverse to Dr.
Gregory’s views. He took his cases from hospitals, where other
causes were, no doubt, in operation to produce the sad results he sets
forth. Previous to the introduction of vaccination in England, the
annual mortality from small pox was 40,000, or one tenth of all the
deaths from every other source. In 1850 the number of deaths in
London by small pox was only 498, while the population was four
times more than it was in 1750, when the deaths by small pox num-
bered 2,036.

This confutes Dr. Gregory’s views entirely. In Prussia the number
of deaths by small pox, in’ 1803, were 40,000, in a population of
10,000,000 ; at that time inoculation was the only protection relied on.

ZOOLOGY. 505

In 1849, when the population had increased to 16,000,000, the mortality
from small pox was only 1,760, thus showing how the mortality had
decreased, vaccination having come nearly into general use within the
past ten years. One hundred and eighty-two practicing physicians in
England state, they have never known a death from small pox after
vaccination. Some deaths have taken place by small pox after vacci-
nation, but not many, and very peculiar causes apart from the disease
might have caused the mortality. In the London Small Pox Hospital,
40,000 persons were vaccinated during the past 16 years, and not one
of whom had ever returned with small pox.

The committee of the Pennsylvania State Medical Society, have
reported against every point advanced by Drs. Gregory and Caznave ;
and thus conclude their report: ‘ Your committee have no hesitation
in expressing it as their belief, that no circumstances exist: to justify
the general substitution of inoculation after the 15th year of age, as
proposed by Dr. Gregory; and they regret that at the present time,
whilst strenuous efforts are making, through individual exertions,
occassionally helped forward by judicious legislation, statements caleu-
lated to lessen confidence in the protecting power of vaccination
should have been promulgated by Dr. Gregory. Happily, however,
abundant evidence exists to show that although the hopes of complete
exemption from small pox, once fondly indulged, have not been fully
realized, vaccination still offers the only dependance for protection
against a disease, the fearful ravages of which have tended so much to
darken the pages of history, previous to the precious discovery made
by Jenner.”

Some interesting statistics on the protection afforded against small
pox by vaccination have been recently obtamed by Dr. Balfour, Sur-
geon of the Royal Military Asylum, England, from an examination of
the recruits of the Army and Navy. From these it appears that out of
90,092 recruits medically inspected and found fit for service, 20,132 bore
marks of small pox ; 60,096 had marks of vaccination, and 5,864 bore
no distinct traces of either. By the rules of the service the latter
would be immediately vaccinated ; added to the second class, a total of
69,900, or 78 per cent. of the whole would be protected by vaccina-
tion; 22 per cent. representing the proportion of those protected by
previous small pox. From further returns it appears that the propor-
tion of cases of small pox have been 66, and the deaths 8, in every
109,000 men serving through the army. But the prevalence and
mortality varied in different portions of the force. ‘Thus the deaths
had been four times as numerous among the troops in the United
Kingdom as in temperate colonies, and eight times as numerous as in
tropical colonies; while a still greater disproportion was found to exist
in the admissions into the hospital. A comparative statement of the
proportion of small pox among the black troops and Europeans sery-
ing in tropical colonies during several epidemics was furnished, by
which it appears that the disease literally decimated the black troops,
while not a single death occurred among the European soldiers serving

31 5

356 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

in the same garrisons. The returns examined by Dr. Balfour go very
far to disapprove of the hypothesis sometimes started, that the protec-
tive powers of vaccination became gradually weaker, and at length
die out. The returns from the navy also give results more favorable
than those from the army. From this it appears, that although abso-
lute immunity from small pox was not attained to, yet exemption in a
remarkable degree was afforded by vaccination.

SIMPLE REMEDY FOR THE ASTHMA.

Dr. FARROT in a communication published in the Repertoire de
Pharmacie, 1852, gives the following simple remedy for the asthma.
Take a strongly saturated solution of nitrate of potassa. Dip tinder
into it, and then allowit to dry. Procure a wide-mouth phial, the cork
of which has an aperture in the centre, so as to admit any hollow
tube whatever, (a pipe closed at the end would suffice.) Light the
piece of tinder, and place it in the phial. ‘Then cause the patient to
inhale the gases that are disengaged, either through the mouth or
nostrils. At the end of a few respirations he will find relief which
will augment. Such is a very simple process which I have for a long
time used with great success, in cases of asthma. In regard to an
explanation of this mode of treatment it is supposed that a small por-
tion of oxygen, disengaged by the combustion of the nitrate of
potassa, is inhaled by the patient. It is known that in asthmatic
patients the sanguinous circulation is incomplete in the lungs, that the
blood is imperfectly regenerated, that it is black, and does not burn its
excess of carbon. By the oxygen absorbed, therefore, combustion
may be facilitated.

ELECTRO PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES ON INDUCED CONTRACTION.

Pror. MATTUCCI, in a communication published in the Philosoph-
ical Journal, gives several new experiments on induced contrac-
tion, which he thinks lend an increasing probability to the conclusion
that this phenomena is due to an electric discharge ; and that muscular
contraction is in some way accompanied by a development of electricity.
The results of these experiments may be thus summed up. 1. The
cause of induced contraction isan electrical phenomenon which is devel-
oped in the act of contraction and which consists in a different state of
electricity in the different points of the contracted limb. 2. This
electric phenomenon like the contraction which produces it, lasts only
for an instant. 3. These electric states developed by contraction
tend to produce electric currents which circulate in opposite directions
across a conducting arch interposed between the two limbs which
contract at the same time. 4. One of the experiments so arranged
proved not only the existence of these currents, but direction ; leading
the author to the ultimate conclusion, that whatever the theory of
these phenomena may be, it is certain that they demonstrate the pro-

ZOOLOGY. 307

duction of an electrical disequilibrium in the act of muscular contrac-

tion. This phenomenon, Mattucci is of opinion, may consist in a

species of dicharge, propagated in the direction of the ramification of

Be nerve possibly analogous to that of the discharge in the electric
sh.

Prof. Mattucci also states, that he has failed to detect the slightest
sign of a current from voluntary contraction, even when operating on
a circle of thirty and forty persons, who all contraced the same arm at
the same time ; the galvaniscopic frog, the nerve of which formed part
of the circuit, failing to give any signs of an electric current, although
extremely sensitive.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.

NEW PLANETS DISCOVERED IN 1852.

THE number of planets belonging to the solar system has been
increased during the year 1852 by the discovery of seven new ones,
all belonging to the family of the asteroids.

On the night of the 17th of March, the sixteenth asteroidal planet
was discovered by Prof. De Gasparis, of Naples. This planet which
has the appearance of a star of the 10-11 magnitude, has received the
name of Psyche. On the 17th of April, the seventeenth asteroidal
planet was discovered by Mr. Luther, at the observatory of Bilk, near
Duseldorf, Germany. Its light was very faint. This planet has
received the name of Thetis.

On the night of the 24th of June, the eighteenth asteroidal planet
was discovered by Mr. J. H. Hind, of London. It appears like a star of
the ninth magnitude, with a steady yellowish light. Its period of
revolution is 1,269 days, which places it between the asteroids Flora
and Clio. This planet has received the name of Melpomene.

On the 20th and 21st of September, the nineteenth asteroid was dis-
covered at Marseilles, France, by M. Chacornac, a pupil in the obser-
vatory of that place. It has the appearance of a star of the ninth
magnitude, and has received the name Massilia. This planet, was
cls fe omy discovered about the same time by M. Gasparis, of

aples.

bn the 22d of August, the twentieth asteroid was discovered by Mr.
Hind in the constellation Aquarius. The planet is described as equal
in brightness to a fixed star of the ninth magnitude, and as having that
yellowish tint which distinguishes Pallas, Melpomene, and other
asteroids. Its orbit is remarkable for its inclination to the earth’s path.
The period of revolution is 1,393 days, the mean distance from the sun
2.44093. This planet has received the name Fortuna.

On the 15th of November, the twenty-first asteroid was discovered
through a simple spy-glass by M. Goldschmit, a painter of Paris. This
most singular discovery happened somewhat as follows: M. Goldschmit,
who had attentively studied the various constellations through the
agency of a work called the “ Hours of Berlin,” and had retained in

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 359

his memory with great fidelity their general form and arrangements,
was amusing himself on the night of the 15th of November in examin-
ing with a spy-glass the constellation Aries. His attention was attract-
ed by an unusual small point, which moved slowly in a direct sense.
Its motion determined its planetary character, but the twenty asteroids
previously discovered rendered its originality doubtful. M. Gold-
schmit, however, taking the elliptic elements of the orbits of all the
small planets, calculated their respective positions, and ascertained
none were then in the constellation Aries. He reported the facts at the
observatory, and the astronomers confirmed his discovery. This planet
has the appearance of a star of the eighth or ninth magnitude, and at
the suggestion of Arago has received the name Lutetia, in honor of the
city of Paris. The usual prize has been awarded to M. Goldschmit
by the French Academy.

On the 16th of November, Mr. Hind discovered the twenty-second
asteroid. Its inclination to the ecliptic is 14° 20! 13/!; mean distance
from the sun 2.9412, eccentricity 0.10458 ; period of revolution 1842
days, or little more than five years. This planet has received the
name Calliope. f

The number of asteroids, therefore, known at present to exist
between Mars and Jupiter, is twenty-two. Nearly all these minute
bodies have heen detected by means of the Berlin Star Charts; the
largest of their number, Vesta, never appears, even when nearest the
earth, brighter than a star of the sixth magnitude ; while Metis, the
smallest, is never more brilliant than one of the eleventh. Their
names, date of discovery, &c., are as follows : —

NAME. DISCOVERED. BY AT

1. Ceres, 1801, January 1st, Piazzi, Palermo.

2. Pallas, 1802, March 28th, Olbers, Bremen.

3. Juno, 1804, Sept. 1st, Harding, Lilienthal.

4. Vesta, 1807, March 29th, Olbers, Bremen.

5. Astrea, 1845, Dec. 8th, Hencke, Dresden.

6. Hebe, 1847, July 1st, “ ¢

7. Iris, 1847, Aug. 13th, Hind, ~ London.

8. Flora, 1847, Oct. 18th, os os

9. Metis, 1848, April 25th, Graham, Markree Castle, lre.
10. Hygeia, 1849, April 12th, Gasparis, Naples.

11. Parthenope, 1850, May 13th, “ “

12. Victoria, 1850, Sept. 13th, Hind, London.

13. Egeria, 1850, Nov. 2d, Gasparis, Naples.

14. Irene, 1851, May 20th, Hind, London.

15. Eunomia, 1851, July 29th, Gasparis, Naples.

16. Psyche, 1852, March 17th, % _

17. Thetis, 1852, April. 17th, Luther, Bilk, Germany.
18. Melpomene, 1852, June 24th, Hind, London.

19. Massilia, 1852, Aug. 21st, Chacornac,Marseilles,France
20. Fortuna, 1852, Aug. 22d, Hind, London.
21. Lutetia, 1852, Nov. 15th, Goldschmit, Paris, France.
22. Calliope, 1852, Nov. 16th, Hind, London.

31*

360 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

THE ASTEROIDS.

Mr. CArrINGTON, an English astronomer, has lately computed
with much care the positions of the orbits of all the small planets,
with relation to two planes at right angles to the ecliptic and to one
another, and has constructed a model representing them all. This
has brought to light a remarkable relation hitherto unobserved.

All the orbits are so arranged, both in reference to their planes and
the position of their points of perihelion, that they approach very
nearly to one another in about heliocentric longitude 185°. This was .
made out for the first twelve planets before the discovery of Egeria;
and her orbit conforms to the rule in a very remarkable manner, her
path coming down abruptly to the point of concourse as that of Pallas
rises still more abruptly from the same region of space. Whether
this relation may exist or not for planets still to be discovered, or
should fail, it must have a marked influence on the perturbations of
those planets, and may lead to remarkable consequences in the theory
of their physical connection. — Jameson’s Journal, April.

Symbolical Notation of the Asteroids.— On account of the incon-
venience resulting from the present arbitrary symbols for the large
family of small planets between Mars and Jupiter, it has been agreed
upon by several astronomers in Germany, France, England, and
America, to propose for adoption a more simple system for this group,
viz: a circle containing the number of the planet in the order of its
discovery. — Astronomical Journal.

New Theory of the Origin of the Asteroids. — Mr. Nasmyth at the
British Asssociation brought forward the following view respecting the
origin of the Asteroids. ‘ As the progress of science is frequently
aided by advancing hypothetical views in explanation of the cause of
certain phenomena, I hazard a suggestion as to the cause of the
breaking up of the original planet, whose fragments it has been con-
jectured, form that numerous and remarkable group of small planets
revolving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter; some peculiarities
of whose path have led to the supposition that they must have parted
company from a parent mass at the same time and place. In order to
render my views on the subject, more clear, I would refer to the well
known toy called a ‘ Prince Rupert’s drop; namely, a drop of glass
which has been let fall while ina semi-fluid state, into water, by which
the surface of the glass drop is caused to cool and consolidate so rapidly,
that the subsequent consolidation and contraction of the interior mass
‘induces such a high degree of tension between it and the exterior

crust that the slightest vibration is sufficient to overcome the cohesion
of the external crust, and by so letting free the state of tension to
cause the glass drop to fly into thousands of fragments. Nor is the
action confined to ‘ Rupert’s drop, as we have examples ofthe same
action in our foundery apparatus, in the case of masses of brittle
metal, when the exterior of the casting first consolidating, (as it always
does before the interior,) the after contraction of the interior of the
mass induces a sort of ‘touch and go’ state of tension, which frequently

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 361

results in such castings flying into fragments in spite of their apparent
strength, either per se, or on the application of some force otherwise
totally inadequate to produce so destructive a result. Now, let us
apply this action (which we find constant in the cooling of all masses
of brittle material) to the case of the supposed parent planet of the
asteroids. It appears to me that we shall find in such the elements of
a very feasible, if not the true explanation of the origin of this remark-
able and numerous group of planets, namely, that the parent planet
may have consisted of such materials as that by the rapid passing of its
surface from the original molten condition to that of solidification,
while the yet fluid or semi-fluid went on contracting by the compara-
tively gradual escape of its heat into space, through the solid crust, a
state of tension may thereby have been induced, such as that in the
‘Rupert drop,’ and that the crust may have at last given way with
such violence as to cause the fragment to part company, and to pass
off, whirling into orbits, slightly varying from each other, according to
corresponding variations in the condition of each at the instant of
rupture. The remarkable fact that the orbits of these asteroids have
one common node, or point of coincidence, causes us to look to some
such explanation as I have thus hazarded.”

COMETS DISCOVERED IN 1852.

A SMALL comet, very faint, without nucleus, was discovered on the
15th of May, in the constellation Cepheus, at the Observatory at Mar-
seilles, by M. Jany Chacornac. Two days subsequently it was detect-
ed by M. Peterson, at Altona, and the next night by Mr. George P.
Bond, at the Cambridge Observatory, Massachusetts.

M. Westphal, of the Observatory of Goettingen, discovered on the
24th of July, a comet about 12° south of the star f, Pisces. In the
finder it occupied a space of several minutes.

Return of the Twin Comet of Biela.— On the 26th of August
Prof. Secchi, of Rome, discovered a portion of the twin comet of
Biela on its return, and on the 16th of September, he detected the
other portion. It was very faint, without nucleus, and of an elongated
ovoid form, the apex being turned away from the sun. It followed the
other part at a distance of about two minutes of time, and was about
half a degree farther south. The principle part of the comet did not
continue to appear of the same figure as at first. It looked quite
irregular, and had two very faint streaks; it was more luminous in
the centre, but without any nucleus.

SHOOTING STARS OF AUGUST 9-10, 1852.

Av the meteoric epoch in August of the year 1852, the weather
at New Haven was very unfavorable for observation. During the
night of the 9th, the sky was almost entirely overcast, and the follow-
ing night was rainy, and observation wholly impossible. On the night
of the 9th, Mr. John Edmunds watched here between two and three

362 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

hours, A. M. (10th) and within forty minutes ending at two hours forty
minutes, observed nineteen shooting stars, which with one or two ex-
ceptions moved in paths which traced back would meet in the constel-
lation Perseus. During these forty minutes, the sky was generally
overcast except a small opening about ten degrees in diameter a little
south of the zenith. He estimated that had the sky continued through the
whole time of his observation as it was at the most favorable moment,
he could not have seen more than one-fifth of the meteors that fell, and
owing to the clouds he saw less than one-half that fell in the space
visible at the best moment. From these data, it may safely be inferred
that the meteoric sprinkle of August did not fail this year.

M. Coulvier Gravier reports (Comptes Rendus, August 16, 1852)
that according to his observations at Paris from June 18 to August
13, 1852, the average hourly number of shooting stars seen (by one
observer ?) at midnight was, in the first half of July, about 8; from the
16th to the 21st, 11; from the 22d to 27th, 21; from August 2d to
6th, 38; on the 10th, 63; on the 11th, 50; on the 12th and 13th, 45.
— Silliman’s Journal.

Lieut. Jonquieres, of the French Navy, in a letter to M. Arago,
states that on the 9th and 10th of August, while off the Sardinian
coast, he observed under favorable circumstances the shooting stars
which appeared at that time. The sky was clear and the meteors
were very numerous from the end of twilight. Between midnight and
4 A. M. of the 10th, the number was about sixty-six per hour. The
divergence of the meteors was quite constant from a point having a
right ascension of two hours, twenty minutes, and north declination of
sixty degrees. The next evening the meteors appeared less
abundant.

NEBULZ DISCOVERIES OF LORD ROSSE.

Dr. Roprnson at the last meeting of the British Association
exhibited drawings of large numbers of nebule as seen through the
powerful telescope of Lord Rosse. He stated “ that the contemplation
of them was well fitted to increase the obligations of the astronomical
world to Lord Rosse, as well as to fill every mind with astonishment at
the wondrous revelations of his matchless telescope. Each of them wasa
new proof of a former statement of his,—that this instrument would
probably disclose forms of stellar arrangement, indicating modes of
dynamic action never before contemplated in celestial mechan-
ics. He referred to the drawings, in which the spiral or vorticose
arrangement of the stars and unresolved nebulz was first remarked
in its simplest form; and to others already published where it presents
itself under conditions of greater complexity. He also referred to
the important fact that the class of planetary nebule might now be
fairly assumed to have no existence, as all of them which have been
examined prove to be either annular or of a spiral character. Thus
M.97, which was considered by Sir John Herschel the finest specimen
of them, and seemed even in his eighteen-inch reflectora uniform disc,

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 363

presents in the six-feet a mostintricate group of spiral ones, disposed
round two starry centres, looking like the visage of a monkey.
Among the new ones are H. 2,241. It is a ringof stars, with faint
nebulz within, and a fine double star near its edges: H. 2,075 of the
same kind, but with a bright star almost exactly central, and nine
others round it, evidently part of the same group. H. 450 is a most
extraordinary object; the ring exactly circular, its light mottled and
flickering, and within it what is evidently a globular cluster. Scarcely
less surprising, but more magnificent from its association, is the plane-
tary nebule at the edge of M. 46, which he had seen, though ina
night not so favorable as that must have been when the drawing was
made. It is a resolvable double ring, or rather spiral, with a centre
star; and from the improbability of two objects so rare as a splendid
cluster, and one of their compound rings being casually connected, it
seems reasonable to think they constitute one system. ‘The double star
t Orionis belongs also to this class; and he called attention to the abso-
lute darkness of the aperture in the nebule round the two stars, and
that the larger of them was at its edge, instead of being central. He ar-
gued from the remarkable difference between these objects as seen in
the telescopes of Lord Rosse (even the three-feet) and those of pre-
vious observers, how desirable it is that a complete review of the
nebule should be made without loss of time. Even now much labor
and talent were expended in theorizing on the imperfect data given
by instruments which, though matchless in their time, have now been
surpassed. Among others, he directed the notice of the Section to
H. 602, where the two clusters and the associated spirals are propelled
into ellipses; to H. 2,205, in which the long, resolved ray, being
the most intense, was alone seen by Herschel, but the magnificent
spirals and their central stars escaped him. M. 65, and H. 857, appear
to be helices seen obliquely. But the most curious one is M. 33, of
which the centre is a triple star disposed as an equilateral triangle
among a mass of smaller stars, from which proceed eight or nine spi-
rals, and round all is an enormous nebula, in which however no spiral
character had yet been traced. There were several examples of
another singular system — nebule streaked with dark bands; such,
Bond discovered in the great nebula of Andromeda, H. 399, a wisp ;
H. 1,393, a long ray of most marvellous appearance; H. 218, an
oblique, with s#xteen or seventeen dark transverse stripes ; and H. 315,
having in the nebula a cluster nearly insulated by offsets from the
broad, curved, dark band, are among the most surprising. But the
number of these curious objects was so great that their time would
only permit him to invite their notice to H. 1,052 and 1,053, where the
cause of spirality had been interrupted by some other forces that bent
the system at a right angle and drew the nebula into a straight ray ; to
H. 444, a double-resolved nebula inclosed in a large and faint oval
ring ; and above all to M. 27, the “ Dumb-bell” nebula as shown by
the six-feet, with its brilliant two clusters of comparatively large stars,
its dark bands, and the faint range which surround it, differing even
more from the picture of the three-feet than that does from the figure
of Herschel.

364 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Lord Rosse adverted to the peculiar condition of equilibrium which
must prevail in these systems, or rather to the forces which are required
to produce the peculiar constitution which they indicate, and pointed
out the difficulties of such an investigation. It could, however, not be
undertaken with advantage till we possess a much more extended col-
lection of data, —to which he would contribute to the utmost of his
power. The drawings exhibited were based on measures carefully
taken with a bar-micrometer (the only one available in such cases,)
and he believed they might be trusted. He had already described
the improvement effected by supporting the speculum on its levers by
81 balls, and mentioned the striking fact, that with a speculum weigh-
ing 34 tons, a slight pressure of the hand would deform for a time the
image of a star.

ON THE MOTIONS OF NUMEROUS SMALL BODIES ROUND THE
SUN; AND THE PHENOMENA RESULTING FROM THEM.

Tae following communication, on the above subject, was prepared
for the American Association, for the advancement of science, by
Daniel Vaughan, of Kentucky.

It appears from recent discoveries that the sun numbers among his
attendants, not only planets, asteroids, and comets, but also immense
multitudes of meteoric stones and shooting stars. Great magnitude,
indeed, is not essential for membership in the Solar system, while, at
the same time, there is a necessary limit to the size of projectiles in
the same manner as there is to the size of edifices, in consequence
of the strength of bodies increasing in a slower proportion than their
weight, or the force required for their motion. ‘The larger planets,
though formed of materials possessing many thousand times the
tenacity of iron, should be shattered to fragments in receiving their
present velocities, not only from an impulse, but from any force
applied under the most favorable circumstances. This should lead us
to conclude that all planetary motion, if it originated from natural
causes, must have been first imparted toa number of small masses
which subsequently united to form the larger members of the solar
system.

If a rare medium be diffused through the planetary spaces, the
smallest attendants of the sun will be the most sensible to its influ-
ence; as similar solids traversing it with the same velocity, must
sustain a loss of motion inversely proportional to their linear dimen-
sions. Supposing the medium at rest while our system is moving to
the constellation of Hercules, my investigations show, that a very
singular result will be produced on the orbits of the smallest mem-
bers of our system, when their diminutive size, or great rarity, causes
the resistance of the medium to predominate over the disturbances
proceeding from the action of the planets. The eccentricity of their
orbits must continually change, until they all describe very elongated
ellipses having the lower apsis directed to the constellation to which
the sun is advancing. The medium will also produce a motion of

\

ASTRONOMY AND METROROLOGY. 365

their nodes, and change the positions of their planes, which after
some oscillations, will rest in the direction of the sun’s motion. The
perihelia of all the small and rare bodies belonging to our system,
and the intersection of their orbits, must be, therefore, situated
between the sun and the point to which he moves, and the line or
the narrow space extending in this direction, will be accordingly
crowded with swarms of them, arriving there from every quarter of
the planetary regions. From the great extent of surface which they
possess, even with an inconsiderable amount of matter, they are
enabled to reflect a large portion of the solar rays, and to this cause
we may justly ascribe the ZODIACAL LIGHT. In the opposite
part of the heavens, a like, though less dense collection of these cos-
mical particles, cluster in order to pass their common aphelion ; and,
though at too great a distance from the sun and from the earth to
send any sensible portion of light to northern latitudes, they some-
times cause the appearance which Humboldt, (describing the Zodiacal
light in tropical climates after sunset,) calls “a faint reflection visible
in the east.”

As the sun’s rays are very intense and powerful in his vicinity,
they must be reflected by a more extensive zone of these numerous
bodies, and hence proceeds the conical form of the zodiacal light, its
greater intensity at the base, and its gradual evanescence at great
distances from the sun. The extraordinary length and brightness of
the cone during some years, the diminution and the disappearance of
it at other times, are owing to very great irregularities in the supplies
of materials by which it is reflected; while the flickermg and waver-
ing of the light are caused by the frequent interception of the rays,
as the small bodies change their relative positions. During the month
of June, this cone of light (which always retains the same actual,
though not the same apparent position,) is at its nearest distance
from the earth; but in this and the other months of summer, it con-
tinues above the horizon only during the day, and is therefore invisi-
ble. J am inclined to think, that repeated observations of the position
of the cone of light should enable us to ascertain with great accuracy,
the direction in which our system is travelling through space, or may
perhaps serve to detect some motion in our universe.

The uniform position of the orbits of all these small and rare
bodies, might be expected to present favorable conditions for the
play of their feeble attractions, especially at their greatest distances
- from the sun; and if we suppose a union to occur, whenever they
cluster there in unusually large numbers, we may find a very plausi-
ble explanation for the ORIGIN OF COMETS. Nor should a comet
thus formed, have the axis of its orbit fixed in the direction of the
solar motion. As the mass enlarges, the disturbances of the planets
will preponderate over the resistance of the medium, and cause a
motion of the line of apsides. By this means the increase of size
will be arrested, and in the space from which it has removed, a new
accumulation may be expected to commence, as soon as the collisions
of cosmical masses, and the entrance of fresh acquisitions of matter

366 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

into our system, furnishes materials for calling a new comet into
existence.

As to the cosmical masses revolving round the sun in ellipses whose
transverse axes are in different positions, it seems impossible that a
number of them could be drawn together by their mutual attraction,
either to form a single mass or to revolve round a new centre. The
attractive power even of the asteroids, could not control the enor-
mous velocity with which bodies sweep by one another on meeting in
the planetary spaces, when they move in different planes, or in ellipses
differently situated. A mass of matter one mile in diameter would
be prevented by an eccentricity equal to 1-10,000 part of its trans-
verse axis from collecting by its attraction smaller bodies equidistant
from the sun. An eccentricity 1,000 times smaller should present an
unsurmountable obstacle to the union of the largest meteoric stones
which visit the earth. Should collisions occur between them, they
will only be broken into smaller fragments; or they will at least
rebound into space, in spite of their feeble attraction, or the resist-
ance from the exceedingly rare atmosphere they are able to confine
around them.

Bodies revolving round the sun in the same direction, in planes
nearly coincident, and in orbits almost circular, and differing little in
dimensions, should be likely to come together, and unite at their first
conjunction or soon afterward; for in this case, their relative motion is
slow enough to be controlled, and they remain long enough in prox-
imity to render their attraction adequate to this object. These con-
ditions, which chance could never supply, together with another still
more favorable, will be found to arise from a peculiar state of the
disturbing forces, which come into play in the remote parts of the
solar system.

Although no kind of action calculated to correct the eccentricities
of the planetary orbits, has been hitherto discovered, I shall shew that
every body which comes within the sphere of the sun’s attraction, and
happens to describe an elongated ellipse round him, will have its
orbit gradually changed into one nearly circular. The principle on
which this is effected, will be understood from the action of the sun
on a satellite about 800,000 miles from the earth; for the very great
disturbance in this case, will change a very eccentric orbit to a more
circular form. The first step to this alteration, is a curious arrange-
ment in the position of the transverse axis, so that the higher apsis
will be always in conjunction with the sun. It has been long known
that if the planets were elipsoids, their longest diameters should be
always directed to the sun, if not prevented by too rapid a rotation.
A similar tendency is manifested by the orbits of their satellites: and
the line of apsides would be continually directed to the sun when-
ever the disturbing force exceeds a certain amount, at least, when it
is adequate to cause a motion of the apsides differing little from the
sun’s increase of longitude during the satellite’s revolution. The
smallest distance at which this phenomenon could oceur cannot be
stated with much precision, as 1t depends on the eccentricity ; but

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 367

it appears that were the moon situated at double her present distance
from the earth, her apogee should never deviate more than a few
degrees from the sun’s place, supposing her eccentricity to remain
unaltered. It appears also, that at all greater distances, at which the
existence of satellites is possible, the axis of their orbits will have
invariably a similar position.

With the transverse axis of its orbit continually directed to the
sun, the satellite will be ina great measure free from the periodical
irregularities which at present characterise planetary motions. If it
moved in the order of the signs, the slow motion in the aphelion, and
the increased length of the radius vector, should cause the action at
the syzigies to preponderate over that at the quadratures; and this
should produce A PERMANENT DIMINUTION OF THE
ECCENTRICITY. Were the motion in an opposite direction, a
contrary result may be expected, until the satellite should be com-
pelled to desert the earth, or fall to its surface; but it will soon
appear that there is scarcely a possibility of a retrograde motion ever
attending the process, by which planets must have collected from
space, the materials of which their satellites are composed. Should
the orbit be elongated in any direction by the disturbing force, the
longest diameter will turn to the sun, and thus any considerable devia-
tion from a circle will be prevented.

It is easy to conceive how the masses collected by a planet, and
compelled to describe circular orbits around it, might accumulate in
numbers and form satellites. When a nucleus once formed, its
attraction, extending to a greater distance, should collect the matter
very rapidly from the space which it traversed, until after some revo-
lutions there should be little left for future acquisitions. Masses too
remote to be drawn to this satellite should be disturbed by its attraction,
and prevented from acquiring such a conformation of their orbits, or
such velocities as may render their coalescence possible. A second
satellite could not, therefore, be called into existence until the orbit of
the first had been much contracted either from the resistance of a
medium, or from the accession of new matter to the primary. Hence,
the regular intervals between the moons of Jupiter, Saturn and
Herschel.

But the sun himself is moving through space in a curve, in obedi-
ence to the attractions which proceed from myriads of other systems.
The masses, therefore, which the sun meets in his course, must have
their motions modified and their orbits shaped by the resultant of
these forces, and they are sensible to its control long after they
become members of our system. Like the sun’s action on the
secondary planets, this disturbing force must operate with the most
efficacy on the bodies near the verge of our system, giving a fixed
position to their apsides, and causing them to describe either circles
or small curves. If, now, the planets were too remote to produce any
sensible irregularities, the formation of a planet from these acquisi-
tions of matter should take place near the confines of our system,
where motion is slow. But it is only after the numberless ages which

32

a

368 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

this world should oceupy in contracting its orbit so much that its influ-
ence may disappear on the verge of our system, that another similar
body could be formed. We are thus conducted to a satisfactory
explanation of the LAW OF BODE.

In travelling through space, our sun collects those masses which
have very nearly his own velocity: for if their velocity differed con-
siderably from his, there could be little chance that their orbits could
be rendered elliptical either by the resistence of a medium, or by the
action of other bodies. But, in the presence of an attraction from
numerous systems, the velocity of bodies can approximate to equality,
only when they move in parallel curves and planes which nearly
coincide. The result is, that the sun’s attendants instead of exhibiting
every degree of inclination in their orbits, never deviate far from the
SAME PLANE, though their paths, however, are inclined at a much
greater angle when introduced into our system, than when controlled
by the attraction from more distant centres. While new worlds are
thus formed at the verge of our system, those of an earlier origin are
continually approaching the centre from the causes I have previously
noticed, and from the immense size of the sun it would appear that
he has received not only large supplies of meteoric stones and comets,
but even several worlds, which, atter revolving around him for unnum-
bered ages, were at last entombed beneath his surface.

ADVANTAGES OF THE CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN STATES FOR
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Mr. C. O. BouTette, of the Coast Survey, in a communication
made to the Savannah (Ga.) Republican, says: Three years’ experi-
ence in astronomical observations in this climate, enable the writer to
assert with some degree of confidence, that the general condition of
the atmosphere is such as to be highly favorable to the use of large
telescopes, with high powers. Astronomers experience great difficul-
ties from the irregularities of temperature of our atmosphere, render-
ing vision with telescopes of high magnifying powers, very indistinct.
On clear cold nights, when the stars appear to twinkle most beauti-
fully and to shine the brightest to the unassisted eye, when “the
chill stars sparkle,” the astronomer can see nothing. Every object
appears confused and irregular in his telescope. His richest harvest
frequently occurs when a slight haze covers the heavenly bodies with
a filmly veil, through which the smallest objects can be distinctly seen.
In this climate, the number of still nights, @. e. when the outlines of the
heavenly bodies appear clear and distinct, greatly outnumber those in
more Northern Latitudes, where our observatories are mostly situated,

RUSSIAN MEASUREMENT OF THE ARC OF MERIDIAN.

Tue measurement of the great arc of a meridian in Eastern
Europe, undertaken by the Russian Government, has been advancing
during the past year with unexampled rapidity, and to an extent

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 369

hitherto unparalleled. Originating in topographical survey in Esth-
onia and Livonia, and commenced in 1816, the operation, both
geodesical and astronomical, have been completed between Izmail on
the Danube and Fugleness in Finnmarken, an extent of 253 merid-
ional degrees. Next to this in extent is the Indian are re Ne A
between Cape Comorin and Kaliana ; and the third is the French are
of 12° 22/. It appears by a note presented to the Imperial Acad-
emy of Sciences at St. Petersburgh by M. Struve, that a pro-
visional calculation has been made of a large part of the
great are of Eastern Europe, and that it has been found to indicate
for the figure of the earth a greater compression than that derived by
Bessel in 1837 and 1841, from all the arcs then at his command, —
Bessel’s compression having also been greater than Laplace’s previous
deduction.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE ZODIACAL LIGHT.

Mr. R. H. Birr submitted to the British Association at their last
meeting, a series of observations on the Zodiacal light, made at the
Kew Observatory. It appeared to the author that two very impor-
tant features presented themselves in connexion with the observations :
viz., the position of the great mass of light being constantly north of
ecliptic, —and the apparent change in the form of the light, or at
least that portion of it forming the apex of the luminous triangle
on the cone of light, which is very perceptible in the groups of obser-
vations, those in February presenting a narrower cone, the axis being
very perceptibly inclined to the ecliptic. In this respect these obser-
vations are in decided contrast with those of March, when the cone of
light had become much larger, the apex more rounded, and the inchi-
nation of the axis to the ecliptic changed. It would appear from the
projections that accompanied the observations, that while the great
mass of light was still northward of the ecliptic the direction of the
axis was so inclined that it occupied a different position with respect
to the ecliptic than it did in February. In the month of April the
author considered the axis of the zodiacal light to be slightly north of
the ecliptic, the northern side of the cone still exhibiting the greatest
luminosity. The contrast of these observations in this month (April)
with those in February, is very remarkable; the cone had become
very considerably enlarged, and consequently much broader than the
cone seen in February. Two observations, those of March 3 and
April 10, were particularized as indicating that under peculiar circum-
stances we see more of the zodiacal light than is presented to us
ordinarily. In connexion with these phenomena the author observed
earlier in March a sudden brightening of the light for an instant, and
also variations in its lustre of intermittent character. These inter-
missions of brightness were observed on the same evenings at Notting-
ham. They are described by the author not to be of the nature of
pulsations in the usual acceptation of the term, but to consist of alter-
nate brightenings and dimmings of the entire mass of light such as
might be produced by the approach and recess of a luminious body.

370 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

GREENWICH OBSERVATORY.

From the official report of the Superintendent of Geenwich
Observatory, Prof. Airy, we derive the following particulars :—'The
long established system of meridional observations, for which Green-
wich has been so long and so justly celebrated, is maintained inviolate.
Each standard star is observed, if possible, twenty times in three
years. ‘The moon is always observed on the meridian when visible,
and the sun and planets, except on Sundays. The number of obser-
vations from 1851, May 30, to 1852, May 18, was, transits, 4,500 ; circle
observations, 5,000. Under the head, “ Reduction of Observations,”
Mr. Airy states that the reduction of a long series of observations of
the solar spots is much advanced, and that the occultations of 1851, and
the double image micrometer measures to the present time, are com-
pletely reduced. With respect to the reduction of the observations
made by the transit circle, a curious circumstance is mentioned.
While the construction of this instrument, and the modes of observa-
tion with it, have given a warranty, such as the world never possessed
before, for the steadiness of the instrument and its adjuncts, there
have been instances when the azimuth of the instrument, greatly to
the surprise of the Astronomer Royal, has varied four seconds, as de-
termined by opposite passages of the pole star. Mr. Airy has no
other way of explaining this than the supposition that the “sound and
firm-set earth ” itself is in motion.

A new reflex zenith telescope has been introdced. The fundamental
principle of its construction is, that the micrometer and wire-frame
are carried by the frame of the object-glass, and that the convergent
pencil of light coming from a star is received, ata distance of half its
focal length, upon the surface of quicksilver contained in a trough,
whose support is independent of the telescope.

ON DETERMINING LONGITUDE AT SEA FROM THE ALTITUDE OF
THE MOON.

THE following paper was read before the Royal Astronomical Soci-
ety, England, by Lt. Ashe, R. N. Lt. A. states, that during an inter-
val of leisure in 1849, his attention was drawn to the subject of
longitudes, by the circumstance of one of the chronometers (which
had gone well for four years) changing its rate very considerably
without any assignable cause: and knowing what implicit confidence
is placed in a good chronometer, I felt that it was to be lamented that
there was not some plan less laborious and of easier attainment than
the lunar distance for checking chronometers ; for, notwithstanding
my experience of more than twenty years’ sea time, I can only recol-
lect one instance of the chronometers having been checked by the
lunar distance, which may be, perhaps, accounted for by the many
inconveniences attending the observation, and the large amount of
practice necessary to ensure success. The data for the problem
proposed by Lieut. Ashe, are, the sidereal time of the observation, the

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 371

latitude of the place, and the observed altitude of the moon. Lieut.
Ashe first computes the zenith distance of the moon on the supposi-
sition that the observer is on the meridian of Greenwich. As the
Greenwich sidereal time is known, the are of the equinoctial between
the moon’s node and the meridian may be computed from the ‘“ Nau-
tical Almanac,” and the angle which the moon’s orbit makes with the
equinoctial may be assumed to be equal to the moon’s greatest declina-
tion. Hence the solution of a right-angled triangle will give the are
on the moon’s orbit, from her node to the meridian, or are a; the are
on the meridian between the orbit-and the equinoctial, or are 6; and
the angle included between these arcs, or 7. Again, if a perpendic-
ular be let fall from the zenith upon the moon’s orbit, the angle in
this triangle opposite the perpendicular will be 7, and the hypothenuse
is the latitude of the place when increased or diminished by arc 0 ;
hence the value of the perpendicular are d is found, and also the
distance of the foot of the perpendicular from the meridian e; the
addition or substraction of e to a gives the longitude of the foot of the
perpendicular, reckoned on the moon’s orbit from the node. Finally,
haying the values of the perpendicular on the orbit, and of the moon’s
zenith distance calculated for the meridian of Greenwich, the third
side is computed, which when applied to the last found are gives the
longitude of the moon on her orbit reckoned from the node, on the
hypothesis that the observer is on the meridian of Greenwich at the
sidereal time supposed. Lieut. Ashe then assumes that the change of
meridian from Greenwich to the place of observation will not alter
the relation of these circles to each other, and that the moon will
merely occupy another situation in her orbit. As the zenith dis-
tance at the place of observation is supposed to be known, there are,
in the right-angled triangle requiring solution, the perpendicular on
the moon’s orbit, and the observed distance of the moon from the
zenith ; and from these data the longitude of the moon on her orbit,
reckoned from the node, is found for the time and meridian of the
place. The difference of the two ares thus found, divided by the
moon’s motion, will give the difference in longitude between Green-
wich and the place of observation. Lieut. Ashe suggests a second
mode of determining the longitude by an altitude of the moon, when
compared with an altitude of the sun orastar. “For the sake of
simplicity, take an example with a star. Let the altitude of a star
near the prime vertical be taken, and compute its hour-angle. As
soon after as many be convenient, take the altitude of the moon, and
find her hour-angle ; the elapsed sidereal time, and run of the ship (if
necessary,) being applied to the hour-angle of the star, the hour-angles
of the moon and star are known at the instant of last observation, and
consequently the right ascension of the moon is known from the
right ascension of the star. A simple proportion will show what is the
Greenwich time corresponding to this right ascension of the moon.
When the observations are made on the same side of the meridian, an
error in latitude, or instrument, or that caused by bad horizon, or re-
fraction, or personal equation, will not materially affect the ‘ difference ’
32*

37 2 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

of the hour-angles, since the errors are common to both triangles
ZPS and ZPM, and both are augmented or diminished nearly
alike ; and therefore the ‘ difference’ between erroneous hour-angles
will be nearly equal to the difference between correct hour-angles.”

METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION.

Tue following circular has been issued by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. It is to be hoped that the call for information may be readily
responded to from all parts of our extensive territory.

The Smithsonian Institution is engaged in a series of investigations
relative to the Meteorology of North America, and is desirous of col-
lecting all information bearing on this subject.

It is believed that there exist many records of observations extend-
ing back, in some cases, through a long period of years, the compari-
son and discussion of which would elicit much valuable information
relative to the climate of this country, which would otherwise be
liable to be lost. The undersigned would therefore earnestly request
that copies of such journals, or thd original records, be lent or presen-
ted to the Institution. In cases of records which cannot be sent to
the Institution, monthly or other mean results deduced from them are
requested, with explanations of the manner in which the observations
were made, the character of the instruments, &c,

Proper acknowledgment of all information derived from the
records will, in every instance, be given, and the registers themselves
will be carefully preserved, and returned, if desired, to those from
whom they were obtained.

When it is recollected that isolated observations are greatly enhanced
in value, and made to yield new results by comparison with other
observations, it is hoped that the request of the Institution will meet
with favorable regard.

EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION.

Tue total quantity of dew believed to fall in England is supposed to
amount to five inches annually. The average fall of rain is about twenty-
five inches. Mr. Glaisher states the amount of evaporation at Greenwich
to have amounted to five feet annually for the past five years, and
supposes three feet about the mean evaporation all over the world. On
this assumption the quantity of actual moisture, raised in the shape of
vapor, from the surface of the sea alone, amounts to no less than
60,000 cubic miles annually; or nearly 164 miles per day. According
to Mr. Laidlay, the evaporation at Calcutta is about fifteen feet an-
nually, that between the Cape of Good Hope and Calcutta averages
in October and November nearly, three quarters of an inch daily ;
betwixt 10° and 20° in the Bay of Bengal it was found to exceed an
inch daily. Supposing this to be double the average throughout the
year, we shall, instead of three, have eighteen feet of evaporation
annually; or were this state of matters to prevail all over the world,

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 373

an amount of three-hundred and sixty thousand cubic miles of
water raised in vapor:from the ocean alone. .

OBSERVATIONS ON THE CLIMATE, FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE
SOUTH SHORE OF LAKE ERIE.

SoME interesting observations on the climate, flora, and fauna of the
south shore of Lake Erie, have recently been published by Dr. J. P.
Kirkland, of Cleveland, Ohio. They seem conclusively to show that a
section of country on the lake shore, in the vicinity of Cleveland, has
a decidedly southern character, as regards its climate, flora and fauna.
At this point, during ten years of observation, the thermometer has in
no instance fallen so low, as at places situated 120 to 150 miles to the
south. The first severe frosts of autumn, which generally occur
throughout Northern Ohio about the 25th of September, rarely take
place at Cleveland before the 25th of October, and sometimes
not until late in November. If the warm season upon the lake shore
is protracted, the spring at the same point is somewhat later. In the
middle and southern sections of Ohio, spring sets in during the month
of March — perhaps earlier. The warm winds blowing up the vallies
of the Mississippi and Ohio, in conjunction with other causes, bring
forth vegetation earlier; but cold weather and disastrous frosts too
often follow. While these changes are progressing in those parts of
the State, winter will remain steadfast on the lake shore. Little
advancement will be made by spring so long as any considerable
bodies of ice float upon the lake, even as low down as Buffalo. No
sooner do they disappear, than spring sets in with reality, and vegeta-
tion puts forth with subarctic rapidity.

The lake rapidly imbibing heat at this season, becomes a safeguard
against any subsequent vernal frost. The mode by which it exerts
its influence, does not appear to be uniformely the same at different
times. In some instances, on the approach of a cold night, the warm
emanations from the lake condensing may give off caloric, and obscure
the atmosphere with haze, mist, or clouds, when no frost will occur.
Under circumstances apparantly similar, on the approach of a cold
night, neither haze, mist, nor clouds may form, but a stiff breeze
springs up, and the stars become unusually brilliant. The ther-
mometer vacillates between 32° and 38°, rising with the gusts of wind
and falling during the intervals of calm. Then no frost will appear.
Again, none of those modifying causes may intervene, but the temper-
ature may fall below freezing point, ice form on the surface of water,
and the expanded fruit leaves and blossoms congeal. Under such
circumstances, the first rays of the rising sun, the next morning, will
be arrested by haze, which will soon thicken, and before noon a warm
rain will probably fall. The frost will be abstracted so gradually from
frozen vegetation as not to impair its vitality.

In autumn this great body of water begins to part with its warmth
to the colder incumbent atmosphere, and the process continues during
the winter. While its progress is most rapid, strong southerly winds

4

374 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

prevail at the earth’s surface, while volumes of clouds, at a high eleva-
tion, might at the same time be moving rapidly on an opposite direc-
tion. These counter currents have sometimes given origin to a
phenomenon 1n the city of Cleveland, not well understood by all of its
good citizens. The vane of the lofty spire of one church, standing on
a high ridge of ground, may point steadily to the north, while that on
the low cupola of another church, which is situated on a_ less elevated
plateau, may be directed to an opposite point of compass with a stiff
southerly breeze at the same time. It has been surmised that water-
spouts are most common when there is great inequality of temperature
between the water and atmosphere. Their more frequent occurrence
at such times may have been dependent on other causes. Cool north
winds begin to prevail about the middle of October. The lake changes
its hue from green to slate color, varying as the temperature is warmer
or colder, and ultimately to a hue almost as dark as ink, at times when
the sky is obscured with heavy clouds. The emanations from the
lakes then begin to condense and pass off to the south, in the form of
thick clouds, without discharging, at first, much rain. About the 20th
of October, the cold from the north seems to gain the ascendency ;
squalls of rain, hail, and rounded snow appear alternately, with inter-
vals of clear and warm weather. These squalls always precede the
autumnal frosts. The gardners feel no apprehension for their tender
vegetables till these premonitions have appeared. Common observa-
tions, as well as the more sure test, the rain-guage, show that larger
amounts of evaporation from the lake are carried south, where they
condense in the form of rain and snow, than fall upon this vicinity.
During winter comparatively little snow falls, and still less accumulates
here, though it may be abundant on the higher grounds, thirty or forty
miles in the interior.

The indigenous vegetation of this vicinity is of rather a southern
type — shown by the absence, in a great measure, of evergreens, and
the occurrence of more Genera, as the Cercis, lex, Aisculus, Nelum-
bium, Gleditschia, Magnolia, &e. Eliott’s Botany of South Carolina
and Georgia has been found to be a convenient hand-book for inves-
tigating our flora. On the other hand, strange hyperborean plants
are frequently found, which have been washed down from the far
northwest, through the chain of great lakes. Many of the birds are
species whose most northern ranges of migration have been assigned
many degrees south of this by ornithologists. Ms

The insect tribes show still more strikingly southern affinities. The
Papilio Cresphontes has been repeatedly taken here, though it has
been considered as exclusively southern in its resorts. In the south
the larva feeds on the orange and lemon— here it lives on the
Hercules-club. The Papilio Ajax and Marcellus have also been
described as southern insects; and the late Mr. Doubleday located the
former exclusively in Florida and fixed the most northern limit
of the latter in Virginia. Still they are common at this poit,
and subsist, in the larva state, on the Pawpaw. An undescribed
species of Libythea has been taken in Northern Ohio ; it has been

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 370

found also, in South Carolina, and is without doubt, legitimately a
southern species.

During the winter, 1850-51, a lower temperature was experienced
in the vicinity of Cleveland than during the preceding ten years. On
the 16th and 17th of December, 1850, when the thermometer con-
tinued below zero, the general cold, says Dr. Kirkland, seemed to
contend for predominance with the warmth of the lake. Even at the
low temperature which prevailed warm emanations were constantly
arising from the water and exhibited a beautiful phenomenon when
viewed from the perpendicular bank of the lake, which rises 80 feet
above its level, at this point. The warm vapors ascended several feet
into the air, then condensed, congealed and fell back again in such
rapid succession as to cut'off from view the water, and to give to the
unlimited expanse of the lake, the appearance of an immense cauldron,
waving or boiling like plaster of Paris parting with its water of
crystalization at a high temperature.

It was a cloud of these snowy spicula, thus formed, which enveloped
the steamer Mayflower, and resulted in her running ashore. Passen-
gers on board of her, though surrounded with falling snow, could
occasionally discern the sun and clearsky overhead. The occurrence
of this extreme cold at a time when the lake contained no ice, and the
water was comparatively warm, was extraordinary.

LUNAR ATMOSPHERIC TIDE.

THE facts derived a few years since from the barometrical observa-
tions at St. Helena, showing the existence of a lunar atmospheric
tide, have been corroborated in the last year by a similar conclusion
drawn by Capt. Elliot, of the Madras Engineers, from the barometri-
cal observations at Singapore. The influence of the moon’s attraction
on the atmosphere produces, as might be expected, a somewhat
greater effect on the barometer at Singapore, in lat. 1° 19/, than at
St. Helena, in lat. 15° 57/.. The barometer at the equator appears to
stand on the average about 0.006 in. (more precisely 0.0057, in lat.
1° 19!) higher at the moon’s culminations than when she is six
hours distant from the meridian.

NEW THEORY OF THE AURORA.

Lieut. Hooper, R. N., at the British Association, read a paper
containing some new views respecting the origin of the aurora. The
author says : —“ I believe the aurora borealis to be no more nor less
than moisture in some shape (whether dew or vapor, liquid or frozen,)
illuminated by the heavenly bodies, either directly or reflecting their
rays from the frozen masses around the pole, or even from the imme-
diately proximate snow-clad earth.”

376 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

BALLOON ASCENTIONS FOR METEOROLOGICAL PURPOSES.

UNDER the superintendence of a committee of the British Associa-
tion, several balloon ascentions have recently been made in England
for the purpose of obtaining meteorological observations. The chief
points to which attention has been directed, are the variations of the
temperature and humidity of the air due to elevation above the earth’ ‘8
surface. The instruments used consisted of a syphon-barometer, on Guy
Lussac’s principle, two pairs of dry and wet thermometers, and the
dew-point hygrometer of Regnault and Daniell. One pair of dry
and wet thermometers was mounted with the bulbs protected from the
effects of radiation by double concentric shades, with brightly-polished
silver surfaces, open at top and bottom, for the free circulation of
the air. The second pair had their bulbs enclosed within polished
tubes, (also protected by polished shades,) a brisk current of air being
made to pass over them by the action of an aspirator. The object of
this arrangement was, to diminish the effects of radiation — to cause
the thermometer to assume more readily the temperature of the sur-
rounding air—and to remove from the neighborhood of the wet
thermometer the vapor formed by evaporation from its bulb, and thus
to cause the instrument to indicate with more accuracy the true tem-
perature of evaporation. Care was taken to procure thermometers of
extreme delicacy, the bulbs of those actually employed being eylindri-
cal, about half an inch long, and one-twelfth of an inch in ‘diameter :
they were found to assume the temperature of the surrounding medium
with very great rapidity. ‘The aspirator used was a pair of elongating
cylindrical bellows which were drawn open by weights attached to
their lower end—the air being allowed to enter by means of the
tube which enclosed the dry ‘and wet thermometer. The same
aspirator was, by means of a second stop-cock and tube, used to pro-
duce the current of air necessary in operating with Regnault’s hygrom-
eter. On the third ascent the temperature on leaving the eround
was about 58° Fahr.; at the lower surface of the cloud (i, 500 feet
high,) it was 50°; at the upper surface, (3,400 feet,) 504°; at 4,400
feet, or 1,000 feet after clearing the cloud, 523°: after this height the
temperature decreased till it reached 25° at the elevation of "12,600
The thermometer indicated, in the first ascent, a fall of one degree for
every elevation of 808 feet; and, on the second occasion, a fall of one
degree for every 345 feet of ascent. This ratio of fall to height was
observed to be very nearly constant.

The two points of greatest interest noticed in these ascents were —
Ist, That the tension of vapors decreased at a regular rate for some
distances from the surface of the earth, and then very abruptly dimin-
ished by a large amount, being in fact reduced to nearly the lowest
value attained during ‘the remainder of the ascent. ‘The height at
which this sudden reduction in the quantity of aqueous vapor occurred
was different on the two days — on the 17th it was about 5,000 feet,
and on the 26th nearly 3,000. 2nd, it was also noticed that at the

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. i wf

same elevation at which the great reduction of vapor took place, the
gradual diminution of temperature was for some distance arrested.

The greatest height attained to was 19,500 feet. The first clouds
occurred at 2,000 feet height; after they had been passed through, no
other clouds presented themselves until the balloon had obtained the
height of 13,000 feet. At the highest elevation, clouds were still visi-
ble nearly on a level with the balloon, and the atmosphere was filled
with fine crystals of snow. At this elevation the aeronauts found no
difficulty in breathing, but experienced a slight pressure 6n the ears
and some pain in the temples.

COMPARISON OF THE CLIMATE OF NEW ENGLAND AND GERMANY.

Art a meeting of the Boston Natural History Society, 1852, Mr.
Desor offered some remarks on the difference of the climates of Ger-
many and New England. In conversation with numerous German
residents here he had learned various interesting facts growing ouf of
the remarkable dryness of the climate. One of the first things noticed
by them was the rare occurrence of arborescent forms on the windows
produced by frost. These appearances are regarded with peculiar
interest in Germany, and are associated with many popular legends.
They are comparatively of rare occurrence here from the circumstance
that the dew pointis several degrees lower. Various differences are no-
ticed by artisans in the processes of their different callings, attribu-
table to the dryness of the atmosphere. Painters can finish their work
more rapidly. Cabinet makers are obliged to use much thicker glue.
Watch makers have to use animal instead of vegetable oil. Articles
of furniture made in Europe are found not to wear well. Inlaid wood
floors are much more expensive, requiring to be made with much
greater care. In the collections of Natural History in Europe lime is
necessary for the absorption of moisture, which would otherwise injure
the specimens; none is needed here. It has been said that the climate
of New England is moister than that of Central Europe, because rains
are more frequent. Humboldt made the same remark of the high
Alps. This is not true, however, for there is a very great change of
hygrometric condition in the atmosphere immediately after rain. In
the northwestern part of Europe and in England,a fall of one or
two degrees only in the temperature causes rain. On the whole, Mr.
Desor regarded the climate of New England as more nearly resem-
bling that of the high Alps than that of any other part of Europe.

Mr. Desor added that Germans find that they lose flesh after their
arrival in America.

Mr. Briggs said that he had noticed that English workmen who had
been accustomed at home to drink from four to six quarts of beer
daily, are quite unable to drink that quantity here without intoxica-
tion. In Missouri, with a temperature of 120°, and a dew point at
90°, sufficient to make the roads muddy with condensed moisture, he
had noticed that men drank very large quantities of stimulants without
intoxication. At the winter season of the year the air of New England is

378 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

so nearly anhydrous that such articles as raw hides dry in a tempera-
ture just below freezing, without being frozen.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FALL OF RAIN.

At the British Association, Belfast, Col. Sykes communicated an
Analysis of the Mean Daily Temperatures and Fall of Rain at 127
Stations in the Bengal Presidency. These observations afforded strik-
ing illustrations of the influence of hills and other local and physical
causes on the fall of rain; owing to which the difference in the quan-
tities of rain collected at two different stations in the same latitude,
and not many miles apart, was often very great. At some stations the
enormous quantity of 600inches were observed in a single year. Col.
Sykes also read extracts froma letter from Dr. Buist on four simultaneous
experiments in the island of Bombay, to determine the fall of rain at
different heights below 200 feet. The results of these observations
were indecisive; but from the discussion which followed it appeared
an established fact, that up to a certain height the quantity of rain
increased, attained a maximum, and afterwards decreased. Dr. Buist
also dwelt upon the numerous exceptions to the admitted rule, that
the annular range of the barometer increased, and the diurnal fluctu-
ations decreased, as we recede from the equator. In reference to the
communication of Col. Sykes, Sir David Brewster showed the influ-
ence which the times chosen for observation would have upon the
results — without regard to this, indeed, the observations might be ut-
terly worthless. There are two hours in the day at which the tem-
perature is a mean of the day; the first occurs in these countries at
about 9 o’clock, A. M., and the last at about 8 hours 15 minutes, P. M.;
the critical interval, as it is called, being thus about 11 hours 15 min-
utes. It was of the greatest importance to ascertain whether this

interval was the same in India, where the circumstances were so very
different.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON CONSUMPTION.

Ir appears that the medical faculty are beginning to question the
opinion which has so long prevailed among medical men, that a change
of climate is beneficial to persons suffering with the consumption. Sir
James Clark, of England, has assailed the doctrine with considerable
force, and a French “physician, named Carriere, has written against it ;
but the most vigorous opponent of it is a Dr. Burgess, of Scotland.
Dr. Burgess contends that climate has little or nothing to do with the
cure of consumption, and that, if it had, the curative ‘effects would be
produced through the skin, and not the lungs. That a warm climate
is not in itself beneficial, he shows from the fact that the disease exists
in all latitudes. In India and Africa, tropical climates, it is as fre-
quent as in Europe and North Ameriea. At Malta, right in the heart
of the genial Mediterranean, the army reports of England show that
one-third of the deaths among the soldiers are by consumption. At Nice,

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 379

a favorite rasort of English invalids, especially those afflicted with lung
complaints, there are more native-born persons die of consumption
than in any English town of equal population. In Geneva this disease
is almost equally prevalent. In Florence pneumonia, in the Doctor’s
words, “is marked by a suffocating character, and by a rapid progress
towards its last stage.” Naples, whose climate is the theme of so much
praise by travellers, shows in her hospitals a mortality by consumption
equal to one in two and one-third, whereas Paris, whose climate is so
often pronounced villainous, the proportion is only one in three and
one-quarter. In Maderia no local disease is more common than con-
sumption. “ The next position of Dr. Burgess is, that as the beasts,
birds, and fishes of one region die in another, a change of climate
cannot, unless exceptionably, be beneficial to an invalid. Notwith-
standing the greater adaptability to climate which man preserves, the
human constitution it is plain cannot endure changes of temperature
without being more or less affected by it. The frosts and thaws of
England have corroded, during the lapse of ages, the solid stone on it
of which their cathedrals were built. In like manner a foreign cli-
mate gradually undermines the health. Dr. Burgess refers to the
shattered constitution of every officer who has served for any length
of time in India; and to the well-known fact that children born of
white parents in India are delicate as a class. The African, as we
know by the experience of its country, cannot endure severe and
protracted cold. Canada is the common grave as well as refuge of
fugitive slaves. If such is the effect of changes of climate on persons
in health, what must it be, argues Dr. Burgess, on invalids? And he
fortifies this theoretical conclusion by reminding the reader that it is
not only the natives who die of consumption in Maderia, but that the
grave-yards of that Island are whitened by the headstones of thou-
sands who have gone there for health, and remained to die.

“ Persons not professional imagine that the consumptive patient, by
breathing a mild atmosphere, withdraws irritation and leaves nature
free to work a cure. But this notion Dr. Burgess characterizes as
entirely erroneous. It is through the skin, not through the lungs, he
contends, that a warm climate acts beneficially. When a sudden
change in the temperature produces a chill, cutaneous perspiration is
checked, the skin becomes dry and hard, and the lungs suffer from ex-
cessive action ; for they are compelled now to eliminate what should have
passed off through the skin. ‘The Doctor illustrates this by referring
to the instantaneous relief which is generally obtained through free
perspiration, where difficult breathing or oppression of the chest have
been occasioned by artificial heat. What is best for consumptive pa-
tients, therefore, is an equable climate. _ It is the fluctuations, not the
high temperature of a climate that is injurious.”

An able article on this subject has been published in the Boston
Medical Journal by Dr. Burnett, of Boston, in which he attributes the
prevalence of consumption in the New England States to the intem-
perate changeable climate, the tendency of which is to produce dis-
ease in the pulmonery organs. The only season of the year when the

33

880 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

climate is favorable to lung diseases, is during the month of September
and the first part of October, when the air is warm, dry and quiet.

.1t has been customary for northern invalids to return when benefitted.
In general, all who did so have been re-attacked and finally carried off
— sometimes very suddenly. From statistics and information which
Dr. Burnett has been collecting, he has come to the conclusion that con-
sumptive invalids to be permanently benefitted by a change of climate,
must go South and make their home there. The climate of Green-
ville, S. C.,and some parts of Georgia, is exeeedingly favorable to those
laboring under this disease. In Summer the temperature rarely exceeds
90°, and is free from sudden changes. Dr. Burnett is of the opinion
that the United States possess a variety of climate and advantages for
this disease far superior to those of Europe.

ON THE APPLICATION OF THE LAWS OF STORMS TO NAVIGATION

THE following rules and suggestions, applicable to ships which have
become involved in storms, were published by Capt. Andrews, R. N.,
in the Bermuda Royal Gazette.

By keeping the wind on the Starboard Quarter, when in a revoly-
ing Storm in the Northern Hemisphere, ships gradually sail from the
Storm’s centre: and by keeping the wind on the Port Quarter, when
in the Southern Hemisphere, Ships sail gradually from the centre ot
a revolving Storm. This rule applies to three-quarters of the Storm’s
Circle. But there is always one Quadrant in a progressive whirl-
wind Storm, more dangerous than the other three, being that over
which the Storm’s centre passes in its progress; and there would be
danger in applying the rule with a Ship in this Quadrant. With-
in the Tropics whilst the course of Storms tends towards the
West, the quadrant of greatest danger will be on the west sides. But
these quadrants will gradually change their position as the Storms re-
curve ; and in high Latitudes, as the course of the Storms becomes
Easterly so will these Quadrants of greatest danger come to be on the
East side of the Storm. In order to know which is the Quadrant of
greatest danger, the theory must be studied until it is understood.

An example of Capt. Andrews’s rule for the Southern Hemisphere
was practiced by Captain Moorsom, when commanding the Andromache
Frigate, at Mauritius, in 1826, and is the more remarkable because
it was executed by Captain Moorsom, before the theory of Storms was
understood. Leaving H. M. 8. Ariadne, in Port Louis Harbor, at the
wish of her Commander, Captain Moorsom put to sea in the Androm-
ache with the wind at S. E.,veering to S. 8. E., predetermined to
steer without regard to the compass, and to keep the wind as it veered,
always upon the larboard or port Quarter. He had come to this
decision trom attentively studying the Logbooks, of Ships which had
encountered Hurricanes, in the neighborhood of Mauritius, and ob-
served that the wind veered there in a uniform manner. By steering
as described, Captain Moorsom gradually carried his Frigate away
from the centre of the storm, until he had gained its opposite side,

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 381

and moderate weather. Then having the wind at N. E., veering to
E. N. E., he brought his Ship upon the Starboard tack, in order to
return to Mauritius which Port she reached uninjured. By compar-
ing extracts from the two Logbooks, it appears that the Ariadne in Port
Louis Harbor, was in the centre of the Hurricane, and had the Storm
very severely; whilst the Andromache, by putting to Sea, and being
steered so as to keep the wind on the Port Quarter, had comparatively
moderate weather.

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES.

SOURCES OF THE NILE.

At the last meeting of the Bombay Geographical Society, a paper
was read by Mr. Smith, on the discoveries made by the East African
Missionaries, on what appear to be the sources of the Nile. This
mysterious river is said to arise from two lakes, one of which is of
great dimensions, nearly under the line, and they seem fed by the
melting snows of the gigantic range, which rises to the altitude of
22,000 feet at least, close by. The description of this long looked for
locality coincides exactly with that given of it by Ptolemy, two thou-
sand years ago.— Bombay Times, 1852.

A Mr. Rolle, who early in last winter had gained a point on the
White Nile within 43° of the equator, has sent back an account of his
discoveries, with a map, which has reached the French Geographical
Society. It appears from his account that the upper part of the Nile
channel is surrounded by great mountains, which extend eastwardly
from the southern Abyssinian range far toward the centre of the con-
tinent, in a line curving to the south. In these mountains are nour-
ished the many streams whose reservoirs supply the inundations of
the Nile, continuing as they do for months. Mr. Rolle finds in that
country the tradition of a white people who formerly brought mer-
chandise from the South; he supposes that these traders were
Portuguese, and that they crossed the mountains by some pass which
is yet to be discovered.

‘At about the same date with this communication a missionary,
named Don Angelo Vico, was at a place which he calls Bellenia, on
an eastern branch of the White Nile, betweeu 4° and 5° north lati-
tude. What with these travellers, anid with others who are scattered
over that continent, it must soon be thoroughly explored. Mr. Rolle
speaks of the practice ot the Egy ptian Turks, who kidnap and
enslave the natives of these remote regions, as hindering greatly the
progress of both scientific investigation and of commerce.

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 383

PACIFIC RAILROAD ROUTE.

Masor Emery, U.S. A., in a letter addressed to the American
Association, on the boundary survey between the United States and
Mexico, states, that if a railroad between the Mississsppi and the
Pacific be seriously contemplated, a passage exists near the thirty-
second parallel of latitude, by which snows are entirely avoided, and
where no elevation requiring tunelling or stationary power, will have
to be resorted to.

This line may commence any where on the Mississippi or Missouri,
_ from Independence to the Gulf; but it must, before it reaches the
Rocky Mountain chain, deflect sufficiently far to the south to turn the
Guadaloupe mountains, which terminate on an elevated plain in
Texas, about the parallel of 31°; there it will follow any of the
various passes explored by Colonel Johnstone, of the Topographical
Engineers, and Captain Marcy. Crossing the Del Norte about El
Paso, it will follow a direction not far from the thirty-second parallel
of latitude until it strikes the emigrant trail from Chihuahua; thence
it will follow that trail, by easy descents, some one huudred and thirty
miles, to the valley of the Gila river. The line will then pass along
that river, without obstacle, to the junction of the Gila and the Colo-
rado, where Nature has made the abutments for a passage, far above
the reach of floods, in the huge Feldsphathic-granite portals through
which these rivers pass at the moment of uniting. From this point
three practicable lines present themselves, any of which may be
chosen ; and the choice will undoubtedly be made by the prepon-
derating commercial influence which exists at the time, viz:

First: A line to the Gulf of California or the sea of Cortez.
Second: Across the mountains to San Diego. Third: By the val-
ley of the Tulare Lakes and the San Joaquin, to the valley of the
waters of San Francisco Bay.

LIVINGSTON’S RESEARCHES IN SOUTH AFRICA.

At a late meeting of the New York Geographical Society, Mr.
Leavitt read a paper from Rev. Mr. Livi ingston, English missionary in
South Africa. Mr. L. had made two excursions in company with
Capt. Oswald and another officer of the British army. Passing the
lake Ngami and the river Zonga, in latitude 20° south, they passed i in
their journey due north across the dry bed of the Zonga. Here
they found numerous salt-pans or ponds. The Bushmen abound
near the springs. They are amerry and honest race. For three days
Mr. Livingston was without water; travelling by night to avoid the
heat. On the fourth day they struek a rhinoceros tr: ail, and followed
it to the river Mataba, a small stream. They reached ‘the Chobe on
the next day. This is a deep and very crooked river. Here they
found a famous old chief, Sabatoae. His tribe is a very savage one.
This old chief died while the travellers were there. They then
went on to the Sesheke or Skiota, on horseback, a distance of 100

33*

384 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

miles. This isan immense stream; 300 to 500 yards across in the
dryest season. Ten days up the river is the seat of the Barotsi, once
the most powerful tribe in that region. The river has many tributa-
ries and some rapids. In this region there are many large rivers ;
the country is flat, and in the rainy season is flooded for many miles
from the streams. The people here are very black, very large, and
strongly developed, but peaceful. ‘They are more ingenious than the
Cape people. The Baloc tribes melt large quantities of iron, and
are very good smiths.

From an examination of the recently constructed maps of this
country, it is seen that the Zambesi (which is a very large river,
emptying into the Mozambique Channel, by innumerable mouths, in
latitude 18° and 19° south,) seems to divide into two great branches
some 350 miles up; that these branches run west, and then for several
hundred miles north; that the branches are something like 200 miles
apart, and that the country between is a rich delta, since junction
streams constantly run from one branch to the other, thus forming
large islands inhabited each by a different tribe; that 700 or 800
miles from the ocean, the western branch of the Zambesi receives the
Chobe, which is also a large river—the Ohio to this African Mississippi ;
that the sources of none of these rivers are as yet known; that south
and west of the Chobe runs the Zonga, another very large river,
neither end of which has been found, but it is supposed to empty into
the Zambesi; that one or two hundred miles further south is the Lim-
popo river, also unexplored either way. It seems probable, from
these documents, that there is a large and fertile region, well watered,
wooded and peopled, on the spot generally set down as the lower part
of a great desert, lying within a space bounded by longitude 20° and
35°, and latitude 10° and 20°.

A NINEVEH IN THE PACIFIC.

CapTrain AtFrrep K. Fisner, of Edgartown, has communicated
to the Vineyard Gazette, of that place, a most remarkable story of
the discovery of an ancient and deserted city, upon an island in the
North Pacific Ocean. The following is the captain’s statement :—

“‘ When on his last whaling voyage, in the ship America, of New
Bedford, which was about eight years ago, he had occasion to visit the
island of Tinian, one of the Ladrone Islands, to land some sick men.
He stopped there some days. One of his men, in his walks about the
island, came to the entrance of the main street of a large and splendid
city in ruins. Capt. Fisher, on being informed of the fact, entered
the city by the principal street, which was about three miles in length.
The buildings were all of stone, of a dark color, and of the most
splendid description. In about the centre of the main street, he
found twelve solid stone columns, six on each side of the street ; they
were about forty-five or fifty feet in height, surmounted by capstones
of immense weight. ‘The columns were ten feet in diameter at the
-base, and about three feet at the top. Capt. Fisher thinks the

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 385

columns would weigh about sixty or seventy tons, and the cap-stones
about fifteen tons. One of the columns had fallen, and he had a
fine opportunity to view its vast proportions and fine architecture.
From the principal street, a large number of other streets diverged.
They were all straight, and the buildings were of stone. The whole
of the city was entirely overgrown with cocoa-nut trees, which were
fifty and sixty feet in height. In the main street, pieces of common
earthenware were found. The island has been in possession of the
Spaniards for a long time. Six or seven Spaniards resided on the
island when Capt. F. was there. They informed him that the Span-
iards had had possession about sixty years; that they took the island
from the knackas (natives,) who were entirely ignorant of the build-
ers of the city, and of the former inhabitants. “When questioned as
to the origin of the city, their only answer Was, ‘ There must have
been a powerful race here a long time ago.’ Capt. Fisher also saw
on the island immense ledges of stone, from which the buildings and
columns had evidently been erected. Some portions of them exhibited
signs of having been “worked.”

RELICTS OF ANCIENT NINEVEH.

Durine the past year, Mr. Layard, the explorer of Ancient
Nineveh, has presented to the British Museum many additional
curiosities, illustrating the domestic economy and customs of the
ancient Assyrians. ‘These principally consist of instruments and vessels
of bronze and earthenware, several in a very perfect state of preser-
vation, others thickly encrusted with rust and broken to fragments.
The use of some of them is quite inexplicable for the present, and
must be left for future ingenuity and study to discover. There are,
however, bowls and vases, many richly chased ; some dozens of earth-
enware studs of different shapes, supposed to be for harness ; a very
perfect bronze wine strainer, similar to those in use at the present
day; the hinges of the gates of the palace; legs and feet of
chairs ; a curious mask of iron or bronze; richly ornamented bands of
various kinds; a large wheel, or the isonet casting of it, broken into
many pieces; one or “two small glass vases of very beautiful colors ; ; a
quantity of cylinders about 1} inches in length, carved or inscribed,
one or two of them of a substance resembling plumbago both in
appearance and weight, but the greater part of them of earthenware ; ;
a statue of a priest in stone, about four feet high and much ornament-
ed, and with the peculiarity that the figure has no cap or covering on
its head, and is apparently bald; and lastly, several slabs of inserip-
tions.

The discoveries of Dr. Layard at Ninevah have, it is known, inspired
the French with a strong desire to rival them. Recent accounts
from M. Place, their consul at Mosul, state that within the last few
months he has caused further excavations to be made at Khorsabad,
and that the result of these has been the discovery of a number of
colossal statues, bas-reliefs, (some of them brilliantly colored,) articles

386 /ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

of pottery and jewelry, inscriptions &c.; together with further por-
tions of the palace and its dependencies, one of the entrance gates to
the city, an extensive colonnade in marble — of which twenty-eight
columns have already been found. All these trowvailles are of great
interest, especially those connected with the palace, as they prove the
Assyrians to have been accomplished architects. But perhaps the
most interesting discovery of all is the wine cellar of the old Assyrian
kings, connected with the palace. In it were found rows of jars still
standing in order, though many were broken and others filled with
sand; and at the bottom of these jars was a deposite of a violet color,
evidently left by wine. M. Place has also caused excavations to be
made in different hills on the left bank of the Tigris within thirty
miles of Khorsabad. These places are called Bachiccha, Karamtess,
Teu-Leuben, Matai, Karacock, Digigan, Barrain, &c. In most of them
he has found sculptures, vases, articles of jewelry, and small vessels
in metal, stone,and even in gold. At Digigan, a large monument has
been discovered, which it is thought may turn out to be equal in im-
portance to the edifice of Khorsabad. At Mattai and Barrain numer-
ous bas-reliefs have been found, some of them cut in the solid rock, about
150 yards above the level of the plain. Gigantic personages, and a
train of Assyrian kings at full length, figure in them.

THE LOST TRAVELLER,

Amone the numerous victims, distinguished travellers, whose lives
have been sacrificed to the perils of African discovery, the world has
almost forgotten that of the unfortunate Jacques Compagnon, who under
the auspices of the Duke de Choiseul, left Senegal in 1758 to explore
the country to the north and east of Senegambia, penetrated as
far as the wooded desert of Simboni, where he was heard from
in 1760, and then disappeared, never, it was supposed, to be
heard from again. After ninety years of mystery and oblivion, how-
ever, the veil has been removed, and the secret of his fate has been dis-
closed by M. de Gaysa, a Hungarian explorer in Africa, from whom a
letter has been received by the Imperial Society of Vienna, disclosing
the discoveries which seem to place the fact beyond question, besides
giving it a very interesting aspect. M. de Gaysa writes from the
country of the Kommenis, a semi-civilized tribe, who have some religi-
ous notions “ possessing a certain analogy with the Christian tradition,
a regular language, an alphabet, and a mode of writing,” all, or most of
which, they appear, from their own account, to have derived from a
stranger, a European, who died among them in 1775, and whose
memory was revered as that of asageorgood genius. That this stranger
was Jacques Compagnon, was proved by a number of circumstances,
not the least conclusive of which was several personal relics, regarded
by the people as sacred, one being a quadrant with his name engraved
upon it in full. It would seem, from such accounts and traditions as
M. de Gaysa was able to gather, that Compagnon was detained by the
Kommenis, and, being reconciled at last to his captivity, devoted him-

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 387

self to instructing them in the useful arts. His tomb, consisting of “a
little stone monument of a conical form, covered with an inscription in
hieroglyphical characters,” was pointed out to the Hungarian visitor
in one of their principal villages.

HIEROGLYPHICAL DISCOVERY.

Ir appears from a paper recently read in the Academy of Arche-
ology, at Rome, that Father Secchi has found a new interpretation of
the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which enables him to declare that most of
them are not mere tombstone inscriptions, as is generally assumed, but

oems. He has given several of his readings, which display great
ingenuity, and professes to be able to decipher the inscriptions on the
obelisk of Luxor, at Paris.

ABORIGINES OF NICARAGUA.

ACCORDING to a communication read at the American Association,
by Mr. E. G. Squier, there still exists in the interior of Nicaragua,
an Indian nation, who are descendants and representatives of the
once numerous and powerful Aztec nation, from which they were
originally a colony. ‘They occupy what is now called the plain of
Leon, or the district between the northern extremity of Lake Nicar-
agua and the Pacific. The name at present applied to them, is
Nagrandians, or people of Nagrando. Mr. Squier states that he
has procured a considerable number of words of their language, and
on comparison, finds them to be almost precisely like the ancient
Mexican. The numerals used also show great coincidences with the
Mexican ones. Valdez, the Spanish historian, visited Nicaragua in
1526, and describes these people under the name of Niquirans, and
says of them, “ They speak the Mexican language, and have the
same manners and appearance as the people of New Spain.” There
are other evidences of a social and religious character, which con-
tribute towards strengthening the evidence of the present Indians
being originally Mexicans, or Aztecs. We have, therefore, says Mr.
Squier, the extraordinary phenomenon of a fragment of a great
aboriginal nation, widely separated from the parent stock, and
intruded among other and hostile nations; yet from the comparative
lateness of the separation, or some other cause, still retaining its origi-
nal distinguishing features, so as to be easily recognized. The causes
which led to their migration from Mexico, can probably never be
accurately known. They have a tradition that they came from the
north-west: and that they left their original seats in consequence of
having been overpowered by a hostile nation.

EARLY AMERICAN ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS.

Ir is stated in the New York Express, that the Grinnell expedition
is not the first American expedition which has attempted to pene-

388 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

trate the Arctic seas. Three distinct expeditions in search of that
ignis fatuus, a north-west passage to India, are on record in times
past, but all anterior to the war of the revolution. Two of these
were fitted out at the port of Philadelphia, and the third in Virginia.
We believe that no account of these voyages has been handed down—
certainly these events have not been incorporated in the histories of
the country. The Express gives the following account of these expe-
ditions :

“The name of the vessel in the first expedition, was the Argo, a
small schooner of 150 or 200 tons. She was commanded by Capt.
Charles Swaine. She sailed from Philadelphia in the spring of the
year 1752, and returned on the 15th of November, in the year
ensuing. The result of this adventure profitted neither science nor
those who embarked in it. The vessel was unable to get beyond
Davis’s Straits, the weather being so terribly cold as to defeat all
attempts to reach a higher latitude than 65 degrees north. ‘The crew
of the Argo all returned well, and the vessel with but little or no
damage from ice. But, nothing dispirited by the unprofitable fruits
of his first voyage, Captain Swaine determined to make another
effort to discover the north-west passage. And so he set out again, in
the same vessel, early in the following spring. ‘This was in the year
1754. The only record we can find of his voyage is contained in the
Pennsylvania Journal, October 24th, of that year; the whole history
being embraced in the following meagre paragraph :—‘ On Thursday
last,’ it runs, ‘arrived here the schooner Argo, Capt. Swaine, who
was fitted out in the spring on a discovery of a north-west passage,
but having three of his men killed by the Indians on the Labrador
coast, returned without success.’ ”

Eighteen years subsequent to the arrival of the Argo, the Virginia
expedition was started. The name of the vessel was the Dilligence,
a brig of about the same tonnage as the Argo, under command of
Capt. Wilder. Few particulars relative to this voyage have been
preserved. All we know is, that on his return the Captain of the
Dilligence reported that “he reached a large bay in latitude 69° 11’,
which he supposed hitherto unknown; that from the course of the
tides, he thought it probable there might be a passage through it ; but
as the bay was seldom free from ice, the passsge could seldom, if ever,
be practicable.” It is surmised that Capt. Wilder, in this attempt,
succeeded in sailing through Davis's Strait into Baflin’s Bay.

DISCOVERIES IN THE CATACOMBS OF ROME.

A Frencu gentlemen of the name of Perret has been engaged
for six years in exploring the catacombs under Rome, and copying,
with the most minute and scrupulous fidelity, the remains of ancient
art which are hidden in those extraordinary chambers, Under the
authority of the papal government, M. Perret has explored the whole
of the sixty catacombs together with the connecting galleries. Bury-
ing himself’ in this subterranean city, he has thoroughly examined

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 389

every part of it, in spite of difficulties and perils of the gravest char-
acter: for example, the refusal of his guides to accompany him;
dangers resulting from the intricacy of the passages, from the necessity
for clearing the way through galleries choked up with earth which fell
in from above almost as fast as it was removed; hazards arising from
the difficulty of damming up streams of water which ran in upon them
from above, and from the foulness of the air and consequent difficulty
of breathing and preserving light in the lower chamhers; all these,
and many other perils, have been overcome by the honorable perse-
verance of M. Perret, and he has returned to France witha collection of
drawings which extends to 360 sheets in large folio; of which 154
sheets contain representations of frescoes, 65 of monuments, 23 of
paintings on glass (medallions inserted on the walls and at the bottoms
of vases) containing 86 subjects, 41 drawings of lamps, vases, rings, and
instruments of martyrdom to the number of more that 100 subjects,
and finally 90 contain copies of more than 500 sepulchral inscriptions.
Of the 154 drawings of frescoes two-thirds are inedited, and a consid-
erable number have been only lately discovered. Amongst the latter
are the painting on the celebrated wells of Platonia, said to have been
the place of interment, for a certain period, of St. Peter and St. Paul.
This spot was ornamented with frescoes by order of Pope Damasus, about
A. D. 365, and has ever since remained closed up. Upon opening
the empty tomb, by permission of the Roman Government, M. Perret
discovered fresco paintings representing the Saviour and the Apostles,
and two coffins [tombeaux] of Parian marble.

These vast subterranean cavities in the early ages of Christianity
served as an asylum for persecuted believers, as a sacred place for the
celebration of their holy mysteries, and as the burial place of dead believ-
ers. Inafter times, when the new religion had triumphed, and Christians
wereable to worship in public, the catacombs continued to be consecrated
cemetries, and the piety of the popes and of believers took pleasure in
enriching them with monuments and paintings, where the history of
Christian art is found reproduced, epoch by epoch, during a long series
of ages. By the discovery and restoration of these monuments, M.
Perret connects ancient with modern art, and illuminates certain points
of the history of Christianity. For instance, he has been enabled to
establish in the clearest manner the origin of the traditional images of
Christ, the Virgin Mary, the Apostles, and a great number of holy
personages. In the catacombs of St. Calixtus, upon the Appian way,
he has discovered the most ancient paintings known, in which are rep-
resented the person of Christ, and subjects taken from the Old and
New Testaments. These paintings go back to the first and second
centuries. Expiring paganism and the new religion are singularly min-
gled together there, and the transition is marked as clearly as possible.
The subjects, for instance, are taken from the Old and New Testa-
ments, but the distribution of the groups, the accessories, the whole
aspect, and generally whatever appertains to the mode of execution,
belongs to the yet flourishing pagan art. Christianity furnishes the
subject, paganism the form. From age to age, in proportion as Chris-

390 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

tianity gains ground, this form is modified; new art seeks and finds
new modes of representation. It now not only furnishes the thought ;
it expresses that thought in a language which is its own.

The collections, drawings, &c., of M. Perret have been purchased by
the French Government and an appropriation of £7,500 made for
their publication.

ANTIQUARIAN RESEARCHES IN WISCONSIN.

Mr. LapHam’s surveys of the Indian mounds of the State of
Wisconsin, which for some years he has prosecuted at the expense of
the American Antiquarian Society, are brought toa conclusion. His
report, accompanied with full and beautiful drawings of these singular
monuments, will soon be published, under the direction of the Anti-
quarian Society, among the “ Smithsonian Contributions.” They
form an appropriate addition to the volume by Messrs. Squier & Da-
vis. These mounds in Wisconsin present in many instances the
curious feature, not observed till a few years since, of outlines bearing
a rude resemblance, on a gigantic scale, to different animal figures, —
bears lizards, buffaloes, &e.

SCULPTURES FROM NINEVEH.

WitiiAMs Cotuece has recently received, through the instrumen-
tality of Rev. Dwight N. Marsh, American Missionary at Mosul, two
of the wonderful slabs excavated at Nineveh under the directions of
Dr. Layard. The specimens are large, one being seven and the other
seven and a half’ feet in height, are cast in bas-relief, and are covered
with inscriptions of the old cunciform character. Both represent
human figures, one, however, bearing an eagle’s head, the other that of
aman. The slabs were necessarily sawn into several parts in order
to allow of their transportation. They are said to be as great curios-
ities as any which have been sent to the British Museum, and the
liberality of Dr. Layard is therefore the more highly to be praised.
The slabs have actually arrived at the College.

RECENT EXPLORATIONS AND EXPEDITIONS IN THE ARCTIC RE-
GIONS.

Tue Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society has been
awarded to Dr. John Rae for his unexampled explorations of various
parts of the Arctic regions. His survey of the Inlet of Boothia in
1848 was unique in its kind. With a boldness never surpassed he
determined on wintering on the proverbially desolate shores of Re-
pulse Bay, where one expedition of two ships had previously wholly
perished, and two others were all but lost. ‘There he maintained his
party on deer, shot principally by himself, and spent ten months of an
Arctic winter in a hut of stones, the locality not even yielding drift
timber, with no other fuel than a kind of hay made of the Andromeda

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 391

tetragona, he preserved his men in health, and thus enabled them to
execute their arduous surveying journeys of upwards of 1000 miles
in the spring. In his later journeys, in which he travelled more than
300 miles on snow-shoes, Dr. Rae has shown equal judgment and per-
severance. Dreading, from his former experience, that the sea might
be frozen, he determined on a spring journey over the ice, and per-
formed a most extraordinary one. With a pound of fat daily for fuel,
and without the possibility of carrying a tent, he set out accompanied
by two men only, and, trusting solely for shelter to snow-houses, which
he taught his men to build, accomplished a distance of 1060 miles in
39 days, or 27 miles per day including stoppages—a feat which has
never been equalled in Arctic travelling; and this without the aid of
advanced depots, and dragging a sledge himself a great part of the
way. The spring journey, and that which followed in the summer in
boats, during which 1700 miles were traversed in 80 days, have prov-
ed the continuity of Wollaston and Victoria lands along a distance of
nearly 1100 miles, and have shown that they are separated by a
strait from North Somerset and Boothia, through which the flood tide
sets from the north.

Dr. Rae in his last boat expedition had not even the Arctic luxury
of a cup of tea, but was well content to share the chance luck of the
kettle with his crew. His greatest suffering, he once remarked to Sir
George Back, arose from his being obliged to sleep upon his frozen
moccasins in order to thaw them for the morning’s use. The naval
expeditions sent out in search of Sir John Franklin, have contibuted
much to our knowledge of the geography of the Arctic regions. The
expeditions at present engaged upon this duty are those of Capt.
McClure and Collinson, and of Sir Edward Belcher. The former of
these is engaged in researches to the Northeast of Behring’s Straits,
and having entered the ice in the summer of 1850, has not since been
heard from. The object of Capt. McClure was to penetrate from the
Asiatic to the American coast, or in other words, to accomplish the
Northern passage from the Eastern side. The prolonged absence
of this expedition is already a source of some anxiety. Sir Edward
Belcher sailed from England in May, 1852, and at the last accounts
had passed up Wellington Channel, which in August; 1852, was fortu-
nately, entirely free from ice. Sir Edward Belcher’s vessel is a screw
steamer, and he has undoubtedly ere this, solved the problem of the
existence of a great Arctic sea, free from ice. It was the resolve of
Sir John Franklin, to penetrate if possible, by the northwest into an
open polar sea, and to navigate it until he reached the longitude of
Bhering’s Straits. If then he really passed through Wellington Chan-
nel, and did gain such a sea, he may have made considerable progress
westward, and if compelled to abandon his ships, he might
have taken refuge on land, and be yet living on the natural produce of
the region, but cut off from all communication with countries to which
we have access. On this idea, mainly founded on the character of
Franklin, a bold project was started by Lieut. Pim, an officer formerly
engaged in Capt. Kellet’s voyage of exploration. He proposed to

34 yee

392 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

travel over Siberia, to the extreme edge of the Russian settlements,
(a journey which occupies the post six months,) then to traverse the
wilds of the Tchuktchi race, and from their shores to pass over
channels of water in india rubber or skin canoes, to tracks inhabited
by the most Northern Esquimaux, and there endeavor to learn the fate of
is countrymen. This plan was warmly supported by many of the most
eminent scientific men of Europe, Humboldt, Erman, Col. Sabine, Mur-
chison, and others; a considerable sum to aid in the defrayment of
expenses was also granted by the English Government. Under these
auspices, Lieut. Pim visited St. Petersburgh, to obtain the sanction of
the Russian authorities. The report, however, of acouncil of Russian Of-
ficers was adverse to the enterprise. They represented that in order to en-
able travellers, furnished with instruments and interpreters, to travel
the ultra-Siberian country of the Tchuktchi, previous arrangements
of 18 months would be required to assemble the necessary quantity of
dogs and sledges; and that as the former expedition undertaken thirty
years since by Von Wrangel, and others, had, by withdrawing
the use of many of the dogs, produced fatal diseases among the natives,
and great mortality; such an expedition ought not to be undertaken
without motives of overwhelming necessity. In short, being informed
that such an expedition could not be put in motion before March, 1853,
and being aware of the responsibilities which they would be led
into, whether as respected their relation to the native tribes, or to the
young British officers, whose life they thought would be uselessly
perilled, the Russian Government declined to co-operate in the pro-
ject. Permission was, however, given to Lieut. Pim to travel in
Siberia in any direction. He was, however, compelled to aban-
don the enterprise, and has since sailed in the expedition of Sir Ed-
ward Belcher. |
In regard to the probabilities of the existence of Sir John Frank-
lin and his party, who have now been absent seven years, most of the
English geographers cling to the hopeful, rather than the desponding
view of Arctic chances. The able Arctic naturalists, Richardson
and Scoresby, the experienced seaman Kellet, and the practical ex-
plorer of snow-clad lands, Rae, all coincide in the belief that animal
food sufficient to sustain life may have been found. Capt. Omman-
ney, who explored in 1850-51 the coast line to the south of Cape
Walker, found the land he traversed very sterile, and affording little
animal sustenance. On the other hand it is clear from the testimony of
many explorers, that animals do abound in much higher latitudes than
those explored by Capt. Ommanney. It is an interesting fact, that
this unequal distribution of the means of supporting life is coincident
with the direction of the isothermal lines. It mustalso be remembered,
that during the last century, three out of four Russian sailors
returned in good health from an exile of more than six years on the
desolate Island of Spitzbergen; and while we may be permitted to
hope, that Sir John Franklin and party may have been equally fortu-
nate with the Russian sailors, it must also be considered, that they
may have been compelled to take refuge on coasts where few animals,

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 393

save seals, could be procured, whence birds so numerous in summer
would migrate during the long season of darkness and cold ; and that
under such untoward conditions, their energies possibly paralyzed by
disease, we could scarcely suppose that even the most hardy of the
brave men could have struggled on for any length of time.

The Isabel screw steamer, of 140 tons, returned in November from
an Arctic voyage of exploration. This vessel was fitted out by Lady
Franklin, with some private assistance, and penetrated further north
by 100 miles in Baflin’s Bay than any one has reached before. By
this voyage, Whale Sound was pretty clearly ascertained to be an en-
trance into the Polar Sea, and the commander of the Isabel believes
he actually entered the great Basin, and was checked in his course
towards Behring’s Straits by continued heavy gales, which drove him
back into Whale Sound. This Sound lies in the northeast, part of
Baffin’s Bay.

In reviewing the late polar researches, remarks Sir. R. I. Murchi-
son, in a late address before the Geographical Society of England, it
is singular, that the great sea between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla,
by far the widest,—indeed the only oceanic opening towards the
North Pole,—should in this century have been comparatively so much
neglected, and that nearly all recent efforts should have been accumu-
lated upon the north shores of America, where every succeeding
year has brought with it discoveries, not of open sea, but of numerous
masses of land separated from each other by comparatively narrow
channels of water. Mr. Peterman, an eminent physical geographer,
has shown that, whether we look to the ascertained outlines of the
land, the range of the isothermal lines in certain longitudes, the
results of the annual summer debacles, issuing from the mouths of the
gigantie rivers of Siberia, or to the great predominance of water, and
with it a milder climate, it is to be infered that, if a steam vessel were
to be steered, during the winter or spring months, directly north-east
from the British Isles, she might pass into polar seas in a fortnight, or
little more, without encountering any serious obstacle, and thus be
soon in a position which other ships have been struggling to reach
through -defiles of land-locked water, encumbered with ice. This
ingenious hypothesis seems to rest on some good preliminary data;
for at Bear Island, beyond Icy Cape, in the high latitude of 74°, 30/,
great mildness of climate was experienced by some seamen who
passed the winter of 1823-4 in this locality; they encountered no
severe cold, nor saw either packed or floating ice in the sea. Again,
in August, 1827, Capt. Parry proceeded in spite of a powerful
counter-current to the most northerly point (IN. 82° 40!) ever reached
in our day, and found no bottom to the sea at 500 fathoms depth, no
land visible, and little ice with much rain. This modification of cli-
mate in so northern a latitude, is doubtless due to the predominance
of water over land; the former tempering cold, the latter, when in
great masses, producing it. Itis then by the application of this dis-
tribution of heat and cold, which resulted in the establishment of the
isothermal lines of Humboldt, as well as by attention to the fact of

394. ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the vast icy masses of the North Siberian shores being held together
to the land during winter, that Mr. Peterman has made the novel
suggestion, that a winter, or early spring, search should be attempted
through a belt of water which is too broad to be affected by congela-
tion; and that this effort should be carried out at a time when this
sea is not rendered impassable (as it is in summer) by floating fields
of ice, proceeding from the Siberian shore.

Of one thing, however, all geographers feel well assured, that no
practical north-west passage, as suggested by Cook, and contended for
by Barrow, can be detected. Every new voyage to the North makes
the mystery of these regions more mysterious. The history of these
voyages, from Hudson’s and Baffin’s down to our day, could be truly
told so as to present a series of paradoxes. The expeditions worst
equipped have made the most remarkable discoveries. The best
equipped expeditions have often returned with no accounts to give ©
but those of disappointment. Again, it would hardly be teo much to
say, that almost every expedition has found land where the best
guides in conjecture had made water almost certain, and water where
wise men looked for land.

A single instance is Capt. Sir John Ross’s expedition in Prince
Regent’s Inlet, where he was frozen: up for four years, and lost his
vessel. He and his nephew, now Capt. Sir James Ross, were
together. They had the command of the party. After roughing it
for four or five years there, they came home to England with exactly
opposite notions of what they had discovered. John was sure there
was no strait. James was sure there was. Duels have been fought
in England, rising from this question. Sir John Barrew, the most
learned man on these subjects in England, as one would have said,
took sides with James. He even wrote a book, which he ended by
correcting “ the erroneous impression—founded on the most absurd
nonsense—from which a conclusion is drawn, that a passage does not
exist between Prince Regent’s Inlet and the Polar Sea, which has
since been proved to be wholly incorrect.” He just got this book
cleverly published, when Dr. Rae returned from those regions,
having proved that John was right and James was wrong; that the
“erroneous impression” was true; and that the “ incorrect” demon-
stration was a correct one. :

Sir John Ross himself, in this very expedition, had -had to sail
through a chain of mountains, which he laid down on the charts in
his first expedition.

Inglefield’s discoveries in the Isabel, referred to above, are among
the most remarkable of the whole series. They were made the last
summer in a little steamer of only a hundred and fifty tons, nm four
months’ time. They make probable again the idea of the old geogra-
phers, that Greenland is a great island, and Baflin’s Bay a great chan-
nel into the Northern Ocean.

Indeed, the modern discoveries have, in two or three notable
instances, compelled the geographers to enter on their maps again the
drawings of the old map-men, which had been omitted because no
authority was known for them.

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 395

RECENT ASIATIC EXPLORATIONS.

Tae explorations and journeys of Drs. Hooker, Campbell, and
others, in Tibet and Nepaul, have thrown much light upon the
Himalaya and adjacent country. Dr. Hooker made two ascents of
the mountain Bhonetso, (10,400 feet,) having one peak 28,178 feet in
height, in full view to the south-west, and another 23,930 feet high
to the south-east. Dr. Hooker’s general observations on the geograpi-
cal distribution of plants from low hills to the loftiest mountains, are
of the highest interest. Shrubby rhododendrons having been gath-
ered at 17,500 feet; grasses, sedges, composite, and other tufted
herbs at 18,000 feet, and lichens at 18,500 feet. In all his journeys,
Dr. Hooker used successfully the most delicate meteorological instru-
ments, and brought back safe to England his barometer, which, when
compared with the standard instrument of the Royal Society, showed
an error of only--.005.

Tertiary fossils have been discovered in the region of the Himalaya,
at heights of from 10,000 to 15,000 feet, flanking the valleys of the
Indus and its tributaries. Explorations made upon the coasts of
Arabia have also shown that in addition to the granitic and other
eruptive and crystalline rocks, which prevail so much in that country,
there is also a series of sedimentary aqueous deposites, the lowest of
which is a compact micaceous sandstone, overlaid by strata of the
cretaceous period, and these by a very great thickness of the nummu-
lite or lower tertiary formation, surmounted by younger tertiary
deposites charged with corals, shells, and its ike, approaching to, and
identical with species now living.

An interesting work on the coasts of Arabia and the adjacent
countries, has recently been published by Mr. Carter of the East
India Company. Learned geographers will be gratified by this
author’s comparison of the present features of this country, with those
described by Ptolemy and others, and by the accurate agreement of
the distances mentioned by them, with the measurements of English
surveyors. The Ichthyophagi of Arian are still the turtle-fed Arabs
of Masira. Some incense ports of the ancient merchants are yet to
be traced, and the aromatiferous regions of the ancients, both in
Arabia, and on the opposite shores of Africa, may now be mapped out
with great certainty. “ Qne geographical discovery,” writes Mr.
Carter, “the passage round the Cape, destroyed the grandeur of the
Arabian empire, and throwing open the commerce of India to the
Europeans, deprived its people of their ancient office. Now Aden
has been taken possession of, the old routes of commerce between the
eastern and western nations, have again been established; but the
Arabs are no longer carriers of that produce. They have become
poor and divided among themselves, the religion of Mohammed is dis-
appearing from among them fast, and they are returning to the
heathenism and barbarity of their original state.”

34*

396 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.
= ~
REPUDIATION OF AMERICAN DISCOVERIES BY ENGLISH GEOG-
RAPHERS.

Tue following is an abstract of a paper recently read before the
National Institute, Washington, by Peter Force, Esq., on the English
maps of Arctic discoveries in 1850 and 1851.

When the American Exploring Expedition, in 1840, discovered the
Southern Polar Continent, (a discovery that had baffled the efforts of
Europe for a century,) the discovery was repudiated by the com-
mander of an English expedition, and excluded from English maps.
The people and the press of this country submitted to the imjury in
silence, leaving it to time to do the discoverer justice. But this for-
bearance has only invited a repetition of the wrong. England has
now repudiated the American discovery in the North in 1850.

The manner in which this has been done, ts as follows: the unsuc-
eessful efforts of the English explorers to find Sir John Franklin,
induced Lady Franklin to appeal to America for aid in seeking for
her husband and his companions. Her appeal was responded to by
Henry Grinnell. He purchased vessels, which, with the countenance
and aid of the United States Government, were sent to assist im the
search. This munificent act of Mr. Grinnell is without a precedent.
It was an undertaking by a private citizen of one country to seek out
and restore to their homes, if possible, the officers and crews of the
absent ships of another. None of Sir John Franklin’s own country-
men came forward to doas much. Not a man was found in England,
from prince to peasant, who was able and willing to send at his own
expense, an expedition to search for the English ships and their
crews, such as was projected and carried out by this great-hearted
American. The American searching vessels were placed under the
command of an officer of the United States navy, who had seen some
ice service in the expedition that discovered Wilkes’ Land on the
Antarctic Continent.

Without entering into the details of the voyage of the American
Expedition, which are generally known, it is sufficient to say, that on
the 18th of September, De Haven was north of Cape Bowden, the
most northern point seen by Parry in 1819, and further north within
Lancaster Sound than has been attained to this day by any vessel of
all the English exploring and searching expeditions.

His discoveries began at Cape Bowden, on the 17th of September.
By the end of the month he was at 75° 25! N. Here he saw hitherto
unknown land to the east and west, and far off to the north beyond
the land on the maps. Of this new-discovered land he gave names
to Maury Channel, Grinnell Land, Mount Franklin, and other places
around De Haven’s Bay, which names.none that came after him had
a right to alter. He says:

‘To the channel which appeared to lead into the open sea, over
which the cloud of ‘ frost-smoke’ hung as a sign, I gave the name of
‘Maury,’ after the distinguished gentleman at the head of our National

/

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 397

Observatory, whose theory with regard to an’ open sea to the north is
likely to be realized through this channel.

“ To the large mass of land visible between N. W. and\N. N. E., I
gave the name of ‘ Grinnell,’ in honor of the head and heart of the
man in whose philanthropic mind originated the idea of this expedi-
tion, and to whose munificence it owes its existence.

“ Toa remarkable peak bearing N. N. E. from us, distant about
forty miles, was given the name of ‘ Mount Franklin.’

“The eastern shore of Wellington Channel appeared to run
parallel with the western, but it became quite low, and being covered
with snow, could not be distinguished with certainty, so that its con-
tinuity with the high land to the north was not ascertained.”

The exclusion of the discoveries of Capt. Wilkes in the Antarctic
Ocean from the charts of Capt. Ross, with all the circumstances
relating to this exclusion, were remembered, but it was not supposed
that an attempt of a like character could be made to set aside the
American discoveries in the Arctic Regions; for that no vessel of,
and no party from, the English Expeditions was, in 1850, at any posi-
tion from which Grinnell Land could be seen, was a fact unques-
tionably established by their own reports of their proceedings. Yet
it has been attempted. In England, on their maps, it has been accom-
plished. There, on the authority of the Lords of the Admiralty,
De Haven’s discoveries of 1850, have been set aside. The names of
“ Grinnell” has there been erased, to make room for that of Prince
“ Albert.”

This was first done in a map published in the Illustrated London
News ; secondly, in an authorized chart appended to the report of
the Government Arctic Committee, and issued by the Hydrographic
office ; and finally in two other Government charts, prepared officially
under the inspection of the admiralty. The ground on which these
alterations have been made, is that the same localities discovered and
named by the Americans in September, 1850, were subsequently seen
and named by Capt. Penny and others in land expeditions made in
June, 1851. These alterations could not have been made through
want of information respecting the American discoveries, as the
reports and direction of De Haven’s voyage, were published before
the preparation of any of the maps refered to. Besides changing the
names affixed by the American explorers, the Admiralty have changed
or ignored the positions laid down on the charts of De-Haven,—thus
officially recording their unbelief in their correctness.

RESOURCES OF THE VALLEY: OF THE AMAZON.

A MEMORIAL has been submitted to Congress by Lt. Maury, in
behalf of a southern line of steamers, from Norfolk or Charleston,
to open the commerce of the river Amazon. ‘The basin of the Ama-
zon and the adjoining rivers, (the Orinoco being connected by a
natural canal,) is the largest and most fertile in the world. ‘The
valley of the Mississippi is estimated at about 982,000 square miles,

398 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

&

that of the Amazon and its confluents at nearly 2,000,000 square
miles. The range of littoral navigation in the southern waters is
three or four times that of the northern continent. The Amazon is
navigable for ships of largest burden far into the interior, and
Lieutenant Maury says that a 74 gun ship may anchor at the foot of
the Andes. There are 1500 miles of furos or natural canals, besides
the usual river navigation. The Mississippi, rising near 50° north
latitude, runs south, with ever-varying climate, scenery, and products,
collecting on its waters every species of merchandise till it reaches
the tropics. In the Gulf of Mexico the products of the Amazon
meet those of the great river of North America; commencing with
sugar, the list of products includes coffee, cochineal, cocoa, cotton,
wax, caoutchouc, gum, drugs, resin, and woods of great variety and
value. The importance of connecting these two rivers by trade, can-
not be estimated, and the Americans may look to this new region as
their “ Indies” of wealth and commercial enterprise.

PATENTS...

ACCORDING to the report of the Secretary of the Interior, if the number of models sent to
the Patent Office increases in proportion to past experence, they will amount to 150,000
by the close of the present century, and the whole of the Patent Office edifice will not be
sufficient for their convenient display. ‘* The number of models in the office” on the Ist
day of January, 1835, was 1,069. In the beginning of the year 1851 they had increased to
17,2457, and at the close of the year 1852 they fall a little short only of 23,000. In view of these
facts the Secretary recommends ‘that the Commissioner of Patents be required to have
prepared for publication a careful analytical and descriptive index of al! discoveries and
inventions which have been patented, accompanied by accurate descriptions and drawings
which will fully explain the principles and practical operation of the subject of the patent.
The advantages of such a publication would be almost incalcuable. It would not only
perpetuate the invention or discovery by ayoidiug the casualities by fire and other causes,
but it would multiply and diffuse among the people at large the specifications and de-
scriptions, and substantially bring home to every neighborhood to which a copy of the
work might be sent the benefits of the Patent Office. Inventors in remote parts of the
country would be placed on an equal footing with those residing near the seat of govern-
ment. When their thoughts were turned to a particular class of machinery, instead of
being compelled to make a journey to Washington to see what had already been done
in that department of the arts, they could at once turn to the analytical index and
ascertain what progress had been made by others.

“Under the present system it not unfrequently happens that the ingenious persons
having conceived what they believe to be a new idea, which, when carried into practice,
will be of great value, employ much of their time, labor and money in perfecting their
invention, and when it is finished they come to Washington filled with the hope of those
rewards which crown the labors of the successfulinventor. Their application for a patent
is presented and submitted to an experienced and skilful examiner, who promptly refers the
anxious applicant to a drawing or a model, which shows him that his ideas have been
anticipated by another, and reduced to practice many years before. None of those who
have taken pains to inquire into the subject can form any adequate idea of the amount of
time, money, and labor which is uselessly expended under such circumstances like these,
to say nothing of the anxiety of mind and heart. sickening disappointment, all of which
might be saved if such a descriptive index as I propese were readily accessible to the
public. The publication of it would also tend to stimulate the inventive genius of the
country, and lead not only to the development of new agents and processes, but to valu-
able improvements upon those which have already been brought into practical operation.
It is hardly necessary to add that such a work would be of great value in the investiga-
tion of courts of justice of lezal controversy involving the rights of patentees.

“ When the index is completed up to the close of the present year, it will be easy by an
annual publication of an appendix to the ordinary report from the Patent Office tofurnish
a complete record of the inventions and discoveries of each successive year.”

“ To be of value, such an index should be prepared by a person fully competent to the
task, and illustrated and printed, ina bound in a style worthy of the subject and of the
nation. It would, doubtless, be attended with a large expense, but it could readily be
paid out of the patent fund, without encroaching on the national treasury, and I can con-
ceive of no purpose to which that fund could be applied which would be more acceptable
to inventors, and in all respects so appropriate. as in perpetuating and diffusing the
knowledge of their labors, and presenting to the public a full description of the existing
condition of the mechanic arts and the kindred branches of science in our country.”

400 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF PATENTS, RE-ISSUES, DESIGNS,
AND ADDITIONAL IMPROVEMENTS, GRANTED AT THE PATENT
OFFICE IN WASHINGTON DURING THE YEAR 1852.

Whole number of Patents,..ccercscscccccccccces Bes ale eles cial visle eletate ele SOS
Re-issues, seoevese @eereeeeseseesesesesseeeoreeeeserseseeesese eoererece e@ecvee 21
DORE aaj cies aicicinois betas ie SeoHOon ce doLbaoadc- sialsioisis\els/olemiotuleiaa soteaelte UO
Additional Improyements,.....2.....+ alninlalala’s|siaistelcteieleleletete siete sinieisieinietes a

TOtal,-cccecccccvccnscccccoscseccccsconescesel WI

TABLE ‘SHOWING THE NUMBER OF PATENTS ISSUED TO CITIZENS
OF DIFFERENT STATES DURING THE YEAR 1852.

Maine sreeicieeas/uinie ecceses 7%) North Carolina, ....... 1) Indiana,...cccscccecces 16
New Hampshire,........ 18 | South Carolina,........ 2] Mllinois,..... BS clelaletaintais'e . 24
Vermont, ..... emiieiste ie 293 | “GEOTRIA: Miawicee ces whte eee ntd || UMASSOUris.s senile winatatste wot
Massachusetts, ....+- «148 | Alabama.........cc.ece 2| Florida,........ seals ove 0
Conneeheuty rece cs seco 52 | Mississippi, .......-eee- 4 | Wexas cee aciecns 3B 305- 1 0
Rhode Island,........-. 18 | Louisiana,........ee+ee- Z| Towa,....cssccicccecs sets
EW NOLK ee ose winclelnisls = 339 | Arkansas,.....-. escscee 2| WiSCONSIN,... 000 seats ol
New Jersey,.......+e00 21 | Tennessee,......2--++- 6 | California, ............. 2
Pennsylvania,......... al 5O Mkentucky.\.isic cs cieveiaic = - 6] District Columbia,...... 8
Delawareys 6 ics css sss a Maat OAG) etnias wielcloieielale Ss vied 81 | Foreign, .......seceeee. 20
Maryland, .. 6.00.00 ois Sih Michignn,ivciceccebesee 6 710 Dotalc. 5 icw sce: cane ees

Wirginia, cc scececedcoee 11

OBITUARY

OF PERSONS EMINENT IN SCIENCE. 1852.

Philander Anderson, an eminent American engineer, Constructor of the great dam,
Holyoke, Mass. ;

Woods Baker, Assistant United States Coast Survey, died of injuries received at the
explosion of the Reindeer, Hudson River, September, 1852.

Prince Mazximiillian Beauharnais, of Russia, somewhat distinguished as a chemist and
naturalist.

M. Fieurian de Bellevue, a French mineralogist, member of the Academy.

Jacob Bell, of New York, the builder of the celebrated steamships Atlantic, Pacific, etc.

Captain Brown, R. N., inventor of chain bridges and suspension piers.

George Buchanan, an eminent Scottish engineer.

Prof. Buchner, a distinguished chemist, Munich, Germany.

Robert Byrson, F. R. S., an eminent mechanician of Scotland.

Prof. Chipman, Professor of Mineralogy, Horton/College, Nova Scotia, drowned while
on a scientific expedition.

William Clark, a distinguished member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, England.

Isaac Cullimore, an eminent English writer on the cuneiform language of the Asyrians,
and on the Antiquities of Egypt.

Prof. Couper, an English mechanic and chemist, well known for his connection with
the Great Exhibition, and his improvement on the power-press.

John Dalrymple, an English surgeon, celebrated for his researches on the eye.

M. Dize, an eminent French chemist.

George Dolland, the eminent London optician.

Alfred Dolman, an English explorer of South Africa ; murdered by the Hotentots.

A. J. Downing, the eminent American horticulturalist ; drowned at the burning of the
Henry Clay, Hudson River.

Dr. Drake, author of the Diseases of the Valley of North America.

Dr. Eisenstein, the successor of Jacobi in the Academy of Berlin, and the most eminent
mathematician of Germany.

OBITUARY. 401

M. Gannal, the discoverer of the modern process of embalming.

William Gardner, an eminent Scottish botanist.

John B. Gluck, Assistant United States Coast Survey.

William H. Grant, Professor of Anatomy, Pennsylvania Medical College.

Mr. Grainger, an eminent British engineer, President of the Scotch Society of Arts,
killed on a railroad. .

M. Gruithuisen, an eminent astronomer attached to the University of Munich, Germany.

John Haviland, an eminent architect of Philadelphia, and originator of the celebrated
Pennsylvania system of prison discipline.

Baron Hessinger, a well known Swedish writer on mineralogy and geology, and the
early patron of Berzelius.

William Honiball, inventor of the so-called ‘* Porter’s Anchor.”’

William Howe, inventor of the celebrated railroad bridge bearing his name.

John Jex, an eminent self-taught English mechanician and inventor.

Prof. Walter R. Johnson, of Washington, D. C.

M. de Krusenstein, an eminent Russian geographer and navigator.

Baron Langdorff, of Baden, an eminent German botanist.

Edward Lassell, Professor of Chemistry, Williams College.

Dr. Gideon A. Mantell, LL. D., F. R. S., the distinguished British geologist.

Dr. Herbert Mayo, F R. S., a distinguished English physiologist.

Sir James McAdam, author of the project of McAdamizing roads.

Prof. William Mc Gillivray, a Scottish naturalist of eminence, author of the “ History
of British Birds.”

Prof. John P. Norton, Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, Yale College.

Frederick Overman, an eminent mining engineer; died from the effects of the inhala-
tion of arsenureted hydrogen.

Dr. Plaff, Professor of Natural Philosophy, University of Kiel, Germany.

Dr. Achille Richard, a French botanist.

M. Rochouzx, a French writer of celebrity ; author of a treatise on apoplexy, etc.

Prof. James Rogers, Prof. of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania.

Prof. Schouw, of Copengagen, an eminent Danish botanist.

J. F. Stephens, President of the British Entomological Society.

John L. Stephens, an eminent American traveller, author and antiquarian.

Thomas Thompson, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow, and author of
the well known work ‘‘ Thompson’s Chemistry.”’

William Thompson, an eminent Irish naturalist.

Baron Walckener, Vice President of the Royal Geological Society of France.

Frank Forster, an eminent English engineer.

Capt. Edwin Forbes, celebrated for researches in Western Africa, especially in
Dahomey.

John Frost, of Brooklyn, author of the Stame Theory.

LIST OF BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, &c.,

ON MATTERS PERTAINING TO SCIENCE, PUBLISHED IN THE
UNITED STATES DURING THE YEAR 1852.

The whole number of books published in the United States during the year 1852, was twelve
hundred and eighty-eight. Of these, three hundred and twenty-two were reprints of
English publications and translations, and nine hundred and sixty-six were original
works. —Norroy’s Literary REGISTER.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS.

Acts of Congress relating to Steamboats. Little & Brown, Boston.
Agricultural Reports to the Legislature of Massachusetts, 1852.
American Polytechnic Journal. Page, Greenough & Co., Washington.
Elwood’s Grain Tables. Cary, Philadelphia.
Guthrie, Sam’l. Memorial on the cause of Steam Boiler Explosion. Pub. Doc.
Griffths, J. W. Ship Builder’s Manual. Stephenson, N. Y.
Johnson, B. P. Report to the Legislature of New York, on the Great Exhibition of 1851.
Milburn, M.M The Cow-dairy, Husbandry and Cattle Breeding. Saxton, New York.
Minifie’s Mechanical Drawing-book. Baltimore.
Norris, S$. Handbook for Locomotive Engineers. Baird, Philadelphia.
Nystrom, J. W. On Screw-propellers and their Engines. Baird, Philadelphia.
Patent Office Report for 1851. Mechanical. Ewbank. "Pub. Doc.
s Agricultural, Be ES f
Sloan, Sam’l. Model dittek Jones & Co., Philadelphia.
Stuart, Charles B. Naval Dry Docks of the United States. Norton, New York.
Templeton’s Engineer. Millwright’s and Mechanical Companion. Appleton’s N. Y.

PHYSICS. a

Bartlett, Prof. W. H. Elements of Natural Philosophy. Barnes, New York.

Dick, Rev. Thomas. The Telescopeand the Microscope. Lane & Scott, New York

Electrotype Manipulations. Baird, Philadelphia.

Hunt, Robert. Photography. Humphrey, New York.

Jenks, Capt.R.W. The Brachial Telegraph. Sanders & Co., Koo York.

Lardner, Dr. D. Hand-book of Natural Philosophy. Lea & "Blanchard, Philadelphia.

Mahan, Prof. H. D. Elementary Course of (ivil Engineering. Wiley, New York.

Perkins, G. R. Plane Trignometry and its Applications. Appleton, New York.

Pierce, Prof. Benj. On Curves and Functions. Munroe & Co., Boston.

Sestini, Prof. A Treatise on Analytical Geometry. Washington, D. C.

Smee, Alfred. Elements of Electro-metallurgy. Wiley, New York.

Turnbull, Laurence M.D. Lecture on the Electro-magnetic Telegraph, with an Historical
account of its Rise and Progress. Philadelphia.

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society.

Wythes, Rey. Jas. Curiosities of the Microscope. Lindsay & Co., Philadelphia.

CHEMISTRY.

Biddle, J. B. Review of Materia Medica. Lindsay & Co., Philadelphia.
Byrn, M.L. Adulterations of Food and Drink. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia.
we Complete Practical Brewer. Baird, Philadelphia.

LIST OF BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, ETC. 403

Dana, Dr. Samuel L. Report on the Value and use of Rosin Oil. Lowell.

Graham, Prof. Thomas. Elements of Chemistry.

Knapp’s Technology Vol. 3. Balliere, New York.

Lieber, Oscar. The Assayer’s Guide. Baird, Philadelphia.

Morfit, Campbell, Arts of Tanning and Leather Dressing. Baird, Philadelphia.

Mortimer, 8S. W. The Pyrotechnists Guide. Baird, Philadelphia.

McMuller, Thomas. Hand-book of Mines. Cowperthwait & Co... Philadelphia.

Mullaly, John. Adulteration of Milk. Fowler & Wells, New York.

McCulloh, R. 8. Report to the Secretary of the Treasury on the Refining of Gold with
Zinc.

Overman, F. Practical Treatise on Metallurgy. Appleton, New York.

Pharmacy, New York Journal of.

Silliman, B. Jr. Elements of Chemistry. New Edition, enlarged. Loomis & Peck, New
Haven.

Solly, Ed. Rural Chemistry. Baird, Philadelphia.

Sidney, Rey. E. Philosophy of Food and Nutrition. Lane & Scott, New York.

Woehler. Analytical Chemist’s Assistant, translated by Leber. “Baird, Philadelphia.

GEOLOGY.

Adams and Gray. Elements of Geology. Harpers, New York.
Foster and Whitney. Speer peoliescal Report on the Mineral Regions of Lake Superior.
Pub. Doc.

Maps eefeenlazipal Surveys of Lake Superior Mining Districts.
Pub. Doe.

Lea, Isaac. On the Fossil Saurian of the New Red Sandstone of Pennsylvania.

Seton oF On the Fossil Footmarks of Red Sandstone of Pottsville, Pennsylvania.

Loomis, Prof. Elements of Geology. Gould & Lincoln, Boston.

Lynch, Lieut. Scientific Report of the Dead Sea Expedition. Nat. Observatory.

Owen, Dr. D. D. U.S. Geologicai Survey of Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota. Pub. Doc.

Shepard, Prof. C. U. A treatise on Mineralogy, 448 illustrations. New Hayen.

Review of Jackson’s Reporton the Albert Coal Mines. By aFellow of the London Geo-

graphical Society, New York,

ce “

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

Adams, Prof. C. B.- Catalogue of Shells collected at Panama, with notes on their synono-
my and geographical distribution.

Annals of the Lyceum Natural History of New York.

Broderip, W. J. Leaves from the Note-book of a Naturalist. Scribner, New York.

Buchannan, Robert. Culture of the Grape and Strawberry. Moore, & Co., Cineinnati.

Buckley and Burgess. Manual of Diseases of the Skin. New York.

Dickson, Dr. 8. H. Essays on Life, Sleep, Pain, &c. Lea & Blanchard, Philadelphia.

Eights, James, New Species and Genera of Crustacea.

Girard, C. Monograph of the Freshwater Cottoids of North America. Smithsonian Con-
‘tributions.

Gould, Dr. A. A. United States Exploring Expedition. Mollusca.

Harvey, Prof. W.H. History of the Marine Alge of North America. Smithsonian Con-
tributions.

Journal of the Essex Co. (Mass.) Natural History Society.

Kidder, D. P. The Curiosities of Animal Life. Lane & Seott, New York.

Lambert, Dr. Third Book on Anatomy and Physiology. Alden & Co., New York.

Lea, Isaac. Synopsis of the Family of the Naiades. Lea & Blanchard, Philadelphia.
<: “Observations on the Genus Unio, with descriptions of New Species. Phil.

Leidy, Dr. J. On the Osteology ofthe Hippopotamus. Philadelphia.

Nelligan, J. M. Practical Treatise on Disease ofthe Skin. Lea & Blanchard.

Nuttall, Thomas. Supplement to Michaux’s American Sylva. Smith, Philadelphia.

Watters, J. H. An Essay on Organic or Life Force. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia.

Warren, Dr. John ©. Mastodon Giganteus. Boston.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.

American Almanac, 1853. Little & Brown, Boston.
American Nautical Almanac for 1855. Vol. 1. Pub. Doc. C.H. Davis.
Annals of the Astronomical Observatory at Georgetown, D.C. Dunigan, New York.
Brooks, Rey. C. The Tornado of 1851 in Medford, Mass.
Guyot, A. Meteorological Tables. Smithsonian Publication.
Hind, J. R. The Solar System. Putnam, New York.
35

404 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Kiddle, H. Manual of Astronomy and Use of Globes. Newman, New York.
Maury, Lieut. Winds, Currents, and Sailing Directions. New Edition. Nat. Observatory.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Braithwaite’s Retrospect of Practical Medicine. Stringer & Townsend, New York
Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, New York.
Bonynge, Francis. The Future Wealth of America ; or, the Resources of the United States,
and its Commercial and Agricultural Advantages.
Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society.
&“ “ New Jersey « 6c
Eckfield & Dubols. American Coins and.Coinage. Putnam, New York.
Fishborough, William. The Macrocosm and the Microcosm. Fowler & Wells, New York.
French, B. F., Historical Collections of Louisiana.
Guyot, A. Mural Map of North America. Gould & Lincoln, Boston.
Girard, Charles. American Zoological, Botanical, and Geographical Bibliography for 1851.
Hall, Dr. A. G. Views of the New Theory of Disease.
Hayden, William B. Science and Revelation. Otis Clapp, Boston.
Humboldt, Baron. Cosmos, Vol. 4. Harpers New York.
Kendrick, John Ancient Egypt under the Pharoahs. Redfield, New York.
Nash. J. A. The Progressive Farmer. Saxton, New York.
Proceedings of the American Association, Albany Meeting for 1852. S. F. Baird.
2 “¢ American Academy, Boston.
Rankin, W. C. Half-yearly abstract of the Medical Sciences. Lindley & Co., Philadelphia.
Report of the Regents of the New York University, on the New York State Cabinet.
“ce cc 74 cs 74 te 65th Annual.
“of the Congressional Committee Vindicating Claims of Dr. Morton for the Discovery
of Ether.
Report of the ‘ ee 43 i &e of Dr. C. T. Jackson, for the
Discovery of Ether.
Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1851.
Ruschenberger, Dr. Origin, Progress, and Present Condition of the Academy of Natural
Science at Philadelphia.
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vols. 3, 4 ;
Smith, J. Hamilton. AnnalsofScience. Periodical, weekly. Cleveland, Ohio.
Stansbury, Capt. Howard. Expedition to the Great Salt Lake. Pub. Doc.
Timbs, John. Year Book of Facts. Hart, Philadelphia. }
Wells, David A. Annualof Scientific Discovery, 1852. Gould & Lincoln, Boston.
Worcester, J.E. An Historical Atlas. John Bartlett, Cambridge.
Williams, A.D. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Appleton, New York

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE.
Aborigines of Nicaragua, 387
Acid, special of the Lungs, 244
Acidulated Fruit Drops, 228
Acoustic Telegraphing, 181
Adulteration of Anchovies, 237
Africa, Geological Discoveries in, 272

‘¢ . Gold in, 303

“ South, Researches in, 383

AHNESORGE, M. 219
sa bi pure Methylic, preparation

of, 234
Alkalies in Plants, 247
Alkaloids, organic, detection of, 238
Almonds, artificial oil of, bitter, 227
Amyle Compounds, 225

Analysis of Opium, with reference to
the proportion of Morphia
contained in it, 23
“ of perspiration,
© ,method of getting rid of
sal-ammoniac in, 261
Analogy between the life of an indi-
vidual and the duration of a spe-

cies, 332
Anchovies, adulteration of, 237
ANDRAUD. M. 149
Animal Electricity, 118

‘¢ substances, preservation of, 246
“ and vegetable kingdom, re-
lation between the vital

functions of, 318
Animals, adaptation of color to the
wants of, 328

a geographical distribution
of, in connection with
the progress of human

civilization, - 327
Antiquarian researches in Wiscon-
sin, 39
Apatite, locality of, 296
Apple-oil, 226
ArRaao, M. 140

Arctic Expeditions, early American, 387
as “ recent, 390

Arctic fossils from Eschscholtz Bay, 308

‘* Regions, sleep of plantsin, 321
Argentiferous lead mines of Con-
necticut, 296
Art of seeing the interior of the eye
itself, 149
Arts, fine, encouragement of, 107
Artificial extract of fruits, 222
as production of fish, 344
Asthma, simple remedy for, 356
Asteroids discovered in 1852, 358

new theory of the origin

of, 360
& symbolical notation of, 560
a the, 360

Astronomical observations, advan-
tages of the climate of the South-
ern States for, 368

Atmospheric tide, Lunar, 375
Atomic weight of Platinum and Ba-
rium, 189
Atrato, steamship, 40
AtTWoopD, Mr. 231
Aurora, new theory of, 375
Australia, gold in, 301
Axles, railroad, improvement in
boxes for, 59
Bags, manufacturing of by machi-
nery, 79
Balloon ascensions for meteorologi-
cal purposes, 376
Baker, Mr. Henry, 72
Barium, atomic weight of, 189
Batchelder’s telegraphic register, 131
Batteries, improved telegraphic, 114
Battery, new galvanic, 115
Batrachians, fossil ova of, 312
Beacon on Romer Shoals, 36
Beams, Malleable iron, form of, 61
‘* ‘lattice, strains on the diago-
nals of, 61
BECKMEINSTER, PROF., 118
BEcQuEREL, M., 197

Beer, adulteration of with strych-
nine,

406

Beet-root sugar, improvements in the
manufacture of,

eS) on Treland, 94
«¢ «production of in Europe, 95
Bergamot pear oil, 225
Biela’s comet, return of, 361
Binocular microscope, 153
Birds, humming, Gould’s collection
“nest, curious locality of, 350
Brake, W. T., 296
Blood, forees influencing the circu-
lation of, 830
Boat-lowering apparatus, 43
Boats, life, improvements in, 69
‘« self-acting safety plug for, 43

Bodies, electro-chemical researches
on the properties of, elec-
trified, 197
‘¢ molecular peculiarities of
certain,
‘* motions of numerous small,
around the sun,

“¢ phosphorescence of, 194

“spheroidal state of, 201
Boiler, new tubular, 5l
Boilers, constryction of marine, 49
Bomerang a a 42
Bonnets, Dipthera, 112
Booutieny, M., 201
Bourtette, C. O. Mr., 868
Brake, Frinck’s self-acting, 58
Bread, why becomes stale, 246
Brewster, Sir Davin, 149, 171, 292
Brick machine, new, 89
Bricks, pressed, 90
Bridge, flying railway, 3

“Genesee high, 39

“© White’s wooden suspension, 388
Britain, Great, commercial statistics

of, i
British iron, production of, 204
Burr, PRor., 117
Bunsen, Pror., 64
Burnet, Dr. W.I., 379
Butyric acid, preparation of, 224
Butter, separation of from cream by

catalysis, 251
Calico, machine for printing, 94
Canada, foot-prints in the Potsdam

sandstone of, 804
“ gold districts of, 300
‘¢ platinum in, 297

Candles, treatment of fat for the
preparation of,

Car, new railroad, for grain, &c., 56
“ replacer, 59
Cars, improvement in ventilating
railroad,
“ Paine’s ventilating, 57
** sheet iron railroad, 60
Cards, new enamel for, 112
Carpets, Crossley’s patent, 80

improvements in weaving
and printing, :
Catacombs at Rome, discoveries in, 388
Cattle, fattening in stalls and sheds, 353
Cellular tissue, artificial formation of, 252
Charcoal, decolorizing power of, 6

ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Chemical change produced by solar
agency, 158
3 combinations, 188

ee testimony in cases of poi-
soning, 256

Chemistry, application of certain op-
tical phenomena to, 193

eS early Egyption 190
China, showers of sand in, 278
‘< ~ tallow tree of, 522

Chinese rice paper plant, ¥ 322
Chloric Ether, Chloroform, &c., 230
Fe ‘¢ new method of pre-

paring,
Chloroform, poisonous, 228
Chronometers, American, 102
Chromic acid as an escharotic, 245
Chrystalotype, Whipple’s, 161
Cigarette machine, 75
Cilia, muscular structure of 330

Circulation of the blood, forces in-
fluencing,

Civilization, human, connection of
the progress of, with the distribu-
tion of animals, 327

CrausseEn, M., 218
Clay, burnt, efficacy of, 247
Climate, causes of change in geologi-
cal periods, 265
“ effect on consumption, 378
“ of New England and Ger-
many compared, 377
“ of the Southern States fa-
vorable to astronomical
observations,
Coal formation of the U. S., observa
tions on,
“ its origin and composition, 815
Cochineal, insect, new, 348

Coffee, deodorizing properties of, 236
Color, adaptation of to the wants of

the animal, 828

‘© harmony of in dress, 151

“ most frequently hit in battle, 171

Combustion, spontaneous human, 255

Comet, Biela’s, 361
Comets discovered in 1852, 361
ComPAGNON, JACQUES, 386
Compasses on iron ships, location of, 133
Condensation and evaporation, 372

Condenser, Miller’s Monozymatic, 51

os Normandy’s fresh water, 94
Consumption, effects of climate on, 378
Copper mines of Lake Superior, 298

Cornish engines, 51
Cotton, Flax, 218
‘¢ "presses, new, 74, 75
Cow-catcher, substitute for, 6
Craic, Rev. Mr., 154
Craw, W.J., 243
Crosstry, Mr. THomas,
Crystal lens, found at Nineveh, 171
Crystal Palace in New York, 34
Crystallization of glass, 210
Crystalline form of the globe, 276

Cyanide of Potassium, preparation ie

of,
Daguerreotypes, colored, 165
ig engraving from, 1638

Sas se ae

GENERAL INDEX.

Daguerreotypes, without mercur 162
Dana, Dr. 8. L., sf 214
Dakine, Mr. os 60
Dawes, Kev. W. R., 142
Decolorizin property of charcoal

and other bodies, 236
Demerara, gold in, 308
Density, mean, of the earth, 183
Deodorizing properties of coffee, 236
Desor, M., 269
Deyonian "formation, remains of rep-

tiles in, 310

“e ts fossil ova of Ba-

trachians in, 312

Dew, Melloni on, 175

Diagonals of lattice beams, strain on, 61
29

Diamond, cutting, 95
Koh-i-noor, 294
ny observations on, 292
Ditching machine, 92
Dolls, museum of, 109
Dove's theory of lustre, 149
Draper, Dr., 194
Dress, harmony of color in, 151
Drift of the Northern and Western
States, 269
Drilling machines, new, (re
Earth, mean density of, 185
new, 290
‘* visible rotation of, 185
Earth’s axis, stability of, 277

Af rotation, effect on locomo-

tion, 184
Earthquakes i in 1852, 285
Egyptian Chemistry, early, 190
Eggs, preservation of, 109
EHRENBURG, PROF., 329
Electricity, animal, 118

killing ‘whales by 116

bi and magnetism, heating
effects of, 118

Electro-chemical researches on the

properties of elec-
trified bodies, 197

cc os properties of hy-
drogen, 199
‘“ magnetic motive power, 118

‘© physiological researches on
induced contraction, 356
Electrical properties of flame, 117
Emory. Masor, 383

Engines, Ericsson’s Caloric, 44
England, immense manufacturing
establishments i in,

Engraved Photographs, 162
Engravi ing from Daguer reoty pes, 163
Erie, Lake, south shore, fauna and
flora of 373
Ericsson, Capt., 44

Eruption, Volcanic, at the Sandwich
Islands, 288

< ra of Mt. Etna, 287
Ether, peculiar property of, 260
Eye, art of seeing the interior of, 149
Eye-piece, new, for observing the

sun, 142
Farrsalrn, Mr., 51, 65
Farapay, Pror., 126, 132
Fat, preparation of, for candles, 216

35*

FEHLING, PROF.,
Fire arms. improvements in, 66

Fish, artificial production of, 344
Flax Cotton, 218
Flame, electrical properties of, 117

Flora and fauna of the South shore
of Lake Erie, 37

2 ‘* of the tertiary for-

mation, 313

Fluids, motion of in a closed gal-
vanic circuit, 125
Fluor spar locality, 297

Force, magnetic, physical lines of,
Foot-prints in the Potsdam sand-
stone of Canada, 304

Forses, PRor. Epwarp, 332
Fossils, Arctic, 308
Fossil remains of the Mastodon, 310

Foucautt, M., 185

Fruit, artificial extract of, 222
‘* drops, acidulated, 228
“preservation of, 108

Fusel oi], poisonous effects of, 228

Future of Geology, 265

Gaz, Dr. L. D 284

Galvanic pate motion of fluids in, 125

“ battery, new, 115
Gas, evolution of in "the Wallsend
collieries, 280

‘“ jmprovements in the manufac-
ture of. 217
“ jmprovements in purifying, 112
‘meter, protector, 102

Gaudin on engraving from Daguer-

reoty pes,

Gear, new compact, 7

Genesee High Bridge, 39

Geology, future of," 263

and paleontology of a part
of the Rocky Mountain

region, 281
Geological discoveries in Africa, 272
- hypotheses, products of
smelting furnaces sproots
of, 2
ci periods, causes of change
of climate in, 2

Geographical distribution of marine
life
Germany, comparison of the climate

of with that of New England, 3i7
Gipss, Dr. W., 2138
Girders, maleable i iron, form of, 61
GLADSTONE, Mr., 61, 319
Glass, composition for silvering, 234
‘« erystallization of, 210

“ decomposed, found at Nine-
veh, 171
ck photographs on,
“ ornamental window sashes of,
Globe, crystalline form of, 276

Glue, liquid, 221
Gold, and its relation to silver, 304
and its production, 801

** consumption of, 303

‘¢ in Africa, 303
“in Australia, 302
‘in Austria, 808
‘in Demerara, 203

408 ANNUAL OF
Gold in Vermont, 503
Governor, impr ov ed, for steam-en-
gines, 53
Graphite, large pi of, 298
Green, H. H., Mr. 76
Grove, Mr., 118
Guage, new wind, 182
«”? Williams’ alarm water, 54
Gutta-percha, manufacture of, 92
Haariem Lake, drainage of, Bl
HALtt, Pror. JAs., 281
Hayes, Dr. A. A., 230

Heat, influence of nervous action on, 339
‘© of the sun, 173

‘¢ yecent investigations on, 172
Heliochrome, Niepce’s memoir on, 167
Srroglyphics, discovery in relation gt

‘
Tas, Mr., 167
Hillotype, The, 167
Himalaya and Thibet, 27
HircHcock, PREs., 251
Hosss, Mr., 68
Hoffman’s letter to Liebig, 227
Hopkins, WILLIAM, 265
Hoosac Mountain, tunnel, 7
Human combustion, spontaneous, 255

Humates, absorption by the roots of
piants, 2

ne birds, Gould’s collection
ol,

Hungary, great tunnel in, 37
Hunt, Roperr, 158
Hont, T. S., 306
Hourcuinson, Mr. C.B., 39
Hydrobarometer, 183

Hydrogen, electro-chemical proper-
ties of,

llluminating apparatus for light-
houses, 103

Images, forms produced by lenses of

different sizes, 144
India-rubber, vulcanization of, 232
Insect, new cochineal, 348
Instrument for obtaining correct

representations from nature, 08
Iodine, distribution of, 211
Todo-quinine, sulphate of, 195
Iron, bars, machine for crimpling, 73

British, production of, 204
“ from Franklinite, 63

“ malleable beams and girders, 61
‘* meteoric, passive state of,

“ yailroad cars, 60
“ smelting, improvements in, 64
“ strength of, 63
JACKSON, Dr. C. T., 228
JouLE, Mr., 172
Keacu, Mr., 77
Kirkanp, Dr., 873
Koh-i-noor diamond, 292
Lake, Haarlem, drainage of, 31
Superior, copper “nines of, 298
Lamps, disinfecting, 104
‘¢ safety fluid, 108
Language, Univereal musical, 181
Lath cutting machine, 88
Lead, argentiferous mines of Con-
necticut, 296

SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Lenses and mirrors, forms of, images
produced by different sizes,
Lens, rock crystal, found at Nineveh, 171
Life-boats, improvements in, 69
Life, microscopic,
‘¢ “marine, ceozraphical distribu-
tion of,
Light, chemical action of,
“i "polarized, detection of soda

191

by means of, 196
‘Stokes’ researches on, 148
“ Zodiacal, observations on, 369
Light-house, establishment of the
United States, 104
3g “new illuminating ap-
paratus for, 104
Liquid glue, 221
Livingston, Mr., researches in South
Africa, 383
Locomotion, effects of the earth’s ro-
tation on, 184
Locomotiv e, mammoth, 55
mirrors, 59
Foner improvements in, 55
Lock controversy, 68
Looms, improvements in power, 78
Longitude, determination of at sea
by the altitude of the moon, 370

Lubin’s Extracts, 228

Lungs, special acid of, 244
Lustre, Dove’s theory "of, 149
Magnesium, preparation. of, 202
Magnetism, heating effects of, 118
ef terrestrial, 121
Magnetic force, physical lines of, 132
vs needle, relation between
and the spots on the sun, 134
ce science, 126
i telegraph, extension and
e of, 126
Meitiaceae establishments in
Great Britain, lll

Man, effect of swallowing virulent
substances, upon, 342

Manganese, separation of, 213

Marine boilers, points in the con-
struction of,

Mastodon giganteus, fossil remains of, 310

Mechanical energy of the universe,

reconcentration of, 8
Melloni on dew, 175
ME sens, M., 252
Mercury, daguer reotypes without, 162

ee new test for, 209
Meridian, Russian measurement of

the arc of, 868
Meteoric iron, passive state of, 203
Meteorites, new, 299
Meteorological information, 372

purposes, balloon as-
cension for, 3876

Meter, new protective gas, 102
Methylic alcohol, preparation of, 234
Miasmata, action of ozone on, 258
Microscope, binocular, 153
Microscopic life, 3829
Military tactics, new, 69
Minie rifle, 64
Mind, state of during sleep, 335

GENERAL INDEX.

Mineral and earth, new,
Mineralogical notices,
Mines, argentiferous lead, of Con-

necticut, 296
Minnesota salt region, 283
Mirrors, locomotive, 59

Moas, New Zealand,
Molecular peculiarities of certain

bodies, 188
Monoclave, or unitouch, 181
Monozymatic condenser, bl
Moon, determining longitude by the

altitude of, at sea, 370
Morphia, in opium, 238

Motion, converting rotary into re-
ciprocating rectilinear, 12

Muscular movements, influence of
suggestion in modifying, independ-
ently of volition,

Muscle, spiral structure of,

Musical instruments, human voices

imitating,

“ language, universal, 181
Naval, dry dock at Philadelphia, 30
Navigation, application of the laws

of storms to,
Nebulez, discoveries of Lord Rosse, 362
Nervous action, influence of upon
heat,
New England and Germany, climate
of, compared, v7

330

New York, Crystal Palace in, st
Nicaragua, Aborigines of, 387
Nieprce, M., 159, 165, 167,
Nile, sources of, 382
Nineveh, ancient relics of, 885
ae in the Pacific, 384
“rock crystal, lens from, 171
‘ _ seulptures from, 3890

Nitrogen, rain a source of in vegeta-

tion, 250
Novelties, miscellaneous, 112
Observatory, Greenwich, 370
Obituary for 1852, 401
Oil, apple, 226

“ bergamot-pear, 225
“ of bitter almonds, artificial, 227
‘¢ pine-apple, 223
** rosin, 2138
«© s improvements in the manu-
facture of,
Oils, peculiar property of some es-

sential, 260

Opium, analysis of, 238

Optical phenomena, application of
certain, to chemistry,
‘“« properties of a salt of qui-

193

nine, 146
Ordnance, improvements in, 68
Organic alkaloids, detection of, 238
Origin of species, 330
Ova of Batrachians, fossil, 312
Owen, Dr. D. D., 290
OWEN, PRor., 308
Ozone, action on miasmata, 258

“ ~ connection with the weather, 259
Pacific, R. R. route, 323
‘© Nineveh in, 384
Paine’s ventilating car, 57

409

Paper church, 87
‘* from wood,
‘“* improvements in manufactur-
ing,

“photographic, improvements

in preparing, 160

“ plant, rice, 322
‘value of in architecture, 87
Papier Mache, 88
Patents in 1852. 400
Payen, M., on india rubber, 233
Perfumery, artificial, 222
Perspiration, analysis of, 261

Phosphoric acid, determination of

by molybdate of ammonia, 243
Phosphorescence of bodies, 194
Photographs, colored, fixation of, 165

£¢ engraved, 162
“ on glass, 159
Photography, improvements in, 159

Photographic paper, improvements
in preparing, 1

Piano, Culindron, 108
Pigment, Zinc oxide as a, 206
Pile, voltaic, improvements of the, 113
Pim; Lievrt. 391
Pine apple oil, 223

Pine leaves, new use of, 99
Planets, discovered in 1852, 358
Plants, alkalies in,
“ “absorption of the soluble hu-
mates by,
‘* influence of solar radiation

on,

“morphological analogy be-
tween the branches of exo-
genous plants and the ve-
nation of their leayes,

“ sleep of plants in the Artic

regions, 821
Plant, Chinese rice paper, 322
‘“ snake, of South America, 324
Plastering machine, 91
Platinum, atomic weight of, 189
a in Canada, 297
Plough, improved form of, 91
Plug, self-acting safety, for boats, 45
Poisons, elimenation of, _ 267
Poisoning, chemical testimony in
cases of, 256
Poot, Mr. Brairuwair, 67
Potassium, cyanide preparation of, 220
Press, new printing, 77
Presses, new, for baling cotton, 74,75

Prices, reduction of between 1810,
and 1851, lil
Products of smelting furnaces, proof
of geological hypotheses,

Projectiles, improvements in, 68
Propeller, Bomerang, 42

a steamboat, 42
Pseudoscope, The, 152
Quartz, crushing machine, 88

Quinine-iodo, sulphate of,
Quinine, optical properties of a new

salt of, 146
QUATREFAGES, M., 347
Rag, Dr. Joun, 390
Railroad car for grain, &c., 56

410 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Railroad, Pacific, route for, 383
Railway and dry dock at Philadel-

phia, 35

‘¢ improvements, 58

Railways, improved sleepers for, 56
Rain, a source of nitrogen in vegeta-

tion, 250

“ observations on the fall of, 378
RankIneE, Mr., 17

Refraction of sound,
Regulator, hydraulic, for steam en-

gines,
Remedy for the asthma, 386
Remsen AND Hurron, MeEssrs., 55

Reptiles of the Devonian formation, 310
Repudiation of American discover-
ies by English geographers,

Researches, Asiatic, 895
Researches in New Zealand, 282
Resources of the valley of the Ama-
zon, 897
Reyno.ps, Mr., 78
Ripv.e, Pror. J. L., 153
Rifle barrel, improved, 66
“« Minie, 64

Rivers, mean temperature of, above
that of the atmosphere, cause of

the excess, 17
Rocers, Pror. H. D., 3l4
Romer Shoals, beacon on, 36

oe discoveries in the Catacombs

oO ?

Rosse, Lord, nebulz. discoveries of, 862

Rosin oil, improvements in the manu-

tacture of, 98

of “ value of, 218

Russian measurement of the are of
the meridjan,

Russe, J. Scorr, 49
SaBine, Cou. 121
Safety valve, improved, 54
Sal-ammoniac, method of getting
of in analysis, 261
Salt Lake of Utah, 284
* Region of Minnesota, 283
Sand, showers of in China, 278
Saw, circular, run without an arbor, 90
ScHoONnBEIN, M.., 258
Seccut, M., 173
Sewing machines. 81
Re - Dr. Avery’s, $l
ot ee Hlowe’s, 8l
* ts Magnin’s 81
e 2 Titeman’s, 82
Seymour, Mr. H. C.. 40
Shawls, improvements in weaving
and printing, 83
SHEPARD, Pror. C. U., 299
Sheep, Geology of, 308
Ship building, novelties in, 40
Ships, !ocation of compasses in iron, 133
Shooting stars of August, 1852, 361
Shot. new method of making, 17
Silver, preparation of pure trom the
chloride, 210
‘* . separation of from other met-
als, 205
Silvering glass, composition for, 234

Slates,improved, . 112

Sleep, state of the mind during, 335
Sleepers, improved cast iron for rail-

ways, 56
SLocum AND SALEs, MeEssrs., 73
Smita, Dr. J. LAWRENCE, 261
Snake plant of South America, 824

Soda, detection of by polarized light, 196
Solar agency in producing chemical

change,
“radiations, influence of on
plants, 319
‘¢ spots, remarks on, 142
Sound, refraction of, 179

Species, analogy between the dura-
tion of, and the life of an

individual, 882

“ origin of, 3830
Spheroidal state of bodies, 201
Spining, improvements in, 79
Spontaneous combustion, human, 265
Spoons, patent, 92
Stability of the earth’s axis, 277

Statistics of Great Britain, commer-
cial

Stamps and seals, means of taking
impressions of,

Stass, Prof., on the detection of the

organic alkaloids, 238
Steamboat propellers, 42
Steam, diaphragm generator, 50

“effects of on timber, 107
Steami-engines, hydraulic regulator
for,
¥ Re improved governor for, 53
Steamer ‘ Light of Heaven,” 4t
* for the Pasha of Egypt, 41
Steel, Indian, production of, 204
STOKES, PROF., 146
i “researches on light, 148
Stones, machine for picking up, 91
Strychnine, adulteration of beer with, 237
Styptic, new, 246

Sugar, beet-root, production of in
Europe, 95

et . ‘¢ of in Ire-
land, 94

‘© jmprovements in the manu-
facture of, 95

Suggestion, influence of in modify-
ing muscular movements inde-
pendent of volition, 336

Sulphurets decomposable by water, 211

Sulphuric acid, formation of from

sulphurous acid and oxygen, 235
Sun, Arago on the physical constitu-
tion of, 135
heat of, 173
“ motion of numerous small
bodies around, 364
‘* new eye-piece for, 142
“ relation between its spots and
the magnetic needle, 134
“ true place of in the universe, 140
Swallow tree, the, 351
Tactics, new military, 69
Tatsot, M. Fox., 157
Tallow tree of China, 322

Telegraph, extension and use of the
magnetic, 126

ae ee ee a eee

GENERAL INDEX.

Telegraphic batteries, improved, 114
=: register, Batchelder’s, 151
Telegraphing, acoustic, 181
Telescope, gigantic, 154
Temperature, new method of meas-
uring high, 7
Terrestrial magnetism, 121
Tertiary formation, flora of, 313
TESCHEMACHER, Mr. J. E., 815

Testimony, chemical in cases of poi-
soning, 256
Thalium, new earth,

Thorina identical with Donarium, 291
Tuurston & Green, MEssps., 53
Tibet and Western Himalaya, 274
Tide, lunar, atmospheric, 375
Timber, effect of steam on, 107
Tin plates, 67
Tissue, artificial formation of cellu-
lar, 252
Titanium in mineral waters, 208
TovuRMALINE, Brown, 297
Traveller, the lost, 386
TRAVELLER’S CAMERA, 157
Tree, the swallow, 851
TremPer, JOHN, 53
Tubular boiler, new, 51
Tunnel, great, in Hungary, 377
Type casting machine, new, 76
Tynpatt, Dr., 188
Universe, true piace of the sunin, 140

reconcentration of the me-
chanical energy of,
United States, observations on the

coal formation of, 314
Utah, Salt Lake of, 284
* Valley of the Amazon, resources of, 397
Valve, improved safety, 54
Variola and vaccination, 854

VauGHAN, DANIEL,
Vegetable and animal kingdom, re-
lation between the vital functions =e

of.

Ventilating railroad cars, improve-
ments in,

Vermont,’gold in, 308

on
=

411

Virulent matters, effects of swallow-
ing,onmanand animals,
Voices, human, imitating musical in-

struments, , a
Volcanic eruption at the Sandwich

Islands, 288

as eruption of Mt. Etna, 287

Voltaic Pile, improvements of the, 118

Vulcanization of India Rubber, 332
ac “ce oe in the

cold way, tL

Wall, modern Cyclopean, 37

Wallsend Colliery, evolution of gas 0

in,

WARREN, Mr. F. E.,

Water, fresh,condenser, Normandy’s, 94
‘¢ sulphurets, decomposable by, 211

Waters, mineral, zirconium in, 203

Wax, insect, of China, 322

Weaving shawls and carpets, 83
Whales, killing, by electricity, 116
Whipple’s Chrystalotype, 161
White’s wooden suspension bridge, 38
WHITTLESEY, Mr. C., 270
Why bread becomes stale, 246
Williams’ alarm water guage, 54
Wuson, Mr. Joun, 174
Wind guage, new, 182
Window sashes, glass ornamental, 112

Wisconsin, antiquarian researches in, 390

W oHLer, M., 203, 235

Wood, effects of steam upon, 107
“ to prevent from warping, 106

Wool growing in the United States, 349
* af curious experiments

in

Wootz, or Indian steel, production
01,

Zanesville, Ohio, mastodon fossil at,

Zealand, New, researches in, 2
Zimb, of South Africa,

Zinc oxide as a pigment, 206
74 “ce Yr ; 297
Zirconium in mineral waters, 203
Zodiacal light, 865
-- * observations on, 399

THE END.

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FOOT-PRINTS OF THE CREATOR;

THE ASTEROLEPIS OF STROMNESS.

BY HUGH MILLER.
WITH MANY ILLUSTRATIONS.
FROM THE THIRD LONDON EDITION.—WITH A MEMOIR OF THE AOTHOB

BY LOUIS AGASSIZ.

**Tn its purely geological character, the ‘ Foot-prints’ is not surpassed by any moderns
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‘Vestiges of Creation,’ and has subjected it, in its geological aspect, to the most rigorous
examination. He hag stripped even of its semblance of truth, and restored to the Creator,
gs governor cf the universe, that power and those functions which he was supposed to kare
resigned atits birth. * * * The earth has still to surrender mighty secrets, —and great rev-
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ashamed of the comparative meagreness and poverty of his own descriptions in the ** Bridge-
water Treatise,’’ which had cost him hours and days of labor. He would give his left hana
to possess such powers of descriptien as this man; and if it pleased Providence to spare hig
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equal service to theology and geology.

“The style of this work is most singularly clear and vivid, rising at times to eloquence,
and always impressing the reader with the idea that he is brought in contact with great
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‘The w) ole work forms one of the best defences of Truth that science can produce.’’—Albany
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‘**The ‘ Foot-Prints of the Creator’ is not only a good but a great book. All who have
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pom be placed in every Sabbath School Library, and at every Christian fireside.’’—Boston

raveller.

‘““Mr. Miller's style is remarkably pleasing; his mode of popularising geological knowl-
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eheld in the interpreter of nature. We are persuaded that no intelligent reader will go
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they contain.’’—Providence Journal.

“Hugh Miller is a Scotch geologist, who, within a few years, has not only added largely
to the facts of science, but has stepped at once among the leading scientific writers of the
age, by his wonderfully clear, accurate, and elegant geological works. Mr. Miller, taking
the newly-discovered Asterolepis for his text, has produced an answer to the ‘ Vestiges of
Creation,’ a work which has been more widely circulated, perhaps, than any other profes-
sedly scientific book ever printed. Mr. Miller (and there is no doubt of this) completely
upse:s his opponent — exposing his incompctency, ignorance, and sophistry, with a clear-
ness, ease, and elegance that are both astonishing and delightful. Throughout the entire
gevlogic portion, the reasoning is markedly close, shrewd, and intelligible —the facts ars
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GOULD AND LINCOLN, PUBLISHERS, BOSTON.

THE OLD RED SANDSTONE;

— orn —-

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A @riter, in noticing Mr. Miller’s ‘‘ First Impressions of England and the People,”’ iz
the New Hnglander, of May, 1850, commences by saying, ‘‘ We presume it is not neces
gery formally to introduce Hugh Miller to our readers; the author of ‘The Old Red Sand-
stone’ placed himseif, by that production, which was first, among the most successfii
geologists, and the best writers of the age. We well remember with what mingled emotion
and delight we first read that work. Rarely has a more remarkable book come from the
press... . For, besides the important contributions which it makes to the science of Geol-
ogy, it is written in a style which places the author at once among the most accomplished
writers of the age. . . . He proves himself to be in prose what Burns has been in poetry.
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been by the geological descriptions of Mr. Miller. That wonderful man described these
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arty of his own descriptions, in the Bridgewater Treatise, which had cost him hours and
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wonderful amount of information.’’— Westminster Review.

“Ty. Mr. Miller's charming little work will be found a very graphic description of the O14
Redfishes. I know not of a more fascinating volume on any branch of British geology,""—=
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himself an excellent education, and to elevate himself to a position which any man, in any
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style so beautiful and poetical as to throw plain geologists, like himself, in the shade.

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THE EARTH AND MAN:

Lectures on Comparative Physical Geography, in its Relation to the History
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By Arnoxp Guyot, Prof. Phys. Geo. & Hist. Neuchatel.
Translated from the French, by Pror. C.C. Feiton. — With Illustrations.
Revised Edition. 12mo. Price $1.25.

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history, and now it sounds like prophecy. It will find readers in whatever language
it may be published ; and in the elegant English dress which it has received from the
accomplished pen of the translator, it will not fail to interest, instruct and inspire.

We congratulate the lovers of history and of physical geography, as well as all
those who are interested in the growth and expansion of ourcommon education, that
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Geography, in which these two great branches of study which God has so closely
joined together, will not, we trust, be put asunder.’’— Christian Exeminer.

** A copy of this volume reached us at too late an hour for an extended notice. The
work is one of high merit, exhibiting a wide range of knowledge, great research, and
a philosophical spirit of investigation. Its perusal will well repay the most learned
in such subjects, and give new views to all, of man’s relation to the globe he inhabits.” ~
Silliman’s Journal, July, 1849.

‘© These lectures form one of the most valuable contributions to geographical science
that has ever been published in this country. They invest the study of geography
with an interest which will, we doubt not, surprise and delight many. ‘They will
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teacher and student of geography.”’—Evening Traveller.

‘© We venture to pronounce this one of the most interesting and instructive” books
which have come from the American press for many a month. The science of which
it treats is comparatively‘of recent origin, but it is of great importance, not only on
account of its connections with other branches of knowledge, but for its bearing upon
many of the interests of society. In these lectures it is relieved of statistical details,
and presented only in its grandest features. It thus not only places before us most
instructive facts relating to the condition of the earth, but also awakens within us a
stronger sympathy with the beings that inhabit it, and a profounder reverence for the
beneficent Creator who formed it, and of whose character it is a manifestation and
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** Geography is here presented under a new and attractive phase ; it is no longer s
dry description of the features of the earth’s surface. The influence of soil scenery
and climate upon character, has not yet received the consideration due to it from his-
torians and philosophers. In the volume before us the profound investigations of Hum-
boldt, Ritter and others, in Physical Geography, are presented in a popular form, and
with the clearness and vivacity so characteristic of French treatises on science The
work should be introduced into our higher schools.””— The Independent, New York.

** Geography is here made to assume a dignity, not heretofore attached to 1t. The
knowledge communicated in these Lectures is c irious, unexpected, absorbing.”’?~—
Christian Mirror, Portland.

COMPARATIVE
PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY,

OR THE STUDY OF

THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS.

A SERIES OF GRADUATED COURSES FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS.

BY AEN OLD Gurwen

Late Professor of Physical Geography and History, at Neuchatei, Switzerland,
Auther of “ Larth and Man,” ete.

G., K. § L. are happy to announce that the above work, which has been undertaken
in compliance with the earnest solicitations of numerous teachers and friends of educaticn,
isin a forward state of preparation. The plan of the author, and the principal charac-
teristics of this series may be gathered from the following exposition of the subject :

A knowledge of the globe we inhabit, whether considered in itself alone, or in ita
relations to man, the distribution of the races of men, and the civil divisions of its sur-
face, are subjects of interest too varied, too direct, and too vital, not to command the
attention, and excite the sympathy of the mind atevery period of life.

If Geography has been considered a dry and often fruitless study,—if indeed, te
teach it with success has been considered as one of the most difficult problems in edw-
cation, there is reason to believe that the difficulty lies not in the subject but in ths
method of teaching it.

In most manuals the accumulation of facts, and especially the want of an arrange-
ment of them, really corresponding to their connection in nature, renders the study
difficult, and overburdens the memory at the expense of a true and thorough under-
standing of the subject. Ilence there is confusion and a want of clear and comprehen-
sive views, and consequently a lack of interest for the student. For, if the mind seeks
to comprehend, it is only interested in what appears clear and well connected. ‘To attain
to this end it is necessary—

First. To attempt a rigid selection of materials, and to reject from school instruc-
tion all details which have but a transient value, and, on the other hand, to render
facts of permanent value prominent; preferring, for instance, the details of Physical
Geography and of Ethnography, to those of Statistics, which may find a larger place
slsewhere,

Seconp. To distribute geographical instruction throughout the whole course of edu-
cation, so as to divide the labor of learning, and to give at the same time to each period
of life the nutriment most appropriate for its intellectual taste and capacity. To this
end, the globe should be studied from the different points of view successively ; gradu-
ating each view to the capacity of different classes of students. At first, the funda-
mental outlines, alone, should be presented, and next, not only additional facts, but a
deeper understanding of the connection, and so on; and thus, by a regular and natural
path, a full and intelligent knowledge of the globe in all its relations, will be finally
attained.

Tuirp. The comparative method, recently adopted with so much success in Europe,
should always be employed; for it is by the recognition of resemblances and differences
that the mind seizes upon the true characters, and perceives the natural relations, and
the admirable connection, of the different parts which form the grand whole; ina
word, gains real knowledge.

The series hereby announced is designed to meet these wants. It will consist of three
courses adapted to the capacity of three different ages and periods of study. ‘The first
is intended for primary schools, and for children of from seven to ten years. ‘he
second is adapted for higher schools, and for young persons of from ten to fifteen years.
The third is to be used as a scientific manual in Academies and Colleges.

Each course will be divided into two parts, one of purely Phy sical Geography, tha
ether for Ethnography, Statistics, Political and Historical Geography. Each part will
be illustrated by a colored Physical and Political Atlas, prepared expressly for this
purpose, delineating, with the greatest care, the configuration of the surface, and
the other physical phenomena alluded to in the corresponding work, the distributica
of the races of men, and the political divisions into States. Hach part with the corres-
ponding maps will be sold separately.

The two parts of the first, or preparatory course, are now ina forward state of pre.
paration, and will be issued at an early day.

Also, in prenaration, by the same Author,

A SERIES OF ELEGANTLY COLORED MURAL MAPS,

EXHIBITING
THE PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF THE GLOBE,
PROJECTED ON A LARGE SCALE, FOR THE RECITATION ROCK.

CLASSICAL STUDIES

ESSAYS ON
ANCIENT LITERATURE AND ART.

With the Biography and Correspondence of Eminent Philologists.

By Barnas Sears, President of Newton Theol. Institution, B. B
EDWARDS, Prof. Andover Theol. Seminary, and C. C. FEtron,
Prof. Harvard University. 12mo. Price $1.25.

SECOND THOUSAND.

*‘ The collection is a most attractive one, and would be acceptable in any circum:
stances. The discourses, particularly those of Jacobs, are written in words that burn,
A general could not exhort his troops with more energy and spirit, than are used
by the German Professor in stimulating the youth before him to labor in the acqui-
sition of classical learning. ‘The biographical portions of the book, naturally fess
exciting, no less tend to the same end.’’—London Lit. Examiner, by John Forster, Esq

*¢ This elegant book is worthy of a more extended notice than our limits at present
will permit us to give it. Great labor and care have been bestowed upon its typo-
graphical execution, which does honor to the American press. It is one of the rare
beauties of the page, that not a word is divided at the end of a line. The mechanical
part of the work, however, is its least praise. It is unique in its character—standing
alone among the innumerable books of this book-making age. ‘The authors weii
deserve the thanks of the cultivated and disciplined portion of the community, for the
service which, by this publication, they have done to the cause of letters. The book
is of a high order, and worthy of the attentive perusal of every scholar. It isa nobla
monument to the taste, and judgment, and sound learning of the projectors, and will
yield, we doubt not, a rich harvest of fame to themselves, and of benefit to our
literature.”— Christian Review.

“Jt is refreshing, truly, to sit down with such a book as this. When the press ig
teeming with the hasty works of authors and publishers, it is a treat to take up a book
that is an honor, at ance, to the arts and the literature of our country.”—Wew York
Observer.

‘¢ This is truly an elegant volume, both in respect to its literary and its mechanical
execution. Its typographical appearance is an honor to the American press ; and with
equal truth it may be said, that the intrinsic character of the work is highly credit-
able to the age. It is a novel work, and may be called a plea for classical learning.
To scholars it must be a treat; and to students we heartily commend it.??—Bostor
Recorder.

‘¢ This volume is no common-place production. It is truly refreshing, wnen we are
ovliged, from week to week, to look through the mass of books which increases upon
eur table, many of which are extremely attenuated in thought and jejune in style, to
find something which carries us back to the pure and invigorating influence of the
master minds of antiquity. The gentlemen who have produced this volume deserve
the cordial thanks of the literary world.’”’—New England Puritan.

‘© We heartily welcome this book as admirably adapted to effect a most noble and
much desired result. We commend the work to general attention, for we feel sure it
must do much to awaken a zeal for classical studies, as the surest means of attaining
the refinement and graceful dignity which should mark the strength of every nation.”—
New York Tribune.

‘© We make no classical pretensions, or we might say more about the principal
articles in this volume ; but it needs no such pretensions to commend, as we heartily
do, a book so full of interest and instruction as the present, for every reader who is at
al] imbued with a love of literature.”,-—Salem Gazette.

“ This book will do good in our colleges. Every student will want a copy, and
many will be stimulated by its perusal to a more vigorous and enthusiastic pursuit of
that higher and more solid learning which alone deserves to be called ‘ classical.°
The recent tendencies have been to the neglect of this, and we rejoice in this timely
effort of minds so well qualified for such a work.??—Christian Reflector.

“The volume is, in every way, a beautiful affair of its kind, and we hazard nothing
is recommending it to the literary world? —Christian Secretary, Hartford.

** The-desi#ii is a noble and generous one, and has been executed with a taste and
¢4od sense, that do honor both to the writers and the publishers.””—Prov. Journas

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
BY JOHN HARRIS, D.D.

I. THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

NOTICES OF THE PRESS.

*“ As we have examined every page of this work, and put forth our best efforts to un-
derstand the full import of its varied and rich details, the resistless impression has come
over our spirits, that the respected author has been assisted from on high in his labo-
rious, but successful undertaking. May it please God yet to aid and uphold him, to
complete his whole design ; for we can now see, if we mistake not, that there is great
unity as well as originality and beauty in the object which he is aiming to aecomplish.
If we do not greatly mistake, this long looked for volume, will create and sustain a
deep impression in the more intellectual circles of the religious world.”,— London Evan-
gelica! Magazine.

“The man who finds his element among great thoughts, and is not afraid to push
{nto the remoter regions of abstract truth, be he philosopher or theologian, or both,
will read it over and over, and will find his intellect quickened, as if from being in con-
tact with a new and glorious creation.’’—Albany Argus.

“Dr. Harris states in a lucid, succinct, ané often highly eloquent manner, all the
leading facts of geology, and their beautiful harmony with the teachings of Serip-
ture. As a work of paleontology in its relation to Seripture, it will be one of the most
complete and popular extant, It evinces great research, clear and rigid reasoning, and
a style more condensed and beautiful than is usually found in a work so profound.
It will be an invaluable contribution to Biblical Science.”’— New York Evangelist.

“He is a sound logician and lucid reasoner, getting nearer to the groundwork of a
subject generally supposed to have very uncertain data, than any other writer within
our knowledge.”— New York Com. Advertiser.

“The elements of things, the laws of organic nature, and those especially that lie at
tke foundation of the divine relations to man, are here dwelt upon in a masterly man-
uer.”’— Christian Reflector, Boston.

sagen le ail 98 Bl Shh (GR
OR THE CONSTITUTION AND PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF THE HUMAN BEING.
WITH A FINE PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR.

NOTICES OF THE PRESS.

“Jt surpasses in interest its predecessor. It is an able attempt to carry out the
author’s grand conception. His purpose is to unfold, as far as posstble, the saecessivs
steps by which God is accomplishing his purpose to manifest His All-sufficieney. * * *
The reader is led along a pathway, abounding with rich and valuable thought, going
on from the author's opening propositions to their complete demonstration. To stu-
dents of mental and moral science, it will be a valuable contribution, and will assuredly
secure their attention.””— Christian Chronicle, Philadelphia.

“It is eminently philosophical, and at the same time glowing and eloquent. It can-
not fail to have a wide circle of readers, or to repay richly the hours which are given
to its pages.”,— New York Recorder.

“The reputation of the author of this yolume is co-extensive with the English lan-
guage. The work before us manifests much learning and metaphysical acumen. Its
great recommendation is, its power to cause the reader to think and reflect.”,— Boston
Recorder.

“Reverently recognizing the Bible as the fountain and exponent of truth, he is as in-
dependent and fearless as he is original and forcible; and he adds to these qualities
consummate skill in argument and elegance of diction.”— WV. Y. Com Advertiser.

“His copious and beautiful illustrations of the successive laws of the Divine Mani-
festation, have yielded us inexpressible delight.”"-— London Eclectic Review.

“The distribution and arrangement of thought in this volume, are such as to afford
ample scope for the author’s remarkable powers of analysis and illustration. 11 look-
ing with a keen and searching eye at the principles which regulate the conduct of Gog
towards man, as the intelligent inhabitant of this lower world, Dr. Harris has laid down
for himself three distinct, but connected views of the Divine procedure: First, The End
aimed at by God; Second, the Reasons for the employment of it. In a very masterly
way does our author grapple with almost every difficulty, and perplexing subject which
eomes within the range of his proposed inquiry into the constitution and condition
a Man Primeval.”?—London Evangelical History.

ill, THE PASILY:
ITS CONS™ITUTION, PROBATION AND HISTORY
{IN PREPARATION.}

-

CHAMBERS’S

CYCLOPADIA OF ENGLISH LITERATURE,

4 8ZLECTION OF THE CHOICEST PRODUCTIONS OF ENGLISH AUTHORS, FROM THE
EARLIEST TO THE PRESENT TIME: CONNECTED BY A CRITICAL
AND BIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY.

EDITED BY ROBERT CHAMBERS.

ASSISTED BY ROBERT CARRUTHERS AND OTHER EMINENT GENTLEMEN,
Complete in two imperial octavo volumes, of more than fourteen
hundred pages of double column letterpress, and upwards of
three hundred elegant illustrations.

This valuable work has now become so generally known and appreciated, that there need
pearcely be any thing said in commendation, except to those who have not yet seen it.

The work embraces about One Thousand Authors, chronologically arranged and classed
«8 Poets, Historians, Dramatists, Philosophers, Metaphysicians, Divines, etc., with chowes
eesections from their writings, connected by a Biographical, Historical, and Critical Narra-
tive ; thus presenting a complete view of English Literature, from the earliest to the present
time, Let the reader open where he will, he cannot fail to find matter for profit and delight,
which, for the most part, too, repeated perusals will only serve to make him enjoy the more,
We have indeed infinite riches in a little room. No one, who has a taste for literature,
should allow himself, for a trifling consideration, to be without a work which throws se
much light upon the progress of the English language. The selections are gems— @ mase
of valuable information in a condensed and elegant form.

EXTRACTS FROM COMMENDATORY NOTICES.

From W. H. Prescott, Author of “‘ Ferdinand and [sabella.?? ‘*The plan of the work
is very judicious. * * It will put the reader in the proper point of view, for survey-
ing the whole ground over which he is travelling. * * Such readers cannot fail to
orunt largely by the labors of the critic who has the talent and taste to separate what
tz really beautiful and worthy of their study from what is superfluous.”?

*‘] concur in the foregoing opinion of Mr, Prescott.”” — Edward Everett.

‘¢ Tt will be a useful and popular work, indispensable to the library of a student of
English literature.’? — Francis Wayland.

‘* We hail with peculiar pleasure the appearance of this work, and more especially
Its republication in this country at a price which places it within the reach of a great
number of readers.’? — North American Review.

“ This is the most valuable and magnificent contribution to a sound popular Jitera-
ture that this century has bronght forth. It fills a place which was before a vlank.
Without it, English literature, to almest a/l of onr countrymen, educated or unedu-
rated, is an imperfect, broken, disjointed mass. Much that is beautiful—the most
perfect and graceful portions, undoubtedly — was already possessed ; but it was not
a whole. Every intelligent man, every inquiring mind, every scholar, felt that the
foundation was missing. Chambers’s Cyclopedia supplies this radical defect. It be-
gins with the beginning ; and, step by step, gives to every one who has the intellect or
taste to enjoy it a view of English literature in all its complete, beautiful, and perfect
proportions.” — Onondaga Democrat, N. Y.

‘We hope that teachers wil! avail themselves of an early opportunity to obtain @
work so well calculated to impart useful knowledge, with the pleasures and ornaments
of the English classics. The work will undoubtedly find a place in our district and
other public libraries; yet it should be the ‘vade mecum?’ of every scholar.’?—
Teachers’ Advocate, Syracuse, N. Y.

‘© The work is finely conceived to meet a popular want, is full of literary instruction,
vad is variously embellished with engravings illustrative of English antiquities, his
a and biography. Tke typography throughout is beautiful.’? — Christian Reflecter,

oston.

*¢ The design has been well executed by the selection and concentration of some of
the best productions of English intellect, from the earliest Anglo-Saxon writers down
to those of the present day. No one can give a glance at the work withcut being

truck with its beauty and cheapness.’? — Boston Courier. :

“© We should be glad if any thing we can say would favor this design. The elegance
of the execution feasts the eye with beauty, and the whole is suited to refine and ele
vate the taste. And we might ask, who can fail to go back to its beginning, and trace
his mothier-tongue from its rude infancy to its present maturity, elegance, and richness /”

Christian Mirror, Portland.

*.* The Publishers of the AMERICAN Edition of this valuable work desire to state that, besides the
wumerous pictorial illustrations ia the English Edition, they have greatly enriched the work by the addition
ef fine steel and mezzotint engravings of the heads of Shakspeare, Addison, Byron; a full iength portrelt
of Dr. Johnson, and a beautiful scenic representation of Oliver Goldsmith and Dr. Johnson. These impor
tant and elegant additious, together with superior paper and binding, must give this a decided nreferense
ever all other editions.

£FOR SCHOOL AND FAMILY LIBRARIES.

CHAMBERS’S MISCELLANY

OF USEFUL AND ENTERTAINING KNOWLEDGE,

TEN VOLUMES, ELEGANTLY ILLUSTRATED.

The design of the MisceLttany is to supply the increasing demand for useful,
instructive, and entertaining reading, and to bring all the aids of literature to bear
on the cultivation of the feelings and understanding of the people — to impress Correct
views on Important moral and social questions — to furnish an unobtrusive friend
end guide, a lively fireside companion, as far as that object can be attained through
the instrumentality of books.

This work is confidently commended to Teachers, School Committees, and
ell others interested in the formation of ‘‘ School Libraries,’’ as the very best work
for this purpose. Its wide range of subjects, presented in the most popular style,
makes it exceedingly interesting and instructive to all classes. The most flat-
tering testimonials from distinguished school teachers and others, expressing an
earnest desire to have it introduced into all school libraries, have been received by
the publishers.

From George B. Emerson, Esq., Chatrman of the Book Committee of the Boston Schools.
— ‘I have examined with a good deal of care ‘ Chambers’s Miscellany of Useful
and Entertaining Knowledge,’ particularly with reference to its suitableness to
form parts of a library for young persons. It is, indeed, a library in itself, and one
of great value, containing very choice selections in history, biography, natural
history, poetry, art, physiology, elegant fiction, and various departments of science,
made with great taste and judgment, and with the highest moral and philanthropie
purpose. It would be difficult to find any miscellany superior or even equal to it
it richly deserves the epithets ‘ useful and entertaining,’ and [ would recommend
it very strongly, as extremely well adapted to form parts of a library for the young,
or of a social or circulating library, in town or country.”’

From the Rev. John O. Choules, D. D.—‘‘I cannot resist the desire which I feel
to thank you for the valuable service which you have rendered to the public by
aa this admirable work within the reach of all who have a desire to obtain

nowledge. I am not acquainted with any similar collection in the English lan-
guage that can compare with it for purposes of instruction or amusement. J should
rejoice to see that set of books in every house in our country. I cannot think of
any method by which a father can more materially benefit his children than by
surrounding them with good books ; and if these charming and attractive volumes
can be placed in the hands of the young, they will have their tastes formed for good
reading. I shall labor to see the Miscellany circulated among my friends, and shall
lose no opportunity to commend it every where.”

‘¢ They contain an excellent selection of historical, scientific, and miscellaneous
articles in popular style, from the best writers of tho language. ‘The work is ele
gantly printed and neatly illustrated, and is sold very cheap.”? — Independent Dem-
ecrat, Concord, N. I.

“‘ It is just the book to take up at the @lose of a busy day; and especially will it
shod a new charm over autumn and winter in-door scenes.’’—Christ. World, Bostim,

‘* The information contained in this work is surprisingly great; and for the fire-
side, and the young particularly, it cannot fail to prove a most valuable and enter-
taining companion.” — Vew York Evangelist.

‘¢ We are glad to see an American issue of this publication, and especially in so
neat and convenienta form. It is an admirable compilation, distinguished by the
ood taste which has been shown in all the publications of the Messrs. Chambers.
t unites the useful and the entertaining.” —.Vew York Commercial Advertiser

“It is an admirable compilation, containing interesting memoirs and historicel
eketches, which are useful, instructive, and entertaining. Every head of a family
should supply himself with a copy for the benefit of his children.’? — Corning Journal.

‘ The enterprising publishers deserve the thanks of every lover of the beautiful
and true, for the cheap and tasteful style in which they have spread this truly val-
aable work before the American people.”? — People’s Advocate, Pa.

“‘ It is filled with subjects of interest, intended for the instruction of the youthful
mind, such as biography, history, anecdotes, natural philasopiy, && %— New
Orleans Bee mes

THE POPULAR
CYCLOPADIA OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

CONDENSED FROM THE LARGER WORK.
By JOHN BED TO. D. De

4UTHOR OF “HISTORY OF PALESTINE,” ‘* DAILY BIBLE ILLUSTRATIONS,” ETC.
ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS DISTINGUISHED SCHOLARS IN EUROPE AND AMERICA.

Octavo. 812pp. With more than Three Hundred Illustrations. Price, cloth, $3,00.

Tux Poruvar Brevicat Cyciopxp14 oF Literature is designed to furnish a Dictrion-
ARY OF THE Breve, embodying the products of the best and most recent researches in bib-
lical literature, in which the scholars of Europe and America have been engaged. The
work, the result of immense labor and research, and enriched by the contributions of writers
of distinguished eminence in the various departments of sacred literature, has been, by
universal consent, pronounced the best work of its Glass extant, and the one best suited to
the advanced knowledge of the present day in all the studies connected with theological
science.

This work, condensed by the author from his larger work in two volumes, is not only in-
tended for ministers and theological students, but is also particularly adapted to parents,
Sabbath-school teachers, and the great body of the religious public. It has been the author’s
aim to avoid imparting to the work any color of sectarian or denominational bias. On such
points of difference among Christians, the /istorical mode of treatment has been adopted,
and care has been taken to provide a fair account of the arguments which have seemed
most conclusive to the ablest advocates of the various opinions. The pictorial illustra-
tions — amount ng to more than three hundred — are of the very highest order of the art.

EXTRACTS FROM LETTERS.

From Rev. J. J. Carruthers, D. D., Pastor of Second Parish Cong. Church, Portland, Me.

By far the most valuable boon presented to the Christian public for many years. The
condensation of the work, at little more than a third of the price, is, what it professes to
be, a condensation, a reduction, not of ideas, but of words, without in the slightest degree
o scuring the meaning of the gifted authors.

.

From Rev. Daniel Sharp, D. D., Pastor of Third Baptist Church, Boston.

A most valuable, as it was a much needed, publication. Every minister ought to have a
copy of it on his study table. As a book of reference, shedding its collected light on almost
all scriptural subjects, and furnishing a brief, but clear and compendious history of the most
remarkable events and personages mentioned in the Bible, it cannot fail of being a great
help. Every lover of God’s word, not to say every Sabbath-school teacher, and every theo-
logical student, will find treasures of information in the above-named work.

From Rev. Joel Hawes, D. D., Pastor of First Congregational Church, Hartford, Ct.

_ Acapital work, containing a vast amount of information on a great variety of subjects,
in a very condensed, yet clear and interesting form. Every family and every Sabbath-schoo}
teacher, wishing to understand the Bibie, should possess this work.

From Rev W. B. Sprague, D. D., Pastor of Second Presbyterian Church, Albany, N. ¥.

I regard it as the most important auxiliary to the study of the Scriptures, among the great
mass of people, of which I have any knowledge. Every Sabbath-school teacher, and indeed
every Christian, who is able to do so, ought to possess himself of the work ; and the fact
that such a work is in existence, may well be regarded as one of the favorable signs of the
times in regard to the progress of evangelical knowledge.

From Rev. J. B. Waterbury, D. D., Pastor of Bowdoin St. ( Congregational) Church, Beston.

It is a most valuable book, suited to the wants of clergymen, and well adapted to aid
Sabbath-school teachers in their responsible work. Every family that can afford it, would
do well to possess themselves of so important and interesting a volume; to which they
might refer in elucidating the Scriptures, and rendering their study ne’ anly profitable but
delightful e

KITTO’S CYCLOPAZDIA OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.

From Rev. E. N. Kirk, Pastor of Mount Vernon Congregational Church, Boston.

The work is invaluable to the student of the Bible. We have no other in this depast
ment to be compared with it, for condensing the results of modern researches or Oriental
antiquities and topography, which are so valuable in explaining the language of the Bible.

From Hon. Thomas §. Williams, Hartford, Ct.

A mass of information, in a condensed form, highly important to those who regard the
sacred vclume ; and to Sabbath-school teachers it will prove a most valuable assistant.

From Hon. Edward Everett, LL. D., Boston.

i have kept it on my table, and have frequently referred to it; and it has been a gocd deal
read by different members of my family. I unite with them in the opinion that it is a val-
uable work, well adapted for the above-named purpose. It appears to embody, in a popu-
lar form, the results of much research, and will promote, I doubt not, the intelligent read-
ing of the Scriptures.

From Hon. George N. Briggs, LL. D., Pittsfield, Mass.

To all who read and study the Bible it will be found to be a work of surpassing interest
and utility. In families and in the hands of Sabbath-school teachers, its value and impor-
tance can hardly be over-estimated. Its explanations of the habits, customs, and religious
rites of the Hebrews and the surrounding nations, are clear and important; and the light
which it throws upon the biography, geography, and history of the Old and New Testa-
ment develops in those inspired volumes new beauties, and inspires a higher admiration
for that Book of books, and a profounder reverence for its Divine Author. I wish there
Was a copy of it in every family in the land.

From Jared Sparks, LL. D., President of Harvard College.

I am glad to possess the work; and I enclose three dollars, which I understand to be the
price of it.

From Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen, LL. D., New Brunswick, N. J.

I regard it as a very valuable help to the student of the Bible. It brings to the aid of the
reading community, in an instructive and condensed form, a rich treasure of historical and
biblical literature, prepared and arranged by some of the best minds, and which could
otherwise be gained only by a laborious and patient research, that very few have the lei-
sure to give to the subject. No family would, I think, ever regret the purchase of a book so
deserving of a household place.

From Hon. John McLean, LL. D., of Ohio.

It is only necessary to look through this volume to appreciate its value. There is no work
I have seen which contains so much biblical knowledge, alphabetically arranged under ap-
propriate heads, in so condensed a form, and which is sold so cheap. Under a leading
word is to be found in this book, whether it relate to natural science or scriptural illus-
tration, enough to satisfy every inquirer. Next to the Bible, this dictionary of it contains
more interesting knowledge than any work of the same size, and it should be found in every
family, in our public schools as well as in all our academies and colleges.

From Hon. Simon Greenleaf, LL. D.

A book that will prove highly useful to all persons engaged in the study of the Bible,
or in eens its sacred truths to the young. I hope, therefore, that it will be widely
circulated.

From Hon. Robert C. Winthrop, EL. D., Boston.

1 have examined with great pleasure your edition of Kitto’s Popular Cyclopedia of Bibli-
cal Literature. It seems to me a most convenient and valuable aid to the study of the
Scriptures, and I am glad that you have been able to publish it at so reasonable a price.
ft can hardly fail to commend itself to those who would teach, and to those who would
learn, something more than the mere letter of the inspired volume.

From Henry J. Ripley, D. D., Author of ‘* Notes on the Scriptures,” and Professor in Newton
Theological Institution.

It would be invaluable to Sabbath-school teachers, and of great utility to preachers. It
every where shows evidence of research, and is particular and accurate in its details. It
employs appropriate authorities, both less and more modern, as to questions of sacred
criticism, of history and geography, and gives the reader the results of recent learned in-
vestigations. If the purpose of this book is gained, scriptural knowledge will be increased.

Valuable School Books.

THE ELEMENTS OF MORAL SCIENCE. By Francia
Waysind, D.D. President of Brown University, and Professor of
Moral Philosephy. Fortieth Thousand. 12mo. cloth... Price $1.25.

*,* This work has been extensively and favorably reviewed and adopted as a class-book
in most of the collegiate, theological, and academical institutions of the country.

From Rev. Wilbur Fisk, President of the W-sleyan University,

“TI have examined it with great satisfaction and interest. The work was greatly neede
end is well executed. Dr. Wayland deserves the grateful acknowledgments and bed
patronage of the public. I need say nothing further to express my high estimate of the
work, than that we shall immediately adopt it as a text-book in our university.”

From Hon. James Kent, late Chancellor of New York.

“ The work has been read by me attentively and thoroughly, and I think very highly ef
it The author himself is one of the most estimable of men, and I do not know cf any
ethical treatise, in which our duties to God and to our fellow-men are laid down with mare
precision, simplicity, clearness, energy, and truth.”

“The work of Dr. Wayland has arisen gradually from the necessity of correcting the
false principles and fallacious reasonings of Paley. It is a radical mistake, in the edura-
tion of youth, to permit any book to be used by students as a text-book, which contains
erroneous doctrines, especially when these are fundamental, and tend to vitiate the whole
system of morals. We have been greatly pleased with the method which President Way-
land has adopted ; he goes back to the simplest and most fundamental principles; and, in
the statement of his views, he unites perspicuity with conciseness and precision. In alJ
the author’s leading fundamental principles we entirely concur.” — Biblical Repository.

“ This is a new work on morals, for academic use, and we welcome it with much satis-
faction. It is the result of several years’ reflection and experience in teaching, on the part
of its justly distinguished author ; and ifit is not perfectly what we could wish, yet, in the
most important respects, it supplies a want which has been extensively felt. It is, we
think, substantially sound in its fundamental principles; and being comprehensive and
elementary in its plan, and adapted to the purposes of instruction, it will be gladly adopted
by those who have for a long time been dissatisfied with the existing works of Paley.”

The Literary anit Theological Review.

MORAL SCIENCE, ABRIDGED, bythe Author, and adapted
to the use of Schools and Academies. Twenty-fifth Thousand. 18mo.

half cloth. Price 25 cents.

The more effectually to meet the desire expressed for a cheap edition, the present edition is issued
at the reduced price of 25 cents per copy, and it is hoped thereby to extend the benefit of moral in-
struction to all the youth of our land. Teachers and ali others engaged in the training of youth, are
invited to examine this work.

“Dr. Wayland has published an abridgment of his work, for the use of schools. Of
this step we can hardly speak too highly. It is more than time that the study of moral
philosophy should be introduced into all our institutions of education. We are happy to
gee the way so auspiciously opened for such an introduction. It has been not merel
abridged, but also xe-written. We cannot but regard the labor as well bestowed.” — North

American Review.

“We speak that we do know, when we express our high estimate of Dr. Wayland’s
ability in teaching Moral Philosophy, whether orally or by the book. Having listened te
his instructions, in this interesting department, we can attest how lofty are the prineiples,
how exact and severe the argumentation, how appropriate and strong the illustrations
which characterize his system and enforce it on the mind.” — The Christian Witness.

“ The work of which this volume is an abridgment, is well known as one of the best and
most complete works on Moral Philosophy extant. The author is well known as one of
the most profound scholars of the age. That the study of Moral Science, a science which
teaches goodness, should be a branch of education, not only in our colleges, but in oar
echools and academies, we believe will not be denied. e abridgment of this work
seems to us admirably calculated for the purpose,and we hope it will be extensively
applied to the purposes for “which it is intended.” — The Mercantile Journal.

“We hail the abridgment as admirably adapted to supply the deficiency which has lon,
been felt in common school education, —the study of moral obligation. Let the chil
eerty be taught the relations it sustains toman and to its Maker, the first acquainting it
weer the duties owed to society, the second with the duties owed to God,and who cas
yoreteil how many asad and disastrous overthrow of character will be prevented, and how
elevated and pure will be the sense of integrity and virtue?” — Evening Gasette,

Daluable School Books.

ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY. By Franers
WAYLAND, D.D., President of Brown University. Fifteenth ‘Thousand.
12mo. cloth. Price $1.25

“ His obiect has been to write a book, which any one who chooses may understand. He
has, therefore, labored to express the general principles in the plainest manner possible,
and to illustrate them by cases with which every person is familiar. It has been to the
author a source of regret, that the course of discussion in the following pages, has, unar
voidably, led him over ground which has frequently been the arena of political contro-
versy. In all such cases, he has endeavored to state what seemed to him to be truth,
without fear, favor, or affection. He is conscious to himself of no bias towards any party
whatever, and he thinks that he who will read the whole work, will be convinced thet he
hag been influenced by none.” — Extract from the Preface.

POLITICAL ECONOMY, ABRIDGED, by the Authcr, and
adanted to the use of Schools and Academies. Seventh Thousand.
18mo. half morocco. Price 50 cents.

*,* The success which has attended the abridgment of “The Elements of Mora}
&cience” has induced the author to prepare an abridgment of this work. In this case,
as in the other, the work has been wholly re-written, and an attempt has been made to
adapt it to the attainments of youth.

“The original work of the author, on Political Economy, has already been noticed on
our pages; and the present abridgment stands in no need of a recommendation from us.
We may be permitted, however, to say, that both the rising and risen generations are
deeply indebted to Dr. Wayland, for the skill and power he has rut forth to bring a highly
important subject distinctly before them, within such narrow limits. Though ‘abri¢ged
for the use of academies,’ it deserves to be introduced into every private family, and to be
studied by every man who has an interest in the wealth and prosperity of his country. It
is a subject little understood, even practically, by thousands, and still less understood
theoretically. It is to be hoped, this will form a class-book, and be faithfully studied in
our academies; and that it will find its way into every family library; not there to be
shut up unread, but to afford rich material for thought and discussion in the family
circle. It is fitted to enlarge the mind, to purify the judgment, to correct erroneous
popular impressions, and assist every man in forming opinions of public measures,
which will abide the test of time and experience.” — Boston Recorder.

“ An abridgment of this clear, common sense work, designed for the use of academies
is just published. We rejoice to see such treatises spreading among the people; and we
urge all who would be intelligent freemen, to read them.” — New York Transcript.

“We can say, with safety, that the topics are well selected and arranged; that the
author’s name is a guarantee for more than usual excelleuce. We wish it an extensive
circulation.” — New York Observer.

“Ttis well adapted to high schools, and embraces the soundest system of republican
political economy of any treatise extant.” — Daily Advocate.

THOUGHTS on the present Collegiate System in the United States.
By Franeois WAYLAND, D.D. Price 50 cents.

“ These Thoughts come from a source entitled to a very respectful attention ; and as the
author goes over the whole ground of collegiate education, criticising freely all the arrange«
ments in every department and in all their bearings, the book is very full of matter. 6
hope it will prove the beginning of a thorough discussion.”

PALEY’S NATURAL THEOLOGY. [Illustrated bv forty plates,
and Selections from the notes of Dr. Paxton, with additional Notes,
original and selected, for this edition; with a vocabulary of Scientifio
Terms. Edited by Joun Warez, M.D. 12mo. sheep. Price $1.25. |

“The work before us is one which deserves rather to be studied than merely read.
kndeed, without diligent attention and study, neither the excellences of it can be fully dis-
@overed nor its advantages realized. It is, therefore, gratifying to find it introduced, se a !
text-book, into the colleges and literary institutions of our country. The edition before ug |
fs superior to any we have seen, and, we believe, superior to any that has yet been pub-
lished.” — Spirit of the Pilgrims.

“Perhaps no one of our author’s works gives greater satisfaction to all classes of readers,
the young and the old, the ignorant and the enlightened. Indeed, we recollect no book in
which the arguments for the existence and attributes of the Supreme Being, to be drawn

from his works are exhibited in a manner more attractive and more convincing.”
Christian Haaminer

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