iw is, 3 Pog bn SSN Pete si PY abi 9 Ss uN 2 ee ft It = Laie ve wv -tas NASR. 7 e ~ - - &~2; — tee ing, fle 4 as as —W - a - PR a ~ ry = a 3 ~ ie pe ~~ —e Ae Len SS = PIN q hy BRM Gu ee * aw ye Nw ABA Nal Rt LRINI an LD I Nl eons ea p-a~arantee levies, 8 On fal AC OR BF heb Pe ere etn AR Ry, RN a ees ee ae NWR AS, oe Ee oe - - -o i ~~ b * et el om bak *. NAR a nl LDL he ee mb oe Lak oan = ; Feta Sa $e c at Qt one cle a ff . ee IE Tn DIN, ela a 4 Sw ee i a pL of i, BM ge : ad Sper Bhai Oa Ae yin, prac tna oat . a ee ee - By ek Ly hres Oe ~ ‘4 VE Aaa i ls, POL ane ’ . ‘ TNO AL a. DISCOVERY: YEARBOOK ( or F ATS TN N | BE. ‘in AND ART whi 4 7 : “MECHANICS, USHRCE amas) waitin: eatedapew eo > 25 eDITED BY K FLAN A hd; MB. see sac cao eeeTe bre C OLN, Vee et. AED COMPAD YE. me NaN AST, OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY: OR, YEAR-BOOK OF FACTS IN SCIENCE AND ART FOR 1869, EXHIBITING THE MOST IMPORTANT DISCOVERTES AND IMPROVEMENTS IN MECHANICS, USEFUL ARTS, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, ASTRONOMY, GEOLOGY, BIOLOGY, BOTANY, MINERALOGY, METEOROLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, ANTIQUITIES, ETC., TOGETHER WITH NOTES ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE DURING THE YEAR 1868; A LIST OF RECENT SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS; OBITUARIES OF EMINENT SCIENTIFIO MEN, ETC. EDITED BY SAMUEL KNEELAND, A.M., M.D., FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, SECRETARY OF AND INSTRUG= TOR IN ZOOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, ETC, BOS TOWN. : COT Dp ALS GEN COLN, 59 WASHINGTON STREET. NEW YORK: SHELDON AND COMPANY. CINCINNATI: GEO. S. BLANCHARD & CO. LONDON : TRUBNER & CO. PS Go. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by GOULD AND LINCOLN, In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the District of Massachusetts. ROCKWELL & ROLLINS, PRINTERS AND STEBEOTYPERS, BOSTON. NOTES BY THE EDITOR, ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE FOR THE YEAR 1868. DurRinG the year 1868 the civilized world seems to have been in a state of extreme scientific tension, — discovery after discov- ery, and invention after invention, following each other so closely, that the chronicler of its progress is tempted to exclaim in the words of another, ‘‘ If knowledge be power, then indeed is man getting powerful. To what is it all tending? What limit of knowledge can man attain?” The time was when the harvest of discovery was reaped only centuries after the seeds were planted ; now aman may live to see both seedtime and harvest, and the poor inventor of to-day will be the millionnaire of to-morrow. ‘* Wheatstone has lived to see the junction of two hemispheres by an invention at whose birth he was present.” This is emphatically the age of steel. Steel rails, steel boilers, steel in machinery, steel in construction, are fast superseding iron for the same purposes. The manufacture of steel is undoubtedly to be the most important and extensive in the world; and Améti- ca is, beyond all others, the country of good iron ore. We have an inexhaustible supply of the best quality of iron ore, and an ap- parently inexhaustible supply of fuel to work it with; and are of necessity interested in any improvements in the manufacture of steel. Among the noteworthy improvements in the manufacture of steel, to which the reader’s attention is called in the present vol- ume, are the processes of Bessemer, of Hargreaves and Heaton, of Whelpley and Storer, and of Ellershausen, the furnaces of Sie- mens and Wilson, and the use of pulverized fuel. _In the Besse- mer process, in which the metal is decarbonized by a blast of air passed through it, the spectroscope has been successfully em- III 26117 IV NOTES BY THE EDITOR. ployed to determine the exact moment of complete decarboniza- tion, rendering the product more uniform in quality, and less de- pendent on the skill and attention of the workmen. In the sec- ond process above named, oxygen gas, disengaged from nitrate of soda, passes up through the molten metal, removing, it is claimed, not only the carbon, but the sulphur, silicium, phosphorus, and other impurities. It can render available very inferior qualities of iron ore, and there is an ample supply of the nitrate in various countries. In the third process mentioned (see p. 17), steel is made directly from the ores, even very impure ones, by the em- ployment of the intense heat from pulverized fuel, with the pow- dered ores in connection with proper fluxes; occupying only 8 hours from the crude ore to the finished steel bar, instead of the several days of the usual processes, and at 50 per cent. less cost; making steel of any required quality, and combined with any de- sired alloy. Chrome iron is coming into extensive use, on ac- count of its exceeding hardness; the ore is very abundant in Del- aware and Pennsylvania. From the high temperature of the Siemens regenerative gas furnace, steel may be made on its open hearth by the mutual reaction of pig and wrought iron upon . each other, in this way utilizing waste material unsuitable for the Bessemer process, and applicable in many localities deemed un- favorable to the production of steel. In the Ellershausen process, (see p. 122), two new metallurgical principles are carried out: namely, 1. That cast iron thoroughly intermingled with oxides will not melt; 2. That any impurities in the mixture thus effected are re- moved by reheating. The practical application of these consists in forming a conglomerate of the liquid cast iron, as it runs from the blast furnace, with a sufficient amount of oxide (crude ores pulverized), and subsequently heating this conglomerate to a weld- ing heat. -This process, which is considered by prominent iron masters as the most important yet discovered for lessening the cost and improving the quality of their manufactures, is fully de- scribed in the ‘‘ Pittsburgh Gazette,” for Jan. 26, 1869. In an address by George Robertson, President of the Scottish Society of Arts, in Nov., 1867, occur the following remarks on the effect of trade unions on the prosperity of the country, much of which may be applicable in the United States at the present time. ‘**It appears to.me that, in interfering so much with individual Jabor, these unions tend to undo a great deal of what the intro- duction of machinery has done to make England great and_pros- NOTES BY THE EDITOR. Vv perous. Machinery tends to equalize labor, and to bring it to one standard; but it is to the highest possible standard. Machinery puts the child on the level with the adult. It enables any one of sufficient intelligence to attend a machine to do as much “work, and as good work, as the most skilful man. Machinery spreads a given quantity of work over the fewest possible hands. But what are the unions doing? Their object is to bring down labor to the lowest practicable standard, and to lower the work of the adult; to prevent a man of industry and intelligence from doing more than a fixed low average of work; in short, to spread a given quantity of work over the greatest number of hands. Trade Unions are, therefore, antagonistic to machinery, and the introduction of the latter, instead of hand labor, into every department of industry, is one of the means of counteracting their bad effects. I do not, however, consider that strikes and unions are interfering with the general progress of arts and manufactures, or the civilization of the world at large. On the contrary, their tendency is perhaps to benefit the general cause of civilization, by improving the resources of other countries . . . . . + The price of labor in this country, combined with the low standard of work allowed by the unions and the uncertainty in the labor market, which prevents manufacturers entering into large contracts with safety, must break down some of the monop- oly we have enjoyed, especially in the iron trade. It is for the working men of England seriously to consider whether they are wise to follow a course of action which may drive away trade to countries fully prepared, by low wages, by a high standard of technical education, by the introduction of railways, and by the development of mineral wealth, successfully to compete with us in the markets of the world.” The limitation of times of labor,the depression of the sober, industrious, and most skilful workmen to an average level of the more idle and unskilful; the exclusion of apprentices, and the dire effects in other branches of the trade or manufacture in which, without wishing to strike themselves, the workmen are dependent on the continued labor of others who will not work, — naturally drive capital away into other countries or other trades, and thus leave the infatuated workman with worse prospects of success than when he began the strike. There have been sug- gested as a powerful mode of co-operation, because it appeals more directly to the self-interest of the working-classes, industrial partnerships in which the masters and workmen may unite to- Vi NOTES BY THE EDITOR. gether, by the adoption of which it is believed the greater part of the difficulties between labor and production would vanish. The ‘Scientific American” truly says: ‘‘ The abolishment of the system of apprenticeship in this country, and the introduc- | tion of planers, engine lathes, and other labor-saving machines into the machine-shops have produced a scarcity of good work- men. The effect of the former has been to encourage a class of half-trained mechanics, who, having gained sufficient knowledge to enable them to perform certain kinds of work, and at that to obtain living wages, are content to remain without further effort at improvement. ‘The introduction of machinery to perform what was formerly done by hand has obviated the necessity for that skill in manipulation and nice training of the eye, which in former times were essential for all kinds of work. It is a common thing to find men who can attend a lathe, or run a planer, who are utter- ly incapable of doing work with a file, and who, if they were set to constructing any machinery requiring nice fitting throughout, would utterly fail. The exceptions to this are rare, and we are afraid they are becoming more so. Mechanical engineers are frequently troubled to find workmen who can properly execute their designs. Especially is this so where new forms are intro- duced into machinery, when a general lack of resources and expedients will most probably manifest itself. ‘‘The training of the eye, in which most deficiency is found, owing to the substitution of engine-lathe work for hand turning, and planing for the old-time chipping and filing, might easily be obtained by practice in drafting, which demands both skill of hand and eye, and to most mechanics would be found a pleasant recrea- tion as well as a valuable accomplishment. ‘Tf we expect good workmen we must have educated appren- tices. In every business but that of mechanics a proper prepara- tion is expected and exacted. Let our mechanical apprentices be compelled to pass a suitable examination after a suitable training and we shall have good workmen.” In this connection, it is a noteworthy fact that technical schools are springing up all about us, much needed exponents of the new and practical education. Mr. Joseph Whitworth, the most noted of English mechanical engineers, from his connection with the improvement of machinists’ tools and the perfection to which he has brought their manufac- ture, has donated £100,000 to the endowment of thirty scholar- ships of £100 per year for the education of engineers. It is NOTES BY THE EDITOR. VII worthy of note in speaking of such beneficence that, in England, as in our own country, the more earnest efforts to extend the facilities for popular education and mental advancement have been made by those who, as a general rule, have owed the least to such agencies in their own elevation, and the most to their own energy and perseverance. The munificence of Mr. Whitworth is a case in point parallel with that of Mr. Peter Cooper, who founded the Cooper Institute, in New York city; and both stand out in strong contrast to the old-time usage of endowing educa- tional institutions by will, and leaving all the good capable of being secured thereby to be accomplished by the management of others after the death of the donors. The object in making this endowment is to advance the cause of technical education, and the promotion of engineering and mechanical industry in his own country. In competing for these scholarships, proficiency must be shown in the use of one or more of the following classes of tools: the axe, file, saw, and plane, hammer, and chisel, and the forge; also a satisfactory knowledge of elementary mathematics and mechanics, practical and descrip- tive geometry, and free hand drawing. By making these requi- sites, the student, combining some practice with theory, and the artisan, who combines some theoretical knowledge with perfection of workmanship, start on fairly equal terms. In carrying out the ideas of Mr. Whitworth, the successful com- petitors for these prizes may attend universities or colleges affording scientific or technical instruction, or they may travel and study abroad. The Suez canal is steadily approaching completion, and will probably be open to the commerce of the world before 1870; changing the direction of the greater part of the shipments between the East Indies and Europe as well as America. The next great inter-oceanic cana] will be between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific across the Isthmus of Darien, to which the attention of engineers and capitalists is now seriously turned. Another much-needed canal is one across the upper part of Florida, from the Atlantic to the Gulf of Mexico, which would save annually scores of lives and millions of treasure, and bring the gulf ports many days nearer to the northern cities. In telegraphic communication two important improvements have been made in this country. The compound telegraph wire of Mr. M. G. Farmer, with a core of steel wire for strength, and a covering of copper wire, instead of galvanized iron, for conduc- VII NOTES BY THE EDITOR. tion, renders these invaluable lines of communication stronger, lighter, and better conductors than the larger wires in ordinary use. Another important recent improvement in Telegraph Instru- ments is the invention of a double transmitter by Mr. J. B. Stearns, of Boston, which consists of an apparatus capable of transmitting messages in opposite directions over a single wire, at one and the same time. Several previous attempts had been made and large sums expended, both in this country and Europe, to accomplish this object, but without developing any system of practical value. This instrument (which, for the sake of a name is called ‘‘ The Franklin”) was first attached to a circuit of nearly 250 miles of wire, in March, 1868. So satisfactory was the result, that on the following day the invention was attached to a wire between Boston and New York, and since that time has been in constant and successful operation, bringing the capacity of the wire to which it is attached fully up to that of two separate wires operated by the ordinary Morse system, working in all weather as prompt and reliable as any of the other wires in the same office. In April, a second set of these instruments was placed upon a wire between New York and Philadelphia, and is now working with success. Since the introduction of the Ransome process, the manufacture of artificial stone has become an extensive branch of industry in this country, and one of great value in localities, as in the West, where building stone is scarce. Among the most important of the improvements of the year are the methods of preserving animal food, which, by simple and cheap chemical processes, promise to remedy the insufficiency of the supply of meat in our large cities by drawing upon the inex- haustible living herds in Texas, on the great prairies, and in South America; preserving the meat in bulk, without salt or des- iccation. The most notable are those of Prof. Gamgee, by carbonic oxide and sulphurous acid gases, and of Dr. Sim, by the bisulphide of carbon. In the use of paper for articles of utility we are fast overtaking oriental nations,employing it as a substitute for leather, for wood, for cloth, and even for making boats and dwellings. Chemistry during the year has been largely extended, not only in the development of the carbon compounds, but in the syntheti- cal or artificial formation of organic substances. Recent obser- NOTES BY THE EDITOR. Ix vations (see pp. 187, 188) go to show that there is no natural barrier between organic and inorganic chemistry, since chemists are able to ascend step by step from inorganic substances to some of the most complicated bodies secreted by animals and vegetables. It has been reported in the journals that Prof. Graham, master of the Mint, has lately discovered the metallic base of hydrogen, or hydrogenium. He writes to Prof. Horsford as follows: ‘*I am at this moment closing a paper to show that palladium, with occluded hydrogen gas, is an alloy of hydrogenium,—a white magnetic metal, of specific gravity about 2, appearing to have considerable analogy to magnesium.” Should this discovery be verified, the field of chemical research is incalculably ex- tended. - Among the improvements in the chemistry of common life may be mentioned the oxygen gas-light, which is more purely white, much more brilliant, more steady, and far less heating than any gas or ordinary flames. It is used with coal gas, the oxygen being cheaply supplied in sufficient quantity for its consumption, the earbon being wholly consumed, without the air being deprived of its oxygen to aid the combustion; beside these advantages, it is also more economical. The utilization of the deodorizing properties of dry earth solves the difficult problem of what to do with human excreta in scattered populations, or in places where many persons are confined, from sickness or crime, and where the drainage is poor or neglected, — converting a nuisance and a constant source of disease into a valuable fertilizer. Prof. David Forbes, in his researches in chemical geology, lays great stress upon the correlation of forces, and upon the compound and convertible action of these forces in. explaining geological phenomena. There is something more to be considered than the mere Plutonic or cataclysmic and the Neptunic or quiescent theo- ries; not only heat and water, but chemical action, light, elec- tricity, magnetism and mechanical force, form important elements in these questions. Mechanical force may cause development of heat, and thereby chemical action, accounting for many of the facts of metamorphism and other disputed points in geology. The fungoid origin of most, if not all contagious, epidemic, and malignant diseases, affecting both man and animals, and frequently transmitted by animals to man, is generally accepted by physiolo- gists. Earth, air, and water teem with the germs of fungi, in x NOTES BY THE EDITOR. i great part originating in human excreta, and gaining admission into the animal body through food, drink, and breath. To pre- vent the vivification of these germs in the living body, both in medicine and surgery, carbolic acid is the best substance yet dis- covered. The recent deep-sea dredgings between Florida and Cuba have revealed new and unexpected forms of life in the ocean depths, proving the existence of a large and varied fauna at a depth between 400 and 700 fathoms. The theory of Darwin, of the origin of so-called species by ‘*natural selection,” seems to be steadily gaining ground among zoologists. ‘The apparently insurmountable difficulty of hybridism no longer stands in the way. Admitting that, as a rule, widely diverging types, or what are styled ‘‘ species,” are infertile with each other, we know that, as we descend in the animal scale, the crossing of many so-called species under certain conditions actually increases fertility; and the only escape from making this admis- sion in many cases is by reasoning in a circle, and calling species varieties because they are fertile. Says a writer in the ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Science,” for July, 1868, ‘‘As we consider the terms ‘variety,’ ‘species,’ ‘ genus,’ etc., to have been introduced into natural history by man for the guidance of his own limited intellect, and to have no actual existence in nature, we are unable to find any rational objection to the broad principle laid down by the author and his predeces- sors holding similar views, that all new forms of life are and have been modified descendants of pre-existing ones. Nor have we ever been able to see any other rational mode of accounting for the progression of nature. . . We conceive that at least suffi- cient valid evidence has now been laid before the scientific world to justify the acceptance, pure and simple, of the law of descent by modification, from the operation of which law there is no reason whatever to exclude man; and all unbiassed thinkers will now expect from the opponents of that theory that they will desist from attacking the new and rational doctrine with absurd theolog- ical denunciations, or with quibbles concerning the precise nature of the zoological term ‘ species;’ but that they will put forward a clear defence of some definite doctrine of their own; will explain with ordinary clearness how they believe new types really have been introduced; and will support their defence by well-estab- lished scientific data.” “The facts are strongly in fayor of the formation of new spe- NOTES BY THE EDITOR. XI cies by modified descent, and what evidence have the advocates of the opposite theory to advance in its favor? Indeed, it is dif- ficult to find out what their theory really is, or, rather what their theories are, for it would hardly be possible to find half-a-dozen An- ti-Darwinians who, if they think at all, think alike. . . But with the exception of a few thinking observers, the measure of whose in- formation is only exceeded by their caution, which prevents them from accepting the new theory, the large majority of its oppo- nents are really such reasoners as we have described. And it ap- pears to us that the acceptance of the theory will depend more upon the decline of superstition than upon the ascendancy of knowledge.” j ‘*Though the author doubts the constant interposition of a de- signing mind in nature,” a careful reading of his works will show ‘‘how thoroughly ungenerous, or how utterly ignorant, are those who brand his theory as atheistical and him as an atheist.” Mr. Darwin’s theory relates only to the form of life, not to the princi- ple of life, still less to the moral principle or the soul. Says Dr. J. D. Hooker, in his address as President before the British Associa- tion in 1868, ‘‘So far from natural selection being a thing of the past, it is an accepted doctrine with every philosophical naturalist, including, it will be always understood, a considerable proportion who are not prepared to admit that it accounts for all Mr. Darwin assigns to it.” Says Prof. Tyndall, in his address before the British Association in 1868, ‘‘ The process of things upon this earth has been one of amelioration. It is along way from the iguanodon and its con- temporaries to the members of this association. And whether we regard the improvement from the scientific or the theological point of view, as the result of progressive development, or as the result of successive exhibitions of creative energy, neither view entitles us to assume that man’s present faculties end the series, — that the process of amelioration stops at him. A time may therefore come when this ultra-scientific region by which we are now enfolded may offer itself to terrestrial, if not to human, investigation. Two- thirds of the rays emitted by the sun fail to arouse in the eye the sense of vision. The rays exist, but the visual organ requisite for their translation into light does not exist. And so from this region of darkness and mystery which surrounds us, rays may now be darting which require but the development of the proper intel- lectual organs to translate them into knowledge as far surpassing XII NOTES BY THE EDITOR. ours, as ours does that of the wallowing reptiles which once held possession of this planet.” In an essay ‘‘ on the origin of mankind,” Dr. Haeckel gives his reasons for inferring that man has come into being by a process of development from the lower animals; and he regards the ** Lamarck-Darwin ” hypothesis as precisely equivalent to that of the ‘‘ Copernicus-Newton” system of astronomy; for, while the latter proved the error of the old geocentric system, the former shows the falsity of the anthropocentric belief that looks upon man as the centre of an animate world created only to supply his wants. The remarkable eclipse of the sun, of August 17 was faithfully observed by astronomers sent by England and France to India, and also by resident astronomers there, as very important ques- tions in solar physics were to be settled by their observations. From spectroscopic examinations during the eclipse, the red pro- tuberances of the sun were, by universal admission, shown to be gaseous in their nature. The comets of the year, and especially Brorsen’s, have also been submitted to the spectroscope by Mr. Huggins, Father Secchi, and others, and have been found to have spectra like that of carbon, — a most interesting fact; these bodies are consequently believed to shine not merely by reflected solar light, but to be self-luminous. In regard to the statements of Mr. Abbott, regarding the changes in the figure and aspect of the nebula round 7 Argus, not only in the luminosity of the nebula but in the arrangement of the nebulous masses and of the fixed stars strewn over the nebula, Sir J. Herschel says, in ‘‘ Proc. Royal Astronomical Society, 1868,” ‘‘ There is no phenomenon in nebulous or sidereal astronomy presenting anything like the interest of this, or calculated to raise so many and such momentous points for inquiry and speculation. The question here is not one of minute variations in subordinate features, which may or may not be attributable to differences of optical power in the instruments used by different observers, as in the case of the nebula in Orion, but of a total change of form and character, a complete subversion of all the greatest and most striking features — accompanied with an amount of relative move- ment between the star and the nebula, and of the brighter portions of the latter inter se, which reminds us more of the capricious changes of form and place in a cloud drifted by the wind, than of anything heretofore witnessed in the sidereal heavens.” The wonderful revelations of the spectroscope are gradually NOTES BY THE EDITOR. XIII letting us into the secrets of the cosmos, showing the constituents of the most remote planets. enclosed be- tween two disks of perforated wood, and the object was surveyed from the further end of the tube. A thick piece of bone, the flat rib of an ox, was placed in the lantern, and light was distinctly transmitted through it by way of illustration. It might be used for a variety of physiological purposes. Animals whose tissues were thin, such as fish, could be placed in the lantern, and the condition of their circulation and respiration could be carefully studied under the action of various agents. In the human sub- ject, especially in the young, with fragile tissues, the thinner parts of the body could be distinctly rendered transparent; and, ina child, the bones, with a somewhat subdued light, could be seen in the arm and wrist. A fracture in a bone could in fact be easily made out, or growth from bone in these parts. In a very thin, young subject, the movements and outline of the heart could also be faintly seen in the chest, but the light he had as yet employed had not been sufficiently powerful to render this demonstration all he could desire. It would be possible, lastly, to see through some diseased structures so as to ascertain whether, within a cavity, there was a fluid or a solid body. ON THE PROPER USE OF GRAIN. The following are extracts from a letter by Baron Liebig bili: into ‘‘ Dingler’s s Journal” from the Augsburg ‘‘ Zeitung”: “Tn view of the present distress of the poor inhabitants of of East ern Prussia, it may not be inappropriate to direct public attention to the fact, that grain, by its conversion into flour, loses in nutri- tive properties ; that of rye by 10 per cent., that of wheat by 15 per cent. ‘A grain-fruit has a structure similar to that of an egg; as in the last-named the yolk, the portion rich in fat and poor in albu- men, is surrounded by a layer of albumen, so in the grain the starchy nucleus is enveloped by a stratum of an albuminiferous a —— BIOLOGY. 299 substance, which in being ground passes into the bran; and this substance is the most important as a nourishment for the blood. ‘‘Some 2 or 3 per cent. more of bread may be obtained by omitting fermentation. ‘* Where, as in the question of food for a whole population, the life of thousands depends upon a proper application of the means required for their sustenance, it would seem that some attention to scientific principles is in its place. The same quantity of grain, in the form of bread from meal, will save for every thousand per- sons one hundred and twenty more from hunger and its concomi- tant results, than bread from fine flour, freed as the latter is from bran, ‘‘In regard to the greater value as nutriment of bran-bread, it may be mentioned that in the Crimean war the Russian prisoners in the French camp, who were accustomed to the coarse bread, suffered by the use of wheat bread, and a supplementary diet had to be granted. ‘«The means for preparing bread without fermentation are well known and in constant use in England and the United States, as well as on their vessels. The simplest is the addition to one hun- dred pounds of meal of a pound of super-carbonate of soda, with an equivalent quantity of some acid, preferably tartaric or cream of tartar. ‘**T have for several months past been engaged on a thorough in- vestigation of the changes which human food undergoes, as regards its value as nutriment, by its treatment in cooking; among oth- ers also in the preparation of bread, and one of the results arrived at is that bran-bread, commonly known as ‘ pumpernickel,’ cannot be obtained of uniform character or constant nutritive value if made partly by fermentation. “A number of facts eliminated by the recent Prusso-Austrian war lead to the conclusion that a method of baking which is in- dependent of fermentation, and not apt to produce a bread which is subject to mould, would be of great value, not only for an army, but for the people at large; and the close research into these relations has confirmed me in the belief that bread of such qualities is not procurable except by the use of some chemical means, and that these, if properly applied, furnish bread of higher value than that at present in use, and of a nature which leaves nothing to be desired.” INHALATION OF ATOMIZED FLUIDS. Dr. Beigel says: ‘It is confirmed beyond doubt that atomized fluids enter the respiratory tract, and penetrate into the very cells of the lungs; that, therefore, by means of inhalation, remedies may be applied most appropriately and successfully to the organs of respiration.” According to him the medicaments which can thus be applied beneficially in the above diseases are, nitrate of silver, 3 to 5 grains to the oz. of water, in inflammatory condi- tions; nitrate of aluminium, same strength, in inflammation and 300 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. nervous affections of the larynx and trachea; tannin, astrin- gent and styptic, 1 to 10 grains, as above; alum, 1 to 20 grains; sesquichloride of iron, 5 to 25 minims in an oz. of water; acetate of lead, 3 to 10 grains; sulphate of zine, 1 to 10 grains; common salt, tincture of opium, liquor arsenicalis, pure water, glycerine, lime-water, and cod-liver oil; also the salts of iodine, chlorine, and bromine. SEWAGE CONTAMINATION VS. CHOLERA. Mr. Simon, in his ‘*‘ Report on the Cholera Visitation of 1866,” says: ‘‘It cannot be too distinctly understood that the person who contracts cholera in this country (England) is ipso facto de- monstrated with almost absolute certainty to have been exposed to excremental pollution; that what gave him cholera was (medi- ately or immediately) cholera-contagion discharged from anoth- er’s bowels; that, in short, the diffusion of cholera among us depends entirely upon the numberless filthy facilities which exist, especially in our larger towns, for the fouling of earth, air, and water, and thus secondarily for the infection of man, with what- ever contagion may be contained in the miscellaneous outflow- ings of the population. Excrement-sodden earth, excrement- reeking air, and excrement-tainted water are for us the causes of cholera. That they respectively act only in so far as the excre- ment is cholera-excrement, and that cholera-excrement again only acts in so far as it contains certain microscopical fungi, may be the truest of all true propositions; but whatever be their abstract truth their separate application is impossible. It is ex- crement, indiscriminately, which must be kept from fouling us with its decay. ‘*The local conditions of safety are, above all, these two: 1. That, by appropriate structural works, all the excremental produce of the population shall be so promptly and so thoroughly removed, that the inhabited place, in its air and soil, shall be absolutely without fecal impurities; and, 2. That the water suppiy of the population shall be derived from such sources, and conveyed in such channels, that its contamination by excrement is impossible. ‘©That cholera is still a terror to Europe shows how scantily such illustrations are yet understood. Even here in England the objects which I have named as essential are at best but rarely fulfilled; indeed, for vast numbers of our population scarcely rudimentary endeavors have been made to attain them. Town after town might be named, with myriad on myriad of population, where there is little more structural arrangement for the removal of refuse than if the inhabitants were but tented there for a night. The case of the water supply is no better, whether it be in private hands or under the control of commercial companies. ** Cholera, ravaging here at long intervals, is not Nature’s only retribution for our neglect in these matters. Typhoid fever and much endemic diarrhea are incessant witnesses to the same dele- terious influence; the former annually kills 15,000 to 20,000 of BIOLOGY. 801 our population, and the latter many thousands more. The mere quantity of this wasted life is something horrible to contemplate, and the mode in which the waste is caused is nothing less than shameful. It is to be hoped that, as the education of the country advances, this thing will come to an end; that so much preventi- ble death will not always be accepted as a fate; that for a popula- tion to be thus poisoned by its own excrement will some day be deemed ignominious and intolerable.” FUNGOID ORIGIN OF DISEASES. Modern investigation points to the cryptogamic origin of many diseases, such as cholera, typhus, malarious fevers of hot climates, dysentery, yellow fever; and further research may show that the so-called exanthemata have a like origin. The late epidemic of pestilential intermittent fever at the Mau- ritius, one of the most fatal known, has been evidently connecied at the outset with malarious influences, while its spread was ag- gravated by contagion, by contaminated drinking-water, and by exposure to the emanations from the discharges of infected per- sons. Such is also the history of yellow fever in its rise and prog- ress, in whatever country it occurs; of epidemic dysentery in its home in India; and of cholera. Each is dependent upon its own peculiar fungus for the train of symptoms which ensue; and this again belongs to that genus or species which the animal and vege- table life of the country where it grows tends to produce. The investigations of Dr. Schmidt have proved the presence in the Mauritius fever, along the whole intestinal canal, of minute plants of a fungus, the countertypes of similar growth found un- der the microscope in the water of the Grand River. Rank veve- tation, stagnant waters, a polluted atmosphere, or one damp and reeking with the products of decaying animal and vegetable mat- ter, contaminated water, with heaps of human ordure lying near it, are more or less characteristic of the outbreak and spread of yellow fever, cholera, tropical intermittents, and dysentery. We must bear in mind that streams, sewers, drains, and cesspools of towns, which hold in suspense the germs of many a poison may, and doubtless do, contain other ingredients which destroy the Vitality of the germs, and thus limit their spread. Myriads of them are rendered innocuous, or their organization destroyed, and new combinations formed out of their elements, by the action of the other ingredients suspended in the same medium. There is reason to believe that the cholera-breeding fungus is never so abundant as that of most vegetable fungi; the rarity of its appearance, its comparatively limited spread, and its disappear- ance after a time, are no arguments against its existence, but only show its delicate organization, its easy destruction, and the rarity of the combination of conditions necessary to produce it. It may be that some diseases take their rise in the entrance of the spores of certain species of infusoria, and others in that of the germs of _certain genera of fungi. The cells of either, whilst floating in 26 302 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. the air, must be inconceivably minute; but when introduced into the stomach by the food, or more commonly by the saliva, they there find material congenial to their germination; or, on the other hand, destructive matters may be present. In the latter case they are resolved into their ultimate elements, and, entering into new combinations, cease to be noxious, if they originally were so. In the former, a development probably of the most rudimentary form is produced, and this, though germinating in the stomach, may be as harmless as thousands of its species are, or as poisonous in its degree as its larger brother growing in the field or buzzing in the air. Speedily developed thus far, it now requires other conditions than are to be found in its present habitat, and it as speedily dies; but if possessed of noxious properties, it and its fellows who entered with it have, during their short but active existence, succeeded in poisoning the nutrition of the body. — Lancet. Dr. Joseph G. Richardson, of Union Springs, N. Y., after numerous examinations of human blood, has arrived at the con- clusion that living organisms in decomposing beef tea, when in- gested, may enter the circulation and increase there; and bases his belief on experiment made on himself, by microscopical exam- ination of his blood at intervals after taking 4 ounces of beef liquid, which, according to calculation, contained 27 ,000,000,000 of living organisms. He thinks the presumption is strong that other plants beside those noticed by himself, of a more poisonous nature, may thus enter the circulation, ‘‘ and each constitute the essence, the real contagiwm, of some so-called zymotic disease, as, for example, diphtheria and scarlet fever, small-pox and measles, as declared long ago by Prof. Salisbury, of Cleveland, and re- cently by Prof. Hallier, of Jena.” — Amer. Jour. of Med. Sciences. THE ANTISEPTIC TREATMENT IN SURGERY. We know from the researches of Pasteur that the atmosphere contains among its floating particles the spores of minute vegeta- tions and infusoria, in greatest numbers where animal and vege- table life abound, as in crowded cities, under the shade of trees, © and in the wards of hospitals. The septic energy of the air is in proportion to the abundance of these minute organisms in it, and is destroyed by exposure of these germs toa heat of about 220° F. The character of the decomposition which occurs in a fer- mentable substance is determined by the nature of the organism which develops it; thus the same saccharine solution will undergo . either the vinous or the butyric fermentation, according as the yeast plant or another organism is introduced into it. We cannot refuse to believe, therefore, that the living beings invariably asso- ciated with the various fermentative and putrefactive changes are indeed their causes, and not the oxygen or moisture of the air. These minute organisms are the immediate cause of putrefaction, and putrefaction is regarded as the cause of suppuration. This treatment, as recommended by Mr. Lister and others, does not~ ee ee ee a ee, ee ee Se ee ae | Sid) Bee ta — BIOLOGY. 303 exclude the air from wounds, but applies as a dressing a ma- terial capable of destroying the life of the floating particles. He employs carbolic or phenic acid, the most powerful antiseptic known. He uses ‘“earbolic oil,” 1 part of carbolic acid to 5 of boiled linseed or other fixed oil; ‘‘ carbolic lotion,” carbolic acid 1 part and water 30 parts; and ‘‘ carbolic paste,” or carbolic oil with whitening, of the consistence of a thick paste. By the de- struction of the septic germs by these preparations, the gravest wounds are recovered from with slight and healthy suppuration and very little constitutional disturbance. — Lancet. NEW THEORY OF VISION. Mr. S. Rowley, in the ‘‘American Journal of Science” for Sep- tember, 1868, proposes a new theory of vision, of which the fol- lowing is a condensed statement: ‘* The entire impressions on the retin, before becoming objects of consciousness, are pro- jected in space upon surfaces bisecting each other (at an angle greater or less according to the distance) in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the axes, —the component points of each impres- sion being simultaneously referred outward in lines passing from them through a point a little behind the centre of the crystalline lens; but, excepting the expansion and the inversion resulting from the crossing in the eye of the directions of outward reference, undergoing no change of relative position, — the distance between the planes passing at right angles to the optic axis through any two of the successive concentric zones of points, which make up the retinal impression, continuing the same.” HOMOLOGIES OF SOME OF THE APPENDAGES OF THE ANTERIOR VERTEBRZ OF FISHES. M. E. Baudelot, ‘‘Comptes Rendus,” February, 1868, under- takes to determine the nature of the ossicles which in the Cyprini- de, Siluride, and some other fishes, establish a communication between the anterior extremity of the swimming bladder and the auditory apparatus. Weber long ago considered them as homol- ogous with the bones of the ear of mammals, and gave them, in consequence, the names of malleus, incus, stapes, and claustrum. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, who considered the opercular pieces as the bones of the auditory apparatus, regarded the bones in question as parts of the superior arches of the first, second, and third ver- tebree. According to Cuvier, he is also said to have made out the malleus and the incus as the ribs of the second and first vertebra. Mulder, in 1831, concluded that these bones corresponded to the ear-bones of the higher animals, and that the air-bladder was ho- mologous with the membrane of the tympanum. He afterward attempted to show that the so-called malleus and incus are ribs of the first two vertebree, and the stapes a transverse process of the first vertebra. 304 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. As seen in the carp, the fish usually examined for this purpese, these ossicles of Weber seem to be attached upon the first two ver- tebral bodies, —the stapes and claustrum on the first, and the mal- leusand the incus on the second. But, if other Cyprinide be exam- ined, it will be found that the second vertebral body, apparently simple i in the carp, is really compound, and represents the bodies of the second and third vertebre, in many species separated by an articulating cavity. In this way these vertebree come under the normal type, and these bones have the following signification, according to this observer: the malleus (on the two sides) repre- sents the branches of the inferior arch of the third vertebra, the superior arch, of two wide pieces, being completed by an intercru- ral bone; the incus, the branches of the superior arch of the second vertebra, the inferior being represented by two long trans- verse processes joined to the vertebral body; the stapes, the branches of the superior arch of the first vertebra, the inferior represented by two more or less long transverse processes joined to the body of the vertebra; the claustrum, an intercrural bone, in two halves, in contact on the median line. In the Catostomi, the branches of the upper arch of the second vertebra, or the incus, are very rudimentary, being a simple bony nodule encased in the middle of the tendon which extends trom the anterior extremity of the malleus to the summit of the stapes. This isolated position of a rudiment of a vertebral arch, outside of the vertebral column, shows how the principle of connections may lead an observer astray, unless he takes into account the laws of morphology. ORGANIC FERMENTS ; OR, MOLECULAR GRANULATIONS. M. De Monchy, ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,” February, 1868, finds these very minute movable corpuscles in all concentrated solutions of commercial bicarbonate of soda before filtration, and considers them as organic ferments, as vegetable cells, since they act chem- ically like “ferments in the transformation of cane- sugar and fecula. In the experiments which he gives, the corpuscles are the only active agents, as neither bicarbonate of soda, or carbon- ate of lime, pure, have any action asa ferment. He admits with M. Béchamp (‘‘ Annual of Scientific Discovery,” for 1868, p. 269), that fermentations by the organic ferments of chalk, ete., are physiological acts of nutrition ; ~ the formation of an acid can_be the result only of a secretion effected by the movable corpuscles, thus of necessity organized. These corpuscles lose their activity as ferments ata temperature of 100° C., as also by contact with a solution of potash, one-tenth, in which they are insoluble; , he hence concludes that they are vegetable cells, which have already undergone some degree of development ; they can come only from the air, in which the germs were in suspension, as it cannot be maintained that organic matter could resist the high tempera- ture employed in these experiments. Their presence in the com- mercial articles explains the appearance of vegetable productions BIOLOGY. 305 in media where their presence may seem inexplicable; their ac- tion, as ferments, varies according to the media in which they are found; in certain cases they may be producers of alcohol. M. Béchamp has also shown that these microzyme exist also in all the tissues of organic beings, and in a great number of the cells of these tissues. M.Chaveau has also found them in vaccine and small-pox virus, and in similar products, and it is probable that they play a part, the extent of which physiologists are only beginning to understand, in various healthy and morbid processes. M. Bernard has shown that one of the functions of the liver is to produce and store up glucogenous matter, to be gradually trans- formed into glucose. This glucogenous matter is fecula in a pe- culiar condition of solubility, like that called soluble fecula, by M. Béchamp. The last-named author, ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,” March, 1868, treats the questions of the seat of this function in the liver, and of the way in which fecula becomes glucose in this organ. A zymase or soluble ferment is always the product of a cell or group of living cells; spontaneously, no albuminoid or other mat- ter becomes a zymase, or acquires its properties; it requires the presence of organized material. In the mouth, the ‘‘ organisms of Leeuwenhoek,” or molecular granulations, form sialozymase (salivary diastase) with the products of the parotid and other Saliva. These granulations (genus Microzyma) are the cause of the fermentation in old wines, in solutions of cane-sugar and starchy pastes with chalk, exist in the tissues of organic beings, and are constant elements of the hepatic cells. From experiments With the latter, he concludes: 1. That these granulations of the liver are imputrescible, insoluble in acetic acid and potash solu- tions, and endowed with a mobility which persists even in viscid liquid. 2. They render fluid starch paste with rapidity, and pro- duce soluble fecula. 3. By the zymase, which they produce with the albuminoid matters of the liver cells, they cause the formation of glucose. In the sap of vegetables, according to M. De Monchy, ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,” March, 1868, are large numbers of granules having an oscillating motion, called by botanists ‘‘ movable globules.” The same granules have been noticed in the pollen-bearing utricles, in the liquids of insects, especially in the eggs and larvee of lepi- doptera, and in the posterior part of the body in spiders, also in the pigment layer of the choroid coat of the eye. His experi- ments there detailed, show that these oscillating granules, from all the above sources, are organisms acting powerfully, like fer- ments, on the matters with which they are naturally in contact. They act on cane-sugar, starch, and gelatine as ferments, trans- forming them more or less quickly and completely into glucose. The function of these granules is to assist in the ripening of fruits, and in both the animal and vegetable kingdom to elaborate certain matters for the nourishment of germs and the incessant regenera- tion of organs. Leydig says: ‘‘ We may state absolutely that what we call ‘elements of formation’ are preceded by a series of creations.” M. Monchy regards these oscillating granules as the 26* 306 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. active agents in this series of creations, effectually aiding in the formation and regeneration of the tissues. The results of the experiments of these authors are important, and furnish new and much desired materials for the study of cel- lular physiology. RATTLESNAKE POISON. From experiments on pigeons, Dr. Weir Mitchell has arrived at the following conclusions: The venom of the rattlesnake is per- fectly harmless when swallowed, as it cannot pass through the mucous surfaces, and undergoes a change during digestion which allows it to enter the blood.as a harmless substance, or to escape from the canal in an equally innocent form. Twenty-four hours after it has been swallowed, the contents of the bowel contain no poison. The rectum does not absorb the poison, and it causes no injury when placed in contact with the conjunctiva. It passes through the membranes of the brain, and more swiftly through the peritoneum and pericardium; when it passes through the per- itoneum, it so affects the walls of the capillaries as to allow of their rupture and of the consequent escape of blood. The same phenomena appear on the bare surface of muscles thus poisoned, which, together with the defect of the coagulability of the puisoned blood, account for the excessive bleeding about the fang wounds, The blood globules are unaltered. The animal is not susceptible of injury by the venom of its own species. The sulphites or hyposulphites of soda or lime have no antidotal power. Carbolic acid sometimes delays the fata] result, and usu- ally lessens local bleeding, from no influence of the acid on the venom, but from a direct effect upon the local circulation of the poisoned part; it has no value as a true antidote, and when given internally does not affect the ordinary fatal issue.— N. Y. Medical Journal. MINUTE PARTICLES IN THE AIR OF CITIES. Mr. J. B. Dancer found the following objects in the air of Man- chester, England. Spores appeared in immense numbers, 250,000 to every drop of the water containing the air washing, varying from one ten-thousandth to one fifty-thousandth of an inch in di- ameter; their peculiar molecular motion was observable for a short time. The mycelium of these minute fungi was similar to that of rust or mildew, such as is found on straw and decaying vegetation. In 86 hours the fungi had greatly increased, and on the third day a number of ciliated zodspores were seen moving freely among the spores. The next in quantity wus vegetable tissue, the greater portion under high powers, exhibiting what is called the pitted structure ; many particles were evidently partially burnt wood used in light- ing fires. Along with these were fragments resembling hay and BIOLOGY. 307 straw, and hay seeds, and some very thin and transparent portions of weather-worn vegetation ; there were also some hairs of leaves of plants, and fibres like filaments of cotton, and some fragments of wool. These floating particles in the air will differ in character accord- ing to the season of the year, the direction of the wind, and local- ity, and are much less in quantity after rain. In the above exper- iments, it is estimated that 374 millions of these spores, exclusive of other substances, were collected from 2,495 litres of air, —a quantity which would be respired in about 10 hours by a man of ordinary size, when actively employed. There was a marked ab- sence of particles of carbon among the collected matter. — Chem- ical News, April, 1868. THE POISON GENERATED IN PUTREFACTION. Drs. Bergmann and Schmiedeberg have communicated to the “¢Centralblatt” (German) an account of the isolation of a erystal- line substance, which they believe is the proper poison generated in putrefactive fermentation. This poison, the terror of the dis- secting-room, has hitherto been known only by its effects. The London ‘‘ Lancet” gives the following details of the preparation of this substance which these chemists have succeeded in isolating. It is obtained by diffusion through parchment paper, precipitation with corrosive sublimate from an alkaline solution, removal of the mercury by silver, of silver by sulphuretted hydrogen, evapora- tion, and purification of the residue. Large, well-defined, acicu- lar needles are thus obtained, which are deliquescent in the air, and, exposed to heat, melt and carbonize. They possess a power- fully poisonous action. endo Earthquake in South America . . 267 WAVES" ties is ae ee 128 Earthquakes, use of . Seer al) Earth’ s crust, temperature ‘of... 235 ‘« thickness of 272 Hast-wngliah LEOlOLY LE A \.c, eect East Boston. tunnel -.. .°. 44.5, 48 Ebullition, retarded . . .. .. . 130 Echinoderm, viviparous .. . . 316 Eclipse of the sun, Aug. 17 . 336 Efflorescence . ° . 190 Elasmosaurus platyurus ames - 317 Klectric buoys.-.. : .-. : . 167 “clocks JA ey) 9) eit on jad ee LUD cc. Bas eignal “2 os Yen see eee INDEX. Electriclight ....... Electricalengine . . .-... . 63 a experiment... *. . «83 SC thermometer. <2 <.>.: 154 J treatment oftumors . . 175 Electricity action of, on photo- graphic films .. . 144 sf collected from the air. 184 ica ofsteam .. oe Set - quantity increased byi in- duction coils. . . 174 =f vs. boiler incrustation pun, = will not pass in a vac- MEE Acie ep ot” oho oT + Electrolysis of water. . . . «. .218 Electro-plating on paper... . 219 Elements of EY museum Of. H-4 04 Ellershausen process for making BLeECl aie acae sj. rs - 122 English ordnance. . ... . . 110 Engine, CRETE Soa tai 6) yim se 63 “solar, Ericsson’s . . . 64 e Hugon PASO shine al esuis ie Ericsson’s solarengine . . . . . 64 Eruption iE AWAlle. s s2)c. heaie 20D of Mount Etna... . 264 Esquimaux . siden | omesese Ethnology vs. architecture . . . 366 s©" puilology 3...» > abl Etna, eruptionof . . ope Ue Eustachian tube in swallowi ing adits cord Evaporation vs.trees ... . . 183 Expedition, Arctic, German. . . 365 ee eM WECIS is.” «7°85 (00 Eyes of vertebrates . . .. . . 332 Fall of the leaves, cause of . . . 323 Fate of Sir John Franklin . . . 365 Fauna of bone-. caves of Brazil . . 259 * France, an- lo eee Fermentation .. . = Herments,organic ... » .« « » a4 Fertilization of plants . . . . . 335 TRS RCE. 9 oo sew css, o BID Fire, Greek .. Se Sie ae Fire-damp, death by . oieisieeS 329 Fire-proof floors .. ae iE SANE Mia ve iiedad <4) (elt /s 2 ocho PLO} Fires, how toextinguish . . . . 152 Fishes, fossil, vast numberof . . 273 «’ Variation in the fins of . . 313 “¢ vertebral aaa mologies of . enone SOS Flames, source of light i fp se ee Klintimplements ..... . . 361 Flora, Arctic, miocene. .. . . 273 Floors, fire-proof . . 59, 100 Food, estimated in horse power - 284 en DS-qresmiratlOml. st... - 283 Te PS> WOLK: ,, ae aE OSL ° i | ~J “waste, utilization’ of HWorce) Of. water *. ois 'd Phone kG, ‘¢ method of cutting - »« 100, 154 ‘* perforation of by the electric Sparky. yo) er “oO eee nope k LO $6<- DH BDIO) «7 ta +t woe eee ee Gincosuria® 92) 2s hs ten ce ore che ee Glue, liquid, . . ore PEC “new preparations OE bai aay Glyphography oes TAL Gold fields of South Afri ica Reser 27/0. < “C “ Venezuela. .-< «260 Gold, mosaic. . Ba ee eee es (?/ Grain, proper use ENS OS a eee 298 Granulations, molecular... . 304 Greek fire . aio) teewomane 114 Green rotten wood ip) oll Seema OS Greenland: : 6.0.) “case rc weet er eee ee Gun, Armstrong ...... .1l¢ cone Gravtlin es. Jus a) oucemuete olsen mene Gunboat, new eR Che rs oar ee lle: Guns, hand vs. shoulder: .* 05. 5112 Hamatoidin-.<«../ 0-04 « 328 Hair,ofhumanraces. .. . sé vegetables. - << e-- Hair-cutting, by meee ° Hand guns . ° Hansen’s theory ‘of the moon Hawaii, eruption at aoe Heat, from burning gases . Dp EEICHIGN oo a. cS eihst. oeiee “e ‘¢ magnetism . . 183 ‘¢ of sun, annual amount of . . 182 “ys. mental work . . . . «285 Heavy locomotives... <<... 60 Heights of volcanoes. . .. . sere 374 INDEX. Hell Gate, tides at . «© «© © © « 185 eb v8. vitality 5. “ot. ae. “elie dente Holes, drilled .. .. . « « «105 | Lightning. . . . « « « « « « 169 ‘¢ punched. . - 105 | Lightning rods. . . . « « « «172 Homologies of teeth of mammalia 314 Trme-light , 52.5 5-1 eaies to ese aetee! Ieee ‘“* of vertebral appenda- Linneus, lunarcrater ... . . 349 pes inj fishes) +4.) .cets) vole oe eey OOS Liquid fael very. Hevea eist cues Hoosac Tunnel. . Pye haees 2 e ol 6 tte ee Horse, Arabian, a specific type - «319 | Liver, minute structure of. . olin ee Hosiery, poisonous .. .. . . 219 | Livingstone, Dr., news from. . . 365 Human hair... . . « « e . 318 | Localanesthesia . . Tieses gt hee “o Taces, ei oe of ole ie: ele oe Locomotives, American ... . 60 Hybrids, natural eoreereies ener oko Buropesuis. sto) 6) 60 Hydration. . iterssewbchinet orl OO ce forcommon roads . 62 Hydraulic propeller ewich leleieastwcs (ol as heavy . - 60 Hydriodicacid . . .... . . 206 | Longitude, study of, by telegraph . 184 Hydrogenium . 9s « . e's « « 3X | Lubrication, by paraffine «: le rel oes Luminous photographs .. . . 14d Ice, formation of, under water . . 157 | Lunar vegetation . . . . ». e « 349 Ichthyosaurus 4 0G) Ape be peeoMeeres: Immense machines .. . - « 105 | Machinery, elements of, museum of xIv Implements, similarity of . - 360 | Machines,immense ..... - 105 Incrustations, boiler vs. electricity 67 | Magnesia crucibles . .. . « « 232 Indelible ink, aniline . ~ 98 | Magnesium light: 22) .fea-c % rah 37 Index ofrefraction . . 134 | Magnetic disturbance during vol- Indigo, extraction of, from rags - 100 caniceruptions . Induction coils . . - . 174 | Magnetism vs. atomic and specific Inhalation of atomized fluids . . 299 weight . Sper aed is Injector, Giffard, principle of . . 61 | Magneto- -electric machines" Miksa Lol! Ink, indelible, aniline . . - « 98 | Maine, glacial actionin . . 240 ““ printers’, new .. . . - + 96 | Mammalia, homologies of teeth of . 314 Insects; ancestry of . : . « « «316 $¢ with os ehistoric man . 355 J nsulation, wiegronk - e « « » 166 | Man, antiquity o o SSRI Se Intercontinental seas . . - 301 BES TOBSH) 1 s\Wis e's: erp ole -aeay. Invariable temperature, internal ne prehistoric a oo 357, 361 stratum of. . Sifts! Pal awicenn Se a — associ- Tron bridges, life Eee a ated with .. «2 0 300 Iron, cast, coating of . . . . - 105 | Manganese, in California oe eae Sak galy: anic deposition of . . . 87 | Mankind, pedigree of BST RSIZ ‘“ imAlgeria .. . - - 231 | Manual vs.mentallabor .. . . 325 ‘« manufacture of . . . 19,23, 26 | Marine reptile,new . . . . . . 317 «¢ mechanical PLOperee of . . 13 | Mars, rotation period of .. . . 349 ‘¢ pure : siteme TOL Mastodon, in California . . . . 206 Italy, cretaceous BesiN ww / 2 8s B72 *.S. Carolina =. ss. Sta2ez Mauritius, sugar-making in ° 84 Japan, stone age in . . . « « « 362 | Meat, fresh, supply of . o 7k ‘¢ processes for preserving 75, 232 Kabyles . . « « « 820 | Medal, Albert : 107 Kerosene, dangers ‘from Hee 75) Melting pointing of silicates . rae 153 Whasias: <. Ssicececws te te 1 oi) B62. |) Mental vs:;:manuallaboreseaste. ss 520 “work vs. heat. . . 0... 285 bake basins ©. «00+ 2-0 « «-« 241 | Mersey River bridge... 900 00% me tener Lamps, new . we SO | Metals, new « S78 ie wank cee) 220 Language, articulate, seat of the Metamorphism : oteitte eee faculty of... - « « « « «325 | Meteoric showers in 1868 . . . . 346 Large roof . Gu ni alate, oe theory -... Peercunesicar 21!) Lead, action of water. BH 28 Methylene, bichloride of 3... raneee Leather, refuse, use of . . . . . 73 | Mica spectacle glasses .... « 92 Leaves, why they fall. » » » 323 | Microscope, new <0). )'. a) 1 aatel Lever bridge sis ee Kets er js 14 (a Manarcens ose Fes eS hog Life in ocean depths “ . . . 320 | Minerals of California . . . . . 231 Light, chemicalactionof . . . . 143 ae ‘¢ Newfoundland .. . 231 electric .... . « . 135 | Minute particles in air of cities. . 306 ‘¢ in flames, source of . - 135 | Miocene flora, Aretic-. .. 1... « Baaces “ influence of on carbonic an- Mirrors, platinized ... . - 138 hydride : 181 ee Slvering~/-4.).. iis ORO ‘¢ influence of on green color Mississippi, the upper . -. . - . 253 of plants . 182 | Molecularforces .. . a Diep. thaw ‘from metallic carbons. . . 182 a ranulations . othe coke «magnesium 137 ‘¢ influence upon light - 131 “molecular influence upon. 131 | Monocarbon compounds .. . . 190 “transmission of, through ani- Monstrosities, artificial production mal tissues . wate oeg OF» 6: = 'e 10's 0 Hane Setteatemnents jks a el ee ee ee Se a INDEX. Mont Cenis railway . + « » « « 38 cc tunnel oN « , «., eb acts, 08 pS RR, Ogham... « « Moon, Hansen’s theory of . ‘s+ influence of on sulin og of vapor. . a pdtire UistokO Moonlight vs. daybreak a Senna, 0 O20 Mortars, ancient, hardness of . . 193 Mosaic gold arene ee ete ce. LOZ Motion, atomic. . . . «© « « « 1% A differential-. 2. . « ‘« » 106 a: vs. Vitality étior nem etecO Muffa, of sulphur sprin oe . 323 Museum of elements 0 machinery XIV Musical telegraph. . . « » + « 180 Nationality in voices ... » «333 Naturalaniline ......-. - 331 Me hyprids 97%) . eos 6 se 31D Nebraska, coalin. . . . . « ~ 262 Nebule, spectraof . . . . 343, 344 Nervous force vs. caloric . 0 ‘functions, influence of cold OMe icc rome CA Newcements . sie wees” Beiitereeoo PCIE ERIS. Pato ns le alive, oe! pelivieieneee fe pangs. on: Binet oo? ofp eee “© planets in PAB ases catia Ma « B46 ee UVarnISNES. Sf a. cf% Sis aioe ‘“¢ war vessels : p02 10S New Hampshire, copper dames <<: B31 Newfoundland, minerals of . 231 Ni iagara Falls F Ben ces Breet “ new bridge - 43 Bia of soda process for making 8 ee. . . . . . . . s . 2 Nitro-glycerine . yc 117, 121 Nomad races of Russia . Shite eoeeolS Norfolk bustard ... . o Seaae Qbituary notices ...... . 367 Ocean depths, lifein. . . . . . 320 Ogham monuments ... . . .» 362 -Ordnance, IAMENIEAN Ts Geitelt «hist es OS English acters . 110 Organicchemistry .. . . 186, 187 “ ferments . . . . . . . 304 ‘* progression of animals. 311 “© substances, artificial forma- tion-of- =% SRE Tek eles 3187 Origin of prairies seeder in’ (sta Fehr eae of solar system . . Orion, spectrum of nebulain . . 344 Oxalic acid, formation of, by car- bonic acid’ : an¥s, 188, 195 Oxide of iron, magnetic, artificial . 230 Oxygen, absorption of vs. excre- tion of carbonicacid . ... . Oxygen gas-light . . ... . . 210 a preparation offsets - 228 ss “from the air 192 Oxyhydrogen bage at Rete tee SO @zone ...... WP aemeradiehie: «7s , 194 Pacific Islands, SuclTaMeS of . . 364 “railroad . : bi ketig era eh ROS Pain, physiology of |. caver eb eee Paint, removal of .°. «2s «+103 Paints, new ro ath SeeC ay Pancreas, actionof ... . . . 326 Pangenesis - : ° . 310 Paper, sulphurized Gea fake wee 375 Paper, toDACCO ss ms wee «0 ANZ “5 =8e8 OL". v0 jet of Sonoe sc ss water- proof. «) eiitel MMe. «AO Paraffine, as.a lubricator . lig BS Peabody breech- -loading system a fe Pebbles, Brazilian’ | o3% casi s) sbd9 Pedigree of mankind .. « « 312 Penetration of cannon balls sifted Permanganate of potash . . . 214 Permeability of cast-iron to gases 126 Petrifaction of the human body . 330 Petroleum, expansionof . . fuel : 66 in the Caucasus . Pharaoh’s serpents, harmless Philology vs. ethnology . Photographic i image, nature of; »,141 e . . . . 4 & cpteremes aii 146 as High. 20. Ps teens cla Photographs, eos ate Ra ee, luminous. . s 145 ae preservation of . . 152 Photography at French exhibition 149 Phycocyan . 193 Physiological action vs. chemical constitution of medicine Picric acid . opie 5 121, 329 Pier, at Southport _ of sepia. Wot ’at eee Planets, new,in 1868 .. . . . 346 t°. Water OM siete tee alupoe xo aed Plants, fertilization of . . . . 335 et, efossil; Old’ * tines ce Me> wane eee «« tubular vessels of . . . » 335 Platinized mirrors. 138 Platinum, electrical conductivity of 183 Pliable glass. . op a aMenteeee Seg Poison of putrefaction é Jini? othe etuen ob the rattlesnake . . . . 306 Poisoning by cyanide of potash, external, antidote to . . . . . 329 Poisonous hosiery : Sire rekatepeke Polarizing apparatus, new. . 134 Portrait figures, with natural land- scapes oy, Nou Wet romkee Potash, cyanide, antidote ote to one ‘¢ permanganate of . . . . 214 Powder, anthracite ... . ». « 120 Prague bridge . . ». »« « + » + 45 Prairies, origin of . oe. mateneee Prehistoric archeology . S| apenas SAE man . . » 357, 361 ae an mammalia associ- ated with . AA Bet Preservation of. anatomical speci- MENS.) os Vencemase of $C meat, 1c: +> e 4Oy aoe # S¢ REONG! )eraen toh tees é¢ 66 wines . . . = . 78 ES $6 WOOG, 3) Loahey rete Printer’s ink, new. . « «= « « 90 Progress, a animal : - eed Progression, organic, ‘of animals . 311 Projectiles, form of, for penetrat- ing water 7 A0nck 2 Riese. a fhis Pterodactyle . - J icl Bheecntae: Pulmonary consumption i ee ee Pulverized fuel. . . . « « « + 66 Punched holes . S eyeset | on0O Purity of water, method of testing 202 Putrefaction, poisonin. . . . ~- 307 PyAin <.n.fsVelsnte sare See Pyrometer, new .. . + «© « + 182 376 Quaternary deposits . . . « . . 259 Quincy railroad bide ae tote. et Quinoidine, animal SR a al ore: Races, human, types of . meee «native, "of Abyssinia eahenoek ‘© nomad of Russia 318 Radiation vs. surface Rail of Bessemer steel Railroad, Pacific . . Railway, elevated. . < Mont Cenis ‘ underground Railways, street .. Rattlesnake poison . Refraction, double, theory of index of . Refuse; animal, treatment of eeee @ @ © @ Gu 6 cae te, ah 6 le 16 4a ©. e's ‘eer eo isle SY 2 09 ae] rg oa @ ‘BY jer eB. eo eo @ -e ‘6. 0 ‘6 of ‘fe Te. 8) By 8 ‘eo. 8 fe ue 8s . «..-... Sexes of bees, productionof.. . ke. ofspiders:. 4) . 334 Shadows, from transparent bodies 181 Showers, meteoric, in 1868, . . . 346 Siamese twins . Serie ee OOL Silicates, melting point See Silver, chloride of . ... . Silvering mirrors. . .°. . = . 90 Siredon, alarvalform . . Skates, sterility among. . . Skycolorion,.) 2. riesite Snow, warmthof ..... Solar ‘engine, Ericsson’s ° Solar system, originof.. . Sound, transmission of . . . . «« velocity of, in tubes - 178 ‘¢ vibrations of, made visible . 180 Sounds,instrument for analyzing . 180 South America, late eee in 267 Southport pier. . atte Joie tae Species among diatoms. . . . . 324 Specific gravity vs.magnetism . . 163 vs. weight. . . . 124 Spectacle glasses, mica. . . »« « 92 e e e e e e e ewe pee © INDEX. Spectra ofthe nebule . . . 343, 344 ee solar spots . . . . 343 ee ss stars. . . 9343, 344 Spectroscope and the Bessemer process .. <8. oe Spectrum analy sis, facts in. of aurora borealis “sof comet II., 1868 “reconstructed . . Spiders, sexes of . . .. Splanchnoscope. ae Sponge, for textile fabrics . Stars, colors Of se Fol RS (C .-spectra Of). 2. - ‘6 water. on Steam, electricity of . - Steam’ engine, Bailey’s ots Steel billiard balls _.. . «¢ casting of, under high pres- C120, OUK SG 6.) (8) Oe. en 28 i“ ks oe sure ° ° ° e e e e e ‘hardening of . soa SO ‘© manufacture of 16, 17, ‘21, 23, 30, 106, 122 ‘¢ mechanical properties of . . 13 Sterility among skates . . « e « ddd St. Louis bridge _..... 6 © « « 4 Stone agein Japan . . . « « » 302 « « Switzerland... . 361 “artificial . Set oS FOD “ circles of Scotland . . oe OU ‘preservation of QSOS Tas Stonehenge .. - . 363 Storer’s process for making steel 17 Storms, Atlantic, reaching the Med- iternmaneGans. ¢ ces oe cee eee sa Street railways... . . 138 street. watering. 2... - «4% 86, 217, 328 Strikes “ ow eis Sm Submarine drill o goat ie Seletee 121 Suez Canal . . : ok tt LOS ae Sugar, bleaching of 6 ae TB SAGE ‘making in Mauritius . . &4 Sulphur, extractionof . . . . . 218 Sulphurized paper ..... -. 95 Sun, chemical raysof .... » 132 “> total.eclipse of (2207 222 sa58 ‘6 spots, color of et et ctooe se ‘“* segmentationof .. . 349 xe ‘* spectra of : 6 oe8s: Sun’s heat, annual amount of . . 182 & TAY’S, POWEINOR) chs tear epee Surface vs. radiation. . - « 183 Suspension bridge, at Nashville . 44 Swedish Arctic expedition . . . 366 Switzerland, stone agein. .. . 361 Syphon under the Seine ... . 50 Technical Schools:. . . « « « « VI Tees tunnel . 49 Teeth of mammalia, homologies of 314 Telegraph cables, hempen .. . insulation... . . 166 cs musical -.°-. «. *. pepe en 9S.) Woodalcohol —. 1. Ce GIS so ee egetation, lunar . . .« »« « « +. 40 “© carbonization of. Cie 0 6 ae elocipede, w WALET cls) oasei vedic scenes ‘“¢ preservationof .... . 80 voneee ot sound. . - + « » 178 | Wood-hangings. . . . + ». » « 81 Venezuela, gold fields of . . . .260 | Work vs.food .. . Awl evento: Venom oftoads . .. . . . . 3832 | Workmen, good, scarcity Of ee Veratria, actionof . - 326 | Wounds by Chassepotrifie . . . 329 Vertebral appendages, homologies Wrought-iron boilers .... .- 7 CURGING TET ig ae Saee peers ore ican 13 Vertebrates, eyesof... . . . 332 | Yesso, hairymenof . .. . « « 303 Vessel of war, new . Se ice Vessels, tubular, of plants . » » . 335 ' Zircon, in oxyhydrogen light , . 136 32* COULD AND LINGGEN, 59 WASHINGTON STREET, BOSTON, ould call particular attention to the following valazdie works deseribed in their Catalogue of Publications, viz.: Hugh Miller’s Works. Bayne’s Workt. Walker’s Works. Miall’s Worx. Bungener’s Work. Annnal of Scientific Discovery. Knight’s Fnew.sedge is Power. Erummacher’s Srffevipz fav’ our, Banvard’s American Histories. Tue Aimwell Stories. Wewcomb’s Works. Tweedie’s Works. Chamtkers’s Works. Harris’ Works Kitto’s Cyclopedia of Biolizal Literature. Mrs. Knight’s Life of Montgomery. Kitto’s History of Palestine. Whewell’s Work. Wzyland’s “Works. Agassiz’s Works. ae fie Tip \ Sentirony ay of Kocks < tone aid \\s \ Apa. of Jcient, Dis “@ Hugh xa A § A \Y } Barra: »nd Man Si le \ peters Mle \\ $i EZ ENN nciples of \\, Arno uyot, — y vas) Eri Zoology, \ Louis Agassiz, = Comp*ratire Anato C.T SA\\\: . Mollusca and Shella.” \, Augistes Siebota. " a Thesaur. of Eng, Words, \ Peter Mask Gould, Xa\\ Koowledee i iz Power, Charles x bea paged) nizht, XY \ Cyclop. of Eng. Literat.,\\\ Robers Chambe . Ny \\ Cyclops of Bible Lit., \, ibtos Graden, \ i \ Concord. of the Bible, \ ie. — Wiliams W\\ | Analyt. Conc. of Bible, \, \ Francis AL ayland. \\, Moral Science, \ Jobn Harris. 3) Z\\ \\ \ The Great Teachety o Peter Bayne. = \\ Caw Chris ss == == =, \ BIT TESA Williams’ Works. Guyot’s Works. Thompson’s Better Land. Kimball’s Heaven. Valuable Works on Missiors, Haven's Mental Philosophy. Buchanan’s Modern Atheism. Cruden’s Condensed Concordance. Eadie’s Analytical Concordance, The Psalmist: a Collection of Hymns. Valuable School Books. Works for Sabbath Schools. Memoir of Amos Lawrence. Poetical Works of Milton, Cowper, Scott. Elegant Miniature Volumes. Arvine’s Cyclopzdia of Anecdotes. Ripley’s Notes on Gospels, Acts, and Romans. Sprague’s isuropean Celebrities. Marsh's Camel and the Hallig. Roget's Thesaurus of English Words. Hackett’s Notes on Acts. M’Whorter's Yahveh Christ. Siebold and Stannius’s Comparative Anatomy. Marcou’s Geological Map, U.& Religious and Miscellaneous Works. Works in the various Departments of Literature, Science and Arty Gould and Lincoln's Dublications. MILLER’S CRUISE OF THE BETSEY ; or,a Summer Ramble among the Fossiliferous Deposits of the Hebrides. With Rambles of a Geologist; or, Ten Thousand Miles over the Fossiliferous Deposits of Scotland. 12mo, pp. 524, cloth, 1.75. MILLER’S ESSAYS, Historical and Biographical, Political and Social, Lit- erary and Scientific. By HUGH MILLER. With Preface by Peter Bayne. 12mo, cloth, 1.75. @ILLER’S FOOT-PRINTS OF THE CREATOR; or, the Asterolepis of Stromness, with numerous Illustrations. With a Memoir of the Author, by Louis AGASSIZ. 12mo, cloth, 1.75. MILLER’S FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF ENGLAND AND ITS PEOPLE. Witha fine Engraving of the Author. 12mo, cloth, 1.50, MILLER’S HEADSHIP OF CHRIST, and the Rights of the Christian People, a Collection of Personal Portraitures, Historical and Descriptive Sketches and Essays, with the Author’s celebrated Letter to Lord Brougham. By HuGuH MILLER. Edited, with a Preface, by PETER BAYNE, A.M. 12mo, cloth, 1.75. MILLER’S OLD RED SANDSTONE; or, New Walks in an Old Field. Illustrated with Plates and Geological Sections. NEW EDITION, REVISED AND MUCH ENLARGED, by the addition of new matter and new Illustrations, &c. 12mo, cloth, 1.75. MILLER’S POPULAR GEOLOGY; With Descriptive Sketches from a Geologist’s Portfolio. By HUGH MILLER. With a Resume of the Progresa of Geological Science during the last two years. By Mrs. MILLER, 12mo, cloth, 1.75. MILLER’S SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLMASTERS ; or, the Story of my Education. AN AUTOBIOGRAPHY. With a full-length Portrait of the Author. 12mo, 1.75. MILLER’S TALES. AND SKETCHES. Edited, with a Preface, &c., by Mrs. MILLER. 12mo, 1.50. Among the subjects are: Recollections of Ferguson — Burns — The Salmon Fisher of Udol—The Widow of Dunskaith—- The Lykewake — Bill Whyte ~ The Young Surgeon— George Ross, the Scotch Agent — M’Culloch, the Mech- anician— A True Story of the Life of a Scotch Merchant of the Kighteenth Century. t MILLER’S TESTIMONY OF THE ROCKS; or, Geology in its Bear- ings on the two Theologies, Natural and Revealed. ‘Thou shalt be in league with the stones of the field.’— Job. With numerous elegant Illustrations. One volume, royal 12mo, cloth, 1.75. HUGH MILLER’S WORKS. Ten volumes, uniform style, in an elegan* box, embossed cloth, 17; library sheep, 20; half calf, 34; antique, 34. MACAULAY ON SCOTLAND. A Critique from HuGH MILLER’s “ Wit ness.” 16mo, flexible cloth. 37 cts. & Gould and Xincoln’s Bublications. ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY FOR 1869; or, Year Book of Facts in Science and Art, exhibiting the most important Discoveries and Improvements in Mechanics, Useful Arts, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Astronomy, Meteorology, Zodlogy, Botany, Mineralogy, Geology, Geography, Antiquities, &c., together with a list of recent Scientific Publications; a classi- fied list of Patents; Obituaries of eminent Scientific Men; an Index of Impor- tant Papers in Scientific Journals, Reports, &c. Edited byS. KNEELAND. M.D. With a Portrait of Prof. James B. Dana. 12mo. 2.00. VOLUMES OF THE SAME WonrkK for years 1850 to 1864 (fifteen vols.), with the Likeness of some distinguished Scientific or Literary man in each. 2.00 per volume. The whole Series bound in uniform style, and put up in an elegant, substantial box, 34.00. This work, issued annually, contains all important facts discovered or announced during the year. oa@- Each volume is distinct in itself, and contains entuely new matter. THE PLURALITY OF WORLDS. A NEW EbITION. With a SUPPLE- MENTARY DIALOGUE, in which the author’s Reviewers are reviewed. 12mo, cloth, 1.50. THE ROMANCE OF NATURAL HISTORY. By Puivie HENRY GossE. With numerous elegant Illustrations, 12mo, cloth, 1.75. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES; Ita Typical Forms and Primeval Distribution. By CHARLES HAMILTON SMITH. With an Introduction containing an Abstract of the views of Blumenbach, Prichard, Bachman, “Agassiz, and other writers of repute. By SAMUEL KNEE: LAND, Jr., M.D. With elegant Illustrations. 12mo, cloth, 1.75. TREATISE ON THE COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE AN- IMAL KINGDOM. By Profs. C. TH. VON SIEBOLD and H. STANNIUS, Translated from the German, with Notes, Additions, &&. By WALDO I. BuR- NETT, M. D., Boston. One elegant octavo volume, cloth, 3.50. This is believed to be incomparably the best and most complete work on the subject extant. THE CAMEL; His Organization, Habits, and Uses, considered with refer ence to his introduction into the United States. By GEORGE P. MARSH, late U.S. Minister at Constantinople. 12mo, cloth, 75 cts. INFLUENCE OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE UPON INTETL- LECTUAL EDUCATION. By WILLIAM WHEWELL, D. D., of Trinity College, England, and the alleged author of “ Plurality of Worlds.” 12mo, cloth, 40 cts. KNOWLEDGE IS POWER. A view of the Productive Forces of Modern Society, and the Results of Labor, Capital, and Skill. By CHARLES KNIGHT. With numerous Illustrations. American Edition. Revised, with additions, by DAvip A. WELLS, Editor of the ‘‘ Annual of Scientific Discovery.”” 12mo, cloth, 1.75, 6 ie MBL/WHOI LIBRARY AUT WH L&FB + ,_-~ = @ = «a- << ee, , : “ee - a he ee ora S BS in nae cea ca Ble Non Me BAD sae as eS ee Sn Ri ea Ne BIS NS i i. ~— ee Oc & one —_ Sa e~ x Rare ee a a Bee Be Se Be Sy gs, © BO Ey OE BF a Se ore <00- O50 00 pe DALE De ae A: Ae Ae > BO: ae dt AS A Ao, OP ee Be ge “y ; abuagl : 3 $ : * ee = eh es, "BO" BBP” 2 @~ > d - < mi # . 70 : COLOR eT nee PoP eee eo 2- ; O eer A ak pet Tht ae f _ > rt -G- yas ty > es Aes ' ~~ * -, . “~ > , - 3 re ; Re 2 ‘ A = ~ Sr ee i ae 2 b . 2. + a * Ne yg IR : . mun ee NEW erry er aT sh ve a) * Nah a ° » 22 ‘ 64) gic geile . = TES Tete ey a RAL a a - oat = : P . f ie art. 5~ oh : 7 7A ae ee a 2 . whet oN b> ~ Be 2 - EN ey Ae ‘4 7 Yee . * aa MeN Le AS ~ -° ma) FA ite aged f S/S Seay Bg : 7 ; Awad “hi oS, ms a Se eG Po et Mogrtss Ro Soy, — rt enmy ea ; - fo PR PR ‘ 4 Y . rede’ Ate oe ee SIE S- Bae ere: : EEN Z e944 ee saat cont . tf : he -to-tepo os IGG , - ‘s od . a mS PO 2 gi 4 2 : : > : "1 - eh. SS Geet eels oe f A ) 7 . ’ “yt a Naat ye een nS