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oN © AT,
SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY:

OR;

YEAR-BOOK OF FACTS IN SCIENCE AND ART,
BOR 18:7'0-

EXHIBITING THE

MOST IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS

IN

MECHANICS, USEFUL ARTS, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,
ASTRONOMY, GEOLOGY, BIOLOGY, BOTANY, MINERALOGY,
METEOROLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, ANTIQUITIES, ETC.,

TOGETHER WITH

NOTES ON THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE DURING THE YEAR 1869; A LIST
OF RECENT SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS; OBITUARIES OF
EMINENT SCIENTIFIC MEN, ETC,

EDITED BY

JOHN TROWBRIDGE, S.B.,

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY;
AIDED BY
SAMUEL KNEELAND, M.D.,
PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN THE INSTITUTE;
AND

W. R. NICHOLS,

GRADUATE OF THE INSTITUTE.

~

BOSTON:
Gov D AND Lincoln;
59 WASHINGTON STREET.

NEW YORK: SHELDON AND COMPANY.
LONDON: TRUBNER & CO,

£57 O3

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by
GOULD AND LINCOLN,
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the District of Massachusetts,

NOTES BY THE EDITOR,

ON THE

PROGRESS OF SCIENCE FOR THE YEAR 1869.

THE opening of the Pacific Railway and of the Suez Canal, and
the completion of the laying of the French Cable, are tempting
subjects to dwell upon.

It is not fitting to indulge in national boasting, at the comple-
tion of our line to the Pacific, before we learn the exact condition
of the road, and the thoroughness of the work; although the ra-
pidity of its execution, and its magnitude, might excuse any dis-
play of national egotism. The opening, however, of our great
territories to the enterprise of both Atlantic and Pacific coasts,
and to the cheap labor of Asia, is a result clearly to be seen.

We shall soon be cailed upon to chronicle other Pacific Rail-
ways; a northern, and possibly a southern one. As in the case
of the French Atlantic Cable, the success of later attempts will be
received as a matter of course, and the Pacific Railroad, whose
completion we note to-day, will lose its prestige among the com-
ing number of routes to the Pacific. In the present volume will
be found accounts of the coal-fields of the territories. Apprehen-
sions of Jack of fuel for our great railway, by the discovery of
these deposits, are seen to be ill-founded. It is felt that the Pa-
cific Railway, with all its great realities and possibilities, is inade-
quate as a means of communication between our lines of coast,
and attention has been redirected to the Darien Ship Canal. An
appropriation has been made by Congress to pay the expenses of
a new survey for this work, and an expedition has already sailed.

The completion of the Suez Canal undoubtedly had its share in
directing public attention in the United States to the possibility
of this enterprise. This canal has been opened with impressive

Ill

IV NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

ceremonies; the reports are somewhat contradictory in regard to
the work.

Shallow iron steam-ships are being built on the Tyne, for the
nayigation of the canal. Mr. Ashbury, who sailed through the
canal in his yacht, Cambria, writes that after taking careful sound-
ings, he is of the opinion that no vessel drawing over nineteen feet
of water can pass through the canal.

The ‘‘ New York Tribune” states: ‘‘ Two of the steamers of
the Messageries Imperiales (French Company), of 2,400 tons
burden, have safely passed through the Suez Canal. Steamers
drawing fifteen feet can navigate the canal from Port Said to
Suez, with ease, in fifteen hours. The water does not wash away
the banks as much as apprehended. The complete success of the
great work exceeds all expectations.”

The Suez Canal Company has issued regulations for the navi-
gation of the canal. Article I. states that the navigation of the
Suez Maritime Canal will be open to all ships without distinction
of nationality, provided their draught of water does not exceed
74 metres, the depth of the canal being 8 metres, equal to 26
English feet.

To-day we witness a return to old routes of commerce. In
early times, the track of commerce between the West and the
East was by the way of Egypt and the Red Sea; from this com-
merce Alexandria rose to opulence, and Venice became a first-
rate power. Afterwards, by the discovery of the Cape route,
trade was diverted into new channels, and Venice and Alexandria
sank in wealth and importance. The opening of the Suez Canal
brings commerce back into its old channel.

We are called upon to chronicle the successful laying of the
French Atlantic Cable.

A project to extend telegraphic communication from Cuba (al-
ready in connection with Florida) by Porto Rico, through the West
India Island, is favorably entertained. Prussia, too, we hear, is
beginning to think of securing more direct communication with
Amerjca. It has been suggested that if a cable were laid from a
point on her seaboard round by the north of Scotland, and by the
western shore of Ireland, to join the Anglo-American cables at
Valentia, Prussia would send all the North of Europe messages
by this route.

It is understood that the Prussian Government have had the
subject recently before them, and that a concession has been
granted to carry out an Atlantic cable, having North Germany

‘

NOTES BY THE EDITOR. Vv

for its terminus. The old project of the North Atlantic is being
again mooted. That route was to go by Iceland, Greenland, and
so on to Canada and the United States, Denmark being the as-
sumed starting-point. The cable to India by the Red Sea is going
on satisfactorily, and an auxiliary line, one between Marseilles
and Malta, is spoken of.

All these projects indicate increased convenience and gain to
the public. At present the use of the ocean telegraph is confined
to the commercial community; but ere long, when the tariff is
reduced from Europe to America, and to India, the general pub-
lic will send messages as freely as they do by the land wires. We
may reasonably hope, too, that the cost of submarine cables will
be reduced by and by, and this will do more to cheapen messages.
than anything else.

In Northern Russia the construction of a land line is far ad-
vanced to connect St. Petersburg with the mouth of the Amour
River, on completion of which only a submarine link will be
wanting to complete the telegraphic girdle round the earth.

Electricity and steam are the great agents of civilization. The
introduction of telegraphic lines and railways in Russia and Asia
is destined to revolutionize this part of the globe. We Americans
are apt to think ourselves the most progressive nation, and point
with especial pride to our Pacific Railway. Russia, however, is
making great strides; and the English railways in India com-
pete in difficulty of execution and magnitude with the Pacific
Railway.

During the past year several improvements in railway carriages
have been brought before the public.

Mr. Robert F. Fairlie has invented a steam carriage which will
round curves of 50 feet radius at 20 miles an hour, with, it is al-
leged, perfect safety. The carriage, instead of seating the usual
complement of 100 passengers (English car), seats only 66. The
English papers are enthusiastic in regard to this carriage.

The Portmadoc and Festiniog Railway, in Wales, has also at-
tracted much attention, from the narrownéss of its gauge, —two
feet only. The Fairlie carriage and the narrow-gauge railway
will undoubtedly come into play in difficult countries.

We are certainly far from perfection in the construction of our
railways in America. The fearful catastrophes that have taken
place from cars taking fire have reawakened an interest in new
methods of heating them. No method has yet been devised to
meet the difficulty satisfactorily. In this volume will be found

1*

VI NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

the description of an electro-heating apparatus. The introduction
of steel rails promises to make accidents from defective rails rarer.

The English have lately turned their attention to the American
system of constructing railroads. They have found, to their sur-
prise, that in India they must adopt American ideas. Notwith-
standing its defects, it has been found that our system is likely to
prove the best for their colonies. A commission of English engi-
neers are now investigating our system with a view to the rail-
ways of India.

The brake power on several of the French and Spanish railways
has been greatly increased by an ingenious arrangement con-
ceived by Monsieur Chatelier, of applying what has been termed
‘*contre vapeur” to the engine, converting it, for the time being,
into a pump forcing steam and water into the boiler.

At a meeting of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
held in Boston, U. S., the Rumford medals were presented to Mr.
George H. Corliss, of Providence, R. I., for his improvements in
the steam-engine. ‘The presentation was made by Dr. Asa Gray,
the President of the Academy. We make the following extract
from his remarks : — 2
_ **Tt appears that within the twenty years since this machinery
was perfected, more than 1,000 engines of the kind have been
built in the United States, and several hundred in other countries,
giving an aggregate of not less than 250,000 horse-power; that
as to economy of fuel, evidence has been afforded to the Rumford
Committee, showing a saving over older forms of engines of about
one-third. As to its other crowning excellence,’ uniformity of ve-
locity, the purchasers of one of the engines, now in its eighteenth
year of service, certify that, with the power varying from 60 to
360 horse-power within a minute, the speed of the engine is not
perceptibly affected.”

While we chronicle the great works in engineering, the improve-
ments of the past year in making steel promise still greater
achievements. The Bessemer process has already done much;
the later discovery of Bessemer, the high-pressure furnace, by
which the melting of ores is accomplished much more speedily and
economically than by the old processes, is destined, it is thought, to
further cheapen steel. It is stated that Bessemer was led to this
discovery by meditation on the cause of the heat of the sun, and
the influence that the force of gravity, 27 times greater than that
upon our earth, must have upon the intensity of that heat.

NOTES BY THE EDITOR. VII

The Siemens regenerating furnaces are being rapidly intro-
duced into this country.

These processes tend towards cheapening a very first-class ma-
terial, which will undoubtedly supersede iron for almost all strue-
tural purposes. Engineers hesitate at present to use this material,
since no adequate experiments have been made in regard to the
limits to which steel structures can be loaded with safety. Ex-
perimental researches have been carried on for some time in Eng-
land, at Woolwich, under a committee appointed by the Institution
of Civil Engineers, which promise to supply this want.

The results of Mr. Whitworth’s experiments, tending to super-
sede the hammer and rolls by forcing cast steel, while in a semi-
fluid state, into strong iron moulds by hydraulic pressure, are
regarded with great interest.

The use of pulverized fuel, experiments on which are now
being conducted, promises, by surrounding each particle with
just the amount of oxygen which it needs for perfect combus-
tion, to utilize fuel to greater advantage.

‘The Bulletin of the American Iron and Steel Association”
_ states that 65 new blast furnaces have been erected in this
country during the last 18 months. It adds that it has a
record of 58 more in contemplation, the greater number
at the West, nearly all of which will be built the coming year,
if those engaged can be assured of the stability of the tariff.

The ‘‘ Bulletin” computes the total product of Pig Iron in this
country during 1869 at more than 1,900,000 tons. In 1865 (the
first year after the war), it was but 931,000 tons, —an increase
without a parallel in the history of any country.

Steel rails are being largely adopted both at home and abroad.
The results of the experiments made are not merely satisfactory
in regard to the increased durability of the new material. They
demonstrate that the section might be materially reduced. The
Northern Railway Company, of Austria, was one of the ear-
liest to experiment upon rails of Bessemer steel, and exhibited
specimens of its rails at the exposition of 1867. With a weight
per yard of only 45 pounds, the company obtained a steel
rail having double the strength of the iron rails of a larger
section previously employed by them; the cost to the company
per ton of iron rails having been from 60 dollars to 70 dollars,
and that of steel rails being from 90 dollars to 100 dollars. The
expense per running mile is still kept nearly within its original

Vill NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

limits, with a very great improvement in regard to strength and
durability. 3

The French Railway Companies are also extensively introduc-
ing rails of Bessemer steel upon their roads. These rails, as
manufactured at the principal French works, cost from 60 to 70
dollars per ton.

There is a growing feeling among engineers and steel makers,
that the compound rail, made wholly or partly of steel, will
prove more safe and economical than any solid rail, for, if the
same durability of track can be obtained with a steel cap as
with an all-steel rail, the first cost will be greatly decreased. A
rail made in two or three continuous parts, breaking joints, is
also a practical insurance against disaster from broken rails.

It is estimated that in the United States from 40,000 to 50,000
tons of steel rails are in use on our various railways.

The Lehigh and Susquehannah is entirely built of steel.
Other railways are using them largely, the Hudson River,
Erie, and Pennsylvania Railways using 10,000 tons or more
each. The last report of the New Jersey Railway and Trans-
portation Company says: ‘It is probable that steel rails will
be gradually laid the entire length of the road, the greater
durability of these rails overcoming the objection to their in-
creased cost.”

The use of steel rails will guarantee greater safety of life
and limb, and their introduction, therefore, should be hailed
with delight, for the term American rails has become a synonym
for the cheapest and least durable rails manufactured.

Our late war taught us much in regard to ordnance and iron
ships. The great advances in the manufacture of steel, and the
discovery of new explosives, are destined to materially further
our knowledge.

The most noteworthy improvement of this year in fortifica-
tions is Captain Moncrief’s system. By an ingenious device
he lowers his gun upon its rocking carriage after firing, and
thereby does away with embrasures (the weak places in pro-
tecting works), while he gains the advantage of reloading his
gun in comparative of safety.

What influence the new explosives, picrates, dynamite, and
ammonia powder will have on warlike operations, remains to be
seen. z

Attention has lately been turned to gas as a calorific agent.
Profs. Silliman and Wurtz, by their researches, promise to in-

NOTES BY THE EDITOR. x

crease our knowledge of its illuminating power. Articles will
be found on page 90 bearing upon this subject.

Prof. Tyndall says that the superiority of gas for neti mane
over oil is rendered very manifest by the experiments lately
instituted at Howth Baily and Wicklow Head. .

One cannot fail to notice the impulse which the completion
of the Pacific Railway, the Suez Canal, and the French Atlantic
Cable have given to the desire implanted in the human breast
to overcome natural obstacles. M. Lesseps advocates flooding
the desert of Sahara by means of a canal, and thus afford com-
munication with the interior,of Africa.

Among the projects that have been re-agitated the past year,
are the project of a canal around the Falls of Niagara; a re-en-
largement of the Erie for vessels of 1,000 tons; one across the
Alleghanies in Virginia; one through the Isthmus of Darien,
the expedition for surveying which has already started, and
one from Huron to Ontario. In tunnels we have that of Mt.
Cenis, 8 miles, and the Hoosac, 5 miles, in length, both in
rapid progress; one of wrought-iron tubes at London, and
another at Chicago; tunnels proposed under the East and North
Rivers at New York; under the Ganges at Calcutta, and under
the Straits of Dover.

In view of past achievements, it is not safe to pronounce any
of these projects not feasible.

In physical science, Tyndall commenced the year with a pic-
turesque account of a discovery of the peculiar action of light
upon vapors.

In electricity we have no startling discoveries to chronicle.
M. Jamin, it is said, has ascertained that magnetism can be
condensed for a short period in the same way as electricity.
Prof. LeRoy Cooley, of Albany, has discovered a way of regis-
tering vibrations by means of electricity. His method will be
found on page 162.

He dispenses with the sirene, and obtains a direct regis-
tration, the vibrating body itself opening and closing a circuit.

We have about the usual number of new batteries to chron-
icle. The combination of elements to produce currents seems
unlimited.

The energies, however, of most of our physicists, both at
home and abroad, have been directed to the field of spectrum
analysis.

x NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

The late eclipse undoubtedly awakened greater interest in
this new branch of science.

Prof. Magnus has lately published a research upon heat spec-
tra.

Angstrém and Thalen have also lately published laborious
and accurate tables of the wave lengths of the different metals.

Roscoe’s work on Spectrum Analysis, published this year,
presents the subject in a very lucid manner.

We incorporate herewith the notes of Mr. Nichols on the
progress in the field of chemistry.

In Chemistry no startling discovery has been made during the
past year. Yet each year marks progress, especially in the con-
tributions to the history of the compounds of carbon, and each
year adds to the number of those complex bodies which, a short
time ago, were found only in the bodies of animals or in plants,
but which now can be prepared at will, in the laboratory. Es-
pecial attention may be called to the production during the past
year, by artificial means, of alizarine, the coloring matter of the
madder root (vide p. 205). Such discoveries extend our views of
the domain of chemistry and cause us to have less apprehension
in regard to the limited supply of many substances, the demand
for which is continually increasing.

The publication by Professor Bunsen, of Heidelberg, of a paper
on the ‘‘ Washing of Precipitates” (vide p. 210), has wrought a great
change in the manner of conducting in the laboratory an opera-
tion of constant occurrence, that of filtration. By his method, as
contrasted with that formerly employed, the saving of time
amounts in certain cases to many hundred per cent., — an advan-
tage which, at the present day, we cannot afford to overlook. |

The researchesof Graham (vide p. 194) on the metallic character
of hydrogen as deduced from the deportment of the alloys of pal-
ladium and hydrogen show how close is the relation between
mechanical force and chemical affinity. It seems as if he were
‘**Jed not only to manifest the metallic character of hydrogen, but
also to seize the very moment at which the phenomenon of the
mechanical condensation of a gas by a porous body changes into
a truly chemical combination.” *

The council of the Chemical Society (London) having deter-
mined to found an annual lectureship in honor of Faraday, the
inaugural lecture was delivered this year (June 18) by the French

*Dumas. Faraday Lecture.

NOTES BY THE EDITOR. XI

chemist, Dumas, who was eminently fitted to perform this duty,
not only on account of his having been an intimate friend of Far-
aday, but also on account of his great eloquence, and on account
of his eminent position among the chemists of his own country.
He began with an admirable eulogy of him whom his discourse
commemorated, and then reviewed, from the stand-point of the
present day, the progress of chemistry from its first beginnings.

He paid tribute to the labors of Lavoisier, Dalton, and Prout,
and, pointing out the analogies existing between the elements of
mineral chemistry and the compound radicals of organic chemistry
(so called), and at the same time the relations between the
atomic weights of those bodies which are now accepted as ele-
ments, he argued the probability of their being themselves proved
to be complex. .

The limits of chemistry he defines in these words: ‘‘ The ex-
isting chemistry is, therefore, all powerful in the circle of mineral
nature, even when its processes are carried on in the heart of the
tissues of plants or of animals and at their expense; and she has
advanced no further than the chemistry of the ancients in the
knowledge of life and in the exact study of living matter; like
them she is ignorant of the mode of generation.

*¢'The ancients were mistaken when they confounded, under the
name of organic matter, sugar and alcohol, which have never lived
with the living tissue of plants, or in the flesh ofanimals. Sugar and
alcohol have no more share of life than bone-earth, or salts con-
tained in the various liquids. The chemist has never manufac-
tured anything which, near or distant, was susceptible even of
the appearance of life. Everything he has made in his laborato-
ries belongs to ‘ brute’ matter; as soon as he approaches life and
organization, he is disarmed.”

The medal which accompanies the Faraday lectureship is struck
in palladium, and, in addition to this medal, Dumas carries back
to France with him a medal struck in the alloy of palladium and
hydrogen to commemorate the discovery of the alloy by Graham.

The subject of the disposal of the sewage of towns becomes
daily of more importance. At the meeting of the British Associa-
tion at Exeter, a report was presented, in which were collected
statistics showing the various methods adopted in towns and cities
on the continent for utilizing the sewage, and that committee has
issued circulars to the town authorities throughout England ask-
ing for aid in collecting information and in making experiments
in regard to this matter. The earth-closet is finding favor, and,

xII NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

no doubt, will eventually supersede the water-closet in rural
districts, and in towns where a supply of water cannot readily be
obtained. The fact that it has been made the subject of a patent
adds to its cost, and will retard somewhat its adoption in this
country, but now that attention has been called to the matter, use
will be made, and with advantage in a sanitary aspect, of the
principle which is involved in it, — the disinfecting power of dry .
earth.

‘* Like some other valuable discoveries, it seems surprising that
nobody thought of it or applied it before. But the simple fact is,
that the privy may be made as inoffensive as the corn-barn by the
application of about a pint and a half of dry earth every time it is
used, There are one or two things about it important to remem-
ber: (1.) It should be earth (notesand or gravel), and should be
thoroughly dried by exposure to the sun or otherwise; (2.) The
privy-vault should be kept free from rain, from slops, and from
excessive moisture of any sort. ‘The more fluid thrown in, the
more dry earth required to absorb it. How often it happens that
a country hotel or boarding-house, crowded with people, becomes
late in the season disgusting and unhealthy from decomposing
material when a few shovelsful of dried earth thrown into the
privy once a day would remove all offence.” *

It has been proposed for dried earth to substitute charcoal,
which would be regenerated by burning. It is stated that one
hundred weight of charcoal per month would be sufficient for a
closet used by six persons daily. It is not likely, however, that
this modification will find extensive adoption, except in localities
peculiarly situated.”

We incorporate herewith the notes of Dr. Kneeland on the
progress in biology : —

‘¢ The theory of Darwin is steadily progressing in the estimation
of naturalists; indeed it may be said to be no longer simply a
theory, as it has been demonstrated, in a few instances at least,
both in the vegetable and animal kingdom, that ‘ natural selec- ~
tion,’ or the survival of the fittest, is one of the causes of the ex-
isting varieties and so-called species among animals and plants.
No naturalist can now presume to sneer at or ignore this and kin-
dred theories, when such men as Lyell, Hooker, Huxley, and
Owen reject utterly the doctrine of innumerable special acts of
creation, and accept in variously modified forms the development

* Report of Massachusetts State Board of Health, 1870.

NOTES BY THE EDITOR. XIII

of living things by the operation of laws impressed upon them at
the beginning. The ‘ derivative hypothesis’ of Owen, detailed on
pp. 267-270, apparently meets the approval of naturalists more
generally than any other; this maintains the incessant new de-
velopment of living beings out of non-living material, and sees
the grandeur of creative power, not in the exceptional miracle of
one or few original forms of life, but in the daily and hourly call-
ing into existence many forms by conversion of chemical and
physical into vital modes of force ; his conclusion is that, from the
magnet which chooses between steel and zinc, to the philosopher
who chooses between good and evil, the difference is one of de-
gree, not of kind, and that there is no need of assuming a special
miracle to account for mental phenomena. ‘ Natural selection’
also is operative in the case of men, among whom there is a per-
petual survival of the fittest; in the most barbarous conditions of
mankind the struggle is almost entirely between individuals; in
proportion as civilization has increased among men, it is easy to
trace the transference of a great part of the struggle, little by lit-
tle, from individuals to tribes, nations, leagues, guilds, corpora-
tions, societies, and similar combinations; and accompanying this
transference has been undeniably the development of the moral
qualities and of social virtues.

‘The Social Science Associations are actively working out the
great problems of moral and physical evils incident to civilization,
especially those pertaining to hygienic or sanitary reform. The
first step in the moral elevation of a community has been found to
be the diffusion of knowledge of sanitary laws ; cleanliness and good
health are recognized as the best foundations of public prosperity.
Hence science is constantly progressing in attempts to secure for
the masses of the people cheap and wholesome food, pure air and
pure water, ventilation of public buildings and the crowded dwell-
ings of the poor; the removal of sewage, so as not only not to
contaminate the earth, air, and water, but to convert it, even in
our own houses, into an inodorous and valuable fertilizer, has
been successfully accomplished. Fire-extinguishing and life-saving
apparatus, both on land and sea, have reached a high degree of
efficiency ; man is gradually obtaining the mastery over the epi-
demic diseases which have for ages decimated the human race ;
and the return from human to vaccine lymph direct from the cow
will restore the wavering faith of the public in the efficacy of vac-
cination, and eventually put a stop to the ravages of small-pox.

The recent successful employment of chloral as an angesthetic,

2

XIV NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

by the stomach instead of the lungs, and its undoubted efficacy as
a sedative in nervous diseases and insanity, has drawn the atten-
tion of physiological chemists to the nearly unexplored field of the
action of medicines by decomposition within the inmost recesses
of the body.

Deep-sea dredgings have revealed an extensive and yaried
range of life at depths heretofore deemed untenanted, and have
proved that there is a band of organisms encircling the globe at
the bottom of the ocean,—these organisms, too, resembling
those found in the immensely remote cretaceous epoch. ‘The
ameba, described on p. 294, seems to be one of the links which
connect the inorganic with the organic world, its organless tissue
being capable of combining physical forces so as to assume organic
functions.”

Great advances have been made in celestial chemistry during
the year, through the medium of spectrum analysis.

The observations of Huggins by means of this delicate method
have proved that the star Sirius is receding from the earth at the
rate of 29.4 miles per second; the observations of Huggins have
been confirmed by Father Secchi, made at Rome. It is thought
that the results of these and similar observations may one day
lead to a determination of the motion of the solar system in space.
By the same method of analysis, traces of aqueous vapor have
been discovered in some of the planets.

The President of the British Association, in his address at Exeter,
thus details Lockyer’s discovery : —

«After having observed the remarkable spectrum of the
prominences during the total eclipse, it occurred to M. Janssen
that the same method might allow the prominences to be detected
at any time ; and on trial he succeeded in detecting them the very
day after the eclipse. The results of his observations were sent
by post, and were received shortly after the account of Mr.
Lockyer’s discovery had been communicated by Mr. De La Rue to
the French Academy. Inthe way hitherto described a prominence
is not seen as a whole, but the observer knows when its image is
intercepted by the slit; and by varying a little the position of the
slit, a series of sections of the prominence are obtained, by putting
which together the form of the prominence is deduced. Shortly
after Mr. Lockyer’s communication of his discovery, Mr. Huggins,
who had been independently engaged in the attempt,to render the
prominences visible by the aid of the spectroscope, succeeded in
seeing a prominence as a whole by somewhat widening the slit,

NOTES BY THE EDITOR. xV

and using a red glass to diminish the glare of the light, admitted
by the slit, the prominence being seen by means of the C line in
the red. Mr. Lockyer had a design for seeing the prominences as
a whole by giving the slit a rapid motion of small extent, but this
proved to be superfluous, and they are now habitually seen with
their actual forms. Nor is our power of observing them restricted
to those which are so situated that they are seen by projection
outside the sun’s limb; such is the power of the spectroscopic
method of observation, that it has enabled Mr. Lockyer and
others to observethem right on the disc of the sun, — an important
step for connecting them with other solar phenomena. One of
the most striking results of the habitual study of these promi-
nences is the evidence they afford of the stupendous changes
which are going on in the central body of our system.
Prominences, the heights of which are to. be measured by thou-
sands and tens of thousands of miles, appear and disappear in the
course of some minutes. Anda study of certain minute changes
of position in the bright line F, which receive a simple and
natural explanation by referring them to proper motion in the
glowing gas by which that line is produced, and which we see no
other way of accounting for, have led Mr. Lockyer to conclude
that the gas in question is sometimes travelling with velocities
comparable with that of the earth in its orbit. Moreover, these
exhibitions of intense action are frequently found to be intimately
connected with the spots, and can hardly fail to throw light on the
disputed question of their formation. Nor are chemical composi-
tion and proper motion the only physical conditions of the gas
which are accessible to spectral analysis. By comparing the
breadth of the bright bands (for though narrow they are not
mere lines) seen in the prominences, with those observed in the
spectrum of hydrogen, rendered incandescent under different
physical conditions, Dr. Frankland and Mr. Lockyer have deduced
conclusions respecting the pressure to which the gas is aha ees in
the neighborhood of the sun.”

Since the discovery of Lockyer’s, Janssens, and Huggins’
method of viewing the prominences, Zdllner has discovered a way
of seeing them asa whole. His method will be found on page 322 ;
Prof. Young’s method will be also found in detail on page 315.
He makes use also of the C line, and likens it to looking at the sun-
set sky through a chink in the window. It is thought that this
method may be used to advantage in the coming transit of Venus.
The total eclipse of August 7th, 1869, was very fully observed.

XVI NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

The ‘* American Journal of Arts and Sciences” thus speaks of the
arrangements made for observing the phenomenon : —

**Few astronomical phenomena have probably ever called out
a more thoroughly organized system ‘of observation than that
arranged for the recent eclipse. The line of total obscuration
crossed the North American continent diagonally, entering the
territory of the United States at Behring’s Straits, in about the
65th degree of latitude, and longitude 90° west of Washington,
while it left our shore at the latitude of 34° and the meridian of
Washington itself. It traversed a central belt of well-populated
territory, yet there seems to have been scarcely a town of any
considerable magnitude along the entire line which was not gar-
risoned by observers having some special astronomical problem
in view.

An appropriation was made by Congress, at its last session, for
carrying out a series of observations under the direction of the
Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, and Prof. Coffin has
succeeded, by the liberal aid of the Navy Department, and the
very generous and extensive facilities contributed by some of the
principal railroads, in providing for an amount of work which for
magnitude, variety, and thoroughness, seems large beyond all
proportion to the sum placed at his disposal. Three cities in Iowa,
Burlington, Mount Pleasant, and Ottumwa, were occupied by,
astronomical, photographic, and physical observers under his di-
rection, and special observers, provided with telescopes and in-
struments for determining geographical position, were sent by
him to the North and South, to fix the limits of the belt of total
obscuration.

The Navy Department, besides making other provisions, sent
observers to the western shore of Behring’s Straits; and the War
Department detailed Dr. Curtis to make special photographic
observations at Des Moines, Iowa.

The Coast Survey established parties on the Yaken River, in
Alaska, at Des Moines in Iowa, Springfield in [linois, and Ab-
ingdon in West Virginia, and perhaps at still other stations, —
that at Springfield being amply provided with photographie ob-
servers and apparatus. Most of the principal observatories like-
wise organized expeditions of greater or less magnitude. From
Washington, the several observers arranged independent series
of investigations, stellar, spectroscopic, physical, and meteorolog-
ical. From Cambridge, a large party went to Shelbyville, Ky.,
with large photographie outfit, and spectroscopic equipments.

NOTES BY THE EDITOR. XVII

From Albany, a similar party went to Mattoon, Illinois; others,
from Clinton and Chicago, went to Des Moines, from Cincinnati
to Sioux City; and the number of private astronomers who estab-
lished themselves along the central line with telescopes and other
apparatus of investigation must have been exceedingly large.

The beginning and end of the eclipse seem to have been ob-
served a few seconds later, and the beginning and end of the
totality about fifteen seconds later than the predictions of the
American Nautical Almanac. As regards the exact position of
the central line, and of the limits of the total belt, we have as
yet insufficient information to determine the degree of accordance
with computation. There can be no doubt that materials have
been collected capable of improving the adopted values of the
moon’s diameter and horizontal parallax. One of the most inter-
esting results is the introduction of a new and accurate method of
determining the time of first contact, by observing with a spectro-
scope the gradual occultation of the bright lines of the chromo-
sphere. This we owe to Prof. Young, of Dartmouth College, who
formed one of Prof. Coffin’s Nautical Almanac party at Burling-
ton. By keeping the centre of the slit directed to the point at
which the contact is to take place, the observer is forewarned of
the approach of the moon’s limb, by the shortening of the bright
lines belonging to the chromosphere. ‘The line C is well adapted
to this purpose, and is seen to grow steadily shorter, until it is
totally extinguished. The moment of disappearance of the last
bright ray is of course that of the first contact, which is thus ob-
served with the same care and accuracy as any other appulsive
phenomenon. Although the first contact, as determined in this
way by Prof. Young, was noted some five seconds before its rec-
ognition by any other observer, it was subsequently found by
Prof. Mayer to accord within a small fraction of a second with the
time as determined by measurement of a series of photographs
taken during the first minute.

Prof. Harkness, of Washington Observatory, observed at Des
Moines the spectra of five protuberances, no two of which gave
the same lines. -In the corona spectrum he found no absorptive
lines, and but one bright line. Measures of the protuberances
were made by Prof. Rogers, at Des Moines, who found the
largest to be nearly a minute and a half high, and observed a
peculiar honeycombed or cellular appearance in all of them.
Special search was made for intra-mercurial planets by Prof.
Newcomb, at Des Moines, according to the plan suggested by

o*

XVIII ' NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

him in the April number of the ‘‘ American Journal of Science
and Arts,” with two 6-inch object-glasses, having a field of
about 20° each, and previously clamped to the desired position.
A similar scrutiny of the ecliptic near the sun was made by Dr.
Gould, at Burlington, in connection with Prof. Coffin’s party,
using a Tolles’ telescope of five inches’ aperture and a field of
nearly 2°, provided with occulting discs at the focus. But
neither of these observers, nor any others engaged in similar re-
search, found any indications of planets nearer than Mercury.

Dr. Gould says in a letter to Prof. Morton: ‘* An examina-
tion of the beautiful photographs made at Burlington and Ottum-
wa, by the section of your party in charge of Professors Mayer
and Himes, and a comparison of them with my sketches of the
corona, have led me to the conviction that the radiance around
the moon, in the pictures made during totality, is not the corona
at all, but is actually the image of what Lockyer has called the
chromosphere.”

Prof. Pickering, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
who observed at Mt. Pleasant, lowa, concludes his report as fol-
lows: —

‘*An increase of heat and actinic power is observed in the
beginning of the eclipse, caused by an increased brightness of the
sun’s disc near the moon’s limb. The spectrum of the corona
appears to be free from dark lines, but may contain two or three
bright ones. Its striz are spiral rather than radial, and its light
is unpolarized. The sky adjoining it, however, reflecting light
from the earth, shows strong signs of polarization.”

From Prof. Winlotk’s report we learn that ‘‘ The chromo-
sphere was carefully examined both before and after the eclipse.
Only three lines could be seen, C, one near D, and F. During
totality only, the brightest protuberance on the lower limb of the
sun was examined carefully. In the short time occupied in get-
ting into this, nothing was seen but a faint continuous spectrum ;
but since the observing telescope took in only a small part of the
spectrum at once, nothing conclusive can be inferred from the
observation as to the non-existence of bright lines in the corona,

‘* During totality, eleven bright lines were seen. Besides the
three described above, there was a short line at or very near E;
the three lines of B were bright and very sharp, and there were
four lines above F. Although thése lines were very bright on a
dark ground, all of them but the three seen before the eclipse
disappeared instantly on the first burst of sunlight, and the same

NOTES BY THE EDITOR. xIX

point in the sun’s dise was examined with great care after totality
without finding any of the lines but those above described.

‘* The photograph of the corona, taken at Shelbyville, shows a
flattening at the extremities of the sun’s axis, and an elevation
about the equatorial region. The appearance can be explained
by the hypothesis that it is a photographic view of the sun’s
atmosphere, and the form is that which it would assume from
the sun’s rotation about its axis with its upper surface disturbed
by the protuberances or planes below, and by large waves which
are to be expected in such an atmosphere.”

The report of Com. B. F. Sands, U.S. N., Superintendent of
the U. S. Naval Observatory, on the late eclipse, just published,
is an exhaustive one, and compares favorably with the best efforts
of a similar nature on the other side of the Atlantic.

Prof. Kirkwood, of Bloomington, Indiana, has lately published
two able papers; one upon the periodicity of the solar spots, and
another on comets and meteors. In the first-named paper he dis-
cusses the disturbing action of the planets on thesun’s envelope,
and suggests the hypothesis that a particular portion of the sun’s
Barface" is more favorable to spot formation than other portions.
From his discussions he concludes : —

1. A connection between the behavior of sun-spots and the con-
figuration of certain planets has been placed beyond reasonable
doubt.

2. The theory, however, of spot formation by planetary influ-
ence is encumbered with anomalies and even inconsistencies, un-
less we admit the co-operation of a modifying cause.

3. The hypothesis that a particular part of the solar surface is
more susceptible than others to planetary disturbance is rendered
probable by the observations of different astronomers.

4. The 11-year cycle of spot = is mainly dependent on
the influence of Mercury.

5. The marked irregularity of this period from 1822 to 1867 is in
a great measure due to the disturbing action of Venus.

6. Wolf’s 56-year cycle is determined by the joint action of Mer-
cury and the earth; and, finally, the hypothesis proposed accounts
for all the well-defined cycles of spot-variations.

In the paper on comets and meteors, Prof. Kirkwood considers
the probable consequences of the sun’s motion through regions of
space in which cosmical matter is widely diffused, and compares
these theoretical deductiéns with the observed phenomena of com-
ets, aerolites, and falling stars,

xx NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

From the variation in the number of observed comets and the
periodicity of shooting stars, it is concluded that during the inter-
val from 700 to 1200 the solar system was passing through, or
near, a meteoric cloud of very great extent; that from 1200 to
1700 it was traversing a region comparatively destitute of such
matter; and that about the commencement of the 18th century it
again entered a similar nebula of unknown extent.

The present Earl of Rosse has been engaged upon the determi-
nation of the radiation of heat from the moon. It appears from
his research that the greater part of the moon’s heat which reaches
the earth appears to have been first absorbed by the lunar surface.
The amount of lunar heat appears to indicate an elevation of
temperature for the moon’s surface at full moon of 500° F.

Full arrangements have been made in France and England to
observe the coming transit of Venus. Some constants in astro-
nomical science will be tested by these observations.

The new facts in geography may be thus summarized : —

The explorations and discoveries in South-eastern and East
Equatorial Africa.

The additional and conclusive evidence now brought to light of
a climate in the ice-bound region of the Arctic, at a past and re-
mote period of time, resembling that of the countries lying near
the equator.

The marvellous results of the deep-sea dredgings of Profs.
Thompson and Carpenter, revealing the existence of animal life
at immense depths in the ocean, where it has been supposed to
have been impossible.

The very general disturbance throughout this year of the earth’s
surface by earthquakes, distinguishable not so much for the effects
in particular localities as for the wide distribution of the phenom-
ena over the globe, and its appearance in parts of the world where
such disturbances have never been previously witnessed within
the memory of man.

The attractive power of mountains, discovered in the pendulum
experiments made during the past year at the observing stations
upon the Himalayas, in India.

The discovery of trees of enormous size in Australia, one of
which was found to be 69 feet in circumference ; of great deposits
of valuable coal throughout the whole of New Zealand, and the
finding of coal upon the borders of the Caspian, verifying in the
last particular a prediction of Humboldt, made forty years ago;

NOTES BY THE EDITOR. =

both of which discoveries are of the highest importance to com-
merce.

_ The anthropological researches in Europe, Asia, and Africa,
revealing the structure, mode of life, and customs of the earliest
inhabitants of the earth.

The assembling at Copenhagen, last August, of the International
Congress of Prehistoric Archzology, under the auspices of the
King of Denmark, interesting in the circumstance that it brought
into communication with each other learned men from all parts
of Europe, and for the valuable information the papers and de-
scriptions elicited in respect to the three successive periods of
man’s early history, known as the stone, the bronze, and the iron.

The return of Capt. Hall from the Arctic regions with valuable
information respecting that mysterious country.

The exploration by Dr. Hayes of the remains of the early
settlements made on the south-eastern shore of Greenland. The
return of captain Adams and his men from the exploration of the
Colorado and its tributaries.

The completion of the French explorations of the river Cambodia
to the province of Tunan in China, the official details of which
have not yet appeared.

The expedition of Sir Samuel Baker into the interior of Africa,
which started last October. .

The escape of Captain Livingston, of the American ship Con-
gress, through a cyclone of extraordinary intensity and force, and
the gaining of valuable information thereby.

The expedition of the Russian Merchant Soidorow, in his own
steamer, around the coast of Norway, and through the polar
ocean, to the mouth of the Pitschora.

A dispatch from Bombay, Oct. 6, states: A letter has just
been received here from Dr. Livingstone, the great African
traveller. He was at Lake Bangweolo at time of writing (in July,
1868), and was in excellent health and spirits. He mentioned that
he believed he had at last found the true source of the Nile.

A caravan arrived at Zanzibar, Oct. 14, 4869, bringing the news
that Dr. Livingstone had arrived at Nigi alive and well.

A later report, at our time of writing, Feb. 5th, 1870, states that
he has been burnt as a wizard, by a native chief; it is trusted that
time will contradict this.

In a letter to the Earl of Clarendon, he says: ‘‘I think that I
may safely assert that the chief sources of the Nile arise

XXII NOTES BY THE EDITOR.

between 10° and 12° south latitude, or nearly in the position
assigned to them by Ptolemy.

‘* The springs of the Nile have hitherto been searched for very
much too far to the north. They rise some 400 miles south of the
most southerly portion of the Victoria Nyanza, and, indeed,
south of all the lakes except Bangweolo.

An International Exhibition of select works of fine and
industrial art, and scientific inventions, is to be held in 1871, at
South Kensington, England. This is the first of a series of
annual exhibitions.

The movement which established the South Kensington Museum
is having its parallel in Massachusetts and New York. It is
proposed to establish a museum of the fine arts in New York and
Boston. At the last session of the Legislature of Massachusetts,
the following resolve was passed : —

** Resolved, That the Board of Education be directed to consider
the expediency of making provision by law for giving free
instruction to men, women, and children, in mechanical drawing,
either in existing schools, or in those to be established for that
purpose, in all the towns in the Commonwealth having more
than five thousand inhabitants, and report a definite plan therefor
to the next General Court. [Approved June 12, 1869.]”

It is felt that our common schools do not give the right training
to the industrial classes, and that if we are to have skilled
mechanics, we must educate them. In view of the great natural
advantages of the West, we at the East can hold our ground only
by skilled labor; and the proper education of the lower classes
has become a question of vital importance.

We present the readers of the ANNUAL oF SCIENTIFIC D1s-

COVERY for 1870, with a fine portrait of BENJAMIN PIERCE,

LL. D., Professor of Mathematics, in Harvard College, and
Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey.

eS Oe CL rt

THE

ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS.

PACIFIC RAILROAD TIME TABLE.

THE following statement amet time and distances is given by the
“Western Railroad Gazette”:

Miles. Hours.
New York to Chicago, IIL, er at a P's al tatire Ve ces Oe 364
Chicago to Omaha, N ebraska, SU peste tah at ete heals itis & AOE 243 ©
Omaha to Bryan, sfc". eT Bey eo att al Moe’, te? SSP eli ed ee 43
Bryan to Ogden, Utah, . . S ateete ees 103
Ogden to Elko, Nevada, via Central Pacific R. om iach “aneele 123
Elko to Sacramento, Cal., via Central Pacific R. R., cat abe tn ee 31
Sacramento to San Francisco, via Western Pacific R. R. pate ae 33
3,353 1614

Thus a total distance of 3,353 miles is made, according to the
present schedule time, in 6 days and 174 hours, actual time, by a
traveller’s watch, from ‘which we deduct 34 hours, difference of time,
when going West, leaving the apparent time consumed in mak-
ing the trip 6 days and 14 hours.

At San Francisco the mails will connect with the various steam-
ship lines running on the Pacific, and may be landed at Honolulu
in 9 days from that city, or 154 days from New York. They can
reach Japan in 19 days from San Francisco, or 254 days from
New York, or 33 to 34 days from Great Britain — thus ‘beating
the British mails sent via Suez, 3 to 4 weeks. The trip
between Yokohama, Japan, and either Hong Kong or Shanghai,
is readily accomplished by the Pacific Mail steamships in from
5 to 6 days, which, added to the time in reaching Japan, will
give the through time necessary to reach either of the above-

named ports of China.

The mails for Australia, it is thought, will hereafter go via

16 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

San Francisco, as the Australian and* New Zealand Steamship
Company intend transferring the terminus of their line, which
has been running from Sydney to Panama, so as hereafter to run
from Australia to Taluti, thence to Honolulu, and thenee to San
Francisco, making 28 days, schedule time, which will give us
monthly mail to Australia in 34 or 35 days through time.

THE RAILWAYS OF INDIA.

A great deal has been said and written respecting the comple-
tion of the Pacific Railway across the American continent; and
much praise has been very justly bestowed upon the energy of
the American character which has brought the work to its present
position. -While, however, we are lavish in our expressions of
admiration for the great qualities which have thus been called
into existence, we ought not to lose sight of the still greater
works which have been accomplished in India, in the matter of
railways. A vast work has been carried on silently and unobtru-
sively, and under difficulties even greater than any which have
been experienced in regard to the Pacific Railroad, and we giaim
for those by whem these great works have been achieved some
share of that admiration which is given so freely and so fairly to
our American cousins. The Pacific line, including as it does the
two separate schemes of the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific,
is about 1,700 miles in length. ‘Two of our leading Indian lines,
namely, The East Indian and the Great Indian Peninsula, at pres-
ent in work, have a joint mileage of 2,230 miles, and when
completed it will be 2,768 miles, greater by more than one-half
of the whole length of the Pacific road. Like the Pacific the.v
lines cross our Indian empire from east to west, and connect
Bombay and Calcutta, just as the Pacific forms the connecting
link between San Francisco and New York. By means of
the East Indian a railway connects Calcutta with Delhi,
more than 1,000 miles distant from each other; in the south,
Madras and Baypore are connected by a line crossing Southern
India; Nagpore, in Central India, is connected with the port of
Bombay by means of the flotilla and Punjaub line; Lahore in the
north-west and Kurrachee in the Indus are brought into direct
connection with each other. There are now actually completed
and at work in India, 3,942 miles of railway, or about 600 more
than the whole mileage between New York and San Francisco,
and there remain to be completed of lines already sanctioned
1,665 miles. This great extent of railway has been constructed
in a country many thousands of miles distant from England,
where, with a trifling exception, the whole of the capital was
provided. For the construction of these works there was re-
quired to be shipped from this country 3,529,000 tons of goods, of
the value of 23,252,000 pounds, and which was conveyed in 5,339
ships. In America no such difficulty as this was experienced.
The road, as it was formed, was enabled to carry the iron and
timber required for the construction. The contractors worked

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 17

from an already organized base of railways at home; the ma-
terial for the Indian lines had to be borne over thousands of miles
of a sea voyage. The construction of the Indian railways has
presented difficulties of a much more formidable character than
those which have been met with on the Pacific line. It is true
that this railway has been carried over vast plains and mountain
ranges of which little was known, and in the tace of the attacks
of hostile Indian tribes. In India, the works were carried out in
the face of’ difficulties connected with the oppressive heat of the
climate; through forests and jungles which were the resort of
Savage animals, and the people employed were natives of the
country, speaking a language unknown to those by whom they
were emp!oyed, and whose habits and modes of life unfitted them
for labor such as that on which they were engaged. Great works
such as those of the Bhore Ghaut and Thul! Ghaut inclines pre-
sented difficulties equal to, if not greater, than any experienced
in the crossing over the Rocky Mountains. Sireams wider and
more rapid than met with between Omaha and San Francisco
have been successfully bridged, and present some of the greatest
triumphs of modern engineering science. — Engineering.

ON ROADS AND RAILWAYS IN NORTHERN INDIA AS AFFECTED
' BY THE ABRADING AND TRANSPORTING POWER OF WATER.

Mr. Login, at the meeting of the British Association, com-
menced by stating general conclusions he had arrived at, to the
effect that the abrading and transporting power of water was in-
creased directly as the velocity and inversely as the depth; also,
that when flowing water had once got its proper load of solid
matter in suspension all erosive action ceased. In short, that it
was like a balance, the load being always equal to the power,
which power, somehow or other. increased as the velocity became
_gieater, and decreased as the depth of a stream increased, Nature
always adjusting the load to the various circumstances. He then

ave a short description of the plains and rivers of Northern

ndia, and, by the aid of diagrams, went on to argue that rivers
flowing through alluvial plains were raising rather than lowering
their beds, and, though this silting-up process may be very slow,
yet it was satisfactory to the engineer to know that the founda-
tions of his bridges would be as safe, if not safer, a hundred
years hence, as they are now. In speaking of the changes of the
course of rivers, he said that there was more or less a constant
cutting going on, on the concave banks of a river, with a tilting-
up process on the opposite side. The next subject referred to was
the denudation of the high level plains of Northern India called
‘‘Doabs” (two waters), and locally known by the name of
‘‘Bhanger” land, in contradistinction to the term ‘‘ Khadir,” or
low valley lands, through which the large rivers, fed by the melt-
ing snows, now meander. Mr. Login said that the higher ridges,
or ‘* back bones,” of these Doabs were not caused by any up-
heayals, but were formed by the denudation of these‘high level

9*

18 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

plains; and, as the rainfall was three or four times as great in the
valley of the Ganges as that of the Indus, these back bones in the
plains of the Punjaub disappeared, as well as all defined drainage
lines some 50 miles below the hills, for the simple reason that
the water spread over these plains and was absorbed. To this
peculiarity in the Punjaub particular attention was drawn ; for Mr.
Login argued that, if standing crops and grass could permit, with-
out receiving injury, the rain which fell higher up to flow through
rather than over those standing crops, surely the same water
‘ could flow over an iron rail at very slow velocities, seldom, if
ever, rising to such a height as to interfere with a locomotive
passing over the line ; however, if it did, the obstruction could only
last for not more than one day in a whole year. By acting on this
principle, Mr. Login believed that hundreds of thousands of
pounds can be saved in the construction of railways in Upper
India, as no embankments or masonry culverts and bridges would
be required in crossing such high level plains as the Bechna
doabs, which he had surveyed; while, by pounding back those
flood-waters by embankments, and forcing it to find an escape
through culverts, was‘more costly and dangerous, for it increased
the abrading and transporting power of the water, at the very
point where alone it could do injury, namely, where it crossed the
rail. In support of his arguments he quoted actual occurrences.
He urged that deep foundations for bridges was the proper mode
for spanning the large rivers of India, and that only the opening
for both the main stream and the inundation water should be pro-
vided, while any little water that might be left behind in the
swamps, or low ground which is below the level of the main river,
should be drained off by what he calls ‘* spoon-mouthed syphons.”
Speaking of the minor torrents, he briefly referred to another
description of bridge, resting on ‘‘ inverts,” with deep, massive
curtain walls, which may, with economy, be introduced in some
instances; and concluded by stating that once the abrading and
transporting power of water was more fully investigated, the
engineer could proceed with all descriptions of works affected by
flowing water with greater confidence and economy, instancing
harbors on the Madras coast, which province, from being at pres-
ent a financial loss to the State, would soon become profitable,
both to India and England, by increased commerce.

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN GUARD, DRIVER, AND PASSENGERS,

Mr. S. Varley, at the meeting of the British Association, read a
paper **On a System of Communication between Guards and
Passengers on Railway Trains when in Motion.” The system was
applied in 1866, and is now in use on the Royal train, and it has
since been adopted in other trains. He believed electricity to be
the best agent for signalling on rolling stock, and the difficulty in
applying it, he believed, was more with reference to the mechani-
cal parts than the electrical. Three electrical systems had been
applied to railway travelling: one used by Mr. Preece, on the

OO EE

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 19

South-Western Railway; one by Mr. C. V. Walker, on the Great
Eastern Railway, applied to trains which run 20 miles without
stopping ; and one by Mr. Martin on the North-Western Railway ;
and this was the one which formed the subject of this paper. In-
sulated wire is run underneath the carriages, and the iron works,
the coupling bars, and the wheels are connected electrically to-
gether. Two insulated wires (one of which is connected with
the wire underneath the carriages, the other to the iron work)
are led up to each compartment, and when these two wires are
brought in contact the telegraphic circuit is closed, and the alarum
set ringing. The carriages are connected together by means of
flexible conductors, and these are also laterally connected with
the insulated wire underneath the vehicles. The apparatus in the
guard’s van consists of a battery placed in a box, and an electric
alarum, and on the engine is another alarum. By moving a
handle in any of the carriages the alarums are set going. - - The
action of moving the handle sets free a spring, and the handle is
locked, and eannot be put in its original position until the spring
or lock is opened, which is done by means of a key in the posses-
sion of the guard. No electrical knowledge is needed to work or
keep in order the apparatus; the maintenance of it is not costly,
and the alarums, batteries, etc., can be easily shifted from one
train to another. At the request of the Board of Trade, in 1866 a
train was fitted up with this apparatus, which had travelled 250
miles each day, and been started and stopped by its means. Mr.
H. Palmer, M.P., said that, in the House of Commons, Mr.
Bright said the rope system — merely a rope running above the

door of the carriage, With no communication with the inside —
was the best, and at the same time simplest and cheapest system,

but it had been adopted on the North-Eastern Railway, and had
been found to be very inefficient. He wished to know what in-
vestigations the various systems had undergone by the Board of
Trade, and whether this system was actually i in use on the rail-
way. Mr. Parkes agreed as to the inefficiency of the rope sys-
tem. Mr. Varley, in reply, said the various plans were tried at
York. The cord system failed, inasmuch as it was not detective
of the person giving the alarm. His apparatus had been tested
daily for two ‘years, the train being started with it, and it had
worked regular ly. As a practical proof of the uselessness of the
cord communication, he might state that it was attached to the
train that took them to Plymouth, when it was pulled but failed
to attract attention. He believed it was only adopted to satisfy
public opinion. .

THE CHANNEL RAILWAY.

J. F. Bateman, F.R.S., at the meeting of the British Associa-
tion, read a paper on ‘* The Channel Railway. ” He referred at
some length to the advantages which would accrue from a contin-
uous railway communication between En gland and France, and to
the various proposals for effecting that ‘object by a tunnel to be

20 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

driven beneath the bed of the sea; by submerged roadways and
tubes; by large ferry-boats carrying trains on board; and by
bridges to be carried on piers formed on islands to be sunk in the
Straits. A ferry-boat, large enough to receive a whole ordinary
train on board, would be a material improvement on the present
means of conveyance. Such boats cannot, however, be em-
ployed, except by the construction of special harbors on each
coast. With reference to a tunnel, it has been proposed to drive
one of ordinary size for a double line of railway, which shall de-
scend by a gradient of one in 60 on each side of the channel to a
depth of about 270 feet below the bed of the sea. The total
length of the tunnel would be 30 miles, of which 22 would be
beneath the sea. A special commission, appointed by the Em-
peror of the French, recently reported in favor of a submarine
tunnel. We propose to lay a tube of cast iron on the bottom of
the sea, between coast and coast, to be commenced on one side
of the channel, and to be built up within the inside of a horizon-
tal cylinder, or bell, or chamber, which shall be constantly pushed
forward as the building up of the tube proceeds. The bell or
chamber within which the tube is to be constructed will be about
80 fect in length, 18 feet internal diameter, and composed of cast-
iron rings 8 inches thick, securely bolted together. The interior
of the bell will be bored out to a true cylindrical surface, like the
inside of a steam cylinder. The tube to be constructed within it
will consist of cast-iron plates, in segments 4 inches in thickness,
connected by flanges, bolted together inside the tube, leaving a
clear diameter of 13 feet. Surrounding this tube, and forming
part of it, will be constructed annular discs or diaphragms, the
outside circumference of which will accurately fit the interior of
the bell. These diaphragms will be furnished with arrangements
for making perfectly water-tight joints, for the purpose of ex-
cluding sea-water and securing a dry chamber, within which the
various operations for building up the tube, and for pressing for-
ward the bell as each ring of the tube is added, will be performed.
There will always be 3 and generally 4 of these water-tight
joints contained within the bell. A clear space between the end
of the tube and the end or projecting part of the bell of 36 feet
will be left as a chamber for the various operations. Within this
chamber, powerful hydraulic presses, using the built and com-
pleted portion of the tube as a falerum, will, as each ring is com-
pleted, push forward the bell to a suriicient distance to admit the
addition of another ring to the tube. The bell will slide over the
water-tight joints described, one of whieh will be left behind as
the bell is projected forward, leaving 3 always in operation
against the sea. The weight of the bell and of the machinery
within it will be a little in excess of the weight of water dis-
placed, and therefore the only resistance to be overcome by the
hydraulic presses when pushing forward the bell is the friction
due to the slight difference in weight and the head or column of
water pressing upon the sectional area of the bell against its for-
ward motion. In like manner, the specifie gravity of the tube
will be a little in excess of the weight of water which it dis-

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 21

places; and in order to obtain a firm footing upon the bottom of
the sea, the tube will be weighted by a lining of brick in cement,
and for further protection will be tied to the ground by screw
piles, which will pass through stuffing-boxes in the bottom of
the tube. These piles will, during the construction of the tube
within the bell-chamber, be introduced in the annular space be-
tween the outside of the tube and the inside of the bell, and will
be screwed into the ground as they are left behind by the pro-
gression of the bell. The hydraulic presses, and the other hy-
draulic machinery which will be employed for lifting and fixing
the various segments of the tube, will be supplied with the power
required for working them from accumulators on shore, on Sir
William Armstrong’s system, and the supply of fresh air re-
quired for the sustenance of the workmen employed within the
bell and within the tube will be insured also by steam power on
shore. As the tube is completed, the rails will be laid within it
for the trains of wagons to be employed in bringing up segments
of the rings as they may be required for the construction of the
tube, and for taking back the waste water from the hydraulic
presses, or any water from leakage during the construction. The
tube will be formed of rings of 10 feet in length, each ring con-
sisting of 6 segments, all precisely alike, turned and faced at
the flanges or joints, and fitted together on shore previously to
being taken into the bell, so that on their arrival the segments
may, with perfect certainty and precision, be attached to each
other. The tube when laid will be secure from all dangers aris-
ing from anchors, or wrecks, or submarine currents. The build-
ing of the tube will be commenced on dry land above the level
of the sea, and will be gradually submerged as the tube length-
ens. The first half mile will test the feasibility of construction,
for that will have to be built both above and under water.
When once fairly under water, the progress should be rapid, and
it is estimated that the whole undertaking may be easily com-
pleted in 5 years. The precise line to be taken will probably
be between a point in close proximity to Dover, and a point in
close proximity to Cape Grisnez, on the French coast, where the
sea bed on this line appears to be the most uniform in level, and,
while free from hard rocks and broken ground, to consist of
coarse sand, gravel, and clay. The average depth of water is
about 110 feet, the maximum about 200 feet. On the line sug-
gested the water increases in depth on both sides more rapidly
than elsewhere, although in no instance will the gradient be more
than about one in 100. The tube, when completed, will occupy
about 16 feet in depth above the present bottom of the sea. Up
to the point on each shore at which the depth of water above the
depth of the tube would reach, say 30 feet at low water, an open
pier, or other protection, would have to be constructed for the
purpose of pointing out its position, and of preventing vessels
striking against the tube. The tube at each end would gradualiy
emerge from the water, and on arriving above the level of the
sea would be connected with the existing railway systems. Tie
distance across the Channel on the line chosen is about 22 miles.

22 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The tube as proposed is large enough for the passage of car-
riages of the present ordinary construction, and to avoid the ob-
jections to the use of locomotives in a tube of so great a length,
it is proposed to work the traffic by pneumatic pressure. ‘The
air will be exhausted on one side of the train and forced in on the
other, and so the required difference of pressure will be given for
carrying the train through at any determined speed. Powerful
steam-engines, for exhausting and forcing the air into the tube,
will be erected on shore at each end. This system of working
the traflic will secure a constant supply of the purest air. By this
system of working there would scarcely exist the chance of acci-
dent—no collision could take place. ‘There would never be foul
air within the tube. The pneumatic system can be as cheaply
worked, and be in every way preferable to locomotive power.
Combined goods and passenger trains might be sent through the
tube at 20 miles an hour, with occasional express trains at 30
miles an hour. The estimated cost of the whole undertaking is
8,000,000 pounds. Mr. Chalmers estimates the total annual revenue
at 1,300,000 pounds. The working expenses would be amply cov-
ered by 150,000 pounds, leaving about 14 or 15 per cent. dividend.

Mr. Bidder remarked that this subject had not been without
interest to him, as it would be recollected that he made a few
remarks on it when presiding over the section at Norwich last
year. The atmospheric system, which was a very old subject,
and which had been tried to a very great extent in this neighbor-
hood, failed on account of using a small tube with a large pres-
sure, but it was different with a large tube. He believed the
pneumatic principle was the only one that could be adopted to
work the tunnel. He thought there would be a difficulty in get-
ting the united actions of the two governments to carry out the
work. Unless the tunnel was worked pneumatically, he wouid
rather cross in the present boats. Until an experiment had been
made to test this plan, and the probable cost, it would be more
reasonable to construct a huge breakwater, and build vessels that
should be adapted to cross, except on special occasions, with cer-
tainty and dispatch.

Mr. C. Vignoles believed that if ever there was to be a tunnel
to Calais it must be on this principle. The real cause of the fail-
ure of the atmospheric system was not as Mr. Bidder put it, but
from an accumulation of heat in the air-pumps. It would never
pay as a commercial undertaking, as there was not suflicient traf-
fic; but it might be done by the governments. They, as engi-
neers, considered the scheme a practical one; but he was afraid it
must be left to the next generation to carry out.

Mr. Bateman, in reply, contended that the cost would not ex-
ceed his estimate.

MT. WASHINGTON RAILWAY.
The depot is 2,685 feet above the levelof the sea, or 1,117 feet

above the White Mountain House. This leaves a grade of 3,600
feet to be overcome, as the height of the mountain is 6,285 feet

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. a

above the level of the sea. The length of the road is two miles
and thirteen-sixteenths.

The heaviest grade is 13 inches to the yard, and the very
lightest, one inch to the foot. A part of the course is over ‘“ Ja-
cob’s Ladder,” the zigzag portion of the old bridle-path lying
just above the point where the trees are left behind. The rail-
road takes a generally straight line, however, curving slightly,
only to maintain a direct course.

The locomotive pushes the car before it up the incline, and
both run upon three rails, the centre one being a cog rail. The
engine and car are kept upon the track by friction rollers under
the side of the cog rail, and the appliances for stopping the de-
scent are ample. By means of atmospheric brakes either the car
or engine could be sent down alone at any given rate, fast or
slow, and there are also hand brakes operating with equal direct-
ness upon the central wheels, together with other means of gov-
erning the machinery of locomotion. Every competent person
who has examined the road and the running machinery pro-
nounces both as safe as they could possibly be made. The land-
ing-place at the top of the mountain is directly in the rear of the
be office, and but a few rods from the door of the Tip-Top

ouse.

ELECTRICITY AND RAILROADS,

On the railroads in France electricity is taking the place of hu-
man watchfulness. On many lines there are contrivances where
the passing of a train is automatically announced to neighboring
stations. The cars pass over connecting wires, and the train
records itself before and behind, so that its progress and appear-
ance are alike indicated.

WHY DO RAILWAY CARRIAGES OSCILLATE?

There is so prevalent an idea that the unpleasant, and, to the
nervous, injurious oscillation of railway coaches is due to the
axles being too wide for the line, that the following explanation
given in the ‘‘ Times,” by Mr. Charles Fox, is of much importance,
both to the public and the ‘* companies :” —

‘* The oscillation of railway trains, more especially at high ve-
locities, producing what is ordinarily called ‘ gauge concussion,’
is a very serious source of wear to the permanent way and rolling
stock of railways, and as a consequence, of great expense, to say
nothing of the discomfort it occasions to passengers, and is, in
my opinion, caused, in very great measure, by the use of wheels
the tires of which are portions of cones instead of cylinders.

‘«‘ Tt is well known to engineers that the tires of railway-wheels
are generally coned to an inclination of one in 20. It is con-
sidered that these were first introduced by Mr. George Stephen-
son, in the expectation of facilitating the passage of vehicles —
round curves, by their adapting themselves, through their various

24 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

diameters, to the different lengths of the two rails on which they
were running. This, however, is not the case in practice, as any
one will find upon carefully investigating the matter, inasmuch
as, in a vehicle passing round a curve, the flange of the off fore
wheel will be found close up to the outer rail, while that of the
aft near wheel will be found running with its flange close up to
the inner one, so that no benefit whatever accrues from the use
of the cone, even in going round curves.

‘<The question of passing with steadiness over straight liner
seems to have been altogether overlooked in the introduction ct
coned wheels, for it will be obvious that with the inch ‘ play’
allowed between the tires and the rails, unless one-half of such
play be constantly preserved on each side of the way, two wheels
staked upon the same axle will be running upon different diame-
ters, and, consequently, a struggle arises which cannot fail to
result in oscillation, inasmuch as the moment one of the flanges
touches a rail, that wheel, becoming larger than the opposite one,
turns it off from the rail, ‘only to make the opposite one perform,
in its turn, the same operation, when serious oscillation is the re-
sult.

** As I have already stated, no advantage is found to arise in
the use of conical wheels in passing round curves, and as much
evil results therefrom, on straight lines, I have constructed up-
ward of 250 miles of railway abroad, in the rolling stock of which
I have departed from the usual form of wheel, and have used
only cylindrical ones, and have, as I expected, been gratified
with the satisfactory reports I have received of the steadiness of
trains supplied with them.

‘*Now that main-line companies are running their express
trains at such high velocities, this oscillation is becoming a very
serious matter, not only as a question of safety, but also one of
great discomfort to the passengers, to say nothing of the enor-
mous cost occasioned by this destructive action. I would, there-
fore, venture to recommend, that should any one desire to test the
correctness of the principles here stated, he should select a car-
riage known to be most subject to oscillation, and place under it
4 cylindrical instead of conical wheels, and let this carriage
run in an express train, care being taken to avoid the oscillation
of the two adjoining carriages with conical wheels being commu-
nicated to it, which would be effected by the introduction of two
coupling links, say 10 feet long, instead of the shorter ones in
general use, and he will at once perceive the advantage of using
cylindrical wheels.”

THE USE OF COUNTER-PRESSURE STEAM IN THE LOCOMOTIVE
ENGINE AS A BRAKE.

M. L. De Chatelier gives the history of the improvement as fol-
lows: —

** About the middle of 1865, when first I thought of organizing a
system of experiments for removing the difficulties of - reversing
the steam, I began by trying whether it would be possible to

“ MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 25

work the engine for any considerable time by means of the com-
pressed-air apparatus of M. de Bergue. Isoon convinced myself
that the heating of the cylinders went on so rapidly that this sys-
tem was inapplicable for any length of run. It was then that I
drew up a complete programme of experiments, the sum and sub-
stance of which was to establish a communication between the
boiler and the lower end of the exhaust-pipe, in order to supply
there a jet of steam or of water, and to force into the boiler the
elastic fluids, — steam or gases dischar ged from the cylinders by
the return stroke of the piston. I pointed out three combinations
to be experimented on in succession, according to the greater or
less difficulty found in completely cooling the cylinders.

** Ist. Injection of steam mixed with air.

«¢2d. Injection of steam in suflicient excess to prevent the en-
trance of air.

<< 3d. Injection of water, instead of steam.

«* At first [supposed that the steam would carry along with it a
sufficient quantity of water to absorb the heat produced, and that
it would be condensed before reaching the cylinders. This idea
was incorrect. During the working with steam reversed, the
water ceases to be in a state of violent ebullition, and is only car-
ried over in small quantities; and, besides, when the steam ex-
pands in issuing from the boiler, it dries, and the small quantity
of water brought with it is almost entirely converted into steam.

‘* The first experiment With a mixture of steam and gases drawn
into the cylinders did not give favorable results. With the i injec-
tion of an excess of steam —a system which I characterized as an
inverted steam engine — more satisfactory results were obtained,
and it was found possible to work-with a moderate admission of
steam with light loads on moderate gradients, without burning
the packings, and without injuring the rubbing sur faces. We
have in France the example of a railway on which 200 engines
have only a cock for the injection of steam, and the substitution
of this for the gases drawn from the smoke-box has proved sutl-
cient to render the counter-pressure steam applicable for stopping
and shunting in stations, and for moderating the speed in the de-
scent of xoods trains on gradients of one in "260. Indeed, the in-
jection of steam alone has been effectually applied to light trains
on a short incline of one in 22.

‘« But experience soon showed that the only general and complete
solution of the question is found in the injection of water. To
complete the absorption of the heat produced by the compression
in the cylinders, to force back the steam into the boiler, and to ren-
der the reversal of the steam an absolutely innocuous operation,
water is the only appliance.

‘*When we speak of injecting water issuing from the boiler into
the cylinders of a locomotive engine, it must be borne in mind
that it is not water in the state in which it would flow from a
fountain; it is at a high temperature when it issues from the
boiler, and rushes into space at atmospheric pressure. It enters
at once into ebullition, and becomes steam at 100° C., in quantity
corresponding to the heat employed.

3

26 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

‘* The new system of reversing steam has been, until recently,
limited to the use of a mixture of steam and water. The engi-
neers to whom I had entrusted the task of making the first trials
followed my instructions with some apprehension, endeavoring as
much as possible to avoid the injection of water into the cylinders.
The result has been that, even now, in Spain, where these first
trials were made, the use of counter-pressure steam has not had
the success which it has had elsewhere. In France, the part
played by the water was better understood; it has been abun-
dantly injected, and the results have been most satisfactory; but
up to the moment when I had an opportunity of personally ex-
perimenting, in order to verify the correctness of my first concep-
tions, steam was universally considered as a necessary agent, and
was used in a greater or less proportion. It was supposed that
its function was to fill the cylinders during the period of aspira-
tion, and that it served as the vehicle for the water which was
shut in with it, behind the piston, at the moment the period of
cushioning and forcing back commenced. It was supposed that
the water led from the boiler was applied directly to the absorp-
tion of heat.

‘* | have shown that the water is converted into steam from the
moment that it enters the cylinder, even during the period of as-
piration, and the conclusion is that not only is it not required to
take steam direetly from the boiler, but that the addition of steam
to the water, beyond a certain limit, might become prejudicial.

‘* In every casethe substitution of steam for, or the addition of
steam to, water results in a discharge of a less moist steam
from the cylinders into the boiler, and jt is the same with the
steam in the exhaust-pipe used for aspiration. The rubbing sur-
faces are therefore drier, and the friction greater. The more the
proportion of steam is increased, the more these effects become
sensible. At last the steam actually diverts the water indispen-
sable for the absorption of the heat, although large quantities of
steam escape by the funnel, and although no gases from the
smoke-box get into the cylinders.

‘¢ The intervention of steam during the working with inverse ad-
mission, unless required for some particular purpose, which: I
shall point out presently, is always more or less prejudicial. The
rule, in fact, should be, to add the least possible quantity of steam
to the water. The wet steam, on the water issuing from the
boiler, gives this minimum proportion.

‘« The apparatus to be fitted to the locomotive, to admit of work-
ing counter-pressure steam as a brake, is as simple as the princi-
ple itself. It consists of a tube of an inch to an inch and a quarter
in diameter, — one inch diameter is very convenient, — which com-
municates between the boiler and the exhaust-pipe, and a dis-
tributing cock by which the driver regulates the supply. If, as I
advise, although it is not indispensable, it is desired to have the
power of injecting water and steam alternately or simultaneously,
a second cock is placed, with a short tube as a branch from the
first, at a short distance from its origin. The one tube enters

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 27

the boiler below the lowest level of the water, the other above the
highest, so that steam only shall pass through the latter.

‘When the engines have external cylinders, the exhaust-pipe
divides into two branches. The injection-tube must therefore
have also two branches; one going to the under side of each
branch of the exhaust-pipe. The bifurcation should be perfectly
symmetrical, so that the water held in suspension in the steam
may not take the line of steepest descent, and that the distribution
to each cylinder may be equal.”

CAR-WHEELS.

From Auchincloss’ Report of the Paris Exhibition we extract
the following : —

‘The practice of nations seems much divided on the subject
of the proper material for car-wheels. The wrought-iron wheel
is almost exclusively adhered to in England, France, and Prussia;
while Holland and Austria discover features worthy of attention
in the cast iron. The general properties of the cast-iron spoke
wheel are familiar to all. The society of Providence (limited),
whose office is at 208 Quai Jemmapes, Paris, display specimens
of rolled wrought-iron wheel centres, without weld, whose radial
section is similar to an I-beam. Upon such centres the tire is
held with 4 seven-eighth inch rivets.

‘“*The Society of Mines and Steel Works, Bochum, Prussia,
exhibits a remarkable cast of wheels. It was formed by
stacking the flasks 22 wheels high, with the hubs in contact,
and then pouring in crucible steel through a side-runner. Al-
though this cast was made more as a matter of curiosity, it is
quite customary with this company to arrange them in tiers of
6 wheels each, and thus save the numerous side-runners re-
quired when cast singly. One swinging of the set in the lathe
answers for facing up all the treads and flanges. These wheels
have a single plate, and are:40 inches in diameter. The Aus-
trian exhibitions are by A. Ganz, of Ofen, Hungary, and Mr.
Derno, of the same section of country. The former gentleman
is the most extensive manufacturer in Austria, and makes a
double-plated wheel, similar in design to that known in America
as the ‘Snow Patent.’ He exhibited a wheel 38 inches in diame-
ter, cast in 1856, which has served under a 10 ton four-wheeled
wagon for the past 11 years. The tread of this wheel appears
in excellent condition, the metal close-grained without signs of
honey-combing. >

‘*The director-general of the Austrian I. R. P. State Railway
Society certifies to the fact of this wheel having run 50,000 miles.
The road on which these wheels are used is 419 miles in length,
and pursues a south-easterly course from Vienna through Hunga-
ry. In respect to climate the trial is most severe. Its merits are
certainly appreciated or the shop number would not extend as
high as 84,981, which was noticed on a wheel cast during the
present year. The wheels, as usual, have 3 core-holes in the
back. The only peculiarity about these holes is a V-groove cast

28 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

near the opening, into which, when the core is removed, an eighth
of an inch sheet-iron disk is sprung. This method is employed
on wheels designed specially for passenger coaches, and prevents
the entrance of stones, whjch, rattling within a wheel of so large
diameter, become a source of much annoyance.”:

WOODEN WHEELS.

The directors of the New York and New Haven Railroad have
decided, as an experiment, to use wooden wheels on some of the
cars upon their road. Quite anumber of these wheels have been
purchased, and will be substituted for the present iron ones on
some of the new cars. They are understood to cost nearly treble
the price of iron wheels, but are considered quite as cheap in the
end. They are made of elm or teak wood, and bound with steel
tires. Besides being less liable to break by the action of frost,
they make less noise.

SLIDING OF CAR-WHEELS.

An experiment has been made at Munich for the purpose of
determining if a railway-carriage wheel rolls regularly without
sliding, so that by recording the number of revolutions of a
wheel, the circumference of which is known, the distance accom-
plished could be accurately ascertained. The difference between
the measurement by mathematical instruments and that obtained
by noting the revolutions of the wheel was found to be no more
than one sixty-eight thousandth of the whole.

A NEW ALARM-BELL FOR LOCOMOTIVES,

A new alarm-bell was tested on the Detroit and Milwaukie
Railroad lately. The invention consists of an ordinary bell,
weighing about 100 pounds, placed on the platform of the loco-
motive, immediately over the cow-catcher. A rod attached to
the eccentric shaft causes a clapper to strike the bell each turn of
the driving-wheel. The bell is suspended loosely, and revolves
from the force of the stroke it receives, so that all parts of the
surface are equally exposed to wear. The advantages of this
arrangement are a continuous sound, slow or rapid in proportion
to the speed of the engine, each 15 feet producing a stroke of the
bell. In case of an accident, the railroad company can always
prove that their bell was ringing according to law; and owing to
the position in which this bell is placed, the sound can be
distinctly heard about 3 miles in daytime, and by night 4
miles or more, the ground and the continuous rail, both excellent
conductors of sound, assisting in carrying the vibrations. The
Detroit and Milwaukie Railroad have 24 of these alarms already
in yse, and intend to provide all their passenger-engines with
them,

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 29

IMPROVED TRACTION UPON STEEL RAILS AND STEEL-HEADED
' RAILS.

It has been too much the practice of railway managers to con-
sider only the increased durability of steel. A less striking, but
perhaps equally iniportant advantage, is that it has double the
strength and more than double the stiffness of iron. Some 3
years since, Mr. George Berkley made, in England, above 600
tests of the stiffness of steel and iron rails of equal section. The
rails were supported on 5-feet bearings, and loaded with dead
pressure at the middle. The first raiis tried weighed 68 pounds
per yard, and loads respectively of 20 tons and 30 tons were ap-
plied. The average of 427 tests of the Eubw Vale Co.’s and two
other standard makers of iron rails, gave, with 20 tons, a deflection
of five-eighths inch and a permanent set of one-half inch. With
50 tons the deflection was two and one-fifth inch and the perma-
nent set two and one-sixteenth inch. With Brown’s steel rails,
45 tests gave an average deflection of but five-sixteenths inch and
permanent set of one-eighth inch. With heavier rails and loads,
the comparative stiffness of steel was still more marked. The
great and constant resistance of traction, and the wear and tear
of track wheels and running gear, due to the deflection of rails
between the sleepers and the perpetual series of resulting concus-
sions, may be much reduced, or practically avoided, by the use
of rails of twice the ordinary stiffness; in such a case, however,
reasonably good ballasting and sleepers would be essential.
When a whole series of sleepers sinks bodily into the mud, the
consideration of deflection between the sleepers is a premature
refinement. If the weight of steel rails is decreased in propor-
tion to their strength, these advantages of cheaper.traction and
maintenance will not, of course, be realized. The best practice,
here and abroad, is to use the same weight for steel as had been
formerly employed for iron.

Many attempts have been made in England, on the Continent,
and in this country, to produce a good steel-headed rail, and not
without success. Puddled stcel-heads have all the structural de-
fects of wrought iron, as they are not formed from a cast, and
hence homogeneous mass, but are made by the wrought-iron pro-
cess, and are, in fact, a ‘‘ high,” steely wrought iron. ‘They are,
however, a great improvement upon ordinary iron, although
probably little cheaper than cast-steel heads. Rolling a plain cast-
steel slab upon an iron pile has not proved successful. The weld
cannot be perfected, on so large a scale, and the steel peels off
under the action of car-wheels. Forming the steel slab with
grooves, into which the iron would dovetail when the pile was
rolled into a rail, has been quite successful. The greater part of
some 50) tons of such rails, made in this country, and put down
where they would be severely tested, about 4 years ago, have
outworn some 3iron rails. Others failed in the iron stem, which
was too light, after a shorter service. Rolling small bars oi
steel into the head of an iron pile has been recently commenced

3*

30 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

at various mills in this country and in England. No conclusions
are yet warranted by the short trial of these rails. .

There is a growing feeling among engineers and steel-makers
that the compound rail, made wholly or partly of steel, will
prove more safe afd economical than any solid rail, and that the
defects of the old compound iron rail, largely used in this State
some years since, may be avoided, since these defects were
chiefly due to the nature of the material. The experiments in
this direction will be watched with great interest by railway
managers, for if the same durability of track can be obtained
with a steel cap as with an all-steel rail, the first cost will be
greatly decreased. A rail made in two or three continuous parts,
breaking joints, is also a practical insurance against disaster from
broken rails. — State Engineer's Report on Railroads.

NARROW GAUGE RAILWAY.

The Portmadoc and Festiniog Railway, Wales, is now attract-
ing much attention from railroad men. This is a little line in
North Wales, which was originally constructed for the purpose
of acting as a tramway for slate and stone from the hills of
Merionethshire to the sea-shore. It is now being used as a
regular goods and passenger line. The chief peculiarity in its
construction is that the gauge is only two feet broad. Hence,
though the line runs through a very difficult country, the expen-
ses of construction and working are so small that the traffic yields
the enormous revenue of 30 per cent. The reason is simple
enough. It is’ because the proportion between the dead weight
and paying weight is so much less than upon other railways.
The engine and tender upon this line weigh about 10 tons,
against 40 tons upon the wider gauge of other lines. Instead of
a first-class carriage, weighing 74 tons, to carry 32 passengers,
and representing nearly 5 cwt. of dead weight for each passen-
ger, the carriages on the Festiniog weigh only 30 cwt. for
12 passengers, or two and a half ewt. for each person carried.

STEEL RAILS.— THEIR DURABILITY.

The annual report of the State Engineer of New York, prepared
by S. H. Sweet, Deputy Engineer, contains the following regard-
ing steel rails: ‘* Bessemer steel rails have been in regular and
extensive use abroad over 10 years. For some 5 years large
trial lots have been laid on various American roads having heavy
traffic, and during the last two years importations have largely
increased. The manufacture of steel rails has also been com-
menced at four large establishments in this country, and some
7,000 tons of home manufacture have been produced and laid
down. It is estimated that from 40,000 to 50,000 tons of steel rails
are in use on our various railways. Among the users of steel
rails are the Hudson River, Erie, and Pennsylvania Railway,—
10,000 tons or more each; the Lehigh and Susquehannah (entirely

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. ol

built of steel) ; also the Philadelphia and Baltimore ; Camden and
Amboy line; Lehigh Valley; New York Central; New York and
New Haven; Naugatuck ; Morris and Essex ; Cumberland Valley ;
South Carolina; Chicago and North-western; Chicago and Rock
Island ; Chicago and Alton; Michigan Central; Lake Shore line;
Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy; Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and
Chicago ; also the Boston and Providence, Boston and Worcester,
Boston and Maine, Boston and Albany, Eastern, Connecticut
River, and other lines in New England.

‘* The Wear of Steel Rails.— As no steel rails are reported
to have worn out on our roads, the comparative durability of
steel and iron cannot be absoiutely determined. The president
of the Philadelphia and Baltimore Railway states (in the letter
before quoted) that the use of steel commenced in 1864, that the
rails (25 miles in all) were laid on the most trying parts of the
line ; that none have been taken up on account of breakage, wear,
or defect ; that upon the portion of the line near Philadelphia the
first. stee] rail imported had already worn out 16 iron rails;
and that none of the steel rails have shown any imperfection, but
are all wearing smoothly and truly.

‘*On the Pennsylvania Railway, the report of the Chief .Engi-
neer for 1868 states that 11,494 tons of steel rails had been pur-
chased, and 9,656 tons Jaid. The first were Jaid in 1864. They
are all wearing smoothly, showing no change except the slight
diminution of section to be reasonably expected from the heavy
traffic. No steel rails have yet worn out. The report of the
superintendent (Feb., 1869) says: ‘The use of steel rails con-
tinues with satisfactory results, and 4,544 tons of this material
have been laid since date of last report.’ It is officially reported
that on the Camden and Amboy line some of the steel rails laid
3 years ago are now good in places where iron lasted but a few
months..

“« The last report of the Engineer of the Lehigh Valley Railway
says: ‘ Another year’s wear has made no perceptible impression
upon the 200 tons (of stee! rails), the first of which was laid in
May, 1864, none of which has broken or given out since last
report. These rails have had a severe test, being in those places
in the track where they are subject to the greatest wear, laid with
a chair, which is much inferior to the most approved joint now in
use. There is no longer any possible doubt as to the superiority
of steel over iron in economy, as in every other respect.’
_. Unofficial reports from the Erie, Hudson River, and other
roads, show that the above statements represent the average
quality of steel rails. The last report of the New York and New
Haven Railway states that ‘ the subject of steel rails has received
special attention, and after a careful investigation of all the points
involved, it has been determined hereafter to make all renewals
of track with steel rails only; 2,900 tons of Bessemer steel rails
have been contracted for on account of renewals for the present
year.’ ~The report of the Morris and Essex Railway for 1868
says: ‘ During the last year one track through the tunnel has been
relaid. with steel,’ — also some 150 tons. of steel laid elsewhere.

$2 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

‘The wear of steel shows conclusively that economy will require
its use on all heavy grades and sharp curves.’ The last report of
the New Jersey Railway and Transportation Company says: ‘ It
is probable that steel rails will be gradually laid the entire length
of the road, the greater durability of these rails overcoming the
objection to their increased cost.’” — Railway Times.

STEEL-CAPPED RAILS.

‘“*The invention by J. L. Booth, of Rochester, N. Y., of a
process for capping iron rails with a solid cap of steel about one-
half or five-eighths of an inch in thickness, in the opinion of the
most experienced railroad men who have examined it, meets the
requirements of safety and durability. The rail consists of an
iron base with a steel cap, united to the base not by bolts, screws,
rivets, or welding, but simply by clamping. The iron bar is
rolled of the required form and weight, after which it is passed
through the compressing machine, which clenches powerfully
upon it the heavy steel cap. The subsequent action of weight
upon it, as the passage over it of heavy trains, is to grip the iron
more and more firmly, until the base and the cap become as firmly
united as if they were a single piece of metal. Over the experi-
- mental rails laid down two years ago near the depot in Buffalo
have passed 40,000 engines and 500,000 cars. The iron rails
adjoining opposite them have, in the interval, been six times re-
newed. No change is as yet observable in the steel-capped rails,
and to all appearance they bid fair to wear out 20 successive sets
of the ordinary sort.

**Two of the rails were also laid on the New York Central
Railroad, at Rochester, N. Y., June 7, 1867. On one the cap
was loose and even rattling; on the other it was firm. They
were laid continuously,-and with the old style of chairs. They
were placed where 70 engines and trains daily passed over them
on the main line, and where the track was used constantly
for switching and making-up of trains. The rate of speed over
them varies. The through freight trains are frequently joined at
this point, three or four in one, to ascend an up-grade. They
pass over these rails often at the rate of 25 or 30 miles an hour.
The loose cap rail became tight in a very short time, and both are
now in perfect order. Four sets of iron rails have been completely
worn out, and new sets replaced, on the opposite side of the
phe during the period of time these duplex rails have been

own.”

TESTS OF STEEL RAILS.

Messrs. John A. Griswold & Co.’s circular thus describes their
method of testing steel rails: 1st. A test ingot from each 5-ton
ladleful of liquid steel is hammered into a bar, and tested for mal-
leability and hardness, and especially for toughness, by bending it
double cold. In case any test bar falls below the standard es-
tablished as suitable for rails, all the ingots cast from that ladleful

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 33

of steel are laid aside for other uses. 2d. All the ingots, and each
rail rolled from them, are stamped with the number of the charge
or ladleful. A piece is cut from one rail in each charge, and
tested by placing it on iron supports a foot apart, and dropping a
weight of 5 tons upon the middle of it, from a height propor-
tioned to the pattern of rail. A blow equivalent to a ton weight
falling 10 to 15 feet is considered a severe test. We use a 5-ton
weight falling from a less height, believing that it more nearly
represents in kind (although it of course exaggerates in severity)
the test of actual service in the track. In case a test rail does
not stand the blow deemed proper and agreed upon, the whole
of the rails made from that charge or ladleful of steel are marked
No. 2, and sold for use in sidings, where their possible breaking
would do no great harm, and where their greater hardness and
resistance to wear would be specially valuable. In addition to
this double test, the rails are rigidly inspected for surface imper-
fections. We believe that these tests render it practically impos-
sible for us to send out rails of inferior quality. We farther invite
railway companies to send inspectors to our works to witness the
tests mentioned, and other tests and inspections agreed upon.—
Van Nostrand’s Eng. Mag., Oct., 1869. ,

AMERICAN RAILS.

_ The term American rails has become a synonym for the cheap-
est and least durable rails manufactured. They are usually about
10 shillings per ton cheaper than the ordinary rails made for Eng-
lish and Continental companies. In the case of American rails .
the quality of the material and the construction of the rail pile are
left entirely to the manufacturer, the rails not being made ac-
cording to any specification ; and hence there is not the slightest
guaranty that a good, serviceable, or safe rail will be obtained ;
the one great desideratum being, apparently, that the price be low.
Hence, the maker's chief study is, naturally enough, to produce
the cheapest possible article, and to devise means of manufactur-
ing at a low price what is, to all appearances, a clean-looking
rail; to do this, he carefully studies the character of his iron, and
so manipulates it as to obtain a-well-finished and salable rail,
regardless of its brittleness, —so long, indeed, as it does not
break previously to delivery and payment,—and_ indifferent
whether itis likely to last one year or ten. Fortunately for him,
the section for American rails is one very easy to roll,—low,
heavy, and without angles,—so that almost any quality of iron,
and any construction of pile, will not interfere with the one object
‘he has in view. When, however, the iron is very red-short (or
liable, through the presence of sulphur, to crack in rolling), a
top-slab of a better class of iron (No. 2) must be used in the
pile, to serve as the wearing surface of the rail. This wearing
surface may, however, vary considerably in thickness, forming
either the entire head of the rail, or only a portion more or less
thick. Even when the iron is not red-short, the pile is often com-
posed of puddled bars only, and rolled out into rails, at the low-

34 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

est possible heat, so as to economize iron and fuel, but regardless
of insuring a perfect weld; and hence, lamination and failure
rapidly follow after a few months’ wear. So much for the dura-
bility of the ordinary American rail. Now as regards its safety:
Just as the presence of sulphur in iron renders the metal red-
short, as previously explained, so the presence of phosphorus
causes the iron to become brittle and cold-short. It is, there-
fore, of great importance, in producing a good and serviceable
rail from such inferior materials, that the hard, cold-short iron
should form the top, or wearing portion, of the rail, while the red-
short, or tough and fibrous iron, should be used for the flange ; as
the character of the ores distributed through the principal rail-
making districts of this country is such that cold-short iron is pro-
duced in one district, and red-short in another, it is necessary that
the two kinds of metal should be brought together, and used in
association, as previously described, if they are to produce a truly
serviceable rail. But as the cost of transport from one district to
another becomes an important item, it will evidently be to the
interest of the manufacturer, if not restricted, to use the unmixed
home material, whether cold-short or red-short. Under such cir-
cumstances, a rail is produced either too brittle, and therefore
dangerous, or too pliable, and therefore less capable of enduring
the wear and tear of traffic. There are, perhaps, few countries
that of late have suffered more from fracture of rails than Amer-
ica. This has led some railway administrations, in that country,
to require that the rails should be tested; but whereas they were
formerly too careless in this respect, they now seem inclined to
err on the other side by specifying too severe a test for the rail,
and thus compelling the maker to use too soft aniron, For in-
stance, it is often required that a weight of one ton should fall
upon the rail from a height of 10 feet, when half such a test
would insure breakage of the rail in any climate. I may now
briefly refer to the method adopted in making rails for the Eng-
lish and Continental companies. There are but few of these
railway administrations which, when inviting tenders for a supply
of rail, do not specify distinctly that the top slab, constituting the
Wearing surface of the rail, must be of the very best material,
and at least two inches in thickness, thus giving a wearing sur-
face of one-half inch in the head of the rail; and, further, that
the rail should stand a test half as severe as that previously men-
tioned as applied to American rails. From what has now been
advanced respecting the different modes of manufacturing Amer-
ican and European rails, I leave the respective American railway
administrations to judge whether they would not best consult their
own interests by adopting the English and Continental system of
well-defined specification and tests, instead of looking merely to
the small saving effected by always accepting the lowest tender.—
E.”—Journal of the Franklin Institute, March, 1869.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 35

WOODEN WHEELS.

Mansells’ patent wheels for railway carriages are fast coming
into general use. They have already been adopted by the Lon-
don, and North-Western, Great Western, Midland, Great North-
ern, Great Eastern, Metropolitan, and other English lines, and
the Imperial Government has sanctioned their adoption on all the
railways of Russia. It may not be generally known that Man-
sells’ original patent was for securing the tire to the wheel by re-
taining rings, the fillets of which are turned to fit into corre-
sponding grooves in the tires. ‘The whole is secured by nuts and
bolts. Between the tire and the boss spokes are dispensed with
by the insertion of stout, close-fitting panels of East India teak-
wood, the oily nature of which preserves from oxidation the iron
passing through it. For this purpose teak is superior to any other
wood, and it has further the advantage of never shrinking. The
superiority of these wheels over iron ones is well known to all
observant travellers, their special merits being absence of jarring,
and also of noise. — Van Nostrand’s Magazine, Sept., 1869.

NEW RAIL-LEVELLING DEVICE.

The ordinary lever-bar used for lifting rails and sleepers in con-
structing and repairing the permanent way of railways involves
in its operation the labor of several men. To obviate this, an
English engineer, Mr. De Bergue, has constructed a simple and
compact tool, composed of a kind of shoe combined with a bar
pivoted at one end, and at the other furnished with a screw by
which it may be raised relatively to the shoe. The instrument
with its bar depressed is thrust under the rail or sleeper to be
raised, and the screw is turned until the bar has been forced up-
wards sufficiently to bring the superincumbent parts to the re-
quired position. Those portions of the apparatus subjected to
heavy strains are made of steel, and the working surfaces are
hardened so that it cannot easily get out of repair. — Van Nos-
trand’s Eclectic Engineering Magazine.

THE FAIRLIE STEAM CARRIAGE.

The name of Mr. Robert F. Fairliehas for some time past been
brought prominently before the public in connection with the
economical working of railways. A trial of this carriage was
made July 15, at the Hatcham Iron Works, which successfully
demonstrated the practicability of working the system upon rail-
ways with curves of only 50 feet radius. The steam carriage ex-
hibited, and which was not quite completed, was designed to
work on a metropolitan railway, at the terminal stations of which
sufficient space could not be given for laying down rails on a curve
of 25 feet radius for the standard carriage to run itself round ;
consequently the standard carriage had to be altered in dimen-

36 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

sions to allow of its being turned on an ordinary 40-feet turn-
table. Hence, instead of seating, as is intended, the 100 passen-
gers in the standard carriage, the carriage under trial only gave

seating space for 16 first-class and 50 second-class, in all 66 pas- |

sengers. ‘Che accommodation per passenger is as good as is given
on the best lines, and infinitely superior to the stock usually
worked on branch lines. The length of the carriage is 43 feet,
including a compartment near the engine for the guard. The
engine, carriage, and framing all complete, in working order, but
exclusive of passengers, weighs under 134 tons, and including its full
load of passengers, 184 tons only: The carriage when finished
complete will have a broad step or platform on each side, extend-
ing iis entire length; this step is protected by a hand-rail on the

outside, with an arrangement for lilting it on the platform side at

the doors to allow the passengers to get in and out. The object
of this platform is to enable the guard to pass completely round
the train at all times, and while doing so he is perfectly safe
from any accident. Passengers can also pass along the platform
to the guard, so that in this manner there is an easy and perfect
mode of communication between passengers and guard. It is in-
tended, however, in the standard steam-carriage to provide a
central passage inside, the entire length of the carriage, leading
direct from and to the guard’s compartment; thus there is the
most direct means of communication between the passengers and
guard. The compartments in the carriages will be quite as sep-
arate and distinct as they are at present, or as the most fastidious
could desire. The guard passes through the carriage at pleasure.
Those in the higher classes can pass to the lower, but the lower

?

cinnot get to the higher, while all can pass to the guard when re- |

quired. The standard carriage will have two compartments first-
class, to seat 16 persons; 3 compartments second-class, to seat
30 persons; and 44 compartments, third-class, to seat 54 persons
—in all, 100 passengers. The machine complete, in working
order, will weigh about 14 tons, and, with 100 passengers, from
20 tons to 21 tons. These carriages will convey their full com-
plement of passengers at 40 miles per hour up gradients of one
iu 100, and, as demonstrated, will pass round curves of 50
feet radius at 20 miles an hour with perfect safety. — Mechanics’
Magazine.

LIGHT ROLLING STOCK.

It has now been indisputably established that it is possible to
construct a combined engine and carriage capable of accommo-
dating 66 passengers, of both classes, the whole weight of which,
fully loaded, shall not exceed, if it do not fall short of, 20 tons,
while the adhesion weight is nearly half as much, or 10 tons, and
the average steam tractive force at least half a ton. The resist-

ance of such a carriage at 20 miles an hour, upon a level, would ;

not exceed 300 or 400 pounds, nor upon a gradient of one in 60
more than from 1,050 pounds to 1,160 pounds, the whole actual

work done being, say 25 horse-power, in the one case, and 75 in »

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 37

the other, or supposing the speed to be diminished on the gradient
to 17 miles an hour, to but 50 horse-power. ‘The carriage is not
of the omnibus kind, but has 7 compartments, and guards-
van, in all respects in conformity with the standard rolling stock
of the English lines. The weight being in no case greater than
two and one-half tons per wheel, lines of corresponding lightness
would serve as well as heavy lines now serve for heavy engines,
loaded as they are from 5, 6, 7, and even 8 tons upon each driy-
ing-wheel. If even half filled with passengers, such a carriage
at ordinary fares would earn about ds. per mile, and if filled about
twice as much. The whole cost of working would be small.
When working upon moderately easy gradients, the consumption
of coal would run but from 6 to 8 lbs. per mile, the wages of
stoker, driver, and.guard making 100 miles a day, to 1}d. per
mile, including all train charges. Permanent way, station ex-
penses, and general expenses might carry the whole to Is., or
1s. 3d.; but even at twice the last-named cost, there would be
a high proportion of profit on the work. The motion of the
carriage is easier than that of an ordinary train; the total wheel-
base being so much longer and yet so much easier from being
formed upon swivelling bogies. It is almost impossible to im-
agine that if branch-line and other short traffic passengers were
allowed to use this carriage, they would not universally pro-
nounce in its favor. Mr. Fairlee, the designer, having worked
out his system upon the great scale, and with the most perfect
success, — as the experiments at Hatcham have abundantly
shown,—is not only to be congratulated, but is entitled to the
warmest thanks of the whole railway body politic.— Hngineering.

DURABILITY OF ENGLISH LOCOMOTIVES.

The life of a locomotive boiler has been found to be about
350,000 train miles; but this may probably on some lines go up
to 400,000, or even 500,000 miles, as its wear and tear would
depend greatly on local circumstances, and particularly on the
chemical qualities of the water employed. Assuming that the
life of the engine is determined by the endurance of the boiler,
and that if, under favorable circumstances, it will last 500,000
miles, then during that time the fire-box will probably require
to be renewed at least 3 times; the tires of the wheels, 5 or per-
haps 6 times; the crank-axles, 3 or 4 times; and the tubes prob-
ably from 7 to 10 times. — Van Nostrand’s Engineering Magazine,
Sept., 1869. :

PEAT FOR LOCOMOTIVE FUEL.

The State-Line Bavarian Railway has been worked with turf
since 1847, or for above 20 years, rather from necessity than
choice. The peat is got from the bogs of Haspelmoos. The
method of its preparation is that of M. Exeter, whose statement
is that he can produce 10,000 cubic metres of prepared turf per
annum, at a cost of 2.80 francs per metre. The turf, as dug or

4

88 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

dredged, appears loaded with much admixed earthy matter;
from this it is separated by grinding up, large dilution with water,
and decantation of the water bearing the lizht peat particles still
in suspension from the heayier ear thy matter which has deposited.
This is left to dry in layers exposed to the air like ‘*hand-turf,”
and compressed in moulds by power. From other sources of in-
formation on the subject of avtificially prepared peat, we conclude
that these results admit of being contested. As a locomotive fuel,
turf, at the best, is a bad and troublesome one; if gives much
smoke and sparks, leaves an evil smell after it, experienced in
the train, and is so bulky as often to need supplementar y wagons
to feed the tender on along run. There is also great waste by
the broken particles passing through the fire-bars. As to com-
parative heating powers (not theoretic, but taking into account
all these circumstances), the result of 9 years’ working on the
Bavarian State Line indicate that 100 cubic feet, or 2. 486 cubic
metres, of the prepared turf of average quality and dryness, are
equivalent to 312.5 kilograms of coke, or to 3.135 cubic metres of
white firewood, that is, “of wood principally of birch, beech, and
alder. Thus, during this interval of working, the cost of firing
with turf was about half that of coke in Bavaria; and two-thirds
that of wood. By taking everything into account, as derived from
the accounts of the line for 1861-62, it may be shown that even
this is too favorable, for that the fuel account per kilometre per
engines stands thus: —

Fired with Coal. Fired with Peat.

Passenger Engines, .. . . »« « . O.166f. 0.172 f.
Luggage Engines, ee eo oe 6 o © 60.249 f. 0.207 f.

It is thus, though rather cheaper than coal for slow traffic, a
trifle dearer than coal for fast, and that even in Bavaria, where
coal was then exceptionally dear. — Van Nostrand’s Eng. Mag.,
Oct., 1869.

BRIQUETTES.

The general use on the Continent of ‘* Briquettes” as fuel for
locomotives is a matter of deep interest to our railway companies,
both as respects economy of consumption and room required for
storage. ‘They are composed of finely powdered, washed coals,
cemented with a material which forms the refuse of starch facto-
ries, or with coal tar. The mixture is subjected fo the pressure
of a piston in a cylindrical or polygonal case, and then exposed to
a current of hot ‘air ina kiln for about 3 hours. The resulting
blocks weigh on an average 8 pounds, and burn with a residue
of from 4 to 7 per cent. of ashes. The experience of the Austrian

yh is, that they evaporate 7.2 pounds of water per pound of
coal.

NAPHTHA AS FUEL FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.

M. Portski, a Russian engineer, has run a railway train success-
fully for a distance of 53.6 English miles, the only fuel applied

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 39

being raw commercial naphtha, instead of coal, coke, or wood. —
Les Mondes.

AERO-STEAM ENGINES. STORM’S EXPERIMENTS.

During a period of several years, dating from about 1851,
Wm. Mount Storm, an inventor and engineer of considerable
note, made a series of experiments with air and gases in connec-
tion with steam, with a view to promote economy in fuel used
for generating motive power. An engine, called the ‘‘ Cloud
Engine,” was exhibited by him at the Fair of the American
Institute, in 1855. The engine was named as above from the
fact that the air, which was mingled in the cylinder with the
steam, changed the latter into a vesicular condition, resembling
fog. The inventor claimed 33 per cent.; and those who saw it
state that, at times, it did actually make a gain of even more
than this.

Its operation was, however, fitful and unreliable, and it finally
was withdrawn from public attention, and nothing more has been
heard from it.

None of these experiments, however, seems to have been
made on the same principles as those of Mr. George Warsop,
of Nottingham, whose object is to attain to a method whereby
the expansive force of heated air may be used in an engine with-
out the difficulties attending the use of heated air alone in the
cylinder, and which are met with in the engines of Ericsson, and
others employing only heated airs.

In Warsop’s experiments the object seems to have been to
make steam assist in applying the expansive force of air.

Warsop, however, has found that a maximum effect from
mixed air and steam depends upon the proper proportion of the
two gaseous bodies, —a conclusion which might have been theo-
retically drawn from a consideration of the relative capacities of
air and steam for heat. Still such an inference would scarcely
have warranted great hopes of economy from this source without
extended experiment, and although extraordinary results —stated
in a former article—are claimed, we shall not be surprised to
hear that some offset to these claims has ere long been discov-
ered.

Incidental to the results sought by Warsop is of course a better
circulation in the boiler employed to generate the steam used in
the experiments, from which some gain might be expected,
though nothing like what is claimed. ~

AERO-STEAM ENGINES.

To the mechanical engineer, the paper bearing the above title,
read before the British Association, at Exeter, will be one of the
most interesting of any of the able and valuable contributions to
the transactions of that distinguished body.

The first part of the paper was devoted to a review of the data

40 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

by which it has been satisfactorily established that not more than
one-tenth of the entire heat of coal is on the average utilized by
steam engines.

The author, Mr. Richard Eaton, of Nottingham, England, then
discusses the practical difficulties encountered in the effort to sub-
stitute heated air for steam, the principal of which is, as our
readers are already aware, the effect of highly heated air upon
such metals as may be economically employed in the construc-
tion of machines.

He then proceeds to give a brief history of the new aero-
steam motor, which avails itself of air expansion, using at the
same time steam, which removes the difficulty above mentioned.

In the first attempts at practically carrying out the system, the
arrangement adopted was an ordinary high-pressure engine with
vertical boiler as used where fuel is cheap. An air-pump is
added, which is put in operation by the action of the steam
a

hus, cold air is taken in by the air-pump, and is forced on in
its compressed state through an air-pipe, which, in the case
before us, is conducted first within the exhaust, then in a coiled
form down the funnel of the boiler, then past the fire, and finally
past a self-acting clack-valve at the bottom of the boiler into the
boiling water itself; rising naturally through the water, the air is
intercepted and subdivided by diaphragms of metal gauge. Thus
a twofold service is rendered by the contact of the elements,
the water becoming aerified and deprived of its cohesion and
prompted to a free ebullition, while the air on rising above the
water is saturated by the steam, and the two together pass on to
their duty in the cylinder where saturation assists lubrication.
The agitation of the water prevents scaling.

In this form of the apparatus the power obtained by the in-
creased volume of the air forced in by the pump did not com-
pensate for that consumed in forcing it into the boiler. At the
same time there were encouraging indications which led to
further experiment. One of the air-pumps being discarded, ex-
periments were made with waste-holes in the barrel of the other
pump, to ascertain what proportion of air admitted to the boiler
compensated for compression. It was found that about 10 per
cent. of the effective consumption of fluid in the working cylinder
gave much better results. At the same time the cam motions
were discarded and the pumps left to their own unaided action.
In this form it is claimed that a gain in work done by the com-
bined air and steam engine was made of 42.5 per cent.

Here, although a very remarkable relative economy was ap-
parent, it became obvious on consideration that danger of mistake
would arise in assuming this economy as absolute, inasmuch as
the duty performed, when contrasted with that obtained from
engines of standard types, actuated by steam, was manifestly
low, and it seemed probable that, as, by judicious improvement
in details, the duty was made to approximate more closely to fair
steam-engine duty, this relative economy might fall off consider-
ably, inasmuch as there would be less margin to economize upon.

a

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. A]

With a view of testing this point, and also for the satisfaction
of railway engineers, of conducting experiments at locomotive
pressures, a thorough remodelling of the whole apparatus was
effected. The tappet motions were thrown aside in favor of the
usual slide-valve arrangement, working with a moderate amount
of expansive action. The former wasteful vertical boiler was
discarded in favor of a more economical one of the compound or
Cornish multi-tubular description, so as to obtain a better evapo-
rative duty from the coal consumed. The radiating surfaces of
the cylinder-pipes were reclothed, and the feed water heated by
the exhaust steam. Instead of exposing the air-pipe to the direct
heat of the furnace, as in the former case, the air became
thoroughly heated on its passage from the pump to the boiler at
a temperature of from 500° to 600° Fah., by being conducted
through suitable coils and pipes through the exhaust steam in the
heater, and the waste heat in the boiler flues and uptake.

When these changes were made a gain of 47 per cent. over
steam only, was claimed on an even-pressure trial, and a gain of
nearly 30 per cent. on an open-valve trial, a step in advance so
huge that it staggers belief.

AMMONIACAL GAS ENGINE. BY F. A. P. BARNARD, LL.D., COM-
MISSIONER TO THE LATE FRENCH EXPOSITION.

If hot-air engines and inflammable gas engines fail as yet to
furnish power comparable to that which steam affords, without a
very disproportionate increase of bulk, and for high powers fail
to furnish it at all, the same objection will not hold in regard to
the new motors now beginning to make their appearance, in
which the motive power is derived from ammoniacal gas. The
gas, which is an incidental and abundant product in certain man-
ufactures, especially that of coal gas, and which makes its ap-
pearance in the destructive distillation of all animal substances, is
found in commerce chiefly in the form of the aqueous solution. It is
the most soluble in water ofall known gases, being absorbed, at the
temperature of freezing, to the extent of more than 1000 vol-
umes of gas to one of water, and at the temperature of 50° F.
of more than 800 to one. What is most remarkable in regard to
this property is, that, at low temperatures, the solution is sensibly
instantaneous. This may be strikingly illustrated by transferring
a bell-glass filled with the gas to a vessel containing water, and
managing the transfer so that the water may not come into con-
tact with the gas until after the mouth of the bell is fully sub-
merged. The water will enter the bell with a violent rush, pre-
cisely as into a vacuum, and if the gas be quite free from mixture
with any other gas insoluble in water, the bell will inevitably be
broken. The presence of a bubble of air may break the force of
the shock and save the bell.

This gas cannot, of course, be collected over. water. In the
experiment just described, the bell is filled by means of a pneu-
matic trough containing mercury. It is transferred by passing

4

42 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

~~

beneath it a shallow vessel, which takes up not only the bell-glass,
but also a suflicient quantity of mercury to keep the gas im-
prisoned until the arrangements for the experiment are com-
leted.

i The extreme solubility of ammoniacal gas is, therefore, a
property of which advantage may be taken for creating & vacuum,
exactly as the same object isaccomplished by the condensation of
steam. As, on the other hand, the pressure which it is capable
of exerting at given temperatures is much higher than that which
steam affords at the same temperatures ; and as, conversely, this
gas requires a temperature considerably lower to produce a given
pressure than is required by steam, it seems to possess a combi-
nation of properties favorable to the production of an economical
motive power.

Ammonia, like several other of the gases called permanent,
may be liquefied by cold and pressure. At a temperature of
38.5° C., it becomes liquid at the pressure of the atmosphere. © At
the boiling-point of water it’ requires more than 61 atmospheres
of pressure to reduce it to liquefaction. The same effect is pro-
duced at the freezing-point of water by a pressure of 5 atmos-
pheres, at 21° C. (70° F.) by a pressure of 9, and at 38° C. (100°
F.) by a pressure of 14.

If a refrigerator could be created having a constant tempera-
ture of 0° C., or lower, liquid ammonia would furnish a motive
power of great energy, without the use of any artificial heat.
The heat necessary to its evaporation might be supplied by plac-
ing the vessel containing it in a water-bath, fed, at least during
summer, from any natural stream. Such a condenser could not
be economically maintained. A condenser at 21° C., however,
and an artificial temperature in the boiler of 38° C., would furnish
a differential pressure of 5 atmospheres, with a maximum pres-
sure of 14. By carrying the heat as high as 50° C. (122° F.), a
differential pressure of 11 atmospheres could be obtained, with an
absolute pressure of 20.

These pressures are too high to be desirable or safe. More-
over, condensation is more easily effected by solution than by
simple refrigeration, and hence, in the ammoniacal gas engines
thus far constructed, the motive power has been derived, not from
the liquefied gas, but from the aqueous solution. The gas is ex-
pelled from the solution by elevation of temperature. At 50° C,
(122° F.) the pressure of the liberated gas is equal to that of the
atmosphere. At 80° C. (176° F.) it amounts to 5 atmospheres,
and at 100° C. (212° F.) to 74. At lowertemperatures the gas is
redissolved, and the pressure correspondingly reduced.

In the ammoniacal engine, therefore, the expulsion and reso-
lution of the gas take the place of vaporization and condensation
of vapor in the steam engine. The manner of operation of the
two descriptions of machine is indeed so entirely similar, that but
for the necessity of providing against the loss of the ammonia
they might be used interchangeably. The ammonia engine can
always be worked as a steam engine, and the steam engine can
be driven by ammonia, provided the ammonia be permitted to

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 43

escape after use. The advantage of the one over the other re-
sults from the lower temperature required in the case of ammonia
to produce a given pressure, or from the higher pressure obtain-
able at a given temperature. These circumstances are favorable
to the economical action of the machine in two ways. In the first
place they considerably diminish the great waste of heat which
always takes place in the furnace of every engine driven by heat;
the waste, that is, which occurs through the chimney without
contributing in any manner to the operation of the machine.
This waste will be necessarily greater in proportion as the fire is
more strongly urged; and it will be necessary to urge the fire in
proportion as the temperature is higher at which the boiler, or
vessel containing the elastic medium which furnishes the power,
has to be maintained. In the second place, that great loss of
power to which the steam engine is subject, in consequence of the
high temperature at which the steam is discharged into the air, or
into a condenser, is very materially diminished in the engine
driven by ammoniacal gas.

For instance, steam formed at the temperature of 150° C.
(802° F.) has a pressure of nearly 5 atmospheres (4.8). If
worked expansively, its pressure will fall to one atmosphere,
and its temperature to 100° C. (212° F.), after an increase of vol-
ume as one to 4. If, now, it is discharged into a condenser,
there is an abrupt fall of temperature of 50°, 60°, or 70°, without
any corresponding advantage. If it is discharged into the air,
this heat is just as much thrown away. In point of fact, when
steam of 5 atmospheres is discharged into the air at the pressure
of one, considerably more than half the power which it is theo-
retically capable of exerting is lost; and when, at the same pres-
sure, it is discharged into a condenser, more than one quarter of
the power is in like manner thrown away. And as the expansion
given to steam is usually less than is here supposed, the loss
habitually suffered is materially greater.

The ammoniacal solution affords a pressure of 5 atmospheres
at 80° C. (176° F.), and in dilating to 4 times its bulk, if it were a
perfectly dry gas, its temperature would fall below 0° C. But as
some vapor of water necessarily accompanies it, this is condensed
as the temperature falls, and its latent heat is liberated. The
water formed by condensation dissolves also a portion of the gas,
and this solution produces additional heat. In this manner an
extreme depression of temperature is prevented, but it is practi-
cable, at the same time, to maintain a lower temperature in the
condenser than exists in that of the steam engine. It must be
observed, however, that owing to the very low boiling-point of
the solution itis not generally practicable to reduce the pressure
in the condenser below half an atmosphere.

The advantages here attributed to ammoniacal gas belong
also, more or less, to the vapors of many liquids more volatile
‘than water; as, for instance, ether and chloroform. Engines
have therefore been constructed in which these vapors have been
employed to produce motion by being used alone, or in combina-
tion with steam. The economy of using the heat of exhaust

44 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

steam in vaporizing the more volatile liquid is obvious. But all

these vapors are highly inflammable, and in mixture with atmo-

spheric air they are explosive. The dangers attendant on their

use are therefore very great. Ammonia is neither inflammable

nor explosive, and if, by the rupture of a tube or other accident,

the solution should be lost, the engine will still operate with
water alone.

The action of ammonia upon brass is injurious; but it pre-
serves iron from corrosion indefinitely. It contributes, therefore,
materially to the durability of boilers.. A steam engine may be
converted into an ammonia engine by replacing with iron or steel
the parts constructed of brass, and by modifying to some extent
the apparatus of condensation.

ELECTRO-HEATING APPARATUS.

This invention, patented March 12, 1869, is based upon the
well-known fact that electricity, in passing through a conductor
of insufficient capacity (such, for instance, as a wire of very
small diameter), evolves or develops heat. It is also well known
that a wire of any great length, and of sufficiently small size to
evolve considerable heat, will not conduct a strong current of
electricity without difficulty and loss, and that as ‘the wire be-
comes heated, its non-conductivity is increased, and that, in con-
sequence, the heat becomes so great that the wire will be fused.

‘lhe object of the invention is to obviate this difficulty, by ena-
bling a strong current of electricity to pass through a heat-evolvy-
ing apparatus of any length; and to this end it consists in providing
an electrical conducting coil, or chain, with intervals of small
conducting power, in traversing which the electricity will be
caused to evolve heat; and further, in interposing between said
obstructing intervals free conductors of much lar ger size, which

constitute reservoirs of electricity and radiators of heat, and will .

effectually obviate the difficulty experienced in a continuous iene
of conductor of insufficient capacity.

In this application of the invention, namely, for railway car-
riages or cars, it is proposed to employ magneto-electric machines,
constructed especially for this purpose, for producing the requi-
site current, placed, if necessary, under the car, and to obtain the
power to operate them from the axle of the car, —thus taking
advantage of a motive power which already exists, but of which,
heretofore, no use has been made.

A machine capable of heating to incandescence one foot of
platinum wire one-tenth of an inch diameter, will heat 100 feet
one-hundredth of an inch; 200 feet, two-hundredths of an inch,
etc. ; the law being that the lengths of the wires vary inversely in
proportion to the squares of their diameters. Now, to reduce this
to practice, it will be seen that a machine or battery of the power
above referred to will heat a length of coil or chain, in which the
aggregate length of the small wire of one- hundredth of an inch di-
anieter, forming the obstructions, is 100 feet; and 200 feet, if their

——

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 45

diameters are reduced one half, ete. In other words, having a
machine of a certain power, and a certain degree of heat is re-
quired, the diameters of the obstructing media may be reduced or
increased in order to accommodate them to the power of the
machine.

In order to warm an American ca? upon this plan, allowing for
a tray placed in the floor of the car, in front of each seat, it is
estimated it would require an entire length of the chain or coil of
about 360 feet, and in which the obstructing media form an aggre-
gate length of about 70 feet; so that to accomplish this it would
require a machine to heat this latter number of feet of small wire.

Although this may be a new application of electricity, and no
machines can now be obtained already organized, and of suflicient
power to be applied for this purpose, English electricians have
made estimates of machines which come within all the require-
ments, as to power, space occupied, weight, power to operate
them, etc., to make the invention practical and economical. Even
with machines constructed for light-house purposes, 18 feet of
number 20 iron wire can be melted instantly ; and the fact is well
known to electricians, if the same machine were organized for
producing a current of quantity, the heating power would be
greatly increased.

The inventor is not aware of any chemical battery by means
of which this invention may be economically applied. In this
case, the law of equivalents is in the way; and there must be a
destruction of the battery corresponding to the amount of heat
produced. In the course of time, however, chemical batteries
may be constructed so as to be applied advantageously, as, for in-
stance, those having large metallic surfaces exposed to a weak
chemical action; or earth currents may be accumulated and util-
ized for this purpose; but for the present he relies entirely upon
the magneto-electric machine. Advantage may be taken of a
train of cars going down grade, when usually the steam is cut off
and the brakes put down, without taxing the locomotive at all;
whereas, in case of combustion of coal, the loss is the same
whether going up or down grade. Among some of the advan-
tages claimed for this method of heating railroad cars are the
following : —

First, its economy; second, its safety; and third, its comfort.
Concerning its economy, the trays may be constructed of hard
wood, and covered by any metal, but copper would be best, on
account of its absorbing heat more rapidly and retaining it longer.
As regards the cost of magnet machines, this would be materially
reduced if they were made by machinery and in large numbers,
instead of by hand. There would be but little wear and tear of
them except at certain points; and in case the magnets should in
time become weakened, they could be easily taken apart and re-
charged. There being no strain or wear and tear upon the coil,
being protected from injury by the plate covering it, and, besides,
there being no possibility of its becoming oxidized by the degree
of heat it would be subjected to, —say 120 or 140 degrees, — it is
supposed it would last for an indefinite period. It is to be borne

46 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

in mind, also, that by dispensing with stoves, 8 seats in each
car are gained, and, consequently, a train of 7 cars would
accommodate the same number of passengers, which, with stoves,
would require 8 cars. In short, the percentage upon the orig-
inal outlay would not compare to the annual expense of warming
cars upon the plans now in use.

BRIDGES.

The East River Bridge. — The plan of the East River Bridge, as
proposed by Mr. Roebling, has met with the approval of the Board
of U.S. Engineers, appointed to examine it, and of the Government,
and has been fully adopted by the Board of Consulting Engineers,
consisting of Horatio Allen, Wm. J. McAlpine, J. J. Serrell, Benj.
H. Lathrop, James P. Kirkwood, and J. Dutton Steele, who have
made to the Directors of the Bridge Company their final report, of
which the following is the substance: The plans, including foun-
dations, towers, and superstructure, have been laid before the
board by Mr. Roebling at various times between February 16
and April 26, and from him they have received the fullest infor-
mation touching all the details. Having completed the examina-
tion of the plans, and the investigation of the combinations and
proportions proposed, the board deemed it an appropriate part of
their duty to examine the structures of the same general charac-
ter erected by Mr. Roebling across the Monongahela and Alle-
ghany, at Pittsburgh, in 1846 and 1860; across the Niagara Falls
in 1850, and across the Ohio, at Cincinnati, in 1860. They have
thus had an opportunity of learning the successive steps in bridge-
building, which, beginning with a span of 822 in 1854, and one of
1,057 feet in 1867, all standing this day, are a practical demonstra-
tion of the soundness of the principles and proportions on which
these structures have been erected, and rendering unnecessary, at
least for spans of 1,000 feet, any other demonstration, and afford-
ing the best source of information as to the practicability of tak-
ing another step in a span of 1,600 feet. The bridge proposed by
Mr. Roebling, a steel wire cable suspension bridge, 1,600 feet
between the towers, 135 feet above the water, will be, in the
opinion of the board, a durable structure, of a strength sufficient
to withstand six times the strain to which it can under any cir-
cumstances be subjected ; that it will bear the action of the great-
est storm of which we have any knowledge, and that the method
of joining the parts cannot be surpassed ior simplicity and secu-
rity in the result.

In the United States, the most remarkable suspension bridges
are Ellet’s Wheeling bridge, over the Ohio, with a span of 1,010
feet; erected in 1848, and blown down in 1854. The Lewiston
bridge, 7 miles below Niagara Falls, built by E. W-. Serrel,
spanned 1,040 feet. Roebling’s bridge, at the Falls, spans 821
feet. McAlpine’s new Niagara bridge has a span of 1,264 feet,
and the proposed bridge to connect New York and Brooklyn is to
have a span of 1,600 feet.

—

-MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 47

Suspension Bridge over the Missouri River. — To Kansas City
belongs the honor of building the pioneer bridge over the
Missouri. On the south or west side of the river the Pacific
Railroad (of Missouri) extends from St. Louis to the State
line at Kansas City; the Kansas Pacific Railway, late Union
Pacific Eastern Division, is now in operation 405 miles west from
the same point of the boundary. The Missouri River Railroad,
now operated in connection with the Missouri Pacific, continues
that line up the river to Leavenworth; and the Missouri River,
Fort Scott, and Gulf Railroad, running at present to Paola, 40
miles south, is being pushed rapidly to the Indian Territory, and
will become the great route from the North to the South-west.
On the opposite river bank the North Missouri Railroad forms a
second line to St. Louis; the Missouri Valley Railroad runs north-
ward to St. Joseph; and the Kansas City and Cameron Railroad,
forming part of the Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad line, opens
a direct route to Chicago. The bridge, now completed, was
built by the last-named road, and will enable the seven roads to
unite at common points within the city.

The location of the bridge is opposite the town, and immedi-
ately below a bend in the river. It was begun in January, 1867.
In February, Mr. Chanute, the chief engineer, took charge of the
works. In the spring the enterprise was interrupted by a high
flood, and it was not until August that work could be resumed.
The south abutment of the bridge was placed 80 feet back from
the face of the bluff, and from it a 66-foot span extends over a
street and the track of the Missouri Pacific Railroad to a pair of
pillars standing near the edge of the rock face; a span of 133
feet reaches from them to pier No. 1, the first river pier. A pivot-
draw of two spans, each 160 feet in the clear, and 363 feet long
over all, from centre to centre of piers Nos. 1 and 3, turns upon
pier No. 2, which is placed as nearly as possible in the centre of
the channel. Pier No. 4 was located 250 feet beyond No. 3;
No. 5, 200 feet further north, on the edge of the sand-bar; and
two spans, 200 and 177 feet respectively, cover the distance re-
maining to pier No. 7, which stands on the edge of the wooded
shore, taking the place of a north abutment. The railroad is
then carried over the bottom land on 2,360 feet of trestle-work,
descending one foot in 100 toan embankment. The carriage-
way is carried down on a heavier grade by a side trestle.

The difficulties attending the building of this bridge were
wholly in the foundations. The length of the structure is one
mile.

The masonry of all the piers is of limestone, quarried in the
neighborhood, the facing being of ashlar, and the backing of
heavy rubble. The ashlar of the upper courses, above the ice-
breaker, is of a good blue-stone, of uniform color, and the stones
used below are of a grayish tint. The piers finish 11 feet higher
than the great flood of 1844, and 48 feet above the lowest water
observed. The total height of pier No. 4, from rock to coping, is
89 feet. The pivot pier is circular in form, and 29 feet in diam-
eter, finishing 32 feet on top.

48 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The entire structure was completed by July 3, 1869.

The Mississippi Bridge at St. Louis. —Work on the Missis-
sippi bridge at St. Louis is rapidly being pushed forward.
The shore pier on the St. Louis side has been completed to a
point above low-water mark, and the dredge-boats are now em-
ployed in sinking a caisson for the second pier, which will
be located about 300 or 400 feet from the shore. The bed
rock has been sounded. In order to hasten the completion
of the bridge, a large body of workmen is engaged on the
Illinois side, digging for the final completion of the pier, and
Within two or three weeks the second pier in the water and the
fourth pier on the Illinois side will be under way. The most difli-
cult pier to construct is the third, near the centre of the stream,
owing to the rapidity of the current, and the sloping character of
the rock’s bed. Engineering skill will, however, overcome all
these obstacles, and so soon as the second pier is under way, the
caisson will be sunk for the central one. The levee for several
squares is covered with stone, brick and lumber, which are being
prepared for their respective positions. ‘The estimated final cost
of the structure is 7,000,000 dollars, 4,000,000 dollars of which
have already been raised. As the work progresses, the legisla-
ture, city council, and the county court will undoubtedly send
sufficient aid to complete the work at an early day. The rapid
currents, quicksands, and other difficulties incidental to spanning
a great stream like the Mississippi, will necessarily prolong the
work, but that within three years, at the farthest, the bridge will
be duly inaugurated, there can be but little doubt. Captain Eads
is laboring with great energy; he is the chief engineer. While in
Europe he visited all the bric ges of note, and secured translations
of the various reports of civil engineers on the subject of bridge-
building, with a view of employing in the construction of the
bridge the most approved plans, so as to secure a work that will
be not only a model of beauty, but durable as well. Associated
with him is Henry Fladd,—a man who ranks deservedly high
among practical and scientific engineers. Both are confident of
completing the bridge in three years at the longest, and even talk
of two years as the most probable time. ‘The work of tunnelling
Washington Avenue, St. Louis, will not prove as difficult a task
us many suppose, and itis believed that it can be accomplished
without disturbing even the sewer-water or gas-mains. Should
this operation prove too hazardous, then an elevated railway will
be constructed. In either event the road will terminate in a
grand union depot near Fourteenth Street, forming a direct com-
munication with the Pacific and other roads. — St. Louis Times.

The Dusseldorf Bridge.—The great railway bridge over the
Rhine, near the village of Hamm, a little above Dusseldorf, is
progressing rapidly, and will probably be completed before the
end of November. The bridge is to consist of 4 arches, the
upper part of which will be made of iron. The iron work of
each arch will weigh 14,000 centners. The bridge is united to the
main line on the left bank by a viaduct, consisting of 15 stone
arches, but this viaduct does not immediately join the bridge ; it

7 =

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 49

is separated from it by a revolving drawbridge, so that the
line can be rendered impassable at any moment. On the right
bank a fortis being built, which will command the bridge.

Bridge at Omaha, U. S.—One of the most important works on
the Union Pacific Railroad—the construction of a bridge across
the Missouri River, at Omaha, 400 miles west of Chicago—is
about to be commenced by General G. M. Dodge, engineer of
the Union Pacific Railway. The bridge is about 2,800 feet long,
and is divided into 11 spans of 250 feet each, the piers being cyl-
inders of cast iron, 8 feet 6 inches in diameter, and filled with
concrete. The treacherous bottom of the Missouri River presents
more than ordinary difficulties in obtaining a reliable foundation,
from the great depth of the shifting sand, which is constantly fill-
ing up old channels, and opening fresh ones, so that the section
of the bed is ever varying. Where it is possible, the cylinders will
be lowered on to the rock, and elsewhere, to a depth of 70 feet below
low water, in the sand, the bases being enlarged from 8 feet 6 inches
to 12 feet in diameter, to spread the bearing surface, which will
also be increased by flat bars projecting from the foot of the cyl-
inder into the surrounding sand. Foundations of this class have
been successfully employed by the Hon. W. J. McAlpine, in
various bridges he has constructed. The length of the cylinders,
from low water to the underside of the girders, will be 69 feet,
making a total height of the main columns of 139 feet. The 10
piers, each with two cylinders, will be braced transversely, and
protected up stream with ice-breakers attached to columns 6 feet
diameter, and placed 20 feet in advance of the piers. The faces
will be of cast-iron plates, meeting at an angle of 45 degrees, in
front of the columns to which they are braced with oak timber,
the intermediate spaces being filled with rubble and concrete.
From below low water to the highest flood levels, the cylinders
will be cased by plates, and the enclosed space will be enclosed
with concrete, to prevent any accumulation of ice, or other ob-
structions, which may be carried down the stream, from getting
between the cylinders, and straining them on the intermediate
bracing. The girders of the superstructure will be trusses made
of wrought iron, with the exception of a cast upper chord. The
approaches to the bridge on both shores will be on a gradient of
one in 30, made in embankment on the eastern side to a height of
40 feet above the ground, the remainder being a viaduct of trestle-
work. ‘The total length of the whole, including the river cross-
ing, will be about 34 miles.—Journal of the Franklin Institute,
March, 1869. ° zi,

Concrete Bridge. —The tests applied to the experimental bridge
of concrete, set in cement, erected over that branch of the Metro-
politan District Railway which forms one of the junctions between
the circular line and the West London Extension, prove conclu-
sively the reliable character of concrete exposed to compressive
strains. The structure experimented upon spans the open cutting
between Gloucester-Road Station and Earle’s Court Road. Itisa flat
arch of 75 feet span, and 7 feet 6 inches rise in the centre, where the
conerete is 3 feet. 6 inches in thickness, increasing towards the

5

50 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

haunches, which abut upon the concrete skewbacks. The material
of which the bridge is made is formed of gravel and Portland
cement, blended in the proportions of six to one, carefully laid in
mass upon close boarding set upon the centring, and enclosed at
the sides. In testing the bridge, rails were laid upon sleepers
over the arch, which brought a load of two seventy-fifths-of a ton
per foot run upon the structure. Seven trucks, weighing, together
with their loads, 49 tons, were formed into a train, having a wheel-
base of 57 feet; hence the rolling load amounted to forty-nine-
fifty-sevenths of a ton per foot run. The deflection produced by
the passage to and fro of this train four times was noted upon a
standard, cemented to the side of the arch, at a distance of one-
third the span from the abutments. When one side of the bridge
was loaded, the extreme rise of the branch on the opposite side
was about one-sixteenth of an inch, which was produced by a
maximum strain of 10 tons 14 ewt. per square foot. Ata subse-
quent trial, a mass of gravel, 10 feet wide and 3 feet thick at the
crown, and 6 feet deep at the haunches, was laid over the bridge,
and upon this, ballast was placed the permanent way. After an
interval of a few days, the trucks, loaded as before, were passed
over the bridge, at first in pairs, and finally all together. In this
test the strain upon the concrete was as follows : —

- 7 tons 17 ewt.
- 4tons. 8 cwt.
. 12 tons 5 cwt.
. 2tons 17 ewt.

The weight of the arch, asbefore, . . .»
a7) Onn or Pe, ss ew 8 oe oe
Strain per square foot from dead load, . .
Strain per square foot from passing load, .

—

Total strain per foot, . . . ». « « « « « « li tons 2 cwt.

After repeated transit, the load was left upon the bridge all
night, and the arch, upon examination, showed no signs of failure
or distress under the severe strains to which it had been exposed.
From these trials it is fair to assume, that a thoroughly well-con-
structed arch of concrete is absolutely stronger tlfan a similar one
of brick; but in practice the danger arises that it would be difficult
to ensure so high a quality of concrete as that employed in the
present instance, and the proper supervision of the contractor's
work by the engineer would be almost impossible in structures of
this material, whilst the inspection of brick-work is an easy mat-
ter. The utter uselessness of inferior concrete was shown by the
failure of the bridge which was previously erected on the site of
the present one, which yielded under its own load when the cen-
tres were struck. .

Blackfriars New Bridge. — Blackfriars bridge is altogether formed
of wrought iron, so far as the main structure is concerned, the em-
bellishment only being of cast metal. Preparatory to the actual
commencement of this important undertaking, the erection of a
temporary wooden substitute, as well as the demolition of the old
bridge, was necessary. The first piles, for the requisite gantry,
—one-third of which is now removed,—were driven in June,
1864. As itis generally considered in the London district that the
London clay must be reached to obtain a sure foundation for large

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. Eee |

buildings, this course was here followed, involving 3 or 4 months
- of incessant daily and nightly anxiety and labor, on account of the
tides. For our part, however, we coincide with the opinion of
some eminent practical engineers, that there is no absolute neces-
sity for going to this clay, and that, consequently, in doing so, much
needless expenditure of time and money is incurred. The bridge
consists of 5 arches, namely, two of 155 feet span each, two of
175 feet, and one of 185 feet. The height of rise in the centre
arch is 17 feet, and in the others 16 feet and 12 feet respectively.
Instead of regularly framed centring, piles were driven down to
support the ribs where required, which doubtless saved the con-
tractor much expense both in erection and demolition. The ribs
were then wedged up to the soflit of the arch; these wedges or
slacks are now removed, so that each arch rests on its own skew-
backs, and the piles can be taken away at once. Mallet’s patent
buckled plates, which, as most of our readers know, are made
of about one-quarter inch plates of iron placed heated over a
mould, and stamped by hydraulic pressure into the shape of a
groined arch, are bolted to the roadway bearers by five-eighths
inch rivets, and form an immensely strong platform. On this is
put one inch thick of asphalte; over this again—an addition to
and improvement on the usual practice—a layer of broken
stones and asphalte, from 9 inches to 12 inches in thickness, is
placed; and lastly, on top of all, is granite-pitching as ordinarily
laid on roads. The total length of the bridge is 1,272 feet; its
_width, including the roadway of 45 feet, and two footpaths of 15
feet each, is 75 feet. The gradient is one in 40. There are 8
polished red granite columns, between which there are parapets
3 feet 9 inches in height. Over each column there are recesses
in which there are seats capable of resting ten or a dozen weary
pedestrians. A handsome row of lamps will be placed along
each pathway, a little back from the curb, —a plan not adopted on
any other of the Thames bridges, — and they will be so arranged
as to facilitate the navigator after dark. The balustrades are
Venetian-Gothic in design.— Van Nostrand’s Eng. Mag., Sept.,
1869.

The Cincinnati and Newport Bridge. — All preliminary arrange-
ments and work have now been begun upon this bridge, which is
to connect Butler Street, in Cincinnati, with Saratoga Street, in
Newport, Kentucky. The stone-work of all the piers is to be of
the best limestone, up to the line of high water, and freestone
above that, excepting the two piers of the middle, or long span,
which will be entirely limestone. Much of the stone for the piers
has already been quarried. George A. Smith, of Cincinnati, has
the contract for the stone-work. The bridge proper will be of the
best wrought iron, in lower and upper chords, uprights, braces,
etc. No timber will be used save in the flooring. The train, as
seen, will be about 100 feet above low water. This span is
planned at a length of 420 feet; the one next south is 240 feet,
and the others as near 200 feet each as the division of distance
will admit. There will be 7 spans in all, with the 8 piers.
iL yond the front streets of both Newport and Cincinnati, the

52 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

grade to the cities will increase, that of the wagon tracks being
much sharper than the longer and easier one of the railroad.
The bridge will be 41 or 42 feet in width, with 13 feet in the
middle, for trains, one way on either side for cattle and vehicles,
and on the outside of these still the passages for foot-passengers.

The East River Bridge. —‘** The work is assuming shape. The
caisson for the great tower on the Brooklyn shore has been con-
tracted for. Operations are to be commenced at once. The
wood-work at the oil-docks and piers will be torn up and everything
down to low-water mark will be removed. The bottom of the
river will be excavated to a depth of 22 feet below high tide.
The space to be cleared and levelled is 170 feet long by 102 feet,
extending out into the river. Divers will be employed to remove
the obstructions at the bottom, and blasting will have to be
resorted to.

‘* The caisson is like a large scow, or flat-bottomed boat, turned
upside down; nothing more. Then, if one imagines its being
sunk to the bottom of the river on a level space prepared for it;
that the water is forced out of the boat, or ‘ air-chamber,’ as it is
called, by means of compressed air; that workmenare sent down
into the air-chamber in a shaft, cut through the top of the caisson

bottom of the boat), who, with the aid of calcium lights, dig out
the material beneath them, which is hoisted up to the world
above; that they continue excavating until the proper depth is
reached, the caisson sinking, and, of course, on a perfect level as
the work progresses, and that the ‘ air-chamber’ is last of all filled
up with cement, a general idea can be formed of the way in which
the foundation of the tower will be laid.

‘* Experiments which have been made on the quicksand bed of
the East River while excavating a dry dock prove its bearing
power to be 10 tons per square foot. By Mr. Roebling’s plan, it is
proposed to rest upon this bed a weight of only 4 tons per square
foot. The weight of each tower is to be somewhat over 75
tons.

‘** To distribute this vast weight so that no part of the pressure
on the base shall be over 4 tons per foot, it has been decided that
the area of the foundation shall be 170 feet long by 102 feet broad.
This area will be composed of huge timbers resting on the sand,
and bearing the masonry-work of the tower upon it. The timber
will be 20 teet thick, and this vast mass of 20 feet by 170 by 102
will be securely bolted into one solid frame, so that the weight of
the tower above can never defiect in the slightest degree at any
point.

‘* The board unanimously hold that 300 feet high of a masonry
structure could be safely and unyieldingly erected on such a
timber foundation as proposed by Mr. Roebling, and that the
superstructure thereon, if properly built, would easily bear the
weight of the bridge, and all the weight that could be put on the
bridge.

‘“*The bridge company have purchased about 4,000,000 feet,
broad measure, of yellow Georgia pine, the greater part of which
is now on hand. Before the contract with the builders was made,

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 53

proposals to construct the caisson were invited from all the ship-
builders in this vicinity, and their bid proved to be the lowest.
A more than ordinary depth of water in front of the yard was
required, — not less than 23 feet, as, when launched, the caisson
will draw fully 17 feet of water. It is to be 170 feet long, 102
feet wide, —as already stated, —and 15 feet deep, with a top 5
feet thick, and sides of a thickness tapering from 9 feet at the top
to a foot below. The time required to build it will be about 4
months. As soon as it has been set afloat it will sink to within 18
inches of the surface of the water; and when the proper time ar-
rives it will be towed down to the ferry and placed in position
ready for being submerged. This is to be accomplished by build-
ing on the top of the caisson successive layers of timber and con-
crete to a height of 20 feet. The weight of the caisson, with this
20 feet of timber and cement above the ‘ air-chamber,’ will be
11,000 tons.

““The material excavated is hoisted from the ‘ air-chamber’
through two water-shafts by means of dredges, and asit is raised
the caisson sinks, being uniform-undermined round the 4 edges
and throughout its whole extent. As the caisson thus gradually
sinks, the mmason-work, enclosed in a coffer-dam, is in progress on
the top of the timber, thus adding the necessary weight. Access
is had to the ‘ air-chamber’ by means of two air-shafts 3 feet in
diameter. The depth to which it will be probably necessary to go
into the bed of the river will be about 55 feet below high-water
mark, so that all the timber of the foundation will be enclosed in
the sand and other material through which an excavation has been
made.” — Journal of Gas Lighting. |

Beginning with a span of 822 in 1854, one of 1,057 in 1867,
the bridge proposed for the East river by Mr. Roebling, a steel-
wire suspension bridge, is to have a span of 1,600 feet between
the towers, 135 feet above the water; it is calculated to bear six
times the strain which can, under any circumstances, be brought
to bear on it.

Bridge over the Schuylkill.—The plans of Mr. Kneats have been
adopted for an iron bridge over the Schuylkill, at South Street,
Philadelphia. The centre and river piles will be of iron sunk by
the pneumatic process ; the length of the bridge will be 2,488 feet,
and the clear height 32 feet above high water.

The Kansas City Bridge was formally opened July 3d, with ap-
propriate ceremonies; the municipal authorities of Chicago and
St. Louis and an immense concourse of people participating.

The bridge consists of combination wood and iron trusses for
spans 130 feet, 177 feet, 200 feet, and 250 feet, an iron span 70
feet, and a Linville & Piper patent wrought-iron pivot span 360
feet in length. The superstructure was erected by the Keystone
Bridge Company, of Pittsburgh.

Missouri Iron Bridge. — The draw spans 363 feet long, and
weighs 360 tons. The spans are respectively 200, 250, 200, and-
117 feet in length. — Engineering and Mining Journal, July 20.

Bridge at Louisville. —'The largest span of any truss bridge in
the United States is that of the great bridge across the Ohio

5* ;

54 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

River at Louisville, which is destined to connect the Kentucky and
Indiana shores. The bridge itself will be, when finished (and the
engineer in charge expects to turn over his contract for the build-
ing some time in November), one of the most splendid structures
of the kind in this or any other country. The last span covers
370 feet, and is a marvel of engineering skill.

Bridge over Cape Fear River.—'The new iron bridge over the
Cape Fear River, to connect all the railroad lines centring in
Wilmington, North Carolina, was opened on the 25th of August.

ENGINEERING ITEMS.

Resistance of Roads to Traction. — The following results of the
experiments of Sir John MeNeill, in regard to traction on roads
of different kinds, are pretty generally accepted as accurate:

Resistance in pounds per ton on different roads : —

Tron floor, «5 .ci.v' o:[0 0 nay oslo’ st nelew oh VS bm Bee ee
Stone tramway, . +. « © e« «© « « « « « 20 lbs. per ton.
Payed road, + spin. © (0. 0:0 sin oe epee BOE. Der tome
Macadamized road, . . . « « « « «© 44 to 67 Ibs. per ton.
RT, Re Creree TS in gt ie Se ar oe . 150 Ibs. per ton.
Soft, sandy and gravelly soil, . . . . . « «210 lbs. per ton.

—Van Nostrand’s Eng. Mag., Oct., 1869.

House-lifting. —In the work of straightening and widening
some of the crooked streets in Boston, Mass., it became necessary
to move a huge building known as ‘‘ Hotel Pelham.” This build-
ing is of freestone, 96 feet high, and weighs 10,000 tons. It was
moved 14 feet in 3 days, by means of rollers and screws, a
portion of the sidewalk being also moved with it. So carefully
and well was the work done that not a crack was made in the
building, and nothing in it was disturbed. The fastest time ac-
complished was two inches in four minutes. A great number of
screws 21 inches long were employed.

The French Cable.—Length between Brest and St. Pierre,
2,595 cng miles, a length that makes this the longest cable
ever laid.

Heavy Blast.—A great blast was lately made at Clitheroe, Eng.
A tunnel, 28 yards in length, was bored, and 6,000 lbs. of powder
walled init. The mass of stone, 60 feet in length, was thrown up-
wards in a vertical direction, and at least 50,000 tons of limestone
displaced.

An immense Gasometer.— The Manhattan Gas Company are
building, at the foot of Eleventh Street, in this city, a new gas-
ometer of unusually large dimensions. The basin is 225 feet in
diameter, and 88 feet deep. The circular wall is 7 feet thick,
arranged upon which are 16 elegant guiding columns, each 72
feet high, of wrgught iron, united at the top by ornamental
-girders. This will be one of the largest gasometers in the coun-
try.
Fog-whistle, —We learn that a fog-whistle, to be worked by a
10-horse power engine, is being constructed for Thatcher's Island,

~

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 55

off Salem, Mass. It will be ready by the first of June. This
will be the largest and most powerful fog-whistle in the world.

Forty-two ton Hammer.—I1n England a huge steam-hammer,
weighing 1,000 tons, is being made for the Russian government.
The hammer-head weighs 42 tons, the anvil-block 500 tons, and
it is to be used in forging steel guns.— Van Nostrand’s Eng. Mag.,
Oct., 1869.

Steel-headed Rails. — Steel-headed rails are made at the Trenton
(N. J.) Rolling Mills by the following process: The steel which
is to form the head of the rail is first welded to a quite thin piece
of iron. The combined bar is then beaten and rolled down until
the iron is very thin and the steel reduced to about half its former
bulk. After this operation is completed, the whole quantity of
iron requisite to complete the bulk of the rail is added to the
bottom of the combined bar and welded to the thin layer of iron.
This process, it is asserted, doubles the strength of the weld
between the iron and the steel, —always a difficult operation to
perform. The old process consists in welding the relative thick-
ness of iron and steel at one operation, but the new method is re-
ported to furnish better rails.— Van Nostrand’s Eng. Mag., Oct., 1869.

Centrifugal Pumps. — The great Appold centrifugal pump to be
worked in connection with Mr. Hawkshaw’s important work, the
Amsterdam Ship Canal, is to lift 2,000 cubic metres, or, say,
440,000 gallons of water per minute. The lift is not great, but
for each foot of lift, the actual duty, irrespective of all losses of
effect, is 133} horse-power. — Engineering.

Inverted Siphon.— An iron-pipe, 11 inches in diameter, and
8,800 feet (one and two-thirds miles) long, has been laid in Tuo-
lumne County, California. It runs down a mountain, under a
creek, and up the ascent on the opposite side, under a perpencic-
ular pressure atthe lowest point of 684 feet. — Journal Franklin Inst.

A rapid Change of Gauge.—In Missouri, the Missouri Pa-
cific Railway—a road nearly 200 miles long—changed its
line from the broad to the narrow gauge. Nearly 1,400 men
were engaged in the work; and they labored with such celerity,
that the task was accomplished in 12 hours, and without inter-
rupting the business of the road.

Large Blast. —The operation of blasting off the rocky head-
land of Lime Point, opposite Fort Point, and forming the north-
ern entrance to St. Francisco Bay, for a heavy water-battery,
has been conducted under the direction of Col. G. H. Mendell,
U.S. Engineers corps. Two blasts have already been made;
one with about 10,000 lbs. of powder and a second with 24,000.
This second blast is supposed to be the largest ever used in mil-
itary engineering, and moved about 80,000 lbs. of rock. At the
point a tunnel had been run in a north-westerly direction into
the base of the hill, a distance of about 30 feet, where a chamber
was formed on the right to contain 3,000 lbs. of powder; thence
the tunnel ran in a direction south of west 31 feet, where a cham-
ber was formed on the left for 6,000 lbs. of powder, thence on the
same line 45 feet, where the third chamber was formed to contain
7,500 lbs. These chambers were about 5 feet by7 feet, to contain

.

56 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

from 125 to 130 eubie feet. When all were chambered out, a
board partition was put up in front of each chamber to hold the
powder. The greatest care was used in placing the powder in the
chambers; the men wore the French sabots, or bandaged their
feet in bagging ; the barrel of powder was opened at the mouth of
the tunnel, and carried into the chamber in sacks, the men grop-
ing their way into the dark tunnel, and delivering their danger-
ous burden to the foreman, who emptied it into one immense bin in
the chamber. At a certain stage of the filling up, 8 cartridges
were distributed at different points in the mass, each cartridge
having an electric wire leading to the central wire connected
with the machine outside. As fast as these chambers were filled,
they were sealed up with clay and the tunnel tamped with the
same material, the wires for firing the mass leading through a
small box at the bottom of the tunnel. These wires, two in num-
ber, were of copper, one an insulated wire to convey the elec-
tricity to the mass of powder, and the other a plain wire for the
return current; one connected with the positive, and the other
with the negative pole of a powerful ‘* Beardslee ” magnetico-elec-
tric machine, located ina secure place outside, and several feet
distant. On connecting the poles, the explosion took place with a
heavy, dull sound, and an immense mass of earth and rock was
thrown into the air about 70 feet, and the whole face of the cliff
came crashing down to the base and tumbled into the sea. The
cliff has been blasted off for about 200 feet along its base and
tumbled into the sea, and about 175 feet in height with an aver-
age depth of about 60 feet. — San Francisco paper.

THE NEW THAMES TUNNEL.

The way the tube tunnelis built is by means of 3 segments of
a circle of cast iron, each weighing 4 cwt., with a centre key-
piece at the top, weighing one ewt. Each segment or ring when
bolted together is only 18 inches long, but no fewer than 6 of
these rings are bolted on in every 24 hours, so the tunnel is ad-
vancing at the rate of 9 feet a day. As the shield, which is
7 feet 3 inches in diameter, is pushed on for a length of 18
inches, it leaves within the tube or rim a space one inch greater
all round than that occupied by its own tube on the outside.
This, therefore, leaves ample room to fit in the segments of
the tunnel-tube easily. This is done very rapidly. The bot-
tom segment is laid in its place, and the two side segments
above it, and between these at the top the key-piece is slid in.
Between the long horizontal flanges a layer of white pine is placed
before they are screwed close up. The spaces between the circular
flanges of each segment are regularly calked in with tow and
cement. Still, the shield on the cap is one inch wider all round
than the diameter of the tunnel tube within it, which comes after-
ward to occupy it, leaving an opening of that space between the
clay andiron. This interstice, when the segment ring is fixed,
is closed by pumping in blue lias cement, which, as it quickly
sets, forms a ring of stone-work, preventing the action of the

\

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 57

water on the iron tube. The tube is to be fitted with a tramway
of 2 feet 6 inches gauge, on which is to run a light iron omni-
bus of 103 feet long, 5 feet 3 inches wide, and 5 feet 11 inches
high. This will accommodate 14 people with ease. Ordinary
lifts will take them down and up the shafts at either end, and at
the end of the shaft the omnibus will be waiting. For the first
hundred feet or so the omnibus will be pulled by a rope fixed to a
stationary engine; after that it will descend by its own velocity
down the incline and up the incline on the other side to the foot
of the shaft. The whole transit, including time for descent and
ascent, is calculated not to exceed 3 minutes. — The Artisan.

THE MONT CENIS TUNNEL.

During the past year an advancement of 1,320.15 metres has
been made at the Mont Cenis Tunnel, of which 638.60 was driven
on the Italian side, at Bardonnéche, and 681.55 metres on the
French at Modane. This gives an average advancement of 110
metres per month, or 53.20 on the Italian side, and 56.80 on the
French; and at this rate of progress the time necessary for the
completion of the tunnel would be 28 months, or about April,
1871, and for opening the railway about 6 months more, or in less
than 3 years from the present time.

THE SUTRO TUNNEL.

There is a mountain in Nevada which miners and some geolo-
gists believe to contain more than 500,000,000 dollars’ worth of
silver. Unluckily the veins run through the centre rather than
along the slopes of the mountain; and the mines which have
been sunk on the great Comstock lode, as it is called, have al-
ready reached such a depth that to pump them out and ventilate
them is too costly, while no means exist to drain them.

Mv. Adolph Sutro has proposed that a tunnel shall be run into
the mountain, which would cut the veins of ore, and serve to
drain the mines and open the whole deposit. Here is his present
scheme : —

‘* Let 3,000 laboring men pay in an average of 10 dollars per
month, which gives you 30,000 dollars per month, or 360,000 per
annum, and insures the construction of the tunnel, carrying with
it the ownership of the mines. That amountsto 33 cents per day!
Who is there among you so poor as to miss it? How many of
you expend that much every day in stimulants, cigars, and other
luxuries? Put that money into the tunnel; it is laying up some-
thing for a rainy day. The money will be expended directly
again in labor among yourselves, under your own direction, and
from dependents you will become masters.”

It is reported. that the miners are responding to this appeal, and
that Mr. Sutro is not unlikely to get the money. This would bea
gigantic co-operative enterprise; one worthy of the age, and of
the energetic and determined men who have developed the mining

58 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

regions of the far West. An act of Congress has given to the
Sutro Tunnel Company the ownership of all freshly discovered
and unworked deposits of ores which may be cut by the tunnel.
If Mr. Sutro’s theory is correct, of which he at least entertains no
doubt, the tunnel would open a mass of silver sufficient to make
independent the whole 3,000 miners, from whom he asks 30 cents
a day. — Lvening Post, Oct. 29.

a
THE PROPOSED TUNNEL UNDER THE BRITISH CHANNEL.

The conditions on which the success of this enterprise depend
are comparatively few and simple. ‘The first condition relates to
the geological formation in which the work would have to be done,

It has frequently been pointed out, and there appears to be no
difference of opinion on the subject, that there are to be found, on
opposite sides of the Channel, tracts of coast presenting geologi-
cal features almost identical. The English coast between Deal
and Folkestone, for instance, corresponds in every particular with
3 miles of the’ French coast, a little to the westward of Calais.
That the same formations continue under the bed of the sea is a
probability that has been noticed in a report to the Geological
Society on ‘* The Chalk Ridges which extend parallel to the Cliffs
on each side of the Channel tending towards the North Sea,” by
Captain J. B. Martin, in 1839. Careful geological investigation
has been made with a view to discovery whether the chalk forma-
tions obtaining on each coast continue unbroken for the whole
distance dividing them; and there appears no reasonable cause
of doubt that this is the case.

Impressed by these facts, Mr. William Low, an engineer who
for many years had been confident of the feasibility of connecting
the English and French railway systems by means of a sub-
channel tunnel, set himself earnestly to examine for himself the
geological formations of the two shores. After most careful ex-
amination, Mr. Low became satisfied that the deductions of the
geologists were correct. His examination of the borings for sev-
eral artesian wells on both sides of the Channel strengthened his
opinion as to the regularity of the strata. It became his firm con-
viction that along a certain line, about half a mile west of the
South Foreland, and 4 miles west of Calais, the tunnel could be
made entirely through the lower, or gray, chalk, which, owing to
its comparative freedom from water, and other qualities, would
be a most desirable stratum in which to work. With the result
of these investigations, and with plans of the tunnels he pro-
jected, Mr. Low, in 1867, betook himself to the Emperor of the
French, who, giving the English projector a cordial reception,
desired him further to organize his plans, and to come again
when he might be prepared to submit definite proposals.

In 1856, M. Thomé de Gamond, a French engineer of repute,
who had for many years been advocating the construction of a
tunnel between England and France, obtained, by order of the
emperor, an investigation of his plans at the hands of a scientific
commission. This body, satisfied with the substantial accuracy

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 59

of M. de Gamond’s geological conclusions, recommended that his
investigations should be practicaily tested by sinking pits on the
two coasts, and driving a few short headings under the sea at the
expense of the two governments. Owing possibly to the back-
wardness of the Great British Circumlocution Office, this recom-
mendation does not appear to have had any practical result. In
1857, M. de Gamond published the upshot of his researches, and
the report of the commission; and at the Paris Exposition of
1867, he publicly exhibited his plans. It was very natural that
Mr. Low, after his interview with the emperor, should put him-
self in communication with M. Thomé de Gamond. This gentle-
man unreservedly placed his experience at Mr. Low’s disposal,
and, after a time, the results of their joint labors were laid before
Mr. James Brunlees. He, after careful examination, consented
to co-operate with the two engineers in the prosecution of the
work. Aommittee of French and English gentlemen of influ-
ence and position was, by desire of the emperor, formed to fur-
ther the project; and it is by the executive committee of this
body, under the chairmanship of Lord Richard Grosvenor, that
the matter is now practically brought before the public.

But the opinions of Messrs. Low and Brunlees, and of M.
Thomé de Gamond, received further confirmation.

Mr. John Hawkshaw, whose name is well known to the public
at large and to the engineering world, was induced to test the
question, and to ascertain, by elaborate independent investigation,
the possibility of a sub-channel tunnel. With characteristic care
and caution he took nothing for granted, but’ went himself over
the whole ground already traversed by Mr. Low and by M. de
Gamond. His geological researches led him to the same conclu-
sions, and his expression of opinion in favor of the gray chalk
was very decided. Not even satisfied with the theoretical results
of these investigations, carefully though they were made, Mr.
Hawkshaw held it necessary to make borings on each coast, at
the precise points at which the ends of the tunnel would be situ-
ated. Thus Mr. Hawkshaw and the French commission came to
the same decision. Now, the well at Calais, from which a con-
siderable part of the geological inferences had been drawn, was
at some distance from the spet where it was proposed to begin
the tunnel on the French side, and possibly the strata might, in
the precise place indicated, not run as anticipated.

This did not, however, turn out to be the case. The actual
borings conclusively proved the correctness of the views enter-
tained. ;

The boring on the English coast was commenced at St. Mar-
garet’s Bay, near the South Fofeland, in the beginning of 1866,
and was satisfactorily completed in 1867. It was carried com-
pletely through the chalk and into the green sand, which was
reached at a depth of 540 feet below high water. The boring on
the French coast, 3 miles westward of Calais, was carried to a
depth of 520 feet below high water. It was intended to pass
through the chalk as on the English side, but accident frustrated
this design.

60 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Simultaneously with these borings the bottom of the Channel
was carefully examined, by means of a steamer provided with all
suitable apparatus. The main useful results established by these
experiments appear to be, that on the English coast the depth of
chalk is 470 feet below high water, of which 295 feet are of the
gray formation, in which it is proposed to work; that on the
French coast, the depth of chalk is 750 feet, 480 being gray; and
that there appears to be no room to doubt the regularity of the
strata between the two shores along the line proposed.

So, it would seem, first, that the chief condition is satisfacto-
rily insured, and the geological formation of the sea’s bed is such
as to admit of the excavation of a tunnel through the lower gray
chalk; and, secondly, that it is not necessary to go to a depth
ufsuitable for railway traffic. It is calculated that the approaches
to the tunnel can be constructed at gradients not exceeding one
foot in 80. ?

The next point of paramount importance to the travelling pub-
lic is the question of the safety of the tunnel when made. The
dangers most carefully to be guarded against are two: any pos-
sible irruption of water from the sea, or from unexpected land-
springs; and any deficiency in ventilation.

Engineers are of the opinion that these dangers can all be pro-
vided against. Recent borings on either side of the Channel
have proved that there need be no fear of land water, and the
impermeability of chalk, and the depth below the bottom of the
sea, at which the tunnel will be placed, being in no case less than
100 feet, it is maintained that there would b@ no danger from
incursions of the sea-water. The submarine excavations in the
Cornish mines are an existing demonstration of the safety of the
proposed tunnel.

Ventilation will be secured by means of powerful steam en-
gines, and attempts to raise the necessary funds are wisely to bo
postponed until two small headings, or galleries, are driven from
each country, connected by transverse driftways. Ventilation
would thus be secured in the manner customary in coal mines
and works of a similar nature, and the feasibility or otherwise of.
connecting England and France by a tunnel can be demonstrated.

CANALS.

The great ship canal which is to connect Amsterdam with the
North Sea is now once more in progress, the government of the
Netherlands having relieved the contractors of certain difficulties
which for a time hindered the work. The canal will be about 15
miles in length. The Zuyder Zee is to be shut out from Am-
sterdam, and the Pampus dam, by which this is to be effected, is
already half finished, and the locks and sluices connected with it
are in progress,

A ship canal is to be constructed through Schleswig-Holstein to
connect the Baltic and the North Seas. The preliminary surveys
have been completed. It is thought the Prussian Government
will undertake the work of building.

a

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 61

M. de Lesseps, the Suez Canal engineer, having sent some
surveyors to examine the desert of Sahara, has, it is said, become
convinced that the desert is at its nearest limit 27 metres below
the level of the Red Sea, and that the depression continues in-
creasing toward the interior. He therefore thinks that he can
make the desert the bed of a large inland sea, by a canal of 75

miles in length, bringing the water from the Red Sea. Besides
climatic changes, an easy method of intercourse with Central
Africa would be effected if this project could be accomplished.

Mr. Lange, the London representative of the Suez Canal Com-
pany, has made some experiments on the canal with a corvette
carrying ten Armstrong guns, and driven by engines of 300 horse-
power. He has ascertained the following important points:
First, the speed necessary to be maintained on a vessel of the
dimensions of the ship experimented with, in order to enable
a straight course to be steered, is from 3.2 to 3.7 knots an hour.
Second, the embankments suffered no injury while the vessel was
going at a rate of 5.4 or 6.4 knots an hour. Third, it was found
that the loss of speed incurred by the vessel navigating the canal
when compared with the rate on the open sea in smooth water,
amounted to one-fourth, the same power being employed in both
cases.

STEAM POWER ON CANALS.

A successful application of the principle of low speeds seems
to have been made by Mr. Edward Backus, of Rochester. If the
result of the several trials made are correctly stated by the in-
ventor of this novel mode of steam propulsion, then the cost of
transportation may be reduced about 32 per cent.

The following extract from a letter written by Gen. Quimby,
U.S.A., who witnessed two trials of this boat, will convey an
idea of the character of this new mode of propulsion : —

‘‘ In this boat the motive power, steam, causes a wheel located
near the centre of the boat to roll on the bottom of the canal; and
thus drive the boat inthe same manner that the locomotive is pro-
pelled by its driving-wheels. The wheel, placed at one end of a
lever frame, readily adjusts itself to the varying depths of the
water, and its weight, together with the cog-like projections dis-
tributed over its circumference, prevents slipping and consequent
loss of traction. It has been found that in the whole extent of the
Erie Canal there are not to exceed 20 miles in which the
depth of the water is too great for the wheel to work well. For
very deep water, a screw-propeller wheel is used, and the motive
power is changed from the ground wheel to it with the utmost
ease and expedition.”

PASSAGE THROUGH THE SUEZ CANAL.

The Rob Roy and English merchant-vessel recently passed
through the Suez Canal, and the captain writes to the ‘* London
Times” the following account of the present condition of this great
undertaking, after 13 years have been spent in its construction:

3

62 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

‘¢ The canal, as designed, is about 100 miles long. Of thislength,
about half is sufficiently advanced for the sea-water to reach 50
miles, —that is, into the middle of the isthmus. It is finished to
its full breadth, which is 100 yards, or the width of a considerable
river, but not to the intended depth of 26 feet. The remaining 50
miles not yet penetrated by the sea-water are in various states of
progress; parts are excavated, parts are under water, parts will
have to be laid under water which is to be supplied from a great
lake not yet filled, while a good many miles have to wait for
blasting operations. To English ears it must sound promising
that a cood deal of clay has to be cut through; for nothing can be
dealt with so successfully in this country as that material. ‘The
completion of the southern half of the canal would look like a very
long work, but for the fact of the immense subsiding works being
completed, and a vast mass of appliances being on the spot. The
service canal, from the Nile to the mid-point of the salt canal, and
branching thence to either extremity, is an immense work, not
less than 150 miles long, and in full use for the supply of fresh
water for navigation, and for otherwise assisting the work to be
done. The port at the Mediterranean end is an immense work,
already available. The sea-channel at the Suez end has difficul-
ties, but only such as engineers are familiar with. Forty enormous
and costly dredging-machines s are at work on different parts of
the canal —chiefly, “we eonclude, the northern half, — discharging
mountains of mud, sand, and clay over the banks or into bare wes.
The rate of expenditure is put at 200,000 pounds per month, or
2,500,000 poundsa year. Our informant calculates that a driving
wind, after blowing a month together, will send into the canal,

when finished, 500 tons of sand a d: wy, or 15,000 tons a month.

This, however, is no more than a single dredging-m: ichine would
be able to keep down ata certain moderate cost in coal. The dif-
ficulty of keeping up the banks of the canal, exposed as they will
be to the wash of the steamers, and to a surface often agitated by
the wind, is a more serious matter, but one which does not enter
into the present question. Upon the whole, it does seem a moral
certainty that at least in two or 3 years — for one year seems out
of the question—this great undertaking, worthy of a heroic
age, will be brought to what we may fairly call an actual comple-
tion. In the course of the year 1871 we may probably see the
sea-water of one ocean flowing into the other.”

SUEZ CANAL.

The following figures show the condition of the work on the
canal on Ist January, 1869, also the progress made during the
past year. The two exhibits, taken together, may give us the
data for calculating the time when the ‘entire work will be com-
pleted. The estimates of quantities are given in cubic metres, to
which 37 per cent. should be added to show the results in cubic
yards. The aggregate amount of earth to be moved, to dig the
canal according to the plans adopted, was 74, 112, 130 cubic

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 63

metres; of this there remained on Ist January, 1868, 40,000,000
cubic metres yet to be done. The time now named by Mons.
Laralley for the entire completion of the work is lst October next,
and there seems to be no reason to doubt his ability to make ood
this prediction. The success of the dredging-machines has ‘been
even beyond the anticipations of their strongest advocates. One
machine is credited with 108,000 cubic metres of excavation, ina
single month; another with 88,889; another with 78,056 cubic
metres within a like period. They have double gangs of men,
and work night and day. Six dredges in November, in the Port
Said division of the canal, raised 313,628 cubic metres; three
other machines, at Ras-el-Ech, raised 214,042 cubic metres. The
last new dredge of the contractors was put at work in December;
and now their entire force, 60 machines, is being driven to its ut-
most capacity, in order that the canal in its full dimensions may
be opened to the commerce of the world with the least possible
delay. The piers or jetties at Port Said are entirely finished.
The western pier was completed on the 8th September, and the
making of the concrete blocks was stopped the same day. On
15th December, there remained but 316 blocks to be sunk to fin-
ish the eastern pier; and these could easily be handled in 10
days. The harbor and basins at Port Said have been dredged to
a depth throughout of 23 feet; and now the French, Russian, Aus-
trian and Egyptian steamers touch there regularly. No difficulty
is experienced in running into this harbor at any time of day, or
in any weather; whereas at Alexandria no vessel drawing 15
feet ever attempts to enter except by day; and, in heavy
weather, steamers have been obliged to wait outside the bar for
two and three days, on account of the narrow, shallow entrance to
the harbor. During the first 6 months of last year 813 vessels
entered at Port Said, landing 3,282 passengers, and’ 105,832 tons
of merchandise. The Viceroy of Egypt has ordered the line of
railway between Cairo and Suez to be abandoned; and a new
line of railroad has been constructed from Alexandria and Cairo
to Suez, by way of LLagazig and Ismailia. This new route was
opened in November last; and henceforth Ismailia will be the
stopping-place onthe Isthmus for passengers between Europe and
India, while waiting for their steamers either in the Red Sea or
the Mediterranean.

SMELTING, CARBURIZING, AND llth IRON.

Mr. Isham Baggs, of High Holborn, has patented some processes
by means of which the smelting, earburiz: ition, and purification
of iron are Sreatly facilitated. In char ging the furnace, the coal
or coke usually thought necessary for smelting is in a great
measure dispensed with, and in its place Mr. Baggs burns.in the
smelting-furnace coal gas, hydrogen, carbonic oxide, or other
combustible gas or gases, and also the vapor of petroleum, naph-
tha, and other hydrocarbons under pressure, and in combination
with a blast of hot or cold air. In the case of the inflammable
hydrocarbon vapors, the same may be forced into the furnace

64 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

under the pressure of their own atmospheres, or by means of
mechanical appliances. The gases and vapors which are em-
ployed for the purposes of this invention may be previously mixed
with the air furnished by the blast, or may be caused to meet the
air in the furnace or at the tuyeres. The proportions of the mix-
ture, when a combination of gas or vapor and air is employed, are
subject to constant regulation by valves. One very convenient
mode of obtaining combustible gases for the purposes of this in-
vention is to generate coal gas in the usual way, and then carbonic
oxide, and to blow air or carbonic oxide gas under pressure
throngh the retort containing the residual coke. For the purpose
of carburizing the iron, whether in or out of the furnace, as may
be desirable, coal gas or other carbides, or other materials con-
taining carbon, are blown through the furnace, or brought into
contact with the molten metal by blowing them through it. Car-
bon in any suitable form or combination may also be" directly in-
troduced into the furnace for the purpose of carburization, and
although generally for smelting purposes it is desirable to exclude
all solid mineral fuel from the furnace as part of the charge, yet
where a suspension of operations is necessary, such a charge of
coal, coke, or other fuel may be introduced into the furnace as
will prevent the materials, on renewal of work, from falling through
the crucible or any iron remaining therein or below it from being
permanently solidified. When purification is required, hydroflu-
orie acid is blown through the molten metal in its way from the
furnaces, the gases being mixed with common air, or with some
gaseous diluent. — Mechanics’ Magazine, Sept., 1869.

BESSEMER ON THE HEATON STEEL PROCESS.

Mr. Henry Bessemer, the inventor of the Pneumatic process,
addresses a letter to the ‘‘ London Times,” under date of Dee. 1,
in reply to an article in that paper, to the effect that by the Bes-
semer process no good malleable iron or steel can be produced
from inferior pig, while, by the Heaton process, steel is produced
from very inferior pig iron, and steel of the first class. The ex-
ception taken by Mr. Bessenier in his letter is, that the steel pro-
duced by Mr. Heaton is not homogeneous or cast steel, but has
the general nature of puddled steel; that is, is laminated and
fibrous in form, besides appearing in the shape of porous steel
sponge, similar to the iron oe produced from a Swedish fur-
nace. Heaton’s result, Mr. Bessemer says, can only be converted
into cast steel by the old Sheffield crucible process, at a cost of
from 5 to 6 pounds sterling per ton. ‘The nitrate of soda (270
pounds) necessary to reduce a ten of pig by the Heaton process,
costs 6 pounds sterling on the average; so that while the inferior
pig used by the Heaton costs 5 pounds less per ton than that used
by the Bessemer process, the cost of the nitrate overbalances this
gain on the ton by one pound sterling. The result is, that
laminated steel, which must be remelted at a cost of 5 or 6 pounds
to the ton to produce cast steel, costs a pound more to the ton by

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 65

the Heaton process than good homogeneous steel from the best
Cumberland pig costs by that of Bessemer.
Mr. Bessemer concludes that there can be no competition be-

tween his process and Heaton’s.

BESSEMER’S HIGH-PRESSURE FURNACE.

Theoretically the total quantity of heat required to raise from
an ordinary temperature and fuse a ton of steel does not exceed
by more than 30 per cent. that requisite to melt the same weight
of cast iron; but practically, the amount of fuel is 30 times as
great in the former as in the latter operation. This waste is due
to the fact that the temperature required for the fusion of the
metal comes very near the maximum temperature which can be
obtained in the furnace, and the heat is communicated to the
metal much more slowly than if a greater difference of tempera-
ture were available. The production of a very intense heat on a
large scale is, practically, very difficult, as it is necessary to guard
against radiation and too great access of air, and to secure the
complete conversion of carbon into carbonic acid; the systems of
Mr. Siemens and Mr. Schinz, using as fuel carbonic oxide wholly
or in part, have remedied the evils ina high degree. Mr. Bes-
semer’s system may be employed as readily for the combustion of
heated air and gases as for solid fuel with a cold blast. Mr. Bes-
semer, while meditating the construction of a large lens, 20 feet
in diameter, to be mounted equatorially, to collect the rays of the
sun from an immense surface for hours together, was led to in-
quire why the solar heat was so intense; and the solution was
that the great intensity of the solar heat was due to the fact that
the combustion of the solar gases took place under great pres-
sure, the force of gravity being at the sun’s surface 27.6 times as
great as it is at the surface of the earth. He therefore constructed
a small cupola furnace, in which the products of combustion could
not freely escape, but were maintained under a pressure of 15 to
18 pounds per square inch above the atmosphere. With this
moderate pressure, steel and wrought iron may be melted more
readily than cast iron in an ordinary cupola; 3 cwt. of wrought-
iron scrap, introduced cold into a small furnace, was run off com-
pletely fluid in 15 minutes. This process, which marks an epoch
in the application of heat for metallurgical purposes, is fuily de-
scribed and illustrated in the London ‘“‘ Engineering,” for Sept.
17, 1869. ~

THE OXYHYDROGEN LIGHT.

The Oxyhydrogen Light scheme has now taken a definite shape
in Paris. A company has been formed, the capital necessary has
been raised, and application has been made for permission to lay
down pipes to carry oxygen and hydrogen over about a fourth of
the city. It is not very likely that the permission will be granted,
and the promoters will have to confine themselves to supplying
individuals with compressed gases, as was originally proposed.

6* :

66 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The prospectus of the company enlarges upon the cheapness and
purity of the light, the complete combustion, and the absence of
all deleterious matters in the products of the combination; but is
quite silent as to the danger of introducing into a house two gases
not possessing any smell, and which, consequently, may escape
without observation, and the mixture of which forms an explosive
compound of far greater power than any mixture of coal gas and
air. To any danger of this kind, continental engineers appear to
shut their eyes. We saw, a short time ago, a patent taken out in
Belgium for making a mixture of coal gas and air, storing it in
gas-holders, and distributing it over the city of Brussels for heat-
ing purposes. The engineering details given showed a complete
knowledge of the subject of the manufacture and distribution of
gas, but there seemed to be no recognition of the risk, imminent
enough, of blowing up the whole concern. A consideration of
this kind, some years ago, stood in the way of a scheme of the
kind projected for Birmingham, and will, no doubt, prevent the
Oxyhydrogen Light Company from getting permission to lay
down their pipes over Paris. — Journal Franklin Institute.

NORWEGIAN BOXES OF FELT FOR COOKING.

Prof. Joy, of Columbia College, describes the contrivance and
its use in the following terms : —

«« Another adaptation of well-known scientific principles is to be
found in the use of Norwegian felted boxes for cooking food.
There are few devices more simple or more valuable than this.
From an economical point of view, such contrivances pay for
themselves a thousand-fold, and in a sanitary direction there is no
estimating their value to the poor laborers, as well as to the rich
consumers of half-cooked food.

‘* Tt is curious how little these boxes are known; but, thanks to
the Paris Exhibition, this ignorance bids fair to be of short dura-
tion. The whole thing is so absurdly simple that that is probably
one reason why so little attention has been paid to the subject.
We will attempt a description of the apparatus. Take a box.a
foot square, line it with successive layers of felt, leaving a round
space in the centre large enough to hold the kettle customarily
used for cooking food. Have a thick cap to cover up the kettle
after it is introduced, so that it is in the middle of the box sur-
rounded by a thick layer of non-conducting material. When it
is required to boil meat, it is only necessary to heat the kettle for
a few minutes up to the requisite temperature, and then to put it
into the snug place prepared for it. Here the cooking will go on
by itself as long as may be desirable, up to certain limits; and
the meat will remain warm for 5 or 6 hours. By having a
series of thi se boxes, the dinner can be prepared at no expense,
save the original cost of starting the fire. A little experience
will enable the cook to determine the length of time to leave the
kettles in the boxes. It is easy to be inferred that the same ar-
rangement will serve to keep ice-cream from melting, or sub-
stances from growing warm which have been previously cooled

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 67

in ice. The value of the felted boxes from a sanitary point of
view is to be found in the possibility of providing poor mechanics
and laborers with warm food. By portable contrivances it will
be easy to keep food warm for some hours, and the advantages
to poor workmen cannot be overestimated. To the rich it also
insures thoroughly cooked food, while even by them the economy
will not be despised. At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 these
felted boxes in the Norwegian department attracted a good deal
of attention. They were shown in actual operation, and an op-
portunity was afforded of tasting food that had been kept in them
for some hours.”

CAST-IRON STOVES.

At a recent meeting of the French Academy of Science, a
report was presented from the committee appointed to inquire
into the alleged insalubrity attending the use of cast-iron stoves.
Extensive experiments had been made, and the results arrived at
were, first, that all heating apparatus made of metal, and all
stoves made of cast iron, give off, while in use, a large quantity
of carbonic acid; second, that the quantity of that gas given off
from stoves of plate iron was often insignificantly small; third,
that the carbonic acid contained in the air was readily converted
into carbonic oxide, by coming into contact with thoroughly red-
hot stoves; and, fourth, that the oxide of carbon thus generated
may, especially in confined localities, become very injurious to
health. To obviate all bad effects, the committee recommend
that cast-iron stoves be lined inside with fire-brick, and enveloped
outside with a casing of sheet iron, so arranged as to leave space
for free circulation of air in communication with a well-drawing
chimney.

BARON LIEBIG *‘ON A NEW METHOD OF BREAD-MAKING.”’

Baron Liebig has just made some important researches on a
new method of bread-making. He remarks on the stationary
character of this art, which remains to the present day much in
the state in which it was thousands of years ago. He dwells upon
the sanitary importance of the mineral constituents of grain, and
the necessity of a sufficiently abundant supply of them in bread.
These are best found in certain kinds of black and brown bread,
which are, therefore, more wholesome than the white bread that
is nevertheless preferred by most people (especially by the lower
orders), on account of its better appearance and superior palata-
bleness. The problem has hence arisen, how to provide a beau-
tiful white bread which shall contain all the essential mineral
constituents of black bread. These mineral constituents (phos-
phate of potash, lime, magnesia, and iron) are introduced into
the bread by the use of the baking-powder invented by Professor
Horsford, of Cambridge, in North America. This baking pow-
der consists of two powders, —the one acid, the other alkaline.
The acid powder is phosphoric acid in combination with lime and
magnesia; the alkaline powder is bicarbonate of soda. Two

68 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

measures made of tinned iron, the larger one for the acid powder
and the smaller one for the alkali, are employed. When bread
is required to be made, every pound of flour is mixed with a
measure of the acid powder and a measure of the alkali powder,
and sufficient water added to make dough, which is presently
made into loaves and baked. In one and a half to two hours
bread may be made by this process. ‘The chemical change
which takes place will be easily intelligible ; carbonic acid is gen-
erated and phosphate of the alkaliis formed at the same time.
The essential feature in Horsford’s invention is the economical
getting of phosphoric acid in the shape of a dry, white powder.
This is done by taking bones, burning them, and then treating
the well-burnt bone-earth (which consists of phosphate of lime
and magnesia) with a certain quantity of sulphuric acid, so as to
remove two-thirds of the lime, and leave a soluble superphos-
phate of lime, The sulphate of lime which results from the action
of the sulphuric acid is separated from the rest by filtration, and
the solution subsequently concentrated by evaporation, and, when
it becomes very concentrated, mixed with a certain quantity of
flour, and dried up. The mixture of flour with the superphos-
phate admits of being reduced to the finest powder, and consti-
tutes the acid powder just referred to. It will be observed that
the alkali powder contains soda, whereas potash is required, in
order to furnish the right kind of mineral salts. Liebig proposes
to rectify this defect by using a certain quantity of chloride of
potassium along with the alkali. Chloride of potassium is now
tolerably cheap, owing to the finding of immense quantities of it
at Stassfurt. — British Medical Journal.

TELEICONOGRAPHY.

M. Revoil, an architect well known in France, from haying the
charge of the restoration of the Roman remains at Montpellier,
Toulan, Nimes, has recently been engaged in a special study of
the early architecture of the southern provinces of the ancient
kingdom. In the course of his attempts to arrive at exactitude
of definition, by the aid, at one time, of the camera lucida, and
at another, of the telescope, he has been induced to make experi-
ments as to the combination of the principles of the two instru-
ments. The result of this effort M. Revoil has called the Téléi-
conograph.

The principle of this instrument is that of allowing the image
transmitted by the object-glass of a telescope to pass through a
prism connected with the eye-piece. The rays of light that
would, in the ordinary use of the telescope, be transmitted direct
to the eye, are refracted by this prism, and thrown down upon a
table placed below the eye-piece. The distance between the
prism and the table determines the size of the image projected
on the latter, and it is easy for the observer to trace on a paper
placed on this sketching-table the actual outlines indicated by
the refracted light.

The idea once grasped, it is easy to work out the details. The

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 69

telescope is placed on a stand with screws and clamps, allowing
of both horizontal and vertical motion, as it may often be neces-
sary to give traverse to the instrument in order to make a connected
drawing of a larger area than can be included in the object-glass
at one view. In fact, an entire panorama can be traced, if the
relative position of the axis of the telescope and the surface of
the sketching-table are undisturbed.

We see no reason to doubt that M. Revoil’s eye-piece might be
adapted to the ordinary theodolite, so that any person who pos-
sesses one of these instruments may, at a small expense, obtain
a good sketching apparatus.

The advantages possessed by the téléiconograph over the cam-
era lucida are manifest. The size of the image may be determined
at will by the person who uses the former, without any diminu-
tion of accuracy. We have before us a lithograph of the summit
of one of the towers of Notre Dame de Paris. The ‘‘ croquis”
was taken by means of the instrument of M. Revoil, at the dis-
tance of about 300 metres. Itis 12 incheslong. A sketch, taken
by the aid of a camera lucida, is drawn alongside, and is only
one inch in length, or one-twelfth part of the linear measure of
the bold outline of the teleiconogram (as we suppose the new
likeness will be called.) Two mountain-peaks, in Provence,
sketched by aid of the same apparatus, show how admirably it
can be applied to the sketching of country. For the purpose of
mnilitary surveying its services promise to be of the utmost value.

The teleiconograph insures certitude in drawing, but it does
not draw. It is an aid to the artist, not a self-acting substitute
for his eye and hand. The sharp, bold touch of a master of the
art of drawing will be as distinct from the feeble peddling of an
inferior workman, when the refracting prism is used, as when
freehand sketching is resorted to. The division of attention be-
tween the object and the copy, which is often so painful, will be
entirely avoided by the use of this instrument. In the hands of
a true artist the result will be every way admirable, — exact as a
photograph, without the distortion of all those parts of the field
which are distant from the centre, and at the same time marked
by all the peculiarity of touch proper to the master. The camera
lucida, from its greater portability, will still hold its own; but
we shall hope to see M. Revoil’s instrument brought into familiar
use in this country, to meet circumstances for which it is pecu-
liarly adapted. — Builder, July 17.

METHOD OF DETECTING POISONOUS GASES. THE GASOPHANER.

The ‘ Pioneer,” England, states that a discovery has been
made by an officer, which, if the results on a large scale are at
all commensurate with the experiments made on a small one,
may prove of great value in giving a timely indication of the
approach or presence of that poisonous state of the atmosphere
which is generally believed to precede cholera and other epi-
demic diseases.

The gasophaners, or poisonous gas indicators, as the discov-

70 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

erer calls them, are easily and cheaply made. A piece of fused
Lovacie acid, the size of a walnut, from which the water of crys-
taliization has been expelled, is heated to redness in chlorine, or
has dissolved in it while hot a small quantity of common salt,
care being taken that there is not suflicient soda—16 per cent.—to
convert the boracie acid into borax, which would spoil the effect.
The red-hot lump of boracic acid thus charged is blown with a’com-
mon glass-blower’s tube into a thin glass ball or bulb, about the
size of a small hand-lamp shade, and the gasophaner is ready for
use. When first made, the glass is clear, with beautiful irrides-
cent colors, due partly to the thinness of its sides; but left for a
time, shorter or longer, according to the amount of moisture in
the atmosphere, in normal breathing air, it becomes covered or
clouded with a light-blue film (due chiefly to the carbonic acid
gas of atmosphere), which, combined with the irridescent colors
beneath, has an opaline or pearly lustre. On bringing the
clouded gasophaner carefully to the flame of a spirit-lamp, this
film instantaneously vanishes, leaving the glass of that part again
clear and shining. The delicacy of this test is so great that,
although by breathing on the newly-made gas the film may be
much more rapidly formed than by mere exposure to the atmos-
phere, an approach to the spirit-lamp flame will no longer drive
off the carbonated compound formed, on account of the impure
gases contained in breath. At the same time, carbonates thus
formed from the breath of a child, or of an extremely healthy
person, vanish precisely as the aerial ones do on application of
gentle heat. Held over a solution of ammonia, the air carbonate
will not form, except on the upper part, where the ammoniacal
gas has less action; but if held so that the breath may mix with
the ammoniacal eas, a thick white cloud of carbonate of ammo-
nia without opaline lustre covers the gasophaner. This cannot
be driven off by heat, but froths up on an approach being made
to the lamp flame. But the most remarkable indication given by
the gasophaner is when it is held over a solution of sulphuretted
hydrogen. The gasophaner immediately becomes pitted, as it
were, with small-pox on the surface next the gas; and these
spots, on being examined with a microscope, are found to be
round, radiated crystals, the centre or nucleus of which soon
bursts into a hole. They are white by transmitted, and dark
brown by reflected, light. Nitride of boron gave exactly similar
crystals as the chloride, and so did pure boracie acid. These
crystals, therefore, are presumed to indicate a combination of
boron with hydrogen, a fact hitherto unknown to chemists. The
gasophaner can be reheated and reblown as often as required.

UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHTS AND COINS.

Professor Leone Levi, at the meeting of the British Association,
read the report of the committee on ‘‘ Uniformity of Weights and
Coins in the interest of Science.” The report commenced by stating
that considerable progress has been made during the year in the

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 71

assimilation of weights, measures, and coins in different countries,
The North German Confederation of 1868 adopted the metre as
the basis of measures and weights, and resolved to take as the
primary standard measure of length the platinum bar in posses-
sion of the Prussian government. This bar is equal to 1.000.0501
metre at the temperature of melting ice. Metre weights and
measures are made legal in the United States, and are employed
in post-office exchanges with foreign countries. It were much
to be desired that our post office would follow the good example.
Still greater progress had been made in the introduction of the
metrical system into India, — with regard to which the report
entered into particulars. Efforts had been made to promote the
adoption of the same system in the colonies. The second report
of the royal commission had lately recommended the removal
of every difficulty, and the full and legal introduction of the metric
system. Chambers of Agriculture and Commerce (including the
Barnstable Farmers’ Club) had petitioned Parliament in favor of
a uniform system of weights and measures. With respect to in-
ternational coinage no further step had been taken since the
report of the royal commission. The Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer had, however, recently enunciated his views in favor of
imposing a seignorage of about one per cent. for coining gold into
sovereigns. This was a difficult question, and the committee
contented themselves with echoing the recommendation of the
royal commission, that another international congress be speed-
ily held to consider the scheme. In conclusion, the report rec-
ommended the reappointment of the committee for the purpose
of further stimulating the early realization of a uniform system
of weights, measures, and coins in all countries,

NEW OXYGEN PROCESS.

Oxygen procured cheaply and easily, is, as we have often said,
a very desirable thing. The numerous applications that could be
made of it are so evident that we need not stop to mention them,
but we lay before our readers yet another plan, and this time an
ingenious one, for obtaining it. The mineral sources of oxygen
being comparatively expensive, MM. Montmagnon and Delaire
have betaken themselves to that cheap reservoir, our atmos-
phere, and have further availed themselves of the discriminative
action of wood charcoal and water, or certain saline solutions.
We give here, it must be understood, the figures of the authors
named, without checking them by a reference to the figures of
Dr. Angus Smith, who has made most careful experiments on the
absorptive action of charcoal. According, then, to our authors,
100 litres of fresh wood-charcoal will, when exposed to atmos-
pherie air, occlude 925 litres of oxygen, but only 705 litres of
nitrogen. Now, it would appear that when the charcoal so sat-
urated with gas is thoroughly saturated with water, there will be
expelled 650 litres of nitrogen, but only 350 litres of oxygen.
Thus we have now left in the pores of the charcoal 575 litres of

~

72 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

oxygen, and only 45 litres of nitrogen, that is, oxygen practically
pure for industrial purposes. To extract the gases, the authors
employ a pump, and they tell us that if again exposed to char-
coal, the oxygen will be obtained almost pure. There can be no.
doubt of it. They give no account of the cost of oxygen; but it
is clear that it will be represented chiefly by the cost of the ma-
chinery and cost of working it. — Mec. Mag.

THE SEWAGE QUESTION.

Among the best of the labored articles upon this subject we
have perused is one entitled ‘‘ A Chemist’s view of the Sewage
Question,” by Edward C. C. Stamford, F.C.S., published in the
Chemical News. Mr. Stamford clearly shows in his essay that the
problem cannot be solved upon merely mechanical data. He
says: ‘t The present water-closet system, with all its boasted ad-
vantages, is the worst that can be generally adopted, briefly be-
_ cause it is a most extravagant method of converting a molebill
into a mountain. It merely removes the bulk of our excreta from
our houses, to choke our rivers with foul deposits and rot at our
neighbors’ doors. It increases the death rate, as well as all other
rates, and introduces into our houses a most deadly enemy, in
the shape of sewer gases.”

Mr. Stamford predicts that the water-closet will be ultimately
doomed to oblivion. He reviews the process of Mr. Chapman,
one of the latest proposed methods of dealing with town sewage,
which is briefly a process of distillation, after treatment with lime
and thorough putrefaction, points out important defects, and de-
cides that its effectiveness is to say the least problematical. The
process of Mr. Glassford, evaporation with sulphuric acid, he |
deems far more certain. But both these methods are connected
with the water system, and this Mr. Stamford considers a radical
defect.

The dry-earth system of Moule he considers the most hopeful
of any yet proposed. The question of removal of sewage is not
the only one that is to be considered ; what to do with it after it is
removed is the most puzzling part of the problem, and is strictly
a chemical question.

The Moule earth system is the only one that has taken into full
account the chemical bearings of the question and has dealt with
it in a simple and practical manner. It at once provides for dis-
posal and removal, making the former the prime object.

Mr. Stamford, in order to obyiate a difliculty which seems to us
purely imaginary, namely, the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient
supply of pure dry earth, proposes to substitute seaweed charcoal,
a powerful absorbent.

Now, so far as this is concerned we believe there will ulti-
mately be no difficulty in obtaining earth for the purpose, but if
the system should become general, the privilege of furnishing
earth and taking away the resulting compost will be so valued as
to make it a subject of solicitation; perhaps even a commercial

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 73

value will become fixed to the compost, and we may live to see
the time when it will be found quoted in commercial price lists
with guano and other fertilizers.

The amount of earth required is only 34 times the weight of
the excreta, and as seaweed charcoal, though only one-fourth as
much would be required, would certainly cost more than earth,
the latter could never compete with the former except on ship-
board, or in cases where large bodies of earth must be transported,
unless the charcoal could be in some way renovated and its ab-
sorbent power restored.

As charcoal can be used over several times, and then redistilled
with the mixed excreta, the whole ammonia product being re-
covered, and the charcoal thus renovated recovers its absorbent
power, it may be that the system of Mr. Stamford will be found
to possess some advantages.

Mr. Stamford has made some interesting researches on the
products of the distillation of the mixed charcoal and excreta.
These products are, he finds, remarkably similar in composition
to the distillates from bones, in manufacturing boneblack. Am-
monia, acetic acid, butyric acid, acetone, and pyrol are the most
marked produets, and the charcoal produced is, he asserts, second
only in value to that of bones. The redistilled seaweed charcoal,
and the charcoal resulting from the destructive distillation of the
excreta, will give anincreased weight of charcoal, so that, if this
process were adopted, the product for the city of Glasgow alone,
it is estimated, would be 19 tons per day.

The uses to which this charcoal might be applied are various.
The system seems to have been the result of much study and
close thought, but we doubt whether its merits will ever prove so
great as to supersede the dry-earth method. — Scientific Ameri-
can.

SALINE SOLUTIONS FOR STREET-WATERING.

The superintendent of street cleansing, etc., of Liverpool, has
just issued his report to the Health Committee upon the trials
made during the past season of Mr. Cooper’s street-watering
salts. The main thoroughfare along Lord. Church, and Bold
Streets, chiefly macadamized, is considered to have afforded as
severe a test as possible from the heavy traflic over it during the
hottest period of summer. It is stated in the report that the use
of these salts has been entirely successful, and beyond comparison
superior to plain water. In practical results, two water-carts with
the weak solution were found equal to seven under the old system
upon the macadamized road; but in paved streets one may be
~expected to do the work of five where the traffic is only ordinary.
Financially, notwithstanding the saving of horses and carts, it
appears that, at the price of 3 pounds perton, hitherto charged
for the salts, no economy can be effected; but then the supply
has been so far in experimental quantities, and it should be stated
that the patentee is now prepared to deliver in quantity at 40
shillings, It is further considered that a reduction of 70 per cent.

7

74 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

would be effected in water wasted in the streets, and that there is
the collateral advantage of the surface of the roadways being
maintained in superior condition, a saving of 20 per cent. in the
cleansing being due to this effect. The system has also been
tested in Greenock, and is reported upon equally favorably by
Mr. Barr, C.E., the master of the works.

PEAT MANUFACTURE IN OHIO.

According to a writer in ‘* Putnam’s Monthly,” for November,
the following is the method employed in the manufacture of peat,
near Ravenna, Ohio: —

‘*The peat is dug to a depth of from 8 to 15 feet with shov-
els and slanes, the latter being a kind of spade, with a wing
at the side bent at right angles with the blade, so as to form two
sides of a square, and loaded into dump ears, which are drawn up
an inclined plane upon iron rails by friction gearing, and the con-
tents rapidly emptied into an immense hopper containing 150 tons
of crude peat. At the bottom of the hopper is a large elevating
belt, running over drums, upon which fhe peat is thrown and rap-
idly carried into the condensing and moulding machine. Two men
are all that are required to keep the machine full. The condens-
ing and manipulating machine is run by steam power. It receives
the crude peat from the elevating belt in a wet or moist state, and
delivers it in a smooth, homogeneous condition, through 10 oval-
shaped dies, each 3} inches by 44 inches in area, from which it is
delivered on drying racks, passing horizontally under the ma-
chine. Each rack is 26 by 72 inches, constructed of light pine, hold-
ing 5 bars or canes of peat, which, when dry, will yield, to each
rack, from 30 to 60 pounds of fuel, according to the density of the
peat. The racks are carried from the machine on an inclined
tramway made of light friction wheels, so that the racks will
almost glide from their own gravity. These racks are taken from
the tramway, and set up like an inverted V, on the drying-ground,
where, being exposed to the sun, and the air circulating freely
around and between the bars, they dry in from 10 to 12 days,
and are ready to be loaded into cars for shipment and use. The
distance between the legs or base of the V being the same as their
length, the drying ground is greatly economized. An acre will
hold about 5,000 of these racks, from 15,000 to 20,000 being a
requisite complement forthe machinery. Sixteen men and 10 boys
on the rackway will make 80 tons of prepared fuel per diem, —
indeed, there is hardly a limit to the capacity of the machinery, if
labor enough is employed. With 37 men digging and clearing
off the racks from the tramway, 150 tons of dried fuel can be
made per day. This fuel can be delivered ata less price than the
best coal, and the cost of preparing it for market is lighter than
that required in coal-mining. It can be afforded as low as 4 dol-
Jars 50 cents per ton, and even lower, within a reasonable distance
from the bogs, and it is more economical than coal.

‘* An analysis of the surface peat of this bog gives the following

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 75D

result: carbon, 68 per cent. ; oxygen, 18; water, 16; and ash 3.68
per cent. It also contains ammonia, acetate of lime, fixed. and
volatile oils. The deeper the peat found, the richer is it in car-
bon, and there are portions of the bog which will yield 70 to 75
per cent. of carbon. The average amount of carbon, thus far as-
certained by analysis of the various peat bogs of the United States,
equals 50 per cent.”

. HEAT IN MINES.

The ‘‘ Virginia City (Nev.) Enterprise” says: ‘*The increase
in the heat of our mines is now beginning to give many of our
mining companies more trouble, and is proving a greater obstacle
to mining operations in those levels lying below a depth of 1,000
feet, than any veins or ‘ pocket’ deposits of water yet en-
countered. A number of the leading companies on the Comstock
are now engaged in putting in engines to be used expressly for
driving fans for furnishing air to the lower levels, forcing it
through large tubes of galvanized iron. With this great in-
crease of heat in our mines comes a great decrease of water; in
fact, in our deepest mine—the Bullion, which has attained the
depth of 1,200 feet —not a drop of water is to be seen; it is as
dry as a lime-kiln and as hot as an oven.

“¢ In the lower workings of the Chollar-Potosi mine, which are
at a perpendicular depth of 1,100 feet below the surface, the ther-
mometer now stands at 100 degrees, —a frightful heat to be en-
dured by a human being engaged in a kind of labor calling for
severe muscular exertion. Here, also, we find the water to have
decreased till there is at the present time a very insignificant
amount, it being necessary to run the pump but 4 hours out of
the 24.

‘*We might give other instances illustrative and corroborative
of what we have stated, but deem the evidence afforded by two
of our deepest mines, situated some considerable distance apart,
sufficient. Does it not appear likely, judging from the present
situation in the deepest levels of our mines, that the great Sutro
tunnel, if ever constructed, is more likely to be found useful as a
means of entrance for fresh air than of exit for water? The
‘situation,’ if we may so call it, so changes in our mines that we
hardly know one month ahead what would be of advantage to
us. Some months since we supposed we were to be drowned out
of the lower levels of our mines, or rather prevented from ever
attaining any very great depth, by a tremendous influx of water.
Now we find no water at all— or at best a trifling quantity — but
in its place hot air. No doubt this is a change for the better. It
will be much easier to force a column of light and elastic air 1,000
feet downward than to lift a column of water the same dis-
tance.

‘** Should it prove a fact, as now seems probable, that the water
in our mines is confined to certain strata at no great depth from
the surface, say between the depths of 400 and 900 feet, and should
it be found practicable to ventilate the deep workings of our

76 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

mines by forcing down air, some of our leading companies are
likely to reach a depth much below the point where the Sutro
tunnel will tap the lead before it is completed, even though work
upon it should be at once commenced. Should the Chollar-
Potosi Company continue downward with their shafts at the same
rate of speed that has distinguished their progress for some
months past, they would, in less than two years, attain a point
below that of the intersection of the Sutro tunnel with the Com-
stock lead. Whether another water stratum exists in the 800

to 1,000 feet of hot, unexplored region of rock lying between our

present lower levels and that point on the lead which would be
cut by the Sutro tunnel, no man can know.”

VENTILATION OF MINES.

It having been asserted that the sole cause of the recent fright-
ful destruction of life at Avondale, in Pennsylvania, was the use
of a furnace for ventilating the mine instead of mechanical appa-
ratus, we give some extracts from a paper which was recently
read before the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, at New-
castle, England, by Mr. William Cochrane, and published in
The ‘‘ Engineer :” —

‘«Tt is considered a fair estimate of the economic value of the
average conditions in which furnaces are worked that only one
fifth of the heat due to the combustion of the coal is utilized.
There are many objections, besides the small useful effect, to the
use of a furnace, which cannot be overcome, and which form a
constant source of cost attendant upon it, namely, the necessity
of cleaning the flues and the consequent suspension of the active
ventilation of the mine; the inconvenience, and in some cases the
impossibility, of using a shaft highly heated, and often full of
smoke, for any other purpose than as a ventilating shaft; and
the serious damage done by the products of combustion to cast-
iron tubing, timber, pumps, or wire ropes, where winding is car-
ried on in the upcast shaft, especially where the shaft is damp.
If the conditions are unfavorable for the use of a furnace, such'as
shallow shafts and heavy resistances to be overcome, the furnace
then is quite unable to compete with a good mechanical ventilator
in economical effect. In a table compiled by Mr. J. J. Atkinson,
Government Inspector for the Durham coal-field, has been shown
the depth at which the furnaces are estimated to be equal to ven-
tilating machines in point of economy of fuel, assuming that the
sources of loss are of the same extent in each case, that is, the
loss of fuel in furnaces by cooling in the upcast, and in ventilat-
ing machines utilized 60 per cent. of the engine-power. A recent
calculation by M. Guibal, of Mons, deduces the following com-
parison: That if a furnace in a 12-feet shaft, 400 yards deep, cir-
culate 53,000 cubic feet of air per minute under the total resist-
ances represented by 5% inch water-gauge, and an average
excess of upcast temperature of 108° above the downcast, with a
duty of 31 lbs. of coal per horse-power in the air estimated on

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 77

the total resistances, then a mechanical ventilator, utilizing 60 per
cent. of the power employed, would, under the same conditions,
have a duty of 11 lbs. of coal per horse-power on the air, being a
saving of 64 per cent. Ata depth of 550 yards to circulate the
same volume, the duty of the furnace being 22 lbs. of coal, that
of the mechanical ventilator would be 11 lbs., being a saving of 50
per cent.”

While on this subject we may also state that a machine has
been invented for the purpose of proper ventilation of mines, a
description of which we take from the ‘‘ London Mining Jour-
nal :*” —

«* This subject has of late occupied the attention of mining and
mechanical engineers, as well as that of others who have been
startled into activity by the many appalling accidents which of
late have occurred in consequence of the explosive gases being
allowed to accumulate in mines. The question is, no doubt, one
of great importance, and they who shall succeed, either by me-
chanical or other contrivance, in keeping up a constant supply of
good wholesome air in all parts of a mine, will have conferred an
incalculable boon upon mining science. Hitherto, little provision
beyond the natural condition of things, or by adding a fire in the
shaft or bottom ofthe shaft, has been adopted; and these, no
doubt, in small shafts, and in mines of very limited extent, have
been sufficient in determining a current by effecting thermometri-
cal variations. There is a degree of uncertainty about it, how-
ever, in consequence of the varying conditions of the external
atmosphere, changing as it does throughout the year. Hence
machines have been invented for the purpose of blowing fresh
air in and of exhausting foul air out of mines, some working by
means of pumps, and others effecting the same object by means
of centrifugal action. Mr. Lloyd, the able engineer of the Lille-
shall Company, has been turning his attention to this, and he has
succeeded in inventing a machine of ingenious construction,
which the company has patented. The success of the plan ap-
pears to depend upon the peculiar construction and disposition of
the fans, which beat the air out of the shaft, depending upon the
well-known elasticity of the atmosphere to supply its place.

This he does by means of a centrifugal fan, driven by an en-
gine. The one we saw was a beautifully executed model, with
fan 18 inches in diameter and 6 inches wide over the blades,
which, measured by the aerometer, produced exhaustion at the
rate of 2,500 feet per minute, with a water-gauge of one-quarter
inch. But the company are erecting a larger one, to be worked
by a small horizontal, direct-action engine, which shall be de-
scribed when in operation. It may be stated that the success
which has hitherto attended the trials made surpasses all expecta-
tion, and the effects produced appear incredible. He first made
a two-feet 3-inch fan, which exhausted 2,500 feet of air per min-
ute; and another, with a 5-feet fan, one foot 10 inches broad,
which exhausted 25,196 cubic feet per minute, with a water-gauge
of two and three-eighths inches, Indeed, the effects were such-
as to be increflible to the inventor until after repeated measure-

7*

78 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ments, in the course of which several aerometers were torn to
pieces by the force of the current of air created.”

THE MODERN ICE MACHINE.

The amount of ice produced by an ice machine, worked by
means of an exhaust or condensing air-pump, driven by steam-
power, is easily determined, theoretically, from the amount of
coal burned in the furnace of the steam boiler. It has been
proved that the combustion of one pound of anthracite coal pro-
duces, in round numbers, 14,000 units of heat, and that in order
to freeze water of 72° F., it is necessary to abstract, besides 40°
of sensible heat, 140° of latent heat — together 180° — which, for
one pound of water, is, of course, equivalent to 180 units of heat.
As this number of units is the eightieth part of the 14,000 units
produced by the combustion of one pound of coal, it is clear that
the heat produced by the combustion of one ton of coal is equiva-
lent to the heat to be abstracted from 80 tons of water of 72°, in
order to change it to ice.

But in practice we find here exactly the same state of affairs as
is the case with the steam engine. ‘Theoretically, a steam engine
ought to produce at least 700 units of force (foot-pounds) for
every unit of heat consumed; in practice, good machinery only
produces from about 70 to 100 foot-pounds, from about one-tenth
to one-seventh part of the theoretical amount. In the best ice
machines, thus far constructed, instead of freezing 80 tons of
water for every ton of coal consumed, only from about 8 to 11
tons of ice are produced, also from one-tenth to one-seventh part
of the theoretical amount; proving, thus, the remarkable fact, that
in both the steam engine and the ice machine exactly the same
relation exists between the theoretically calculated effects and the
practical results.

As, however, all the best ice machines accomplish the conver-
sion of the heat of the-fuel into the freezing operation by the in-
tervention of a steam engine, the fact that they practically pro-
duce only from one-tenth to one-seventh of the amount of the
cold they theoretically should produce, is solely due to the other
fact, that the steam engine, itself, practically produces only from
one-tenth to one-seventh of the amount of power which would be
strictly equivalent to the number of heat units consumed. It must
not be lost sight of that it is only the power of the steam engine
which generates the cold in the freezing machines, and that,
therefore, improvements in the steam engine, which bring its
practical results nearer to the theoretical standard, will at once
exert their influence on the amount of; ice the ice machines can
produce, and, consequently, also on the cost of the ice manufac-
tured in these machines. :

Moreover, it appears that the kind of freezing machines in
question, which convert power into cold, notwithstanding they
are yet in their infancy, have already attained such a degree of
excellence, that they are ahead of that class of machines which

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 79

convert heat into power, either by steam, hot air, or any other
possible means, as it is proved that they produce the full theoret-
ical equivalent of cold (negative heat) for the number of foot-
pounds employed; namely, cooling one pound of water one
degree for a power equivalent to 700 pounds descending one
foot, which, expressed in the adopted scientific manner, is one
unit of negative heat for every 700 foot-pounds consumed.

SOLAR HEAT AS A M@TIVE POWER.

M. Mouchot, in a contribution to the ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,” thus
speaks of some of his results : —

** According to my experiments, it is easy to collect, at a cheap
rate, more than three-fifths of the solar heat arriving at the sur-
face of the globe. The intensity of this calorific source, so feeble
in appearance, was revealed by Pouillet, more than 30 years ago.
At Paris, a surface of one square metre, normally exposed to the .
sun’s rays, receives, at least, whatever may be the season, during
the greater part of a fine day, 10 heat-units (calories) per minute.
[The unit of heat adopted by most physicists is the quantity
necessary to raise one pound of water from 0° to1°C. We sup-
pose M. Mouchot adopts the same standard.] To appreciate such
an amount of heat, it is sufficient to observe that it will boil, in
10 minutes, one litre of water, taken at the temperature of melt-
ing ice, and it is almost equal to the theoretical power of a one-
horse steam engine. Under the same conditions, a superficies of
one ‘are’ (119.603 square yards) would receive, during 10
hours of insolation, as much heat as results from the combus-
tion of 120 kilogrammes (321,507 pounds troy) of ordinary oil.
These numbers are eloquent; they should, if not dispel, at least
weaken the serious fears entertained by some, in consequence of
the rapid exhaustion of coal mines, and the necessity of going to
increasingly greater depths, disputing with the subterranean
- water this precious combustible. The intensity of the calorific
radiation of the sun is, moreover, much less at Paris than in inter-
tropical regions, or upon the elevated plains. It is, therefore,
probable, that the invention of ‘sun-receivers’ will, some day,
enable industry to establish works in the desert, where the sky
remains very clear for a long time, just as the hydraulic engines
have enabled them to be established by the side of water-
courses.

“¢ Although I have not been able to operate under very favorable
circumstances, since my experiments have only been made with
the sun of Alencon, Tours, and Paris, I proved, as far back as
1861, the possibility of maintaining a hot-air engine in motion,
with the help of the sun’s rays. More lately I have succeeded in
boiling, tolerably quickly, several litres of water submitted to in-
solation. In short, having satisfied myself that it was sufficient
to have a silver reflector, with a surface of one square metre, to
vaporize, in 100 minutes, one litre of water (0.88 quarts), taken
at the ordinary temperature, or, in other words, to produce 17

80 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

litres of vapor a minute, I tried to work a small steam engine by
solar heat, and my efforts were crowned with success in June,
1866. In the mean time I have been able, by very simple appara-
tus, to obtain some remarkable effects from insolation, such as
the distillation of alcohol, the fusion of sulphur, perfect cooking
of meat, bread, etc. None of these experiments, particularly the
application of the sun’s heat to machinery, have been tried upon
a sufficiently large scale. It would, therefore, be useful to repeat
them in tropical countries, with ‘sun-receivers’ of suitable di-
mensions. We would meastre the volume and the tension of
steam produced in an hour by a given insolated surface, the pres-
sure developed by the sun in a considerable mass of confined air,
and the temperature which might be obtained by vast reflectors,
formed of a framework of wood covered with plates of silver,
etc.”

IMPROVED MARINER’S COMPASS.

The Earl of Caithness is the inventor of a new mode of sus-
pending ships’ compasses, which for efficiency and simplicity is
said to surpass anything yet produced. Instead of the two con-
centric brass rings having their axles at right angles, known as
gimbals, Lord Caithness employs a pendulum and ball, which
ball works in a socket in the centre of the bottom of the compass
bowl. The compass works, therefore, on one bearing on the ball-
and-socket principle, and thus maintains its parallelism with the
horizon in the heaviest weather. If we may credit the published
reports of the trials, the simplicity of this invention is not more
striking than its efficiency. Itis stated that it has already stood
the most trying tests, and the oscillation of compasses to which it
is applied, as compared with the oscillation of the gimbal com-
pass, is as degrees to points.

TO MEASURE HEIGHTS. @

A very compact and useful instrument, called the ‘‘ apomecom-
eter,” that can be carried in the waistcoat-pocket, for asceytaining
the vertical heights of towers, spires, and other buildings, has been
invented in England. It cannot be better explained than by quot-
ing the description given by Mr. Millar, the inventor: ‘* The
‘apomecometer’ is constructed in accordance with the principles
which govern the sextant, namely, as the angles of incidence and
reflection are always equal, the rays of an object being thrown
on the plane of one mirror are from that reflected to the plane of
another mirror, thereby making both extremes of the vertical
height coincide exactly at the same point on the horizon glass; so
that, by measuring the base line, we obtain a result equal to the
altitude.”

a

a i ie i

i. St

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 81

RESEARCHES ON MATERIALS FIT FOR RESISTING VERY HIGH
TEMPERATURES.

M. Audouin. — (Cosmos.) —While engaged with other studies
on geology in the southern parts of France, the author found that
between Tarascon and Antibes there exists a very valuable and
extensive bed of bauxite (hydrate of alumina), whitch is occasion-
ally applied for the manufacture of sulphate of alumina. This
material has been applied, at the suggestion of Audouin, for the
manufacture of crucibles and fire-bricks; and on having been
tested in comparison with the best products of the kind from
France, England, and Germany, it was found that even best fire-
bricks might be melted in bauxite-made crucibles heated by min-
eral oils and a blast.

SILVER EXTRACTION — ELECTRO-CHEMICAL TREATMENT.

To do away with the tedious and expensive process of amalga-
mation in the production of pure silver is a feat which Becquerel,
Sen., of the French Academy of Sciences, asserts he has recently
accomplished, after having experimented on this subject since the
year 1835.

The experiment was tried successfully on 40,000 Ibs. of silver
ores from Peru, Mexico, and Chili, etc.

A powerful battery, with double liquid voltaic elements sepa-
rated by porous diaphragms, was made to act on the prepared ore,
from which the pure silver was thus obtained at once in a finely
divided state and in a crystalline form. Messrs. Wolf and Pioche
are at present, it is said, preparing for a trial of this system in
California. — Scientific American.

ON THE GLASS USED FOR LIGHT-HOUSES.

The special composition of the crown-glass used for the light
apparatus for light-houses was, until quite recently, kept a secret
by the manufacturers of Saint Gobain, in France, and some firms
in Birmingham, which had the monopoly of this branch of
trade. ;

From the researches of David M. Henderson, C.E., published
in ‘* Dingler’s Journal,” we are able to furnish the recipes for
both of these.

The French glass is composed of: —

Pree oP ee ES a ew! 6) tO lta Oe pete,
Soda, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 66
Lime, . . . o e . . ° . . . * a . . . 15 Bye sé 4

Alumina and oxide of iron, traces.

82 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

In Birmingham it is made from the following mixture : —

cwts. qrs. Ibs.
Prengh send: .)..¢ eta Be FE NG — —
Carbonate of soda, ... © «© wisies th 3 7
Ria s, o:nuie jie shed et so thet 014.4: 2 2 7
Nitrate of Soda, .« «© «+ 0 2,0 «-». 0 1 0
AreenioUs ACG, « © «© 2 e ec » O 0 3

The best qualities of this glass are at present produced in the
Siemens furnace.

CUTTING GLASS WITH STEEL. THE MAGIC DIAMOND.

The cutting of glass with steel has been demonstrated to be
possible, provided its point is ground into the form of acommon
glazier’s diamond. But while hard steel of this form will cut
glass, it is difficult to bring a steel point to the required shape,
and it also soon wears out and becomes worthless, until reground.
Many efforts have been made to make a tool of steel that would
compete at least approximately with the real diamond for this
purpose. It has been discovered that a small cylindrical point of
steel, when made to rotate upon glass in such a manner that its
longitudinal axis shall make an angle of 45 degrees with the sur-
face of the glass, approaches in effect so nearly to that of the real
diamond that it is a very cheap and effective substitute.

HEAVY MODERN MACHINERY.

A mass of metal of a ton weight was unknown before the
Christian era. Now those in castiron up to 150 tons, in wrought
iron to 40 tons, and in steel or bronze to 25 tons, are made in any
desired form, and turned or bored with the most perfect accuracy.
Two years ago I saw the largest lathe in England, which swings
22 feet, and will take in a shaft 45 feet long. Six months ago I
saw one in this country which swings 30 feet, and will take ‘in a
shaft of 50 feet. There are planers which will plane iron 50 feet
in length; others of 18 feet in width; others of 14 feet in height,
taking off metal shavings of two and a half inches in width anda
quarter thick. — W. J. McAlpine.

NEWEST COLORING MATTERS.

A lecture has been given by Mr. W. H. Perkin, at the Royal
Institution, ‘‘On the Newest Coloring Matters.” Among the
many interesting facts then put forward was the discovery of a
beautiful blue color, by a German chemist, on treating rosaline
with sulphuric acid. Unfortunately, it was not a ‘ fast color.”
A dyer made many trials therewith, in the hope of turning it to
account, but all in vain. He happened to mention his diiliculty
to a photographer, who, knowing that hyposulphite of sodium

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 83

would fix a photograph, recommended the dyer to try that. The
trial was made; when mixed with the hyposulphite, the blue be-
came a beautiful green, and, better still, a ‘‘ fast color.” This
was the origin of that brilliant dye commonly known as * Night
green,” because of its remaining unmistakably green in appear-
ance when seen by artificial light. Let it be remembered that
nearly all the new colors are extracted in some way from coal
tar; that the first was discovered not more than 138 years ago,
and that the annual value now manufactured is 1,250,000 pounds,
and it will be seen that in the industry creatcd by these new
products there is an admirable example of the results of scientific
investigation. The best of it is that the field is inexhaustible;
for many years to come it will yield a rich harvest of discoveries.

REFINING VEGETABLE OILS.

Mr. C. Michaud, of Honfleur, has discovered a new method of
refining oil, which will probably eclipse all those in general use
at the present day. This method has just been communicated by
M. Chevallier to the Société d’Encouragement. While sulphuric
acid is introduced into the oil in minute numerous streamlets, air
is blown into the oil so as to produce a great commotion in the
liquid and to fill it with air-bubbles. The mucilage contained in
the crude oil, being acted on by the acid, soon forms with the air
a voluminous layer of scum at the surface, which is skimmed off
as itforms. This insufflation of air is repeated several times, in
succession, and the scums cleared off every time until the oil is
clarified. At this point of the operation it still retains free sul-
phuric acid. It is now run into a copper vessel, and steam is
forced through it until the oil has reached a temperature of 100°
C. The steam is then allowed to bubble through for half an
hour or an hour longer. After the oil has cooled down some 20°
or 30° C., which may be done artificially, it is run through an
ordinary filter. Two large refineries have lately been put up on
the ‘‘ Michaud” plan, and the oil produced by them is so pure,
that the wick of a lamp burning it will not carbonize after many
days’ usage.

ON THE PENETRATION OF ARMOR-PLATES BY SHELLS WITH
HEAVY BURSTING CHARGES, FIRED OBLIQUELY. BY JOSEPH
WHITWORTH, LL.D., F.R.S.

At the meeting of the British Association last year, Mr. Whit-
worth contributed a paper ‘‘ On the Proper Form of Projectiles
for Penetration through Water,” wherein he claimed for the flat-
fronted form of projectile made of his metal three points of
superiority over the Palliser projectiles. First: Its power of
penetrating armor-plates even when striking at extreme angles.
Secondly: Its large internal capacity as a shell. Third: Its
capability of passing undeflected through water, and of penetrat-

84 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ing armor below the water line. He illustrated the penetrative
power of long projectiles, with the flat front fired at extreme
angles against iron plates, by the projectiles actually fired and
the plates they penetrated. The gun from which all the projec-
tiles were fired was a 3-pounder; it weighs 315 lbs., and the
maximum diameter of its bore is 1.85 inches. The charge of
powder used was 10 ounces, and the weight of the 6-inch diam-
eter projectiles is 6 lbs. He considered he had established the
superiority of the flat-fronted projectiles made of his metal, and
that the Palliser projectiles fail to penetrate when striking at an
angle, solely on account of the form of the head. The results
obtained with the small calibre of the rifle closely agree with
those of the 3-pounder gun. He had always found that what he
could do with the smaller calibres could be reproduced in the
larger sizes, and could be repeated on a proportionate scale with
his 9-inch gun, or the 11-inch guns his firm are now engaged in
constructing. The 9-inch guns weigh 15 tons each, and are
capable of firing powder charges of 50 lbs. A 9-inch armor
shell, 5 diameters long, weighs 535 lbs., and will contain a burst-
ing charge of 25 lbs. These projectiles would pierce the side of
a ship plated with armor at a distance of 2,000 yards, and at
some depth below the water line. The 11-inch guns will weigh
27 tons, and will be capable of firing 90 lbs. powder charges.
The 11-inch shells, 5 diameters long, will weigh 965 lTbs., and
will contain bursting charges of 45 lbs., and would pierce a side
of the ship ‘‘ Hercules,” plated with 9-inch armor, at a distance
of 2,000 yards. He had named these long projectiles the ‘ anti-
war” shell. Four guns of 12 inches bore have lately been put on
board the ‘‘ Monarch ;” they weigh 25 tons each, and fire charges
of 50 lbs. and 67 lbs., and projectiles of 600 Ibs. weight; but the
weight of these guns was in proportion to their bore; and if the
material were the best that could be supplied, they ought to fire
117 lbs. of powder and projectiles 1,450 lbs. weight.

LIFE OF AMERICAN VESSELS.

At the meeting of the American Association, at Salem, Profes-
sor E. B. Elliott, of Washington, gave a Life Table of American
Sea-Going Sailing Vessels, derived from the career of 26,737 ves-
sels, of which 4,165 were known to be extant. The table shows
that out of 1,000 vessels 584.4 survive 10 years, 219.5 20 years,
57.2 30 years, 11.1 40 years, and none 50 years. The average
duration of ships is 13.8 years; of those which have been built
10 years, 9.3 years longer; built 20 years, 7.2; 30 years, 6.2; 40
years, 2.7.

Professor Pierce expressed his interest in the paper, and a
desire that a similar table might be made for English vessels, to
see if the superior education of British sea-captains would be
evinced.

Professor Elliott also gave the values of the standard Monetary
Units in which United States securities are quoted in the com-

9 Se Re eS tee ee

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 85

mercial centres of Europe. In London, the 54 pence sterling, at
which a dollar is rated, are really equivalent to 1.095 dollar; the
Frankfort standard, two and one-half silver i ie to 1.0144
dollar; at Paris, 1.09645 dollar; Antwerp, 1.0226 dollar; Bre-
men, 1.0989 dollar ; Amsterdam, 1.0065 dollar; Berlin, 1.0059
dollar; Hamburg, 1.0771 dollar.

SEA-GOING SHIPS.

Mr. C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S., at the meeting of the British
Association, read extracts from the report of the committee on
the state of knowledge of stability and sea-going qualities of
ships. ‘The report treated at considerable length on the rolling
of ships in stiil water, followed by an account “of the mechanism
of waves and an abridzment of what is known on the subject of
the rolling of ships in wave water. The report itself being, in
reality, a very condensed abstract of our existing knowledge, it
would be difficult to make a useful selection for reading o, Mean-
while, it may be stated in general terms that the rolling of a ship
in still water, and her behavior in a seaway, although interde-
pendent, involve very divergent conditions. It seems that the
chief point to attend to, to secure easy rolling, is that the natural
period of the ship’s oscillation should not coincide, or nearly co-
incide, with the period of the waves; and there seems reason to
suppose that we already know how, in a rough way, to influence
the natural periodic time of the ship, so as to be able to predict
nearly in what waves she will and in what waves she will not
roll through excessive angles and with excessive quickness.
But our knowledge is exceedingly crude and deficient in detail,
and even our known means of observation of the height and form
of waves are very unsatisfactory.

SHIPS’ LIGHTS.

M. Tronsens has made a communication to the Paris Academy
of Sciences, in which he suggests a new arrangement of ships’
lights to prevent collision ‘at sea. He proposes the use of 3
lichts, arranged in the form of a right-angled triangle, one aide
of which is ver tical, and another par ‘allel, with the medial line of
the vessel, and towards the head, and placed i in the highest pos-
sible position. The light of the summit is to be of a different
color from the other two, and the distance between the lights to
be about 18 feet. Observation of the two lights in a vertical line
will, says the author, furnish the approximate distance from the
approaching ship, and by comparing the apparent distance of
the two lights on the horizontal side with that of the two on the
vertical side, an idea of the ships’ route may be obtained; at any
rate the relative distances will show whether that course is to the
right or left of the line of observation, which is the main fact to
be ascertained, and that without any instrument. — Mech. Mag.,
od 2, 1869.

8

86 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

BRONZES.

The production of a fine patina on our bronze statues, instead
of a coating of dust and soot, is, especially in our large cities, a
thing to be desired. In Poggendorff’s Annalen for April, we find
the report of a series of experiments which were made by the di-
rection of the Berlin Verein zur Reforderung des Gerwerbfleisses,
to examine into the causes determining the formation of this vert
antique patina on bronze statues.

The experiments while in progress led the observers to suppose
that grease had much to do with the formation of the finest patina.
Four busts were therefore placed in a part of the town which was
very unfavorable. One of them was rinsed every day, with the
exception of rainy days, and was painted once a month with bone
oil, which was rubbed off with woollen cloths at onee. Another
bust was washed daily, but not oiled. A third was cleaned daily,

but oiled only twice a year. The fourth was not touched at all.

These experiments have been continued for 4 or 5 years; the result
is that the bust which has been oiled once a month possesses a
dark-green patina, which is considered very beautiful by connois-
seurs ; the bust which has been rubbed twice a year does not look
so well; the others have no patina. The bust which has been
washed regularly is the usual dark bronze color; the other is
quite dull and black. The final result of those who have been
engaged in the experiments is: this use of oil justifies the hope
that for the future we may retain beautifully patinated monu-
ments, even in large towns. Where coal is the only combustible
they will not be bright, but dark-green, and perhaps black; but
they will have the other beautiful condition of the patina, the
peculiar transparent property of the surface. — Quarterly Journal
of Science, July.

ELECTRIC ORGAN.

A new electric organ action has been patented by Mr. Hillborne
L. Roosevelt, of New York. The object of this new electric
action, as well as the means employed, are very simple. In the
first plate it is necessary to mention, for the benefit of those who
are not familiar with the usual mode of building a large church-
organ, that, as a general rule, it is a great advantage for the or-
ganist to be placed at a considerable distance from the sounding
body of the instrument. To accomplish this purpose, the key-
board, at which the performer sits, is often placed on the floor of
the church, while the organ itself is aloft in the gallery; and this
arrangement enables the organist to form a better judgment of
the effect of his performance, and also accommodate the choir,
But, of course, it is indispensable to connect: the key-board with
the main body of the organ, in order that the keys under the
touch of the player may promptly open the valves or pallets under
the distant organ-pipes ; and this formerly required a complicated
system of wooden rods, wires, and squares, running under the
floor from the key-board up to the gallery. The machinery,

‘(

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 87

under the old system, was subject to great friction and constant
derangement, and was affected by changes of weather, and the
former action was often so stiff and capricious that the organist
found his duty extremely laborious; while the organ-builder was
often called in to make expensive repairs.

Under these circumstanées a difficult problem was to be solved.
Any improvement on the old action must be simple in itself and
easily kept in order, and must of course be free from the effects
of friction or atmospheric changes, so as to insure a light touch on
the keys, and an instantaneous response from the organ-pipes at
any practical distance from the key-board. The new electric
organ action, it is believed, will fully comply with all those re-
quirements. When actually and practically applied it is found
that the touch is always. as light as that of the piano, and the
action is literally as quick as lightning, while any one of ordinary
intelligence having charge of the building in which the organ may
stand can keep it in running order, so far as the battery, which is
the motive power, is concerned. It is based, in a word, on the
well-known principles of the electric telegraph, as well as the
electric burglar alarm, the hotel annunciators, the electric clocks
and police telegraphs; all of which are in successful daily opera-
tion. _The new organ, now building by Messrs. Hall, Labagh,
& Co., is intended to be a powerful instrument, considering its size,
of about 9 stops, including the ‘pedal bass; and, although neces-
sarily limited by want of space, will fairly exhibit the principles
involved.

The key-board will be detached from the organ at a distance
of about 25 feet, though it might as well be removed to the dis-
tance of 25 miles, excepting for the necessity of the organist hear-
ing his own performance, since we know, from recent scientific
investigations, that the electric current will travel a mile in a
fraction of a second. The only connection between the key-board
and the body of the organ is a bundle or rope of flexible, insu-
lated copper wires, which may be carried in any direction without
injury, and there is no pull or strain on these wires, as they are
merely the passive means of conducting the electric current.

The source of the electric current is an ordinary ‘‘ single fluid”
battery, placed in any convenient position, composed of a series
of jars containing a mixture of sulphuric acid and water, and in
each jar is suspended a plate of carbon, in company with two
plates of zinc, connected in the usual way by copper wires. From
one end of this series of jars, a copper wire proceeds to the key-
board ; and, if we take the case of a single key, for example, when
it is pressed down by the finger of the player, we shall find this
wire so connected that it forms an unbroken circuit and proceeds
from the key-board onward to the body of the organ, where it is
coiled around a soft piece of iron shaped like a horse-shoe, and
thence returns from the organ to the other end of the battery.
When a wire is connected with both poles or ends of a battery
the current passes, and the piece of soft iron becomes a powerful
magnet; but the moment the current is broken, by disconnecting
the copper wire, there is an instant loss of power. When the key

88 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

of the organ is not touched, the wire is not connected and the
current does not pass; but on pressing down the key a metallic
contact is formed, the electricity darts. along the circuit, and the
electro-magnet, becoming at once excited, pulls down the pallet,
or opens the valve in the “wind-chest, admitting air to the organ-
pipes and with lightning speed causing them to speak,

The couplers are applied and the stops drawn upon the same
principle. It has been stated that a more expensive and less
a arrangement has been succesafnlly applied in England and

rance.

THE AMERICAN STEREOSCOPE.

‘The following is an abstract of a paper in the ‘‘ Philadelphia
Photographer ” of Januar y, 1869, by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes,
the inventor of the American stereoscope : —

*** The British Journal of Photography’ had two articles lately,
the first dated Oct. 16, 1868, and the second the following week,
relating to the ‘American Stereoscope,’ as I see it is called in
England. The figure they give in the second of these papers,
though not of the best model, yet shows that the instrument re-
ferred to is a copy of the one which was first made in Boston, and
of which I shaped the primitive pattern with my own hands.

«This simple stereoscope was not constructed by accident, but
was the carrying out of a plan to reduce the instrument to its
simplest terms. "Two lenses were necessary, and a frame to hold
them. I procured two of the best quality, and cut a square frame
for them out of a solid piece of wood. A strip of wood at right
angles to this was required to hold the pictures. I shaped one,
narrow in the middle, broad at both ends; at one end to support
the lenses, at the other to hold the stereographs, which were in-
serted in slots cut with a saw at different distances, A partition
was necessary, Which I made short, but wedge-shaped, widening
as it receded from the eye. A handle was indispensable, and I
made a small brad-awl answer the purpose, taking care that it
was placed so far back as to give the proper balance to the in-
strument. A hood for the eyes was needed, for comfort, at least,
and I fitted one, cut out of pasteboard, to my own forehead. This
primeval machine, parent of the multitudes I see all around me,
is in my left hand as I write, and I have just tried it, and found it
excellent. . . . . I contrived another form of stereoscope
like the first, but with a gilded, slanting diaphragm with two oval
openings, so that the effect was that of seeing” the stereograph
through a round window, with a golden light on it reflected from
the slanting surface of the diaphragm. ‘This I showed also to
various dealers, as a form of stereoscope that might please cer-
tain exceptional amateurs. Some time after showi ing it, I found
the so-called ‘ Bellevue’ stereoscope in the market, which I had
good reason to consider an imperfect attempt at a reproduction of
the pattern I had somewhat freely exhibited. The effect referred
to, of cutting off all the borderings of the picture, and throwing
(by means of the slanted and gilded diaphragm) a Claude Lor-

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 89

raine light on the stereograph, is, in many cases, very striking,
but, for common use, the simple form is preferable.”

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF SENSITIVE FLAMES.

An apparatus has been invented by Barrett for making practi-
cal use of sensitive flames. It consists of two perpendicular cop-
per rods, one of which, on its upper end, holds a metallic ribbon,
which is composed of thin leaves of gold, silver, or platinum,
welded together. Such a ribbon expands unequally under the
influence of heat; it bends toward one side, and, in doing so,
comes in contact with a fine platinum wire attached to a galvanic
battery. As soon asthe poles of the battery are closed, a bell
begins toring. The working of the apparatus is as follows: —

‘* A sensitive flame is lighted about 10 inches from the metallic
ribbon. This burns quietly so long as there is no noise, but a
shrill whistle, or any unusual disturbance, will cause it to dimin-
ish one half in length, and to spread out wide in the middle, like
the wings of a bird. It thus heats the metallic ribbon, which
expands unequally, and occasions the contact of the poles of the
battery, which rings a bell.” ,

Such a light as this in a banking-house would betray to the
watchman the noise of robbery, and the inventor proposes to use
it as a species of burglar alarm. As sound can be transmitted in
water 4 times as rapidly as in the air, it is also suggested to em-
ploy this method on shipboard, to make known the approach of a
vessel in time of a fog. ine

There is probably the germ of curious applications of sensitive
flames in Barrett’s invention, and it would not be surprising to
hear of its use in war, to warn a sentinel of the approach of the
enemy, or of its application to a new species of telegraphy.

ELECTRIC BEACONS.

Thomas Stevenson, C.E., Edinburgh, recently conducted an
experiment at Granton, with the view of showing the practica-
bility of illuminating beacons and buoys at sea with the electric
light produced by means of a battery on shore. A submarine
cable, fully half a mile in length, was laid between the east
breakwater of Granton Harbor and the chair pier at Trinity. The
operator occupied a station near the centre of the breakwater, and
the light was shown at the point of the pier in front of an ordi-
nary light-house reflector, producing a most brilliant flash. The
flashes were emitted with great rapidity; as many as 500 can be
transmitted in a minute, but the machine can be regulated so as to
send one every second, or at any other desiredinterval. The ex-
periment gave entire satisfaction.

8*

90 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

PORTABLE ILLUMINATHONS.

Mr. Alvergniat, a French electrician, has made an improve-
ment first suggested to him when using the tubes invented by
Giessler, which are cylinders or bulbs of glass filled with rarefied
gas that becomes luminous in the dark when a current of electric-
ity is passed through it. The improvement consists in filling a
glass cylinder or phial, hermetically sealed, with a substance
which becomes phosphorescent by the action of the frictional or
static electricity. A tube of this kind may be of some service to
those on night duty; for all that is requisite to produce a feeble
and ephemeral light is to rub the tube briskly with a silk hand-
kerchief.

WARMING CHURCHES BY GAS.

The following method has been patented in England: A brick
chamber is made beneath the floor of the building, and a grating
is placed over it to allow of the passage of hot air. Beneath this
chamber an air-flue in connection with the flooring, and covered
with an iron grating, is introduced. By these means a current
of air is made to pass into the building, and this air is brought
into contact with a ring gas-burner, which is supplied by an
ordinary main by means of a spanner, by which the amount of
heat can be regulated. Underneath this ring-burner is placed a
small cistern made of fire-clay, filled with water; the heat from
the gas-burner acts upon the water, steam arises, and this is
passed through pumice stone contained in a cylinder above the cis-
tern ; the use of this vapor is to moisten the atmosphere contained
in the reservoir. Around this is a circular cylinder made of fire-
clay, to contain heat. The whole is covered with a dome of fire-
clay. This dome is worked by a lever for the purpose of lighting
the ring-burner. By these arrangements, it is said that a pure
heat, free from smell or smoke, is obtained, and that with a very
small consumption of gas.

GAS FOR LIGHT-HOUSES.

A series of letters and reports sent to the Commissioners of
Light-houses and the Board of Trade has resulted in a request be-
ing made to Professor Tyndall, by the latter body, that he would
report upon the proposal to substitute gas for oil as an illuminat-
ing power for light-houses, as illustrated in the light-houses of
Howth Baily and Wicklow Head. Various experiments were
made at Howth Baily, and Professor Tyndall says that the supe-
riority of the gas over the oil flame is rendered very conspicuous
by these experiments. The 28-jet-burner possesses two and one
half times, the 48-jet-burner 43 times, the 68-jet-burner 74 times,
the 88-jet-burner 9} times, and the 108-jet-burner 13 times the
illuminating power of the 4-wick flame. The oil lamp with
which the gas flame was compared was the most perfect one em-

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 91

ployed by the Commissioners of Irish Lights. Further experi-
ments were also made, and it appeared that the whole of the gas-
_ lighting apparatus was entirely under the control of the keeper,
and that no damage was likely to arise from it. The 28-jet gas-
burner, when seen 1 from a position some miles off, appeared to be
very nearly upon an equality with the oil lamps, but when muffled
to represent a fog it had a slight advantage. Of course with the
brighter jet-burners a great improvement was apparent, and be-
fore the 108-jet-burner the oil lamp grew quite pale. By the
adoption of a system of gas-lighting a creat saving in cost would
be effected; but such a system would not be possible on rock
light-houses. Professor Tyndallrecommends the encouragement
of this system of illumination in Ireland. He was assisted in his
investigations by Mr. Valentin, Captain Roberts, and Mr. Wig-
ham. — Brit. Trade Journal.

DISPOSITION OF GAS-BURNERS.

Much of the economy and effect of gaslight, says the ‘‘ Gaslight
Journal,” depends upon the arrangement of gas-burners in rela-
tion to each other, to the surroundings of furniture, height of ceil-
ings, distance, and angles of walls, hangings, etc.

The ceneral practice in this country and in Europe, of dispos-
ing burners in chandeliers in the centre of rooms, although
pleasing to the eye in its artistic effect, simply as an ornament ‘to
the room, is far from being the most philosophical manner to
obtain the best effect from the light.

The diffusion of light, in its effects, i is materially modified by the
laws of reflection and refraction.

Light decreases in intensity in proportion to the square of the
distance from the burner or point of illumination. This is a gen-
eral rule; butin a room with four white walls and a ceiling, the
reflection of the light upon itself, as it were, will apparently 2 mod-
ify the rule.

Shadows have much to do in the effective and satisfactory light-
ing of any hall or room. Hence it is that a single light, or a cen-
tre- -piece, or nucleus of lights as represented by a Chandelier,
objectionable, because your shadow will appear in any part ‘of
the room opposite to the light, and is more or less inconvenient
in proportion as it differs in that respect from daylight, which is
so diffused as to avoid this evil except in peculiar conditions.

Now, in view of these suggestions, is it not apparent that the
proper ‘and most efficient position for gas-burners is at the differ-
ent sides, or, better, the different angles of a room? Then the
intensity of light will be more uniform in every part of the room,
no shadows will be formed, and the reflective action of the walls
will be most effective. These reflections will show the folly of
using bracket-lights at one side only of aroom, where shadows fall in
every direction it is possible to move from it, and with increased
intensity as you go, until the gloom of the opposite side brings
you back like a moth, to be blinded by the glare of the immediate

92 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. .

proximity of a single luminary. If brackets are to be employed,
let there be at least two in a room, and these disposed vis-a-vis, or
as nearly so as possible.

Reflectors. — The value of reflectors is not appreciated as it
should be, and the reason is principally because few people, even
those whose business is to make apparatus for artificial light and
attend to the introduction of gas-fixtures, etc., are sufliciently ac-
quainted with the laws that govern reflected light, and when-so,
they fail in the mechanical ability to properly arrange reflectors
so as to obtain the proper effect. Reflectors should be made of a
material that will not tarnish by the action of the atmosphere or
the temperature they may be exposed to. A very slight film of
dust, moisture, or smoke on a reflector will almost entirely de-
stroy its value as a reflector. The surface of the reflector should
be perfectly smooth, and free from scratches and abrasions.
Hence it is apparent that metallic reflectors are not the best in
that respect.

Glass reflectors are superior, inasmuch as they do not become
tarnished, abraided, scratched, but their action is impaired if the
glass is too thick, owing to the absorption of light. The late
American invention of a mica reflector is advantageous on that
account, because the plates or lamina are very thin. It has also
the advantage of not being fragile or liable to fracture.

Reflectors are better placed overhead. A reflector which
throws the light in a horizontal direction, unless neutralized by
another opposite, will be very disagreeable, owing to the daz-
zling glare. Asarule, reflectors should be so placed that the
reflective rays shall never reach the eye ina straight line. This
will avoid the evil effects of glare. Asa rule, all the direct rays
of a lamp or burner thrown upward may be thrown downward
by reflectors, producing a great economy of light, and an effec-
tiveness of illumination very pleasant and satisfactory.

HEATING BUILDINGS BY GAS.

In the United States this art has lately acquired a new impulse,
owing to the late discoveries and improvements in the art of
manufacturing hydrogen and oxide of carbon gases, at a very
trifling cost, compared to the cost of ordinary coal gas.. These
gases are especially adapted to heating purposes instead of solid
fuel and for use in gas engines as a substitute for steam-power,
and also for illuminating purposes when carburetted or charged
with vapors of hydro-carbons.

The hydrogen and oxide of carbon gases are produced by the
American process, under the Gwynne-Harris patent, which consists
in decomposing superheated steam, by means of incandescent
anthracite coal, in a peculiar manner, and in a simple yet novel
apparatus,

Great improvements have also been made in the stoves and
other apparatuses for heating and cooking, which overcome

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 93

most if not all the difficulties heretofore experienced in this de-
partment. :

The use of gas as fuel has been tried to a considerable extent
in France and other countries, but the progress has neither been
rapid nor very satisfactory ; one reason of this lies, perhaps, in
the imperfection of the modes of combustion, although something
has been done of late to remedy this; another is the natural hesi-
tation of the directors of gas works to keep pressure of their
gasometers all day for a small supply.

Still enough has been done to supply a certain amount of infor-
mation on the economical part of the question, both as regards
gas-cooking apparatus and stoves for churches and other large
buildings. The average consumption of the cooking-stoves in
use in France, which consume a mixture of gas and air, is found
to be as follows: For a large fire, 260 litres per hour; for a
moderate fire, 140 litres per hour; for a small fire, 50 litres per
hour. When the stove is used, what the French call pot-au-feu, it is
found that it is sufficient to keep up a large fire for about 20 min-
utes only, after which the gas may be turned down, and the cook-
ing completed with a very small fire. Taking the average duration
of this kind of cooking at 4 hours, and the cost of gas at 30c. per cubic
metre, —the present price in Paris, — the consumption amounts
to 1,050.20 litres, the expense of which is 31.20c., or little more
than 14d. The cleanliness and handiness of gas as fuel, and
the great economy arising from its instantaneous lighting and ex-
tinction, give it, in the hands of careful persons, a great advantage
over charcoal, with few of its inconveniences, —one of which is
the impossibility of using it for broiling with a special arrange-
ment, as the smallest quantity of fat falling upon heated charcoal
fills the house with stifling fumes.

In a coal-using country, however, like England, the use of gas
for the heating of apartments, and especially large buildings like
churches, is of more importance than its application to cooking ;
and considerable improvement has been made of late in France
in apparatus for the warming of ordinary rooms, to which we
shall shortly have to refer more particularly.

The most important results yet produced refer to the heating
of churches, which has been essayed on a large scale at Berlin.
The method generally adopted is that of placing a horizontal gas-
pipe with 3 jets within a stove made of sheet iron, and over the gas-
jets a piece of brass wirework, of which the openings are not more
than one-twenty-fifth of aninch in diameter. The cathedral at Ber-
lin has a cubical contents of about 13,300 metres, andit is heated by
means of 8 of these stoves, each of which has 22 of these brass
gratings, 113 inches in length by 14 inches in width, making in
all about halfan inch square of grating for each cubic metre to
be warmed. The consumption of gas in raising the air within
the edifice to the required temperature — an operation which
takes 3 hours—is 83,400 litres, or 4.82 litres per cubic metre;
to maintain the same heat afterwards requires only seven-tenths
of a litre of gas per cubic metre.

The parish church of Berlin, whose cubic contents is 13,800

94 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

metres, is heated by 4 stoves, each having 15 brass gratings, each
rather more than 12 inches long by 14 inches wide, or little more
than one-fifth of an inch of grating per cubic metre to be warmed.
The annual consumption of gas in the cathedral above mentioned
is 2.210 cubie metres, costing 20 pounds; this consumption is
equal to 552 metres per stove, and 300 litres per four-fifths of an
inch square of grating. The consumption in Parisian churches
warmed by gas is found to agree very closely with that of the
cathedral of Berlin, but other cases give different results.

The church of St. Philippe at Berlin has a contents of 2,780
metres, and is heated by two stoves 1.40m. high, and 1.10m.
long, and 65 centimetres in width, each having 7 brass gratings 16
inches by two inches, equal to two-fifths of an inch square per cubic
metre of the contents of the church. The annual consumption
in this church is 1,485 cubic metres, or at the rate of 410 litres of
gas per cubic metre of contents. But this church is only warmed
3 times a week.

The church of St. Catherine at Hamburg is heated by 8 gas
stoves, each having 32 brass gratings, 12 inches long by rather
more than 14 inches wide; the cubie contents of the edifice is
33,900 metres. The heating takes 34 hours, and consumes 220
metres of gas, costing about 27s. 6d., so that 3 litres of gas are
required in this church per cubic metre of capacity ; the tempera-
ture is kept up subsequently by the consumption of three-fourths
of a litre per cubic metre and per hour.

In the churches of St. Mary and Nicholas in Berlin, and in
Paris also, a kind of large rose burner has been substituted for
the brass grating; these are known in France as mushroom
burners (champigons). The result with these burners in the first
of the above-named churches is as follows: The cubical contents
of the building is 15,450 metres, and the consumption of gas
in 4 hours is 150 cubic metres, costing about 35s., and as it is
heated by 10 stoves, each having 3 of these rose burners, the
consumption per hour is 14 cubic metres of gas per burner, and
nearly 24 metres for each metre of the contents of the church.
In this case only we have the effect as shown by the thermometer,
which is to raise the temperature of the church from one degree
below zero to 5° above, or from below 30° to 40° F.

In heating churches and large buildings the economy of gas
exhibits itself quite differently as compared with its application to
cooking; in the former case, the more continuous the operation
the less the relative cost, whereas in the latter the more frequent
the interruptions the greater the economy. The objection to gas
on account of its vitiation of the atmosphere of a building is one
which neither the wire grating nor the mushroom burner has yet
obviated.

MIXTURE OF GAS AND AIR.

Professors Silliman and Wurtz conclude that, —
Ist. For any quantity of air, less than 5 per cent., mixed with
gas, the loss in candle-power due to the addition of each one per

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 95

cent., is a little over six-tenths of a candle (.611 exactly) ; above
that quantity the ratio of loss falls to one-half a candle power for
each additional one per cent. up to about 12 per cent. of air; above
which, up to 25 per cent., the loss in illuminating power is as
shown by column 12 of the table, nearly four-tenths of a candle
for each one per cent. of air added to the gas. In column 11 of
Table 1, the ratio of loss in candle power is given in percentages
for the several volumes, while in column 10 the destructive effect
of air upon the illuminating power is most conspicuously exhibited,
12 per cent. of air destroying over 40 per cent. of the illuminating
power. In the diagram this loss of power is represented by the
numerals in the right-hand column, which are inverse to those in
column 10, and stand with the maximum intensity = 100.

2d. With less than one-fourth of atmospheric air, not quite 15
per cent. of the total illuminating power remains ; and with between
_ 80 per cent. and 40 per cent. of air it totally disappears.

In large gas works the liability to contamination by air acci-
dentally introduced by various causes diminishes in proportion to
the total make of gas, and an amount of air which, when diffused
in a very large volume of gas, becomes insignificant, if confined
to 10,000 or 15,000 feet daily product, will become a most serious
injury to its illuminating power. This cause of deterioration in
gas has been overlooked almost entirely by gas engineers ; but in
small gas works it deserves special attention, and we have 1o
doubt that the low illuminating power too often obtained in such
works is largely due to this cause.

Results of Messrs..Audouin and Berard. —We have already al-
luded to the results obtained by Messrs. A. and B., which form
part of an important memoir published in 1860, under authority
of the French Government, ‘‘ upon the various burners employed
in gas-lighting and researches on the best conditions for the com-
bustion of gas.” Their table shows ‘‘a considerably higher ratio
of loss than we have obtained, being rather more than 6 per
cent. loss for each one per cent. of air added to the gas, reaching
a total loss of 80 per cent. with 15 per cent. of air added ; while we
obtain 57.53 per cent. loss with 16 per cent; and 93 per cent. loss
with 20 per cent. air, while with the latter volume of air added
we get 72.90 per cent. loss. These differences may be accounted
for by the French trials being made upon a gas of not more than
12 candle-power, our trials being made on a gas averaging nearly
15 candles; also, by the fact that in the French experiments the
gas was burned from a batswing burner, ours from a standard
Argard.

It appears that the introduction of 6 to 7 per 100 of air suffices
to diminish the intensity by one-half, and a mixture of 20 of air
with 80 of gas leaves almost no illumination. Unfortunately
Messrs. A. and B. do not record the actual illuminating power of
their standard gas, which, however, we are led to believe cannot
be more than 12 candles of the English and American standard.

For a fuller discussion of this subject the reader is referred to
the memoir of Prof. Silliman and Wurtz.

96 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ON THE RELATION BETWEEN THE INTENSITY OF LIGHT PRO-
DUGED FROM THE COMBUSTION OF ILLUMINATING GAS AND
THE VOLUME OF GAS CONSUMED.

In photometric observations made to determine the illuminat-
ing power or intensity of street gas, it is the practice of observers
to “compute their observations upon the assumed standard of 5 eubie
feet of gas, consumed for one hour; and in the constantly occur-
ring case of a variation from this standard, whether in the volume
of the gas consumed or in the weight of spermaceti burned, the
observed data are computed by the “rule of three,” up or down,
to the stated terms. The standard spermaceti candle is assumed
to consume 120 grains of sperm in one hour, a rate which is
rarely found exactly i in actual experience.

For example, a given gas, too rich to burn in a standard argand
burner at the rate of 34 “cubic feet to the hour, with an observed
effect of 20 candles’ power. This result, previously corrected by
the same rule for the sperm consumed, is then brought to the
standard of 5 cubic feet by the ratio 3.5 : 20 = 5: 28.57.

The candle-power of the gas is, therefore, stated as 28.57 can-
dles, and the result has been universally accepted as a true ex-
pression of the intensity of the gas in question, or the relative
value of the two consumptions.

In common with other observers, I have long suspected that
this mode of computation was seriously in error, as an expression
of the true intensity of illuminating flames, and that there were
other conditions, besides the volume of gas or weight of sperm
consumed, which must influence and greatly modify the results,
As most of these conditions are considered somewhat at length
in a paper on ‘* Flame Temperatures,” prepared chiefly from re-
searches conducted by Professor Wurtz and myself, and presented
at the Salem Meeting of the Association, they need not be dis-
cussed in this connection.

The results of many trials, made with the purpose of determin-
ing the value of these photometricrations, indicate clearly, that the
true ratio of increase in intensity in illuminating flames is, within
certain limits, expressed by the following theorem, namely : —

The intensity of gas flames, that is, illuminating power, increases
(within the ordinary limits of consumption) as the square of the
volume of the gas consumed.

As the first experimental demonstration of this theorem was

made by Mr. William Farmer, the photometric observer at the
Manhattan Gas Co.’s works in New York, I propose to speak of
it as ** Farmer’s tmoked: » Tam also indebted to Mr. Farmer,
and to Mr. Sabbaton, the well-known and courteous engineer of
the Manhattan Gas Light Company, for the free use of their ex-
perimental data, and the permission to employ them here.

The fundamental importance of this new mode of computation
will at once appear, if, assuming it for the sake of illustration to
be true, we apply it to the case ‘already given above, which then
becomes —

8.5 :20 = 6; Av.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 97

Showing an increase of 40 per cent. over the old rule of correc-
tion. ;

From experiments with different burners and with gas from
rich coals, Prof. Silliman says :—

«*A comparison of the results will show that the coincidences
with the requirements of the theorem of Farmer are, within the
limits assigned, too numerous, and too closely accordant, to be
considered as otherwise than pointing clearly to its general truth.
A rigorous demonstration cannot be expected, as there are too
many variable functions of unknown value involved in the best
methods at present known for photometric measurements, to per-
mit more .than an approximate proof of its general accuracy.
Every photometric observer must recognize its importance, and
the necessity in his observations of bringing the consumptions of
gas and sperm to the agreed standard.

“To the consumer of gas the evident inference from the data
here presented is that where it is important to obtain a maximum
of economical effect’ from the consumption of a given volume of
illuminating gas, this result is best obtained by the use of burn-
ers of ample flow.

‘Where a moderate light of equal diffusion is required over a
large space, as in public rooms, it may be expedient to use nu-
merous small jets; but when the maximum intensity obtainable
from a given volume of illuminating gas is desired, intensity of
burners of large consumption is plainly indicated.” — Abstract
Jrom a paper read by Prof. Silliman at the Salem meeting of the
Am. Association, Aug., 1869.

GAS FROM WOOD.

The following fact may be mentioned in connection with the
manufacture of gas from wood. In those countries where this
material is abundant, and coal not accessible, wood, aided by the
addition of some substance furnishing a rich hydro-carbon, may
be made to furnish a very useful illuminating gas, and an eco-
nomical one, especially when the residue in the retorts and mate-
rial distilled with the gas can be rendered serviceable. In Co-
burg, Canada, it is said to have been used advantageously, fur-
nishing a good gas and a valuable residue, namely : —

Two parts pine wood.

One part hard wood.

One part bones.

The residue in the retorts is an excellent charcoal for bleaching
purposes, and the other residues are quite serviceable. Where
bones cannot be obtained, offal and other coarse animal matter
can be used to mix with the wood. This suggestion is worthy
of consideration, especially for many small towns peculiarly sit-
uated.

=

9

98 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

LITTLE-KNOWN FIBROUS PLANTS.

There has been of late a considerable search after plants pro-
ducing fibres that could be advantageously used in the arts of
paper-making, rope-making, and the manufacture of textile fab-
rics. Some of these materials have been discovered in North
and South America; but a large majority of those claiming the
attention of manufacturers are found in Southern Asia, more par-
ticularly in India.

Among these stands most prominently a plant of the nettle
family, called by the natives ‘* Tchuma,” the botanical name of
which is Urtica nivea. In Assam, both a cultivated anda wild
variety are found, and in the Malayan peninsula, Panang, and
Singapore, another variety grows wild, the fibre of which is un-
usually strong. This has a Malay name, ‘‘ Ramee,” and is in
botany known as the Urtica tenacissima. ‘This plant is identical
with the ramie, now cultivated in the Southern States, brought
originally, we believe, from Java.

Mr. Leonard Wray, in a paper read before the Society of Arts,
in London, describes the beautiful fibre of the ‘* Rheea” as being
worth in England two shillings and four pence per lb., and says,
‘*the fabrics made from it are of so strong and so lustrous a
character as to be in universal demand. Pity, indeed, is it that
this splendid fibre can be obtained only in such small quantities !
No other supplies can be looked for, except from China, nor can
we expect much from that country either. Its growth and prep-
aration have been tried by most intelligent Englishmen in India;
but they found, first, that the separation of the fibres from the
plants was a most difficult and laborious operation; and, sec-
ondly, that the yield per acre, per annum, was exceedingly small.
Indeed it is said to yield only one to one and a half hundred
weight of fibre to the acre, —a fact which forbids any European
from entertaining hope of cultivating it at a profit, which is much
to be regretted.”

Mr. Wray also believes the plants called Pederia fatida, the
‘* Jettee,” ** Moorva,” and the pine-apple, each and all of them,
hold out the promise of amply remunerating any European who
will attempt in a judicious manner to utilize the beautiful fibres
they contain. Their fibres are fine, silken, and strong. He says,
‘“*The Pederia fotida certainly has the most silky and lustrous
fibre any one can desire, and its being only in lengths from joint
to joint seems the sole objection to it. Still, these joints are
often 12 inches apart, while the finest Sea-Island cotton is not
more than one inch to an inch anda half in staple. Attention
oa therefore, to be directed to this lustrous fibre-yielding
pliant.

‘*The Jettee, again, is jointed, but the joints are sometimes
two feet apart, and the fibre proportionably long. It is a most
excellent fibre, and will be sure to make its way.

** The pine-apple, with its beautiful fibre, exists in thousands
of acres in the Straits of Malacca, and may be had at Singapore

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 99

in any quantity for the trouble of gathering, yet no one seems to-
regard it.” ;

‘Another important fibre-producing plant is the Bromelia pen-
guin, from which the surprisingly beautiful Manilla handkerchiefs
are made, as well as the celebrated ‘‘ Pigna” cloth, an Indian
fabric commanding always an extreme fancy price. This is a
kind of wild pine-apple said to be exceedingly abundant.

The late Mr. Temple, formerly Chief Justice of British Hon-
duras, some years since exhibited a quantity of this fibre to the
Society of Arts, calling it siik grass.

Mr. Wray says we may search the world through and not find
another plant capable of yielding so rich, so abundant a supply
of a fibre which in quality cannot be excelled, and that it is a
plant which we may look to, to provide us with a large amount
of the very best quality of fibre.

The fibre alluded to can be grown exceedingly cheap, and it
is asserted that the manufacture involves no difficulty. The fibre
is said to be separated by a machine constructed somewhat on the
principle of the threshing machine, the plant being passed at a
slow rate along a platform having a yielding surface, through
rollers and beaters; and, when this is done with the plant ina
green state, it comes out at the other end of the machine very
good fibre, which is improved by repeating the operation. A
stream of water is used to wash the pulp away as it is expressed
from the fibre.

Among cordage fibres there is the nettle and the canna; the
latter often growing 14 feet high. The whole stalk and leaf are
said to be one mass of fibre; and the root furnishes a species of
arrow-root said to be the most nutritious of all the starches.

It is thought that some if not all of these plants can be grown
in Europe, and if so they ought to thrive in parts of the United
States. It is not a just inference that because a plant is a native
of a tropical clime it will not thrive in temperate climates.
Though this may be the rule, there are numerous exceptions.
Our Commissioner of Agriculture would do the country a service
by obtaining and distributing the seeds of these plants in sections
most favorable to their growth, if he has not already done so.
We are far from believing the vegetable kingdom contributes to
the wealth 6f mankind all, or nearly all, it is capable of doing.
It is within the memory of yet young men, that the tomato was
considered a useless vegetable; yet to-day there is probably no
fruit grown in this country—if we except the apple— more
generally used and esteemed. It is quite probable that many
plants indigenous to our soil possess fibre which would be of
great service, if properly worked. Among those which seem
most promising are some of the ‘‘ Asclepias” family, popularly
known as ‘‘ milkweeds,” ‘‘ silkweeds,” and so forth. The plants
are large, rapid and thrifty growers, and their pods contain a
large amount of cotton-like fibre, which, though it might not be
sufficiently strong for textile fabrics, would make, we think, ex-
cellent paper stock.

100 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY:

THE IXTLE FIBRE.

The following is a letter from Hon. J. McLeod Murphy to the
Commissioner of Agriculture, accompanied with 3 skeins of
the ixtle fibre, Bromelia sylvestris, each produced from a single
leaf, of which a single plant might average 20. We extract the
substance of this letter from the ‘* Report of Department of Agri-
culture” for May and June.

‘First of all, before I describe the plant and the method of its
cultivation, I beg to call your attention to the extraordinary
length and strength of the individual fibres, their susceptibility
of being divided almost infinitesimally without breaking, their
flexibility without kinking, and the readiness with which they re-
ceive and hold vegetable or chemical dyes without being im-
paired. Since my return from Mexico, I have had little or no
opportunity of testing this plant practically; but some samples,
such as I send you, were given to an old and experienced maker
of fishing-tackle, and he does not hesitate to pronounce the ixtle
fibre as superior, in every respect, for the manufacture of trout
and other fishing lines, not only on account of the readiness with
which it can be spun, its extraordinary strength, but its perfect
freedom from kinks when wet. The only secret, if there is one,
consists in the preliminary precaution of boiling the fibre (as you
have it here) before twisting it. In this one respect it will super-
sede the use of silk.

‘** Apart, however, from its use as a thread, I hazard nothing
in saying that it forms the best paper stock that can be obtained.
I speak now in reference to the imperfect, withered, rejected,
and dried leaves, from which the fibre cannot be conveniently
extracted by the indifferent mechanical means that the Indians
employ. Although I have no samples of paper made from this
source just now at hand, yet I can assure the department that
several magnificent samples of paper for banking and commercial
purposes have been made by manufacturers in the Eastern States,
from the dried leaves of the ixtle plant, brought from the neigh-
borhood of Tabasco.

‘*The samples of fibre I send with this were obtained by the
most primitive means, namely, by beating, and at the same
time scraping, the leaf of the plant (in a green state) with a dull
machete. Then, after the removal of the glutinous vegetable
matter, it is combed out and rubbed between the knuckles of the
hand until the fibres are separated. The next step is to wash it
in tepid water and bleach the skeins on the grass. This is the
method pursued by the Indians on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec;
and the average product for the labor of a man is from 4 to 5
pounds per day.

‘« It is searcely necessary to tell one so well informed as your-
self that this spontaneous product is the Bromelia sylvestris,
which differs, in some respects, from the Agave Americana, the
pulque de maguey, and Agave sisalana, of Campeche; a difference
arising solely from soil and climate influences. The name izéle
is given to that species which is characterized by the production

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 101

of the long fibre; and chiefly because the leaf, being shaped like
a sword, has its edges armed with prickles, similar, in fact, to the
Weapon formed from ifzli, or obsidian, used by the Aztecs.
Hencetheterm. The pita, on the other hand, although obtained
from a variety of the same plant, is a coarser and shorter fibre,
which grows in the tierras templadas. The name comes from the
word pittes, which is given to the plantations of the pulque plant in
the uplands of Mexico. Butthe peculiarity of the ixtle is, that it
grows almost exclusively on the southern shore of the Mexican
gulf, or in what is known as the ‘sota vento,’ that is to say, be-
tween Alvarado and Tabasco, and extending as far inland as the
northern slopes of the dividing ridge which separates the Atlantic
from the Pacific. The points generally selected for its cultivation
are the edges of a thick forest, from which the small undergrowth
is removed by cutting and burning. The roots of the plants are
then set out at a distance of 5 or6 feet apart; and at the end of
a year the leaves are cut and ‘scraped.’ The chief object is to
obtain a constant shelter from the rays of the sun, which would
otherwise absorb the moisture, and so gum the fibres together as
to make them inseparable.

‘«The average length of the leaf is 6 feet, and the time to cut
it is clearly indicated by the upward inclination it makes. In
other words, the radical leaves cease to form curved lines with
their points downward, but stiffen themselves out at an angle, as
if to guard the source of efflorescence. When the ixtle is young
its fibres are fine and white, but as it grows in age they become
longer and coarser; and in a wild state the thorns are very numer-
ous, but by cultivation they are diminished both in size and
number, and in many instances there are none at all. Where
any quantity of leaves require to be handled, a pitchfork would
be very useful, especially if gathered for paper stock. A few
days after cutting, the sun would dry them out, the thorns would
drop off, and then they could be easily baled. Independent of
the great value which the ixtle has for textile fabrics, and for
paper, it possesses many valuable medicinal properties, to which
I need not allude. It requires no labor to cultivate it, and no in-
sect is known to feed upon it. It grows everywhere in the pri-
mevyal forests of the Gulf coasts, and, in my opinion, is far superior
to any of the textile fabrics. But as yet no mechanic has suc-
ceeded in devising a means of effectually extracting the fibre,
and until this is done I presume that its real commercial value
will remain unappreciated. i

‘You will readily discover the superiority of the ixtle over the
jenequin of Cuba, or the hemp which comes from Sisal and
Campeche.”

SIGNALLING ON BOARD THE CABLE FLEET.

_ The London “‘ Gazette ” gives the following interesting descrip-
tion of the manner of signalling through the eable on board
the Great Eastern : —

9*

102 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. |

«* The method of signalling used between the ship and the land is
that now universally ‘adopted i in working all long submarine lines
—the reflecting galvanometer. ‘The principle ‘of this most deli-
cate instrument was discovered a few years since by a German
electrician, named Weber. It was then, however, a large ma-
chine, and the condensation of all its powers into the smallest
and lightest form is due to the scientific research and skill of Sir
William Thompson.

‘‘ This instrument consists of a small mirror witha magnet on its
back. ‘That the two are very small indeed may be judged by the
fact that both together weigh less than three-eighths of a grain.
This infinitesimally small reflector, which is intensely bright, is
suspended by a silk thread, as fine as a hair, in the midst of a
small circular coil of insulated copper wires. Directly a current
is sent through this circular coil, no matter how slight, it induces
another electric current within its circle, which acts in an opposite
direction, and this causes the magnet at the back of the mirror
to turn to the right or left, and, of course, to turn the little mirror
with its reflecting ray of licht with it. By a very simple ar-
rangement, this “fine ray of light is thrown upon a horizontal
graduated scale, about 3 feet long and 3 feet distant from the
mirror.

‘¢ Thus, when a current is sent through the little circular coil
around the mirror, the magnet is acted upon, and turns the mir-
ror with its ray of light, say on the left of the scale in front of it.
When the current is reversed, and that is instantly done by press-
ing a little key in the speaking instrument, the current in the
circular coil is reversed, and sent in the opposite direction, and
this in turn sends the ray of light from the mirror on to the
opposite side of the scale to the right. When the ray of light

rests stationary on any part of the scale, it means a dot; when it
moves rapidly to the right or left, it means so many dashes, ac-
cording to the distance “it goes. This reflecting galvanometer
tells with unerring certainty ’ whether or not the Great Eastern is
steady.

‘*« The vessel now at the end of the cable is, with its coils of in- _
sulated wire and iron hull, a mere electro-magnet, so to speak.
The course of the Great Eastern is east and west, and therefore
at right angles with the course of the magnetic current, which is
north and south. Thus every time the ship rolls, either to port or
starboard, a slight current, but still a current, is induced in her vast
coils, and then transmitted through the cable to the shore end
at Minou, where it acts upon the reflecting galvanometer, and
turns ,its rays of light a little to the right or left of the centre
of the scale, and thus shows in a fraction of a second of time
the precise degree and rapidity at which the vessel is rolling.”

THE FRENCH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH.

In the first place, it is interesting as being longer by about
1,500 miles, and laid in deeper water by 500 ‘fathoms, than any

/

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 103

direct submarine line yet in existence ; then its track lies through
a part of the Atlantic which until very recently had been unex-
plored, and the nature of the bottom comparatively unknown ; and,
thirdly, we look upon it with interest because it shows that the
importance of submarine telegraphic communication is commend-
ing itself to other countries besides our own. WHitherto, nearly all
the more important submarine lines have been ihe direct offspring,
and have remained in possession of English companies, but the
present cable, although manufactured and laid by an English firm,
is the result entirely of French enterprise, and to a large extent
owes its existence to French capital.

The vital part of the longer section of the cable — or technically
the ‘‘core”—is a copper conductor of 7 wires twisted to-
gether, insulated by 4 concentric coatings of gutta-percha,
separated from each other by an equal number of coatings of the-
material known as ‘‘ Chetterton’s compound,” exactly after the
pattern of the cores in the last Atlantic cables, the only differ-
ence between them being in the weight of the conductor, which
in the present case is 400 pounds per mile, instead of 300 pounds.
This increase is to compensate for the additional length of the
cable. Experiments have shown that the speed of signalling
through submarine cables varies inversely according to their
length, and directly as the weight of the conductor; so that, by
adding to the weight in due proportion to the increased length,
the speed obtained is the same as through a shorter cable.

The core is surrounded with a serving of yarn, called the ‘* wet
serving,” allowing of the ready access of the water to the core.
Until comparatively recently, this serving was saturated with tar,
but experience showed that, should a slight defect occur in the
gutta-percha, the tar, from the serving being in itself an insulator,
would sufficiently stop it up to prevent its being discovered by the
electrical tests, until perhaps it was too late to remedy it. The
present wet serving, however, containing no insulating fluid,
permits of the instant detection of a fault.

Around the serving are twisted spirally 10 homogeneous iron
wires galvanized, each of them embedded in 5 strands of Manila
hemp. The cable thus completed is of a diameter of about one
and a quarter inches, weighing about 36 cwt. to the nautical mile,
and capable of bearing a strain of 7 tons.

The core of the shorter section —St. Pierre to Boston —is of
the same description as that of the Brest to St. Pierre section;
but owing to its much shorter length, the weights of the copper
conductor and insulator are only 107 pounds and 150 pounds per
mile respectively. This core is also covered with a wet serving,
and then surrounded with about a dozen iron wires galvanized,
the outside covering consisting of a silicated material, known as
** Clark’s compound ;” the whole forming a cable of about one
inch in diameter, weighing about two and three quarter tons to
the mile.

The Brest to St. Pierre section was manufactured at the Tele-
graph Construction Company’s Works at Greenwich, and trans-
mitted piece by piece in old hulks to the Great Eastern steamship,

104 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

lying off Sheerness. This section is of 3 kinds, namely, 1.
The heavy shore-ends for protection against ships’ anchors,
tides, etce., weighing 360 ewt. per mile. 2. The ‘‘interme-
diate,” of a size between the shore-end and the deep-sea por-
tion, 127 cwt. per mile. 3. The deep-sea portion already
described.

The whole of the above, 2,788 knots in length, with the excep-
tion of 154 miles of shore-end, and 20 miles of intermediate, was
taken to the Great Eastern. We calculate that if the various
component parts of it were laid end to end, they would make a
chain of over 192,000 miles in extent, or nearly 8 times the cir-
cumference of the globe, The whole of the work, including the
manufacture of the two sections, and the fitting out of the Great
Eastern, occupied little more than 8 months.

For the accommodation of the cable on board the Great East-
ern, 3 gigantic tanks were constructed, situated in the centre,
stern, and fore part of the ship, and known as the main, after, and
fore tanks, respectively. Their diameters were as follows:
Fore, 51 feet 6 inches diameter, by 20 feet 6 inches deep; main,
75 feet diameter, by 16 feet 6 inches deep; after, 58 feet
diameter, by 20 feet 6 inches deep; with a total capacity of
169,760 cubic feet, — being 27,750 feet greater than the capacity
of the tanks in 1866. These immense structures were fixed to
the sides of the ship, and supported by about 30,000 cubic feet of
timber. The weight contained in them was about 5,520 tons, dis-
tributed as follows: Fore, 1,270 tons; main, 2,580 tons; aft,
1,670 tons; total, 5,520 tons.

The cable paying-out apparatus, consisting of an elaborate
series of brake-wheels and stoppers, with the measuring-machine,
and the ‘*dynamometer,” a machine constantly recording the
strain on the cable, contained all the improvements that science
and experience have suggested. The dynamometer especially
claims our notice, as being, to our mind, one of the most ingen-
ious and useful contrivances connected with the apparatus. It is
placed between the stern of the ship and the paying-out brakes,
and consists of a vertical framework of iron, in the centre of .
which is fitted a grooved wheel, for the cable to pass under as it
runs out over the stern of the ship. The wheel is made to slide
up and down the frame as the strain on the cable varies, or, in
other words, as the cable becomes tighter between the stern
and the brakes. At the side of the machine is a scale, with the
calculated strains in hundred-weights marked upon it; and a hand
fixed to the sliding-wheel traverses this scale, and indicates at
any moment the strain on the cable. From the indicated strain,
of course, the depth of water may be judged, and the brakes
arranged accordingly; but the dynamometer is of mosb service
in cases of hauling back the cable.

The ship was also fitted with a powerful set of picking-up
machines and tackle, together with buoys, buoy-ropes, mushroom
anchors, and everything requisite for picking up the cable in case
of a breakage, as in 1865,

We must not forget to mention that the ship was also fitted

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 105

with a complete set of ‘‘ Wier’s Pneumatic Signals,” such as we
believe are in use on several of the Cunard steamers. The uses
to which this excellent apparatus is put are as numerous as they
are effectual. The apparatus is rather complicated in its details,
but simple enough in the principles on which it works. By press-
ing down a lever on a series of chambers of compressed air, the
air from the latter is forced along a very small leaden pipe, pro-
ducing instantaneously at the distant end some mechanical effect,
—either ringing a bell, or moving a hand, or lifting up a small
flap, under which is written the signal meant to be observed.
On the Great Eastern there were, 1. An apparatus at both ends
of the ship for communicating various messages to both screw
and paddle engines; 2. An apparatus at each of the 3 cable tanks
for signalling to screw and paddle, to stop and reverse, in case of a
hitch or foul-flake in the tank ; 3. Anapparatus connected, by means
of cams, with the shafts of the screw and paddle engines, register-
ing the revolutions of the same on a clock placed in the engineer’s
oflice ; and, 4. A communication was placed between the bows and
the steering-wheel, to be used in case picking up should become
necessary. Connected with some of the apparatus was also a tell-
tale, which by an automatic action would indicate whether the
order sent had been obeyed or not.

We have made a rough calculation of the cargo of the ship, in-
cluding her engines and boilers, when she left Portland, and be-
lieve the following to be a very near approximation; it is cer-
tainly not over the mark: Cable, 5,520 tons; cable-tanks and
water, 400 tons; timber-shorings for tanks, 500 tons; paying-out
and picking-up machinery, 120 tons; ship’s stores, 250 tons; coals,
6,400 tons; engines and boilers, 3,500 tons; total, 16,690 tons.
Her draft at starting was about 34 feet aft, and 28 feet forward.
This, of course, decreased as the cable was paid out, until, at
the end of the voyage, it was only about 25 feet aft, and 23 for-
ward.

The arrangements made for the electrical testing of the cable
during submersion were, with one or two slight exceptions,
identically the same as in 1866. Their most interesting feature
is the keeping up of a constant test on ship and shore for insula-
tion, by a plan devised by Mr. Willoughby Smith in 1865, at the
same time allowing of tests for the continuity of the conductor,
and free communication between ship aud shore to be kept up
without in any way interfering with the insulation test. By this
means, should a ‘ fault” pass overboard into the sea, it is de-
tected at once, and the paying-out may be stopped before any
considerable length of the cable has been allowed to run out.
The advantage of this system over the old is apparent from the
fact, that formerly it was possible for 3 or 4 miles of cable to
run out between the occurrence of the fault and its detection ;
whereas now, except under very peculiar circumstances, with-
in two or 3 minutes aftera “fault ” passes overboard, it can be
detected, and the signal given to stop the ship.

To give our readers some idea as to how a fault is detected, we
may (for this purpose only) compare the cable to a long pipe

106 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

sealed up at one end, into which water is being forced. As long
as the pipe remains perfect, only a certain amount of water can
be put into it, according to its capacity, and once filled, there is
no flow of water; but if, when the pipe is full, a small hole be
made in it, the water will of course rush out at once, indicating
the existence of the hole by causing a fresh flow of water into the
pipe. Now, the cable is always kept charged with electricity up
to its full capacity, — or, in other words, till it can take no more, —
and as long as it remains perfect there is practically no current
flowing from the battery into it; but immediately on the devel-
opment of a fault, or communication between the conductor of
the cable and the earth, a portion of the charge escaping through
the fault causes a fresh supply of electricity to flow from the bat-
tery. By having a delicate instrument fixed between the battery
and the cable, this increased flow is at once made apparent.

As to the track of the cable, it seems from the soundings taken
that the bottom is composed, the greater part of the distance, of
the fine mud usually called ‘‘ ooze,” consisting of very minute
shells, —so minute that without a microscope the shape is not dis-
cernible. This ‘‘ooze” constitutes the very best bed for a sub-
marine cable. In fact, judging from the experience of 1866, the
cable lies in it as securely and as free from harm as when coiled
in the tanks at the manufactory ; and if picking up should become
necessary, the softness of the ‘‘ ooze” renders the grappling of
the cable comparatively easy.

The position of the present cable has one advantage over that
of the English cables, namely, that it has been kept carefully off
the Newfoundland Banks, and will therefore not be liable to the
breakage by iceberges which have already caused such expense
and trouble to the English company. The cable is conducted
several miles to the south of the ‘*‘ Great Newfoundland Bank,”
and then proceeds in a north-westerly direction to the western
side of St. Pierre Island, passing along a deep gully between the
‘Green Bank” and the ‘* St. Pierre Bank.” ‘The length of the
course selected is about 2,330 knots, and the amount of cable paid
out 2,580 knots, —making about 10 per cent. allowance for
**slack,” or spare cable paid out to cover the inequalities of the-
bottom, and to allow of picking up, should such become necessary.
Without taking notice of the 300 knots from the Brest shore, and
the 500 knots from Newfoundland, where the water is shallow,
the depth varies from 1,700 to 2,700 fathoms, the deepest part be-
ing situated in about 45° north, and longitude 43° west. — Cham-
bers’ Journal.

THE FRENCH ATLANTIC CABLE,

Various plans of testing submarine cable during paying out
have been tried, but all have their disadvantages. None, how-
ever, are in any way to be compared to the plan now adopted.
This is the invention of Mr. Willoughby Smith, a gentleman of
very great experience, the electrician engaged during the paying

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 107

out of the old Atlantic cables, and who is again in charge of the
electrical arrangements on board of the Great Eastern. In the
old form of testing, the official at‘ the shore-end had to insulate
the cable, when any test was taken, and consequently was un-
aware of what was going on. In the present plan a constant test
can be kept up, with the knowledge of both ship and shore. The
cable is attached at the shore-end having high-resistance through
a galvanometer to earth; this resistance is so high that, on the
ship keeping up a current from a large battery, the resistance is
so great that a readable deflection can be obtained. A galva-
nometer is also inserted in the circuit on board ship. If the cur-
rent were maintained, the deflection on the two galvanometers
would remain constant, and during the paying out the deflections
would be constantly watched ; if they remained constant, the cable
remained in the same electrical condition, but if they altered, they
would show at once, both ship and shore, that something was
wrong: to ship that by the increased deflection through a fault
there was less resistance, and consequently more current flowing
in to cause the increased deflection. On the shore the effect
would be different, as, there being another method to escape, less
current would arrive. By this means we see how the appearance
of a fault would be easily detected. The system of speaking or
exchanging signals is very simpie: by means of a condenser at-
tached to the cable, which is charged with the same potential or
Opposite potential as the cable, the deflection is slightly altered
in one direction or the other, and communication can be ex-
changed without interfering with the constant test.

oe

>

THE BLACK SEA CABLE.

It is announced that the cable of the Indo-European Telegraph
Co. across the Black Sea, about 200 miles, has been successfully
submerged. — Engineering, July 16, 1869.

THE INDO-EUROPEAN TELEGRAPH.

The lines from London to Norderney, which constitutes part of
the system, are in working order, and from Norderney to Thorn,
on the Prusso-Russian frontiers, two wires are being constructed
by the Prussian government.

From Thorn to Balta, via Warsaw, the section will consist of
800 miles of line, which will be laid on posts of heavy timber,
principally of oak. From Balta the system will be continued via
Odessa to Kertch, on through the Crimea to Ecaterneador, and
thence to a point which will correspond with the northern end of
the Black Sea cable. This section, which will, as far as regards
the land part, be constructed of iron posts, will be about 750
miles in length, and will comprise two cables, —one 15 miles
long, which will be submerged in the Straits of Kertch, and an-
other, 4 miles long, which will cross the River Dnieper. The con-

108 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

tinuation of the system proceeds towards Tiflis and thence to Te-
heran, where it will join existing lines. In its course it may be
added that it will comprise a* 3-wire cable of about 100 miles in
length, ending at Souchum Kaleh, the conductors of which will
be of stranded wire, covered with alternate layers of the mixture
now known among scientific men as Chetterton’s compound and
gutta-percha, and will weigh a little over 270 lbs. per knot.

In order that the means of communication with India may be
as complete as possible, it is intended to improve the lines at
present constructed from Teheran to India. These agencies of
correspondence proceed from Teheran via Ispahan and Shiraz to
Bushire, on the Persian Gulf, and from that point to Kurrachee.
The improvements, to which reference has been made, will in-
clude the substitution of iron for wooden posts on the lines from
Teheran, the submergence of a cable, about 500 miles long, from
Bushire to Jask, and the completion of a land-line from Jask to
Kurrachee. The result of these extensions will be, that two
cables between Bushire and Jask, and a cable and a land-line
from Jask to Kurrachee, will duplicate the facilities of communi-
cation through the whole of the Persian Gulf. The shore-ends
of the Black Sea cable, which will probably be laid during the
approaching summer, are to be sheathed with heavy galvanized
iron wires protected by tarred jute. The section to which Tehe-
ran will form the eastern terminus will, it is expected, be com-
pleted by the end of next July. Meanwhile, the project for es-
tablishing complete submarine communication between this coun-
try and India is being vigorously promoted. Of the probable
results of the competition of the rival systems there are but few
data, at present, upon which to erect an opinion.

TELEGRAPH ENTERPRISE.

Another great European telegraph project is on foot. A com-
pany just tormed in London has purchased, with concessional
rights, the following cables, namely, 1st, Denmark to Eng-
land, from Sondervig to Newbiggin, actual distance 334 miles; .
2d, Denmark to Norway, from Hirtshalts to Arendal, actual dis-
tance 60 miles; 3d, Denmark to Russia, from Moen to Born-
holm, and Bornholm to Libau, actual distance 304 miles; 4th,
Norway to Scotland, from Egersund to Peterhead, actual dis-
tance 270 miles; 5th, Sweden to Russia, from Grislehamn to
Nystad, actual distance 96 miles. Of these, the three first are
already laid, and have been for some time working; the fourth
is shipped on board ready for laying; and the arrangements for
the fifth are in course of completion, and both the latter are to be
laid at the risk and cost of the old companies. The new company
undertakes the working, and will be entitled to the receipts from
the 1st of June. The cost of purchase was 2,500,000 dollars.
The ultimate intention of the company is a connection with North
America via the Russian dominions.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 109

THE OCEAN TELEGRAPH.

Expert operators are able to transmit from 15 to 20 words per
minute through the Atlantic cable. The velocity with which a
current or impulse will pass through the cable has been ascer-
tained to be between 7,000 and 8,000 miles per second; the for-
mer being the velocity when the earth forms a part of the circuit,
and the latter when it does not.

FRENCH MILITARY TELEGRAPHS.

The following are details of the military electric-telegraphic
apparatus used in the experiments in the camp at Chalons, last —
summer: Electric Telegraph. —For military purposes it is desirable
that the apparatus should not only be simple in itself, but should
be capable of being used in connection with the permanent lines
of telegraph already established. Keeping these ends in view, a
modification of Morse’s recorder, constructed by M. Duguy, from
designs furnished by the Bureau des Télégraphie, and known as
Le Poste Militaire, was adopted and found to answer well. This
apparatus is contained in a box, to the bottom of which it is at-
tached by slides. The manipulator is placed on the right of the
small shelf supporting the recorder; on the left are the galva-
nometer to show the strength of the current, and a paratonnére to
protect the operator from the shock of unforeseen accumulations
of electricity in the wires in stormy weather. The sides and
front of the box fold down, so as to permit of the instrument
being used without necessitating its removal from its case. The
connection between the stations was kept up partly by wires,
partly by a cable laid along the ground. Wires.—These were of
copper, 1.6 mil. in diameter, weighing 22.5 kilog., and costing
about 100 francs per kilom. This wire proved an excellent con-
ductor, and, with care, could be used with intervals of 200 and
300m., or even more, between the supports. Cables. — Several
kinds were tried. In the last experiments the cable was formed
of a core of 5 annealed copper wires, bound round with white
cotton thread, over which was a coating of gutta-percha, and
then a layer of oakum, the whole being bound round twice with
cotton tape steeped in vulcanized India-rubber. It weighed 35
kilog., and cost 320 franes per kilom. It was perfectly insulated,
and a good conductor. When laid along the ground it suffered
little from wheels and the feet of horses passing and repassing
over it. But it had serious defects. It was rather too large in
its diameter, and very weak, stretching sufliciently to injure the
core with a strain of 30 kilog. The wires of the core were so
fine as to be frequently cui through in removing the covering for
the purpose of splicing. Supports. —The wires were supported
on light staves called lances, 3m. 80c. in length, 200 of which
made a military wagon load. They were sunk 12 inches in the
ground, and weighed up with wooden pickets. Where the line
made un angle, the lances were strengthened with guy-ropes,

‘ 10

110 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

known as haubans, attached to iron pickets. The lances could
be lengthened by attaching two or more, end to end, by means
of rings called anneaux de rallonge, fitted with clamp-screws.
Insulators. — With spires of India-rubber made hollow so as to
fit over the end of the lances, and surmounted by a small cylinder
of the same material. The wires were attached to the insulators
by a couple of turns. Iron cramps were also supplied which
could be driven into the ground, or into the walls and trees en
route to support the cable when used in place of wires. The
work was very arduous of Jaying the wire. The average rate
obtained on the most favorable ground was two kilom. the hour
With suspended wires, and 5 kilom. with cable. In passing vil-
lages, etc., double the above time proved requisite. For taking
up the line, 5 or 6 men marching in inverse order were suflicient.
The rapidity with which this mancwuvre was executed equalled
and sometimes exceeded that of ordinary route marching. In
joining the iengths of cable, the covering was first removed and
an elastic India-rubber tube slipped over one length; the wires
were then spliced and the India-rubber tube drawn over the joint
and secured by tying down the ends firmly with twine. This
was found to answer perfectly ; but, as the tying process took up
some little time, small cylinders were sometimes substituted for
the India-rubber tube. These contained two India-rubber dises,
having holes in them for the passage of the cable, and hollow
screws at each end working against them. The screws were
made hollow so as to allow of the passage of the cable through
them. ‘The splice was made in the ordinary way, the tube drawn
over the joint, and the discs compressed round the cable by the
action of the screws. <A joint could be thus made in 30 seconds.
It was found, however, that the vibration of the cable loosened
the screws and allowed water to leak into the joints. — Van Nos-
trand’s Engineering Mag.

THE PALLISER GUN.

Some particulars are at hand relative to the practical working °
of a number of guns converted upon Major Palliser’s system. In
1866, 8 cast-iron 24-pounder and 32-pounder smooth-bore guns
were converted by Major P. into 56-pounder and 64-pounder
rifled guns, with a view of ascertaining whether our large stock
of cast-iron guns could be advantageously converted into rifled
cannon. Of these 8 experimental guns, one was tested for en-
durance, by firing continuously, with shot of 64 lbs. weight,
until it had completed 2,285 rounds, of which 2,170 were with
8 lbs. weight, 88 were with 14 lbs., two with 12 lbs., one with 10
lbs., and 24 with 16 lbs. and 86 lbs. shot. The power of endur-
ance of the converted guns was thus thoroughly proven. Six of
the remaining guns were issued for service to home and foreign
stations, in order that the royal artillery might have an oppor-
tunity of practising with them. The preliminary reports have
now arrived from these stations, and are, on the whole, very sat-

.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. Lid

.

isfactory. The 64-pounder issued to Davenport has fired over
500 rounds; the gun is reported to be perfectly serviceable, and
no compiaints have been made of any difficulty in working. The
Sheerness gun has fired 200 rounds, and the practice is reported
as exceedingly accurate. The report from Gibraltar speaks in
high terms of the accuracy of the 56-pounder issued to that sta-
tion. The gun has fired 400 rounds, and is perfectly serviceable.
The 56-pounder issued to Malta has ‘fired 250 rounds. At Dover
a 64-pounder has fired over 180 rounds with remarkable accuracy.
The gun is spoken of as being, for handiness and fitness for rough
work and exposure, in every way equal to the old 32-pounder.
The 64-pounder on board the ‘‘ Excellent” has fired over 180
rounds with great accuracy, the working of the gun-carriage,
ete., being in every way satisfactory. These reports are of much
interest, proving, as they do, that the converted 64-pounder gun
is fully equal to the more expensive SraouS St iron gun of the
same calibre. — Mechan. Mag.

PROOF OF GUNS.

Mr. Whitworth says of the late trial of the 9-inch Frazer gun,
pronounced so wonderful by the British press, — namely, firing 19
tons of powder and 124% tons of shot in 1,114 rounds, —that as
more than one-half the rounds fired were ‘powder char ges, only
one-half the most effective charge, and the remainder with thr ee-
quarters the charge, while ali the shots fired were only two-thirds
the best weight for that size of bore, I contend that it was no
proper test of endurance, but sheer waste of ammunition.

Mr. Whitworth thus describes his own mode of proof; it con-
sists in preventing the shot from moving when the powder is ig-
nited, the gases generated by the explosion escaping only through
the touchhole. About one-sixth of the regular powder-charge fir ed
in this way gives the same strain to the gun as a full char ee fired
in the ordinary manner. To prevent the movement of the shot, a
screw is cut on the periphery of the gun at the muzzle, and on it
is fitted a screwed cap having a solid end. The gun is loaded
with a cartridge of the or dinary length, but containing one-sixth
of the regular “char ge, and supported by tin disks in the centre of
the bore; ; a flat-fronted shot with tight wads to prevent any es-

cape of gas, and a round steel bar reaching from the shot to the
end of the bore, are then introduced, and- the cap with the solid
end screwed on. ‘The gun is then ready for firing, after which
my measuring instrument is introduced ‘into the bore, and any
enlargement “to the ten-thousandth of an inch may be ascer-
tained.

If there be no enlargement, the powder charges may be grad-
ually increased, until a slicht enlargement has been produced.
The real strength of each gun is thus positively ascertained, and
this strength I would have stamped and recorded on each gun.
This would give confidence to the gunners, and would act asa
check on those engaged in the manufacture. When the ultimate

112 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

endurance of any gun is thus to be ascertained, the regular
powder-charges, or any less quantity deemed desirable, may be
used, the enlargements being recorded after each discharge. A
9-pounder bore gun made of my metal but reduced 12 inches in
diameter has been so tested, and has had 18 full charges of 14 lbs.
fired from it. The expansion in the bore is now .1903 inches, and
that of the outside diameter is .0485 inches. — Van Nostrand’s Eng.
Mag.

VELOCITY OF CANNON BALLS.

At the late ordnance experiments at Fortress Monroe, the initial
velocity of cannon balls was tested by a very delicate instrument,
‘*the Schultz Chromoscope.” The apparatus, which is operated
by electricity, is thus described: two wire targets are placed, one
about 20 yards from the gun, and the second about the same
distance further on. These are connected by a fine insulated wire
with the instrument, which is about 400 yards in the rear of the
ordnance. The instrument is adjusted on a plan similar to an
electro-balistic machine. When the shot is fired, it cuts the wire
in the first target, and then that of the second, —the instant each
wire is severed being recorded by the instrument. The interval
of time occupied by the ball in passing from one target to the
other furnishes the data for obtaining the initial velocity of the
shot.

SYSTEM OF MONCRIEFF.

It consists of three parts: 1st. The mechanical principle of the
gun-carriages. 2d. The form, internal and external, of the bat-
teries. 3d. The selection of ground for placing the batteries, and
the arrangement for working to the greatest effect; or, in other
words, the tactics of defence for positions where the system is
employed. The principle on which the carriage is constructed is
the first and most important part of the new system, because on
it depends the possibility of applying the other parts. This prin-
ciple may be shortly stated as that of utilizing the force of the
recoil in order to lower the whole gun below the level of the crest
of the parapet, so that it can be loaded out of sight and out of
exposure, while retaining enough of the force above referred to
to bring the gun up again into the firingor fighting position. This.
principle belongs to all the carriages; but the forms of these car-
riages, as well as the method in which this principle is applied,
vary in each case. For instance, in siege guns, where weight is
an element of importance, the recoil is not met by counterpoise.
With heavy garrison guns, on the other hand, which when once
mounted remain permanent in their positions, there is no objection
to weight. In that case, therefore, the force of gravity is used to
stop the recoil, because it is a force always the same, easily man-
aged, and not likely to go wrong; and as these carriages are em-
ployed for the most powerful guns, it is a great advantage to have
the most simple means of working them. It has been already

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 113

mentioned that the principal difficulty arose from the enormous
and hitherto destructive force of the recoil of powerful guns; and
here I shall point out the manner in which that difficulty is over-
come. That part of the carriage which is called the elevator may
be spoken of and treated as a lever; this lever has the gun-car-
riage axle at the end of the power arm, and the centre of gravity
of the counter-weight at the end of the weight-arm, there being
between them a moving fulcrum. When the gun is in firing
position, the fulcrum on which this lever rests is almost coincident
with the centre of gravity of the counter-weight, and when the
gun is fired the elevators roll on the platform, and consequently
the fulcrum, or point of support, travels away from the end of the
weight-arm towards the end of the power-arm; or, in other words,
it passes from the counter-weight towards the gun. Notice the
important result of this arrangement. When the gun is fired, its
axle passes backward on the upper or flat part of a cycloid. It is
free to recoil, and no strain is put upon any part of the structure,
because the counter-weight commences its motion at a very low
velocity. As the recoil goes on, however, the case changes com-
pletely, for the moving fulcrum travels towards the gun, making
the weight-arm longer and longer every inch it travels. Thus the
resistance to the recoil, least at first, goes on in an increasing
progression as the gun descends, and at the end of the recoil it is
seized by a self-acting pawl or clutch. The recoil takes place
without any jar, without any sudden strain, and its force is re-
tained under the control of the detachment to bring up the gun to
the firing position at any moment they may choose to release it.
The recoil, moreover, however violent at first, does not put inju-
rious horizontal strain on the platform. In my experiments at
Edinburgh with a 32-pounder, I found that so slight was the vi-
bration on the platform caused by firing, that the common rails on
which the elevators rolled in that experiment, and which were
only secured in the slightest manner, did not move from their
position, nor even when heavy charges or double charges were
used did sand and dust fall off their curved tops. — Nostrand’s
Eclectic Engineering.

GUNPOWDER HAMMER AND PILE-DRIVER.

At a late meeting of the Franklin Institute, there was exhibited
a gunpowder hammer, invented and constructed by Mr. Thomas
Shaw, of Philadelphia. In describing the apparatus, Mr. Shaw
said: —

‘** A weight or hammer is suspended between vertical guides, and
is provided on its under-side with a plunger that fits into the bore
of a cylinder held between the same guides beneath the hammer.
It is intended that the cylinder should rest upon the object to be
pounded, and that the hammer should be held by a pawl, which
catches into a rack secured parallel with the guides. The pawl
is released from the rack by a cord connected with the same,
whereupon the hammer is allowed to fall. A small amount of

10*

114 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

powder is placed in the cylinder; the hammer, falling, forces its
plunger into the cylinder, compressing and heating the air, which
explodes the powder, forcing the hammer up again, and foreing
the cylinder downward, with an effect fully 8 times as great as
from the falling of the weight alone. At the top of the guide-
frame is suspended a plunger, which fits into a cylinder in the
top of the hammer, thus making an air-chamber to receive the
blow of the hammer, in case of an over-charge of powder, that
no danger may result to the machine. The model which was ex-
hibited on this occasion had a ram of about 3 pounds’ weight, and
a fall of 8 feet. The charge employed was half a grain of white
gunpowder, made of chlorate of potash, ferrocyanide of potassi-
um, and sugar. With a larger instrument, whose ram weighed
73 pounds, with a fall of 20 feet, the charge was 14 grains of the
same powder. A pile placed under this, and driven one quarter
inch at a stroke by the fall of the ram, without the use of powder,
was driven two inches at each stroke when the powder was used,
and after being driven, with a square end, into hard ground, to a
depth of 4 feet, showed no splitting or injury to its head.”—
Journal of the Franklin Institute.

AMMONIA POWDER.

The following account of a new explosive material appears in
the ‘‘ Kolnische Zeitung,” May 19, which gives the ** Militor-
Wochen-blatt” as its authority: ‘‘ It is now some time since the
proprietors of the Nora-Gyttorn Powder Mills obtained a patent in
Sweden for the discovery of the so-called ‘ammonia powder,’ a
substance which has hitherto been only employed in a few mining-
districts, but which otherwise seems wholly unknown. We are,
therefore, fully justified in calling attention to the particular prop-
erties of this new explosive material. During the short time that
it has been employed, it has won the approval, not only of the
proprietors of mines, but also of the working miners themselves.
Its explosive foree may be compared to that of nitro-glycerine, .
and, consequently, far surpasses that of dynamite. It cannot be
exploded by a flame or by sparks, and the explosion is effected
by a heavy blow from a hammer. Blast-holes loaded with this
powder are exploded by means of a powerful cap, or, better, by
means of a cartridge containing common powder, for this forms
a more reliable exploder. Miners who have been obliged to give
up the use of nitro-glycerine, on account of the danger connected
with this powerful explosive agent, have a most satisfactory sub-
stitute in the ammonia powder, as the danger of using it is so
small that it surpasses in safety every other blasting material.
One of the useful and important properties of this new powder
is, that it does not require heating in cold weather, whilst nitro-
glycerine and dynamite must first of all be warmed, and this has
been the cause of many accidents. The price of ammonia pow-
der is the same as that of dynamite.” The same paper further
adds: ‘‘ According to information we have received, ammonia

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 115

powder was discovered by the chémist Norrbin.” The German
** Building News” contains extracts from a report of the Prussian
archite<t, Steenke, who makes the following remarks upon the
safety of ammonia powder: ‘‘ Experiments were made by fas-
tening a lamp to a pendulum, which was caused to oscillate ;
gunpowder, gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, and dynamite all took fire
as the flame passed over them, but the ammonia powder did not
begin to burn till it had been touched by the flame 20 times. In
making experiments upon the force of the blow required to ex-
plode it, it was found that, with the apparatus employed, where
the fall of a weight from 4 feet to 5 feet would explode gunpow-
der, nitro-glycerine only required 14 feet to 2 feet, dynamite 23
feet to 3 feet fall, whilst a fall of from 12 feet to 15 feet was
necessary to cause the explosion of the ammonia powder.

PROCESS FOR THE PRESERVATION OF THE BOTTOM OF IRON
SHIPS.

A writer in the Comptes Rendus of July 26, 1869, says: —

‘*The iron actually employed in maritime construction is
nearly always of an inferior quality, and presents a very great
heterogeneity. From that cause foci of electric action exist which,
provoking the decomposition of water or saline matter that it con-
tains, lead to a prompt deterioration of the shell; the points at-
tacked are then the parts left vacant by clusters of mollusks and
weeds which clog the passage of the ship. The problem pro-
posed to us, and which we believe to have solved, is to prevent this
oxidation, the first cause of the clusters. In our system the ship
is transformed to a kind of a vast pile of buckets ; reservoirs in zine
are placed, under the form of tubes or boxes, on the interior sides.
These tubes, in perfect communication with the iron of the ship,
instead of bolts, rivets, or other instruments, are filled with sea-
water that is renewed every day. Plates of zinc between win-
dows circulate in the interior of the ship, and hoop the different
parts with the tubes or reservoirs. In the course of oxidation,
the zine charges itself with negative fluid, which it transmits by
electricity to the iron; the shell becomes then like an immense
electrode charged with this fluid. We thought at first that the
iron, recovered, so to speak, with an envelope of negative fluid,
ought to take, by this means, a certain electric polarity, and thus
avoid the action of the electro-negative bodies contained in the air
or the ocean ; the negative fluid ought to flow out in a continuous
manner into the water, and the positive fluid of the liquid to dis-
Sipate little by little into the humid air, and thus independently
of the particular currents establish themselves in the interior of
the boxes between the liquid and the iron bolts which fasten the
reservoirs tothe ship. Whether the electric communication was
imperfect, whether the flow of the positive fluid into the air was
insufficient, the carrier-boats of this kind of preparation have
presented only a half success; thus the interior has been well

y

116 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

preserved, but the exterior was not slow in presenting traces of
oxidation. We then continued the action of the reservoirs by a
small plate of zinc, applied to the exterior of the shell, in electric
communication with the reservoirs, and with its inferior part
plunged into the sea.

** Some experiments made in this condition, for more than a year,
have given us a complete success; some boats, plunged since the
end of December, 1868, in a pond formed by some old salt-works,
and where the water of the ocean is renewed at every tide, have
been preserved until to-day, without presenting the least spot of
oxidation. Every time that a part of the system was found to be al-
tered, by wear or by accident, some sensible traces of rustappeared,
and then disappeared after the preparation was renewed. Many
boats placed in the same circumstances, but without preparation,
have been perforated successively during this time. Some of
these boats were scoured with acid before being submitted to this
experiment; the others, immersed immediately after their depart-
ure from the work-shop, presented at the time of their putting in
water numerous spots of rust, which all disappeared in the first
8 days of their immersion. To avoid the emplgyment of the elec-
trodes of zinc, we plunged one of the extremities of a copper wire,
covered with gutta-percha, in the liquid of the reservoirs, and the
other in the sea; but in this case, the results have been less satis-
factory.” —Comptes Rendus, July 26, 1869.

MAKING FOUNDATIONS IN MARSHES.

A new process of making foundations for bridges in marshy
soils has been recently used on a branch line of the Charentes
Railway Company, in France. This line crosses a peat valley to
the junction of two small rivers. The thickness of peat was so
great that any attempt to reach the solid ground would have
been very expensive. In order to obtain cheaply a good support
for the bridge two large masses of ballast accurately rammed
were made on each bank of the river, and a third one on the
peninsula between the two. The slopes of these heaps were
pitched with dry stones, for preventing the sand from being
washed away by the rains or by the floods in the rivers. Over
the ballast a timber platform is laid; this platform carries the
girders of the bridge, which has two spans of about 60 feet each,
When some sinking down takes place, the girders are easily kept
to the proper level by packing the ballast under the timber plat-
form; this packing is made by the plate layers with their ordi-
nary tools. This simple and cheap process has succeeded quite
well. The same difliculty was overcome by a different plan on
an ordinary road near Algiers. This road crosses a peaty plain
nearly one mile broad; the floods and elasticity of the ground
prevented the formation of an embankment. The road was to
be carried over a viaduct across the valley, but the foundations
of this viaduct presented serious difficulties, the thickness of peat
or of compressible ground being nearly 80 feet. It was quite

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ma eit te ne LE te apes

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 117

possible to reach the solid ground with cast-iron tubes sunk with
compressed air, or with any other system; but neither the imple-
ments nor the suitable workmen were availabie in the colony, —
and it was a great expense to bring them, and especially the
workmen, from France. The use of timber piling was, of course,
out of question, as timber is very expensive in Algiers and
quickly becomes rotten; but there was a set of boring implements
with which the men used to work it. The engineers began bor-
ing holes 10 inches diameter down to the solid ground. These
holes, lined with thin plate-iron pipes, were afterward filled with
concrete up to the very level of the ground. Each of these con-
crete columns bears a cast-iron column; these columns are prop-
erly braced together, and support the girders of the viaduct, which
is divided into spans of about 20 feet, and is 20 feet high over
the ground. This system has succeeded very well, and is to be
extended to another larger valley. — Van Nostrand’s Eclectic
Engineering Magazine, Sept., 1869.

EXPERIMENTS ON HEAVY ORDNANCE.

The following conclusions, deduced from experiments on heavy
ordnance, are given in the Report of the Ordnance Committee,
presented to the Senate, February 15, 1869: —

1. That no more heavy guns should be purchased for mounting
in the fortifications or use on shipboard until such improvements
are made in methods of fabrication as will insure more reliable
endurance than has heretofore been exhibited.

2. That the Rodman system of gun-making, while partially
successful in smooth bores and small calibres, has so far failed in
rifles of large calibre as to show it to be unworthy of further
confidence. Recent improvements in defensive works and armor-
plating render heavy rifled guns the most efficient means of
attack, and no system of fabrication which does not furnish such
guns should be adopted or continued. The principle of initial
tension, which is the basis of the Rodman system, appears to be
of doubtful utility, as applied by General Rodman, especially for
rifled guns. This tension, it is admitted, gradually disappears
from the gun with age, and in time is entirely lost.

3. That guns cast solid, in the manner practised in the navy
under the direction of Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, while exhibiting
satisfactory endurance as smooth bores with small charges and
hollow projectiles, have not the requisite strength for rifles of
large calibre. This mode of casting seems to be defective in
principle, as the tensions inaugurated in cooling have a tendency
to aid the powder to rupture the gun.

4. That experiments should be at once conducted for the pur-
pose of ascertaining the real cause of the bursting of heavy
guns, and of determining upon some method of fabrication that
will secure uniform endurance.

5. That every encouragement should be given to inventors,

118 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

and a full and fair trial accorded to all devices offered to the
government that promise a solution of the ordnance problem.

6. That more efficient means for harbor defence should be
adopted. The late war demonstrated that sand was the best
material for defensive works, and that forts of masonry, such as
we have now mainly to rely upon for the protection of our sea-
board cities, are ineflicient to prevent the passage of armored, or
even wooden, vessels. The destruction of such defences is only
a question of time to ordinary guns of heavy calibre. It was
also demonstrated that forts alone, of whatever character, cannot
resist the entrance to harbors of powerfully armed ships if the
preponderance of guns on the assailing fleet is sufficient. In the
opinion of the committee, obstructions must be largely relied
upon for harbor defence, in connection with properly constructed
fortifications.

7. That no officer of the army or navy should be allowed to
receive a patent for any article required, or likely to be required,
for use in those branches of the public service, or to be in any
way interested in the manufacture or procurement of such arti-
cles. It should be the duty of Congress to recognize in suitable
rewards the services of such officers as might make inventions
of especial value to the government.

8. That the Ordnance Department of the army can be entirely
abolished with great advantage as to economy, and without
detriment to the good of the service. The duties now performed
by officers of that corps could be performed by officers detailed
from the artillery service, under the direction of a chief stationed
at Washington. In this manner the whole expense of the ord-
nance establishment would be saved, and artillery officers, who
have not only scientific training, but practical experience, would
have a voice in the selection of the guns and ammunition they
are required to use.

The committee are of the opinion that, for the reasons shown,
the interests of the public service demand a change in the system
of procuring ordnance and ordnance stores, and the manner of
conducting experiments with a view to determining the value of
the same. The present system has failed to answer the purpose
for which it was designed, and the United States is in the position
to-day of a nation having a vast coast-line to defend, and a large
navy, Without a single rifled gun of large calibre, and a corps of
ordnance officers who have thus far failed to discover a remedy
for the failure of the guns, or to master the rudiments of the
science in which they have been trained at the public expense.
The importance of an immediate change is shown by the fact
that the chief of ordnance of the army asks for appropriations to
purchase over 1,900 guns to arm the forts, not of a new and bet-
ter system to be decided upon after more thorough and careful
experiment, but of a kind that experience has shown to be in-
ferior in range and penetration to the guns of foreign powers,
and unreliable as to endurance.

It is proposed that 85 of these guns shall be smooth bores of
20-inch calibre, 490 of 15-inch calibre, and 600 of 13-inch calibre.

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 119

The experience of all nations goes to prove that the most effect-
ive way of developing ordnance power is by rifled guns. ‘To
return to smooth bores, throwing huge spherical masses of iron
with low velocities, is to disrega ird all modern progress in the
science of gunnery, and to go back to the arms in use two cen-
turies ago. Furthermore, the advis: bility of using guns of such
great size is very doubtful ; for the slowness with which they are
handled and fired makes them less effective than smaller guns
delivering a more rapid fire. Two hundred of the guns required
it is proposed shall be Rodman 12-inch rifles, notwithstanding all
of that class of guns heretofore procured for the army or navy,
and subjected to test, have either burst disastrously before the
lowest reasonable test has been completed, or have given such
indications of failing, after a few rounds, as to be considered
unsafe. It is proposed also to purchase 610 10-inch Rodman
rifles, although the committee cannot learn that any gun of this
class has ever been subjected to test in this country, except the
Parrott rifles of that calibre, which are acknowledged failures,
having been condemned by both branches of the service.

No ] progress toward obtaining better guns is likely to be made
while the ordnance bureaus are or ganized as at present; and the
committee deem the best way to secure such impartially con-
ducted experiments as will determine with certainty what are the
best arms, and to insure greater economy and regard for the pab-
lic interests in their purchase and adoption, is in the formation of
a mixed ordnance commission composed of officers of high char-
acter, detailed from both the army and navy, who shall have no
interest in patents on devices for arms.

CONCRETE BUILDING.

Tall’s system has been used in the construction of a large num-
ber of houses in Paris, erected under the directions of the em-
peror, who takes great interest in the improvement of the dwell-
ings of the working-classes, and has also been applied in other
parts of Europe, and to some extent in the United States.

oe work can be performed by ordinary laborers, who, after
4 or 5 days’ experience, acquire all the requisite expertness.
Even boys have been successfully employed in this kind of
building. The only skilled workman necessary is a common car-
penter, whose duty is to adjust the framework or apparatus to
receive the successive courses of material, and place joists, doors,
and window-frames properly. ze

The apparatus is designed to construct 18 inches in height
daily over the entire extent in hand. What is done in the even-
ing of one day is hard next morning, and quite strong, the best
proof of which is, that the wall itself, as it rises in height, sup-
ports the necessary scaffolds. A double curb, entirely surround-
ing the upper part ‘of the walls, serves to hold the plastie material
in "place, until it acquires suflicient hardness to support itself.

oo
120 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. bd

The material consists of one part of Portland cement to 8 parts
of coarse gravel. The cement and gravel are first well mixed
together in a dry state, and when this is done it is damped by
means of a large watering-pot, and again mixed by a pronged
drag, such as is used for dragging dung out of a cart, until the en-
tire heap has been wetted and mixed together. It is then put in
iron or zine pails, and poured into the frame, where itis levelled
by men stationed for the purpose. In order to save concrete,
large lumps of stones or brickbats are put into the centre of the
wall, and covered over and about with concrete. Frost does not
affect the concrete after it has once set, which, with good cement,
will be in about 5 or 6 hours. Nor do heavy rains appear to in-
jure it in the slightest degree, though they may chance to fall
ere the concrete has hardened. The walls can be made straight
and even as it is possible for walls to be, and the corners as
sharp and neat as if they had been formed of the most carefully
dressed stone. /

Concrete makes excellent floors, and the walls and floors are
quite impervious to vermin of all kinds, and also to wet. Many
kinds of building-bricks will absorb water; hence brick houses,
when the walls are saturated with water, are cold. This is not
the case with houses constructed of concrete, as it is non-absorb-
ent of moisture, and such houses must be, therefore, more
healthy.

This novel mode of building houses has excited great interest
in the neighborhood of Runnamoat, Ireland, and the proceedings
have daily attracted numbers of people from all parts.

While conerete may be used in constructing buildings of every
description, it is peculiarly adapted, from its cheapness, for the
construction of cottages for laborers, and also for farm buildings.
Its cost is not more than half that of brick-work ; almost any ma-
terial can be used along with the cement, and, as we have already
shown, the most ordinary class of country laborers are quite com-
petent to carry out the details of the system. With reference to
its adaptability for large buildings, we may mention that a ware-
house 70 feet long, 50 feet wide, and 60 feet high, 5 stories in all,
has been erected on Mr. Tall’s system for Mr. H. Goodwin,
Great Guildford Street, Southwark, England, and that gentleman
testifies in the warmest terms to its satisfactory character, and is
making arrangements at the present time for the construction of
another similar building. The warehouse already erected has at-
tracted universal admiration from the practical and scientific gen-
tlemen who witnessed its erection. .

The chief element of success, when the cement is of good
quality, seems to be the thorough mixture of the dry materials,
to secure uniform strength,

ENGINEERING UNDER GROUND.

We learn from the ‘* Artisan,” London, that a new length of the
line of the underground railroad of that city has been completed

Pe
MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 193

at a cost of 3,500,000 dollars per mile, the bulk of which has been
applied towardscompensation for damages. The length of the new
line is nearly 3 miles, and has 6 stations, —one at Westminster
Bridge; one in the Broadway, at St. James’s Park; one at Vic-
toria, where it joins the Chatham and Dover line; one at Chelsea,
near Sloane Square ; one at South Kensington ; and onein the Glou-
cester Road, West Brompton. Of the whole length of line about
one-third is tunnel and the rest open cutting.

No very special engineering difficulties were met with in the
construction of the line, except the continued presence of water, as
some parts of the works are below low-water mark. The great-
est depth below the surface to the rails is not more than 32 feet,
the quickest curve is 440 feet radius, and the greatest incline one in
250 feet. Considerable difficulty was experienced during the
construction of the line, from water, both from the sewers and
from the surface drainage. On one very wet day in the early
summer no less than 6 sewers burst at once, and gave the
pumps enough to do to keep their contents, with the surface drain-
age, from flooding all that was then built of the line. To this
day, and as long as the line is in use, there must always be per-
manent pumping-stations for the mere surface drainage, there
being no outlet toward the river without raising it to a higher
level. This water difficulty, however, is very ingeniously met
by Messrs. Fowler and Jobnstone, the engineers of the line. The
side walls, both of the arched tunnels and open cuttings, are made
of extra thickness, and, above ali, are connected beneath the
ground by an inverted arch of concrete nearly 3 feet thick. This
effectually prevents the water rising up through the floor of the
line, and equally prevents the surface water from draining off.
For this surface drainage, therefore, special provision is made, by
means of pipes laid in the centre of the line, which carry the water
on to the pumping-stations, where it is raised and sent away
into the Thames. Passing under the middle of the Broadway, the
line is carried, not in a tunnel, but ina broad, lofty, square cham-
ber, with a flat roof, on massive wrought-iron girders. This isa
beautiful piece of work, both in its design and finish, and is of the
most unexceptionable character from beginning to end. While
passing along the Broadway special precautions were taken to
guard against any possible vibration affecting Westminster Abbey.
The walls on the Abbey side are here made 7 bricks thick. Be-
hind this comes the Victoria sewer in a tube of iron, and behind
all a bed of peat 7 feet thick. The peat checks all vibration, but
as the nearest point at which the line passes is more than 90 feet
from the Abbey walls, its deadening properties are scarcely re-
quired.

After Westminster Bridge the first station is St. James’s Park,
and leaving this the line continues in an open cutting to Bucking-
ham Row, where it enters a tunnel of about 500 yards in length.
{lere the water occasioned so much difficulty that engines had to
be kept going night and day, pumping at the rate of nearly 4,000
gallons a minute. The tunnel at this point passes but a few feet
below the surface of the ground, yet it forms the foundation of

11

: &
122 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the brewery belonging to Elliot, Watney, & Co. above. This
building is now carried on a series of girders, but the work had
to be done with great care, for the superincumbent weight was
immense, and the soil below poor and treacherous. After finish-
ing this portion of the line a fresh difficulty arose with the King’s
Scholar’s Pond sewer, the largest sewer next to that of the fleet
in London. ‘This had to be entirely diverted, and reconstructed in
an iron tube, 11 feet wide by 14 feet high. So very limited was
the space at command that this sewer had to be built over the up
and down line in a deeply arched form, in order to make room for
the funnels of the locomotives. This most difficult of all the tasks
on the line has been admirably executed by Mr. T. A. Walker,
the resident engineer, who has had charge of the works through-
out. A few yards from this point is the station at Victoria, which,
like all the others on the line, is open, or rather only closed in
with light glass and iron roofs. From this point the line passes
on to Sloane Square, a wide and lofty station, but the architectu-
ral effect of which is much marred by the Ranelagh sewer being
taken in a huge cylinder of cast iron right across its very centre
at the springing of the arches. Continuing westward, the next
station is near the site of the Exhibition building of 1862, and to
this a new road will be made by a continuation of the Exhibition
Road from Kensington. The last station is at Gloucester Road,
West Brompton, where the junction is effected with the Metropol-
itan Extension. The District line then branches to the south, and
forms a double junction with the West London, by means of
which a communication is gained with most of the southern lines.

EARTHQUAKE-PROOF BUILDINGS.

The recurrence of earthquake shocks in California has led to a
discussion of the methods of building houses in such a manner as
to be virtually earthquake-proof. A San Francisco architect, Mr.
Saeltzer, has read a paper on this subject before the California
Institute of Architecture, in which he contends that flexible ma-

terials only should be used in building. His theory is as fol- -

lows: —

‘« By distributing the whole weight of the building on piers of
stone, brick, or iron, or on wooden piles, —in fact, isolating the
foundation in such a manner that these piers or piles form part of
the foundation, —and by connecting them with iron beams screw-
bolted together, the building is then well anchored at the proper
place; in fact, this style of foundation will form a girding all
round the building longitudinally and transversely.

‘*This mode of construction will insure, first of all, the least
contact with the earth; secondly, concentration of the whole mass
of the building on single points only with strong anchorage ;
thirdly, more elasticity of the foundation, and consequently more
elasticity in the whole mass of the building; fourthly, a combi-
nation of heterogeneous materials in one mass, —an amalgama~-
tion, —one of the most important points to be gained; filthly,

%

s

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 123

this style of building is the cheapest of all, and in most cases ap-
plies to our wants ‘and climate, and to the desired architectural
arrangements, and is applicable to any material.”

- + + «The advantage of the concentration of the whole

-mass on piers will at once “be visible. A pier has more elasticity
than a solid wall, and if placed isolated, in the proportion of
about 8 times the height to its base, this pier would, by a slight
movement of the earth, lose its point of gravity; but by connect-
ing a number of piers horizontally, transversely, and longitudi-
nally, and by resting the weight of the whole building” upon
them, they become restrained in their natural action till the whole
mass of the building begins to move.

“« That piers will facilitate the rapidity or velocity of the move-
ment of the whole mass, nobody will deny; inasmuch as they
stand isolated, are comparatively weaker than a solid wall, and
have solely to depend on themselves, in their own strength and
nature, without any assistance from a connecting wall. It is
hardly necessary to mention that the piers should, of course, be
in proportion to the weight they have to support, and should be
placed at proper distances for security.”

- «To many it may seem strange that the towers of San
Francisco stood so well during the late earthquakes, with hardly
any apparent damage, and that also in European cities the tow-
ers have also been less injured; a fact which proves, in a most
striking manner, that the flexibility or elasticity of a mass is a
necessity for safety. A tower is a pier of high proportion, and
forms a high pendulum, and naturally swings with more rapid-
ity than a “longer mass, and hence there is less danger. The
tower of the Doin of Erfurt, at present a fortified city in Prussia,
contains the largest bell in the world except the celebrated bell in
Moscow. This bell requires 24 men to set it in motion, and when
in motion has always caused an oscillation of the tower varying -
from 4 to 5 feet from the perpendicular line. For centuries this
bell has been used, and the tower remains as perfect as ever.
This tower is built of cut stone, with the finest details of Gothic
architecture. I merely give this example to show the flexibility
even of stone, provided the proportions are right.

«¢ All our hotels stood well, also a large number of stores; in
fact all buildings supported on piers or columns. All the bodies
of churches also stood well, especially where buttresses were in-
troduced. Each buttress forms a pier, and has, consequently,
more elasticity, and always will stand well, provided the propor-
tions are artistically carried out. Very low churches, built more
in the proportions of a stable, are unsafe; in fact, all buildings
one story high, and of considerable extent, are liable to danger,
more so than two or three stor y buildings, no matter of what mate-
rials soever.”

WATER-PROOFING WALLS.

One of the most recent of the many uses to which Mr. Freder-
ick Ransome’s process of manufacturing artificial stone has been

*

124 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

applied, is in protecting the outer walls of buildings, so as to en-
able them to resist the action of the weather by making them wa-
ter-proof. Through well-built and substantial walls, moisture will
make its way, and the ordinary type of dwelling-house is very
pervious to wind-driven rain. We recently noticed what Mr.
Ransome is doing in preserving stone, and his system of water-
proofing is only an application of the same process.

The external surfaces of the walls to be protected are first
washed with a silicate of soda or solution of flint, which is applied
again and again, until the bricks are saturated, and the silicate
ceases to be absorbed. The strength of the solution is regulated
by the character of the bricks upon which it is to be applied, a
heavier mixture being used upon porous walls, and a lighter one
on those of denser texture. After the silicate has become thor-
oughly absorbed, and none is visible upon the surface, a solution
of chloride of calcium is applied, which, immediately combinin
with the silicate of soda, forms a perfectly insoluble compound,
which completely fills up all the interstices in the brick or stone,
without in any way altering its original appearance. By this op-
eration the wall is rendered perfectly water-tight, and, as the
pores of the bricks are thoroughly filled for a considerable depth
from the surface with the insoluble compound, which is entirely
unaffected by atmospheric influences, no subsequent process is
necessary.

Already Mr. Ransome has successfully applied this process to
a large number of buildings, several of which were previously
almost uninhabitable from the constant dampness, and a length-
ened experience has proved that it is not only thoroughly effect-
ive; but, from the comparative insignificance of its original cost,
and the fact that renewals are never required, the system recom-
mends itself for general adoption in preference to all other methods
of water-proofing.

THE NEW MODE OF FIRING GUN-COTTON.

An interesting practical exhibition of the newly discovered
properties of gun-cotton when fired by concussion, instead of by
the direct application of flame or heat, was afforded recently at
Woolwich. The huge 36-inch Mallet mortar, weighing 52 tons,
which was placed in the marshes in 1857, and designed to fire a
shell 2,548 lbs. (empty), has, for some time past, been sinking in
its great wooden bed, owing to the gradual decay of the wood.
It was thought dangerous to run the risk of its fallmg upon any
visitor by leaving it in this position. But weights of 52 tons can-
not be moved for nothing. To erect sheers and the necessary
appliances for raising the mortar would have entailed an ex-
penditure estimated at about 50 pounds. Under these circum-
stances, recourse was had to gun-cotton to destroy the bed, and
precipitate the fall of the mortar. Four charges of 4 ozs. each,
4 of 6 ozs., und one of 8 ozs. (total, 48 ozs.), were placed on the
wooden bed, and exploded by means of mining fuses charged

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 125

with detonating composition. The material being rotten was es-
pecially unfavorable for the exertion of explosive force, for the
force had, so to speak, nothing to act against. But what could
be done was done. The huge bed was shattered, and particles
flew in all directions. The mortar, although it altered its posi-
tion, refused, however, to fall, being held, to some extent, by a
thick wrought-iron screw-bolt. The next experiment was made
upon this bolt. A one-lb. disc of compressed gun-cotton was tied
to the belt and exploded. The explosion was then wholly un-
confined. Nevertheless the bolt was broken in two places, a re-
sult which exceeded the most sanguine anticipations. Still the
huge mortar remained in its position. A third operation had,there-
fore, to be made. This time two one-lb. charges were disposed
under the left trunnion, and a one-lb. charge was so placed as
to give the mortar a kick behind. The explosion of the charges
completed the work. The monster mortar slowly and gracefully
bowed forward and fell to the ground. The gun-cotton had thor-
oughly done its work, at a cost of 14s. 6d. — Scientific Review.

PICRATES. THEIR USE AS GUN AND BLASTING POWDERS.

In 1867, Designolle, of Paris, made powder for firearms and
for blasting purposes by means of picrates. Both kinds consist
of a mixture of picrate and nitrate of potassa; the only difference
being that the former contains in addition an admixture of char-
coal. ‘Their manufacture, as may be inferred from the accident
which recently took place in Paris, appears to be carried on to a
considerable extent, and the well-known chemist, Payen, in a re-
port to the Société d Encouragement, ascribes to them.several ad-
vantages over ‘the ordinary powder. He points out that various
kinds of powder may be manufactured by means of them, the
relative effects of which may be varied between the limits 1:10,
namely, that, on one hand, a powder may be made, which
will possess 10 times the effect of common gunpowder of equal
weight; while, on the other hand, it is just as easy to prepare an
explosive of the same projectile force, but of a less bursting ten-
dency compared with ordinary powder. It is said that between
these - all desirable kinds can be made. If so, the long-
sought-for problem is solved; that is, an explosive can be pre-
pared in a charge of a certain weight, which will impart a defi-
nite velocity to a projectile from a firearm of stated dimen-
sions.

Other advantages of the picric-acid compound are that its pro-
jectile force can be increased without enhancing its blasting
force, or changing its manner of manufacture; the velocity of
combustion may be regulated at will; and its ignition is not at-
tended with the generation of disagreeable gases, as they consist
simply of steam.

The manufacture of the powder from picrates proceeds as fol-
lows: The various ingredients are powdered in a stamping
mill for at least 3 or at most 6 hours, under addition of 6 to 14

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126 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

per cent. of water, according to their composition. The mass is
now subjected to a pressure of from 600 to 1,000 hundred weight
per square inch, according to the velocity of combustion to be
imparted to the powder. The cake obtained is then granulated,
polished, and dried in the ordinary manner. The process remains
the same for all kinds.

Gunpowder cannot well bear over 20 per cent. of picrate of
potassa, while for cannon powder it should not exceed 15 per
cent. For the latter from 8 to 15 per cent. are taken, according
to the desired velocity of combustion. Designolle prepares also
colored fire-work compositions by means of picrates, of which the
following are recipes: Gold rain— 50 parts of picrate of am-
monia, and 50 parts of picrate of iron; Green fire—48 parts of
picrate of ammonia, and 52 parts of nitrate of baryta; Red fire —
54 parts of picrate of ammonia, and 46 parts of nitrate of strontia.
Until recently, the picrate of potassa has been very expensive,
but improvements made in its mode of preparation enable the
manufacturer to sell it at a price sufficiently low to ensure its ap-
plication for all practical purposes.

NEW PROPERTY OF GUN-COTTON.

According to the ‘‘ Chemical News,” it is possible to burn gun-cot-
ton in the palm of the hand without the least danger; a delicate
balance in the pan on which gun-cotton is exploded does not
swing from its poise. The same quantity of gun-cotton, if it be
pressed into a cavity, explodes with a force equal to that of nitro-
glycerine, and 10 times greater than that of gunpowder, provided
it be ignited by percussion in the same way as nitro-glycerine.
This discovery may enable us to employ gun-cotton as a substi-
tute for nitro-glycerine, and as the danger of freezing or of pre-
mature explosion is avoided, it may prove to have many advan-
tages over other explosive agents.

Some recent experiments made at the Woolwich Arsenal, near
London, encourage the hope that gun-cotton can be successfull
used as a most destructive agent. A palisade was built of oa
timbers a foot thick, firmly fixed in the ground, and supported in
the rear by strong trusses. Discs of gun-cotton wege placed
along the face of the palisade about a foot above the ground, and
were fired by a battery in the usual way. ‘The effect may be de-
scribed as wonderful. The palisade was literally blown away
amid a deafening report, as if the massive timbers offered no
more resistance on one side of the gun-cotton than the atmos-
phere on the other. The discs require no fixing; merely lay-
ing them on is sufficient. Solid blocks of iron and stone can be
shivered into fragments by firing a dise laid on the top. In fu-
ture sieges, if some desperate fellow can but get to the gate or a
thin part of the walls, and hang on a few dises of gun-cotton, a
breach can be made by firing with a galvanic current from along
distance,

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 127

PHOTOGRAPHS WITH A WHITE SURFACE.

Put into a small mortar a teaspoonful of kaolin; add thereto
about a quarter of an ounce of sensitive collodio-chloride, and stir
well with the pestle until it becomes a smooth paste. Add to this
three-fourths of an ounce more of the collodion, and again stir, and
pour the whole into a bottle with one or two drops of castor-oil.
Shake well, and place it aside until the coarse particles have sub-
sided.

Edge a piece of tale or glass for about a quarter of an inch all
round with dilute albumen, afterwards cvat with the kaolin collo-
dion, and dry by gentle heat, when the tale or glass, if placed
upon a piece of white paper, will have the appearance of alabas-
ter.

If the film splits, it should have a trifle more castor-oil in the
collodion; but the best remedy is to choose a more powdery
collodion.

If the film is upon glass, the progress of printing may be exam-
ined from the back; but if tale be the medium used, it may be
turned back in the same manner as when printing upon paper.

Tone, fix, and wash in the same manner as with an ordinary
collodio-chloride print upon opal glass, and mount in a frame or
case, to protect the picture from being scratched. It must not be
varnished.

After 3 years’ trial the film has been found not to crack or leave
the tale or glass after the picture has been once finished.

Many pretty effects may be produced by putting different col-
ored papers behind vignettes produced in this way, as whatever
color is placed behind the picture gives a delicate tinge of that
color to the picture. ;

Tale may be obtained in sheets as large as 10 by 8 inches.

IMPROVED PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER.

The ‘‘ British Journal of Photography” publishes the following
by W. H. Davis: ‘‘ My method for preparing the surface — for
I believe it will do for many other surfaces than paper — is the
following for direct printing: Take from 4 to 6 grains of
gelatine, soak it in an ounce of water for an hour, then melt it
gently over a fire, hot plate, or water-bath, using a clean earthen
pipkin. When fully dissolved, add to it, while yet warm, and
stirring it gently during the mixing, from 4 to 6 drachms of a
solution of white lac in methylated spirit, if for white or pale sur-
faces ; but orange lac will do if the surface be of a darker color.
This is made in the proportion of 6 ounces of spirit to one ounce
of lac, and digesting it till fully dissolved. The mixture of the
gelatine and gum lac in spirits produces a creamy-looking emul-
sion, to which is added 4 grains of chloride of sodium, or a like
equivalent of chlorides of ammonium or barium, and, when fully
dissolved, filter through fine muslin into a clean pipkin, and it is
ready for use.

4

128 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. —

**T generally apply the solution warm with a flat camel’s-hair
brush, crossing it till it lies evenly. When the paper is dry it is
ready for sensitizing, which may be done either by flotation on
the ordinary printing-bath, or by brushing on the silver solution.
I prefer to use the ammonia-nitrate solution brushed on; but there
are specimens by both methods before you. LIuse 40 grains of
silver to the ounce of water. Some of the ammonia-nitrate prints
contain also a large proportion of citrate of silver in addition to
the usual ammonia-nitrate.

** As you will see, the tones of many of the untoned prints are
quite as fine in color as are those toned with gold, and | attribute
this entirely to the variations in the salting and in the strength of
the size and lac solution, and to the minute variation of the silver
bath by the addition of various salts in the course of sensitizing.

THE ALBERTYPE.

A recent number of the London ‘‘ Photographic News” contains
a fine example of this new style of photographie pictures. The
process is as follows: A plate of glass is covered with a solution
of albumen, gelatine, and bichromate of potash, dried and ex-
posed to light until hardened. It is then again covered with a
solution of gelatine and bichromate of potash, and when dry ex-
posed under the negative, and the film is then found to possess
qualities analogous to a drawing made with fatty ink upon litho-
graph stone. All those portions of the film that were acted upon
by the light will refuse water and take printing-ink, while those
portions which were protected from light by the negative will
take water and refuse ink. The ink and water will be absorbed
by the film just in accordance with the gradations of light and
shade in the negative. To produce a picture, wet the surface of
the film, then apply ink, lay on paper, and pass through a press;
the operation being substantially the same as lithography. The
process is said to be rapid, and excellent pictures of all sizes may
be printed in admirable style.

SUMMARY OF IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MECHANIC ARTS, ETC,

Photographing a Tunnel. —We have lately seen a photograph,
taken by sunlight, of the interior of the tunnel which,penetrates
the summit of the Nevada for the distance of 1,659 feet, at an ele-
vation of 7,042 feet above the sea level, the greatest height to
which a locomotive has yet attained. The success of this picture
is due to the position of this tunnel, through which, like that near
Bore, on the Great Western Railway, the sun shines for a few
days each year. Taking advantage of this circumstance, and
also using mirrors by which light was thrown successively upon
various points, this picture was produced with an exposure of 15
minutes, and shows the distant heading with perfect distinctness,

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 129

as well as the long intermediate cavern. — Journal Franklin Insti-
tute.

Photography and Gunnery. — During the late experiments at
Fortress Monroe, photographs were taken of the target from an
adjacent bomb-proof, so as to record the exact amount of damage
effected by each shot.

Fuel in the Form of Powder. — Mr. Crampton’s process, de-
scribed in a few words, consists of an arrangement by which a
portion of finely powdered coalis blown into a furnace, where,
at first, a small fire has been lighted. This immediately bursts
into flame, and by properly adjusting the proportions of air and
coal powder, a flame is then regularly kept up, giving out an intense
heat, and leaving little or no residue in the shape of clinkers or ash.

Drying of Wood. —For this purpose, the wood is kept for some
hours under boiling water, whereby all its soluble parts are with-
drawn. Itis next left to dry, and then boiled for some time in a
solution of boyax, which causes the albumen to become soluble,
and to escape from the pores. After this proceeding, the wood is
placed in stoves heated by steam, and in 3 days has become sea-
soned. — Cosmos. :

Conservation of Wood. —M. Morin states that he has in his pos-
session wooden water-wheels which have been in use for more
than 1,500 years, for the evacuation of water from a copper mine.
These wheels have a diameter of 6 metres; and, on a portion of
the wood being analyzed by M. Payen, it was found to be per-
fectly sound, and to be partly converted into a compound of cel-
lulose and copper, precisely similar to that which is formed in
Boucherie’s process for the preservation of wood by sulphate of
copper.

Tanned Cotton. — This'is prepared by treating cotton. fabrics in
a similar manner to that in which skins and hides are treated for
the manufacture of leather. Cotton thereby acquires greater
strength, and is more enabled to resist the effects of moisture
_ and disintegrating effects. — Cosmos.

Strengthening and Rendering Woven Tissues Impermeable to Water.
—M. Neuman, in ‘‘ Les Mondes,” Sept. 16, 1869, gives this
method: A sulphuric acid bath is made, containing acid vary-
ing in strength from 40° to 66° Beaumé (specific gravities 1384
and 1850,) and kept at a temperature of 57°. The woven tis-
sues, cotton or linen, are rapidly passed through this bath, being
only left in contact with the acid for from 10 seconds to two
minutes, according to the nature of the tissue, which is immedi-
ately after passed through very cold water, and next submitted to
a thorough washing process. The effect of the action of the acid
is an incipient dissolution, and formation of a varnish-like matter,
which, especially after it has been regularly spread over the fab-
ric and incorporated therewith, by hot-pressing and calendering,
greatly increase the strength of the fabric, rendering it also im-
pervious to water.

Method of Producing upon Iron a Durable Black, Shining Var-
nish. —'Take oil of turpentine, add to it, drop by drop, and while
Stirring, strong sulphuric acid, until a syrupy precipitate is quite

130 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

formed, and no more of it is produced on further addition of a
drop of acid. The liquid is now repeatedly washed with water,
every time refreshed after a good stirring, until the water does
not exhibit any more acid reaction. The precipitate is next
brought upon a cloth filter, and, after all the water has run off,
the syrupy mass is fit for use. This thickest magma is painted
over the iron with a brush; if it happens to be too stiff, it is di-
luted with oil of turpentine. Immediately afterward this paint
is burnt in by agentle heat, and, after cooling, the black surface
is rubbed with a piece of woollen stuff dipped in linseed oil. <Ac-
cording to M. Weiskopf, the discoverer, the varnish is not a sim-
ple covering of the surface, but it is chemically combined with
the metal, and does not wear off or peel off, as other paints and
varnishes do.

Cast-iron Tubes are now made for water or gas in England, by
turning off one end conically, and boring out the end of the
tube to which it is to be united at the same angle, so that the
end of one tube may be inserted into the other without the addi-
tion of the ordinary cement. The junction is effected very
quickly, and the joint is perfectly tight. Pipes 36 inches in diam-
eter have been perfectly joined in this way. Liverpool has about
90 miles of gas-pipe joined in this way, and the leakage is said to
be much less than in other cities.

A Cement for Leather is made by mixing 10 parts of sulphide of
carbon with one of oil of turpentine, and then adding enough gut-
ta-percha to make a tough, quickly-flowing liquid. One essential
prerequisite to a thorough union of the parts consists in freedom
of the surfaces to be joined from grease. This may be accom-
plished by laying on a hot cloth, and applying a hot iron fora time ;
the cement is then applied to both pieces, the surfaces brought in
contact, and pressure applied until the joint is dry.

Seaweed Charcoal. —'‘Vhis material, which is prepared from the
fine tangle of the Hebrides, is being extensively used in England,
as a substitute for animal charcoal, as a filtering medium for
water, for deodorizing sewage, clearing white glass, removing
acidity from, and decolorizing, wines, and precipitating and
decolorizing vegetable alkaloids. — Chem. News.

Cement for Stone. —It is stated that an admirable cement is
obtained by mixing infusorial silica, such as constitutes the
diatoms, for instance, tripoli, with the following substances: The
infusorial silica is mixed in about equal proportions with oxide of
lead; about half a part of freshly slaked lime is then added, and
the whole is made into a paste, with boiled linseed oil. This is
especially recommended tor securing iron work in marble and
other stone.

Coke. — The importance of obtaining coke, free from sulphur,
cannot, especially for iron manufacture, be over-estimated. Nu-
merous experiments have, from time to time, been made, with a
view to the use of coal in which some pyrites occur, in the manu-
facture of a pure coke for the blast furnace. Some experiments
have been made in France which are stated to have been remark-
ably successful. The coke, when at a temperature of 300° Cent.,

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 131

was submitted to a strong current of atmospheric air strongly
compressed. This current of air is said to convert the sulphur
into sulphuric acid and remove it. The coke is reported to pro-
duce iron equal to that which has been made with wood charcoal.
— Quarterly Journal of Science, July.

In Great Britain, the quantity of coal-dust remaining unem-
ployed is calculated at 28,000,000 tons. Various methods have
been attempted to convert it into useful fuel by compressing it
into cakes, but the operation is not sufficiently remunerative. In
Belgium they employ another plan which seems to answer better.
They mix coal-dust with 8 per cent. of tar, and then press into
cakes, which are found to make excellent fuel for steam-engines.
— Mech. Mag., July 9.

An Explosive Dye.— The artificial saffron, invented by Mr.
Millonsweg, of Poblitz, has of late been found to be as easily
exploded as gunpowder, though possessing 40 per cent. less of
projectile force.

Moss Rubber Inking Roller.— The editor of the ‘* Mechanics’
Magazine,” London, speaks very highly, from his own experience,
of the above-mentioned article, which is invented by Mr. Stephen
Moulton, of Bradford-on-Avon, and prepared in the following
manner: Vulcanized India-rubber is reduced to a powder, then
placed in a mould, and subjected to a second vulcanizing heat,
which converts it into a mossy substance. This core is now
covered with skin of rubber, which is then vulcanized, and the
roller is then ready for use.

Lining for Fire-Proofs. — There was exhibited, at the last
meeting of the Institute, a new material, which, by its remarka-
ble power of non-conduction, presents especial advantages. This
was devised and patented by Mr. W. Alford. It consists of a
rough papier maché, made of old wall paper, by moistening and
compressing it. Its power of resistance to fire was illustrated by
a specimen exhibited on this occasion, which had been exposed,
as a lining to an iron-box, with a wooden one in the centre, to
the heat of a brightly burning anthracite fire, for the space of an
hour. The material was charred, on the outer surface, to the
depth of about one-fourth of an inch, while all the rest, and the
box, of course, within, was perfectly intact. This substance has
been favorably reported upon by many of our safe-builders, and
seems to be an admirable invention.

Fire Alarm, by M. Diou. — At the last meeting of the Institute,
there was presented by Mr. J. Demorat, for exhibition, an im-
proved fire-detector, manufactured by the American Fire Detector
Company, 725 Broadway, New York.

This apparatus consists of two parts, one of which is placed in
the location where the presence of fire is to be detected, and the
other where the alarm is to be given. ‘These are connected by
wire, in the manner of ordinary bells, except that the wire is
tightly stretched in its normal condition. The first instrument
consists, essentially, of a catch (holding one end of the wire),
controlled by a copper-helix, whose expansion will liberate the
catch, and thus slack the wire. The other instrument consists of

132 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

an alarm-bell, operated by clock-work, which goes into action as
soon as the wire is slacked. By changing the tension of the cop-
per-spring, the instrument may be set to go off at any tempera-
ture, indicated by a dial and pointer attached to the regulating-
screw. When exhibited to the meeting, the instrument was
started by holding it, for a moment, over a gas-flame, and by
the mere warmth of the breath.

Steam Generators. — A novelty was exhibited, at the exhibition
of the American Institute, by Thomas Mitchell, of Albany, ‘N. yi
It is a cylinder of wrought iron with welded joints, into which
water is thrown by a feed-pump; the same pump operating
through a worm gear to slowly rotate the cylinder in the furnace
where it is suspended upon two journals, one at either end of the
furnace. The design is to only throw water into the nada!
generator, as wanted, to make steam. The steam is generate
under very high pressure. The water is ering through a core-
pipe in one of the journals which extends longitudinally through
the axis of the cylinder, and is perforated at intervals throughout
its length. The water is thus subdivided into small jets, which
the heat of the cylinder converts into steam instantaneously.

A big Belt.— The New York Belting and Packing Company
have lately had on exhibition at their store, New York, an India-
rubber belt 4 feet wide, 320 feet long, and weighing no less than
5,600 pounds. It is intended for the main driving-belt of the
largest grain elevator in Chicago. .

The Joy Hammer.—'This hammer is peculiarly adapted for
drawing down iron or steel, in which operation a rapid succes-
sion of uniform blows is required, with only a gradual alteration
in the force of the successive strokes.

It therefore becomes possible to dispense with the complica-
tion of separate valves, and thus remove much of the risk of
derangement and source of wear.

In this instrument the ram contains openings which are brought
by its own motion into communication with passages for the inlet
and escape of steam, and thus cause its motion to be automati-
cally reversed. The only valve in the hammer is the throttle-
valve governed by a treddle, and by the adjustment of its open-
ing both the rapidity and force of the blows is at the same time
regulated. As many as 500 blows in a minute may be readily
struck, and from the simplicity and solidity of all. parts there is
the least possible chance of derangement.

Safety Nitro-Glycerine. — We learn from the ‘*London Mining
Journal” that a series of interesting experiments for protecting
nitro-glycerine were recently made at the Manorfield House. A
small quantity of the material was put into a basin, and hot water
was poured upon it, the result being that in two minutes the orig-
inal oil sunk to the bottom, and (the surplus water being poured
off) was run into a small phial ready for use. Into this the fuse
(pvinted with a percussion cap) was inserted, and fired, and the
loud explosion testified to the unimpaired force of the nitro-gly-
cerine thus recovered. It is obvious that by this invention this
highly dangerous but very useful compound can be conveyed by |

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 133.

rail or ship, and be stored with perfect safety, and that it may
be *‘recovered” in small quantities on the very spot where it is
required for use, so as to avoid, in a great measure, the peril to
miners or others who have to handle it in their operations.

Painting Zinc. — A difficulty is often experienced in causing oil
colors to adhere to sheet zinc. Boettger recommends the employ-
ment of a mordant, so to speak, of the following composition:
One part of chloride of copper, one of nitrate of copper, and one
of sal-ammoniac, are to be dissolved in 64 parts of water, to which
solution is to be added one part of commercial hydrochloric acid.
The sheets of zinc are to be brushed over with this liquid, which
gives them a deep black color; in the course of from 12 to 24
hours they become dry, and to their now dirty gray. surface a coat
of any oil color will firmly adhere. Some sheets of zinc prepared
in this way, and afterwards painted, have been found to entirely
withstand all the atmospheric changes of winter and summer.

Very Durable Cement for Iron and Stone. — M. Pollack, of Baut-
zen, Saxony, states that, for a period of several years, he has
used, as a cement to fasten stone to stone, and iron toiron, a paste
made of pure oxide of lead, litharge, and glycerine in concen-
trated state. This mixture hardens rapidly, is insoluble in acids
(unless quite concentrated), and is not affected by heat. M. Pol-
lack has used it to fasten different portions of a fly-wheel with
great success; while, when placed between stones, and once
hardened, it is easier to break the stone than the joint.

** Dingler’s Journal.” recommends as a lute for covering the
corks of vessels containing benzine or any of the light hydrocar-
bons or essential oils, a paste made of finely-ground litharge and
concentrated glycerine. ‘The mixture is spread over the corks or
bungs, and soon hardens. It is insoluble in the said liquids, is
not acted upon by them, and is quite inexpensive, as the com-
monest kind of glycerine can be used.

A writer in ‘‘ Comptes Rendus” says that if articles made of
copper be immersed in molten sulphur having lamp-black in sus-
pension, they assume the appearance of bronze, and can be pol-
ished without losing that aspect.

Treating Textile Fabrics. —M. Pierre Armand Neuman, of St.
Denis, Paris, treats textile fabrics with sulphuric acid, for the
purpose of rendering them impermeable. By this process the
fibres on the surface of the fabric are partially dissolved, and con-
verted into a glutinous substance, without the fibres in the body
of the fabric being destroyed. The fabric, after being passed
through the sulphuric acid, is quickly washed and rinsed in water,
to stop the action of the acid, and remove all traces of it, and it is
afterwards dried, when the part which has been acted on by the
acid, having impregnated and coated the fibres of the fabric, and
filled up the interstices between the warp and the weft, will con-
vert it into a parchment-like and impermeable material.

Liffect of Steam Heat on Hay. — A correspondent from Rancoceas,
N. J., favors us with a specimen of hay-wrapping which had been
on a steam pipe for 9 years; the pipe carrying steam at 55 lbs.
The specimen is of a chocolate brown and very friable; but it

12

154 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

burns no more readily than well-dried fresh hay, although its
appearance would seem to indicate great combustibility. We
should have less fear of its ignition than of pine wood similarly
carbonized. — Scientifie American.

The Hydraulic Scraping of the Torquay Water Main.— Mr. R.
E. Froude, at the meeting of the British Association, read a paper
on the operations which were rendered necessary by the continu-
ally decreasing supply of water, which resulted in raising the
supply from 320 gallons, in 1864, to 564 gallons per minute in
1867, to 634 gallons in 1868, and to 660 gallons in 1869. The
plan adopted was that of passing through the main a piston, armed
with a scraper.

Average Duty of Cornish Engines. — An estimate of the average
duty of this class of engines, based on observations made upon 18
engines during one month, shows the following results: They
have consumed 1,377 tons of coal, and lifted 10.2 million tons of
water 10 fathoms high. The average duty of the whole is, there-
fore, 50,100,000 Ibs., lifted one foot high, by the consumption of
112 lbs. of coal.

Aluminium Bells. — It appears that some Belgian manufacturer
has just had a bell cast of aluminium, and with good results. It
is of course extremely light, so that, though large, it can be
easily tolled; its. tone is reported to be loud and of excellent
pitch. Aluminium is the most sonorous of all metals. —Zngi-
neer.

Anew Alloy, forming a beautiful white metal, very hard and
capable of taking a brilliant polish, is obtained by melting to-
gether about 70 parts of copper, 20 of nickel, 54 of zinc, and 44
of cadmium. It is, therefore, a kind of German silver, in which
part of the zinc is replaced by cadmium. This alloy has been re-
cently made in Paris for the manufacture of spoons and forks,
which resemble articles of silver.

How Oroide is Made. — Oroide, the beautiful alloy resembling
gold, is a French discovery, and consists of pure copper, 100
parts; zine or (preferably) tin, 17 parts; magnesia, 6 parts; sal-
ammoniae one half part; quicklime, one-eighth part; tartar of
commerce, 9 parts. The copper is first melted, then the mag-
nesia, sal-ammoniac, lime, and tartar in powder are added little
by little, briskly stirring for about half an hour, so as to mix tho-
roughly; after which zinc is thrown on the surface in small
grains, stirring it until entirely fused. The crucible is then coy-
ered, and the fusion maintained about 35 minutes, when the dross
is skimmed off, and the alloy is ready for use. It can be cast,
rolled, drawn, stamped, chased, beaten into a powder or leaves;
and none but excellent judges can distinguish it from gold.

S. T. Clements, D.D.S., writes to the ** Dental Cosmos” that
although wax and resin, shellac, varnish, and liquid silex are
recommended for mending plaster models, neither, in his expe-
rience, can compare with sandarac varnish. Saturate the broken
surfaces thoroughly, and press them well together. Allow it to
dry, and the model will stand all the manipulation required.

Safety Envelopes. —It is stated that the thick, tough sap, found

MECHANICS AND USEFUL ARTS. 135

in large quantities in the leaves of New Zealand flax, may be
converted into a gum for sealing envelopes, which, when dry,
unites the surfaces of paper so thoroughly that no process of
steaming or soaking will permit them to be separated again.
For this reason, it is now being used in large quantities in Eng-
land, in the preparation of what are called << “safely envelopes. ne

Paper Srom Shavings and Sawdust. — Dr. Matthiessen, a well-
known savant, now appears in the character of an inventor and
patentee in England of an important improvement. He submits
wood when in a state of division, such as shavings, sawdust, or
disintegrated wood, to what is known as a rotting process, — that
is to say, the wood in a state of division is steeped either in run-
ning or stagnant water, and is allowed to undergo a rotting or
fermenting } process, by which process certain constituents of the
wood will be decomposed and removed, and the subsequent
treatment of the residual ligneous fibre for the production of pulp
or paper will be thereby rendered more economical, and the pro-
cess of boiling and bleaching is more easily effected.

Ineradicable Wr iting. — A French technical paper, specially de-
voted to the art and science of paper manulacture, states that
any alterations or falsifications of writings in ordinary ink may
be rendered impossible by passing the paper upon which it is in-
tended to write through a solution of one milligram (0.01543
English grain) of callie acid in as much pure distilled water as
will fill to a moderate depth an ordinary soup-plate. After the
paper thus prepared has become thoroughly dry, it may be used
as ordinary paper for writing, but any attempt made to alter, fal-
sify, or change anything written thereon, will be left perfectly
visible, and may thus be readily detected.

How to make Paper Transparent. — Artists, architects, land sur-
veyors, and all who have occasion to make use of tracing-paper
in their professional duties, will be glad to know that any paper
capable of the transfer of a drawing in ordinary ink, pencil, or
water-colors, and that even a stout drawing-paper, can be made
as transparent as the thin yellowish paper at present used for
tracing purposes. The liquid used is benzine. If the paper be
damped with pure and fresh-distilled benzine it at once assumes
a transparency, and permits of the tracing being made, and of
ink or water-colors being used on its surface without any ‘* run-
ning.” The paperresumes its opacity as the benzine evaporates,
and if the drawing is not then completed, the requisite portion of
the paper must be: again damped with the benzine. The transpar-
ent calico, on which indestructible tracings can be made, was a
most valuable invention, and this new discovery of the properties
of benzine will prove of further service to many branches of the
art profession, in alowing the use of stiff paper where formerly
only a slight tissue could be used.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

TYNDALL’S DISCOVERY.

*

‘** IT consists,” to use his own words, ‘‘ in subjecting the vapors
of volatile liquids to the action of concentrated sunlight, or to the
concentrated beam of the electric light ;” and some of the results
which he records are of such singular, almost inconceivable,
beauty, that for this reason alone, and putting aside their im-
portant application to many atmospheric phenomena, and proba-
bly to art, they have a claim to be noticed in these pages.

He uses the experimental tube. It is connected with an air-pump
and with a series of tubes used for the purification of the air, and
at one end of the tube, which lies hotizontally and is closed by
plates of glass, is placed an electric lamp, so arranged that the
axis of the tube and that of the parallel beam issuing from the
lamp are coincident.

The substances whose vapors were passed into the tube, and
there exposed to strong light, are known to chemists as nitrite
of amyl, iodide of allyl, iodide of isopropyl, hydrobromic acid,
hydrochloric acid, bydriodic acid. When these vapors are ex-
posed to the above-described action, clouds of the most beautiful
appearance, and at some points vividly iridescent, show them-
selves in the tube. When the nitrite of amyl vapor is mixed with
a little air the cloud is white; but if air is freely admitted, and
the nitrite vapor thus attenuated, the cloud varies in color from a
milky-blue to a pure, deep blue. ‘‘ There could scarcely,” says
the author, ‘‘ be a more impressive illustration of Newton’s made
of regarding the generation of the color of the firmament than
that here exhibited ; for never, even in the skies of the Alps, have
I seen a richer or a purer blue than that attainable by a suitable
disposition of the light falling upon the precipitated vapor. May
not the aqueous vapor of our atmosphere act in a similar man-
ner?”

The cloud yielded by iodide of allyl was extremely beautiful.
The whole column revolved round the axis of the decomposing
central beam, and was nipped so as to have an hour-glass ap-
pearance, while round.the gobular dilatations delicate cloud-fila-
ments twisted themselves in spirals. It also folded itself into
convolutions resembling those of shells. When hydrogen is
made the vehicle of this vapor, the cloud assumes a pearly lustre,
such as Dr. Tyndall has often noticed in certain conditions of the
atmosphere in the Alps.

The action of light upon the vapor of iodide of isopropyl oc-
casions in the course of a few minutes some singularly graceful

136

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 437

developments. The column of cloud is seen to divide into two
parts near the middle of the tube, and in one experiment a globe
of cloud formed at the centre with axes projecting right and left.
Sudden commotions were observed in the nebulous mass, buds of
cloud shooting out and growing into flower-like forms. In one
case the cloud-bud grew rapidly into a serpent’s head; a mouth
was formed, and from the mouth a cord of cloud, resembling a
tongue, was rapidly discharged.

The aqueous vapor of hydrobromic acid mixed with air gave
rise to the formation of two clouds 5 inches apart, and united by a
slender cord of cloud of the same bluish tint as themselves.
After undergoing various modifications of form, both clouds pre-
sented the appearance of a series of concentric funnels set within
one another, the interior ones being seen through the gaseous
walls of the outer ones. As many as 6 of these concentric funnels
were observed.

The aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid yields a vapor which
required an exposure of 15 or 20 minutes to the electric light for
the production of a fully developed cloud. It was then divided
into several sections, united to each other by a slender axis.
‘*Each of these sections,” says Dr. Tyndall, ‘‘ possessed an ex-
ceedingly complex and ornate structure, exhibiting ribs, spears,
funnels, leaves, involved scrolls, and tridescent jfleurs-de-lis.
Thus the structure of the cloud from beginning to end was per-
fectly symmetrical; it was a cloud of revolution, its correspond-
ing points being at equal distances from the axis of the beam.”

The aqueous vapor of hydriodic acid yields a nebula which so
far resembles those of the two preceding acids that the process
commences by the formation of two small clouds united by a
cord; but it exhibits more vivid colors (green and crimson) than
the other vapors. Of the various substances experimented on,
none gave such astonishing results as this. ‘‘The development
of the cloud,” says Dr. Tyndall, ‘‘ was like that of an organism,
from a more or less formless mass at the commencement, to a
structure of marvellous complexity ;” and this grand simile is
fully borne out by his description of the changing phenomena
which he observed. After atime the cloud formed into a spectral
cone with a circular base, from which filmy drapery seemed to
descend. On this base was an exquisite vase, with a vase of
similar shape in its interior, and from the* edges of the vases fell
the faintest clouds. The anterior portion of the cloud assumed in
succession the forms of roses, tulips, and sunflowers; it also pre-
sented the appearance of a series of beautifully shaped bottles
placed (like the funnels in a previous case) one within the other ;
and once it positively assumed the form of a fish, with eyes, gills,
and feelers. ‘‘ The twoness of the animal form,” says the ob-
server, ‘‘ was displayed throughout, and no disc, coil, or speck
existed on one side that did not exist on the other.” For nearly
two hours Dr. Tyndall looked in wonder at the extraordinary
vision which his magie skill had evoked.

These experiments are capable of almost any degree of modifi-
cation and extension. They have already revealed to us a new

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158 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

world abounding in images of almost inconceivable beauty ;. but
it is very probable that they have more than an esthetic value.
The assistants who watched the phenomena with the professor,
and whose minds were probably of a more practical cast, re-
marked that these reactions ‘* would prove exceedingly valuable
to pattern-designers;” and if artistic skill can seize these fleeting
phantoms there is no reason why this idea should not be carried
out.

The chemical reactions which occur in these experiments are
only slightly noticed, and do not admit of a popular explanation ;
it is, however, in the highest degree probable that future chemists
will make this form of experiment a potent auxiliary to the labora-
tory, while future meteorologists will find in it the true explana-
tion of various atmospheric phenomena which as yet remain in
more or less obscurity.

THE BLUE COLOR OF THE SKY, ETC. BY PROF. TYNDALL.

The idea that the color of the sky is due to the action of finely
divided matter, rendering the atmosphere a turbid medium
through which we look at the darkness of space, dates as far
back as Leonardo da Vinci. Newton conceived the color to be
due to exceedingly small water particles acting as thin plates.
Goethe’s experiments in connection with this subject are well
known and exceedingly instructive. One very striking observa-
tion of Goecthe’s referred to what is technically called ‘* chill” by
painters, which is due, no doubt, to extremely fine varnish parti-
cles interposed between the eye and a dark background. Clau-
sius, in two very able memoirs, endeavored to connect the colors
of the sky with suspended water-vesicles, and to show that the
important observations of Forbes on condensing steam could
also be thus accounted for. Helmholtz has ascribed the blueness
of the eyes to the action of suspended particles. In an article
written nearly 9 years ago by myself, the colors of the peat
smoke of the cabins of Killarney and the colors of the sky were
referred to one and the same cause, while a chapter of the
‘* Glaciers of the Alps,” published in 1860, is also devoted to this
question. Roscoe, in connection with his truly beautiful experi-
ments on the photographic power of sky-light, has also given
various instances of the production of color by suspended parti-
cles.

In his experiments on fluorescence, Prof. Stokes had continu-
ally to separate the light reflected from the motes suspended in
his liquids, the action of which he named ‘false dispersion,”
from the fluorescent light of the same liquids, which he ascribed
to ‘*true dispersion.” In fact, it is hardly possible to obtain a
liquid without motes, which polarize by reflection the light falling
upon them, truly dispersed light being unpolarized. At p. 530,
of his celebrated memoir, ‘* On the Change of the Refrangibility
of Light,” Prof. Stokes adduces some significant facts, and
makes some noteworthy remarks, which bear upon our present

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 139

subject. He notices more particularly a specimen of plate glass
which, seen by reflected light, exhibited a blue which was ex-
ceedingly like an effect of fluorescence, but which, when prop-
erly examined, was found to be an instance of false dispersion.
‘«It often struck me,” he writes, while engaged in these obser-
vations, ‘‘ that when the beam had a continuous appearance, the
polarization was more nearly perfect than when it was sparkling,
so as to force on the mind the conviction that it arose merely
from motes. Indeed, in the former case, the polarization *has
often appeared pertect, or all but perfect. It is possible that this
may, in some measure, have been due to the circumstance, that
when a given quantity of light is diminished in a given ratio, the
illumination is perceived with more difficulty when the light is
diffused uniformly than when it is spread over the same space
but collected into specks. Be this as it may, there was at least
no tendency observed toward polarization in a plane perpendicu-
lar to the plane of reflection, when the suspended particles be-
came finer, and therefore the beam more nearly continuous.
Through the courtesy of its owner I have been permitted to see
and to experiment with the piece of plate-glass above referred to.
Placed in front of the electrie-lamp, whether edgeways or trans-
versely, it discharges bluish polarized light laterally, the color
being by no means a bad imitation of the color of the sky. Prof.
Stokes considers that this deportment may be invoked to decide
the question of the direction of the vibrations of polarized light.
On this point I would say, if it can be demonstrated that when
the particles are small in comparison to the length of a wave of
light, the vibrations of a ray reflected by such particles cannot be
perpendicular to the vibrations of the incident light; then
assuredly the experiments recorded in the foregoing .communica-
tion decide the question in favor of Fresnel’s assumption. As
stated above, almost all liquids have motes in them sufficiently
numerous to polarize sensibly the light, and very beautiful effects
may be obtained by simple artificial devices. When, for exam-
ple, a cell of distilled water is placed in front of the electric
lamp, and a slice of the beam permitted to pass through it,
searcely any polarized light is discharged, and scarcely any color
produced with a plate of selenite. But while the beam is passing
through it, if a bit of soap be agitated in the water above the
beam, the moment the infinitesimal particles reach the beam the
liquid sends forth laterally almost perfectly polarized light; and
if the selenite be employed, vivid colors flash into existence. A
still more brilliant result is obtained with mastic dissolved in a
great excess of alcohol. The selenite rings constitute an ex-
tremely delicate test as to the quantity of motes in a liquid.
Commencing with distilled water, for example, a thickish beam
of light is necessary to make the polarization of its motes sensi-
ble. A much thinner beam suilices for common water; while
with Briicke’s precipitated mastic, a beam too thin to produce
any sensible effect with most other liquids suffices to bring out
vividly the selenite colors.
Note on the Formation and Phenomena of Clouds. —It is well

140 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

known that when a receiver filled with ordinary undried air is ex-
hausted, a cloudiness, due to the precipitation of the aqueous
vapor diffused in the air, is produced by the first few strokes of
the pump. It is, as might be expected, possible to produce
clouds in this way with the vapors of other liquids than water.
In the course of the experiments on the chemical action of light
which have been already communicated in abstract to the Royal
Society, I had frequent occasion to observe the precipitation of
such clouds in the experimental tubes employed; indeed several
days at atime have been devoted solely to the generation and
examination of clouds formed by the sudden dilatation of the air in
the experimental tubes. The clouds were generated in two
Ways: one mode consisted in opening the passage between the
filled experimental tube and the air-pump, and then simply dilat-
ing the air by working the pump. In the other, the experi-
mental tube was connected with a vessel of suitable size, the
passage between which and the experimental tube could be
closed by a stopcock. This vessel was first exhausted; on turn-
ing the cock the air rushed from the experimental tube into the
vessel, the precipitation of a cloud within the tube being a con-
sequence of the transfer. Instead of a special vessel, the cyl-
inders of the air-pump itself were usually employed for this
purpose. It was found possible, by shutting off the residue of
air and vapor after each act of precipitation, and again exhaust-
ing the cylinders of the pump, to obtain with some substances,
and without refilling the experimental tube, 15 or 20 clouds in
succession. The clouds thus precipitated differed from each

other in luminous energy, some shedding forth a mild white

light, others flashing out with sudden and surprising brilliancy,
This difference of action is, of course, to be referred to the dif-
ferent reflective energies of the particles of the clouds, which
were produced by substances of very different refractive indices.
Different clouds, moreover, possess very different degrees of
stability; some melt away rapidly, while others linger for min-
utes in the experimental tube, resting upon its bottom as they
dissolve like a heap of snow. The particles of other clouds are
trailed through the experimental tube as if they were moving
through a viscous medium. Nothing can exceed the splendor o

the diffraction phenomena exhibited by some of these clouds;
the colors are best seen by looking along the experimental tube
from a point above it, the face being turned towards the source
of illumination. The differential motions introduced by friction
against the interior surface of the tube often cause the colors to
arrange themselves in distinct layers. The difference in texture
exhibited by different clouds caused me to look a little more
closely than I had previously done into the mechanism of cloud-
formation. A certain expansion is necessary to bring down the
cloud; the moment before precipitation the mass of cooling air
and vapor may be regarded as divided into a number of polyhe-
dra, the particles along the bounding surfaces of which move in
opposite directions when precipitation actually sets in. Every
cloud particle has consumed a polyhedron of vapor in its forma-

.

»

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 14}

tion; and it is manifest that the size of the particle must depend,
not only on the size of the vapor-polyhedron, but also on the re-
lation of the density of the vapor to that of its liquid. If the
vapor were light, and the liquid heavy, other things being equal,
the cloud-particle would be smaller than if the vapor were heavy
and the liquid light. There would evidently be more shrinkage
in the one case than in the other; these considerations were found
valid throughout the experiment. The case of toluol may be
taken as representative of a great number of others. The specific
gravity of this liquid is 0.85, that of water being unity; the
specific gravity of its vapor is 3.26, that of aqueous vapor being
0.6. Now, as the size of the cloud-particle is directly propor-
tional to the specific gravity of the vapor, and inversely propor-
tional to the specific gravity of the liquid, an easy calculation
proves that, assuming the size of the vapor polyhedra in both
cases to be the same, the size of the particle of toluol cloud must
be more than 6 times that of the particle of aqueous cloud. It
is probably impossible to test this question with numerical accu-
racy; but the comparative coarseness of the toluol cloud is strik-
ingly manifest to the naked eye. The case is, as I have said,
representative. In fact, aqueous vapor is without a parallel in
these particulars; it is not only the lightest of all vapors, in the
common acceptation of that term, but the lightest of all gases
except hydrogen and ammonia, To this circumstance the soft
and tender beauty of the clouds of our atmosphere is mainly to
be ascribed. The sphericity of the cloud-particles may be imme-
diately inferred from their deportment under the luminous beams.
The light which they shed when spherical is continuous; but
clouds may also be precipitated in solid flakes; and then the in-
cessant sparkling of the cloud shows that its particles are plates,
and not spheres. Some portions of the same cloud may be com-
posed of spherical particles, others of flakes, the difference being
at once manifested through the calmness of the one portion of
the cloud, and the uneasiness of the other. The appearance of
such flakes reminded me of the plates of mica in the River Rhone
at its entrance into the Lake of Geneva, when shone upon by a
strong sun. — American Journal of Science and Arts, Sept., 1869.

ZIRCONIA LIGHT.

The news spread in England, through the medium of the scien-
tific newspapers, that a discovery had been made in France, which
would have the effect of abolishing the lime light by substituting
zirconia for the lime cylinder. The advantages were stated to be
that zirconia is not eaten away by the oxyhydrogen flame, and
that, when not in use, it does not absorb moisture and crumble to
pieces like lime; also, that, in consequence of this stability, the
ordinary clock-work of oxyhydrogen lamps to turn the lime eylin-
der would be unnecessary with zirconia. It was further said,
that the zirconia gave more light than lime under the same oxy-
hydrogen flame. Considerable interest in the new invention was,

142 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

consequently, raised in this country, among the many who use
the lime light, but weeks passsd away without anybody being
able to procure the zirconia cylinders in London. One night,
however, at a soiree at King’s College, the zirconia light was
exhibited, burning with great steadiness and brilliancy, in the
presence of Professor W. Allen Miller, F.R.S., and many others,
but no aceurate tests were made, and both then and afterwards
the zirconia cylinders were as unprocurable in London as ever.
Three weeks since, however, one of the first zirconia lamps pro-
curable for examination, in this country, reached London, and
was sent by Mr. R. J. Fowler, the Parisian correspondent of the
** British Journal of Photography,” to Mr. John Traill Taylor,
the editor of that journal, with the request that he and Mr. W.
H. Harrison would test its working qualities. The lamp was the
property of Messrs. Harvey, Reynolds, & Co., Leeds. Accord-
ingly, some experiments with the lamp were-tried at the work-
shops of Messrs. Darker Brothers, philosophical instrument manu-
facturers, at Lambeth.

At present, the French company refuses to sell the zirconia
cylinders without their lamp be also purchased. According to
the ‘‘ Engineer,” this lamp, made for special use with the zirconia,
gives a vertical flame, and the piece of zirconia is held in it by a
little brass support. The piece of zirconia was excessively
small, — about as big as a pea, —and here at once was a source
of great loss of light, because the flame was competent to raise
to whiteness several times the area presented to its action. On
this account alone, the total amount of light was very much less
_than the same flame gave with a lime cylinder, so as to put com-
petition between the two out of the question, unless the zirconia
surface be very greatly increased in size. The experimentalists
then cut down apiece of lime till it equalled the zirconia in size,
and the lime and zirconia were exposed in turn to the flame, the
result being that the zirconia was found to emit a less white and
brilliant light than the lime under the same conditions, nor did
variations in distance from the nozzle of the jet alter this result.
Next, many variations in the pressure of the gases were tried,
but the result was not altered. Then, substituting an English
‘*blow-through” jet for the blow-pipe sold by the French com-
pany, the same inferiority of the light from the zirconia was
perceptible, nor did variations of pressure affect the result.
Lastly, a good orthodox oxyhydrogen blow-pipe was _ tried,
wherein the two gases mix thoroughly some little distance behind
the nozzle, and again the results were the same. ‘These conclu-
sions do not in any way affect the question of the permanency of
zirconia under the fierce heat of the oxyhydrogen flame; but
such permanency, if purchased at the expense of inferior light, is
too dearly bought, and will condemn the invention. Unless the
inventors are acquainted with some peculiarities of zirconia un-
known to those who are versed in the use of the lime light, and _
can, by an unknown method, bring out a light-from the zirconia
equal to that given by lime, the zirconia light, from an economical
point of view, is a failure.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 143

A few other experiments were tried, showing that soft lime and
hard lime have to be placed at different distances from the blow-
pipe nozzle to get the maximum amount of light from each.
Chemical composition even more than hardness varies the amount
of whiteness of the light. Magnesia cylinders were found to take
a longer time to heat to whiteness and a longer time to cool than
either lime or zirconia. Quartz rapidly vitrified under the flame,
and asbestos could not resist the intense heat. It requires time,
and repeated heatings and coolings, to test the permanency of
zirconia under the oxyhydrogen flame to ascertain whether it
does away with the necessity for clock-work apparatus. The
piece used looked, at the close of the experiments, none the worse
for the operations it had undergone, and a native zircon crystal,
which,*on previous occasions, Messrs. Darker had occasionally
ignited under the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe, is now as hard as ever,
having shown no tendency to crumble, or soften, like lime, be-
neath atmospheric influences. The heat had produced in it traces
of vitrification, which could be seen only by the aid of a lens,

MAGNESIA BLOCKS FOR THE LIME LIGHT.

They are square prisms of. about three-quarters inch base, and
five-eighths inch in height, of remarkably even texture, and nota-
ble density. Notwithstanding all that has been said in their
praise, they do not prove on trial to be by any means equal in
powers of resistance (when submitted to the oxyhydrogen flame)
to the average quality of lime. With apressure of about 3 inches
of water at the jet, they are rapidly eaten away, and, moreover,
split by action of the heat. Itis just possible that these specimens
have suffered some deterioration in their transit across the ocean,
though, considering their method of packing and the properties
of the material, this is hardly probable.

Then one undoubted advantage seems to be their security from
injury on exposure to the air. In this respect, they have a marked
advantage over lime. Except, however, where exceedingly low
pressures are employed, their rapid destruction before the jet
more than compensates for the other advantage.

THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON VAPORS.

This was a valuable paper by Professor A. Morren, read in
English by Mr. R. B. Hayward, M.A., at the meeting of the Brit-
ish Association, ‘* On the Chemical Reaction of Light, discovered
by Professor Tyndall.” Professor Morren said that he had repeated
Dr. Tyndall’s celebrated experiments on the action of light upon
vapors in tubes, but that, living in the South of France, he used
- the rays of the sun, instead of the light from the electric lamp.
His tubes, like those of Dr. Tyndall, were of glass, with flat glass
ends, and glass stopeocks. After exhausting the air from the
tube, he permitted a mixture of absolutely pure dry hydrogen and

144 ' ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

nitrogen gas to enter, and, on passing a cone of sunlight from a
lens through the long axis of the tube, he was surprised to see a
cloud forming, because of chemical decomposition set up. At
first he thought that the resinous cement fastening the brass fer-
ules to the ends of the glass tube had liberated some volatile
hydro-carbon, such as turpentine, and so introduced foreign ele-
ments into the experiment. He consequently substituted for the
tube a long, narrow measuring glass, with a foot, and a wide
circular mouth, ground flat. Over the flat mouth he cemented a
flat plate of glass, by means of a mixture of oil, wax, and tallow.
A glass stopcock was let into the side of the tube. Still, with the
dry hydrogen and nitrogen, he obtained cloudy decomposition
under the action of sunlight. This led him to question the method
employed to dry the gases, which was by passing them through
powdered glass wetted with sulphuric acid. When the chloride
of calcium and other methods of drying gases were tried, no
clouds were formed by the sunlight, so at last he came to the con-
clusion that the source of error lay in a trace of sulphurous-acid
gas, taken up by the hydrogen and the nitrogen from the sulphuric
acid. ‘The latter acid employed by him was absolutely pure, and
contained no trace of arsenic from the use of impure sulphur
in its manufacture. In the remainder of his paper he explained
the exact nature of the chemical reactions which took place in his
tube, which reactions he, like Dr. Tyndall, ascribed to a motion
of separation set up between the atoms of each molecule, by the
short blue and violet waves of the solar spectrum. Dr. J. H.
Gladstone, F.R.S., spoke highly of the philosophical character of
the paper, and said that such researches promised ere long to
explain what action sunlight has upon gases and vapors which are
often present as impurities in the atmosphere.

ROCK-SALT PRISMS.

Mr. C. Brooke, F.R.S., said at the meeting of the British Asso-
ejation that, in his attempts to grind and polish rock-salt prisms in
planes not parallel to the lines of cleavage of the erystal, he found
that the partly ground prisms usually cracked and broke at the
thinnest end. He and Mr. Browning, the optician, consequently
tricd the plan of slowly heating the rock salt buried in sand ina
tin vessel, and then permitted the whole to cool very slowly.
After this annealing had been performed, it was possible to grind
the rock-salt into good prisms.

TWILIGHT, AND THE UNEQUAL EFFECT OF LIGHT IN PHOTOG-
RAPHY.

1. Cause of the unequal Visibility of the Colors in the Twilight. — .
The visivility of the colors of a picture imply ethereal waves, ex-
cited by their vibrations, and which transmit themselves to the
retina. But these vibrations of the colors want themselves to be

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 145

excited by a light enclosing rays in their keeping. In this re-
spect, the white light can alone render visible the proper color of
the whole body, because each one finds there rays capable of ex-
citing its vibrations. From thence if, in a studio receiving the
light from above, the red, orange, and yellow of a picture appear
obscure and black in the twilight, apparently the faint crepuscular
licht of the raised part of the heavens does not send rays vibrating
in unison with these colors; and if, on the contrary, the violet, blue,
and green are bright, it is because some rays in unison with
them have penetrated into the studio. Or, indeed, at sunset, the
elevated region of the heavens furnish, according to Father
Secchi, a shortened atmospheric spectrum, destitute of red,
orange, and yellow, and enclosing only green, blue, and violet,
doubtless because the atmospheric prism refracts only towards the
earth rays of the greatest refrangibility. From thence, as the
frangibility of the rays augment with the rapidity of their vibra-
tion, the absence of the red, orange, and yellow rays, in the zenith
crepuscular spectrum, is due to the insufficient vibratory rapidity
of these rays. On the contrary, the green, blue, and violet rays
owe their presence in the zenith crepuscular spectrum to their
greater refrangibility due to their greater vibratory rapidity.

2. Cause of the Unequal Photographic Work of the Colors. —
The photographer transfers in black, the red, orange, and yellow
of a picture, and in milky-white the blue, indigo, and violet. It
is the same with the photographs after nature. Now these infideli-
ties result necessarily from the unequal photographic work of the
colors, for the pictures of monochromatic objects, of edifices,
statues, in gray, are perfectly faithful. In a monochromatic
painting, the luminous vibrations are all in unison, and have the
same amplitude under the same bright light. Now the efficient
work corresponding to the photographic impression represents,
for every part of the picture, an even amount of quick vibratory
forces absorbed. From thence the duration of the work will be
reciprocal to the sensibility of the photographic retina, and, with
equal sensibility, this duration will be reciprocal to the amplitude
of the vibrations, or to the intensity of the light; in short, in equal
intensity with the light, the duration of the efficient work will be
reciprocal to the rapidity of the vibrations, and, in consequence,
to the refrangibility of the gray color, for it must be operated by
the same number of vibrations for each color, if all have the same
vibratory amplitude. Thence, the more rapid vibrations of the
more refrangible colors achieve their efficacious work in a less
time than the slower vibration of the less refrangible colors; and
they cannot impose, with impunity, the same duration to the pho- .
tographic work of all the colors. For if this duration was regu-
lar upon the middle color of the spectrum, or upon the efficacious
work of the green, the vibrations of which are more rapid than
those of the yellow, orange, and red, these last colors, not having
- been able to achieve their efficacious work, will be obscured with
black in their positive image; on the contrary, the more rapid
vibrations of the blue, indigo, and violet, finish their efficacious
work before the green, their excessive vibrations will have swept

13

146 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

off the image, and carried away its plainness. Thus the slowness
of the vibrations of the red, orange, and yellow is the cause of
their obscurity, in photography as in the crepuscule light, and
the greater rapidity of the vibrations of the blue, indigo, and vio-
let is the cause of their milky or cloudy appearance, as well in
photography as in the glimmer of the crepuscule. ~ Comptes Ren-
dus, July 26, 1869.

A NEW POLARIZING PRISM.

It is a trough, parallelopipedon in form, of glass filled with sul-
phuret of carbon, and in which is placed, with a suitable inclina-
tion, a very thin plate of spar. All natural luminous rays tend to
decompose in the spar into two rays, — the one ordinary, and the
other extraordinary ; but as the index of this last ray is inferior
to that of the sulphuret of carbon, it is totally reflected, and the
ordinary ray alone traverses the trough, and is polarized in the
plane of incidence. This apparatus replaces successfully the
prism of Nicol in all its uses; and as it requires only a very thin
plate of spar, it is cheap, and affords a wide field of vision. — M,
Jamin. — Comptes Rendus, Feb. 1, 1869.

COMPLEMENTARY COLORS.

Complementary colors, by reflected and transmitted light, are
admirably shown by a simple arrangement, to which attention
has been called by Prof. E. C. Pickering, of Boston. A plate of
glass is coated with a layer of the violet-colored ink, made from
aniline color, now much used, and this fluid is allowed to dry
upon it. If we then place this in such a position that light is re-
flected from its surface to our eyes it will appear of a metallic
golden color, as though coated with a gold bronze; but if we
look through it at the light, the color will be ‘a very rich purple.
There are many other bodies having a similar action, but in none
that we know of is it so striking as in this.

Thus, glass flashed with silver has a green color by reflected,
and an orange-red by transmitted light. Salts of the sesquioxide
of chromium, which are green by reflected, are red by transmitted
light; a solution of ordinary litmus is blue by reflected, but red by
transmitted light.— Journal of the Franklin Institute, April,
1869.

ABSORPTION LINES PRODUCED BY THE PASSAGE OF THE
SOLAR LIGHT THROUGH CHLORINE.

Morren has found that by employing a spectroscope of 5 prisms
of highly dispersive flint-glass, absorption lines are distinctly visi-
ble in the spectrum of light which has traversed a tube filled with
chlorine two metres in length. The lines begin to be visible in

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 147

the part of the spectrum near 6. They vary in intensity, fine-
ness, and mode of grouping, and exhibit some slight free spaces.
They have no regular order, and extend beyond the ray F toward
the ray 2,110 of Kirchhofl’s scale. In this last portion they are
very numerous and almost equidistant. The solar spectrum
proper continues visible as far as 2,210, but after that the light is
completely absorbed. Chlorine, therefore, absorbs the colored
portion of the spectrum, where the chemical rays are most abun-
dant. :

SOME PHENOMENA OF DECOMPOSITION PRODUCED BY LIGHT.

M. Morren, in the ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,” of Aug. 9, 1869, in refer-
ring to Tyndall’s late researches on the vapors of different bodies
submitted to light, says: —

‘“‘Tf a body forms and maintains itself in certain undulatory
conditions, it is necessary that the oscillations of the atoms which
constitute its molecule should be different from those of the me-
dium where the body has been produced. But if the body is trans-
ported into another medium, where vibrations synchronous with
those of its atoms are produced, the vibrations of these last be-
come more energetic, and the live force, which they accumulate,
thus becoming considerable, the atoms are thrown to a distance
from each other greater than the radius of their sphere of action.
The atomic edifice, previously formed, is demolished; the atoms
preserving their special attractions for a new edifice, possible
-in the conditions of oscillation which surround them, consequently
not possessing longer the same synchronous oscillation as those
of the medium.”

We refer the reader to the ‘‘Comptes Rendus,” of Aug. 9,
1869, for a more extended exposition by M. Morren; he says, in
addition, that the acid-sulphate of quinine placed between two
plates of glass, and of a thickness of from 4 to 5 millimetres, af-
fords an admirable screen for cutting off chemical rays, and can
replace advantageously the yellow glass of the photographer.

A NEW THERMO-ELECTRIC PILE.

This apparatus is formed of 60 elements; these elements are
composed of little bars of galena, or sulphuret of lead (sulphure
natural de plomb), and some plates of sheet iron; the bars are 40
millimetres in length, and 8 in tlrickness; the plates of iron 55
millimetres in length to 8 in breadth, and 6mm. in thickness.
In these couples the galena is the electro-negative element, the
iron the electro-positive. The form of the bars is such, that in
placing them side by side they form a crown of 12 couples, the
interior of which is formed by the extremities, which are heated.
The couples are united in tension by a soldering of tin. They are
isolated from one another by some thin plates of mica. In su-
perposing upon each other 5 of these crowns, one forms a battery

148 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

of 60 couples. These crowns are isolated, and spaced between by
washers of amianthus, the whole is strongly bound, by means of
3 iron pins, between two circles of iron. ‘The piles constitute then
a hollow cylinder, the intcrior of which it is necessary to heat.
The cooling of the junctions, the temperature of which ought to
be very low, is effected by simple radiation in the air. The inte-
rior cylinder measures 50 millimetres in diameter to as much in
height; the heated surface is, therefore, 78 square centimetres,

The apparatus is heated by gas, by means of a special burner,
which is, properly speaking, only an iron cylinder of 56 millime-
tres in diameter, closed at the top, opened at the base, and
pierced by little holes upon its convex surface. This cylinder is
placed in the centre of the pile. A pipe, pierced with little holes,
surrounds this cylinder, and distributes the gas in a uniform man-
ner around it.

The gas, arriving opposite the holes of the burner, meets the
air, which is blown out by the draught from the iron pipe which
surmounts the apparatus. Each hole of the burner accordingly
forms a blow-pipe, the flame-point of which strikes the opposite
side.

Forty couples of galena and iron have an electro-motive force
neighboring that of a Bunsen element. The apparatus that we
have described then possesses a force equivalent to one and a half
thatof a Bunsen element. Between the two electrodes quite visible
sparks are obtained. The current reddens a platinum thread of
3mm. in diameter at a distance of 35 millimetres; it decomposes
water.

This pile working during 6 consecutive hours consumed 785
litres of gas, at a cost of nearly two centimes and a half per hour.

M. Edm. Becquerel, in some observations on the above pile,
says: ‘* The results obtained with the preceding pile, the dimen-
sions of which are restrained, which offers some interest in a sci-
entific point of view, and which is of easy use, show that the
thermo-electric piles are not yet so economic as one supposes.
It is true that the heat produced by the burner can be better util-
ized by putting a greater number of elements around the chim-
ney; but, in this condition, as happens with the other thermo-elec-
tric piles, the portion of the heat which is utilized in the produc-
tion of the thermo-electric current is only a small fraction of that
which is communicated to the elements. The greater part of
the heat is lost by radiation. — Comptes Rendus, May 31, 1869.

ACTION OF HEAT UPON THE ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF PILES,

Heat exercises a very variable influence upon the electromotive
force of piles.

The results of the researches of M. Crova are: —

1. That the electromotive force of the elements of the first kind
(the Daniell type) diminishes regularly when the temperature
rises.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 149

2. That that of the elements of the second kind (the Grove type)
augments with the temperature.

3. That that of the Smée type is independent of the variations
of temperature. In order to verify these results, it suffices to
oppose pole to pole two elements quite identical, and to place in
the circuit a galvanometer, the needle of which points to zero.
By heating one of the elements with suitable precautions, the
needle will deviate in a permanent manner, in a sense which
varies with the nature of the element. — Comptes Rendus, feb. 22,
1869.

DURATION OF ELECTRIC DISCHARGES.

In the last number of ‘‘ Silliman’s Journal” we notice an admira-
ble paper by Prof. O. N. Rood on the above subject. His appa-
ratus, in general arrangement, resembled that used by Wheatstone
in his remarkable experiments for determining the velocity of
electric conduction, which were, no doubt, the basis of all similar _
processes for the measurement of extremely small intervals of
time which have been since devised. The improvement intro-
duced by Prof. Rood consists chiefly in throwing the image of the
spark elongated by the rotating mirror, by means of a lens, on a
plate of ground or polished glass, and viewing it with a magnify-
ing lens. There were, besides, various ingenious devices in the
details of structure and arrangement, such as have distinguished
other investigations of this eminent physicist. As a result of
various experiments, Prof. Rood finds, in the first place, that the
discharge from a Leyden jar charged by an induction coil is com-
posed of three parts or successive acts, — a white flash, a brown-
ish-yellow gleam, and a fainter and more lasting glow, which,
with brass electrodes, is green, and with platina gray in color.
The duration of the entire phenomena is from .000017 to .000050
seconds, that is, 17 to 50 millionths of a second; the duration of
the white and yellow light together, 6 to 8 millionths; and the
duration of the white flash less than 24 hundred millionths of a
second.

ARTIFICIAL COLORATION OF THE ELECTRIC SPARK.

Mr. E. Becquerel has shown that the electric spark may be di-
versely and beautifully colored by being made to pass through
saline solutions. If an electrical spark from an inductive appara-
tus be made to pass into the extremity of a platinum wire sus-
pended over the surface of the solution of a salt, this spark will
acquire special coloration according to the chemical composition
of the solution traversed. The saline solutions are best concen-
trated, and the platinum wire positive. The experiment is read-
ily performed in a glass tube.

Salts of strontia will color the spark red; chloride of sodium,
yeilow ; chloride of copper, bluish green, etc.

The light from these sparks, analyzed by the spectroscope, fur-

13* ‘

150 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY:

nishes a method for the determination of the nature of the salts
contained in the solution.

MAGNETISM.

M. Tréve, in pursuing his researches on magnetism, has con-
ceived the design of submitting cast iron to an electro-magnetic
influence.

In the axis of a powerful bobbin, he has placed a mould with
sand, which receives the jet of melted iron; then he made an en-
ergetic current from 12 couples of Bunsen’s pass through it; he
placed, at some distance from that, a small cylinder of the same
melted iron, withdrawn from all magnetic influence. As soon as
the cooling process was complete, he took the moulds, broke the
cylinders, and examined the grain of each of them. MM. Dou-
zel, iron-founders, have immediately studied it, and have found
no difference in crystallization. Two smaller patterns have been
exactly measured by M. Deleuil, which have only shown the
trifling difference of 3 milligrammes in their weight. An impor-
tant fact is, however, revealed by these first attempts. The pres-
ence of a powerful magnetism in the casting, from its liquid state
answered to 1,3U0 degrees, until the cooling was complete. The
cylinder of cast iron, hardly cold, attracted very strongly a large
bar of iron. It has remained magnetized since its solidification,
magnetizing feebly, it is true, but, in short, characterized by its
two poles. It is proved, then, that no incompatibility exists be-
tween heat and magnetism, that is to say, that iron can be mag-
netized at any temperature, when the action is constant, as in
the experiment writtenabove. M. Faye, in the session of the 16th
of August, 1865, had shown a remarkable result, which is not
without analogy to that which we have just shown.

After having dissolved in an acid some soft iron, destitute of

restraining force, and having deposited it in a thin layer upon the
surface of a sheet of copper, the illustrious academician estab-
lished in this iron, chemically pure (but rough and broken), a re-
straining faculty so energetic, that it has been able to heat a plate
thus prepared to the point of fusion of red copper itself, without
making the magnetism disappear that it had first communicated
to it. This plate has preserved its magnetism tothisday. . . .
If now, as these analogous results tend to show, temperature
high or low is not incompatible with the existence of magnetism,
when the first cause is persistent, as in the case of the earth, perpet-
ually submitted to the action of the currents which envelop it
from east to west, there would be some reason to accord more of
probability to the hypothesis of central magnetism, which ex-
plains more completely the variation and the inclination of the
magnetic needle, or, indeed, the centre might be magnetic, what-
ever the temperature, might it not be this perpetual magnetism in
rotation from west to east, which determines in the surrounding
atmosphere the currents from east to west, which haye been
established by Ampére ? — Comptes Rendus, Feb. 1, 1869,

| er 2

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Tv.

TELEGRAPH LINES AND THE AURORA BOREALIS..

Mr. George B. Prescott, well known as an electrician and
author of valuable works on the telegraph, makes the following
interesting explanation of a phenomenon noted in the case of
a recent auroral display : —

«¢On the evening of the 15th of April a magnetic storm of un-
usual force prevailed over the entire northern section of the coun-
try, which so seriously affected the operation of the wires that,
on some circuits, they could only be worked by taking off the
batteries and employing the auroral current instead. The effect
of this great disturbance of the earth’s magnetism was manifested
with particular power upon the wires between New York and
Boston, and for several hours the lines upon this route depended
entirely upon this abnormal power for their working current.
During the prevalence of this storm, however, I operated upon
two wires between the above cities by a plan which rendered
them as free from the effects of these earth currents as a local
circuit.

‘* Every one has observed that the auroral current comes in
waves of ever-changing polarity, corresponding in length and
direction with the scintillations of the visible aurora. Sometimes
these waves continue but a few seconds, and sometimes for a
longer time; but their constant change of polarity prevents the
successful operation of a wire, because at one moment the auro-
ral wave may augment the strength of current on the line, while
at the next it entirely neutralizesit. Therefore, it has frequently
been found advisable to remove the batteries entirely, and work
with the auroral current alone. But the operation of the lines in
this manner is very unsatisfactory, owing to the uncertain and
fitful character of this force ; and, therefore, any feasible plan by
which the wires may be worked under such circumstances is
worthy of adoption.

“The plan by which I overcame the difficulties arising from
the disturbance of the earth’s magnetism was by disconnecting
two wires from the earth at Boston, and connecting them to-
gether, while I grounded them both at New York, thus forming
a loop extending from New York to Boston. As the two wires
were both upon the same supports, the auroral wave travelled over
each in the same direction, and, by uniting the two wires at one
end, the auroral influence upon one wire was made to neutralize
that upon the other, and thus the wires wére left entirely free.

‘Of course it makes no difference how often the polarity of
the auroral current changes, or how much the strength of this
current may vary, since the direction of the current, and its
strength, change as much upon one wire as the other, and there-
fore the current upon one always exactly equals anc neutralizes
the other.”

152 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

INSULATION OF THE ATLANTIC CABLE,

The ‘‘ Boston Journal of Chemistry ” asserts, on the authority
of a gentleman intimately connected with the working of the
Atlantic Telegraph Cable, that the insulation is growing monthly
more perfect, and that the first cable, laid 4 years since, leaks
less than the last one. The loss, at the present time, does not
reach half of one per cent. upon both cables. This is surprising,
and very encouraging to the owners of the line. The extreme
cold of the deep-sea basin, in which the wires repose, is favorable
to the retention of the electrical impulses in the channel provided
forthem. The time consumed in charging and discharging the
conductors is a bar to rapid communication ; but this is to be over-
come by new methods of insulation. A device has recently been
brought forward which promises to fully remove this obstacle, and
thus enable submarine cables to perform double the work in the
same length of time. The success of deep-sea cables is now fully
assured, and we may look for a large increase in the number dur-
ing the next quarter of a century.

MAGNETISM.

The French Academy of Sciences has received a paper from M.
J. Jamin, in which he shows that magnetism may be condensed,
just like electricity. Having, for some special purposes, had a
large horse-shoe magnet made, consisting of 10 laminz of per-
fectly homogeneous steel, each weighing 10 kilogrammes, he
suspended it to a hook attached to a strong beam, and, having
wound copper wire around each of the legs, which were turned
downwards, he put the latter into communication with a battery
of 50 of Bunsen’s elements, by which means the horse-shoe might
be magnetized, either positively or negatively, at pleasure. ‘The
varations were indicated by a small horizontal needle, situated
in the plane of the poles. There was, further, a series of iron
plates, which could be separately applied to each of the lamine.
Before attaching any of the latter, the electric current was driven
through the apparatus for a few minutes, and then interrupted,
whereby the magnet acquired its first degree of saturation,
marked by a certain deviation of the needle. One of the iron
plates (usually called *‘contacts”) was then put on, and it sup-
ported a weight of 140 kilogrammes. A second trial was now
made; and, the current having passed through again for a few
seconds, it was found that the hhorse-shoe would support 300 kilo-
grammes, instead of 140. The number of contacts being now
increased to 5, which together, in the natural state, supported
120 kilogrammes, it was found, after the passage of the current,
that they could support the enormous weight of 680 kilogrammes,
which they did for the space of a full week. No sooner, how-
ever, were the contacts taken off than the horse-shoe returned
to its usual permanent strength of 140 kilogrammes. ‘This
tends to show that magnetism may be condensed like electricity
for a short period.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 153

ELECTRICITY AND THE PULSE.

At the meeting of the American Association at Salem, after
explaining the improvements in the diagnosis of aneurisms which
the case had suggested, Dr. Upham proceeded, with the aid of
the telegraph and magnesium light, to render audible and visible
the pulsations of patients in the City Hospital in Boston; Mr.
Farmer having charge of the telegraph instruments in the lecture-
room, Mr. Stearns at the City Hospital, and Dr. Knight, assisted
by the internes of the hospital, taking the medical direction.
The Franklin Telegraph Company placed their entire line be-
tween Salem and New York at the disposal of the Association,
and every pulse-click of the magnet was heard simultaneously at
every station on the entire line.

AN IMPROVED BATTERY.

We have recorded so many improvements (as they are all
called) in galvanic batteries, that the number and variety be-
come bewildering. The last we meet with is that suggested by
Boéttger, who proposes to substitute metallic antimony for carbon.
An amalgamated zinc plate is immersedina strong solution of com-
mon salt and sulphate of magnesia. ‘The antimony, like the car-
bon, is placed in a porous pot, but the liquid used is dilute sul-
phuric acid. A combination of this arrangement is said to give a
stronger and more lasting current than a cell of Daniell’s battery.
— Mechanics’ Magazine.

APPLICATION OF LEICHTENBERG’S EXPERIMENT TO THE MIN-
ERALOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ROCKS.

M. S. Meunier proposes to make use of the well-known experi-
ment of Leichtenberg’s electric figures to separate from each
other the divers mineralogical constituents of some kinds of rock.
We briefly remind our readers that the experiment alluded to con-
sists in charging with electricity a cake of resin or sealing-wax,
by means of a previously charged Leyden jar; it is thus possible
to charge certain portions of the cake with positive, others with
negative, electricity. In order to exhibit this to sight it is usual
to blow, by means of a small pair of bellaws, on to the cake of
the resin, a mixture of very finely powdered red lead and sul-
phur; the friction, on leaving the nozzle, causes the powders to
become electrified, and the sulphur, being negatively electric, is
attracted by the curved figures positively electric on the cake,
while the red lead follows the opposite course. M. Meunier has
tried thus to separate sulphur-bearing trachite into its mineral
constituents, and succeeded perfectly in getting the sulphide and
fieldspar from each other; he states that he has equally well suc-
ceeded with rocks made up of two different silicates. — Cosmos.

154 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

CHLORIDE OF SILVER PILE.

This pile, inclosed in a rubber-box hermetically closed, can
advantageously replace the bulky apparatus called continuous
currents, Which are ordinarily employed in medical practice. A
battery of 42 couples of chloride of silver correspond, in electro-
motive force and intensity, to 34 of the sulphate of copper couples
of Remack, and to the volume and weight of one only of these
last.

It can render great service in inflaming mines, torpedoes, ete.
Attached to a bobbin of Ruhmkorff it can serve in the case of in-
flammations; it can also replace the electrophorus of chemical
laboratories. Its use is indicated on the electric telegraph in sig-
nalizing an accident, or in notifying of danger.— Comptes Rendus,
May 3, 1869.

VELOCITY OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

At the meeting of the American Association at Salem, Prof. G.
W. Hough, director of the Dudley Observatory, read a paper
**On the Velocity of the Electric Current over Telegraph Wires.”

He stated that the law of apparent velocity was directly pro-
portional to the magnetic force of the current. This was shown
to be the fact from a large number of experiments made over
lines of different lengths. He also stated that the real velocity
of the wave had never been measured, but the velocity observed
was due to the difference of mechanical effects produced by the
current when the line was opened at alternate ends.

ELECTRIC SPARK FIGURES.

Mr. E. W. Blake, Jr., described a new method of his own dis-
covery, of producing by the electric spark figures similar to those
of Leichtenberg. ‘Warming a plate of tin or mica upon which
pitch had been allowed to fall up to the softening point of the
pitch, the communication of the electric spark produces a star-
shaped figure from positive electricity, and circles from negative
electricity. Leichtenberg’s process prepares the pitch by covering
it with some fine powder. No impression is produced upon cold
pitch. Resin and sealing-wax give good impressions, but the
best come from common pitch or Burgundy pitch. It is essential
that the under side of the plate be held to the flame.— Meeting of
the Am. Ass.

NON-EXISTENCE OF THE ELECTRIC FLUID. BY PROF. VANDER
WEYDE, M.D.

In the same manner that the investigations and discoveries of
20 years ago bave proved that the so-called caloric fluid has no
existence, and that heat is only a state of matter, —a mode of

oe ies eee

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 155

motion of its particles; so the investigations of the present day
prove that the so-called electric fluid has no existence, and that
even electricity is nothing more than a state of matter, — another
mode of motion of its molecuies. Without matter there is no
electricity, as will be proved by this little glass tube, in which the
vacuum is so perfect that no electricity can possibly pass through
it, notwithstanding the ends of the two platinum wires melted in
the glass, and projecting outside on both ends, and which con-
duct the electricity interiorly, are only one-quarter of an inch
apart. I have here a similar tube filled with common atmospheric
air, the ends of the wires are also one-quarter of an inch apart,
and may be separated a half or a whole inch, but the electric
current will be seen in the form of sparks to pass easily between
the wires, and to charge this Leyden jar. I have here also a so-
called Geisler tube, in which the ends of the wires are separated
to the distance of 20 inches, and through which the electric cur-
rent could not pass at all while filled with air; but the air in it is
rarefied to such a degree as to make it a good conductor of
electricity, and you see the current pass not in sparks, as in the
second tube filled with common air, but as a glowing fire, re-
sembling the northern light; through this tube, also, we can
charge this Leyden jar. Through the first tube, in which, by
great precautions, an almost perfect vacuum has been produced,
there is not only no current seen to pass, but it is impossible to
load this Leyden jar when the tube is interposed between the jar
and the machine developing the electricity.

The verification of the passage or non-passage of the electric
current by means of this charge in the jar, obtained or not ob-
tained, is important, as otherwise it would be doubted if the
electricity passed invisibly through the vacuum. j

This striking and novel experiment, demonstrating the im-
possibility that an electric current can overlap a really empty
Space, even to the small distance of only’ one-quarter inch,
proves that there are two errors in our present theory of
electricity. First, that the transmission of electricity in vacuo,
so called, is really a transmission through rarefied air or gas,
these being good conductors; common air, we know, is a bad
conductor. ‘The vacuum is proved by this new experiment to be
an absolute non-conductor. Secondly, this experiment proves
that if that which we call electricity was really a fluid distinct
from common matter, there is no reason why it should not over-
lap the small empty space of a quarter ofan inch. As we saw,
however, that electricity cannot possibly overlap that small space,
nor be transmitted where no matter exists, we are forced to the
conclusion that the phenomena of electricity are not due to a
peculiar fluid, which moves rapidly through conducting media,
but that the propagation is effected by peculiar motions of the
molecules, which, being rapidly transmitted from molecule to
molecule in the conducting body, form that which we eall elec-
tric currents. In short, that electricity is transmitted like sound,
by some kind of waves, undulations, or rotations, only with
much greater velocity. In fact, there exists as little necessity to

156 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

adopt a special electric fluid to explain the electric phenomena,
as there exists to adopt a special sonorous fluid to explain the
acoustic phenomena. — Scientific American.

SUBSTITUTE FOR COPPER IN THE DANIELLS BATTERY.

Few persons, in experimenting upon voltaic combinations, ever
consider economy in their construction, and experiments which
tend to cheapen their first cost should be made public.

An expensive part of the Daniells battery is the copper plate,
the cost of which can be reduced two-thirds, in the following
manner: —

Procure sheets of the ordinary sheet tin of commerce, brighten
and plunge into a very weak copper plating solution, in connec-
tion with a voltaic battery of very low quantity. In 15 to 18
hours a tenacious film ‘of copper will have been deposited upon
the tin, and the plate can then be bent in shape suitable for a
Daniells battery. — Telegraph.

THE *‘ WAVE” TIME OF THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.

The Boston ‘‘ Traveller” gives the following official figures from
the records at Harvard College: ‘‘It was proposed to begin with
a comparatively short loop, extending from Cambridge to Buffalo
and back, and then to extend the loops successively to Chicago,
Omaha, Salt Lake, Virginia City, and finally to San Francisco.
The plan was put into execution on the nights of February 28th
and March 7th, and in both instances the results were extremely
successful. It was quite fascinating to stand before two instru-
ments, a few inches apart, and to see and hear a signal made upon
one, repeated upon the other in a fraction of a second, after hay-
ing traversed a distance of over 7,000 miles.

‘* Below is given a table which shows the time, to hundredths
of seconds, occupied by a signai passing from Cambridge to each
of the stations and back. The numbers of repeaters in the cir-
cuits are also given :—

“(TIME OF TRANSMISSION FROM CAMBRIDGE.

Seconds.
To Buffaloand return, . ... . . 0.10 1 repeater.
To Chicago and return, . . . . « « 0.20 3 os
To Omaha andreturn, ..... . 0.33 5 ee
ToSalt Lake and return, .... . 0.54 9 “6
To Virginia City and return, . . . . 0.70 11 “
To San Francisco and return, . . . . 0.74 13 a

‘*The actual time of transmission from Cambridge to San Fran-
cisco and back does not probably exceed three-tenths of a sec-
ond; the ‘armature times’ of the 13 repeaters, in all probability,
amount to four or five tenths of a second.”

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 157

Herr Paalzow has been making experiments from which he con-
cludes that there is no relation between the conductibility for
heat and that for electricity. He has experimented on the fol-
lowing substances, and has found that they have the following
order in point of conductibility of heat and electricity : — Heat:
Mercury, water, sulphate of copper, sulphuric acid, sulphate of
zine, solution of sea salt. Electricity: Mercury, sulphuric acid,
solution of sea-salt, sulphate of zinc, sulphate of copper, water.

THE GALVANIC BATTERY.

Prof. G. W. Hough, in his recent report as Director of the
Dudley Observatory at Albany, N. Y., gives the conclusions ar-
rived at, after a series of experiments with galvanic batteries, as
follows: 1. In the sulphate of copper battery (Daniells’ form), the
principal cause of decline in the strength of the electric current
is due to the formation of the sulphate of zinc. 2. The quantity
of electricity flowing in the external circuit depends on the spe-
cific gravity of the sulphate of zine solution. 3. When the sul-
phate of zine solution approaches saturation, polarization takes
place in the battery itself, and, although electric motive force re-
mains the same, the internal resistance may be increased more
than a hundred times. 4. The sulphate of zine solution (or any
fluid about the zinc) is useful only as a conductor of electricity.
5. The copper, or negative metal, is useful only as a conductor;
since it can be replaced by any negative metal, even by zinc it-
self. 6. The internal resistance of the battery has been sepa-
rated into two parts, namely, that due to the porous cell and that
due to the liquids employed. The specific resistance of the liquids
was found to be 13; that for a small clay cell 17, and for a leather
cell 7; since the resistance of the leather cell is less than one-
half that of a clay cell, we have used it in the construction of bat-
teries, as the quantity of electricity is nearly doubled, without
any increase of the surface. For the negative metal, in place of
the copper heretofore employed, we have used sheet lead. The
investigations have enabled us to compute, with great precision,
the length of time a battery will generate its normal quantity of
electricity, provided the amount of electricity flowing in the ex-
ternal circuit is known, and the capacity of the vessel holding the
sulphate of zinc solution is determined. The specific gravity of
the sulphate of zinc solution should not be-less than 15°, nor more
than 30° Baumeé.

SOUNDS OF TELEGRAPH WIRES.

As the cause of the sounds frequently heard to proceed from
the wires in the open air, it has been customary to accept the
wind, and its producing the soundings by direct vibration, simi-
lar to those of the Molian harp. A different view of it, however,
and one which will recommend itself perhaps more generally,
is given by a railroad officer in the ‘‘ Austrian Railway Gazette.”

14

158 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Ile calls observation to the fact that one who gives his close
attention to both the wires and sounds will find that the latter
make their appearance likewise when there is a total absence of
wind, and in a quiet morning *‘n winter, when the wires appear
covered with frost to the thickness of a finger, they nevertheless
carried on lively vibrations and swinging while the air was totally
quiet. The observer had noticed this for 18 years past, and at
last was led to the real cause of the phenomenon.

According to him, therefore, the vibrations are due, not to the
wind, but the changes of atmospheric temperature, and especially
through the action of coid, as lowering of the temperature in-
duces a shortening of the wires, extending over the whole length
of the conductor. A considerable amount of friction is produced
on the supporting bells, and this gives the explanation for the
sounding both in the wires and the poles. This explanation also
concurs with the fact that poles bearing but one or a few wires
give off far louder sounds than when loaded with many, because
in the latter case the vibrations produced must be less uniform
and simultaneous.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE GREAT INDUCTION COIL AT THE
ROYAL POLYTECHNIC.

We extract from the ‘‘ Chemical News” the following abstract
of a paper communicated to the Royal Society, by J. P. Gassiot,
F.R.S.: —

**The length of the coil from end to end is 9 feet 10 inches, and
the diameter 2 feet; the whole is cased in ebonite;.it stands on
two strong pillars covered with ebonite, the feet of the pillars
being of a diameter of 22 inches. The ebonite tubes, etc., are the
largest ever constructed by the Silver Town Works.

‘*The total weight of the great coil is 15 cwt., that of the ebo-
nite alone being 477 lbs.

‘«The primary wire is made of copper of the highest conductiv-
ity, and weighs 145 lbs. ; the diameter of this wire is 0.0925 of an
inch, and the length 3,770 yards. The number of revolutions of
the primary wire round the core of soft iron is 6,000, its arrange-
ment being 3, 6, and 12 strands.

‘*¢ The total resistance of the primary is 2.201400 British Associ-
ation units, and the resistance of the primary conductors are re-
spectively, for three strands, 0.733800 British Association units;
six, 0.566945 B.A. units; twelve, 0.1854725 B.A. units.

‘*The primary core consists of extremely soft straight iron
wires 5 feet in length, and each wire is 0.0625 of an inch in diam-
eter. The diameter of the combined wires is 4 inches, and the
weight of the core is 123 lbs.

‘** The secondary wire is 150 miles in length; it is covered with
silk throughout, and the average diameter is 0.015 of an inch.

‘** The total weight of this wire is 606 lbs., and the resistance is
33.560 B.A. units. The length of the secondary coil is 55 inches,
and the insulation throughout is calculated to be 95 per cent. be-

NATURAL PHILG@SOPHY. 159

yond that required. The secondary wire is insulated from the
primary by means of an ebonite tube of one-half an inch in thick-
ness and 8 feet in length.

‘¢ The length of the secondary coil is 54 inches, the diameter js
19 inches, and without the internal ebonite tube containing the
primary wire and iron core it is a cylinder 19 inches in diameter
and 6 inches thick.

‘¢ The condenser, made in the usual manner with sheets of var-
nished paper and tinfoil, is arranged in 6 parts, each containing
125 superficial feet, or 750 square feet of tinfoil in the whole.

‘© A Jarge and substantially made contact breaker, detached
from the great coil and worked by an independent electro-mag-
net, was constructed, and worked very well with a comparatively
moderate power of 10 or 20 large Bunsen’s cells, when, however,
the battery was increased to 30 or 40 cells, it became unmanage-
able.

“A Foucault break, with the platinum amalgam and alcohol
above it, was now tried, and answered very much better than the
ordinary contact breaker; there was no longer any burning or
destruction of the contact points, although the great power of the
instrument appeared to cause continued decomposition in the
water of the alcohol placed above the platinum amalgam; and
every now and then the spirit was violently rejected, probably by
explosion of the mixed gases taking place in the amalgam, in
which they collected in bubbles; the alcohol took fire constantly
and had to be extinguished. A large and very strong glass vessel
(in fact, an inverted glass cell belonging to a bichromate battery)
was bored through, and the neck fitted into a cap with cement, a
thick wire covered with platinum being inserted in the bottom ;
the platinum amalgam was poured on this, and over it a pint or
more of alcohol; the contact wire was also very thick and pointed
with a thick stud of platinum, and, being attached to a spring,
contact was easily made and broken. Explosions did not occur,
flashes of light could be seen between the amalgam and the
alcohol, and the height of the column of the latter prevented the
forcible ejection of the spirit, which no longer took fire. The
break was used for 8 hours in a continuous series of experiments.

‘‘The Bunsen’s battery used in the experiments was made with
the largest porous cells that could be obtained, and each cell con-
tained about one pint of nitric acid.

‘¢Some experiments were tried with the battery arranged for
intensity, and used with the complete condenser of 750 square
feet of tinfoil, and 1,500 square feet of paper. At first, 5 cells
were used, and these gave a spark 12 inches in length. The
number of cells were gradually increased until 50 were in opera-
tion, when a spark from 28 to 29 inches in length was ob-
tained.

‘¢TIn order to ascertain whether any variation in the size of the
condenser would affect the length of the spark, a number of ex-
periments were tried; and it was found that when half the con-
denser was used the spark increased in length up to 20 cells, but
not after.

160 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

‘* Experiments were now tried to ascertain whether any in-
crease in the length of the spark could be obtained by arranging
the battery and the primary coil for quantity, but no material
advantage was obtained by this arrangement; even where 3
groups of cells were connected, a decrease in the length of the
spark is observed when compared with the 45 or 50 cells arranged
for intensity, the difference being as 20 to 28.

‘*The spark obtained from the large coil is thick and flame-
like in its appearance, and therefore it will be alluded to as the
‘flaming spark.’

‘*When the discharging-point and circular plate are brought
within 6 or 7 inches of each other, the flaming nature of the spark
becomes still more apparent.

‘* Two light-yellow flames curving upwards appear to connect
the opposite poles. If a blast of air from a powerful bellows is
directed against a flaming spark, the flaming portion can be
blown away and increased in area, and thin, wiry sparks are now
seen darting through it, sometimes in one continuous stream, at
another time divided into three or more sparks, all following the
direction in which the flame is blown.

‘*The flaming spark is very hot, and, if passed through as-
bestos (supported on an insulating pillar), quickly causes the
latter to become red-hot.

‘*When powdered charcoal is shaken from a pepper-box into
the flaming spark in a vertical line and in considerable quantities,
the greater part of the light is obscured, and the whole form of
the flaming spark presents the appearance of a black cloud with
a line of brightly ignited particles fringing the bottom parts. If
the charcoal is dusted through in small quantities, each particle
becomes ignited, like blowing charcoal into a hydrogen flame.

‘*When the flaming spark is directed on to a glass plate, upon
which a little solution of lithium chloride is placed, the latter
colors the flame upwards to the height of 3 or 4 inches in the
most beautiful manner; and if the point of the discharge is
tipped with paper, or sponge moistened with a little solution of
sodium chloride, the two colors (the yellow from the salt, and the
crimson from the lithium) meet each other, a neutral point being
found about half way, and thus illustrating apparently the dual
character of electricity, and that +- passes to — electrical, and
vice versa.

‘¢The flaming spark can be obtained in perfectly dry air.

‘*While passing through common air, if blown against a sheet
of damp litmus paper, the latter is rapidly changed red. In
order to ascertain whether the acid product was nitric acid, the
flaming spark (9 or 10 inches in length) was passed through a
tube connected by a cork and bent tube with a bottle containing
distilled water, from which another tube passed to the air-pump.
On drawing the air slowly over the spark, and passing the former
into the bottle, nitric acid was obtained in large quantities, so
much so that it could be detected by the smell and taste as well
as by the ordinary tests. The popular notion that nitric acid is
always produced during a thunder-storm would therefore appear

-
ie . i

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 161

to be correct. To determine the effect of a cooling surface on
the flaming spark, a hole one and one-half inches in diameter
was bored through a thick block of Wenham Lake ice, and the
spark passed through the air in the tube of ice; no change took
place, and the spark was still a flaming one.

‘*When the spark was received on the ice, it lost its flaming
character, and became thin and wiry, spreading out in all direc-
tions.

‘‘If the discharging wires were tipped with ice, the spark was
always flaming when any thickness of air intervened between
them. Even over the ice, if the spark passed a fraction of an
inch above the surface, it was always a flaming one, but changed
to the thin spark when the point of the discharging wire was
thrust into the ice.

‘“‘Tf one of the discharging wires of the great coil is brought
to the centre of a large swing looking-glass, and the other wire
connected with the amalgam at the back, the sparks are thin and
wiry, arborescent, and very bright; the crackling noise of these
discharges being quite different-from that of the heavy thud or
blow delivered by the flaming spark.

** When the discharging wire is brought close to the frame of
the looking-glass, or if a sufficient thickness of air intervenes,
the spark again becomes flaming; or, as sometimes occurs, if the
discharging wire is placed about 5 inches from the frame, the
spark is partly flaming and partly wiry, that is, when it impinges
on the glass.

‘<The spectrum is a continuous one with the sodium line.

‘*When the blast of air is used, and the wiry sparks made
apparent, then the nitrogen line appears.

‘The flaming spark has been ascribed by some .experienced
observers to the incandescence of the dust in the air, and espe-
cially sodium chloride.

**'To ascertain whether the ‘flaming spark’ could be obtained
with a small number of cells, the large Bunsen’s battery was
reduced to 3 cells, and it was found that no appreciable spark
could be produced when the whole primary wire was used with
less than 5 cells.

«* By reducing the length of the primary wire, and using the
4 divisions separately, with 5 cells, the spark was wiry, and
varied from 44 to 64 inches; with 10 cells it was wiry, and varied
from 8} to 93; in the latter the spark was slightly flaming. With
15 cells the spark was slightly flaming, and varied from 10 inches
to 11% inches. With 20 cells a flaming spark, varying from 114
inches to 124 inches, was obtained.

‘*When the two wires from the secondary coil are placed in
water, no spark is perceptible, even when the wire was brought
very close together, until they touch.

‘If the negative wire is passed through a cork, on which a
glass tube (a lamp glass) is fixed containing a depth of 5 inches
of water, and the positive wire is brought within half an inch of
the surface of the water in the tube, it becomes red-hot, and if
drawn further away from the surface, the upper part of the

14*

162 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

tube is filled with a peculiar glow or light, abounding in Stokes’
rays.

f The experiments with the vacuum tube, and especially Gas-
siot’s cascade, are, as might be expected, very beautiful. When
a coal-gas vacuum tube of considerable diameter, and conveying
the full discharge from the secondary coil, is supported over a
powerful electro-magnet axially, the discharge is condensed and
heat is produced.

‘Tf placed equatorially, the heat increases greatly, and when
the discharge is condensed and impinges upon the sides of the
glass tube, it becomes too hot to touch, and if the experiment
was continued too long the tube would crack.

*«“The enormous quantity of electricity of high tension which
the coil evolves, when connected with a battery of 40 cells, is
shown by the rapidity with which it will charge a Leyden bat-
tery.

‘* Under favorable circumstances, 3 contacts with the mercurial
break will charge 40 square feet of glass.

**On one occasion a series of 12 large Leyden jars arranged in
cascade were discharged; the noise was great; and each time
the spark (which was very condensed and brilliant) struck the
metallic disc, the latter emitted a ringing sound, as if it had re-
ceived a sharp blow from a small hammer.

*“*The discharges were made froma point to a metallic disc;
and when the former was positive the dense spark measured from
184 to 18% inches, and fell to two and one-half inches when the
metallic plate was positive and the point negative.

‘*¢ Variations of the Leyden-jar experiments were tried by con-
necting the coil worked by a quantity battery of 25 +- 25 cells
with 6 Leyden jars arranged in cascade, and the spark obtained
measured 84 inches.

‘The same 6 jars connected with the coil, when the 50 cells
were arranged continuously for intensity, gave a spark of 12
inches, of very great density and brilliancy.”

ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO REGISTERING VIBRATIONS.

The laws which govern the vibration of cords or wires have
been obtained by comparing tht sounds they produce with the
notes of a syren. Without questioning the accuracy of this
method, it will still be desirable to obtain the laws of vibration
without regard to the effects which vibrations produce; a direct
registry cannot fail to be more satisfactory. Now it is clear that
however rapid may be the vibrations of a cord, the velocity of the
electric force is greater; moreover, it is not impossible to make a
succession of electric impulses produce a corresponding succes-
sion of permanent effects, which can be seen and counted, so that
if a vibrating body can be made to open and close an electric cur-
rent, the electric force may be depended on to register its vibra-
tions. The practical questions are, first, How shall a vibrating
body be made to open and close an electric current without hay-

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 163

ing its motion embarrassed? Second, How, in a legible manner,
can the number of these rapid impulses be registered? And,
third, By what means can the time of vibration be accurately
measured? To register the vibration of cords and piano-wires,
the following arrangement of apparatus has been made. Through
the middle points of the vibrating cord passes a firm cambric
needle, the point of which will, when the cord is at rest, be very
near, but not in contact with the surface of mercury contained in
acup beneath. A galvanic battery is connected, one pole with
this cup, the other with a trough, containing mercury, into which
dips the end of a wire bent twice at right angles, and turning
freely upon a hinge. To this wire is joined one end of the helix
of an electro-magnet, while to the other end of the coil is attached
a flexible metallic thread (a ravelling of gilt lace) tied into the
eye of the needle, which passes through the vibrating cord.
Now, by the vibration of the cord, the needle-point will be brought
in contact with the surface of the mercury under it at the end of
every double vibration, and a current of electricity darts through
the wires, magnetizes the electro-magnet, which pulls the arma-
ture to its poles, and brings the registering point in contact with
the paper. As the paper is drawn swiftly along by clock-work,
while the armature with its sharp and soft lead-pencil point is
in motion, the vibrations of the cord are registered upon the paper
in a line of distinct black dots, easily counted. To measure time,
in the present form of the apparatus, a pendulum is used. The
pendulum when drawn to one end of its are rests against one
arm of a lever, while the other arm carries a pair of pluckers
which grasps the cord. A pressure of the finger causes this finger
to release, at the same instant, the pendulum from one end, and
the cord from the other. The wire, whose lower end dips into the
trough of mercury, can at any time be brought into the arc of the
pendulum, by moving the block to which it is fastened, without
breaking the circuit ; but when this is done, the ball will strike its
upper end, and, knocking it over, lift the lower end from the
mercury, and open the circuit. The motion of the armature be-
gins with the beginning of the first vibration of the pendulum,
and stops at the end of 1, 3, or any odd number of seconds, and
the number of dots left upon the paper shows the number of
vibrations of the cord. The vibrations of the wire are made to
occurin a vertical plane opening and closing an electric circuit
with corresponding rapidity, and a dot is made upon the moving
paper at the moment when the lowest point in the vibration is
reached. The experiment begins when the wire is above its line
of rest; the first dot, therefore, represents one-half of one com-
plete vibration. Should the experiment end when the wire is at
the highest point in its motion, the numher of dots would show
the exact number of complete vibrations made; but since it may
end when the wire is at any point of its path, there may be a pos-
sible error of less than one-half of a complete vibration in an ex-
periment one second in length. As the time is lengthened, the
error is diminished; in a registry of 5 seconds the maximum
error would be less than one-tenth of one vibration per second.

164 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The precision with which the laws of vibration may be verified
by the use of this instrument is in the highest degree satisfactory.
However numerous the repetitions of an experiment may be, the
registry varies only by a single dot. Moreover, it makes the law
rest upon no comparison of sounds produced by the vibrations,
nor upon any other effect of the motion, but upon the vibrations
themselves, whose numerical relations are directly shown. Vi-
brations, sonorous or otherwise, are thus equally the subject of ex-
perimental investigation.

Prof. Cooley gives this table of vibrations, which differs from all
others relating to music; first, in being the result of a direct reg-
istry; and, second, in that it shows all the intervals of the scale.
The piano upon which the registry is based was tuned to the
standard pitch of the Boston Music Hall organ.

Ist Octave (lowest). 2d OcTAVE. 3d Ocrave.
No. of vibs. No. of vibs. No. of vibs.
Notes per sec. | Notes per sec. | Notes per sec.

Cc 30.8 Cc 61.5 C 23.4,
C# 32.7 | CH 65.5 | Ode 130.8
D 34.7 D 69.3 D 138.5
D# 36.7 | De 73.4 | Dd 146.7
E * 38.7 E 714 | E 154.7
F 41.8 F 83.5 F 166.6
FE 44.2 | Fe 88.3 | Fe 176.5
G 46.8 G 93.5 G 187.1
Git 49.4 | G# 98.7 | GH 197.4
A 52.2 A 104.4 A 208.5
Ax 64.4 | Ax 108.7

B 57.7 B 115.7

Cc 61.5 C 123.1

The octave above A= 208.5 is the 7a usually referred to in de-
scribing the pitch of the orchestra; it is thus produced by 417 com-
plete vibrations per second.

In the time of Louis XIV., the pitch of this A was, according
to Sauveur, 405 vibrations per second, while by the action of the
congress called together by the Society of Arts, at London, in 1860,
it was 440. The same note sounded by Handel’s tuning-fork
(1740) is said to have been made by 416 vibrations per second. It
will be thus seen that while the present pitch is nearly one-half of a
tone higher than that referred to by Sauveur, and considerably
more than that interval lower than that of the London Congress,
it agrees with the pitch adopted by Handel, to within a single
vibration. — Prof. Cooley,Journal Franklin Institute.

CONDUCTING POWERS OF MATERIALS.

According to the experiments of Mr. M. G. Farmer, made some
years since, the relative electrical resistance of different metals

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 165
and fluids at ordinary temperatures is as follows, pure copper
being taken as 100: —

TOD eUa WEG s a) voi aon abe, ae oO
-98 | Zinc ‘ a. a eo oe aay Ree

Copper wire, .
Silver | is

Gold Pee 5 EL rane el gs a) ote
Iron suet. os)” 6263-) German silver wire, . «.' 11.30
Lead Geis 6 «3410764 Nickel BO SSE gh eee
Mercury ‘ ar hfe tie 50.00 | Cadmium Er egat am eeGe
Pallad’m “ shy ass 5.50 | Aluminum £6 ick soy es: Seo bann e
Platinum’ .. Pee an Fy fs)

His experiments with fluids gave the following results : —

40,653,723.00
. 1,305,467.00
. 18,450,000.00

Ser aroirain watorsi!s) it) GU Eis
Water, 12 parts; sulphuric acid, 1 part,. .
Sulphate of copper, 1 pound per gallon,. .
Saturated solution of common salt, . . . 3,173,000.00

Ly ‘¢ of sulphate of zine, . . - 17,330,000.00
Nitric acid, 30 B,°. . . «. « « « « « «+ « 1,606,000.00

The following table gives the specific resistance in ohms (an ohm
is an amount of resistance equal to that exerted by one-sixteenth of
a mile of common galvanized iron telegraph Wire No. 9) of vari-
ous metals and alloys, at 32° Fah., according to the most recent
determination of Dr. Matthiessen : —

Resistance of|Approximate per
wire 1 foot (cent. variation in
long, 1-1000th/resistance per de-
inch in diam-|gree, temperature

Resistance of
wire 1 foot
long, weigh-
ing 1 grain.

NAME OF METALS.

eter. at 20 degrees.
Silverannealed, . .. . .| 0.2214 9.936 0.377
Shard drawn,. . : « 0.2421 9.151
Copper annealed, . . . . .| 0.2064 9.718 0.388
‘¢ hard drawn, ees wl ¢. Os 206 9.940
Gold annealed, . ee. el | GORE 12.52 0.365
chard drawn, . . J '. .| - 0.5950 12.74
Aluminum annealed, . . . 0.06822 17.72
Mam EORSEG, © 2 oe ee 0.5710 32.22 0.365
Platinum annealed, .. . 3.536 55,09
Li Gr Ce a a a 1.2425 59.10
Nickelannealed, . .. . 1.0785 75.78
Tin pressed, . Saar ee 1.317 80.36 0.365
Lead pressed, .* .°’. 2 3 | > 3.236 119.39 0.387
Mercury liquid,. . . . . .| 18.746 600.00 0.072

Platinum silver alloy, hard or

annealed, used for standard

resistance coils, . . . . | 4.243 148.35 0.031
German silver, hard or annealed,

commonly used for resistance

coils, ed arte Tei «, 2.652 127.32 0.044
Gold silver alloy, 2 parts gold, 1
part silver, hard or annealed,.| 2.391 66.10 0.065

The use of this table is as follows: Suppose it is required to
find the resistance at 82° Fah. of a conductor of pure hard copper,

166 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

weighing 400 lbs. per knot. This is equivalent to 460 grains per
foot. The resistance of a wire weighing one grain is found by
the table to be 0.2106; therefore the resistance of a foot of wire
weighing 460 grains will be 2:22 ; but the resistance of one knot
will be 6,087 times that of one toot; therefore the resistance re-
quired will be 5287*9-2106 — 2.79 ohms. If the diameter of the
wire be given, instead of its weight per knot, the constant is
taken from the second column. Thus the resistance at 52° Fah.
of a knot of pure hard-drawn copper wire 0.1 inch in diameter
would be £9874994—6.05. The resistance of wires is materially
altered by annealing them, and a rise in temperature increases
the resistance of all metals. Dr. Matthiessen found that for all
pure metals the increase of resistance between 32° and 212° Fah.
is sensibly the same. The resistance of alloys is much greater
than the mean of the metals composing them. They are very
useful in the construction of resistance coils.

The highest value which has probably been fqund for the con-
ducting power of pure copper is 60 times that of pure mercury,
according to Sabine. Commercial copper may be considered of
good quality when its conducting power is over 50. Different
samples of copper vary greatly in their specific conductivity, as
may be seen by the following table, which gives the result of
careful determinations by Dr. Matthiessen, the conducting power
of pure copper at 59.9° Fah. being taken as 100.

Lake Superior, native, not fused, . . . . . . 98.8 at 59.9°
“a ‘¢ fused (commercial), . . . . . 92.6 at 59.0°
matre Barta, ss se SS SS OS Se he) ee eee

Best selected, a ala er a 81.3 at 57.5°
Bright copper wire, . . . «+ . * 72.2 at 60.2°
meugh Copper; uc 5s 6) @ Jeri0 o 71.0 at 63.19
ee Oe ee ee - 59.3 at 54.8°
Rio Tinto,...» » >» « + wie ee he 14.2 at 58.69

Thus Rio Tinto copper possesses no better conducting power
than iron. This shows the great importance of testing the con-
ductivity of the wire used in the manufacture of electro-magnets,
cables, ete.

VEGETABLE ELECTROMOTORS.

The ‘‘ Chemical News” contains an article contributed by Ed-
win Smith, M.A., giving results of researches in a field which, so
far as we are aware, has been hitherto untraversed. He says:
‘‘It is well known that a voltaic combination may be made of
two liquids and a metal, if one of the three acts chemically upon
one and only one of the other two; thus, we may employ copper,
nitrate of copper, and dilute nitric acid, or platinum, potash, and
nitric acid. Connect a platinum crucible with one terminal of a
galvanometer, pour in a little solution of caustic potash, place in
this the bowl of a tobacco-pipe having the hole stopped up with
wax, pour into the bowl a little nitric acid, dip in the acid a
small slip gf platinum foil, and connect this with the other ter-

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 167

minal of the galvanometer; a powerful deflection of the needle
indicates the presence of an electric current and shows its direc-
tion to be from the alkali to the acid, the platinum serving
merely as a conductor. It occurred to me, when performing
this experiment, that an electro-motive combination might just as
well be made of two vegetable substances, with platinum for con-
ductor, provided only they were of a nature to act chemically
upon one another, —an alkaloid and an organic acid, for in-
stance. It also seemed to me not unlikely that, wherever two
flavors are habitually conjoined in our cookery and eating, the
reason why they mutually improve each other is because a cer-
tain amount of electric action is set up between the substances
employed to produce them. The rationale of the right blending
of flavors might be found partly, no doubt, in chemistry, but
partly, also, in galvanism.

**Pursuing this idea, I tried pairs of eatables which generally
go together, such as pepper and salt, coffee and sugar, almonds
and raisins, and the like, and found that a voltaic current more
or less strong was excited in every instance which I tested. Bit-
ters and sweets, pungents and salts, or bitters and acids, gener-
ally appear to furnish true voltaic couples, doubtless in conse-
quence of the mutual action of some alkaloid salt and an acid or
its equivalent. As others may like to repeator extend the experi-
ments, 1 will describe shortly my mode of procedure: Cut two
pieces of platinum foil about five inches by two and a half inches,
and a number of pieces of filter-paper a trifle larger. Well-
washed linen is sometimes more convenient than filter-paper.
Have a small wooden board near the mercury-cups of the gal-
vanometer, and lect a short copper or platinum wire, dipping into
one of the cups, rest on the board. The substances to be tried
must be brought to a state of solution, the stronger the’ better, by
infusion, decoction, or otherwise. Suppose coffee andsugar are
to be operated upon; solutions of both having been prepared, dip
into each a slip of filter-paper ; place one slip on one of the pieces of
platinum foil, and the other on the second piece. Next lay the
first slip and its foil on the board, with the metal touching the cop-
per wire before mentioned. Lay the second slip with its platinum
upwards, so that the coffee and sugar come into even contact
with slight pressure, and immediately connect this upper slip,
through a bit of copper wire, insulated from the touch, with the
other terminal of the galvanometer. Deflection occurs instanta-
neously, and may be increased to a considerable vibration by
breaking and making circuit at the right swing of the needle.
After a few distinct vibrations, it is well to turn over the whole
pile of slips just as they are, and connect opposite ends with the
galvanometer, so asto reverse the current. This is desirable for
the sake of confirming your previous observation, and of correct-
ing any slight disturbing cause arising from the wire and mer-
cury connectors, temperature of the hand, ete. It will be found
that coffee and sugar have the same electrical relation to each
other as zine and platinum. Coffee, in fact, is the positive, sugar

168 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the negative. I subjoin a table of the results of numerous ex-
periments, conducted in the manner above described : —

ELECTRO-POSITIVE. ELECTRO-NEGATIVE.
eee Sse eb aie rel ae” sie 0 rio ie ie Sugar (loaf).
Tea (black), 2 « +» © « « « oon 6

Qe eee oo al Eo oe ie ee ef

Watmeg,: 6 (ssf 'eihe ecle pil eile : i

CRONOE, cee are ~+h 06 | ese tlesee 6 tre. Oo 66
SRAURIROE. 0. $e, 0 © 4) Oh Sno Becela mae «6

Mace, sib eva sh, &. Role Cn at Melee “ce

WORM a che ee Moe atte ete ee ee ae és
PEON 55 Fgh a Te oe ee wig tia le ae

Rhubarb (tincture);. . « «© « « « © « x

Starch, ai biibe Ole abe aaeh earls 2

Starch caramel, arr ower es, ware rt J

Gum caramel, dice S6isees cena weer he -

Cane sugar caramel,. . . « « © © « « 7

Milk sugar, . . © « «© © «© «© «© @ « ~
Sree a ee OF BAe eee te “:
Alaina, sie Lae as eta lt Raisins.
Horseradish; ole 0 hel a0 /at oe) et Beetroot.
Onion, og 161) (2. LO 7) OTt Mele Me ave eat oF
TAOUUEII, ¢50 0 dé nici ie cme. a 4s es Table salt.
Mustard, Sa he! Oita ee ee oe ee 7

Pepper (ware), + «ss 6 6 6% ah a =
Mustard, pe ee te es tah ee Tartaric Acid.
Ginger, . oF Vin SUP eas cme ‘4 #
Cayenne pepper, . « 2 « « « « s « « a #.
Pepper (white), . .« «+ » «© we « « “§ <
PER COOK Ds. ate celge wiih ese | atc “ oa
Tobacco, . Pe a eee ; “ ~'s
Quinine (Howard’s), ie op eres ; - 13
PR EOG. a. e 6 s & oe 8 kl ee vee ac
Lemon juice, . . . « « « Pe oe - *
oe ee at ee oh Be ee bi ee
SVR WONOE) oie) as, wile ye Ta as ms “
ACMI IELTS Le ae ‘¢ y
Peppermint, . . eyes ee yt ae Fa +
BOW FOUMEG. 2 6) ss 4 ce. 8 ade fe, 8 Lemon Juice.
AGL Femme, “sk te ee / =
Poruvias. Bark, ie OES FP aa. ” -
Camphor (Tincture), . . + « « «© « « - -
Leudanam,'*. 6046) aa ae SO STie! “ ¢
Arnica (tincture), . . . + « « ef. Dilute Sulphuric Acid.
Peruvian bark, ‘eee scirh e “ be
Quinine (Howard’s), . ... . ° be - ns
Iodine (tincture), + a eee . Turpentine.
Caustic ey er o See ° ° “

baron ay we I Lee ter WINE ce ts0% ”

Starch, . : ooh tas tigh te ED Ge .! wh%e Iodine (tincture).
Caustic potash, | «Mite pee ile: es es Neat’s-foot oil.

**Tt is somewhat difficult to eliminate from these experiments
all error arising from difference of temperature, if the galvanom-
eter is toler: ably sensitive. Care must be taken to bring the pair
of solutions operated upon to the same temperature before testing
them; otherwise a thermo-electric current from the hotter to the

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 169

colder liquid may affect the needle, and mask the true electrical
relation between the two, so far as it depends upon therr chemi-
cal nature.

FRIGORIFIC MIXTURES.

The degree to which the temperature can be reduced by dis-
solving a “salt in water, wili, in general, be the greater in the
proportion to the dissolved quantity of the salt. Since this
quantity depends upon a certain temperature, it will be necessary,
in order to obtain the greatest effect, to bring the salt and men-
struum together precisely in the proportion in which they yield a
saturated solution at the desired low temperature. Any excess
of water beyond that needs also to be cooled down, and there-
fore consumes part of the effect. The fact that this point has
generally been left out of view is the cause that the data as to
frigorific effect and lowest temperature vary considerably with
different observers. The best and safest way is to bring together
the ingredients in such conditions that an instantaneous solution
must immediately take place, that is, the salt in as fine a state of
division as possible, and very slightly in excess of the calculated
proportion, after both salt and water have remained for 12 to 18
hours in thin glasses in the same room together, to allow them to
equalize their t temperature with that of the room. In the follow-
ing comparative table of averages the results were obtained by
adding the water to the salt and stirring with the thermometer.
The maximum lowering is attained within a minute at most.

Temperature sinks

Soluble in
100 water
Weight +-
100 water

from to by
Se aS eee 10.0 14 52 49 a>
Common Salt, . . . 35.8 36 54 50 ee
Sulphate Potash, . . 9.9 12 58 53 a
Phosphate of Soda, . 9.0 14 51 45 G5. 6
Sulphate Ammonia, . 72.3 75 56 44 Bae 488
Sulphate Soda,. .. 16.8 20 54.5 42 17.5, 4
Sulphate Magnesia, . 80.0 85 52.5 38 TAs a, 44
Carbonate Soda, E 30.0 40 51 35 1a. 35 $8
Nitrate Potassa, E 15.5 16 56 37.4 LEG) sé
Chloride Potassium, . 28.6 30 56. 33 7 a ead
Carb. Ammonia, 25.0 30 60 37.5 22.5
Acetate Soda, . . 80.0 85 51 24 anit A
Chloride Ammonium, 28.2 30 56 23 Gain KE
Nitrate Soda, . . 69.0 75 56 22.5 33.5 «
Hyposul phite Soda, 98.0 110 51 17.6 BE ee
Iodide Potassium, . 120.0 140 51.5 1l 40.5
Chloride Cale’m eryst., 200.0 | 250 51.5 9.5 ay! 4
Nitrate Ammonia, . 55.0 60 56.6 7 49.6 <6
Sulphocyanide Ammonia,| 105.0 133 55.7 —l OGL -%
Sulphocyanide Potash, 130.0 | 150 51.5 —19 tea“

15

170 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

FREEZING MIXTURE.

When citric acid and crystallized carbonate of soda in powder
are stirred together, the mass gets into a pasty state, and in a
short time becomes quite liquid. If equivalent proportions of the
substances are used, the temperature falls from 60° F. to 80° F.
The mixture, for a time, is full of air-bubbles, but soon becomes
quite a clear, dense, syrupy liquid. The fluid obtained by mix-
ing the powders becomes solid in a day or two, standing in a
corked jar. The solid mass has the appearance of set plaster
of Paris. The addition of a very little water appears to prevent
this settling into a solid mass; but the chalky-looking citrate lies
a long time in cold water without being dissolved.

NEW METHOD OF MAKING ICE.

A few days ago a number of gentlemen, by special invitation,
witnessed the operations of a new invention which bids fair to be
one of great practical value. It is a process of making ice and
refrigerating by machinery, in a short space of time, at a com-
paratively small cost, and to an almost unlimited extent. The
working of this machinery was exhibited on board the steamship
‘*William Tabor,” lying in the East River, at the foot of Nine-
teenth Street, and its utility satisfactorily shown to the spectators.
This novel invention does two things: it makes ice with the
thermometer at 90 degrees in the shade, and preserves meats and
fruits for transportation. It accomplishes its purpose upon the
chemical principle that if all the heat is extracted out of any
object, it becomes intensely cold. The ice is made in this way:
A small steam engine, by means of two pumps, subjects carbonic-
acid gas to a pressure suflicient to liquidize it. In a liquid state
this gas has lost its heat, but recovers it again when converted
into gas. Accordingly, a simple apparatus is contrived, by which
the acid in a liquid state is made to surround small tubes filled
with water. The acid then returns to its gaseous condition, and
in doing so takes with it all the caloric out of the water leaving
it solid ice. There is no limit to the number of these tubes or
apartments of water, and a large quantity of ice can be formed
atatime. Yesterday about 20 tubes were filled and frozen to an
arctic rigidity.

Upon the same principle air can be rendered cold and dry by
being passed through these tubes while carbonic acid is regain-
ing its heat, and then can be pumped into an air-tight chamber,
In this chamber, thus filled with dry, frozen air, any meat, fruit,
or perishable article can be placed and preserved.

THE BATHOMETER.

This instrument admits of a combination in one sounding of
three or more distinct methods of ascertaining and measuring these

a

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. A ya |

depths. The discovery of the Messrs. Morse was that of the
means of making a buoy which will retain its buoyancy under
the enormous pressure of the deep sea. They took a hollow
glass sphere between 3 and 4 inches in diameter, the glass only a
tenth of an inch thick, and the sphere so light that it floated in
water with half its bulk above the surface, and subjecting this
fragile body in the cistern of an hydraulic press to a pressure of
7 tons on the square inch, which is the pressure at the depth of
about 30,000 feet in the ocean, they found that the sphere was
neither crushed nor permeated by the liquid. A tin or wooden
tube, 4 inches or more in diameter, and of any required length, is
filled with these glass spheres, and ballasted so that it will float
upright in the water. An elongated sinker, also, of any required
length and weight, is then suspended from the bottom of the
tube, and so attached there that it becomes detached when the
weight touches, or, if desired, when it is 100 feet, or any required
distance, from the bottom, leaving the tube with its spheres to
ascend to the surface. As this instrument moves with uniform
velocity both in its descent and ascent, the time of its disappear-
ence from the surface indicates the depth to which it has de-
scended. But the inventors do not confine themselves to this
mode of determining the depth. They enclose in their tube, and
send down and bring back with it their proper bathometer, which
is simply a bottle of water with a bag of mercury and water sus-
pended from its neck, the water in the bottle being connected
with the mercury in the bag by a glass tube, of very fine bore,
passing from the bottom of the bag through an India-rubber stop-
per in the neck of the bottle into its interior. When this bottle
and bag are placed at the bottom of the sea, the pressure of the
external water, communicated through the bag and through the
mercury in the bag and glass tube to the water in the bottle,
compresses that water, and mercury is forced from the bag into
the bottle, to supply the void caused by the compression. The
amount of the mercury forced into the bottle is the measure of
the compression of the water, and the compression of the water is
the measure of the height of the compressing column, that is,
of the depth of the sea. To facilitate the measuring of the mer-
cury, there is inserted in the bottle, opposite the neck, a gradu-
ated tube of even bore, closed atits outer end, so that on inverting
the bottle the mercury falls into this metre-tube, and the height
of the mercury indicates the depth to whicli the bottle has de-
scended. , A

All attempts to measure the deep sea with a line and sinker
attached, as in ordinary soundings, have proved failures, and sci-
entific men of the highest reputation, who have devoted much
time to the investigation of the problem, have pronounced it im-
possible ever to send and recover a line with a sinker from the
greatest depths of the ocean. Even in moderate depths the
measurement by a line is very uncertain and unreliable, in con-
sequence of the effect of currents, and of the drifting of the boat
from which the soundings are made, The bathometer of the
Messrs. Morse, it is asserted, will descend to, and return from,

172 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the greatest depths with certainty, and with a rapidity which
hardly admits of a limit. In a recent experiment the instrument
rose from the bottom at the rate of 20 feet in a second, or of a
mile in less than 44 minutes. They believe that a sounding in
2,000 fathoms water will ultimately be made easily in less than
15 minutes. The time occupied in a sounding of this depth by
those employed by the United States government in sounding be-
tween Ireland and Newfoundland, preparatory to laying the At-
lantic cable, was ordinarily 6 or 7 hours.

STEWART AND TAIT’S EXPERIMENTS ON THE HEATING OF
BODIES BY ROTATION IN VACUO.

Since the theory of a universal, all-permeating, elastic ether,
far more subtile than any known gas, even when expanded to the
utmost by mechanical means, has been found to account for the
phenomena of light and heat more perfectly than any other, the
actual demonstration of its existence has been a desideratum,
The experiments described in the present article, although to our
minds not at all satisfactory, were undertaken to prove the real
existence of ether.

The experiments are those of Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., Su-
perintendent of Kew Observatory, London, and P. G. Tait, M.A.,
of Edinburgh.

These gentlemen, having obtained certain results in air, were
encouraged to construct an apparatus wherewith to procure rota-
tion in vacuo.

In this apparatus a slowly revolving shaft is carried up through
a barometer tube, having at its top the receiver which is to be
exhausted. When the exhaustion has taken place, the shaft con-
nected with the multiplying gear revolves in mercury. The
train of toothed wheels causes the disc of aluminum to revolve
125 times for each revolution of the shaft. The thermo-electric
pile, the most delicate thermometer or test of heat, is connected -

by two wires carried through two holes in the bed-plate of the _

receiver with a Thompson’s reflecting galvanometer needle.
The outside of the thermo-electric pile and its attached cone wags
wrapped round with wadding and cloth, so as to be entirely un-
affected by currents of air.

During these experiments the disc of aluminum was rotated
rapidly for half a minute, and a heating effect was, in conse-
quence of the rotation, recorded by the thermo-electric pile.

To obyiate the objection that the electric currents which take
place in a revolving metallic disc might alter the zero of the gal-
vanometer, the position of the line of light was read before the
motion began, and immediately after it ceased, the difference be-
ing taken to denote the heating effect produced by rotation.

‘The thermometric value of the indications given by the gal-
vanometer was found in this way: ‘‘ The disc was removed from
its attachment and laid upon a mercury-bath of known tempera-
ture. It was then attached to its spindle again, being in this

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 173

position exposed to the pile, and having a temperature higher
than that of the pile by a known amount. The deflection pro-
duced by this exposure being divided by the number of degrees
by which the dise was hotter than the pile, gives atonce the value
in terms of the galvanometric scale of the heating of the disc
equal to 1° on Fahrenheit’s scale.

The dise of aluminum being blackened with a coating of lamp-
black, applied by negative photographic varnish, and rock salt
inserted in the cone, the following results were obtained : —

No. of No. of observations Time at Heat indications
set. in each set. full speed. °Fahrenheit.
I. 3 30 0.85
if. 4 30 0.87
1AMe 4. 30 0.81
EV. 3 30 0.75

To ascertain whether the radiant heat recorded was derived
from the rock salt, or from heated air, or from the surface of the
disc, the next series of experiments were tried : —

EXPERIMENTS WITH BLACKED ALUMINUM DISC WITHOUT ROCK SALT.

_ No. of No. of observations Time at Heat indications
set. in each set. full speed. °Fahrenheit.
Va 3 30 0.92
VI. 3 30 0.93

With certain modifications of the above experiments it was sat-
isfactorily proved that the effect was not due to heating of the
rock salt, or to radiation from heated air; it must therefore be due
to the dise of aluminum, which seemed to have rubbed against
some matter which remained in the receiver after the air was re-
moved. The question being ‘‘ Was this ether?” the experiment-
ers further state that : —

g It may be due to the air which cannot be entirely got rid
Oo

2. It is possjble that visible motion becomes dissipated by an
ethereal medium in the same manner, and possibly to nearly the
same extent, as molecular motion, or that motion which consti-
tutes heat.

3. Or the effect may be due partly to air and partly to ether.

Not to leave the matter wholly undecided, it was suggested by
Professors Maxwell and Graham that there is another effect of air,
namely, fluid friction, the coefficient for which they believe to be
independent of the tension.

It would appear, however, that the fluid friction of hydrogen is
much less than that of atmospheric air, so that were the heating
effect due to fluid friction, it ought to be less in a hydrogen vac-
uum. An experiment proved that the heating effect due to rota-
tion ina hydrogen vacuum was 22.5, while in an air vacuum it
was 23.5, and the authors are inclined to consider these numbers
15 *

174 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

as sensibly the same, and that the experiment indicates that the
effect is not due to fluid friction; at the same time they do not
suppose that their experiments have yet conclusively decided the
origin of this heating effect, but they hope to elicit the opinions
of those interested in the subject, which may serve to direct their
future research.

INCREASE OF WEIGHT DURING COMBUSTION.

The ‘*Chemical News” gives a description of an interesting
experiment. A small horseshoe magnet is hung up at the beam
of a balance sufficiently sensitive to turn with centigrammes;
the poles of the magnet are immersed for a moment in the
limatura ferri of the chemists’ shops, and a beard of small parti-
cles of iron is caused to adhere to the poles; by means of proper
weights placed on the scale-pan at the other end of the beam the
equilibrium is restored. This having been done, the finely di-
vided iron is kindled, by approaching to it the flame of a Bunsen
gas-burner, and continues to burn. While burning, it will be
seen that the arm of the balance on which the magnet is sus-
pended considerably deviates from the horizontal position, thus
indicating an increase of weight on the side where the experi-
ment is going on. ‘This experiment succeeds best with a magnet
of moderate dimensions; the horseshoe magnet applied in this
instance weighed, without its armature, 210 grammes, and can
bear a load of 12.5 grammes of iron; when this is altogether
converted in magnetic oxide, by combustion, the increase in
weight will be about 4.7 grammes.

”?

THE ** BLUE CUP” OF THE CANDLE FLAME.

E. W. Hilgard, on ‘‘ Luminous Flames,” in ‘‘ Silliman’s Jour-
nal,” says: —

‘*The part performed by the blue cup, namely, that of a self-
heating retort with walls impervious to oxygen, in which dry
distillation is accomplished ; its theoretical import, as the coun-
terpart of the luminous portion, where the same gases are burnt
with evolution of light; render the neglect with which it has been
treated doubly surprising. ‘That it is totally distinct from the
outer veil is rapidly perceived when the eye is protected from
being dazzled by means of a screen of the shape and size of the
luminous hollow cone. The veil is then seen surrounding the
blue cup as well as the higher portions of the flame, and is thus
proved to be nothing more than a zone of glowing gas; which,
of course, however, cannot be strictly defined from the luminous
envelope, the oxidation being a gradually progressive one, from
the highly luminous central portion to that brownish, semi-trans-
parent zone of transition, where the carbonic oxide, burning
simultaneously with hydrogen, fails to produce its characteristic
blue tint because of the excessive temperature existing there.”

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 1%

CONVENIENT METHOD OF ASCERTAINING THE CONSTITUTION OF
FLAMES. BY M. L. DUFOUR.

M. L. Dufour recommends the following process for demon-
strating, for instance, that the flame of a candle is formed of a
hollow cone, luminous on the outside only, and dark in the inte-
rior. For this purpose it is necessary to cut the flame; the most
preferable method of doing this is by means of a sheet of water
or air. The arrangement is as follows: A caoutchouc tube has,
at one of its extremities, a gas-jet, such as is used for common
gas flames; this jet has an almost semi-circular slit of 0.4 m.m.
in depth. The other end of the tube communicates with a reser-
voir of water placed at a convenient height. Upon a suitable
pressure, the water flows out by the slit in the jet, producing a
clear sheet capable of preserving, for a sufficient length of time,
an invariable form and size. ‘The slit is placed in such a manner
that the sheet presents a horizontal surface; and this will easily
cut the flame of a candle showing a perfect section. The hot
gases and carbonaceous particles are carried off by the water.
On placing the eye above the hollow cone, the luminous wall,
ete., can be distinctly seen. Sections may easily be made near
the wick or near the point; nothing hinders observation, which
may be prolonged at pleasure, and a lens may be used if desired.
A flame of gas may be cut and examined in the same manner,
but the current of gas must not be strong enough to traverse the
sheet of water. If a current of air be caused to come out of the
slit by bellows, an invisible sheet of air is formed, which is, also,
very convenient for making a section of flame. Close observa-
tion is quite possible; for the aerial current prevents the heated
gases from reaching the eyes, and a lens may be used; as in the
former case, the flame forms a cone, whose luminous walls are
extremely thin, and their interior can be plainly seen. <A platinum
wire may be introduced across the section ; and, on being plunged
as far as the wick, it will remain unreddened in the dark interior
of the cone.

A jet of gas issuing from a circular opening, of from one to
two millimetres in diameter, may also be cut very conveniently
by the sheet of air. It will be seen to consist of a cone whose
walls are brilliant and extremely thin. Upon bringing the sheet
of air close to the aperture whence the gas escapes, the flame
will be divided at its base and will reappear a little higher. By
this means the entire length of the luminous cone, its thin walls,
and their interior may be examined.

If a jet of gas produced by a fan-tail burner be cut, the lumi-
nous fan will be found to consist of two brilliant blades, between
which there is a narrow, obscure space. The blades are at a
greater distance apart, and the dark space is wider towards the
end of the fan-tails; and, by assuming a suitable position, it is
easy to see through the section of flame into the dark space
which separates the brilliant walls, and at the end of this will be
seen the slit by which the gas escapes.

176 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Instead of throwing the sheet of air perpendicularly to the
flame, M. L. Dufour thinks it better to throw it partly on one
side, on such a plane as to make a slight angle with the axis of
the conical flame, or with the plane of the fan-shaped flame. A
lateral section is then produced by the influence of the current,
which draws the flame, and inclines it against the sheet of air, by
which it is cut. By placing the sheet of air on a more or less
inclined plane, and approaching or removing it from the base of
the flame, the section is easily made at points more or less dis-
tant from that base.

The method described above may, of course, be applied to any
kind of flame. M. L. Dufour suggests that it might be of ser-
vice in the chemical analysis of flames. When a flame is cut by
a sheet of water, the water draws off the gases by which it is
composed. If the section be made with a sheet of air, it will be
easy, by placing suction pipes throughout the length, and ending
at fixed points in the interior of the cone, to collect the gases
whose composition is desired to be ascertained. — Chemical News.

MONCKHOVEN’S NEW ARTIFICIAL LIGHT.

Dr. Desire van Monckhoven recently demonstrated satisfac-
torily its importance before a meeting of the Vienna Photographic
Society, and delivered a lecture upon its mode of application.

One of the most intense lights to be obtained by oxidizing
metals or metallic compounds at a high temperature, is that
derived from chloride of titanium, or chloro-chromie acid, when
exposed to the action of an oxy-hydrogen flame; the light thus
produced is of high actinic power, and capable of blackening
chloride of silver paper to an appreciable degree in 30 seconds,
the formation of titanic acid or chromic acid being brought about
at a very high temperature. It is this description of light that
has been chosen by Dr. M.

Several kinds of oxy-hydrogen lights have been devised from
time to time; the Drummond light, in which the flame acts
against a cylinder of unslaked lime, but which requires the con-
stant presence of carbonate of lime, and the surface of the cyl-
inder to be continually changing; the Tessie du Motay light, in
which the lime cylinder is replaced by means of a compressed
magnesia or zirconia cylinder; and the Carlevaris light, consist-
ing of small parallel pipes of hard charcoal moistened with
chloride of magnesium. Of all these lights, that of Drummond
is the best, and by substituting for the lime cylinder another com-
posed of titanic acid, magnesia, and carbonate of magnesia, a
suitable illuminating power is obtained. A cylinder of this
description, measuring 3 centimetres (one inch) broad, and 9
long (3 inches), lasts for 8 hours, and may be produced for the
sum of threepence. Instead of hydrogen, ordinary coal gas is
employed; and for the supply of oxygen, M. Deville’s method
of obtaining it by heating a mixture of calcined peroxide of
manganese and chlorate of potash is employed.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 177

MR. GRAHAM’S EXPERIMENTS WITH HYDROGEN.

At the February meeting of the Royal Institution in London, Dr.
Odling delivered a lecture upon the new discoveries made by Mr.
Graham, F.R.S., respecting the properties of hydrogen, tending
to prove that hydrogen is a metal having a boiling-point much
below the temperature of theair. The lecturer took a tube closed
at one end with a single thickness of well-moistened calico, and
showed that when the tube was half filled with water, and its
lower end just dipped below the surface of some water in a glass
vessel, the water in the tube would not run out, because the wet
calico was, practically speaking, air-tight. Air could only enter
the tube, by dissolving in the water upon the calico, and then
evaporating on the other side, —a very slow operation. Ammo-
nia being a gas much more soluble in water than common air, a
jar of it was inverted over the wet calico; it was quickly dissolved
in the water, and evaporated on the other side, so as to push
down the column of water in the tube. In the same way gases
are believed to pass through India-rubber, and colloid septa, by
first dissolving in the material of the diaphragm, then passing
through it as a condensed volatile liquid, and finally evaporating
on the other side.

M. Deville, a French chemist, proved that hydrogen gas would
pass through red-hot solid platinum. Mr. Graham took up the
discovery of M. Deville, and, by other experiments made, gained
fresh information respecting these phenomena. He showed that
platinum absorbed a certain quantity of hydrogen before the
transmission began, as is the case with India-rubber. Next he
tried palladium, and discovered that this metal will absorb or oc-
clude about 1,000 times. its own volume of hydrogen gas, the
greatest amount taken up in the actual experiments being 980
times the bulk of the palladium. One volume of water will dis-
solve 800 times its volume of ammonia, the water being then in-
-ereased in bulk by one-half, — that is to say, that two centimetres
of water, after absorbing 800 times their volume of ammonia,
will have increased to three cubic centimetres. Palladium does
not increase in bulk to anything like the foregoing extent when it
absorbs hydrogen; it only enlarges to one-twentieth or one-
twenty-first of its former volume, after taking up 900 times its
bulk of the gas, in which operation the hydrogen is reduced to
one-nineteenth thousand of its former volume.

The enormous mechanical pressure necessary to compress hy-
drogen to this extent would equal that at the base of a column
of mercury three times as high as Mont Blanc, supposing hydro-
gen, at such a pressure, still to obey the laws of gases, and to
possess all the properties of a gas. The weight of hydrogen,
thus absorbed, is from eight-tenths to nine-tenths that of the palla-
dium. Mercury can be boiled into an invisible gas, and analogy
seems to point out that hydrogen, at all temperatures yet pro-
duced by man, is similarly the vapor or gas of a metal, and that,
by a sufliciency of pressure or cold, it may be reduced to a liquid

,

178 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

metallic state, so as to resemble quicksilver. Many chemists sup-
port this opinion, much evidence on the point having been brought
to bear by M. Dumas.

In physical properties the gas acts like a metal, by conducting
heat with facility. Dr, Odling illustrated this by passing a cur.
rent of electricity through two “platinum spirals, till the two coils
of wire kept at a white heat. Over the one spiral he inverted a
jar of common air, and over the other a jar of hydrogen, and the
latter cooled the wire so rapidly that it ceased to glow. He said
that it was but fair to state that Dr. Tyndal questions whether
the cooling effect shown in this experiment is due to the rapid
conduction of heat by the hydrogen; still, it is the prevalent
opinion, that conduction by heat really causes the cooling, and
Professor Magnus, of Berlin, has come to the same conclusion.
Mr. Grahams ¢ experiments also favor the view that hydrogen is a
metal.

br. Odling then proved that the condensed hydrogen has a
more powerful action upon reducing agents than when in its or-
dinary state, by showing its bleaching action upon several colored
solutions of chemical reagents. The greatest absorption of hy-
drogen by palladium takes place at moderately low temperatures,
but a high temperature is necessary for the passage of the gas
through “the solid metal. He then took a tube of palladium,
closed at one end, and connected the other end with the Sprengel
air-pump. <A tube of glass was then slipped over the palladium
tube, and a stream of hydrogen gas passed between the two,
which were then made hot in the middle by the flame of a Bun-
sen’s burner. The hydrogen gas then passed readily through the
solid metal, being, it is supposed, liquefied in the pores of the pal-
ladium, and as it evaporated again inside the tube, the Sprengel
pump delivered it into a glass vessel inverted over a trough of
mercury. The hydrogen thus collected was then set on fire by
the lecturer, to prove that it was hydrogen and nothing else.

Dr. Odling showed that a palladium wire is elongated after
being allowed to absorb hydrogen for half an hour; but the re-
markable fact is, that when the gas is driven out again by heat
the wire contracts, not to its original length, but to less than its
original length. The cause is not known. As a final illustration
of the prob: able metallic nature of hydrogen, 2 bar of palladium,
charged with the gas, was suspended by a fibre of silk in the
field “of an electro-magnet, and was seen to be attracted like iron,
though not so strongly. The bar had thus acquired_a metallic
property, not possessed by palladium in its unalloyed state.

THE METAL HYDROGEN.

At a late meeting of the Royal Society, as we learn from the
** Athenwum ” of January 16th, Mr. Graham presented a specimen
of palladium, charged with some 800 or 900 times its volume of hy-
drogen, by some process which is not described in the above jour-

nal, but Ww hich, trom his previous researches, we presume con-

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 179

sisted in heating it in an atmosphere of compressed gas. This
specimen was accompanied by a paper, in whichit was explained
that the variations of density, of conducting power, etc., produced
in fhe palladium by the absorption of the hydrogen, seemed to
indicate that a true alloy had here been formed, and thus to es-
tablish the metallic character of the consolidated gas. Various
rumors of this circumstance have been circulating in our daily
papers, in which the specimen presented by Mr. Graham was ex-
alted into ‘‘an ingot of hydrogen,” and though, in comparison
with this, the actual fact may seem disappointing, yet in its true
relations it is sufficiently wonderful, and is certainly a decided
' step towards the not impossible realization of the veritable ‘‘ in-
got” atsome future time. As a mere evidence of the intensity of
molecular force, this experiment of Graham reaches into the
marvellous and the incomprehensible. If the space oceupied by
the condensed hydrogen had been entirely void of all other mat-
ter, the force required to reduce 800 volumes to one volume
would have been 800 atmospheres, or 12,000,000 pounds to the
square inch, but with a metal like palladium, as dense as lead, it
would be a large allowance to suppose that one-thousandth part
of its volume were void space, or consisted of the interstices be-
tween its particles. To compress the 800 volumes into this bulk
would then demand a force of twelve million pounds, or six thou-
sand tons per square inch. Yet this inconceivable force is quietly
exerted by the atoms of palladium in their attraction for those of
the hydrogen. ‘This substance, hydrogen, has other evidence of
its metallic character besides these experiments of Graham. We
do not allude to its chemical and electrical connections with the
metals, but to an action closely related to this absorption by
palladium, which, though for some time known, presents a new
aspect when viewed in the light of this result. In 1863, Dr.
Charles M. Wetherill made a series of investigations on the Am-
moniacal Amalgam, which very clearly demonstrated that the
peculiar compound known by that name was not an alloy of any
such compound as NH}# with mercury, but was, in truth, a
*«suds” of mercury, frothed up with minute bubbles of hydrogen
and ammonia, but yet holding the gas in such close union as
evidenced a decided affinity between the two bodies. We might
then justly consider this attraction for and retention of the hydro-
gen by the mercury as being analogous to the infinitely more
energetic action whichis shown by palladium, and like it, also, as in-
dicating a tendency in the hydrogen to allay itself in the manner
of a metal with other metallic elements. Remarkable as is this
element in its chemical relations, it is equally notable in another
respect, about which a few words may be appropriate (in connec-
tion with the late astronomical discoveries of which we have re-
cently spoken), under the head of The Cosmical Relations of
Hydrogen. — When Miller and Huggins attacked, with the spec-
troscope, the problem of the constitution of the nebulse, which
had successfuily defied the most diligent telescopic research, and
had demonstrated that many of these were of gaseous consistency,
hydrogen was one of the substances first recognized in the won-

180 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

derful nebula of Orion and in several others. Now, this nebula
of Orion was believed by Lord Ross to have been completely re-
solved by his telescope into separate points of light, and we should
thus be led to conclude that it is, in fact, a vast system—a uni-
verse of suns or luminous centres, none of them solid, however,
but all, on the contrary, vast spheres of glowing gas, that gas be-
ing chiefly hydrogen, mixed with nitrogen. When, in May,
1866, a star in the constellation of the Northern Crown suddenly
burst forth with unprecedented splendor, and when examined
with the spectroscope showed a spectrum such as had never be-
fore been encountered, consisting of such a one as our sun or
an ordinary star gives, but with 4 bright lines, due to a gaseous
source of light, superposed, it was found that two of these lines
(and those the most brilliant) were such as come from light
emitted by intensely heated hydrogen. The natural conclusion
from this was, that some half extinguished star or sun had been
encountered by one of these nebulous masses of hydrogen, or
else by some vast globe or planetary cloud of the same gas,
which had lost its heat and ceased to be luminous. This true
** planet” or ‘* wandering sphere” of hydrogen, coming within
range of the star’s attraction, was drawn down to it, and, by the
arrest of motion and compression consequent upon its encounter,
was itself heated to incandescence, and heated also the surface of
the dead sun to a temporary but intense brightness. Here, then,
was presented the spectacle of a world on fire, in which the agent
of destruction, or reconstruction, whichever it might be, was one
of these celestial masses of hydrogen gas. It is curious to re-
flect, in this relation, that, making due allowance for the probable
distance of this star and the velocity of light, this sphere had been
at rest for some 10 or 12 years after its fiery ordeal, at the time
when we witnessed the event as in actual progress. When, about
a year since, Graham subjected pieces of meteoric iron to the
same treatment which had, in the case of ordinary iron, elimi-
nated the carbonic oxi@e which it had absorbed while undergoing
fusion in the smelting-furnace, it was hydrogen gas in large quan-
tity which was evolved; thus proving that in the furnace in which
these ‘falling stars” were fused and cast into shape, this same
widely distributed element was again predominant. Lastly, in
these spectroscopic observations and discoveries in connection
with the sun, which we described in our last number, it seems to
be very clearly shown that hydrogen gas is again the main con-
stituent of that which Lockyer proposes to call the solar ‘‘ chro-
mosphere,” which surrounds the entire mass of our luminary for a
depth of some 5,000 miles, and forms those flames or protu-
berances, a single tongue of which, as in the last eclipse, may
contain some 7,000,000,000,000 cubic miles, or 27 times the
earth’s volume of this gas. We have reason, therefore, to wish
that our knowledge of these solar appendages may not become
too intimate, and that none of them may, by an excursion to this
distance, furnish to other planets, at our expense, a second dis-
play of the phenomena exhibited in tr Coron Borealis.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 181

IS HYDROGEN GAS A METAL ?

It has been long suspected that hydrogen would ultimately
prove to be a metal. Our readers will also recollect the an-
nouncement that during some recent experiments a substance
had been discovered, supposed to be the metallic base of hydro-
gen. Still more recent experiments by Thomas Graham, F.R.S.,
Master of the British Mint, throw additional light upon this most
important subject.

It has often been maintained on chemical grounds that hydro-
gen gas is the vapor of a highly volatile metal. The idea forces
itself upon the mind, that palladium with its occluded hydrogen
is simply an alloy of this volatile metal, in which the volatility of
the one element is restrained by its union with the other, and
which owes its metallic aspect equally to both constituents. How
far such a view is borne out by the properties of the compound
substance in question, will appear by the following examination
of the properties of what, assuming its metallic character, would
fairly be named hydrogenium.

The density of palladium, when charged with 800 or 900
times its volume of hydrogen gas, is perceptibly lowered, but the
change cannot be measured accurately by the ordinary method
of immersion in water, owing to acontinuous evolution of minute
hydrogen bubbles, which appear to be determined by contact with
the liquid. However, the linear dimensions of the charged palla-
dium are altered so considerably, that the difference admits of
easy measurement, and furnishes the required density by calcu-
lation. Palladium, in the form of wire, is readily charged with
hydrogen, by evolving that gas upon the surface of the metal in
a galvanometer containing dilute sulphuric acid, as usual. The
length of the wire, before and aftera charge, is found by stretch-
ing it on both occasions by the same moderate weight, such as
will not produce permanent distention over the surface of a flat,
graduated measure. The measure was graduated to hundredths
of an inch, and by means of a vernier, the divisions could be
read to thousandths. The distance between two fine cross lines
marked upon the surface of the wire near each of its extremities
was observed.

The wire had been drawn from welded palladium, and was
hard and elastic. The diameter of the wire was 0.462 millimetres ;
its specific gravity was 15.38, as determined with care. The wire
was twisted into a loop at each end, and the mark made near
each loop. The loops were varnished so as to limit absorption of
gas by the wire to the measured length between the two marks.
To straighten the wire, the loop was fixed, and the other con-
nected with a string passing overa pulley and loaded with 1.5
kilogrammes, a weight sufficient to straighten the wire without
occasioning any undue strain. The wire was charged with hy-
drogen by making it the negative electrode of a small Bunsen’s
baitery, consisting of two cells, each of half a litre in capacity.
Lhe positive electrode was a thick, plantinum wire, placed side

16

182 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

by side with the palladium wire, and extending the whole length
of the Jatter, within a tall jar filled with dilute sulphuvie acid.
The palladium wire had, in consequence, hydrogen carried to its
surface for a period of ope anda half hours. A longer exposure
was found not to add sensibly to the charge of hydrogen acquired
by the wire. The wire was again measured and the increase
in length noted. Finally, the wire, being dried with a cloth, was
divided at the marks, and the charged portion heated in a long
narrow glass tube kept vacuous by a Sprengel aspirator. The
whole occluded hydrogen was thus collected and measured ; its
volume is reduced by calculation to Bar. 760 m.m., and Therm. ,
0° C.

The original length of the palladium wire exposed was 609.144
m.m. (23.982 inches) and its weight 1.6832 grm. The wire re-
ceived a charge of hydrogen amounting to 936 times its volume,
measuring 128 e¢.c., and therefore weighing 0.01147 grm.
When the gas was ultimately expelled, the loss as ascertained by
direct weighing was 0.01164 grm. The charged wire measured
618.923 m.m., showing an increase in length of 9.779 m.m. (0-
.285inch.) The increase in linear dimensions is from 100 to 101-
.605; and in cubic capacity, assuming the expansion to be equal
in all directions, from 100 to 104.908. Supposing the two metals
united without any change of volume, the alloy may therefore be
said to be composed of —

By volume.
Palladium 0°35 5.8 28) S848. 10) 2 Ue Roe 100 or 95.32
PEROREMEE Sg! gn nth eh de teh 4.908 or 4.68

104.908 100

The expansion which the palladium undergoes appears enormous
if viewed as a change of bulk in the metal only, due to any con-
ceivable physical force, amounting as it does to 16 times the
dilatation of palladium when heated from 0° to 100°C. The
density of the charged wire is reduced by calculation from 12.3
tv 11.79. Again, as 100 is to 4.91, so the volume of the palladium,
0.1358 ¢.c., is to the volume of the hydrogenium 0.006714 c.c.
Finally, dividing the weight of the hydrogenium, 0.01147 grm.,
by its volume in the alloy, 0.006714 c.c., we find

Density of hydrogenium, . ... . . 1.708 |

The density of hydrogenium, then, appears to approach that
of magnesium, 1.743, by this first experiment.

Further, the expulsion of hydrogen from the wire, however
caused, is attended with an extraordinary contraction of the lat-
ter. On expelling the hydrogen by a moderate heat, the wire
not only receded to its original length, but fell as much below
that zero as it had previously ridden above it. The palladium wire
first measuring 609.144 m.m., and which increased 9.77 m.m.,
was ultimately reduced to 590.444 m.m., and contracted 9.7
m.m. ‘The wire is permanently shortened. The density of the

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 183

palladium did not increase, but fell slightly at the same time,
namely, from 12.38 to 12.12; proving that this contraction of the
wire isin length only. The result is the converse of extension
by wire-drawing. The retraction of the wire is possibly due to
an effect of wire-drawing, in leaving the particles of metal ina
state of unequal tension, a tension which is excessive in the di-
rection of the length of the wire. The metallic particles would
seem to become mobile, and to right themselves in proportion as
the hydrogen escapes; and the wire contracts in length, expand-
ing, as appears by its final density, in other directions at the same
time.

A wire so charged with hydrogen, if rubbed with the powder
of magnesia (to make the flame luminous), burns like a waxed
thread when ignited in the flame of a lamp.

Numerous other experiments were also performed, with re-
markable unanimity of result; the specific density of hydrogeni-
um being found by calculation from several successive experi-
ments to be, respectively, 1.708, 1.898, 1.977, 1.917, 1.927, 1.930,
2.055, the variations resulting from different volumes being used
in the alloy, the highest densities being obtained when small
quantities were used.

In these experiments the hydrogen was expelled by exposing
the palladium placed within a glass tube to a moderate heat short
of redness, and exhausting by means of a Sprengel tube; but
the gas was also withdrawn in another way, namely, by making
the wire the positive electrode, and thereby evolving oxygen
upon its surface. In such circumstances, a slight film of oxide
of palladium is formed on the wire, butit appears not to interfere
with the extraction and oxidation of the hydrogen. The wire
measured : —

Difference.
Before charge, . . - . « « 443.25 m.m.
With hydrogen, . .«. «. . « - 449.90 “ 6.65 m.m.
After discharge, . . .... 437.31 ‘“ 5.94 “

The retraction of the wire, therefore, does not require the con-
currence of a high temperature. This experiment further proved
that a large charge of hydrogen may be removed in a complete
manner, by exposure to the positive pole—for 4 hours in this
case; for the wire in its ultimate state gave no hydrogen on being
heated in vacuo. ne

Experiments were also made to determine the conducting
power of the palladium and hydrogenium wire, and its magnetic
properties, the details of which may be hereafter referred to.
The record of these experiments, as communicated to the Royal
Society, January 14, by Mr. Graham, forms one of the most im-
portant contributions to science that has been recently made, and
will immediately arrest the attention of the entire scientific
world.

184 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

DETERMINATIONS OF FREE OXYGEN.

At a meeting of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, Mr. Peter Hart described his method of making rapid
determinations of free oxygen. The apparatus required consists,
in addition to an ordinary pneumatic trough, of two tubes, each
one-half inch in diameter and 16 inches long, closed at one end.
One of the tubes is graduated into fiftieths of a cubic inch, and
the other is coated internally with phosphorus. This is effected
by dropping into the tube a few pieces of phosphorus; it is then
to be closed by a sound cork, and the phosphorus (melted by
immersing the tube in hot water) may be spread in a thin coating
over the interior by turning it round as it cools. On cooling, the
cork is to be withdrawn, the tube filled with water, and a piece
of India-rubber tube tied securely over the mouth. This com-
pletes the apparatus. The modus operandi is as follows: Both
tubes are filled with water, and allowed to remain in the trough,
a portion of the air to be examined is passed into the measuring
tube, which is now allowed to remain for 5 minutes in the trough
to allow it to attain the same temperature as the water. It is
lifted until the water is at the same level within and without, and
may then be closed by the finger, and withdrawn from the trough.
The volume is easily noted. This done, it is connected by the
India-rubber joint with the phosphorus tube, into which the air
is allowed to flow. The whole may now be placed for half an
hour in the trough, when the gas may be poured back into the
measuring tube, the level once more taken, and the volume read
off in the same way as before. ‘The loss is oxygen. No claim is
made for strict scientific accuracy in connection with this appara-
tus; its sole merit consists in its offering an easy and rapid means
of approximately determining the free oxygen in an atmosphere.
In the working of sulphuric acid chambers it has been found
extremely valuable, and possibly may be found so for other tech-
nical inquiries. — Mechanics’ Magazine.

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS,

Professor W. A. Norton, of Yale College, at the meeting of the
American Association, at Salem, communicated the principal results
of a series of experiments which he had made to test the theoret-
ical laws of the defiection of beams exposed to a transverse
strain. In the experiments the beam rested on the supports at
the ends, and was loaded in the middle. The accepted formula
gives the following laws: (1) The deflection is proportional to
the pressure; (2) Inversely to the breadth; (3) and to the cube
of the depth; (4) directly proportional to the cube of the length.
The results of the experiments (fully explained by diagrams and
tables) show that the deflection is approximately proportional to
the pressure, but, strictly speaking, increases according to a less
rapid law, the neutral axis of the cross section of the stick shift-

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 185

ing its position and its distance from the centre of gravity of the
cross section augmenting. As to the second law, the deviations
are not greater than may be attributed to differences in the
moduli of elasticity of different sticks, and the greater shifting
of the neutral axis of the sticks most strained. The third law
cannot be regarded as even approximately true, except in case
of sticks whose length bears a high proportion to their depth.
The fourth law fails as well as the third. Professor Norton has
made with the same apparatus a series of experiments on the
degree of set or residual deflection communicated to sticks by
varied strains and under varied circumstances, and obtained
interesting and curious if not important results. But these he
did not enter upon at this time.

ELEMENTS OF MATTER.

Prof. Charles A. Seely, at the meeting of the American Asso-
ciation, at Salem, in his paper on the Classification of the Elements
of Matter, after alluding to some points in the philosophy of
classification in general, remarked that the revised atomic nota-
tion and the doctrine of atomicity are the foundation of what is
termed ‘‘ modern chemistry.” They are the starting-point of the
most reasonable explanations of facts. They test the genuine-
ness of the old grouping of the elements, and they lead us to
altogether new systems of grouping. Atomicity divides the
elements into two grand divisions, perissads (whose atoms com-
bine singly with an odd number of other atoms), and astiads
(whose atoms combine with an even number of other atoms).
The author supposed himself the first to observe that if the
classes be placed side by side, the members being arranged in
the order of their atomic numbers, and at the same time so that
those of corresponding atomic numbers be brought into juxtapo-
sition, then the elements of corresponding atomic numbers will
be found to be remarkably allied in physical properties; in other
words, the astiad is paired with the perissad of corresponding
atomic number. It will also be observed that each member of
a natural group will be found opposite a member of a related
natural group. It thus appears that the physical properties of
the elements are closely related to and possibiy dependent upon
the atomic weight and the atomicity ; the relation is so close that
the atomic weight and atomicity may be taken as the sole data
for a subdivision of the two grand classes. For the best realiza-
tion of this thought the author acknowledged indebtedness to
Prof. Charles S. Peirce, of Cambridge, and exhibited a diagram
of classification prepared by him. In this chart the elements are
represented at heights corresponding to their atomic numbers,
and the natural series appear in vertical columns; in other
words, the ordinates of the points fixing the position of the ele-
ments represent the atomic weights, and the abscissas of~-the
members of a series are equal. The chart plainly exhibits the
fact of the pairing between individuals and between well-recog-

16 *

186 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

nized groups, and at the same time indicates new symmetries
and new groupings. Prof. Seely believes that no diagram of
classification of the elements has ever been devised which is so
simple and so comprehensive. The paper continues by pointing
out the importance and the consequences of the fact of the pair-
ing of the elements. It is a new confirmation of the doctrine of
atomicity and of the truth of the atomic numbers. It indicates
the probability that very few more elements are to be discovered,
and assists in bringing chemical phenomena into the domain of
mathematics and ordinary physics.

HEAT.

M. Le Roux has made some experiments with the vapor of
sodium, and examined its capability or incapability of passing
through rock salt. Two crucibles of rock salt were prepared, a
thin plate of the same substance placed between them, and in one
of the cavities sodium was placed. Notwithstanding a bright red
heat maintained for several hours, the piece which was not in di-
rect contact with the sodium vapor remained completely unal-
tered, even where it had been in contact with the plate already
completely penetrated. Chloride of sodium is not attacked by
the vapor of sodium, but soda corrodes it energetically. A very
small quantity of soda suflices to hermetically seal two surfaces
of rock salt, sodium preserving its lustre for several months in a
crucible of this kind. Potassium vapor does not attack its chlo-
ride, but it covers the chloride with a bright blue substance, in
which, possibly, chemists recognize the suboxide of potassium.

Mr. W. P. Dexter has described a new gas-lamp for heating
crucibles, etc. The ordinary Bunsen burner is known to act upon
the surface of platinum vessels brought into contact with the
inner line of the flame; the metal loses its polish, becoming su-
perficially porous and spongy, and requires the use of the burn-
isher to bring it back to its original state. This alteration of the
surface is attended with a change of weight, and Mr. Dexter has
consequently devised the following arrangement: He removes
the air-tube of a common Bunsen lamp, and puts in its place a
somewhat longer one of glass or iron, of about 12 millimetres in-
ternal diameter. The gas-jet has a single circular aperture, and
should be in proper proportion to the diameter of the tube, which
may be held.in any of the ordinary clamped supports. The tube
being raised sufficiently above the jet to allow tree entrance of
air, and a full stream of gas let on, a ‘‘ roaring ” flame is produced,
of which the interior blue cone is pointed, sharply defined, and
extends only about half an inch from the top of the tube. A pol-
ished platinum surface is not acted upon by this flame, provided
it be not brought into contact with the interior cone. In the
Bunsen burner, as usually made, the supply of air depends upon
the diameter of the tube, the holes at its base being more than
sufficient to supply the draught. With the wider tube, it is
necessary to limit the admission of air by depressing the tube

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 187

upon the lamp, when the force of the gas is diminished. Other-
wise the proportion becomes such that an explosive mixture is
formed. For this reason it is more convenient to use an arrange-
ment in which the excess of air can be regulated by an exterior
tube sliding obliquely downward over the air-apertures. The
gas-jet should be on a level with the top of these apertures, which
must be much larger than those of the ordinary Bunsen
burner.

Mr. Brown, of the War Office Chemical Department, has dis-
- covered a remarkable property connected with the ignition and
explosion of gun-cotton. He has found that the explosive force
of gun-cotton may, like that of nitro-glycerine, be developed by
the exposure of the substance to the sudden concussion produced
by a detonation; and that, if exploded by that agency, the sud-
denness and consequent violence of its action greatly exceed that
of its explosion by means of a highly heated body or flame. It
follows, that gun-cotton, even when freely exposed to air, may be
made to explode with destructive violence, appurently not inferior
to that of nitro-glycerine, simply by employing for its explosion
a fuse to which is attached a small detonating charge. Some
remarkable results have been already obtained with this new
mode of exploding gun-cotton. Large blocks of granite, and
other very hard rock, and iron plates of some thickness, have
been shattered by exploding small charges of gun-cotton which
simply rested upon their upper surfaces. Further, long charges
or trains of gun-cotton, simply placed upon the ground against
stockades of great strength, and wholly unconfined, have been
exploded by means of detonating fuses placed in the centre or
at one end of the train, and produced uniformly destructive
effects throughout their entire length, the results corresponding
to those produced by 8 or 10 times the amount of gunpowder
when applied under the most favorable conditions. Mining and
quarrying operations, with gun-cotton applied in the new man-
ner, have furnished results quite equal to those obtained with
nitro-glycerine, and have proved conclusively that if gun-cotton
is exploded by detonation, it is unnecessary to confine the charge
in the blast-hole by the process of hard-tamping, as the explosion
of the entire charge takes place too suddenly for its effects to be
appreciably diminished by the line of escape presented by the
blast-hole. Thus the most dangerous of all operations connected
with mining may be dispensed with when gun-cotton fired by the
new system is employed. — Quarterly Journal of Science, April,
1869.

FACTS IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

Radiation of Heat from the Moon. — The Earl of Rosse is mak-
ing a series of experiments, by means of a thermo-pile of 4 ele-
- ments and a 3-foot telescope, to determine, if possible, what pro-
portion of the moon’s heat consists of—1. That coming from the
interior of the moon, which will not vary with the phase; 2.
That which falls from the sun on the moon’s surface, and is at

188 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

once reflected regularly and irregularly; 3. That which falling
from the sun on the moon’s surface is absorbed, raises the tem-
perature of the moon’s surface, and is afterwards radiated as heat of
low refrangibility. The chief result arrived at up to the present
moment is, that (the radiating power of the moon being taken as
equal to lampblack, and the earth’s atmosphere supposed not to
affect the result) a deviation of 90° for full moon appears to indi-
cate an elevation of temperature = 500° F. The relative amount
of solar and lunar radiation was found = 89819: 1.

Heat Reflected from the Moon’s Surface. —The moon’s surface
emits as much heat as a cube filled with boiling water, covered
with lampblack, having a surface of 6.5 square centimetres, and
placed at a distance of 35 metres from the thermo-electric meas-
uring apparatus employed by the author in his experiments.
— M. Baille, in Comptes Rendus of Nov. 2, 1869.

Maximum Point of the Density of Water. —A great many data
exist in different text-books as to the precise temperature at
which water arrives at the highest density, varying from 38.624°
F. to 39.344° F. (3.68° C. to 4.08° C.), the latter being the number
indicated by H. Kapp. A new series of researches made by
Rossetti has led to very nearly the same result, the numbers be-
ing 4.07° C., or 39.326° F., and this temperature should now, as
before, be considered the standard for graduation of meas-
ures.

Oils on Water. — Dr. Carter Moffat has succeeded in fixing on pa-
per the beautiful figures which are produced when oils, etc., are al-
lowed to fall, drop by drop, on a surface of pure water, and
which Professor Tomlinson has shown to be characteristic of each
oil. The method is very simple, and is, briefly, to obtain a pattern
on water, note the time, lay on the paper, glazed side downwards,
for an instant, take out, draw through a plate of ink, remove,
and wash with water. The process is capable of great extension,
and will be valuable to paper-stainers and others.

The Temperature of Sea-Water at Great Depths. —Several care-
fully conducted soundings, made near the Faroe Islands, have
revealed the fact that while the surface-water has an almost in-
variable temperature of 52°, the heat at great depths varies ex-
ceedingly. Ata depth of 500 fathoms the temperature was 32°,
—a fact which is explained by the supposition of a cold Arctic
stream flowing from the north-east, and apparently coming be-
tween the fork of the Gulf Stream. Another interesting fact
established by these inquiries is, that even at a temperature in
the ocean almost that of our freezing-point, there are an abun-
dance and variety of animal forms which could not have been
predicated. — Med. Times and Gazette.

The Tides.—Mr. William Ferrel, of Cambridge, at the meeting of
the American Association at Salem, gave some results of a discus-
sion of Tide Operations at the Boston Dry Dock, and also at Brest, in
France. The most important new term introduced by Mr. Ferrel
depends upon friction, and the important modifications conse-
quent upon it were very satisfactorily explained.

Professor Peirce complimented the author very highly upon his

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 189

results, stating that we may now for the first time feel that we
havea theory of the tides.

Transmission of Gases through Colloid Substances. —In a recent
lecture at the Royal Institution, Dr. Odling said, in regard to the
transmission of gases through India-rubber, etc., that the ‘ gas
appears to be condensed at the nearest surface, and to pass
through the pores of the material as a volatile liquid, which evap-
orates on the other side. He took along glass tube, with its up-
per end closed with a single thickness of calico. When the tube
was half filled with colored liquid, and its lower end placed in a
dish of water, the water in the tube ran out, because of the rapid
passage of air through the holes in the calico. But when the calico
was wetted with water, the column of liquid was sustained in the
tube, as air could enter then only by dissolving in the water and
evaporating on the other side, — a very slow process. Ammonia,
being very soluble in water, passed through quicker; which the
lecturer proved by inverting a jar of ammonia over the wet calico,
thus causing the liquid in the tube to descend more rapidly.
Liquid ammonia dropped upon the wet calico was also seen to act
more vigorously than the gas which had to dissolve in the water
before it began to pass.”

A New Pyrometer.—M. A. Lamy, in the ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,” of
Aug. 2, 1869, describes the advantages of this instrument at
length. It is based upon the principle that certain compounds,
gaseous or volatile, are decomposed in a partial and progressive
manner in the same measure that the temperature is elevated,
and that the tension of the elements of the mixture, or tension
of dissociation, increases with the temperature, and remains con-
stant at a fixed temperature. This law has been extended to the
case of solid substance formed by the union of two. bodies, one
of which is fixed, the other volatile, like carbonate of lime. The
pyrometer is formed of a porcelain tube, varnished upon its two
faces; closed at one end and put in communication by the other
with a tube of glass in two branches containing mercury, or
connected with any other manometric gystem. The porcelain
tube contains a certain quantity of Iceland spar, or simply mar-
ble powder. The marble powder is heated to redness, and the
tube is filled with dry and pure carbonic-acid gas. When such a
tube cools down to the ordinary temperature, the carbonic-acid
gas is entirely reabsorbed by the lime, and the manometer shows
a vacuum. It is then a true barometer when it is not used to
indicate high temperatures. 5

Coloration of Glass under Influence of Sunlight. —M. Bontemps,
who is the managing director of the celebrated glass works at
Choisy le Roi, states, after referring to the observations on this
subject made by the immortal Faraday, in 1824, and MM. Gaf-
field and Pelouze, in 1863 and 1867, that his observations lead to
the following results: Within 3 months after having been exposed
to sunlight, the best and whitest glass made at St. Gobain is
turned very distinctly yellow; extra white glass (of a peculiar
‘mode of manufacture) has become even more yellow, and grad-
ually assumes a color known as pelure d’oignon; glass containing

190 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

5 per cent. of litharge was also affected, but far less perceptibly ;
crystal glass, made with carbonate of potassa (the other varieties
referred to contain carbonate of soda), litharge, and silica, was
not at all affected; English plate glass, made by the British Plate
Glass Company, and exhibiting a distinctly azure-blue tinge,
remained, also, unaffected. The author attributes this coloration,
which begins with yellow and gradually turns to violet, passing
through red pelure d’oignon, to the oxidizing effect of the sun’s
rays upon the protoxides of iron and manganese contained in
glass. — Comptes Rendus, Nov. 22, 1869.

Luminous Effects of Light.—In the ‘* Comptes Rendus,” of
Noy. 15, there is a paper entitled, ‘‘ Researches on the Luminous
Effects due to the Action of Light upon different Bodies.” This
is the fifth instalment of a lengthy memoir by M. Becquerel.
The author’s experiments lead to the following conclusions:
The most refrangible rays, and principally those beyond the
violet, are the most active; the different parts of the solar spec-
trum differ in their activity; the least refrangible rays from the
blue, and past the ultra-red, act especially as extinguishers of
phosphorescences.

Phosphorescence of the Sea. —The phenomenon is due to elec-
tricity, and the infusoria only acts as sharp points do in well-
known electrical experiments. —M. Duchemin, Comptes Rendus,
Nov. 2, 1869.

Constitution and Motion of Glaciers.—In the ‘*‘ Comptes Ren-
dus,” of Nov. 2, 1869, MM. Grad and Dupré have a paper on
this subject.

The chief results of the labors of these authors are the follow-
ing: The crystals of ice of the glaciers are arranged in a regular
manner, and the constituent molecules of that ice are placed as

in frozen water. The velocity of motion of a glacier increases.

from the bottom to the top, while the maximum of motion coin-
cides with the greatest slope.

Reflection of Heat. — Professor Gustav Magnus, at the meeting
of the British Association, read a paper, in which he made known
a curious discovery of his own, that fluor spar has the property of
reflecting, very largely, the dark, invisible rays emitted by hot
rock salt. . Dr. Balfour Stewart then called attention to the fact
that there is much evidence tending to prove that the heat rays
from rock salt are of very great wave length, belonging almost
to one of the extremities of the spectrum.

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. —Mr. P. H. Van der Weyde,
of New York, read a paper, at the meeting of the American
Association, Aug., 1869, on ‘* The Determination of the Mechan-
ical Equivalent of Heat by Means of the Modern Ice and Cooling
Machines.” In converting heat into motion there is a great loss,
the result being but one-seventh or one-fourteenth part what
would be expected. But in converting motion into heat we get
very nearly a full equivalent. In the production of artificial cold
by abstracting heat we get the same result. The expenditure of
one horse-power reduces the temperature of water one degree
Fahrenheit in one minute. In the English process of cooling,

i

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 1S

using ammonia as the agent, 10 horse-power working 10 hours
has the cooling power of one ton of ice, and one ton of coal, or
a week’s supply, has the virtue of 14 tons of ice. The professor
finds an exceilent evaporation in condensed gas from petroleum
wells or stills. This gas can be condensed into fluid by very
little pressure, and boils at a temperature of 30° Fahrenheit.

Curious Production of Cold.— Dr. Phipson has recently dis-
covered that an intense degree of cold is produced by dissolving
sulphocyanate of ammonium in water. Many salts, more es-
pecially salts of ammonia, lower the temperature of water while
dissolving; but, according to Dr. Phipson, no compound pro-
duces this effect in so marvellous a manner as sulphocyanate of
ammonium. In one experiment 35 grammes of this salt dis-
solved rapidly in 35 cubic centimetres of water at 23° Cent.,
caused the thermometer to descend in a few seconds to 10° Cent.
The moisture of the atmosphere instantly condensed itself on the
outside of the glass in thin plates of ice. — Scientific Review.

As a general rule, according to experiments by M. Schultz, it
has been found that the point of solidification of fluids is lowered
by substances dissolved therein, and that gases dissolved in fluids
exercise the same effects. Pure acetic acid fuses at 16°; this is
lowered to 15.2° when a current of carbonic acid is transmitted
through this acid. Itis well known that hydrochloric acid gas
and ammonia gas lower the freezing temperature of water in
which they are dissolved; so do carbonic acid and sulphurous acid
gas; and it has been ascertained by M. Schultz that nitrogen,
oxygen, and hydrogen gases exert the same effect when dis-
solved in water. Numerous experiments were made by him
with the view of ascertaining the effect of an increase of pressure
brought to bear upon the absorption of various gases by water,
and the lowering of the freezing-point of that liquid in conse-
quence thereof. By the phenomenon of regelation is understood
that property exhibited by ice of freezing together to a solid
mass, when pieces of that substance are pressed together at the
temperature of 0°. After quoting the opinions of Messrs. Fara-
day, Forbes, Thomson, and Helmholtz, on this subject, the
author says: ‘‘ When we take it for granted that regelation is
the formation of ice from water anew, we must bear in mind
that only pure water, or water, at least, not saturated with air, is
suitable for this purpose.” |

Photography — Self-prints from Nature. — At a meeting of the
Mass. Inst. of Technology, Mr. Thomas Guaffield exhibited illus-
trations of what he calls ‘‘ Photographic Self-prints from Nature.”
While on a visit to the country, having with him his pressure
frames and sensitive paper, it occurred to him that the colored
autumn leaves might produce varied effects, just as the colored
glasses did on the sensitive paper exposed beneath them. He
exhibited various groups of colored leaves taken in this way;
the red leaves generally cut off a very large amount of the actinic
rays, while the other colors passed a considerable amount; the
thickness of the leaves, their dryness from age, and the hardness
of the veins and ribs, are elements which determine the amount

192 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

of chemical effect upon the paper. From wreaths of jJeaves he
went to ferns, arranged in various artistic forms, and as mottoes.
By a singular coincidence, the first motto thus printed was, ** God
is love,” and he was thus able to make Nature herself proclaim in
letters of light, by the voice of the humble ferns, and in the lan-
guage of flowers, the essential principle of Christianity. The
work is done as follows: Having procured your design,
place it under the glass of your pressure frame; if a motto, it
must be: written backwards. Place your ferns, with mucilage,
upon the glass within the lines of your design; put your sensitive
paper on the glass, press the back board down, and expose to
the sunlight until you get a dark impression. Have this print
washed, toned, fixed, and mounted by some photographie friend,
if you have not a workroom for the purpose at home. The time
of exposure varies with the seasons, the hour of the day, and the
state of the sunlight. In five or ten minutes, in a bright summer
day, he has obtained a good impression. This dark backgrotnd
print, No. 1, is used as a negative to produce No. 2, or a print
with a white background, and in which all the lights and shades
of No. 1 are reversed; from No. 2, used as a negative, No. 1 can
be reproduced, although the lines are not quite so sharp, nor the
effect so good, as in the print taken directly from the ferns. By
the aid of a camera any of these interesting pictures may be re-
produced of any required size. Many of these were exhibited.
From leaves and ferns, he successfully experimented with deli-
cate alge from the shore, the bright feathers of birds, and bril-
liant wings of insects; making thus the sun portray, with its
powerful pencil, some of the most beautiful objects of the land,
and sea, and air. These designs were of singular delicacy and
beauty. What he had thus been able to accompiish in the midst
of a busy life, he believed was sufficient to show that very impor-
tant results might be expected from the further development of
this process, especially in the illustration of the works of nature,
by the most ethereal and at the same time most powerful agency
of sunlight.

Photographs of Nobert’s Bands.—In ‘ Silliman’s Journal” we
have a paper by Dr. Woodward, who has so distinguished him-
self by his micro-photographic results, describing his success in
photographing a new plate by Nobert, containing 19 bands with
a one-sixteenth objective, by Powel & Leland. No lens, previ-
ousl¥, had been able to resolve the lines on these bands beyond
the 15th.

hotographing without a Lens. —The method adopted by Mr.
James ‘Thomson, of Glasgow, to photograph the bodily organs
of fossil corals: Each of these fossil corals is nearly as large as
a hen’s egg, and Mr. Thomson, it will be remembered, cut a
thin slice out of the centre of each coral, and then ground down
and polished the stone slice till it became thin and translucent
enough to be used as a negative from which to take photographic
prints on paper. When he exhibited these valuable photographs
at the British Association at Norwich, last year, Mr. W.-H. Har-
rison recommended him to have them copied in future by the

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 193

permanent carbon process. Mr. Thomson, in consequence, went
to Neweastle-on-Tyne, saw Mr. Joseph W. Swan, the patentee
of the chief carbon process, and made arrangements for a large
supply of permanent photographs from the stone negatives.
Some of these carbon prints were exhibited at Exeter, and met
with much approval. Mr. Thomson says that he and Mr. Swan
are now trying experiments upon a new process, which they hope
will result in the production of blocks from the coral sections
which can be used in the common printing press, to print from in
printing ink. — Journal of Franklin Inst., Nov., 1869.

17

CHEMISTRY.

HYDROGENIUM.

SoME years since, Deville and Troost discovered that hydrogen
passed somewhat readily through platinum at a high tempera-
ture, and later Graham discovered the property of palladium even
at low temperatures of taking up and retaining within itself a
large proportion of hydrogen.

It has often been maintained, on chemical grounds, that hydro-
gen gas is the vapor of a highly volatile metal. Graham, in two
papers read before the Royal Society,* details a series of experi-
ments made by him, from which he concludes that ‘* palladium,
with its occluded hydrogen, is simply an alloy of this volatile
metal, in which the volatility of the one element is restrained by
its union with the other, and which owes its metallic aspect
equally to both constituents.” Assuming that hydrogen does
really thus exist in a metallic state, he calls the metal hydro-
genium.

The palladium was employed in the form of wire, and was
charged with hydrogen by making it the negative electrode of
a small Bunsen battery; the positive electrode consisted of a
platinum wire extending by the side of the palladium wire in a
jar of acidulated water. In this way the palladium wire occluded
an amount of hydrogen equal to 800 or 900 times its own vol-
ume. -

Density. —The density of palladium when charged with 800 or
900 times its volume of hydrogen is perceptibly lowered. The
density of the alloy cannot be measured in water in the usual
manner, as the mere immersion in water determines the escape
of hydrogen. It was therefore estimated, assuming that the two
metals united without condensation, by measuring the wire un-
der an equal tension, before and after charging it with hydro-

en.

. The hydrogen was then exhausted by a Sprengel aspirator and
the volume measured.

It was found, on exhausting the hydrogen, that the palladium
wire had decreased in length by an amount nearly equal to its
increase over its original length. Supposing the increase of vol-
ume due to the hydrogenium to be represented by the sum of
the elongation and the retraction, the density of hydrogenium
calculated from a number of experiments would be in the neigh-
borhood of .85.

* Printed in full in the ‘Chem. News,” Vol. xix., p. 52, and Vol. xx., p. 16.
194

CHEMISTRY. 195

The property of occluding hydrogen belongs also to the alloys
of palladium when the second metal does not form more than
one-half the alloy. In this case the expansion is about twice as
great as in the case of pure palladium, and on expelling the hy-
drogen the alloy returns to its original dimensions without further
retraction. The density of hydrogenium, calculated from a series
of experiments with alloys of palladium, gave results between
0.711 and 0.755, the mean of which would be 0.733.

Tenacity. —'The tenacity of the alloy of palladium and hydro-
genium is less than that of palladium. If the tenacity of the lat-
ter be represented by 100, that of the alloy will be represented by
81.29.

Conductivity. — The electric conductivity of copper being rep-
resented by 100, that of palladium would be represented by 8.10,
and that of the alloy by 5.99.

The conductivity, although diminished, still remains consider-
able, which would show the metallic character of hydrogenium.

Magnetism. — Palladium is feebly but truly magnetic; the alloy
is magnetic to a greater degree, which fact indicates the metallic
character of the other component of the alloy.

Chemical Characters. —'The chemical properties of hydroge-
nium also distinguish it from ordinary hydrogen: e. g., the
palladium alloy precipitates mercury and calomel from a solu-
tion of mercuric chloride without disengagement of hydrogen;
that is, hydrogenium decomposes mercuric chloride while hy-
drogen does not.

The conclusions arrived at are, that hydrogenium is a white
solid of metallic aspect, of a density between 7 and 8, and ca-
pable of forming with an equivalent proportion of palladium a
definite alloy.

CELL-STRUCTURE OF METALS.

A paper, by W. Vivian, recently read before the Liverpool
Polytechnic Society, presented some interesting points in regard
to the microscopic structure of metals. Mr. Vivian classes met-
als under two heads, namely, those the structure of which is an-
gular or crystalline, and those in which it is cellular or porous.
The cellular structure is most highly developed in those metals
which we have found to be the best conductors of heat and elec-
tricity ; and its perfection is in proportion to the capacity for such
conduction. ‘The ‘fibre,’ or ‘silky lustre,’ exhibited in the
. fracture of good iron,” says Mr. V.,‘‘is only the effect of the
light reflected from the inner surfaces of myriads of minute cells ex-
posed by the fracture. The form of these, in their normal state,
is spherical, or nearly so, but becomes changed in the process of
rolling. The mechanical properties of tenacity, ductility, etc.,
must greatly depend on the perfection of the cell system; a
crystalline, malleable iron doesnot show prisms in its fracture, but
simply a number of faces or planes crossing the cells at right
angles, cutting them off short. The process of rolling iron into

196 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

plates or sheets does not obliterate these cells, but merely modi-
fies them, as they widen out under the pressure; the thin parti-
tions become laminated, and on the regularity of this lamination
the quality of the plate very much depends. The cell system of
copper is more perfect than that of iron, a result of the pouring
of the copper into moulds, but the cells are afterwards altered by
the pressure in rolling, etc., but never destroyed. If it were pos-
sible to make a section one-millionth part of an inch in thickness
these cells would be seen.” — Druggists’ Circular.

BEHAVIOR OF METALS IN THE ELECTRIC CURRENT.

If an electric current from a couple of cells of a Bunsen bat-
tery, the positive pole of which consists of a silver plate, is made
to pass through water acidulated with sulphuric acid, the silver
becomes covered with a black coating of amorphous peroxide of
silver. The formation of this oxide is due to ozone; for, on sub-
stituting a platinum plate for the one of silver, the smell of ozone
may be at once recognized. The same phenomenon takes place
if, instead of acidulated water, a solution of sulphate of sodium be
used. No peroxide is formed in a solution of nitrate of potassium,
but a flocculent, light-brown precipitate of oxide of silver forms
in the liquid. In a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium the
silver becomes covered with a white film of ferrocyanide of
silver (amorphous), and in a solution of bichromate of potassium
with a reddish-black film of crystallized chromate of silver.

When a plate of palladium is used as the positive electrode
in water acidulated with sulphuric acid, it becomes covered with
an almost black film of peroxide. Upon lead a coating of brown
peroxide, and upon thallium one of black oxide, is deposited.
Osmium, in its ordinary porous condition, is freely converted into
osmie acid. If, as an electrolyte, a dilute solution of hydrate of
sodium is employed, the solution assumes a deep-yellow color,
while at the same time metal is deposited on the negative elec-
trode. ‘The same is the case with ruthenium. Osm-iridium, in
its natural state, readily dissolves in the alkaline electrolyte.
— Wohler, Gétting. Nach.

PURE IRON.

Matthiesen prepares pure iron by the following method: Pure
dried ferrous sulphate and pure dried sulphate of sodium are
mixed in nearly equal proportions, and introduced gradually into
a red-hot platinum crucible. The mass is kept in fusion until the
evolution of sulphurous-acid gas ceases, then allowed to cool and
extracted with water. If the heat be properly regulated, the
whole of the iron is left as a very fine crystalline oxide. This
oxide is thoroughly washed by decantation, to remove every trace
of the sulphate of sodium, and, after being dried, is reduced by
hydrogen in a platinum crucible; the spongy iron thus obtained’

CHEMISTRY. 197

is then pressed into solid buttons, and melted in lime crucibles
with the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. If proper precautions are
taken in purifying the ferrous sulphate and the sulphate of
sodium, almost absolutely pure iron is obtained; careful analysis
fails to detect phosphorus or silicon, while the amount of sulphur
varies from 0.00025 to 0.0007 per cent. — Chem. News, Aug., 1869.

APPLICATION OF CHLORINE GAS TO THE TOUGHENING AND
REFINING OF GOLD.

A method of effecting the toughening and refining of gold has
been devised by F. B. Miller, F.C.S., of the Sydney Branch of
the Royal Mint, which appears to be superior to those now in
use, and to answer all the requirements of the case in a single
operation. A French clay crucible is saturated with borax by
immersing it in a strong and hot solution of the salt and then dry-
ing. The gold is melted in this crucible with a little borax, and
a stream of chlorine gas is allowed to pass through it by means
of a clay tube. In a few hours the whoie of the silver is con-
verted into chloride, which floats on the gold. The borax pre-
vents the absorption of the chloride by the crucible, and also its
volatilization, except in very minute quantities. As soon as the
gold has become solid, the still liquid chloride of silver is poured
off, and the gold is now found to have a fineness of say 993 in
1,000. The apparent loss of gold is very little greater than is
found in ordinary gold melting,— being 2.9 parts in 10,000,
whereas in the ordinary process it is two. A small sample of the
gold is removed from time to time during the operation, by means
of a piece of tobacco-pipe used as a pipette. This is rapidly
assayed approximately, and thus the progress of the operation is
judged of., The fused chloride of silver, obtained asa slab by
this operation, is reduced by placing it between two plates of
wrought iron in a bath of dilute sulphuric acid. The spongy
silver thus obtained contains gold, which is separated by nitric
acid; the silver is then thrown down as chloride and again re-
duced. — Chem. Soc., reported in Chem. News.

REDUCTION OF OXIDES BY HYDROGEN.

M. W. Miiller, as a result of a series of experiments made to
determine the temperature at which various oxides are reduced
by hydrogen, finds that oxide of iron, prepared by cautiously”
heating metallic iron in the air, is reduced at 285° C.; that oxide
of iron prepared from the nitrate is reduced at 286°; when rather
moist hydrogen was employed on oxide of iron prepared from
ferrous oxalate, the reduction took place at 278°. Precipitated
oxide of copper, previously heated to 300°, was reduced at 135°;
strongly ignited oxide of copper at 142°; oxide of cobalt at about
132°; oxide of tin at about 174°; oxide of lead at from 310° to
315°; peroxide of mercury at 230°; oxide of silver at between

1H fe

198 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

73° and 78°; oxide of zinc was not reduced at a temperature at
which glass fused. :

Experiments were also made on the chlorides and sulphides of
certain metals. Chloride of gold does not appear to be acted
upon below 200°, but at a higher temperature an explosion took
place; the action on chloride of platinum was strong at 85°, vio-
lent at 165°; the chlorides of silver and lead require a red heat
for reduction. Sulphide of gold is reduced at 200°, and sulphide
of platinum at the ordinary temperature; sulphuretted hydrogen
is formed in both cases. — Pogg. Ann.

PROPERTY OF TEROXIDE OF THALLIUM.

The teroxide of thallium may be obtained as a dark-brown
powder by digesting with heat freshly precipitated chloride of
thallium in a solution of hypochlorite of sodium containing an
excess of alkali. Ifa mixture of the dry teroxide and flowers of
sulphur is submitted to a moderate friction, it ignites with explo-
sion. When, however, to the teroxide is added one-eighth its
weight of the product vulgarly known as golden sulphur, it is ob-
served that the ignition requires less rubbing and takes place
without explosion. This mixture possesses the property of being
set on fire by the faintest electric spark, surpassing, in this re-
spect, the well-known mixture of equal parts of chlorate of potas-
sium and black sulphide of antimony. — Dingl. Polyt. Journ.

MARGUERITTE’S METHOD OF REFINING SUGAR.

It is well known that the present method of manufacturing
sugar, notwithstanding the improvements it has received of late
years, does not allow the extraction of the whole of the sugar
contained in the beet-root, and that the residue contains about 50
per cent. of its weight of the substance to be obtained. The
combinations of barium and calcium with sugar, observed by M.
Peligot, and the discovery of osmose and dialysis by Messrs.
Graham and Dutrochet, have given rise to many attempts to ex-
tract from molasses the sugar which it contains in a non-crys-
tallizable form.

The method employed by M. Margueritte is to mix the molas-
ses with alcohol of 85° acidulated with 5 per cent. of sulphuric
acid. The precipitate which forms, and which consists mainly of
the sulphates of potassium, sodium, and calcium, is removed by
filtration, and to the liquor is added an amount of alcohol of 95°
equal to that originally employed. A supersaturated solution of
sugar is thus obtained, from which the sugar slowly deposits. To
hasten this operation a quantity of sugar is added to the solution,
and this addition determines the immediate separation of the
greater portion of the sugar dissolved. M. Margueritte claims to
obtain 35 to 38 kilos. of sugar from 100 kilos. of molasses, and
to increase the total amount of the yield from 24 to 26 per cent,—
Comptes Rendus.

CHEMISTRY. 199

A NEW COMPOUND OF LIME AND SUGAR.

Messrs. Boivin and Loiseau have formed a new combination of
lime and sugar, which, moreover, contains carbonic acid. It is
prepared as follows: To 200 kilos. of syrup, containing 60 per
cent. of crystallizable sugar, are added 120 kilos. of caustic lime
as a thick milk of lime; carbonic acid is then passed through the
mixture until a precipitate makes its appearance, when 20 litres
of tepid lime-water are added and the passing of carbonic acid is
stopped. The precipitate contains 43 per cent. of sugar, 40 of
lime, and 17 of carbonic acid. — Bull. Soc. Chim.

FLUOSILICIC ACID FOR SUGAR REFINING.

M. Marix has taken in France a patent for the application of
fluosilicic acid for the purifying of beet-root and other saccharine
juices. The saccharine fluids are first diluted with a sufficient
quantity of water to take away the viscosity of these fluids,
sufficient fluosilicic acid is then added to precipitate all the potas-
sium salts present, and next powdered chalk is added to saturate
any excess of the acid. The fluid is then filtered in order to obtain a
clear liquid, and this afterwards treated in the usual manner. —
Bull. Soc. Chim.

MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR.

The ‘‘ Journal des Fabricants de Sucre” states that experiments
are now in progress in some French colonies to try on a large
scale the plan of MM. Rousseau and Bonnaterre, of converting
the saccharine juice of the cane or the beet-root into a peculiar
saccharate of lime, and of transporting that salt, instead of the
raw sugar, for the purposes of refining. It is said that this com-
pound is as hard as sand, and can be transported without the risk
of damage and injury to which sugar is subject: it can, more-
over, be kept for any length of time. — Chem. News.

IMPROVED METHOD OF MANUFACTURING GLUCOSE FROM
STARCH.

M. Maubré finds that, by the usual mode of proceeding, a
portion of the starch is always left in the state of dextrine; he
therefore operates under pressure and at a higher temperature.
For this purpose he employs a strong cylinder-shaped iron vessel
internally lined with lead; this boiler is charged with 28 kilos. of
sulphuric acid at 60° B., and 2,800 litres of water, and the liquid
is brought to the boiling-point by means of high-pressure steam.
When boiling, there is gradually run in a mixture of 1,180 kilos.
of starch, and 2,500 litres of water acidulated with 28 kilos. of sul-

200 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

phuric acid. When the whole of this quantity has been intro-
duced into the boiler, the boiler is closed, and the temperature
raised to 160° C. by means of steam; after 4 hours the action is
complete. The mixture is run off into tubs, and the acid satu-
rated with finely powdered limestone. After separation of the
sulphate of calcium, the fluid is evaporated to 20° B., clarified with
animal charcoal, and evaporated in vacuum-pans. An excellent
and beautiful glucose is thus obtained. — Mon. Scientif.

NOTES ON THE MANUFACTURE OF SOAP.

It.is a well-known fact that by an indirect method a potash
soap may be converted into a soda soap; this is done by adding
to a boiling solution of a potash soap a very concentrated solu-
tion of common salt; and itis generally taken for granted that
if enough of the latter has been added, the potash is replaced, at
least chiefly, by soda, and chloride of potassium is formed. Dr.
Oudemans has made experiments to ascertain how much of the
potash is replaced by soda, and finds that by the process, as exe-
cuted in a large scale and yielding excellent produce, only a lit-
tle more than half, to wit, 53.7 per cent. of potash is replaced by
soda, while 46.3 per cent. of potash are left along with the other
alkali combined with fatty acids in the curd soap.— Journ. f.
Prak. Chem. v.. Erdmann, 1., 1869.

UTILIZATION OF CHROME-ALUM.

The manufacture of aniline green and violet and of valerianic
acid gives abundant residues of chrome-alum. M. F. Jean pro-
poses to utilize the chrome-alum by pulverizing and mixing the
alum with 3 equivalents of carbon, and then decomposing at a red
heat in a retort of refractory earthenware. The reaction occur-
ring may be thus expressed: KO, SOs, CreO3 3803 4+- 3C—=3S02
+ KO, SO3-+- CryO3-4-3CO. The sulphurous acid is passed into
water or into a solution of carbonate of sodium, and the residue
boiled with water, to dissolve out the sulphate of potassium, which
may afterwards be obtained by crystallization. The sesquioxide of
chromium is then drained and calcined in order to get rid of all
the water, and although it is too dull for use in printing, it may
be used for the manufacture of bichromate of potassium. — Chem.
News.

PURIFICATION OF BISULPHIDE OF CARBON,

M. Millon purifies the bisulphide of carbon by first washing it
several times with distilled water, as in the purification of ether,
and then transferring it to a retort of large capacity containing
quick-lime. After 24 hours’ contact the bisulphide is distilled off
from the lime, and received in a flask partially filled with copper
turnings, which have been previously roasted to remove all traces

CHEMISTRY. 201

of fatty matter and afterwards reduced by hydrogen. The lime
remaining in the retort is strongly colored. All the disagreeable
odor of the ordinary bisulphide of carbon is removed by this
treatment and an ethereal odor only is perceived. — Chem. News,
Jan., 1869.

SOLUBILITY OF SULPHUR IN COAL-TAR OILS.

Coal-tar oils at a low temperature dissolve but a small propor-
tion of sulphur; but at a higher temperature this proportion is
considerably increased. Thus coal-tar oil of 0.885 sp. gr. and
distilling between 146° and 200° C. dissolves

at 158, 2.3 per cent. sulphur.
6c 40° 5.6 ce ‘cc
a 65° 10.6 Hs of
bois [| bah 25.0 as a
“cc $rO*; 30.3 ‘ec é
2 290°; 43.2 . 2

As the temperature decreases the sulphur is precipitated in the
crystalline state, and as the difference in solubility is so great the
larger portion of the sulphur dissolved at a high temperature is
recovered on cooling the solution. This property of the heavier
coal-tar oils is made use of at the Paris gas-works to extract, from
the materials which have been used in purifying gas according to
Laming’s process, the sulphur therein contained. M. Pelouze re-
ports very favorably on this plan, as greatly superior to, and less
dangerous than, the use of sulphide of carbon for that purpose. —
Comptes Kendus, May, 1869.

HZMATOXYLINE IN PHOTOGRAPHY.

Dr. Tabensky states that since MM. Erdmann and Hesse had
discovered that hzematoxyline reduces solution of silver and be-
comes colored red by the action of direct sunlight, he hasmade some
experiments in order to discover whether the alcoholic extract of
logwood might not be very serviceable in photography. For this
purpose he prepared hxmatoxyline in the pure state according to
Erdmann’s method, taking care to recrystallize the substance re-
peatedly from an alcoholic solution. Next two glass plates,
properly prepared, were exposed in a photographic apparatus to
light, and afterwardsone of these plates was treated as usual with
pyrogallic acid, the other with a solution of hzematoxyline. The
success of the latter operation left nothing to be desired, and
further experiments leave little doubt that haematoxyline may be
advantageously applied in photography. The quantities best
suited for the solution are as follows: Heematoxyline, 0.5
grams; distilled water, 80 grams; 22 grams of acetic acid of 33°
strength ; and a small quantity of glycerine. — Zeitsch. fiir Ch.

202 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

EXTRACTION OF OXYGEN FROM THE AIR.

MM. Laire and Montmagnon propose to take advantage of the
well-known property of wood charcoal, alkaline solutions, and
hlood, of absorbing a larger portion of oxygen from the surround-
ing air than of nitrogen. It is proved, by experiment, that 100
measures of wood charcoal, freshly burned, absorb 985 of oxygen,
and only about 705 of nitrogen. The blood of animals and solu-
tions of phosphate and car ‘donate of sodium absorb rapidly, ac-
cording to the amount of surface exposed to the air, about 12 per
cent. of oxygen, and only two per cent. of nitrogen. The pro-
posed method of utilizing these facts in this: —Pump out the
oxygen and nitrogen from the substances used to absorb it by
means of an air-pump; pass the mixture through fresh absorbing
media; re-extract, and repeat the operations as ; often as required.
In this way an oxygen is obtained very free from nitrogen, and
at an extremely cheap rate. — British Journal of Photography.

ENAMELS.

The fine enamels of trade are generally prepared by fusing, at
high temperatures, silica, oxide of tin, and oxide of lead, and
spreading the mixture over the surface of a sheet of copper, of
gold, or of platinum.

The objections to these enamels are, in the first place, their
high cost, and, secondly, the impossibility of giving them a per-
fectly flat surface.

Mr. E. Duchemin has advantageously replaced them by the
following economical and eflicient compound: Arsenic, 30 parts
by weight; saltpetre, 30; silica (fine sand), 90; litharge, 250.
This is ‘spread on plates of glass of the required ‘shape and size,

care being taken, however, “that the kind of glass employed be
not inferior in point of fusibility to the enamel.

Enamelled glass prepared from the above substances may be
drawn or written on as readily as if it were paper, and in less
time than one minute the writing may be rendered indelible by
simply heating the plate in a small open furnace or mufile.

First-class photographs, either negatives or positives, may be
taken on such enamels without collodion, by using bitumen, or
citrate of iron, or perchloride ofiron and tartaric acid, or bichromate,
or any other salt.

A good solution for this purpose is, water, 100 parts by weight ;
gum, 4 parts; honey, one part; pulverized bichromate of potias-
sium, 3 parts. Filter the liquid, spread it over the enamel, and
let it rest, after which: —

1. Expose it to the camera.

2. Develop the image by brushing over it the following pow-
der: Oxide of cobalt, 10 parts by weight; black oxide of iron, 90
parts ; red lead, 100 parts; sand, 30 parts.

CHEMISTRY. 203

3. Decompose the bichromate by immersion in a bath formed
of, water, 100 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 5 parts.

4. Wash it in clean water and dry it.

5. Vitrify the proof on a clean piece of cast iron, the surface
of which has been previously chalked. One minute will suffice
for indelibly fixing and glazing the photograph, which must be
carefully and slowly allowed to cool.

Photographs on enamel of any size, taken in this manner, are
perfectly unalterable under all atmospheric conditions, and may
consequently and aptly be called ‘‘ everlasting photographs.” —
Scientific American.

PRESERVATION OF WINES.

The process for improving and preserving wines, originally pro-
posed by Pasteur in his ‘* Etudes sur le Vin,” by simply heating it
to a temperature of 55° to 75° C. (131° to 167° F.), previous to
bottling, or after partial decomposition had set in, has lately
been reported upon by a commission of the French Navy De-
partment —a series of experiments and trials on an extensive
scale having been made for the purpose of determining its value.
The report states that Pasteur’s process will preserve French
wines permanently, or for an indefinite length of time, from
acidity and change of taste or clearness; that a temperature of
from 55° to 60° C. (131° to 140° F.) is the one desirable to apply
to the wines; and that this heating should be performed in vessels
aes or tinned copper. — Dingler’s Journal, from Armengaud’s
Génie.

ANALYSIS OF LAGER BEER.

Prof. C. F. Chandler, of the School of Mines of Columbia Col-
lege, has recently concluded a series of chemical tests with lager
beer, undertaken in order to ascertain the extent of its intoxicat-
ing properties, and the hygienic character which it has been rep-
resented to possess. His report is eminently successful in proy-
ing that the nourishing qualities which have been ignorantly
assigned to lager beer are only fictitious, and also that it is en-
tirely objectionable as a drink. It is composed chiefly of water,
with a certain amount of alcohol, — enough to cause intoxication
When copiously imbibed. During the brewing of the beer —
which, if properly done, occupies 8 months, the brewing commenc-
ing in cold weather — great care has to be taken to prevent its
becoming mouldy, which it sometimes does by the slightest varia-
tion in temperature. It is necessary to cool the brewing-vault
in summer and warm it in winter, in order to keep it at the
requisite temperature, averaging from 41 to 45 degrees Fahrenheit.
Frequently, however, the weather continues to act on the beer
after it has been barrelled and sold to retail dealers, rendering
it flat and bitter, in which condition it is very often sold asa
drink. Prof. Chandler’s analyses embraced 5 samples of different

204 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

breweries, which, when examined, developed trifling and unim-
ortant differences in their quality. The following is the tabu-
ated result: —

Alcohol Extractive matter
Specific by of the
No. Gravity. Water. volume. Malt and Hops.
at 1.008 90.75 6.25 3.00
2 1.006 89.98 4.99 5.03
3 1.008 91.59 5.39 3.02
4 1.018 89.61 4.99 5.40
5 1.005 87.16 7.74 5.10
Average 1.013 89.82 5.86 4.32

It was found that all the specimens contained small quantities
of grape sugar; of lupuline, the bitter principle of the hops; of
acetic acid (merely a trace), produced by oxidization of some
of the alcohol; and of carbonic-acid gas generated during the
fermentation. A most thorough examination failed to reveal any
indications of the presence of picric acid, picrotoxin (the peculiar
principle of cocculus Indicus), alum, copperas, or any other
adulteration whatever. — Druggists’ Circular

NEW ALKALOID IN FERMENTED LIQUORS.

According to M. Ozer, every time that solutions of sugar fer-
ment under the influence of yeast, beside alcohol, a new alka-
loid is produced, to which he attributes the formula Cog Hx Ny.
The chlorhydrate of this base crystallizes in hygroscopic tables,
which become brown on exposure to the air. It appears that all
fermented liquors contain the new alkaloid, or at least one of its
compounds. The existence of this new alkaloid may explain
certain effects of fermented liquors which cannot be attributed to
alcohol alone. — Cosmos.

TURACINE.

The turaco, or plantain-eater, of the Cape of Good Hope is cele-
brated for its beautiful plumage. A portion of the wings is of a
fine red color. This red coloring matter has been investigated
by Prof. Church, who finds it to contain nearly 6 per cent. of cop-
per, which cannot be distinguished by the ordinary tests, nor re-
moved from the coloring matter without destroying it. The
coloring matter is, in fact, a natural organic compound, of which
copper is one of the essential constituents. ‘Traces of this metal
had previously been found in animals; for example, in oysters,
to the cost of those who partook of them; but in these cases
the presence of the copper was merely accidental; thus, oysters
that lived near the mouths of streams which came down from
copper mines assimilated a portion of the copper salt without

CHEMISTRY. 205

apparently its doing them either good or harm. But, in the
turaco, the existence of the red coloring matter which belongs to
their normal plumage is dependent upon copper, which, obtained
in minute quantities with the food, is stored up in this strange
manner in the system of the bird. Thus, in the very same
feather, partly red and partly black, copper was found in abun-
dance in the red parts, but none, or only the merest trace, in the
black. This red coloring matter is soluble in water; and a pair
of birds, kept in captivity, lost their fine red color in the course
of a few days, in consequence of washing in the water which was
left them to drink; except as to the loss of their beauty, how-
ever, it does not appear that the birds were the worse for it. —
Address of President Stokes before the British Association, 1869.

-

ALIZARINE.

M. Martin, taking advantage of Shiitzenberger’s investigation
of madder, has invented a process for transforming orange-
madder, purpurine, pseudo-purpurine, and tantho-purpurine,
into alizarine. The several coloring matters are first dissolved in
concentrated sulphuric acid; powdered zinc is then added, and
heat applied. When the reaction is completed, the mass is
diluted with water, and an abundant precipitate falls, which is the
required dye. This, after washing with water, is ready for use.
— Chem. News.

ARTIFICIAL ALIZARINE.

Messrs. Grebe and Liebermann, of Berlin, have discovered a
process for converting anthracene (paranaphthaline), a constitu-
ent of gas-tar, into alizarine, the principal coloring matter of the
madder-plant. This conversion is accomplished by three succes-
sive operations : —

First: the anthracene (Cy, Hg) is transformed into oxanthracene,
or anthraquinone (Cy Hio) by heating one part of anthracene
with two parts of bichromate of potassium in the presence of
sulphuric acid or of crystallized acetic acid, or by the action of a
mixture of nitric and acetic acids.

Second: the anthraquinone is heated with two equivalents of
bromine, and the product formed heated with alcoholic potash.
There results the compound Cy, He Brs, and from this, by the ox-
idizing action of nitric acid and bichromate of potassium, is
obtained the brominated compound Cy He Br2 Oz, which is purified
by recrystallization. In this process chlorine can be*used instead
of bromine.

Third: the brominated compound thus formed is heated with a
very concentrated solution of potash to from 180° to 260° C., until
the blue color which the mass assumes no longer increases in
intensity. The mass is then treated with an acid which precip-
itates the alizarine. — Bull. Soc. Ch., June, 1869.

MM. Grebe and Liebermann have recently stated that they

18

206 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

can dispense With the use of acetic acid and bromine, and will
shortly be able to bring into the trade a superior article manufac-
ture l by a method different from that already described by them.
— Mo. Sci.

NEW DYE FROM MADDER.

Prof. Rochleder, of Prague, has found that, when madder is
treated with dilute mineral acids, it yields, beside alizarine and
purpurine, a small quantity of a third tinctorial substance, which
in alkaline solution has a great similarity to chrysophanie acid in
alkaline solution; acids precipitate it from this solution in the
amorphous, flocculent state, the precipitate being ofa pale yellow
color. This substance is soluble in alcohol and acetic acid, from
which solutions it is obtained by evaporation in orange-yellow
colored crystals. Its aqueous solution, mixed with acetic acid
and brought to the boiling point, imparts to silk and wool a
beautiful and durable golden-yellow color. — Cosmos.

A NEW COLORING MATTER. ?

The discovery of fuchsine and other colors derived from ani-
line first caused the existence of very rich sources of coloring mat-
ters to be predicted in mineral oils and hydrocarbons in general.
Therefore, since that period, chemists have devoted themselves to
laborious researches in the same direction, in order to find new
products for use indyeing. The method which M. Clavel has
adopted was suggested by the study of the circumstances, which
have since been explained, regarding the formation of fuchsine.
It is now known that commercial aniline is a mixture of aniline
and toluidine ; and M. Hofmann has proved that it is a mixture of
these two bases which produces the brilliant color. Guided by
an examination of these facts, M. Clavel has not sought in naph-
thylamine for a coloring matter by itself, but for one likely to
produce the color, by a mixture with another base like naphthy-

Jamine, from which it has been derived, or with any other isomeric "

substance. The new coloring matter, then, is obtained by the
direct oxidation of a product isomeric with naphthylamine and
mixing the products of higher distillation with the naphthylamine.

The mode of operation is as follows: The naphthaline is
first treated with nitric acid of 1.33°, and the resulting nitro-
naphthaline is washed, and reduced either by iron and acetic acid,
or by zine and hydrochloric acid, or by other appropriate re-
agents. The distillation is then proceeded with. There comes
over at first naphthylamine, and then at a higher temperature a
second body discovered by M. Clavel.

This second product is treated at 120° with 50 per cent. of very
dry nitrate of mercury, and subsequently left in contact with its
own bulk of naphthylamine for about a quarter of an hour; the
mixture is then treated with boiling water containing a vegetable
acid, by which the coloring matter is dissolved. After filtration

CHEMISTRY. 207

the solution is treated in the ordinary manner with a salt and the
coloring matter is precipitated; the solution of this substance in
alcohol gives a red color, finer and more solid than the colors
hitherto extracted from naphthaline and naphthylamine. Noanaly-
sis has yet been given of this body. It distils at 300°; its vapors
form in condensing a deposit which rapidly becomes brown on
exposure to the air; in a state of purity it is solid below 15°, be-
coming liquid at a higher temperature. — Mon. Sci.

"ANILINE GRAY.

M. Bloch publishes the following receipt: One kilo. of ani-
line at 190° and 5 kilos. of arsenic acid at 75° are heated in a
cauldron over an open fire, care being taken to maintain the heat
at the boiling-point till the substance thickens and rises, when
the operation is terminated. The substance obtained presents a
black appearance; it is thick and insoluble in water. In or-
der to purify the product it is boiled with the aid of steam in a
mixture of about 20 litres of water and one kilo. of chlorhydric
acid, for half an hour, collected on a filter, washed first with water
and then with a dilute solution of carbonate of sodium. Finally
the collected matter is dried, and gives a fine black powder. For
dyeing, a solution of this product is made in alcohol to which
10 per cent. of sulphuric acid is added. With this liquor, when
filtered, magnificent grays of all shades can be dyed.

A NEW METHOD OF DYEING A FAST GRAY.

It is stated by M. Barreswil that protonitrate of mercury is suc-
cessfully used as a mordant; the dye employed is a solution of
sulphide of potassium, one kilo. of the salt being employed to 18
kilos. of woven tissue or yarn. The gray color thus produced is
essentially due to the formation of sulphide of mercury on and in
the tissues, and, according to M. Barreswil, the color is fast, that
is, it is not destroyed by washing with soap or alkalies, and re-
sists acids, but it is destroyed by chlorine.— Bull. d. l. Soe.
@Encour., June, 1869.

SOLUBILITY OF INDIGO.

Koechlin has discovered that indigo is soluble in alkaloid
salts, and particularly in the acetates and chlorides of aniline,
morphine, etc.

Stockvis announces the solubility of indigo in chloroform, stat-
ing that this solvent takes up the color largely and readily. —
Bull. Soc. Chim.

CHROME GREEN.

Oxide of chromium prepared in the dry way varies in the shade
of color, but never possesses such brilliancy or freshness that it may

208 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

be used in printing paper or textile fabrics. It is possible, how-
ever, in the wet way, to produce a green oxide of chromium not
devoid of beauty. MM. Casthela and Leune prepare what they
style imperial green, by slowly precipitating salts of chromium by
treating them with hydrated metallic oxides, carbonates, or sul-
phides; the action proceeds gradually, and the color of the hy-
drated oxide precipitated is a deep emerald green. Practically
the reagents employed are gelatinous alumina and the oxides,
carbonates, and sulphides of zinc andiron. ‘The color of the green
precipitate may be modified by the use of reagents forming with
the acid of the salt of chromium insoluble salts. — Mon. Sci.

BLEACHING WOOD-PULP.

The difficulties encountered in the bleaching of wood-pulp are,
(1) that chloride of lime, however little in excess, has a tendency
to produce a yellow tint; (2) that strong acids turn the paste red
under the action of the sun, or after some time without sun-
light in the presence of moisture; (3) that the slightest trace of
iron is sufficient to blacken the paste in a short time.

M. Orioli obviates these objectionable results by the use of
oxalic acid, the energetic action of which on vegetable coloring
matters is well known. For 100 kilos. of wood-pulp he employs
800 kilos. of oxalic acid, which serves the double purpose of bleach-
ing the coloring matters already oxidized, and of neutralizing the
alkaline principles favorable to oxidation; two kilos. of sulphate
of alumina, perfectly free from iron, are alsoadded, This sulphate
ofalumina does not bleach of itself, but forms with the coloring mat-
ter of the wood a nearly colorless lake, which, remaining in the
pulp, enables the brilliancy of the product to be heightened. —
Chem. News, Jan., 1869.

BLEACHING PAPER-PULP.

M. Gauny proposes to bleach paper-pulp by means of bichro-
mate of potassium. For 100 kilos. of pulp (supposed to be dry) he
uses 50 kilos. of bichromate and 150 kilos. of hydrochloric acid,
mixed with a sufficient quantity of water to make the pulp float.
After 12 hours’ standing the chloride of chromium is washed out
by means of clean water, and the pulp treated with a small quan-
tity of bleaching powder to make it thoroughly white. The
chloride of chromium is precipitated with excess of lime, and this
mixture calcined in a reverberatory furnace, where it is converted
into chromate of calcium.

NEW METHOD OF BLEACHING FEATHERS. ,

This process is a new one, and by it even black feathers of
ostriches and other birds may be bleached. The feathers are

: CHEMISTRY. 209

allowed to stand for 3 or 4 hours in a lukewarm dilute solution of
bichromate of potassium, to which a small quantity of nitric acid
has been added. After the expiration of this time the feathers
are found to have assemed a greenish hue, owing to the sesqui-
oxide of chromium deposited upon them; in order to remove this,
use is made of a dilute aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, which
leaves the feathers perfectly white. The solutions should all be
dilute, and particular care exercised in the employment of the
nitric acid. — Duflot in Dingl. Pol. Journ.

BLEACHING PALM OIL BY CHROMIC ACID.

The following is a detailed account of the process used by M.
Engelhardt, of Leipzig, for bleaching palm oil by means of
chromic acid: A convenient quantity of palm oil is placed ina
caldron and heated to about 62° C., and allowed to repose dur-
ing a whole night; the next day it is poured into a perfectly clean
vessel, and cooled down to 40° or 37°C. While this operation is being
performed, a certain quantity of water is heated to ebullition; for
1,000 parts by weight of palm oil, 45 of water; in this quantity 15
parts of bichromate of potassium are dissolved. As soon as the
solution has cooled a little, 60 parts of hydrochloric acid are added,
and it is then mixed with the palm oil, which is vigorously agi-
tated during the mixing. Five minutes suffice for the oil to be
colored a dull green. By continuing the stirring, the oxide of
chromium becomes completely separated, the oil becomes clearer
and clearer, and finally quite limpid; when this point is arrived
at, it is washed with hot water; the productis perfectly white. If
the palm oil has not been thoroughly bleached by the treatment,
the process is repeated with 23 parts of bichromate of potassium,
and one of hydrochloric acid. This method is capable of rapid
execution, and gives very good results. — Druggists’ Circular.

ALBUMEN.

It frequently happens that among the dried albumen met with
in commerce a variety occurs which is soluble in water, but not
coagulated by heat. Dr. Monnier,of Lyons, has found that when
white of eggs is slowly evaporated by exposure to the heat of the
sun, or rapidly evaporated in a water-bath after exposure for a
considerable time to sunlight, a modification of albumen is ob-
tained, which is not coagulated by heat. From a dilute aqueous
solution, this variety is not precipitated by acetic, formic, or tar-
taric acid, but on the addition of a few drops of either of these acids
it passes into the coagulable modification. It was found that 5
milligrams of crystallized acetic acid in 0.5 c¢c.c. of water were
sufficient to cause the conversion of 20 grams of this dry albumen
dissolved in 10 e.c. of water. When ammonia was added in suf-
ficient quantity to exactly neutralize the acid, the albumen passed
back into the modification not coagulated by heat. — Deutsche Ind.
Zeitung.

18 *

210 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. -

MANUFACTURE OF CHLORINE.

When air is passed through a mixture of MnO and CaO, sus-
pended in water, there is formed manganite of calcium, a compound
of MnO, and CaO. This compound, perpetually regenerated, is
used in the manufacture of chlorine as follows: The residual
liquor, after a charge of MnQz has been acted upon by chlorhy-
dric acid, is treated with twice the quantity of lime necessary to
decompose the chloride of manganese ; and through the resulting
precipitate suspended in the liquor air is passed, forming the
manganite, which is used again to generate chlorine. — W. Whel-
den before the Brit. Ass., 1869.

FILTRATION.

The operation of filtration being one of constant necessity, and
occupying so much time in any analytical operation, attempts
have often been made to improve the common method with a
view of shortening the time required. Various devices have
been proposed to utilize the principle of the syphon; and in 1865
Piccard proposed to filter under pressure by fitting the funnel
into a flask in which the air was rarefied. This rarefaction was
effected by connecting the flask with a tube through which a thin
stream of water flowed, sucking down with it a continuous stream
of air-bubbles. No one, has, however, devised a simple and
inexpensive apparatus suitable for general use until recently.
Bunsen (‘‘ Ann. der Ch. u. Ph.,” vol. XLvut., p. 269) has pub-
lished a paper ‘*On the Washing ‘of Precipitates, oe of which the
following is an abstract : —

A precipitate is washed either by filtration or decantation, or
by a combination of these two methods. In either case the time
required is so long, and the quantity of wash-water needed is so
great, that some simplific: ation of this continually recurring opera-
tion is in the highest degree desirable. The following method, ;
which depends, not upon” the removal of the impurity ‘by simple
attenuation, but upon its displacement by forcing the wash-water
through the precipitate, appears to me to combine all the requisite
conditions, and therefore to satisfy the need.

«The rapidity with which a liquid filters depends, other things
being equal, upon the difference which exists between the pres-
sure on its upper and lower surfaces. Supposing the filter to
consist of a solid substance, the pores of which suffer no altera-
tion by pressure or by any other influence, then the volume of
liquid filtered in a given time is nearly pr oportional to the dif-
ference in pressure, as was experimentally shown, using pure |

water and a filter of artificial pumice-stone. With a difference
of pressure amounting to 0.179 metre the time required for a
given quantity of water to run through was 91.7”, while under

* Reprinted in Silliman’s Journal, May, 1869.

CHEMISTRY. 211

a pressure of 0.472 metre the same quantity ran through in 33.0”.
In the ordinary process of fiitration the difference in pressure
amounts to scarcely more than 0.005 metre. The advantage
gained, therefore, is casily perceived when we can succeed by
some simple, practicable, and easily attainable method in multi-
plying this difference in pressure one or two hundred times, or,
say, to an entire atmosphere, without running any risk of breaking
the filter. The solution of this problem is very easy; a glass
funnel is chosen possessing an angle of as near 60° as possible,
the walls of which must be perfectly free from inequalities of
every description, and into it is placed a second funnel made of
extremely thin platinum-foil, the sides of which possess exactly
the same inclination as those of the glass funnel. An ordinary
paper filter is then introduced into this compound funnel in the
usual manner; when carefully moistened and so adjusted that no
air-bubbles are visible between it and the glass, this filter, when
filled with a liquid, will support the pressure of an extra atmos-
phere without breaking. In order that the additional pressure of
an atmosphere may be produced the filtered liquid is received in
a strong glass flask instead of in a beaker. This flask is closed
by a doubly perforated caoutchouc cork, through one of the holes
of which the neck of the glass funnel is passed; through the
other is fitted a narrow glass tube connected with the apparatus
designed to produce the requisite difference in pressure.

‘«It is impossible to employ any of the air-pumps at present in
use for this purpose, since the filtrate not unfrequently contains
chlorine, sulphurous acid, hydric sulphide, and other substances
which would act injuriously upon the metallic portions of these
instruments. A water air-pump is, therefore, employed, con-
structed on the principle of Sprengel’s mercury-pump, by con-
necting the flask which receives the filtrate with a vertical pipe
through which a stream of water continually flows. This stream
of water sucks down with it the air from the flask in a continuous
series of bubbles. With a fall of from 30 to 40 feet, the rarefac-
tion can be carried to within 8 or 12 millimetres of a perfect
vacuum; but even with a fall of 10 feet only, a great advantage
is gained.

‘* Bunsen gives a number of examples to show the efficiency
of this new method, from which it appears that the time neces-
sary to filter and dry a quantity of sesquioxide of chromium,
hitherto requiring about 7 hours, is reduced to 13 minutes ; and
the total length of time needed to filter the sesquioxide of chro-
mium, wash and dry the precipitate, and evaporate the filtrate, is
reduced from 14 or 15 hours to about 32 minutes.

“Other advantages gained by this method are that the pre-
cipitate is obtained so dry as that it can be immediately ignited,
or, if necessary, it can be readily removed from the filter without
loss, and without being mixed with particles of the paper. More-
over, if the filtrate is to be used for further investigation, there is
a much smaller bulk to be evaporated than if the precipitate had
been washed in the old way.”

212 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

AN IMPROVED QUALITATIVE FILTER.

A mode of folding filters for qualitative analysis superior to the
one in common use is suggested by C. E. Avery. In place of
folding the filter doubled upon itself down the middle in the
usual way, he turns down on each side of the paper a fold equal
to one-quarter of the semicircle, and then folds the sectors of 45°
thus formed back upon themselves. The filter is then opened
without disturbing the folded portion, and placed in the funnel.
In this form the triple side of the plain filter is broken up, and
the folded portions keep open passages instead of hindering
filtration. A gain of some 50 per cent. is obtained in the rapidity
of filtration. — Amer. Jour. Phar., XL., p. 200.

THE PHENOMENA OF SUPERSATURATION AND BOILING.

Oersted noticed in 1806 that dilute acids might be cautiously
added to solutions of the alkaloid carbonates without producing
any action, but that on the introduction of a solid body, such asa
platinum wire, a glass rod, or the finger, brisk effervescence en-
sued. He inferred that gas in solution is never given off, except
in contact with a solid, and he adduced the influence of solids in
promoting crystallization in support of his view. Analogous ex-
periments were made by Schoénbein in 1837, who suggested that
the solids acted by carrying down air. Further illustrations were
supplied, in 1839, by Liebig, who concurred in attributing the ef-
fects to the influence of the air introduced. ‘Tomlinson refers all
such phenomena, together with that of the sudden deposition of
crystals from a supersaturated solution, to the action of nuclei, and
defines a nucleus as ‘‘ a body which has a stronger adhesion for a
gas, salt, or vapor in solution than for the liquid which holds
it in solution.” The action of solids in these cases he ascribes
to the greasy film which after exposure to the air they are sure to
acquire; for # is found that a platinum ora glass rod, which, by
means of chemical agents, is made perfectly clean, is powerless
to bring about such changes. He considers the sudden crystalliza-
tion of a supersaturated solution of a salt by mere exposure to the
air as due to particles of dust falling upon the liquid.

The effegt of dropping a crystal of the salt into the solution is
due to its having acquired the condition of a nucleus from expo-
sure to the air. If a crystal of sulphate of sodium be suspended
in the neck of the flask in which the supersaturated solution is be-
ing prepared, it ceases to be a nucleus, and when the solution is
cold the crystal may be lowered into it without determining the
separation of the salt. Tomlinson uses the term catharism to
express the condition of a body which is made chemically clean,
and which does not act as a nucleus. Considering a boiling liquid
as a supersaturated solution of its own vapor, he refers to the same
theory the phenomena of boiling. If any solid body be intro-
duced into a boiling liquid, bubbles of vapor collect on the solid

CHEMISTRY. ral

and are given off from it. This action does not take place if the
body introduced has previously been made chemically clean, nor
will the body introduced continue to promote the action indefi-
nitely if the liquid is of such a nature as to render it clean after a
time.

‘¢It has been recommended to use sharp-pointed or roughened
bodies, under the impression that steam is given off with greater
facility from the points or the teeth. This isa mistake. Make
these rough or sharp-pointed bodies clean, and they cease to act.
Sharp, angular fragments of glass, washed in sulphuric acid and
rinsed, no longer act as nuclei. A rat’s-tail file passed through
the flame of a spirit lamp also becomes denucleized. A body such
as a file is apt to collect between its teeth the greasy kind of mat-
ter that acts so well as a nucleus; and this has led to an idea in
favor of rough bodies. The air is not a nucleus. When Dr. Bos-
tock, in his experiments, found his thermometer cease to act, and
by taking it out of the liquid and waving it in the air it liberated
vapor when restored to the liquid, the thermometer had caught
from the air some unclean particles of dust, which acted fora
moment as nuclei, until, by the action of the ether, they became
denucleized.”

Looking, then, at the matter from a practical stand-point, what
is wanted in conducting the processes of boiling and distillation is
a body which will act permanently as a nucleus. Such bodies are
charcoal, coke, pumice-stone, meerschaum, and a few others,
which act by virtue of the powerful force of capillarity. The same
force which, according to Saussure, enables one volume of box-
wood charcoal to absorb 90 volumes of ammoniacal gas, 85 of
hydrochloric acid gas, 65 of sulphurous acid gas, and so on, ena-
bles these porous bodies to absorb vapor from boiling liquids, and, °
under the continued action of the heat, to give it out in never-
ceasing jets, thus relieving the vessel of all tendency to bumping,
making the boiling soft, gentle, and regular, and increasing the
quantity of the distillate. Charcoal made from cocoa-nut shell
answers best for this purpose. Thus, methylated spirit of wine,
boiling at 171° F., was distilled in a glass retort. The amount of
distillate collected in a given time was weighed, and bore to
the amount collected in the same time after the addition of a few
fragments of cocoa-nut shell charcoal, the ratio of 100: 133. Even
a short bundle of capillary glass tubes, united like a fagot by a
thread in the middle, is an active nucleus in liberating vapor.
Such a bundle, weiging only 10 grains, put into a retort from
which methylated spistt was being distilled, raised the amount of
distillate in the ratio of 100: 110.— Tomlinson, Lecture before
Chem. Soc.

ACTION OF BOILING LIQUIDS UPON GLASS AND PORCELAIN
VESSELS.

Dr. A. Emmerling publishes (‘‘ Ann. Ch. 1m. Ph.,” June, 1869)
the results of a series of extended and carefully conducted experi-

.

214 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY. .

ments on this subject, the general result of which may be summed
up as follows: —

(1.) The action of boiling liquids upon glass vessels is, within
certain limits, proportional to the time of boiling. The action
upon new vessels is somewhat greater for the first few hours than
atterwards.

(2.) The action is proportional to the extent of surface in con-
tact with the boiling liquid.

(3.) The action is independent of the quantity of liquid evapo-
rated in a given time.

(4.) The action decreases rapidly with the temperature.

(5.) Alkalies, even in very dilute solutions, attack the glass
strongly.

(6.) Dilute acids (with the exception of sulphuric acid) attack
the glass less than pure water.

(7.) Solutions of salts whose acids form insoluble calcium salts
attack the glass more violently, those whose acids form soluble
calcium salts less violently, than pure water,

(8.) The amount of action depends on the composition of the

glass, soda glass being attacked more than Bohemian glass.
(9.) The component parts of the glass are dissolved in about
the proportions in which they exist in the glass.
(10.) Vessels of Berlin porcelain were sensibly attacked by
alkalies only.

DECREASE OF TEMPERATURE CAUSED BY THE SOLUTION OF
SALTS IN WATER.

The decrease of temperature caused by the solution of a given
salt in water is greater the larger the quantity of the salt dis-
solved ina given time. Since, however, the amount of the salt
which can be dissolved by water of a given temperature is a
fixed quantity, it follows that the maximum decrease of tempera-
ture will be produced by employing a quantity of salt sufficient
to form a saturated solution. As the decrease of temperature
will be greater the more rapid the solution, the salt employed
should be in as fine a state of division as possible; moreover, the
relative decrease of temperature is greater, the lower the tem-
perature of the water, and of the salt before mixing; therefore,
the greatest effect will be obtained by cooling each separately
before making the solution. In no case is it possible to obtain a
temperature lower than the freezing-poinof the saturated solu-
tion, although that point can in some cases be very closely ap-
proached. A number of experiments made upon various salts,
were conducted in the following manner: — The finely powdered
salt and the requisite quantities of water were, previous to the
making of the experiments, each put in separate beakers made
of very thin glass, and placed for from 12 to 18 hours in a room
wherein the temperature could be kept as nearly as possible con-
stant; in consequence of this, the beakers and contents attained
the same temperature throughout. The mixing was effected by

a

CHEMISTRY. 215

pouring the water on to the salt, and stirring up with a very deli-
cate and highly sensitive thermometer; the maximum decrease
of temperature took place within a minute after the mixing of
the salt and water. Of a considerabie number of salts experi-
mented upon, the sulphocyanide of potassium caused the great-
est decrease of temperature. When 150 parts of the salt were
mixed with 100 parts of water, the temperature fell from 10.8° C.
to — 23.7° C., that is, through 34.5°.

When 133 parts of suiphocyanide of ammonium were mixed
with 100 parts of water, the temperature fell from 13.2° to —18°,
or through 31.2°.

When 60 parts of nitrate of ammonium were mixed with 100
parts of water, the temperature fell from 13.6° to —13.6°, that is,
through 26.2°. — Rudorff. Deut. Ch. Ges., Berlin, 1869.

Freezing Mixture. — If citric acid and crystallized carbonate of
sodium in powder be stirred together, the temperature falls from
+ 60° F. to— 80° F. — Chem. News.

PURIFYING WATER.

The inhabitants of the towns and villages along the River
Maas are dependent upon its waters for domestic and drinking
purposes. The water is turbid, does not become clear on stand-
ing, and produces, in those not accustomed to its use, a diar-
rhea, sometimes accompanied by dangerous symptoms. Analy-
sis fails to reveal the cause of this property. Dr. Gunning, of
Amsterdam, has found that perchloride of iron added to this
water (and the same applies to far more foul waters experi-
mented upon) renders it wholesome and even agreeable to use.

To one litre of the water is added 0.032 gram of the dry salt
dissolved in pure water, and the liquid, after stirring, is allowed
to stand for 36 hours. On a large seale, a small quantity
of carbonate of sodium is subsequently added to neutralize any
free chlorhydric acid. Comparative experiments have proved
that the application of this process is far superior to filtration,
even through animal charcoal. The result obtained with the
Maas water having been so eminently successful, the committee
has applied this method to the purifying of water, otherwise un-
drinkable, such as is met with in the smaller canals, brooks, and
wells containing surface water; thus treated such waters become
available for use.

The precipitate formed by the addition ‘of perchloride of iron
and carbonate of sodium contains a large quantity of organic
matter. Analysis shows that the only addition to the inorganic
constituents of the water is one part of chloride of sodium to
40,000 parts of water. — From the Report of the Netherlands Com-
mittee. — Chem. News.

SEWAGE.

The sewage water from Paris taken at the bridge near Asni-
eres contains one kilo. of solid matter to the cubic metre; of

216 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

this amount 37 grams are nitrogenous matter. This water is
treated with sulphate of aluminum, whereby all the phosphoric
acid, two-thirds of the nitrogenous matter, and rather more than
one-half the potassium salts present are completely precipitated,
and perfectly clear, inodorous water is left, which may be run off
into the rivers without injury to the purity of the water of the
same. — Chem. News.

At Rheims experiments have been tried on a large scale to de-
termine the value and applicability of various processes for
treating the sewage of that city. The processes tried have
been: (1) treatment with sulphate of iron and lime; (2)
treatment with lignite and lime; (3) treatment with fine coal and
a small quantity of sulphate of iron and lime. The first two
processes yield a manure, the third a fuel. The use of lignite is
said to prove completely successful. — Les Mondes.

ACTION OF WATER ON LEAD.

Dr. Frankland has made the observation that water which
acted on lead lost this power after passing through a filter of
animal charcoal. This he discovered to be owing to the fact that
2 minute quantity of phosphate of calcium from the charcoal
passed into the water.

On comparing two natural waters, that of the River Kent,
which acts violently on lead, and that of the River Vyrnwy, which,
though very soft, has no action on lead, he found that the latter
water contained an appreciable amount of phosphate of calcium,
while none could be detected in the Kent water.

Solubility of Carbonate of Calcium in Water saturated with Car-
bonie Acid. — Cossa finds that 1,000 parts of water saturated with
carbonic acid at the atmospheric pressure dissolve, of Carrara
marble, at from 7.5° to 9.5°, 1.181 parts; of Luneburg chalk, at
from 20° to 22°, 0.835 parts; of precipitated carbonate of cal-
cium, at 18°, 0.950 parts; of Odlithic limestone, at 15°, 1.252
parts; of dolomite, at 15°, 0.573 parts. — Jour. f. Prak. Ch.

SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.

It is stated, in regard to the delicacy of the method of spectrum
analysis, that it is possible to detect 1-180,000,000th part of a
grain of sodium, 1-6,000,000th part of a grain of lithium, and
1-1,000,000th part of a grain of strontium.

The most important application which has yet been made of
spectrum analysis to manufacturing purposes is its use in the
making of steel by the Bessemer process. In this operation it is
all important that the blowing of air through the molten mass
should cease the instant the proper amount of carbon has been
burned out. ‘The precise moment at which to interrupt the blast
is determined by examination of the flame issuing from the con-

ae

CHEMISTRY. © OTT

verter. As soon as the carbon lines disappear from the spectrum
the blast is shut off. — Roscoe, Lectures on Spect. Anal.

Gaseous Spectra. —Frankland and Lockyer find, that under
certain conditions of temperature and pressure the spectrum of
hydrogen is reduced to one line in the green corresponding to F
in the solar spectrum; that the spectrum of nitrogen is similarly
reducible to one bright line in the green, with traces of other
more refrangible faint lines; that from a mixture of hydrogen and
nitrogen a combination of these spectra is obtained, the relative
brilliancy of the two lines varying with the amount of each gas
present in the mixture; that, by reducing the temperature, all
spectroscopic evidence of the nitrogen vanishes, and by increas-
ing it many new nitrogen lines make their appearance, the hy-
drogen line always remaining visible. These observations render
unnecessary the assumption made by Huggins, that the visibility
of a single nitrogen iine in the spectra of the nebulz indicates a
form of matter more elementary than nitrogen, and which our
analysis has not yet enabled us to detect. We can gather that
the temperature of the nebule is less than that of our sun and
that their tenuity is excessive. It is alsoa question whether the
continuous spectrum observed in some cases may not be due to
gaseous condensation. — Chem. News.

JARGONIUM.

The existence of absorption bands in the spectra, obtained from
light transmitted through certain specimens of zircons, was first
observed by Prof. Church, in 1866. Recently Mr. H. C. Sorby,
acting independently, observed the same phenomena, and has in-
ferred therefrom the existence of a new element, to which he
gives the name of jargonium. He has also succeeded in sepa-
rating chemically the oxide of jargonium from that of zirconium,
altogether not in a state of purity.

NEW ACID FROM SULPHUR.

A solution of sulphurous acid in contact with zinc becomes of
a yellow color, and acquires the property of powerfully decolor-
izing indigo and litmus, which Schonbein laid*to the conversion of
the oxygen in combination into ozone. The same effect is pro-
duced by the action of zinc on a solution of bisulphite of sodium.
As the color of the indigo and litmus returns on exposure to the
air, if is evident that the phenomenon is due to a reduction. M.
Shiitzenberger shows this is due to the formation of a compound
made up of a double atom of sulphurous acid, wherein one atom
of oxygen is replaced by one atom of hydrogen; this free and
anhydrous acid would be represented by the formula S2 Os H.
M. Shiitzenberger proposes to call this compound hydrosulphurous
acid. He prepared the hydrosulphite of sodium by heating a

19

218 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

solution of bisulphite of sodium with zine out of access of the air,
cooling the mixture to avoid a rise of temperature, and decanting
the liquid into three times its bulk of alcohol. This mixture is
hermetically sealed in a flask, until there has fallen a crystalline
deposit, consisting mainly of the double sulphite of zine and sodi-
um. The clear alcoholic solution is then decanted into another
flask, which it should fill, and sealed up. There forms in the
flask amass of colorless, needle-like crystals, which, dried in a
vacuum, eflloresce to a white powder of the composition,
S203, Nad.

This sodium compound is more stable than the acid itself,
which may be obtained in solution by adding dilute sulphuric or
oxalic acid to the crystals.

If a solution of bisulphite of sodium be placed in a porous
vessel, this vessel put into one containing water acidulated with
sulphuric acid, and the negative pole of a battery be inserted into
the bisulphite, while the positive pole is in the acidulated water,
oxygen is disengaged from the positive pole, while no gas es-

apes from the ‘hegatiy e pole. At the same time the bisulphite
solution acquires the decolorizing property, owing to the forma-
tion of the hydrosulphite of sodium. — Comptes Rendus, July 19,
1869.

RESEARCHES ON RESINS.

M. Sace had published, the results of his researches, which ex-
tend to copal, amber, dammar, colophony, lac (or shellac),
elemi, sandarac, mastic, and carnauba wax (a resin). ‘The au-
thor has studied the greater or less degree of readiness wherewith
resins are reduced to powder, the action thereupon of boiling
water, of alcohol of 86 per cent. strength, of ether, of ordinary
acetic acid, of a hot solution of caustic soda of 1.074 specific
gravity. of sulphide of carbon, of oil of turpentine, of boiled
hinseed oil, of benzine, of naphtha, of sulphuric acid of 1.83 spe-
cific gravity, of nitric acid of 1.329 specific gravity, and of
caustic ammonia. All the resins were treated in powder; _
and the solvents, three times as large a bulk as that of the resins,
have acted for at least 24 hours, at temperatures vary-
ing between 15° and 22°. The results arrived at are briefly as
follows: All resins submitted to experiments fuse quietly when
heated, excepting amber, shellac, elemi, sandarac, and mastic,
which swell up, and increase in bulk. Only the carnauba wax
melts in boiling water; colophony becomes pasty therein, while
daummar, shellac, elemi, and mastic agglutinate. Copal, amber,
and sandarae do not change. Alcohol does not dissolve amber
nor dammar; it agelutinates copal, partly dissolves elemi and car-
nauba wax, while “colophony, shellac, sandarac, and mastic are
readily soluble therein. Ether does not dissolve amber and
shellac, makes copals swell, and partly but slowly dissolves car-
nauba wax; dammar, colophony, elemi, sandarac, and mastic
are readily dissolved therein. Acetic acid does not dissolve am-
ber and shellac; causes copal to swell; acts somewhat upon car-

CHEMISTRY. 219

nauba wax, and does not act at all upon any other of the resins
above named. Caustic soda solution readily dissolves shellac,
with difficulty colophony, and has no action upon the rest. In
sulphide of carbon, amber and shellac are insoluble; copal
swells therein; elemi, sandarac, mastic, and carnauba wax are
with difficulty dissolved, while dammar and colophony are
readily soluble. Oil of turpentine has no action upon amber or
shellac; causes copal to swell; dissolves readily dammar, co-
lophony, elemi, sandarac, carnauba, and very readily mastic.
Sulphuric acid does not dissolve carnauba wax; all other resins
are dissolved and colored brown, excepting dammar, which be-
comes bright red. Nitric acid does not act upon the resins, but
colors carnauba wax straw-yellow, elemi a dirty-yellow, and
mastic and sandarae bright brown. Ammonia does not dissolve
certain of these resins, but causes copal, sandarac, and mastic
first to swell, afterward dissolving them; colophony is easily
soluble therein. — Sci. Am.

A SUBSTANCE HOMOLOGOUS WITH BORNEO CAMPHOR.

The substance known in perfumery and in pharmacy as
patchouli camphor is, according to recent researches of M. Gal,
a substance homologous with Borneo camphor, which is repre-
sented by CyH.,.O02. The average resulis of several elementary
analyses of patchouli camphor gave for 100 parts: C, 80.1;
H, 12.6; the formula just quoted requires C, 80.3; H, 12.5; the
vapor density of this substance taken at 324° is 8.00; patchouli
camphor is solid, fuses between 54° and 55°, and boils at 296°;
its specific gravity is 1.051, at a temperature of 4.5° C. The
camphor is insoluble in water, readily soluble in alcohol and
ether; it crystallizes in hexagonal prisms. While Borneo cam-
phor is a right-handed rotatory substance, the patchouli camphor
is left-handed. When patchouli camphor is distilled with chlo-
ride of zine, at between 248° and 252° C., it yields a carbide of
hydrogen, CzpH2. The essence of patchouli is isomeric with the
camphor, which is, it appears, simply formed by a molecular
change. — Druggists’ Circular.

FORMATION OF UREA.

Basarow has discovered that anhydrous carbonate of ammonium
is converted into wrea by heating in a sealed tube to 130° C.
(266° F.) The carbonate he obtained by the action of carbonic
acid gas on ammonia gas dissolved in absolute alcohol. He offers
the following equation to express the reaction : —

(CzO.) HzNO, HyNO—2 HO =e H, N
2

N.

Even when commercial carbonate of ammonium is subjected to
a temperature of 130°— 140° C., a considerable quantity of urea
is formed. — Zeitschr. fiir Ch. IV., 204.

°

220 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

DIRECT OXIDATION OF HYDROCARBONS.

Berthelot has made the extremely interesting discovery that
various hydrocarbons may be oxidated immediately, and without
loss of carbon, with the production of neutral bodies, such as
aldehydes and their congeners. He operated with crystallized
chromic acid, dissolved in a small quantity of water. Pure ethy-
lene (freed from vapor of ether by repeated washings with con-
centrated sulphuric acid) is attacked slowly at 120° C. (248° F.)
with formation of aldehyde

Cs Hy + Oo = Cs Ha Or,
In the cold, or even at 100° C., after many hours, no appreciable
reaction was*found. The aldehyde was separated by distillation
and crystallized aldehyde-ammonia prepared from it.

Pure propylene was oxidated much more readily and almost at
the ordinary temperature, in a few hours a great quantity of
acetone being formed : —

Cy Hy + Os = Ce He, Os.

This acetone is easily isolated by simple distillation. Some
acetic acid appears, being a secondary product from the acetone.
Amylene is attacked violently, at the ordinary temperature, with
formation of complex products, derived, however, doubtless as
secondary products of oxidation of an acetone, CjpHiQ2, which
may be obtained by moderating the reaction. Acetylene is oxi-
dated in the cold, with heat, and production of formic and car-
bonice acids.

Crystallized camphene is changed easily into camphor by pure
CrOs, on heating gently : —

CaHis +- O2 = CaoHis0r ;
the reaction being easier than that with platinum-black, long since
discovered by Berthelot.

The name camphene is given by Berthelot and some other French
chemists to the solid hydrocarbon, isomeric with oil of turpentine
itself, which is separated by alkalies from the crystalline compound
that turpentine forms with muriatic acid.

In conclusion, he remarks that the oxidating action of pure
CrOy is not exactly equivalent to that of mixed bichromate of potas-
sium and sulphuric acid; in the latter the presence of the sulphu-
ric acid, as well as the heat evolved in the formation of the chromic
and potassic sulphates, modifying the action. — Amer. Gas Light
Journal.

ACTION OF THE ELECTRIC SPARK ON MARSH GAS.

The production of acetylene by this process was announced by
Berthelot eight years ago ; he now says all organic gases and vapors
(of course which contain both C and H) yield acetylene under
the same influence. Indeed, this is a characteristic and sensitive
reaction, permitting him to detect the presence in hydrogen gas
of compound vapors of feeble tensions at ordinary temperatures.

CHEMISTRY. Zar

A current of sparks through marsh gas augments its volume rap-
idly, with deposition of carbon. One hundred volumes became in
two minutes 127, in 10 minutes 154; but still for complete action
hours are necessary, the maximum final volume being 181. On
the old view that free C and H are formed, the volume should
have been doubled. Nevertheless, in 1860, Burr and Hoffman ob-
tained results similar to the above, which they inferred to be due
to impossibility of complete decomposition, not knowing of the
formation of acetylene.- Berthelot’s results show the surprising
fact that but one-eighth of the original marsh gas can really
be converted directly into its elements. After some hours, when
no further carbon is deposited, the residual gas contained 13 or 14
volumes of acetylene, showing that half the marsh gas has under-
gone the following reaction: 2C. Hy == Cy, He-+ 3 He. But on
removing the acetylene now by absorption, it is found that a new
state of equilibrium is established, and the amount rapidly in-
creases again, the final amount of acetylene producible (39 vol-
umes), proving a transformation, by the above reaction, of four-
Jifths of the marsh gas (as the condensation, from marsh gas into
acetylene, is to one-half; the latter containing its own volume of
hydrogen). Hence a far easier mode of preparing acetylene than
heretofore known. Common coal gas may be passed slowly
through a tube permeated by a current of sparks, and then
through an absorbent of acetylene.

The 39 volumes of condensible matter above is not wholly rep-
resented, however, by acetylene. ‘The latter, as Berthelot has
proved, is gradually condensed by heat into hydrocarbons of
heavier molecules, and the heat of the spark converts it partially
into benzole (which is triacetylene CyoH, = C4 He, Cy Hy, Cy He)
and still heavier hydrocarbons, some of which are even tar-like
and precipitate with the carbon. The action of the spark thus
assimilates itself to that of simple heat, the first transient action
of which, on marsh gas, according to previous researches of Ber-
thelot, is to produce acetylene, which is then gradually condensed
by prolonged action. — Am. Gas Ligft Journal.

RELATIVE PROPORTION OF ALKALIES FOUND IN THE ASH OF
DIVERS PLANTS.

The same plants grown near the sea, and at remote distances
therefrom, alter their saline constituents, so that, while growing
near the sea, soda prevails, as a rule, over potash, the reverse
being the case while the same plant vegetates at a distance more
or less remote from the sea; of this fact some instances are given
in this paper. The relation of the soda to the potash of the ash
of Crambe maritima, when grown near the sea, was as 960 to
1,000; when grown at Paris, as 89 to 1,000. The relation of
soda to potash in the ash of black mustard seed grown near the
sea was as 200 to 1,000, while when grown in Paris it was as 96
to 1,000. — Bulletin Mensuel.

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222 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

APOMORPHIA.

Dr. Matthiessen found that, by the action of hydrochloric acid
on morphia, a new base was produced, which, as to composition,
differed from the former merely by the removal of one equivalent
of water. But the physiological action of the new base was ut-
terly different from that of the original one. While morphia is a
powerful narcotic, the use of which is apt to be followed by sub-
sequent depression, the new base was found to be free from nar-
eotic properties, but to be a powerful emetic, the action of which
was unattended by injurious after-effects. It seems likely to be-
come a valuable remedial agent. — Druggists’ Circular.

EVOLUTION OF AMMONIA GAS FROM MUSHROOMS.

M. El. Borscow says that, many years ago, the late Professor
Sachs observed that when a glass rod, moistened with dilute hy-
drochlorie acid (specific gravity 1.12), was brought near vigor-
ously and healthily growing mushrooms, there appears a white
vapor, evidently due to the formation of chloride of ammonium.
This fact has been confirmed by Dr. G. Lehmann, while the late
Alexander von Humboldt stated that mushrooms constantly give
off not only ammonia, but also hydrogen. The author of this
paper has thoroughly investigated this subject, taking due care
to eliminate all sources of error from his experiments by every
precaution modern science can suggest and successfully apply.
Several engravings would be absolutely necessary for the proper
understanding of these researches; but we brieffy notice the
following results: (1) different kinds and species of mush-
rooms give off, while growing vigorously, weighable quantities
of ammonia; (2) this evolution of ammonia is not confined to
full-grown mushrooms only, but belongs to young individuals,
and even to some varieties of mushroom spawn; (3) this evolu-
tion of ammonia is a proper’function of the living organism of
these cryptogamic vegetables, and is very little, if at all, influ-
enced by exterior causes; (4) there is no direct relation between
the quantity of ammonia and that of carbonic acid given off
during a given period of time. The quantity of ammonia given
off during a certain length of time bears no direct relation to the
weight of the substance from which itis given off. — Druggists’
Circular.

*.

INCLOSED CRYSTALS IN DIAMONDS.

Sorby argues that the supposed cavities in diamonds, described
by Brewster, are in reality inclosed crystals, and the conclusion
arrived at from the consideration of the whole structure of the
diamond is not opposed to its having been formed at a high tem-
perature.

The crystals inclosed in djamonds are frequently seen to be

CHEMISTRY. 223

surrounded by a series of fine, radiating cracks, which are the
result of the contraction suffered by the diamond in solidifying
over the inclosed crystal, and this explanation is verified by ob-
serving crystals formed in fused globules of borax glass cooled
slowly, where the same phenomenon is seen. — Chem. News.

MOLYBDENUM AND CHROMIUM.

These metals can, according to Loughlin, be easily prepared
as follows: A mixture of one part of pure molybdic acid and
one and a half parts of cyanide of potassium is placed in a porce-
lain crucible and the lid luted on; this is placed in a large cruci-
ble and the interstices packed with animal charcoal. The en-
tire apparatus is then exposed to a strong white heat for 12
hours; when cold the inner crucible is found lined with a white,
silver-like metal, not acted upon by hydrochloric acid, but readily
dissolved by nitric acid, and having a specific gravity of 8.56.
By substituting oxide of chromium for molybdic acid, metallic
chromium is obtained. — Engineer.

MINERAL CAOUTCHOUC. .

Recent communications from Adelaide, South Australia, have
made known the discovery in the southern portion of the colony
of a remarkable carboniferous substance, which hitherto has only
been found in small quantity in the coal strata of Derbyshire
(England). Itis a mineral caoutchouc, so called from its gen-
gral appearance and elasticity. In Australia it is found on the
surface of the sandy soil, through which it would appear to
exude from beneath, as, burnt off occasionally by the bush fires,
it is again found after the winter season, occurring in quantity
and of varying thickness. Analysis proves it to yield 82 per cent.
or more of a pure hydrocarbon oil; its value for the manufacture
of gas there will be great, and it is also believed to be applica-
ble to the making of certain dyes. The discovery is also impor-
tant from its indication of the existence of oils or other carbonifer-
ous deposits. This material, known in mineralogy as elaterite,
is also found in a coal-pit at Montrelais, near Nantes, France, at
Neufchatel, and on the island of Zante. According to the analy-
sis of the late Professor Johnston, of Durhani University, it is a
hydrocarbon, containing from 83.7 to 85.5 per cent. of carbon,
and from 12.5 to 13.28 per cent. of hydrogen. The variety found
in Derbyshire (near Castleton) has a specific gravity varying
between 0.9053 and 1.233; the substance is highly inflammable,
its color blackish brown, its lustre resinous. — Chem. News.

SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL NOVELTIES.

Decomposition of Alkaline Chlorides.— According to Messrs.
Kuentz and Jossinet, the decomposition of alkaline chlorides

>

924 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

may be readily and economically effected by forcing through
them when in the state of fusion a jet of steam; chlorhydrie acid
is formed together with caustic alkali, or, if a stream of carbonic
acid be introduced with the steam, the carbonated alkali re-
mains. — Mon. Sci. No. 165.

Extraction of Zine from its Ores in the Wet Way. — Owing to the
scarcity of fuel, and to the fact that the main bulk of the zine ores
now obtained in Silesia contain only from 7 to 10 per cent. of
metal, experiments have been tried with a view of devising a
process for extracting the metal in the wet way. Ammonia-water,
chloride of ammonium, and hydrochloric acid were tried, but did
not answer the purpose. Chloride of calcium was then tried, and
found to answer well, even when the percentage of metal was as
low as 4; a nearly concentrated solution of chloride of calcium
and a boiling heat are required, and the process is less expen-
sive than the ordinary method of extraction by the dry way, and
the material obtained is readily reduced by the common method
of zinc smelting. The ore operated upon is an impure carbon-
ate of zinc. —Journ. f. Prak. Ch.

Welding Copper.—The great obstacle hitherto experienced in
welding copper is that the oxide formed is not fusible. Rust
has found that the use of microcosmic salt gives a fusible slag.
This salt being expensive, he has substituted a mixture of one
part phosphate of soda and two parts borax, and finds that it -
answers the purpose very well, although the slag formed is not
so fusible as that formed by the microcosmic salt.—Dingl. Pol.
Journ.

Welding Compound.— An improved compound for welding has
been recently introduced in Belgium. It consists of iron filings
1,000 parts, borax 500 parts, resinous oil 50 parts, and sal-ammo*®
niac 75 parts. The materials are mixed, heated, and pow-
dered; the surfaces to be welded are dusted over with the com-
position and then brought to a cherry-red heat, at which the
powder melts, when the portions to be united are taken from
the fire and joined. Another composition for the same object
consists of 15 parts of borax, two parts of sal-ammoniac, and two
parts of cyanide of potassium. These constituents are dissolved
in water, and the water itself afterwards evaporated at a low
temperature. — Druggists’ Circular.

Blackening Zine. — Zine may be given a fine black color by
cleaning with dilute sulphuric acid and sand, and then immersing
for an instant in a solution of 4 parts of sulphate of nickel and
ammonium in 40 parts of water acidulated with one part sul-
phurie acid. After washing and drying, there remains a black
coating, which adheres firmly, and takes a bronze color under the
burnisher. Brass may be stained black with a liquid containing
two pts. arsenious acid, 4 pts. hydrochloric acid, one pt. sulphu-
ric acid and 80 pts. water. — Ch. News.

Tinning by the Moist Way. —Itis a well-known fact that, when
it is desirable to cover metals, especially brass or copper, with a
strongly adhering coating of tin, this is usually effected by boil-
ing the articles to be thus coated with an aqueous fluid, to which

CHEMISTRY. 225

is added cream of tartar, crystallized protochloride of tin, and
some lumps of pure metallic tin. The author states that, instead
of this mixture, he uses, with very good success, a solution of one
part of protochloride of tin in 10 parts of water, to which he
next adds a solution of two parts of caustic soda in 20 parts of
water; the mixture becomes turbid, but this does not affect the
tinning operation, which is effected by heating the objects to be
tinned in this fluid, care being taken, at the same time, to place
in the liquid a piece of perforated block-tin plate, and to stir up
the fluid during the tinning with a rod of zinc. — Dr. Hillier, in
the Moniteur Scientifique.

Silvering Cast Iron. —M. Bottger recommends the use of a
bath prepared in the following manner: 15 grams of nitrate of
silver are dissolved in 250 grams of water, and 30 grams of cyan-
ide of potassium are added; when the solution is complete, the
liquid is poured into 750 grams of water wherein 15 grams of
common salt have been previously dissolved. The cast iron in-
tended to be silvered by this solution should, after having been
well cleaned, be placed for a few minutes in a bath of nitric acid
of 1.2 sp. gr., just previous to being placed in the silvering
fluid. — Druggists’ Cire.

Adulteration of Sulphuric Acid. — (Rev. Hebd. de Chim.) — It
appears that some Continental makers of this acid are in the habit
of adding to ordinary chamber acid a sufficient quantity of some
cheap acid sulphate, so as to bring the sulphuric acid, as far as
hydrometrical tests are concerned, up to the desired degree of
density. M. Fleischer, having cause to complain about the bad
quality of indigo-carmine prepared with a certain sample of sul-
phurie acid, was induced to evaporate some of the acid, and on
doing so discovered the formation of crystals of sulphate of soda.
This kind of adulteration, however readily detected, might cause
in many dye and madder and garancine works very serious loss
and great inconvenience, and is a gross fraud; the inducement is
the saving of the cost of evaporation and apparatus connected
therewith. — Ch. News.

Metallic Uranium.—Dr. Bolton has succeeded in preparing
uranium by reducing the double fluoride of uranium and potas-
sium by means of sodium. The double salt is prepared from the
oxyfluoride by exposure to sunlight in the presence of an or-
ganic acid. It falls down as a beautiful green powder. This
powder is mixed with proper equivalents of sodium and anhy-
drous chloride of potassium, and is fused in a porcelain crucible
inclosed in a Hessian crucible lined with charcoal. The heat re-
quired at first is moderate, but, as socm as the reduction is accom-
plished, must be rapidly raised to prevent oxidation and loss of
the metal. This method is analogous to the preparation of alu-
minum from cryolite, and appears to haye been perfectly successful
in the hands of Dr. Bolton.— Jour. of App. Chem.

Tungstate of Barium is said to form an excellent white paint,
which has as good a tone and depth as white lead, and is not
blackened by exposure to atmospheric influences,

Luting. — Prof. Hirzel, of Leipsic, recommends as a lute for

226 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

covering the corks of vessels containing volatile substances (as
benzine, light petroleum, etc.) a mixture of finely ground litharge
and concentrated glycerine. Common glycerine, if concentrated,
will answer the purpose.

Preparation of Nitrogen. —A new and elegant method of pre-
paring this gas has been devised by Levy, an Italian chemist. It
consists in heating bichromate of ammonium ina retort. The salt
is transformed into green sesquioxide of chromium, and disen-
gages vapor of water and nitrogen. — Cosmos.

Sulphurous Acid for Dissolving Bones. — It is well known that
hydrochloric acid is used for the purposes of dissolving the earthy
salts of bones, in order to obtain the gelatine in such a state as to
render that substance readily soluble in boiling water. The use,
however, of hydrochloric acid is rendered rather inconvenient for
this purpose on account of the formation of chloride of calcium,
which interferes with the drying of the gelatine. M. Coignet,
at Paris, has found that sulphurous acid answers the purpose of
hydrochloric acid in this instance perfectly well. The bones are
placed in cold water, and through the water a current of sulphur-
ous acid gas is forced so long as is required to completely soften
the bones, which are afterwards washed in fresh water wherein
some sulphurous acid gas has been previously dissolved. — Drug-
gists’ Circular.

Liquefied Hydrochloric Acid Gas. —In a paper read before the
Royal Society, Mr. Gore gives the following summary: Out of 86
solids, liquefied hydrochloric acid gas only dissolved 12, and some
of those only in a minute degree; of 5 non-metallic substances it
dissolved one, namely, iodine; of 15 metals it dissolved only one,
namely, aluminum; of 22 oxides it dissolved 5, namely, titanic
acid, arsenious acid, arsenic acid, teroxide of antimony, and oxide
of zine; of 9 carbonates it dissolved none; of 8 sulphides it dis-
solved one, namely, tersulphide of antimony ; of 7 chlorides it dis-
solved two, namely, pentachloride of phosphorus and protochloride
of tin; and of 7 organic bodies it dissolved two. The results show
also that liquid hydrochloric acid in the anhydrous state manifests
much less chemical action upon solid bodies than the same acid
mixed with water, as under ordinary circumstances. — Abstract
of Proceedings of the Royal Society.

Cyanogen in Coal Gas produced by Ammonia. — Romilly (/rd-
mann’s Journal fiir Chemie, vol. 103) has shown that cyanogen is
formed if illuminating gas is passed through weak water of am-
monia, and then the lighted burner is turned upon the surface of
a solution of a caustic alkali (potash, soda, or lime). After a
few minutes the presence of a cyanide can be shown in the alka-
line fluid by the iron test; and if the alkaline solution used was
strong potash lye, holding in suspension some fine metallic iron,
there will be produced both ferro and ferri cyanide of potassium.
This happens only when the flame is bright from incandescent
carbon; that of a Bunsen burner (blue or colorless) is without
effect when directed on alkali after passing through ammonia,
the carbon being not free, but already oxidized.

Black Phosphorus. —M. Blondlot states that the production of

CHEMISTRY. 227

black phosphorus depends on two things, —the state of purity to
which phosphorus is brought by distillation, and the temperature
to which it is afterwards submitted.

Phosphorus which has been exposed to the sun is carefully dis-
tilled and collected in a flask, which is slowly cooled in a
water-bath. The product forms a transparent white mass at
ordinary temperatures, but if cooled down to 5° or 6° C., it sud-
denly turns to a beautiful black color. It can be redistilled or
fused; it is colorless while liquid, but becomes black on again
cooling to near zero. M. Blondlot regards black as the proper
color of phosphorus. — Comptes Rendus.

White Phosphorus. — M. Baudrimont shows that white phospho-
rus is neither a hydrate nor an allotropic state of ordinary phos-
phorus, nor does it result from devitrification of transparent
phosphorus; but that it is ordinary phosphorus irregularly cor-
roded on the surface by the action of the air dissolved in the
» water, —a slow combustion, which is accelerated by the action
of light, and which ceases as soon as the water holds no more
oxygen in solution. — Comptes Rendus.

Oreide. — Composition — copper 79.7 parts, zinc 83.05 parts,
nickel 6.09 parts, iron 0.28 parts, tin 0.09 parts.

The last two ingredients are purely accidental. This alloy
resembles gold.

Silver Ware may be kept bright and clean by coating the
(warmed) articles with a solution of collodion diluted with al-
cohol.

Austrian Non-Explosive Blasting Powder consists of 30 per cent.
of nitrate of potassium, 40 per cent. of nitrate of sodium, 12 per
cent. of sulphur, 8 per cent. of charcoal, 4 per cent. of pit-coal,
and 6 per cent. of tartrate of potassium and sodium. -This pow-
der is explosive only when it has been rammed tight.

Glycerine in Crystals. —M. Werner, by passing a few bubbles of
chlorine gas through the glycerine of commerce, obtained small
octahedral crystals, which are very hard, and without the sweet
taste of glycerine even when melted. — Chem. News.

Platinum in Scotland. — Small quantities of platinum have been
in Scotland associated with the gold existing there in the quartz.
The metal is found in small scales resembling silver, but not
magnetic, as is much of the crude platinum found in South Amer-
ica. — Mining Journal.

Topaz. —In avery difficultly accessible cave in the mountain
of Galenstock, which separates the canton 6f Berne from that of
Urich, a very rich deposit of topaz has been recently found, val-
ued at more than 100,000 franes.

Salt Deposit near Berlin. —It appears that there has been dis-
covered near Berlin, at Sperenberg, a rock-salt deposit, which in
some localities has a depth of 669 feet, and from borings made it
seems in every respect to be a highly valuable mineral deposit.

A new Crystalline Form of Silica. — De Rath has found, in a vol-
canic porphyry from Cerro San Cristobal, Mexico, a mineral he
calls tridymite, which is pure silica, of the density of what has
heretofore been regarded as ‘ amorphous” silica, 2.3; the den-

228 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

sity of ordinary quartz being 2.6. Tridymite, like quartz itself,
is hexagonal, but occurs in very beautiful macles. It is uniax-
ial. — Bull. Soc. Ch., June, 1869.

Beauxite. —Between Taraon and Antibes in the south of
France there exists a valuable and extensive bed of beauxite
(hydrate of alumina), which has been used for the manufacture
of sulphate of aluminum. ‘This material has been applied, at the
suggestion of M. Audouin, for the manufacture of crucibles and
fire-bricks, and it was found that the best English, French, and
German fire-brick could be melted in crucibles made of beauxite
and heated by mineral oils and a blast. — Cosmos.

Formation of Nitre in Egypt.— A. Houzeau.— At Tantah,
a town of the Delta of the Nile, the houses are built simply
out of the river mud, after mixing it with straw and drying the
muss in the sun. They have little stability, for this reason, and
frequently tumble to pieces; whenever this happens the natives
ut once proceed to erect another building of precisely the same
character on the same spot. Hence it comes that most buildings
are placed on a species of hills, some of which are of considerable
age, and that the ground retains both liquid and solid secretions
of numerous former generations. The author examined some of
these earth-hills, both of old and later creation, especially for the
purpose of establishing the particular form in which nitrogen is
contained in them. The quantity of the latter appears to be the
sume in earths of different periods; that of older generations .670
per cent., of later .690 per cent. This was divided in: —

New Ground. Old Ground.

Nitrogen as nitricacid . . . .044 -246
= ‘ammonia .. . .032 -300
ge “* organic compounds .620 124

proving the gradual passage of organic nitrogen into ammonia
and nitric acid. — Comptes Rendus, \xviii., p. 821.

Testing Antimony for Arsenic. — During the last year, on the oc-
easion of the inspection of the apothecaries’ shops in Prussia, a
quantity of tartar emetic was found to contain arsenic; in conse-
quence thereof a vigorous investigation was set on foot by the
minister for medical affairs and police. The method adopted for
testing for arsenic is as follows: Two grams of the suspected
tartar emetic are reduced to a fine powder and dissolved in 4
grams of pure chlorhydric acid. A quantity of pure chlorhydric
acid, at least 30 grams, saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen, is
then added, the vessel corked tightly, shaken, and set aside.
The slightest trace of arsenic gives rise to a yellow coloration,
and very soon after to a perfectly perceptible pure yellow pre-
cipitate. — Jahrb. f. Pharm.

Arsenic in the Soda of Commerce. — Fresenius (Zeitschrift) calls
attention to the fact that the carbonate of sodium as met with in
commerce contains arseniate or arsenite of sodium. A sample
purporting to be chemically pure, heated with cyanide of po-
tussium in a stream of carbonic acid, gave distinct traces of a
mirror of arsenic. Five grams of the same salt gave, when dis-

CHEMISTRY. 229

solved and acidulated with chlorhydric acid, a distinct yellow pre-
cipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen.

The arsenic is undoubtedly derived from the sulphuric acid
used in converting the common salt into sulphate of sodium, as
the pyrites used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid often contain
arsenic in notable quantities and are rarely entirely free from it.

Test for Prussian Blue.—Nickles found that Prussian blue
might be distinguished from the blue of indigo or aniline by
means of. fluoride of potassium, which bleaches the former. and is
without effect on the other two. —Journ. Frank. Inst.

Test for Hydrocyanic Acid.—Schonbein moistens filtering
paper with fresh tincture of guiacum, containing 3 or 4 parts of
resin, and, after drying, moistens the paper with a solution con-
taining one quarter of one per cent. of sulphate of copper. This
paper is instantly rendered blue in the atmosphere of a 20-litre
vessel containing one drop of dilute hydrocyanic acid of one per
cent. — Schw. Wochenscrf. Jf. Pharm.

Binoxide of Hydrogen as Test for Prussic Acid in Blood, which
was proposed by Schonbein and again by Buchner, requires great
care in its application, according to Dr. Huizinga, inasmuch as
any acid reaction of blood, produced by the usual mineral or
organic acids, causes the same brown color. At the same time it
must be noted that the spectroscopic reactions for the color pro-
duced by prussic acid or cyanides are quite distinct, and so are
the chemical tests for them. — Fresenius, Zeitsch. f. Analy. Chemie.

Reagent for Alkaloids. —M. Marme proposes the use of the
double iodide of cadmium and potassium as a reagent for alka-
loids. This compound precipitates the following alkaloids from
very dilute solutions mixed with sulphuric acid: Nicotine,
conicine, piperine, morphia, codeia, thebaine, narcotine, narceine,
quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, strychnine, brucine, veratrine,
berberine, atropine, aconitine, and some others. The precipi-
tates are white and flocculent, but for the most part become
crystalline. Quinine and strychnine, diluted with 10,000 parts of
water, are entirely precipitated. These precipitates are insoluble
in ether, soluble in alcohol, slightly soluble in water, and soluble
in an excess of the double iodide.

This reagent does not precipitate glycosides. — Chem. News.

On the Estimation of the Iodine of Commerce by Volumetric
Analysis. —M. Bobierre dissolves a weighed quantity of the
iodine, the true value of which has to be estimated, in a concen-
trated solution of iodide of potassium; the solution is diluted to
100 ¢.c., and is dropped into an alkaline solution of arsenious
acid of known strength. Instead of using starch-water as a
means of recognizing the end of the reaction, the author adds a
few cubic centimetres of benzol to the solution of arsenious acid,
and ceases to add more of the solution of iodine as soon as the
former solution becomes rose-colored. The arsenical solution
is made by weighing off 49.95 grms. of arsenious acid, and 14.5
grms. of crystallized carbonate of sodium, and dissolving these in
one litre of water, representing 12.688 grms. of iodine to the

20

230 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

litre; 10 c.c. of this solution are taken for each assay, and 4 c.c.
of benzol are added. — J. de Pharmacie.

Detection of Alcohol.—M. Lieben adds to the liquid suspected
to contain alcohol] a small quantity of iodine and a few drops of
caustic potash or soda. On heating, but not boiling, the mixture the
presence of alcohol is denoted by a very characteristic yellowish
precipitate of iodoform. It is possible in this way to detect one-
two-thousandth part of alcohol dissolved in water. — Mon. Sci.

Testing Glycerine for Sugar and Dextrine. —'To 5 drops of the
glycerine to be tested add 100 to 120 drops of water, 3 to 4
centigrams of ammonium-molybdate, one drop pure_ nitric
acid (25 per cent.), and boil for about a minute anda half. If
any sugar or dextrine be present, the mfxture assumes a deep
blue color. — Polyt. Notizbl. 143, 1868.

Detection of Phosphorus. — According to Dr. Schiénn, of Stettin,
when inorganic combinations of phosphorus and phosphates are
ignited (after being previously well dried) with small quantities
of pure magnesium (best is powder), phosphide of magnesium is
formed, and the fused mass, on being moistened with water, will
disengage phosphuretted hydrogen gas, which, in many cases, will
be found to be the spontaneously inflammable variety of this
compound. Phosphorus may thus be detected in organic sub-
stances, which, however, should be previously calcined. — Zeitesh.
Sf: Anal. Ch.

Test for Nitrates and Chlorates. — To one c.c. of pure concen-
trated sulphuric acid is added one-half c.c. of a solution of sulphate of
aniline, prepared by adding 10 drops of the aniline of commerce
to 50 c.c. of dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 6). Ifa glass rod be
dipped in the substance to be tested, and then into the mixture,
the presence of nitric acid, or of a nitrate, causes red streaks to
appear in the path of the rod, or if the quantity of nitric acid be
considerable, a tint varying from carmine to a deep red will per-
vade the mixture. The presence of a chlorate is indicated by a
blue coloration. — Chem. News.

Chlorate of Potassium as a Blow-pipe Test.—In the ‘* Neues
Jahrbuch fiir Pharmacie” M. Landauer enumerates several in-
stances in which chlorate of potassium may be made very useful
before the blow-pipe in the search for certain metals. ‘This salt,
giving up at higher temperatures some of its oxygen to certain
metals, becomes itself colored by the oxides of those
metals. From iron and its compounds it receives a flesh color;
from lead a pale brown; from coppera shade of light or dark —
blue, in some cases so deep even as to be nearly black. Manga-
nese imparts to the alkaline salt «a purple of variable intensity,
and nickel (sesquioxide = Nig Os) turns it to black. The reac-
tion is best performed in a tube closed at one end, 5 or 6
inches long by one-fifth to a quarter of an inch in diameter, into
which is introduced a mixture of equal parts of the substance
under examination, and of chlorate of potassium, previously
rubbed fine with a few drops of alcohol and then carefully dried.
The tube is heated gradually, at first over the lamp, and finally by
means of the blow-pipe.

CHEMISTRY. 231

Determination of Silver.— The method of Gay Lussac for the
determination of silver by. titration as chloride is subject to a
slight error, on account of the solubility of the chloride of silver in
the liquid from which it is precipitated. Stas proposes to deter-
mine the silver as bromide, and thus avoid this error. — Compt.
Rend.

New Test for Wool. — Wagner dissolves a decigramme of the
material to be analyzed by boiling it in 10 to 15 ¢. ¢. of a strong
solution of potash, dilutes to 100 c. c., and then tests this solytion
with nitro-prusside of potassium. The presence of the smallest
quantity of wool causes a violet coloration of the liquid — Mon.
Sci. d. Quesn.

Action of Heat on Tartaric Acid. —Dr. Sace has observed that,
when tartaric acid is heated in a glass retort, acetic acid distils
over; there is left in the retort a carbonaceous mass, while car-
bonic acid escapes.

Oxidation of Acetic Acid into Oxalic Acid.— When one part of
acetate of sodium, one part hydrate of sodium, and two parts of
permanganate of potassium are dissolved in a little water, the
solution concentrated by boiling, finally evaporated to dry-
ness, and the residue heated until it ceases to give with water a
green colored solution, oxalic acid is found to exist in the saline
mass.

Action of Cyanogen on Hydrochloric Acid. —When a current of
gaseous cyanogen is passed into hydrochloric acid as concen-
trated as possible, no coloration is observed, but after twelve
hours crystals of oxamide make their appearance, and the super-
natant liquid contains oxalate of ammonium. With hydriodic
acid the result is the same; oxamide is likewise formed, but
iodine is displaced, and the liquid is found to contain hydrocy-
anic acid and iodide of ammonium. — Hngincer.

Horse-chestnut leaves, according to Rochleder, contain a tannin
which is found also in the tormentilla root; in the former it is
converted into aescigenin, Cos Ho Os, in the latter into kinovic
acid. — Chem. Centralb.

Discovery of a New Base. —M. Wurtz has succeedtd in obtain-
ing a new base by making chlorhydrate of glycol act wpon tolui-
dine at a temperature of from 200° to 220° C. This substance
exhibits a beautifully green fluorescence, has a bitter taste, and is
precipitated by iodine in solution of iodide of potassium. It con-
tains two atoms of hydrogen less than toluidine, while for two
other hydrogen atoms are substituted a vinyl and an hydroxethy-
len group. The chloroplatinate of the base is a erystalline sub-
stance readily decomposed by heat. — Bull. Soc. Ch., Nov. 4,
1869.

GHOLOGY.

THE ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS AND THE DEPRESSION OF SEA
BASINS.

Ir has already been shown, in a paper in the ‘‘ Proceedings of
the Boston *Society of Natural History” for 1866, that there are
good reasons for supposing that there is an essential difference .
in the nature of the two series of phenomena of elevation, conti-
nents and mountain chains; that they are entirely different in
character, and are not connected by a series of forms. An effort
has been made, in the paper referred to, to account for this dissimi-
larity by supposing that mountains are the product of the contrac-
tion in an outer crust in some way separated from the internal
mass, if that mass be solid or floating on it, if we accept the old
and now questionable theory of a molten interior. Pursuing the
same line of reasoning, it can be shown that the causes of the con-
tinental surfaces and the sea basins are due to the wrinkling of all
that portion of the earth which is called, even by those who do
not acknowledge the implication of internal fluidity, its crust. A
diminution of the earth’s radius to the amount of four and a half
metres in 2,500 years, according to Mayer, has resulted from loss
of heat. It has long been seen that the contraction must be
accompanied by a wrinkling of the crust, which, not losing heat,
or not losing it as rapidly as the internal mass, must adapt itself to
the diminished nucleus ; but as yet nothing has been done to deter-
mine the forces which cause certain parts of the crust to bend up
and others to bend down as this wrinkling goes on. The idea has
been generally prevalent among naturalists and geologists that the
position of these up and down curves of the crust of the earth is not
permanent, but that the continental curves may become flattened
out or even replaced by the depressions of the seas. This supposi-
tion is necessarily made by all those who, following the distinguished
leader of our science, Sir Charles Lyell, call in such changes to
account for alterations of climate and the destruction of organic
life. ‘The following reasons militate against this view : —

1st. When the contraction of the central mass has once thrown
the crust into ridges and furrows, that is, formed continents and
sea basins, all further contraction will necessarily tend to develop
these ridges and furrows; nor can we legitimately suppose that
these ridges and depressions have ever changed places, unless we
can show some cause competent to overcome the very great re-
sistance which they must oppose to such changes.

2d. The accumulation of sedimentary matter on the ocean floors

232

GEOLOGY. 233

causes the isogeothermal lines steadily to rise. The laying down
of one hundred thousand feet of strata would bring a temperature
of about 1,700° into the lowest part of the beds which were formed
in water having the ordinary temperature of the sea. This must
cause a great lateral strain in the lower part of the section be-
neath the sea floor where strata are being accumulated, and as
there is ne such lateral strain in the upper part of the section the
result will be, necessarily, to cause the crust beneath such an area
of deposition to tend to bend downwards. ‘The result in this case
is comparable to what occurs when two metals having different
coeflicients of expansion are-soldered together and then subjected
to the action of heat. The compound bar tends to arch in the di-
rection of the metal which expands the most. In the section of
the crust beneath the sea, the lower part, which expands the most,
is also on the outside of the curve. Even if the whole crust sec-
tion beneath the areas of deposition expanded equally, the ten-
dency of the strain produced would still be to cause the actual
curve of the sea floor to be deepened whenever the crust came
to contract further in order to readjust itself to the diminished
nucleus.

The frequent submergence of parts of the continents after they
had been lifted above the sea does not conflict with this theory ;
the alteration of the pivot point of the movement would go far to
account for these changes.*

The truth of these conclusions does not depend upon the inter-
nal condition of the earth in any way, except that the mass is
supposed to be intensely heated. It may be either fluid or essen-
tially solid without affecting these conclusions. — Abstract of View
os _ in Lectures at Harvard University in 1864 and 1869, by N..-

- Shaler.

GEOLOGY,

The question, How far the variation of the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit may have brought about the great changes of climate
indicated by geological phenomena, has been often discussed,
more especially as regards the cause and date of glacial epochs.
During the past three millions of years there have been three pe-
riods when the eccentricity attained a high value. The first of
these began about 2,630,000 years ago, and terminated about
2,460,000 years ago. ‘The second began about 980,000 years ago,
and terminated about 720,000 years ago. The third began about
240,000 years ago, and terminated about 80,000 years ago. The
third period, Mr. Croll considers, was the date of the glacial
epoch; the second was that of the upper miocene period; while
the third corresponded to the glacial epoch of the middle eocene
period. Few geologists believe that during the two latter periods
our country passed through conditions of glaciation as severe as it
has done during the post-pliocene period. Mr. Croll, however,
argues that subaerial denudation, by destroying the whole of

* See abstract of paper on the changes of level of seashores, p. —.
20 *

234 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the land surfaces, has effectually removed all direct proof, al-
though the indirect evidence is very much in favor of their occur-
rence. From calculations based upon the amount of sediment
brought down by the Ganges, Mississippi, and other rivers, it
would follow that from the close of the miocene and eocene gla-
cial periods to the present day, supposing the rate of deposition
to be constant, 120 feet and 410 feet respectively have been re-
moved and carried down to the sea in the form of sediment. The
cosmical theory of climate also requires that if glacial conditions
obtained at these periods, warm and equable climates must have
prevailed immediately before and ‘after them; and the author
maintains this is just what has happened. In the Turin miocene,
conglomerates, considered glacial by Sir Charles Lyell, are over-
lain and underlain conformably by strata indicating a subtropical
condition of climate. The same phenomena are aiso observed in
Switzerland in rocks of the middle eocene period, where we find
** flysch” closely associated with nummulitic strata, which contain
genera characteristic of a warm climate. The ecretaceous and
permian periods afford similar evidence, and in the post-pliocene
glacial period we have undoubted evidence of a warmer climate
during part of its duration, as evidenced by the occurrence of ani-
mals and shells existing in latitudes where they could not other-
wise have lived in consequence of the cold. — Chronicles of Sci-
ence, Jan., 1869.

THE SOURCE OF VOLCANIC ACTION.

The limitation of volcanic activity to the seashores was long
since noticed, and has been much commented upon. A careful
study of the relation of former seats of igneous activity to the an-
cient seashores will convince the student that voleanoes always
cease to be active when the ocean abandons their bases. It is
evident, therefore, that we must seek the origin of volcanic action
in some process or other which is going on in the crust of the earth
beneath the sea floor, which does not take place beneath the dry
land. y

There is but one cause competent to produce such effects which
is peculiar to the sea, and that is the accumulation of strata going
on upon its floor. The beds first laid down contained, it may be,
large quantities of organic matter in the shape of animal and plant
remains, and a great deal of water was imprisoned in their struc-
ture. After a time the accumulation of superincumbent beds
causes the heat of the beds first laid down to become very great. -
A thickness of sedimentary beds much less than what we have
good reason to suppose may have been laid down on the greater
part of the ocean floors, would be sufficient to bring the heat of ma-
terials lying at the level of the original sea bottom to a temperature
high enough to decompose the water and vaporize the carbon
which they contained. As this heat increased, the tension of these
materials seeking to take on the gaseous form would become —
greater and greater. If at any point the pressure was suddenly

GEOLOGY. 235

removed the water would be decomposed and the carbon vaporized.
If, as we have reason to suppose, the sea floors constantly bend
downwards by virtue of the forces brought into action by the depo-
sition of strata, there would naturally be a tendency to fracture
along the shore line. Such fissures penetrating to the bed of these
pent-up gases would give them relief. The reconstruction of the
oxygen of the water, taking place at a distance from the point of
decomposition, with the gaseous carbon, would generate heat
enough to melt the walls of the channel, and this molten matter
would be pushed out by the escaping gases.

All, or nearly all, voleanic eruptions begin with a rush of gases.
After an interval, which may be supposed to correspond to the
time required for the molten rock to accumulate and clog the
channel, comes an outbreak of lava, succeeded, if the eruption
continues, by another rush of gases, followed, it may be, by an-
other escape of molten matter. The character of the gases poured
out during an eruption corresponds very well with what would be
required by this theory. — Abstract of a View presented in a Course
of Lectures at Harvard College, by Prof. N. S. Shaler.

THE FROZEN WELL AT BRANDON, VERMONT.

Descriptions of this well have been published in the ‘* Annual
Sci. Disc.,” 1860, p. 316; ibid., 1856, p. 190. Inthe ‘*Hours at
Home” for Feb., 1870, there isan article upon this well. The scien-
tific observations will be of interest. We condense the following
from a paper presented to the American Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences, by Prof. F. H. Storer, in behalf of Prof. John M. Ordway
and himself, and contained in vol. v. (Records from May, 1860, to
May, 1862) of the proceedings of that body.

“*QOn visiting the locality in the early part of the summer of
1860, we ascertained the existence of a variable but well-marked
current of cold air continually flowing upwards out of the mouth of
the well. Bits of any light material dropped in were buoyed up and
forcibly blown ont. The mature pappus of the dandelion, which
was then in full puff all around, afforded an abundance of very
sensitive current indicators.

** At the opening of the well the thermometer indicated 43.5° F.,
the temperature of the external air being 78°. Five feet below the
mouth, the thermometer stood at 43°, and 12 feet down, at 40°.
Water drawn up from the bottom, without stopping to cool the
bucket, was at 34°. Water drawn up at other times contained
lumps of ice detached from the coating of ice lining the well to the
height of some 5 feet above the surface of the water.

‘*We had hardly begun to make close observations, before it
oecurred to us that we were dealing with a case of compressed
air, which might be accumulated by some natural subterranean
Trompe (Wassertrommel), or ‘‘Catalan blower,” and which,

256 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

2

expanding as it approached the surface of the earth, or escaped
into this artificial outlet, would absorb and render latent a large
amount of heat, and could thus effect the gradual refrigeration
and actual freezing of a considerable body of wet gravel.

** Considering that the drift heap in which the well is situated
rests on limestone, and is not far distant from the junction of
the limestone with the mica slate, or gneiss, we may easily con-
ceive of the occurrence of such caverns, fissures, natural conduits,
and subterranean watercourses as might complete an arrange-
ment on the principle of the water-tromper, one of the oldest con-
trivances for securing a blast to be used in iron furnaces, —and
thus afford a constant and ever-renewed supply of condensed
air. And, as the experiments of Dr. Gorrie show that but a mod-
erate degree of condensation is necessary to enable air to become
freezing cold by its return tothe normal bulk, we may be warranted
in saying that such a cause, though of moderate power and hay-
ing various impediments to overcome, would be sufficient to pro-
duce all the effects observed in the case under consideration . . .
The actual freezing must proceed with greater rapidity at that
time of the year when the accumulated heat of the soil is al-
lowed the freest radiation, together with the least chance of in-
crease. In fact, itis said to be a matter of yearly observation,
that the well ‘‘ begins to feel the cold weather,” and to freeze
over in autumn, long before there are any heavy frosts above,
and, indeed, while the ground is still open for tillage. This
would seem to indicate a cause operating with almost uniform
force.

** But not intending to lay too much stress on the water-trom-
per hypothesis, which, of course, is not entirely free from draw-
backs, and may or may not be the true explanation of the singular
phenomenon under discussion, we wish more particularly to
bring forward to the notice of the academy the fact of the con-
tinual-rush of cold air out of the well at Brandon, —a current
probably having some connection with the freezing below. And
we may be allowed to remark that in the case of this particular
well, at least, any theory which fails to assign a sufficient cause
for the continued efflux leaves out of account a matter hardly less
wonderful than the perennial congelation itself.”

Profs. Storer and Ordway put on record the temperature of
sources of water open near this limited drift bed.

**1. In a spring sunk to about the depth of 10 feet from the
surface, —a stone’s throw north-west of the frozen well, at the
side of the lane leading out of the main road, —the water at top
stood at 54° F., and that at the bottom at 50°.

**2. A similar spring about 12 ft. deep, 3 or 4 rods west of No.
1, showed a temperature of 50° in water drawn from the bottom.

‘*3. In a shallow spring at some distance south-west of the
frozen well, in lower ground, and apparently near the limit of the
drift, the water stood at 48° F. A deep well in the mica slate
formation, about half a mile west, stood at 45° F.”

This well is of great interest at the present time, acting as it
does upon the principle of Bunsen’s filterer, now attracting atten-

»

GEOLOGY. 237

tion among chemists. A description of this filterer will: be
found in this volume (see Index).

CHANGES OF LEVEL OF SEASHORES.

Numerous observations have been made upon the changes of
level of shore lines now in progress on the borders of the differ-
ent continents, but as yet little effort has been made to determine
the nature of the movements involved in these changes.

Inasmuch as we have no other means of readily perceiving the
changes of level of the earth’s crust except such as may be af-
forded by the consequent alterations in the position of the line of
contact of sea and land, our observations are limited to the shore
lines. Butunless we form some idea of the way in which the con-
tinents and sea floors are affected during these movements, we
cannot fully understand the phenomena. It needs no argument
to show that it is exceedingly unlikely that these movements are
mere accidents of the shore. It is evident that they must be a
part of an extensive movement, which is only rendered evident at
a few points by changes in the position of the sea. The only way
in which any considerable portion of the earth’s crust can change
its level is by a sinking of the ocean furrow and a lifting of the
adjoining continental folds. As the earth must be essentially in-
compressible to any pressure which any part of the outer surface
could suddenly apply to it, we can only conceive of subsidence
over an extensive area by supposing a proportionate elevation at
another point. This idea is thoroughly borne out by all we know
of the geological history of the earth’s crust; for we have as the
main feature of that history the continued elevation of continents
attended by the continual depression of the ocean troughs. That
the continents have been continually elevated is sufficiently
proved by the fact that they are still in existence, although large
portions of them have been from the earliest time subjected to
the erosion of atmospheric agents. Over a large portion of the
basin of the Mississippi the erosion is as rapid as a foot a thou-
sand years; yet this region has been above the level of the sea for
millions of years. The evidence of the continued subsidence of
ocean floors is also easily seen. Now a movement wherein the
lands go up and the seas down is comparable to that of a
lever, or bar, about a fulcrum point. The whole section from
the centre of the sea to the centre of the continent is not like a
rigid bar, in which case the centre of either land or water area
would have to describe a great curve in order to have any con-
siderable motion near the shores. The sea fioors probably sink and
the land areas rise at something like the same rate over the greater
part of their surfaces. Still, for convenience’ sake, we may regard
the section of the earth’s crust for a little distance on either side
of the shore line as moving as a rigid mass as the uplift of the
continents and the sinking of the sea bottom goes on.

It is evident that much will depend upon the position of the ful-
crum point of the movement in relation to the shore line; if this

238 : ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

point should be exactly at the coast, then the movement of uplift
and subsidence could go on without any change on the shore line;
as this point departs from the shore the extent of the alteration in

the position of that line would increase. The way in which the .

sea would move would, however, depend entirely upon the ques-
tion, whether the fulcrum point was to the seaward or landward
of the shore. Where this point lay to the seaward, then the rota-
tive movement would cause the land to gain on the sea; if, how-
ever, the pivot point be beneath the dry land, then the same
movement would cause the sea to advance upon the land. The
rapidity of the advance or retreat of the sea would depend, other
things being equal, upon the remoteness of the pivot point from the
shore line.

Since we cannot suppose that the line connecting the different
fulcrum points can often coincide exactly with the outline of any
shore, it is evident that at different positions this line may cor-
respond precisely with the course of the shore, or may pass to the
seaward or landward of that shore, so that we may have the three
different conditions of an unchanging, an advancing, or a retreat-
ing sea all broughtabout by variations in the position of the fulerum
points of the moving crust of the earth. — Abstract of Paper by Prof.
N. S. Shaler, in the Proceedings of the Boston Soci. of Nat. Hist.

PLASTICITY OF PEBBLES AND ROCKS.

Professor W. P. Blake, at the meeting of the American Asso-
ciation at Salem, read an interesting paper on the peculiar elon-
gated structure of the pebbles of the conglomerate at Purgatory,
near Newport, which Professor Hitchcock had maintained had
been elongated, compressed, and distorted by tension and pressure
after being rendered plastic by an elevation of temperature.

Professor Rogers, at the Newport meeting of the Association,
had contended that the peculiar forms of these pebbles were due
entirely to wave action on the oblong fragments of the original
metamorphic rocks. Some difference of opinion had existed among
geologists upon these points, but he (Prof. Blake) presented some
fresh evidence from a conglomerate in Arizona Territory. This
conglomerate consisted of: a paste of micaceous schist filled with
pebbles of varying size, and elongated and compressed similar to
those of the Newport conglomerate. ‘They presented even more
conclusive evidence of having been drawn out and compressed by
tension and enormous pressure than even the Newport pebbles.
Eminent geologists had alleged that deep-seated rocks often be-
came plastic, and that those not much exposed to air were softer
than those on the surface. Prof. Blake then adduced arguments
and facts tending to substantiate this theory. The distortion of
hard rocks was found on a large scale in the flanks of the Sierra
Nevada, of California. After dilating on some details bearing on
these points, and referring to various hypotheses which had been
adduced thereon, Prof. Blake said that the consideration of the phe-
nomena led him to conclude that enormous and long-continued

GEOLOGY. 239

pressure and tension, probably at a moderate elevation of tempera-
ture (but not necessarily so), had been sufficient to produce the
molecular movement of these hard and apparently unyielding ma-
terials. Mechanical force alone appeared to have been the agent,
and M. Tresca had shown that under enormous pressure solids
could be made to flow in the same manner as liquids, or that in
their movements they followed the same law. The remainder of
the paper pointed out certain facts and illustrations tending to
strengthen these views. By the careful study of these phenomena
of plasticity new views were opened of the structure of great rock
masses; of the phenomena of plication, lamination, and of the
origin of some structural peculiarities of mineral veins and their
enclosing walls. In view of all the facts, Prof. Blake thought that
geologists should admit that very great changes had been pro-
duced in the structure of rock masses by simple mechanical pres-
sure, unaided by any great elevation of temperature, or by ex-
traordinary chemical agencies.

Mr. J. B. Perry exhibited some pebbles obtained at Purgatory,
in which one pebble appeared driven into another, showing the
effects of this kind of compression.

Mr. T. Sterry Hunt made a few remarks bearing on these points.

HINTS ON THE STRATOGRAPHY OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS OF
VERMONT.

Prof. J. B. Perry, at the meeting of the American Association,
read a long and elaborate paper on the, above subject, throwing
much light on many geological phenomena connected therewith.

Prof. Agassiz said that Prof. Perry had stuck to a difficult sub-
ject with unusual perseverance, and had, he thought, solved it to
the satisfaction of all those who should afterwards critically go
over the ground. He said that Prof. Perry’s object was to estab-
lish the precise stratification of the rocks in question and their re-
lation to each other, in order to prevent future mistakes of palee-
ontologists in mixing up fossils of different periods. He thought
American geologists were under an obligation to him for what he
had done.

FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE MIOCENE TERTIARY BEDS OF OREGON
AND IDAHO.

Prof. J.S. Newberry exhibited, at the meeting of the American
Association, a beautiful series of fossil plants collected by Rev.
Mr. Condon, of Dallas City, Oregon.

These plants, the professor said, were from the fresh-water de-
posits which cover so large a surface of the Great Basin in Neva-
da, Idaho, and Oregon, and were of special interest both from
their geological position and botanical character. They were
contained in the sediments deposited by a series of great fresh-
water lakes which once existed in the area lying between the
Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada.

240 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

In the report of his explorations in California and Oregon Prof.
Newberry had described these lacustine deposits, and had shown
how the lakes at the bottom of which they accumulated had disap-
peared by the cutting down of their outlets, the gorges through
which the Columbia, Klamath, and Pitt Rivers now flow. -

The Klamath Lakes, ete., were miniature representatives of
these ancient lakes, which were apparently quite as extensive as
our present great lakes.

The fossil plants contained in the collection made by Rev. Mr.
Condon were most beautifully preserved, and consisted of a great
number of species, most of which were new; but a number were
identical with species found in the miocene tertiary of the Upper
Missouri.

There are also some species which had been found in the mio-
cene beds of Fraser’s River and Greenland.

The present collection will add much to our knowledge of the
flora of the miocene period on this continent.

The animal remains found in the same series of tertiaries with
the plants consist of fresh-water shells and fishes, with a few
mammalian bones. :

The shells are numerous species of Meladia, Planorbis, Cerbic-
ula, and Unio, —all, so far as known, new to science.

The fishes were Cyponodonts allied to Mylophawdon, etc., —
the fishes now inhabiting the western rivers.

Among the mammalian bones contained in this collection were
some that plainly belonged to the horse.

The beds containing the animal remains were perhaps more
recent than the plant beds, but still tertiary.

THE COAL-FIELDS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC COAST.

The Pacific Railroad being now nearly ready for traffic, it be-
comes of importance to inquire what are the fuel supplies — on
the Pacific coast — to be relied upon to supply the fleets of steam-
ers and the branch railways which will soon strike off from the
main line into almost every valley, and to every little mountain
town. No doubt coal might be brought round Cape Horn, as
hitherto much of it has been, or across the plains with the railway ;
but both of-these means of supply must necessarily be limited, on
account of the expense. It behoves us, therefore, to inquire some-
what narrowly what are the extent and nature of the native coal-
fieids on the North Pacific coast. J must preface what I have to
say by telling you that what notes I may have to lay before you are
the result of occasional observations in the course of my wandering
in the greater portion of certain regions— explored and unex-
plored — between California and Alaska during portions of the
years 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866. Though I shall have oceasion,
now and then, to refer to general geological questions, yet, for
the main part, what I shall have to say will almost entirely be
Jooked at from a coal-supply point of view, and then as much
with the eye of a physical geographer as that of a pure geologist.

GEOLOGY. 241

Extending from the borders of California to Alaska are three
coal-fields, belonging respectively to the tertiary, secondary, and
palzozoic ages; the latter being situated, as far as yet known,
only in the Queen Charlotte Islands, off the northern coast of
British Columbia, the exact age being as yet undetermined, though
the coal is anthracitic, and, in “all probability, paleozoic. The
other two coal-fields are situated, as regards each other, from
south to north, in the order of their age. The tertiary extends
from California northwards, through Oregon and Washington
Territory, impinging the southern end of British Columbia and
Vancouver Island, and extending, with some interruptions, right
across the Rocky Mountains,—the miocene coals of Missouri being
apparently only a continuation of these same beds. The second-
ary beds, on the other hand, on the North Pacific are confined to
the island of Vancouver, though, in all probability, they are also
a continuation of the cretaceous strata of Missouri. The tertiary
lignites of the North Pacific aré’throughout of miocene age, and
are associated with beds of sandstone, shale, etc. It burns freely,
but leaves behind much slag and ash. It has been wrought at
various places on the coast. 1. Mount Diablo, California. Here
59,257 tons were mined last year, from January to August, the
coal selling for 8 dollars per ton in San Francisco. At Benicia
it was also mined, but has been discontinued. Its analysis is,
carbon, 50; volatile bituminous matter, 46; ash, 4. 2. Coose
Bay, Oregon. Its analysis shows 46.44 per cent. of carbon, 50.27
of volatile matter, and 3.19 of ash. Its percentage of coke is
49.73; but this is dark, friable, and of little value. It produces
abundant gas, of low illuminating power. It is used to some ex-
tent in San Francisco, 7,759 tons having been imported from Jan-
uary to August, 1868. 3. Clallam Bay, Washington Territory.
Several attempts have been made here to get good coal, but have
failed to a great extent, owing to the want of a harbor. Analysis,
carbon, 46.40; volatile matter, 50.97; ash, 2.63. 4. Bellingham
Bay. Here the lignite has been mined for some years with
success, though it is of no better quality than the others. From
January to August, 1865, 5,680 tons were imported into San Fran-
cisco, Analysis, carbon, 47.63; bitumen, 50.22; ash, 2.15. Coal
crops out at various other localities, — Fraser River, Burrard In-
let, islands of the Haro Archipelago, Sanetch Peninsula, the north-
ern (Vancouver) shores of De Fucas Strait, etc., —but has not
been worked; and I am of opinion that all these outcrops are of
tertiary age, the secondary formation not appearing south of the
Chemainos River. There are newer (pleistocene, or perhaps
recent) lignites in the cliffs of Useless Bay, Whidby’s Island, asso-
ciated with remains of the mastodon, a tradition of the existence
of which animal still lingers among the Indian tribes. This lig-
lite is in small quantity, and quite worthless for fuel. The whole
coast of Vancouver on the east coast, north of Chemainos, is
bounded by a belt of carboniferous strata, composed of sandstone,
shale, and coarse gravel-stone conglomerates, interstratified with
which are beds of coal of a much superior character to any hith-
erto described. These beds, from the contained fossils, appear

21

942 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

to be cretaceous. Everywhere the strata named form a charac-
teristic accompaniment of the coal (especially this coarse conglom-
erate), and nearly everywhere it is underlaid by one or more
seams of coal cropping out at some point of the circuit named,
though it may reasonably be supposed yet to be found on the
opposite shores of British Columbia. Outcrops are seen on some
of the coast-lying islands, ete.; but it is only at Nanaimo where
it is wrought to any extent, this being the only mine in Vancouver
Island (or in the British North Pacific territories) exporting coal.
Here is a village of 500 inhabitants, and some 50 miners, Last
year, the company exported 43,778 tons, and declared a dividend
of 15 per cent. The coal is bright, tolerably hard, and not unlike
some of the best qualities of English coal. It is used all over the
coast for steaming and domestic purposes. It brings 11 dol-
lars per ton in Victoria, and 13 in San Francisco. An anal-
ysis gives carbon, 66.93 ; hydrogen, 5.32 ; nitrogen, 1.02; sulphur,
2.20; oxygen, 8.70; ash, 15.83. “The fossil remains were then
described. North of Nanaimo, on Brown’s River, immense seams
of coal have been discovered by myself and party; on Salmon
River, the Indians report coal; at Sukwash, near Fort Rupert,
coal appears; and at Koskeemo Sound, on the western shore, are
extensive undeveloped fields of what will ultimately, no doubt,
prove the best coal in Vancouver Island, both from its quality and
easy shipment. The latter, on analysis, gave carbon, 66.15;
hydrogen, 4.70; nitrogen, 1.25; sulphur, 0.80; oxygen, 13.59;
ash, 13.60. Other coal-fields will no doubt be discovered as ex-
ploration proceeds; but the country is so cavered with dense for-
ests and undergrowth as to render exploration very difficult.
The anthracite is found on the Queen Charlotte Islands, off the
north coast of British Columbia. The beds are much broken up
by faults, felspathic trap dykes, and other disturbing influences,
so that to work it will always be expensive and troublesome.
Still, the value of the discovery is of the highest importance to
the coast. The coal is associated with conglomerates, a fine hard
slate, out of which the Hydah Indians carve the pipes and other
ornaments so common in the European museums, and metamor-
phosed sandstones. On first sight, I was inclined to believe it
only debituminized cretaceous coal; but, from the fossils recently
discovered, I am induced to change that opinion, and to believe
it of paleozoic age. An analysis gave, carbon, 71.20; moisture,
5.10; volatile combustible matter, 7.27; ash, 6.48. The only good
or extensive coal-fields in the North Pacific are, therefore, within
the English colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia ;
and in the possession of these coal-fields, these States, at present
so depressed, have a mine of wealth, which, if judiciously man-
aged, will ultimately render them the seat of busy industry. —
Abstract of a Paper read by Robert Brown, Esq., F.R.G.S., before
the Edinburgh Geological Society.

GEOLOGY. 243

COAL IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.

The Union Pacific Railway is not likely, as was at first antici-
pated, to suffer any inconvenience from the absence of steam fuel.
A coal-field, almost unlimited in extent, showing outcroppings
for 300 miles on the road, has been ‘ struck” in Wyoming
Territory, in the heart of the Rocky Mountains. The locomo-
tives are now fed almost entirely by coal, worked by the com-
pany itself, or by contractors, who furnish it at a low price. All
the coal for 15 miles in the ‘‘ alternate sections” on either side of
the line is owned by the company. There are 6 mines in work-
ing order; there are others in progress. The principal mine, at
Carbon station, yielded 4,000 tons to the railway company in the
first three weeks in April. One of the drifts is already 540 feet
in length; and there is an excellent shaft, with the usual gear,
pumps, etc., worked by steam-power. The thickest part of the
seam so far opened is 9 feet high. Hitherto, neither fire nor
choke-damp has troubled the miners; but there is a certain amount
of water in the deepest part. The miners are at present earning
from 7 to 12 dollars per day. The coal is of good quality. There is
neither bitumen nor sulphur in it. It contains, by analysis, nearly
60 per cent. of carbon, 12 per cent. of water, and 26 per cent. of
inflammable gases. It is to bear a new name, —one which is,
perhaps, tolerably appropriate. It is to be called ‘‘ anthra-lig-
nite ;” and as coal has been sold lately in Omaha, on the Missouri,
at the rate of 21 dollars a ton, whilst the company will probably
sell it at half that price, it will be seen that the discovery is one
of the greatest importance to the whole central portion of the
continent. Iron ores have been found near it; and a good collec-
tion of coal fossils has been collected at the Carbon Station. A
coal seam has also been recently discovered at Elko, on the Cen-
tral Pacific Railway, which is the continuation of the Union Pa-
cific line already referred to.

CHINESE GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

Professor A. S. Bickmore, of Madison University, read a paper
to the Association at Salem, relating his observations during a
journey of some 2,000 miles in the interior of China.

It fortunately happened that the rivers, at the time, were low,
as their beds in China constitute the only access in most cases to
geological outcrops, there being no railroad and similar exeava-
tions there as here. Professor B. found first a basis of granite,
overlaid with grits and shales, with no fossils, as yet found.
Then ancient limestones, with fossils thought to be Devonian, then
limestones equivalent to the carboniferous. (A hill of limestone
was visited, which was interstratified with coal, and burnt di-
rectly to lime by the Chinese. Fossils brought from coal rocks at
Pekin are regarded by Dr. Newberry as probably Triassic.)
Next over the | limestone, a red sandstone.

244 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Coal and iron are the most important minerals observed.
China, being mostly bare of forests, is dependent on coal for fuel ;
but this is very dear, on account of imperfect mining, and the
best coal yet lies undisturbed, as, for lack of pumping machinery,
they can mine but little below water level. Professor B. thinks
the coal inferior, however, to ours. The Chinese burned coal in
the time of Marco Polo, A.D., 1290, before it was used in
Europe.

There is an important mine at Mun-ti-kau, 35 miles south-west
of the capital, which he visited. An inclined shaft has been sunk
to a very great depth below the surface of the earth, following
the drift of the coal, by which the coal is brought up on sleds, by
man-power, one man for each sled, the capacity of which is one
bushel and a half. No machinery of any kind is in use. No ar-
tificial means of ventilation are employed. By reason of the
fact that the Chinese do not go below the water line, fire-damp is
almost unknown.

In the north of China coal is ground to dust and mixed with
clay, that it may burn more slowly.

The quantity of coal in China is immense and the supply inex-
haustible.

Petroieum also was found 160 years ago in the province of
Shensi. Du Halde, in his work on China, compiled from the dia-
ries of Jesuit priests, as long ago as 1725, says: ‘‘ Its mountains
distil a bituminous liquor, which they call ‘ oil of stone,’ and use
for lamps.” A kind of petroleum is also found in the Island of
Formosa.

The iron yield of China is large, but the best ore comes from
the beds of Sungan, in the southern part of the province of
Shensi. From this the Chinese razors and other cutlery are
manufactured.

Gold is found in nearly all the Chinese rivers in the mountain-
ous districts, and the Yangste is called the ‘*Golden Sanded
River.” Professor Bickmore thinks Shensi to be the most prom-
ising gold fieldin theempire. Itis difficult, however, to determine .
where gold and silver exist in China, for the law is harshly re-
pressive of all discoveries of their deposit.

There is lead near Tungchan, in Shantung, but exorbitant de-
mands for permission to work it have effectually prohibited its
development.

Silver and copper are found in many parts of China, the former
being employed mostly in the payment of taxes to the govern-
ment, and the latter in the manutacture of coin, bells, idols, and
articles in bronze.

There are in China extensive deposits of cinnabar, from which
the Chinese manufacture mercury, under the name of ‘‘ water
silver,” but since the development of the cinnabar mines of Cali-
fornia, the cities on the seascoast of China are supplied with
quicksilver chiefly from that source.

Tin has not yet been found in situ in China, but the great
numbers of bronze idols make it very probable that the tin used
was not all imported from Malacca. If tin shall be found in

GEOLOGY. 245

China then we may expect that it will be found the chief source
of the considerable quantities of that metal used in manufacturing
the bronze implements that have been found in such numbers,
during late years, in the lakes of Switzerland.

“In review, we see that China is well supplied with coal and
iron, — the two minerals especially necessary for her future devel-
opment, — that these minerals are widely distributed over almost
her whole area, and that she has thus the requisite materials for
manufacturing her own cotton, without being dependent on the
looms of England. Again, China possesses her share of the pre-
cious metals, and yet nearly all her ample*material resources re-
main to be developed, though she has been the most civilized
nation in all the East, and the most populous empire the world
has ever seen.” :

MINING.

Coal in the Colorado district is a matter of great importance.
According to the ‘* Denver News,” Gen. Pierce stated to the Board
of Trade that besides the bed of 31 inches, discovered near Fort
Dupton, on the Platte, there were also two beds on the Cache-la-
Poudre. One of these beds was 4 feet thick, and the other about
18 inches. The ‘‘Salina Herald” says that in digging a well on
the east side of the Smoky Hill River, less than two miles from
town, a bed of good bituminous coal, 18 inches thick and about 20
feet below the surface, was cut through.

The copper mines of Africa have of late years been attracting
considerable attention. The copper lodes in the Insizwa Moun-
tain, about 12 miles from the southern boundary of Natal, are re-
markable. Some comparatively small workings have been carried
on about 80 miles from Fort St. John. The deposit here is de-
scribed as about 18 feet thick by 24 feet in depth. From this
description it is evidently not a vein, but a bed. This is clearly in
a state of decomposition, since it is said the ore is replaced by a
yellow ochreous deposit (gissan of miners) containing nodules of
very pure carbonate of copper or malachite, varying in size from
a pea to masses of 10 or 15 pounds’ weight. Some miners from
D’Urban penetrated deeper into the mountains, and found a simi-
lar deposit. Portions of considerable masses have been found to
contain as much as 56 per cent. of metal, the average, however,
being from 30 to 40 per cent. Silver was found to the extent of
5.30 ounces to the ton of copper, and a frace of gold was dis-
covered.

Chromium is sated to have been discovered in large quantities
in Maryland and Pennsylvania. Chromate of iron, of fine quality,
has aiso been found in Victoria. We understand samples of this
mineral and antimonial ores of good quality have been shipped to
this country with a view to determining theirrealcommercial value.
In a cave in the mountain of Galenstock, which, it is well known,
separates the cantons of Berne and Urich, a valuable deposit of
topaz has been recently found. — Quarterly Journal of Science,
April, 1869.

ZL?

246 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

DECREASE IN THE PRODUCTION OF GOLD.

Blake, in his late ‘*‘ Report on the Precious Metals,” has the fol-
lowing remarks on the probable future decline in the production of
gold, which are worthy of notice ; as also those on placer amd vein
mining, and the probable rise in value of gold to be quoted here-
after: —

‘‘The statistics of the production of gold in California, Austra-
lia, and other countries show very clearly the familiar fact that in
all newly discovered gold regions a maximum production is soon
attained, and is succeeded by a gradual but certain decrease, ow-
ing to the exhaustion of the placer deposits. Thus, in California,
the maximum product was attained in the year 1853, when the
shipments were about 55,000,000 dollars, and the production was
doubtless from 60,000,000 dollars to 65,000,000 dollars in value. It
is now much less than half of that amount. In Australia, in the
same year (1853), the reported shipments from Victoria amounted
to 3,150,020 troy ounces, and the production was nearly 60,000,000
dollars in value.* In 1867, the shipments were only 1,433,687
ounces, much less than half as much as in 1853. The apparently
nearly uniform production of California for the past ten years,
judging from the shipments of treasure from the port of San Fran-
cisco, is the result of the opening of other gold and silver producing
regions in Nevada, Idaho, Oregon, and Arizona, which, so far as
their production depends upon placers, are in their turn liable to
rapid exhaustion. In British America, and in Idaho and Montana,
the production of gold is now rapidly diminishing. Russia is the
only country in which a nearly uniform production has been main-
tained through a series of years. This may perhaps be explained
by the fact that the mines have not been free to all, and conse-
quently comparatively few persons have been engaged in develop-
ing them. ‘The climate, also, is unfavorable to rapid and continu-
ous working, and the method of washing placer gravel by ma-
chinery in use there is necessarily slow, and gives limited results,
which cannot compare with those obtained by the gigantic system
of sluicing practised in California and Australia. ‘There has also
been in Russia a constant extension eastward of the gold region by
new discoveries, extending even to the Pacific coast, and there is,
doubtless, an immense area of virgin ground from which the gold
supply of Russia may be for a long time maintained at the present
figures, or, possibly, greatly increased, especially if all restrictions
upon mining are removed, and the country is thrown open to the
skilled miners of other regions. This Siberian gold-field, with the

reat mountain region south of it, extending into China and India,
is the only extended region now known in regard to which there
is any uncertainty in respect to its probable future yield of gold.

‘The existence of very ancient workings in the Altai is signifi-
cant, and leads us. to question whether this great interior region
has not already yielded up its most accessible treasures.” — Ameri-
can Journal of Science and Arts, May, 1869.

* Calculated at 19 dollars per ounce.

GEOLOGY. 247

THE NODULAR PHOSPHATES OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

The belt of nodular phosphates appears to extend, more or less
interrupted, from the Wando and Cooper Rivers, some 15 to 30
miles above Charleston, in a south-south-westerly direction, par-
allel to the coast line, as far as St. Helena Sound and Blutfton,
near Port Royal. As yet the precise area is unknown; no ac-
curate survey having been made, although this want is daily felt
by the community. It would be erroneous to suppose that there
is a well-defined stratum of any such extent as this area above
mentioned. On the contrary, the bed appears only in patches,
some of which, however, are many miles in diameter. On the
Wando and Cooper Rivers the nodules are found in compara-
tively small beds, generally but a few inches in thickness; still,
limited deposits, one to three feet thick, have been deposited in
some localities of this neighborhood. On the peninsula between
the Cooper and Ashley Rivers the deposit assumes the form of a
well-defined stratum, in many places attaining a thickness of 18 to
24 inches, and underlying hundreds of acres, at an average depth
of about 3 feet from the surface. The nodules vary in size from
that of a walnut to masses weighing 200 pounds and over; they
lie compactly together with but little marl between them. This
marl is composed of 30 to 60 per cent. carbonate of lime, a few
per cent. phosphates of iron, lime, and alumina, the balance being
chiefly sand and peroxide of iron. At other points on the penin-
sula the nodules rarely exceed a few pounds in weight, and are
sparsely distributed. The favorable localities lie east of Goose
Creek, near the Cooper River. The Ashley beds were the first
discovered, are the best known, largest in extent, and most
mined. This deposit extends, at an accessible depth, over, per-
haps, 1,000 acres, on both sides of the river, and running back
from it for several miles in some places. The beds are quite accessi-
ble, not only on account of the depth of Ashley River and their
proximity to Charleston, but because of their lying close to the
surface (generally within two feet), in a light soil, which sepa-
rates easily from the nodules on handling or washing. ‘The nod-
ules are of a yellowish-gray color, of less specific gravity than
those elsewhere found, their surface but slightly irregular, and
their composition tolerably uniform. The best beds lie on the
river 10 to 20 miles from Charleston; further up stream the nod-
ules are found in a sandy soil, and become permeated with sand
to the amount of 30 per cent. and over, when the phosphates do
not reach 50 per cent. On some plantations the bed of phosphatic
nodules is over two feet in thickness; and the amount of market-
able material produced from mining an acre may exceed 1,200
tons. On the Stono and Edisto Rivers there have been found but
few rich deposits, the stratum exhibiting continuity in but occa-
sional spots. As a rule, the nodules lie deeper on these rivers
than on the Ashley. Heavy deposits have been discovered on the
flats in the neighborhood of St. Helena Sound, covering vast sur-
faces at little depth from the surface, occasionally forming a com-

248 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

pact floor, or huge boulder, like masses on the bottom of the
creeks which intersect that neighborhood. Finally, on the Ashe-
poo River, at one locality in this neighborhood, the stratum has
the appearance of an immense pavement, extending over hun-
dreds of acres, at a depth of 3 to 6 feet. It is with difficulty that
the large masses (often several hundred weight each) can be pried
apart, so closely are they wedged together, having a smooth,
glazed upper surface, but irregular beneath. The masses, more-
over, are often penetrated to considerable depth, sometimes per-
forated by round holes, which extend generally in a perpendicular
direction. These cavities have a diameter of one-half to one inch.
The phosphatic masses forming this floor are 9 to 12 inches in
thickness, and overlie a bed of nodular phosphates of smaller size,
which extends down to the depth of 12 to 15 inches below the
continuous stratum. The whole deposit is embedded in a tena-
cious clay, underneath which occurs a yellow-red marl. This
marl is rich in shells and the bones of marine and land animals.
It is composed, when air dry, of nearly 70 per cent. of sand, 18
per cent. carbonate of lime, and 5 to 7 per cent. phosphate of lime,
alumina, and iron.

The phosphatic nodules and masses generaily give on friction
of their fresh surfaces a peculiar naphthous odor. This property
is, as a rule, the more decided the denser the nodules, and is in
direct proportion to the amount of organic matter contained in
them. The impressions of numerous fossil shells of the eocene
period occur throughout the various phosphatic masses. The
specimens analyzed contained from 25 to 30 per cent. phosphoric
acid and 35 to 40 per cent. lime.

Concerning the origin of this extensive formation, Prof. Shep-
ard, of Amherst College, Mass., says : —

‘« Several explanations suggest themselves. Perhaps the best
supposition is, that the great Carolina eocene bed of shell marl
on which it rests, formerly, and for a long period, protruded
many feet above the present sea level, giving rise to a luxuriant
soil (analogous to that now existing over portions of some of the
guano islands), and which was then depressed beneath the sea,
where it underwent the changes that have resulted in the present
formation. For the superabundance of phosphate of lime, we
would point to the deposition of bird guano, as it is now going on
upon the Mosquito .coast of the Carribbean Sea.” — American
Journal of Science.

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN ALPINE REGION.

Professor C. C. Perry, at the meeting of the American Associa-
tion at Salem, read a paper on the above subject. He said that
the Rocky Mountain Alpine Region was of special interest, on ac-
count of its extensiveness as compared with anything which they
had in the east. Hitherto it had been mostly inaccessible; but
now that railways were making it accessible, further exploration
would reveal its flora, and thus it could be tompared with the

GEOLOGY. 249

Alpine flora of Europe. The woody belt of coniferous trees be-
gan at an average elevation of 6,000 feet. Its densest growth was
at between 7,000 and 9,000 feet elevation, and its termination was
at an average height of 11,300 feet. The growth was most dense
and varied where there was the greatest and most regular amount
of aqueous precipitation. At still higher elevations the actual
limit of tree growth was determined by conditions of temperature
which satisfactorily explained the peculiar features of vegetation
there met with. This belt of trees terminated with singular
abruptness. The probable explanation was that this timber line
marked the extreme point of minimum winter temperature below
which no phenogamous vegetation could exist. After alluding
to the meteorological conditions of the region, the paper went on
to point out the peculiar dwarfed tree-growth scattered occasion-
ally above the timber line. It was on the most open exposures
above that the Alpine flora was most diversified and attractive,
presenting from June to September a succession of colors most
attractive to the eye of the naturalist. Out of 142 species 56 were
exclusively confined to these Alpine exposures. The usual char-
acteristics of Alpine plants were a dwarfed habit of growth, late
period of flowering, and early seeding, the forms being exclu-
sively perennial. Of the 34 natural orders in the Alpine flora 31
belong to phenogamous plants, the remaining three were of the
higher order of cryptogams. Of the latter, ferns’ were repre-
sented by a single species not exclusively Alpine (Cryptogramia
acrostichoides). Mosses were more numerously represented,
but were still comparatively rare. Lichens were most abundant,
and afforded the greatest number of species. The superficial ex-
tent of these bare Alpine exposures in Colorado Territory had
been roughly estimated at from 1,200 to 1,500 square miles. After
a brief allusion tothe fauna of the region, the paper stated that
when accessible it would doubtless afford a favorite resort for
summer pasturage, and eventually yield choice dairy products,
equalling those of the Swiss Alps, and produce delicate fibrous
tissues rivalling those of the looms of Cashmere. As a summer
resort it was unexcelled in the purity of its atmosphere, the
clearness of its streams, and its picturesque and extended views.
The paper concluded with some topographical details and with a
list of Alpine plants.

ON SURFACE CHANGES IN MAINE.

Professor N. T. True, at the meeting of the American Associa-
tion at Salem, read a paper ‘‘ On Surface Changes in Maine, indi-
cating the length of time since the close of the Quaternary Pe-
riod.”

The paper began by stating that the almost infinity of time
since the earth was spoken into existence was now generally ac-
cepted not only by geologists, but by non-scientific men. This
had led some writers to give loose reins to their imagination, and
to attribute an immense period of time since the close of the last

250 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

great geological changes on the surface of the earth without duly
examining the condition of things within their reach which by
their accumulating evidence might lead to different results. The
paper then specified the various geological, surface, and other
changes that were now going on in New England, and trom ob-
servations within the range of human experience and record at-
tempted to show how materially a few thousand years might alter
the character of a country. From these data the paper inferred
that there was no necessity for throwing back the history of the
present geological era to a period much if any before the time
when man was in the infancy of his race, —not very long before
the historic period. Geology had suffered too much from loose
conclusions, and the present state of science demanded the most
rigid investigation of facts. In conclusion, it was pretty evident
that if the present epoch had claims to a very high antiquity, the
evidence had not yet been seen in New England, and especially
in the State of Maine, and that the present results might more
logically be traced back to a period from 5,000 to 10,000 years
ago than 50,000.

This paper resulted in a somewhat animated discussion, in
which Prof. Agassiz and other gentlemen took part.

BEST ROUTE TO THE NORTH POLE.

Atthe meeting of the British Association, Captain R. N. Hamil-
ton’s paper ‘‘On the Best Route to the North Pole” was read, in
his absence, by Mr. C. R. Markham, F.R.G.S., one of the sec-
retaries. The conclusions he arrived at were, first, that by sea
Smith’s Sound offers equal, if not superior, chances for a ship
reaching a higher latitude than has yet been attained to that
offered by the route by Spitzbergen; secondly, that the prospects
of successful sledge travelling are by far superior in Smith’s
Sound to Spitzbergen; thirdly, the great advantage it possesses
in the event of any disaster happening to the expedition.

VEINS CONTAINING ORGANIC REMAINS.

One of the papers read before the British Association was a
‘Report of the Committee for the purpose of investigating the
Veins containing Organic Remains which occur in the Mountain
Limestone of the Mendips, and Elsewhere,” by C. Moore, F.G.S.
This gentleman has for a long time made the organic remains
frequently found in mineral veins his particular study. In his
report he referred to the various theories extant as to the origin
of veins. They could not have been formed by sublimation, or
the fossils would not be found in them. Mr. Moore was equally
against the doctrine of segregation. Referring to Mr. Wallace’s
theory that many of the veins had been filled up by superficial
action since the glacial period, he pointed to the age of the fossils
as decidedly against it. Mr, Moore’s idea was that open fissures

GEOLOGY. 251

communicated with ‘submarine floors and dwindled down below.
The mollusea, etc., of these seas were deposited in the fissures.
Three or four things were necessary to the formation of mineral
veins, — open crevices, the presence of certain minerais in the
water of the seas, and electrical action. The Mendip hills are in-
tersected with veins, and on their tops some of these are worked.
One of them extends for 270 feet downwards, and contains
abundant lias fossils, although no liassic rocks are nearer than
several miles away. This proves how great must have been the
denuding force. Mr. Moore has also discovered both land and
fresh-water shells in these veins, as well as entomostraca, as well as
seeds of old carboniferous plants. In the mines of North Wales
he had found molluscan and fish remains, the latter belonging to
no fewer than 10 genera. Intermixed with the contents of some
of the mineral veins, the author had found innumerable teeth of
fishes, conodonts, nearly all of which were so small that they re-
quired optical power to see them. In the lead veins he had met
with greatquantities of foraminifera, all of secondary age. These
veins also developed the existence of a fresh-water fauna, of coal-
measure age, having no fewer than 9 genera, and 127 species.

Mr. H. Brady said three well-known genera of foraminifera had
been mentioned by Mr. Moore, all of which still existed. One
of the most abundant of the foraminifera, Zngolutina, was remark-
able for its variety of form. Mr. Brady’s renrarks on the rest of
these minute shells were of a purely technical character.

CHANGES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LARGE AMERICAN
MAMMALS, THE SUBSTANCE OF SEVERAL COMMUNICATIONS
MADE TO THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY. BY
N. S. SHALER.

In the course of some excavations made at Big Bone Lick, in
Kentucky, in the summer of 1869, some interesting information
was obtained concerning the former range of several of our large
quadrupeds. The peculiarly uniform growth of the beds which
are constantly forming in this swamp, which is due to the depos-
its from the mineral springs, and to the regular accumulation of
sediment from overflows of the stream which passes through it,
enables us to measure, with tolerable accuracy, the relative age
of the several strata. .

The most important fact is, that the buffalo did’ not begin to
come to these springs until a very recent day. It is impossible
to suppose that more than 500 years have elapsed since they
began to range into this part of the Mississippi valley. The
stratum in which their remains were found is the uppermost of
the bone beds, and is but two feet in thickness at the three points
where it was cut through; beneath it was found the fragment of
an arrow-head of flint. The evidence of the recent appearance
of the buffalo afforded by the swamp at Big Bone Lick is corrob-
orated by that from a number of other sources. It seems fully

252 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

certain that the buffalo was not in the Mississippi valley at the
time of the mound builders. That people have preserved in their

ottery work, or in the remains found around their sacrificial and
unal fires, the images, or the bones, of all the other large animals
which were found there at the time of the coming of civilized man.
Nearly every mammal with which they could possibly have come
in contact is represented. Even the manitre, which they could
have known only by report, is very often figured by them upon
their pipes and other utensils. It is hardly possible that the
buffalo could have failed to be represented, if they had ever come
in contact with it.

The common deer (Cervus Virginianus) seems, also, to have fre-
quented these springs for only a few hundred years before the
coming of man. It probably came some time before the buffalo,
though its remains, also, are never found at such depths as would
warrant one in supposing that it had been more than twice as
long as the buffalo in the Ohio valley.

Beneath the levels where the remains of the Virginia deer and the
buffalo abound were found numerous fragments of the horns of the
caribou ( Tarandas rargifer). ‘This animal has not been found south
of the State of Maine or the great lakes since the discovery of
this country. The position of these remains indicates that it ap-
peared in the Ohio velley immediately after the disappearance of
the Elephas fumegerens, or mammoth. It seems, indeed, not
improbable that they may have coexisted for a short time. The
existence of a boreal species of mammal in this region at the time
of the disappearance of the elephants makes it seem very proba-
ble that the climate, during the elephant period in this region,
was much colder than is generally supposed, and that the change
of temperature which accompanied, if it did not produce, the ex-
tinction of the fauna in which these animals belonged was more
likely from cold to warm than from warm to cold. The fact that
the representative of our American mammoth in Northern Eu-
rope and Asia was an animal as well fitted to withstand excessive
cold as the polar bear, shows how unsafe it is to infer for animals
of former ages the climatic restrictions which affect their living
relatives.

THE TREND OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.

Professor W. H. Dall read a paper at the meeting of the Ameri-
ean Association, at Salem, ‘‘ On the Trend of the Rocky Mountain
Range, north latitude 60°, and its Influence on Faunal Distribu-
tion.”

The paper stated that the Rocky Mountain range, between lati-
tudes 60° and 64°, bends trending with the eastern coast; so that,
instead of there being, as represented on the old maps, a straight
line of mountains up to the Arctic Sea, there is an elevated pla-
teau, only broken occasionally by a very few ranges of hills.
This bend of the mountains prevented the characteristic birds of
the west coast from coming north, while the eastern birds came
clear to Behring’s Sea, north of it, over the plateau. He also

GEOLOGY. oe

stated that the elevation of the bottom of Behring’s Straits, 180
feet, would make dry land between Asia and Ameri ica, but that a
deep ocean valley extended south-west from Plover Bay, just west
of the Straits, along the Kamschatka coast.

REPTILIAN REMAINS, BY PROFESSOR COPE.

The fossil which Professor Cope exhibited was the almost
perfect cranium of a mosasauroid reptile, the Clidastes propy-
thon. He explained various peculiarities of its structure, as
the movable articulation of certain of the mandibular pieces
on each other, the suspension of the os-quadratum at the ex-
tremity of a cylinder composed of the opistholic, etc., and other
peculiarities. He also explained, from specimens, the charac-
ters of a large new plesiosauroid, from Kansas, discovered by
William E. Webb, of Topeka, which possessed deeply biconcave
vertebrae, and anchylosed neural arches, with the zygapophyses
directed after the manner usual among vertebrates. The former
was thus shown to belong to the true sauropterygia, and not to
the streptosauria, of which Elas mosaurus was the type. Sev-
eral distal caudals were anchylosed, without chevron bones,
and of depressed form, while proximal caudals had anchylosed
diapophyses and distinct chevron bones. The form was regarded
as new, and called Polycotylusa latipinnis, from the great relative
stoutness of the paddle. He also gave an account of the discoy-
ery, by Dr. Samuel Lockwood, of Keyport, of a fragment of a
large dinosaur, in the clay which underlies immediately the clay
marls below the lower green-sand bed in Monmouth County,
N.J. The piece was the extremities of the tibia and fibula, with
astragalo-calcaneum anchylosed to the former; in length, ‘about
16 inches ; distal width, 14. The confluence ‘of the first series
of tarsal bones with each other, and with the tibia, he regarded
as & most interesting peculiarity, and one only met with else-
where in the reptile compsognathus, and in birds. He therefore
referred the animal to the order symphypoda, near to compsogna-
thus wagm. ‘The extremity of the fibula was free from, and
received into, a cavity of the astragalo-calcaneum, and demon-
strated what the speaker had already asserted, that the fibula of
iguanodon and hadrosaurus had been inverted by their describers.
The medullary cavity was filled with open cancellous tissue. The
species, which was one-half larger than the type specimen of
Hadrosaurus foulkii, he named Ornthotarsus immanis. — Proc. Am.
Phil, Soe., xi., 117.

PAPERS READ AT THE MEETING OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIA=-
TION.

Prof. O. C. Marsh read a paper upon the “ Discovery of the Re-
mains of the Horse among the Ancient Ruins of Central America.”

22

254 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The discovery of fossil human remains, accompanying the re-
mains of the fossil horse, seems to establish the fact that the horse
existed and was utilized by the aborigines of the section previous
to the arrival of the Spaniards and the European horse. A num-
ber of fossil remains from that section were exhibited by Mr.
McNeal. .

Prof. Squires, by request, spoke in a very interesting manner
upon the Migrations of Indian Tribes. He finds three centres of
civilization, so called, upon this continent, and regards it as gen-
erally of local growth, and due, except in the case of Mexico,
almost entirely to local influences.

Mr. N. T. True gave a paper upon ‘‘ Physical Geography among
the Aborigines of North America.” It is a peculiarity of the In-
dians that they treat of generic names. Thus, an Indian has a
name for his own father, but no word for fathers in general.
They apply the same principle in geography, giving different
names, for example, to different parts of the same river, and no
one name to the whole. In answer to a question, Mr. True said
that Naumkeag, the Indian name of Salem, means ‘* fish-drying
place.”

Mr. W. H. Dall gave a very interesting and exhaustive paper,
accompanied by a map, on the ‘‘ Distribution of the Aborigines
of Alaska and Adjacent Territories.”

Vertebrate Remains in Nebraska. — The locality described by
Prof. Marsh was the Antelope Station on the Pacific Railroad, in
south-western Nebraska. While engaged in sinking a well at
that place in June, 1868, a layer of bones was found by the work-
men at a depth of 68 feet below the surface, which were at first
pronounced to be human, but during a trip to the Rocky Moun-
tains Prof. Marsh examined the locality and the bones, and found
that the latter were the remains of tertiary animals, some of which
were of great interest. The well was subsequently sunk about 10
feet deeper, and the bones obtained were secured by the profes-
sor, An examination proved that among them there were four kinds
of fossil horses, one of which he described in November last as
Equus parvulus. Although it was a full-grown animal, it was not
more than 24 feet high. Lt was by far the smallest horse ever dis-
covered. Of the other kinds of fossil horses one was of hipparion
type, or the taree-toed horse. Including the above the number of
fossil horses discovered in this country was 17, although the horse
was supposed to be a native only of the Old World, and was first
introduced here by the Spaniards. Of the other remains there
were two carnivorous animals, one about the size of a lynx, and
the other considerably larger than a lion, — twice as large as any
extinct carnivora yet discovered in this country. Among the ru-
minants found in this locality was one with a double metatarsal
bone, a ‘porns type, only seen in the living aquatic musk deer
and in the extinct anaplotherium. There were also the remains
of an animal like the hog, a large rhinoceros, and two kinds of
turtles. These, together forming 15 species of animals, and rep-
resenting 11 genera, were all found in a space 10 feet in diameter
and 6 or 8 feet in depth. It is supposed that the locality was once

GEOLOGY. : 955

the shore of a great lake, and that the animals were mired when
they went down to the water to drink.

At the close of Prof. Marsh’s address, Prof. Agassiz made a few
interesting remarks on the possibility of determining genuine
affinities from fragmentary fossil remains, after which he read a
paper on the ‘‘ Homologies of the Palzchinidz,” partially pre-
pared by his son, Alexander E. R. Agassiz.

Mosasauroid Reptiles. — Professor O. C. Marsh read a paper.on
*‘Some new Mosasauroid Reptiles from the Green-sand of New Jer-
sey.” The striking difference between the reptilian fauna of the
cretaceous period of Europe and the same period in America was,
that in the former there were great numbers of remains of ichthyo-
sauri and plesiosauri, while hardly a tooth or vertebra of the
mosasauroids was to be found. In America, the two former
kinds of reptiles appeared to be almost entirely wanting. One
or two specimens found here had been alleged to be ichthyosauri,
or plesiosauri; but further examination threw strong doubts
on the matgr. To replace these forms, however, the mosasau-
roids were found in abundance. The affinities of the mosasauroids
were chiefly with the serpents rather than with other reptiles, al-
though they had certain other affinities with swarming reptiles.
Professor Marsh produced some fossil remains of different speci-
mens of mosasauroids, showing the peculiar formation of the skull.
These reptiles appeared to have no hind limbs, although Cuvier
thought he had detected them. The specimens found in this
country, however, afforded no evidence of this. He called atten-
tion to two new forms of the family, —the Macrosaurus platyspon-
dulus and the Mosasaurus copeanus, —in which the articulation of
the lower jaw was one of the most interesting features. The
larger specimens of these animals showed that they must have
been the monarehs of the seas of those periods, and in appearance
and size not unlike the popular notion of the sea-serpent, being
sometimes 75 feet long.

Professor Agassiz said that the examination of the mosasauroid
remains reveals much that was new to descriptive paleontology.
He was not quite satisfied that the remains showed real serpent-
like affinities. The resembiances of the mosasauroids to serpents,
he thought, were rather of the synthetic type than of affinity. The
articulation of the lower jaw, he thought, in no way corresponded
to that of serpents.

Extinct Cetacea.— Professor Cope’s observations embraced a
description of the characters of a very large representative of the
dugone of the modern East Indian seas, which was found in a
bed, either miocene or eocene, in New Jersey. It was double
the size of the existing dugong, and was interesting as adding to
the series of Asiatic and African forms characteristic of American
miocenes. Another type was regarded as remotely allied to
squalodon; but it was indentulous, and furnished with a broad,
shallow alveolus, either that left after shedding a tooth, or that
adapted to a broad, obtuse tooth. It constituted a remarkable
new genus, which was called Anopolonassa forcipata. It was
found in postpliocene beds, near Savannah. He also exhibited

256 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

teeth of two gigantic species of chinchillas which had been discov-
ered in the small West India island of Anguilla, which has an
area of but about thirty square miles. The specimens were taken
from caves, and were thought to indicate postpliocene age.
With them was discovered an implement of human manufacture,
—a chisel made from the lips of the shell strombusgigas. The
contemporaneity of the fossils and human implements was sup-
posed, but not ascertained. Its interest and connection with
human migrations was mentioned; also the supposition of Pomel,
that the submergence of the West India Islands took place since
the postpliocene period.

PAPERS READ BEFORE THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT EXETER.

Report of the Committee on Ice as an Agent of Geological
Change. —'This was a report by Mr. H. Bauerman, in which the
grooving power of ice was traced, as well as its power to trans-
port blocks to a distance, where they accumulated as mordines.
He thought there was no proper means known of measuring the
erosive power of glaciers, and mentioned several plans which
might ultimately furnish that information, although he thought
it would require national scientific co-operation.

Professor Phillips said, in reply to the latter idea, he thought a
difficulty would arise in interesting nations in such a subject as
cold. At the same time, unless something of the sort were
done, we should know little of the glacial period. Mr. Vivian
thought that the superficial action of ice had not been sufficiently
taken into consideration. Devon must have been under ice
during the glacial period, and he should like to see some eviden-
ces of it. Mr. Pengeily explained how certain beds had been
bent on themselves, giving the idea of their having been acted
upon by superficial action, along the line of least resistance. He
mentioned an instance where the beds were bent against the
centre of gravity. The Rev. Osmond Fisher thought the latter
was in favor of ice action, instead of being opposed to it. Mr.
Godwin Austen thought the report fell short of what he had ex-
pected. With regard to Mr. Vivian’s theory, it had been taken
into consideration by the Swiss geologists. Both Agassiz and
Dr. Buckland thought that Devonshire had never been under ice,
and, although that idea was perhaps premature, he could not ad-
duce a single valley in the county whose origin could be ascribed
to ice action. Without doubt Devon was under the influence of
great cold, although not sufficient to support continual masses of
ice. In the Chagford valley ice may once have moved. The
neighborhood of Bovey also may have received a good deal of its
superficial débris from ice.

Mr. George Maw, F.G.S., next read a short paper on * Insect
Remains and Shells from the Lower Bagshot Leaf-Bed of Stud-
land Bay, Dorsetshire.” The author mentioned several species
of insects he had met with in the above bed, as well as the shells,
which have not been found before, and which are of fresh-water

GEOLOGY. , 257
origin. The plant remains most notable were those of the genus
Porano, still living in sub-tropical latitudes.

The Rey. Mr. Brodie, who is an authority on the subject of fos-
‘sil insects, made a few remarks on the various insects mentioned
by Mr. Maw, and expressed his belief that if the beds were better
worked they would yield more species. Mr. Etheridge, of the
Geological Survey, said Mr. Maw’s discovery was very impor-
tant, as fresh-water, or indeed shells of any sort, had never been
met with before in this bed. Mr. Godwin Austen made a few
remarks describing the general character of the strata, stating
much of them was s deposited i in a large lake, during the nummu-
litic period. Mr. Pengelly congratulated Mr. Maw in finding
what he wanted. With reference to the Bovey Tracey lignite
series, they lay on a green sand bottom. Fifty species of fossil
plants had been found in the lignites, and they were of the same
forms as those occurring in the miocene lignites on the continent,
and occupying the same horizon. The fossil plants of Bovey
Tracey had been found in the Hempstead beds of the Isle of
Wight. The Rey. O. Fisher mentioned that some years ago, at
Furzey Brook pits, he had found an oyster in the leaf-beds of Mr.
Maw. It had all the appearance of being an estuarine shell. He
thought the strata were estuarine rather than of a lake character.
Mr. Maw, in reply, said that, although there was a variation in
the fauna of the eocene and miocene, there was not any in their
flora. Mr. Godwin Austen expressed his opinion that the Bovey
Tracey beds were upper eocene, and not miocene.

The president (Prof. Harkness) said Mr. Thomson had obtained
some of the finest labrynthodont remains ever found in Great
Britain. Sir Philip Egerton corroborated this, and said, from an
examination of the sections, he had no doubt Dr. Young was
right in separating the remains into a new genus, that of Ptero-
plax. He was happy also to coincide with Mr. Thomson as re-
gards the character of the fossil fishes. Mr. Brodie referred to
the number of these reptilian remains which the coal measures
had recently given. Mr. Miall mentioned that the structure of
the teeth in the reptiles might alter according to the age of the
animais. Mr. Thomson replied that the differences in the speci-
mens he produced could not be brought under such an explana-
tion.

On the Discovery of Fossil Plants in the Cambrian Rocks near St.
David’s. —This was a communication by Dr. Hicks. The strata
in which the fossil plants had been found were the Upper Long-
mynds. Their ripple-marked character showed they had been
deposited in shallow water. Last year; Prof. Torre]l reported his
having found land plants in the Cambrian strata; and this encour-
aged Dr. Hicks to seek for them. He had been successful; and
Prof. Harkness said that there was a difference in the nature of
the supposed plant remains. He mentioned the various theories
afloat as to the nature of these plants, and said theye might be
fucoidal. Some of Dr. Hicks’ specimens were, he thought, the
tracks of marine worms. Dr. Hicks had sent fossils which were
found 1,500 teet below the horizon where they have hitherto been

99 *

258 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

met with in the British islands. They were, therefore, the earliest
types of life which had hitherto been found in this country. Prof.
Phillips thought that many of the so-called fossil plants in strata
of this age might be referred to annelids. He thought the finding
of the trilobites and other remains 1,500 feet below the stage they
had been found in before ought to teach geologists a valuable les-
son. ‘The learned professor went into an elaborate review of the
order of life, succession, and of the natural history classification
of the early geological epochs. He thought it the duty of the
Association to encourage and support such able workers as Dr.
Hicks. Prof. Etheridge said that the plants exhibited were quite
of a different character to those shown by Prof. Torrell last year.
He thought they were nothing beyond furrow or tracks of anne-
lids and crustacea. The number of generic species of trilobites,
ete., showed that life was enjoyed in great abundance during these
early epochs.

On the Occurrence of a Large Deposit of Terra-Cotta Clay at Wat-
combe, by Prof. Etheridge, Torquay.— The author described the
discovery, some yeurs ago, in boring, of a deposit of clay resting
on the new red sandstone. This clay was mineralogically similar
to that formerly used by the Etruscans. Prof. Etheridge exhib-
ited several beautiful vases which had been made from this clay.
He mentioned that at Copenhagen they were copying the works
of Thorwalsden and others; but the clay at Watcombe was of a
very superior kind. The communication was illustrated by dia-
grams, which showed that this clay had been deposited by a river
in a large lake. There were indications of the Romans, or early
Britons, having been acquainted with the bed, and of their having
worked it. There was no other combe in the neighborhood which
possessed a similar deposit. The southern end of the lake, along
whose bottom the clay had been formed, extended far out to sea,
marine action having cut it off. The clay contained above 60 per
cent. of silicia, and 20 per cent. of alumina, two very important
elements. There was also 7 per cent. of peroxide of iron.
The alkalies, soda and potash, were present in great quantities.
In fact, the mineral constituents generally were better than any-
thing known to the Romans, and just those most necessary for the
purposes to which this fine clay was to be put. Prof. Etheridge
pointed out that the Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans
had all left their traces in terra-cotta clay. He had no doubt
that a good many Roman Amphora had been manufactured out of
this identical deposit. Its thickness, in some parts, was above 80
feet. He thought the valley had formerly been covered to its
very summit by this clay. Mr. Pengelly said that clay of the
same character, but not quite so fine, was found further up the
valley. One bed, 12 feet thick, was underlaid by a layer of peb-
bles, in which the remains of man were abundant. He agreed
with Mr. Etheridge that it was a subaerial deposit. Under the
layer of stones was a still finer clay. Mr. G. Maw said he had
examined the clay some years ago, to ascertain the heat it would
stand. One peculiarity about it was its extremely fine subdivi-
sion. It was almost impalpably subdivided.

GEOLOGY. 259

The next paper was read by Mr. Pengelly, in the absence of
the author, Mr. N. Whitley, on ‘‘ The Distribution of Shattered
Chalk Flints and Flakes in Devon and Cornwall.” He had traced
these flints over very large areas, to a height of 300 feet above
the sea-level. He also mentioned the various localities in the two
counties where these flakes, or knives, were most abundant. The
author did not concur in the idea that these flakes had been left
by man, but suggested that they had a geological, and not an
archelogical, origin. He thought they might subsequently have
been used and adapted afterwards by man. Mr. Pengelly said
he thought Mr. Whitley sometimes used the word ‘ flake” for an
implement. Mr. Wyatt took exception to Mr. Whitley’s conclu-
sions. He had examined many of the flints, and could not concur
in the deductions, geological or archeological, which had been
drawn. He had no doubt that many of the flints were of human
workmanship. The Rev. Mr. Winwood said there was a differ-
ence between chips and flakes. He thought that the district
mentioned by Mr. Whitley bore undoubted traces of human work-
manship. The Rey. O. Fisher said they never got a chip or flake
in a natural manner.

The Gulf Stream.— Mr. A. G. Findlay read a paper on ‘* The
supposed Influence of the Gulf Stream on the climate of North-
west Europe.” He submitted that the actual bulk of water which
_ passes through the Florida Channel is. from 294 to 330 cubie miles
per day, and it receives no accession from the tropics. Fully one-
half of this passes eastward and southward from the banks of
Newfoundland, and the northern half, cooled down and neutral-
ized by the Arctic current, has, according to this theory, to cover
-this area to raise its temperature. The known bulk of the stream
will only give 6 inches per diem over this area. And he would
ask, how is it possible that such a minute film could have any
influence, and this, too, at from one to two years after it has left
the Gulf of Florida as the true Gulf Stream? He would not
advert to the further progress of this warmer water, which might
be traced to and beyond Spitzbergen, and its effects throughout
the North Polar Basin; and these effects, he contended, were
totally and absolutely incompatible with the now well-known par-
ticulars of the Gulf Stream proper. He could not go into the
isothermal lines which show most markedly the higher tempera-
ture in the winter, and much less so in the summer. The equable
temperature of the waters causes this change,—the relation of
the warm and cold water. It had been propounded by Mr. Crott
that the modern method of determining the amount of heat would
account for all the phenomena popularly attributed to the Gulf
Stream. But he (Mr. Findlay) would deferentially demur to his
calculations. He (Mr. Crott) took no account of the time it takes
for the water to circulate. He doubled, as he (Mr. Findlay)
thought, the volume of the stream, and he took no account of the
interferences it encountered. However valuable his suggestions
might be, they must be applied in a different way. How, then,
can the phenomena of our warm winter climate be accounted for?
The reason seemed to him to be simple and obvious. The great

260 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

belt of south-west winds, called the anti-trade, or passage winds,
passes over the North Atlantic throughout its breadth, and drives
slowly the whole surface of the water to the northward of an
easterly course, or towards the shore of North-west Europe.
From the particular configuration of the land, this north-west
drift is allowed to pass into the polar area. This south-west wind
infuses into high latitudes the temperature and moisture of much
lower parallels, and by its greater rate of travelling passes over
the warmer water to the southward, and this brings to Exeter in
one day the warmth of the centre of France. By its variation
from westward or eastward of a southerly direction, we find all
the variations or moisture which are induced by this wind passing
over land or sea. The excellent observations made in the expe-
dition from the Royal Society, under Dr. Carpenter and Dr.
Wyvell Thompson, would, he had no doubt, throw great light
on this obscure north-east current, which should not be called the
Gulf Stream, but possess a specific term. Mr. Trelawney Saun-
ders remarked that the greatest centres of heat were not at the
equator, but were to be found in either tropic.

On Certain Phenomena in the Drift near Norwich. — In this com-
munication, Mr. J. B. Taylor said that, although there was the
finest series of the drift beds in Norfolk to be found in Great Britain,
still in the upper boulder clay certain anomalies occur which fre-
quently puzzle the geologist. The paper was an attempt to explain
these by referring them to the agency of icebergs. Sometimes
there were found beds of upper boulder clay lying at lower levels
than the middle drift beds. In fact, such phenomena occurred
through icebergs having ploughed up the sands and deposited
beds of clay in the furrows. This accounted for the out-of-the-
way character of what had been termed ‘ third, or valley boulder
clay.” ‘The sand beds on each side these linear extensions of clay
were frequently dragged out of their place and contorted. The
chalk also was disturbed, and the flint bands thrown into almost
perpendicular positions in the neighborhood of such phenomena.
Mr. Taylor also mentioned the exceeding narrow track of these
abnormal beds of clay, and concluded by showing that their occur-
rence only the more fully bore out the glacial hypothesis.

Prof. Harkness said Mr. Taylor distinguished himself by work-
ing on the clay and drift beds of Norfolk, and that his paper was
very valuable and interesting. He then traced the general rela-
tionship of the lower and upper boulder clays, and of the middle
drift beds. The first and last, he said, always showed strong evi-
dences of ice action and arctic climature, the middle drift sands
being marked by having numbers of non-arctic shells and flint
pebbles. Prof. Harkness reviewed the various localities where
this was the case, both in England, Ireland, and Scotland.

Mr. S. Pattison, F.G.S., said similar phenomena to those men-
tioned by Mr. Taylor could be seen in the neighborhood of Whitby.
He had no doubt they were due to iceberg groovings.

The Water-bearing Strata in the Neighborhood of Norwich. — This
was another paper by Mr. Taylor. It dealt with the origin of
sand-pipes in chalk, showing them to be natural drains, and ad-

GEOLOGY. 261

vocating their origin from a chemical point of view. These sand-
pipes were most abundant in the disturbed chalk, and less so in
the solid strata. The latter allowed the water to get away by
means of joints and flint bands. The age of some of the sand-
pipes could be told by the material filling them, and by the un-
changed contour of the country. In the excavations attending
the sewage works at Norwich, much trouble was given by their
having to work through strata thoroughly saturated with water.
The same sort of strata standing above the water-level gave no
trouble whatever. The deduction was drawn that if so much
trouble ensued whilst working only twenty feet below the water-
level, the excavation of the proposed channel tunnel, tnder so .
much more pressure, must necessarily be attended with great diffi-
culties. Mr. Taylor gave an interesting statement of the manner
in which the wells were drained by the pumping in the neighbor-
hood of Norwich, and showed they were affected according to
the different nature of the strata in which they were sunk.

Mr. Godwin Austen mentioned several localities in Devonshire
where sand-pipes occurred in the sandstone rocks, and thought
that the chemical theory could not hold in cases like these, al-
though they might do so in chalk districts.

Sir Willoughby Jones expressed his gratification at the papers
which had been read, and, as a Norfolk man, said he could thor-
oughly bear out the correctness of Mr. Taylor’s views. It wasa
very common thing for holes to be suddenly formed by the caving
in of gravel and sand into the sand-pipes.

Mr. Taylor, in reply to Prof. Harkness, said that the upper and
lower boulder clays in Norfolk were very distinct. The former
were derived principally from the wreck of the lias beds, and the
latter from the lower chalk and oolite. One was of a dark-blue
color, and the other of an ochreous white.

‘The next paper was by a French geologist, G. A. Lebour, on
the ‘*‘ Denudation of Western Brittany,” read by Captain Galton.
There was also another communication by the same author, ‘* Notes
on some Granites of Lower Brittany.” The section closed after a
paper on ‘‘Some New Forms of Graptolites,” by Dr. H. A. Nichol-
son. This paper was read by the President, who stated there
could be no doubt that the fossil graptolites were related to the
recent sertularia.

The Extinction of the Mammoth. — A very interesting paper on
this subject was read by Mr. H. H. Howorth. The various his-
torical notices in old authors of the mammoth remains in Siberia
and elsewhere were well condensed. ‘The usual idea was, that
the mammoth was a sort of huge mole,-which rarely came to the
surface. This was the way their vast remains were accounted
for. Mr. Howorth did not think the extinction of the mammoth
ought to be ascribed to the men of the early stone age. Prof.
Phillips and Prof. Boyd Dawkins made some remarks on the above
paper, the former dwelling at some length upon the more popular
geological notions of the former conditions of northern geography,
and the latter observing that Mr. Howorth had misunderstood
him. Ue had never said that the extinction of the mammoth in

262 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Siberia was owing to his being hunted down; but he had stated
that in England “and Western Europe generally there was no
doubt that the mammoth had become extinct by the hand of man.
Mr. Howorth briefly replied, stating that he still differed from Mr,
Dawkins as to the extinction of the animals mentioned. He
thought that different races of man had become extinct along with
the animals.

On the Occurrence of the Mineral Scheelite (Tungstate: of Lime) at
Val Toppa Gold Mine, near Domodossola, Piedmont; by C. Le
Neve Loster, B.A., D.Sc., £.G.S.—In this paper the author
stated that Scheelite, or tungstate of lime, is now oceurring at the
Val Toppa gold mine. It is associated with quartz, iron “pyrites,
zinc blende, calespar, brown spar, and native gold; whilst wol-
fram, tinstone, molybdenite, fluor-spar, apatite, ~ topaz, and four-
maline, which usually accompany Scheelite, are entirely absent.
The Scheelite is called ‘‘marmor rosso” by the Piedmontese
miners, and is looked upon asa good indication for gold. Pro-
fessor Warrington Smyth said this rare mineral might be found
in the neighborhood of Tavistock, in Devonshire.

Mr. Charles Moore, F.G.S., then made 2 communication rela-
tive to a specimen of Teleosaurus from the Upper Lias. He said
he had discovered shells (Leptena) in the Middle Lias, which
had been thought peculiar to the paleozoic rocks. Above
these was a bed rich in nodules, and these nodules when broken
open were seen to be full of the bones and other remains of Tele-
osauri.

On the Denudation of the Shropshire and Staffordshire Coal-
Fields. —In the absence of the author, this paper was read by
Professor Warrington Smyth. The paper read treated on the
mineral character of some of the coal seams in the field in ques-
tion, and showed how many of the seams were cut off by denuda-
tion. The fauna and flora belonging to these coal seams were
mentioned. The Staffordshire and Shropshire coal-ficlds were
only portions of one original tract. He thought that a sea or
strait had existed over the area of the coal measures which had
denuded them. Mr. Smyth said he was himself attracted to the
subject from knowing the neighborhood. The subject was inter-
esting as dealing with the great national question of the practi-
cal extension of our coal-fields. The great question was as to
whether certain seams were capable of being worked at a certain
depth. Mr. Lionel Brough said that in the neighborhood of
Wolverhampton and Cannock Chase there were great disloca-
tions. He did not agree with the author that a strait had ever
existed over the area mentioned. With regard to the continuity
of the South Staffordshire coal-field in Shropshire, it was inter-
rupted by faults. He thought that if they sunk deeper in Shrop-
shire they might come on the Staffordshire coal seams, although
perhaps under various other appearances.

On a Specimen of Obsidian from Java, with a Microscopical Ex-
amination ; by W. C. Roberts, F.C.S., F.G.8. — Microscopists have
Jately urged the necessity and importance of examining roek
sections with the microscope. Little, however, appears to have

GEOLOGY. 263

been done in the accurate identification of the constituent min-
erals of the rock mass. The present paper was a statement of
the result of the examination of a substance that, from the indefi-
nite character of its composition, partakes of the nature of a rock
rather than that of a mineral. It consists of a specimen of obsid-
ian from Java, originally in the cabinet of Bernard Woodward,
Esq., but the label does not give the exact locality. It appears
to differ much from that, also from Java, now in the British Mu-
seum. The specific gravity of the specimen now produced is
2.35; in thin sections it is perfectly transparent. The lecturer gave
a complete analysis of its composition, which he said may be
easily cut into thin sections, and by the aid of a low power, say
200 diameters, at least three distinct minerals (beautifully erys-
tallized) may be distinguished, diagrams of which were produced
with the specimen. These, with the optical properties, were ad-
mirably described, some doubt being expressed as to the nature of
thg second mineral; but the third was undoubtedly composed of
magnetic iron.

Mr. Thomson then read a paper ‘“‘On Teeth and Dermal
Structure associated with Ctenacanthus as well as on new forms
of Pieroplax and other carboniferous Labryinthodonts and of
Megalichtys.” Sir Philip Egerton, who is a great authority on
fossil fishes, took the chair, for the purpose of being able to com-
ment on the subjects mentioned in the paper, which were of a
purely technical character. Sir Philip Egerton mentioned sey-
eral instances where genera had been founded on different charac-
ters of the same fish. The main object of the communication
was to show that several so-called genera of fossil teeth were in
reality small spines. Mr. Thomson had proved, from actual dem-
onstration, that three or four genera of fossil fish could be
resolved into the same genus.

A short communication was made by Mr. W. Carruthers ‘‘ On
Reptilian Eggs from Secondary Strata.” Some of the eggs were
Chelonian, or turtle, in their character. Many of them had all the
appearance of fruit. They had a peculiarly glossy appearance,
and were very thin. Mr. Carruthers went into some detail on the
origin of small shakeneides found in coal shale, and explained
how they had been formed by gas or air.

M. de Tchipatchef gave a short viva voce account of the Pale-
ontology of Asia Minor. To this he has devoted twenty years of
his life. Mr. Godwin Austen said M. de Tchipatchef was well
known as the most enterprising Asian traveller, and all geolo-
gists had derived great profit from his labors.

*“*Occurrence of Stylonarus in the Cornstone of Hereford.”
This was a new species of crustacean, Mr. Woodward also read
afew notes ‘* On the discovery of a large Myriapod, of the genus
Euphoberia, in the coal measures of Kilmaurs.” This fossil is a
centipede nearly two inches long. Their occurrence in the Brit-
ish coal measures is very rare, although Dr Dawson had found
them in the strata of South Loggins, Nova Scotia. The legs, ete.,
of the fossil could be plainly seen with a low optical power. Mr.
Godwin Austen said vething was more interesting than the nu-

264 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

merous forms of life which the researches of geologists were con-
tinually discovering in the coal measures.

SUMMARY OF GEOLOGICAL FACTS.

Petroleum in the Netherlands’ East Indies. —Dr. Baumhauer.— The
author gives a complete description of a large number of sources
of petroleum discovered in ditlerent islands of the Indian Archi-
pelago, dependencies of the Netherlands. From observations and
experiments made, there exists at 250 metres’ depth an almost
inexhaustible reservoir of this fluid.

Smoke-colored Quartz. — A letter from the French minister, resi-
dent at Berne, contains full particulars concerning the discovery
and the exploration of quartz of rare beauty, accidentally discov-
ered in the Tiefengletscher of the valley of Urseren, Canton Uri,
Switzerland. — Annales des Mines, Nov. 3.

Mineral Resources of Algeria. — This paper is an excellent mono-
graph. — Annales des Mines, Nov. 3.

Copper Mines of Lake Superior — Tin in the State of Maine, U. s.
—In the shape of a letter, written by the author to M. Elie de
Beaumont, Mr. Jackson, of Boston, states that, in June last, there
was found in the Phoenix copper mine, near Lake Superior, a mass
of native copper measuring 65324 feet, weighing 1,000 tons,
and valued at 400,000 dollars. In some parts, this mass has, in-
stead of its average 4 feet, 7 feet in thickness. As to the site
where the tin ore has been discovered, the author states that he
received a sample, sent to him from Winslow, and that on analy-
sis he found the ore to yield, in its crude state, 46 per cent. of
pure tin, and, after washing, about 75.5 per cent. There exist
some 40 mineral veins containing the ore, and these veins are
workable.

Highest Peaks of the Caucasus. —There is a capital map of the
Caucasus in ** Petermann’s Mittheilungen,” 11., 1869. The accom-
panying notes give the following as the elevations of the four
most important peaks of the proper or Great Caucasus : —

Elbrug,. . . 18,572 English feet. 17,426 Paris feet.

Koschan-tau,. . . . 17,123 oo 16,066 66
Dych-tau, . . . . 16,928 sé 15 ,883 s¢
Kasbek, .. .~) 0°) 6: we 0; 46,646 cf 15,525 43

The Ararat is almost equally high with the Dych-tau, namely,
16,916 English feet, or 15,872 Paris feet.

Geodetic Measurement in Eur ope. — There is a good prospect that,
at an early day, the measurement of an are of meridian, under-
taken by the Russian government, will be extended into the Turk-
ish dominions, and, possibly, into the island of Crete. If the
project is carried out, an are of 35° 35/ will have been measured,
extending from 35° 5! to 70° 40! N, lat., the utmost possible in
Europe. =a measurement of the 52d parallel, between Valentia,
on the Irish coast, and Orsk, on the Kirgisen Steppe, has lately
been completed. — Petermann, U., 1869.

GEOLOGY. 265

Lithographic Researches. — Geologists will be much interested in
the reported discovery. of Dr. Jenzsch, of Gotha. This savant,
it is said, has devoted himself for some years to what he calls
microscopic lithographic researches, and now announces that in
various kinds of crystalline and volcanic. rocks he has discovered
minute animal forms in prodigious numbers, and ina fossil condition.
Some of the creatures he describes as having been petrified in
the midst of their ‘life functions.” Among them, he finds Infu-
soria and Rotifere, intermingled with Alg@, and he infers their
formation in a large expanse of stagnant water.

The Colorado Expedition. — The expedition under the command
of Col. Powell, the Colorado explorer, has returned to Chicago,
having successfully travelled through the entine Grand Canon,
from Green River to the point where the Colorado debouches into
the open plain, in the territory of Arizona.

From the point where Colonel Powell’s last letter was written,
the expedition descended the river about 400 miles, between
walls almost vertical, ranging from 500 to 1,500 feet high, the
exterior of the canon being from 2,500 to 4,000 feet above the
bed of the river. More than 200 waterfalls and cascades,
emptying themselves over the walls of the caion into the main
river, were seen in this distance, with almost every variety of
natural scenery. The geological formation of the cafion consists
principally of limestone and sandstone; granite is only found at
three places, and in a limited amount. No discoveries of
precious metals were made, and there were no indications of
gold or silver found in the bed of the river.

One section of the canon was found to consist of a very fine,
beautifully polished marble, which at present is entirely inacces-
sible. The country traversed was barren beyond description, and
is pronounced by Colonel Powell as not susceptible of cultivation,
even by irrigation.

Effect of Irrigation. — The Suez Canal appears likely to pro-
duce a radical change in the climate of the surrounding country.
From a series of meteorological observations made during two
years at three different stations on the isthmus, we are led to
infer the interesting fact that introduction of the waters of the Med-
iterranean into the lakes has caused an atmospheric moisture in
places herotofore noted for their dryness, to such an extent that
fogs, equal in intensity to those of some European cities, now
occur, This appears to support an important conclusion of Colo-
nel Foster, in his recently published work, with regard to the
effect that irrigation would have on our western deserts.

Durangite. —The mineral is of a bright orange-red, the crys-
tals having a rhombic aspect; streak, cream-yellow; lustre, vit-
reous; cleavage, distinct in two directions; crystallizations, mon-
oclinic; hardness, 5; specific gravity, 3.95—4.03. The small
quantity which could be used for the test did not allow a full
and complete quantitative determination. Direct duplicate estima-
tions, however, were obtained of every constituent, except fluor-
ine. This last element was found to exist in such considerable
quantity, that the fluohydric acid evolved in attacking the mineral

23

266 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

by sulphuric acid, etched the glass with great readiness and dis-
tinctness. The following results were obtained by analysis. . No.
1 in the wet way, by sulphuric acid :—

Arsenic acid, . . . 55.10; Quantity of Oxygen . . . . 19.16
Alumina, . . . . 20.60; “ce ‘6 oe) 2) ee 9.63
Ferric oxide, . . . 4.78; “ce “ dine «° 1.44
Managanous oxide, . 1.30; ae sie 2. 'e os
Otte s -oh min. «., S0,685 a -id were ee
[aie =) > is oo 7. Sees “ ee ew » a
Fluorine, . . « -e undetermined.
84.33

Analysis No. 2, made in the dry way, by fusion with carbonate
of soda, dissolved in water, acidulated with chlorhydrie acid,
gave: arsenic acid, 53.22; alumina, 20.09; ferric oxide, 5.06;
managanous oxide, 1.28. The low amount of arsenic acid by
this determination, it was thought, might be due to the fact that
the soda fusion Was made over a gas-blast lamp, with the possi-
bility that a portion of the arsenic acid might have been reduced
to arsenious acid, and volatilized; or possibly to other accidental
causes, The small quantity of mineral would not allow of a repe-
tition of this analysis.

An analysis, No. 3, was made, qualitative quantitative, in
which only the alkalies were estimated. The results of this was:
soda, 11.86; lithia, 0.70;— agreeing very closely with No. 1.
The alkalies examined with the spectroscope showed only the
lines of sodium and lithium.

The composition and oxygen ratio (nearly 1: 3:5), says the
professor, ‘*‘ suggest an analogy between the new mineral and
amblygonite, a fluo-phosphate of alumina, lithia, and soda,” but
he thinks the results given are suflicient to demonstrate it to be a
new mineral, and, as he thinks, the only observed native fluo-
arseniate.

Geology of Venezuela. — Since the publications of Baron Von
Humboldt, nothing has been contributed to the geology of the
south-eastern portion of Venezuela. In his grouping of the moun-
tain systems of South America, he groups the entire mountain
series of all Guayana into one system, and calls it the Parimi sys-
tem. Its rocks are all gneiss or granite, and crystalline, according
to his description.

Our examination of a large portion of the northern mountains
shows the presence of other rocks, such as schists of various kinds,
talcose rock, limestone, and itacolumite. A section across the
trend of the Imitaca range, at right angles, exhibits for the first
miles only erystalline rocks. At San Maria, the culminating
point.of this range, it falls off suddenly on the southward full 900
feet, to the plains of Cumé. Hornblende schists, with interstrati-
fied veins of quartz, and bands of syenite and granite, with tal-
cose, chloritic and silicious schists, then obtain for two days’ jour-
ney, until we reach the valley of the Yuruari River, where we
find limestone, itaculumite, and greater frequency of talcose

GEOLOGY. 267

rock. After crossing the Yuruari, we first enter the gold fields of
the country.

Gold veins occur in brecciated and other slates, which are but
little changed from the sedimentary and fossiliferous condition.
These slates appear to be changed in places into talcose rock, and
then auriferous veins are more abundant. The more silicious
portions are changed into porphyroid rock, and dioritic rock is
frequent.

The best-known portion of this gold field is the valleys of
Mocupio and Iguana. The whole country south of the Imitaca
may be called auriferous, for gold is found in all the streams, and
on the savanna. In the Mocupio gold is found, —

1st. In the beds of streams, in sands and gravel.

2d. In placer deposits, under cover of earth, clays and
gravels.

3d. In red earth, within a few feet of the surface. This is
often very rich. A nugget weighing 15 pounds was found
in it.

4th. In conglomerate of recent formation,

The geographical area which is auriferousis very great, reach-
ing through the English, Dutch, and French Guianas, and through
all of Venezuelian Guyana.

It should be called the ‘*‘ Parima Gold Field.”

Difference of Level between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. —
M. Poirée, Inspector General, discusses this question in the
«Comptes Rendus” of Aug. 2, 1869. He says: —

‘‘ It results from the comparison of the level of 1799 with that
of 1856, adopted by the international commission, that the Red
Sea is 0.86" higher than the Mediterranean.”

The borings for rock salt near Wylen, Switzerland, have given
very favorable results. Near the Khine, a bed of 80 feet in thick-
ness has been found at a depth of 420 feet below the surface, and_
another, 50 feet thick, not far off. The salt is hard, pure, and of
excellent quality.

Sea Depths. —Soundings for submarine cables show that the
Baltic, between Sweden and Germany, is 125 feet deep; the Adti-
atic, between Venice and Trieste, 130; the English Channel, 300;
the Irish Sea, in the south-western part, 2,000; the Mediterranean,
east of Gibraltar, 3,100; off the coast of Spain, 6,200; by the Cape
of Good Hope, 15,500.

BIOLOGY;

OR, PHYSIOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, AND BOTANY.

DERIVATIVE HYPOTHESIS OF LIFE AND SPECIES. BY PROF.
OWEN.

In his recently published work on the ‘‘ Anatomy of Vertebrates,”
Prof. Owen devotes a chapter to his hypothesis of the origin of
species, as contrasted with the theory of Darwin. This chapter
is reprinted in the ‘‘ American Journal of Science” for January,
1869; and from this the following extracts are made: —

« Prof. Owen, like Lamarck and Darwin, rejects the principle of
direct or miraculous creation, and recognizes a ‘natural law, or
secondary cause,’ as operative in the production of species ‘in
orderly succession and progression.’ To Cuvier’s objection, that,
if the existing species are modifications, by slow degrees, of ex-
tinct ones, the intermediate forms ought to be found, he replies,
that many missing links in the palzeontological series have been
found since 1830. He gives several examples of these modifica-
tions, and dwells specially on hipparion, and the other forms
between the fossil paleotherium and the present genus equus.

** Cuvier maintained that the revolutions of the surface of the
globe had been numerous and sudden. Owen writes, ‘ Continued
observations of geologists, while establishing the fact of succes-
sive changes, have filled up the seeming chasms between such
supposed ‘‘ revolutions,” as the discoveries of palzeontologists have
supplied the links between the species held to have perished by
the cataclysms. Each successive parcel of geological truth has
tended to dissipate the belief in the unusually sudden and violent
nature of the changes recognizable in the earth’s surface.’ ”

Lamarck laid great stress upon the influence of surrounding
circumstances in modifying the habits and structure of living
beings. In this connection, Owen observes, taking the coral ani-
mals as illustrations, the hypothesis ‘‘of appetency subsides
from the impotency of a coral polyp to exercise volition. The
weak point of Lamarck’s creative machinery is its limited applica-
bility, namely, to creatures high enough in the scale to be able to
want to do something; for the determined laws of the reflex
function, in the physiology of the nervous system, and the neces-
sity of the pha cerebral mass for true sensation, rigorously
fix the limits of volitional faculties.” So, being ‘‘ unable to accept

268

BIOLOGY. 269

the volitional hypothesis, or that of impulse from within (La-
marck), or the selective force exerted by outward circumstances
(Darwin), I deem an innate tendency to deviate from parental
type, operating through periods of adequate duration, to be the
most probable nature, or way of operation, of the secondary law,
whereby species have been derived one from the other. . . .
According to my derivative hypothesis, a change takes place first
in the structure of the animal; and this, when sufficiently ad-
vanced, may lead to modifications of habits. As species rise in
the scale, the concomitant change of structure can, and does, lead
to change of habits. But species owe as little to the accidental
concurrence of environing circumstances as Cosmos depends on a
fortuitous concourse of atoms. A purposive route of development
and change, of correlation and interdependence, manifesting in-
telligent will, is as determinable in the succession of races as in
the development and organization of the individual. Generations
do not vary accidentally, in any and every direction, but in pre-
ordained, definite, and correlated courses.”

*** Derivation’ holds that every species changes, in time, by
virtue of inherent tendencies thereto. ‘ Natural Selection’ holds
that no such change can take place without the influence of altered
circumstances educing or selecting such change.

*** Derivation’ sees among the effects of the innate tendency to
change, irrespective of altered surrounding circumstances, a
manifestation of creative power in the variety and beauty of the
results ; and, in the ultimate forthcoming of a being susceptible of
appreciating such beauty, evidence of the preordaining of such
relation of power to the appreciation. ‘ Natural Selection’ ac-
knowledges that if ornament or beauty, in itself, should be a pur-
pose in creation, it would be absolutely fatal to it as a hypothesis.

*** Natural Selection’ sees grandeur in the view of life, with
its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Crea-
tor into a tew torms, or into one. ‘ Derivation’ sees therein a
narrow invocation of a special miracle, and an unworthy limita-
tion of creative power, the grandeur of which is manifested daily,
hourly, in calling into life many forms, by conversion of physical
and chemical into vital modes of force, under as many diversified
conditions of the requisite elements to be so combined.

*** Natural Selection’ leaves the subsequent origin and succes-
sion of species to the fortuitous concurrence of outward conditions.
‘ Derivation’ recognizes a purpose in the defined and preordained
course, due to innate capacity or power of change, by which
homogeneously created protozoa have risen to the higher forms of
plants and animals.” 3

‘* As to epigenesis, or evolution,-the ‘ evolutionists’ of the last
century ‘ contended that the new being pre-existed in a complete
state of formation, needing only to be vivitied by impregnation in
order to commence the series of expansions, or disencasings, cul-
minating in the independent individual. The ‘ epigenesists’ held
that both the germ and its subsequent organs were built up of
juxtaposed molecules, according to the operation of a develop-
mental force, or ‘nisus formatiyus.’ Haller maintained the prin-

22 *

270 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ciple of ‘evolution ;’ Buffon that of ‘ epigenesis;’ Hunter would
now be classed with the ‘epigenesists.’ . . . ‘Pre-existence
of germs’ and ‘ evolution’ are logically inseparable from the idea
of the origin of species by primary miraculously created individ-
uals. Cuvier, therefore, maintained both, as firmly as did Haller.”

To meet the question of ‘‘ whence the first organic matter?”
the nomogenist (epigenesist) ‘tis reduced to enumerate the ex-
isting elements into which the simplest living jelly (protogenes of
Haeckel) or sarcode (Ameba) is resolvable, and to contrast the
degree of probability of such elements combining, under unknown
conditions, as the first step in the resolution of other forces into
vital foree, with the degree of probability remaining, after the
observations above recorded, of the interposition of a miraculous
power associating these elements into living germs, or forms
with powers of propagating their kind to all time, as the sole
condition of their ubiquitous manifestation, in the absence of any
secondary law thereto ordained.

‘« It seems to me more consistent with the present phase of dy-
namical science and the observed gradations of living things, to
suppose that sarcode, or the ‘ protogenal’ jelly-speck, should be
formable through concurrence of conditions favoring such com-
bination of their elements and involving a change of force pro-
ductive of their contractions and extensions, molecular attrae-
tions and repulsions—and that sarcode has so become, from the
period when its irrelative repetitions resulted in the vast indefi-
nite masses of ‘eozoon,’ exemplifying the earliest process of
‘ formification’ or organic crystallization — than that all existing
sarcodes or ‘ protogenes’ are the result of genetic descent from a
germ or cel] due to a primary act of miraculous interposition.”

Dismissing the old doctrines as absurd, he believes in what has
been called ‘‘ spontaneous generation,” or the incessant new de-
velopment of living beings out of non-living material. He sides
with Pouchet and Child against Pasteur. He does not believe in
‘* panspermism,” or the doctrine that all the forms of life pro-
duced in decaying organic matter come from germs dispersed
through the air. He prefers believing that, when the requisite
material and conditions are present, other forces are resolved into
vital force ; and sees ‘‘ the grandeur of creative power,” not in the
exceptional miracle of one or few original forms of life, but in the
«daily and hourly calling into life many forms by conversion of
chemical and physical into vital modes of force.” The ‘* Cause
which has endowed his world with power convertible into mag-
netic, electric, thermotic, and other forms or modes of force, has
also added the conditions of conversion into the vital mode.”

He draws a comparison between life and magnetism, and be-
tween all the actions of living beings, from the attraction of the
amceba by a bit of meat, to the highest phenomenon of conscious-
ness in man; of which his conclusion is that from the magnet
which chooses between steel and gine, to the philosopher who
chooses between good and evil, the difference is one of degree,
not of kind, and that there is no need to assume a special miracle
to account for mental phenomena. :

-BIOLOGY. rar |

DISTRIBUTION OF COPPER IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

The presence of traces of copper in the blood of the lower ani-
mals has been for years an undisputed fact among chemists. In
the blood of the higher animals, however, with few exceptions,
no copper has been detected until lately. Wackenroder, for in-
stance, discovered this metal in the blood of the duck, but not in
that of the ox, the sheep, or the chicken. Its presence in the
blood and in the muscles of man has been asserted as often as it
has been denied, and now, as there is no doubt that it sometimes
occurs in the bile, and bile stones, and the liver of man, its exist-
ence in these organs is still considered to be merely accidental,
the more so as it is well known they retain poisonous substances
more than other organs. In 1865, Mr. Ulex, in Hamburg, was
led to search for copper in various animals, with results which
gave rise to the supposition of a general distribution of copper in
the animal kingdom. As the tests for copper are very easy and
simple, as well as exceedingly sensitive, if properly applied, the
respective investigations were extended by Ulex to animals of
various zoological classes. The reagents employed were tested
for copper in every case, and rejected if containing any. The
quantity ranged from 0.01 to 0.10 per cent. Among the mamma-
lia, it was found in the stomach and intestines of the European
and Canadian lynx, and in those of some species of the leopard,
jackal, and repeatedly in the flesh of horses and cattle. It was
met with in Liebig’s meat extract, which contains the soluble por-
tions of beef in a concentrated form. Moreover, it was discov-
ered in the breast of a ‘‘ crick duck,” in the yellow and white of an
egg, more so in the latter than in the yolk; among amphibians,
in the geometrical tortoise, the viper, and frog. Among fishes, it
was met with in the eel and torsk, and among animals of the
lower classes in the following species: In Crangon vulgaris, the
South American bird-catching spider, Scolopendra Italica, in the
Spanish fly, the earth-worm and the ascaris, in the edible vine-
snail, in sea stars, in the thick-hided echinanthus, and in the bath
sponge. It is thus seen that copper was detected in every case
where it had been searched for ; this having been the case with acci-
dentally chosen animals of various zodlogical classes, it may rightly
be concluded that the metal copper, like iron, is of a general distri-
bution in the animal kingdom. From this it follows that copper
must also be present in plants, in the ground, and in the sea. In-
deed, copper was detected in plants by Meissner and John more
than 50 years ago, and later it was aseertained by Sarzeau to be
present in more than 500 vegetable species. In the earth, copper
has been repeatedly detected, and so in the water of the ocean.
If copper is found in the vegetable fibre, it follows that it must
also be present in its industrial products. In order to ascertain
this, Ulex selected a material that is daily employed by chemists,
and, on account of its purity, highly esteemed by them, namely,
Swedish filtering paper. Upon analysis it was found that 10 grains
of it yielded 6.03 grains or 6.3 per cent. of ashes, from which

272 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

a piece of copper half the size of a pin’s head could easily be
obtained. Charcoal also yields a cupreous ash, and as both pa-
per and charcoal are made use of in the analyses spoken of, it
might be suggested that the copper of these substances got into
the analyzed materials, where, of course, they would have been
found. Yet this reaction has its limits. If it is possible to detect
copper in 10 grains of paper, and in 100 grains of charcoal, it is
not possible to find it in 0.25 grains of paper, or 0.1 grain of char-
coal, which are the quantities used in each analysis. Besides, cop-
per has been discovered in animal tissues without the use of either
paper or charcoal. The above-mentioned facts are certainly not
without importance to physiology, judicial medicine, and phar-
macy, but it is to be hoped, that, in following them up, more light
will be thrown upon this interesting topic. — Scientific American:
translation from Aus der Natur.

UNHEALTHFULNESS OF IRON STOVES.

Considerable discussion having arisen as to the permeability of
cast iron to gases, and to their morbific effect in ill-ventilated
rooms (see *‘ Annual of Scientific Discovery” for 1869, p. 126), the
conclusions of Gen. Morin, as given in a report to the French
Academy, will be read with interest.

The experiments extended over a year, and were performed at
the ‘‘ Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers,” in Paris, being termi-
nated in February, 1869.

His conclusions are as follows : —

1. In addition to the immediate and grave inconveniences
arising from the facility with which stoves of the ordinary metals
attain a red heat, cast-iron stoves, at a dull red heat, cause the
development of a determinate but very variable amount of car-
bonic oxide, a very poisonous gas.

2. A similar development takes place, but in a less degree, in
sheet-iron stoves raised to a red heat.

3. In rooms thus heated, the carbonic acid naturally contained
in the air, and that derived from respiration, may be decomposed,
and produce carbonic oxide.

4. The carbonic oxide may arise from several different and
sometimes concurrent causes, as, the permeability of the iron to
this gas, which passes from within outward; the direct action of
the oxygen of the air upon the carbon of the iron heated to red-
ness; the decomposition of the carbonic acid in the air by its
contact with the heated metal, and the influence of organic dust
naturally contained in the air.

5. The effects observed in a room lighted by four windows,
and two doors, one of which is frequently opened, would be
made manifest and grave in ordinary rooms, without ventilation,
in consequence of the presence and decomposition of various
kinds of organic dust therein present.

6. Consequently, stoves and heating apparatus in cast or sheet
iron, Without interior linings of fire-bricks, or other refractory

BIOLOGY. 273

substances which will prevent their becoming red-hot, are dan-
gerous to the health.

MM. St. Claire Deville and Troost have shown that the air in
contact with the external surface of a cast-iron stove may become
charged with a proportion of carbonic oxide equal to .0007 to
.0013 of its volume. Experiments on rabbits show that carbonic
oxide has the property of expelling a part of the oxygen con-
tained in the blood; and that the small amount of .0U04 will
cause the expulsion of .45 of the oxygen of the blood. Though
sheet-iron stoves are less dangerous on this account, they are not
so harmless as Dr. Carret supposes, as they are open to the
grave objections of the sudden elevation of temperature of their
external surface, and of then decomposing the carbonic acid of
the air. It has long been admitted as a fact in science, that iron
at a red heat decomposes carbonic acid, takes a portion of its
oxygen, and transforms it into carbonic oxide. The experiments
showed that the amount of carbonic oxide formed was notably
less in a moist than in a dry air; this justifies the common use of
vessels filled with water on stoves and furnaces.—Comptes Rendus,
May 3, 1869.

- BURIAL OF THE DEAD.

The public health in large cities is very apt to be endangered
by prevailing practices in regard to the disposition of the dead;
and one of the most dangerous, because almost universal and dis-
regarded, is the long time which is permitted to elapse between
death and burial. This time ismade longer than formerly, from the
necessity of placing cemeteries at considerable distances from
cities, by the facilities offered by railroads for. bringing back the
dead to their native places, and by the increasing dread of pre-
mature interments. It becomes, therefore, important to protect
the living from cadaveric emanations, especially in times of epi-
demic disease, by various disinfectants and antiseptics, and her-
metically sealed receptacles for the dead. In this way many days,
sometimes weeks, intervene between the death and the burial.

The danger of burying the dead in the midst of dense popula-
tions has been shown by the sad experience of most of the large
cities of Europe. The grave, unless the ground be too limited, is
much better than the tomb ; in the former the earth absorbs and neu-
tralizes the products of decomposition, while the emanations from
the tomb, by their imprisonment, acquire frequently a dangerous
intensity ; this is especially true of the old and absurd custom of
placing the dead under churches frequented by the living. Anti-
septics, therefore, and all contrivances for retarding decomposi-
tion, should, unless in a few exceptional cases, be discouraged ; on
the contrary, the return of dust to dust, of organic matters to
their elements, by the natural agencies of the soil, should be
hastened by committing the body to the earth, of such extent and
depth as readily to absorb and neutralize all liquid or gaseous
products. To avoid all possibility of contamination, the ceme-
teries should be as far as possible removed from human habita-

274 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

tions, and so situated that the natural drainage of the soil should
not convey any deleterious matters into the water used or earth
occupied by man or animals.

RESPIRATION US. THE TEMPERATURE OF THE BLOOD.

One of the results of Dr. Lombard’s experiments, with a ther-
mo-electric apparatus capable of indicating a difference of
temperature of one two-thousandth of a degree centigrade
(described in the ‘* Annual of Scientific Discovery ” for 1869, p.
285), is, that, although the air taken into the lungs and thence
into the blood be cold and dry, it does not lower the temper-
ature of the blood sufficiently to be appreciable by this deli-
cate thermometer, as compared with the temperature when
the respired air is hot. In the ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Sci-
ence” for April, 1869, we find the following: ‘*We must all
have noticed the feeling of heat in the lungs on a cold, frosty
day,—a sensation which is not experienced in warmer weather,
and which is the very reverse of what we should expect from
the greater coldness of the inspired air. M. Brown Séquard sug-
gests that the explanation may be this,—the lower the temperature
of the inhaled oxygen the greater will be the amount absorbed,
according to a well-known law of physics, and hence possibly,
there being a Jarger absorption of oxygen, there may be increased
oxidation, and increased heat accordingly. The tension of the
vessels affected by cold air may have some connection with the
sensation in the lungs.

ASCENT OF HIGH MOUNTAINS.

According to carefully made experiments of Mr. Lortet in the
valley of Chamounix, up to a height of about 3,900 metres the
respiration is but little troubled, if the precautions are taken of
walking with the head low to diminish the orifice of the air-pas-
sages, of keeping the mouth shutand breathing through the nose,
and of sucking some small substance, as a nut or stone, to
increase the salivary secretion. Above this height, the respiration
becomes hurried, even to 36 a minute, and difficult; it seems as if
the pectoral muscles became stiff and the ribs were encased; the
amount of air which passes through is much less than in the val-
ley, and the amount of oxygen for purification of the blood
very small,

The pulse increases from 64 to 160, according to altitude, and
is febrile and weak, the arteries feeling almost empty. The
rapid circulation of the blood in the lungs adds to the insufficient
oxygenation arising from rarefaction of the air; the veins become
swollen, and all experience a heaviness in the head and sleepi-
ness, due to imperfect acration of the blood. The weakness of
the pulse is accompanied by a general refrigeration of the body.
Between 1,050 and 4,810 metres, the heat of the body may
descend 6 to 8° C. during the muscular efforts of ascension, a

BIOLOGY. 275

very great reduction for a mammal; during the periods of rest, the
heat reassumes quickly the normal standard; during the process
of digestion, the cooling does not occur; hence the custom of eat-
ing frequently during the ascent. — Comptes fendus, Sept. 20, 1869.

A NEW METHOD OF EFFECTING ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. BY
BENJAMIN HOWARD, M.D.

‘*The patient is laid on the ground upon his back, his arms
fully extended backward and outward, a firm roll of clothing being
placed beneath the false ribs, so as to throw their anterior margin
prominently forward.

‘¢ The tongue being held forward by an assistant, the operator,
facing the patient, kneels astride his abdomen, and places both
hands so that the balls of the thumbs rest upon the anterior mar-
gins of the false ribs, the four fingers falling naturally into four of
the lower corresponding intercostal spaces on each side. The
elbows of the operator being then planted against his sides, he has
but to throw himself forward, using his knees as a pivot, and the
entire weight of his trunk is brought to bear upon the patient’s
false ribs. If, at the same time, the fingers of the operator grasp
and squeeze the false ribs toward each other, these combined
actions crowd the false ribs upward and inward, producing the
greatest possible motion of the diaphragm, and displacement of
the contents of the pulmonary air-cells. The operator then sud-
denly lets go, and returns to the erect position upon his knees,
when both the inrush of air and the natural elasticity of the ribs
at this part cause instant return to their normal position. This,
repeated with proper rhythm and frequency, constitutes the entire
process.

‘This direct method possesses, in my opinion, the following
advantages over and above the indirect methods, both of Silvester
and of Marshall Hall: —

‘*1st. It is more simple.

‘©2d. The degree of compression is felt, and can be regulated
by the operator.

*¢3d. All the available anatomical means for displacement of
air in the cavity of the chest are completely used.

‘¢4th. While the necessary motions are in progress, the tongue
may be steadily held out, the limbs and entire body be dried and
rubbed without interfering with the operator.

**5th. No time is lost in superfluous motions.

‘*6th. It is less fatiguing to the operator.

**7th. It is more quickly taught to a bystander.” — Medical
Record.

VACCINATION.

Dr. Henry Blane, at the 1869 meeting of the British Associa-
tion, read a paper on ‘* Human Vaccine Lymph and Heifer Lymph
Compared.”

276 ' ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

In treating the subject, he dealt with two questions: 1st. Can
disease be transmitted with humanized lymph? 2d. Is humanized
lymph of long standing a prophylactic against small-pox? In
answer to the first question, he did not believe that every possible
disease could be transmitted by lymph. To suppose that cholera
and some other forms of disease were produced by vaccination
was not only irrational, but simply absurd; but, at the same time,
he was compelled to admit that the transmission of disease was
not only possible, but must be received as an acknowledged fact.
Dr. Blanc gave instances to show that two forms of disease, par-
ticularly a kind of skin disease and syphilis, have been unmistaka-
bly transmitted by vaccination.

With regard to the second question, as to the efficacy of human-
ized lymph, Dr. Blanc answered it in the negative, as he found
the humanized lymph of long standing lost much of its anti-vari-
olic power, and stated that, far from being alone in this opinion,
he was supported by all the best authorities on vaccination.
M. Simon, after a careful study of the progressive successes of vae-
cination in the Prussian army, found that the vaccinations of 1836,
when tested by subsequent susceptibility to cow-pox, were not so
successful as those of 1813. There was no longer the same im-
munity as was formerly given, and the cases of fatal result from
vaccination had also largely increased. Dr. Blane quoted copi-
ously from returns of various public institutions to show that the
number of cases of post-vaccinal small-pox had steadily increased
since the use of humanized lymph became general. On the other
hand, on examination of the cases of people who had taken cow-
pox from milking cows, it was found that they still enjoyed per-
fect immunity from small-pox, as was shown by Dr. Blane in a
variety of statistical extracts. The remedy he proposed was sim-
ply to return to the system of Jenner. Vaccination direct from
the heifer, or animal, was no new or untried system, and had
been established in many large cities of Europe. The advantages
of the system were a remoyal of the danger of infection from
other disease, as the bovine race was not subject to such diseases
as might be transmitted to man; that the spontaneous cow-pox
was not likely to lose its essential qualities ; and it was easy always
to have on hand a good supply of vaccine matter by these means.
No fatal results Haat been recorded as arising from the use of the
animal lymph; and the conclusion of Dr. Blanc is, that to render
compulsory vaccination efficacious, and to complete the great
work of Jenner, they must return to the system of taking the
lymph from the animal, and so restore the glory and usefulness
and prestige of Jenner’s great remedy.

PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS OF THE PULSE.

Dr. Ozanam, of Paris, has invented an ingenious apparatus for
rendering the variable beatings of the pulse visible. It consists
of a camera lucida, about 10 inches wide, in which a piece of
mechanism, moving at a uniform rate, pushes « glass plate, pre-

BIOLOGY. 277

pared with collodion, in front of a very narrow aperture exposed
to the light. In this aperture is a glass tube, in which a column
_ of mercury may rise or fall, as in a thermometer. By attaching
to the wrist a rubber tube, filied with mercury, in connection with
the tube of the apparatus, the beating of the pulse is received on
this artificial artery, and the pulsations are transmitted to the
recording apparatus. As the column in the tube acts as a screen,
light can penetrate the aperture only where the column is defi-
cient; consequently, the prepared plate becomes black under the
influence of light everywhere except at such places as the column
intercepts it. As the column rises and falls with each pulsation
of the heart, these black lines on the prepared plate, pushed regu-
larly forward, will be longer or shorter alternately, and will be
successively photographed as being lines perpendicular to a com-
mon base, the heart being thus made to register photographically
its own pulsations. |

Dr. E. J. Marey, of Paris, had discovered, by his ‘‘ sphygmo-
graph” (see ‘‘ Annual of Scientific Discovery ” for 1866-67, p. 307),
that the pulse was double in some diseased conditions. This Dr.
Ozanam shows to be not the exception, but the general rule, and
that, when we place a finger on an artery, we receive two, and
sometimes three, blows. The natural pulse is double, bounding
at once to the top of the scale, and then falling, by two or three
motions, to the lower. level. The first bound is apparently due to
the vigorous contraction of the left ventricle, the second and lesser
to the contraction of the right ventricle, and the third (the least
apparent) to the contraction of the left auricle, or the elasticity of
the arteries. These photographic representations can be so mag- -
nified as to make them visible across a large amphitheatre. This
apparatus may be modified to register the variations of respira-
tion, the irregular action of coughing, and similar physiological
and pathological phenomena.

NEW ANZSTHETICS.

From time to time, new anzsthetics are discovered. First, ether,
then chloroform and nitrous oxide ; now Dr. Leebach, of Germany,
has discovered another, to which he has given the name of
chloralhydrat.. It is highly spoken of by the medical men abroad,
and said to be superior to chloroform in producing a more com-
plete state of unconsciousness, while it neither induces feebleness
nor leaves any bad effects behind. He has held rabbits from 12
to 14 hours under the influence of chloralhydrat, during a part of
which time he kept them suspended over the back of a chair; and
as soon as they awakened, they displayed their usual activity, and
fed with unimpaired appetite. It has been successfully applied as
a sedative in the treatment of the insane. Chloralhydrat resembles
chloroform in appearance, but it is not so heavy ; and, being much
less volatile than that body, it has a feebler odor. On the tongue,
it has a sharp, but not an acrid taste; and, though it reminds one
of chloroform, it gives the sensation neither of warmth nor sweet-

24

978 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ness, like the latter. It is absorbed, and not inhaled, and in this
respect differs from other anzsthetics. When liquid ammonia is
added to a solution of this body, chloroform is precipitated.

Chloral. — At the 1869 meeting of the British Association, Dr.
Richardson said that chloral had been introduced by Liebig, in
1832; and it occurred to his assistant at the Academy in Berlin,
who suggested that, as chloral had its chloroform set free by the
action of an alkali, the introduction of it into contact with the al-
kali contained in the blood might suggest a means of using it for
the purpose of obtaining insensibility in animals, without some of
the disadvantages of taking chloroform into the stomach. Dr.
Richardson gave a detailed statement of the nature of chloral, a
specimen of which had been sent him by Mr. Hanburg, who had
received it from Liebig; and he also described some experiments
made with chloral. In pigeons, he had found chloral produce
sleep and insensibility, lasting from 4 to 5 hours, by the use of
from one and a half to two grains of chloral, and that above that
quantity would kill. This had been applied both by injection and
in the stomach. He had found, as a result of his experiments,
that perfect insensibility could not be produced unless the dose
was increased to a dangerous extent. Dr. Richardson gave de-
tailed accounts of experiments with chloral upon pigeons, rabbits,
and frogs, in 23 separate cases, and also carried on some with
pigeons in the room. Dr. Richardson was not of opinion that
chloral could be used instead of any of the present anesthetic
agents. It produced vomiting, and reduced the temperature of
the body. It had some of the disadvantages of opium, and was
no better, in many other respects, than that article. Still, they
should be grateful to Liebig, as there might be considerable col-
lateral benefit in suggesting a means for searching for advantages
which might be obtained by the decomposition of medicines in
the body.

[It has since been found of considerable advantage as a sedative
in many diseases. ] — £d.

ACTION OF POISONS.

Poison of the Copperhead Snake. — Experiments on the poison of
the cobra-de-capello, made by Dr. Halford, are given in the ‘* An-
nual of Scientific Discovery” for 1868, p. 255; in the volume for
1869, on the rattlesnake poison, p. 306; and more recent observa-
tions on the effects of the bite of the American copperhead have been
made by Dr. Joseph Jones, of New York. Dogs were subjected to
its bite, sometimes with, and sometimes without, fatal results ; the
blood was examined carefully under the microscope, and in the
fatal cases post-mortem examinations were made. ‘‘ Thousands
of small acicular crystals were mingled with the altered blood-
corpuscles ; and, as the bloody serum and effused blood dried, the
blood-corpuscles seemed to be transformed into crystalline masses,
shooting out into crystals of hematin in all directions. The blood-
vessels of the brain were filled with gelatinous coagulable blood,

BIOLOGY. 279

which presented altered blood-corpuscles and acicular crystals.”
He concludes that the special toxic effect of this poison is due to
its destruction of the red blood-corpuscles.

The Cobra-de-Capello.—M. Vulpian, of Paris, in experiments
with the poison of this serpent, the activity of which was doubt-
less considerably diminished by its transmission from India, found
that it appeared to act on the central nervous system, gradually
suppressing its functions, and producing a remarkable state of
somnolence, acting on the muscles and nerves like curare and
many other poisonous substances. He did not notice the increase
of white corpuscles observed by Dr. Halford, but found that the
buccal mucous membrane will absorb the poison, producing the
same symptoms as when received from a wound. ‘This is an in-
teresting fact, as it might render dangerous the attempt to extract
the poison from a wound by suction. If this poison resembles
curare in its action, there is nothing improbable in the native state-
ments that certain herbs are antidotes to its effects, or that vege-
table principles should exist having opposite physiological effects,
and therefore capable of neutralizing its action.

Woorali.—It has hitherto been imagined that the action of
curare, When applied to a wound, is to cause death without any
visible struggle, and without pain. Dr. Claude Bernard has
shown this notion to be utterly erroneous. He states that the
paralysis creeps gradually on from limb to limb, depriving the
animal of motion, and yet without in the slightest degree affect-
ing its intellectual faculties or power of volition, which remain
unimpaired to the last moment. ‘This he considers one of the
greatest tortures to which an intelligent being can be subjected.
Death is caused by the paralysis of the respiratory organs, which
cease to provide the blood with the quantity of oxygen it requires.
This being the case, a poisoned animal may be restored to life by
the mechanical injection of air into the lungs. This important
fact Dr. Bernard proved by actual experiment, finding that, in
the course of a few hours, the poison was eliminated. — Comptes
Rendus.

The Poison Akazga.— This is used as an ordeal on the west
coast of Africa, and found by French chemists to resemble nux
vomica in its physiological effects. Specimens have been received
in Edinburgh by Dr. Fraser, in bundles of long, slender, crooked
stems; he comes to the conclusion that it is new to the West Afri-
can flora, and thinks it may be a new species of strychnos. He
has separated from it a new crystalline alkaloid, which he calls
Akazga, closely resembling strychnia, but differing from it in
being precipitated by alkaline bicarbonates. A suspected wizard
is made to drink an infusion of the bark, and then to walk over
small sticks of the plant; if guilty, he stumbles, and tries to step
over the sticks as if they were logs, finally falling.in convulsions,
when he is beaten to death by clubs; if innocent, the kidneys act
freely, and the poison is supposed to be thus eliminated. Some
twigs of different structure were found in the bundles received by
him, not yielding the alkaloid; and those who escape may, per-
haps, have taken, by accident or design, an infusion of the spuri-

280 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

ous akazga. This much resembles, if it is not the same’ as, the
Boundou poison, used by the natives of the Gaboon for a similar
purpose, the effects of which are described in ‘* Annual of Scien-
tific Discovery ” for 1869, p. 256.

ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF MONSTROSITIES.

The researches of M. Dareste on this subject are referred to, in
the ‘‘ Annual of Scientific Discovery” for 1869, p. 308; further
results obtained are given in ‘‘ Comptes Rendus” for July and
August, 1869. He here states that embryos developed at rela-
tively low temperatures always present organic anomalies, charac-
terized, also, by arrest of development of different kinds. Some-
times, the cicatricula is transformed into a blastoderm, without pro-
ducing an embryo; this remarkable anomaly confirms the recently
expressed opinion of Milne Edwards on the nature of the cicatricula,
which he regards as a jiving being independent of the embryo, and
as oe endo the asexual generations in the cycle of alternate
generations. Spinal fissure is one of the most frequent anomalies,
and is evidently the result of an arrest of development of the
primitive groove. In the very remarkable case of arrest of devel-
opment of the primitive groove, the embryo appears reduced sim-
ply to the cephalic region, the rest of the body being more or less
completely wanting. In these anomalies, the embryo itself is
primitively affected; others result from arrested development of
the amnios, as before observed. Cyclopism is the result, he states,
of the juxtaposition, at a certain period of embryonic life, of the
two orbits, or rather their rudiments, at the anterior end of the
body. If the orbits are not separated by the ulterior development
of the anterior cerebral vesicle, they remain in juxtaposition, and
the eyes are united at the moment of their appearance. Arrest of
development of the head is often accompanied with arrested car-
diac development; the formation of the heart resulting from the
union of two blastemas at first separate; arrest of development
maintains the separation, and thus two distinct hearts are pro-
duced. When the head continues to grow, while the cephalic
hood is arrested, the former is reversed backward, and forms a
hernial protuberance in the upper part of the umbilical opening,
behind the heart. The slowness of development of the blood
globules and vascular area is an obstacle to the formation of the
blood, and tends to produce a dropsical condition, a frequent cause
of anencephaly.

Embryos, thus rendered anomalous by the action of relatively
low temperatures, — 30° to 34° C.,— perish very early, at about
the time of the turning of the embryo upon the yolk, and before
the appearance of the allantois; but if, before this period, the eggs
be submitted to the normal temperature of incubation, — 40° C.,
— development may be considerably increased before death, with
results very interesting to the embryologist. A very remarkable
fact resulting from these experiments is, that embryos submitted
to identical physical conditions present great diversity in their

BIOLOGY. 281

development, — showing that germs, as well as adult beings, are
not identical, either anatomically or physiologically. The one
thing certain is, that arrest of development produces anomaly.
There are other anomalies in the forms of the blastoderm and
vascular area which may be produced with certainty; so that
development may be modified by two kinds of causes, direct and
disturbing. This consideration will tend to throw light upon the
much discussed and still obscure question of the influence of sur-
rounding media on the development of living beings, which may
be effected either by the production of a determined modification,
or simply by a tendency to variation whose results depend on
original differences in the germs.

Temperatures, also, a little above, as well as below, that of
normal incubation, determine the same anomalies in the forming
embryo, all by arrest of development. The partial application of
an impermeable coating, the vertical position of the egg, and any
considerable change in the ordinary process of incubation, produce
a condition of variation characterized by arrest of development.

HUMAN LONGEVITY.

At the 1869 meeting of the British Association, Sir Duncan Gibb
read a paper on ‘‘ An obstacle to European Longevity beyond 70
years.” He had previously drawn attention to the position of the
leaf-shaped cartilage at the back of the tongue, known as the
epiglottis, in 5,000 healthy people of all ages, and in 11 per cent.
it was found to be drooping or pendent, in place of being vertical.
He discovered the fact, that, in all persons above 70, its position
was vertical, without a single exception, — a circumstance of the
highest importance bearing upon the attainment of old age among
Europeans. In a numberof instances, where the age varied from
70 to 95, in all was this cartilage vertical. Many of these he cited
as examples, such as the well-known statesmen, Lord Palmers-
ton, Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Campbell, and Lord Brougham. He
also gave some among old ladies, still alive, at ages from 75 to
92, whose epiglottis was vertical. But the most remarkable was
that of a gentleman, still alive, 102 years of age, in whom it oc-
cupied the same position. He summed up his views in the fol-
lowing conclusions: First, as a rule, persons with a pendent epi-
glottis do not attain a longevity beyond 70; a few may overstep it,
but such examples are exceptional. Second, with pendency of the
epiglottis, life verges to a close at or about 70, and the limit of
old age is reached. Third, a vertical epiglottis, on the other
hand, affords the best chance of reaching the extreme limit of
longevity. Lastly, pendency of the epiglottis is an obstacle to
longevity of 11 per cent. of all ages amongst Europeans.

He stated that a considerable portion of the Jewish race pos-
sesses a physiognomy to which he gave the name of sanguineo-
oleaginous expression, characterized by varying degrees of flushed
face, sleepy aspect, greasy look, guttural or husky voice, and ful-
ness of body. With this expression is usually associated pen-

24*

282 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

dency of the epiglottis. As a rule, longevity is rare among such
persons, for they are liable to those diseases of a congestive char-
acter which influence the heart, brain, and liver. The cause of
all this is eating food, especially flesh, cooked in oil, which tends
to the destructive processes in the system, and induces premature
old age, although the individual may appear to be the personifi-
cation of comparatively good health. The extensive use of oil in
the south of Europe has the same effect in giving rise to con-
gestive diseases and diminished longevity. Pendency of the epi-
glottis, associated with the sanguineo-oleaginous expression, is of
serious import. ‘The persistent use of oil, therefore, as an article
of diet, is pernicious, unless in persons of spare habit of body,
delicate constitution, and liability to disease wherein its employ-
ment would prove useful.

HAY FEVER.

Helmholz says, in ‘‘ Virchow’s Archiv,” that since 1847 he has
been attacked every year, at some time between May 20th and
the end of June, with a catarrh of the upper air-passages. These
attacks increase rapidly in severity; violent sneezing comes on,
with secretion of a thin, very irritating fluid; in a few hours there
is a painful inflammation of the nose, both externally and inter-
nally; then fever, violent headache, and great prostration. This
train of symptoms is sure to followif he is exposed to the sun and
heat, and is equally certain to disappear in a short time if he with-
draws himself from such exposure. At the approach of cold
weather these catarrhs cease. He has otherwise very little ten-
dency to catarrhs or colds.

For five years past, at the season indicated, and only then, he
has regularly succeeded in finding vibrios in his nasal secretions.
They are only discernible with the immersion lens of a very good
Hartnak’s. ‘The single joints, commonly isolated, are character-
ized by containing 4 granules in a row; each two granules being
more closely connected, pairwise, and the combined length equal-
ling 0.004 mm. The joints are also found united in rows, or in
series of branches. As they are seen only in the secretion which
is expelled by a violent sneeze, and not in that which trickles
gradually forth, he concludes that they are probably situated in
the adjoining cavities and recesses of the nose.

On reading Binz’s account of the poisonous effect of quinine
upon infusoria, he determined to try it in his own case. He took
a saturated neutral solution of quinise sulph. in water = 1: 740.
This excites a moderate sensation of burning in the nasal mucous
membrane. Lying upon his back, he dropped 4 centim. of the so-
lution, by a pencil, into each nostril; moving his head meanwhile
in all directions, to bring the fluid thoroughly into contact with
the parts, until he felt it reach the cesophagus. Relief was imme-
diate. He was able, for some hours, freely to expose himself to
the heat of the sun. Three applications a day sufficed to keep
him free from the catarrh, under circumstances the most unfavor-
able. The vibriones, also, were no longer to be found.

BIOLOGY. 283

» The experiment was made in 1867, and was repeated at the first
recurrence of the attack in May, 1868, preventing the further
development of the attack for that year. — Scientific American.

NATURAL SELECTION IN THE CASE OF MAN.

In the ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Science” for January, 1869, is a
review, from which the following are extracts : —

** A writer in a recent number of ‘ Fraser’s Magazine’ endeav-
ors to point out that although there is a struggle for existence of
a more or less intense kind, between different races and nations
of men, yet that between man and man in a civilized condition
there is no such struggle, the weak being protected, and the
feeble inheriting wealth which they have not won. Thus the fit-
test do not survive, contends this writer, and the law of selection
is so far interfered with as to fail, and, indeed, we may expect
degeneracy rather than improvement in civilized men.”

‘“‘The ‘Spectator’ accepts the view propounded by the writer
in ‘Fraser’ in part, but, making use of the mysterious term
‘supernatural selection,’ asserts that a new source of benefit is
opened up to man by the cultivation of his moral nature, which
counterbalances any attendant evils. The error in this view of
the case arises from a neglect of the fact that civilized man is a
social animal, in a truly zodlogical sense. There is no struggle
for existence between the various bees of a hive, nor among the
polyps of a polypidom; the struggle is between hive and hive,
and polypidom and polypidom. So with the communities of civ-
ilized men; the struggle is between one society and another,
whatever may be the bond uniting such society; and in the
far distant future we can see no end to the possible combinations
of societies which may arise amongst men, and by their emula-
tion tend to his development. Moral qualities, amongst the
others thus developed in the individual, necessarily arise in socie-
ties of men, and are naturally selected, being a source of strength
to the community which has them most developed; and there is
no excuse for speaking of a failure of Darwin’s law, or of ‘ super-
natural selection.’ We must remember what Alfred Wallace has
insisted upon most rightly, that in man development does not
affect so much the bodily as the mental characteristics; the brain
in him has become much more sensitive to the operation of se-
lection than the body, and hence is almost its sole subject. At
the same time it is clear that the struggle between man and man
is going on to a much larger extent than the writer in ‘ Fraser’
allowed. The rich fool dissipates his fortune and becomes
poor; the large-brained artisan does frequently rise to wealth and
position ; and it is a well-known law that the poor do not succeed
in rearing so large a contribution to the new generation as do the
richer. Hence we have a perpetual survival of the fittest. In
the most barbarous conditions of mankind, the struggle is almost
entirely between individuals; in proportion as civilization has
increased among men, it is easy to trace the transference of a

284 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

great part of the struggle, little by little, from individuals to tribes,
nations, leagues, guilds, corporations, societies, and other such
combinations; and accompanying this transference has been un-
deniably the development of the moral qualities and of social -
virtues.”

SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS AND NEGROES.

The following are extracts from the Appendix of Prof. Agas-
siz’s *‘ Journey in Brazil”: —

‘*What struck me at first view, in seeing Indians and Negroes
together, was the marked difference in the relative proportions of
the different parts of the body. Like long-armed monkeys the
Negroes are generally slender, with long legs, long arms, and a
comparatively short body, while the Indians are short-legged,
short-armed, and long-bodied, the trunk being also rather heavy
in build. To continue the comparison, I may say that if the
Negro by his bearing recalls the slender, active Hylobates, the
Indian is more like the slow, inactive, stout Orang. Of course
there are exceptions to this rule; short, thick-built Negroes are
occasionally to be seen, as well as tall, Jean Indians; but, so far
as my observation goes, the essential difference between the
Indian and Negro races, taken as a whole, consists in the length
and square build of the trunk and the shortness of limbs in the
Indian, as compared with the lean frame, short trunk, deep-cleft
legs, and Jong arms of the Negro.

‘* Another feature not less striking, though it does not affect
the whole figure so much, is the short neck and great width of the
shoulders in the Indian. This peculiarity is quite as marked in
the female as in the male, so that, when seen from behind, the
Indian woman hasa very masculine air, extending indeed more or
less to her whole bearing ; for even her features have rarely the fem-
inine. delicacy of higher womanhood. In the Negro, on the
contrary, the narrowness of chest and shoulder, characteristic of
woman, is almost as marked in the man; indeed, it may well be
said that, while the Indian female is remarkable for her mascu-
line build, the Negro male is equally so for his feminine aspect.
Nevertheless, the difference between the sexes in the two races is
not equally marked. The female Indian resembles in every -
respect much more the male than is the case with the Negroes;
the females among the latter having generally more delicate
features than the males.

‘* As to the limbs, they are not only much longer in proportion
in the Negro than in the Indian; their form and carriage differ
also. The legs of the Indian are remarkably straight; in the
Negro the knees are bent in, and the hip as weil as knee-joint
habitually flexed. Similar differences in other parts of the body
are visible from behind; in the Indians the interval between the
two shoulders, the shoulder-blades being comparatively short in
themselves, is much greater than in any other race. In this respect
the women do not differ from the men, but share in a feature

BIOLOGY. 285

characteristic of the whole race. This peculiarity is especially
noticeable in a profile view of the figure, in which the broad,
rounded shoulder marks the outline in the upper part of the
trunk, and tapers gradually to a well-shaped arm, terminating
usually in a rather small hand; the little finger is remarkably
short. In the Negro, on the contrary, the shoulder-blades are
long and placed more closely together, the shoulder being rather
slim and narrow, and the hand disproportionately slender, though
the fingers are more extensively webbed than in any other race.
In this respect there is little difference between male and
female, the build of the male being more muscular, but hardly
stouter; in both a profile view shows the back and breast pro-
jected forward and backward of the arm. The proportions
between the length and width of the trunk, as compared with
each other, and measured from the shoulder to the base of the
trunk, hardly differ in the Indian and Negro; this renders the
difference in the relative length and strength of the arms and
legs the more apparent.

‘« Like distinct specits among animals, different races of men,
when crossing, bring forth half-breeds; and the half-breeds
between these different races differ greatly. The hybrid between
the White and Negro, called Mulatto, is too well known to
require further description; his features are handsome, his com-
plexion clear, and his character contiding, but indolent. The
hybrid between the Indian and Negro, known under the name of
Cafuzo, is quite different; his features have nothing of the delica-
cy of the Mulatto; his complexion is dark; his hair long, wiry,
and curly; and his character exhibits a happy combination
between the jolly disposition of the Negro and the energetic
enduring powers of the Indian. The hybrid between White
and Indian, called Mammeluco in Brazil, is pallid, effeminate,
feeble, lazy, and rather obstinate; though it seems as if the
Indian influence had only gone so far as to obliterate the higher
characteristics of the White, without imparting its own energies
to the offspring. It is very remarkable how, in both combina-
tions, with Negroes as well as Whites, the Indian impresses his
mark more deeply upon his progeny than the other races, and
how readily, also, in further crossings, the pure Indian character-
istics are reclaimed, and those of the other races thrown off. I
have known the offspring of a hybrid between Indian and Negro
with a hybrid between Indian and White resume almost com-
pletely the characteristics of the pure Indian.”

THE ESQUIMADUX.

Capt. W.S. Hall, at the last meeting of the British Association,
read a paper ‘‘On the Esquimaux Considered in their Relation-
ship to Man’s Antiquity.” The Esquimaux inhabit regions within
the Arctic Regions, comprising Greenland and the islands to the
west of that continent. Ethnologically considered, they are of the
Mongolian type, and in this respect allied to the Finns and Lap-

286 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

landers, and the races of Central and Eastern Asia. The question
arises, Where and when did this peculiar people originate? That
no originating centre of the human species can have occurred
within the Arctic Circle, as at present constituted, is self-evident.
That the progenitors of the present inhabitants migrated within
any recognizable period of history, from southern and more genial
latitudes, is equally irreconcilable with ordinary reason, even if
their peculiar type did not render such hypothesis untenable.
Against the possibility of Greenland having been peopled from
Lapland or Finland, the evidence is so strong as to amount al-
most to a certainty. In the first place, the North Cape of Europe
is separated from Cape Farewell, in Greenland, by at least 694
degrees of longitude. Again, the prevailing winds in thése lati-
tudes are from the west, or from Greenland to Lapland; and,
lastly, the Gulf Stream, in its north-easterly course, between Ice-
land and the coast of Norway, would naturally carry any frag-
ile craft from the north rather towards Nova Zembla than to
Greenland. He then proceeded to show that a temperate climate
prevailed in the Arctic regions during the miocene era, and proved
this by giving a list of the fossil plants which had been found in
Greenland, and submitted to Prof. Heer. These showed that, at
the time they lived within the Arctic Circle, a warmer climate
characterized that latitude than that now prevailing in Devon-
shire. From this, Capt. Hall deduced the conclusion that the mio-
cene was the epoch when man first made his appearance on the
earth.

Sir John Lubbock said he had no doubt that ultimately man’s
advent on the globe would be traced to the miocene epoch, but he
differed from the author in holding that man was to be found in
his original condition in the Devonshire bone caves, rather than
in the temperate fossil forests of the extreme North. The rein-
deer and the whale had always accompanied pre-historic man,
and he did not see why he should be less happy than in more
temperate regions,

PAUCITY OF ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS IN CANADA.

Sir Duncan Gibb read a paper on this subject at the last meet-
ing of the British Association. Being familiar with the archzxologi-
cal discoveries in Canada, from long residence there, it seemed to
him there must be some reason why monuments of an aboriginal
character were wholly absent or exceedingly scarce. Humboldt
referred to one found in the Western Prairies, but now lost. The
author, in his inquiry, excluded small Indian remains, such as flint
implements, pottery, burying-grounds, etc., also mounds or bar-
rows. It referred to monuments of stone, built either as dwell-
ings or temples, as met with in Central America. There were two
reasons, he said, why such remains were not found in Canada and
other northern nations; the first was the extreme cold and rigor
of such a climate as exists in Canada, with its six months of win-
ter. The ground covered with snow was unfavorable for the pres-

BIOLOGY. 287

ervation of architectural monuments or remains of any kind, unless
carefully looked after as in modern times. For the same reason,
similar remains were scarce in Northern Europe and Asia. Cli-
mate was not only the great drawback to their preservation, but
if any monuments had existed, some centuries of frost would have
completely destroyed them. Secondly, the people who built
the American and Canadian mounds, he believed, were the de-
scendants of the Tartars who crossed into America by Behring’s
Straits, and occupied the whole or greater part of the continent.
He considered them a different race from those who built the mag-
nificent temples of Central and South America, and they were not
builders of stone, unless as met with in some of the mounds. But,
supposing either race to be builders of stone, had any such monu-
ments existed in the colder parts of North America, they would
not have held together for any period of time. Although the cli-
mate varies somewhat in Canada, being milder in the western
part, still no evidence of true aboriginal monuments is to be found.
The climates of Egypt and Central America were peculiarly fa-
vorable for their preservation, and who could say the builders
were not the descendants of the same people? Of rock seulptures
and markings, Canada could boast of few, especially in caverns,
but there was no reason why some day they might not be discoy-
ered, especially in the series of caverns existing between Flam-
borough and Georgian Bay, and also in a similar series of caverns
which the author conjectured would be some day discovered in
rocks of a similar formation in the Island of Anticosti.

MAN IN THE QUATERNARY PERIOD.

In the ‘‘ American Journal of Science ” for July, 1869, are
quoted some paragraphs by Prof. Paul Broca, on human remains
found in the caves of Perigord, which not only furnish satisfactory
proofs of the contemporaneity of man and the mammoth, but re-
veal curious details of the life and manners of these old cave-
dwellers; and give the anatomical characters of the race. The
carved objects in one cave correspond with the reindeer period,
while the human bones found in another belong rather to the
period of the mammoth; ‘‘and though a considerable time must
have elapsed between the two periods, yet there is nothing to
hinder the belief of the gradual passage from one to the other,
without any ethnic revolution, the same race maintaining itself in
the same district uninterruptedly ; so that, if the bones from Cro-
Magnon are not those of the artists of the reindeer period, they
are, at least, those of the ancestors of that people.

‘*The remains of the men of the quaternary period that we
have hitherto been able to study belonged, for the most part, to
individuals of short stature, with a rather small cranium, and a
more or less prognathous face. Hence it has been concluded that
the primitive population of Europe belonged to a Negroid race,
according to some, and according to others to a Mongoloid race,
whose stature did not much exceed that of the modern Laps.

288 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

The facts on which this opinion rests I take as exact; but it rests
also on a preconceived idea, which, for my part, I have long com-
bated, namely, that in quaternary Europe there was only one
race of men. Starting with the ethnogenic theory, that the diver-
sity of the human race is produced by the influence of time and
circumstances, the holders of the aboye-mentioned opinion admit
that the typical differences ought to be less and less as we look
back to past ages; and when the polygenists object that the sepa-
ration of the principal groups of races was already complete in
the earliest historical times, they are told that it was not in those
times, so close to our own, but in the immense and inealculable
preceding periods that the divergencies from the original type
were manifested. Reduced to these terms, the question of the
unity of the human race is adjourned to the time when paleontology
shall have discovered the remains of primitive man, or at least —
relics of the races of the quaternary epoch. The monogenists
suppose that these races, separated from us by thousands of ages
perhaps, and for certain infinitely nearer to original man than the
most ancient of the historic races, ought to present, if not an abso-
lute uniformity, at least a manifest convergence toward the type
of the common mould whenge, they believe, all the races came.

‘*It comes to this, however (and it is usually the case), that
facts begin to contradict a preconceived hypothesis. The quater-
nary race of Dordogne (Cro-Magnon) differs from the quaternary
race of the Belgian caves, as much at least as dissimilar modern
races differ one from another, The contrastis complete, not only
when we look at the conformation and volume of the head, but
also if we look at the form and dimensions of the bones of the
limbs.”

FORMER CONNECTION BETWEEN AUSTRALIA AND ASIA.

In the recently published work of Mr. A. R. Wallace, on the
‘*Malay Archipelago,” the author maintains that the Asiatic con-
tinent at a former period extended much farther eastward, and
Australia farther westward, than at present, and were probably
separated by the strait of Lombok, one of the Timor islands,
dividing the island of this name, supposed to have formed part of
Australia, from Bali, another existing island, believed, with Java
and Sumatra, to have formed a part of the Asiatic continent.
This theory is strongly supported by data from physical geogra-
phy, zodlogy, botany, and ethnology. This Indo-Malayan re-
gion, including the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and
Bali, is surrounded by a shallow sea; another shallow sea sur-
rounds the Papuan region, and a deep one the island of Celebes,
the Timor group, and the Moluceas, forming his Austro-Malayan
region. The Australian fauna extends to Lombok, the Asiatic to
Bali, and in the Timor group the fauna and flora are transition
types; as the latter are separated from each other by a deep sea,
it is naturally inferred that the islands must at some time have
been connected together; without stating that Timor was actually

BIOLOGY. 289

>

united with Australia in recent geological periods, he thinks they
were much nearer than at present. Though Bali is separated
from Lombok by a strait only 15 miles wide, the animals are very
different, those of the former having an Asiatic, and of the latter
an Australian type.

EPIORNIS.

At the time of the discovery of the immense egg of this bird in
Madagascar in 1851, M. I. Geoffroy St. Hilaire placed the bird
near the brevipinnate or ostrich family; but Valenciennes, from
the study of the same specimens, thought it belonged near the
penguins; after him Brianconi maintained that it was a rapacious
bird near the condors, and probably the ‘‘roc” of Marco Polo.
Recently the bones of the lower extremity have been found, the
examination of which confirms the original opinion of St. Hilaire.
The tibia is remarkable for the exceptional enlargement of the
articular extremities; the length being 64 centimetres, the cir-
cumference of the upper end is 45, of the lower 38, and of the
shaft only 153 in its narrowest part. It has no bony bridge over
the groove of the extensor muscle of the toes; this is the case in
the brevipinnates, except Dinornis and Palapteryx; the foot
is much more massive than in D. elephantopus. The size of the
femur isextraordinary, its length, however, being less than one and
one-halftimes that of its lower extremity. Behindand above the con-
dylesis a very deep fossa, in which are the large orifices for the en-
trance of airinto the interior of the bone, not found in Apteryx and
Dinorms, The vertebrz indicate that the body of Epiornis was
much more bulky than that of Dinornis. It resembles Dinornis
more than any other genus, yet is distinct, especially in its mas-
sive form and large feet; its height was less than that of Dinor-
nis, not exceeding that of a large ostrich, or about two metres,
while the Dinornis attained a height of 3 metres; but it was much
more bulky. Beside the /. maximus, others have been found, one
of the size of the cassowary, and another of the size of the large
bustard. There were then in Madagascar seyeral species of large
terrestrial birds, analogous to the Dinornis and its congeners in
New Zealand. — Comptes Rendus, Oct. 11, 1869.

APHANAPTERYX ; AN EXTINCT BIRD OF MAURITIUS.

M. Alph. Milne-Edwards, in ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,” April -12,
1869, describes the bones of this bird, found in the island of Mau-
ritius with the remains of the dodo and the gigantic gallinule. It
is not a gallinaceous bird, nor does it belong to the apteryx
group; it is neither a rail proper, but comes near the genus
Ocydromus, of Australia. The bill was pointed, of dense tissue,
somewhat like that of the gallinule, but more resembling that of
the oyster-catcher, and well suited for breaking the shells and re-
sisting envelopes of the molluscs, on which it probably fed. The

25

290 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

‘feet are strong, and admirably adapted for walking; in going
from the gallinules to the rails, to Zribonyx and Ocydromus, we
come by degrees to the form of foot presented by this fossil. It
is a transition form, one of the rail family adapted for an essen-
tially terrestrial existence. The wings were rudimentary, and
their feathers too little resistant for purposes of flight. The ex-
tinction of this bird must be attributed to man and the animal spe-
cies connected with him. It is interesting to observe that the
Aphanapteryx, living in Mauritius till recently, shows the close
relation between the fauna of these isolated regions and that of
the Australian region, and also its complete separation from the
fauna of the African continent.

NEW FOSSIL REPTILES.

Prof. O. C. Marsh (‘* Amer. Journ. Science,” Nov., 1869) de-
scribes several new Mosasauroid reptiles from the green-sand of
New Jersey, and a new fossil serpent from the tertiary of the
same State. He states that a striking difference between the rep-
tilian fauna of the cretaceous of Europe and America is the preva-
lence in the former of remains of Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus,
which here appear to be entirely wanting ; while the Mosasauroids,
a group comparatively rare in the Old World, replace them in this
country, and are abundantly represented both in genera and spe-
cies. He describes many new forms of this peculiar type of rep-
tilian life, ranging in length from 75 to 25 feet; his genus Halisau-
rus has well marked ophidian affinities. He adds, ‘‘ The earliest
remains of Ophidia both in Europe and this country have been
found in the eocene, and nearly all the species from strata older
than the post-pliocene appear to be more or less related to the
constricting serpents. Remains of this character are not uncom-
mon in European rocks, but in this country two species only, one
founded on a single vertebra, have been described hitherto, and
both of these were discovered in the tertiary green-sand of New
Jersey. An interesting specimen from the same formation, re-
cently presented to the Museumof Yale College, indicates a third
species, much larger than either of the others, in fact superior in
size to any known fossil ophidian, and not surpassed by the largest ~
of modern serpents.” ‘This species, which he calls Dinophis gran-
dis, was probably not less than 30 feet in length, a sea-serpent
allied to the boas of the present era. The paper concludes as fol-
lows: ‘* The occurrence of closely related species of large serpents
in the same geological formation in Europe and America, just
after the total disappearance in each country of Mosasaurus and
its allies, which show such marked ophidian affinities, is a fact of
peculiar interest, in view of the not improbable origin of the
former type; and the intermediate forms, which recent discoveries
have led paleontologists familiar with these groups to confidently
anticipate, will doubtless at no distant day reward explorations in
the proper geological horizon.”

BIOLOGY. | 291

THE EARLY STAGES OF BRACHIOPODS. BY EDWARD S. MORSE.

The writer made a visit to Eastport, Me., early in the summer,
for the purpose of discovering the early stages of a species of
brachiopod (Terebratulina septentrionalis, Couth.) so abundant in
those waters. As little has been known regarding the early stages
of this class of animals, the facts here presented will be of inter-
est, as settling beyond a doubt their intimate relations with the
Polyzoa. Ina few individuals, the ovaries were found partially
filled with eggs. The eggs were kidney-shaped, and resembled
the statoblasts of Fredericeila. No intermediate stages were seen
between the eggs and a form which recalled in general propor-
tions Megerlia or Argiope, in being transversely oval, in having
the hinge-margin wide and straight, and in the jarge foramen.
Between this stage and the next, the shell elongates, until we
have a form remarkably like Lingula, having, like Lingula, a
peduncle longer than the shell, by which it holds fast to the rock.
It suggests, also, in its movements, the nervously acting Pedi-
cellina.

In this and the several succeeding stages, the mouth points
directly backward (forward of authors), or away from the pedun-
cular end, and is surrounded by a few ciliated cirri, which forcibly
recall certain polyzoa. The stomach and intestine form a simple
chamber, alternating in their contractions, and forging the parti-
cles of food from one portion to the other. At this time, also, the
brownish appearance of the walls of the stomach resemble the
hepatic folds of the Polyzoa. In a more advanced stage, a fold
is seen on each side of the stomach; from this fold, the compli-
cated liver of the adult is developed, first, by a few diverticular
appendages.

When the animal is about one-eighth of an inch in length, the
lophophore begins to assume the horseshoe-shaped form of Pecti-
natella, and other high Polyzoa. The mouth at this stage begins
to turn towards the dorsal valve (ventral of authors) ; and, as the
central lobes of the lophophore begin to develop, the lateral arms
are deflected. In these stages an epistome is very marked; and
it was noticed that the end of the intestine was held to the mantle
by attachment, as in the adult, reminding one of the funiculus in
Phylactolemata. No trace of an anus was discovered, though
many specimens were carefully examined under high powers for
this purpose, the intestine of the adult being repeatedly ruptured
under the compressor without showing any evidence of an anal
aperture. — American Naturalist, September, 1869.

PRIMORDIAL FAUNA.

Dr. J. J. Bigsby, in his ‘‘ Thesaurus Siluricus,” remarks, ‘‘ The
primordial stage did not start forth, Pallas-like, at once, in full
maturity. The quantity, variety, and high rank of its fauna shut

292 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

us up from any other conclusion than that it is only part—and
a rich part—of an already established flora and fauna lying
undetected at present.” His tables show that more than half of
the known Silurian species have hitherto been found in only one
locality, giving force to the assertion of Prof. Edward Forbes, that
a large proportion of all known species of fossils are founded on
single specimens. The species thus restricted to a small geograph-
ical area also attain only a small vertical range or duration in
time. As stated by the “ Quarterly Journal of Science” (January,
1869), ‘**The general law of the range of species in space and
time may be broadly and roughly stated as follows: long life and
great range ; short life and restricted range. Now, without at all
doubting the fact that the lives of species, like those of individuals,
may vary in length to a great extent, we think that naturalists
who ** count heads” should satisfy themselves whether a species
which has spread over three-fourths of the globe, and enjoyed an
existence extending through several divisions of the Silurian
period, is precisely equivalent, in Natural History value, to a
species of the same genus which, with scores of others, was both
created and destroyed within the limits of one minor subdivision
of the same period, and which never extended beyond an area of
a few square miles. To put this question in a conerete form, let
us ask whether Orthoceras annulatum is of an equivalent value to
O. intermixtum ?— the former a species ranging from the Caradoe
to the Ludlow rocks inclusive, and from New York, through
Northern Europe and Great Britain, to Bohemia, while the latter
occurs in only one subdivision of the Silurian system, and in but
one small] district in Bohemia.”

His conclusions are: 1. ‘* We already have materials from al-
most all parts of the Silurian scale of rocks to show, with some
force, that life began earlier and more abundantly in the valleys
of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi than in Europe. 2. It would
appear that the Silurian system of rocks is universal in extent, and
that its component parts were laid down at a proximate time, and
in like manner ceased to be laid down, — statements approved by
M. Barrande. 3. It is a very striking fact that the great majority
of the Silurian fauna made their first appearance on the same hori-
zon; that is, everywhere on, proximately, the same stage or subdi-
vision of the epoch. 4. Silurian life was discontinued everywhere »
at the same time, proximately. 5. The upper Silurian fossils,
which people the Prague colonies in fauna D. d., except as they come
from another area, are not recurrents; are not the posterity of
Bohemian molluses. They are the precursors of an identical and
larger coming fauna. Signs are not wanting that they come from
a country where the Silurian epoch was more advanced than in
Bohemia; and they become of great value by indicating local ine-
quality of progress in the act of deposition during this epoch; sug-
gesting, moreover, that any of the Silurian stages may be in
process of formation.about the same time with another, in different
parts of the world.

BIOLOGY. 293

DEEP-SEA DREDGINGS.

At the last meeting of the British Association, a letter was read
from Prof. Wyville Thomson on recent dredging in 2,435 fathoms.

The remarkable extension of knowledge in this direction had
removed the idea which, started by the late Prof. Forbes, had
prevailed till very recently, that marine life did not exist at depths
beyond 300 fathoms. That was a most remarkable illustration of
the necessity for caution in coming to conclusions. If Prof. Forbes
could fall into such an error, how careful needed every one to be in
coming to conclusions! Some interesting results had been ob-
tained by Prof. Percival Wright off the coast of Spain; and H. M.S.
‘Lightning ” had been sent out to dredge in the sea between the
Hebrides and the Faroe Islands; and one result was, to find that
there were two distinct sets of temperature and two sets of fauna
within 50 miles; that difference of temperature was probably
caused by the return of the waters of the Gulf Stream, after being
cooled at the Pole. The investigations of the ‘‘ Lightning” had
only been carried to the depth of 650 fathoms, and found no life
at that depth. Prof. Thomson had, however, dredged in the Bay
of Biscay to the depth of 2,800 fathoms; and the letter gave an
interesting account of the casting of the dredge at such depth.
Above one and one-half ewt. of ooze was the general result of a cast
of the dredge, and the thermometric instruments employed showed
the temperature to be about 36.4; and life was distributed over
the whole area which had been examined before the specimens
were of a dwarfed character, owing, probably, to the low tem-
perature. In the course of the discussion which ensued, Prof.
Huxley said he hoped it would not be at once assumed that natu-
ralists had assumed Prof. Forbes’ inference as to the depth at
which life might be expected to exist. No revolution had taken
place in science on account of the recent dredgings. Men of
science —and even Prof. Forbes himself — were too well aware
of the unsatisfactory nature of the merely negative evidence, of
which they were always distrustful.

He had recently had the opportunity of examining a quantity
of soundings sent him by the Admiralty, which had been dredged
in all parts of the world; and it appeared from these that there
was a gigantic band of life encircling the globe at the bottom of
the sea. It was, too, extremely interesting to reflect that the sea
bottom in which these creatures were found was of the same geo-
logical formation as that which was millions of years old; and the
forms of life found there also resembled those found in the geo-
logical formations, called the cretacean period.

THE AMG@BA.

’ The following extracts on this singular creature are from the »
«¢London Quarterly Review ” : —
‘‘ Perhaps the clearest instance of the uselessness of attempting
25*

294 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

to make the possession of a stomach a distinctive feature of animal
nature is shown by the history of a group of creatures, of which the
well-known and common ameceba may be taken as a type. In
these, there can be no question of definition ; for in no sense what-
ever cin they be said to possess a permanent stomach.

“The amoeba has a just claim to the title of animal, for its
affinities with the foraminifera are clear; and no one would deny
that these creatures, with their exquisitely beautiful shells, are
animals. Yet the ameba has no stomach, — possesses, indeed, no
organs at all, unless we consider its so-called nucleus as one; and
there are closely allied forms in which even this is absent. Con-
ceive of a minute drop of transparent jelly, so small as to be in-
visible without the help of a microscope, — a drop of jelly sprinkled
and studded with a dust of opaque granules, sometimes hiding in
jts midst a more solid rounded body, or kernel, called the nucleus,
and perhaps with the outer rind a little different from the internal
mass. Conceive, further, of this amoeba as of no constant shape,
but, like the Empusa, shiiting, as we look upon it, from one form.
into another. At one moment, it is like a star with straggling,
unequal limbs; at another, club-shaped: now it is a rounded
square; soon it will be the image of an hour-glass. None of
these changes can be referred to currents in the water in which
it lives, or to any other forces acting directly upon it from with-
out. It seems to have within it some inner spring, an inborn
power of flowing, whereby this part of it or that moves in this or
that direction. And not only do its parts thus shift and change
in form, but through their changes the whole body moves from
place to place. As we begin to watch it, for instance, at the
moment when it is in what may be called its rounded phase, a
little protuberance may be seen starting out on one side. Speed-
ily the little knob swells, lengthens, flows into a long process.
The process thickens, faint streams of granules indicating in which
wiy the currents of the unseen molecules are setting. The sub-
stance of the body surges into the process ; and as the latter widens
and grows thick, the former shrinks and grows small. At last the
whole body has flowed into the process; where the body was,
there is now nothing, and where the process reached to, the whole
body now is. The creature has moved, bas flowed from one spot
into another. Here, then, we have movement without muscles,
locomotion without any special organs of locomotion. We have,
also, feeling without nerves or organs of sense; for if a process
such as we have described, while flowing out, meet with any ob-
noxious body, it will shrink back, and stop in its work. And the
whole body, terrified by some potent shock, will often gather
itself up into a ball, As it moves without muscles, so, also, does
it eat without a stomach. Meeting, in its sluggish travels, with
some morsel (and diatoms are its frequent food), it pours itself
over its meal, and, coalescing at all points around it, thus swallows
its food by fluxion. To use a homely illustration, it is much as if
a piece of living mobile dough were to creep around an apple,
and to knead itself together into a continuous envelope, in order to
form an apple-dumpling. Watching the food thus enveloped by

BIOLOGY. 295

the gelatinous substance of the amaeba, we see it grow fainter and
fainter, as its nutritious constituents become dissolved by the cor-
rosive action of the same transparent but chemically active jelly ;
and, when all the goodness has been got out of the meal, the body
of the eater flows away from the indigestible remains, just in the
same way that it flowed around the original morsel.

‘We have in this a creature, then, eating without a stomach,
moving without muscles and without limbs, feeling without
nerves, and, we may add, breathing without lungs, and nutrition
without blood. The ameba is a being of no constant outline, of
no fixed shape, which changes its form according to its moods and
its needs, and turns its outside into its inside whenever it pleases,
which is without organs, without tissues, without unlike parts, a
mere speck of liying matter all alike all over. And yet, in the
midst of this simplicity, it enjoys all the fundamental powers, and
fulfils all the essential duties, of an animal body, and is, more-
over, bound by chains of close-joined links with those complicated
forms of animal life which are provided with special mechanisms
for the most trifling of their wants.

‘**'The dormant capabilities of this organless being are indirectly
and interestingly shown by the shells which, in allied forms, are
built up by the agency of similar homogeneous living matter, and
which are, in many cases, ‘ structures of extraordinary complex-
ity and most singular beauty.’ Prof. Huxley, in his lectures,
most justly says : —

*«* That this particle of jelly is capable of combining physical
forces in such a manner as to give rise to those exquisite and al-
most mathematically arranged structures — being itself structure-
less, and without permanent distinction or separation of parts —
is, to my mind, a fact of the profoundest significance.’ ”

GLYCERINE FOR PRESERVING NATURAL COLORS OF MARINE
ANIMALS.

While collecting on the coast of Maine last summer, I made
numerous experiments with glycerine, most of which were emi-
nently satisfactory. At the present time, I have a large lot of
specimens which have the colors perfectly preserved, and nearly
as brilliant as in life. Among these are many kinds of crustacea,
such as shrimp and prawns, amphipods and entomostraca; also
many species of starfishes, worms, sea-anemones. The starfishes
and crustacea are particularly satisfactory. The internal parts
are as well preserved as the colors; and in these animals the form
is not injured by contraction, as it is apt to be in soft-bodied ani-
mals, either by alcohol or glycerine. The only precaution taken
was to use very heavy glycerine, and to keep up the strength by
transferring the specimens to new as soon as they had given out
water enough to weaken it much, repeating the transfer two or
three times, according to the size or number of specimens, or
until the water was all removed. The old can be used again for
the first bath. In many cases, the specimens, especially crustacea,

296 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

were killed by immersing them for a few minutes in strong alco-
hol, which aids greatly in the extraction of water, but usually
turns the delicate kinds to an opaque, dull white color; but this
opacity disappears when they are putinto glycerine, and the real
colors again appear. Many colors, however, quickly fade or turn
red in alcohol, so that such specimens must be put at once into
glycerine. Green shades usually turn red almost instantly in
alcohol. Specimens of various lepidopterous larvz were also well
preserved in the same manner.

The expense is usually regarded as an objection to the use of
glycerine. The best and strongest can be bought at about one
dollar per pound; but recently I have been able to obtain a very
dense and colorless article at 42 cents per pound, which is entirely
satisfactory. As there is no loss by evaporation, the specimens
will keep, when once well preserved, if merely covered by it.
The expense for small and medium-sized specimens is not much
more than for alcohol. — A. £. Verrill, Yale College.

CHANGE OF COLOR IN AUTUMNAL FOLIAGE.

Mr. Joseph Wharton, in the ‘‘American Journal of Science”
for March, 1869, makes the following observations : —

‘* If chorophyl, the green coloring matter of leaves, should be,
like many other greens, a compound color, it must have for one
of its elements a vegetable blue, capable of being reddened by
acids. If the juices of leaves, kept in a neutral condition by the
vital foree, or by alkaline matter brought in the sap from the
earth, should, when circulation ceases, become acidified by the
atmospheric oxygen, those juices would then be capable of red-
dening the vegetable blue of the chorophyl. If, however, that
vegetable blue should be thus reddened, it ought to become blue
again when exposed to an alkali; or, in other words, if green
leaves should be reddened in the autumn in the manner here sug-
gested, by the unresisted action of the oxidizing atmosphere, they
ought to return from red to green if immersed in an alkaline
atmosphere.”

He exposed upon a staging, under a glass receiver with a cap-
sule containing ammonia, a varicty of autumnal red leaves, and
had the gratification to perceive that in most cases the green color
was restored, —the leaves having a thin and porous cuticle under-
going the change most rapidly and completely, the restored green
color remaining from some minutes to hours.

‘*Frost probably plays no other part in causing the autumnal
tints, than merely to arrest the circulation by killing the leaves,
When a sharp frost occurs early in the fall, while the pulp of the
leaves is still full and plump, the red colors come out brilliantly,
because there is plenty of the blue substance to be acted upon by the
juices, then also abundant. When, on the other hand, the leaves
die slowly and are at the same time slowly dessicated in a late
and dry autumn, the pulp becomes so meagre, and the skin so dry
and hard, that an abundant production of fine red tints is impos-
sible, and brown, the color of decay, predominates.”

BIOLOGY. 297

DIATOMS OR BRITTLEWORTS.

The Diatomacee, or Brittleworts, are unicellular microscopic
plants, so numerous that there is hardly a spot on the face of the
earth, from Spitzbergen to Victoria Land, where they may not be
found. They abound in the ocean, in still running fresh water,
and even on the surface of the bare ground.

They extend in latitude beyond the limits of all other plants,
and can endure extremes of temperature, being able to exist in
thermal springs, and in the pancake ice in the south polar lati-
tudes. Though much too small to be visible to the naked eye, they
occur in such countless myriads as to stain the berg and pancake
ice wherever they are washed by the swell of the sea; and when
enclosed in the congealing surface of the water, they impart to
the brash and the pancake ice a pale ochreous color.

Some species of diatoms are so universal that they are found in
every region of the globe; others are local; but the same species
does not inhabit both fresh and salt water, though some are found
in brackish pools. The ocean teems with them. Though invisi-
ble as individuals to the naked eye, the living masses of the pela-
gic diatoms form colored fringes on larger plants, and cover
stones and rocks in cushion-like tufts; they spread over the sur-
face as delicate velvet, in filamental strata on the sand, or mixed
with the scum of living or decayed vegetable matter, floating on
the surface of the sea; and they exist in immense profusion in the
open ocean as free forms. The numbers in which they exist in all
latitudes, at all seasons, and at all depths, — extending from an
inch to the lowest limit to which the most attenuated ray of light
can penetrate, or at which the pressure permits, — are immeasura-
bly in excess of what we have been in the habit of assuming.
Temperature has little to do with the distribution of diatoms in
the tropics; it decreases with the depth at a tolerably fixed rate,
till it becomes stationary. It increases in the polar regions with
the depth, and approaches the standard, which is probably uni-
versal, near the bed of the ocean.

Diatoms are social plants crowded together in vast multitudes.
Dr. Wallich met with an enormous assemblage of a filamental
species, from 6 to 20 times as long as it is broad, aggregated in
tufted yellow masses, which covered the sea to the depth of some
feet, and extended with little interruption throughout 6 degrees
of longitude in the Indian Ocean. They were mixed with glisten-
ing yellow cylindrical species of such comparatively gigantic size
as to be visible to the naked eye.

Other genera constitute the only vegetation in the high latitudes
of the Antaretic Ocean. Dr. Hooker observes that, without the
universal diffusion of diatoms in the south polar ocean, there
would neither be food for the aquatic animals, nor would the wa-
ter be purified from the carbonic acid which animal respiration
and the decomposition of matter produce. These small plants af-
ford an abundant supply of tood to the herbivorous mollusca and
other inhabitants of the sea, for they have been found in the stom-

298 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

achs of oysters, whelks, crabs, lobsters, scallops, ete. Even the
Noctiluce, those luminous specks that make the wake of a boat
shine like silver in a warm summer night, live on the floating
pelagic diatoms, and countless myriads are devoured by the enor-
mous shoals of Salps, and other social marine animals. — Mrs.
Somerville.

GROWTH OF CEREALS.

At the last meeting of the British Association, Mr. F. F. Hallett
read a paper on ‘*'The Law of Development of Cereals.” His
experience showed him several years ago that corn, and especially
wheat, was injured by being planted too closely. He found a
wheat plant would increase above the ground in proportion as its
roots had room to develop, and that the roots might be hindered
by being in contact with the roots of another plant. He continued
a series of experiments, planting one kernel of wheat only, and
succeeded so well in improving the method of cultivation as to
raise wheat whose ears contained 123 grains, or more than 60 on
each side. In the course of his investigations, Mr. Hallett made
other discoveries with regard to the growth of cereals, which he
sums up as follows: —

**1, Every fully developed plant, whether of wheat, oats, or
barley, presents an ear superior in productive power to any of the
rest on that plant. 2. Every such plant contains one grain which,
upon trial, proves more productive than any other. 3. The best
grain in a given plant is found in its best ear. 4. The superior
vigor of this grain is transmissible in different degress to its prog-
eny. 95. By repeated careful selection the superiority is accumu-
lated. 6. Theimprovement, which is first raised gradually, after a
long series of years is diminished in amount, and eventually so far
arrested that, practically speaking, a limit to improvement in the
desired quality is reached. 7. By still continuing to select, the im-
provement is maintained, and practically a fixed type is the result.”

AMERICAN FOSSIL BOTANY.

M. Lesquereux says the American continent is ‘‘the only part of
the world where questions of general significance concerning palae-
ontological distribution can be studied with some ehances of satis-
factory conclusions.” We quote the following from his report : —

‘The few vegetable remains obtained from the tertiary of Ten-
nessee and of Mississippi, and from the ecretacean formation of
Nebraska and California, have demonstrated facts which science
Was scarcely prepared to admit: —

** First. That the floras of our ancient formations already had
peculiar types, which separated them from each other in the differ-
ent continents. This is even evident in the vegetation of the coal
measures, ‘Therefore, the supposition of a continental union of
Europe with America, by Atlantides, or other intermediate lands,
is proved to be untenable.

BIOLOGY. 299

**Second. That the essential types of the old floras, of the cre-
taceous and tertiary formations, have passed into our present
vegetation, or are preserved to our time. The cretacean of Amer-
ica, for example, has already the magnolias, which we find still
more abundant in our tertiary. This last formation has furnished
a number of species of the genus Magnolia, nearly identical with
that now existing in the United States, while the genus is totally
absent in the corresponding floras of Europe. More than this,
we find in our tertiary the same predominating types marked on
both sides of the Rocky Mountains. On the Atlantic slope, leaves
of magnolias, of oaks, of elms, of maples and poplars, and not a
trace of coniferous trees; while in California and Vancouver's
Island the redwoods or Sequoia abound in the cretacean and ter-
tiary, as now they still form the predominant vegetation of the
country.”

BIOLOGICAL SUMMARY.

Identity of Visual Impressions in the Animal Kingdom. —
According to the experiments of M.Bert, as reported to the
French Academy by Milne Edwards, performed on the Daphnia,
a minute crustacean inhabiting fresh water, al! animals see the
so-called luminous rays of the spectrum for the same range and
with the same relative intensity as man does, and none other. If
we consider the great difference between the structure of the hu-
man eye and that of the single composite unfacetted eye of the
Daphnia, and the distance which separates these zodlogical types,
we are authorized, until the contrary be proved, to assume that
the animals between this crustacean and man, and perhaps those
below the former, see the same rays and with the same relative
intensity.—Comptes Rendus, Aug. 2, 1869.

Transfusion of Blood. —'The chief causes of the discredit into
which this operation has fallen, are the employment of fibrinized
blood, inability to measure the quantity used, and the imperfec-
tion of the instruments. Fibrinized blood coagulates in the tubes
of the apparatus; hence either the transfusion becomes impossi-
ble, or there is danger of introducing clots, which may cause
death, immediate by obstruction of the pulmonary artery, or
delayed if the clots arrive at a more distant part of the circula-
tion. ‘The fibrine is not an essential part of the blood, and may be
removed without inconvenience ; in fact, the process of removing
the fibrine by whipping saturates it with oxygen and frees it from
carbonic acid. If too much blood, or too much at atime, be used,
the heart is overburdened, and paralysis of the organ or danger-
ous congestions may ensue. An apparatus for performing this
operation with success is described in ‘‘ Comptes Rendus” for
October 4, 1869.

Function of the Marrow of the Bones.— According to M. Neumann
(«* Comptes Rendus,” May 10, 1869), this is an important organ in
the formation of the blood, continually developing new red blood-
cells by the transformation of colorless cells resembling the cor-
puscles of the lymph.

300 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

M Goujon has also demonstrated in his prize essay p pte tence
Rendus,” June 14, 1869), by experiments on rabbitsand chickens,
that portions of the marrow inserted among the muscles become
united to the surrounding tissues, and, like the periosteum, pos-
sess the property of reproducing bony matter. This tissue
plays an important part also in the formation of callus.

The Ovarian Egg.—In 1864 M. Balbiani showed that the ova-
rian egg contains, beside the vesicle of Purkinje, a second vesicle,
which also concurs in the formation of the embryo. M. Gerbe,
in a prize essay for 1868, has demonstrated that, in the primitive
ovule of the Sacculina, an animal parasite on marine crustaceans,
both these vesicles coexist before any other element is developed
in it. In following the evolution to complete development he
found that one of the vesicles became gradually surrounded by
molecular granulations destined to form a cicatricula analogous
to that of the egg of most ovipara, while the other was surround-
ed by materials for the nourishment of the embryo, or the ele-
ments analogous to the yolk. This discovery proves that the ves-
icle pointed out by Purkinje in birds, in 1825, is really, in the egg
of such species as have a cicatricula, the centre of its formation,
that is, of the germ. Science thus, by direct observation, ascends
even to the sources of life. — Comptes Rendus, June 14, 1869.

Inoculability of Tubercle.— The experiments of M. Villemin
show conclusively that tuberculosis may be produced in certain
animals by the insertion under the skin of tuberculous
matter from man or any infected animal; a similar effect fol-
lows the introduction beneath the skin of the sputa in this dis-
ease; and recently it has been shown that the dried and pow-
dered sputa mixed with food will introduce the tubercle through
the intestines, and consequently produce a general tuberculosis.
From the fact of inoculation follows that of its specific virulence,
and from the latter its contagiousness; inoculable from man to
animals, it is doubtless so from man to man. The particular
conditions of cohabitation which will render this disease trans-
missible form an important subject for future investigation. —
Comptes Rendus, June 14, 1869.

Cholesterine. — According to the researches of Dr. Austin Flint,
cholesterine is an excrementitious product, formed in great part
from the brain and nerves, absorbed by the blood, separated from
it by the liver, entering into the composition of the bile, to which
it gives its excrementitious character, poured with the bile into
the small intestine, where the act of digestion changes it into
stercorine or seroline of Boudet, Qnder which form it is evacuated
with the fseces. Its retention in the blood constitutes a grave dis-
ease, called by him ‘‘cholesteremia,” in which this substance acts
like a poison, bringing on coma and death, as in uremic poison-
ing. It is a disease wholly distinct from jaundice, though the
two may coexist. — Comptes Rendus, June, 1869.

Poison of Batrachiqans. — A tree-frog of New Granada, Phyl-
lobates melanorhinus? or the roja, of a reddish color, shaded with
Naples yellow, and sometimes black underneath, secretes a poison
from the dorsal region, of the greatest activity when collected at

BICLOGY. 301

the time of secretion by the living animal. Under the influence of
acute pain the upper portion of the body becomes covered with
a white, milky, viscid liquid; this is the poison, in which the na-
tives quickly dip the ends of their arrows. ‘The poison is suffi-
cient to kill animals as large asthe jaguar, and alsoman. [xperi-
ments on animals show that, as in curare, the poison acts upon
the organs of motion, and not on those of sensation. — Comptes
Rendus, June, 1869.

Influence of Trades on Cholera. — Extensive statistical researches
have shown that among 37,000 workmen in copper, there were
only 29 cases of cholera, or one in 1,270; among 28,000 workers
on iron and steel, 202 cases, or one in 209 : among 7,500 work-
men on other netals, 42 cases, or one in 278. — Comptes Rendus,
Sept. 27, 1869.

Fibrine. — MM. Béchamp and Estor announced to the French
Academy, in February, 1869, that numerous experiments had led
them to the conclusion that what is called the fibrine of the blood
is only a false membrane formed by the microzymas or molecular
granulations of the blood, associated by a substance which they
secrete with the aid of the albuminoid elements of this fluid. —
Comptes Rendus, Sept. 20, 1869.

Occasional Cause of Sudden Death.— According to M. Bert,
(‘* Comptes Rendus,” Aug. 23, 1869), violent excitationof the pneu-
mogastric nerve, and its laryngeal branches, may cause sudden
death, without convulsions; respiration and the general move-
ments of the body are immediately arrested, and the animal dies
as if killed by lightning. He thus caused death in mammals and
birds, especially in ducks; the latter is an important fact, as the
suddenness of the death proves that it is not due to asphyxia,
these animals resisting asphyxia from 8 to 15 minutes. The death
is doubtless due to the immediate cessation of action, from too
great peripheral excitation of the respiratory tract of the medulla,
often called the ‘* vital knot” (neud vital). However it be ex-
plained, certain cases of sudden death after violent excitation of
the larynx (as ammoniacal cauterization, small foreign bodies,
ete.), and after certain attacks of so-called angina pectoris, may
perhaps be thus accounted for.

Origin of Bacteriums. — According toM. Béchamp, these organ-
isms may develop themselves and remain equally well in an acid,
alkaline, or neutral menstruum. The normal microzymas of
plants and of animals may develop into bacteriums ; and many
forms of both may exist in the same plant. The inoculation of
the bacterium in a plant or animal causes their increased number,
not by multiplication, but by so modifying the medium that the
normal microzymas more readily develop themselves into bac-
teriums. Many of the phenomena of spontaneous generation are
explained by these mojlecular granulations. Their natural and
universal presence has been alluded to in ** Annual of Scientific
Discovery ” for 1869, pp. 804-306, and for 1868, p. 269.

Singing Mice. —It is stated that the singing or whistling in these
rodents is always accompanied by the presence of a parasite,
Cysticercus fasciolaris, in the liver, and the sounds may be the re-

26

302 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

sult of spasmodic breathing caused by its presence. The mar-
mot, another rodent, has been known to produce similar musical
sounds.

Organ of Hearing in Molluscs. —In a communication to the
French Academy, M. Lacaze Duthiers has shown that the nerve
to the otolithic sac of molluscs is not derived from the pedal
ganglion, but from the supra-cesophageal or brain ganglion, from
which all the organs of sense in this branch of the animal kingdom
are derived.

Section of Pheumo-gastric nerves vs. Respiration. — It has been
generally admitted by physiologists that, after section of this
nerve, the amount of carbonic acid exhaled is unaffected. Drs.
Voit and Raber, of Munich, from recent experiments, find that
this is true only for a few hours after the section; afterward, when
the tissue of the lungs has begun to undergo a change, the quan-
tity of carbonic acid diminishes rapidly, while that of oxygen is
increased.

Composition of the Milk of Different Animals. — 1,000 parts con-» -
tain : —

Cheesey Mineral
Water. Butter. Matter. Sugar. Matter.

Woman. . - 889.08 26.66 39.30 43.68 1.30

Cow . «6 « : « 864.20 31.30 48.80 47.70 6.00
* Goat... - « + 844.90 66.87 35.14 36.91 6.18
Ewe . » ¢ 832.32 51.37 69.78 39.43 7.16

Mare. . . . . 904.30 24.36 33.35 32.76 5.23
Ag. bef g90c1d: © 18:53" 17.35.65 | bade. st? Brae
Sow. . es . 818.00 60.00 53.00 60.70 8.30

Proportions of solids and water in different kinds of milk: —

Woman. Cow. Goat. Ewe. Mare. Ass. Sow.
Water . . 889.08 864.20 844.90 832.32 904.30 890.12 818.00
oh ee aap: Sy Gp 135.80 155.10 167.68 95.70 109.88 182.00

1,000.00 1,000.00 1,000.00 1,000.00 1,000.00 1,000.00 1,000.00

Pig’s milk is extremely rich, containing, as it does, nearly 50
per cent. more nutritive matter than is found in that of the cow.
It is not unlikely that in certain forms of disease where a milk
diet is prescribed the use of so concentrated a liquid food might
prove serviceable. — Chemical News.

Simple Method of Ascertaining Death. —Dr. Carriere, of St.
Jean du Gard, in reply to an offer of a premium of twenty thou-
sand franes for a practical method of determining death, fur-
nished the following, which he says he has practised for forty
years: Place the hand, with the fingers closely pressed one
against the other, close to a lighted lamp or candle; if alive, the
tissues will be observed to be of a transparent, rosy hue, and the
capillary circulation in full play; if, on the contrary, the hand of
a dead person be placed in the same relation to light, none of the
phenomena are observed— we see a hand as of marble, without
circulation, without life. — Jour. de Med. et de Chirurg.

Pepsin. — The strongest pepsin is obtained from young healthy

BIOLOGY. 303

pigs, which are kept hungry and then excited by savory food;

while the influence of it is strong upon them, and the secretions

are pouring out in expectation of the meal, the animals are
ithed. :

5 Pepsin, like diastase, is rendered inert by a temperature of
from 120 to 130° F.; and, therefore, very hot drinks are hurtful.
— Chemical News.

Crime vs. Cranial Capacity. — Dr. Wilson, at the last meeting
of the British Association, read a paper ‘‘ On the Moral Imbecility
of Habitual Criminals, Exemplitied by Cranial Measurements.”
His theory was that habitual criminals did not possess such an
amount of intellect as to enable them to discriminate between
right and wrong, and that the majority of them were devoid of
moral sense. The habitual criminal was of a low type of intel-
lectual development, and some of them were unable to surmount
the rudimentary difficulties of education. The measurements
submitted by Dr. Wilson were from 464 separate measurements,
and all showed a cranial deficiency, especially in the anterior lobes
of the brain. He recommended the adoption of a system of treat-
ment of criminals similar to that in practice in Ireland, —a system
of punishment more reformatory than punitive.

Pulsations of Man rendered Audible and Visible. — At the 1869
meeting of the ‘‘ American Association for the Advancement of
Science,” Dr. J. B. Upham, after explaining the improvements in
the diagnosis of aneurisms which the case of malformation in Dr.
Groux had suggested, proceeded, with the aid of the telegraph
and magnesium light, to render audible and visible at Salem the
pulsations of patients in the City Hospital in Boston, — Mr. Farmer
having charge of the telegraph instruments in the lecture-room,
Mr. Stearns at the City Hospital, and the internes of the hospital
taking the medical direction. The Franklin Telegraph Company
placed their entire line between Salem and New York at the disposal
of the Association, and every pulse-click of the magnet was heard
simuitaneously at every station on the entire line. A full report
of these interesting and novel experiments will be published in
the ‘* Proceedings” of the Association.

The Natives of Vancouver's Island. —The natives are called
Flat Heads, of which there are 4 varieties; the elongated head
from before backward, the conical head, the square head, and the
elongated head from side to side. These artificial heads are pro-
duced by pressure on the. forehead, and bandaging on the sides
(the elongated head from side to side excepted), until the child is
a year old. It does not affect the intellect. 1t is mere displace-
ment of brain. .

The native population of Vancouver's Island is estimated by
Dr. King at 18,000, but, as in all cases of estimates of the uncivil-
ized races, wandering as they do, this estimate cannot be relied
upon. By far the most numerous and powerful tribes live on the
west coast or on the outward seaboard of the island, and the white
man is respected by them. The natives gencrally are in a very
degraded state ; occasionally industrious, trustworthy individuals
are to be met with, but, as a body, continuous labor cannot be

504 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

depended on. They live entirely on fish, and on a small esculent
plant, called camass, which they collect and store up for winter,
as we do potatoes, and they cook them, as we do, by boiling and
baking. ‘The camass digging is a great season of réunion for the
women of the various tribes, and answers to our haymaking or
harvest home.

Westerly Drifting of the Nomades from the 5th to the 19th Century.
— According to Mr. H. H. Howarth, the Circassians of modern writ-
ers are identified with the White Khazars of the Byzantine and Ara-
bian writers, from the evidence oftradition, language, and historical
notices, and also with the White Huns of Priseus. This fills the
area north of the Caspian and the Oral with a race of Ugrian
iffinities, and very high culture; remarkable, too, for being the
last nation added to the list of Jewish proselytes. The Turks, in
the 8th century, contrary to the opinion of Dr. Latham and others,
were confined to the countries east of the Altai Mountains; the
previous invaders of Europe, Avares, Huns, etc., having all be-
longed to the great Ugrian family of races.

Megalithic Monuments. — Mr. A. L. Lewis read a paper on this
subject before the British Association. He said there exists a
practically unbroken chain of megalithic (Druidic) monuments ex-
tending from Indiato Great Britain. Who were their builders? Cir-
cumstances— namely, such an identity of plan as could not be
accidental, extending through an unbroken chain of communica-
tion, and the existence of common practices and superstitions, and
other traces of affinity throughout that chain — lead to the conclu-
sion that there must at least have been a great common influence
at work throughout this area, though possibly not an absolute
community of race. Judging from the probable social condition
of the builders of these monuments, the localities in which they
are principally found, the remains found with them, and other cir-
cumstances, they were probably constructed under Celtic influ-
ences, at leastin Europe and Africa. The consideration of a num-
ber of facts induces the belief that the single upright stones were
used as memorial pillars, the circles and alignments primarily as
places of sacrifice, and the dolmens or table stones, of which there
are two well-marked varieties, as places of sepulture on the one
hand, and places of sacrifice or memorial on the other hand.

Fossil Asiatic Elephant. —In the ‘* Proceedings of the Geologi-
cal Society ” (Oct., 1868), Dr. Adams announces the discovery of
the Asiatic elephant in a fossil state, from the examination of a
tooth found in Japan, 40 miles from the sea, and at the base of a
surface coal bed. Mr. Busk, from the examination of a plaster
cast of the specimen, considers it the antepenultimate upper left
molar of what, if found in the recent condition, he should unhesi-
tatingly refer to Hlephas Indicus. The differences, which are
unimportant, are the considerable curvature, greater size, and
somewhat greater proportionate width, and greater thickness of
the plates.

Development in Vertebrates. —In a recently published work, Dr.
Wilhelm His, of Basel, specially insists on the presence of two
germinal elements,— the principal or primary, and the subordi-

BIOLOGY. 305

nate or secondary germ. From the first are developed the most
essential tissues, as the nervous, muscular, and epithelial; from
the second the skeletal and nutrient structures, as cartilage,
boue, connective tissues, and the vascular system. The develop-
ment of these two portions may be distinguished in the early
embryo, but afterwards they grow into each other, producing a
complex interlacement of parts. The development of the second-
ary germ is very much affected by mechanical conditions. The
perivascular lymph-spaces of the brain, discovered by him, are
shown to arise from the intrusion of blood-vessels formed by the
secondary germ into spaces excavated in the primary germ.

The Glass-rope Sponge. — Prof. Loven is doubtless right in sup-
posing, from the study of a sponge which he called Hyalonema
boreale (but which does not belong in this genus), that the long
tuft of glassy fibres constituting the so-called axis is the pedicle
by which it is fixed in the sea-bottom, and that the sponge grows
on the top of this. This is confirmed by Profs. Wright and
Thompson, and Dr. Carpenter. Dr. Wright thinks Max Schultze
correct as to the parasitic nature of the coral which sometimes
encrusts the axis of Hyalonema, which is a true sponge. Dr.
Gray, however, retains his opinion that the axis is the work of the
coral, and that the sponge on the end of it is parasitic. — Quart.
Journal of Science, Jan., 1869.

Singular Mode of Reproduction in a Fish. —The species observed
was from China. When the season for laying the eggs arrives,
the male projects from the mouth little globules of air, which rise
to the surface, but do not burst, probably consolidated by mucus
as they come out. In this way he forms upon the water a roof of
froth, often a centimetre thick ; this is the receptacle for the eggs,
in which the hatching is completed. Then the sexes come together,
the male forming a complete ring in which the female is pressed,—
an approach to the sexual congress of the higher animals, The eggs
are fecundated as they leave the female, and the male collects the
scattered masses and arranges them in proper thickness under
the roof of foam; he watches them, taking no food, from 62 to
65 hours, when the young appear; he keeps these within the
protecting roof until they can provide for themselves, bringing
back any wanderers in his mouth.— Comptes Rendus, Aug. 16,
1869.

Extinct Reptiles. —From the investigations of Mr. E. D. Cope
(‘* Trans. of Amer. Phil. Society,” Aug., 1869), it is stated, 1.
That the Dinosauria present a graduated series of approxima-
tions to the birds, and possess some peculiarities in common with
that class, standing between it and the Crocodilia; 2. That ser-
pents exist in the eocene formations of this country; 3. That the
Chelydra type was greatly developed during the American creta~
ceous, and that all the supposed marine turtles described from it
are really of the first-named group; and, 4. That the reptiles of the
American triassic are of the Belodon type.

Reproduction by Larval Batrachians. — According to M. Jullien,
‘*Comptes Rendus,” April 19, 1869, the Lissotriton punctatus may
reproduce its species while in the tadpole state. He found in the

26 *

S06 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

month of April, near Paris, several specimens, of both sexes, in
which the generative apparatus was perfectly developed, while
the head, branchiz, limbs, tail, and all the rest of the body showed
the development only of the tadpole state.

Stratification of Guano.— Guano has been considered as a sim-
ple accumulation of the excrements of birds; but M. Habel, as
stated in an abstract of a seven years’ journey in tropical America,
published in the ‘* Comptes Rendus,” for July 26, 1869, found this
substance at the Chincha Islands regularly stratified, like all the
sedimentary rocks, with layers of different colors, inclination, and
extent. Some layers, for instance, in a part of one of the islands
he found with an inclination of 5 degrees, and in another part of
the same island of 15 degrees. In one part of the southern island
he saw layers running from N. to S., with an inclination of 4 de-
grees, covered by others from S.W. to N.E., with an inclination
of 20 degrees. It is very evident that there have been two epochs
in the formation of guano; the lower, older, and more extensive
mass is stratified, while the upper, more recent, and thinner, is
without stratification. Below the guano, there are layers of sand
more or less mingled with guano; and in some places it is easy
to see that the lower layers contain much less guano than the up-
per. He found bones of birds, not only in the different layers of
guano, but in the underlying sand and sandstone. This would
seem to indicate that geological causes were concerned in the
deposition or subsequent condition of guano.

Fishes with External Gills. —M. Steindachner, of Vienna, has
described a new species of Polypterus from Senegal, P. Lapradei,
which, as well as P. Sengealus, has external branchiz in the young.
In the new species they existed in individuals about 19 inches
long, as a long flattened band, fringed on the edge, on each side,
behind the operculum, and extending beyond the posterior bor-
der of the pectoral fin, very like the external branchize of the
batrachian axolotl, but single instead of triple. In the other spe-
cies, this transition organ disappears earlier, when the fish is about
4 inches long. It would be interesting to know if the species of
the Nile has a similar apparatus when young. The sharks, rays,
and African Protopterus anguilliformis are not, therefore, the only
fishes provided with external branchiz. Prof. Hyrtl has shown
that these organs in the above new ganoid fish perform the func-
tion of respiration. — Comptes Rendus, Oct. 18, 1869.

Vitality of the Sponge. — According to the experiments of M.
Vaillant on the Zethya lyncurium (Lam.), a sponge common on
the coast of Brittany, the cortical substance, when isolated, will
reproduce the medullary substance, and vice versa. The vitality
of the cortical substance is, however, greater than that of the
medullary ; it can reproduce the prolongations by which the sponge
is attached, and serves to protect the softer interior. Ditferent
individuals of this species may be united by grafting, after a suf-
ficient time; but hitherto this union has not been effected with
individuals of another genus. — Gomptes Rendus, January, 1869.

Tusks of the Mammoth. — According tu Mr. Woodward, all the

BIOLOGY. 307

tusks of Elephas primigenius have, in old individuals, a tendency to
curve inward at their extremities.

Bottom of the Sea. — The precise nature of the mud which is
formed at the bottom of the sea has been only recently determined.
It consists largely of organic matter, more or less decomposed,
interspersed with minute round bodies, about sixteen one-hun-
dredths of an inch in diameter. These bodies have been ealled
coccospheres and coccolites, and are so set in the mud as to re-
semble mosaic work. Some of these look, under the microscope,
like thick watch-glasses. Immense numbers of minute shells are
also found. The mud is excessively sticky, being rendered so by
minute pellets of a jelly-like consistence. These pellets are dotted
all over their surfaces, and are found to contain great numbers of
granules, from one four-thousandth to one twenty-thousandth of
an inch in diameter, which are undoubtedly organic in their char-
acter, forming one of the representatives of the common ground
between plants and animals, about which there has been so much
dispute among naturalists.

Preserving Insects. — Dr. 8. P. Knox, of Brownsville, Pa., writes
to the *‘ American Naturalist,” that, after killing his insect with
chloroform, he paints it with a solution of carbolic acid in alcohol
— 4 grains to the ounce, — and then dries it in the sun. It keeps
fresh and beautiful. In stuffing animals, he uses cotton soaked
in the same solution. He does not even think it necessary to skin
them, as formerly, but simply removes the contents of the thorax
and abdomen. ,

Velocity of Insects’ Wings during Flight. — According to E. J.
Marey, in ‘‘Comptes Rendus,” the numbers per second are as
follows: in common fly, 330; drone, 240; bee, 190; wasp, 110;
hawk-moth, 72; dragon-fly, 28; cabbage butterfly, 9. He obtains
these figures by a very simple and ingenious method, which he
fully describes.

Primordial Flora. — The discovery of eozoén in the Laurentian
rocks of Canada was of great interest. One of the most impor-
tant discoveries recently made in palzeontological science is analo-
gous withit. Itis the detection of what appears to be the remains of
a terrestrial flora in certain Swedish rocks of lower Cambrian age,
— the supposed equivalents of our Longmynd rocks. A peculiar
interest attaches to this discovery, inasmuch as it carries back the
appearance of terrestrial vegetation upon the earth’s surface
through a vast interval of time, no Jand plants having previously
been known older than the upper Ludlow beds. The Swedish
fossils now discovered appear to be the stems and long parallel-
veined leaves of monocotyledonous plants, somewhat aliied to the
grasses and rushes of the present day. These plants apparently
grew on the margin of shallow waters, and were buried in sand
and silt. Although it is probable that several species, and even
genera, may occur in the sand-stone blocks which. have been ex-
wnined, they are provisionally included in a single species, to
which the name of Hophyton Linneaum has been given. Eophy-
ton, therefore, stands by the side of eozodn,—the one being, in
the present state of our knowledge, the earliest land plant, as the

308 _ ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

other is the earliest animal organism. — Quart. Journ. of Science,
Jan., 1869.

Fertilization of Flowers by Insects. — According to Mr. T. H.
Farrer (‘* Annals of Natural History,” October, 1868), the parts
of the flower of the searlet-runner are so arranged that a bee,
alighting on it in search of honey, of necessity shakes any pollen
off his proboscis on to the stigma; while, at the same time, his
proboscis, as he withdraws it, is covered with the pollen of this
flower, and is thus prepared to fertilize another. In Lobelia, the
parts are so arranged that the pollen is ejected, in small quantities
ata time, on the exact spot of the back of the visiting bee on
which it should be placed to be carried to the stigma of another
flower, — the stigma being so arranged that, at the next flower
visted by the bee, it sweeps off the previously acquired pollen.

Evaporation by Plants. —In a memoir presented to the French
Academy by M. Deherain, experiments are given with the view
of proving that the evaporation of water by the leaves of plants
takes place under conditions entirely different from those which
regulate the evaporation of an inert body, as it occurs in a satu-
rated atmosphere ; that it is especially effected by light; and that
the luminous rays efficacious in causing the decomposition of car-
bonie acid by the leaves are also those which favor evaporation.
The yellow and red rays, which have little action on photo-
graphic paper, act with most intensity in causing’ the reduction of
carbonic acid, while the blue and green rays decompose the chlo-
ride of silver, and have no action on the leaves. These experi-
ments confirm the old observation of Guettard, that the hard and
smooth upper part of the leaves evaporates the most water;
Boussingault has shown that the greatest amount of carbonic acid
is decomposed by the same portion. It is interesting to observe
these intimate relations between the two capital functions of
leaves, the decomposition of carbonic acid and evaporation.—
Comptes Rendus, Aug. 9, 1869.

Organisms in Hot Springs. — Mr. A. M. Edwards has recently
drawn attention to the occurrence of diatomaces, with the hairs
of insects, in some fine sandy deposit obtained from a geyser.
Dr. L. Lindsay enumerates 7 genera of conferve and diatoma-
cex from the geysers of Iceland, and observes that the abundance
of diatoms in the thermal waters of Europe warrants the expec-
tation of large additions to the Icelandic flora from this source.
Dr. Cohn has described oscillatorix from hot springs containing
sulphates, and ascribes the elimination of sulphuretted hydrogen
to the action of these organisms. Mr. Edwards suggests the im-
portance of an examination of the hot sulphureous springs of Cali-
fornia for these organisms and for diatoms; it would be very in-
teresting to ascertain by comparison of specimens from sulphureous
and neighboring fresh-water springs what modifying effect the
thermal conditions have had on the form of the various species;
in this Way we may hope to arrive at a knowledge of the exact
relations of living forms to the conditions of their existence.
— Quart. Journ. of Science.

Reproduction of Diatoms.—In the ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of

BIOLOGY. 809

Microscopical Science” (for Oct. 1868), Count Castracane express-
es the belief that these organisms reproduce by means of germs.
He describes what he considered as zodspores, having cilia and
containing diatoms. The young germs do not present the brown
endochrome, but are of a bluish-green color.

Diatoms. —Mr. H. L. Smith has given a further proof of the
vegetable nature of diatoms by the application of the spectro-
scope. The results of more than 50 comparisons of spectra prove
the absolute identity of chlorophyl on the green endochrome of
plants -with diatomin, or the olive yellow endochrome of the
diatomacese. — Amer. Journ. of Science, July, 1869.

Reproductive organs of Lichens. — According to recent investi-
gations of Famitzin and Boranetsky, not only alge and fungi, but
also lichens, are provided with zodspores. As these bodies have
been found in very different genera of lichens, taken at random,
it is probable that they exist in all lichens furnished with chloro-
phyll. The identity of free gonidia with unicellular alge they
consider as demonstrated ; and many described genera of the lat-
ter are in reality only the gonidia of lichens in a state of devel-
opment when separated from the thalli which produced them.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.

THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE MATTOON EXPEDITION ON THE
GREAT ECLIPSE OF 1869. COMMUNICATED FROM THE DUDLEY
OBSERVATORY, AT ALBANY.

THE night preceding the day of the eclipse was one of unusual
anxiety to the observ ers, from the fact that about 6 o’clock it be-
gan to rain, and continued almost without intermission until 11
P.M. In order to learn the worst, we went to the telegraph offices
and asked for weather reports from west and east. At nearly all
the stations from which reports had been received, extending
from Omaha to Cincinnati, it was rainy or cloudy. These reports
led us to expect a storm extending over a large area of territory.
And it”was presumed that it would be a day or two in passing
over. But fortunately our prognostics were in error, for at 11
o'clock P.M. the rain ceased, and stars began to make their ap-
pearance. The morning of the 7th was perfectly clear, with not
a cloud to be seen, and it so continued during the whole day and
subsequent night. It was one of those rare days but seldom seen
in this climate ; the atmospheric disturbance being at a minimum.

One hour before the beginning of the eclipse, observations
were made on the solar spots, and their position and magnitude
mapped on a diagram prepared for the purpose. As the time
drew near for the first contact of the moon’s limb, each observer
examined carefully the region where the moon was expected, to
see whether it would be visible before contact with the solar disc.
The closest scrutiny of five observers failed to discover it.

At. 10 seconds before the true contact of the limbs, a lunar
mountain, distant 8 or 10 degrees north of the contact-point,
plunged into the solar disé, and was recorded on the chronograph.
The true contact of the limbs was well observed by all, and at
nearly the same instant. ‘The moon’s limb, instead of appearing
round, as it should, was nearly flat and a little notched, showing
& mountainous region. As the eclipse advanced, observations
were made by means of the micrometer and chronograph for
measuring the relative position of the two bodies. When the sun
was about one half eclipsed, a red band of light was seen sur-
rounding the limb of the moon over the solar dise. Later, during
the progress of the phenomenon, tails of light were seen project
ing out tangent to the moon’s limb, and extending 15 or 20 de-
grees along the edge.

As the crescent of solar light grew less and less, every eye was
intently watching for an unusual appearance. Nearly a minute

310

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. Sit

before totality, we saw with wonder a red flame suddenly shoot
out from the upper edge of the moon, and shortly after the re-
markable and beautiful phenomenon of Bailly’s beads. The slen-
der crescent of light was suddenly broken up into numerous
globules, resembling drops of water flowing together, or a string
of beads. One observer compared it to a chain of sausages of
unequal lengths.

This peculiar breaking up of the solar crescent was noticed by
Bailly in 1836. But during subsequent eclipses it has not gener-
ally been seen. This fact has led some of the ablest astronomers
to doubt its reality, believing it to be an optical illusion.

At Mattoon, the appearance was distinctly seen by all the ob-
servers, and its duration recorded on the chronograph by Mr.
Swift and myself. That the phenomenon is real we have no
doubt. It is well known that the limb of the moon is exceedingly
rough and jagged, with mountains projecting to a great height.
Now it is reasonable to suppose that when this mountainous limb
of the moon cuts off the slender erescent of light it must be more
or less broken up into sections, depending on the irregularities
of the surface and the position of the observer. We are more
strengthened in this opinion, since previous to the first contact
Mr. Swift saw 5 mountain peaks on the moon, and he reported
the beads the most conspicuous in the region towards this part of
the lunar disc.

The duration of Bailly’s beads was accurately recorded on the
chronograph by Mr. Swift and myself, and found to be 53 seconds.
This is the first exact record ever made of the duration of the
phenomenon.

As the light grew less and less, suddenly the sun seemed to pass
under the black disc of the moon, producing a feeling of chilli-
ness. Now was seen in all its splendor the large red protuber-
ance sitting on the edge of the moon, and appearing very much
like a great ship under full sail. Farther to the left was another,
nearly as large, with two bent rays, somewhat resembling the
antlers of a deer. Five others, not quite as large, were seen on
different parts of the disc, all of a deep-red color.

After looking with astonishment for a few seconds, we pro-
ceeded to measure with the micrometer the height and position of
the largest flame. But just at the critical moment, fortunately or
unfortunately, one of the hand-rods for moving the telescope came
off, and it was necessary to remove the eye from the tube to fix it.
On looking up one of the grandest spectacles metthe eye of whigh®
it is possible to conceive. Surrounding the dark body of the moon
was a crown of light with rays shooting out in 5 great sheaths,
to a distance equal to the sun’s diameter, or nearly a million.ef
miles. For a time everything else was forgotten, and we gazed
for 8 or 10 seconds with astonishment, akin to awe, at this*mag-
nificent spectacle. No painting can represent it, and no pen can
describe it. It is one of those sights which must be seen to be ap-
preciated. But we soon realized that precious moments were
slipping away. The telescope was again brought in position, and

bong

312 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the height of the large protuberance measured, and found to be
Q 2! 45", or more than 70,000 miles, 150,000 at the base.

While still gazing, a ray of light suddenly flashed out, and the
total eclipse otf Aug. 7th was over.

The duration of totality, according to the chronograph records,
was 2 minutes and 42 seconds. The large protuberance, how-
ever, remained visible for 5 minutes and 5 seconds after the sun
had appeared, or, as Mr. Swift reports, until it was apparently
lifted up by the advancing crescent of solar light.

Previous to the beginning of the eclipse, we set up a number
of light wooden rods, indicating the direction of stars and planets.
Prof. T wining and Mr. Marshall succeeded in seeing Saturn 8
minutes before, and Venus 4 minutes before, totality. During
the totality, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Saturn, and a number of
bright stars, were visible to the naked eye.

Observations made by Prof. Smith, with a thermometer exposed
to the direct rays of the sun, showed a variation of 42 degrees
during the progress of the eclipse.

The observations of Mr. House, with a thermometer placed in
the shade, showed a variation of 13 degrees,

Prof. David Murray, at my request, prepared the paper on the
physical phenomena, which is herewith appended.

‘The peculiar phenomena which have attracted so much atten-
tion in solar eclipses are only visible during the brief period of
totality. This, in the present case, only “extended through 2
minutes and 43 seconds. The difficulty of observing them lies in
this exceeding brevity, and in the fact that, no mat ter how much
the observer may have studied the experiences of others, the phe-
nomeng comes upon him as a complete surprise. The moment
the last ray of light disappears with the extinguishment of Bailly’s
Beads, there bursts upon him a vision so marvellously beautiful,
so startling by its novelty, that his self-possession and self-control
desert him, and leave him, for an instant, a helpless gazer. As
soon as he can collect his thoughts, and tries to marshal them into
order, he will find especially two phenomena of notable interest.

In immediate contact with the solar disc, it appears as a clear,
silvery light, as bright as the brightest part of an aurora, and
somewhat resembling it in consistency. Farther out, it appears
streaked with pencils radiating in the direction of the centre.
These rays are more especially noticeable at 5 points of the cireum-
ference, 2 of them pointing upwards and outwards, and 3 hay-
ing a general downward direction. These prongs could be traced
through a distance even exceeding the diameter of the sun, and
near one of them was visible a curved mass of light, in shape re-
sembling the petal of a flower. On the upper edge of the dise
was pl tiny seen an arch of light, parallel with ‘the edge, and
within the boundary of the corona.

It should be stated that the phenomenon of the corona is best
observed with the naked eye, and cannot be included within the
field of any ordinary telescope. Our party are indebted to the
observations of Mr. Bostwick, of Mattoon, and Gen. Keifer, of
Springfield, Ohio, for the best configuration of the corona.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 313
oe

The commonly received explanation of the corona has attributed
it to an atmosphere surrounding the sun, which was illuminated
by the light of the sun in the same way that our atmosphere is
illuminated in twilight. This will undoubtedly explain the Jumi-
nosity found nearest the disc; but it can hardly be received as
satisfactory in regard to the luminous prongs which extend out
to such a great distance. It must be remembered that these
prongs projected a distance greater than the whole diameter of
the sun, and must have reached an altitude, if they belonged to
the sun, of at least a million of miles. This is, of course, beyond
all possibility ; and the idea of the whole phenomena being of a
solar-atmospheric origin is untenable. Equally untenable must
be the idea that it is a solar aurora, because an aurora supposes
an atmospheric medium in which it exhibits itself.

The impression which was firmly made upon my mind by wit-
nessing it was that, in some way, the interstriated part, at least,
was formed in the earth’s atthosphere.

The second phenomenon attracting attention was that of the
sudden appearance of a number of protuberances of various
shape and magnitude, which projected beyond the black disc
of the moon, and were of a bright rosy-red coior. We saw 6
or 8 in all. It must be remembered that these were of immense
size. The largest was not less than 70,000 miles in altitude.
They seemed to have a cloudy consistency ; and the form of some
of them forbade the idea that they could have been either solid or
liquid. These protuberances are seen in all total eclipses; but in
no two are they in the same place, or of the same form. They
aré thus shown to be of a changeable and transitory character.
This was really all that could certainly be known about them,
until the application of the spectroscope to celestial bodies gave
us a new road to a knowledge of them. By means of this, we are
able to distinguish a solid body from a gaseous, a self-luminous
from a reflective body; and, even more, to determine with cer-
tainty the very elements composing the incandescent body. This
mode of investigation, used first in the total eclipse of 1868, and
still more in that of the recent eclipse, has revealed to us that the
red protuberances are mainly a mass of incandescent hydrogen
gas. The thought is overpowering. Here are vast accumulations
of blazing matter, reaching to a height of 50,000 to 100,000 miles,
What convulsions in the matter of the surface of our sun does this
view of it reveal!

That the spots which are seen on the surface of the sun will
finally be proved to be identical with the protuberances, I venture
to predict. L

A few moments before totality, and during that period, nearly
all the telescopic observers at our station noticed faint whitish
bodies floating past their glasses. Prof. Hough saw 3; Mr. Swift
4 or 5; Mr. Simons 5 or 6; Mr. House as many; and I saw 4, at
least. At the time, they made no impression on my mind. I
thought of thistle-down, or some other winged seed. Others
thought of midges which had been awaked by the darkness;
others of swallows. But when we came to compare our observa-

27

314 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

~

tions and our conjectures, we found, to our surprise, that all these
floating bodies had one direction, namely, from the north-west
downward toward the south-east; and it seemed, therefore, impos-
sible to explain them on any of the hypotheses which had been
started. ,

The idea that they were meteoric is, perhaps, more plausible ;
and it is strengthened by the fact that the time nearly corresponded
to the August period of meteoric showers.

No one who has not seen the phenomena of a total eclipse can
appreciate fully the grandeur of the occasion. As the light, ray
by ray, is cut off, a strange and ghastly darkness comes down
upon us; not like the darkness of night, but a violet-colored dark-
ness, Which makes the faces of our neighbors turn ashy pale, and
gives to the landscape the hues which it takes in a stereoscopic
picture. I cannot better describe the appearances which strike
an intelligent eye-observer than in the words of President Hill,
who, declining the use of all instruménts, devoted himself to not-
ing the external phenomena. He reports the results of his obeer-
vations as follows : —

** During the total eclipse this afternoon, I was in the open field,
near a small barn, about 1,000 feet west, and 550 feet south, of
your station. According to your request, I herewith give you a
memorandum of what I noticed. ‘This memorandum has been
twice read to a party of five gentlemen who were with me ; and they
agree, after full discussion, in every statement.

‘* A cow grazing in the field became uneasy at five o’clock, and
started for home at dh. and 6m. Soon after a hen gathered her
brood under her wings. Swallows were skimming the ground.
About two minutes before the total obscuration about 70 cocks
and hens went to roost in the barn. A flock of birds flew south-
ward in a hurried and confused manner after the darkness be-
came total. Soon after the reappearance of the sun the chickens
eame from under the hen, then the fowls came down from their
roosts, and the cocks, which had crowed occasionally all the after-
noon, took it up by general consent and crowed vigorously.

‘* No other animals were near us. No plants sensitive to light
were in the field, and it was not until after the eclipse was over
that I discovered Cassia in an adjoining field. Some of us thought
there was a slight deposit of dew upon the grass, but others failed
to perceive it.

‘* Venus appeared a minute or two before the total obscuration,
and remained visible for several minutes after the reappearance
ofthe sun. At the instant of total obscuration, Mercury, Arctu-
rus and Vega appeared. Even Arcturus was of a silvery white-
ness. Arcturus remained visible some seconds after the total
phase had passed. We looked sharply for Capella, Procyon, Cas-
tor and Pollux, Regulus, and Altair, and also looked less carefully
for Saturn, Antares, Spica, and Mars, but we had nothing but our
general recollection of the stars to guide us as to the direction in
which to look, and we saw nothing either with the naked eye or
our opera-glasses, beyond the two planets and two stars already
mentioned. At the instant of total obscuration one or two of us

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 315

had a feeling that we were seeing half-a-dozen stars bursting into
sight at once, but we could only find the two.

‘¢The approach of the deep violet shadow in the air from the
W.N.W., a little to the right of the sun, and its receding in the
opposite quarter, was much slower and more majestic and beau-
tiful than we had been led to expect. The gradual diminution of
light during the eclipse had revealed the presence of faint cirro-
stratus clouds in the horizon of what appeared, both before and
after the eclipse, a cloudless sky. The transition from penumbra
to umbra, although rapid, did not seem absolutely instantaneous.
It was a sweeping upward and eastward of the dense violet
shadow. This shadow then stretched from the W.N.W. to the
E.S.Eastern horizon, while in the transverse direction it did not
reach the horizon by 6 or 8 degrees, and the low arch be-
neath was full of a deep orange twilight. No difference was ob-
served between the height of these arches. The transition from
the orange-yellow of the northern and southern horizon to the
dusky violet of the zenith during the total phase was at an altitude
of 12 or 15 degrees, and then the violet seemed darker than in the
zenith; as though two’ broad dark arches ran one on euch side *
the zenith from west north-west to east south-east.

«<The corona appeared to usa white ring of 4 or 5 min. breadth,
with white rings 30 to 35 min. in length, one of which on the right
hand upper limb was curved. No change was observed in the corona
during the total phase, except that one of us thought there was a
tremulous flashing at the instant before the reappearance of the sun.

‘* A crimson cloud on the lower limb was particularly brilliant.
One on the left limb was brilliant at the beginning, and one on the
right limb at the end of the total phase.”

OBSERVATIONS ON THE ECLIPSE. BY PROF. C. A. YOUNG.

Professor C. A. Young, of Dartmouth College, gave papers on
his new method of observing contacts by the spectroscope, and

’ also on the spectrum of the solar prominences and corona, ete.

The spectroscope furnishes the means of a very accurate obser-
vation of the instant of first contact in the following manner: Let
an image of the sun, about two inches in diameter, be thrown
upon the’slit. Bring to the centre of the slit, and perpendicular
to it, the point of the limb where the contact is to take place.
The spectrum will then be half bright and half dusky, divided by
a longitudinal line of demarcation; most of the dark lines will
extend clear across both portions of the spectrum alike, but the
spectrum of the chromosphere will be seen in the C line asa
needle of scarlet light extending a little way into the dusky spec-
trum from the extremity of the dark line in the brilliant portion.
As the moon approaches, this red needle will be gradually short-
ened, and will finally disappear at the instant of contact, the C
line then becoming exactly like its neighbors. The same method
of observation of course might be used with the F line, or any
other line of the chromosphere spectrum, but the C line is by far

316 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

the easiest to observe. At Burlington, Iowa, the time of contact
determined in this manner was about 5 seconds earlier than
that of any of the other observations, but agreed within one-third
of a second with that obtained from measurements of the photo-
raphs.

‘ Special attention was paid tothe question whether the moon
has any atmosphere; the results were wholly negative, under
circumstances where a refraction of one quarter of a second would
have been clearly perceptible.

During the totality the following 9 bright lines were seen in
the spectrum of the prominences, — the numbers refer to the scale
of Kirchoff, —namely: (1) C, (2) 1017.5, (8) 1250 plus or mi-
nus 20, (4) 1,350 plus or minus 20, (5) 1474, (6) F, (7) 2602
plus or minus 2, (8) 2796, and (9) h. Of these all but the 2d,
3d, 4th, 5th, and 7th, are the well-known hydrogen lines; the
2d is the well-known but mysterious line above D.

The line 1474 is just below E, and coincides exactly with a small
line marked as iron on Kirchoff’s and Angstrém’s maps. It had
been previously discovered by Professor Young, in July. It turns
out also to coincide very closely if it is not (as is much more prob-
able) absolutely identical with a line recently discovered by Pro-
fessor Winlock, of Cambridge, in the spectrum of the aurora
borealis. (it is hardly conceivable that iron really exists as vapor
in the aurora borealis. Can this line indicate some new gaseous
element which, occluded in ordinary iron, causes this line to appear
in the spectrum of the spark between iron electrodes, and yet
exists independently in our higher atmosphere?) The two faint
lines Nos. 3 and 4 also coincide closely with two other lines
reported by him.

This line, 1474, and probably the two fainter ones, 2 and 3,
belong to the spectrum of the corona, not that of the prominences.

The corona showed besides these bright lines a faint, continuous
spectrum without any dark lines. The light of this was polarized
strongly in a plane passing through the sun, but, as suggested by
Professor Pickering, this polarization may arise from the refrac-
tion of light through the five prisms that produced the dispersion
of the colors.

Professor Young’s papers were remarked upon by Professor
Peirce and by Dr. Gould in a very complimentary manner, espe-
cially the first. The new method of observing contacts seems
likely to prove of value in the observations of the coming transit
of Venus.

PAPERS ON THE ECLIPSE READ AT THE MEETING OF THE AMERI-
CAN ASSOCIATION.

Dr. Baker Edwards, of Montreal, read a paper by Dr. Charles
Smallwood, of McGill College, Montreal. There was a slight
agitation of the sun’s limb a second or two before the first con-
tact, the edge of the sun being lighted up with rose-colored pro-
tuberances, shooting out coruscations of the same rose-colored
light towards the sun. The contrast between the color of the

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 317

sun’s bright disc and these rose-colored prominences was very
distinct, and of surpassing beauty, resembling the strontium light
of fireworks. A collodion plate was submitted to the sun, moved
forward every five minutes, and also a strip of paper prepared by
the chromotype process, with good results, showing the action of
the sun’s light in producing photographs. No distortion of the
cusps was apparent; they appeared at all times sharp and well
defined, and no coruscations across the moon were apparent. Of
two polariscopes placed one due north and the other south, the
latter showed a want of sky polarization during part of the time ;
the former gave the usual appearance. There was a perceptible
increase of moisture in the atmosphere, and ozone was much in
excess. The barometer and thermometer both fell during the
eclipse, rising afterwards. There were very slight indications of
atmospheric electricity; the inclination magnet showed a very
slight decrease in dip.

Prof. David Murray, of Rutgers College, N. J., gave the result
of the observations of the party at Mattoon, [llinois, on the gen-
eral phenomena of the eclipse, and a diagram of the corona and
protuberances. Of the red protuberances seven were seen, two
of them of remarkable size and brilliancy. The largest of these
showed large black masses in its centre, arising either from the
cloudy mass being open through so as to disclose the space
beyond, or from the presence of a dense core or nucleus. The
corona was of a soft, bright consistency, and at five points
extended out into long rays. The inner part of the corona was
bright, but not striated, the projecting prongs, however, being dis-
tinctly radiated. There was a curved petal in the corona at one
point, near the largest protuberance, and some observers noticed
other curved portions.of the corona.

Mr. T. Bassnett gave a paper from his observations made at Des
Moines. The shape of the corona, as represented by all, was
generally of a rhomboidal character. His theory was that there
is a physical medium filling all interstellar space, which is driven
off by centrifugal foree at the equator of the solar system, and
drawn in again at the pole. :

Professor Peirce gave the results of the observations made by
parties connected with the Coast Survey. With these parties
precision in noting the times was the great object; all else was
only accidental, and will be handed over to the physicists. There
were five parties, all of which have made their reports except the
one at Sitka. Two of these parties made great use of the photo-
graph, and the professor felt confident that these observations,
with those of the spectrum which had been brought to notice
to-day, would be the only ones from which we could get observa-
tions at all worthy of confidence, surpassing in value the transit
of Venus, which must be observed photographically to bring it up
to the observations on the eclipse, These photographs will bear
to be magnified up to a high power, so that they can be measured
up to one-tenth of a second of are, The photograph will give
time more aceurately than the chronograph, The measurements
for these photographs will be made from the negatives direct, by

27*

318 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

‘the aid of Rutherford’s screw, which the professor pronounced
the most perfect work of art in the world. The photograph can
be taken in one-thirtieth of a second, and we can get the semi-
diameter of the moon to one-tenth of a second of are. Professor
Peirce regards the theory that the corona is of the same charac-
ter as the aurora, as the most plausible one.

OBSERVATIONS OF THE CORONA DURING THE TOTAL ECLIPSE,
AUGUST 7, 1869. BY PROFESSOR EDWARD C, PICKIERING.

Among other expeditions to observe the recent eclipse was one
under the direction of Professor Henry Morton, sent by the Nau-
tivcal-Almanac Office to photograph the sun. I was attached to
this party to make genera! and physical observations, and from
our station at Mt. Pleasant, Iowa, arrived at the following results :—

It is commonly supposed that the light of the corona is polar-
ized in planes passing through the sun’s centre, and that it shines
by reflected light. Wishing t to verify this observation, I prepared
an Arago’s polariscope (in ‘which the objects are viewed through
a plate” of quartz), and a double-image prism of Iceland spar.
The two images appear of complementar y colors when the light
is polarized, the tint changing with the plane of polarization. I
therefore expected to see “two colored coronas, the tint of each
portion being complementary to that of the part at right angles to
it, and the color revolving with the polariscope. In reality the
two images were pure white, without any traces of color; but the
sky adjoining one was blue, adjoining the other yellow. As the
instrument is of considerable delicacy, we must conclude that
little or no polarized light is emitted by the corona. The sky
adjoining it, however, is s polarized i in a plane independent of the
position of the sun, since its color (as seen in the polariscope) is
the same whether above, below, or on one side of it. The most
probable explanation of this curious phenomenon is, that the
earth beyond the limits of the shadow, being strongly illuminated,
acts as a new source of light, and thus gives rise to a polarization
in a plane perpendicular to the horizon.

In hopes of determining the cause of discrepancy between this
observation and those previously made, I have endeavored to
learn what form of polariscope has heretofore been used ; but un-
fortunately, in most cases, no description has been published.
One observer used a Savart’s polariscope, and, holding it with its
principal plane vertical, found strong traces of polarization in this
plane. This observation, however, agrees with mine if we sup-
pose that the polarization of the sky was taken for that of the co-
rona, a natural mistake with this form of instrument. Another
observer, who used a single plate of tourmaline, saw no evidence
of polarization, that of the sky being too feeble to be perceived in
this way. I verified my results with a simple prism of Iceland-
spar, with which two images of the corona were seen precisely
alike, and showing no signs of polarization, We cannot infer

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 319

from this that the corona is self-luminous, since polarization is
produced only by specular, and not by diffuse, reflection.

The spectrum of the corona was observed in the following
manner: A common chemical spectroscope was used ; but instead
of attaching it to a telescope, it was merely pointed in the proper
direction a short time before totality. As its field of view was
7 or 8 degrees in diameter, the sun remained in it for a consider-
able time, and the spectrum obtained was that’due to the corona,
protuberances, and sky near the sun. On looking through the in-
strument during totality, a continuous spectrum was seen free from
dark lines, but containing two or three bright ones, — one near E,
anda second nearC. At thetime, I supposed that these were due
to the protuberances ; but Professor Young, with a large spectro-
scope of 5 prisms, found a line near E which remained visible
even when the image of the protuberance was moved off the slit,
and therefore inferred that it was due to the corona. He also
found the continuous spectrum free from dark lines, and that
one, perhaps three, of the bright lines coincide with those of the
aurora borealis. These results would lead to the belief that the
corona is self-luminous, the bright lines rendering its gaseous
nature probable. If it is a part of the sun, even the remoter por-
tions are one hundred times as near as the earth, and would receive
ten thousand times as much heat, which would be sufficient to
raise any known substance to incandescence.

Other observations, however, point to quite a different conclu-
sion. A thermometer with blackened bulb was exposed to the
sun’s rays, and the temperature recorded every 5 minutes. I
found that it began to rise some time before contact, descending
again as soon as the moon’s limb became visible. It did not reach
its former temperature until about a quarter of an hour after the
eclipse began, or until a seventh of the sun’s dise was obscured.
The approach of the moon, therefore, appeared to cause an in-
crease in the sun’s heat. The amount of the change was only
about 1.3° C., the total difference between this thermometer and
one in the shade being about 18° C., or in the ratio of 1 to 14.
This fraction is but one-half of that given above, owing, perhaps,
to the diminution of heat on the borders of the sun. During
totality, the difference between the two thermometers was almost
nothing. In examining the photographs taken by the party, it
was noticed that, while the light diminished near the edge of the
sun, the moon’s limb was very distinct, and that there was a
marked increase in the light of the parts nearest it. It was sug-
gested that this might be a subjective effect; but an examination
of the photographs is sufficient to conyince any one that the ap-
pearance is areal one. The glass positives especially show that
this effect extends over a large part of the sun’s disc. The expo-
sure was rendered instantaneous by passing a diaphragm with a
slit in it in front of the camera, the rapidity of motion being regu-
lated by a series of springs. Any irregularity in the motion
would cause variations in shade in the photographs; but these
would form bands parallel to the slit, while the shade mentioned
above was not parallel to it, and was curved so as to follow the

320 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

moon’s edge. Since, then, there is an increase both of the actinic
power and of the heat, it would seem that these effects are real,
since the methods of observing them are so totally different that
no error in one could be introduced into the other. The only ex-
planation of the phenomenon that seems possible is to assume the
presence of a lunar atmosphere. The corona would then be
caused by refraction, light reaching the observer from parts of the
sun already eclipsed. Although, for various reasons, this hypoth-
esis is unsatisfactory, yet it is strengthened by other observa-
tions. The protuberances have often seemed to indent the moon’s
edge, — an appearance usually ascribed to irradiation. Several of
the photographs, however, show this same effect ; and in some of
them the exposure was so short, and the edges of the protuber-
ances are so well defined, that it cannot be caused by the intensity
of their light, but must have its origin outside of the eye of the
observer. It is noticeable on all sides of the moon, sometimes in
half-a-dozen protuberances in a single photograph. An atmos-
phere of rapidly increasing density might produce this effect by
reflection, and of course would not influence the corona, if it was
caused by refraction. On this supposition, reliance could not be
placed on measurements of the moon’s diameter by occultations,
or by contacts during eclipses, and would account for the uncer-
tainty of this constant.

The principal reason for supposing the corona a portion of the
sun is, that, during totality, it does not appear to move with the
moon, but remains concentric with the sun, or, more properly, is
brightest where the sun’s edge is nearest. Many of the photo-
graphs show this very well, the difference on the two opposite
sides of the moon being very marked. Now, this effect would
be explained equally well by supposing the corona caused by
refraction. For the centres of the sun and moon never differ
during totality by more than half a digit, while the breadth of the
corona is sometimes several times as much; so that merely cover-
ing a small portion of it would not produce a greater diminution
of light than would be caused by a slight change in the direction
of the sun’s rays shining through a lunar atmosphere. On the
other hand, it is difficult to conceive of an atmosphere dense
enough to produce these effects, and yet so transparent that the
edges of the full moon are perfectly distinct, and that the light of
the sun, during an eclipse, should be increased rather than dimin-
ished. Again, we should expect that such variations would be
produced by changes of temperature that they could scarcely fail
to be detected. :

We, then, conclude that the polariscope gives only negative
results, and cannot be regarded as proving that the light is re-
flected. The evidence of the spectroscope needs confirmation,
since the dark lines may have been invisible, owing to the feeble
light of the corona. But if the observations with it are correct,
the self-luminous character of the corona is established. The
thermometric and actinic experiments point towards a lunar atmos-
phere as the cause of the corona.

In the above, I have endeavored to give the evidence in favor

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. oJ

of each view, unbiased by any theory, leaving to those best able
to judge to determine whether either explains all the facts ob-
served. The absence of a lunar atmosphere is so generally ad-
mitted, that its existence is suggested only with reluctance, and
merely as the most natural explanation of the observations.

Note on the Supposed Polarization of the Corona. —The form of
the instrument used has been, in one or two cases, misunderstood.
It consisted of a sheet-iron tube, closed at one end with a plate
of quartz, and at the other with a prism of Rochon. The latter
has the property of giving two images of any object seen through
it, separated by an angle of nearly 3°. Looking through the tube,
we therefore see two images of the quartz touching, but not over-
lapping. When the light is polarized, these images assume com-
plementary tints, which vary with the plane of polarization and
the thickness of the quartz.

The corona appeared white ; but the sky surrounding it was col-
ored in one image blue, in the other yellow. The conclusion to
be drawn from this is, that the light of the corona is unpolarized,
or, more strictly, that the amount of polarized light, if any, is too
slight to be perceptible with thisinstrument. Its delicacy, although
not equal to Savart’s polariscope, is very great, giving colored
images with paper, wood, and other bodies which reflect a small
amount of light specularly. The day before the eclipse, it showed,
in a very marked manner, the polarization of the wet pavements
and roofs. To measure its sensitiveness, I viewed the light re-
flected by a piece of plate glass, at different angles of incidence,
and found that the color ceased to be visible when this angle was
about 10°, which, allowing for the reflection from the second face,
would give about one part of polarized to 24 of natural light.

Observers heretofore have generally attached their polariscope
to a telescope, and thus introduced a source of error, avoided in
my instrument. For light passing through te object-glass and
field-lens would be polarized by refraction, before reaching the
polariscope, by the obliquity of the incidence, caused both by the
curvature of the surfaces and the fact that the edge of the field
of view receives its light not parallel to the axis. The plane of
polarization would be perpendicular to a plane falling through
the axis of the instrument. Now, if any part of the corona was
brought into the centre of the field of view, the adjoining portions
would appear polarized in planes parallel to the edge of the field,
or passing through the.sun’s centre. In sweeping around the
sun’s edge, the plane of polarization would continually change,
as the corona passed through different parts of the field, and the
comparative darkness of the moon’s dise and the exterior sky pre-
vent the polarization of the other portions of the field from being
visible. The degree of polarization by refraction would be very
slight, and, perhaps, imperceptible ; but the agreement of obser-
vation with this hypothesis is certainly a curious coincidence.

The strongest argument against the polarization of the corona
is furnished by the spectroscope, the presence of bright lines and
absence of dark ones, as observed by Prof. Young, denoting in-
candescence,—a view strengthened by the consideration that

322 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

each square centimetre of the surface of the corona would receive
several thousand units of heat per minute. I am well aware that
my results are at variance with those obtained by previous ob-
servers, including some of the most eminent astronomers of the
day; but, as far as I can learn, this form of polariscope has not
been used for the purpose, and therefore hope that my experiment
may be repeated during the next eclipse.

Since writing the above, I learn, from Prof. F. H. Smith, that
an excellent Arago’s polariscope was used in Eden Ridge, Tenn.,
in observing the eclipse. ‘The result agreed with mine, namely,
that no traces of polarization could be detected in the corona with
this instrument.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROTUBERANCES OF THE SUN.

Zollner has communicated to the Royal Society of Sciences of
Saxony the results of observations of the solar protuberances
made by a new method, the details of which are, however, not
given in the paper from which this abstract is taken. The author
states that by this method the protuberances can be observed with
great sharpness and distinctness, and gives a number of figures
of much interest, representing various forms of the red eruptive
flames. The method of observation employed gives the same
protuberance in three different colors at the same time, corre-
sponding to the three homogeneous lines of the spectrum, red,
yellow, and blue. A marked difference is observed between the
yellow and the other two images. The yellow image is very in-
tense near to the edge of the sun’s disc, where it corresponds with
the other images, while at a greater distance the finer details are
lost. Zéliner infers from this, either that the rays to which the
yellow image is dte proceed {rom a gas specifically heavier than
hydrogen, and, therefore, occupying a lower stratum, or that the
increase in the temperature and pressure of the hydrogen near
the surface of the sun determines the emission of the yellow rays
in question. The author remarks that the protuberances, as seen
by his method, for the most part strongly resemble the various
forms of terrestrial clouds, the cumulus type being most distinctly
exhibited. There are, however, some exceptions; in certain cases
the phenomena resemble those of eruption of volcanoes or of hot
springs. Zollner suggests that it may hereafter be possible to ob-
serve at the same time all the protuberances as in the case of a
total eclipse. In conclusion the author mentions another observa-
tion of great interest. On the 27th June the slit of the spectro-
scope Was made to approach a part of the sun’s dise where the
spectral lines of the protuberances were particularly long and
bright. Ata distance of 3 or 4 minutes above the sun’s edge, the
whole length of the spectrum was crossed by bright linear flashes.
These flashes extended over the whole portion of spectrum in the
field of view, and were so abundant at one point of the sun’s edge
that it seemed as if the whole spectrum were crossed by the
straight paths of rapidly following electric discharges. This phe-

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 328

nomenon would be explained by the assumption that small in-
tensely ignited bodies are moving near the sun’s surface and
sending out rays of all refrangibilities. As the images pass rap-
idly before the slit of the spectroscope they give a spectrum with
flashing lines. — American Journal of Science and Arts, Nov., 1869.

ZOLLNER’S REVERSION SPECTROSCOPE.

An important addition to the resources of spectrum analysis
has been made by Zollner’s invention of a reversion spectroscope,
by which extremely small changes in refrangibility, and conse-
quently comparatively slow motions of a star or sun-flame can be
detected. It consists of a spectroscope in which by reflection the
spectrum of a source of light can be superposed above a reversed
spectrum of the same source; so that if a white flame containing
sodium be viewed, there will be seen in the upper part of the field
a sodium line with the blue end of the spectrum on the one side,
and underneath it a sodium line with the red end of the spectrum
on the same side. The two bright lines may be made to coincide
exactly by an adjustment; and if any change in refrangibility
takes place, the motion of the line is doubled, and is also more
exactly measured, because it is referred to itself as a standard.—
Comptes Rendus.

ASTRONOMY.

Mr. Kincaid suggests an ingenious mode of constructing an
automatic transit instrument. The apparatus consists of a plane
mirror, and burning-glass, to be adjusted in such a manner that,
at the instant the sun reaches the meridian, the rays ignite a
thread which burns without smoke or residue; this releases a
detent, and a motion is thereby given to the hands of the clock,
bringing it to the correct local mean time. There is a supple-
mentary arrangement by which, if the thread should not ignite in
consequence of a passing cloud at the instant of the transit of the
first limb, the subsequent ignition of the thread will not affect the
clock. Mr. Lockyer, in a note on Mr. Huggins’ paper ‘‘ Ona
possible Method of viewing Red Flames without an Eclipse,”
writes to show that he was not aided by the eclipse observations
in seeking for the prominence spectrum. Unless Mr. Lockyer
claims credit for the discovery of the gaseity of the prominences,
apart from the credit due him for his share in the discovery that
their spectrum can be seen without an eclipse, we cannot see
how Mr. Huggins’ mistake (assuming it to be such) at all affects
the proper apportionment of recognition in the matter of recent
solar discoveries. The eclipse observers clearly deserve all the
credit due to the first-mentioned discovery, which had been fully
discussed in England for two months before Mr. Lockyer exam-
ined the prominence spectra. It is impossible to undiscover the
discovered. On the other hand, no one has disputed the

324 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

claim of Janssen and Lockyer to the discovery that the promi-
nence-spectra can be seen without an eclipse. ‘Professor Brayley
supplies an interesting paper on the relation of the luminous
prominences to the facule of the sun. He shows that there is
strong reason for supposing the facule and prominences to be
identical, or at least that the latter are the superior terminations
of the former. Some very singular facts connected with the mean
distances of the asteroids, and the commensurability of their
periods with that of Jupiter, are pointed out by Prof. ‘Kirkwood.
He shows that wherever there is a wider gap than usual between
the asteroids (considered in the order of their distances from the
sun), that gap invariably corresponds with such values of the
mean distance as would give a period having some simple asso-
ciation of commensurability with the period of Jupiter. It is
well known that any such association would result in disturbance,
and Prof. Kirkwood argues that the particles which, on the nebu-
lar hypothesis, would ‘have occupied these vacant zones, must
have been so disturbed by Jupiter, as to adopt eccentric orbits,
and so come into collision with exterior or interior particles.
Even if this did not happen, the disturbance of their orbits would
lead toa change of period, and so of mean distanee. Either
result serves to account for the gaps in the asteroidal zone. He
considers that very strong evidence is afforded by these coinci-
dences (which certainly cannot be looked upon as accidental) in
favor of the nebular hypothesis. He goes on to examine the
Saturnian rings, which he remarks have been quoted in Proctor’s
Saturn as furnishing strong evidence of the nebular hypothesis
of Laplace. He shows that the great division between the rings
corresponds exactly with that portion of the width of the system
where the particles would move in periods commensurate with
those of the four inner satellites. The coincidence is certainly
most remarkable. — Quarter ly Journal of Science, April, 1869.

At a recent meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, the
Astronomer Royal stated that he had obtained from Dr. Miller,
of Cambridge, evidence confirmatory of the connection which has
been supposed to exist between comets and meteors. It will be
remembered that Mr. Huggins’ analysis of Comet , 1868,
showed that that object consisted of carbon in the state of incan-
descent gas. It appears that there are four meteoric stones, at
least, which contain carbon. Of these, one fell in the south of
France, one atthe Cape of Good Hope, one at Debreezin, in Hun-
gary, and the fourth at Orgeuil, in France. The number of
discovered asteroids has now reached 106.

Mr. J. Tebbutt, Jr., supplies a series of observations made by
him upon the star 7 Argus. He compared this singular variable
with neighboring stars. It appears from these observations, that

n Argus ‘has not exceeded the sixth magnitude during the past
bain years. Thus we are compelled to reject the theory of Pro-
fessor Wolf, who assigned a law of yariation according to whieh
the epoch cf minimum brilliancy should have oceurred in 1861,
and the magnitude of the star should have been 3.6. Cert tainly
9 Argus is the most remarkable star in the whole heavens. A

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 325

quarter of a century ago, it outshone the brilliant Canopus, and
rivailed Sirius itself in splendor; now it can only just be detected
with the naked eye on a very clear night. — Chronicles of Science,
Jan. 1869.

DISTANCE OF THE SUN.

At the general meeting of the Astronomical Society, on Feb.
12th, it was announced that the gold medal for the year had been
awarded to Mr. Stone, of the Greenwich Observatory, for his la-
bors towards the determination of the sun’s distance. We have
already had occasion to refer at intervals to the various papers
which Mr. Stone has written upon this subject; and a reference
to the accompanying review of the proceedings of the Astronomi-
cal Society will show that he is still engaged on the same inter-
esting work. What he has done may be divided into two sections:
first, independent solutions of the problem of determining the sun’s
distance ; and, secondly, the careful re-examination of the obser-
vations and calculations of others. He has detected numerical
errors in the processes of Leverrier and other mathematicians, be-
sides errors of interpretation in the work of those who investigated
the transit observations made in 1769; and he has given a large
share of attention to the consideration of the proper means of weigh-
ing discordant observations, —a question of great difficulty, which
largely enters into the problem of determining the sun’s distance.
The result of his labors has been to show that the sun’s equatorial
horizontal parallax is probably about 8.91//; his distance, there-
fore, about 91,700,000 miles. — Journal of Science, April, 1869.

DISCOVERY OF A NEW PLANET,—THE 109TH. BY DR. E. H. F.
PETERS, IN A LETTER TO THE EDITORS.

I write to communicate the discovery, made here on Saturday
night, of a planet, the 109th of the asteroid group. It is in the
constellation of Pisces, more properly in the following position : —

1869, Oct. 9, 13h. 31m. 58s., Hamilton College mean time.
A. R. = Oh. 56m. 2.60” Decl. = + 9° 37! 10.6".

Its motion in declination is almost nothing ; that in right ascen-
sion over a minute per day. In brightness it equals a star of the
10th magnitude. — American Journal of Science and Arts, Nov.,
1869.

TEMPEL’S COMET.

I enclose an orbit for the comet discovered by Tempel on Oct.
11, of which no elements have yet been published in the ‘* Astro-
nomische Nachrichten.” . Indeed, but for an observation kindly
sent me by Dr. Winnecke, and not yet printed, it would not have
been practicable to work out an orbit.

Elements of the Orbit of Tempel’s Comet, Oct. 11, 1869. — Ele-
ments calculated from an observation at Bonn, Oct. 12; one by

28

326 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Dr. Winnecke, at Carlsruhe, Oct. 17; and a third at Leipzig, Oct.
23:—
Perihelion Passage, 1869.
ae le: ee ee . 8.4421 Greenwich M. T.
Longitude of Perihelion, . . . 124° 41/ 1// 2 Fromapparent
Longitude of Ascending Node, . 311° 24/4// Equinox.
Inclination to Ecliptic, . LAs ho wee e.. 6) ee
Log perihelion distance,. . . . » « « « « « « .0°08985
Heliocentric motion retrograde. :

The above orbit does not resemble that of any comet previously
computed. —J. R. Hind, Observatory, Twickenham, Nov. 8.

SPECTRUM OF THE AURORA, ZODIACAL LIGHT, ETC.

In connection with the observation of Prof. Young, during the
late eclipse, the following translation from a few paragraphs in the
text accompanying Angstrom’s chart of the solar spectrum may be
of interest. On page 42, he says, after some introductory re-
marks : —

‘In fact, during the winter of 1867-8, I have been able to ob-
serve, repeatedly, the spectrum of the luminous are bordering the
obscure segment, and always seen during the feeble auroras. Its
light is almost monochromatic, and consists of a single brilliant
ray, situated to the left of the well-known group of calcium lines.
-By measuring the distance from this group, I have determined
the wave-length of this ray, which is found equal to 4 = 5567.
Beside this ray, of which the intensity is relatively great, I have
observed, also, by widening the slit of the spectroscope, traces of
three lines extending almost as faras F. Ona single occasion,
when the luminous are was agitated by undulations which changed
its shape, I saw regions momentarily illuminated by certain feeble
spectral rays; but, taking into account the intensity of these rays,
I would, nevertheless, say that the light of the luminous arc is .
sensibly monochromatic. There is a circumstance which gives to
this observation of the aurora spectrum a much greater impor-
tance, and, indeed, a cosmical character. During one week of
March, 1867, I succeeded in observing this same spectral ray in
the zodiacal light, which then presented itself with an intensity
truly extraordinary for the latitude of Upsal. Finally, when, dur-
ing a starlight night, all the sky was, in a certain sense, phospho-
rescent, I found traces of it in the feeble light emitted by all parts
of the firmament. A very notable fact is, that this remarkable
ray does not correspond with any of the known rays of simple or
compound gases, so far, at least, as I have studied them up to
this time. It follows, from what I have said, that an intense au-
rora, such as may be seen above the polar circle, would probably
give a more complicated spectrum than that which I have found.
Granting this, we may hope that an opportunity will be afforded
of explaining the origin of the rays already found, and the nature
of the phenomenon itself. Not being able to give this explana-
tion at present, I propose to return to it another time.” — Journal
of Franklin Inst., Nov., 1869.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. . weed

THE USE OF THE THERMOMETER TO DETERMINE THE PERIOD
OF SOLAR ROTATION. BY PLINY EARLE CHASE.

Professor Henry’s experiments on the temperature of the solar
disc showed that the spots are cooler than the brighter portions
of the photosphere, and the centre is warmer than the rim. These
evidences of difference in calorific power have been confirmed by
subsequent observers, and Schwabe, Henshall, and Kirkwood, by
a study of sun-spots and the variations of solar magnetism, have
sought for indications of fixed points, or meridians, on the sun.
If the sun is a variable star, any permanent differences in super-
ficial structure, however masked by the irregular disturbances to
which the spots are usually attributed, may perhaps be accom-
panied by regularly recurring differences of temperature, which
should be manifested by the thermometer.

The 7 years’ hourly thermometric observations at St. Helena
(1840-7) were examined in various ways, in order to discover any
traces they might furnish of cycles approximating to the supposed
period of solar rotation. Atter testing, by the method of least
squares, various assumed intervals between the limits of 25 and
29 days, the pointings were so decided and uniform, that all the
observations were arranged in accordance with a hypothetical
period of 27 1-14 days. The annual, semi-annual, and quarterly
groupings all confirmed the hypothesis that this was a normal
interval, and the belief was still further strengthened by various
comparisons with observations at Philadelphia, extending over a
period of 44 years (1825-69).

If we then assume 27 1-14 days for the synodical rotation of
the sun, the time of its sidereal rotation is about 25.065 days.
This is somewhat greater than the estimates of Sporer (24.6244)
and Carrington (24.9711), but nearly accordant with the more
recent estimate of Faye (25.07472.) Mr. Chase -proposes to con-
tinue the investigation by a discussion of observations at other
stations.

PLANETARY INFLUENCE ON RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE. BY
PLINY EARLE CHASE.

The author has recently undertaken, for the Coast Survey, some
discussions of the meteorological influences of the moon. An ex-
amination of the records which have been kept at the Pennsyl-
vania Hospital, in Philadelphia, for forty-four years, confirmed
the conclusions of Loomis and others that cloudiness, rainfall, and
temperature, are each, to some degree, controlled by the lunar
phases. The ‘ establishments,” or local influences which modify
the results at different stations, often occasioning an entire oppo-
sition of curves, especially on opposite sides of large bodies of
water, were also clearly shown. ‘There were marked evidences
of such establishments, due not only to position, but also to the
season of the year, occasioning contrasts between the summer and

828 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

winter curves, and resemblances between the vernal and autumnal
curves. —

These results, together with a certain degree of opposition be-
tween the lunar curves of rainfall and temperature, seemed to
indicate a partial dependence of the temperatare upon the tidal
currents in the atmosphere. If this hypothesis was correct, it
seemed probable that some of the planets, especially Jupiter,
should furnish corroborative indications. The observations, both
of rainfall and of temperature, were therefore arranged succes-
sively in accordance with the positions of Jupiter, Venus, Nep-
tune, and Mercury. The arrangement resulted in the production
of consistent curves, varying with the varying distances of the
several planets, and with their positions relative to the sun. In
comparing these curves an opposition was apparent between those
of rainfall and temperature, which was more strongly marked
than that which had been previously noticed in the lunar curves.
It seems unreasonable to attribute the temperature fluctuations to
varying planetary radiation ; but it is. easy to understand that any
influence which tends so to disturb the atmosphere as to produce
a northerly wind, should depress the temperature and increase
precipitation, while one which tends to produce a south wind, in-
creases both the temperature and the evaporation.

THE TRANSITS OF VENUS.

The French Astronomer Royal is wisely making arrangements
in good time for observing the transits of Venus, which will take
place in the year 1874 and 1882. ‘The event is one of considerable
interest and value to scientifie men, and it is therefore desirable
that it should be viewed from those parts of the earth’s surface
where it can be best observed. The stations fixed upon for 1874
are Oahu (one of the Sandwich islands), Kerguelen Island (in the
Indian Ocean), Rodriguez (a dependency of the Mauritius), Auck-
land (New Zealand), and Alexandria. Both the Admiralty and
the Treasury have responded with alacrity to the appeal which
has been made to them for funds. Mr. Warren De la Rue is of
opinion that photography may be used with the utmost advantage
in registering the transit.

DR. TYNDALL’S THEORY OF COMETS.

Prof. Tyndall has developed a cometary theory out of his late
researches upon the actinic power of light. It will be remem-
bered that he has found that a beam of light is capable of forming
a bright glowing cloud in its course through a space containing a
modicum of vapor, the said cloud being first reduced by the chemi-
cal action of the light, and then rendered visible by illumination
of the condensed particles.

The application of this principle to the explanation of cometary
phenomena is as follows: A comet is held to be a mass of vapor

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 329

decomposable by the solar light, the visible head and tail being an
actinic cloud resulting from such decomposition. The tail is not
matter projected from the head, but matter precipitated on the
solar beams which traverse the cometary atmosphere; nothing
being carried from the comet to form the tail, but something be-
ing deposited from the interplanetary space through which the
body is coursing. But this explanation supposes that the sunlight
bas a different power when it has passed through a vapory comet
to that which it possesses when it has traversed no such medium ;
otherwise all space would be lit up like acomet’s tail. To account
for such a peculiar property, Prof. Tyndall assumes that the sun’s
heating and chemical powers are antagonistic, and that the calo-
rific rays are absorbed more copiously by the head and nucleus
than the actinic rays. This augments the relative superiority of
the actinic rays behind the head and nucleus, and enables them to
bring down the cloud which constitutes the tail. Thus the caudal
appendage is in a perpetual state of renovation as the comets
move through space; the old tails being dissipated by the solar
heat as soon as they cease to be screened by the nucleus. Nearly
all the phenomena observed in those mysterious bodies are ac-
counted for by Dr. Tyndall. One, however, he has not men-
tioned; namely, the peculiar juminous envelopes, familiar to
comet-gazers, which surround the nucleus like a series of cloudy
glass cases. No theory can be called complete which does not
account for those remarkable and evidently important features.

COMETS.

M. Bionne has submitted the following opinion upon the nature
of comets to the Academy of Sciences: ‘* Comets are bodies
which describe spirals originating in a nebula terminating in the
sun; each spiral may be considered as an ellipse.. Formed of the
incandescent matter of the nebulsz, comets would appear to be
the regulators of the grand movement of celestial bodies, the
agents of that vast transformation of calorific work into mechani-
cal work, and would come at the end of their course to lose them-
selves in the atmosphere of the sun, to which they would serve as
an aliment.”

WINNECKE’S COMET.

Huggins’ spectral analysis of this comet is well known, and his
conclusion that the light of this comet is produced by incandescent
carbon vapor. The experiments of -Watts, published in ‘‘ The
Philosophical Magazine,” seem to prove that this spectrum is
really that of carbon; and, further, that the temperature of the
carbon producing it must be between 1,500° C. and 2,500° C. If
no other explanation of this comet spectrum can be found, and if
the temperature of cosmical space may really reach 1,500° C., im-
portant changes must be made in the theories of the universe as
at present accepted. — The Academy, Nov. 12, 1869.

28+

330 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

SUMMARY OF FACTS IN ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.

Local Attraction. — Colonel Sir Henry James, Director-General
of the Ordnance Survey, reports that during the past year
inquiry has been prosecuted into this very remarkable phenom-
enon. He observes that the relative extent to which the plumb
line and the levels of our astronomical instruments are affected
in a country where there is nothing on the surface of the ground
to account for it, may be judged from the fact that it is nearly
double the amount of the deflection on Schehallion mountain,
3,047 feet high, with the instrument placed on the sides of the
mountain itself, at one-third of its altitude, the position to pro-
duce the greatest effect from the mass of the mountain on the
plumb lines. He considers that we have very decided indications
that the cause isin the granitic rocks which extend in a south-
west direction from the Cowhythe through Banffshire, and which
are highly impregnated in some parts with magnetic iron ina
metallic state. The range of mountains on the south-east of
Banffshire culminates in Ben Muich Dhui, 4,805 feet high,
which, after Ben Nevis, 4,368 feet high, is the highest mountain
in Scotland. The great amount of the attraction at Cowhythe,
and along the coast to the east and west of Portsoy, cannot be
explained by anything visible on the surface, and obliges us to
imagine the existence of some large and very dense mass of
matter underneath it. Sir H. James hopes to resume this im-
portant inquiry this season; and the geological structure, as well
as the mineral character of the rocks, will be carefully investi-
gated by the Director of the Geological Survey of Scotland.

The Captive Balloon. — Mr. Glaisher narrated the results of some
meteorological experiments made in the car of the Captive Bal-
loon. The principal fact was, that often, when the air near the
ground is quite still, and the smoke from the chimneys of the
houses rising vertically, a hard gale is blowing aloft, and that at
a height of less than 1,000 feet.—Dr. Mann pointed out that
meteorological observations between the surface of the ground
and moderate elevations, such as 1,000 feet, are of more practical
value than those taken higher up, especially during the rapid
motion of a free balloon, Professor Newton said that he thought
it important to learn everything possible about the atmosphere,
even at the highest altitudes. Observations made in the United
States on the motion of the smoke left by meteors had proved in
some instances that gales in opposite directions occurred, even so
high up as 50 or 60 miles.

M. Janssen, in a letter dated from Darjeeling, Sikim, British
India, 22d May last, says that the spectra of some stars, which
are rather ruddy colored when not disclosing the presence of hy-
drogen, do positively disclose the presence of aqueous vapor.

The Light of Uranus. — This planet emits light which differs
from that of any other of our system. According to Father
Secchi, its spectrum exhibits broad absorption lines. The surface
modifies the sun’s light which it reflects, in the same manner as
do colored bodies.

ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 331

Mountains in the Moon.— The German astronomer, Maedler, has
measured the height of 1,093 mountains in the moon. Twenty-
two of these are higher than Mount Blanc, which is within a few
feet of being 3 miles high; 6 are above 19,000 feet. The highest
observed mountain in the moon is 24,844 feet hich.

Chemical Analysis of the Solar Atmosphere. —Rayet announces
that he has been for some time aware of the existence of a new
bright spectral line from the above source, which has not been
before pointed out. It is between G and H of Fraunhofer, and is
the fourth of the principal brilliant rays of hydrogen, three of
which have already been recognized in the ‘‘ chromosphere.”
It is often bulbous or globular in appearance, like F. This
makes 6 bright rays now known from the chromosphere, and it
is remarkable that 4 of these belong to hydrogen. Neverthe-
less this atmosphere is not, as Lockyer and others have supposed,
composed exclusively of hydrogen. Secchi has observed the third
ray of magnesium, and the yellow line near D is not believed
to be a ray of hydrogen. Rayet himself, in an article published .
in the ‘‘Comptes Rendus” of the 8th of last February, discussed this
yellow ray.

The observations made during the eclipse of the 18th of
August last have shown, moreover, that the protuberances or
elevated masses of the chromosphere do not always have the
same chemical composition. — Comptes Rendus, June 7, 1869,

. 1821.
i The Spectrum of Lightning. — Lieut. John Herschel has commu-
nicated to the Royal Society an account of the spectrum produced
by lightning. He says: ‘‘ The principal features are a more or less
bright continuous spectrum, crossed by numerous bright lines,—
so numerous as to perplex one as to their identity.”

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES.

LIVINGSTONE’S DISCOVERIES.

THE latest discoveries of Dr. Livingstone, communicated at a
meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, are of great interest
and importance, independently of their supposed connection with
the ultimate source of the Nile. He has found, in the first place,
that the Chambeze, a considerable stream draining the northern
slope of the great wooded humid plateau in 11°-12°S. lat., instead
of flowing southward to the Zambesi, as was formerly supposed,
turns to the north-west and discharges itself into a large lake,
’ ealled Bangweolo, upwards of 50 miles in length. The plateau,
therefore, which he crossed, as described in one of his former let-
ters about the end of December, 1866, and which the Portuguese
expeditions of 1798 and 1831 also traversed, turns out to be the
water-shed between the basins of the Zambesi and the lake system
of Equatorial Africa. It enhances the interest of this great dis-
covery to find that Bangweolo is only one of a chain of lakes con-
nected by rivers. The first in succession north of Bangweolo is
Lake Moero, which is 50 miles in length, and varies in breadth
from 20 to 60 miles, The town of Cazembe, visited by the Por-
tuguese, lies on the ‘banks of a much smaller lake called Mofué,
to the east of Moero. Continuing down stream is a third lake,
Ulenge ; but Livingstone had not, when he wrote, pursued his ex-
amination further in this direction, and he was not sure whether
this chain of lakes drained into Tanganyika, or continued to the
west of this lake, and communicated independently with Albert
Nyanza far to the north. The latter and their connecting rivers
flowed through a deep valley hemmed in by wooded mountains,
Another discovery of interest was Lake Liemba, which Livingstone
thought to be an arm of Tanganyika near its southern end. He
gives the altitude of this sheet of water as 2,800 feet above the
level of the sea; a datum which, we venture to remark, will af-
ford much food for geographical speculation until more definite
information is received. This elevation, in fact, agrees almost
exactly with that of Albert Nyanza as observed by Baker, and —
with that of the intermediate Lake Tanganyika as deduced by Mr.
Findlay from an-elaborate examination of the observations of Bur-
ton, Speke, and Baker. Thus if Liemba be connected (which is
not yet indeed quite determined) both with the Chambeze lakes
and with Tanganyika, the connection of the whole with the Nile
is extremely probable. But Livingstone reserves his greatest
marvel for the postscript to his dispatch. He had heard of a tribe
of Troglodytes, a dark-skinned race with oblique eyes, dwelling

332

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 333

in caves, some of which extended for many miles under ground.
— The Academy, Nov. 13, 1869.

ARCTIC RESEARCHES.

Dr. I. I. Hayes continues to commend to public attention the im-
portance of sending outa new American expedition for the survey
of the Polar basin, entering by Smith’s Sound. The following
summary of his project is printed in the ‘*‘ New York Tribune” : —

‘* First, as to design. The design of the expedition which I
have proposed is to complete the exploration of the entire region
northward of Baffin’s Bay; to trace Greenland and Grinnell Land
to their termination; then ascertain if other lands lie to the
northward ; to explore the open Polar Sea; and, lastly, to reach
the North Pole, making upon.the course such observations as cir-
cumstances will allow. Thus will a field be opened for the most
valuable discoveries in geography, geology, in glacier formations,
magnetism, countries and currents, and in natural history. Sec-
ond, as to plan. I would set out in May with two vessels, one a
small steamer, and would make my course northward, provided
with the best chart of Greenland, through the Middle Ice, until I
reached Smith’s Sound, in latitude 78° 17’, where, in my old har-
bor of 1860-61, I would pass the winter. Here there is abun-
dance of game, and I would found a colony. Walrus, seals, rein-
deer, and foxes could be caught in great numbers, and not only
would the colony be made self-sustaining, in point of food, but
a valuable cargo of furs and oil might be collected. Then I
would push northward the next summer with the steamer, and
would thus strike for the North Pole. In any case, I would se-
cure a harbor and a base of operations much to the north of the
colony, and thus would the steamer and the colony become the
centres from which the explorations already mentioned would be
made. Third, as to cost. <A public-spirited citizen of New York
has offered to supply a suitable steamer; and there is good rea-
son to suppose that we could obtain from the government the loan
of a sailing-vessel, one of the many not in use. These vessels
furnished, they could be equipped and maintained in the field for
two summers and two winters at a cost of 40,000 dollars. Yourth.
Let it be remembered that this is the ‘American route.’ The land
extends there further north than in any other quarter so far as
known, and Americans have thence explored to within less than
8°, that is to say, within 450 miles of the pole. Independent,
therefore, of the value to science of this particular line of discovery
above any other in the unexplored parts of the Arctic regions,
there is something of national honor involved in the pursuit of it,
especially at this:time when England, France, Germany, and Swe-
den are each aiming to reach the North Pole by various other
routes; to which end expeditions are now actually preparing.
Shall we let those nations win from us the coveted honor of pri-
ority? Ido not believe there is a single person within the sound
of my voice who would be indifferent to the matter, and who

334 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

would not unite to see the American flag first planted at the North
Pole. Fifth, as to the advantages of the Smith’s Sound route over
all other routes, for discovery in the unexplored parts of the Arc-
tic regions, they are but the simple enumerations which I have
before made to the Society: 1. Land as a base of operations; 2.
The opportunity to colonize a party of hunters and natives as the
means to a permanent support.”

Capt. Silas Bent, late of the U. S. Navy, who rendered impor-
tant hy drographical services in the Perry expedition to Japan, and
who was also attached to the ‘* Preble,” under Capt. Glynn, in an
earlier visit to Japan, has also published his views on the sub-
ject of the best mode of reaching the North Pole. Capt. Bent,
while on the coast of Eastern Asia, made important observations
on the Kuro-Siroo, or Japanese Gulf Stream, which presents
some very interesting analogies to the American Gulf Stream,
These observations are contained: in the second volume of the
Report of the Perry Expedition. In his opinion, every attempt to
reach the North Pole should be made by following the continua-
tion of one or the other of these Gulf Streams, that is, through
Behring’s Straits, or by the Spitzbergen route, which he terms
the *‘* Thermometri ic Gateways to the Pole.” He is, therefore, de-
cidedly opposed to the project of Dr. Hayes for an expedition
through Smith’s Sound. His views, though formed independently
and upon his own observations and studies, coincide in many re-
spects with those which are held by the continental geographers
in Europe. — American Journal of Science and Arts, May, 1809.

SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS.

Mr. Porter C. Bliss read, at the meeting of the American Asso-
ciation, at Salem, a paper upon a ‘* New Classification of the South
American Indians, upon the basis of Philology.” Mr. Bliss gave,
as one of the results of several years of travel and investigation
among the aborigines of the Argentine Republic, Bolivia, “Para-
guay, “Brazil, ete., the discov ery “that the number of stock Jan-
guages within those regions has been exaggerated tenfold, and
that there are, instead of 150 or more, as has been loosely stated
by the Jesuits and other later writers, but 12 or 13 stock lan-
guages in the southern half of South America. Of all these he
had ‘collected vocabularies, having visited most of them as com-
missioner on the part of the Ar eentine government, but had lost
them by their seizure, last year, , by Lopez, of Paraguay.

Mr. Bliss proceeded to point out, on a large map of South Amer-
ica, the localities of each of the tribes mentioned, beginning with
the Fuegians, and passing to the two races of Patagonians, the
Araucanians, of Chile, whom he identified with the Pehuenches,
Huilliches, and Aucé is, of the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, the Abi-
pones, Tobas, Mocobis, Ocoles, Mataguayos, and Machicuys, of
the Gran Chaco, or region between Par aguay and Bolivia.

He then described the Guaranis and P: iyaguas, of Paraguay, the
Atacamas, Quichuas, Aymaras, Chiriguanos, and Chiquitians, of

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 335

Bolivia, and gave many facts respecting the character of their
various languages. He adverted to the extensive area of the
Guarani tongue, which extends substantially from the La Plata
to the Orinoco, embracing a great portion of Brazil, and most of
the basin of the Amazon. He stated that he had found the Qui-
chua language spoken in the centre of the Argentine Republic, in
the province of Santiago del Estero, 800 miles from the nearest
point in Bolivia where ‘the same language is now spoken. Con-
sequently, Mr. Bliss considered this province to have been an
outlying colony of the empire of the Incas.

The languages of the Indians of the Chaco are extremely mea-
gre, and none of them exceeds about a thousand root-words, —a
point which was illustrated by anecdotes of some curious experi-
ences ip procuring vocabularies.

Mr. Bliss stated that the principle of reduplication was largely
concerned in the formation of the language of the Incas, and that
he had collected, in Bolivia, more than 300 geographical names
formed in this way, as Moco-moco, Coro-coro, Quilli-quilli, and
cited, as a double reduplication, the name of the famous lake
Ti-ti-ca-ca. He stated that, within 200 years, the Guarani lan-
guage had undergone an almost complete change; so that, in-
stead of being now, as formerly, made up from monosyllabic
radicals, it is quite as polysyllabic as most other Indian tongues.

Mr. Bliss refuted the geographical classification of the natural-
ist, D’Obigny, as separating * the same races, and uniting very dis-
similar ones, as the Fuegians, Araucanians, and Quichuans, under
the same group. He stated that his own classification, upon a
linguistic basis, had been embodied in a report to the Ar centine
government in 1863, and had since been adopted by the latest Euro-
pean writers upon that subject, such as Dr. Martin de Moussy and
Mr. Charles Beck Bernard, in their recent works upon the regions
of the La Plata.

NORTH AMERICA.

Prof. Morgan, at the meeting of the American Association, read

a paper upon the following topics : 1. Physical Geography of
North America, with reference to Natural Highways, and Means
of Natural Subsistence afforded by its Areas. 2. Agricultural
Subsistence, and the character and extent of Indian Acyiculture.
3. Migrations of Roving and partially Village Indians; deduced
from lancuages, tr aditions, and known migr ations. 4, Migration
of Village Indians ; as deduced from the same sources.

The Indians, he said, were nations of fishermen and hunters;
and: after wards, toa limited extent, some of them were supported
by the products of agriculture. The migrations of men were not
accidental or fortuitous, but deliberate movements, governed by
law; and the initial point of migration did not become such by
accident. Subsistence was the “governing law which controlled
the increase and migration of men; and this was manifest in the
migration of the aborigines of this country.

336 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

In speaking of the geographical features of North America, he
divided the country into prairie, mountain, and forest area; the
first the least, and the last the most desirable for Indian occupa-
tion. He defined the extent of the prairie, which, he said, was
over 31 parallels of latitude, and 19 parallels of longitude; the
greatest expanse measuring more than 1,700 miles from north to
south, and 1,000 from east to west, containing 800,000 square
miles. After crossing the Missouri, going westward, the forests
decreased and disappeared, except along the margins of the prin-
cipal water-courses, and the prairies grew less luxurious as one -
advanced, until they degenerated into barren plains before the
Rocky Mountains were reached. As the Indians had to obtain
their sustenance by the way, and had no means of transportation,
there were only three or four routes by which migration was pos-
sible; and over either of these routes 800 miles of prairie must be
traversed, which Americans, aided by the advantages of civiliza-
tion, were, for a long time, barely able to pass. These prairies
were never occupied by the Indians, inasmuch as they were fishers
and hunters, except to a very limited extent.

The mountain regions were distinguished for their great length,
and for their lateral extent. These great ranges furnished as
well as suggested the highways of migration, and gave to the
movements a general direction from north to south, or the re-
verse.

The forest areas presented the greatest obstacles and hindrances
to the migration of the Indians ; yet, notwithstanding this, the
finest Indians were found in the strictly forest nations.

Prof. Morgan, after speaking at some length on the different
areas, referred to the means of subsistence which the Indians
possessed, and said that the abundance or scarcity of food must
exercise a great influence over their migration. The different
kinds of food on which the Indians subsisted, and their modes of
obtaining the same, were stated in detail. He then considered
whether the natural or agricultural subsistence held the mastery
as time advanced. ‘The art of cultivation, doubtless, sprung up
as a happy accident. Where it originated, it was impossible to
ascertain; but the reasonable inference was, that it must have
been in a hot climate. Without agriculture, the Indians could
not have reached the second stage of their development, namely,
villages. In Central America, Mexico, and the West Indian Isles,
the greatest attention was paid to agriculture ; but the implements
in use were very rude, and the productions necessarily small.
Their efforts were limited to gar den spots, where the soil, if dry,
was irrigated. The methods of irrigation adopted by the Indians
were explained by Prof. Morgan. The great drawback to their
advancement was the contracted extent of the areas cultivated,
the difficulty of subduing the forests, which was impossible with-
out the use of metallic instr uments ; and extensive cultivation was
impossible without the assistance of the horse, ox, and plough.

=

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 337

THE TRADE ROUTES BETWEEN NORTHERN INDIA AND CENTRAL
. ASIA.

This was the subject of a lengthy and interesting paper, read at
the meeting of the British Association, by T. Douglas Forsyth,
C.B., F.R.G.S., of the Indian Civil Service. Mr. Forsyth com-
menced by observing that he had no geographical discoveries to
make known, but he pertinently asked what was to be the practi-
cal effect of all our geographical knowledge? There was the
work of practically applying the knowledge acquired by scientific
men to the purposes of material progress. If it could be found
that a knowledge of geography enables us to open out new routes
to trade, or to improve old tortuous lines of traffic, those who had
devoted their time and energies to the subject trusted that their
exertions might receive some share of general approval. There
are two great outlets for trade from Northern India. The largest
trade, in fact a very large commerce, crosses the Indus at differ-
ent points between Kurrachee and Peshawur, and threading the
various passes of Bolan, Goleri, Kyber, etc., finds its way into
Affghanistan, Balkh, Bokhara, Kokan, and Western Turkistan.
The other outlet crosses the Himalayan passes, and enters that
tract of country known as Eastern Turkisian or Chinese Tartary.

Iaving given the history and description of the country north of
the Himalayas, he proceeded to show why we took an interest in
it, and why we sought to improve our communication with it.
On more than one occasion it had been asserted that the Central
Asia trade was a myth, and that therefore all efforts to open com-
munications with Eastern Turkistan were worthless. He then
proceeded to prove that from the earliest times trade had been
carried on there, and was so at the present time. The Yarkund
traders who appeared last year at Palumpoor brought lumps of
silver and gold in their bags. Khotan, which is famed for its
silk, sent a small quantity of raw produce, as a sample, to the
market. Turfan wool, which is grown on the Tiam Shan moun-
tains, and has maintained its character for surpassing excellence
for centuries, was for the first time introduced into the Indian
market. Precious stones and metals might be imported into
India, in return for which our cotton and woollen fabrics and tea
would be taken in large quantities. He then referred to the dis-
covery of the new route between India and Turkistan, and said
that trade had né@w been established, and a fair was founded in
the heart of the tea-growing valley of Kangra, to which traders
from all parts of the worldnowcame. Mr. Forsyth then described
the various routes into Central Asia, and, referring to the Hima-
layas, said that atmospheric influences and deficiency of fuel
apart, there would be absolutely less physical difficulty opposed
by nature in making the railroad talked of by Mr. Saunders, from
Tso Moreri Lake to Yarkund, than there was in making the rail-
way from Suez to St. Michel. The impassable nature of the Hima-
layas was a myth. He insisted that a valuable trade was to be
opened up with Central Asia.

29

338 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

RECENT SURVEYS IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.

Captain R. C. Mayne, R.N., at the meeting of the British
Association, gave an interesting account of the recent govern-
ment survey in the Straits of Magellan. He glanced at the his-
tory of the discovery of the straits by the first circumnavigator,
Magellan, and to the geographical position of the straits. The
straits are 300 miles in length, and the width varied from two
miles at the narrowest to 15 or 20 miles at the wider parts. In
that distance a complete change of scenery and climate took
place. At the entrance they come upon low prairie land, bare of
trees, with a bright sky and fresh wind ; but further on they come
upon mountains, rising almost perpendicular from the sea, covered
with antarctic, evergreen leaves; torrents of rain, varied with
snow and hail, in their seasons. In some parts the rain never
ceased for 24 hours together, and he and his crew had gone for
three months without being able to dry their clothes, except at
the engine fires. He referred to the great use that was now made
of the straits to avoid the troublesome passage around the Horn.
He gave the results of the recent survey in which he was en-
gaged, from December, 1866, to the end of May last. He gavea
description of-the Patagonians, and Fuegans, their manners and
customs. The Patagonians were not such giants as represented ;
he had measured one who was 6 ft. 104 in. high; but the average
height of the men was 5 ft. 10 in. to 5 ft. 11 in., and the women
were nearly as large. The Fuegans were small, badly shaped,
and ugly. The Patagonians drank very hard, but the Fuegans
would not touch wine or spirit of any kind; on the other hand,
the Patagonians would not smoke, but the Fuegans would smoke
until they were insensible. The information obtained by Fitzroy,
as to the Patagonians killing their old people, was true; he never
saw anybody above a working age. He thought the inhabitants
of the region might be very easily educated.

HUMAN REMAINS.

A recent discovery in the Department de la Dordogne, France,
of human skeletons coeval with the mammoths, and undeniably
appertaining to the earliest quaternary period, presents features
of such unusual interest that the French govermnent has sent M.
Larter, the palzeontologist, to make a report on the subject. He
reports that the bones of five skeletons have been discovered, and
that they belong to some gigantic race whose limbs, both in size
and form, must have resembled those of the gorilla. But the
similar origin of man must not be inferred from these analogies,
as the skulls, of which only three are perfect, afford testimony
fatal to this theory, having evidently contained very voluminous
brains. The skulls are now in the hands of a committee of sa-
vants, who are preparing an exhaustive craniological report.

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 339

EFFECTS OF THE REMOVAL OF FORESTS UPON CLIMATE.

An interesting letter was recently read before the Geographical
Society of London, which shows the effects upon climate result-
ing from the clearing away of large tracts of forest. The facts
given are of universal interest.

The paper was ‘‘ On the Effects on Climate of Forest Destruc-
tion in Coorg, Southern India,” by Dr. Bidie. This district is
composed of hills and valleys, which were formerly covered with
forests. The lower slopes, however, are now denuded, and the
rainfall is found to decrease with the arboreal vegetation. As
regards the elevated crests of the Ghauts, which intercept. the
rain-bearing winds of the south-west monsoon, they would cause
an abundant precipitation whether they were covered with trees
or not, but the water supply and fertility of the lower slopes and
plains to the east are seriously diminished by the clearing of
forest on the hills, and the result is brought about in the follow-
ing way: The natural forest acts as a check on the too rapid evapo-
ration, and carrying off by streams, of the rainfall on the surface
of the land. As the rain descends, it is gradually conveyed by
the leaves of trees to the dense undergrowth of shrubs, and carpet
of dead leaves, and below this it encounters a layer of vegetation
mould, which absorbs the water like a sponge. By these, aided
by the roots of trees, the moisture is transferred to the depths of
the earth, and a reservoir of springs is thus formed, which keeps up
a perennial supply of water to the lower land. But rain falling
on the bare surface of cleared lands runs off at once by the near-
est water-courses, and none is retained to keep up the flow during
the dry season. Beside which, evaporation is so much more
abundant from a surface exposed to the rain than from land
screened by a clothing of forest, and the flow of surface water
tends to sweep away the clothing of soil and render a district
utterly barren. There is no doubt that this is one of the main
causes, in hilly countries, of drought and floods. In France, for
instance, since the mountains of Auvergne and Forey have been
so denuded of forests, the Loire has been constantly flooded,
occasioning vast destruction of property. The same cause, in
Algeria, has caused frequent droughts, and the French govern-
ment have lately been considering the proposition of some scien-
tific men to replant these districts with trees.

THE MOUND-BUIEDERS.

In Dr. Foster’s ‘‘ Mississippi Valley,” the author gives an
account of the extent and distribution of the relics of the ancient
Mound-Builders, a race which, long antecedent to the North
American Indian, once occupied the region of the great lakes and
the valley of the Mississippi. The trees which covered the
mounds when first discovered by the white settlers differed in no
degree, either of size or form, from those of surrounding woods.

840 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

Investigations by the geologist and the antiquary have proved,
beyond a doubt, that these mounds were formed by human hands.
Evidence afforded by the earth-works has also connected their
builders with the ancient copper miners of Lake Superior, whose
operations represent, probably, the most extensive prehistoric
mines in the world. Dr. Foster points out that the number and
magnitude of these earth-works not only indicate a vast popula-
tion, but also a people subsisting by agricultural pursuits; as no
mere nomadic race, subsisting by the chase, could have devoted —
the time necessary for the formation of such extensive national
works. The earth-work at Cahokia, Illinois, is 79 feet high, and
has a base of 666 feet; while the famous mound at Grave Creek,
Virginia, is 70 feet high, with a base of 333 feet; and the next in
. rank is that of Miamisburgh, Ohio, which is 68 feet high, with a
base of 284 feet. Near Newark, Ohio, the circles, squares, par-
allel roads, and tumuli extend over many leagues of ground,
and outrival in cubical contents the great pyramid of Cheops.

Their weapons were spear and arrow-heads, chipped with
much skill out of hornstone or schists; hammers, generally
of porphyry, grooved near the head for the attachment of a
withe ; fleshing instruments of the same material, brought down
to a blunt edge; pestles for cracking and grinding corn; plates
of steatite, or chloride slate, pierced with holes to gauge the size
of the thread in spinning; circular discs, like weights, and con-
cave on both sides, ordinarily of porphyry and grooved; orna-
ments like plum-bobs, double-coned, or egg-shaped, and pierced
or grooved at one end for the attachment of a string made of
specular iron, like that of Lake Superior; lastly, elaborately
wrought pipes, showing that they indulged in the luxury of
tobacco. They mined extensively the native copper on the shores
of Lake Superior, and wrought it into knives, spear-heads, chisels,
bracelets, and other personal ornaments. They were unacquainted
with tin, and had no alloy; and there is reason to believe they
did not even smelt the copper, but hammered it cold. They had
also made considerable advance in the ceramic art. Dr. Foster
concludes that the Mound-Builders were an industrious, peaceful,
and numerous race, pursuing agriculture as a means of support,
maize being their staple article of food; raled over by a despotic
government, under whose direction their great public movements
were carried out; and, lastly, that their extermination has resulted
from the invasion of a less civilized but more vigorous and
warlike people.

THE PERFORATED IMPLEMENTS OF THE STONE PERIOD.

Sir John Lubbock and the other archeologists are inclined to
hold that the perforated axes and hammers of stone are coeval
with the commencement of the bronze period. That many of
them really do belong to this period there can be little doubt,
since bronzes and stone are frequently found buried together, and
it is well known that stone weapons continued to be made and

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 341

used after the introduction of bronze. But this by no means
proves that all perforated stone implements are to be referred to
this period, and the present number of the ‘* Archiv fiir Anthro-
pologie” contains a paper by Rau, showing the mode in which
they might be formed before a knowledge of bronze existed. M.
Rau considers that the holes were made in two ways, or perhaps
by means of two different borers. The more highly finished holes
are of equal diameter throughout, and present a smooth surfate,
and exhibit at short distances from each other a succession of cir-
cular grooves. Such perforations as these, he thinks, were effected
by means of a hollow cylinder of bronze. But there is another
kind of perforation, the surface of which is more or less smooth,
but which is not marked by the lines or grooves above mentioned.
These perforations are constricted in the centre, so as to present
on section more or less of an hour-glass form, indicating that they
have been bored in from opposite sides. These, he thinks, belong
exclusively to the stone period. In both methods itis probable that
hard sand and water were employed to assist the process. His
view is supported by an examination of weapons in which the
perforations have not been completed, but cgrried only through a
portion of the thickness of the stone. In the former class of bor-
ings the hole on section presented somewhat of the appearance
that would be presented by the bottom of a champagne bottle on
section, the periphery being more deeply bored than the centre,
whilst, in the latter class of borings, the bottom of the depression
was simply rounded and rather narrower than the superficial
margin. M. Rau has been able to produce borings in a hard stone
exactly resembling those on the weapons of the stone period, with-
out the aid of any metallic instrument, but merely by means of
the rounded extremity of a piece of hard wood made to rotate
with a bow-drill, together with a little sand and water. The stone
on which he experimented was a piece of diorite, so hard that a
well-tempered knife-blade only marked it with a metallic streak,
and of the same kind as that formerly employed, on account of its
combining hardness with tenacity, in the construction of various
weapons during the stone period, and still used for the same pur-
poses by the North American Indians of the present day. In
commencing the perforation, which required infinite patience, M.
Rau found it advantageous to attach a piece of wood, with a hole
in it, on the stone, which prevented the boring instrument from
perpetually slipping off. Two hours’ severe work were required
to deepen the perforation by the thickness of an ordinary tracing
with a lead pencil, and, though with many interruptions, he was
fully two years in completing it. It was found requisite to add
fresh sand every 5 or 6 minutes. When serpentine rock was ex-
perimented on the perforation was accomplished with very much
greater rapidity. — The Academy, Nov. 13, 1869.

HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE CAVE OF BRUNIQUEL.

This cavern is situated in a limestone cliff on the north side of
the valley of the Aveyron, Department Tarne et Garonne. Al-

29* h

842 ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY.

though this deposit is chiefly rich in remains of the reindeer and
wild horse, — both of these animals having been eaten in great
numbers by the ancient denizens of the cavern, — there is here a to-
tal absence of the remains of the cave lion, cave bear, hyena, and
those large extinct pachyderms that have elsewhere been found in
ossiferous deposits. Of the existence of early man in Western
Europe with the mammoth, rhinoceros, hyena, etc., there can now
be little doubt; but at the time when he occupied the caves of
Dordogne and the Aveyron, and left behind, in the hearth stuff of
these caves, such indubitable evidence of his long-continued resi-
dence, the larger pachyderms and more formidable beasts of prey
had apparently given place to vast migratory herds of reindeer
and wild horses, upon which the cave men subsisted, and of the
bones and horns of which their weapons of the chase were made.
The mammalian fauna of such caves as Kent’s Hole, Torquay or
Genisla Cave, Gibraltar, may be more varied and remarkable,
but as regards the excellence of the drawings of animals on some
of the bones, the fine workmanship of the barbed harpoons and
bone needles, no cavern has yielded a better or finer series than
Bruniquel. — Quarterly Science.

KENT’S CAVERN.

Mr. Pengelly, F.R.S., at the meeting of the British Association,
was called on by the President to read the ‘* Fifth Report of the
Committee on the Exploration of Kent’s Cavern.” He said that
beneath the floor of the ‘‘ vestibule” was a layer of black soil,
6 to 9 inches deep, which had yielded 366 flint implements,
bones and teeth of recent and extinct animals, charcoal, flint
cones, etc. It had been objected that people could never have
lived in the caverns, because smoke would have suffocated them.
An experiment which had been tried, in burning six fagots of
wood, showed the fallacy of the objection. In the exploration
of the cavern, a daily journal had been kept, and every cireum-
stance was noted down. 3,948 boxes of fossil bones had been
found, and these Professor Boyd Dawkins undertook to examine for
the purpose of determining the species to which they belonged.
Among other objects a bone needle had been found in the black
band beneath the stalagmitic floor. The eye was capable of
carrying a thread the thickness of thin twine. A bone harpoon,
or fish-spear, forked on one side only, had been met with.
Other undoubted evidences of early human art had been found.
During the years 1868-9, Mr. Everett, who is engaged by the
Rajah of Sarawak to explore the caves of Borneo, visited Kent’s
Hole for the purpose of familiarizing himself with the mode of
operation. Mr. Pengelly then detailed the various layers under-
lying the stalagmitic floor, in which he was aided by a series of
large diagrams. The cave earth, or floor underneath the sta-
lagmite, was full of flint implements, teeth of the mammoth,
bear, hyena, etc., and gnawed and split bones. Inscriptions
dated 1688 had been found on the stalagmitic walls of that part

*

GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 343

of the cavern known as the ‘‘crypt.” The deduction drawn by
Mr. Pengelly was that this period of time, although the dripping
of water was very copious, had been insufficient to coat over and
obliterate the writing. This gives some idea of the immense age
of the stalagmite floor, and of the time occupied in its formation.
Beneath the earth was a breccia, and up to last year not the
slightest traces of man had been found. This year, however, a
flint flake was met with, thus carrying the antiquity of man
further back. A monthly report had been sent up to Sir Charles
Lyell. In some places the stalagmitic floor was as much as
12 feet thick. Associated with the flake were the remains of the
cave-lion, the cave-bear, mammoth, etc. In fact, this was the
most important anthropological relic which the cavern had
yielded. Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., had seen the flint flake, and
had declared it to be of undoubted human workmanship.

Professor Boyd Dawkins read a few notes on the mammalian
remains mentioned by Mr. Pengelly. He showed that the vari-
ous strata of the floor of the cavern contained remains of ani-
mals of different epochs, from the postglacial upwards. During
the time the black or upper band was being formed, a race of
cannibals inhabited the cavern. The older deposits contained
remains of the glutton, a species of hare larger than the existing
type, the beaver, ete. Mr. Dawkins concluded by remarking on
the vast antiquity of the human race as indicated by the facts
mentioned in the report.

OBITUARY

OF MEN EMINENT IN SCIENCE. 1869.

Baber, Rev. Henry Hervey, M.A.,F.R.S., English Scholar and Bibliographer,
March 28, ext. 94. .

Berard, J. E., French Physicist, July.

Bergenroth, Gustave N., Prussian Scholar, Feb. 13, wt. 53.

Berlioz, Louis Hector, French Musical Composer, March 4, wt, 65.

Cassin, John, American Ornithologist, Jan. 10, xt. 56.

Cleveland, Chas. Dexter, LL.D., American Scholar, Aug. 18, xt. 67.

Dixon, Joseph, American Inventor, June 14, ext. 71.

Du Noyer, George V., Irish Geologist, Jan. 3.

Erdman, Axel Joachim, Swedish Geologist, Dec. 1, zt. 55.

Erdman, O. L., German Chemist, Oct. 9, wt. 65.

Folson, George, LL.D., American Scbolar, March 27, xt. 67.

Forbes, James David, Scotch Physicist, Dec. 31, xt. 60.

Gottschalk, Moreau Louis, Musical Composer, Dec. 18, xt. 41.

Graham, Thomas, English Chemist, Sept. 17, xt. 64.

Grisi, Giula, Italian Singer, Nov. 29, xt. 57.

Hengstenburg, Rev. Ernest Wilhelm, German Theologian, June 38, xt. 67.

Hornes, Dr. Moriz, Austrian Mineralogist, Nov. 4, 1868, wt. 54.

Huet, Paul, French Artist, January, xt. 65.

Jerdan William, British Critic and Author, July 11, et. 87.

Jomini, Baron Henri, Swiss General and Military Critic, March 24, xt. 90.

Jukes, Joseph Beek, English Geologist, August, et. 58.

Lamartine, Alphonse, Marie Louis Prat de, French Poet, March 1, xt. 79.

Leys, Baron Henry, Artist.

Libri, Count, Italian Mathematician, October, xt. 69.

Mitchell, William, American Astronomer, April 2, xt. 76.

Nickles, Prof., French Chemist, 1869, xt. 49.

Overbeck, Friedrich, German Artist, November, zt. 80.

Peabody, George, American Philanthropist and Patron of Science, Nov. 4, xt. 75.

Purkinje, Prof. J. E., German Physiologist, July 28, xt. 82.

Reichenbach, Carl von, Ph.D., German Naturalist, Jan. 19, xt. 81.

Roebling, John A., Prussian Engineer, Resident of the United States, July 22,
xt. 63.

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., English Physiologist, Sept. 17, xt. 90.

Sars, Michael, Norwegian Zodlogist, Oct. 22, xt. 65.

Saint-Beuve, Charles Augustin, French Poet and Critic, Oct. 13, xt. 65.

Sclinitzlein, Adalbert, German Botanist, Oct., 1868.

Shumard, Dr. B. E., American Geologist, April 14, xt. 48.

Strong, Prof. Theodore, American Mathematician, Feb. 1, et. 79,

Strangford, Viscount, English Philologist, Jan. 9, xt. 43.

Tennent, Sir James Emerson, Engiish Traveller, March 6, xt. 75.

Von Martius, Carl F. P., Bavarian Naturalist and Traveller, Dec. 13, 1868, xt. 74,

Welcker, Friedrich G., German Philologist and Archeologist, January, xt. 84,

ott

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Gould, B. A., Ph. D. Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics
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Hayden, Dr. F.V. Geological Report of the Explorations of the Yellowstone and
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INDEX.

PAGE

Aboriginal monuments in Canada . .286
Absorption lines aha eps by chlo-

UNI? si /njalein\<'e'6 <%= 60/0 a;n9 5.6 san 0e rises 146

Action of boiling liquids on glass... 213
srenenen on hydrochloric

CUM vintviaisienls Sw'selcicscince'v cle ae aiste 231
Action of electric ‘sparks on pesciohe

PASrecieccccccccercesncccccce - 220

Action of heat on tartaric acid . S500" 231

water on lead...... Shoeere 216

‘¢ _ poisons..... ecvccccecseeeee/O

Aero-steam engines.............00. - 39

Adulteration of sulpburic acid. .....225
Alpine region, Rocky Mountain ....248

Aluminum bells.........e0+eeee. 1.1134
Alloy, #mew....2-..c0n piaaisoaes 000134
Alarm bell for locomotives. POCO ree!
Algeria, mineral resources es 264
Albumen ..... Sea's cele sivivinacle sisis ve otarsia 209
PANATING INC). cise hscieens acs Secceacews 134
ANZ ATING cisteis\cws oxic capes 5) PACH OBDOS 205
£ PL UCIAD wrote oi wisie'a wiainioia sisieie's 205
Alkaloid in fermented liquors....... 204
Albertype, the..... ASatg. AS an sedeoc 128
Alcohol, detection of............-++- 230
American Peeve nen, papers read
at meeting of the......essecccee2d 253
Ammoniacal gas engines ..... Sono il
American stereoscope .......- sis oevns 88
‘6 _. fossil botany..... woineats - 298
Mitaiin. Wie .924524...- aeeats erate eet 293
AANETICAN TAIUS. 006 cccccceccccsccses OO
Ammonia pOwder......+eeeeeees eos 144
American vessels, life of.......-.... 84
Animal kingdom, identity of visual
impressions in the.........++0..2 299
AMiliN€ Qray....eeeseveceseerececees 207
Animal kingdom, distribution of
COMPER UD TG se csc ccc cvcces cainciee 271
Analysis of lager beer........ ene 203
ATIZESTHECHC, TIOWin ss. ce\caie'o evs cceeceee 277
Aphanapteryx— an extinct bird of
WEBUTUIUAS way isis x ves say ccna 200 289
A DOTHON DUIS: a140' oss conaniseineie baa e's: 222
Armor plates, penetration Oiitamalviac 83
ATSCNIC INSOUR ss wer cnwcciadeecen vane 22
Sf tartar emetic............ 228
Artificial production of monstrosi-
RICKER Wie eray Sine wine mele ip niatsias © aie/e@ 280
Artificial respiration, new method
Of effecting ....ccccscccscccesces 275
Artificial light, Monckhoven’s new. 176
Ascent of high mountains.......... 274
Asiatic elephant, fossil..........--. 304
AStPONOMY 2.00 ecccccccvccsccccccesedad
Atmosphere, the solar. etrcnccuoeencGol
Attraction, local.....cccccccccssecens 330

Aurora, spectrum Of the...ccesseceed20

‘a €

Mt

PAGE

Aurora borealis and telegraph lines. 151
Australia and Asia, former connec-

HON PELW.COR ac wiclaeciaiccns aaeeest 288
Austrian non-explosive powder..... 227
ae foliage, change of color

sha sites Siaipimiole alee atare ere aie ete aC 296
ieee duty of Cornish engines... 134
Bacteriums, origin Biss pave.iara aciegetad cook
Balloon, the captive . ee cccceseesdaU
Bathometer, PIO octoreis sarees oes onl ata ee 170
Batrachians, poison of...............300

we reproduction by Larval.305
Battery, the galvanic ... 0s.0.cneses 157

$6). SSM TIM PTOVeM |. a's cca aisie ns clave 153

‘« substitute for copper in the

Daniell’s..... isla toisalaitloln sisateteimrerae 156
Beacons, electric,...... eda ce aie 89
Beams, deflection of............ -e- 184
SGAURALES 5 5 aaa oaeiailesinis/o axel linet aie 22
Behavior of metals in the electric

CUITO DE oversee nssiduisac es esicaaicems 196
Bell for locomotives, alarm srame alataeigte 28
Bells; glomingi 15220. jsia acta 134
Belina Dit sinc seeonacnoaces seer me ee 132

Bessemer’s high-pressure furnace... 65
eee on the Heaton steel pro-
Bibliography, American Scientific. "345
Binoxide Of Wydrogen .< sceccccsnane 22
Biological Summary.......-seesee- 1299
Bisulphide of carbon, purification of 200
Bones, function of the marrow of...299

Botany, American fossil..... a esiem eles
Bottom of the sea..... SP Py do nisietae Oe,
Black Sea cables sés.cccsgecee ccc disclee 107
66 PNOSPHOTUB.6.0 scicsccsensccvec-aoe
Blackening zinc..........-. esos silanes
Blast, large...... caine a oe = miaratoheiniallase 55
Sti" ¢ NOAVVisls sis oalg tno salsa sale eel Ste
Bleaching feathers... sccccencascanc 208
palm: oilys os secen ss eon dae 209
se Paper PUlpicccesssceceeuau 208
of aed DUD a sesnee oo tee 208
Blood, transfusion of.......... oesveee00
Blue et of the candle flame........ 174
olor of the sky, etc. By Prof.
TNC cage vania we sists tteaeee :
Brachiopods, early stages of...... -291
Brake, use of counter-pressure
StCGIM.GS Fv iedicecsutensuneacun’ 24
Bread-making, new method of...... 67
Bridge, East River.....cccccccesvece 46
Bridges ...... We sosesnecuccpaiaakuns 46

Bridge, Cincinnati and Newport.... 51
‘6 over the Schuylkill.......... 53
+ Kansas City...ccscoss eevccee OO
es LOuisvillesesiddvuaccvertases OS
‘6 over Cape Fear River.,...... 54

347

348

Bridge, Mississippi.....+-secceeeseee 48
Dagselaort.ivcacicccesvendeess 48

se at Omaha, U.S. ----eeee eee 49

66 =—- Missouri, 170M... .cceccccccecs 53

$6. CONCTOID oc cictncwonassecceas.o 40

‘és Blackfriars new....cccccce 50
Briquettes ...+e+eeeeeeeceeegeceeeeee 38
Bronzes. re ee ee ee ee ee ee) 86
Bunsen’s method of filtration.......210
Building, concrete..........- eceeseell®
Buildings heated by gas..........+.. 92
earthquake-proof., .......122
Burial of the dead......ccccccsseeee27d

Cable, RRGUSlins os Sac adene'ta deed dehtny Oe
a Atlante inccceraecsecel06

se the Black Sea......0.0000002-107
«fleet, signalling on board of. .101

“ insulation of the Atlantic....132

Canals...... ceccavccave Coccces ccsene
«steam POWEF ORs. escecseceee 61
Canal, Sued esisiewas ciwsen ewesee GssueOe

Candle flame blue CUP OF .0cccccsecelZ4
Cape Feur River, bridge over......- 54

Captive balloOn......ccccccesees 2002330
Car-whecls....... ideskwerhhnbamnee eee’
Cast-iron tubes. eee eee eee eee eee eee | 30

rs BEOWGE cain ncsms dubia knleku dase 67
Caucasus, highest peaks of the..... 264
Cavern, Kent’s......e00. Samo Were dae 342

Cave of Bruniquel, human remains

FFOM. Bh... cvecvdavecsscwnussvcsOkt
Cell-structure of metals.........++.-195
Cement for leather........ avian wwe 130

~ ‘* iron and stone, very du-

FADE. \..2ccewa dais pevpeessbiess seexvloe
Cement for stone ....-.ceeeeeecesees 130
Cereals, growth of.. onceen e208
Cetacea extinct..... ecvccccccrccceseo00
Channel railway, the........+-..-+++ 19
Change of color in autumnal foliage. 296
Changes of level of seushores...... 237
Charcoal, seaweed...........c0 eo0e130
Chinese geology and mineralogy... .243
Chlorate of potassium as blowpipe..230
Chloride of silver pile .............. 154
Chlorine, absorption lines produced

1

Chlorine in gold refining...... ocoees 197
- manufacture Of...........- 210
Cholera, influence of trade on.......301
CSHOLOSEELING s:0\0 de'n's'v'wdute's'n's'e's ceeds 6s000
Chrome alum, utilization of......... 200
be RICCNi +. sssscens wdile aeuDeewe 207
Chroma é.660%s sacs cvedes gobs dee » 223
Churches warmed by gas.....-..+.. -- 90
Clay, Terra Cotta i025 Sceaceeccacccse 258
Climate, effects of removal of for-
CStS ON... cckeceee eccescvevece
Coal fields, denudation of...... YY i
« in the Rocky Mountains....... 243
* fields of the North Pacifie
COBDS. cs vcccdccsdecnencccseccosvs 240
OKs sec seddvecesstdscssedaddudecy cs 130
Cold, curious production Os sss 191
Colloid substances, pa especie of
gases through........s... 9000000180
Colorado expedition...... svelvduwbs 265
Colors, complementary ......+..+++. 146

Color, "change of in autumnal foli-

age seer eoreoreseorrseseesesseesecs

INDEX.

Coloration of glass under riniekananie
Of SUNLIght.....eeeereeeeeeeeces
Concrete building............. cocoeell®
Conducting power of materials.....164
Continents, elevation of.............232
Constitution and motion of glaciers, 190

of flames, method of
siete onnecscceccedeepeneakan
Conservation of WOOd ....-seeee0+++129
Combustion, increase of weight dur-
AMZ... cevesees ecvecccccccccccscsvellS
Comet, Tempel’s. ...scccesveversesesdaD
3 Winnecke’S.oeeerreeee scene B29
Comets. cambhavnsssbs
«« Tyndall’s theory Ofesis owagesoRe
Communication between guard, driv-
er, ANd PASSCNZETS.....eceeceses 18
Complementary colors.......+ eons 146
Composition of milk of different an-
TMIARS, ce ve csaeete
Compound of lime and sugar .......199
Copper in the animal kingdom......271

*¢ mines of Lake Superior..... 264
«« in the Daniell’s battery, sub-
stitute forces <ss<oebcuveoksentinn 156

Cornish engines, average duty of ...134
Corona, polarization of the.........321

«« observation on the.........318
Cotton; tanned «40s ssesticsen squaraneden
Counter-pressure steam as a brake.. 24
Cranial capacity vs. crime..........- 303
Crime vs. cranial capacity ........ . -303
Currents, electric, velocity of.......154
Crystals in diamonds ............20. 222
Cutting glass with steel. The magic

diamond..... Ccevetesweosss avons
Cyanogen in coal-gas..... occccceceeeeO

Daniell’s battery, saeeenne for cop-
perin:-theves\sesaccosensvacentee 156
Dead, burial of the . on awethe@ipeunaen 273
Decomposition produced by light. ..147
Denudation of the Shropshire and

Staffordshire coal-fields.......... 262
Decrease in the production of gold..246
Detection of alcohol...... oscwepnene 230

&¢ - phosphorus... ccons eves 230
Determination OF Rilver..wsscecvemds 231
Decomposition of alkaline chlorides.223
Determination of free oxygen......18¢
Deflection of beams...........- 2600 510k
Depths, sea.......0 ey? naw Oitak 267
Deep-sea dredgings......-.sse0- 008293

Death, method o petate er vaceedle
*« occasional cause of vuliienianal

Development in vertebrates ........304

Decrease of temperature caused by

dissolving salts in water........214
Disposition of gas-burners.......... 91
Distribution of ait in the animal
kingdom........+3.- svebeccadis 27
Discovery of a new planet sues o0eeed20
Discharges, duration of electric.....149
Distance of the sun........++: wo c0eed2S
Diatoms . ....ceceseceeceee evceceee e309
5 reproduction of. oweosnsaneay . 308
hy or brittleworts.........++4. 207

Direct oxidation of hydrocarbons..
Distribution of the large American
MAMMAIS....cccsesescecce cesses
Dredgings, deep-sea .....++++++ osenemle
Drift, phenomena in the .......++++-200

INDEX.

DPN OF WOOT. 02.50 we caw say cue es d20
DIMTAN STL Cra cist > Gs a'c.ncele sls eeu sale clcss 265
Durability of English locomotives... 37
Dyeing a fast gray...... Bailes ce eels 207
HOVEs CRPlOSIVEss ae'ccels tsetse piece tie she 131
East. Indies, petroleum in the.......264
Earthquake- “proof buildings! =5<lss.. 122
East River bridge........... wea deee ce 40
Kclipse, papers on the.............. 316
* observations of Prof. E. C.
Pickering on thes... cscs seessss 318
Effect of steam heat on hay.........133
Hee, the Ovarian... ...sccccccccccce 300
Electric currents, velocity of........ 154
Electricity applied to ashe tg vi-
RUAIION St tal a c'c'ct)a'a'a's'ele clo 2's ote dole - 162
Electromotors, vegetable..... . 166
Elements of matter...... feu cee melcls 185
Electricity and railroads............ 23
Elevation of continents and depres-
sion of sea basins............00. 2
spr totge spark, artificial coloration
Rita tide alesse ie cone nccccscsoccccel49
Electricity and the pulse........ wetee ld
Electric fluid, non-existence of...... 154
ae telegraph, wave time of....156
ee discharges, duration of..... 149
ce spark figures...sccccievces. 54
A OTPAH. 65 3050. 535-2 Reh Sols se 86

SCaaHERCONS ST! terdssce oles oe ee SO

Electro-heating apparatus.......... 44
Elephant, fossil Asiatic.........005 -304
Engineering items... ee. secedovaee OF
ss under ground.......... 120
Envelopes, safety...... eeteeeatdeae’s 135
PIMANICIS. . 200052008. pels wielse's clciael aisle 20
Hmnpines, COMMISH... .ccccscececccccs 134
Enterprise, telegraph..............-108
PIPIOLNIS. <c%s ~~ Seibie ue eshisdcw see eco
TUBQUINPAIM, THO... . occ. sees cscs 2 6 285
Estimation of iodine............0+.. 229
Europe, geodetic measurement in.. .264
Evaporation by plants .......-+++++. 308
Evolution of ammonia from mush-
ROGUIN. eens sees ald on ote we ceteies 222
Experiments on heavy ordnance....117
Extinct reptiles....... Moa seutiea testes 305
Explosive dye..... Deaiela a cidinl detest sree 131
Extraction of zinc from ores........224
Expedition, the Colorado........... 265
Extinction of the mammoth........261
Extinct cetacea........ See cws ae 02 250
Fabrics, treating textile............133
Fairlie steam CAITIAQE ..+.60e- coceee 35
Fauna, primordial. .......csecsesoee 291
Fertilization of flowers by insects ..308
MOVER HAV. s-seb et cacioss.ce ses widelee'as 282
Fibrous plants, little known........ 98
Figures, electric spark........+.++-. 154
rings {43 58ei0s. MSC esedosee0s80l
PEPOPGf ERUMC das cates sey ean s sleet cebu 100
Fishes with external gills...........306
Fire-proofs, lining for.......++.++++- 131
WIIEADION=- i526 duce ceucsasceUlseses seekO
Fire alarm, by M. Dion oaeeusdes aa 131
Flames, method of ascertaining the
COnstitution Of. 6...dccccccsecoee 175

Fluosilicic acid for sugar-refining. ..199
Flowers, fertilization of.......... 308

349

Flora; Primordial . osc.083 ocdeinedsoca8Oy
Flora and fauna of Oregon and

Udahov screed. ah Sao sins’. ey 33!)
Forty-two ton hammer sortets Sree tie 55
Fossil plants in the Cambrian rocks.257
Formation of, Hifrersaisisecedls... ee 228

ULCDiscin weenie sciscleeloes 279
Fog whistle Wiis oieeisia oid win Sin 6 bi ajdt ORNS 54
Forests, effects of removal of on

CHIGAGIC sso noeisinndtaSacives aeeeeenes
Fossil, Asiatic elephant..... a sinivicclsg 304
Bronch eabletsaawasGle on cede. 54
Hreezing MiXture.. ised cede Siacial ate 170
Frigorific Mixtures. nse yoon'ct ee honn 169
Fossil reptiles, N€W...secscsecsecces 290
Formation and phenomena of

clouds, note on........... SHAE 139
Foundations made in marshes...... 116
Frozen well at Brandon, V ermont,. .235
French military telegr aphs . wisiele Sarda 109

‘* Atlantic telegraph......... -102
Fuel in the form of powder......... 129
Furnace, Bessemer’s high-pressure.. 65
Fuel, naphtha for locomotive..... o. 38

‘« peat for locomotive......... +. 37

Gases, method of ie
GUS Frm wiclotaici na niaislassiatistele ececcseces 69
Galvanic battery, the ........ecee000157
Gas, heating buildings by........... 92
‘¢ burners, disposition of......... 91
ts for light-ROUSCS «cesisisisen dete eee 90
‘6 from WOO0d......... camincatss eran Ow
‘¢ warming churches by..... eccee 90
6; anGsairy DIIRUrelOfees sve eete oe 94
Gauge, rapid change of............ - 58
Gasometer, i immense....... Seiele rath expiant ORE
Gas engines, ammoniacal........... 41
Geology of Venzuela........ Beluisiewes 266
Geodetic measurement in Europe...264
Geology ee eeeee ese eee eee ere
Generators, steam...... sibicrmnials ba sistedlene
Geology and mineralogy, Chinese. -243
Gills, fishes with external...........306
Glaciers, constitution and motion of.190

Glycerine for preserving colors of
marine animals....... 295
$6 testing for apgar. o00ccee 5230
Glass-rope SpONge......seeeeereeees 305
Glycerine in crystals....... Slo ial Suweed
Glass used for light-houses.......... 81
*° .. coloration of......00% i's Sak scte 189
Gold, decrease in the production of. 246
Growth of cereals....ssseeseees: 200-298

Graham’s experiments With hydro-
POR\ ite smadelte ss fe eee Perr 177
Ground, engineering under.........120
Guns, proot OfeweT< Sau ch iis sise vaue 111
Gun- cotton, new property of.. . .126
Gunnery and photography......+..- 129
Guano, stratification Of.......... ee a
Gun- cotton, new mode of firing bélee s 124
Gunpow der hammer and pile-driver. 113
Golf SHCA. visiew seer se pap rpccemeen 259
Gun, the Palliser........... soelennaekkO

Hay. fever...cccoccccscssvccevvessecee 282
Hematoxyline in photography. winiaiyn OL
Hammer, the Joy. .cosscccescecceeeelae
Hay, steam heat on..... edakitdes «dee
Hammer, forty-tWO tON...eeeeeeeees 89

350

Heat, mechanical equivalent of.....190
0 ein ING... ccesechatend ch¥enseet ie
Heavy modern machinery. cvnagensne OF
t+ Dlastscscts anedbee b shi b'yns Onis’ y . 54
Heights, to measure..... aig wanse et a0
Heat, reflection Of...........e0. ow «e190
Heaton steel process, Bessemer on
GBisuicks oss ctasks oun bares weve s 04
a: oe from the moon’s sur-

Heating of bodies” by rotation in
vacuo. eo gecccccccctcccccncccsacclia
BIOREs iis cccccovncceccbesncobadner usa 186

‘“* and the electromotive force of
WUIOS sce aves evcegesccce dbewe Sees el40
House-lifting ...........- wes bis nwans Ot
How to make paper transparent....135
Hot springs, —. ON saw iccastse008

Human longevity.....++-eeeeeeeee + 281
66 FOMAINA,. 02 ccc cccsccccvccece
= “of the cave of Bruni-
QUEL. ww dsvcbcvenvescse ert ee |
Hydrogen gas a metal jobless eoee ee 181
si the metal... i. cscscecosacs 178
“ Graham’s experiments
with ..... eccccvesccscccecceseces
Hydrogenium...s........+.. cocvcecel Dt

Hydraulic scrapings of the Torquay
Water Maines icsccscccccecccesccld

Ice, new method of making......... 170
‘* asan agent of geological change.256
Illuminations, portable............. 90

Improved mariner’s compass ....+.+ 80
“s photographic paper.......127

“ ualitative filter.......... 212
Increase of weight during combus-

OR Ss Scccvactesvevess actsastaswe 174
Ineradicable writing...........e..0. 135
Indians and negroes, 8S. American. -284
Inverted siphon........... soedeecse OO
Indo-European tele ahaa ccccccceeelO7
Indigo, solubility of......++.++++.+++ 207
Insects’ wings, velocity of during

flight... ccsveveveccs a tania vals 307
India, railways Of... <cee0sess: vein 16

Insulation of the Atlantic cable.....152
Induction coil at the royal polytech- ;
8

Insects, preserving...... taal eeuntss 307
Inclosed crystals in diamonds.......222
Inoculability of tubercle..... dnja'a'v-6 O00
Iodine, estimation of...... subs thie sckae

Iron, smelting, ip a and

purifying Of......cccccee

“- method of producing a black
shining varnish on...... 129

“« ships, process for the preser-
vation of the bottom of..115
« stoves, unhealthfulness of ...272
«and stone, cement for........133
Trrigation, effect of........ ssQavatenaeee
Iron, preparation of pure...........196
ERGO MDTO.b 5 cclacdecscvctadistecewselO0
PATMONINM: coc cccnnccessdgescucsevescl?d
SOY DAMME’ ssiede dé ctcscvuseseciweslBe
HONS CAVEPN 1c os scvccccccsaccceseuche
Lake Superior, copper mines of.....264
Lager beer, analysis Of....++++0000++203

INDEX.

Large DIQ&SE.. «sos hone se sleneeteb tea 55
Level between Red Sea and the Med-
ItOFTAREAT ssi sap.ce se neem 000 0207
Leichtenberg’s experiment and the
mineralogical analysis of rocks..153
Leather, cement for..........00++000130
Lightning, spectrum of.............331
Lithographic researches...........-265
Light of. Uranus. «ss sicnesescesesdnae 330
Lime light, a aay blocks for the. 7
Little-known fibrous plants..... gare
Light, ZITCONIAB...0 6 covcivee aeeld Bream
§ BCHON Of... cccecescccesessse0k4D
«decomposition produced by. .147
‘¢ luminous effects of...........190
$6 house, Gas for... «000 vveresan WO
Lichens, reproductive organs of... ..309
Light- houses, on the glass used for. 81
Lights, ship's. eeecccccces eocwccdcese
Life of American yessels........... 84
Light rolling stock..........eeseeee. 36
Liquefied hydrochloric acid.........226
Life and poate, derivative hypoth-

CSIS Of.esiccacevcses eee ccesee see e208
Light, 2 OR drogen caxeaha oie paar 65
Lining for fire- -proofS....ssessceese 2131
Local attraction...... cmenen’ occceumenee
Longevity, human.....-s.s.e0. sees 281
Locomotive fuel, peat Fi nan ccdbhe - 37
Locomotives, English, durability of.37
Luminous effects of light ........... 190
Luting. wie wv 0e.s ne 6k Ws bea wil eee
Mammals, changes in the distribu-

tion of the large American..... 251
Materials, conducting power of..... 164
Magnetism. er ccccccnccccccuccs eee ee150

socanncces socccccccsencccslle
Matter, elements of.......ccceseaces 185
Mauritius, extinct bird Br ated sie Ee 289
Man in the quaternary period....... 287
Mammoth, tusks of the............. 306
Margueritte? s method of Bmeaitee

SUGAL «nora cconvnctainnde heel
Mattoon expedition, observation of

on the eclipse Of 1985. neccuseee "310
Mammoth, extinction of the..... o- 261
Madder, new dye from.......+...+. +206

Marrow of oe bones, Sanction of

WEE, oo on nons.04a0nn toning § ctelanain
Magnesia blocks for the lime light. .143
Maine, surface changes in.......- 000249
Manufacture of chlorine...........+210

ns BIUCOSE..cvccccccees 199

sed SOBD.. scccce vane eae 200

32 BUZAY oo vcesceccces 19D
Magic diamond.........+-eeeeeeress 82
Marshes, making foundations in....116
Manufacture, peat ........+.+ ccccen Oe
Machinery, heay y modern.....-
Matters, newest coloring ...+++-++++ 82
Machine, the modern ice ........ eee 78
Mariner’s compass, improved....... 80
Mechanic arts, summary of improve:

MeNtS iM... ceceeccecess
Method of roducing upon “iron a

durable bi ack shining varnish,..129
Megalithic monuments ...... cccvece
Mechanical equivalent of heat......190

INDEX. 351
Mines, heat in ....ccecccccscccccoves 75 | Organic remains, veins containing. .250
“’ ventilation of..... SBEtoceesc 76 Origin of bacteriums..........000... 301
Mineral Bpaianene vides alte diststecles s 223 Organ of hearing in molluscs........ 302
Wiis mee rte oa ine citeicnie cle alee dela ee ete 245 | Oscillation of railway carriages..... 23
Mixture, freezing. Means voniee cals sccesols0'.| “Ovarian egg pthe.sieseecds axe cnbaee 300
fPIgOrific 6. se. ewe etaae 169 Oxyhydrogen light.............+...- 65
a of gas and air......... ---. 94 | Oxygen, extraction of from the air.202
Mice, singing......-.++ss0+++00e- see-301 | Oxygen process, NEW....scesecccece 71
Missouri River suspension bridge... 47 | Oxidation of acetic acid....... PA seweeeed.
Milk, composition of in different. Oxygen, determination of free...... 184
aA Aa Ry pe ee eee e302
Moss rubber inking roller...........131 | Paper from shavings and saw-dust. .135
Moncrieff, system of....... SOK Oe M12 S| BINT AN Cie cinteesin'e deeise eae ewe 133
Molybdenum and chromium.........223 Paper, how to make transparent. aecdap
WHGMHO-DUTIGErS...-5---cesescraccess Sa0K 1) MAiSOr/ LUN seca teak ud weis'sls o'cte eats o 110
Moon, height of mountains in the...331 Papers read at the meeting of the
Monuments, aboriginal, in Canada..286 American Association.......... 253
Mountains in the moon....... we ae eOo. Papers on the eclipse, read at the
Mosasauroid reptiles..-............. 255 American Association.......... 316
Moon’s surface, heat reflected from.188 | Paper, transparent............. Secéala
«radiation of heat from the. .187 Pacific railroad time-table,.......... 15
Monstrosities, artificial production Pacific coast, coal fields of the
Joos -cgecnodisaaietionneddnccbped NOTthidvews ste selec sites eee 240
Monckhoven’s new artificial light...176 | Papers read at the meeting of the
Mountains, ascent of high.......... 274 British Association.....ee...--- 256
Monuments, MEPAltHIC....secscecce 304 | Paleozoic rocks of Vermont........239
Molluses, organ of hearing in......302 | Peat for locomotive fuel, seiy eases 37
PODBE so! -l= = ctewsislec nico sisre ew tented aete 302
Naphtha as fuel for locomotives,.... 38 | Perforated implements of the stone
Natives of Vancouver’s island......303 POTIOG Siiecre sales ean see's oe a ---340
Natural selection in the case of Penetration of. armor- plates, “by
WIA cloanccecccdscccdsedeuscuce 283 shells, with heavy bursting
New Thames tunnel............. Se eao charges fired obliquely.......... 83
s¢ oxygen process......... erases 71 Petroleum in the East Indies....... 264
Newest coloring matters..........+. 82 | Pebbles and rock, plasticity of......23
Nebraska, vertebrate remains in... .254 Peat manufacture in Ohio......- picts anor
New AS peisia een cists slelelnciatcieis = ae/eleaiete 231 Photography and Gunnery.......... 129
method of dyeing a fast gray. “207 Photographs with a white surface, ..127
se coloring matter....... Slsisiers cee 206 Phosphorescence of the sea......... 190
“¢ sulphuric acid......... Ratiaieste ec 217 Photographic representations of the
sc dye from madder......... nome Ns PUIS Cree erotaio cereale aie aida aia sis eee 276
~- GID ae bodanoso: Bobo addr occ 134 | Photographic paper, improved...... 127
“ mode of firing gun-cotton,.....124 iioer apy unequal effects of light
“ property of gun-cotton........ 1s Mie SNR Soer Shobha: mic scbecee
Nitro-glycerine, safety........ Staci 732 eich ineale in the drift near Nor-
Nitrogen, preparation of............ 226 WICH ss iva cos dates soe eeeeseseahind 260
Nitrates, test for...........++.000+2-230 | Photographing without a lens...... 192
Nitre, formation Of........scceeeeees 228 Photographs of Nobert’s bands..... 192
Norwegian boxes of felt ‘for cook- Photography — self-prints from Na-
LULL UDASIRSSO CU CIMeS JOROC OS SpA CCaOOk 66 TUTE. ocr ccevciisecceccns ovcrveccss 191
North Pole, best route to NEL Ss cast 250 | Phosphates, nodular..... Se in v6
Nobert’s band, photographs of...... 192 Phosphorus, Dlack. cccvsscccsecwvces 226
Nodular phosphates of South Caro- detection of........0... 230
URGE percinta = taate siete subs cieiaie el cocc2t? fs white.... 2202 er Pee 127
Non-explosive powder.............. 227 Pile-driver and hammer, gunpow-
Nomades, westerly drifting of ...... 304 AEP. asc cvssaeusvnce ode SsaRh ow tele 113
Pile, enlaxide OL: SIVERse. Ge <2 wise oot
gil tf of men eminent in science, Pile, new thermo-electric............ 147
EDR eranuearasbass sts keceticce cs sore I ile, action of ee electro-
NPIS ILAAGAND siete sia. a. us aieta d aists cai alee piers esis oe 262 Motive force Of.....cccscccrevece 148
Observations of the eclipse......... 310 stages their use as gun and blast-
Oceun felepraphy...c.ccscscetevcucs 109 Img powders......+0+- sist wowcccesl2b
Oils, refining vegetable............e- 83 Plants, evaporation by....... Swipe kies 308
Oil, figures..... Wetec ccceceesecccscens 188 (6 FOSSII....ceeccccccccccccseces 257
i RE ee ee Rowe vecs vued 227 Planetary influence on rainfall and
Oroide, how it is made. aUbsccoesusecs 134 teMperature..ccccecseccdssawseveSed
Ordnance, experiments on heavy....117 | Planet, discovery Of A NEWeeevceceee 325
Organisms in Hot Springs.........+! 308 Plasticity | of pebbles and rocks.... "338
Organ, €lectric.......eeeeeseeeeeeees 86 | Platinumin Scotland............... 227

Oregon and Idaho, Flora and Fauna

r@) POOH OHO eee eee eee eee

Poisonous gases, method of detect-

INQ ceccccceeeeecessccsereesssnes

352

Powder, fuel in the form of.........129

Powder, ammonia..... Mavhidith acces e114
Poison of Batrachians.....4......-.300
Poisons, action of........... ewe ave 278
Polarization of the corona.......... 321
peat om PFi8M 7A MEWes i's iv'ee<e sos 146
Portable illuminations ........ sis eee.D
Primordial flora.......... os cebdswhs 307

Practical application of sensitive
GAMER bes ue iiw toca esdatsaad

Proposed ‘tunnel under the British
CURTIN cin s peed slnshwss sete ees SOS

Proof of guns.....-- asuusscatencsces til
Preserving silver-ware........+++++22
Primordial fauna......cccccecceccces 291
Process for preservation of bottoms
Of iron SHIPS. ...ssccccceverceces 115
Process, new OXygen.....+. Sevesccse FA
Preserving SNSOCEBs ssc sno da S ed beeunea?
Prism, new polarizing........+...-- 146
Prism, TOCK BAlb..ccccccccccesecscens 144

Protuberances of the ber: observa-
tions on the........e00-

cvcccces Gee

Proportion of alkalies in plants.....221
Production Of COld....eceeeeseeeeee lI
Preservation of wines..... eager 203
Pulse, photographic representations
OL AG sc sc sais pease rete tdntaet asetO
Pump, centrifugal........+seeseeees 55
Pulsations of man rendered audible
and visible.......+.+- vena ovceed03
Pulse, electricity and the..... dans aelpo
PUPre AVON. s c.acscciiscwcees ccceweseesc196
Purifying water....... sews 2215

Purification of bisulphide of carbon. 200
Purifying SCwAZe.....cccccccccceseedld
Pyrometer, & NEW.e-eecscecccceeeees189
Question, SCEWAZE....ccccccccccceses 22
Quaternary period, man in the...... 287
Quartz, smoke-colored..........++.+264

Railway, Mt. Washington....,..... 22
Railway carriages — wh y do they os-

TIES o'tce's cnn vie Wseiawn dswbeccee 23
Railway, the Channel.,.........-.... 19
Railways of India. ..ossese owes scree 16
Rainfall and temperature, planetary

IUMMIGNCE ON» wise'nh's nwawe se hies ee 327
Radiation of heat from the moon.. 187
Rapid change of gauge........ vocees 5D
Rails, steel....... coccsvecccsescoccce SU
Railway » MAITOW ZAUZE...++eeeeeee - 30
Rail levelling device.......ccccoccce 35
Railroads and electricity........... - 23
WEHS, . AMORA R bid cos crnticwenstaeaer DS

| fest for steel. ccccaccscvcssvtus 32

« steel-capped........ ceccsccces SS

$6 steel-headed..iccsecscnssccscs 58
Reproduction in a fish, singular ‘mode

Opascccevevivesesvsncssesese 0000300
Reptilian remains,.....e.scevccceees 253
Retining vegetable oils........++.+.. 83
Reproductive organs of lichens..... 309
Researches on materials fit for resist-

ing very high temperatures...... 81

Relation between the intensity of
light produced from the combus-
tion of illuminating gas, and the
volume of gas consumed,........ 96

INDEX.

Respiration vs. the somncEaite of
the: DIOOd s 6. insects nan te cvcccccedte
Resistance of roads to traction... . 4
Respiration vs. section of pheumo-
gastric WAT TOR: a> ne thse aa
Reptiles, new fossil... sc coscccccws e200
Respiration, artificial... ... eccccccceensD
Reagent for alkaloids...... V'era'eiis emilee
Reduction of oxides by hydrogen...197
Researchés on resins...... ar tinv pad - -218
Red Sea and the Mediterranean, dif-
ference of level between the. ..267
Researches, lithographic.........+..265
Reptiles, Mosasauroid........0. ree e200
Reproduction of diatoms.......+e+--308
Reptiles, extinct........... eveccece e300
Roads and railways of India........ 17
Rocky Mountains, trend of the......252
coal in the.......243
de Alpine region... .248
Route to the North VPole...... ve0eee2d0
Rocks, mineralogical analysis ions 153
Rock salt Disses -'s'> s one ee sovcccencltt
Roller, moss rubber inkin ooseccccelal
Roy wa Polytechnic, induction coil at

Safety, nitro-glycerine. .......+0.+..132

Salt deposit near Berlin........+.+..227
Safety envelopes.cp...:acsacs saunae - 135
Saline solutions for street watering. 73
Saw-dust, paper from..... Rpts oee1dd
Sacc on resins..... aceeepsopens arses) wale
Scheelite, occurrence of............-262
BOWALC. 00. 0 obs cwveecad aban ae Jouvepes 215
Sea- dobro temperature at great
depths of..... ayes. 5,acbaeigiein ass pean
Sea-doptlis. ia. <ccncoemaers caccsveweclly
Sea, phosphorescence of ‘thes, ee 190
Section of pheumo- gastric nerves ys,
respiration....... eecccccccccese ole
Sea, botéom Of tNG,.<ccsskeussuumane 307
Sensitive flames, practical applica-
WOR Ol fon senes obecesens cevcvecpe
Sea-going ships.........- oscaelwaeeasiie
Sewage question. ....e..seeeeee eocoe Ue
Selection, natural.......... oo > emia uae
Sea basins, depression of....... eoeeedde
Sea- -shores, change of level of......237
Seaweed charcoal......... occcconeselte
Ships, lights....... weccccccccccesees OO
Silvering cast irON....-escceeeeeeees 3225
Silica, new form Of.......-+++. seen ener
Silver, determination of........ ee
Siphon, inverted........-+..«.

- 55
Signalling on board the cable fleet. . 101
Singing Mice....+.+-+eseeeeeseeenees 301
Silver extraction — sistant

treatment..... ceccccccccccs

ats, blue color of, etc. Prof. Bao sa
da ee eee eer eer eeweneereee eoeeeerenee

Sponge, vitality of the. cee
Sponge, the glass-rope..... eovcecece 305
Sliding of car-wheels.....++-+.++ woe 20
Smoke-colored quartZ..s...eeeeeeees 264
Smelting, carburizing, and purifying

TON saa.c intany pases age ewee™ secoes 68
Solar heat as a motive power....- -. 7

South American Indians and Ne-
groes. PT ee Pee Pee eee eee eee eee

INDEX.

Sounds of telegraph wires.........2157
Solubility ot carbonate of calcium. .216

INdIZO,..-ceeveeheesee e207
& sulphur..... Saetas aes 201

Solar acne cee, chemical analysis
of. eee ee eeeeeeeee er eeeete eee eeeeeene 331
Source of volcanic action........... 234

Solar rotation, use of thermometer
in determining............+ ano
Spectra Of ZaseS...+.eseeeeeeeeeee e217
Spectrum analysis..........0+ coveee2l6
phe of lightning SCHR Door acc 331

ot of the aurora, zodiacal
light..... aeeise taicaincsne te eeeee 326
Spectroscope, Zillner’s reversion... .323
Steel rails, their durability.......... 30
Stoves, cast-iron... ates peesdueteau Or
Steel-capped rails............. Saiectae Oe
Stereoscope, the American......... 88
Steam carriages, Fairlie........... - 35
Stock, light rolling....... a aietsis facials 36

Straits fo) een recent surveys in

tissues iecucaple ti to water. ..129
the heating of bodies........... 1 2

Steam generators......s.eseseeeeeeel:
sf eat on hay....... inintelsfatalere aie 1 34
«¢ power on canals.............. 61
Stratography of the Palzozoic rocks
VErMIOD bs acc ssccccccesccsccce
Biren tHe Gilt... cc. nccccseccesas200
Strata, water bearing... .ccecseesee e260
Steel-headed rails......... sais anioin ean! OD
BiONe COMENL LOL .osssccsssccnceece 130
Supersaturation.............. =es0c0nc he
Surface changes in Maine...... 2005 2kD
Sulphurous acid for dissolving bones.226
Substance homologous with Borneo
camphor...... sisesce aecsreccouceclo
BMEZ WANA cece cccascse daar ceicea teen OP
= passage through the. Jaeey ail
BM OLSTHNCO OL TNCsnpeces cna sso cin « 325
‘* observations on the protuber-
RECON Of Me rcebedcens cers ss oc = sour
Suspension Bridge over the Missouri
et Vath amas s'skleiaciaan's 4 6 0:,< 0 0a/eise
Surveys, recent in the Straits of
MIHMPCUIMN sc tinicas sie s'seaecisoe.c ene = 338
System of Moncrieff......... ohipeein 112
Sutro tunnel......... Somraiad accents 57
Summary of improvements in the
mechanic arts, CtC...--ecceeeee +128

TIPMEISE MOUND. ccnicc vacasacncéences -129
Tannin in eo leaves... .231
WENCICONORTADNY pen cubensemesccesces 68
Tests for steel rails......++ a pianie Bao 32
Temperatures, researches on materi-
als fit for resisting very high.... 81
Telegraph wires, sounds of........-. 157

wave time of electric. ...156
Temperature of sea water at great

GOTUNE ccc scuhwsepee gu ceue'aep a LO
Textile fabrics, treating iesdseasessys 133
Tests for sugar Pinodmiee Taupsantue seh scou

" phosphorus......seeeee000 +230

353

Tests for alcoholisewe swodeciccicancwes 290
ae nitrates....... bis dena ci aatarle 229

as Prussian Dlue..+..e..500---229

oh hydrocyanic acid........... 229

sé WOOL 2 sake dicate ttadaaneen. 231

Terra cotta clay, large deposit of... .258
Temperature of the blood ys. respi-

ration...... convecoseses deldvasie'a's 274
PemMpels COMET: swe ai sewweantetacee 325
Telegraph lines and fhe Aurora Bo-

MEAL See atnintalels Datelasnew sta 151

i OCEAN eicenaiawes aianetepies 109
Telegraphs, French military. We wissen 109

se French Atlantic......... 102
Neroxide.of thallinm,2:4ees esesicautets 198
Telegraph, Indo-European....... oe 107

es enterprise ...... satel eat cols = 108
Thermo-electric pile, new........... 147
Thermometer, use of in determin- ©

ing period of solar rotation..... 327
Tides Sthe? ston icicne's ve BE oe paawine 2188
Tinning by moist way...... ciate ele 7224
Time-table, Pacific Railroad......... 15
Tin in the State of Maine..... paielaa a 264
Tomlinson’s theory of boiling.......212
MOPAZc's00 0 6 cticuevew'acler/esivisl ecccccce 227
Torquay water Main, hydraulic

Bcrapingol. .ccrcccossescstoerase 134
Trade routes between Northern In-

dia and Central Asia............ 337
Trade, influence of, on cholera......301
Transfusion of bloOd........sescee 299
Transmission of gases through col-

loid Substances. .csccececseceeess189
Transparent Paper. ...ceccccrece o0ee130
Trend of the Rocky Mountains...... 252
Transits of Venus........... Saisie wees
Traction, resistance of roads to..... 54
Treating textile fabrics.......... «scdoo
Tusks of the mammoth..... Sala 306
Tubercle, inoculability of............300
Turacine..... aieeels sa wcaccccceccacces 204
Tungstate of Barium .......cc.ccee 2
Tunnel, new Thames...... aie hn
«¢ proposed under the British
Channels.cts.i idesesevins 58
os the Suro: cs.tieeccces cswsee OF

es Mont Ceniss....sesscccocdentOe
(DUDES; CASE-ITON.< aiwcn cue deeden teres

Tw ilight and Photography..

Tyndall’s theory of comets

a GISCOVETY.-.cccccccccescese 136

aE on blue color of the sky....138

Uniformity of weights and coins.... 70
Unhealthfulness of iron stoves...... 272
TIAN s sess eee kaeeee un Sieak sae 2

Urea, formation Of.......scecceee 20 c22e
Uranus, light of......sese0 oss covcecdd
Utilization of chrome alum ........200

Vapors, action of light upon....... 143
Vancouver’s Island, natives of.....-303
Vaccination... .sccssevesssbeaus Sewaleen
Velocity of electric currents. éveeuctipe
Vegetable electromotors..... ovceee e166
Velocity of insects’ wings during
flight... ..sccccccecccees eeeeseeeed07
Vertebrates, develo sment.......-..304
Vertebrate remains in Nebraska....254
Venus, transits Of cs scerseusensenens

354

Veins containing organic remains. .250
Vermont, paleozoic rocks of........239
Venezuela, geology of..........+-+-+.266
Very durable cement for iron and
STONE. 20 cecwoveccvere deledeee eee 13d
Velocity of cannon balls............112
Vitality of the sponge..... siwcece ce nd00
Vibrations, electricity applied to
registering.......... evccccecceeslO2
Visual impressions —identity of in
the animal kingdom............
Volcanic action, source of..........234

Water-bearing strata near aerial

England...... ovscccs Ghepstneeence
Wave time of the electric telegraph.156
Water, maximum point of the den-

Sity Of. .....0. tame eacedotwap sent0o
Water-proofing walls.........++.++.123
Well, the frozen... .ccceeecececccees
Taare and coins, uniformity of... 70
Welding compound, ...ccscceseeess

INDEX.

Welding COPPED.. cc cccccccccccccece seek

Wheels, Came: .seccicsocccccectesstana ae
“ sliding of CAL. cccccvcccccce 28
$ . . WOOGOR ..istecbescousesp pani
cc ac

White phosphorus.... ....ccceccceeted

Wines, preservation Of..............203

Wooden wheels .«0s -scsvececncncencés 26

s¢ gas from...... eoccessee encces OF
Woven tissues, shi ere and
rendering impermeable to water of 129
Wool, test for....cccccccacsccecscvereol
Writing, ineradicable..........+.++.135

Zine, pAiMting....+-.eeeeeceeeeeeeeel3IB—— ,

Zinc, extraction of, from ores,......225
Zirconia light......eeecececeeeeeee eld

Zinc, painting ---+-seececeeeeeseeee Lia

Zollner’s reversion spectroscope... .323

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16

GOULD AND LINCOLN,

59 WASHINGTON STREET, BOSTON,

ould call particular attention to the following valasble works deseribed
in their Catalogue of Publications, viz.:

Hugh Miller’s Works.

Bayne’s Workt. Walker’s Works. Miall’s Works, Bungener’s Work
Annnal of Scientific Discovery. Knight’s Knewiedge is Power.
Krummacher’s Svrffevipg fav’ our,

. Banvard’s American Histories. Tie Aimwell Stories.
Wewcomb’s Works. Tweedie’s Works. Cham?veérs’s Works. Harris’ Works,
Kitto’s Cyclopedia of Eiolizal Literature.

Mrs. Enight's Life of Montgomezvy. &itto’s History of Palestino.
Whewell’s Work. Wzyland’s “Works. Agassiz’s Works.

AM ny

Bilis eal
Hugh Miller,

‘3,
pepe ae Discoy., \\ David A. Wens, -
A wrinciples of Zoq) \\\, Armold Guyoe,
Pd Comp*Fative Ana,’ \ Louis Agaggiz,

, W\ C- Th.

Ww
Cyclop- of Eng. Literat.,\\ Robe
K\\\\ Cyclop. of Bible Lit. \\, Kj
\\\ Concord. of the Bible, \

NA\\\\ Analyt. Conc. of Bible, \
\, Jobn Harris,
\\ Peter Bayne

\

BALSA TLS,

Williams’ Works. Guyot’s Works.

Thompson's Better Land. Kimball’s Heaven. Valuable Works on Missions,
Haven's Menta! Philosophy. Buchanan’s Modern Atheism.
Cruden’s Condensed Concordance. Eadie’s Analytical Concordance,
The Psalmist: a Collection of Hymns.

Valuable School Books. Works for Sabbath Schools.

Memoir of Amos Lawrence,

Poetical Works of Milton, Cowper, Scott. Elegant Miniature Volumes.
Arvine’s Cyclopedia of Anecdotes.

Ripley’s Notes on Gospels, Acts, and Romans,

Sprague’s Luropean Celebrities. Marsh's Camel and the Hallig.
Roget's Thesaurus of English Words.

Hackett’s Notes on Acts. M’Whorter'’s Yahveh Christ.

Siebold and Stannius’s Comparative Anatomy. Marcou’s Geological Map, U. &
Religious and Miscellaneous Works.

Works sathe various Departments of Literature, Science and Art

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