SENNA WARS anne A athena ona cin nnn Aen hinbndhhcadeh Lh ae 2 My RRA AR a . ee anna enas SLA aw Gihithe, i en Se tye Yee La My ty PATRAS a ty Za (iy Cth. YY fy ty Zo ges My CIE ty titty LD tj tuyjfyyy) Yj Gp . TR RRR RR AEA SALTS LS ALS WO er NAT tec ugtige: Ue thy tify g New York State Education Department NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 64th ANNUAL REPORT 1910 In 2 volumes VOLUME 1 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1g10 TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE JANUARY 30, 1911 . ALBANY UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK . IQI2 STATE OF NEW YORK EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Regents of the University With years when terms expire 1913 WHITELAW Rerp M.A. LL.D. D.C.L. Chancellor New York 1917 ST CLrarin McKetway M.A. LL.D. ViceChancellor Brooklyn 1919 DanieL Beacu Ph.D. LL.D. - ------- Watkins 1914 Puiny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. ------ Palmyra 1912 T. Gui_tForp SmitH M.A. C.E. LL.D. - —- — - Buffalo 1915 ALBERT VANDER VEER M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. Albany 1922 CHESTER S. Lorp M.A. LL.D. ------- New York 1918 Wittiam NottTincHaM M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. —- —- Syracuse 1920 Eucene A. Puitpin LL.B. LL.D. - --- - New York 1916 Lucian L. SHEDDEN LL.B. LL.D. - - - - -- Plattsburg 1921 Francis M. CaRPENTER - - ------- Mount Kisco 1923 ABRAM I. Etxus LL.B. = --------- New York Commissioner of Education Anprew S. Draper LL.B: Lind, Assistant Commissioners Aucustus S. Downinc M.A. Pd.D. LL.D. Furst Assistant CHARLES F. WHEELOCK B.S. LL.D. Second Assistant Tuomas E. Finecan M.A. Pd.D. Third Assistant Director of State Library James I. Wyer, Jr, M.L.S. Director of Science and State Museum Joun M. Crarxke Ph.D. D.Sc. LL.D. Chiefs of Divisions Administration, GEorGE M. Wi ey M.A. Attendance, JAMES D. SULLIVAN Educational Extension, Wiitt1AmM R. Eastman M.A. M.L.S. Examinations, HarLan H. Horner B.A. Inspections, FRanK H. Woop M.A. Law, FRANK B. GILBERT B.A. Library School, Frank K. WALTER M.A. School Libraries, CuHarves E. Fircu L.H.D. Statistics, H1rram C. CASE Visual Instruction, ALFRED W. ABRAMS Ph.B. Vocational Schools, ARTHUR D. DEAN B.S. ee 7? 73 M7. eee ay or NEw YORK ma mee iN AUT Ee JANUARY 30, IQII 64th ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM VOLUME 1 To the Legislature of the State of New York We have the honor to submit herewith, pursuant to law, as the 64th Annual Report of the New York State Museum, the report of the Director, including the reports of the State Geologist and State Paleontologist, and the reports of the State Entomologist and the State Botanist, with appendixes. St Crain McKeEetway Vice Chancellor of the University ANDREW S. DRAPER Commissioner of Education CONTENTS VOLUME 1 Report of the Director 1910 PAGE PAGE HnGrO Geelong... a Mae a oe eee 5 | X The New York State Museum I Condition of the scieatific col- ASSOCIA HON G7). t5 . ee 83 leChOMS ae een end ie eS 6 | Comparative Sketch of the Pre- II Report on the geologicalsurvey 6 cambric Geology of Sweden ENTE APC COLOR Va tin 4 iia mre eat 6 |: and! New. York... ye yaa Sunmuicialiscologyeh... 02a 17 FKBMP’, tn 3.) so ee 93 industrial ceology 27 2.23. 19. | Notes on the Geology of the Seismologicalistation. 0) 2) 5. 21 Swedish Magnetites. D.H. WNMnaerallo nye, ose) hive wa aa ea « 24 NEWLAND 3.2.44: «<2 eee 107 AL COMbOlLO GY: vaiieie os slurs Neen « 27 | Noteson the Geology of the Gulf {II Report of the State Botanist. 32 of St Lawrence. J. M. IV Report of the State Entomolo- CUARKE. acca. oe 121 ISIE ONY AE a ea BG aI 36 | The Carbonic Fauna of the Magda- V Report on the zoology section.. 42 len Islands. J. W. BEEDE. 156 Wittkepors on) te “archeology Exfoliation Domes in Warren SCCIMOM ase cis We rae el 43 County, New York. W. J. BUMMOlO RW Rice. sen Bllce’ ¢ ole oi 46 MILLER .../.'o..2 ee. 3 187 JANCIS OMOEA NE Ma EN a rare GAR, tesla 49 | Studies on Some Pelmatozoa of The Mary Jemison monument 54 the Chazy Epoch. G. H. WAME 32 Cllollitcehihoras\iwe a sae baiee am ere ae 59 FLUDSONG 0. fcc bes oe 195 NVIETIVERSS eH: a en AO acre ate alan ede O50) Made se dese. ik c eee ee 273 NPXOUNCCOSSIOMS ie seta a astisvaceee ete 66 Appendix I Museum Bulletins 145, 146 1 Geology 145 Geology of the Thousand Islands Region. H. P. Cusuine, H. L. FAIRCHILD, RUDOLPH RUEDEMANN and C. H. SmMyTH 146 Geologic Features and Problems of the New York City (Catskill) Aqueduct.. C. P. BERKEY VOLUME 2 Appendixes 1 (continued), 2-5 Museum Bulletins 148, 152, 153, 154, 151, 147, 150, 144 1 Geology (continued) 148 Geology of the Poughkeepsie Quadrangle. C. E. Gorpon 152 Geology of the Honeoye-Wayland Quadrangles. D. D. LuTHER 153 Geology of the Broadalbin Quadrangle, Fulton-Saratoga Counties, New York. WILLIAM J. MILLER 154 Glacial Geology of the Schenectady Quadrangle. James H. STOLLER 2 Economic geology 151 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1910. D. H. NEWLAND 3. Entomology 147 26th Report of the State Entomologist 1910. E. P. FELT 4 Botany 150 Reportof the State Botanist 1910. C. H. Peck 5 Archeology 144 Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants. A. C. PARKER Education Department Bulletin Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under the act of July 16, 1894 ALBANY, NY. APRIL 15, IQII No. 493 New York State Museum Joun M. CrarkeE, Director Museum Bulletin 149 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE SCIENCE DIVISION INCLUDING THE 64TH REPORT OF THE STATE MUSEUM, THE 30TH REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST, AND THE REPORT OF THE STATE PALEONTOLOGIST FOR ig10 PA ¢ E RACES viv ca nciuvavesduuse "§ ERP a gaa Soi bah & we beeen beh Gs I Condition of the scientific Bee CEN daa alee €6 TS a re 6 X The New York State Mu- II Report on the geological seum Association....... 83 Co ee ee eee 6 | Comparative Sketch of the Pre- Areal geology.......... 6 cambric Geology of Sweden Surficial geology........ 17 and New York. J. F. Kemp... 93 Industrial geology...... 19 | Notes on the Geology of the Seismological station.... 21 Swedish Magnetites. D. H. PEPER ANOY 0 0 dps ene aie os 24 PEA oa te pela ac 107 Paleontology ........... 27 | Notes on the Geology of the Gulf III Report of the State Botanist 32 of St Lawrence. J. M. IV Report of the State Ento- EMRE Eon cis Sues testo y os 121 mologist.............. 36 | The Carbonic Fauna of the Mag- V Report on the zoology sec- dalen Islands. J. W. BEEDE.. 156 VI Bo a che Spe 42 | Exfoliation Domes in Warren Seed oo rteee wee ad Ce 43 ig Bags Yerk.: We 5 Bihnhinge. occ 46 ILLER La Een on knee See es 187 Peaheolory. codk<. esc 49 Studies on Some Pelmatozoa of The Mary Jemison monu- the Chazy Epoch. G. H. Se Neat Cie 54 {UL J, Ses ae ASE Soot ga 195 VII Publications.............. ST ps De eee rae 273 New York State Education Department Science Division, January 16, 19m Hon, Andrew S. Draper LL.D. Commissioner of Education Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith for publication as a bulletin of the State Museum, the annual report of the Director of the Science Division for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1910. Very respectfully Joun M. CLARKE Director STATE OF NEW YORK EDUCATION DEPARTMENT COMMISSIONER'S ROOM Approved for publication this 18th day of January ror! Commissioner of Education Education Department Bulletin Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under the act of July 16, 1894 No. 493 ALBANY, N. Y. APRIL 15, 191! New York State Museum Joun M. Crarke, Director Museum Bulletin 149 SEVENTH REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE SCIENCE DIVISION INCLUDING THE 64th REPORT OF THE STATE MUSEUM, THE 30th REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST, AND THE REPORT OF THE STATE PALEONTOLOGIST FOR 1910 INTRODUCTION This report covers all divisions of the scientific work under the charge of the Education Department and concerns the progress made therein during the fiscal year 1909-10. It constitutes the 64th annual report of the State Museum and is introductory to all the scientific memoirs, bulletins and other publications issued from this office during the year mentioned. Under the action of the Regents of the University (April 26, 1904) the work of the Science Division is ‘ under the immediate supervision of the Commissioner of Education,’ and the advisory committee of the Board of Regents of the University having the affairs of this division in charge are the Honorables: T. Guilford Smith LL.D., Buffalo; Daniel Beach LL.D., Watkins: Lucian L. Shedden LL.D., Plattsburg. The subjects to be presented in this report are considered under the following chapters: I Condition of the State Museum II Report on the Geological Survey III Report of the State Botanist IV Report of the State Entomologist 6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM V_ Report on the Zoology section VI Report on the Archeology section VII Publications of the year VIII Staff of the Science Division and State Museum IX Accessions to the collections X The New York State Museum Association XI Appendixes (to be continued in subsequent volumes). All the scientific publications of the year I CONDITION OF THE SCIENTIFIC COLEECHIGI Since my last report few changes have been necessitated in the location of the museum collections, except for continued progress in the transference of the scientific materials to the storage house and the general preparation of the collections for transfer to and exhibition in new quarters. This work has involved much careful and expert labor in all sections, the selection of choice exhibits, the preparation of groups, models and charts, and in reasonable measure the expenditure of money for expert assistance which the staff can not give. Much of the time which has before been given to the work of scientific research has of necessity been directed into the channels mentioned. In my report:of last year I stated the location of the collections in eight different places in the city’of Albany, in addition to some valuable material in storage in the city of Rochester. These loca- tions remain unchanged. Considerable valuable accessions to all departments of the museum have been made during the year. Their character is given under chapter IX of this report. II REPORT ON THE GEOLOGICAL SURVES ARAL GEOLOGY In the progress of the survey directed toward the execution of the geological map of the State on the topographic scale of 1 mile to 1 inch, a considerable number of topographic quadrangles have been completed and published, with full explanatory details of geological structure. In addition to the completed quadrangles a variety of special maps have been issued in connection with par- ticular geological problems, some of the older of these maps being REPO ke Ob wat Die TOk rOr@ 7 on such geographic base of approximate accuracy as was best available, but all special maps of later years, whether they have covered limited areas, completed county areas or a series of counties, have been based on the topographic unit. A list of all geologic maps of the State, of every description, issued officially or privately, was published in my report for 1908, and the number was there shown to be large, 329 entries being recorded. At least ten items may be added to this number at the present date. I append here a list designed to indicate only the complete quadrangle maps which have been made with special reference to the systematic execution of the State map. In this list the terms starred indicate maps now in press: Alexandria Bay (Cushing) Nunda (Clarke & Luther) Amsterdam (Prosser & Cumings) Olean (Glenn) Auburn (Luther) Ontario Beach (Hartnagel) Buffalo (Luther) Ovid (Luther) Canandaigua (Clarke & Luther) Oyster Bay (Woodworth) Cape Vincent (Ruedemann) Penm Yam Clmther) Clayton (Cushing & Ruedemann) Portage (Clarke & Luther) Elizabethtown (Kemp) Pom entry —(iWemp) sc& Ruede- Elmira (Clarke & Luther) mann) Genoa (Luther) Port Leyden (Miller) Grindstone Island (Cushing & *Poughkeepsie (Gordon) Smyth) Remsen (Miller) Hammondsport (Luther) Rochester (Hartnagel) Hempstead (Woodworth) Salamanca (Glenn) *Honeoye (Luther) Theresa (Cushing & Ruedemann) Little Falls (Cushing) Tully (Luther) Long Lake (Cushing) Watkins (Clarke & Luther) Mooers (Woodworth) *Wayland (Luther) Naples (Clarke & Luther) In addition to these, reports have been rendered to the Director on the quadrangles listed below, which are awaiting publication chiefly for completion in certain details: Batavia Morrisville Caledonia Phelps Cazenovia Syracuse Chittenango On the following quadrangles of the topographic map, areal work is now in progress, as indicated by special reference in subse- quent pages. 8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Albion Lockport Saratoga Attica Medina Schuylerville Broadalbin Mt Marcy Stamford Depew North Creek Tarrytown Utica Central and western New York. In western New York Mr Luther has been engaged in the resurvey of the Erie and Chautauqua county quadrangles, viz, Eden, Angola, Cherry Creek, Dunkirk and Westfield, to bring the detailed subdivision of the various forma- tions into correspondence with that of the maps already published. The field work on these areas is regarded as practically complete and the maps are now being prepared for publication. As noted last year, work has also been in progress on the Batavia, Attica, Depew, Albion and Medina quadrangles. On the Utica quadrangle the work was a completion of that begun the previous summer; the mapping of those parts of the quadrangle then left uncompleted, elaborating the details of those parts covered during the former season, and in carefully collecting the fauna of the region, especially that of the Lowville, Black River and Trenton limestones along the West Canada creek. Within the quadrangle there. outcrop representatives of all formations of the Lower and Upper Siluric systems with the exception et the Chazy) iam. the Little Falls, Lowville, Black River, Trenton, Utica, Lorraine, Oneida-Medina, Clinton, Salina and Manlius are represented. As the dip is southwest the lower formations outcrop only in the northeastern corner of the area, while the uppermost formations are found only in the southwestern portion of the region. In many sections the glacial deposits are heavy and interfere greatly in working out the contacts. | The, extreme northeastern section, being “all that part onet@e quadrangle northeast of the West Canada creek, is covered with sand terraces of sufficient thickness to conceal all the bedrock of the region, except for outcrops of the Little Falls dolomite along Cold brook south of the village of the same name, and a few other outcrops on Buck hill, directly north. The upper 300 feet of this hill is Trenton limestone with the Black River and Lowville lime- stones occurring between it and the Little Falls dolomite. A mile and a half below the village of Poland, the Little Falls dolomite occurs, but a short distance farther south West Canada creek is underlain by the Lowville limestone, which continues nearly to Newport where the Little Falls again appears at the surface, due REPOk 70h Wink DIRECTOR: Oro 9 to the unconformity existing between these two formations. The region south of Cold brook and east of West Canada creek seems distinctly different from the rest of the region, and extends over as far as White creek on the Little Falls quadrangle, where the only outcrop in the whole region is a Lowville limestone quarry. The Trenton and Dolgeville members are not seen and there seems to be little evidence to indicate their presence except for a possible indefinite small thickness of Trenton. The southwestern bank of the West Canada creek is markedly different from the other bank. It is steep and from a point about a mile and a half below Poland gives a continuous outcrop nearly to Newport. North of this point the steep bank is made up of elacial material until a point about two miles above Poland is reached, where the Trenton outcrops by the bridge. Below Poland there are about 31 feet of Lowville in the bank and in the hills immediately bordering the creek. Above this occur from 7 to 9 feet of Black River limestone, which in general forms the top of the lowest terrace. Upon this rests the Trenton lme- stone with a thickness of about 200 feet forming the bordering hills. These are covered with sand, an underlying boulder clay appearing in places and commonly covering contacts. Where the country flattens out on the top of the hills the Utica shale appears and covers all the region to the west and south as far as the Mohawk river and some distance beyond. To the west along Nine Mile creek at a point just west of South Trenton a low fold brings the Trenton up about a foot above the surface of the creek and shows the Trenton-Utica contact. The Trenton also shows at two other points farther downstream, the region between being shales. Southwest of Newport is a ridge of high hills which continues to the west, becoming lower and broader. This ridge is capped with the sandy Lorraine shales, having a thickness of 340 feet at the eastern end. Since there are but 440 feet of these shales occur- ring south of the Mohawk between the Utica below and the Oneida conglomerate above, it might seem probable that there existed at one time on the top of these hills an extra hundred feet or more of the Lorraine shales with a cap of the resistant Oneida conglomerate, thereby explaining the presence of this very prominent and domi- nant ridge, which seems to have been an important factor in deter- mining the preglacial physiography of the region. The thickness of the Utica shale is about 600 feet. This would seem to indicate that the rock floor of the Mohawk valley in this section might be Trenton limestone. ice) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM To the south of the Mohawk a narrow belt of Utica shale occurs up to an elevation of about 550 feet. Above this the black Utica shale changes into the gray Lorraine shale having a thickness of about 440 feet, and forming the northern slope of the southern escarpment. At an elevation of about 1000 feet come the northern outcropping edges of the Oneida conglomerate. This contains also shale and gray sandstone layers, often cross-bedded with interven- ing layers of fissile gray shales. In all there are about 100 feet of this formation. Above the Oneida are 110 feet of Clinton shales, limestones, sandstones, and red hematite ore. The shales, limestones, and ore form the lower part and change upward: into sandstone. The Clinton is covered with 200 feet or more of red Salina shales The lower contact was found in the central southern part of the quadrangle and the upper contact in the southwestern portion. These are the only two outcrops, the region between being covered with thick drift. Above the red Salina, in the extreme southwestern portion only, were found 10 feet of green Salina shales and these were overlain in turn by gray, fissile, shaly limestone and greenish shales aggregating over 70 feet in thickness. The upper limit was covered. One of the bottom layers contained abundant crystal cavities in a black shaly limestone or caleareous shale. The middle portion in one place was a mass of sun cracks, indicating the condi- tions of formation. The top of the Salina is covered with two different boulder clays and in the ridge beginning south of Norwich Corners is found the Manlius. Just beyond the southern edge of the map are the well- known Litchfield waterlime quarries. Eastern New York. Saratoga and Schuylerville quadrangles. The areal survey of the Saratoga region has been carried well toward completion by Messrs Cushing, Miller and Ruedemann. In my last report, on referring to this subject and this region, I indi- cated the importance of a survey which, in view of the public interest in acquiring the mineral water rights of Saratoga Springs by the State, would take the form not merely of a surface study of the rock outcrops and dislocations but involve a subterranean exploration directed to ascertain the relations of the rock strata to the origin and accumulations of the saline waters and the relation of both to the ‘stores of carbon dioxid. “Whis subterranean investigation would involve an expenditure greater than our appro- priations for areal geology will allow. The proposed plan has there- REPORT OF THE. DIRECTOR, 1Q1O fat fore been submitted to the Commissioners of the State Reservation at Saratoga, has met their approbation and, if the means are pro- vided, it may be hoped that the project will be carried into execution. The Precambric rocks of the Saratoga and Schuylerville region have received special attention. These consist chiefly of two types, syenites and rather uniform Grenville gneisses. There is but little Grenville limestone. A comparatively thin band of quartzite which locally is strongly graphitic, is worked for graphite at two localities ; but the Grenville is mainly a white, or whitish, quartz-feldspar eneiss, with pinkish garnets quite like the rock at Sprakers and on the Little Falls quadrangle, and a very common rock in the Gren- ville of the southern Adirondack border. The syenite cuts through it in a series of comparatively small intrusions. In character and in variations much of the syenite is very like the rock at Little Falls. It becomes a coarse augen gneiss at its margins. There are a few diabase dikes which make up in size what they lack in number. The great dike quarried just north of Saratoga for road metal was followed northward for 12 miles to the edge of the quadrangle, and is capable of furnishing an enormous amount of road material. . The Northumberland volcanic plug on the Schuylerville sheet was visited and carefully studied. Quarrying has rendered it much easier of study than was the case ten years ago when Doctor Wood- worth first described it. It has been faulted and a tremendous shear zone cleaves it diagonally from base to summit. The nature of this shear zone leads to the belief that the rock must have been under considerable load when the shearing took place, and that the load has since been worn away. Hence a considerable antiquity for the plug is suggested. It was found necessary for the correlation of the “ Hudson River” shales of the Saratoga sheet to investigate first the Frank- fort and Utica beds of the Mohawk valley. This work indicates that both the Utica and Frankfort stages consist of two different divisions. The lower one of the Utica shale agrees in its fauna with the lower third of the Martinsburg shale of the Appalachian basin and is undoubtedly of upper Trenton age. It is therefore separated from the typical Utica stage as Canajoharie shale. This formation, to which much of the shale along the Hudson and in Albany and Saratoga counties belongs, rapidly thins out westward and does not reach the meridian of Utica. In the lower Mohawk valley the remaining upper division of the Utica shale also differs CEs NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM somewhat in its faunal aspect from the beds in the neighborhood of Utica, but retains about the same thickness and lithological character. The Frankfort shale which, from 300 feet at Frankfort swells to 1500 or 1800 feet in the lower Mohawk valley, has very unex- pectedly furnished faunules at many horizons, although it had hitherto been considered as practically barren. Altogether about seventy species have been obtained, among them an entirely new eurypterid faunule, the first Lower Siluric eurypterid fauna known, except for the two fragments each of Echinognathus and Megalo- eraptus. This eurypterid fauna was found to range through the entire thickness of the Frankfort shale with the exception of several hundred feet at the top exposed at the foot of the Indian Ladder iieiewmiciderberss, wince carry a different fauna. Wheelanen which will be distinguished as Indian Laddcr beds, are also charac- terized by the rapid alternation of shales and thin sandstone with argillaceous limestone beds. The distribution of the ewrypterid fauna in the Frankfort shale is peculiar in that this fauna rapidly disappears westward while the greater proportion of the other fossils continues, but the eurypte- rids continue westward into the Schoharie reentrant of the Helder- berg escarpment. Since the eurypterids are’ associated 7 with immense masses of seaweeds (Sphenothallus latifolium Hall, et al., which have been obtained in very complete specimens, and lend themselves to close study) which also fail in the finer shales to the west, it is inferred that the Eurypterid-Sphenothallus associa- tion was restricted to a sinking and rapidly filling “vorland ” of the rising Appalachian land to the east, or to the littoral region, while the other Frankfort fauna was spreading farther offshore. The eraptolite, brachiopod, trilobite and mollusk elements of the Frank- fort fauna prove that the latter is to be regarded as a direct con- tinuation of the Utica beds as has been generally done. The Lor- raine beds have not been found in the Mohawk valley. During the investigation of the Frankfort shale in the Cobleskill region, evidence was also obtained showing that the Brayman shale, which formerly was referred to the Clinton and later correlated with the Salina, is most probably of Lower Siluric age. Adirondacks. Field work has been carried on by Professor Miller in the North Creek quadrangle where the territory, though fairly rugged, is well supplied with roads and outcrops are gen- erally numerous so that very detailed observation has been possible. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1910 13 About three-fourths of the quadrangle has been covered and, thus far, the rocks are all of Precambric age. A well-defined and here- tofore unnoted outlier of Paleozoic rock (Potsdam sandstone and Little Falls dolomite) has been found just south of the sheet and one mile west of High Street village. The Grenville formation is present to an unusual extent, making up nearly 50 per cent of the area so far studied. Limestone occurs in abundance and with it is associated an extensive mass of horn- blende gneiss. Other common Grenville rocks are: quartzites, gray garnet gneisses, white feldspar gneisses, and graphitic schists. Almost without exception the. Grenville occupies the valleys. No less than four ages of igneous rocks — all younger than the Grenville — have been observed. Of these the syenites and asso- ciated rocks are by far most prominent. The greenish gray rather quartzose syenite often grades into a pink medium-grained biotite granite on one hand and into a gray coarse-grained, very porphy- ritic granite on the other. These syenites and granites have broken through the Grenville in a very irregular manner so that the geologic map will present a decided “ patchwork”’ effect. Large dikes or small bosses of gabbro cut both the Grenville and the syenite-granite series. No less than forty of these dikes have already been mapped and the rocks show but little sign of meta- morphism. Pegmatite dikes are common and they have been found cutting the gabbros in many places. The youngest rocks of the district are in the form of diabase dikes which are known to cut all the other formations, even the pegma- tites. The rocks are generally much finer grained and the dikes are fewer in number and usually smaller than the gabbro. The region has been subjected to rather extensive normal fault- ing and a number of these faults have been mapped. The strike of the faults varies from northeast-southwest to northwest-south- east. The topography is almost wholly dependent upon rock character and structure. Because of several favoring conditions, exfoliation domes (syenite or granite) form a striking feature of the landscape. The glacial phenomena are also of interest. Many glacial striae have been observed and in no case do they vary more than twenty degrees from due north and south. A fine example of a glacial lake (Lake Warrensburg) formerly covered all the lowland area around Warrensburg and had arms which extended for several miles up both the Hudson and the Schroon rivers. Another con- 14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM siderable lake existed in the vicinity of Johnsburg. It has also been quite definitely proved that, before the glacial epoch, the Hudson river did not flow southward across the Luzerne region, but that its course was past Warrensburg and the south end of Lake George and thence toward Glens Falls. Work on the Mt Marcy quadrangle has been inaugurated by Professor Kemp who with Doctor Ruedemann recently issued a report on the Elizabethtown sheet. Mt Marcy lies next west and is a region of complicated and rough topography. So far as this field has been investigated there appears to be at the north a complicated mixture of the anorthosites and Grenville strata, especially the limestones of the latter. The region has afforded interesting con- tact zones with the characteristic lime silicates, wollastonite, garnet, pyroxene and the like. Professor Hudson, who has been working as opportunity afforded on the special survey of Valcour island, reports progress in the execution of a topographic map with 1 meter contours and in the solution of many problems which have arisen most unexpectedly from the study of the latter unit — problems bearing on the greater history of Lake Champlain and its origin, on the special effective- ness of minor physical forces and on the life history of the fossil- bearing formations of which the island is constituted. Southeastern New York. The survey of the Poughkeepsie quadrangle has been carried to completion by Professor Gordon and his report and map are now on the press. In the Highlands district Doctor Berkey has studied three typical areas wit special care and with laboratory aids in an emort to establish satisfactory subdivisions of the older crystalline series. It has been found possible to determine the sedimentary origin of an occasional rock and the igneous origin of certain others beyond reasonable doubt. Many of the strongly foliated gneisses are, however, practically indeterminable. It seems desirable to make these distinctions in the areal work of the Highlands wherever the types are developed on large enough scale. Chemical and micro- scopic studies have been made in connection with this work, and a special study is being made of the Cortlandt series in still greater detail. Portions of the Tarrytown quadrangle and its geology have been reviewed with the intention of securing conformity with the later interpretations of formational relationships. The original field work on that quadrangle was done before some of these relations REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR TOTO 15 had been worked out. The matter referring to the Tarrytown dis- trict is being put into form for publication. In previous reports reference has been made to a cooperative, undertaking with the New York City Board of Water Supply in the elucidation of geological problems encountered in explorations along the line of the Catskill Aqueduct. Our representative in this work has been Doctor Berkey, whose report on studies from the earlier exploratory work On the Geology of the New York City (Catskill) Aqueduct is now printing. During the past year great progress has been made in actual construction in this important engineering work. Many shafts and tunnels penetrate portions of formations that have never before been exposed to observation. The opportunities for collecting data of much value in a study of this region have been exceptional, but immediate advantage must be taken of them. A four-mile tunnel is almost completed beneath the Rondout valley, and similar ones, penetrating the Shawangunk mountains and beneath the Wallkill valley, have reached about the same stage. Smaller parts are finished at several other points farther south. Interpretations that had been made from the evidence of surface outcrops and drill borings are now being exposed to direct com- parison with the facts revealed in the underground workings. These later and final results will be made available in some suitable form upon the completion of the work. Exploration is still in progress on the Hudson river between Storm King and Breakneck mountains. The deepest boring in the middle of the river has penetrated river silts and drift filling to a depth of 751 feet below the river level without reaching bedrock. Inclined borings have been made from shafts at either side of the river and have advanced far enough to cross beneath the center of the channel. Each boring is about 1500 feet long and a survey of the holes indicates that they cross at a depth of approximately 950 feet below river level. It is certain therefore that the preglacial or glacial channel bottom lies somewhere between —751 and —950 feet. The drill cores indicate sound rock throughout. The depths to which water circulation has accomplished extensive solution or decay is a related matter of special interest at several other points. In the Rondout valley the pressure tunnel has encoun- tered several large clay seams, several feet wide, at a depth of 130 feet below present sea level. These seams are clearly fillings of former solution channels in the Helderberg limestones. They indi- 16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cate ready circulation. with tendency to cave development at a depth much below present action of this kind, and appear to give addi- tional support to the belief in former continental elevation of con- siderable amount. In New York city exploratory borings have shown that decayed rock occurs in zones or streaks to depths reach- ins im Tare mstances to more than 500 feet. In the immediate vicinity fairly sound rock may be found. A study of the distribu- tion of these decayed portions leads to the conclusion that they always follow structural weaknesses of the rock, either a contact, @f 4 talllt, OF a crust zone, and that’ the decay to such extreme depth has been caused by a ready circulation of surface waters along those lines at a time when the continent stood at an elevation more favorable for such movements than the present. Incidentally their frequent occurrence throws some light on the question of prevalence of faulting within the New York city area. A fundamental problem of the geology of southeastern New York has to do with the character and history of the basal gneiss, or the Fordham gneiss series, and the relation of overlying beds to it. The tunnels now in process of construction will penetrate some of those portions seldom reached and will add materially to the data bearing upon this question. Exploratory borings have already given indisputable proof of the existence of many thin interbedded limestone layers within the banded Fordham gneiss series proper. Nearly all of those discovered in this way lie beneath a heavy cover of drift and could not have been found except by drilling. This relation of certain limestone beds has been pointed out in former reports, but until recently the abundance of these interbeds has not been appreciated. Surface weathering tends to obscure them on the outcrops and this accounts in part for the difficulty of finding many satisfactory cases in field work. Further study of the rock floor of Manhattan and Brooklyn indicates that the heavy drift cover has materially altered the out- lines of Manhattan island and has displaced some of its streams and connecting channels. The East river, shifted out of its former course by the drift, is one of these. A drift-filled valley through the lower east side in southern Manhattan is more than too feet deeper than the present East river channel. Doctor Berkey’s investigations of the problems which have been brought into the foreground by these various engineering operations have been supplemented by the work of other geologists in the city of New York upon problems of immediate local concern. To REPORT, OF THE DIRECTOR I9OTO 7 Professor Kemp, Doctor Berkey and Doctor Hollick has been assigned the acquisition of such data as will make a satisfactory report on the geology of Greater New York —a work which ought to be of large practical usefulness to architects, engineers and municipal betterments generally in the city of New York. During the season Doctor Hollick has given his attention espe- cially to the geological structure of Staten island both from surface exposures and from the records of underground structure. Classification of the New York formations. The growth of our knowledge and the refinement of our work has made desirable a published restatement of the classification of the geological forma- tions of the State. It is seven years since the last ‘summary state- ment of this kind was issued. There are now about 125 names which have been applied to these formations —a bewildering num- ber, but each has a value which requires exact definition for the intelligent appreciation of our geology. SURPICIAL GEOLOGY In the northern part of the State, Professors Fairchild and Chad- wick have studied the special features of Lake Iroquois and Gilbert culf. The Lake Iroquois altitudes and limits in the region are now approximately determined. In the valleys of the large rivers, as the Grass, Raquette, St Regis and Chateaugay, the Lake Iroquois level is indicated by delta sand plains of vast extent which agree in their summit altitudes. The actual head of the easternmost of these deltas, that on the Chateaugay, was examined. Here the boulder and cobble deposits cover considerable area, and with the correlat- ing lake features show a fairly definite altitude for the Iroquois water at 980 feet, taking the railroad tracks at Chateaugay station as 945. About 3 miles southeast of Russell, on the meridian of Canton, is a series of heavy cobble and gravel bars which have a summit alti- tude of about 835 feet. The Iroquois plane between Watertown and Chateaugay has a rise of about 2.27 feet per mile, in direction northeast, and reaches Covey gulf, the point of escape, with an altitude of about 1016 feet, or about 36 feet over the head of the present channel. The fall of the lake level from the full-height or Rome level to the Covey gulf level was probably not over 15 or 20 feet. This fall might have been by removal of drift or rock, or down-cutting of the channel. — (976) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM A recent Canadian survey has marked altitudes about the region of Covey hill and westward beyond Franklin, which helps to give precise figures for the height of the marine waters. The highest well-developed bar about Covey hill is 523 feet, which is 65 feet over the former aneroid figures. The physical character of shoreline phenomena is alone conclusive argument for the marine origin. Going east from Covey Hill post office, eighteen good bars are noted in the descent of 130 feet, the widest interval being 12 feet. Such uniformity in strength and spacing could not be produced in the fall of glacial lake waters, but it is to be expected in the lifting of the land out of sea-level waters. The remarkable series of close-set bars were followed westward about Covey hill promontory into New York, having a slow fall in summit altitude. This altitude of the unquestioned marine shore lines along the international boundary brings them into the same plane as the Gilbert gulf beaches in Jefferson and St Lawrence counties and removes any doubt as to the sea-level origin of the latter. The rise of the marine plane from Lafargeville to Franklin, Ont., is a little under 1 foot to the mile. Professor Chadwick has directed attention to the several heavy delta sand plains lying in height between the Iroquois and the marine levels. These seem to indicate a stand of water too long to represent merely a pause in the rapid down-draining of Iroquois water across the steep face of Covey hill. They suggest some undiscovered complexity in the glacial lake history which requires further study. | In the Mohawk-Hudson region Professor Brigham has directed his observations to the southern limit of the Mohawk glacial lobe and to its relation to the Hudson valley lobe. The designation, Mohawk lobe, is of somewhat indefinite application, because the lobe was a part of the waning ice sheet and there is no boundary so marked by topographic features, glacial: or otherwise, as to create a sharply definable stage deserving this name. Certain features, nevertheless, point to a reasonable differentiation of a glacier within the Mohawk valley and overlapping to some distance upon the headwaters region of the Susquehanna. On the south the place of bifurcation between the Hudson and Mohawk lobes may be confidently placed at the northern end of the bolder development of the Helderberg escarpment, in the Berne quadrangle west and southwest of Altamont. This was inferred from an inspection of the contours of the map and is abun- REPORT HOP LHE DIRECTOR FOTO 19 dantly borne out in the field. In the southeastern parts of the quadrangle the movement was south. In the northwestern section the direction was nearly west, and in the central and southeastern parts around the village of Berne and toward the hamlet of Con- nersville, the direction of striae is intermediate. There is a sharp alignment of drumloidal forms in the east and north which does not prevail in the intermediate or southwest direction, pointing to the more prolonged and heavy scorings of the Mohawk and Hudson lobes. About one and one-half miles west of Altamont the exposed slopes which were subject either to Hudson or Mohawk movements, show interesting striae ranging from s. 10° e. to west. On one surface are striae s. 5° e. crossed by another set having directions s. 30° to a Sy. Piniother surface has two Sets; ome s..5° to 10° w. the other west. These records point to an alternating or conflicting control by the two movements at the very point of differentiation, as determined by the strong northward end of the Helderberg front. To the westward detailed study 1s needed. There is, however, a significant development of moraines which may in a general way mark the southwest border of the lobe, and may probably be con- temporaneous with the Gloversville moraine. These moraines occur near the headwaters of Cobleskill creek near West Richmondville ; along Schenevus creek from its head to its junction with the Sus- quehanna; along the lower sections of Elk creek valley and Cherry Valley, and along the Susquehanna from Cooperstown to Portland- ville. It is significant that a day’s drive among the strong hills between Cooperstown and Westford led to the finding of but one locality of striae, showing a remarkably continuous sheeting of thick ground moraine for such topography. As noted by Chamberlain in his early work in central New York, the westward limit of Mohawk movements seems to have been in southern Herkimer county not far from West Winfield and Cedarville. The drumlins and drum- linoids with east by west axes are conspicuous between Richfield Springs and Herkimer. INDUSTRIAL (GEOLOGY Report on gypsum. As mentioned in my last report, an inves- tigation of the gypsum deposits of the State was undertaken in 1909 with the view of a comprehensive description of these resources which are widely distributed and of growing economic importance. 20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The investigation has now been brought to completion and its results made available in a bulletin recently issued. The commercial utilization of the local deposits began about a century ago, but the present mining and manufacturing enterprises which they support may be said to be a development of the last decade. In this brief period the annual outturn of crude gypsum has grown from 50,000 tons to nearly 400,000 tons and, whereas the product was formerly marketed in unmanufactured condition, or at most simply reduced to powder at the mines, it is now mainly con- verted into calcined plasters that require refined mechanical treat- ment and correspondingly extensive plants. With the expansion of the trade many changes have taken place in the mining field, par- ticularly the opening of very productive territory in the western part of the State where the gypsum is better adapted for calcina- tion and the adoption of improved methods of extraction. The whole industry, thus, has taken on a new phase which has not here- tofore received adequate attention. Review of mines and quarries. ‘The statistical canvass of the mines and quarries of the State conducted by this office, showed that a general improvement in the industries was manifest during the past year. The aggregate output of the mineral materials reached a value of $34,914,034, a gain of more than $5,000,000 over the total value reported for 1908. Though it fell somewhat short of the record for the industries, it evidenced their strong position after a period of very great depression, and their capacity for further growth. About thirty-five different products were represented in the total. The largest items, naturally, were clay and stone materials. though iron ores, cement, salt, natural gas, petroleum, gypsum and talc were produced in important quantities. It may be noted that the products are valued for the purposes of the statistical report in their crude form, so that the totals are not to be regarded as a full measure of the contributions made by the mineral industries as a whole. Field work. Though no extended field work has been in progress within the past year, occasional trips were made, as oppor- tunity offered, to observe new developments or discoveries in certain districts, of which there was need for definite information. In southeastern New York some of the old iron mines of Colum- bia and Dutchess counties were visited and it is hoped in the near future to give the deposits of this section further study. The dis- trict is of great historical interest, having supplied the first ores used for iron manufacture in the State and long holding a promi- REPORT, OF THE DIRECTOR TOTO Ppl nent place among the mining regions of the country. There has been practically no production for the last twenty years; but with the recent improvements in the conditions surrounding the iron indus- try of the East, a revival of mining in this section seems not unlikely. No detailed study of the geology and ore occurrences is available at Peesent, the literature is limited to the brief reports by Putnam and Smock which are mainly descriptive of the individual mining operations as conducted at the time of their visits (more than twenty years ago) and to one or two brief articles since contributed to the scientific press. Recent exploratory work in the Adirondacks has added to our knowledge of the magnetic ores.of that region, in particular those of Mineville and the vicinity of Arnold Hill. In the latter district some apparently extensive bodies of magnetite that had escaped the attention of mining companies formerly active there, have been uncovered. The explorations are to be continued until the import- ance of the deposits may be accurately measured. Se LO MOLOGICAL STATION The Bosch-Omor1 pendulums which are installed in the basement of the State Museum have been maintained in good working order throughout the year. Such interruptions as occurred were neces- sary to the proper care of the instruments. In their present sur- roundings where the air becomes very moist during the summer months they are very liable to injury from rust and consequently require frequent attention. The equipment has been improved by the addition of a large clock which is regulated every hour by standard time received over the Western Union wire. Hitherto the connection of the instrumental time clock could be made only by indirect comparison with the local service so that there was always an element of error in the records, amounting perhaps to as much as a minute. With the present arrangement the error can not exceed a few seconds at most, which is well within the limits of accuracy for registration in machines of, this design. The number of earthquakes recorded at Albany for the year end- ing September 30, 1910, was 23, as compared with 19 in the pre- ceding year. A total of 77 disturbances. has been observed since the instruments were installed in March 1906. Despite the fact that the records indicated a relatively high frequency for the year, in excess of that hitherto noted at this station, there were very few macroseisms and only a small number which afforded well-defined 22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM records with the phases so differentiated as to be of service for pur- poses of calculation. For the most part the shocks showed weak movements and were of uncertain origin. In agreement with these observations attention may be called to the comparatively few destructive earthquakes that have been reported by the press, whereas the few preceding years were memorable for the number and violence of such disturbances in various parts of the world. An exchange of records has been maintained with other stations which are so situated as to make a comparison of the data mutually desirable. Brief notes on the observations have also been communi- cated to the press from time to time. Particulars of the year’s records are here given. For them amber pretation it may be said that the Albany station is equipped with two Bosch-Omor1 horizontal pendulums, one set along the meridian and the other east-west. The weight of each pendulum, including arm, is 11.283 kilograms and the distance of center of gravity from rotating axis 1s 64.6 centimeters. Their period is maintained betweenmene limits of 25 and 30 seconds. A multiplying ratio of 10 is used. There: is no artificial damping. Albany is situated in latitude nm 42° 30 6 , longitude w. 72° 45.18 2) Phe base ot) themueemie ments lies 21 meters above sea level. RECORD OF EARTHQUAKES AT ALBANY STATION, OCTOBER: 1, O00) to SEPTEMBER 30, IQIO Standard time Beginning Beginning Maximum DATE preliminaries | principal part Maximum End amplitude 1909 il, aoa, Io, fal, Jol, al, Il, sa, mm. October Zo... 2... Wh Of Ty it (ae Ge Abie Dp, Wik SS BO is Wie 2 OctoberiBl 0304.5 6; Fea O MAP EVI: 5445 A.M BAS AY MI © 55 Ame 3 November Io...... Mage 3 Ol VAN NGS Mil (tece Meat ee I 48 A.M 2a AO MACE Ts 2 December 9...... Fre ao Oe ee Ein: YAO MEAS IVE aleiteks SY eer nth ar cae I + A.M. I as snl ‘tea » E| sal 1910 oor ay hi | "PRT oF NAMIdty eel As. .-4|| 10 eO8) Hac 6 16 A.M. OQ wp Aw 8 OO Ay me 20 ee. DA oreo biden te 3 57% AwM: 4 08 A.M. 4 I108A.M ar No ite 30 UINTATN DBs cus ston) 2 DO DE IML ai ge cadena aie chyatheninl| hr taskae cae es tee RAT Be Ae HONE 2 February 28....... 4 16% P.M. 4 29 P.M. A Bit 12 MIE SO. By wit, ri Wace ZON o 2 BOE NG I OZ P.M. i OA 1D, wt, it ANY Ds Wt I Marcarstotn ne 207) P.M: Pome ai 220 PSNI caby eae 4 WAY AL new er 7 TAOL PAM. 7 48k P.M. 132) 1, ite 8 + P.M. I MASTS, eas ce 3 I5% A.M. 3 34% A.M. 2 BS Aa ity 0) JA Wii. 3 May 20. 7 16% A.M. 7k ging? leas ONS BNT IPSN RUN RE ose AB Go Se AWE 1% MAGS yee ce TZ. O20 PAGING, | 2 On, AT 2 eS y Alenia «ene meso) weenie 14 NRGIETIO® 3 oS aoe Te HAA inept hire ecto oto A (9) AAG We A + A.M. 6 MME aso ene Ag Tie eeg e401. CHEMIN As meneneee Saeco 112 BY). TD WMie Te) 20 oe Penis PY June 29. Bi Aer PAIN MMe Peles eu see aed eas ey FS ING iN A BS INE Wily iL Wge220.. ls 6 384 A.M. fo) AS) IN ht MO) No RM We BOP INS RG I WIV 2 oo ln ree be Zi eo cee) NON Del He re ees ce Sait eam moan Hobs AN Ag TAO a ACENT a MUO As oe rahe sae LL 52% PM. | IL) 507 8PM. |. 12 00% P.M. ite As “Plann, | 3 August 4 8 39 P.M. 8 51; P.M. 8 5234 P.M. OF AO SPM. 20 AM OMSE ET. bs, co) Tl ZOF eA IM el CAS h oe AMIViE elpeiTan a OlmwAIVis geo peor ap eTe 2 September 23...... LO S8F PM | TO) Sa) TPG 400, (54. oP. Mie ||. A On Pane. I REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9Q1O De October 20. The record of a distant earthquake, probably origin- ating 5000 miles or more away, but not identified with any known disturbance on land. | 7 October 31. Tremors showing fairly defined phases, with an indicated source 3000 miles distant. North-south component slightly larger than the other. Possibly a Mexican disturbance. November 10. The time of beginning uncertain and perhaps earlier than indicated, as the first motion develops insensibly from the unbroken line. No tracing on the north-south instrument. Epi- center not known. December 9. Phases of record undecipherable. The wave mo- tion 1s preceded by tremulous lines which continue for a long time. January 1. A fairly strong earthquake, apparently originating about 2000 miles from Albany, perhaps in the Caribbean region. Press dispatches later reported a disturbance in Yucatan on the same day but without information as to the exact time. taonwary 22. The heaviest quake of the year indicated on: the machines, with a maximum amplitude of 30 mm and continuing for more than an hour. It originated in or near Iceland where severe shakings were reported at 7.45 a. m. local time, which 1s close agree- ment with the Albany record after allowance for longitude and period of transmission. January 23. A wavy line, giving doubtful readings. February 28. Very faint at first, with no decided wave motion for a considerable interval. March 30. ‘Tracing of a very distant quake. May 4. The beginning was probably earlier than indicated. This appears to have been the shock which destroyed Cartago, Costa Rica, the only notable earthquake disaster of the year. The record does not give a true measure of the disturbance, which was extremely damaging and violent. May 13. A characteristic tracing with moderate wave motion. Origin from 4000 to 5000 miles distant. May 20. This seems to have originated within a relatively short distance, perhaps near Iceland. June 16. A shock of moderate size, without any clear indications of its source. Slight tremors were reported in certain parts of Spain at about the same time. The north-south component much smaller than the east-west. The different phases are poorly distin- guished. 24 NEW -YORK STATE MUSEUM June 29. Two microseisms of which the beginnings are uncer- tain. The records of June 17 and July 3 are likewise of this class. July 6. The time indicated for the beginning may really belong to the second preliminaries. North-south component the stronger. August 4. An earthquake of considerable intensity, showing only a slight movement in east-west direction. It had the appear- ance of a West Indian disturbance, but may have been submarine. The origin was about 2000 miles away. 3 August 11. Smaller but otherwise very similar to the shock of August 4. September 23. Slight oscillations gradually increasing to a maxi- mum and traveling along the meridian. NENE RoE OGM The work of the section of mineralogy has progressed along sey- eral-lines. In addition to short papers published during the year the work of investigating the recent mineral occurrences of New York city and vicinity has been inaugurated. . The card catalog of new crystal forms of minerals, mentioned in the last report, has now been published under the title “ A List of New Crystal Forms of Minerals.” 1 This list, which includes 364 forms, recorded since the publica- tion of Goldschmidt’s “ Index der Krystallformen der Mineralien,” divided among 251 mineral species, is now rendered available to investigators in mineral crystallography. There have been added to the collections several suites of mineral specimens, of which the most important are: I A series representing the more recent Canadian occurrences. This was acquired by exchange with the University of Toronto and contains notably a well-crystallized specimen of barite from Two Islands, Nova Scotia; a large and handsome specimen of kermesite, in well-defined crystalline aggregates on stibnite, from West Gore, Nova Scotia; fine representative specimens of native silver, niccolite, erythrite and smaltite from Cobalt, Ontario; and a small but characteristic specimen of the recently described occur- rence of pyromorphite from Moyie, British Columbia. 2 Among the rare mineral specimens from Norway and Sweden, presented to the museum by the Assistant State Geologist, 1 School of Mines Quarterly, tg10. 31 :320. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 25 the following species were not previously represented in the col- lections : Native lead from Langban, Sweden; the larger of the two speci- mens is exceptionally fine, presenting a surface of metallic lead femem by 7 cm in extent. Melanotekite from Langban, Sweden; a characteristic specimen @v tis rare: mineral. Pinakiolite from Langban, Sweden; a large characteristic spect- men of this rare manganese borate. Broggerite from Satersdalen, Norway; a rare crystallized variety of uraninite represented by a well-formed crystal 9 mm in diam- eter, Aeschynite from Iveland, Norway; a massive specimen of this rare niobate. 3 A representative series of minerals from the pegmatite exposed at Kinkel’s quarry, Bedford, Westchester co., was col- lected during the past summer. ‘This accession contains a fine mi- crocline crystal, 19 x 8x 7 cm, which shows with clearness twinning according to the Baveno law. Many smaller crystals, some of them developed with almost diagrammatic regularity, form part of this suite. Several specimens of cyrtolite, which has been described from this locality by Luquer,’ add value to this series, some of them being coated with distinct crystals of the relatively rare min- eral autunite. From a specimen of clear rose quartz two perfect spheres, 13 mm in diameter, have been cut, showing the asterism noted in connection with this occurrence by Manchester. Calcites of New York, by Mr Whitlock, the monograph on this subject which has been mentioned in two preceding reports, has been published as Museum memoir 13. The aim of this work is to discuss the problem of the influence of genetic conditions upon the crystal habit of calcite by means of a close and detailed com- parison of the habit of a number of calcite occurrences. within the limits of New York State with special reference to the genetic con- ditions governing the formation of the crystals comprised in these occurrences. The summary of the results of this study indicate a consistent recurrence of closely related crystal forms in three groups of occurrences, in each group of which the governing genetic con- ditions are similar, notwithstanding the fact that the occurrences of the group are in most instances widely separated geographically. ‘Tuquer, L.'Mcl. Am. Geol. 1904. 33:17. 26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM With a view to rendering a work on so specialized a subject more intelligible to the general scientific reader and to gather together for reference the data available for the general study of the problem, the opening section of the monograph, consisting of 54 pages, is devoted to a theoretical discussion and explanation of terms. This comprises a brief account of the previous crystallographic work done in connection with New York calcite occurrences; a general bibliography of 176 titles covering the crystallographic literature of calcite; and a short discussion of the mathematical relations and formulas fundamental to the study. Under this latter head appears a list of the 313 well-established crystal forms of calcite, including those recorded for the first time in the body of the text, and a list of 115 doubtful or uncertain forms. A gnomonic projection of the above 313 crystal forms constructed on a spherical radius of 7 cm and measuring 100 cm by 90 cm is inclosed in a pocket. This has already proved of considerable service in working out the problems connected with the identification and depiction of calcite crystal forms. In this portion of the work is also included a diagram by the use of which the face outline of any crystal form of calcite may be readily drawn and by this means a model of it constructed in paper or cardboard. The main body of the work is devoted to a detailed description of the calcite crystals comprised in the twenty occurrences discussed. These occurrences are as follows: Rossie, Antwerp, Sommerville, Sterlingbush, Lyon Mountain, Arnold Hill, Mineville, Chilson Lake, Crown Point, Smith’s Basin, Glens Falls, Saratoga, Fayette- ville, Union Springs, Howes Cave, South Bethlehem, New Balti- more, Catskill, Hudson and Rondout. In all about 500 crystals were studied and about one-third of that number were measured. Types, based on crystallographic and genetic differences, are distinguished in the case of most of the occurrences, in one instance (Rondout) as many as nine types being recorded from a single occurrence. Throughout this portion of the work the genetic conditions governing the formation of the various types are discussed and the genetic relations of the types included in each occurrence are studied in some detail. The crystallographic combinations discussed in the text are shown in 25 plates and include 136 figures. A synoptic table of distribution of forms shows too forms recorded on New York calcite, of which 11 are new to calcite. The II new forms do not include those previously recorded by the writer REPORT OF (THE DIRECTOR 1910 27 in his published preliminary work on the Lyon Mountain and Union Springs occurrences. PALEONTOLOGY Monograph of the Eurypterida. This work, referred to in previous reports as in preparation, is now on the press. To indi- cate the general purport and scope of the work the preface to the volume is here appended: While the senior author of this work was engaged in the prepar- ation of the monograph of the American Devonic Crustacea, which constituted volume 7 of the Palacontology of New York (1888), the forms of the Eurypterida there presented for consideration led to the impression that it would be a service to paleontology to restate im detail the structure of this unique group of extinct creatures. The Siluric rocks of New York had long been so profuse in these remains that the material was not wanting for such analysis and the late Professor James Hall, who in 1859 had given the most inti- mate account of the eurypterids known up to that time, concurred in the belief that the thirty years which had then passed would, with the aid of accumulated data and in the light of the contributions made by other writers, afford new facts worth recording. Not long after this Gerhard Holm published his very remarkable analysis of the structure of Eurypterus based on specimens from the Baltic Siluric and on the appearance of this exhaustive memoir it seemed that the anatomy of the group could hardly be supplemented except by the estimation of specific and generic differences, and the study of the habitudes of these animals. Notwithstanding, as early as 1895 I began the assemblage of materials looking specially to a revision of the New York and American eurypterid faunas. The col- lections of the State Museum were already pretty well supplied with representatives from the well-known localities at Buffalo and in Herkimer county and now these collections have been vastly ampli- fied, first by repeated acquisitions from the Herkimer county local- ities during the past fifteen years, again by the close study of all outcrops of the Eurypterus beds along the line between Herkimer county and Buffalo which has progressed in connection with the field work in areal geology, then by the courtesy of the trustees of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences who in 1898, by special vote, placed at my disposal the extraordinary assemblage of speci- mens from the Buffalo cement quarries which is known, from the name of its principal contributor, as the Lewis J. Bennett collec- tion. Soon thereafter followed the discovery of the Eurypterus- bearing black shales at Pittsford, Monroe county, which were brought to light by the work of enlargement of the Erie canal in 1895, the species of which were described by Mr Clifton J. Sarle in our reports, from material now in possession of the State Museum. To this notable addition to our knowledge has been added in years still more recent the new fauna in the dark shales of the Shawan- 28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM | gunk grit at Otisville, Orange county, an assemblage of eurypterids remarkable for its profusion of immature growth stages. This fauna, lying far to the east of all previously known occurrences of these creatures, was described in a preliminary way by the writer. Still more recently, indeed since the preparation of this book was believed to be completed, the field investigations of Doctor Ruede- mann have brought to light a large and new fauna in the Lower Siluric (Frankfort) shale rather widely disseminated in the lower Mohawk valley; this constitutes the very earliest assemblage of these merostomes in conditions which indicate that they formed a colony of long local duration. , The collections which have thus been brought together from the productive localities mentioned for the preparation of the present treatise have been really great; indeed they represent some thou- sands of specimens and it is quite within reason to say that no series of the Eurypterida of equal size and variety has ever before been assembled. It is quite as true that no equal area in the world has proved as fruitful in the quantity and diversity of these organisms as the State of New York. Through the courtesy of many corre- spondents and museums much material from outside of New York has been placed at the demands of this work: the species of the Kokomo waterlimes of Indiana; of the Cambric Strabops of Missouri; the Siluric Megalograptus of Ohio and the Carbonic Hastimima of Brazil and New Brunswick; in all, I believe, an limeeapled) attaye@l tnesesextimel aracuimids. \ The work of elaborating these earlier studies and expanding them into this fuller form has very largely depended on the aid of Dr Rudolf Ruedemann who has brought to the work keen analytical powers, a broad grasp of its problems and an enthusiastic assiduity. I fully realize and gladly express my obligation to this assistance and desire that the interested reader accord to my coworker ade- quate acknowledgment of his efficient part of this work. The treatise itself seems to carry its own justification; aside from the close analysis of structural details, there are chapters on ontog- eny, phylogeny, on life habits and conditions as well as on organ- ization which, though possibly not beyond criticism, are at least informing and constitute an advance of knowledge. To the following individuals and institutions the authors have been indebted for aid: The Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, through its board of trustees and its superintendent, Mr Henry R. Howland The American Museum of Natural History, through Dr E. O. Hovey and the late Prof. R. P. Whitfield The United States National Museum, through Drs R. S. Bassler, FE. O. Ulrich and David White The Smithsonian Institution, through Secretary Charles D. Wal- cott Columbia University, through Prof. A. W. Grabau and Jesse E. Hyde REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR TOLO 29 Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, through Dr Sam- uel Henshaw | The Peter Redpath Museum, McGill University, through Dr Frank D. Adams Dr E. M. Kindle, Washington Prof. Stuart Weller, Chicago Dr Mark E. Reed, Buffalo Mr Irving P. Bishop, Buffalo Dr August F. Foerste, Dayton Mr Fred Braun, Brooklyn The illustrations in the work are from drawings skilfully ren- dered by George S. Barkentin; many of them, especially the restor- ations and stages of immature growth, are based on Doctor Ruede- mann’s sketches and camera drawings. The eurypterid colonies of the New York Siluric are very dis- tinctly localized and of them we know two at the bottom of the Salina series or beneath the salt beds and two at the top of the series. These colonies were doubtless partly breeding pools in brackish waters, partly more open basins, restricted in extent by the limitations of favorable physical conditions. Colony O, or the Otisville basin, lying far eastward of the rest and on the borders of the Appalachian region, is embedded in an almost unlimited repetition of thin black shale between layers of heavy sandstone of the Shawangunk formation (Salina stage). In the construction of railroad improvements the rock wall here was broken down for ballast and while this work was in progress the eurypterid remains were detected by Doctor Ruedemann. From this time until the completion of the construction work referred to Mr H. C. Wardell was almost continuously engaged in acquir- ing these fossils and when the work was done the rock exposure was left with a vertical face, so that no further product is now available. In this eastern region of New York State the Salina formation is without salt deposits, but the Otisville basin doubtless antedated these deposits in central New York and is assignable to an early part of the Salina stage. Colony P, or the Pittsford pool, is embedded in a black shale for- mation which has never been exposed in any natural outcrops. As we have observed, the rock was first brought to light by excavations made in the deepening of the Erie canal in 1895 and the outcrops were soon after covered by the riprap construction of the canal lin- ing and so remain. Extensive collections of material were made by Mr Clifton J. Sarle; these were subsequently increased by the work of Messrs D. D. Luther, H. C. Wardell and Fred Braun. The op- portunity of further acquisitions from this fauna rests with the fu- ture and depends on possible new excavations in the progress of public improvements. Colony H, or the Herkimer pool, has been long exploited. It lies above the horizon of the salt and its localities are in the vicinity of Jerusalem Hill, Clayville, Sauquoit and Waterville. The most 30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a productive parts of the region have been the Wheelock and Schooley farms near Jerusalem Hill, though here as elsewhere actual out- crops of the waterlime are few. Experience has shown that the exploitation of the fresh rock does not afford eurypterids in satis- factory preservation, because of its blue-gray character. Exposure not only reduces this to a light gray but aids the fissility of the rock and the broad, flat surfaces of the fossils also help to induce cleay- age planes in the matrix. Exposure of a few years to the weather aids but little. The experiment was made of taking from the out- crop a good many cords of fresh rock which were left exposed for a period of five years, but the result in the particulars referred to was wholly unsatisfactory. Therefore the supply of these fossils has come from weathered slabs distributed over this region. Miles of stone fences have been inspected and many rods of them taken down and rebuilt. Some of the most productive material has been found in the foundations and cellar walls of buildings and in one instance the foundation wall of a large barn has been removed without dis- turbing the building, the abstracted rock being replaced with con- crete as the work proceeded. Many hands have helped in the acqut- sition of this material: Messrs D. D. Luther, R. Ruedemann, C. A. Hartnagel, Jacob Van Deloo, H. ©. Wardell, Fred Braun andthe writer, and while it may be difficult at present greatly to enlarge these extensive collections, still they are only an index of the profu- sion of these forms of life in this pool. Colony B, or the Buffalo pool, appears to have been quite closely confined to the quarry beds of the Buffalo Cement Company in the northern part of the city of Buffalo. It is from these quarries that has come the majority of the specimens now widespread through the museums of the world. Formerly such specimens were available to any collector, but a few years ago the president of the company de- termined to place all specimens uncovered in the progress of quarry work in the possession of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences and by virtue of this laudable act that society possesses in the “Bennett Collection” a very remarkable array of these remains, which are specially noteworthy for the prevailing large size attained by the individuals. At the present time few Eurypterida are ob- tained from this historic locality and there is reason to believe that the boundaries of the pool have been approached, though remains of these creatures are found scattered at this geological horizon as far west as Bertie, in Ontario, the locality from which this water- lime formation takes its name. Like the Herkimer pool, that at Buffalo lies in the Bertie waterlime above the salt. Colony S, or the Schenectady basin. This recent discovery (1910) of eurypterids in the Frankfort shale (Lower Siluric) is comparable to their occurrence at Otisville. These remains, usually in fragmentary condition, abound most freely in fine-grained black shale intercalated between thick calcareous sandstone beds locally known as “ Schenectady bluestone,” but they also occur in the sandy REPOR® OF THE DIRECTOR: 1Q1O 31 passage beds between the two. These sandy shales are full of or- ganic remains, partly of the supposed seaweed Sphenothallus latifolium Hall and partly of what appear to be large unde- fined patches of eurypterid integument. In the black shales the eurypterid remains are rarer but their surface sculpture is excel- lently retained, and here their organic associates are Climaco- meeeis ety picalis and Lriarthrus becki. -As. a result of imperfect retention of these eurypterids in the rocks where they most abound and their sparseness in the shales which have best preserved them, we are still left in ignorance of ‘the full composition of this assemblage, but it is safe to say genera, species amd individuals were abundant at this early period and the evolu- tion of distinctive characters which we have heretofore recognized only in a later period had progressed to so sharp a differentiation, that we are compelled to carry back farther in history, some of the commoner generic designations. These remains in the Frankfort shale are distributed through fully 1500 feet of strata off a northeast- southwest coast line in an area of maximum deposition and it is difficult to conceive that the physical conditions of the habitat of these merostomes were those of an inshore pool; they were rather those of a purely marine basin where sedimentation went on rapidly in an appalachian depression. Hence among our assem- blages of these creatures this occurrence is without parallel in res- pect to long endurance, while in the nature of the habitat it is com- parable to that at Otisville. All other occurrences of Siluric eurypterids in New York have been desultory and indicate no intercommunication between the pools or colonies mentioned. Monograph of the Devonic Crinoidea. This work is progress- ing and the addition of new material has somewhat broadened its scope and usefulness. Its advancement is necessarily slow because of the inability of its author, Mr Kirk, to give his consecutive attention to it, but the field is being gradually covered fully and the work should result in a useful addition to the paleontology of New York. Collections. Considerable collections of fossils have been made in the field, particularly from the Clinton formation of Oneida county, for the purpose of determining the rational position of this formation and fauna in the rock series. Excavations in the Agoni- atite limestone of the Marcellus division have resulted in procuring a ton or so of material illustrating the large goniatites and other cephalopods of that horizon, of which the museum collections stood in need. This work has been done by Mr Hartnagel. Doctor Ruedemann has carried on investigations into the nature and rela- tions of the shale formations of the lower Mohawk and upper Hud- son valleys by extensive collecting throughout this region. s) Ny NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM . ~ III REPORT OF THE SIALE BOTANIS! The following is a summary statement of the progress and results of the work of the State Botanist for the past year. Specimens of plants for the herbarium have been collected in the eastern, northern and western part of the State. They are from the counties of Albany, Chemung, Columbia, Essex, Greene, Livingston, Rensselaer, Saratoga, St Lawrence, Steuben, Ulster and Warren. The number of species of which specimens have been added to the herbarium, including those collected and those contributed by cor- respondents, is 269. Of these, 79 species are new to the herbarium and 23 are considered new to science. The new species are all fungi. One hundred and seventy-six persons have contributed specimens. This number also includes those who sent specimens for identifica- tion only, if the specimens were collected in this State and were desirable additions to the herbarium. There were made 2419 iden- tifications of specimens sent by correspondents or brought to the office by inquirers. Both the number of persons for whom identifica- tions were made and the number of identifications are decidedly larger than in any previous year. For 1909 the corresponding numbers are 152 and 1717. This indicates a gratifying increase in the general desire for botanical knowledge. Specimens of five species of Crataegus have been added to the very large number already represented in the herbarium. Four of these are new to our flora. Specimens of five species of mushrooms have been collected, tried for their edible qualities, and approved. These make the number of our New York edible species and varieties now known 205. Life-size colored figures and full plain descriptions of the five added species have been prepared. One species has been found to be remarkable for its sudorific qualities. If eaten freely it causes profuse perspiration, but no other inconvenience. Its flavor, texture and digestibility are faultless, but it should be considered medicinal rather than edible. In pursuance of a previous plan, a monograph of the New York species of Hypholoma has been prepared. The genus includes sey- eral sections which, while agreeing in the common character of having a marginal veil, are in no other respects quite unlike each other. ‘This, coupled with the fact that in any one group closely REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO ae related species are found, makes a revision and collation of the New York species of the genus especially desirable. Having been informed that the raspberry patches of the fruit growers in the vicinity of Marlboro, Ulster county, were suffering from a disease, a visit was made to that place in July and some of the diseased plants examined. They were found to be principally Pivected by a patasitic fungus, Sphaerella rubina Pk. The fruiting canes put forth their leaves and blossoms as usual and com- mence to develop their fruit, but before it ripens it withers and dries on the branches. The dryness of the season doubtless aided the destructive tendencies of the fungus and the loss was severe. The diseased canes bore patches of the fungus but it had already dis- tributed its spores, which, according to previous observations made on the type specimens, mature early in the season, even in April and May. In consequence, the young canes showed brown or black- ish patches on the lower part, in some cases near the ground, thereby showing that they had already been infected and in their turn would probably bear a crop of spores next spring. It would seem to be possible to check this disease by spraying the young shoots with fungicides, but the spraying should evidently begin as soon as the young shoots are three or four inches high, and be repeated once a week till the blossoms begin to open. While at Marlboro, the attention of the Botanist was called to a diseased chestnut tree. It was a young tree with sickly looking foliage and a few dead branches. It was suffering from the chest- nut bark disease about which much that is sensational and needlessly alarming and pessimistic has recently been published. This is the only instance recorded of its occurrence in Ulster county and, with one exception, the most northern station for it in this State. It has been reported from as far north and west as Cooperstown but no specimens from that locality have been examined and it probably does not yet occur west of the Hudson river valley, unless possibly in a few widely separated and limited, isolated stations. The most northern station for this disease is Vischer’s Ferry, Saratoga county. It is an apparently outlying station, no intervening one between it and Marlboro being known. In 1899 a census of the species of plants found in Bonaparte swamp, Lewis county, was taken and a list of the names of the species was published in the report for that year. The number of flowering plants and ferns found there is 128. The swamps and marshes of the State are a part of its natural resources. They are 34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the result of a long, slow process by which shallow lakes are trans- formed into plant-producing areas, or, in other words, in which water surface is changed to land surface. In this process plants play an important and very large part. In the beginning, aquatic plants and aquatic and sphagnous mosses occupy the more shallow parts of the lake. By the annual growth and decay of these a mass of sedimentary material, which is largely vegetable in its com- position, accumulates. This gradually spreads till in many cases it occupies nearly or quite all of the lake surface. In due time it becomes sufficiently dense and firm to sustain amphibious and marsh-loving plants. These gradually take possession and carry on the work till the consistency of the surface is sufficient to give support to marsh grasses and sedges, which give us what is locally known as “ beaver meadows.” In some cases, instead of a grassy marsh there is formed a shrubby marsh in which small shrubs have taken possession instead of or in connection with the grasses and sedges. By their inter- mingling roots and the annual falling of leaves the surface becomes denser. The next stage is ushered in when swamp-loving trees can maintain an existence. These gradually become numerous enough to overpower and suppress much of the herbaceous vegetation and many of the smaller shrubs, and the wooded swamp results. The borders of a marsh may be and often are simply a wooded swamp which itself is only an older part of the marsh. The grassy marsh appears to be less inviting to the advent of trees than the sphagnous and bushy marshes and, prairielike, it often remains open an indefinite time. Cleared swamps and open grassy marshes may, by proper drainage and treatment, be turned into productive land. The products of the marshes are sometimes utilized. The fruit of the various species of Vaccinium is gathered for food. The grasses and sedges of the “beaver meadows” are sometimes cut for hay, but this is rarely done except in cases of scarcity or very high prices of hay of better quality. The partly decayed remains of the vegetation of the marshes constitute peat. The less fibrous peat is used for heating purposes, fertilizers, and as an absorbent or bedding material in stables. The more fibrous kinds which come especially from shrubby or grassy marshes are used for purposes demanding a more fibrous material. That we might have a more definite knowledge of the species of plants most activ e in the transformation of our marshes into a more useful condition, a list of the plants at present found growing in Cranberry marsh, Sand REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 35 lake, Rensselaer county, and in Averyville marsh, North Elba, Essex county, has been made. Two visits were made to the Cran- berry marsh, one in July and one in September. A few plants were found on the second visit that were not seen on the first, presum- ably because they had not yet developed sufficiently to attract atten- tion. The whole number of species found in this marsh is 72. One visit was made to Averyville marsh. It was in September, and though the marsh covers a larger area than the Cranberry marsh, only 58 species were found there. ‘This is probably due in part, at least, to the lateness of the visit. The number of species common to the two marshes is 33. More than half the number of species found in Averyville marsh occur also in Cranberry marsh. Of the species common to the two marshes, 15, or nearly half, are trees and shrubs. If we compare the list of species in Bonaparte swamp with those of the two marshes we find only 19 species common to the three localities. he flora of the wooded swamp is seen to be quite unlike that of the open marsh, as might be expected. PLANTS ADDED TO THE HERBARIUM New to the herbarium Amanita bisporigera Atk. A. floccocephala Atk. A. velatipes Atk. Ascochyta menyanthis Oud. Aulographum ledi Pk. Biatora coarctata (Sm.) Nyl. Calvatia craniiformis (Schw.) Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz. Cercospora phlogina Pk. Cladosporium paeoniae Pass. Climacium kindbergii (Rk. & C.) Clitocybe biformis Pk. c. maxima G. & M. Cortinarius croceofolius Pk. c. glaucopus (Schaeff.) WF napus Fr, G. triumphans Fr. Crataegus aristata S. he brainerdi S. c. calvini S, i. longipedunculata SS, C. nemorosa S, Crepis setosa Hall. f. Cryptosporium macrospermum P&. 2 Cycloloma atriplicifolium (Spreng.) Cytospora microspora (Cd.) Rabenh. Diplodia linderae FE. & E. Eccilia mordax Atk. Eurotium subgriseum Pk. Gloeosporium caryae E. & D. G, divergens Pk. Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh.) Dunal Helianthus petiolaris Nutt. Heterothecium pezizoideum (Ach.) Hygrophorus caprinus (Scop.) Fr. Hypericum prolificum L. Hypochnus tristis Karst. Hypoloma delineatum Pk. Inocybe rimosoides Pk. Lactarius boughtoni Pk. Lentinus piceinus Pk. Lychnis coronaria (L.) Desr. Machaeranthera pulverulenta (Nutt.) Macrosporium heteronemum(Desm.) Marasmius contrarius Pk, Myxosporium carpini Pk, Naemospora croceola Sace. Naucoria sororia Pk, 36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Oidium asteris-punicei Pk. Oxybaphus floribundus Chois. Pertusaria leioplaca (Ach.) Pholiota terrigena Fr. Phoma piceina Pk. PB: simillima Pk. Ps stictica B. & Br. Phyllosticta betae Oud. iz subtilis Pk. _ Physcia hispida (Schreb.) Picris hieracioides L. Pilocratera abnormis Pk. Placodium ferrug. discolor Willey Rhabdospora physostegiae Pk. Scirpus occidentalis (Wats.) Chase Sideranthus gracilis (Nutt.) Rydb. Sphaeropsis smilacis latispora PR. Sporotrichum grisellum Sacc. Theloschistes flavicans Wallr. Thlaspi perfoliatum L. Trichothecium subgriseum Pk. Triosteum perfoliatum L. Usnea trichodea Ach. Vermicularia beneficiens Pk. We pomicola Pk. Verticillium agaricinum (Lk.) Cd. Viburnum venos'.n Britton Vicia villosa Roth Plasmodiophora elaeagni Schroet. Pleurotus approximans Pk. Ramalina rigida (Pers.) Tuck. IV REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOEGEES The State Entomologist reports that the past season has been remarkably quiet so far as unusual outbreaks of injurious insects are concerned. The Entomologist was exceptionally fortunate in discovering a colony of pedogenetic larvae, presumably those of Miastor americana. These extremely peculiar forms were previously unknown in this country and have been studied by only a few Europeans. Fruit tree pests. The experimental work with the codling moth was continued during the present season under more diverse conditions and data secured which will be of great value in the practical control of this species. ‘The experiments were conducted in the orchards of W. H. Hart, Poughkeepsie; C..R. Shons, Wash- ingtonville, and William Hotaling, Kinderhook. Great care was taken to secure an ample number of trees likely to produce a nearly uniform amount of fruit. As last year each plot, except in the case of Mr Hotaling’s orchard, consisted of 42 trees, the fruit from the central six alone being counted. Comparisons were made to ascertain the relative efficacy of one spray given just after the blossoms dropped, with this treatment supplemented by a second application about three weeks later. The unusual abundance of the codling moth during the past season renders the data secured of exceptional value because they show the possibilities under very adverse conditions. The San José scale is still very destructive, especially to peach REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9IO 37 trees, though our progressive orchardists have comparatively little difficulty in controlling it. A lime-sulfur wash, particularly that known as the concentrated wash, either homemade or commercial, has proved very satisfactory, as a rule, in checking this pest. In the Hudson valley there was complaint of injury by the cherry maggot and an investigation of the pest and methods of controlling it was inaugurated. The cherry and pear slug was exceptionally abundant in this region and also in the western part of the State. The pear psylla was somewhat abundant in the lower Hudson valley and reports of serious injuries were received from certain sections in the western part of the State. The work of a new apple pest which may be known as the lined red bug (Lygidea mendax Reut.) was observed in the Hud- son valley. This insect occurs in early spring, lives upon the more tender terminal leaves and, under favorable conditions, may inflict considerable injury. Shade tree pests. The injurious work of various species has been brought to our notice. The more important of the shade tree pests is the elm leaf beetle, a well-known form which has been exceedingly abundant on Long island, throughout the Hudson valley and in certain cities in the western part of the State. The sugar maple borer has been unusually numerous on the trees of Fulton, Oswego county, destroying or practically ruining a number of magnificent trees. The cottony maple scale has been somewhat abundant in the lower Hudson valley, while the injurious work of the false maple scale was observed in several localities in the vicinity of New York city. Forest insects. The snow-white linden moth, a pest which has been very destructive in the Catskills for the past three years, was abundant in limited localities last season and its flight in small numbers was observed in various places. A series of outbreaks by another leaf feeder was reported from several localities. They were due to the operations of a green, white-striped caterpillar (Xylina antennata) frequently designated as the green fruit worm. The destructive work of the hickory bark beetle, noted in a preceding report, has been continued. An unusual outbreak was that of Abbott's sawfly, a false caterpillar which stripped or nearly defoliated many white pines in the foothills of the Adiron- dacks. The spruce gall aphid has continued to be abundant and injurious on Norway spruce, in particular. It is interesting to record the discovery of another species of gall aphid, new to the 38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM State, occurring upon the Colorado blue spruce. The above noted insects have been the subject of correspondence and, in some in- stances, of field investigations during the past season. Gipsy and brown tail moths. Much interest was aroused early in 1909 by the finding of thousands of winter nests of the brown tail moth on many shipments of French seedlings. A number of such nests occurred on shipments received in 1910, though the pests were not so abundant as during the preceding year. The careful inspection of the stock appears to have prevented this insect from becoming established in the State. There is much more dan- ger of this moth being brought into New York State on shipments of full-grown nursery stock originating in infested American terri- tory than there is of its being introduced with imported seedlings. It has been found necessary to give considerable time to the determi- nation of remains of caterpillars, cocoons and egg masses in order to be certain that none of these fragments on nursery stock indi- cated the presence of either the gipsy or brown tail moth. A personal investigation of conditions in eastern Massachusetts shows that no pains are being spared to prevent the dissemination of either the gipsy or the brown tail moth. Particular attention has been given to keeping the property abutting on the principal highways free from the pests so as to eliminate in large measure the danger of their being carried by vehicles of any kind. There has been, however, some extension of the territory occupied by these two pests. The gradual spread of these insects appears to be inevitable, though the utmost care is taken in the treatment of the outlying colonies. It is gratifying to state that the serious infesta- tion recently discovered at Wallingford, Conn., has been handled in such a satisfactory manner that’ only a very few specimens rewarded a week’s careful search by a gang of fifteen men. An examination of the work with parasites showed that no stone was being left unturned in an effort to find, rear and liberate a large number of efficient enemies of these pests. The Entomologist would emphasize once more the grave danger of bringing either one or both of these pests into the State on nursery stock originating in the infested area, and would call attention to the great desirability of promptly exterminating any isolated colonies which might be found in the near future. House fly. The popular interest in the control of this pest has continued and bids fair to result in important and far-reaching sanitary changes. The demand for information exhausted the REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 39 edition of Museum Bulletin 129 on the Control of Household Insects and necessitated its republication in an extended and revised form as Museum Bulletin 136 entitled The Control of Flies and Other Flousehold Insects. The Entomologist has been called upon to give a number of popular lectures upon this insect and has made per- sonal examinations of conditions in several localities, giving special attention to situations favorable for the production of flies in cities and villages. ‘ Gall midges. Studies of this extensive and interesting group have been continued and the results are now in manuscript. This publication will describe fully some 800 species, 441 having been reared. The tabulation of plant galls, made with the assistance of Miss Hartman, shows that we know some 538 species representing 44 genera and living at the expense of some 177 plant genera referable to 66 plant families. In addition to the above, there are some 5 species reared from unknown plants and II species helonging to 3 genera known to be zoophagous. A number of new species have been reared during the year. Miss Cora H. Clarke of Boston, Mass., has continued to collect and forward to us excellent series of galls from which we have been able to rear several previously unknown species. The care of this material has devolved largely upon D. B. Young and Miss Hartman. The latter has also made a large number of microscopic mounts of these fragile forms. Miscellaneous. The Entomologist spent nearly six weeks in Europe, giving special attention to museum methods, shade and forest tree insects and the gall midges. Collections were studied in the following institutions: British Museum of Natural History, London; the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge; the Tropical School of Medicine, Liverpool; the zoological gardens at Antwerp ; the Royal Museum of Natural History at Brussels; the botanical gardens of Ghent; Museum of Natural History and the entomologi- cal station at Paris; the University at Zurich; the exceptionally valuable collection of forest insects in the Forestry School at Munich; the natural history collections in the Senckenberg Museum at Frankfurt; the Winnertz collections in the University of Bonn; the Museum of Natural History, Berlin, and the Museum of Natural History at Hamburg. In addition, the Entomologist spent several days with Prof. J. J. Kieffer of Bitsch, Germany, studying 40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM his exceptionally valuable collection of Cecidomyiidae, and with Prof. E. H. Ritbsaamen at Remagen, Germany, a day devoted largely to examining his numerous excellent drawings and a discus- sion of the classification of this group. A portion of a day was spent with Oberforster H. Strohmeyer of Miinster, Germany, study- ing his excellent collection of Scolytidae, while another day was passed with Oberforster Karl Philip at Sulzberg obtaining first- hand information of forestry methods as practised in Germany. Publications. Numerous brief, popular accounts dealing with injurious insects have been prepared by the Entomologist for the agricultural and local press, besides a few more technical papers for scientific publications. A revision of Museum Bulletin 129, as noted above, was issued during the year, while the report for 1909 appeared last July. A tabulation of the midge galls known to occur upon several plants was published in August under the title of Gall Midges of Aster, Carya, Quercus and Salix. Collections. A valuable addition to the collections was secured through the generosity of Prof. J. J. Kieffer, of Bitseh, Germany, who kindly donated to the museum a number of his generic types of European gall midges. These have been carefully mounted and are accessible to students of the group. A fine series of Italian midge galls was secured by exchange with Dr Mario Bezzi. These were carefully arranged and labeled by Miss Hart- man. Miss Cora HH. Clarke, as already noted, has Cconemiipaees some valuable biological material, mostly insect galls. The arrangement and classification of the collection has been forwarded as rapidly as possible, though with the limited office staff it is practically impossible to keep the collections properly classified, while the securing of desirable additional material must of necessity proceed slowly. The restrictions due to a small staff will become more apparent with the occupancy of quarters in the new building, accompanied by the obligation of maintaining a larger exhibit. The school teachers of Albany, Troy and presum- ably other near-by localities are making extensive use of our exhibit collections in connection with the regular school work. It is the aim of the Department to have a representative collection of the species occurring in the State, though the assembling of such means the work of years. The nearly completed monograph on the gall midges shows that REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO AI the State collections in this family will far exceed anything that can be assembled*elsewhere for some years to come. It will always be valuable because of its very large series of generic types or cotypes. Mr Young has identified and arranged the Conopidae, besides doing much miscellaneous work in classifying insects col- lected during the year and identifying species sent in for name. A number of Hemiptera have been very kindly determined by a well-known authority in this group, Mr E. P. Van Duzee of Buffalo. Miss Hartman has also assisted in the arrangement of the collection and has reared and spread a number of specimens. The value of the exhibit collections will be greatly enhanced when the series of plant groups designed for the exhibition of insects in their natural environment in the new Education Building has been completed. The wax work for four of these groups has been delivered and it is planned to complete the remainder next year. Several excellent models representing injurious insects are now on exhibition and more should be secured, preferably made to order, since only a few can be purchased in the market, while no one has attempted to prepare models of many forms which could be exhibited in this manner to very great advantage. Nursery inspection. There has been close cooperation with this phase of the work conducted by the State Department of Agriculture. Numerous specimens of both native and foreign insects have been submitted to this office for name, and the Ento- mologist has been frequently consulted in regard to various problems. This work, while consuming much time and often necessitating identifications of minute forms, like scale insects or the recognition of species by fragments or the comparatively unknown early stages, is very important, since the treatment of large shipments must depend in great measure upon our findings. Office mattérs. The general work of the office has progressed in a satisfactory manner, the Assistant State Entomologist being in charge of the office and responsible for the correspondence and other matters during the absence of the Entomologist in Europe and while away on vacation. Miss Hartman, in addition to matters noted above, has rendered material assistance in bibliographic work and in translating from German, French and Italian works. Nu- merous specimens have been received during the year for identifica- tion and many inquiries made concerning injurious forms. 42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM V hE OR TON THE ZOOLOGY SECIION During the year the Zoologist, Frank H. Ward, and the Taxi- dermist, Alfred J. Klein, both tendered their resignations and left the service of the Department. Up to his departure, Mr Ward devoted most of his time to the arrangement and labeling of the shell collections and to plans for the exhibits, and especially for the cases, for the hall of zoology in the Education Building. As a result of his work, Mr Ward left a plan covering the different types of cases that will be required, the dimensions and number necessary for each type, and their arrangement in the hall. In its main fea- tures this plan seems entirely satisfactory, providing the necessary space and a logical arrangement of the material, as well as allowing for growth along the lines on which it is proposed to develop the museum. The necessity of this and other work looking toward the coming change of quarters, as well as the lack of space in Geological Hall, not only for the exhibition, but also for the storage of more speci- mens, prevented the staff from undertaking any field work, so that the accessions along some lines are less than usual, yet the total number of specimens added was raised to a figure far beyond that reached for many years by the purchase of the Ingalls collection. of shells, comprising, according to an estimate by Mr Ward, a total of about 24,000 specimens from all parts of the world. While its purchase must be regarded as a departure from the plan of con- fining the collections of this museum to the natural history of New York State, yet the rank long held by this institution among collections of Mollusca is so high as to deserve to be maintained, in so far at least as can be done without materially interfering with the development of the collections along the lines which have been determined on as most important. The cases for the fish and mink groups mentioned in the last report were received and set up in Geological Hall, but further additions to the exhibits in this building are out of the question for lack of space, and this same difficulty has seriously delayed the preparation of the large mammal groups which are contemplated. or for which specimens have already been acquired. A group of four porcupines with accessories was completed by Mr Klein, who held the position of Taxidermist until September 1, 1910, but it awaits not only a case, but room for setting it up. i REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9QIO 43 A number of casts of native reptiles and amphibians was also purchased, as these casts show the natural color and appearance of the animals better than either stuffed or alcoholic specimens. A consistent effort has been made to get together the materials for more bird and mammal groups, even though all attempts to set them up must be deferred until more room is available. With this end in view the Zoologist made a trip to Silver Bay to examine the collections of Mr Silas H. Paine who‘had an extensive private collection that was being broken up and sold. Many of the best specimens had been bought by others before this museum was notified that they were for sale, but several good bird groups and much material useful in setting up other groups remained and negotiations for its purchase were in progress at the end of the fiscal year. Birds of New York. The first volume of this work covering the water and game birds has been issued, under authorship of Prof. E. Howard Eaton, with forty-two plates in color by Louis Agassiz Fuertes. The public demand for this publication has been very large and it has, on this account and in view of the lim- ited edition, been necessary to restrict the distribution very largely to sales. A larger edition is required in order to meet the reason- able requirements of the citizens and it is believed this will be provided. The second volume of the work, which will embrace the land birds, is practically completed and its publication within a year is confidently hoped for. Vi Peron. ON THR AROMEOLOGY SECTION The work of this section of the museum embraces a number of coordinate sciences which cover nearly all divisions of anthro- pology. Among the special branches to which attention is devoted may be mentioned ethnology, folklore, archeology and human oste- ology. Most of these subjects require research in the field. Other special work is the securing of Indian models for casts, the super- vision of the work of the sculptors and artists and directing the collection and production of the various accessories necessary for the series of ethnological groups. This is referred to in greater detail hereinafter. It will be noted that the term archeology as applied to this section of the museum’s activity is descriptive of only one of the important branches of its researches and that the term anthropology conveys a more accurate impression of the scope of work pursued. 44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The field of research. ‘The special line of investigation to which the attention of the Archeologist is directed is that of study- ing the culture of the aborigines of New York, both that of the past and of the present. This is done in order to bring to light data for correlation. Many of the fundamental facts of anthro- pology have been gleaned from the study of the American Indians. In our State there lived, and now live, representatives of a very important and highly developed Indian stock. Much has been written of the New York aborigines, but much of their culture re- mains unrecorded and various facts they present are very significant. Our work is limited primarily by the lines of the State. Within these bounds we make systematic surveys and excavations of the various sites of aboriginal occupation, and instal the various arti- acts and other materials bearing on the culture-history of our Indians in the archcological collections of the State Museum. The State is our field and wherever suitable sites can be found these are examined or excavated. This, with the collection of the relics and specimens of Indian art, constitutes the work in archeology. Various tribes and stocks have inhabited this area during remote times and even now remnants of some exist. Each tribe or stock, except perhaps the earliest, has left traces by which it may be dif- ferentiated from the rest. To sift out the problem of the different successive or contemporary occupations, to discover lines and times of migrations and to determine the cultural facts, form a field of re- search for constant activity. The Indians that yet remain in this State are the various tribes or nations of the Iroquois, viz: the St Regis Mohawk in Franklin and St Lawrence counties; the Oneida in Madison county; the Onon- daga in Onondaga county; the Seneca in Cattaraugus, Erie and Chautauqua counties; the Tuscarora in Niagara county; and the Cayuga who live mostly with the Cattaraugus Seneca. A few Abenaki, survivors of the Canadian Algonquin, live in the Adiron- dacks in the vicinity of Lake George, while others are scattered throughout the State. Few tribes of North American Indians have occupied so promi- nent a place in history and literature as the Iroquois. Their con- quests, their government, their endurance as a people, and their keen intellect, wonderful sagacity and political capacity as indi- viduals have excited the admiration of even their enemies. Thou- sands of pages have been written on the Iroquois and yet so full of interest is their history that as a subject for the historian, the romancer or the anthropologist, they furnish a never failing topic for discussion. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQTO 45 An examination of the pages of the works on the Iroquois reveals that but little has been added to the sum total of knowledge about them since the time of Colden and later the time of Morgan. Many writers, it is true, such as Schoolcraft, Hale, Clark, Boyle and Beau- champ, have eontributed much of importance, but the fact remains that no thorough ethnological study has ever been made. A vast reservoir of data remains untapped, and in stating this the truth is not overdrawn. So much about the Iroquois remains to be learned that all that has been recorded seems but a pittance. To grasp this work and rescue from oblivion the knowledge which is now within our grasp is the work of a lifetime, but within a lifetime a great part of it will be beyond the reach of human effort. The minds that know and hold the old-time lore will have passed into the great silence. In this state of conditions the ephemeral things of museum routine ought not to be permitted to interfere with the opportunity that lies before us. Among the ethnological subjects which have been matters of study may be mentioned Iroquois mythology, folk cults, dreams and dream influence, gesture and emotional language, names and the doctrine of names, costumes and personal ornament, sign language, symbols, decorative art, periodic ceremonies, wampum records, the code of Dekanowideh and the code of Handsome Lake. Notes on many other subjects are awaiting elaboration. Information on many of these subjects is totally lacking and is not to be had outside of our notes, which are as yet, in most cases, only outlines. Several large collections of archeological material have been offered us, but without funds it is not possible to acquire them. Most of these collections are invaluable and can never be duplicated. In many instances they represent the greater part of the relics col- lected in a given region and are the result of years of investigation. There is no legitimate reason why funds should not be appropri- ated for the purchase of this material, which by every reason should become the property of the State. The interest of other institutions both here and abroad in these collections has led to the purchase of some and their removal beyond our control. The State of New York can hardly afford to permit the loss of this vast historical and archeological wealth, and yet mistaken policy has permitted it in the past. No attempt has been made to rearrange the archeological collec- tions, since there is no means of displaying any collections, however 46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM well arranged. It is likewise difficult to remove the numerous ob- jects that crowd upon one another because our storage room is lim- ited and the short time when proper facilities will be provided would make the work a waste of important time. During the year the Archeologist examined several of the old collections that had long been in storage and endeavored to check the specimens found, against the catalogs. Many specimens were missing, having disappeared through the years. Several boxes taken from storage in the malt house contained only dust and shreds of cloth, the result of destruction by mice. Even some of the more receml specimens Had) been almost destroyed by mothsa ime destruction of important objects is largely the result of improper and limited exhibition space and the previous lack of permanent curators. Public interest. The interest of the public in the work of this section is steadily increasing as is attested by the call for its publi- cations, the visits of interested collectors and the hundreds of letters from persons desiring information about anthropological subjects. Visitors and letters come not only from our own State, but from many parts of this continent and from Europe. The plans for the large ethnological exhibit have awakened the interest of museum officials from many institutions who have either written or called i person, | The range of inquiries directed to us is wide and covers the entire field of anthropology and Indian history. It is the aim of the archeological section to arrange its exhibits in the new Education Building so as to especially appeal to the public interested in Indian relics and lore. In preparing these exhibits the fact is borne in mind that the State Museum is the people’s museum and that its function as a division of the Educa- tion Department is to educate and not to confuse those who view its collections. Such a plan will in no wise impair the scientific value, but rather increase it and at the same time add much to popular interest and education. ELTEHNOLOGY The work of this division of our researches has been especially productive of results both in the acquisition of important specimens of Iroquois and Algonquin handiwork and in the important notes recorded. The Archeologist during his various field trips for Indian models has used his spare moments on the Iroquois reservations in New Plate 1 AN ‘ ‘ . a = & = x - S oy % eae > i, “3 Cnet Sen ES J KEK, Dey “ PT] ore 4 ; r, e ¢ : Pe ‘ af, a i, Symbolic and ornamental decorations embroidered on buckskin with moose hair and porcupine quills REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I910 47 York and Ontario in seeking information regarding ceremonial rites, folk cults, myths etc., and in collecting such ethnological material as could be acquired by purchase. In this latter matter, although much of great historic and scientific value was found, it was impossible to acquire everything because of limited funds at hand. During the year 160 ethnological specimens have been acquired. Fig. I Ethnological specimens Fig. 1 Little water flute made of a turkey bone Fig. 2 Crooked knife with an antler handle Fig. 3 Splint gauge All about one-haif natural size Special subjects of inquiry and study during the year have been the art and symbolism of the New York aborigines, costumes and personal adornment, and Iroquois uses of maize and other food plants. The notes on the last mentioned subject, the result of some ten years research, were revised, annotated and presented for publi- cation as a bulletin. Much attention has been given to the study of the decorative art and symbolism of the New York Indians, which resulted in revis- ing and enlarging a manuscript monograph onthe subject and hold- ing it as the nucleus for further study. With the Iroquois, the 48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM world tree, the scroll or helix, the sun, the circle, the horn and the ser- pent symbols were predominant. In connection with this research has been the study of pictographs and decora- tive motifs. At the commencement of our plans for the Governon Wren, Hii@lacds. Hall of Iroquois Ethnology, when the 7 costuming of some forty casts of IN Indians became a problem for con- h sideration, it was found that no de- scription of the Iroquois costume through the various periods existed. It became necessary to make a special study of the subject not only from books but from the Indians them- selves. By good fortune many valu- able notes were obtained and we may now represent with a degree of accuracy the various costumes of the Iroquois. Some of the existing pic- tures of Iroquois costumes are errone- ous, the peace garments and war costume being represented together. The dressing of the hair, the face ‘painting and tattooing are other im- portant details that have been studied with enlightening results. Manuscripts and codes. Among much interesting matter one import- ant manuscript has come into the possession of the division. This is the Dekanawideh code of the Iroquois by Seth Newhouse, a Canadian Mo- hawk. Mr Newhouse has for twenty years been compiling the manuscript, which treats of the Hiawatha legend and the Iroquois constitution. Horatio Hale; in his.” Book) vor ateey ah lata mentions the constitution but it is be- bee Beteea ema peddle.) Comarot Meved that it, Phasemier ereuaseee Hi LY ie AY: | PL "MUTT CYUIVMLIF, PO 9Y} OF O1oYype [ys sionbo1y uvipeurg oy} Aorjod eyueulUIOAOS UT = OlIvJUGQ ‘UayoMsyO 3" [PY [lOUNOD Il9yy UI Sforyo sUOTJeNY XIG Jo dnory Perens | , 7 * ’ - ¢ | ? op = 5 a, REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 49 been available in manuscript form. The essential accuracy of the document is attested by a similar manuscript compiled by the chiefs of the Six Nations of Canada, the two being written independently. The codes have been transmitted by word of mouth for generations. The Newhouse version is written in Indian-English and affords a quaint example of the transcription of Indian thought and concept into English, a most difficult thing to do at best as translators agree. Some additional notes on the Handsome Lake religion were made and also on the various folk cults. The study of signs, omens and charms has been continued. ARCHEOLOGY Owing to the pressure of other work it was not possible for the Archeologist to visit the field for archeological work until late in July, when about ten days were spent in examining certain sites in Fig. 5,6 Grooved axe and gouge from Silver Lake. Three-fifths natural size. Collected by N. T. Clarke Jefferson and St Lawrence counties. Here ten or more places were visited. Most, if not all, of the described sites known to literature have been destroyed and in some it was not even possible to obtain 50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a potsherd or flint chip. Nearly a week was spent in the vicinity of Black lake, where a thorough survey was made. Two pipes of probably Algonquin origin were obtained here and a wooden spoon from the bottom of the lake near The Cedars. The special assistant in archeology, Mr E. R. Burmaster, made an examination of all the islands in the lake but was unable to find traces of any large camp sites. Some of the islands in the St Lawrence were visited, especially several in the vicinity of Hammond. Several sites were there found and a number of articles secured. No other field work was undertaken until late in August when it was decided to make a reconnaissance of certain portions of the field with the idea of obtaining a better knowledge of localities. Sites near Binghamton, Union, Windsor and Elmira were visited first. Later certain sites near Hammondsport were examined. Most of the time up to October Ist was spent in the Genesee valley. Fig. 7,8 Clay pipes from Erie county. One-half size Several important and productive sites were found and listed for future exploitation. Some of these sites have never been excavated, but preliminary examination revealed skeletons and extensive ash and refuse beds. A site in Erie county with which the Archeologist has been familiar for some time yielded several crushed pots that may easily be restored, several pipes and other material of interest. AHN) TN =~ \\ * \ Bt SSSs ’ wad 3) R Sea jaa) ge ©) Se a ae) ) od by ae ¢ Dee (a! +p Oe (e) a ¢ co) Bae Dae = cel no Go me Se gy ee ND oe a 2 ob es Tol ole .04-2 eee Mancanophyilite, Wangban, Sweden ..2..452. 02.525). 5 0 pehiorite vArendal, UNOFWAY: ©. y4s cruises sey en oo meschynine, lyveland, Norway ...\:c)o. cane ee eed oe Apatite: Gellivare, Sweden 654/26 2.0 $e saan eee) oe tixenitesw liveland, Norway’). ee eulae wie ene eee dets 9 Columbite ol veland, Notwayn so... 4 «.caveee ees ee eee i Momateckisor, Norway oo. .00s0...6s-. 0) eee nee R. W. Jones, Albany Copper and malachite, Eleo co, Nevada ....7+)..6.)0 45) Pyrite; emoulder-co,,- Colorado. 2)... s., «kage eee I H. P. Whitlock, Albany Mireroclimes Niantic, Ro To geek aks dale © mek we ale ee er 5 pull oyiiieess)* INTE myer Oe Air (meme aie Fes eR enti ohare fn) ca | 4. a ee 4 Muscovite in) microcline, Niantic, Ri 1.) s) 2.5.) 3 Beers, Charles H. New York city Galamime (cut), Chihuahua; Mexico. . oy. 20..2 2s + si ee I Manchester, J. G. New York city AMAtUMLe limate lonmeysting ws aduld: tirly"23 Latham, Roy. Orient Point. Aulacidea tumidwus Sassen On wMEactica ww AusUst 20 Dodge; J. H. Rochester. Through State Department of Aemenitnne Newmroterus batatus Fitch, galls on white oak mee Lackey, Andrew. jJohnsbure. L-ophyru’s abbot Tees Abbott’s sawfly, larvae on pine, August 3 Wilson, J. W. Olmstedville. Same as preceding Cox, Townsend, Jr. Setauket. Lophyrus ? leconm ten meen Leconte’s pine sawfly, larvae on pine, October 20 Post, H. S. Albany. Trichiocampus viminalis Bale pegs sawfly on poplar, August 29 Rose, L. A. Rensselaer. Eriocampoides lima cijmagieee cherry and pear slug, larvae on cherry, August 22 Dodge, J. H. Rochester. Through State Department of Alegiemmnme Harpiphorus tarsatus Say, sawfly, larvae on Cornus mas- Culla,, September 15 Rinkle, La EF. Boonville. Harpiphorus vers 1 co Mo eae sawiy, lagvae on Cornus alternifolium, “Septembersne Coleoptera Lohrmann, Richard. Herkimer... Entimus> imperialis)@ mans diamond beetle, adult, May 7 Schaeter,| P; A. Allentown, Pa. Calandra ¢ran dar tgp eee granary weevil, adults in grain bins, December 27 Brey, S. i, Palatine Bridge: Magdalis? barbit a \Sayaueees elm snout beetle, grubs on elm, March 18 : Dorrance, Benjamin. Dorranceton, Pa. Through Hermann Von Schrenk. Pissodes ‘strobi Peck, white pine weevil, larvae on pine, July 13 Von Schrenk, Hermann. Southern California. Phloeodes dia- bolicus Lec., adult on Polyporus growing on Eucalyptus, March 20 Fitch, F.A. Randolph. Bruchus obtectus Say, bean weevil, adults, March 21 Clarke, Miss Ll. E. Canandaigua, Haltica agnita DW, strawhoere flea beetle, adults on Virginia creeper, August 3 REPORT (OP THE DIRECTOR TOTO Fig Bien. i. Miconderoga, Galeruceltla Iluteola Mull. elm leaf beetle, larvae and pupae on elm, July 19 Foulk, Theodore, Flushing. Through State Department of Agriculture. Meelas Oma. scripta lEadabr., cottonwood leat beetle on poplar, September 7 ieyneh, Mrs J. DeP. Barneveld. Centrodera drercuo lO; G ati Harr., adults on locust, October 18 Brown, H. T. Rochester. Desmocerus palliatus Forst., cloaked knotty horn, adults on elder, June 6 Bayne, W. A. Bronxville. Elaphidion villosum Fabr., maple and oak twig pruner, work on oak, July 31 Ellison, Burton. Poughkeepsie. Prionus laticollis Dru, broad- necked Prionus, adult, July 18 Marshall, D. T. Hollis Xyloryctes satyrus_ Fabr., rhinoc- eros beetle, August I Kenia, J. D. Fort Edward. Euphoria inda Linn, bumble flower beetle, adult, September 6 Gillet, |. R. Kingston. Cotalpa lanigera Linn. goldsmith beetle, adult, April 15 foutcl. . Wo Burope. Lhanasimus. rufipes Brahm., adult, July 290 Hieugeltie 8.4 Bittalo, Podabrus tae .os 2 1s ~Lecy,, adults, June 16 Minturn, Purley. Locke. Agriotes mancus Say, wheat wire- worm, larvae injuring oats, May 20 Diptera nest virs Et. G. ‘Schenectady. -Calliphora. virirdescens Desv., larvae, July 30 Mick. EH: AL Rochester. Bombyliomyia abrupita Wied., adult, July 26 Podses; G. ©.) .New Elartiord. .Rhyphtus fenestralis Scop., adults, April 24 Lohrmann, Richard. Herkimer. Bibio xanthopus Wied., adult May 18 Nennson, rea. North Bast, Pa. Contarinia johnson Sling, grape blossom midge, adult, May 28 Breda A. B. Kingston, R: Il) Monarthropalpus buxi Lab, pupa on hox, May 19 iWenmen. J. (|. . Bitseh, Germany: , Jioaniss1a .aurantiaca cin Nin tio mS mi lk. Kieth, PAG. prima co la) Kiet... MS., Marista stir yt om) iets Bry om ya bers ro thi Met Miastor eceras1 Kie. MS: Brachyne ura squa- Coecera NVinn Wainnertzia fars.ca Kiel. MS.,W. pinicola iene SseCG.olom yia “clay ata Kiet. C©Colp od iia ano - Piece WO tce hilt a s.cimp ico la Kiefi., P orric.o n - iene Nee tits wes Wink. Cam ip. t O nl.yi1a of binotata Pein mm moi nce nmis ” Kies Hiolowveurus.palosus Scio Mieihopm tera £t bt iideess’ Baldratia saltcor - Mires teramiella atnriplicis Kiel, Frotteria 2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ss Sarothamnil Kieff, “Rhdzomyia sidlivic ola Cystiphora taraxaci “Kiel (Macrola bis). siweliecrmene Kiefi, Armoldia°*castanea Kieff. MS., A’ sam bia cii@icm Avw Ce@trie , Koll jj Lastoptery x (ie diem yi a), siadiiammene Kieff., ee Cee dio min dea) i, eu erenines likens Dasyne uma Sisymbirid Schenk, D. urticae: Perris, Rha bd opens kKapschit Kiet, Re pierre Kiet, Mikio a Sate PSectrosema tamaricis. Stet, Schizomyiaeeeenoe tum Kiet, Zeuxidiptosis giardiana Kieft,) $4 mee diplosis -geniculati1 “Reut, LThecodip/ os ogee Chyntera Schw., Bremia longipes Kiefi., Bistaemamences Kier, Aphidoletes urttecariae. Kieth, (Mass alton tubra Kiet, Hormomyia cornifex Kief., M omeamphce- palpus buxi Lab, Pseudhormomyia granite keene Mylodiplosis aestivalis Kieff., X. nigritagsmeueeee Puconiella marsupialis. FF. Lw,., ‘Enda pierre fidus Kiet, Macrodiplosis volvens Wich @iegmar diplosis galliperda F. Lw.. Especially valdableg@becamee a number are cotypes Lepidoptera Carriere, Mrs. Albany. Sphecodina abboti1 Smo icc. Abbott’s sphinx, larva on woodbine, July 13 State Department of Agriculture. Rochester. Saturnia pavonia Linn., Emperor moth, cocoon on French nursery stock, January 3 Griffith, L. C. Through State Department of Agriculture. Anisota See iid Oma Simao Abb. larvae on oak sscptemben cdg Lackey, Andrew. Johnsburg. Basilona. imperta lige eee Imperial moth, larvae on pine, August 18 Adams, L. H. Johnstown. Through State Department of Agriculture. Ctenucha virginica Charp., larvae on pine andiesqoge berry Griffith, L. C. Lynbrook. Through State Department of Agriculture: HMalisidota canryae Harr. hickory tussock moth fizeaeuee maple, July 11 ; Hotaling, William. Kinderhook, Arsilonche al boi @e meee Goeze, larva, September 27 Anderson, Alex. Stonyford. Xylina antennata Walk, green fruit worm, larvae on maple, June 16 State Department of Agriculture. Geneva. Same as preceding, larvae on apple, June 28 Gordinier, H. W. Troy. Notolophus antiqua Dina ysis tussock moth, eggs, March 9 Vaughan, H. E. Ogdensburg. Same as preceding, caterpillars on) elm, June 18 Griffith, L. C. Lynbrook. Through State Department of Agriculture. Data tithes 6 rr vim.a ? Goa Re) larvae, yakye eam Perry, C. C: Eagle Bridge. Schizura concinnha Sm. Gwe red-humped apple caterpillar, larvae on apple, September Io Capron, Louis. Menands. Synchlora viridipallens Hulst, adult, August 4 REPORT) OF THE, DIRECTOR 1910 73 Grifith, L. C. Sag Harbor. Through State Department of Agriculture. Simathia caten aria, Dru, chain-spotted geometer, larvae on sweet fern, bayberry, August 2 ‘ Thomson, Edward. Frost Valley, Denning Ennomos subsig- narius Htibn., snow-white linden moth, eggs on maple, March 28 Parone iC.) Glen Cove, Sante as preceding, adult, July 22 Bullis, W. A. West Sand Lake. Phobetron pithecium. Sm. & ‘Abb., hag moth caterpillar, larva, September 13 Newell, EH. I, Richmond Hilk Zeuzera pyrina Linn., leopard moth, pupae, July 1 Beam, I. J. Port Chester. Through State Department of Agriculture. Same as preceding, exuviae on maple, July 5 Serins, E. G. South River, N. J. Through Country Gentleman. Same as preceding, larvae on apple, September 17 Modse J. D, Rochester: Hyponomeuta malinella. Zell, ermine moth, larvae on imported French apple stock, June 24 Barden, J. J. Orleans. Same as preceding, larvae on apple, June 27 Ham. Re Et. Niverville. Ancylis nuwbeculana Clem. larvae on apple, September I Haticss. G., Latrytown,. Dichomeris marginellus Fabr., Juniper webworm, larvae on juniper, February 28 Rhind, L. D. Plandome. Through State Department of Agriculture. Same as preceding, larvae on Irish juniper, April 26 Hammond, Benjamin. Fishkill Aspidisca splendorifer- ella Clem., resplendent shield bearer, winter cases, March 24 Hemiptera Colms: J, BD: Utica. Belostoma ameticanwum Leidy, giant waterbug or electric light bug, adult attached to a fish, May 4 Cook, DH. Altamont. Brochymena. quadripustulata Pabr., adult, July*15 Thorne, W. P. Lagrangeville. Same as preceding, nymphs, August 26 Wheeler, Fred. Mongaup Valley. Through State Department of Agri- emlture: “Blissus lewcopterus Say, chinch bug; nymphs on corn, August 5 mee V¥. P. DD: Aliamont. “Haematopinus piliferwus Burm., sucking dog louse, adult on dog, January 8 Meepber,aMirs Cy oF. . Athens Ormenis pruimwosa Say, light- ning leaf hopper on matrimony vine, August 26. Also Aleyrodes vaporariorum Westw., white fly on coleus, August 26 Briggs, BR. EF. Pocantico Hills Chermes abietis Linn., spruce gall aphis, galls on spruce, June 23 Harris, 8. G. Tarrytown. Same as preceding, adults on spruce, June 26 Foulk, Theodore. Flushing. Same as preceding, galls on spruce, October re State Department of Agriculture. White Plains. Chermes cool- eyi Gill. galls on Colorado blue spruce, August 4 Richardson, M. Y. New York city. Chermes pinicorticis Fitch, pine bark aphid, adults on pine, May 12 Goldenmark, Miss Pauline. New York city. Same as preceding, eggs, February 12 74. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM State Department of Agriculture. Rochester. Chermes piceae Ratz., adults and eggs on Nordmann’s fir, May 17 Patch, Miss Edith M. Orono, Me. Chermes piniioliac acm pine leat aphid, adult-on black spruce, January 29. Also ©) come: s@ladatus Patch, adults on larch; © floc cms) Weancureseeum on black spruce; C. lariciatus Patch; adults on) whiresspemee January 29 Wood, G. C: Barneveld. Pemphigus im bwtem fo queamecue beech blight, nymph on beech, August 31 Knapp A. P._ Hillsdale, N. J. Through Country Gentleman. Pem- phigus tessellata Fitch, woolly maple leaf aphid, adults on Milaple...uiae 16 Seymour, Miss May. Lake Placid. Same as preceding, eggs, June 20 Boren, R. M.: Ballston Lake. Schizgomeuwra, amlepmme ames Riley, woolly elm leaf aphid, adults on elm, June 5 Judson, W. P. Broadalbin. Same as preceding, adults and young on elim, jim uO Vaughan, H. E. Ogdensburg. Same as preceding, adults on elm, June 18 Ashley, C. S. Old Chatham. Schizoneura lani¢e@ Ga eeemee woolly apple aphis, nymph on apple, November 9 Niles, Mrs S. H. Coeymans. Same as preceding Rose, J. F. South Byron. Same as preceding, November 10 Bell & Smith. Castleton. Same as preceding, November 13 Woolworth, C. C. Castleton. Same as preceding Peck, ‘C. H. Lake Placid: Lachnus abietis Fitch, senmbasamm September 8 Dunbar, John. Rochester. Psylla pyricola Forst, peanipsgea adults on pear, September 20: Smith, H. B. Nashville, Tenn. Through Garden Magazine, Doubleday, Page & Co, Pachypsylla celtidis-gemm a (Riley ee berry nodule gall, galls on hackberry, February 16 Peterson, O. W. Fairfield county, Conn. Through Country Gentleman. Bulecanium-tulipitierae Cook, tulip tree scale femminuam August 31 State Department of Agriculture. Asterolecani Um apa tulans Ckll.,, golden oak scale, adults on oak, May 16 Foulk, Theodore. Flushing. Through State Department of Agricul- ture. ASterolecanitum variolosim, Ratz. on eamenoes tember 7 Beresford, Archibald. Mt Vernon. Phenacoccus acericola King, false cottony maple scale, young, January 21 Fisher, Mrs Alice G. Batavia. Same as preceding, eggs on maple,. July 18 Dudley, Miss Fanny. Newburgh. Same as preceding, females and young on maple, October 4 Olsen, C. BE: Winfield. Pseudococcwus longis pin ws) aie mealy bug, February 24 Country Gentleman. Albany. ‘Same as preceding, larvae on coleus, August 30 Morley, G. W. Haverstraw. Through State Department of Agricul- REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 75 Mae wivinaria v.ttis Linn, cottony maple scale, females and young on maple, July 26 Gogkercll T. D; A. Boulder, Col, Pulvinaria occidentalis momalptma Chill. mamatuce, August 35 Bard, ik. EH. C. Syracuse. Through State Department of Agriculture: Goss yparia spunrita Med. elm bark louse on elm, July o State Department of Agriculture. Brooklyn. Eriococcus azaliae Comst., on azalea, November fmested, PP. L. Kingston. Atulacaspis pentagona Targ., West Indian peach scale, adult on Japanese flowering cherry, January State Department of Agriculture. Same as preceding, adult on Japanese cherries, February 3 Myoolworth, ©. C. Castleton. Atulacaspis rosae Bouché, rose scale on rose, November 13 Woodford, L. L. Pompey. Same as preceding, adults on rose, April 29 Mancreth, W. B. Schenectady. Chionaspis americana John, elm scurfy scale, crawling young, May Io eenier, C: H. Roslyn. Chionaspis €uonymi Comst., euony- mus scale, eggs on ? Euonymus, May 19 State Department of Agriculture. Long Island. Fiorinia fiori- mige var japonica Kuw., adults on Japanese hemlock, June 9 Orthoptera Pome N Ola Chatham. Chortephaca viridifasciata DeG., green-striped.grasshopper, nymphs, March 26 Exchange Bezau Mario. Lorimo, [taly, +Galls of Cystiphofasonchi ' F. Lw., oy Guba chime tnans Gir, Ds bichtenstetntti» F, Ewe eit Sis ym bh rid Schtnk, Perrisia’ sp, P. iid Flow kb caprtleena Br. Po era tade1 Winn, Rewer ett i awe) DP) den aoe ne. ets, SP. coemop bila Eis Mts 1 Ula ne wkibs, ke. ro Saf tim Hdy., Pi: sali - Coctave Kien. Pi almatiiae Br, Rhabdophaga rosa- Miiwoceadian Wii Olay twet hart Rhepalemyia ..arte- iiss wpouche Olte@otroephws sp, .O. capreae Winn, Weicmc ni itr. O.. fen winrar ta nmmas ES Lay, OQ... -s'o'lm's11 Pct wet dex tthe. Wi ayieutola, po are Bese, A’ Sip h on - Cees Ao Saino hia nie th lowe io Chiz Om yt a, p im - Peramen lace HH. low. ELoarmandija petioli Kiet, A. tre m:n - Pane owinn, Clinodivp losis vaceinii Kieff. ZOOLOGY Donation : Mammals Corbin, Austin, President. Blue Mountain Forest Association. Peudlowcait, Bison bison (Linnaeus), skin... ....<.sesec.cos. I Klein, A. J. Albany. New York weasel, Plutorius nove- PRCMwaeiiere stich cot biqnumroins ) SWINS sob 0e sche os Cede + cde Ue vale she 2 1A synonym for Dasyneura. 76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Latimer, G. S. Masonville. Black squirrel, Sciurus caro- liwens us vle weot i's (Gapper))Skimiageis ieee ac) Seen Peck; Dr Chas: H. Albany. © Little *brown bat; “My omic) lure Paves Clee @Conte ) Sketch retin eee nets anon re et ce ee Birds Meckaniley, Jj: D. Loudonville: Holboell” erebe, Co ly) maponens howd) breseol a (GReinhardt,): “skit ss. eae ae rn oe ee ee eee Reptiles Burmaster, H.R. Irving. Puffing adder, Hee hero dome pad FalinOns lvatreille,. spec. ice 2. ls. k hier ete ae eee ae Amphibians McCann, Mrs. Albany. Tiger salamander, Ambystoma t1- Staci siomanuGreen ),’ SPeC.Ac ly. eae aw. clean Ree nO 2) Fishes Bean, Dr TT, H. Albany. Steelhead trout, Salm o 2 a if deaee Relates OmabwS pee 7's Folk SESS Sal ld Uso Sessa eeapetae ee ee eee ats, 6 oases Purchase Mammals Paladin; Arthur. Albany. Gray fox, Urocyon cin en elem Sem tia Mets CS CULebDer) Spee. 24.2.5 so 4 Ok wr ies eae Prest, F. L. Grosse Isle, Magdalen Islands. Harbor seal Phoca “vitwulina CLinnaeus). skin s¢2) see Birds Gowie, Mr. Albany. Screech owl, Otus asio (Linnaeus), skins. Casts of reptiles Ward’s Natural Science Establishment. Rochester. Brown snake, Stotie ria Occipit-omacu lata (Stesemiee Garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (Cuimnmacwae Bitie-tailed lizard, Mayme ces tas cia bus (Uinnacts). 0a eather turtle, Aimy dia mutica (ie Sucur) ......0. see Soft-shelled turtle, Aspidonectes spinifer (Le Sueunye Casts of amphibians Mid pippy; N-ect uf us im acu less Ratnesqtie .... sae Hellbender, Cryptobranchws alleganiensis (Dandie Spadefoot,toad, S ca ph vo pms) h-ol biro oki, Harlan {eee Mollusks Marvin, Dwight. Greenwich. The Ingalls collection of shells. These have not been fully sorted or cataloged; an estimate of their number left by Mr Ward is as follows: Li I ee oo | REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO | Te Gactropoda t.-0---« Pi ARAN e ORS GMa te LER EOE rare ere 3500 MECN NSC ety yee ete Meese at ei oc ern wile tai shelere vlad ere tog ie eae 5000 PMA ee ee ae Seni atee ROE. Bo ve eee SS lace sftal eke ce asi a ter 15500 AB ease tater mente are Per ane ee ge aN ace ahabh nls pie els at ate 24000 24000 24025 ARCHEOLOGY Excavation By A. C. Parker and E. R. Burmaster Golah, Monroe county Pee CRIES NGS see re acai day SAS Grae acne sce One Seg, bad de, wethad ites Sie SUR celal Foaa oa ata 5 FETC MAE Gi idL est Re SIRI Geant SS ser ge age rene ROT Rn a> er Awe ames aa 2 peo MiG aemetibs das es ged nse. pea eae Vp e eo ee plewm eee Sear a Noe Rn euthgs hee eke ct ns (Soe ee alll Se. fa aret ave te I Brant, Erie county HUME d ore CMe ian saleit eatery ckn 5% Reval heres aye Ras ear slate wise oe. e les 5 PMN terial aeAtts eee et, nb AHN ited sl se anty ha A ghshs a WhN Kale GRP ew we Mae's SI eee TU eeMMRTA ESTAR ees ats ie ask AE TG eis ow dada Bll kha te EA wie aces ke I MMe mG ORC E Ce ey Sica Hate Tie Ales wR PO nae eS dale ee hee Hees I me Oa Mer MCedl: Grete uel ua ee aie cla wind mony A Saale die w'e «0k a kw s 2 Clay pots, nearly entire... ... 3% Th, eit ce ped Cea AN eR RE 2 RPO CMme Wert tae ee Ora mh ae saci tas oe Geb Vig tee hia, tai eae bate whe ie 7 ea anti tu Gen eT Goon Srey, oe does seer uadce era a cos. wie lg, atStg hE TA e Ae 2 rem Cntelaihe: AERO MIEA (sak orcs Ouida Krte loo dare ee ales 4 waleok dame eee I eae ie SUR Te ONCE CPS es een oo ene ee Gk sack wat SRE a eae a's B.S ew whe elelwdle ass 8 Hear Meg te seed cs ae wes ceed Gis ewan nie doh asi Woe ae el iw a ucsue ke wa awicabale. « I rage IE ec Plt eh pag tus wa Wg ant «cee ants iain aiehde Siete «2s 40 pe empumec ntti Lee DOMES). oh gids oe se ste uth ace woe are wibddls «/89) ew 6 Farnese tO Mr ee ie MTC leu eee GTR pon ued ARS tienen soe aie aaa wig ahs tank 50 cee a eee re eae rn ae Po ke cuanioalsh oa ie ual vara Mahe ale uae ee ake te a RHEE CESS ats ts ado oie aire Miki ae euheee ya dulcis Sa Nath» 2 Sua Me By SEU UNS gs SU obese taco A Same Rae oe eee ads Maa A aR ee oe ee Ar aie 5 Siem inne np UU Sete ctiene wrist fos are iascble tpn ates a cbatalaelele + 4 sikile'se.e 40 Jlsctoira ata 13 LG (ars > ESC@ yo 121 A Ra a ONG Cunt s UMA RPE cin Oh Ie tg 6 eo Men Cun, NACE Ns ee ehcleie Sidaielni Min, oie nk ce oe Ga oak iw sees I Sn ae. Tearinee 6 oa ee a ie ee oe rr I So NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Donation Hine, Dr J. W. Albany Copper spear (should have been acknowledged last year) ...... Clarke, John M., from Peter Barlow Mic-Mac relics, Bonaventure county, Province of Quebec CONS eta eee 6 aot haliche ee IM GRE ERO RAN yD 2h r OUareZze anrow Meads). Se ae meek eee neo. ey ars Ae Owais? elie hisses, Wa es emia Nn See Mint ak es Wren, Christopher. Plymouth, Pa. From the Susquehanna river valley, between Pittston at the upper end of Wyoming valley and Sunbury (Shamokin) at the junction of the north and west branches Argillite arrow point found at Retreat (material from Delaware vallleya meat, Arenton inept re ee elie eo bea Aa Rhyolite arrow point, Hunlocks creek (material from quarry near Gettysburg Raw arcane nine ol eae is Ordmany, ‘arrow, points, Glinmioeksneneeker 7 arte. ac... Arrow points, Sunbury, Pa. (formerly Shamokin and the home Of iShelcllemiy))\.72 ily saeeeen ere ate tl aa eo Piece: soapstone pot, ticks: BMepty. sme rote ek ne +.85/-0,0 ee Fine argilite celt, “Beachimenjeneet. «0 saakee nee too... a. Se Green rubbing stone, Dundee farm, Wiyomime valley... .:2 sue Sinew on bow Strimeudnessen« \iampic@ kei dat ve...) oe ee Sinew Of bow String, Buttonwood lats ic)... eM Sinew or bow strings, Siawmee Hilaire Nion sin... . see Bad notehied: Met 1Stmleenss co eo ee oe OO eo ae ce ak 5 sd Side“ notched: nerisinkenrss men. ty eRe nis Sct, ot AL MovemMedemeta Stile GSee cl: triers meet ae ue wees itn.) =: ee Kargse chipped met simkers:-motchnedudisks = a.h- 2c... >. .. ace Small chipped net sinkers, motemed disks 2.2... <2...) sae Piece ot red paint: -Plyndoutla, eae) aseiee tokio porn ak 4 coe Simallvicommnon) piitediust omen. cerry sere Rlte ds ens 6 ha Large double flat ended hammer stone, not grooved, West INeuaiticoldese ie aa aicicuie ath) oe cee a ee ee ee rae eee she Glatt S515) ee rr Large pitted and notched hammer stone, flat ends, Shawnee Fe aig BN ee ae es de ll con ae be se nO Ande are RO ane Ec ieee 0, Way ot re Net isinkerwi@rooved) hick st) 40 6 tae een es ose Common manimer Stone) Namticoke (a yesr: uo. rare clas . ae Corde areillite hatchet, \Wapwallopent = 22282. .2 22.02. | Gonimon, hanimer stone, ‘Shawnee late see iso 0.6. 5e eee Areallite taxe not -crooved, Dindee tammy sec... .'-..... oe Extra pitted Stone, ‘Shawimee (latsor. c-.e mans... - oi... Comimenvchipped hatchet, Nanticoke ss c8 2... oe Sialimmnller SimttonwoOod sblatiGi. 2... sohmelon ache S 4 -.-< oie ae Pinermmiler Oo mmdee: Wari ie nce sane cere RR ele ee. 5 bay «Aas 4 ell Whetate: wolawiee. Ilatee ih. oc e Ow ee Almere eS oo ss Wks he Soapstone sot handle, Northumberland, (ia. is. 0... ooo. ee = e) Oo FH BW SS SB Be ee a Lo A oo NO) le ee | REPORT (OF THE DIRECTOR TOLO ETH NOLOGY Purchase and collection in the field Parker, A. C. Orsi Oy WO EAC PORE fleeces 2 Hs ee 20s aaaiee a naeiptiet yun) ora, > ec eel Be JE AS IRAE. SHIR TST AUNe ths a Si) ee a Ma Ai 48 Oh ate eek) le re a ged tea Mahe mie uclemne uC DASKC (Gites Gieeae as dt ky yeye sl aittage s) sida ase 4 wel a Po MMC REA aN INO Sire aytra racy ae toyas Ske dae aiidarnn cvs Wd ate tts. Geniate Mellie eee dae ile IOI ys yy nae aoc ada ha on oie alia nda doa ola loldonie es eels: Slisitratirem nee Mee past Mei a ikke ato gretia ty Cele alae) aumia ye av sch lw uaahandta wid dors a IPEDS 2 [DOVER RGGI Par etapa nv a en eg (ET ARCE RY esse) ita eee ak Rete ar PORN A eC ENC OM RWTOMI Ce ware kod Wines el vse eli cls eile la sb cali bile men Pode a6 PEC NAL Ea Glam iel oer en ae eet ate eRe Sind, alte eh artee AM Bw Mig shad gi dices Reet CIN ate iP” GIETETATIY 2 8 tes es egal ee ne EW ea (fa TAIPEI ERE gg a Ae a ee ee Whig ie sole ce Be pep Mie SA an Be RS ELC aCe RE ep se Oe Be OU Oe ae ee 1 STAVES yy SAT Cab ee OPI pe a a go ea a a ee SHMUEL TA CE LT ie AR EE ack 8 at NERC Ap capa rR a a Tes Feil TENG IGS EEN ITS les esr geese ee Ee alt eaten A ang ae ga Pea @ tse a tel ELE Wits each Wye dis hg wie adla ayes POUR AS A ties inns OR pened Naa metre oa hee vain tay ANA A Randa WS la wig aha eialta ss Ah wrath eda '® nie a gallam ae ae Pe Se mLOm Nea IIe. UITCG: Nici vqeitds Pye dud pew Ss aech ba cae ald ole « Glin SECiIE a CCIe e e enc e OUr ne ae ae ae ee gee eae fe Mie Semen tN Sm eee Re a Rn Wea, co mama eg Moke gas sau! Wiha ial chg-Ebstey oive'é og Saher 9 me TSE WUBI. Soa MAST SIGS OES BI he Sen a RGR Re ar eee nea MUNA Reape ae rer Bae Shi Me whe aa act ch, Se a 0 ig GRE 4 a rune eas Ian PACES tec crate Cis Sap taille a EMU Te ed ale ssl Bees le rae CONE 25's, maids wuatea 4 21a scele tan’ acaia gestae arp peated eats Earner slip ey INOTUS) i are t v's cosas iG eisiteis tir a eke ee deme iae eee ka ee Mrmomeaiointiie: mttaer. Maile... as ero scste ce ae tiecs ceeds wee wee we Ioaleecabiarihes. Ce rme NUL a 0 at Noo IE UA RAN Tel De eee SL nie, Seal Se a rE? (oGricins? lalellll pales lee Vet ' Sup’t J. Edward Banta Binghamton Drie Webardeen Syracuse Sup’t Darwin L. Bardwell New Brighton Mr James A. Barkley Schenectady Dr John Hendley Barnhart New York Col. Edward Barr Brooklyn Leonard Barron, Esq. Garden City © Dirk hy abartley: Brooklyn Philip 2. Barton, Esq. Niagara Falls Rev. Dr Walton W. Battershall Albany Oswald A. Bauer, Esq. Piermont Hon. Joseph Beal Oneida Hon. Charles D. Bean : Geneva Rev. Dr W. M. Beauchamp Syracuse Hon. Louis Bedell Goshen Hon: Stacy sO) Behe Lockport REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQ10 85 Dr Rocco Bellantoni Dr A. L. Benedict Mr Walter R. Benjamin Charles B. Benson, Esq. D. D. Berolzheimer, Esq. Prof. Lyman A. Best Clarence W. Betts, Esq. Rev. Dr Dana W. Bigelow Poultney Bigelow, Esq. Prof. Charles F. Binns Henry S. Blackmore, Esq. nev. CG. 1. Blanchet Cornelius N. Bliss, Esq. Mr Joseph Board George F. Bodine, Esq. Hon. George H. Bond De john DO: Bonnar Dr Arthur W. Booth Mr William Miller Booth Hon. Elmer F. Botsford Sup’t F. D. Boynton Pore Hie. G. Brandt Mr Frank Chapin Bray Prof. A. A. Breneman George R. Brewster, Esq. Mr Herbert L. Bridgman George E. Briggs, Esq. Prof. Albert Perry Brigham Prof. George P. Bristol Hon. Elon R. Brown Joseph F. Brown, Esq. Principal €; FR; Brusie Charles J. Buchanan, Esq. Dr H. C. Buell Dr Percy I. Bugbee Hom. Carles, Burr, Jr J. Cleveland Cady, Esq. James H. Caldwell, Esq. William W. Canfield, Esq. Hon. Jacob A. Cantor Wilmot Castle, Esq. Ernest Cawcroft, Esq. Alfred B. Chace, Esq. Prof. Henry E. Chapin Levi S. Chapman, Esq. Hon. Emory A. Chase W. A. Chater, Esq. Henry H. Chatfield, Esq. Prof. Francis J. Cheney Warren J. Cheney Esq. New York Buffalo New York Hudson ~ New York Brooklyn Troy Utica Malden Alfred Mount Vernon Philmont New York Chester Waterloo Syracuse Buffalo Elmira Syracuse Plattsburg Ithaca Clinton Chautauqua New York Newburgh Brooklyn Peekskill Hamilton Ithaca Watertown Canton Ossining Albany Canandaigua Oneonta Commack New York Troy Utica New York Rochester Jamestown Hudson Richmond Hill Syracuse Catskill Brooklyn Southampton Cortland Corning S6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION Hon. Alden Chester W. Stanley Child, Esq. Frederick Chormann, Esq. Sanford T. Church, Esq. Col. William Conant Church Principal John Holley Clark By ako Clarke Esq, David A. Clarkson, Esq. Hon Aw). Clearwater Frank N. Cleaveland, Esq. Samrel B. Coffin, Esq. W. B. Cogswell, Esq. Fremont Cole, Esq. Bewiss Dr Collins: sq: Hon. Henry Jared Cookinham H. Westlake Coons, Esq. AL A Cowles, “sq. INclogite lym Cor 12 sc, William See Crandall: sq: EW Cristina, sq. Isiraml< ib, Culnlleya IOS David Aer Guntis lisa! Chieti Cuttine, sq: Theodore D. Dale, Esq. Di Ee cretval ats Dalplnia William Dalton, Esq. Silvanus Miller Davidson, Esq. John M. Davison, Esq. BE Wawiley. Esq: Robert W. De Forest, Esq. W. G Denney, Esq. Hon. Charles M. Dickinson Prani< ae Doddukses James C. Dolan, Esq. Gano Dunn, Esq. H. R.) Durtee, Esq. john © Bames, Esq: W. N. Eastabrook, Esq. George Eastman, Esq. A. Ejlers, Esq. George W. Everson, Esq. S. E. Everts, Esq. Hon. Elbert E. Farman Harvey Farrington, Esq. Morris P. Ferris, Esq. Anthony Fiala, Isq. Dr Myron E. Fisher Warren R. Fitch, Esq. Winchester Fitch, Esq. Hon. Nathaniel Foote Albany Oneida Niagara Falls Albion New York Flushing Kingston New York Kingston Canton Hudson Syracuse New York Batavia Utica Ellenville New York New York Buffalo ‘Herkimer Potsdam Seaford New York New York Malone Schenectady Fishkill Pittsford Fayetteville New York Millerton Binghamton New York Gouverneur New York Palmyra New York Elmira Rochester Brooklyn Fort Plain Granville Warsaw Yonkers New York Brooklyn Delevan Lowville New York Rochester DEPARTMENT REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9I1O Prof. George M. Forbes Rochester Joseph M. Fowler, Esq. Kingston Lewis W. Francis, Esq. New York Dr Lee K. Frankel New York- iirigian i) French, Esq, Albany Mr Maximillan Franz Friederang Brooklyn ev. Or i. K, Funk New York roOiue. Sitari Gager Brooklyn Edwin White Gaillard, Esq. New York Prof. Clement C. Gaines Poughkeepsie James Gallagher, Esq. Cleveland James Gamble, Esq. New York Frank E. Gannett, Esq. Elmira William P. Garnett, Esq. New York Hon. Martin H. Glynn Albany Eling ls. Goetz, sq: Buffalo Hon. William P. Goodelle Syracuse George FE. Goodrich, Esq. Dryden Mr William H. Goodyear Brooklyn Wellington E. Gordon, Esq. Patchogue R. P. Grant, Esq. Clayton David Gray, Esq. Hon. Joseph I. Green John Arthur Greene, Esq. John TY. Gridley, Esq. George Bird Grinnell, Esq. Prot. A. J. Grout New York New York New York Candor New York New York President Almon Gunnison Canton Stansbury Hagar, Esq. New York Dr M. L. Halbert Cincinnatus Dr William H. Hale Brooklyn Dr Edward Hagaman Hall New York Bolton Hall, Esq. New York Francis W. Halsey, Esq. New York Bon. Richard i cland Elizabethtown Principal John D. Haney New York Carl A. Hansmann, Esq. New York James E. Hardenbergh, Esq. New York W. Ko Harrison, Esq. Salamanca Principal George K. Hawkins Plattsburg Russel Headley, Esq. Albany John L. Heaton, Esq. Brooklyn Hon. Willis E. Heaton Hoosick Falls Hon. Robert W. Hebbard . New York Martin Heermance, Esq. Poughkeepsie Forbes Heermans, Esq. Syracuse John D. Henderson, Esq. Herkimer W. J. Henderson, Esq. New York Hon. Michael J. Hendrick Moncton, N. B. William Jackson Hendrick, Esq. New York 'o4) 96) NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Eli W. Herrick, Esq. Hon. Albert Hessberg Hon. Henry Wayland Hill. Dr Robert W. Eitl Alexander M. Holden, Esq. james, A~ Holden, Esq: M. dG. Hoover, Esa’ Henry M. Howe, Esq. Dr John T. Howell Clarence Howland, Esq. Mr Henry R. Howland Dr H. Py Hubbell George S. Humphrey, Esq. William Humphrey, Esq. Richard S. Hungerford, Esq. Prof. George William Hunter Chanles Re Eluntley, wea: Walter Renton Ingalls, Esq. Hon. Grenville M. Ingalsbe Mr Ernest Ingersoll Dr Charles A. Ingraham J. de Courcy Ireland, Esq. XGiniena Weelbiay ic, Ise) Francis De Milt Jackson, Esq. Dr Harold Jacoby Edgar B. Jewett, Esq. Dr William F. Jolley Thomas N. Jones, Esq. William Pierson Judson, Esq. Christopher Keller, Esq. Stanley R. Ketcham Rev. Dr William E. Kimball William J. Kline, Esq. Dr Charles F. Klippert Hon. Walter H. Knapp Dr George F. Kunz Hon. Francis G. Landon Robert J. Landon, Esq. Andrew Langdon, Esq. William E. Leffingwell, Esq. Hon. Henry M. Leipziger John W. Leonard, Esq. Dike Pane Wewis Dit Ered Die wis’ i. George F. Lewis, Esq. Joseph R. Littell, Esq. Hon. Seth Low Frederic E. Lyford, Esq. James McCall, Esq. Dr Cornelius F. McCarthy _ Watertown Albany Buffalo Albany Honeoye Falls Glens Falls Lockport Bedford Hills Newburgh Catskill Buffalo Stamford West New Brighton Dansville Watertown New York Buffalo New York Hudson Falls New York Cambridge New York New York Brooklyn New York Buffalo Troupsburg New York Broadalbin Coeymans New York Sauquoit Amsterdam New York Canandaigua New York Staatsburg Schenectady Buffalo Watkins New York New York Buffalo Buffalo New Rochelle New York New York Waverly Bath Batavia REPORT SOms Arch: DIRECTORY EOtO Townsend MacCoun, Esq. Eon, john El, McCooey Hon. John F. McIntyre Emerson McMillin, Esq. E. O. McNair, Esq. Henry C. Maine, Esq. Hon. James H. Manning William D. Marks, Esq. Mr Henry Rutgers Marshall Myra B. Martin, Esq. A. Eugene Mason, Esq. Hon. William H. Maxwell Clarence EF. Meleney, Esq. Dr A. Clifford Mercer Hon. Charles F. Milliken William Mitchell, Esq. George D. Morgan, Esq. Newbold Morris, Esq. Dr Robert Tuttle Morris P. J. Mosenthal, Esq. Dr John P. Munn Harlan L. Munson, Esq. Hon. William S. Myers Edward J. Nally, Esq. Right Rev. Dr Richard H. Nelson Edgar A. Newell, Esq. Dr Francis C. Nicholas William W. Niles, Esq. Gi, Obennayer, Esq, Mr Robert C. Ogden Rollo Ogden, Esq. Hon. Stephen H. Olin Frederick G. Paddock, Esq. Dr John A. Paine Hon. George Foster Peabody Edward H. Peaslee, Esq. Hon. John Hudson Peck WT. Peoples, Esq; Hon. N. Taylor Phillips John B. Pine, Esq. James P. Pitcher, Esq. Mr George A. Plimpton Dr Horatio M. Pollock Hon. Alexander J. Porter Dr Eugene H. Porter Jesse W. Potts, Esq. ion: izra iP, Prentice lon. VW. G. Prescott Robert C. Priuyn, Esq. Cornelius A. Pugsley, Esq. Thomas D. Rambaut, Esq. New York Brooklyn New York New York Buffalo Rochester Albany Westport New York New York Glens Falls New York New York Syracuse ‘ Canandaigua New York Rochester New York New York New York New York Westfield New York New York Albany Ogdensburg New York New York Brooklyn New York New York Rhinebeck Malone Tarrytown Saratoga Springs New York (roy =) New York New York New York Boonville New York Albany New York Albany New York Herkimer Albany Peekskill New York Niagara Falls 89 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Hon. George W. Ray Dr Henry S. Redfield Lewis B. Reed, Esq. Louis F. Reed, Esq. W. Max Reid, Esq. Es Ge Rest, vesq: H. F. Remington, Esq. Jesse W. Reno, Esq. Colonel W. G. Rice Frederick B. Richards, Esq. Clifford Richardson, Esq. Fion. John B. Riley A. A. Robbins, Esq. Hon. James A. Roberts Hon. James A. Robson Archibald Rogers, Esq. William J. Roome, Esq. Hon. Simon W. Rosendale Van Wyck Rossiter, Esq. George C. Rowell, Esq. Eugene A. Rowland, Esq. Hon. Willtam 2) Rudd Hon. Isaac Franklin Russell Hon. Morgan M. L. Ryan Hon. Martin Russell Sackett John T. Sackett, Esq. William H. Samson, Esq. Grange Sard, Esq. Frank Schaffer, Esq. Hon. Ernest Schernikow Hon. Charles A. Schieren Jacob EL Selnitt, sar Sup’t Richard A. Searing Lawrence E. Sexton, Esq. Edmund Seymour, Esq. James C. Sheldon, Esq. Herbert B. Shoemaker, Esq. Hon. John A. Sleicher Frank Sullivan Smith, Esq. Di eonisik sutth Ray ws. omit sq. Hon. John C. Smock Elbridge G. Snow, Esq. Joseph H. Spafford, Esq. George W. Stedman, Esq. John DeWitt Sterry, Esq. Francis Lynde Stetson, Esq. Alexander M. Stewart, Esq. John A. Stewart, Esq. Francis H. Stillman, Esq. Norwich New York Brooklyn New York Amsterdam Schenectady Rochester New York Albany Glens Falls New York Plattsburg Brooklyn New York Canandaigua Hyde Park New York Albany Nyack Schenectady Rome Albany New York Brooklyn Prescott, Can. New York Rochester Albany New York New York Brooklyn New York New York New York New York New York New York New York Buffalo Syracuse Hudson New York New York Albany ~ New York New York New York New York New York North Tonawanda BEEORT NOL Tit DIRECTOR 1O1O ir rank Stone, Esq. Isidor Straus, Esq. Percy S. Straus, Esq. James W. Sturdevant, Esq. Andrew T. Sullivan, Esq. Hon. William Sulzer Theodore Sutro, Esq. Rush Taggart, Esq. Charles E. Teale, Esq. CyGr Vi thomas, sq, Dr William S. Thomas Rev. Dr Walter Thompson Henry N. Tifit, Esq. ion. Robert C,. Ditus Lawrence A. Toepp, Esq. Hon. A. S. Tompkins lon James i. lracey eS irtimiain, Hisq, Dr Willis G. Tucker Hom William J. lally Dell, Lutte, Esq. William G. Ver Planck, Esq. Alfred Wagstaff, Esq. Samuel H. Wandell, Esq. Hon. George W. Ward Hon. John DeWitt Warner George M. Weaver, Esq. Frank E. Wheeler, Esq. Dr Herbert L. Wheeler Dr William A. White William S. Wicks, Esq. Elmore A. Willets, Esq. Frederick E. Willits, Esq. General James Grant Wilson Hon. Frank S. Witherbee S. Herbert Wolfe, Esq. New York New York New York Cragsmoor New York New York New York New York Brooklyn Flushing New York Garrison New York Buffalo Nyack Albany Owego Albany New York Buffalo New York New York New York Dolgeville New York Utica Utica New York New York Buffalo Belmont Glen Cove New York Port Henry New York New Brighton gi COMPARATIVE SKETCH OF THE PRECAMBRIC CEOLOGY Or Si EDEN- AND NEW YORK BY J. F. KEMP The eleventh International Geological Congress, which was held in Stockholm, August 17 to 25, 1910, afforded visitors from else- where exceptional opportunities to become familiar with the Scandinavian Precambric exposures and problems. One excursion of three weeks’ duration, before the sessions of the Congress, was planned for northern Sweden; while a second covering ten days was devoted to southern Sweden. Besides these two, and both before and after the sessions, two others were tendered the visitors specially interested in the iron ore deposits. The mining trip before the Congress in part coincided with the one planned for the Archean geologists but the two that came afterward were essentially differ- ent. Since in each group was a member of the New York State Survey, Mr Newland accompanying the mining sections and the writer the Archean, it has been thought by these two observers that a sketch of the geology of the Swedish magnetites as compared with those in New York, and an outline of the Swedish Precambric as compared with the home exposures would present elements of interest. The latter sketch may be best given first since all the iron ores are in the very ancient strata. A few figures of relative areas will be of interest in establishing a point of view. New York contains 49,170 square miles, of which 1550, or about 3 per cent, are lakes. Sweden covers 172,876 square miles or approximately three and one-half times as much as New York; one-twelfth of its area consists of lakes. Norway has 124,445 square miles, so that Scandinavia proper is nearly six times as great as the Empire State. Were we to take together with New York the New England States, Pennsylvania and Maryland, the total would be very nearly that of Sweden. Sweden, however, is so much narrower that if we lay it off from the northern point of Maine, it would reach a little beyond the extreme southern point of North Carolina. In population of the date 1900, Sweden had 5,136,000, and Norway, 2,240,000. The total of the two was a little ’ more than New York’s 7,268,894. In tg10 New York had grown to 9,113,279, but the two Scandinavian countries have probably not 93 Q4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM changed so much. The Precambric rocks in New York cover about 11,800 square miles, or about one-fourth of the dry land] 3 aia Sweden the proportion is far larger, perhaps nearly nine-tenths. Since one-twelfth of Sweden is covered by lakes the areas com- pared are therefore nearly in the ratio of 4 to 50. The older Paleozoic section in Sweden is not so thick as in New York, yet its exposures are very widespread. The relicts left by erosion and spread as they are in scattered areas throughout the kingdom, indicate the very general presence of these strata at one time over all of its extent. The island of Gothland in the Baltic and the many glacial boulders of the older Paleozoic rocks, which are found in the drift in the Aland Islands, Finland, lead to the belief that other areas are beneath the waters of this inland sea. The lower members of the Paleozoic are grouped under the name Siluric which is then subdivided in descending order into Goth- landic, Ordovicic, and Cambric. The Swedish geologists thus follow the lead of Murchison. We are here chiefly concerned with the contact of the Cambric upon the ancient crystallines. This is of such a character as to prove the old bedrock upon which the first Cambric strata were deposited to have been in general very even. Such relief as can be detected in most of the areas is slight and the old land surface seems to have been worn nearly to a level. These observations coincide with the greater part of the observa- tions around the Adirondacks. Professor Cushing has demon- strated the very even sub-Potsdam floor along the north and north- west sides (1)* and has recently discovered in the southeastern edge much the same relief, although hummocks as high as 100 feet seem recognizable. Doctor Ruedemann has described in some detail the small inliers of gneiss amid the encircling Potsdam at Port Henry. (2) In the quadrangles mapped by Prof. W. J. Miller along the southwestern edge, the same condition is indicated but, as is well known, sedimentary overlap brings several of the Ordovicic members in contact with the Archean. The escarpment of the Medina sandstone in the Little Falls quadrangle led Professor Cush- ing to strongly suspect that it, too, had once extended over the ancient gneisses (3). The writer has suggested the original extension of the Ordovicic and Cambric sea up valleys in the Archean along the eastern side 1 The figures in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the close of this paper. REPORD OF THE DIRECTOR TOLO 95 of the Adirondacks at the time of deposition. There is some ground for this inference. Similarly in the actual highlands of Sweden, land areas, already carved into hills and deep valleys, are believed f@eMave existed in Cambric time (4, p. 6). The nature of the surface on which the Poughquag sandstone north of the Highlands of the Hudson was deposited is so little exposed that we can cite it for comparison. Professor Hogbom states (4, p. 4) that at most of the contacts between the Cambric and older rocks in Sweden, one finds the bottom layers of the. former resting on a weathered breccia of the subjacent Archean. The breccia turns into kaolinized gneiss which continues to a depth of one or two meters. These relations are paralleled at the “ Noses” along the Mohawk where the Beekman- town limestone rests on decomposed gneiss (5) but the general ex- perience in New York is to find rather fresh Precambric rocks beneath the Cambric, as if the advancing waves had swept the old bedrock clean of the products of weathering. In Sweden one cur- ious feature of these contacts remains far away from present exposures of the Cambric strata. A few little, so-called “ sandstone dikes) have’ been found in crevices.of the ancient gneisses. In them Cambric brachiopods which serve to establish the age have been detected. One of these on a high hill of gneiss, on an island off the east coast of southern Sweden, not far from Vastervik, was shown to us and excited much interest. It reminded the Americans of the similar explanation suggested by Prof. J. E. Wolff for the narrow Cambric quartzite in the crystalline limestone at Franklin Furnace, N. J., (6) discovered by Mr F. L. Nason and believed by himeto be interbedded (7 ). The most recent scheme of classification of the Precambric which has found favor in Sweden is in part the one suggested by Professor Sederholm, the Director of the Geological Survey of Fin- land, where, Over a vast area, scarcely any other than’ Precambric rocks appear, and where careful studies have been carried on in later years. In part also it has been suggested by Professor Hég- bom of Upsala. Beneath the Cambric strata we find the following (Gy Ds 2): Epijotnian dislocations Upper or Jotnian Jotnian Subjotnian land surface denudation and igneous rocks 96 NEW .YORK STATE MUSEUM Epijatulian folding Middle or Jatulian Jatuhan Subjatulian land surface and denudation Serarchean granites Lower or Archean Archean No chronological subdivision. Differ- ences due to varying metamorphism Along the more northerly border of Sweden and Norway there is a great development of moderately metamorphosed sediments and of iess evident gneisses which have been called the Seve series. Professor Tornebohm has shown that they rest upon the typical Jotnian sandstones and considers them a later formation. Professor Hogbom is inclined to place them in the Jotnian as an upper division. Their great point of interest lies in the fact that they have been thrust-faulted upon the Cambric and Ordovicic fossili- — ferous beds and thus appear above strata which are later. They have ridden in from Norway, and when one looks for the parent exposures the latter are now 100 to 150 kilometers distant. The thrusts, therefore, if existent are greater than any yerldesembee elsewhere. On the other hand some Swedish geologists oppose the explanation by thrust faults, and insist that there is a regular strati- fied series. They are then confronted with the diticult problem of higher lying and strongly metamorphosed and rather flat strata resting upon others scarcely if at all metamorphosed and at times richly fossiliferous. We visited several crucial localities in Jamtland where we could locate the fault plane within narrow limits although it was not itself visible, but on Mt Luopahta in Lapland we saw it clearly beneath a small waterfall. Black and greatly crushed Lower Paleo- zoic slates supported a heavy stratum of so extremely crushed and disguised a member of the Seve series that an earlier Swedish geologist had given the rock the special name “ kakirite,” from Lake Kakir in Lapland. In Jamtland the rocks are collectively called “sparagmite ” from the Greek word meaning to crush. With the typical or lower Jotnian we have no equivalent in New York. It is a series of sandstones and diabases much like the -Torridonian of Scotland and the Keweenawan of the Lake Superior region and Canada. In Sweden it appears in scattered areas much BEVORE OF THE DIRECTOR 1O1O Q7 as do the Cambro-Siluric strata. The largest area is in middle Sweden along the boundary with Norway. The Jotnian sandstones exhibit perfectly preserved suncracks and ripplemarks and may dis- play but little in the way of metamorphism. _ The sandstones and diabases along the beautiful coast of eastern central Sweden in the district of Nordingra were shown to the visit- ing geologists. The sedimentary characters were as well preserved as in our Siluric Medina sandstone, as for instance at Lockport, and the grade of metamorphism was scarcely greater. This recent aspect led earlier observers to correlate the sandstones with Paleo- zoic formations, notably the Old Red Sandstone, but the Precam- bric age is now very well established (4, p. 10-11). The floor of older rocks beneath the Jotnian is very even so far as visible and reminds one of the floor beneath the Cambric. The foundation rocks are, however, devoid of products of weathering and seem to have been swept clean by the oncoming waters. ‘The Jotnian sandstones, sometimes many hundred meters thick, far sur- pass the Swedish Cambric, and since the quartz grains in them were probably freed by the weathering of older rocks the sub- Jotnian time interval is believed to be far greater than the sub- Cambric. Wiemexttactuinary teattire of the eruptives is’ the’ curious “Pebble diabases ”’ near Brevik, in central southern Sweden. Dikes of diabase are so fully charged with rounded boulders, that the observer can only interpret them as follows: it appears that a loosely compacted conglomerate, or even a boulder bed, has been pene- trated and suffused with a basaltic magma as with so much water; on chilling, the result was a rock almost like a conglomerate, with a basalt bond or cement. We have few parallels for these rocks in America, but one is reminded of a dike at Nash’s Point, Vermont, where a trachytic magma is surcharged with boulders derived from lower lying formations, although it now cuts Ordovicic slates (8). In the table of formations given above, under Jotnian is men- tioned a group of sub-Jotnian igneous rocks. A brief outline of these will serve also to explain the methods of correlation developed by the Swedish and Finnish geologists when dealing with igneous and metamorphic rocks in disconnected areas. The Jatulian period closed with strong folding, as will be later brought out. Subsequent to the folding there appeared in Finland ex- tensive intrusive masses of a peculiar granite, of coarse porphy- ritic texture. The porphyritic crystals may be one to two inches 98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in diameter. They have a core of reddish orthoclase and a rim of green oligoclase and are very characteristic. he gtamibe weathers badly and for this reason has received the Finnish name rapakivi or rotten stone. Wherever these porphyritic granites or even finer-grained porphyritic rocks are found with the zonal phenocrysts, they are called throughout Scandinavia rapakivi. Now, the Finnish rapakivi is later than the post-Jatulian folding. The rapakivi can be traced across the Aland group of islands which separate the Baltic sea from the Gulf of Bothnia and themselves have rapakivi rocks. It finds parallels or representatives farther north along the east coast of middle Sweden near Sundsvall, and inland about 60 miles at Ragunda. In this latter region the granitic rocks of coarse texture lie beneath the Jotnian; but them texrume shows that they crystallized beneath a load which was eroded before the Jotnian sandstone was deposited. Thus we have a long time interval between the close of the Jatulian period and the beginning of Jotnian sedimentation. If now we establish the geological date of the Swedish rapakivi, near Sundsvall, we also fix the time of various other types of igneous rocks, such as diabases, gabbros and granites, which cut the rapakivi but precede the Jotnian sandstone. Extremely interesting exposures of all these were shown to the visiting geologists at and near Ragunda, Sundsvall and north along the coast in Nordingra, and are described in the guidebooks to Excursion A 2. The visitors viewed with growing enthusiasm the impressive phenomena of interrelated igneous types which Professor Hogbom spread before us, nor will we ever forget the deep impres- sion made by them. / | The most extensive of the Jotnian exposures, as stated above, lies in western middle Sweden along the Norwegian boundary. The underlying rock consists largely of the famous Dala-porphyries, which are a subject of much difference of opinion. Some think them Archean; others are not convinced that this is true and urge a later age. Near Sundsvall, which is a city in eastern central Sweden, and the most important lumber center of the country, there is the island of Alno, with its famous nephelite rocks, whose age is uncertain. In many places throughout Sweden there are diabase dikes whose age is also indefinite. It is conceivable that they may belong in this interval between the Jotnian and Jatulian. New York can not furnish parallels for all the formations just reviewed. As earlier stated, the Jotnian seems nearest akin to the REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9QIO 99 Keweenawan of the Lake Superior region; but if, with Professor Hogbom, the Seve group is considered upper Jotnian it might fur- nish a parallel with the Manhattan schist and Inwood limestone of southeastern New York. At all events the Seve group as repre- sented by the Are schists is lithologically very similar to the latter. The Grenville on the other hand is much more like the sedimentary rocks in the Archean, than like the Jatulian. As a parallel with the Dala-porphyries we have the Precambric volcanic rocks which are so generally distributed along the Atlantic seaboard (9); which have been well described in Wisconsin (10) ; and which are of special interest in southeastern Missouri (11). We can only say that porphyritic and felsitic rocks were also de- veloped on this side of the ocean. The Jatulian (pronounced Yatulian) series was named originally by Professor Sederholm of Finland. The exposures which pri- marily suggested its establishment are found in the latter country. They consist of quartzites, schists, dolomitic limestones and, strange to tell, of beds of anthracitic carbon, which may attain a thickness Giewo meters (12,'p. 10). Strata referable to the Jatulian are less abundant in Sweden and are in fact practically limited to one area, the west side of Lake Wenern in the southwestern portion of the country. They constitute a series of folded and metamorphosed sediments, long known as the Dal-formation. The sub-Jatulian surface, or the one beneath the Dal-formation, is believed by Professor Tornebohm to have been a mountainous one, with valleys cut quite deeply, but Professor Hogbom considers it to have been at most hilly. There is thus a time-gap represented by erosion, but not of so great length as either the sub-Jotnian or sub-Cambric. Back of the Jatulian lies the vast complex of extremely difficult rocks forming the Archean of the later Swedish geologists. The term is not used by them exactly in either the original sense of Pre- cambric as given by Professor Dana, nor the later modification to which it has been subjected by the Lake Superior group of geolo- gists, as embracing only those rocks which were older than recog- nizable sediments; but it applies to the great complex of ancient rocks, consisting either of deep-seated intrusives or of sediments always heavily metamorphosed. On the bases of the characters shown by the foundation rocks on which the Jatulian rests, Pro- fessor Hogbom infers an erosion of some thousands of meters and therefore the greatest time-break in the history of the earth. 4 100 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Undoubtedly the obscurity which always surrounds the products of deep-seated processes has in large part served to make the interpre- tation of these rocks difficult. The tendency of earlier geologists to see in the gneissoid structure evidence of sedimentary bedding has also stood in the way of conceptions characteristic of later workers. In outlining the Swedish Archean we may establish therefore at the outset that, 1 It closed with a vast period of denudation. 2 Back of this there was a very important development of granites which may be classed under four types. 3 Back of the granites just referred to there is a great complex of minor sediments and major deep-seated intrusives. To the time interval of erosion, reference has already been made. The granites are widespread and of great interest. They are char- acteristically massive. While Professor Hogbom makes four types, Professor Tornebohm, on the map of the Swedish Geological Sur-. vey, distinguishes three groups, each with several subdivisions. The four types of Professor Hogbom embrace (a) a coarse-grained gray or reddish porphyritic granite, one of whose occurrences is called the “ Refsund”’ and was seen by the foreign visitors. It is dificult to mention any familiar American occurrence that is closely similar. (b) A fine to medium-grained gray or light reddish biotite granite which is prominent in the city of Stockholm itself where it was shown to the members of the Congress. ‘The quarries i Stockholm remind a visitor of Dix Island, Maine; Barge ies and Westerly, R. 1. (c) A true mitiscovite-sranite in Angerman- land which was not in the routes of the excursions. (d) Coarse pegmatitic granite which we saw on the island of Uto. All of these types are grouped by Professor Hogbom under the name Serarchean or late Archean, a rather bad word etymologically, as it has a Latin prefix. (serus, late) to a Gnreck denmanive,s.tcocan. The members of the great complex, older than the granites just mentioned, present an extremely difficult subject to set forth intelli- gibly in a short space or even for a Swedish geologist of a life- time’s experience to make comprehensible. We may select, how- ever, certain main features. Sedimentary rocks are represented by the usual types. There are greatly compressed conglomerates, one of which was shown to us near Malmback in southern Sweden. The pebbles of finely crystalline rocks were pinched out to lenses and, while easily recog- REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO IOI nizable, were well on their way toward gneisses. The rolling out and flattening produced by the great pressure were very impressive. We have no parallels in New York but in the Lake Superior region similar phenomena may be seen. Quartzites are at times well preserved, and while hard and dense and obviously the results of extreme metamorphism, they are typical cases of the rock. In the city of Vastervik they were shown to the visitors in excellent exposures. Crystalline limestones and dolomites are important members. They appear in the mining districts of southern Sweden and are at times the wall rocks of important ore-bodies, as at Sala. The excursionists saw them in a number of localities. Mica schists are also frequent rocks. They are associated with the group of leptites. Leptite is a comprehensive name now largely used for the fine- grained and banded or stratified rocks which are of great areal extent in middle and southern Sweden and which, with the asso- ciated sediments just cited, contain the ore bodies. Leptite, derived from the Greek word for fine-grained, is not a name of a special rock but of a group whose grain or texture is very small. The varieties cover a wide range and have doubtless resulted from sev- eral different original rocks. The halleflintes of the early writers are included. ‘They are flinty-looking rocks which consist of minute quartzes and feldspars and are well known in the iron-mining regions. Many more coarsely crystalline varieties than the exces- sively fine halleflintes are also included under the term leptite, although their grain is always minute. Generally speaking, the leptites remind one of the Saxon granulites more than anything elsewhere. They may be sheared and crushed effusives. They may be consolidated and metamorphosed tuffs. They may be sediments recrystallized to rocks of minute grain. Somewhat similar types can be recalled in a few cases in America, but they are not common. We have none in New York. Gneisses with garnet, cordierite, sillimanite and graphite are not unimportant members of the great complex. They are believed to be of sedimentary origin. They remind one strongly of some of the gneisses of the Grenville series in the Adirondacks. Exposures of the so-called ‘ garnet-gneiss”” a few miles east of Stockholm at Fagersjo, which were reminiscent of some of the Adirondack rocks, were shown to us. Though long regarded as sedimentary by the Swedish geologists, there is now a decided disposition to consider 102 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the “garnet-gneiss”” as a complex mixture of igneous intrusives and partly digested sediments. It contains remarkable angular masses of amphibolite which seem to be torn off rather by a deep- seated igneous mass than by mechanical flowage. A very important member of the complex is the time-honored “ iron-gneiss,’ a rock of granitic composition with grains of magne- tite distributed through it, but never segregated in amount rich enough to be of economic value. it is prominent. imsentness Sweden and is believed to represent a granite magma whose dif- ferentiation was so diffuse as never to have yielded an ore-body. The particles of magnetite are rather more prominent than in any of our ancient granitic gneisses other than such as the lean ores at Lyon Mountain and at the Benson mines. Geologically, however, the parallel is close. Breaking through the sediments and the leptites are, further- more, great intrusive masses of granite with gneissoid foliation, con- centric with the borders of the batholiths and with massive textures at the center. When mapped in some of the areas, the sediments and leptites look like relatively narrow channels amid an archi- pelago of large islands of the intrusives. In these channellike belts are found the iron ores of southern Sweden. Along the southwestern border with Norway, very coarse granitic eneisses appear, strongly banded and sometimes with streaks of amphibolite. They have “eyes” of feldspar an inch or more in diameter, and very strongly remind the American visitor of some of our old Laurentian gneisses. They were shown to Gsiamean Trollhatten. Another feature of the Swedish Archean that is of especial inter- est to the visitor familiar with Adirondack geology is found in a series of basic intrusive masses which run north and south through southern central Sweden and which swing westward as they pass north and reach the Norwegian boundary. They are called hyper- ites and are later than certain quartzites of the region. The rocks are practically the same as the basic gabbros of the Adirondacks and, like them, contain bodies of titaniferous ore. The most famous of the latter, Taberg, was shown to the visitors. Its geology is prac- tically the same as the many bodies known to us in Westport and Elizabethtown, but Taberg is much larger than any of ours. Anorthosites appear in Sweden just as they do in the Adiron- dacks and in the province of Quebec, but not on so extensive a scale as in America. Exposures were shown to us on the north- REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 103 eastern coast in the district of Nordingra that reminded the writer very strongly of the American rocks. In Norway both the anortho- sites and basic gabbros appear and with them are the syenitic series of the New York geologists (mangerites of the Norwegian ob- servers) as Professor Cushing made clear some years ago (13). Along the southeastern coast of Sweden between Stockholm and Vastervik the visitors were shown phenomena that were new to the greater number of us. Innumerable islands dot the coast; they have been smoothed and polished by the great ice sheet until over widths of 10 to 20 yards along the shore the ledges appear as if prepared by a lapidary. Two rock magmas, a gabbro and a granite, are intermingled in the most intimate way. In the ledges visited by us, the granite had habitually pierced the gabbro, but in less accessible localities we were told that the relations are reversed. The granite at times seemed fairly to impregnate the gabbro with its red orthoclase crystals and to half digest it, until the observer hardly knew which rock name would apply. In another locality, Troll- holmen, we saw contacts of gabbro on quartzite with similar absorp- tion phenomena, leading at times to quartz-bearing gabbros. When the interpenetration of two deep-seated magmas becomes very intimate and pressure phenomena or marked flowage later pro- duce gneissoid structure, peculiar “veined” or “injected ” gneisses may result. Finland also furnishes very instructive exhibitions of these phenomena which were described to us by Professor Seder- holm. In fact the members of the Congress who saw the exposures -and took part in the discussions based thereon, became deeply im- pressed with the importance of always keeping in mind the possible deep-seated conditions which have produced the phenomena and of adjusting explanations in accordance with them. One extremely striking case of what is considered differentiation was the object of a day’s study on the island of Orno, just off the coast, east of Stockholm. A central, coarsely crystalline mass of diorite is surrounded by a border of finely but persistently banded, differentiation products. The latter appear as light and dark bands, fespectively feldspathic (salic) and amphibolic, pyroxenic or biotitic. The bands vary from a fraction of an inch to several inches in width and with slight variation may run for hundreds of feet. They are concentric with the diorite. They remind one of some cases of persistent foliation in our old gneisses, such as the Ford- 104 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ham, but the writer had never seen anything of equal perfection. Our ancient gneisses are more coarsely crystalline. Orno is well illustrated in reference (14). In the far north at the two iron-mining districts of Gellivare and Kiruna we saw geological sections in some respects different from anything mentioned above. At Gellivare, syenitic rocks are the ones associated with the ore bodies and strongly remind one of the walls at Mineville, and elsewhere in the Adirondacks. At Kiruna we find an extended section from syenites below on the west, through two thick sheets of porphyry, with the ore-sheet between them, to a series of sediments and schists of various sorts which constitute the eastern section and which remind one both of the Huronian and the Keewatin strata of the Lake Superior region. With the above general review of the component rocks in mind, we may grasp some of the larger features of the Swedish Archean. The sedimentary rocks and the leptites appear in separated localities. It is necessary therefore to treat them individually, just as our New York geologists have of necessity first studied the Adirondacks and the Highlands of the Hudson as distinct areas, and the Lake Superior geologists have taken up one by one the several iron ranges. Parallels may then be later drawn and correlations may be established. The correlations are, however, necessarily based on lithologic characters and on the parallelism of great unconformities or periods of faulting. The igneous masses must in time be matched by their lithologic characters and mutual relations. It would lead to too long and involved a discussion were we to attempt in this paper to follow out the several areas. They must be studied in the Swedish monographs and with maps in hand. In this way, how- ever, the correlations have been elaborated. All Scandinavian geolo- gists are not agreed upon the parallels which have been suggested. It is easy to see, however, that in the mature of the case Giese equivalents are largely matters of opinion rather than the results of demonstration. _ The ordinary metamorphosed sediments of Sweden have many close parallels in our Grenville strata, but the leptites are not known with us. The granites, syenites, hyperites and anorthosites are much the same on both sides of the ocean, but the peculiar rapa- kivi type fails here. In New York and in the East in general, the writer knows of no such remarkable interpenetration phenomena as those seen in Sweden, but the Lake Superior region may con- tain them. Notwithstanding the contrasts, there remained in our REPORT Oh TNE DIRECTOR: 1OTO 105 ‘minds a profound impression of similarity and resemblance, so much so, that while in the field the Americans in the end became embarrassed at their constant and almost irrepressible tendency to remark upon it to their Swedish hosts. The visitors were fearful lest they prove wearisome. In conclusion the writer may express his indebtedness to Pro- fessors Hogbom, Holmquist and Backstrom and to Doctors Quensel and Gavelin for the personal guidance and explanations which made the excursions so exceptionally instructive. As an appendix to the remarks on Swedish geology, a brief state- ment of the scheme of classification adopted by Professor Seder- holm in Finland may be given. As will appear, the older rocks have been more extensively subdivided in Finland than in Sweden. The American equivalents suggested by Professor Sederholm are added. Jotnian Diabases, labradorites and clastics, rapakivi granites Keweenawan Unconformity Upper Eruptives, clastics, anthracite, dolo- Jatulian mite Upper Huronian Lower Greenstones, clastics, dolomites Unconformity. Post-Kalevian gran- ites Upper Greenstones, clastics Kalevian Unconformity Lower Huronian Lower Greenstones, schists, clastics, dolo- mites Unconformity. Post-Bottnian gran- ites Bottnian Eruptives, clastics, leptites Unconformity. Post-Ladogian gran- ites Ladogian Greenstones, phyllites, schists, clas- tics, limestones, halleflintes Katarchean Granitic gneisses, greenstones etc. In the above table I have condensed the rock types under collective names, like clastics, and have called by the name greenstone, rocks described by Professor Sederholm as metabasites. The full table, printed in English, will be found on page 93, Bulletin 23, of the Geo- logical Commission of Finland, 1907. 100 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 H. P. Cushing. Report on the Boundary between the Potsdam and Precambrian Rocks of the Adirondacks. 16th An. Rep’t. N. Y. State Geologist. p. 5-27. 1890. 2 R. Ruedemann. Types of Inliers Observed in New York. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 133, p. 168. 1900. 3, HP Cushing. “Geology of the Vicinity of Little Falls, Ni YouNowe Stace Mires Bulk 97; Too. 4 A. G. Hégbom. Precambrian Geology of Sweden. Bulletin Geolog- ical Tnstiimiions UnivwormiUpsala, 26 .6,1010; The writer has drawn especially upon this paper. It presents in English an excellent résume. 5 (C. EB. Beecher and C. E. Hall, Pitth Annual Report N. > WoeSeare Geol. p. 8-10. 1886. 6 J. E. Wolff and A. H. Brooks. The Age of the Franklin White Lime- stone of New Jersey. U.S. Geol. Sur. 18th An. Rep’t. p. 454. 1808. 7 FF. L. Nason. Summary of Facts, proving the Cambrian Age of the White Limestone of Sussex Co., N. Jj. Amer. Geol. 1804. 14:161. 8 J. F. Kemp and V. F. Marsters. Trap Dikes of the Lake Champlain Resion,. U.S: Geol. Sur. Bul 107, p. 51. 1802. 9 G. H. Williams. The Distribution of Ancient Volcanic Rocks Along the Eastern Border of North America. Journal of Geology, 2:1. 10 S. Weidman. On Quartz-keratophyre and Associated Rocks of the North Range of the Baraboo Bluffs, Wis. Univ. of Wis. Science Ser. 1:35-36. 1895. Another paper on the Fox River valley appears in Was iGeol, and Nat Gist Sur. Bulaavp) a.) 1608. 11 E. Haworth. The Crystalline Rocks of Missouri. Mo. Geol. Sur. SPIUSOS SONS 12 J. J. Sederholm. Les Roches Prequaternaires de la Fennoscandia. Pamphlet presented to the members of the Eleventh Geol. Con- Sress, TO10, p. 10; 13 H. P. Cushing. Geology of the Northern Adirondack Region. NS AOUState Mis. Bul tos. pesesa, Loos: 14-A. G Hégbom. Zur Petrographie von Orn6 Hufud. Bul. Geol. institubom Winive or Upsala. 10.140, 5 Tomo: The paper gives excellent views of these wonderful exposures. In addition to the references to the Swedish literature specifically referred to above, the writer has also used a pamphlet by Prof. A. E. Tornebohm, Explanatory Remarks, to accompany the Geological General Map of Sweden. This map, on a scale of I : 1,500,000, or about 25 miles to the inch, has also been used. A much larger one has been issued by the Swedish Survey. The members of the excur- sions in connection with the Congress were furnished with excellent guidebooks. The writer has especially drawn upon nos. I-6, 15 Ang 1o, ; Moris ON ThE GEOLOGY OF THE SWEDISH MAGNETITES BY D. H. NEWLAND The general features of the Precambric geology of Sweden are outlined in the paper by Prof. J. F. Kemp which should be con- sulted in connection with the following notes on some of the Swe- dish districts notable for their magnetite deposits. Inasmuch as these ores have likewise an important place in the mining activity of our own State and much uncertainty surrounds the relation- ships and origin of the local deposits, it is thought that a brief discussion comparing the two series of occurrences, though so far removed from each other, may well be presented here. The notes are based on observations of the writer while a participant in the excursions of the International Geological Congress during the months of August and September I910. The excellent guides to the different mines, prepared by the Swedish geologists for the use of the visiting members, have been freely consulted for details, as have also some of the reports and monographs from other sources. The iron industry of Sweden, as is well known, derives its raw material from magnetite deposits in the Precambric rocks. In this respect the country stands practically by itself among the more important iron producers of Europe; for elsewhere the ores chiefly represented are hematite and limonite, or occasionally carbonate, associated with rocks of much later age. The magnetites are con- tained in crystalline schists and certain igneous rocks of acid com- position that are all assigned to the Precambric, though they may belong to widely variant horizons of the series. It is upon these ores and their features of occurrence, suggestive in some instances of the magnetites found within the Adirondack and Hudson River eneisses, that attention will be fixed. Sweden also possesses deposits of titaniferous magnetites, quite analogous to those occurring in the Adirondack gabbro-anorthosite areas. One occurrence at Taberg, in southern Sweden, is of large size and has been mined to some extent in the past, but it is low grade, resembling in composition rather the magnetite-silicate mix- tures of the smaller gabbro intrusions than the larger Adirondack deposits like those of Lake Sanford. There are many occurrences : 107 108 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of titaniferous ores among the igneous areas of southern Norway, and one of considerable magnitude at Routivara in Swedish Lap- Jand. | | A third group of ores which may be mentioned to complete the list, consists of the lake and bog limonites so frequently cited in the literature of ore deposits as instructive examples of present-day processes in ore formation. They are said to have furnished the first material for iron manufacture in Sweden. With the improve- ment of methods for working and treating the magnetites, the lake deposits have lost their importance and are no longer employed in the furnace. While it is purposed to give particular attention to the geological features of the magnetites, some information on the industrial side will be useful perhaps for comparison with the present situation of iron mining in this country. Of the two main districts in which the magnetites are distri- buted, central Sweden has long been and still is the support of the Swedish metallurgical industry. The deposits of that district are characteristically low in phosphorus and sulfur and the mine out- put is consumed locally in the manufacture of charcoal iron for which a wide demand still exists in spite of the development of methods for refining the ordinary product of coke furnaces. Mining there may be said to enjoy certain advantages that are not apparent in this country. The greater value of the ores as com- pared with those of usual composition admits their profitable ex- traction from small deposits and the expenditure of more labor in their preparation for the furnace than is economically practicable elsewhere. In the work ‘“ The Jron Resources of the World,” re- cently issued by a committee of the Stockholm Congress, F. R. Tegengren places the number of active mines in central Sweden in 1908 at 277 and the total production of ore for the same year at 1,884,451 metric tons. In the total are included 262,620 tons of concentrates from 23 plants. When it is considered that about one-half of the product consisted really of high phosphorus ore, con- tributed by the Grangesberg and one or two other mines which are exceptional to the district, it is seen that the individual workings are very small. Such operations recall to mind the days of the forge iron industry in this State, when the numerous small deposits of the Adirondacks were actively worked with an individual out- put perhaps of a few hundreds or thousands of tons a year. Some of the mines of central Sweden have been worked almost REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO : 109 continuously for the last four or five centuries. It is not to be in- ferred, however, that the methods and equipment at the smaller properties are, as a rule, crude or antiquated; on the other hand, they are often very efficient and the cost of production is sur- prisingly low on the basis of output. The low phosphorus magnetites have no counterpart with us. They carry generally but a few thousandths or at most hundredths of a per cent of phosphorus and usually correspondingly low amounts of sulfur. The deposits with moderate to high phosphorus content, which furnish the closest parallels to our own from a commercial view- point, have become prominent producers only in recent years when the export demand began to develop. The output of Grangesberg and the Lapland mines goes almost entirely to other countries, owing to the fact that Sweden has no coal suitable for blast fur- nace use. Since the completion of the Lulea-Narvik Railroad in 1902, by which the Lapland mines secured outlets to both the Baltic and the Atlantic coasts of Scandinavia, the shipments have grown very rapidly. This district now produces much more than central Sweden, the output for 1908 amounting to 2,724,886 metric tons, with a probable total around 3,500,000 tons for the current year. The shipments go to Germany, France, England and even to the United States, competing here with our own magnetic ores of the Kast. The facilities for extraction and handling the product in the mines of Lapland are on the largest scale, as perforce they must be to permit exportation of a low-priced material like iron ore. Open quarry work is generally practised, though at Gellivare, where the pits have already attained considerable depths, under- ground mining is being introduced. ‘The aspect of enterprise and permanency which the mines and their surroundings reflect is most pleasing, as it is rare enough in mining settlements under more propitious climates. Kiruna and Gellivare are flourishing towns of 6000 or 7000 inhabitants each, with attractive buildings and all the conveniences of modern communities, though both lie within the meretic Circle, The exploitation of the high phosphorous magnetites will proba- bly not proceed as rapidly in the future as the mining situation might admit, owing to the strong position taken by the govern- ment in favor of their conservation in the hope that ultimately they will be used at home. A definite limitation has been put 19 NEW YORK’) STATESNMUSEU NM upon the amount that can be exported; in the case of the Kiruna mines this is fixed substantially at 3,000,000 tons and for the Gelli- vare mines at about 800,000 tons annually during a period of 25 years. It is believed, however, that these amounts will be im- creased before long, as the magnitude of the resources becomes better appreciated. The possibility that the ores may be needed for iron manufacture in Sweden arises from the large water powers of the country and their future application to electro-metallurgy. Turning now to the geological features of the magnetites, the Lapland deposits will be first considered for the reason that they have been on the whole less influenced by metamorphism, there- fore are more readily interpreted, and their associations perhaps more nearly approach those found in some localities of our own State. Attention can be given only fo the Kiruna and? Gellivare mines since the limited time of the excursion did not permit any . visits to the localities remote from the railroad. Rocks of syenitic composition are the prevailing ones associated with the magnetites of Lapland. They range from massive, even- textured or porphyritic, clearly igneous types to gneissoid and finely granular phases that have entirely lost their igneous structures. Quartz is a variable component. Magnetite, diopside, hornblende and biotite are the chief dark constituents. Areas of granite and gabbro interrupt the syenites, and the latter are penetrated by dike intrusions of pegmatite, granite and more basic rocks. At Gellivare we saw the syenite in its varied development from massive to extremely granulated and gneissoid types. With the ex- ception of local granite intrusions and certain small belts of a basic schistose rock that are considered by Professor Hogbom to repre- sent 1gneous dikes, the syenite prevails throughout the ore-bearing districts. No sedimentary gneisses are recognized in the vicinity. The general impression gained from the cursory field study and later comparison of the country rocks indicates close resemblance to the ore-bearing syenitic gneisses in the northern Adirondacks, particularly Lyon mountain, Palmer hill and Arnold. The main element of difference that can be readily pointed out is that in the Adirondacks the gneiss belts are seldom without some interfolded remnants of the Grenville sedimentary rocks. Mineralogically and chemically the two series are very similar. Both are characterized by high soda percentages, which place them in the soda-syenite class, the prevalence of perthitic and acid plagioclase feldspars, and by relatively large amounts of free iron oxid in the form of mag- REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9QTO ETT netite, which has, however, a very unequal distribution due to its tendency to aggregate in bands and schlieren surrounded by rock containing less than the average proportion of magnetite. The Gellivare iron ores occur in the form of lenses, bands and chimneylike bodies with a linear arrangement that conforms more or less closely to the secondary structures of the wall rocks. Three or four parallel series of deposits can be recognized, the individual! members of which vary in magnitude and shape and also in their characters. There is the same tendency toward overlapping which is sO pronounced in most of the Adirondack mines. Horses of pegmatite and of the country rock are not infrequently encountered in the midst of the ore, reminding one of the occurrences in the “Old Bed” mines at Mineville and in the Lyon mountain deposits. The similarity of the two districts has been noted by Professor Sjogren who visited Mineville in 1891.1 The ores themselves present some striking contrasts. The high phosphorus ores are the same granular mixtures of magnetite and apatite as are represented by the product of certain Adirondack ‘mines, but on the other hand the mixed magnetite and hematite ores and the purer bodies of the latter in contact with, or independent of, the magnetite are foreign to our State. This feature we found to be repeated at Kiruna and in many of the central Sweden locali- ties. The hematite is specular and not pseudomorphic after mag- netite as is the case with the few occurrences of this mineral in the Adirondacks. Here it is undoubtedly a result of catamorphic pro- cesses in very limited areas in which the magnetites have been intruded, faulted or otherwise exposed to accentuated weathering. Professor Hogbom? refers to the possible secondary origin of the hematite at Gellivare, stating that this derivation is suggested at times by decomposition of the adjacent wall rocks; but he also points out that the contacts cannot be distinguished in other cases from the magnetite contacts. The relation of the two ores in this district is thus open to question. With reference to Kiruna, Dr Per Geijer® expresses the view that the hematite, except where its presence can be attributed to surface alteration, is an original con- stituent of the ore bodies, though in that section it appears to occur 1The Geological Relations of the Scandinavian Iron Ores. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans. 1908, 38:704-05. 2The Gellivare Iron Mountain. Guide to Excursions of the Interna- tional Geological Congress. 3 Geology of the Kiruna District. Stockholm, 1910, p. 257. Ti2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM more commonly as veins which are regarded as having a somewhat different origin than the magnetites. Karuna with its three great ore zones, Kiirunavaara, Luossovaara and Tuolluvaara, easily ranks first among the Swedish magnetite districts. To Kiirunavaara must be conceded the credit also of being the largest accumulation of this ore of which we have any certain knowledge. The single deposit is estimated to contain more than one-half of the total available ore in.Sweden, which is figured at 1158 millions of tons and recent magnetometric surveys indicate a greater extension of the mass than had been previously taken into account. . The three ore zones referred to outcrop on the summits of ‘as many ridges which rise rather prominently above the Lapland pla- teau. The Kiirunavaara deposit is a continuous tabular or sheetlike mass forming practically the whole ridge of that name, which ex- tends 3.5 kilometers north and south, and running under the lower ground at each end so as to give a total length of more than 5 kilo- meters. Its thickness ranges from a maximum of 164 meters to 50 meters or somewhat less, the higher points of the ridge showing the greatest width of ore. It inclines at a rather high angle to the east, disappearing under a mass of quartz porphyry. The ore occurrence at first sight seems in strong contrast with the Gellivare type. The wall rocks are massive, porphyritic, and show little or no effects of metamorphic influences. Their structures are rather those of dikes or volcanic rocks than of intrusives which have crystallized by slow cooling at great depths. But the more striking features relate to the ore itself, which has a dense steely appearance, revealing no granularity or crystalline texture to the unaided eye and breaking with smooth surfaces like basalt; the ore further- more is practically pure magnetite, the whole mass averaging about 96 or 98 per cent of that mineral, with apatite as the only nonmetal- lic ingredient of importance. Analyses sometimes run over 70 per cent in iron. The distribution of the apatite is very irregular, so that it has been found possible to extract in a large way several different commercial grades of ore from the one deposit. The interesting structures which develop out of the variable relations between the magnetite and apatite have been described by Dr. O. Stutzer* and more fully by Doctor Geijer’. 1The Geology and Origin of the Lapland Iron Ores. Jour. Iron & Steel Inst. If. 1907. 2 Geology of the Kiruna District. p.88 et seq. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 3 The Kiruna deposits were undoubtedly the most instructive in regard to considerations of ore-genesis that we saw in Sweden. There were few members of the excursion, apparently, who were not impressed by the evidences in favor of the igneous derivation of the magnetites, however much individual opinion may have varied in regard to the exact process by which the ore came to occupy its present position. The undoubtedly igneous character of the wall rocks, the structures exhibited by the ore itself, the dikes of apatite connected with the same and found in the porphyry, and the apoph- yses of ore in the footwall of Kurunavaara and more notably in the surrounding porphyry of Tuolluvaara, seemed conclusive on that score. These features have been admirably set forth in the monograph by Doctor Geijer already quoted, and further discussion of them here may be spared. | As to the precise construction to be placed upon the evidences, for a theoretical explanation of the ore genesis, the views of the Swedish geologists and others who have studied the district are somewhat at variance, though many accord on the more essential points. Hogbom, Sjogren, Stutzer and Geijer agree that the magne- tites have been derived from the porphyries and that their concen- tration primarily has been due to magnetic differentiation. But these authorities take issue on the problems connected with the subsequent history of the ores for which it is possible to give several versions: the magnetites may have cooled in place along with the wall rocks; again, they may have been forced up through the partially or con- pletely cooled rocks in the form of dikes like those of pegmatite ; or they may have flowed out on the surface as lava sheets in an in- terval between the eruption of the foot-wall and hanging-wall por- phyries. Of course the different views do not conflict with the vai- idity of the general principle, and it is not improbable that the se- quence of events with respect to the several deposits may be explain- able in more than one way. The relations of the Kiirunavaara-Luossovaara ores seem excep- tional in that the two walls have a somewhat different composition— the hanging being classed as a quartz porphyry and the foot as a syenite porphyry —though the variation is not large. For these deposits Backstrom and later De Launay would assign a pneumato- lytic-aqueous origin, according to which the iron was brought up in the form of vapors and precipitated at the surface in the presence of water during the interval of the two porphyry eruptions which are believed to have been submarine. This explanation involves the Ti4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM activity of some metamorphic agency sufficient to change the orig- inal hematite or pyrite to magnetite. Its application could hardly be extended to the other occurrences, which are inclosed by a single rock mass, a condition that is quite general in the magnetites of the Archean. The visit to Kiruna and Gellivare was interesting furthermore for the insight it afforded in regard to the changes wrought by regional metamorphism. There can be no doubt of the fundamental similarity between the two localities as has been emphasized by Lundbohm.t At Kirtina, however, the ores and wall rocks have remained undisturbed since their formation; while at Gellivare the rocks have been so compressed and crushed that they have lost largely their original structures, and the magnetites with their in- cluded minerals have assumed a coarsely crystallized phase. To extend the comparison even further it may be said that our Adiron- dack magnetites illustrate the extreme effects of metamorphism, a more advanced stage than is evidenced by the conditions at Gelli- vare. Here, the rocks only seldom show anything in the way of structures that can be taken as original, they are interfolded in the most intricate manner, and the ore bodies are of the most varied and complex shape. Yet in these features they appear not more removed from the Gellivare occurrences than the latter are from the Kiruna deposits. The excursion through central Sweden, which followed the close of the sessions in Stockholm, afforded opportunity for a brief visit to the Dannemora, Norberg, Flogberget, Grangesberg and Langban iron mines. The writer did not continue with the party to Persberg and Taberg, but instead made a trip to the mines at Striberg and vicinity which were off the route of the regular excursion. The magnetites of this district present a great variety of char- acters and modes of occurrence, and it is impracticable in this place to do more than call attention to some features that have a com- parative interest. Their investigation is attended with extraordinary difficulties, as will be appreciated by anyone familiar with the occur- rences or with the painstaking work that has been done by the Swedish geologists in this field. The Precambric complex that contains the magnetites is an in- tricately involved assemblage of gneissoid and massive igneous i Skereh of the Geology of the Kiruna District. Guide to the Excursions of the International Geological Congress. Stockholm, 1910. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO T15 rocks, various uncertain gneisses, and an apparently sedimentary series represented by quartzites, schists and crystalline limestones, besides many rocks of merely local importance. The undoubtedly igneous types, which are generally later than the ore-bearing forma- tions proper, include granites, diorites, feldspar porphyries and diabases, the last two occurring commonly in dikes that intersect the magnetite bodies. Of the gneisses a varied assortment exists: the prevailing members in vicinity of the ores are alkali feldspar- quartz rocks of strongly cataclastic textures and belong to the leptite group under the Swedish terminology. The use of the word “leptite”’ in Sweden is explained in the foregoing article by Pro- fessor Kemp. The term comprehends both granulite and the ex- tremely dense halleflinta-gneiss. They range from granites to diorites in composition, but prevailingly carry some free silica. The nearest approach to this series in the Adirondacks is perhaps the gneiss surrounding the Hammondville magnetites which has been described by the writer.t The rocks of more or less sedimentary aspect seem to be relatively subordinate to those already mentioned, yet they inclose some large ore bodies. Their field appearance recalls the Grenville series of the Adirondacks. Of local prominence are amphibolites, usually feldspathic and with biotite or pyroxene and “skarn.” (This very useful word is employed in Scandinavia for the aggregates of dark minerals—chiefly hornblende, pyroxene, biotite and garnet and their weathering products —that mark the borders of the ore bodies or occur as a gangue to the metallic minerals).. As to the general method of distribution of the crystal- line rocks in central Sweden, it may be said that the true granites constitute great masses which appear on the map as more or less rounded areas. ‘The ore-bearing leptite and sedimentary rocks form belts squeezed in between or winding about the granite areas. Grangesberge with its large bodies of apatitic magnetite stands apart from the other mines of central Sweden which we visited. It is rather allied, if any comparison be justifiable, to Gellivare and to our Own apatitic magnetite occurrences as exemplified by Mineville. The resemblance lies not only in the mineral association peculiar to the ores, but is reflected as well in the larger features of the occurrence — the general uniformity of the surrounding gneisses, their predominantly sodic character, and the presence of granitic rocks, especially the pegmatites which border or interweave the ore 1 Geology of the Adirondack Magnetic Iron Ores. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. I19, 1908, p. 45-49. 116 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM bodies. The Great Export pit with its broad lens of ore, rolling walls, pegmatite dikes and horses of country rock seems almost a physical counterpart of some of the Gellivare mines. In an illuminative chemical and petrographical study of the Grangesberg area Dr H. Johanssont has found much to support the view of a magmatic origin for the ores. By reconstructing from chemical analyses a theoretical magma representing the average composition of the ore-bearing formation, he shows that it corres- ponds to a fairly acidic alkali granite with a predominance of soda over the potash element. The complex is characterized by rather strongly contrasting rock types from a chemical standpoint which correspond to the cleavage products of such a magma under a discontinuous process of differentiation. As extremes of the series we have on the one hand the granulite and gneiss group with 68 per cent or more of silica, and on the other hand the amphibolites with 50 per cent silica, with only few intermediate types. The ores that separated out during the differentiation show consistent rela- tions to their inclosing rocks. The skarn ores are peculiar to the soda granulites; the apatite ores come in the plagioclase gneisses and granulites of more basic composition; and the quartzose ores are found with the potash granulites. The ores of Grangesberg, as illustrated in the Exporigmmmes which are much the largest of the group, are granular mixtures of magnetite and apatite, The latter amounts perhaps to rather more than 5 per cent of the whole. In some smaller mines of the vicinity hematite is the chief ore, and it occurs in one part of the Export mines, constituting the western half of the large northern deposit. It usually carries some magnetite and apparently grades into the latter. An explanation for its presence, which has been noted also in connection with the Gellivare deposits, is not easily found. The hematite is not a produce of later weathering, at least that derivation does not appear probable. The occurrence of hematite as a primary constituent of igneous rocks may be conceded, but its accumulation in quantity in the deep-seated zone by magmatic differentiation would hardly be expected. The included bands of country rock are a curious feature of the larger ore bodies. They trend generally in the direction of the strike but may send off branches and coalesce with the foot or hanging wall so as to form a network separating the ore inte 1 Die eisenerzfiihrende Formation in der Gegend von Grangesberg. Geol. For. For. Stockholm, 1g91!0o. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO I17 innumerable small lenses. The division of the ore and wall rocks is, however, quite sharp. At Dannemora, Norberg and Langban we saw some typical de- posits of such low-phosphorus ores as have been the mainstay of the Swedish iron industry since the middle ages. The association of magnetites with limestones, observed in some occurrences, has few parallels apparently outside of Sweden, and there are no similar deposits, of any importance at least, within our own State. The Dannemora deposits have the form of vertical shoots, or stocks as they are referred to by Professor Sjogren in the guide to the district, and occur within a small belt of dolomitic limestone that is in turn surrounded by gneiss. The limestone belt is scarcely two miles long and a quarter of a mile wide. The gneiss belongs to the halleflinta variety, with a dense ground mass, and is believed to be a crushed quartz-porphyry. Of later age than either of these rocks are granite in large intrusions and dikes of several kinds, the latter only coming in contact with the ore. The magnetite is mixed with silicates, chiefly amphibole and pyroxene, and much of it is too low grade to be used directly in the furnace. Like many of the low-phosphorous ores which we saw, it has a very fine texture. A somewhat related occurrence of magnetite is represented by the southern mine group (called Klackbergsfaltet) at Norberg. Lenses of dolomite are included in a fine-grained gneiss (leptite) and together are arranged in a discontinuous belt that follows the general country strike. Smaller lenses of magnetite are found here and there either wholly within the dolomite or along its contact with the gneiss. , The ores are high in lime and contain several per cent of man- ganese in the form of carbonate. An unusual ingredient of magne- tites, noted in this place, is graphite which coats the natural joint surfaces so that the ore when seen in mass looks like so much coal. The phosphorus content is remarkably low, on the average about [eee Gr .©O3 per cent, Une iron runs from 40 to 50 per cent, but as there is an excess of fluxing constituents the grade is realiy better than the iron percentages indicate. Another series of magnetites at Norberg is represented by the skarn ores which are directly bounded by leptite or else form pockets and irregular bodies within lenticular masses of the same skarn minerals that compose the gangue. These minerals are chiefly amphibole, pyroxene and garnet. The association and the presence of considerable calcite at times suggest that the deposits are geneti- 118 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cally related to the former group, but that in this case a more complete alteration has been effected, leaving little trace of the original limestone walls. The occurrence has some analogy to the magnetites in the western Adirondack region, notably the Fine and Clifton ore bodies, which have been described by the writer! as a separate type from the magnetites of the eastern and northern Adirondacks. Professor Sjégren has called attention to the Tilly Foster mine of Putnam county as an illustration of the skarn magne- tites, finding a complete agreement in the mineral association with the Nordmarken occurrence in Wermland. The Cranberry deposits of North Carolina, described by Keith, are also placed by him in the same class. The quartz-banded specular hematites at Norberg, also seen by the writer in their typical development at Striberg, are remotely, if at all, comparable as to physical features with any deposits in this State. They consist of finely-divided hematite, subordinate magne- tite, and quartz, with a lamellar and oftentimes banded structure — due to the alternate arrangement of ore and gangue minerals. This structure may have all the regularity of bedding and has been fre- quently cited in support of a sedimentary derivation of the ores. The wall rock is leptite, with more or less mica in addition to the ustial quartz-feldspar aggregate which characterizes that rock. At Langban we found iron and manganese ores forming lenses and shoots in dolomite surrounded by granitic gneiss, leptite and diorite. Whe iron and manganese are not intermixed, as im the similar occurrence at Norberg, but are distributed in separate though often contiguous bodies. The shoot shape is most characteristic. A series of altered trap dikes (called skols, a name applied also to zones of shearing or jointing accompanied by decomposition) seems to be related to the ore deposition, a very interesting feature to which Mr H. V. Tiberg, the manager of the mines, directed our attention. On the upper side of horizontal dikes the shoot may flatten out into a sheet to diminish or disappear below them, suggest- ing that the mineralization has been due to underground circulations after the intrusions took place. This brief survey of a few of the central Sweden mines will serve to show the complexity of geological and mineral features which characterize the ore occurrences in that district. As a whole the deposits are fairly distinct from those found in the Pre- 1 Geology of the Adirondack Magnetic Iron Ores. N. Y. State Mus. Bul 110," 160) p. 37-42: REPORT OB Tie) DIRECTOR [O10 I19 cambric of New York, or the adjacent areas, though between indi- vidual mines of the two regions certain similarities may be apparent or genetic relationships indicated. The origin of the central Sweden ores is a question still under debate by the geologists of that country. The sedimentary view, which seems to have been the first to gain prominence in the Swedish reports, as is instanced also in the literature of our own Precambric magnetites, apparently has lost favor among the recent workers in the field. Of these, Doctor Johansson, whose paper on the Grangesberg mines has already been quoted, and Professor Sjogren, in his recent contributions, have emphasized the inadequacy of the sedimentary theory as applied to most of the deposits. The Pucca tendency, judeine trom the later researches, is to consider the deposits as magmatic segregations—an explanation more suited perhaps to the high-phosphorus ores which are included within the granulitic gneisses —or as the result of metasomatic processes that may have accompanied the neighboring igneous in- trusions. The latter explanation applies with special force to the skarn ores and those found in limestone; while the silicious banded hematites are possibly to be excepted as a separate class with sedi- mentary affinities. The subject, however, is too intricate to be given further attention in this summary. The writer wishes here to express his obligations for the guidance and many courtesies that he received during the excursions. It is needless, perhaps, to say that the visits both in Lapland and in central Sweden were crowded with interesting features, scientific and technical, which have found no place in the foregoing notes. To the leaders of the excursions, Doctor Lundbohm for Lapland and Professors Sjogren and Petersson and Doctor Johansson for central Sweden, and to Mr Per Larsson, manager of the Striberg mines, an especial acknowledgment is due. PANORAMA SKETCH OF THE SEA FRONT AT PERCE GRANDE COUPE ANSE AU BEAUFILS. ’ SOUTH Sea level PEROE>| ROOK —=—_—_— DEVONIC <= ROBIN REEFS a SSS BONAVENTURE ISLAND OAPE BARRE. REO PEAK t THE MURAILLES Perce Rock, massive Sea level NORTH Ones, ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE GULF OF SAN REeNG E BY JOHN M. CLARKE As opportunity has afforded during the summer months the writer has continued his observations on the geology, principally of the Paleozoic formations, lying about and within the Gulf of St Law- rence. Not all the notes and records made are yet properly digested and fitted into their sequence in the geological history of this region, but there are some which extend and fortify my earlier researches and others which illuminate the investigations of earlier workers in these fields. The more tangible of these records are here brought together as an expression of progressing knowledge. which it may be hoped will eventually give us a clearer conception of the develop- ment of this interesting region and of the causes producing the eulf itself. I THE RELATIONS OF THE PALEOZOIC TERRANES IN THE VICINITY OF PERCE Perce is a region of boundless geological variety and interest. The writer feels that he has, in previous publications, only intimated its history, the details of much of which must be left to future students of the region, particularly that part of it lying back of the coast mountains. But in order to portray in panorama the relations of the Paleozoics here represented in a way that may help to clarify the situation, in the accompanying sketch a liberty has been taken with this irregular coast line by stretching out all its angles, headlands and bays into a straight line, so that, regardless of the unavoidable distortion involved, the eye may grasp not only ‘the attitude of the rocks but their relative history. This section, which will be taken as only an approximation to accuracy of ex- pression and whose discrepancies are freely avowed because of stretching a right angle into a straight line, is about six miles in length, unequally foreshortened at the north end, and extends from near Cannes des Roches at the north to the vicinity of l’Anse au Beaufils at the south. The point of view is out to sea east of Bonaventure Island, from the edge of the 50-fathom line which along this stretch of coast makes a deep bay inward toward this island (see Hydrographic map, p. 14, N. Y. State Mus. Mem. 9. 12] 122 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM v. 1. Early Devonic of Eastern North America, 1908). This 50- fathom line is a submarine terrace at this point, one of the steps leading down to the great cut in the Bonaventure rock plateau made by the channel of the St Lawrence river. What is acttally@ene hibited in this sketch is the present stage of the attack of the gulf waters on the folded and unfolded rocks of Percé, supplemented by the outstanding fault faces of the mountain cliffs and by the gen- eral effect of weathering denudation. A. contrast of fundamental moment lies in the attitude of the younger and older rock beds; the former horizontal or gently un- dulating, the latter simply inclined and, on the south front, vertical. A fact of similar moment is that the latter, consisting of Lower and Upper Siluric and Lower Devonic, are exposed) ima jjaem= cliffs by the removal of the mantle of softer beds from over them. Bonaventure sands and conglomerates. These beds lie today much as they were originally laid down in the shallow waters of a rough coast which must have been not greatly unlike, in its broken rugged cliffs, the coast of Percé as it is now. I believe the Bona- venture series of beds, at least so far as we can distinguish it from the Gaspé sandstone series, or so far as it can be defined from its original section on Bonaventure Island, represents in time the latest stage of the Devonic and possibly the earliest of the Carbonic. We can not prove the latter affiliation from any evidence around Perce, nor indeed is this age demonstrable from intrinsic evidence at any point throughout its distribution from Gaspé bay to the head of the Bay of Chaleur. We have been in the way of deferring to current opinion in this matter, but can now go no further than to recognize an interval between this deposit and the earlier Devonic of the country, often intensified by down-faulting, the absence of any marine later Devonic and the continuity of this mass of sands and conglomerates as an accumulation of landwash along a bold up- turned Precambric and early Paleozoic coast. I have had occasion. before to refer to the fossil-bearing pebbles of this conglomerate,— Cambric, Siluric and Devonic; heads of Halysites often of large size (that here figured is from the cliff face on Bonaventure Island) ; fragments of the Gaspé sandstone and of the Percé Rock massive with their characteristic species. ‘There is some order in the assort- ment of these pebbles, for there are as a rule few jaspers and other crystallines mixed with the limestones and few fossil-bearing blocks where the crystalline pebbles abound. Logan records. a block in this conglomerate weighing upward of eight tons, but while such large ones are not familiar to my observation there is plenty of Bonaventure conglomerate; Gannet cliffs of Bonaventure island REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 123 similar evidence that large, usually angular, masses were thrown down by seasonal freezing and thawing in the sea cliffs of those old days. While these red Bonaventure rocks have undergone but slight deformation, it is their noteworthy down-faulting that has given to Mt Ste. Anne and its outlying cliffs their peculiar impressiveness. Ste. Anne rises, back of the sea cliffs and terrace of Percé, in a vertical east face from which has parted and, as I take it, slid down to lower level, that portion of the original mantle represented now by Bonaventure island and by the Robin reefs which the waters of the “ Channel” have not yet washed away. Ste. Anne was once the “ Table-a-rolante,’ and its gently roiling surface slopes down- ward to the north; but passing this, the observer is abruptly con- fronted by a second majestic fault scarp, the Grande Coupe, over whose smoothed face the water falls in vertical wavering lines to a level as low as the road, thence following to the sea a second fault plane which traverses the older rocks in a line at right angles to mieverande Coupe. This scarp faces north. Again at the back of Ste. Anne facing the south and west is an even more impressive fol cit, the ~ Amphitheatre.” Cut off thus by three bold fault faces, this mass of Bonaventure conglomerate is peculiarly isolated. The mountains roll up to greater heights westward of these un- dulating surfaces of Ste. Anne, but except for the first range, known as White mountain, their composition is as yet little understood. There is no area of these Bonaventure rocks known to me along the coast from there up the Bay of Chaleur, where this mode of bold faulting has been repeated, nor is there any very satisfactory evidence that the down-breaking of Mt Ste. Anne on at Jeast three sides has involved the lower rocks on which it rests. These lower and older rocks constitute the very heart of appalachian up- folding and made a most irregular and unstable floor for the con- glomerates, which may account for the manner in which the mantle has broken asunder without great distortion. Remnants of the down-thrown blocks still lie on the land; one constitutes the shore front in a strip reaching from the Robin beach south to Birming- ham’s hill; another lies beyond the vertical limestone of Cape Blanc, where there is a sharp fault against the latter, with evidence that the edges of the conglomerates have been dragged downward; again, way at the north end of the section at Cannes des Roches, is a tipped block lying at fault with the Siluric, while the very top of Red peak, the highest point overhanging the Malbay, seems to _ be an outlier of the Bonaventure limestone-conglomerate resting on 124 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the upturned angles of the Percé Rock Devonic; this too has pre- sumably been separated from the parent mass of Ste. Anne by a fault. One additional fact is here worthy of record. Overlying the slopes of Mt Joli, particularly the south flank, is a very thin mantle of a gray unfossiliferous shale, whose attitude is apparently at right angles to those vertical beds. What is present is a mere residuum reduced to little more than a film but it seems to be a remnant of some gray shale that pertained to the Bonaventure series and has been broken up by weather. I would make this intimation with reserve, as it is possible that this thin accumulation has some later origin. The vertical rocks. It is in the matter of attitude that the great contrasts of this coastal geology lie. On all the southward stretch from the angle of Mt Joli, the old rocks are but very little out of the perpendicular, standing with an inclination of 80°-85° s. This is true of all the Siluric shales and thin limestones of Mt Joli and Mt Canon, of the highly colored Devonic of Berean nor and of the red and white limestones of Cape Blanc. On the north limb of the coast angle these older strata are less uniform in atti- tude and more faulted against each other but all steeply inclined. Throughout the complete series, however, there is a multitude of displacements, to which I have previously given some attention. Denuding these earlier rocks of their overburden, one finds the basis on which to restore the pre-Bonaventure appalachian upfolding, which has received its essential shove from the south, as the arm of the great mountain system here curved itself toward the east. All the capes and promontories of the coast lie where the more durable vertical rocks have stood against the sea, while the softer Bonaventure mantle was destroyed. These various Paleozoic rocks and their contents have been already pretty freely discussed by the writer and on this occasion it is desired only to consider somewhat more fully the character of the cliffs at Cape Blanc and their exten- sion into the White mountain. The overlap of the red Bonaventure sands and conglomerates on these vertical limestones is beautifully seen on this sea front. Un- fortunately these cliffs are very difficult of access except in a calm sea, for they run sheer to the water with only a little beach here and there north of the cape. From above they are quite out of reach. The northernmost part of the vertical series, especially where covered by the red Bonaventure, is deeply stained red and green, but the color has not been derived from the rocks above. ‘SOYOUL OF [VUISIIO Jo YAU] *PuULIs! oINJUBAvUO ‘9}eIOWIO]3UOD oIN{UOAL “og oy} Woz Jopfhoq ve — says yy jo Auojog Z ied ne Plate 3 Cliffs of Cape Blanc or Whitehead, Percé, viewed from the south. In the fore- ground horizontal red Bonaventure sandstone; the cape is composed of vertical gray-white Siluric-Devonic beds REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 125 The basal mass of the Bonaventure here is wholly of deep red, soft sands, the conglomerates not appearing for a distance of some 30 to 50 feet higher. The vertical beds below, beginning at the north, are alternating shales and thin sands with thin limestones, the shales dark, the limestone bands red, green or blue. Southward the color is lessened and the beds become a gray white as they approach the point of the cape where the lighthouse stands. Beyond the cape the white beds and the entire series is terminated by down- faulting against the red Bonaventure rocks beyond them. The thick- ness of this vertical series of limestones is from 1500 to 2000 feet without much evidence of loss from internal faulting; and in atti- tude the beds fully conform to those of the Percé Rock and the Mt Joli series. I have before shown that the fossils of these beds are distinctively Siluric and the lists I have given indicate now a Lower Siluric age for the southernmost or whiter layers and a later stage for the northern, more highly-colored series. This con- dition, if correctly inferred, seems to imply an overturn of the strata, but much still remains to be learned from the fauna. The fossils are not especially abundant, not often clearly preserved and rather difficult to acquire, but the acquisition and subdivision of the fauna of the series remains an interesting probiem. This limestone mas- sive inshore affords exposures along Birmingham’s brook and thence on toward Irishtown, rising gradually into the ribs of White mountain, skirts the rear of the Ste. Anne plateau in higher eleva- tions, shows itself at Corner of the Beach and comes out to the Malbay shore in that vicinity (shown on the section here at the north end). It thus encircles the entire series of Siluric, Devonic and Bonaventure rocks about Percé, and forms the outstanding wall of an ancient basin within which the Bonaventure rocks were here laid down. We have as yet no reliable evidence that these Bona- venture deposits extended westward beyond this rock wall. IT ERUPTIVE CONTACTS IN THE MARINE DEVONIC DALHOUSIE BEDS AT DALHOUSIE, NEW BRUNSWICK This mass of soft and highly fossiliferous shale has been de- scribed at length and its fossils fully discussed in the second vol- ume of my memoir on the Early Devonic of Eastern North America (1909). I have more recently had opportunity to exam- ine the extension of these beds from the shore exposure at Stew- art’s cove, inward or westward toward Dalhousie mountain. It is 126 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM necessary here to restate briefly the interesting geological rela- tions in order to bring out the pertinence of my present remarks. Dalhousie mountain hes a mile or so back from the shore of the Bay of Chaleur at Dalhousie and appears to be a large boss of eruptives from which apophyses extend eastward into the sea, a large arm reaching down through the village and projecting as two points at the waterfront, thence extending continuously to the lighthouse at Inch Arran, covering the Inch Arran beach, in- cluding the islets known as the Bon Ami rocks, and therefrom reaching to the opening of Stewart’s cove. This heavy lava mass is interesting for its great inclusions of crystalline blocks which are finely displayed in the bluff below the Inch Argam@iteing These inclusions are of various composition, pink and gray syen- ites prevailing, and in this much weathered rock face where the decomposition of the lava has spread radially from their surfaces, the cliff looks as though it had been shot full with great missiles whose impact had fractured the matrix. At the south end or bottom of this mass begins an exposure of the upper inclined fossil-bearing Dalhousie shales, the contact being buried under the beach sand and the highest beds, which are coral limestones, being exposed only at extremely low water. Continuing several hundred feet along the shore cliff wherein are one or two thin ash beds, the shale series is cut by a second volcanic mass at the mouth of Stewart’s brook where the contact is sharply defined and its effects manifest. The front of this second volcanic mass is a fifth of a mile long and near its midlength lies a large but quite clearly embedded mass of the shale, whose precise posi- tion in the series is not entirely certain. At the bottom or south end of this lava mass the lower section of the shale series appears and continues for several hundred feet more. Its base (beds with Gypidula pseudogaleata) lies on a floor of volcanics which, on the shore section, terminates the sedimentaries. ‘The en- tire section of Devonic sediments here is measured at about 450 feet, without evidence of repetition in its parts, and it is actually cut but once by the volcanics. These extrusives were contemporary with the deposition of the sediments, and it seems probable that they are actually connected as apophyses with the mass of Dalhousie mountain as represented on the original map of this region by Dr R. W. Ells (1884). Here on the shore front the volcanic masses are very heavy and their contact effects are shown by the induration of the shales, the whitening of the calcareous fos- (C1) S}USWIIPSs OUTIeUT DTUOADC] 9T} 0} sosAydode sjt puv (A) SseUl eATJCNIa OY} JO UOT}VJe1 OY} SUIMOYS sIsnoyyeq jo dew yoyoys t Vee ae = & ~% z =e Pannen tian as se aS aS UDILY You] s1snoulrd LOATY v a1eId Plate 5 \\ \\ : NYA OU WY gee ae ah os ZE ee = /, Uf Y i Ni ty YW hi VME Inclusions of syenite in the diabase at Inch Arran light, Dalhousie Plate 6 Dalhousie—Gateway to Fossil cove—an arch of eruptive rock Dalhousie—Fossil cove at very low tide exposing about 25 feet of strata at the top of the series, largely corai beds not before recorded. The pick is resting on the uppermost layer. Contact of fossil-bearing beds (above) with the eruptives (below). The soft calcareous shales are baked into limestones. Fossil cove, Dalhousie. ne “UFOU OY} OF SI puv Po}VOIPUL SI Spoq snoJeyIIssof paroqyyeun ey} jo dip oy ‘soyse pue syny OHTEOTOA JO SOSSeUL PappoqiejUL eAy Surmoys ‘yyZusy ur yoo} ZOZ ‘peor Jo All JOY UO spoeq (aIsnoyjeq) oulreu OlUOADG, JO uoTjoes 8 93eld REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 19010 127 sils and the deposition of secondary calcite. There is no breccia formed as the sediments were not sufficiently hardened at the time of the outpours to produce a breakage of this character. Back on the heavily wooded mountain there are no traces of any other rock than the eruptive and the only clues that I have obtained as to the inward extension of these almost ruined masses of Devonic rocks are located along the road southward to Eel river, which runs with some deviation parallel to the coast but at a distance of three-fourths to one mile back. The rock cuts along this road complete without simplifying the relations of the sedimentaries and eruptives. | Sediments and eruptives in the Eel river road section. On consulting the adjoining sketch map there will be seen an east and west crossroad reaching from the shore to the Eel river road and passing along the main eruptive mass. Turning south on the Eel river road the remaining width of the volcanic is soon passed and the road cuts a series of red sandstones, followed by dark reddish shale and yellow decomposed limestone. The shale has produced a peculiar fishplate which competent authority has thought may be Pteraspis or an ally, and the decomposed limestone is profuse in Ostracodes, of which there is abundance in similar position on the shore section. The shore, however, has produced no red sandstone, no reddish shale and no fish remains. The out- Groprot tie sedimentaries is here not more than 50 feet in entire leneth; then follows the eruptive which is not interrupted until the road crosses the bridge over Stewart’s brook and in a west curve takes the next rise. Ina position which corresponds to the lower or south section on the shore there is shown in this road a slight extent of similar Devonic shale. From this point on, all correspondence in the shore and road section is lost, for on the shore the sediments have ended. One continues on the highway, however, over the hill, crossing the second bridge beyond the house of James Stewart and here begins the section which is seen in diagram on the following plate. Here the outcrop face is 202 feet long; its sediments are all normally and steeply inclined to the north as on the shore and are crossed by five distinct beds of con- temporaneous lavas, tuffs and ashes. ‘The contacts of the sedi- mentaries with these thin ejections are absolutely unaltered; indeed here, as on the shore section, there are ash beds in which the fossils lie unaffected. Evidently the thin volcanic masses carried too little heat to effect any change in the sediments lying in cool 128 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM waters, only the heavier outpours seen on the shore section radi- ating enough heat to produce any contact changes. On the accompanying sketch map the distribution of the sedi- mentaries and their accompanying volcanics are indicated as now known. It presents an occurrence of singular and unusual in- BEReS &. LOE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE DEVONIC FISH BEDS AT MIGOUASHA, PROVINCE OF QUEBEC The fish-bearing beds of this region are probably the most re- markable of any Devonic deposits known in respect to the abundance and excellent preservation of their fish remains. These have entered into the literature of paleontology extensively and generally under the name of the fishes or beds of Scaumenac bay, Escuminac, Fleu- rant point or Yacta point. In view of the polynomial character of the region it 1s well to be explicit. These beds lie on the north shore of the Restigouche river where it broadens into the head- waters of the Bay of Chaleur. Their location is straight across the water from Dalhousie, N. B., whence a ferry runs to what is known as Migouasha landing, where the rock wall of the bay is degraded to the water. At a quarter of a mile east of Migouasha landing the red rocks of the “Bonaventure” formation) cami. down to the water in an eastward dip, and at about three-quar- ters of a mile westward of the landing is the projection of Fleu- rant point. The high-colored “ Bonaventure” beds rising from the water line at the east, present a contact with the underlying eray fish-bearing beds for a distance but on passing Migouasha they retreat into the hills of the background and all the rock beds exposed thence westward to Fleurant point are the gray sands. and shales with fish. In the voluminous literature relating to the contents of these rocks little has been recorded as to their strati- graphy and the essential evidence which has led to their generai acceptance as Upper Devonic has been brought out by Doctor Ells’s account of the locality given thirty years ago. These gray — Devonic sands with their nodules of various sizes, carrying Bothriolepis, Scaumenacia and several other fishes in extraordi- nary preservation and the blocky masses filled here and there with their remains, attain a considerable thickness at the highest point along the stretch of coast, perhaps a clean exposure of 100 feet and, in view of their dip eastward, a total thickness of not far oInjusAeuog=q ‘oluoAeq=q ‘soAtjdniq=A “eysenosryy ye AqI[eoo] Ysy oruoANDGq oY} Jo deur yoyoHG REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 129 Pom 20@ feet Vhis region is the Scaumenac bay of the reports. I have no fault to find with the determination of the age of these beds as Upper Devonic; not only geological relations indicate this but Doctor Eastman states that the composition of the fish fauna itself substantiates this reference. ‘There is something to be said both for and against the assumption that the “ Bonaven- ture’ conglomerate of this part of the coast is wholly Carbonic; in fact in its typical development where it fronts the gulf at Perce, it certainly seems to complete the late Devonic interval. My attention has been attracted to a layer of loose rounded boulders which underlies the fish beds along the shore not far west of Migouasha landing. It is a rather striking accumulation lying together like a mass of till with the boulders rolling out into the landwash. These boulders, which are largely limestone, contain @avariety Of invertebrate fossils. Some blocks consist only of colonies of Halysites; another single boulder contains Dal- mMemites micrurus Green (head and pygidium), Cama- mam@mcchia ci. dryope Billings, a small lLeptostrophia, Chonetes and Pholidops and a rather striking species of Cyrto- donta,t which indicate a normal marine early Devonic fauna. The boulders and their contents are comparable to the limestone pebbles and boulders of the red conglomerates (Bonaventure) of .Percé, though the gray color and comparatively slight thickness *Cyrtodonta gratia—an oblique shell with very low convex valves, not expanding behind, very slight forward extension, giving thus an outline quite usual in the genus though perhaps somewhat less orbicular than in the few species now known in the Devonic of the Atlantic province. The Cyrtodonta gratia nov. Exterior of right valve and internal cast showing the character of teeth exterior is closely lined concentrically. The anterior muscle scar is deep.and the umbonal teeth strongly developed into a comblike arrangement in which the first and third anterior teeth. curve toward each other, enfolding the second; behind these six lesser teeth diminishing in size to the umbo. 130 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of the mass forms a strong contrast. Of course the age of the fish beds depends on the age of the youngest fossil to be found in the boulders of these underlying beds and as yet I have seen nothing later than the Helderbergian. It is therefore possible that the sedimentation of the fish beds began before the opening of the stage we should elsewhere characterize as Upper Devonic. An additional supplementary fact is worthy of record. A large angular block of highly argillaceous black limestone, with a weight of several tons lying on the Migouasha beach above the reach of high tide, has every appearance of having been derived from the rocks of these near-by escarpments. This block con- tains in some abundance a brachiopod of the genus Schuchertella, and though I have not been able to identify it with species known to. me, it 1s evidently of early Devonic type. Figures er igus species are here introduced and the distinctive characters may be Schuchertella sp. Ventral and dorsal valves with enlargement of the surface, From the shore at Migouasha given as the coarse, wide apart, rounded ribs, with flat inter- spaces divided in later growth by intercalary ribs, all the inter- spaces being traversed by fine longitudinal lines. IV HISTORICAL NOTE ON THE LEAD MINES OF GASPE BASIN In my writings on the geology of Gaspé, reference has been made to recent and present attempts on the peninsula of the Forillon to exploit for galena and silver the little calcite seams which fill the joint crevices of the Lower Devonic Grande Greve limestone beds. These efforts began far back in the history of New France and the most serious of them, as well as the most productive, was at Little Gaspé close to the contact line of the limestones with the overlying Gaspé sandstone. It is a singular illustration of the undying per- sistence of legend in the face of well-established fact that a forlorn hope early dismantled should have revived and been ‘persistently pursued for well nigh 250 years. Plate to Boulder bed with interstratified sands lying beneath the fish-bearing beds at Migouasha. These boulders abound in Devonic and Siluric fossils. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO fat Some years ago there was found among the departmental archives of the Seine-Inférieure at Rouen the manuscript journal of Jean Doublet. This was edited and published by Charles Breard in 1883 under the title “Journal du Corsaire Jean Doublet de Honfleur, Lieutenant de Frégate sous Louis XIV.” Doublet was a freebooter whose stirring life has put a thrill into every page of this remark- able book. He was the son of Francois Doublet who in 1663, under concession from the Company of New France, attempted to settle the Magdalen islands and disastrously failed in every respect save that of giving to these islands the name of his wife Madeleine. When this expedition to the Magdalens took place Jean Doublet was seven years old and the little fellow stowed himself away on his father’s ship as it left the roadstead of Honfleur, only allowing him- self to be discovered when a boatswain into whose bunk he had crawled threw himself down on top of the sleeping boy. The vessel was then well out to sea and the angry father had to take the boy along with him to the Magdalens, fortunately indeed, for it is to him we owe practically all we know of this attempt to colonize those islands. Returning to France at the end of the season, full of promise of success in the fisheries there, the elder Doublet came back to the islands in the spring to find his colony broken up, his stores pillaged and the place wholly abandoned. So this attempt ended in disaster. In 1665 Francois Doublet, the father, was com- missioned by the Compagnie des Indes Occidentales to go for them to the coasts of Gaspé to examine a lead mine about which reports had come to France through the Intendant Talon. M. Breard says in a note quoted from the Archives de la Marine, Canada (1665), that Talon, judging that the discovery of precious or even base metals was a matter of importance to the king, obtained the right to send to Canada forty workmen. The company recruited these in Normandy and the command of them was given to Frangois Doublet. In addition to the lead, the ingenieur-fondeur believed he had discovered silver on the coast of Gaspé. ‘“ The belief seems well founded,” wrote Talon. In “Sketches of Gaspé” (1908) I quoted Nicholas Denys’s remarks on this Gaspé mine (1672) in which he says he had known a ~ of the place for twenty years, that is as early as 1652, doubtless from reports communicated by the Indians to the missionaries. Indeed as early as 1663 Father Balloquet was sent to look up the place and, according to the Jesuit Relations, returned not finding his mine 66 good.” 5 132 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Jean Doublet gives this account of the mining in Gaspé: In the year 1665, my father was asked by the Company of Can- ada if he would go to Quebec on one of our vessels which would fit out at Havre, in the capacity of a commissioner to mine for lead along the shores of the river St Lawrence where discoveries had recently been reported. They promised to furnish him seventy men for this purpose and also a German mining engineer and an interpreter, all at the expense of the company, and to provide in general all tools and provisions as well as the necessary ships. My father was to have 3000 francs a year and 4 per cent of the profits on the lead; the engineer to have 4000 francs; the interpre- ter 600; the workmen in proportion. My father accepted the position which he would not have done had it not been for his previous losses. When the ship was in the roadstead at Havre ready to sail, a boat came to carry my father to it, as he was all ready; and I plead so well that I prevailed on both him and my mother to let me go with him; so we were taken aboard the ship which was commanded by the celebrated Captain Poulet of Dieppe. We found the vessel extremely crowded by eighteen horses and two stallions from the King’s stables. The hay for the sustenance of these filled up the whole place. Then between decks there were eighty respectable young women who were to be married on our arrival at Quebec; all these together with our seventy workmen made a veritable Noah’s ark. Our passage was pretty fair, although it took us three months and ten days to arrive at Quebec. M. de Tracy was viceroy, M. de Courcelles was governor, M. Talon was intendant, M. de la Chesnée-Auber was commissary general of the company. When my father had issued his orders a vessel of 70 or 80 tons was equipped to carry us with all our necessary things to the mines. On the 13th of August we arrived and disembarked at Gaspé and set to work on our lodges and furnaces. On the 28th we began to pierce into the rock on the south side where was the first dis- covery the native savages had made. These savages in making a fire for their kettles had used one of these rocks for a handiron (de chenet) and lead came out of it. This they found after their fire was extinguished and they took it to M. de la Chesnée who sent itto France. This it was that had occasioned our enterprise as it was thought that considerable of this metal might be found here as it is in England. On the 6th of September the said mine, after having been excavated 32 feet deep, was fired and we had two men killed and one named Doguet, of Rouen, had both his legs blown off, while three others were slightly wounded. This was their fault as they did not retire as far from the mine as they 1 What is here meant is the “ Compagnie de la Terre Ferme d’ Amerique,” reorganized by an edict of May 28, 1664, under the name “ Compagnie des Indes Occidentales” (Bréard). SOYOUT OT [VUISIIO Jo YYBUeT “eYseNosIy[ ye pod Jopynog sy} wo; ‘soysATeH Jo Auojod II 931d REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 133 were ordered to. Ata depth of two feet this mine promised well as we found there eight inches and four lines of face. But after we had reached a depth of 32 feet, it ended in nothing. ‘This dis- couraged the Sieur Vreiznic, our engineer, who said that in all the mines he had excavated even of two or three lines at the surface, _he had found at a depth of 20 feet more than a foot of face with- out counting the veins scattered in various places. From the 15th to the 24th of September we worked on the north side. After having removed the earth from the rock we found at the surface five inches, one line; and after the mine was opened there were found only two inches. From the 27th of September to the 4th of October we worked on the east side without losses or wounds to our men. We had some hopes of succeeding better here, since we had found on the surface nine inches and three lines, but at a depth there was nothing at all. And that we might have nothing wherewith to reproach ourselves, on October 28th we tried the west side, where on the surface were only two anda half inches, and at 20 feet depth nothing. The season obliged us to return to Quebec as we had neither provisions nor lodging fitted to resist the great cold and snows; so we were forced to abandon our work which had yielded us no more than eight to nine thousand weight of lead. We took our departure on St Martin’s day and on the same vessel that had brought us, and the mine had only made a hole in the purses of pae miners.* 1A play on words: ‘La minne mina la bource des mineurs.” OBSERVATIONS ON THE MAGDALEN ISLANDS) The Magdalen islands, lying in the very heart of the Gulf of St Lawrence, are a chain of disjected and sea-wracked remnants of continental land, standing today as they have stood since the begin- ning of navigation in these turbulent waters, a fearful menace to the sailor and his craft. The chart shows them stretched out like a long key lying crosswise of the waters in a direction which cor- responds to the general northeast-southwest course of the basal rock folds and depressions which govern the fundamental contour of all the lands of the lower gulf. If the eye will follow the 20-fathom line on the chart, it will be seen what a tremendous platform has been carried away by the waves in the gradual wasting of the land to this slight depth and what slender, broken remnants of it now remain above the water line. A 20-fathom elevation to the water line would throw all the chain of islands into one land mass and leave them as slight elevations along the rib of a broad plateau which, altogether, would present many hundred times the area of the land now remaining. Even the to-fathom line sweeps about all the islands, tying them into one, and reaches out to take in Brion island at the north and the Great and Little Bird rocks further east; so that if the water might stand now at this 10-fathom line, or in the days when it did so stand, the broader Magdalen island would stretch its key out into a long, slender and gracefully curved handle. Today these islands differ only from the isolated rocks of Brion and the Birds by being fringed with sand spits and dunes and tied to one another by tremendous sand bars, which the seas at the east and the west have piled up into a double chain, leaving between the great interior lagoons, Basque harbor, House harbor, the Great Lagoon and its branch at the extreme north behind the dunes of Grosse Isle and East point. Thus the sea has tried to bury the remnants of its own destruction, tossing back to these feeble frag- ments of the land its very ruins. Compared to the area of the Magdalen group as it appears on the chart, the actual area of rock land is small and resolved into little insular units of soil and of population. Fntry island stands at the eastern terminus of the chain and faces the entrance to Pleasant bay, sometimes the least, and sometimes the most dangerous harbor on all the coast. Westward and separated from Entry by the tre- mendous spit of Sandy Hook is Amherst island, whose harbor and 134 ‘Aydeis0do} ,, d[[asIowlap ,, 9Y} Puve souO}spuvsS pivy puUe 4jOS OY} JO S1O][OO BuIZSvI}ZUOO oY BUIMOYS !puvIST JYSW[Y UO Sy s1oYyS ‘spuLyst uaTepseyy I 93%Id REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 135 landing at the little triangle of Mt Gridley the eye will barely catch except by close inspection of the chart. This little spot of rock is really cut entirely away from the island proper, but a sand bar leads across to Demoiselle hill and beyond this narrow neck of actual land the island widens out, extending east and west for nearly ten miles across, broken by demoiselle hills which have a trend parallel to the northeast course of the island chain. The two great bars which run north from Amherst and inclose the Basque harbor are cut across by tickles or gullies too narrow to make a passage except for the smallest craft at high water; but the inhabitants drive along these bars from island to island fording the tickles as best they can — always a perilous passage if the sea outside is heavy. Reaching out with these two arms Amherst clutches Grindstone island, an almost circular land mass with high shore cliffs on nearly every side, and again an interior of rounded demoiselle elevations, the nature of which we shall presently refer to. Then from Grind- stone two arms again extend north and eastward. At the west is the immense bar reaching 27 miles from Hospital cape to Grosse Isle inclosing midway of its course the little rock fragment, Wolf island. At the east Grindstone is separated from the land next north, Alright island, by the tickle which leads into House harbor, the best of the land-locked roadsteads of the island, and ferriage is necessary to reach the south end of the crescent- shaped film of land which makes Alright. This island is little else than a row of beautifully rounded demoiselle hills whose grassy green summits and gray sides form a brilliant contrast with the low- lying platform of red rocks at the water’s edge. Perhaps two-thirds of the area represented on the map as constituting Alright island is rock land; the rest is sand and the great eastern bar here runs its course, passing the little rock called Shag island, on to the northeast until it is broken across by the Grand Entry, the broad tickle leading into the northern expansion of the Great Lagoon. This, too, is good harborage but the vessels in heavy sea or low tide rarely take the risk of running it. I have waited eight hours on the sands of Grand Entry for the coast steamer standing in the offing with an east wind and a falling tide, to muster courage to run the passage. From Grand Entry to Old Harry point is another sickle-shaped bit of land, cut into and perhaps in two or three by sand-covered passages. This is Coffin island, and on the sea front from here around to East point, the farthest tip of the islands, and back again to Grosse Isle, there is no rock land —all is a vast stretch of high duned sands. Behind these sands and facing the lagoon is the bit of land called _ s] ON 2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM East island, with its high half-ruined North East cape which peers out far over the sands and is the first point of the islands that con- fronts the traveler from the north. There remains in this chain of sand, Grosse Isle, a divided island, one single hill standing out on the west coast as North cape, the rest a headland, Grosse Isle head, facing in a long escarpment the interior lagoon. It is an instructive feature in the structure of these islands that the northern lagoon both south and north abuts against so many steep bare cliffs. The waters of this great lagoon are shallow and navi- gation in them is closely restricted to a narrow sinuous channel through whose course the navigator is guided by a staked way. These waters could not in their present condition have contributed to the downfall of the rock cliffs; the interior cliffs were made in days before the lagoon existed or its sands were heaped up to cut off the outer sea. These bits of land which constitute the Magdalens have been saved from total destruction by the slow elevation from the sea in later stages of their history which has given birth to the sands, and extended them over the wasted plateau which the waters themselves have created. I should not say that this was a recent effect, for these great sand bars are often a mile or more across from water to water and the dunes which cap them may be 100 to 150 feet in height, while their mobility is restrained in part by caps of bunch grass and stunted spruce. The islands and their sands are the ruin wrought by the sea; so they in their turn have wrought terrific ruin to sailors and sail from the time the Euro- peans began to throng the gulf. Their long, low, dark coasts and treacherous bars have lain like a trap for the unwary navigator ; and when beating out of his course for the channels at the north or the south, or in times of stress when the northeast or northwest seas were driving against the rocks and sands, hundreds of craft have gone ashore on these unlighted cliffs; the bleaching ribs of dead ships are seen on all the coasts, and tales of shipwreck make up much of the history of the islands.’ Of the islets that lie off the chain only one — Deadman’s island, a sarcophagus of rock a few miles west of Amherst —is note- worthy and that for its history and associations. It was gruesomely 1 Many of the inhabitants are castaways and M. Brassette, the venerable postmaster at Amherst, has told me that within his time there have been, he thinks, not less than five hundred ships, great and small, cast upon these islands. =- ne GULF OF ST MAGDALEN I SOUNDINGS IN TATHOMS WEIGHTS IN rect 20 chy LAWRENCE LANDS 20 » wAS ” C ns ow a, we a 2 Pr rn o re 23] wu wb ” ) H wo Ey res ery 2 sx 34 co} ws BD toeyiat cs 1 Write Harn 7 rye Maal Te le msnr29 a0 oR ae 1s rie 4 n Fry 28) 2s, 16 5 a» s is » 16 ny 8 20 einan I Q700! / = 16 = as J 23 - we 2 s 30 25 ety 30 , oH ses = ie) i’ 28 2 Ze Ee) ae as a8 fas o a0 s w = a 6 a 16 zefeie=2 a ou Cj os 8 to ae os ce as = aoe a ra x on eh < 0 ss a 3 n ny 16 My ” " : ¢ May = : \ be wy on My ts 2 3 f(y, 96 UY eo a7 \ aw & ny, 90 ly . \ we : ry Aen: "Poy Le “Yy, ke GB \ 2 8 Vy 21 NSA ea I, F 3 v= ~ z Ey s a1} oy STP : a ; 62 rs Dinensinrt bemoan ianarrayi tat 2220 °N.S/905EN Extensive correenans 0:¢.1508 Fashington. IC, published. July. 1880. ot the Hydrographic OFfon Linder the authority of the S&CKETARY OF THE NavT- REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 127) sung by Thomas Moore, was the Isle d’Alezay of Cartier’s first voyage (1534) and is the Corps Mort of the French. Of the larger islands at the north Brion lies ten miles away from Grosse Isle, a block of rock three miles long with sheer walls on nearly all sides, and the Bird rocks, famed for centuries for their myriads of water- fowl, lie twenty miles from Grosse Isle. These and their feathered dwellers, the gannets, murres and puffins, kittitwakes and razor- billed auks, have been the subject of many romantic bird tales, the object of numerous marvelous camera sketches, but the geology of these little rocks is simple and of a piece with that of the other fragments of the plateau. The tragedies of human life on this isolated crag of the Great Bird, where reason has often given away to madness and living has fallen foul of death in the keeping of the light, have not been told to the world. HISTORY OF THE ISLANDS It is not to be supposed that such tattered fragments of the earth as these islands could have played any large part in the caravan of human events in the western world. Yet each place has been a factor in the progress of discovery at least, and in this these islands have their share. Their intimate history has never been written and per- haps there is no good reason why it should be. Certainly this is not the place in which to set forth even so much as the writer has been able to bring together from the records of explorations and the journals of the early navigators. So much only as is appropriate to the occasion is here put down. Jacques Cartier was the first European to see these islands, so far as we know. In his first voyage, that of 1534, his course lay southward from the straits of Belle Isle and he made these rock lands in succession from the north; first the Bird rocks, which he named the /sles aux Margaulx, then Brion island, to which he gave the name of the first Admiral of France, Philipe Chabot, Sieur de Brion. Here he went ashore and of it he wrote such a. glorious description as to make the reader feel he had found a paradise on earth. Some of the later voyagers applied this name, Brion, to the entire group of islands, but Cartier in his second voyage speaks of crossing over from Brion island, which he revisited, to Les Araynes—the sands of Grosse Isle and East point. By this name and its variants the group was set down on many: of the earlier charts. The charts of the eulf which date from soon after Cartier’s voyages, those of Desliens, 1541, Des- 138 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM celiers, 1546, 1550; Champlain, 1609; Mason, 1626, and others, are not altogether reliable historical records but are of interest in showing the growth of ideas concerning the form of the islands, and their changes in name, their years of confusion with the Isle St Jean (Prince Edward Island) and their gradual distinction from it. Indeed few if any of the charts to Champlain’s time and later made out the Isle St Jean, 50 miles to the west of the Mag- dalens. We do not know how soon after Cartier’s discovery the Normandy and Breton men got in among these islands, but by the latter part of the 17th century the stories they brought home of the tremendous number of seals and walruses to be had, reached England, and started English expeditions into this quarter. There was a voyage made in 1591, by a skipper unknown, on behalf of M. de la Court, Pré Ravillon and Grand Pré, for the purpose of kill- ing “~ Morses” for “traine oyl”’ (see Hakluyt’s. Voyages, v. Spam 150), which of itself indicates previous attempts by the French for the same purpose. Then the English attempts upon the islands began, and George Drake made a passage in 1593, find- ing the harbors occupied by “ Britons of S. Malo and Basques of S. John de Luz.” Drake found that “by coming a day aaper the Fayre” his efforts were put to naught; just as Charles Leigh and Sylvester Wyet, who with Drake were the first Englishmen to sail so far within the gulf, are said om their arrival pee been confronted by two hundred French, who had planted three pieces of ordnance on the beach, and three hundred savages — an opposition which led to a sharp sea fight and seems to have effectually dissuaded further attempts on the part of the English to fasten their hold on this business. These islands were granted in 1653 by the Company of New France to Nicolas Denys as a part with the vast region stretch- ing from Cape Canso at the south to Cape des Rosters at the north, and the next year Denys received from the king letters patent as governor and lieutenant general to all this great terri- tory. Even today the Magdalen islands belong to Gaspé county and the Province of Quebec. In those early days land patents in the world of New France were given easily and conflicting claims to the same territory issued from the same source often resulted. So it happened that in 1663 the Company of New France conceded these islands to Francois Doublet of Honfleur, who was commissioned to establish a colony on the “illés de Brion ” for the cod and seal fishery. Doublet was also given per- N. T. Clarke phot. Cape aux Meules, Grindstone island Volcanic gypsum cliffs Panorama view of the east shore of a part of Grindstone ard Alright islands House harbor Alright island Pointe Basse “pus O}IYM OY} Y}VOUEq ZICISIA st sojqqed oseqeip re[nsue jo IoAVT B PUNOISaIOF OY} UL pUe SnONdIdsuOD oIOYMAIOAS SI PUBS 9}IYM PolOTOIEp Jo dul] OYJ, ‘auo Ss “pues olulog pol jo wuoyxvjd surA] MO] oY} UT pULIS! oUO}SpUlID UO SIO s10YS ‘spurs! uoTepseyy REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQ1O 139 mission to change the name of the islands from Brion to Made- leine, which was the name of his wife. So this name has come down to the present, a memorial of conjugal devotion, though Doublet’s attempts at settlement failed totally and have been almost forgotten.’ Like Doublet, Denys failed in his efforts to induce coloniza- tion and in 1720 the islands with S$. Jean and Miscou, were con- ceded by letters patent to the Count de Saint-Pierre, Equerry to the Duchess of Orleans. He was commissioned not alone to carry on the fisheries but to cultivate the soil and cut the timber. So far as we know the attempted colonization under this patent effected little and the islands were lost sight of until after the fall of Louisburg and the evacuation by the Acadians of Grand Pré and other settlements when many of the homeless families came here and here their descendants today constitute the majerity of the population. In 1763, after the fall of New France, the English government annexed the island to Newfound- land, but by the Quebec Act they were soon after attached to that province where they now belong. A new era in their history, however, began in 1798, when they were granted by George III under letters patent to Admiral Isaac Coffin, in recognition of his service during the American war and the new proprietor established there a feudal system of land tenure which has remained close to the present day as the last flickering expression of medievalism in the English lands of the western world. Sir Isaac Coffin required the occupants of the islands to take titles in the nature of perpetual leases at an irredeemable rent or eimphyteutic leases. The islands cover nearly 100,000 acres and at the usual return of 20 cents per acre per year this would have produced a considerable ground rent 1They probably would be entirely forgotten if it were not for a short, sharp passage in Denys’s Description Géographique et Historique des Costes d ’Amérique Septentrionale, 1672, and had not the departmental archives at Rouen afforded in recent years the manuscript journal of Doublet’s son, which was edited and printed in 1883 by Bréard, under the title Journal du Corsaire Jean Doublet de Honfleur. This is a remarkable story of a free- booter’s life in every quarter of the watery globe, beginning with his success- ful attempt, at the age of seven, to stow himself away aboard his father’s ship which came out to the Madeleines in 1663, the experience of the colony there, the return next year to find the colony demoralized, the place aban- doned and the venture wholly lost. Only the name of the islands has remained to record in the geography of the place the first attempt at per- manent settlement. 140 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM but it never proved collectable, and the system resulted in continued contentions between agent and tenant and at times in considerable migrations from the islands. In later years the attitude of the seignieur has been more lenient, property may now, under specific law, be acquired in fee and the population has grown to nearly 7000 people, chiefly French who occupy the larger islands, Amherst, Grindstone and Alright, while the English communities are on Entry, Coffin and Grosse Isle. A few years ago the seignieurial rights of the Coffin heirs were acquired by the Magdalen Island Develop- ment Company, and the feudal land tenure seemed to have at last become extinguished. In their efforts to develop the islands this company erected extensive fish houses and equipped) tie islands with gasolene boats for the fishing, but these efforts do not seem to have aided the people or the productiveness of the islands and it is understood that the property has never entirely left the possession of the Coffin heirs. 1A very interesting account of the land tenure on the islands forty years ago was given by Faucher de Saint-Maurice in his Promenades dans le Golfe Saint-Laurent (1874, p. 167). This account is not fully pertinent to the exist- ing conditions and must be regarded as slightly colored by the author’s sym- pathetic interest in the Acadians; but it is out of such feudal tenure as is here pictured that the present state of land and freehold has evolved: With little regard to the right of the first settlers the English Government committed an act of irreparable injustice. It struck a death blow at the development and future of this charming archipelago, which the sailor has picturesquely called le Royaume du Poisson. And so ever since that fatal date, August 24, 1798, the inhabitants of the Madeleines, knowing that they could never own their land, have exerted themselves only so much as neces- sary to make a living and they know only by hearsay the enjoyment of pro- prietorship and the love of the soil. So sad a condition of affairs finally aroused the Provincial Government of Quebec. Sixty-six years after the concession of the islands a commission was charged by Parliament with an inquiry into the land tenure of the archipelago. Fifty-two inhabitants of the Madeleines hastened to answer a series of printed questions which were distributed among the people. Some had lived on the islands for twenty-five, thirty-five and forty-five years; others fifty, fifty-five and sixty years. Only one of these, Jean: Nelson Arseneau, was born there, and the dean of the residents was Bruno Terriau, who had lived in the group sixty-six years. All declared that they held their lots as tenants by virtue of long leases and their replies made some curious revelations to the Govern- ment. Thus some of the settlers had billets of simple location which gave them the right to take a lease from the proprietor, while others had a lease for ninety-nine years. Those who had held a lease for fifty-two years had the right to make it continue, and holders of a lease during ten years, to exact a permanent lease from the proprietor. The last procedure did not seem very pleasing to the agents of Admiral Coffin and all agreed that it was gradually Plate 5 Havre Aubert, Amherst island. Mt Gridley in foreground, ‘‘ Fishtown” (sandbar) in center and Demoiselle hill in distance; Pleasant bay at the right (east) and the “‘ Basin” at the left. Amherst island. Mt Gridley from the face of Demoiselle hill; English church on the sky line and Entry island in the distance. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO Tay Convincing clues to the history of a country are embalmed in its place names. I have here given the principal names on these islands with suggestions as to their origin. Madeleine | Named for Madeleine Doublet, wife of Francois oe” { Enolish Doublet, 166 Magdalene ( °° Bangs aa ed Maudlin — broad French and vulgar Ifnglish. This name, applied by Cartier, 1534, to the Bri : eras ae island now bearing it, was often used co on most English maps by early explorers for the whole group. Byron It was given in honor of Philipe Chabot, Sieur de Brion. disappearing, for whenever the opportunity presented, the agents changed these leases about. | Generally these leases contained clauses which permitted the seignieur of the islands to take over the lands, to take advantage of their improvements and to possess himself, without re: ‘mbursement, of the house and buildings if by some ill-luck the tenant could not fulfil the terms of his lease. It was ‘thus that two of the descendants of the oldest settlers of the Madeleines, Louis Baudraut and Francois Lapierre, were compelled, after many years of hard work and privations, to abandon to Admiral Coffin the land where their ances- pers had lived and which their children had improved to the best of their ability. This is the way in which Fabien Lapierre was not quite stripped of all his possessions. This man having decided in 1863 to explore the north coast of Labrador, left the land he had occupied for twenty-five years to the care of two of his compatriots, Basile Cormier and Emile Morin. ‘They were to hold it on condition of keeping it up, paying the rent and turning it back to him on his return. For the first year everything went well. The agent con- sented to take the rental from Lapierre’s proxies; but after the beginning of the second year he refused their money, took possession of the land, cut the hay, forced open the house and stored it with the crops for winter use, and afterward sold the whole, land and dependencies, to Desiré Giasson. The following year Lapierre returned and claimed his property. In reply Coffin’s agent threatened him not to obstruct the cutting of wood and told him if he continued to make trouble, he would chase him off the islands. But finally by his own pleas and the help of his priest, the Abbé Boudreault, the poor man succeeded in recovering a part of his land on the condition of consenting to a new lease which obliged him to pay annually a shilling an acre. The rest of his property remained and is yet in possession of the purchaser Giasson who has claimed legal title to it by the payment of five pounds. It is not difficult to understand the evils which such a régime imposes on the archipelago and some of the inhabitants, shaking off their torpor, have under- taken to test before the Circuit Court of the Madeleines the titles of Admiral Coffin. Some plead the law of limitations, others allege the illegality of the leases and their burdensome tenure, as contrary to the colonization and progress of the islands. The more philosophical state that for nearly a cen- tury their forefathers had cultivated these lands in full ownership, while their descendants and legal heirs can occupy them only as tenants; and the more equivocal say that their ancestors never consented to the title of Admiral Coffin. All these complaints accomplished nothing. The court decided in favor of the proprietor and as most always happens the complainants who perhaps had a chance on appeal from this decision were not able, for lack of TA2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Champlain applied the name Ramée-Brion to the entire group, Ramee having reference to the way in which the islands are Ramées ans strung together by bars. The name was in use before Cham- Rasa plain’s time as it appears in Fisher’s narrative of 1591 and Drake’s, 1593: “‘ Called by the Britons of S. Malo the Isle of Ramea.”’ Les Araynes Pes YP) « TEMA EniAe Cartier, in his second voyage, speaks of crossing over from Tees weenie Brion to the sands, “les araynes,” meaning the sands of [used sSaielons Grosse Isle and southward. The name appears on early ance aeritiace charts in the alternative forms given and applied to all a uleinonois the group except Brion and Alezay. Entry 7 A very early name, though evidently not Cartier’s. It guards I, de l’Entrée \ the southeastern portal of the group. money, to go to a higher court. So matters take their course. Apathy and discouragement reign supreme in the islands which only await the coming of a new régime to become a storehouse of abundance. The tenants continue to pay local and school taxes while their lord and master rigorously exacts the annual rental of the lands—rents which are exorbitant compared with those elsewhere. Nevertheless in the midst of this secret discontent, some of the old settlers find a way to be satisfied with their position. Many of them have a hundred acres under cultivation for which they pay annually only five shillings or a quintal of cod. These are the kings of the isles and they are the envy of those about them; for a young settler who wishes to rent the same amount of land uncultivated and unwooded would be obliged to pay twenty cents a year per acre. Fulfilling this condition he becomes a tenant. For a while youth, ambition and love of work let loose their forces. Under his plow the desert becomes fertile fields. The fish help to make good his deficit. He will be able to live comfortably and be happy though only a tenant. But bad times come, the rent is behind; then come the threats of the agents. The demon of expropriation hovers over his little property; nothing remains to the unhappy man but exile or servitude. It is not surprising that nearly all this population which otherwise might be enterprising and rich live here, half asleep and in poverty. Strangers flee from this nest of feudalism. “These vexatious conditions have resulted in a large migration from the islands to Labrador. More than three hundred heads of families have left the islands and established themselves at Kekaska, Natashqouan and Esquimaux Point. These departures have weakened the population of the islands. Every year large numbers go to join those that have already left and it looks as though in the near future the islands may become entirely deserted. The remedy for the condition pictured here has been found in legislation by the Quebec Parliament which enacted a law in 1895 (Statutes of Quebec, 58 Victoria, Cap. XLV) regulating the form of the land tenure, declaring outstanding occupants to be proprietors subject to payment of rentals and insuring the right of redemption of capital. This law seems to have brought a much desired confidence and sense of security to the islanders without detracting from the income of the seignieur, who now being an heir and substitute of the original proprietor, had, it seems, no legal right to alter the form of the first leases. The province has still further alleviated the condition of the islanders by assuring in amendments to the law cited (50 Plate 6 Demoiselle hill, Amherst island Red sandstones carrying in the upper part, just under the soil and embedded within the sand, an irregular layer of angular diabase pebbles. The sandstones are horizontal, the apparent cross bedding being a secondary structure. Grindstone island REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I910 T43 Gen. William Amherst—a name given by the Coffin pat- entees. The old French name is Havre Aubert and this is the post office name today. Aubert was commissioner for the islands at an early day and the “ Havre” has refer- ence to the interior lagoon which has been at various { times open for small vessels. Amherst I. I. Aubert Havre Aubert | Pleasant bay The broad bay on the east coast of Amherst, a deadly Baie au Plaisance anchorage in an easterly gale. Cabin cove Omithe south shore of Amherst) Eas seterence) to L’anse aux Cabanes Micmac lodges there at an early day. West point Sou’west point On Amherst. Sou’west cape The little triangle of land at Amherst wharf. Gridley was an Mt Gridley American who established the first lobster fishing here about 1763. On Ambherst. Takes its name from its symmetrical shape Bie eaicclie. hill which the French thought resembled a maiden’s breast, . in which respect it is like all the volcanic-gypsum hills on Grindstone, Alright and Entry. Basque harbor Harbor Basque Havre aux Basques A name dating to the 1600’s when the Basques were in possession, Grindstone I. Pierre Meuliére Isle aux Meules Isle Blanche The English name translates the French; all are due to the coarse white sandstone which forms the principal headland, Cape Meule. Named tor William Leslie, early pioneer of the lobster busi- Leslie cove ness, and still there after 40 years’ residence. This is the post office name of the eastern part of Grindstone I. Red cape, Grindstone I. Its blood-red sandstones. Sens Je Deen Grindstone I. Stands on the hydrographic chart but does not | seem to be known to the residents. Mie) Cap. Xx Vili, 1805, and 60 Vic. Cap; XIV, 1807) .a repayment to the tenant of one-third the amount necessary to effect the freehold. While writing this note, I am informed of a new organization, the Eastern Canada Fisheries, Limited, which is reported to have taken over all the assets of the insolvent Magdalen Islands Development Company and which pro- poses to take full advantage of the great natural wealth of the sea in those islands. 144 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Grindstone I. The origin is lost both to the French and English, but the name naturally suggests a wreck and rescue. Hospital cape Cap au hopital § Grindstone I. Pronounced by the English, Tantanour. Htane du Nord { The pond is the north pond of Basque Harbor. Sailor’s term. Not older than the Coffin patent. Either this or Alright I. Grindstone I. was called Saunders I., by Bayfield or the Coffins. House harbor The harbor between Grindstone and Alright. An Harbor Maison ancient term referring to early settlement, probably Havre aux Maisons the first on the islands. Shag I. This is a bird roost and a shag is a cormorant. This passage between Alright and Coffin island seems to have been in use from the days of the Basques and Bretons. It was, I believe, the harbor called by Leigh, 1591, Halo- bolina, and was mentioned by Cartier. Grand Entry Seer pees The steamer landing at Alright—not on chart. (Pointe Basque ? ) Coffin I. Named for the proprietor, Sir Isaac Coffin. Old Harry head, Coffin I. Probably of like date. The Great Island of the Magdalens or the Great Magdalen of a Grosse Isle few English writers. One of the smallest of the group but connected by vast sands with all the other land at the north. North cape This is the Cap au Dauphin of Cartier, a name still in use among the French. Bird rocks The last two are Cartier’s names,-1534. The Rocks are Isle aux Margots separated into North or Great Bird (140 acres) and Isle aux Margaulx the Little Birds, two in number. Isle aux Oiseaux Deadman’s I. Corps Mort Alezay Alezai Seven miles west of Amherst. Alezay is Cartier’s name. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY Surface modeling. Though the islands are not commanding in bold contrasts of contour, their scenery is inviting and un- usual. Rock platforms of dark purple-red bound the lower levels of the coast, broken by higher cliffs of volcanics or of gray sand- stone where the sea has cut into the rounded hills. The division in the topography is, in respect to cause, threefold: the sands, A mass of gypsum filled with angular blocks of diabase. Grindstone island. Plate 8 Red sandstone cliffs at Leslie cove, Grindstone island 7 4 aes REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 145 the rock platforms and the volcanic-gypsum hills. To the first is due, of course, the present outline and extent of the charted islands and in them are to be found brilliant illustrations of the process of deflation — dune building and anchoring, rock etch- ing — and, further, evidence of the slow upward lift of the islands save perhaps at the southeast. By the rock platforms are meant the low ilat-topped rock lands which skirt the rounded hills gugmeneac the coast lime im level surfaces and low red fronts @u5@ treet or SO. Whe hills are all of one type and I propose to speak of them as demoiselle Ills; rounded, symmetrical, beehive- shaped elevations with grassy surfaces and separated by shallow omeaceep. cauldronlike depressions, They are the ribs of the islands presenting not only higher but much more resistant fronts to the attack of the sea than the soft crumbling platforms of red sandstone. Their height varies from 580 feet, St Lawrence hill on Entry, down to the knolls and knobs on Grindstone and Grosse Isle, some of which are no higher than the dunes upon the beaches. These many breasted islands proclaim their neglected fertility and trumpet their virgin claims in the unheeding ears of their fisher folks, whose thoughts are only of the sea. It has perhaps still to be demonstrated that the demoiselle hills have all a like origin. The Demoiselle on the shore of Pleasant bay at Am- herst is a volcanic-gypsum knob (and by this term, which I shall endeavor to explain more fully, is meant an association of gyp- sum with volcanic effusions and debris), those on Grindstone are mostly of the same order, but Cape aux Meules on Grindstone and Poirite Basse on Alright are gray sandstone knobs in which the presence of either volcanics or gypsum has not made itself evident at the surface, whether or not those may lie at the root of them. The general landscape effect of the islands is well shown in the accompanying panorama view, extending from Cape aux Meules on Grindstone (left) northward to the outer- most tip of Alright. The tickle into House Harbor enters the middle distance, the rock front at the left is gray sandstone, the hills next north the volcanic-gypsum series traversing Grind- stone, and the rounded tops of Alright beyond lie scattered among the half-disclosed gypsum masses. Rocks. In a broad sense the rocks of the islands are gray, hard, schistose sandstones, sometimes slightly mottled; brilliant purple-red or blood-red soft sandstones; volcanic masses in the form of diabase sheets, accompanied by agglomerations of 146 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM tuffs, permeated by thin seams and sheets of gypsum and fol- lowed along their faces by enormous gypsum deposits. The rock geology of the islands has received attention only once and then in a careful though brief report made by Mr James Richardson for the Dominion Survey during the summer of 1880, just 30 years ago, and published in the Geological Survey of Canada, report for 1881. Mr Richardson’s keen amsiqmi ate = the relations of these rock masses is a noteworthy characteristic of his work, even though he frankly left many questions to be illuminated. | Stratigraphy. The only detailed section of these rocks given by Richardson is taken from the sea front of Amherst island on Pleasant bay and extending along the escarpment of Demoiselle hill. This section of 856 feet (measured) shows that the hard gray and mottled sandstones lie at the bottom and the soft deep- colored red sandstones above. Yet a change of dip between the lower and upper masses suggests a disconformity and necessarily qualifies the assumption of vertical succession. At the base of this whole sedimentary series lies a mass of partly compact but for the most part badly broken volcanics with an extensive de- posit of gypseous clay and an agglomeration of both together. This seems to make the base of the section and produces the curves of Demoiselle hill. This section of the sedimentaries is typical for the islands Grind- stone and Alright, where there is opportunity for adequate exposure. Probably the east shore of Grindstone affords a more favorable and longer section than any other as here is a clean coast line from House Harbor at the north to and beyond Red cape at the south. Here it is seen that the red sandstones which cover all the shore section from just south of Cape aux Meules to Red cape, are, as everywhere else, quite horizontal, and they make a broad flat fringe about the rather distant elevated interior. The sea has cut into them like a mouse into a cheese, carving their frontage into marvelous and bewildering zigzags, aisles and obelisks. Following these red beds north to the cape, they pass without evident loss of conformity or continuity into the gray hard sandstones which make the “ Meules.” This apparent continuity of the soft red and hard gray series is often seen and I am disposed to believe an approximate explanation of it is to be found in the almost invariable presence with the gray sandstones, when elevated into demoiselle hills, of the vol- 1 Report of a Geological Exploration of the Magdalen Islands, p. 1-11 G. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO I47 canic-gypsum masses. I fancy there is little to militate against the conception that these volcanic lavas with their sulfur and other gases have not only indurated the sands and thus made them more resistant to meteoric downwear, but have decolored them by rendering the iron oxid soluble. On Grosse Isle Head like conditions are exhibited on a small scale, but more effectively on Alright island where all the demoiselles display the hardened gray sandstones. Shales and limestones are of the rarest occurrence, but where they have been observed the shales, when calcareous, carry fossils. Where the great gypsum deposit of Grindstone, stretching nearly east and west across the island from north of Cape aux Meules, reaches the vicinity of Cape le Trou, there are fossil-bearing brown bituminous limestones with goniatites and pelecypods, lying close against the white outstanding gypsum cliffs. A few fossils have also been found near House Harbor along the gypsum masses exposed on the property of the Widow Arseneau. At Grand Entry I observed lying among the piles of “ killicks” on the beach many blocks of gray calcareous shale with fossils in them and inquiry of te fishermen brought me to the outcrop of this rock at Oyster basin on Coffin island. Mr Richardson reported but one locality of TOssiIG that On tae sea face between Cape aux Metles and House Harbor. Those I have obtained at the three localities mentioned, amounting in all to a very considerable quantity of material (10 | barrels were brought away from the Oyster basin locality) I have placed in the hands of Dr J. W. Beede, who has very kindly undertaken to examine and report upon them. Their evidence is, of course, ultimately essential to the determination of the geological age of these formations. Doctor Beede’s conclusions indicate that the marine fauna is of early Carbonic age, to be paralleled in horizon with the Mississippic of the interior basin yet with palpable evidence of development in an Atlantic basin isolated from the interior by the appalachian uplift. All the outcrops which have produced this marine fauna lie very clearly at the base of the sedimentary rock series of the islands, beneath the gray and red sandstones. As to the red sandstones there is no reason to assume any lack of continuity with the similar beds of Prince Edward Island. These have commonly passed as “Triassic ” rocks and Leidy, Dawson and Dana believed that this age was effectively determined by the discovery in that island of the reptilian remains which were determined as the lower jaw of a dinosaur. 148 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM I am informed by Doctors Lull and von Huene that recent study of this fossil shows it to be the lower jaw of the pelycosaur and hence indicative of Permian age. Volcanics. Mr Richardson believed that the volcanic deposits, on Amherst island particularly, lay at the base of the sedimentary series. It may be quite true that the evidence of their transection of the strata is obscure and even such obscure evidence may give way to proof of interbedding. These volcanics are diabases which stand out in nearly vertical posture on the sea cliffs, are highly amygdaloidal, deeply weathered, and complicated with gypsum deposits. In fact the compact beds are accompanied by agglomera- tions of lava blocks, decomposed tuffs and gypseous clays in very instructive association; wherever they lie in contact with the sand- stones the latter are gray and hard, their induration and decoloration extending for considerable distances away from the contact. The apparent alteration of the augite or allied minerals in the diabase to a chloritic condition gives it in many places a vivid green color and its amygdules are found to contain analcite, chabazite, etc., while the crevices and seams carry pyrite, specular hematite and manganite. Sometimes the manganite is in considerable quantity and excavations have been made for it on Grindstone, whence nodules of comparatively large size have been taken. Frank D. Adams made analysis of this manganite in 1881? and found it to contain MnO,, 45.61 per cent ; water hygroscopic, 0.10 per cent. The hematite also occurs in considerable rather impure masses. The association of the gypsum with the diabase is most intimate and while the character of the former is discussed separately I shall here refer to the mode of association. In the greater volcanic exposures, as on Grindstone above Cape aux Meules and on the east face of Alright, these vertical dikes make the highest cliffs. Here the accompanying agglomerates of volcanic blocks, the great masses of volcanic debris in the form of tuffs and ashes, have been referred to. On Grindstone the volcanic masses (at least two distinct dikes are present) have a thickness of fully a thousand feet; with them ? Doctor Lull has given me the following citations relating to these remains: Leidy. On Bathygnathus borealis, an extinct saurian of the New Red sandstone of Prince Edward’s Island; Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philg,, (2); 16): 327-20, pls ow es 4 Cope. Synopsis of the extinct Batrachia, Reptilia, and Aves of North America, 1869, p. I19. Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., 1806, p. 754, fig. 1180. Dawson, J. W. Acadian Geology, 1868, p. 119, fig. 29 Case. Revision of the Pelycosauria of North Aneaey 1907, p. 63. von Huene. Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., Beil.-Bd. 20, 1805, Dp: 343: Chemical Contributions. Rept. Geol. Survey Canada, 1881, p. 18. Plate 9 Grosse Isle, from the dunes at the north; showing almost the entire island and fishing settlement, with the English church on the hill. The cape points northwest and the gulf lies to the right. Grosse Isle. Partly overgrown sand dune; height about 150 feet Plate Io The beach at Grosse Isle; in the distance the long sand dunes stretching around North cape REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO I49 are heavy deposits of tough gypseous clays and fine clear cliffs of crystallized gypsum. All through the volcanics are seams and crystallizations of gypsum, permeating the mass through a multitude of crevices so that large biocks of trap he entirely surrounded by gypsum. Wherever the trap extends the gypsum follows. In the course of this trap dike westward across Grindstone island the sur- face is broken up into kettle holes and knobs where the gypsum has undergone secondary change, and where it comes out at the western side of the island near Cape le Trou the white gypsum cliffs stand up brilliantly, with diabase on one side and fossiliferous magnesian limestone on the other. Wherever the volcanics are well developed the gypsum appears‘and seems always to occur in the presence of the volcanics, except on Grosse Isle Head where a =nall area of gypsum lies in the gray hard sandstones, and the ~olcanics, if present, are concealed under an overgrown surface. With- out attempting to solve the problem of these interestit s occur- rences it may be said that there is very little lime left in the exposed rocks of the islands — too little by far to indicate an adequate st- ply for the lime in these masses of gypsum' and if the sulfur in the combination has been supplied by the lavas (which seems, in view of the intimate association of the masses, an almost tnavoid- able inference) it must have found its lime in some deeper s rce of older rocks. Gypsum. The open display of this mineral is brilliant. In tic sea faces of Grindstone and of Alright and the weathered pinnacles near Cape le Trou, the rock varies in color through white, gray and pink-white into saffron, red and black; most of it is mottled black and white in laminated colors and all is compact and solid. In secondary deposits among the cavities of the lava are sheets of satin spar together with great crystallizations from a foot’s length to the size of one’s arm. Some desultory efforts were made years ago to find a market for this gypsum but the material was carelessly selected and taken as ballast to Quebec; the attempt was not really a serious one. The natural supplies lie at the water’s edge, working would be free and open and transportation by water to Montreal would give a short haulage by rail to manufacturing centers; by water to Pictou, Boston or New York would grade the haulage according to the port. I have had a series of analyses of the gypsum rock made by Dr E. W. Morley which give some clue as to the ability of the material to meet present commercial demands. These 1A million tons of gypsum are easily available on the island of Grindstone alone. I50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM samples were taken from the commonest expressions, not necessarily from the purest. Sample 1 is somewhat out of the ordinary and is not an average. Samples 2 and 32 are fair averages of the predomi- nant rock and there remains a very substantial opportunity of acquir- ing a better grade by selection. These analyses are here appended. ANALYSES OF GYPSUM FROM GRINDSTONE ISLAND By E. W. Morley Sample 1 Compact gray, with red and green mottles 2 Coarse crystalline, with alternating black and white bands 3. Darker, with more finely alternating black and white bands (Each sample has been done in duplicate and the average given) Sample I A B Average WYRE ti iciacches eee IS eo) NON ape RN ed RE 14.96 14.90 14.93 SIUC Pe are ap RRC EOIN Sect ty OR Co 9 20.93 20.94 20.94 ANSP nriratteinieny of ofS pe si, 515 amar ey nee Ome eg tess 5-14 5.07 5.10 ernie “Omid i ls Liga. Ae Sennen eae eames Teeraae Noe a 220 2.21 2.21 Calctim “carbonate 42 eee as eee ee ee en GL 2.98 3.07 3.02 Macnesiuim carbonate ier nile eters. st eteen: 4.49 (4.49) 4.49 Gallien Se Re he 7/7 ee Ae ee aie Bo ad, honey 4Q.50 49.25 AQ .37 GINMOGIMe ihe nse ona ech cane PURO rn oN ceda ee sL Trace Trace.) sieges 100.20 99.93 100.06 Sample 2 A B Average NW iG esr Sool Sep a an RNR geese cs wd. 19.83 19.92 19.87 Sea ick Gia Bee OO IR aaa regi dere fe 4 a 0.34 0.37 0.36 PASM eneerniteaat 22050" N a as ch cease SER LR Re aR Oa cools hi 0.00 0.01 0.01 Piernic. @xla be ie) Fae AA ar cence 0.36 0.38 0:37 Calcium carbonate! eo enh | eres peta iene 4.29 4.19 4.24 Macnesiuimcarbomate sci 0. cee e. 1.90 1.90 - 1.90 Calcium sulfate 2.2%. Pee tte Sue nia 7328 73.44 73.30 100.06 100.21 100.14 Sample 3 A B Average NV OE ae ooo ete Bela ole nuetaeiiteg Wik Arai: Uh itll Manaustie ears 20.00 20.06 20.03 Slice Ra ICP a ney MMAR NER TE 0 5 ols 0.38 0.43 0.41 PR MeameanED Ce sk co hah BE EE ES eles ea ea 0120 1 OSB 0.28 Teettae vOutG. 5. Te eae d es Be ee Sa ee pe (O32) 4 0.32 0.32 Calcium: carbonate )..5\. 204 kee ee 2.04 2.06 2.05 Maenesium carbonate... ¢ ciasut« sole ee eee 1.19 1.20 1.2 Calcium 'sultate 0h. coats cols ona shai eee gaa pI 75.82 75.78 Plate 11 Length 7 inches Grosse Isle. Etched boulder (dreikantner) of banded quartzite. Plate 12 Sand etched quartzite boulder from the dunes of Grosse Isle. Length six inches . — . e ‘ ) * 2 ; r ov if ' Plate 13 Etched and glazed pebbles of quartzite and sandstone from the red sandstone beds on Grosse Isle head REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I910 ISt I have asked Mr David H. Newland, Assistant State Geologist and an accepted expert on gypsum and its commercial values, to express his judgment of the usefulness of these deposits so far as indicated by the analyses given. Mr Newland says: Mine sample no. 1, described as “ compact gray, with red and green mottles,” is an impure material, containing only about 62 Memecent of hydrated calcium sulfate or gypsum itseli, There: seems to be a good deal of free silica or quartz in the sample, and els@uclay, tite latter reaching 10 per cent or a little more. The percentages of iron oxid and carbonates are likewise high as com- pared with the amounts found in most of the gypsum used for calcined plasters. Rock of the grade indicated by this analysis would have little or no commercial value. Owing to the high iron content the calcined product would undoubtedly be dis- colored, as it would also be inferior in setting properties by reason of its low percentage of calcium sulfate. Sample no. 2, coarse crystalline, with alternating black and white bands, according to the analyses contains about 93 per cent of gypsum substance. ‘The chief impurities are lime and mag- mesia carbonates. These act, of course, as dilutents but would not be detrimental to the use of the material for most purposes. The iron content is fairly low and the burned product should be a good white. The material compares well with the average rock Hse Or tie Mmantitactire of calcined plaster in this, country, though somewhat inferior to the highest grade of gypsum as rep- resented, for example, in some of the western deposits. _ Sample no. 3, darker than no. 2, with finer bands, has about 96 peurcenu on the lydtared suliate. It ditters: frem!: no. 2, chiefly im ewe Staller percentage o1 lime carbonate, the ditterence being made up by the imerease in gypsum. The small percentage of alumina, indicative of the presence of clay, is negligible. While the iron is somewhat less in amount than in the preceding sam- ple, there would probably be no essential variance of color be- tween the calcined product of the two grades. The main feature is the increased percentage of the gypsum, which adds by so much to the commercial value of the rock. Soil. The soil of the islands 1s essentially residual. The islands have never been subjected to glacial action. One finds on the sand spits and on the lower rock platforms, especially of the northern islands, plenty of ice-borne boulders, for the most part dropped where they lie, and now glazed by the blown sand, but there has been no disturbance of the soil by ice erosion. Hence the softer red rocks, which are largely felspathic, have undergone deep decomposition in place and, under the vegetable mould at the top, the soil extends downward often for 5 or 6 feet carrying all the structure of the 152 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM -; stratification and passing by evidences of less and less decay into the disintegrating layers of the sandstone and thence into the solid rock. A typical section of the soil is given in this sketch, taken from the excavation for Miss Shea’s hotel which was being dug at the time of my visit, on Mt Gridley, Amherst island. This includes a section 7’ 4” from the surface, there being, from above down: (1) 6” of dark brown plant mold (2) 8” pure white sand (3) 8” deep black mold (4) 32) deep ‘red recidtial soil retanims: ‘stratification lines and pebbles (rotted) in place (5) 2’ 6” reddish passing into yellow soil, running downward inta the rotting rock fragments and finally to the solid rock. White sand. In nearly every soil section on the red rocks the eye is struck by the persistent thin layer of pure white glistening sand not far beneath the surface. It occurs on all the islands, so far as I have visited them. This sand is doubtless the original red sand decolored by the organic acids which run downward from the vege- table mold, have dissolved the iron oxid and perhaps by transfer- ence have given the dark color to the layers which immediately underlie. These highly pure quartz sands are so interesting in their association and in their relation to this residual decomposition that I present here analyses of them made by Dr E. W. Morley, who precedes his report upon them by a statement of his mode of treatment. He says: I first sifted the two samples, with as little friction as possible, through meshes of 20, 40, 60, 80 and Ioo to the linear inch. The table inclosed shows the result. Then the two coarser educts from the white sand were gently pressed with the finger, and the sifting of this sample repeated, with the result shown. The coarser part of the red sand consisted of small fragments of sandstone but the fragments of the white sand were friable and fell into powder finer than 1oo to the linear inch. This renders highly probable your suspicion as to the relation of the two sands. On analyses, the composition was found as in the first and second columns of the table. It may be said that a trace of silica was not separated from the alumina, that potash and soda were not separated and that water was determined simply as loss. In other respects the analyses were as accurate as can be made. In columns 3 and 4 the analyses have been recomputed as per- centages of the weight found for silica. It is seen that every soluble constituent of the white sand is less than in the red sand. As the calcium oxid and sulfuric acid were in both cases equiva- lent within the errors of determination, they have been entered as calcium sulfate. Plate 14 Northeast cape, northernmost land of the Magdalens, viewed from within the lagoon at Grosse Isle. This is the Cap au Dauphin of Cartier. 1534 West end of Brion island, seen from the north s . ~ y ae ee ee 4 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 153 Sands from Magdalen islands ANALYSES ANALYSES RECOMPUTED : Pressed i Mesh of sieve a Oe white : : Differ- e ¢ % Red | White Red White aa SiO,....| 82.15 | 91.66 | 100.00 |: 100.00 | ..... Retained by 20 4.3 5.0 0.7 Fe,U3.. I.30 0.42 1.58 0.46 it, 0D 40 3.9 B® O-2 Fe O... 0.28 0.25 0.33 0.27 0.06 60 Br SZ GB Al,O3. . 8.84 4.16 10.76 4.54 6.22 80 I.4 5.4 6.6 Ce Oke 0.46 (Ov ete yie hacen oc sti] it see eet cares tl bls tna 100 3.5 9.2 8.9 Mg O.. 0.49 0.14 0.60 0.15 0.45 Passed by 100 | 83.7 | 69.9 WOoe 1X5 Oooo 109? DDS 3.86 2.45 be evllatiali bene Maer tees Siar evoneses cle Hl ratrmae a Ie etic SO, ersten 0.72 Oi BQ | Castes seen oll RMereumionee Vedra eerste Will ay Sartavet tala ead tavaiens rats Sea tanay ull ts Content Water 2. it OO Se Merce eae ere OM Ree tet oe ci ewege tell eereman rn tenentevelererc yh acat alah Serena Oyo hen aie enacts (CAL Soviet eae a (ee renee I.42 0.55 Cg So fealll hist ae ene eens es ereal neem tedeas @0) 502" ||| CO)s@g} |] SoS | LOS Aw | Oss Il Guouedanagnouo ae Moreen eae In these analyses it is quite clear that the red sand differs from the white in the loss of nearly everything soluble by organic and meteoric acids and the inference is fair that the latter are the bleached residue of the former. Depth of rock decomposition. So profound has been the decay of the red sandstones that it is sometimes difficult to tell where the altered rock ends and the unchanged rock begins. On nearly all sea front exposures, which have naturally not been of long duration, the finger can often penetrate the surface to a considerable depth. On Grosse Isle Head along a new road opened at the side of the lagoon, the red rock has been cut to a depth of several feet from the mold. The red rocks here are interspersed with boulders, some of which are sand-etched (dreikantner). These boulders, when crystaline, hold their substance well, but if of sandstone, as is often the case, they are rotted clear through like their matrix. On Grindstone island, and particularly along the banks at Leslie cove, there lies between the deoxidized sand and the red sandstone an irregular layer of small angular diabase pebbles forming a gravel which lies with a conspicuous lack of uniformity and constitutes a component part of the sand rock. This layer may be traced all about the southwest cliffs of the island. The pebbles show no marked decay, and are in places accompanied by large boulders. While this layer of angular diabase pebbles lies directly beneath the soil, yet the parts which descend within the substance of the sand rock have no appearance of entering preexisting crevices but are a contempo- raneous part of the sandstone itself.? 1QOn the cliffs of Red cape, Grindstone island, lying on this gravel layer and buried under 6 to 12 inches of plant mold and sod we uncovered the bones of 154 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Deflation. In a region so given over to sands and so exposed to the winds evidences of the destructive power of moving sand are on every hand. The traveling of the dunes does not indeed extend far inland though they have piled up about the few spruce patches that remain on the shores. The most notable effect of sand etching is seen in the angled crystalline boulders. These boulders are ice borne, dropped where they lie by the bergs and floe ice of no recent date. It is very noticeable that these ice-carried blocks are much more abundant in the northern islands, Coffin and Grosse Isle, and that here nearly every example, whether on or in the soil, is a dreikantner, while on the southern islands such blocks are seldom angled by this etching. This fact is naturally explained by the much more exposed situation of the northern islands. Not only are these evidences of recent deflation very apparent, but the adjoining plate shows a group of sand-varnished, angular pebbles taken from several feet down in the decomposed red sandstone at Grosse Isle Head — a testimony that the moving sands were etching pebbles and boulders when these ancient sandstones were being formed, and rather con- clusive proof of the continental origin of these rocks. several walruses, from the skull of one taking a great leaden slug weighing upward of an ounce. On the retreating sea cliffs these bones may be seen projecting here and there from beneath the uncertain soil. These are rather interesting occurrences as it is said that no walrus has been killed in the Mag- dalens since late in the 18th century. The hunting of the walrus is one of the romantic bits of the early history of the islands. Cartier’s enthusiastic account of Brion island and its paradisiacal charms told stories of them which excited the lust of both Bretons and English and it was over the walrus hunting that blood was shed between these peoples. In this pursuit it was the practice to drive the great beasts from the waters or the floe ica up on to the low shore platforms and shoot them at leisure. The bones of the victims are occasionally found at Old Harry point and elsewhere, while the name Sea Cow (vache marine) point still records these resorts. Dr J. A. Allen quotes Professor Packard as stating that the last walrus seen in the gulf was in 1841, when one was killed at St Augustine on the Labrador, but I have heard the report that a few years ago one floated on an ice cake driven under a northeast gale, well up the St Lawrence to beyond Fox river. The Rev. John’ Prout, Anglican minister in the islands, kindly put me in the way of securing a very large head taken from the drifted sands at Wolf island and I append here some comparative notes as to its dimensions: Dr Allen in his measurements of skulls of the Atlantic walrus, Odo- baenus rosmarus, cites from one old male: (1) Canines, length from plane of molars, 330 mm; (2) canines, circumference at base, 197 mm; (3) canines, distance apart at tips, 273 mm. A middle aged male gave the follow- ing: (i) 250, (2) 477, &3) 208. The skull taken from the sands of Wolf island has de measurements thus: (1) 410 mm, (2) 190 mm, (3) 280 mm. Plate 15 Great Bird rock, from the south; showing light house and accessory buildings Little Bird rocks, seen from just off the Great Bird ‘suygnd pue solinul JoyJews oy} ‘sjouues ore spiiq IesIv] OI, WIOlj ‘YOOI plrg yeelD Jo sO QI 2e1d *[MOF VIS JOy}O / puv sjouues oy} oj soovjd susou suIploye suoqspuvs Jo Saspe] [VJUOZNOFF “YOOI pIl_ Yvoin) Jo SHO vog LI 9}e[d REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 155 Fertility. The deep rich residual soil that overlies the plateaus of the lower land levels has an unbounded fertility and on the knobs and demoiselles where the red sandstone runs into the gray its fer- tility is carried with it. Today a mere scratching of the surface of the land produces an abundant return of grass, barley and oats and deep plowing is seldom done. Indeed, year after year gives the same fair return of hay without any cultivation. With the simplest mode of planting, potatoes produce enormously and are the common winter food for hogs and cattle. The natural situation of the islands has made them the home of fisherfolk. The lobster, cod, mackerel, herring and seal abound here as they do nowhere else in the gulf and it is these that absorb the energies of the people. Farming only tides over the intervals between the fishing to maintain the live stock and to afford a supply of vegetables. The fertility of the soil seems to have been entirely overlooked as a commercial factor but even recognizing the limitations of the season, it has tremendous possibilities and in the matter of potato cultivation would give large returns at a minimum of cost. RECENT LITERATURE RELATING TO THE MAGDALEN ISLANDS S. G. W. Benjamin. The Atlantic Islands as Resorts of Health and Pleasure. Chap. 4, 1878. James Richardson. Report on the Geological Exploration of the Magdalen Islands. 1881. S. G. W. Benjamin. The Cruise of the “Alice May.” ‘The Century Magazine, April 1884. A. M. Pope. In and around the Magdalen Islands. Catholic World. 39 :369. 1884. ! George Patterson. The Magdalen Islands. Nova Scotian Institute of Serence,, Proc. and) irars, (9. 1, pt 1p. 31757. 1808. Anon. Among the Magdalen Islands. Chambers Journal. April 1803, p. 193-95. Frank Yeigh. Among the Magdalen Islands. Canadian Magazine. October 1908, p. 505. W. Lacey Amy. The Magdalen Islands. Canadian Magazine. Febru- ary and March toll. For Cartier’s route along these islands, 1534, 1535, see J. P. Baxter: Jacques Cartier. 19006. 156 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM THE CARBONIC FAUNA OF THE MAGDALEN ISLANDS By J. W. Beede The Carbonic (Mississippic) fauna of the Magdalen islands. col- lected by Doctor Clarke, was submitted to the writer for study. Like the earlier Paleozoic faunas of the Gulf of St Lawrence region, these Carbonic faunas are peculiarly interesting and exhibit char- acters which throw much light on the history and geography of the time and region in which they lived. In preparing these notes the writer has been under obligation to the authorities of the Peter Redpath Museum, McGill University, for the loan of material from the Dawson collection for comparison with the fauna in hand, and to Dr Stuart Weller for similar aid from the Walker Museum. History and correlation of the fauna The only mention heretofore made of this Magdalen islands fauna is in Richardson’s report of 1881, to the Canadian Survey. The very few fossils then collected were submitted to Sir William Dawson for identification and his letter in reply is quoted as follows: “T should think the fossils herewith returned indicate, so far as they go, a lower Carboniferous age. The most characteristic is a small specimenof Bakewellia antiqua, avery widely dis- tributed species, of which I send one of my own specimens from Windsor for comparison. There is also a Modiola or Cypricardia, which may be the shell I have called avonia, from Windsor, in Nova Scotia; and a ‘little Cardinia like ©. smaray pee: determinable. The most abundant species is a Serpulites which is very near S. annulites, trom Nova Scotia, but the statese: preservation is so peculiar that I can not be sure of it; the rock altogether resembles one of those black eroded limestones, which, in Nova Scotia, we find in close proximity to the beds of gypsum and which are usually very bare in fossils.” Sir William here drew no conclusion regarding correlation, but it is fair to infer that he supposed the fossils from the Magdalens and Nova Scotia to be intimately related. An inspection of the list of species recorded later in this discussion shows that the relation of these faunas is quite as intimate as Dawson suspected. Indeed it REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 157 is so close that the outside correlation of the one may be regarded as equally affecting the other. Correlation of the Nova Scotia faunas In the light of these facts the history of the correlation of the -Nova Scotia faunas is of peculiar interest here. Dawson considered their position in the geologic column and their relationships abroad very thoroughly and discussed these points in some detail in his Acadian Geology,’ from which the following sum- mary is extracted: “The earliest statement as to their age was that of Mr R. Brown, in Hamilton’s ‘ Nova Scotia.’ He correctly regarded the limestones of northern Cumberland as lower Carboniferous, on the evidence of their stratigraphical position as underlying the Cumberland coal- felde In the central part of the province these rocks were referred to the “New Red Sandstone.” Jn 1841 Sic William Logan took the beds below the Windsor limestones at Windsor, Nova Scotia, to be Coal Measures and referred the limestones to the Permic. In 1843 Lyell explored the Avon-Pictou region and doubted Logan’s cor- relation. His views were subsequently confirmed by Dawson and Brown. Davidson found many of the brachiopods to be identical with those of the British “ Carboniferous Limestone.” De Koninck confirmed Davidson’s view and correlated them directly with the Carbonic limestones of Visé, Belgium. Nevertheless the red sand- stones, marls and pelecypod fauna recalled to their minds the rocks and fauna of the Permic system, the “ Bakewellias”’ playing an important role in this respect, and it was also pointed out that they did not suggest the Carbonic of the United States, but the Permo- carbonic, Newberry and Meek both remarking upon it. In the last edition of Acadian Geology, Dawson clearly summarizes his views on the age of the rocks and the peculiarities of the fauna. In number 6 of these statements (p. 284) he says: “It is evident that the marine fauna of the Lower Carboniferous in Nova Scotia more nearly resembles that of Europe than that of the western states. This is no doubt connected with the fact that the Atlantic was probably an unobstructed sea basin as now, while the Appa- lachians already, in part, separated the deep sea faunas of the Car- boniferous seas east and west of them...” and again: — “Tt is a matter of regret to me that I have not had the time fully 1 Dawson, Acadian Geology, p. 278-85. 1878. 158 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to investigate all the facts belonging to this curious question. I would commend it to those who follow me, to whom that which I have been able to do may at least be of use in guiding their researches.’ Here we have a clear conception of the scope of the whole problem. Passing over the intervening time to the present, Schuchert’s sum- mary of the correlation will suffice for our purposes. He states: “The oldest fauna of this series at Windsor includes but few species, and these remind one of Kinderhookian time. In the higher - dolomites at Windsor a rich fauna appears that is very different from that in any American Mississippic horizon, and as it is also unlike those of Europe it is difficult to correlate. Seemingly it is of Keokuk time, yet it may be somewhat younger, as Lithostrotion is reported at Pictou, which is mot far from Windsor: Characteristics of the fauna The faunas here discussed were collected from two islands, Grind- stone and Coffin, and from five localities, as follows: On Grindstone island: (1) close against the gypsum bluffs not far from Cape le Trou on the west coast, where the rock is a very calcareous, rusty sandstone; (2) near the gypsum bluffs facing the great lagoon, on the property of N. Arseneau—- gray calcareous shale as in the locality following. On Coffin island at Oyster basin in a calcareous shale; fragments of this shale have been obtained at Grand Entry landing and at Old Harry point, both on Coffin island, but the former were transported and the latter probably not in place. In the Grindstone island fauna the most striking feature is the peculiarity of its makeup. The brachiopods are characterized by an abundance of Productus belonging to two limited groups, all other groups being absent. There is also a total absence of the Spirifers. A few Dielasmas are present, a Pugnax and an Orbiculoidea. The Pelecypoda are well represented. Among them are Liopteria, Paral- lelidon, Modiola and Aviculopecten which constitute the majority of. the specimens. There are a few undeterminable gastropods, a Euomphalus and a few poorly preserved cephalopods. The Productus fauna seems to have developed from two stocks, in an inclosed basin, and the species present fall into two groups, the members of each group being in many ways strikingly similar, but differing sufficiently to permit of careful distinction. This char- *Schuchert. Paleogeography of North America. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bul. Pp. 551. I9QIO. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO T5909 acter, together with the fact that the other groups common to the rocks of this age are absent, is indicative of the isolation of the basin at the time the rocks were deposited. The absence of the Spirifers and of Chonetes, Derbya, Orthothetes and the like all point to the same conclusion. A general feature of the fauna, especially of the Grindstone island localities, is the extent to which it is dwarfed, the dwarfing being carried even farther than is the case with the Nova Scotian fossils. Both the Grindstone and Coffin island faunas are related to the “ carboniferous limestones” of Nova Scotia, the former the more intimately. The Oyster basin material has 8 species in common with the Nova Scotia rocks and the Cape le Trou material has 20 species. The Cape le Trou and Oyster basin rocks have 6 species in common as listed in this paper. Four species are common to both islands and to the Nova Scotia rocks. Vempilat ini imitesitma.stenopota? sp., Hemi p- Maomitdawaacent, Lingula, Strophalesia, Aviculopinna, Necwa. Pleurophoruss; Schizodus. denysi, Martinia glabra, Bucanopsis, Euphemus?, and the Ostracoda are confined to the Oyster basin locality and horizon. Five of these species are father common, several specimens of each and more of some of them occurring in the collection. The following rather important species, or genera, are represented only in the Cape le Trou collection, the most of them by a number On SPCEIMENS+ oO pirenbis sp, Rhombeopora exilis?, Diehasman saceculos. Productts,arriculaspinus, Pisa Aviculopecbenm lyelli; iopteria, Modiola Moo Fraratleliidon \ dawsoni, Huomphalus exortivus?, and most of the cephalopods. The striking feat- ure of these comparisons is the fact that so many of the common species at each locality are restricted to that locality and bed. Though the beds are distinct and of somewhat different composition, yet they are hardly so different as to account for the difference in the faunas contained. There would seem to be a stratigraphic break or a considerable difference in the salinity of the water in which the _two beds were laid down. The two localities are about 35 miles apart. aie species in commen are; (Beechersa davidsoni?,, Orowrenloideamiimata. Prmoductus dawson, its watiety acadious, P, tenudecostiformis, and Orthio- eetrac sp. A. 160 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The peculiarities of the Oyster basin fauna, besides those already discussed, are relatively few, it being a better balanced one than that of Cape le Trou. As to which of these two is the older will probably have to be left to the stratigraphy. In the Windsor (Nova Scotia) section most of the Spiriferacea were confined to the base of the section or were more abundant there than anywhere else. We do not know the range of the species in that section. The fact that Martinia glabra occurs here and not at Cape le Uirou could be interpreted as evidence for the greater age of the Oyster basin beds. ‘The restricted Productus fauna of the latter beds and the absence of Aviculopecten iyelli would also pompumeme same direction. There can be little doubt that the Cape le Trou beds represent beds d or e, or both, in the Windsor section. From the description given by Dawson? it also seems probable that the Oyster basin rocks may represent the base, beds a, and b, of the Windsor section. The Nodosinella, worms etc., together with Martinia glabra, would seem to indicate it, but by no means certainly. . The Nodosinella from a pebble on the beach of Coffin island at Grand Entry is of peculiar interest in being closely allied to a British species. The Nuculas show a fairly close relationship to British species. The Oyster basin fossils indicate quite as close alliance with the remaining American Mississippic faunas as does the Cape le Trou fauna. One species, Schizodus cuneus Hall is\almocmeen, tainly specifically identical. Girty records Martinia glabra? from the Moorefield shales of Arkansas, and two or three other shells are likely to prove identical on further evidence. None of the Magdalen islands species has been considered identical with the other American species unless the evidence was practically conclu- sive. This method is hardly practical in studying faunas of the same general basin and succession, but in treating isolated basins it is the only safe one. Aside from the evidence referred to, the affinities of the Oyster basin fauna seem to lie quite as strongly with the Kinderhook as do the affinities of Cape le Trou fossils. I can not hope to have avoided all British and western European synonomy in describing these fossils, since neither the great mass of the literature nor the time to utilize it has been at my disposal. 1 Acadian Geology, p. 279, 280. 1878. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9QIO 161 Correlation with Mississippi basin faunas A very striking evidence of the isolation of the southern St Law- rence basin at this time is the want of relationship of the fauna of Nova Scotia and the Magdalen islands, with the faunas of similar age in the Mississippi basin. While the number of species common to the two regions is small, yet careful study reveals several species of very similar characters. This is especially true of species of the genera Edmondia, Liopteria, Productus, Schizodus etc. Indeed some of them are so similar that were one a itttle incautious in discrim- inating characters they might be considered as identical. PrO@imet tis teumicostinorimis is sumuciently like P. tenuicosta that were it larger and more produced anteriorly the two would readily pass as the same species. P. dawson1i is decom closely) telated to EF. .laevicosta and P. ovata. Badumemdia sp. is very. closely related to FE: nitida and to E. quadrata from the Kinderhook, but appears to have the beaks more nearly terminal, and is closely related to E. obliqua from the Devonic. Relationships nearly as close occur among the other groups and will be occasionally mentioned under the specific descrip- tions. The general affinities seem to lie with the lower Mississippic. At the same time their rather close relationship to the Devonic pelecypods also makes it apparent that the fauna can not be much farther removed from the Devonic than its relationships with the Mississippi valley faunas would indicate. There seems to be much evidence in the Magdalen islands material to confirm Schuchert’s correlation of the beds with the Kinderhook and immediately over- lying beds. THE FAUNA OF CAPE LE TROU, GRINDSTONE ISLAND These specimens are mostly preserved as casts in a ferruginous magnesian limestone having the appearance of a brownish sandstone. Spirorbis sp. Casts too poorly preserved for identification. Rhombopora exilis Dawson? Sitemo prema coat lise Dawson.) Acad: (Geola p, 287; fis. 85. 1878. Molds of specimens have the size and form of this species and so far as can be determined, a similar topography. Orbiculoidea limata nov. ? (See page 177) 162 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Productus: dawsoni nov. | Specimen nearly subquadrate in outline, widest somewhat in frot of the middle. The hinge is slightly shorter than the greatest width of the shell, the lateral margins are concave posteriorly and very gently rounded into the evenly curved anterior margin. The shell is quite depressed for a Productus and the beak barely projects beyond the hinge, not recurving around it. The ears are nearly flat. triangular, carrying many fine spines. The remain- ing characters are common to the rest of the sur- face. The surface of the pedicle valve is orna- mented with very fine striae which are sharply rounded and narrower than the valleys separating Productus daw- them, somewhat inclined to be wavy, increasing by soni nov. Pedicle valve, _ implantation. The spines of this form seem to be Cape le Trou, Grind- 4 stone I. confined to the ears, or nearly so. Posteriorly, there are very slight concentric wrinkles. Dimensions. Length and width of shell 20 mm, length of hinge 15 mm. The specimen figured has a convexity of 4 mm, though it may be very slightly flattened. Fifteen or more striae in 5 mm. Remarks. This species is very similar to specimens labeled Productus cora var. dawsomni Hartt, from the (ammeor limestone of Nova Scotia. It is also very closely related to the form figured by De Koninck from the limestone of Visé, Belgium, under the term P. striatus. Productus dawsoni acadicus nov. This variety resembles P. dawsoni in many 1 eo | 1 : - .- Productus daw- of. its characters but is much more convex, rela- 403s aes 2 ' A cus nov. tively broader and perhaps has a somewhat more (o3i "Mou, Grind protruding beak. 2S Dimensions. Length, 19.5 mm; width, 21.5 mm; length of hinge, 17.5 mm; convexity, 7-mm, and slightly flattened. _Productus arseneaui nov. Cast of small size, subquadrate, wider than long. Ears small, con- vex, with concentric wrinkles. Hinge-length and _ transverse diameter of the shell about equal. Lateral margins arcuate; anterior bo: 2=r broadly sinuate, the sinus occupying half its length. The sinus is present over half the length of the pedicle valve. On the surface are about 66 radiating striae, 11 or 12 in 5 mm. They increase in number by implantation and bifurcation, spines sometimes + : occurring on the latter points. Posterior part of shell with transverse _ ‘rinkles. Diductor muscles attached to 5 or 6 diverging ridges in (a — — REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 163 ‘the pedicle valve; adductor callosities elliptical, deeply depressed on ary cast. Remarks. The sinus and the diductor scars and general form of the shell distinguish it from the other species. Productus laevicostus White? Emomuecrnis tacvicostus White: Journ. Boston: Soc. Nat Hist. 7 3220. 1860. ‘A specimen apparently identical with this species. Productus prouti nov. Shell small, very arcuate from beak to front, except in old speci- mens when the anterior is nearly straight. Hinge-length slightly exceeding the width of the shell which is nar- row forits height. Surface poorly preserved, but one specimen is marked with 9 or Io striae imei Om some of the specimens. there is no sinus. Dimensions. Length of shell 12 mm; width, 14 mm; length of hinge about 16 mm; con- vexity, ho) ene Prodmetuls prow ti) noy. ie nes iiG species diners from Pb, ©2Pe le Tou. Grindstone tT. doubleti in being much more arcuate, more finely striated, and . in having a much more highly inflated beak. As is shown in the illustration, the shell appears to have had a considerable cardinal area and- may possibly have possessed teeth. Better preserved material may show it to be a Productella. © Productus tenuicostiformis nov. Shell subquadrate, gibbous; hinge as long or longer than the transverse diameter of the shell; lateral margins nearly straight from the hinge nearly to the front of the shell where they gently curve into the nearly straight anterior border; beak but slightly produced beyond the hinge, not recurved, very slightly and very broadly inflated. Pedicle valve very strongly arcuate longitudinally and’ % terrace is frequently traceable around the shell at the edge of the visceral chamber ; surface sculptured with moderately fine radiating striae about equal in width to the intervening depression, increasing 6 164 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM largely by interpolation in the older part of the shell and by splitting in the anterior portion. Ten or 12 spines are scattered over the sur- face of the shell and several crowded on the ears. Posterior part of ‘the yalye marked with concen- tric wrinkles becom- ing stronger near the ears. ‘The interior of 1 Productus tenuicostiformis nov. Cape le Trou, the valve has ine Grindstone I. muscular attachments well developed and sharply defined as is revealed in a cast; anterior adductors attached to low indistinct ridges; diductors attached to four or five low bilobate or looped ridges on either side of the ad- ductors. Brachial valve more nearly subquadrate than the pedicle valve, the hinge being about equal to the anterior width of the shell. Valve nearly flat over the visceral region, somewhat depressed in the central region and elevated around it, geniculated at the margin (un- less surrounded by a wall). Beginning at the ears a very narrow platform extends outward enlarging as it passes around the sides to the anterior of the valve where it has the width of a millimeter or more. Mesial septum reaching well toward anterior part of valve. Adductor attachments nearly round but showing a tendency to digi- tate lobation. Cardinal process bilobate at least below, as shown in cast. Dimensions. Length of shell, 14 mm; width, 18 mm; length of hinge, Ig mm; 9 or I0 striae in 5 mm. . Remarks. The horizontal platform surrounding the visceral area of the brachial valve is of unusual interest since it occupies the posi- tion of the murication in. Marginifera. No murication is, however, preserved in our specimens, though it could hardly be expected that it would be, and there is little to lead one to suspect that such muri- cation did exist. The generic disposition of the shell is not quite clear. The cardinal process is bilobate, below at least, as in Pro- ductella, though there seem to be no crural plates to assist in forming sockets for the teeth of the opposite valve and the pedicle valve seems not to have had teeth. The well-defined muscular attachments go with other characters in suggesting its place in Pro- ductus. The platform, even though not supporting a murication, seems to forecast the subgenus Marginifera. Since the more important features are those of Productus, it seems advisable to REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 165 leave it in that genus until better material is available. This material will be found upon careful search in the Carbonic limestone of Nova Scotia. ‘Externally, this species resembles Productus tenuicosta from the type locality, though it is much smaller and much less pro- duced anteriorly. The full elucidation of the internal characters of both species may show them to be identical, but at present this seems unlikely. Since this discussion was written a copy of Girty’s paper,! in which he describes the new subgenus Diaphragmus, has come to notice. The character upon which this subgenus is based is exhibited in speciinens from the Chesser Group and in a fragmentary specimen figured later from the Moorefield shales. The specimens from older rocks at Cape le Trou and Oyster basin have this feature well developed. Indeed there is some suspicion of its presence in what may be Strophalosias from the latter locality. This character seems to have originated as early as the lowest Kinderhook or later Deyonic in such shells as Productus dissimilis Hall, and feaeted 1s iuilest development in Marginifera muricata, Meesplendens, and M. wabashensis. The presence of the “plate” or “ diaphragm ” is to be regarded as the inception of shell deposition in the peripheral region of the brachial valve together with its geniculation and later became more and more pronounced resulting in sharp murication of the Pennsyivanic species. Since somewhat similar characters occur in other shells of the Stropho- menacea the structure is of doubtful systematic significance at best, and the splitting up of the subgenus Marginifera on the basis of the extent of the deposit seems hardly warranted. Productus doubleti nov. | Cast small, gibbous, strongly arcuate longitudinally, most arcuate near the beak. Beak inflated, broad and full, extending but slightly beyond the hinge. No marked sinus pres- ent, central part of shell but slightly flat- tened in transverse profile; nearly equally arcuate when viewed from side or front. Productus doubleti nov. Hinge about equal in length to the greatest Se ee veenere Pibetion midui or thersimelly ILateral mat. -,-7P° °* 110t: Grindstone T- gins slightly arcuate, rounding into the convex front of the shell. On the surface there are 36 coarse radiating striae, those in the central part of the shell being coarser than those on the sides. No gee. X. Acad. Sci, XX, 3, II, p. 217, 1010. 166 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM concentric wrinkles over visceral region except a trace of one near the left ear. Muscular impressions weak and not so elaborate as in the preceding species. Dimensions. Length, 12 mm; width, 16 mm; hinge, probably 13 or 14 mm; 6 striae in 5 mm. ‘ Remarks. This shell resembles to some extent P. arcwata Hall but is smaller, almost without reticulations over the visceral chamber and very much less produced anteriorly. Productus auriculispinus nov. Shell small, subquadrate in outline, somewhat broader than long. Beak but moderately inflated, the shell rather evenly convex. Hinge short, postlateral margins gently sinuate reaching the hinge nearly at right angles; lateral margins rounding into the evenly convex anterior border.: Beak projecting but slightly beyond the hinge and not recurving around it. Fine spines are crowded in rows on the small, tri- angular, flat ears. Shell covered with . fine radiating striae about equal in Productis auriculaspinwusnoy. Wadtin to the furrows between \tacmimimE pce ee creasing in number by interpolation or rarely by bifurcation. Crossing these are ill-defined concentric wrinkles, which are much better defined and stronger on the brachial valve. Dimensions. Length, 13 mm; width, 15 mm; length of hinge, 10 Mm; 12 Of 13 Sttiae im 5 mim. Remarks. This species differs from P. dawsoni in being relatively broader with shorter hinge and in greater general con- vexity of the pedicle valve. Specimens ncarly related to or perhaps identical ‘with this one were included by Dawson under Pro- ductus cota. They occur in the limestones at Windsor, Nova Scotia. There is little danger of con- fusing this species with any other American member of the genus. Pugnax magdalena nov. Specimens of moderate size, flattened upon fossili- Pugnax mag- : | ey x rbhicu in dalena _ nov. zation, apparently rather gibbous and orbicular 1 Jele outline in uncompressed specimens. Posterior third _ tral sides. : 4 2 Cape le Trou, of shell smooth, anterior two-thirds with fold, Grindstone I. sinus and costae; fold decidedly elevated and divided by a median sulcus into two strong, angular costae. There are two or three REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 167 costae on the sides of the brachial valve. Pedicle valve gently con- vex posteriorly, deeply and broadly sinuate in front with single broad, low fold in the center and two or three on the sides of the valve. The cast, though excellently preserved, shows no indication of a mesial septum in the brachial valve. Dimensions. Length, 8.5 mm; width, 9.5 mm; somewhat modi- fied by flattening. - Remarks. Externally this species seems closely related to Camarophnoria explanata McChesney, and to P. ¢globu- lina Phillips. It is very doubtful if the shell was ever so globular as the latter, on the form figured by Dawson, and the former has been shown by Weller to be a true Camarophoria, possessing a strong mesial septum. Our specimen apparently is without this septum and consequently a true Pugnax, like those of the Mountain limestone of Ireland. : Dielasma sacculus Martin Dielasma sacculus (Martin). Cast of ventral valve. Cape le Trou, Grindstone I, Beecheria davidsoni Hall & Clarke A poor cast having a form very suggestive of this species. Edmondia intermedia nov. Cast small, obliquely subovate or quadrilateral, only moderately gibbous, beak very near the front of the shell; hinge straight with characteristic slit beneath it; posterior margin nearly straight and oblique above, rounding into the elliptical ventral border which passes with a still os gentler curve upward to the hinge. Surface of Pa enicace sitiared @m 1S) younger portion with minute, termedia nov. ae jeft valve. evenly spaced lines parallel with the border; there ergs soag Le are also larger growth varices. Dimensions. Length, 17 mm; height, 15 mm; length of hinge, about 10 mm. ‘Remarks. It is not certain that this species may not be E. nitida Winchell, and it is also very closely related to E. quadrata Weller. It differs from them, apparently, in having its beak more nearly terminal. It is also closely related to E. obliqua Hall, 168 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM but differs from it in the same respect as well as in the less angular termination of the umbonal ridge and in having the ventral and dorsal margins more nearly parallel. Edmondia magdalena nov. Shell small, oblique, very elongate for the genus, nearly twice as long as high. Umbones inflated, protruding above the hinge which is nearly straight and extending about six-tenths the length of the shell. Posterior margin subtruncate, rounding below into the elliptical ventral border Edmondiamag- which continues in an elliptical curve to the hinge. dalena nov. x2 : ; Cast of left valve. Beak 2 mm from the anterior end of the hinge. The Cape le ‘Trou Grindstone I. details of ornamentation are not well shown on the cast, but there are fine, even concentric striae and the usual undu- lations of the genus. Dimensions. Length, 94mm; height, 5+mm; hinge, 64mm. Remarks. This species is similar to E. hartti Dawson, but is much smaller and the hinge slopes less steeply anteriorly, and it is slightly more truncated on the posterior end. Parallelidon hardingi Dawson? Macrodon harding1 Wawson. Acadian Geology, p. 302)m= same 1878. One small specimen probably belongs to this species. It is on a slab with Sane umotires ins cicta Daw Parallelidon dawsoni nov. Shell small, subquadrangular, beaks very convex and ee arched over the cardinal area. Anterior end_ short, don ae abruptly rounding downward and backward into the gently oe ee sinuate ventral margin. Posterior lateral edge evenly and abruptly rounded into the truncated posterior margin which reaches the hinge at a slightly obtuse angle, the anterior and posterior borders being nearly parallel. The length of the hinge is equal to the length of the shell and its direction nearly parallel to the ventral margin. Paraile(idon daw. Lle cast shows -iné concentric lines anmcjgimees fund ny, eee 1 Stowell varices: Dimensions. Length, 13.5 mm; height, 7 mm; beak, 4.5 mm from front. | Remarks. In illustrating his species, P. hardingi, Dawson used two specimens, one (fig. 102a) a very short, highly gibbous specimen, quite convex beneath the beaks and on the ventral margin REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 169 also; and a much longer specimen (fig. 102b) which was less gib- bous, with fairly strong depression beneath the beaks producing a corresponding sinuosity in the ventral border. In this genus it seems that these specimens must be regarded as being specifically distinct. The first is taken as the type of his species and the second (2820, in part, Peter Redpath Museum) is regarded as belonging to the species now under discussion. The casts from Grindstone island are smaller and show no trace of radiate mark- ings, nor does the specimen (a cast) just referred to in the Dawson collection. They are regarded as belonging to the same species. This species is very closely related to P. obsoletus Meek and Worthen, from the Coal Measures of the Mississippi valley, but is smaller, has the beak extending more sharply over the cardinal area, and the long teeth parallel to the hinge reach much inwer back, lt ditkers irom P. eochbrearis (Winchell) as: figured by Weller in that the posterior margin joins the hinge much more nearly at right angles, making the shell less oblique. That shell is probably the nearest relative known of our species. Leptodesma borealis nov. Cast of right valve small, aviculiform, with long projection in front of the beak. Hinge about as long as the shell; posterior margin sinuate above but soon becoming gently con- vex and gradually rounding into the ventral margin. Ventral margin quite sinuate beneath the beak on Co ne Ficcoumy ot the “Stromg depression m the shell, (1733 phe beyond which the border is convex to the tip <2P%,.. (°° of the hinge. The umbonal ridge nearly dies out posteriorly. Surface marked with varices of growth and smaller striae. Dimensions. Length of hinge, 8 mm; length of umbonal ridge, 6 mm; beak, 2+mm from front of hinge; height of shell at posterior end of hinge, 4.75 mm; angle of umbonal ridge to hinge about 30°. Liopteria dawsoni nov. Cast of left valve small, moderately convex, hinge shorter than the length of the umbonal ridge. Posterior margin sinuate, rather evenly rounded at the termination of the umbonal ridge; ventral margin somewhat sinuate anteriorly but convex around the lobe projecting in front of the beak. The lobe is small and nearly tri- 170 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM angular. The weak teeth parallel to the posterior end of the hinge are shown. Varices of growth more widely spaced along the umbonal ridge than elsewhere; Liopteria dawsoni nov.x2. the finer lines being about evenly spaced Cape le Trou, Grindstone I. except near the beak. Dimensions. Length of hinge (from back to posterior end, in this case), 7.5 mm; length of umbonal ridge, 8+mm; height at extremity of hinge, 6tmm; angle of umbonal ridge to hinge, 35°. Remarks. Though smaller, these specimens seem to be the same specicsuaswines Bake wellia antiqua” of the Dawson collection from Gay’s river, N.S, Neier ommcpecimens mor the ene examined from the Peter Redpath Museum, Daw- ite eee is : : Gay’s river, N.S. son’s collection, were seen to possess the vertical - cartilage pits of Bakewellia though they may possess them. Until they are discovered I am inclined to refer the specimens to the genus Liopteria. Liopteria acadica tov. Cast of left valve small, aviculiform, well inflated for this genus, hinge shorter than the shell. Beak well elevated; umbonal ridge elevated and very oblique; posterior margin obliquely sinuate, round- ing regularly and rapidly into the convex pos- terior ventral margin; ventral border sinuate beneath the beak; anterior end of shell lobate, the front sloping downward. Cast shows the Liopteria acadica MOV. |X Ls. : -] i Ce ey eek usual varices and finer striae of growth stone I. common to these shells from this locality. Dimensions. Length of hinge, 7 mm; length of umbonal ridge, II mm; greatest length of shell, 12 mm; angle of umbonal ridge to hinge, 25°. . Pteronites cf. latus McCoy Pteromites latus McCoy. Carb. Foss: Ireland, p. St, pliigeeaee 1844. Pteronites latuws Himd Carb Lam. p. 8; pl 5, fie. 6.7 ee Shell small, subtriangular, posterior end probably slightly sinuous. Growth undulations are the only surface marks preserved on the cast. Beak removed from anterior margin. The angle between the hinge and ventral margin is about 35°, the length of the hinge, 11 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, IQ10 Eval mim ; the height at extremity of hinge, about 7 mm; greatest length of the shell, 12 mm. Remarks. The ends of our specimen are missing. The shell is “eny similar im form to Flind’s figure of P. latus McCoy, and the dimensions are similar, relatively, though our specimen is much smaller. It also seems to be related to shells from the Waverly of Ohio. . , Cardinia subquadrata Dawson? Cardinia subquadrata Dawson. Acadian Geology, p. 304, fig. 108, 1878. A poor cast, the generic and specific determinations doubtful. Schizodus richardsoni nov. Cast of valve small, form oblique, characteristic of genus. Beak subtriangular, narrowly inflated; umbonal ridge elevated and gently angular; anterior end of shell short, rapidly curving downward into the elliptical ventral margin which terminates in the angular upward turn at the end of the um- bonal ridge. Posterior truncated margin nearly straight and almost vertical, reaching the hinge Bae itr ue at an angle of about 120° leaving a relatively Me ot ow large concave triangular area above the um- Boo lee trou Grad. bonal ridge and below the hinge. Dimensions. Height, 9 mm; length, 11 mm; length umbonal mdse, TO tn. ieoues ee iis, spectesis mich like (5 . ellipticus Hall, from the Hamilton. It seems to differ from it in the front of the shell being shorter and the posterior margin reaching the hinge at a larger angle. The beak is thus made a little more prominent. It differs from S.iowensis in having a relatively longer, straighter hinge while the area between the hinge and the umbonal ridge is proportionately larger and the posterior truncation more nearly vertical. Our specimens are closely related to both species. Aviculopecten lyelli Dawson Aviculopecten lyelli Dawson. Acadian Geology, p. 305, fig. IIIa-c, 1878. Cast of left valve subovate, beak pointed, protruding 1.5 mm beyond the hinge. Shell moderately convex; anterior ear triangular, Separated trom tie shell®by a sulcus, rounded at the extremity; margin separated from that of the shell by a deep sharp sinus. Posterior ear somewhat larger, triangular, less sharply separated 172 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM from the body of the shell, extremity rather pointed, posterior margin sinuate in joining the shell. Both ears ornamented by radiating striae crossed by striae which, on the anterior ear, are sharp and high, giving it a cancellated appearance. The sculpturing of the shell is somewhat similar to that of the ear. The radiating costae two ranked, the smaller ones interpolated between the larger, 37 in all, crossed by concentric lamellae which are highly vaulted on crossing the ridges as shown in the molds. Ridges rather sharp and about as broad as the furrows except on posterior region where the latter are wider. Aviculopecten lyelli Dawson. Above, two left valves and one right; below, enlargements of the hinge. Cape le Trou, Grindstone I. Dimensions. Length of hinge, 12.75 mm; length of shell, 17 mm: height, 19 mm; 6 or 7 striae in 5 mm; angle of beak about 90°. Remarks. The specimens figured and described here are some- what undersized. They are closely related to a species from the Knobstone of Indiana but differ in the relative breadth of the ribs, size of the shell, etc. There is a cavity beneath the beaks of our casts, but it 1s difficult to determine its true character. Aviculopecten acadicus Hartt? Cf. Aviculopecten acadicus Hartt. Dawson’s Acadian Geology, p. 307, fig. 114, 1878. Shell small, convex ; ears not well developed ; beak sharply pointed. Anterior ear sharply separated from the shell, posterior ear not so distinct from it. About 25 radiating costae are shown, separated by wide interspaces and crossed by concentric lines or laminae which are raised on the costae making them appear nodose or the shell reticulated. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I1OTO WAS Dimensions. Length, 4 mm; height, 4 mm. Remarks. The slight.truncation prevents the shell from being circular as described by Hartt for his specimen from the base of the Windsor limestone. In other respects it agrees very closely with his description and the bit of sur- face detail figured by him, unless the lamellae are more highly vaulted on our specimen. The species is unrepresented in the Dawson collection in the Peter Redpath Museum and specimens have not Aviculopecten cf. acadicus Dawson. 1 1 Cape le Trou, Grind- been available for comparison. aes E27 Modiola pooli Dawson? C7 Modiola pooli Dawson. Acadian Geology, p. 301, fig. 100, 1878. These specimens, while larger, may be identical with M. pooli Dawson. The Shubenacadie specimens seem slender, but if they were increased to the size of these might be identical. The specimen figured is a cast and has been compressed and distorted, produc- Modiola pooli a ee Ging. img the effect of a posteriorly placed beak and a stone I. depression beneath it which it did not possess. Sanguinolites insectus Dawson? Ca samemimolmcc ui seetd . Mawson, Acadian Geology, p. 303, fig. 196, 1878. The specimen from Grindstone island differs from Dawson’s figure in not contracting quite so rapidly toward the beak. Since the beak of Dawson’s specimen and of ours are both missing it is impossible to say whether or not they are specifically identical. Kuomphalus exortivus Dawson? Cf. Euomphalus exortivus Dawson. Acadian Geology, p. 309, Hens, Te7s: Mold of specimen only, except a flattened section of outer whorl. It is clearly related to the above species, but is much larger, being nearly twice the size. livediicrs om Ue itlct tere angulatus Girty, from the Guadalupian in being larger and having the sulcus more nearly in the center of the whorl. Gastropoda, 2 species, all minute, too poorly preserved to identify. Gastropod, a large Pleurotomaria-like species, too poorly pre- served for identification. : 174 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Conularia planicostata Dawson Conularia planicostata Dawson. Acadian Geology, p, 307, fig. I17, 1878. . Cast of specimen agreeing in all essential characters with Daw- son’s species. Conularia sp. Fragment of another species, too poorly preserved to identify. It is quite slender with about 18 or more ribs in 5 mm. Though poorly preserved, the ribs appear to have been crenulated. Striae coarser and more distant than C. micronema Meek, somewhat like C. sampsoni Miller, but less obttise. Striae more distant than in ‘Cs i baila’ a ila This species may be the variety “novascotica” mentioned by Dawson as named by Hartt, but it is uncertain. It does not seem to belong to any other American species. Orthoceras sp. Cavity formerly occupied by specimen. Endolobus avonensis Dawson? Cf. Nautilus avonensis Dawson. Acadian Geology, p. 33 meamem 1878. Endolobu's avomensis Hyatt. “Prot. Amer, Phil, Sec; 3225seeere, fig. 36-39, 1895. Represented by a poor cast, small and distorted. The septa and siphuncle not shown. The dorsoventral diameter of the outer whorl seems relatively large for the Windsor species. Endolobus? sp. Several small specimens in concretions which do not admit of specific identification; only camarate portion preserved. Septa extremely convex, suture apparently simple and siphuncle placed very near the venter. Gastrioceras? sp. A large shell of which the cast of the living chamber is preserved and some of the outline of what may have been the camarated por- tion. From the characters shown little can be determined. It has a section corresponding roughly to some of the very large angulate, subnodose members of the genus. Umbilicus is very wide. Trans- verse diameter 52 mm; about a half the whorl from the aperture 41mm. Diameter of umbilicus 26 mm. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO ie iE NAV OR \COMEIN TS EAN D. Nodosinella clarkei nov. Shells long, slender, branching, nodose, usually nearly straight. Test thick, imperforate so far as can be determined. Nodes well defined, quite as wide as long in all specimens sufficiently exposed to show full diameter. Diameter 1 mm, 6 or 7 nodes in 5 mm. Shells apparently monothala- mous. In sections cut deep enough to avoid the sharp, keel-like edge of the constriction between chambers no septa are distinctly shown. No indubitable septa seen. Remarks. This species appears to be related rope Dentalinia)): Wows er) la Dawson,* but differs in being 1 mm in diameter instead of a fortieth of an inch, and the modes are wider than long instead of being considerably longer than wide, and the test is thicker. In all these ees E i 3 : Loose at Grand Entry mespeets it agrees closely with N. digitata Pita Our specimens ditken trou material of cither species as described and figured, in branching rather liberally. It would seem to be impossible that the great masses of specimens mentioned by Dawson as occurring in the Windsor limestone, even though they were fragmentary, did not include branching forms. None of our specimens show the plane base indicated by Brady for the British species. The shells are 1 mm in diameter while Brady’s specimens varied from I to 2 mm in diameter. These tests are uniformly about a millimeter in diameter, except where a segment is enlarged to give off two or more branches, while Brady’s species frequently reach a diameter of 2 mm. ‘The tests in thin section under the microscope appear to be nearly homo- geneous with a little rusty coloring. No indication of foramina is visible. Considering the very fine calcareous character of the matrix their presence in the tests originally seems improbable. From the state of preservation it seems questionable if they could be referred to the Lagenidae as suggested by Spandel? and others. While a larger amount of material may demonstrate the presence of the characters of this family, I am inclined to leave the specimens in Brady’s genus since the ramose character of the species seems in- compatible with such shells as Nodosaria. ope cit. p. 295. Die Foramen. des Deutschen Zechs. etc. p.6, 1808. 176 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Serpula? infinitesima nov. Minute, highly contorted, anastomosing tubes which, when highly magnified in cross light, are nodose in appearance owing to rapid : contractions and expansions of the shell. Diameter of tubes .1 mm, attached throughout their length too the shell oi) © om) persia dawsoni (Hall and Clarke) and ‘other species of brachiopods. Remarks. ‘This species appears, on other shells, to live quite as largely within the shell as upon it. When it appears at the surface it has the characters mentioned above. It may be straighter within the shell than when partially at the surface. It seems to be par- tial to the shells, of Martinia ¢ lageaeee lt is probable that it is not a Serpulajar a nov. Several shells of the collection show the Showing (above) the nodose t : and contortedform (x ro) effects of this borer though the tests it and below the tube partly buried in the shell (7) secretes are gone. Serpula infinitesima Cornulites? annulatus Dawson? Cr Serpulites amnm ul a pocr Dawson, .Op: SEs Dag es is mee TNC Specimens much smaller than Dawson’s and Cornulites? annula- with coarser marks, otherwise typical. Cees Oyster basin, Coffin I. Stenopora? sp. An immature specimen of the $. signata type, or what seems as probable, a form of Lioclema with relatively few meso pores. Encrusting form upon Composita dawsoni (H. and C.) Specimens small, encrusting; zoecia varying from elongate where crowded to ovate; acanthopores rather numerous, elevated, larg- est ones at the angles of the zoecia; mesopores rather numerous, about eight being found in the walls surrounding a single cell, some much larger than others, except at zoecial angles, never in two rows, triangular to subcircular. Five zoecia in 2 mm. Interspaces fairly thick. One other specimen still smaller than this was found. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO Ly Lingula eboria nov. Shell small, extremely thin, elongate elliptical, twice as long as broad, moderately convex for these shells, especially in umbonal region, posterior end somewhat more narrowly . rounded than the anterior but not angulated. —— Larger growth lines apparently with thicker shell than the intermediate spaces which show’ very faint concentric marks. Dimensions. Length, 3.5 mm; width, 1.8 mm. Greatest diameter near the middle of the shell. ieemornes.). niseshell jist weny similar to 1. yoo us -ehorianon Peed aclall trom the upper Hamilton, but is Beth valves in oppost- ec pone at them beak and mone taperme Oyster basin, Cofin I. anteriorly and does not appear to be thicker at the margin. This might be governed, however, by the occurrence of the thickening of the shell at the growth stages. It is less acute posteriorly than the figure of a shell identified as Pinca cea py Ilertick but it 1s very closely related Mii mor tdenticdwithteits lt is closely related to I: albi- pinensis, as figured and defined by Girty from the Moorefield elaless lias also a close nelative of LZ. parallela Phillips. Orbiculoidea limata nov. Shell small, extremely thin; pedicle valve nearly flat and almost circular, sometimes slightly elongate longitudinally ; aperture reach- ing about half way to the periphery, narrow. Brachial valve with beak moderately elevated and located well toward posterior margin. Surface marked with strong, thick circles of shell between which are small, faint concen- tric marks. Orbiculoidea limata nov. Pedicle valve x 4. ‘ 5 5 Bed oediclé sralwias Dimensiows. eneth, 5.75 mim; beak, 4 >< 3. e e Se Sr ean mm from posterior margin. Strophalosia nebraskensiformis nov. Shell of medium size, subquadrate., Immediately beneath the beak of the brachial valve, viewed externally, is a minute convexity back of the umbonal concavity of the valve. Valve convex in central portion, and between the ears and the central part two slight con- cavities lie either side of the anterior median convexity. Interior of valve with a long median septum reaching nearly to the front of the 178 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM valve, forked at its union with the cardinal process, inclosing a deep pit immediately above the convexity of the other side of the valve. Process bifid when viewed from below as shown in the impression. One specimen suggests the possibility of a trifid proboscis. The sur- face is marked by coarse radiating striae which are alternately inter- rupted giving it the appearance of an ornamentation of elongated, alternating pustules to which occasionally very long, capillary spines were attached. Little is known of the form of the pedicle valve. Strophalosia nebraskensiformis noy. In upper row, at left, interiors and exteriors of the valves, with enlargements; below is a very young specimen, pedicle valve (x 10), with scar of attachment and a fragment of a larger shell showing marginal spines, Oyster basin, Coffin I. One minute young specimen shows the attachment at the beak very clearly as does the beak of another speciinen several times as large. In both cases the scar is so small that the specimens must have been attached only by the spines or was free in the adult stages. Surface of this valve ornamented as in the other. Dimensions. Brachial valve; length, 14 mm; width, 17 mm; length of hinge about 18 mm. Remarks. The surface ornamentation of this shell is remotely suggestive of Productus nebraskensis, Owemeeee appears, however, to be a true Strophalosia, the area of the hinge in the brachial valve being small but distinct. It remotely resembles St une ata allot) thes Devonte Beecheria davidsoni Hall & Clarke? Beecheria davidsoni Hall and Clarke. Intr. Study Brachi pees pl. 54, me. 1=3,, re0d? Pal Ni Yo pr 2) pl 70, te, 33-36, 1895 ; 14th Ann. Rept Ne. state Geol); p, 372; of: 14, fig. 5-7, 1897. A few poor specimens which may be referable to this species. Hemiptychina? waageni nov. Brachial valve of medium size, quite convex, broad and short, triplicate anteriorly, length exceeding the width, though the speci- men is somewhat flattened. Anterior quarter of the shell slightly flattened and occupied by three rounded wide plications. Beak obtuse but sharply defined. Shell very minutely and sometimes REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 179 irregularly punctate. Surface plain except for indistinct growth marks. The length and width of the specimen as it lies on the slab is 16.5 mm. The number of plications seems to vary. He ychina ? waageni nov. Two ventra and one dorsal valve, with enlargement of the surface. Oyster basin, Coffin I. edicle valve subovate im outline, longer than broad, convex, widest somewhat in front of the middle. Beak rounded, apparently incurved; postlateral margins but slightly arcuate, passing into the rather strongly rounded antelateral edges; anterior somewhat pro- duced, convex in outline. Little indication of shell having possessed fold or sinus. Six plications occupy the anterior two-thirds of the shell, the four lateral ones being rather indistinct and all of them coarse and broadly rounded. Fine concentric lines mark the surface of the shell together with broader concentric undulations. Interior unknown. Shell symmetrically punctate as in Dielasma. Dimensions. Length, 15.5 mm; width, 13 mm. Remarks. ‘This shell possesses the peculiar punctate character of Dielasma, but in form it is similar to Hemiptychina or some specimens of Notothyris described by Waagen. The punctations are evidently coarser and more symmetrically arranged than in Waagen’s specimens of Hemiptychina, but the great disparity of the horizons may account for this, especially if the genus sprang from Dielasma or from the same radicle. The globular form of Dielasmina is not suggested by our specimen. In this respect our specimen resembles more closely Hemiptychina, especially H. sparsiplicata Waagen. So long as its internal characters are unknown it may as well rest in this genus as in any. I know of no American Missis- sippian or Pennsylvanian species resembling it. Martinia glabra Martin 9 Spititerd clans Davidson Onuart. Journ, Geol, Sec. Lond, XIX, Di lO pl, O, me, NOsGo3. Spirifera glabra Dawson. Quoted by Dawson. Acadian Geol- ogy, p. 291, fig. 89; 1868. Miomrindae lara eGinty. UW. SicG S: Bull: 4go; p..70; ph 9, Mie, Cmts ‘Specimens of this species are common in the gray shales of Coffin island, at Oyster basin. 180 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM It is interesting to note that Girty finds this species, or one prac- tically inseparable from it, in the Moorefield shales of Arkansas. Composita dawsoni (Hall & Clarke) Athyris subtilita Davidson. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond. 10, p. 170, pl. 9, fig. 4, 5, (not A.subtilita Hall) 1863) “@uoted by Wawsom Acad. Geol., p. 2090, fig, 88a-c, 1868. Seminula dawsoni, Hall’ rth Ann. Rept. NY: ‘StatesGeor p. 652, ‘pl. 47, fig. 32-34, 1804; 14th, Rept, -p. 350,- pl. oy tes TAs een The specimens referred to this species are not very abundant, are distorted and poorly preserved. It can not be stated that they certainly belong to the species to which they are here referred, though there appears to be little doubt of it. Nucula iowensis White & Whitfield var. magdalenensis nov. Shell minute, triangular in outline, very ventricose. Beaks nearly terminal posteriorly, little elevated; dorsal border slightly arcuate, sloping forward to the pointed anterior end which rounds abruptly into the nearly straight but gently con- vex ventral margin making an abrupt innate ; turn upwards at the posterior extremity. Nucula iowensis var. magda- Posterior margin truncated from beaks lenensis nov. Cardinal view x 5. ; Surface of left valve x 4 to ventral extremity. Surface marked by regular concentric crenulated striae separated by depressions of about equal width. Dimensions. Length, about 4 mm; height, 2.2 mm; convexity, 2 mm. Remarks. Winchell’s description of N. iowensis is followed by these remarks: “The shell appears to be subject to considerable variation at dif- ferent stages of growth; young specimens often being distinctly triangular, with the posterior end very short, and the basal margin but little arched, while the. old specimens are subovate and the posterior end more prolonged. This description of young indi- viduals tallies very closely with the species in hand which may be a variety of Winchell’s species. All our specimens are minute. While resembling the description of the young of Winchell’s species, our specimens are very different from the adult forms. His specimens are larger than the largest of ours. The dimensions above given are for the largest specimen. Our specimens differ from N. houghtoni Stevens in being more elongate with straighter ventral margin, as they do from N:. parva) McChesney. 2] as > related tos Ngee coe m haa 4 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 181 McChesney, but has its beaks less elevated and is relatively longer. It is very closely allied to N. tumida, but is more pointed anter- Orme iaetormn i resembles N. vllinoisensis Worthen; but has strong crenulated surface marks instead of being nearly glab- rous. It differs from all of these in its minute size and probably in its surface markings. Nucula sp. Shell of moderate size for Nucula, beaks scarcely passing above the hinge. Shell inflated below the hinge, mostly broken away. The surface marks consist of very fine, even, closely spaced filiform striae as shown on cast. Specimen originally about 10 mm long, 5-6 mm high and 5.5 mm thick. Parallelidon? sp. A shell apparently belonging to this genus, with long straight hinge, elongate posterior border and nearly straight ventral margin so far as can be told from the compressed specimen. ‘The anterior margin appears to pass obliquely forward and then downward, sharply curved from the end of the hinge. Surface marked with fine, regular growth lines and a few very indistinct concentric undulations. — Die Tone ene 21.5) mm whet, 7 mm: leneth of hinge, about I2 mm. Remarks. ‘This specimen is hardly well enough preserved to identify or describe specifically in this genus where slight variations of form are so vital. © . Schizodus cuneus Hall? Celene dom CVenizo dus) cumeus Elall, Palacontology IN -Y. Wiese t elates and Explanations pl .75,.e, 20, 30. 1883. Sicalimodustcmmems Elall idem. p.4s8.. pl. 75, fs. 20, 30, 1885; Her- tick, Bull. Denison Univ., Il., p. 65, pl. 5, fig. 15, 1888; Geol. Surv. Ohio, 7, Ple2iy ties 15, 1805- Shell small, ovate-cuneate ; length about one-fourth greater than the height; basal margin broadly curved. Post-inferior extremity angular. Posterior margin very obliquely truncate. Cardinal line equal to about half the length of the shell. Anterior end short, con- tracted just below the beak and regularly rounded below. Valves gently convex below, becoming gibbous in the middle. Beaks at about the anterior fourth, moderately prominent. Umbonal slope angular, defined, extending to the post-inferior extremity. ; 3 Surface marked by fine fasciculated striae, the remains of which are still preserved in the cast. 182 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The anterior muscular impression is comparatively large and strongly limited on the posterior side. The impression of the strong cardinal tooth is preserved beneath the beak. Two specimens measure respectively 20 and 22 mm in length, and 15 mm in height. Remarks. In our specimen it will be noted that the hinge is rela- tively longer than in the above original description, and, if the specimen represented by figure 30 1S ex- cluded, the posterior truncated margin is proportion- Spee cate ately shorter. Including this figure, our specimen is neus Hall’ Left intermediate between the two. The beak appearette valve. wee basin, Cof- he quite as prominent in the Coffin island specimen and the shell somewhat smaller. Schizodus denysi nov. Shell small, subrhomboidal, rather compressed. Beaks elevated, pointed. Posterior margin very obliquely truncated ; postventral extremity angular; ven- fall horden conwex throughout, curving more rapidly toward the front; front border convex except for con- striction just in front of beak ; umbonal ridge an- gular. The valves are thickest below the beaks which are well anterior. Surface with lines of increment indistinctly preserved on the cast. Dimensions. Length, 12.5 mm; height, 9 mm; length of hinge, 12.5 mm. Remarks. This shell is related to several Mississippic forms. It is relatively longer than. S. trigonalis, while the posterior margin is more oblique than in shells of the S. wheeler? sym Both the shell and the hinge are longer than those features in S) (cit tiie © mas: Schizodus denysi nov. Oyster basin, Coffin I. Aviculopinna egena nov. Shell small, broad for its length. The hinge appears to be some- _ what arcuate. Shell widening rather un- evenly along the ventral margin, rather rapidly at first, then more slowly in some specimens. Posterior margin truncato- Aviculopinna egena noy. ; : OO es seme COLUM Te convex, possibly slightly sinuate in some specimens. Surface marked by wrinkles of growth which are at right angles to the hinge passing directly downward or a very little REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9I0 183 backward as they fall to the central part of the valve when they turn gradually forward becoming more and more nearly parallel with the hinge. : Remarks. his species lacks the sharply raised, evenly spaced, threadlike lines characteristic of the Mississippi valley species. In this respect it resembles the British species, but the posterior margin is truncated at about right angles to the hinge, instead of being very oblique. One specimen, the largest, appears to have a radiating ridge nearly parallel to the hinge and just below it, but it is probably the hinge of the slightly displaced opposite valve showing on account of the compression of the specimen. Aviculopecten debertianus Dawson Mybemioapeecren debertianus Wawsom Acadian Geology, p. 307, fig. 116, 1878. One specimen, hardly half a valve, reproduces almost perfectly the characters of this species. : Pleurophorus? sp. A single poorly preserved specimen, rather short and stout for shells of this genus, seems to possess the characteristic ridge of shell which produced the usual depression in the cast in front of the beak. Cast short, convex, elongate-subquadrate; hinge nearly as long as the shell, straight ; posterior end truncated almost at right angles to the hinge and extending to the ventral margin, which is straight, rounding rather gradually into the sharply curved anterior margin. Umbonal region quite convex, beaks incurved, and placed well for- ward. Umbonal ridge prominent and subangular. Dimensions. Length, 10 mm; height, 6 mm. Pelecypoda sp. Three or four species of minute, poorly preserved pelecypods. Bucanopsis perelegans White & Whitfield var. minima nov. Shells minute, strongly reticulated. Band with a narrow line Oil elmer side wand a thin elevated line along the aMGCle Swleiace covered with fine, filiform revolv- ing striae, evenly spaced, pucanopsis perelegans White & Whitfield var. dak Minima nov. Shells x5; surface x10. Moor 17: to a millimeter Oyster basin, Coffin I. and transverse lines of similar character about 10 to a millimeter, showing a tendency to develop nodes at the intersections with the 184 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM revolving striae. These striae turn backward somewhat on approach- ing the band. The largest transverse diameter of the shell is 3 mm. Other dimensions unknown. Remarks. This shell is very closely related to B. perelegans from the Kinderhook but differs in its minute size, crowded and evenly spaced revolving and transverse lines. Three specimens observed are all about the same size; some however show the lines somewhat more distant than the specimen described. Euphemus? sp. Weller Euphemus? sp. Weller. Trans. St Louis Acad. Sci., 9, 2, p. 40, pl. 5, fig. 10, II, 1899. Specimen minute, umbilicated. Dorsal part of the shell com- pressed, but it appears to have been semiglobular in form. Region of the *band is obscured. ‘Six widely “sepandased revolving lines shown on half the shell. No growth lines perceptible. Shell 3.75 mm across, with a thick- ness of 2.5 mm. Buppemus,’ S®- Remarks. The outer portion of the last volution Pasin, Cofin I. is missing but it appears to be the same shell described and figured by Weller from the Vermicular sandstone. Sphaerodoma? sp. A poor mold of a large specimen of about four whorls that may belong to the genus. It has a height of about 20 mm, and a diam- eter of the body whorl of about 15 mm. Conularia sorrocula nov. Shell of small size, pyramidal, enlarging at an angle of 20°. Edges of shell round inward, producing an impressed angle; surfaces nearly flat; mesial furrow scarcely impressed; anterior ends of sides arched for- ward in the center, leaving rather deep angles at their union. Transverse striae arched forward on sides, frequently meeting, sometimes interrupted at the mesial furrow; ten in 5 mm, on the upper part of the shell, more than-twice as many near the base, strongly crenulated by the crossing of longitudinal ..) uia+ia sore wrinkles which appear coarser and farther apart near @cul@ ,.2Gr the angles ; crenulations keel-like, 10 to 13 in 2 mm. 7 Dimensions. Length, 28 mm; width of valve at aperture Io mm, incomplete at base. REPORT OF TITE DIRECTOR I9QIO 185 Remarks. Witters from C. newberryi in having its striae and crenulations more closely spaced and an angle of divergence Gn 20) instead oi 10>. Orthoceras sp. Shell small, regularly tapering at an angle of 9+° in the uncom- pressed part. Septa about a millimeter apart near the middle, which is about a fifth the diameter at that place. Dimensions. Length, 43 mm; width, 8 mm (flattened consider- ably). Orthoceras sp. Fragment of large shell with edge of living chamber. Different species from preceding. Septa about 4 mm apart, somewhat more crowded near living chamber. Length of fragment, 43 mm; width, I5 mm; not showing width of shell. Ostracoda sp. One or more species of small ostracods occur in the gray shale of Oyster basin, Coffin island. TABULAR List OF MAGDALEN ISLAND FAUNAS Oyster basin, Capele Trou, Nova Scotia Coffin I. Grindstonel. limestones Sempula’ iminitesima...... ieee SU ee eas Dramas oue SMIRGUISE SD ea. hse a ee el ee an eo ata < in@rill@ Olay CxS i... or ee alec eee ee ? x SEMOP OWA. ASPs iis sakes oo ek Re eke ere oT hee st oe Becchenia davidsonmi <.2.....2.. 5. ? P x Composital dawsont...25. 5.2.4.2. Xen Ss x Ditctacmieeisdccultisi £605 a a x x Bleminycuinas wadeeni ....4.... x MinicilaseWoOria niet ec eos wee. SK Wrarrtimich elas: co... an cco. ; Siig AGN ves gage x Orbiculomlea timate, .....--... x Products aAuriculispintise: s..s).. 2 2) ee. fe OCMC USI GOil Mase oe eee cs Sie iy ae Productus: dawson: ses. esos uae: x foRie\t enh ea? se at sth sae Sea TOL O tia tel sere oiler ey refer tey 6 - ge = Eos ie ce lee: lerse eooe ee eo ee e806 © @ nw Mw ee @ 6 © @ na) !e eo Co) ©) Oo. A, Sco Qa © t+ ot Se nN WM = SS nS Oo Oo (ob) {5} enipdoae NS alee (a) Rares) : & @ ees 5 se wn MW wu ae) (3 (©) Qu G Q ct G (op) — a9 (@) Ss Q oO WwW ct G mn Cav) oe GOCMIeLuS CoOUbletiye mam tee Productus tenuicostiformis PROdverus sp: (Atlan. 0.6 ko. 65 A OE he aha este Eationdabevmdediallena :. 4.55.06. es.000 ae eceeeee wm MM OM 186 NEW YORK Oyster basin, Coffin I. Strophalosia nebraskensiformis.... x Aviculopecten acadicus Aviculopecten debertianus Aviculopecten lyelli Avicilopinmarevenar Jc PAO x Cardinia subquadrata? Edmondia magdalena Edmondia intermedia Edmondia sp. A Liopteria acadica Liopteria dawsoni PAOPLEriauSPs ct aes oe Yee eee? Leptodesma borealis Miodtola pool icc igo eee eee Nucula iowensis magdalenensis.. . x Nuacullar (spre: kee eee SDs teaateige eee x Parallelidon dawsoni @) oe elite: cetye ira! ke tejker 1k) (Set OM er wiintreate t/a) eho lars ve iel is, eo hagele erie ee) Jo) ot poem aeet tel wane! cette Se l(6) eee Kor hy Jee ee ted late’ aye e \e C0, )@) 2 Pealeree fe tepaice wee ia Syne lets ellie. elim. e. by 0; 0) (ely eevee: Sele; /\e) wiow us) ules Sine) ret ae) ie: hs.te 0) (e. (ey Ketel ipo erelieikenee vi we eNiee tun No en) sie) ‘see ne Oe 0) eked @ Nearer ie ertebe)leviel ie). 0 cist) Te pey opie, seo ie eee eee ees cee Pelecypoda, several small species.. x Pleurophorus? sp. Preromites Cr. litts snr ee Sanguinolites insectus? Schizodus, richardsomt (jc) 30095. Schizodus cuneus? Schizodus denysi Bucanopsis perelegans minima.... x Euomphalus exortivus? Euomphalus? sp. (Cephalopod?).. Tost py la AMS fe Sse a eet eecece nacre ce ere cee x Gastropods, three species Gastropode spac. ana eras Sphaerodoma? sp. Conularia planicostata Comslaniarsoproctilant so. aaen eee: x Contilaitia ‘spite et cee ee tie = Endolobus avonensis? Brdolobus 2 sp. tase eee Gasitiocerds: Spee see cc ee Orthoceras sp. A Orthoceras sp. B Ostracoda, one or more species.... x oes eee eee eee eo ee ore ee ee ecoce eee eee eee eee ees eeoeeeee ee ev eo cee eee oseeee eee eee ee se ee oe ee eee ee ee ee eee rr D STATE MUSEUM Cape le Trou, Grindstone I. eeeeece eee eee eoe eee seer eoes eee eee eee eee DOm Mecy ec) ee, Ye) 4} eer e ee oe ee ere eiel ne (a) (ee Aw KM KA ee eevee Nova Scotia limestones eee eee oe ve ee eer eee ve leite mae) ve ea Reheat rape a ‘ie, sXe) 1a em eeeeee ee eevee eereeve eee eee eoceeee ecesueve eeceeee eeereee ©) .0) (e).ce) = he »peeevee eee eee eeeeee eeeenee PORE VON DOMES IN WARREN COUNTY, NEW YORK BY W. J. MILLER INTRODUCTION While engaged in geological work in Warren county during the “past summer the writer was impressed by the fact that the most striking feature of the landscape, especially on the North Creek sheet and certain portions of the Luzerne sheet, is the prevalence of distinct, isolated, domelike, topographic forms which rise hundreds of feet above the comparatively low land of the region. A compari- son of the North Creek sheet with all cther published Adirondack maps shows that, from the physiographic standpoint, this region 1s° noticeably different from the Adirondacks in general. One would scarcely think of such a very ancient region of comparatively low altitudes as being favorable to a widespread development of exfoll- ation’ domes and it is the purpose of this brief paper to call atten- tion to these forms and to show how several factors have conspired to favor their formation. The paper is concerned more especially with the North Creek and Luzerne topographic sheets which the Feadlier is expected to comsult. GENERAL GEOLOGIC FEATURES The region lies wholly within the Precambric rock area of the Adirondacks. The oldest rocks are the highly metamorphosed sedi- ments of the Grenville formation. Detailed mapping, now in prog- ress by the writer, shows that the Grenville is very extensively present and that crystalline limestone is unusually prominent in the formation. Next in age come plutonic igneous rocks such as syenite, granitic syenite, and granite porphyry which are clearly intrusive into the Grenville, and all of which are differentiation products from the same cooling magma. Of the igneous rocks, the syenite is, perhaps, the most abundant and is generally quartzose and hornblendic with a more basic vari- ety carrying a green pyroxene. The rock is medium to coarse grained, greenish gray when fresh and weathers brown. The granitic syenite is highly quartzose and generally carries horn- 1 The term exfoliation is here employed in the usual sense and means the splitting off of the surface portions of rock masses in large sheets as a result of temperature changes. . ; 187 188 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM blende or biotite or both. It is gray to pink when fresh and weathers light brown. The granite porphyry is biotitic to some- times hornblendic with large feldspar crystals embedded in a fine to medium-grained matrix. It is gray to pinkish gray when fresh and weathers brown. These igneous rocks are important because they almost invariably constitute the mountain masses of the region. All of these rocks show a distinct gneissoid structure, but are usually very homogeneous in large masses. Minor intrusions, cutting all of the above masses, occur as dikes of gabbro, pegmatite, and diabase but these have no bearing upon the present discussion. An important structural feature is the presence of numerous nor- mal faults which have greatly dissected the region. Finally it should be stated that this portion of the Adirondacks has been vigorously glaciated. LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF TYPICAL DOMES Since these domelike, topographic forms are so numerous and characteristic of the region, a few only of the more pronounced and easily accessible ones will be mentioned, as follows: Potash mountain, 4 miles north of Luzerne; the Three Sisters, including Pine and Bald mountains on the Luzerne sheet and 3% miles south- west of Warrensburg; Hackensack mountain at Warrensburg: Kelm, Moon, and Potter mountains respectively 314 miles north, 3 miles northwest, and 4 miles west-northwest of Warrensburg; Prospect mountain at Chestertown; Mill and Stockton mountains (not named on map) respectively 114 and 2 miles east of Johns- burg; and Huckleberry and Crane mountains, respectively 3% and 5 miles south of Johnsburg. Potash mountain is a remarkable topographic form which is known for miles around as the “ Potash Kettle” and it is doubtful if there is a finer example of an exfoliation dome in New York State. The accompanying photograph gives but a poor idea of this steep, domelike mass because it fails to show it in its landscape setting. From base to summit, on the west side, the mountain rises 1100 feet very abruptly and it attains an elevation of nearly 1800 feet above sea level. It presents a striking view toward the east from the train window, between Luzerne and Stony Creek. The Three Sisters form an interesting group of sharp pointed domes which reach altitudes of 2000 to 2100 feet above the sea or Plate 1 W. J. Miller, photo. Potash mountain, four miles north of Luzerne, as viewed from a point on Gailey hill one mile to the west-southwest. The height of the dome is 1100 feet. Plate 2 W. J. Miller, photo. Potter mountain, four miles west-northwest of Warrensburg, as viewed from a point one mile south-southwest. The height of the dome is 700 feet. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 189 I400 to 1500 feet above the Hudson river, which flows at their base. The domes proper, however, range in height from 400 to 600 fee: Mill and Stockton mountains deserve special mention because they rise as two great isolated masses above the comparatively low and featureless country in the vicinity of Johnsburg and Wever- town. Each rises abruptly some 600 or 700 feet above the sur- rounding country and they attain altitudes of 1949 and 1837 feet, respectively, above the sea. Huckleberry and Crane mountains are completely separated by a narrow rift from 500 to 800 feet deep. The summit of Crane mountain (3254 feet) rises 2000 feet above the immediately sur- rounding lowlands and it is the highest point in Warren county. | The upper 1000 to 1500 feet of this mountain is very steep to almost precipitous on all sides except the north and this great rock dome is a grand sight as viewed from Thurman. The domes may be classified under three headings according to shape: (1)those with nearly circular bases and which are very symmetrical and almost uniformly steep on all sides as, for example, Potash, Mill, and Stockton mountains and the top of Kelm moun- tain; (2) those with elliptical bases and represented by nearly con- centric elliptical contours to the summit, such as Moon, Birch, No. 9, and Huckleberry mountains: Moon mountain is a good. illustration of the broad elliptical type, while Huckleberry moun- tain is a fine example of the long, narrow, elliptical type; these elliptical forms are the most common and usually have one side very steep due to faulting; (3) those of irregular shape as shown on a large scale by Crane mountain and by many smaller masses. After climbing many of the domes the writer had been impressed by the almost universal occurrence of exfoliation on a large scale over their surfaces. These mountains are literally peeling or shell- ing off by the removal of exfoliation sheets of great size, some hav- ing been noted as much as 50 to 75 feet across and from I to 3 feet thick. Among many other good places to observe this phenomenon are on the west or south sides of Moon, Huckleberry, or Crane mountains. Not infrequently, especially during the fall and spring months, slabs loosen up and go thundering down the mountain sides. Though the igneous rocks are all clearly gneissoid, the ex- foliation appears to entirely disregard the direction of the gneissic structure and. often great sheets come off at right angles to the foliation. STATE MUSEUM YORK NEW 190 “syney aie soull Aavoy {oqlueis Jo o41UaAs ore S¥aIe POUTI-SSOIO ‘o][JAUeID Ole SvorIe po}jOM *492} OOT [eAJOzJUT InNOJUOD "qooys (S °D "9 '°) YOO YWON 04} Jo Jou109 Uso}seoyyNos oy} Jo deur yoyoys orydeisodoy puv o1dojoax) I ‘oly . . e . ° ° iv) Se eas "2 e .7 Va e oe Gs em 7 S'S s ° . > : o Cass Oo. Sesh Ser ae a) - Cite ee 6 ae ee — = YZ Q . of = nS SP, > ate. Sahn ONO oe lp Zr Y \Z . Sameer TA STL St Oo ef & oO, »2 . % Ceol 7 oto ee. e So Las SE RGA OS S BE Te ISO . Yes AT KA) SA RIA Z REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO IOI FACTORS FAVORING THE FORMATION OF THE DOMES The very common occurrence of exfoliation domes, in the region under discussion, requires explanation and the writer believes they are due to a combination of factors peculiar to this portion of the southeastern Adirondacks. These factors may be discussed as follows 1 Character and distribution of the rocks. The kind of rock, syenite or granitic syenite, forming most a the typical domes is SS =SS Wife Dun gab Pier ae AUR X OSLO ZN ORR SAI KAS TOMI wees We an RAIA SATA Naas my Ys ASSO ‘eo NAA rae Soe? REAR IN LL Sa ZZ ZL Fic. 2 Geologic and topographic sketch map of the southwestern corner of the North Creek : (U.S. G.S.) sheet. Contour interval roo feet. Conventions same as in figure 1 very favorable because of its medium-grained texture and homo- geneity in large masses. The closely associated Grenville rocks, on the other hand, are very variable in composition, generally dis- tinctly banded, and especially rich in limestone, this last feature rendering the Grenville unusually weak and liable to erosion. So far as the mapping has progressed the syenite-granite series and IQ2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Grenville series are about equally extensive. An important feature is the relation of the igneous and sedimentary masses because the igneous rocks, though intrusive as usual, here break through the sediments in numerous small to large separated masses which gives rise to a distinct patchwork effect much more per- fectly shown on the geologic map here than on any other Adirondack map so far published. A good idea of this patchwork effect is given by the accompanying detailed geologic maps on which it will be seen that the igneous masses are often nearly or completely sur- rounded by the Grenville. The protrusion of these very resistant igneous rocks through the weak Grenville is a primary considera- tion because, as a result of long erosion, the hard igneous masses have stood out as mountains above the worn down Grenville, and thus the way has been prepared for the development of exfoliation domes. The North Creek quadrangle shows an almost perfect adjustment of topography to rock character. 2 Faulting. That the eastern Adirondacks are considerably faulted has been recognized for some years, but, tas tan, slenle attention has been paid to the detailed study and mapping of these faults well within the Precambric area. As a rule the faults are difficult to locate with any great degree of accuracy and certainty, but in Warren county there is a good opportunity for their study. Frequently the line of contact between the syenite or granite and the Grenville is very regular and sharp, the Grenville seeming to dip under the igneous rock with the latter rising very abruptly and to a great height above the Grenville. Among the best exam- ples of this phenomenon are the southern sides of Huckleberry, Crane, and Little mountains and the western sides of Birch and Potter mountains. There are only two possible explanations of this phenomenon, namely, either that the igneous rocks were intruded in the position which they now occupy or that faulting has occurred. If this is to be explained simply on the basis of intrusion then we are forced to assume a remarkably irregular surface of the newly cooled magma and also that the molten masses, in all of these cases, broke through the Grenville along very straight or regular lines often for miles. Both of these assumptions are entirely out of har- mony with well-known observations in other regions. Among the positive evidences for faulting are the frequent presence of sheared or brecciated zones along the lines; the fact that these blocks always show a distinct tilting away from the crests of the scarps; and the well-known faults along Lake Champlain and in the REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 193 Mohawk valley, some of which have been definitely traced into the Precambric area which lies between these regions. As shown on the accompanying maps, this faulting is important for our pres- ent consideration because the patchwork effect of the igneous and Grenville rocks has often been either produced or sharply accentu- ated by this means and many of the finest exhibitions of exfoliation are on the fault-scarp sides of the domes. Huckleberry, Crane, and Little mountains would doubtless not be separated by the narrow Grenville belts except for this faulting. Also it should be stated that a fault almost certainly extends along the western base of Potash mountain with the Grenville sharply faulted against the base of the great dome. 2 Glaciation. It has already been shown by the writer’ that this region has been subjected to vigorous glaciation, especially the Southern portion ef the North Creek sheet. Before the Ice Age the lowlands must have been covered with much residual soil while the mountains bore great accumulations of talus material on their sides and especially at their bases. The advancing ice almost com- pletely removed these materials but, more than this, there is strong evidence that, by ice erosion, the Grenville valleys of weak rocks were considerably deepened. If so, the mountains of resistant rock were doubtless bared and rounded off. Except in a few cases of valleys transverse to the direction of ice movement, the outcrops of Grenville and igneous rocks alike are hard and fresh. Most of the loose material now occupying the lowlands is glacial debris of lake or morainic origin. As a result of glaciation the mountains were completely bared of weathered material and vegetation; were often increased in height above the surrounding country; and the fault-scarps were often accentuated in steepness. Thus the pre- elacial igneous masses were left in a very favorable condition for postglacial exfoliation which is now so prominent. The interesting fact that there is now no great accumulation of talus material around the bases of the mountains is thus readily accounted for. 4 Temperature changes, humidity etc. Chamberlin and Salis- bury” state that “the breaking of rock by changes of temperature should be greatest on the bare slopes of isolated elevations of crys- talline rock, where the temperature conditions of temperate latitudes prevail, and where the atmosphere is relatively free from moisture. All of these conditions are not often found in one place, but the 1 Paper read before the Pittsburg (1910) meeting of the Geological Society of America. * Geology, 1:49. 194 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM disrupting effects of changing temperatures are best seen where several of them are associated.” High altitude is also favorable because in the dry, thin atmosphere the accumulated heat of the day radiates rapidly at night. Of these features favorable to tem- perature changes and exfoliation the ones notably deficient in War- ren county are high altitude and aridity. Although Warren county is by no means in an arid climate, it is nevertheless interesting to note that its location is in the dryest part of New York State except the St Lawrence valley.” The average precipitation for the year is only 25 or 30 inches, and hence the comparatively dry atmosphere of this region is important so far as New York State is concerned, because under a emp atmosphere a rock mass heats up more during the day and cools off more during the night, thus favoring exfoliation. The isolation of the masses of igneous rocks should be mentioned because their better exposure favors greater daily temperature changes. It should also be stated that changes of 30 to 50 degrees between day and night temperatures in this county are not at all uncommon. Finally what has been termed the “ wedge-work of ice” should be considered. So far as can be learned the greatest movement of exfoliation slabs down the mountain sides is during the fall and spring months and this is probably due to the fact that the cracks in the rock are then pretty well filled with water which expands on freezing and thus wedges off the already loosened slabs. 5 Scanty soil and vegetation. As above stated, the passage of the ice sheet across the region removed all soil, talus, and vegeta- tion from the igneous rock elevations leaving the bare rock surfaces favorable for exfoliation. Though none of the domes are at pres- ent entirely free from vegetation there are, nevertheless, many large barren surfaces, and what vegetation does occur is generally scant like small scrub pine, growing out of the cracks in the rocks. The surfaces of the domes are thus at present essentially barren and in this regard favorable for exfoliation. *Tarr’s Physical Geography of New York State, p. 354. SOS Oh SOME BARELY SILURIC PELMATOZOA BY GEORGE H. HUDSON In a somewhat caustic criticism of two papers by G. Ham- baci tne tare Dr BP. Herbert Carpenter® laid such emphasis on the exhaustive study of the morphology of the nearest living representatives of any fossil form, for one who wishes to under- stand the latter, as to convey the impression that such study is the only legitimate means to the required end and that “ certain American paleontologists and more especially Mr G. Hambach ” (leercli, p) 277) arc immocent of cating or the fruit of this tree of knowledge. No student of the present day is likely to deny the value of exhaustive study in the direction indicated, but in work of this kind it must never be maintained that any one avenue of approach is the only one that is proper or valuable. Witew Dector Carpenter says ~ In order to understand, even with an approximate degree of correctness, extinct groups, such as the Blastids, Merostomata, Dinosauria, and others, a far more extensive acquaintance with the recent members of the same subkingdom is necessary, than for the interpretation of fossil Brachiopoda, sponges, corals, Mollusca and fishes” (loc. cit. p. 277-78), he only emphasizes the fact that the fields in which he insists that a still greater amount of study is needed are just those fields where divergent development and remoteness of relationship have most effectually masked the information sought. The relationship between phyla of the animal kingdom is but one degree more remote than that between such distinct classes as Blastoidea and Holothuroidea and the advice to make “a far more extensive acquaintance ” with the morphology of the living dibranchiate Cephalopoda before attempting the restoration of a Brontosaurus would seem highly absurd. The study of the morphology of living forms is a very essential factor in the establishment of true phylogenies. Even here, however, living forms must receive’study from broader and . 1 Contribution to the Anatomy of the Genus Pentremites, with Descrip- tions of New Species. Trans. St Louis Acad. Sci. v.4, no. 1, 1881, p. 145- 60, pl. A and B. | Notes about the Structure and Classification of the Pentremites. Trans. Si eomus Acad) Sei vy. 4) mo. 3, 1884, p. 537-47. 2 Further Remarks upon the Morphology of the Blastoidea. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. April 1885, p. 277-300. : 195 wats 196 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM more varied points of view and the remains of forms that per- ished ages ago must, in an exceedingly large measure, be in- cluded in the reckoning. Wauth such a phylogeny established, the study of ancestral types having living descendants is not a very difficult matter. If, however, the fossil forms are not an- cestral but are highly specialized types that left no descendants it is the morphology of the nearest related ancestral types that must receive more extensive and intensive study, if we are to under- stand the modification of such structures as are now presented. There is no short road from any living echinoderm across to the Blastids of the Carbonic era, but the true roads run from the Kchinoderm of the present to Cambric or Precambric times and from that remote station, by a branch line, to oun tesmed destination. So much by the way of preface has seemed necessary to give the author’s point of view in the present paper. He is at present quite content to reach a Precambric station in Echinoderm terri- tory by any modern line and hypothetically accept a hypothetical primitive Echinoderm as our best modern students have seen him. From this Precambric station, guided by well-established physical principles, he will reach out into the region of the little known and try to discuss helpfully some curious and interesting structures presented by the relics of a few ancient beings who lost consciousness in Chazy time. The author reserves the right to use any evidence which the morphology of living things may present; he feels that in this remote field the best of present guides may lead him to draw erroneous conclusions, but he sincerely hopes that after the paper has passed the fire of con- temporary criticism there will still be left some small measure of fact that may help toward a better understanding of the obscure forms in question. Echinoderm respiration. Anything tending to interfere with the function of respiration would inevitably lead to greater res- piratory effort. If more than one organ or structure shared in the respiratory process, as they do in all Echinoderms, inter- ference with one structure or set of structures would mean in- creased effort for others, that the physiological balance might be maintained. Prolonged effort would mean abnormal develop- ment. The earlier this interference appeared in the life of the individual the more profound would be the modification pro- duced. The ability to modify structure varies with the indi- vidual. Variation in direction and degree of such variability REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 197 may be said to be congenital and so, without dispute, capable of inheritance. A period of stress during group development not only makes the factor of natural selection more effective but it also adds to the number of avenues of escape tried by the group, or in other words to more active variation and mutation. Without stopping to quarrel over any Lamarckian factor let us state this proposition in different terms. Evolutionary activity in a group of organisms is always greatest during those long periods of time when some particular antagonistic force or forces bear more heavily on the group in question. Cambric or Pre- cambric Pelmatozoa were under just such an increased environ- mental hostility and their response was the massing and fusion of mineral spicules into strong thecal plates. ‘This very plate formation, however, introduced new factors inimical to respira- tion and led to exceedingly diversified and specialized types of respiratory structures as early as the age of the Chazy beds or in Wrdovierc time. If is one purpose of this paper to point out the mechanical effects of increasing mineralization and increas- ing thecal regularity and show how these factors led to diversity of structure. The subject will be approached largely from the synthetic or deductive side. Primitive Pelmatozoa were creatures of the sea and respira- tion could only be accomplished by appropriating oxygen which the sea water had previously taken into solution. This oxygen was largely passed through the epidermis (dermic epithelium) and underlying membranes by osmosis, dissolved by the fluids of various underlying cavities and so circulated through the body. We may designate this as the epidermal supply and the epi- dermis itself as the principal organ of primitive respiration. miierenvime supply could not. have been epidermal for these primitive forms swept water into their alimentary canals to- gether with their food, and the amount of water used with the food stream contributed to the oxygen supply. The endoderm was thus made to assume a respiratory function. In later forms water in still larger measure was admitted to a portion of the enteric cavity, or at least to the proctodaeum through the anus. Water entering any portion of the alimentary canal would have its oxygen removed and would receive the products of com- bustion in return. These alimentary tissues would then come to function in a greater or less degree as respiratory tissues. Such a system might well be distinguished as the alimentary or enteric respiratory system. 108 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM A means was also early found whereby water was admitted to the right and left anterior portions of the coelom and from the left anterior coelom was developed the present water vascular sys- tem. The amount of water passing in and out of the stone canal was not at first so great as that passing through the enteric cavity and it is doubtful if it ever became so. A still smaller amount might have been drawn into the body through the geni- tal pore or pores. The systems which allow of admission and exit of sea water to any portion of the coelomic cavity may be classed as coelomic respiratory systems. It has already been stated that the fluid contents of the coe- lomic cavities, in very primitive forms, received their oxygen supply through the ectoderm and during the development of a thecal armor they maintained such direct osmotic interchange either by means of invaginations of ectoderm or of evaginations of mesoderm. ‘The latter form is abundantly shown in the papu- lae and podia of living Echinoderms. The respiratory process. in such cases depends almost wholly on osmotic interchange through specialized portions of the ectoderm and in a wholly negligible quantity to direct exchange of sea water through the madreporite. Strictly speaking, the respiratory process, whereby the coelomic fluids are given their oxygen and relieved of their wastes, is epidermal and it will here be treated as such. The following tabular form will show these synthetically determined classes and also some probable modifications of them: a Bie oa MODES OF ECHINODERM RESPIRATION Specialization of plate stereom between regular the- cal plates Epidermal Specialization at ( Invagination between thecal plates plate angles and associated with food along sutures grooves Papulae Evagination { Podia Unspecialized Alimentary or enteric Specialized. Respiratory trees Water-vascular system in part Coelomic Gonadial REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 199 Of the two fundamental lines of specialization under epidermal respiration outlined above, it is very clear that the second, that of specialization at plate angles or along sutures, would be vastly the more important. Centers of stereom formation, no matter how open the texture, would offer more resistance to the respiratory process than would their edges or those subtriangular spaces not as yet closed in by the developing plates. The latter would be the line of least resistance and while the less active respiration, which would still take place through the plates themselves, might lead to interest- ing specializations of plate structure, the more promising field of specialization at plate angles is the only epidermal form which will be considered in this paper. Synthetically again or by deduction we may postulate two avenues of escape from the inimical influence of plate extension. Either by invagination or evagination of ectodermal tissues, involv- ing in either case some portions of the mesoderm, an increase of respiratory area could be secured and so specialized as to easily maintain the physiological balance. Plate extension would protect and modify invaginated respiratory sacs and soon leave them com- municating with the exterior only through small pores or narrow slitlike openings. Either form of external orifice might maintain a position on the suture and, repeating the process as the suture lengthened, give rise to a linear series of such openings, the number being dependent in part on the amount of plate extension. If the external orifice of either form should become surrounded by the stereom of a single plate, the opening would thereafter maintain a fixed distance from the early center of the plate and a repetition of the process would soon more or less fill the plate with such pores or slits and make it appear at first sight as if we were dealing with a case of direct specialization of the plate stereom. It should also be borne in mind that the extension of plate stereom might divide the external opening and would undoubtedly often do so. If the water exchange was maintained in any degree through ciliary action, any such variation would very materially heighten the value of the sac for respiratory purposes. If both openings should become inclosed by the extending border of one plate we should have a structure very similar to a diplopore. If on the other hand one of the openings should become inclosed by the stereom of one plate and the other opening similarly inclosed by the plate across the suture, the sac would become elongated with the growth of the plates and a structure apparently similar to that presented by some pec- 200 NEW . YORK STATE MUSEUM tinirhombs would be the result. There -is still another type that might arise. If the sac pore was divided by the growing corner of the plate, one of the openings might remain on one suture and the other opening on the neighboring suture. Subsequent plate exten- sion might easily convert them into hydrospires and particularly so if one of the openings should be so situated as to receive its water supply by being associated with a covered food groove. The study of cystidean piates will furnish the investigator with an almost endless variety of plate structure and ornamentation, a very large part of which is the outward expression of respiratory structures such as have here been designated. In those forms which developed recumbent food grooves which in turn were protected by closely fitting covering plates, there would be a mechanical factor tending to promote invagination between certain members of the flooring plates of such a groove. ‘This mechanical factor would be pressure. The water accompanying the minute organisms swept down each brachiole must exert some pres- sure in the larger food-bearing streams of the food grooves. Invag- inations that maintained exits outside of the pseudambulacral area, of the type last outlined, examples of which may be seen in plate 3, figures 1 and 2, would serve a double purpose. The water so drained away would reduce the amount passing through the ali- mentary canal and give more time for the digestion and absorption of the food content. It would also allow an increase in number of brachioles or an increase in activity and so secure a more abundant food supply. On the other hand all water so drawn through the pseudambulacral invaginations would be used for respiratory pur- poses and the invaginated sheets would become extended into struc- tures like the hydrospires of Blastoidocrinus or perhaps open into each other and form structures like the more specialized hydrospires of the Blastoidea. The respiration of Blastoidocrinus is more particularly treated later in this paper and is adequately illustrated. An examination of the matter there presented will serve to make this unique form of respiration more clearly understood. Both forms of ectodermal invagination here outlined serve to admit sea water beneath the test and these forms of respiration may well be spoken of as endothecal. Evagination of the ectoderm and parietal layer of coelomic epithelium or other membranes at the plate corners would give us structures like those we are familiar with in podia and papulae. Branchial vesicles so formed might come to lie along the sutures or REPORT OF TEE “DIRECTOR, 1OTO 201 become surrounded by the stereom of plate extension. In such a system the coelomic or other fluids of the body would be carried out- side of the theca and effect osmotic interchange with the sea water in that position. This form of respiration might well be designated as exothecal. It would seem that the demands of the environment for a more solid thecal wall should make this latter path the more certain of adoption, for the endothecal system must of necessity mean a larger and, other things equal, a weaker test. While assuming the attached condition and developing a thecal armor the Pelmatozoa no doubt depended largely on ciliary action for food supply and perhaps in part for respiratory circulation. The manifest advantage of muscular contraction in bringing about such a circulation and the presence of a well-developed muscular system senile, jnowever,, lead ws te expect that a muscular respiratory system would be developed. A more or.less rigid thecal wall would offer some very serious obstacles for such a system to overcome and the conditions surrounding such an attempt should be briefly examined. Take first the simplest possible type of muscular endothecal respiration. We will suppose a single endothecal sac to exist, that this is filled with sea water and that osmotic exchange has reached equilibrium. To continue the respiratory process it becomes neces- sary to expel this water. With a flexible theca, closed at all other points, this could be accomplished by contracting the whole or any part of the body wall and so reducing its volume by an amount exactly equal to the volume of water to be expelled. With a rigid theca, under similar conditions, the expulsion of this water would be beyond the power of any conceivable muscular organization and this from purely physical and well-understood reasons. With a second opening to the body cavity, be it mouth, anus, genital pore or madreporite, the ejection of the water contained by the sac would be an easy matter if only an exactly equal volume of water were allowed to enter the body by one of the other openings. That the respiration of Echinoderms involves more than one set of organs is well known. What we should note here is that we have a mechanical cause acting in past time that is in itself competent to bring about this very condition. To insure a better understanding of the problem and to see more - clearly some of the relations involved, let us put the matter in a slightly different form. When thecal walls have become solid it is no longer possible to contract any organ save under one of the fol- 202 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM lowing conditions. Contraction of one organ is possible if its incom- pressible contents can be made to pass more or less completely to another organ or body cavity. If the contents of an organ are to be passed outside of the theca it can only be accomplished by admitting an equal volume of sea water to some other organ. To illustrate this reciprocal action, let us suppose that it is desired to draw water through the madreporite. This may be accomplished by reducing the amount in the alimentary canal. If on the other hand it is desired to reduce rapidly the amount of water in the hydro-vascular system, this may be accomplished by its contraction and the passive admission of water to the alimentary canal. The largest external opening possessed by Pelmatozoa is the anus, and this, if not closed, would become a compensating tide-way allowing contraction of any other body cavity. Such a function at once makes the anus more or less of a respiratory center and in some Echinoderms it has become highly specialized as such. Passing from the case of one special subtegmental respiratory sac to one of two or more we will readily see that the ejection of the contents of one would mean simply the filling of another if only it were passive at the time, and’ that a long series of such structures could be emptied and filled by a rhythmical and progressive or peristaltic contraction. It must be borne in mind, however, that no matter how complex such a system may become the contraction of any portion of it will be felt immediately by all other organs and the tendency to make these others auxiliary organs of respiration will be always present. This tendency is of course controlled by natural selection and the adaptations secured are varied and often present a very high degree of specialization. The other path, or that of exothcceal respiration, presemesuae exception to the principles already stated. The contraction of any one of these exothecal sacs would be impossible unless its contained coelomic or other fluid was allowed to flow back under the theca and such a flow would be impossible unless fluids already in that position were allowed to distend other exothecal sacs or were dis- charged directly into the sea and thus lost to the organism. Specialization of exothecal respiratory processes. Such exo- thecal sacs as we have just discussed, whether papullae or podia. involve a new series of adjustments to environment, for their posi- tion renders them liable to attack from other creatures. Protection may be secured in three directions. First, by the power of rapid withdrawal into or under the plate, as in Cleiocrinus [see fig. 2 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IOIO 203 p. 213], or into tubelike extensions of stereom similar to those pre- Seated by Caryocrimus ornatus. This power of rapid withdrawal requires a higher muscular and nervous development. If the sac is not attached to the stereom surrounding the pores it may be withdrawn as a whole but if so attached it must possess internal muscles reaching to its distal end and be withdrawn by in- vagination. Here we have opened still other lines of specialization in which we shall find these processes functioning as sense organs, as organs for food capture, and as organs for locomotion. Second, while retaining their high nervous and muscular development, these structures might be protected by clusters or fringes of immovable or movable spines such as we see so highly specialized in Asteroids and Echinoids. Third, these structures might early seek protection by means of porous coverings of epistereom. Under this con- dition the external sacs or tubes would of necessity come to lie close to the thecal surface or in special depressions on the latter. Such respiratory processes should be distinguished by the term epithecal. Development in this direction led to considerable complexity of structure but it never favored complexity or specialization of func- tion. This third direction was chosen by many cystids and crinoids and we shall find interesting examples in Palaeocrinus and Palaeo- cystites. The tendency toward the development of a solid thecal wall by a creature living in an incompressible medium has thus led to the concomitant development of a system or systems of hydraulic structures whose evolution may profitably be studied from a purely mechanical point of view. Respiration in Blastoidocrinus. At the time of publication of my description of Blastoidocrinus, in Bulletin 107 of the New York State Museum (1907), I had not seen Billings’s type. Through the kindness of the late Dr J. F. Whiteaves I have since been enabled to give it long and careful study and it has yielded evidence of very great interest concerning this question of respiration. From “numerous photomicrographs made of features presented by this type, nine have been chosen to illustrate the present article and will be found reproduced in plates 1 to 4 inclusive. It will be seen that we are dealing with the second form of endothecal respiration which we have tabulated and already briefly discussed. In figure 2 of plate 1 of this paper we have a side view, x 10, of a pseudambulacrum from which the wing plates and nearly all traces of the brachioles have been removed by natural processes. 204. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The orad end is toward the left and it will be seen that the covering pieces a increase rapidly-in height with age while at the same time they increase very little in thickness. The row back of these is seen in part, though much out of focus. The upper surface of the two rows presented a shallow channel into which the long and solid wing plate, whose under surface is shown in figure 1 of the same plate, fitted tightly, as is shown by the impressions made by these covering pieces on the under side of this wing plate. Thin sections of the wing plates show them to be homogeneous in their nature and not formed by the fusion of smaller pieces. These plates serve to lock the covering pieces and with them make a very high and solid covering over the food groove. Directly under the covering pieces are seen the outer edges of part of a row of adambulacrals, one member of which has been marked b.. The sutures between the covering. pieces "ameueeae adambulacrals can not be clearly seen on account of a thin veil- like band of calcite which seems to indicate that the brachioles were attached to the side of these plates, helping also to make a solid structure of a pseudambulacrum. The veillike band but slightly obscures the openings into the food groove. The rem- nants of brachioles which still adhere to the specimen at the left show that the food and water channels crossed the outer faces of the wing plate and covering pieces at an angle of about 25 degrees with the edge of the deltoid and on arriving at the open- ings into the food grooves turned abruptly and ran down to the edge of the deltoid (pl. 1, fig. 2, d) at an angle of 90 degrees or parallel with the deep vertical channels which run down between the adambulacrals. ‘These channels lead to the openings into the hydrospires. The lower portion of the outer edge of an adambulacrum presents a flat face against which rested one or more of the basal plates of a brachiole. Above this the outer face of an adambulacral becomes narrower and more rounded. This is the region where so much light was admitted through ~ the rather thick section drawn for figure 2 of Bulletin 107, page Io5, and which suggested “brood chambers.” ‘Taking the evi- dence of the cross section and that now before us we may safely conclude that water passing down the brachioles could enter any one of a series of openings into the food groove and that surplus water, or water deprived of its food content, could pass down any one or more of the vertical side channels and find an entrance into the hydrospires. On page 114 of Bulletin 107 REPORT OF. THE DIRECTOR I9QIO 205 . reasons were given for supposing that the flow of water through the central and older hydrospires was much more copious than the flow through the more lateral and younger hydrospires. That they could so function is now very manifest for there were undoubtedly two water streams, one along each side of the heavier pseudambulacral plates (ten such streams in all) which would serve to augment the flow through the larger hydrospires. Two of these streains near their meeting point received the ejecta of the completely covered anus and swept it through the largest Eydnospiness or a single deltoid. -“-Hvyen here the ‘volume of oxygen-bearing water must have been in excess of the deoxygen- ated stream from the alimentary canal and the hydrospires in- volved would still in a measure carry on their primitive function of respiration. Figure 3 of plate 1 shows the upper surface of an arm of the type x1o. All the covering plates, save six near the end of the atm, Mave weathered away. Five of these are over the upper (in the figure) row of adambulacrals and the smallest end one over an adambulacral of the lower row. These plates have lost somewhat through weathering but as end and newly-formed plates we should expect them to be small. A portion of one row of adambulacrals is also lost but the outer edges of the remain- ing plates show clearly the openings through which the surplus water drained into the hydrospires. These openings are between the plates but perhaps a little nearer their outer ends than such pores appear to be in the Blastoidea. In fact it seems that in Blastoidocrinus the outer edges of the adambulacra did not meet peyoud the opening. The vertical channels with their lateral connections shown in figure 2 were probably covered by a mem- brane possessing ciliary processes, and these accomplished the separation of the food particles and directed them to the food groove. Hambach’s beautiful drawing of a portion of the pseud- MMpilachmMPolnaspecimen Of Fentremites sulcatus, [see fig. 5, plate 2 of his “Revision”+] shows what was very probably a similar arrangement with the marked difference that the collecting floor is at right angles to the direction of flow through the pores in Pentremites and parallel with it in Blas- toidocrinus. Each pore in Pentremites is figured as passing into 1A Revision of the Blastoidea with a Proposed New Classification and Description of New Species, by G. Hambach, St Louis, Mo. 1903. Nixon- Jones Printing Co. 206 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a common hydrospire and therefore no necessity exists for com- munication of water channels before discharging into the hydro- spires as in Blastoidocrinus. Hambach’s drawing seems to show that the water flow from each brachiole was kept distinct until it entered the hydrospire. Figures 4 and 5 of our plate 1 show portions of the other two arms possessed by the type. The remaining two arms had evidently been weathered away before the specimen was found. They show similar characters to those found in figure 3 but figure 5 is of additional interest, as it seems to show a tendency to pass from an alternate arrangement of ambulacra to an opposite arrangement. The point of the adam- bulacral marked e is very close to the middle of the end of the plate. As we pass to the left the plates become very markedly more opposite in their arrangement. The orad end of figures 3 and 5 is at the right. Figure 1 of plate 2 presents a side view of the terminal area of the pseudambulacruin already represented in plate 1, figure 3, and with the same amplification. The food groove is clearly seen at a, partly roofed over by the covering plates already noted. At c, d and e the inner, vertical, closed edges of three hydrospires belong- ing to the rear row of adambulacra, may be readily recognized. The two hydrospires to the right of e have had their inner edges weathered away and show the beginning of the sheetlike cavity down and through which passed the surplus water of the bra- chiolar streams. At f the surface of the deltoid has been car- ried away and the character of the understructure of mineral- ized sheets brought to view. A portion of the undersurface of a deltoid x 10 is shown in figure 2 of this plate. At the left of the center of this figure is an area that shows better the nature of the respiratory sheets, for their thin edges may be clearly seen. The line marked b in figure 1 separates the deltoid teen bibrachial. Near the right end of this line are several openings along the base of the deltoid. These are the exits of the hydro- spires. They become larger passing in toward the older, longer and deeper hydrospires. ‘This is another indication of that greatly increased outflow caused by the lateral water streams already postulated. In some of the adambulacra shown in plate 1, figure 2 and in plate 2, figure 1, the lower outer edges are not in contact with the deltoid. This is probably due to the fact that the organic membrane which occupied this position and was subsequently mineralized, has now been partly removed through differential solution, REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 207 The two figures of plate 3 present views of different portions of the area partly shown in plate 2, figure 1. The broken inner edges of the two rear hydrospires to the right of e are better shown, and next to these is a hydrospire that still retains a por- tion of its inner rounded edge. The suture between deltoid and bibrachial is reproduced without retouching and the hydrospire exits show their beautifully arched upper surfaces. The lower figure presents a region farther to the right, shows several interbrach- ials with the still higher and larger hydrospire exit above them and at f shows a single hydrospire sheet that was washed with water on its left face and bathed with coelomic fluid on its right. The right side of this wall presents fine vertical lines which are easily seen in the photograph and which it is hoped will be still present in the reproduction. This appearance of corrugation in the walls of the hydrospires was first noticed in a fragment now in my possession and was mentioned in Bulletin 107, page 107. This corrugation securing strength with extreme thinness (the sheets in the figures of this plate represent secondary thicken- ing that took place long after death) is also strongly indicative of the function of respiration. If to the evidence here given we add that presented by the cross section of a deltoid and two pseudambulacra, figured in Bulletin 107, page 105, we must agree that we have as complete a case as can be desired. In that section we found limonite- colored muds in each and every one of the cavities through which we maintained that there was a flow of water and these muds were not detected in any other position save that of the intestine. These observations may serve to throw some light on the Hambach-Carpenter controversy which I had not seen at the time of making my first description of Blastoidocrinus (Bulle- tin 107, 1907). I am greatly indebted to Mr Edwin Kirk for recently loaning me these papers. There seems to be no doubt but that we may accept the essential correctness of Hambach’s cross section of a Blastoid pseudambulacrum as shown in plate 2, figure 8 of his “ Revision,” with the exception that the pores communicating with the hydrospires should open through the membrane covering the floor of the extended food groove area. Doctor Carpenter has stated that Mr Hambach “must have a wonderful power of imagination; for he actually believes that “soft and membranaceous organs, such as occupy the pores of the ambulacral field in Echinoderms’ can have been preserved 208 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM (in a collapsed state, it is true) through all the ages of the Car- bonic period and the present time.” + We must regard criticism of this character as at least unfortunate. In New York State Museum Bulletin 107, page 106, I have given reasons for believing that the inner edges of the hydrospires were membranous at death, yet their carbonized outlines have remained, and for the greater part in their original position, from Chazy time to the present. Traces of just such membranes will be noted in the description of Palaeocrinus Strivatus Bill) on: p!) 218 of the presen paper. The more difficult the field in which one is working, the greater is his liability to-error. lf ome is made to feel! taammiere a disgrace to err at all in such a field and that any aduitrediy speculative matter will receive censure, it can only follow as a consequence that very much valuable observation and suggestion will die with the mind of the worker and perhaps not appear — again for centuries. Encouragement to work in such difficult fields is what is needed. Cross-fertilization of mind followed by just and searching criticism will bear only good fruit. Ham- bach is very probably correct in attributing the structures repre- sented in plate 2, figure 1 of his Revision” to collapsed mica branes in the poral openings. That they were “ tentacles,’ how- ever, is exceedingly doubtful. We may, I believe, accept Doctor Carpenter’s contention that the mouth, food grooves and pores were covered with small but well fitting plates. Wath this cov- ering we have all the essentials of a food-capturing and respira- tory system very similar in nature to that here presented for Blastoidocrinus. | ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON BLASTOIDOCRINUS From various other points of interest connected with this Canadian type we may select that concerning the penetration of the stem so far into the interior of the theca. Billings be- lieved? that the position shown in our plate 4, figure I, was a natural one. A careful examination of the type convinced me that an additional portion of the stem was still to be found below — 1 Ann. and Mae. Nat) elist, Ser, 5; 8:42. 2In Canadian Org. Rem. Dec. IV, p. 21, Billings says “the column actu- ally penetrates into the interior, nearly if not quite to the top of the visceral cavity. This is so extraordinary a structure that scarcely any paleontologist at all well acquainted with the organization of the Crinoideae could be brought to believe it without personal inspection of the proots.” REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR LOO 209 and at the right of the main portion preserved. On receiving permission from Doctor Whiteaves to uncover a portion of the specimen in this region three additional rings were found within the cup formed by the strongly bent-in edges of the radials. It will be seen from the figure that these occupy the right-hand side of the cavity and that the end of the longer portion of the stem was thrust to the left-hand side. Figure 2 of this plate shows the upper portion of the stem photographed through a gum dammar mounting with a 3-inch objective and given an amplifi- Gdtion of 10. Lhe outlines of the basal and of the stem lumen anercleariy Seem in tle upper. part of the figure. It will also .be moticed that the plates of the stem have been displaced, those justeabove the center oi the fieure having been shiited to the left. There are no plate edges connecting these basals with the radials. It seems evident that the stem was thrust up into the body cavity and that the basals parted from the radials. When the cap of basals met the inner edges of the hydrospires, the advance of the stem was stopped. Continued pressure bent it into something of a letter S form (a portion of which lies in the vertical plane passing from front to rear), displaced its joints above, severed the stem about the middle of the basal invagina- tion of the theca or just where the lack of lateral support might cause the break, and pressed the broken end of the balance of the stem as far into the same cavity as its walls would allow. The original depth of this basal invagination was about half that assigned to it by Billings. The radials themselves show evidence of crushing and the type has suffered some distortion. Some of the details noted would seem to indicate that the form was monocyclic. Men 4a eine a. uuntesemis a cidall area of. the right-hand side of figure 1, x1o. We may here again see the closed inner edges of the hydrospires which have so weathered above as to reveal their two-walled character. It 1s to be regretted that the type shows none of the plates of the peristome. The question as to whether the deltoids are true orals or not must for the present be left open. The visible apexes of the deltoids of the Valcour island specimen are dumaneed im a cinele amine) a, diameter of about) 1o mm. The fringe of brachioles and the apical piece completely cover this area, yet within this circle a number of plates might be concealed and here also is the mouth) the anus, and:the genital pore or pores. _One interambulacral area seems to have been freed from the matrix by the use of a knife or file. In the process a portion of the 210 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM interbrachials was lost but structures below were revealed. There is evidence here that the hydrospires descended internally to a posi- tion below the base of the deltoid, thus further increasing the respiratory area. In figure 1 of the text we have presented a part of the lower edge of a délioid xio, The mer surface is shown and) frome Fic. 1 From a photomicrograph of the under surface of the deltoid figured in Museum Bulle- tin 107, plate 5 at o. x10. Add ten each to the number here used and they will correspond with those used in the former reproduction. study we may conclude that with the downward extension of the plate it often happened that two hydrospire exits were merged into one. The grooves here marked 7 and 8 find only one exit. The same is also true of pairs 10 and 11, 13 and 14, 16 and 17. Hydro- spires numbered 21 and 22 appear to have had the choice of either their own opening or that of their neighbor. Anastomosis of these - sheets would hardly be of enough advantage to become the subject of natural selection as the stoppage of any one exit would not inter- fere either with the food-getting capacity or with the waterfow down its own brachiole. Such stoppage would only mean a slightly faster flow through the numerous other hydrospires, attached to the under surface of half a deltoid. With a more primitive form in which there was no anastomosis of streams above the hydrospire pores such anastomoses below them might prove of great value and ultimately lead to structures like the hydrospires of the Blastoidea. In Canadian Organic Remains, Dec. IV, p. 21, Billings said of the stem that it was “round, with an alimentary canal so small that often detached joints seem ‘to have no central perforation _ , .. the flat faces of the separate joints exhibit strong radiating REEOK! OF Tih DIRECTOR LO1O 211 striae.” On plate 7 of Bulletin 107 I figured some stem joints and roots, answering this description, which were associated with Blastoidocrinus remains. I there said that these “may belong to this species.” A careful examination of the type shows that the _ joints of its column are not like those figures. The stem joints of the type have convex rather than cylindrical edges and I do not find any evidence for the possession of “strong radiating striae ” on their flat faces. No sutures could be seen on the stem joints even when examined under water in sunlight with a compound microscope. The lumen seems to be very small but may weather out to leave “rings” like those which are also abundantly associated with the remains of Blastoidocrinus on Valcour island and elsewhere. Genus CLIOCRINUS FE. Billings. 1856 Among the crinoid remains of the middle Chazy of Valcour island are some well-preserved plates of Cliocrinus clearly showing, along the lines of suture, a series of cylindrical perfora- tions which are perpendicular to the surface of the plates. The largest fragment found contains but little more than thirty plates, yet these present characters which (aside from the horizon from which the specimen was taken) indicate that the form is specifi- cally distinct from the described Trenton species. As I wish to make several references to this Chazy form and as I believe its plates show characters which may be recognized in more com- plete specimens, I have made it the type of a new species. Cliocrinus perforatus nov. Description. of the type. Brachials differing from those of © mgenificus Bill im the possession of a low median ver- tical fold about 0.2 mm wide. The fold shows more clearly at the middle of the plate where there is a shallow depression on each side of it. Both above and below these depressions well- marked plates, like a and f, figure 2, have a transverse thicken- ing which raises the plate surface nearly to the level of the median fold and gives the latter two widened moundlike areas on each plate. The species differs from C. regius Bill. in the absence of the much narrower, higher and sharply defined median folds of that species. The larger cylindrical pores, 0.15 mm in diameter, are situated one on each side of a median fold where the latter crosses a suture. These pores are 0.4 mm tem seenuer to center. On either side. of these are one of more smaller pores with their centers about 0.2 mm _ apart. 212 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM There is usually a pore exactly at the corner of a plate with three or four plates uniting to form its walls. The vertical sutures also possess one or more pores besides those common to both vertical and horizontal sutures. The corner pore and the three which immediately surround it together occupy a shallow basin formed by the thinner and depressed corners of the joining plates. Such a basin is well shown at the left end of the suture between plates a and J, figure 2. Nature of the pores in C. perforatus. In an: aquarium speci- men of AsSterias forbesii under my observation, jm@espapu. lae average about 0.2 mm in diameter and, while the pores of C. per- foratus are slightly smaller, they strongly suggest canals for the extrusion of similar respiratory processes. These pores, and others of like nature, will be hereafter called sutural canals. The position of the larger and first formed sutural canals of ©. per foratuamme tween brachia and on either side of the axial fold, is very suggestive of connection with the water vascular system. If such was the case the protruding respiratory processes might be considered as homol- egous with podia though not functioning as organs of locomotion. How many of the arm plates lie below the horizon of the tegmen in this genus is not known, but the permanently closed condition of — the arm bases must have tended to make functionless (in a respir- atory sense) the podia perhaps formerly possessed by this region. This would rather strengthen the idea that these external processes were developed to compensate for the loss of the others) Venuy similar structures in Palaeocystites, to be discussed farther on, are more suggestive of papulae or external extensions of the coelomic cavity, and as the arms of crinoids carry extensions of this cavity one could with equal propriety maintain that the structures in ques- tion were simply papulae such as we find on the aboral surface of asteroids. It becomes desirable then to have a term which we may use to designate all forms of exothecal or epithecal respiratory pro- cesses regardless of the character of the subthecal cavities into which they may open and though the term branchial vesicles has been used as synonomous with papulae, we shall take the liberty of using it here in the broader sense given above. As the use of the term will be frequent we shall abbreviate it to b.v. or b.vs. It seems fairly reasonable to hold, at least temporarily, that the sutural canals of C. perforatus were occupied by b.vs. and that these were sensitive and protected by possessing the power of rapid with- drawal. Cliocrinus would thus become an example of the first direction of b.v. protection outlined on page 202. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I[OIO 213 Development of brachials and sutural canals. The plates of C. perforatus have something to tell of their own growth and development. The greatest width of plate a, text figure 2, is 1.9 Fic. 2 From a photomicrograph of a fragment of Cliocrinus perforatus x1o. This fragment is designated as the holotype of the species and is in the State Museum collection. Mim wand 1S primitive pair of b.vs., both above and below, Mcdstined@-7) mliid mromeuccemter to center at death. Plate ¢ has a width of but I.4 mm, yet its primitive pair of b.vs. have icwisaine Omnia between tineit “centers, Im the earlier stages of plate a the distance between its primitive pairs of b.vs. was no doubt but little if any less than at death. If we should out- line the plate when it was about one fourth the diameter attained at death we should find it possessed a median fold nearly as wide as the plate itself and with but two b.vs. on each horizontal suture. The addition of stereom to these sutures has carried the two pairs of b.vs. directly away from each other and increased fourfold the ver- tical distance separating them, yet one member of a pair has not perceptibly increased its horizontal distance from its neighbor. If any horizontal suture should happen to lie in line or nearly in line with another at the right or left, one primitive b.v. of a pair would find itself in close proximity to one of the members of a neighboring pair. These two unfortunately situated b.vs. would 214 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM naturally bend away from each other in performing their function and the widening of the plates would soon not only separate them, but would place each in a position on the suture instead of at the corner. The corner would thus soon offer a free position for the protrusion of a branch b.v. which would increase the respiratory area. Should any b.v. thus protruded remain at the corner it would tend to stop the development of any new branches. It is very likely, however, that more than one would seek the same corner and their development would again insure their bending away from each other. In this case greater freedom for function would be found on a vertical suture and the growing corners of the plates would soon push by the b.vs. and leave them in a fixed position on the vertical sutures. Still newer b.vs. would be led to take positions ~ giving most room, which this time would probably be again on the horizontal sutures. If the plates produced more stereom on the vertical than on the horizontal sutural faces, the horizontal sutures would become the longer, offer the most freedom for function, and come to contain the greatest number of b.vs. A b.v. next to a mem- ber of a first pair would keep it from-increasing its distance from its neighbor and a new b.v. at the corner would have the same effect on the last previously formed. It would thus happen that the dis- tance apart of these structures would become fixed and not increase with growth though the number would increase. ‘The distance apart of the primitive pairs of b.vs. might easily become a_ specific character. The newer b.vs. in our species are all smaller than the members of the primitive pairs amd they are set nearer each ote aie average distance of the three around the corner b.v. at the left end of the suture between @, and’ >, fietire 2, is‘ org mim (alee size and distance between the newer b.vs. are also likely to be specific characters. A closer examination of the group of b.vs. just mentioned will reveal several additional points of interest. The central one evi- dently emerged before the others had become completely inclosed by the growing plate corners (see text figure 3, which presents a still greater enlargement of this area). These all seem to be branches of the left-hand member of the pair between a and b. It sent off five branches. The widening of the plate allowed two branches to remain on the same suture, two on the vertical and one at the corner with no newcomer to dispute for its territory. The b.vs. have been numbered in the order of their distance from the angle of the plate. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQTO 215 This would probably also indicate the order of their appearance if plate imcrease was equal on all sutures. Plate a seems to have Fic. 3. Represents a small area of figure 2 still further enlarged. The dotted lines are used to separate related groups of branchial vesicles. added more to its lateral than to its horizontal sutures and the numbers used may thus fail to designate age. B.v. 6 was the last formed and nos. 4 and 5 of the same group are so near to it that they have hardly yet been separated from it. Continued addition to the plate edges of this region would more and more separate 4 andseronn oO, providins that te latter remained at the corner. The dicsnamcesbemvecn 2 and © bheime the oreater, it is likely that an additional 7th b.v. might make its exit on this side of 6 or that 6 itself would become forced to take up a position on the suture next tog; ine bay. at tte extreme lett angle of a, with the three nearest to it form a group belonging to the right-hand member of the primi- tive pair occupying the horizontal suture to the left of this point. Conclusive evidence of such branching, forming groups, is not pre- sented by this specimen, but it will be seen in Palaeocrinus and in Palaeocystites. The dotted lines of figure 3 surround groups of b.vs. which are supposed to be related as suggested above. 216 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM A tendency of these sutural canals to become oval in cross section and with the major axis at right angles to the sutures is clearly seen at several places in figure 3. It probably represents the effects of the bending of the free ends of the b.v. to assume the most favorable positions for the performance of their function, which would be toward the freer area of the enlarging plate surface. It will be seen that this influence has led not only to just such widening of the sutural canals in Palaeocrinus and Palaeocystites, but it has been followed by an actual bifurcation of the b.vs. themselves. Plate a, text figure 3, also shows a periodic variation in thickness. It was thin in its nepionic stage and thickened, particularly along its horizontal sutures, during its adolescent stage. “There was thus left the two nearly central basins or shallow depressions, one on each side of the axial fold, which represent the early lateral margins of the plate. Either the impetus gained through the development of plate thickness carried the form beyond the requirements of its environment or the later environment became less exacting in this respect, for during the ephebic stage the plate appears to have built its edges with stereom of diminished thickness. To this third plate stage is due the shallow basins at the corners which resemble the nepionic basins nearer the plate centers. Palaeocrinus striatus Billings Canadian’ Ore. Rem: Dec: 1V 1850; "pp. 25 spk 1, esas Cup analysis. Vhrough the courtesy of the late Dmg Whiteaves of the Geological Survey of Canada the writer has been enabled to give long and careful study to Billings’s type of this genus and species. The cup analysis here given, figure 4, differs very materially in the form of its RA and adjacent plates, from the cup analysis given by Bather in “ A Treatise on Zoology,” part 2, p. 172, and also frommle very conventional analysis given by Billings, loc. cit. p. 24. Failures to present a correct cup analysis of the genotype have been due to very great difficulties presented by the specimen itself. It was evi- dently found lying in the bedding plane with its anterior side upper- most, as this surface is most weathered (fig. 6). Below this is a belt more recently separated from the matrix and presenting some plate details in great perfection (fig. 5). A knife seems to: hage been used to free the attached posterior area by cutting under the anal plate from the oral end. Portions of x and RA were cut nearly or quite through and the surface lost. On final liberation post. B, 1. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1910 217 post. B, and |. post. IB were badly shattered and the greater portion of the surface of these plates was left on the bed. For an enlarged mm. Fic. 4 Analysis of Palaeocrinus striatus Billings. The following abbreviations are used here and in the text: l=left, r—right, ant.=anterior, post.= posterior, IB =infrabasal B=basal, R=radial, RA=radianal and x=anal. The dotted boundaries show probable edges of plates where covered. The marks lying between plate corners are supposed centers of development of branchial vesicles. view of part of this area see plate 6, figure 1. Mr Billings realized the difficulty of determining the character of the damaged area for under the cut representing his cup analysis, he said ‘ The azygos Fic. 5,6 Different aspects of the holotype of Palaeocrinus striatus Billings, x31 interradial space is left blank in the figure as it is not certain how many plates it contains.” Method used to determine sutures.. For a long time the writer tried to see the sutures of the injured area with a three inch objective 218 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and draw them with a camera lucida but, while enough could be seen to show that former analyses were certainly in error, yet lines seemed to be absent where sutures were expected and faint or frag- mentary lines suggested sutures where they were not expected. Remembering a former successful showing of a vertical section of the basals of Blastoidocrinus by photographing a portion of Billings’s type under a mounting of gum dammar (see plate 4, fig. 2) a similar trial was made with the damaged plates of P. striatus. A drop of pure benzol was placed on the area in question to exclude air bubbles and a drop of gum dammar, dissolved in benzol, added. A little of the dissolved gum was also placed on an ordinary round cover glass for microscope slides and the cover placed over the area. This was allowed to dry enough to retain its position and more of the mount- ing fluid then added in order to show as large an area as possible. After a second partial drying the region was photographed with a three inch objective, using a black hood over the lens to avoid reflec- tions and with bellows extended to give an enlargement of ten diameters. Advantages of the method. The photographs for figures 2 and 4 of plate 5 were made in this manner and a comparison of them with figures 1 and 3 of the same plate (from photographs made without the mounting) will reveal several peculiar advantages of this method. Reflection from the summits of plate granules, tool marks, scratches and small crystalline faces of broken calcite have been reduced to a minimum and much of their distracting influence on the eye removed. Refraction has relieved the surface shadows cast by minor elevations and has also admitted light to the deeper features of plate detail, making structures visible that were hereto- fore obscured or lost. On the more uniformly lighted surface so produced the difference in the amount of free carbon now held by the calcite is quite clearly revealed and the former presence of or- ganic membranes made manifest. It will be seen that the sutures stand out clearly as black lines of uniform width and all of the sutures of the damaged area were not only thus made clearly visible under the microscope but were secured on negatives. The photo- graphs for other figures were also prepared in this manner and the features so revealed will be described in their proper places. Nature of the plate ridges. Vhe figures on plate 5 represent two different areas of the specimen and show the ridges as they appear on IBB, BB and RR. They are seen to be arranged in groups the members of which are rather evenly spaced, of regularly varying REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 219 lengths, parallel to each other, nearly perpendicular to the sutural lines and bisected by the latter. These ridges are covered cylindrical, epithecal extensions of sutural canals and each was occupied by a bifurcating contractile b.v. whose arms lay parallel to the plate surface and commumcated with the interior only through the sutural canal itself. In support of the above assertion we may first examine figure I of plate 5, which presents a detail of the left posterior margin —a portion of the best preserved belt of the specimen. Erosion, though slight, has carried away just enough of the crests of some of the horizontal ridges to reveal in part their hollow nature and at a an ascending ridge has been so broken across that a portion of its cavity is clearly brought to view. 7 Text figure 7 represents a por- tion of the right posterior margin, a detail from the op- posite edge of the best pre- served belt. The ascending ridges have had their crests removed to a still greater ex- tent and the broken edges at’ times reach deep enough to re- veal nearly the full width of — the canal itself. That these structures were epithecal, that is laid down over the mesostereom, and that they have no communica- tion with the interior through the plate itself, is shown by text figure 8, which represents that portion of the specimen which we have already consid- ered as lying uppermost in the bedding plane and which was Fic.7_ View ge toniods) tae calacue ot lees therefore the longest exposed SrOnepi, 0 a : to the effects of weathering. The r.ant.B. has lost nearly all traces of its canals, but the floors of these structures may be seen on the margins of the adjacent plates to the left and we have to pass but little distance over the edge of r.ant.IB to reach the less weathered belt and find at a and D first the side walls and then the canal coverings. 220 NEW -YORK STATE MUSEUM The value of study under the dammar mounting may now be seen by an examination of plate 5, figures 2 and 4. In the former the area of figure I is again presented, but the fragmentary matter covering the epithecal canals has been rendered more transparent by the mounting medium and the band of carbon deposited by the decaying b.vs. brought more clearly to view. The boundary between this darkened belt and the. clearer calcite of its side walls is well marked and makes the measurement of the canal diameters an easy matter. Their full width is found here to be from .10 to 12 min. This@agneee closely with that of the as- cending ridges of text fig- ure 7 and the uncovered regions on text figure 8. Plate 5, figure 4, presents portions of the two radials over r.post.B. The longer canal of the hopimental series shows not only its cylindrical character but its floor as well. Near the suture this floor dips into a depression whose deeper portion is filled with limon- ite-colored mud. Plaas Fic. 8 View of a portion of the holotype of Palaeo- ce striatus Billings. From a photomicro- darker eM eR SES 2 also to grap » AIO J be wider and to run under the remote edge of the canal where the latter reaches the suture. We have here an oval basin whose major axis crosses the sutures and whose minor axis is nearly twice as wide as the bore of the exothecal canal which enters it on the left. - The basin just described is but the outward expansion of a sutural canal and below it two others as well shown. The sutural canal next above the one with the longest exothecal canal was weathered out more completely and for some time after mounting its communica- tion with the interior was made manifest by the bubbles of air which rose from it and moved away through the thin mounting medium. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 221 While this medium was becoming more viscid, bubbles continued to rise, though at longer intervals. The figure shows a compound bubble and a small new one just next to it, the aggregation not . having moved out of the field of view before the exposure was made. Figure 2 of this plate also shows evidence for these canals, particu- larly at the aborad ends of the two BB. In plate 6, figure 1, we have evidence of a different character to offer. This figure represents the area cut under to liberate the specimen from its bed and the cutting was in a sense fortunate for, although it removed all surface features and even the epithecal canals themselves, it gave us some cross sections of the sutural canals and to some of these we will give brief attention. Five millimeters to the left of the orad apex of post.B is a shaded area crossing the suture at right angles. This seems to indicate the former presence of an epithecal canal now cut away. Occupying this shaded area is a circle 2.3 mm in diameter which is clearly out- © lined by the carbon black remains of its former organic walls. Seven millimeters to the right of the orad angle of this basal is another sutural ring of similar character, measuring 1.7 mm in diameter and 5 mm to the right of this is an oval similarly out- lined. This oval has a minor axis which measures 2 mm and a major axis of 3.3 mm, the latter at right angles to the suture. Both the specimen and the negatives show a much smaller ring on this suture at a point 2 mm to the right of the upper angle of the basal, but its position in a shadow effectually prevents its being recognized in the figure. The carbon blackened rings, their position on the suture, their distance from the apex of the plate, their distance from each other, the position at a transverse shading, their diameters, and the transverse position of the major axis of the oval; all indicate these structures to be cross sections of cylindrical canals. The oval is evidently a cross section made nearer the surface of the plate or where the floor of the two wings of an exothecal canal dipped down to make a junction with the sutural canal. In other words, this is a cross section of a sutural basin like that already noted in piate 5, figure 4. The diameters of the rings last measured (0.23, .17 and .2 mm) give an average a little larger than that obtained from the measurements of the sutural canals of Clio cms pemnomatius, but they are remarkably close -to the measurements of the papulae of the aquarium specimen of Deciiae tiaes fO.1 b € Sit. 222 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Before leaving the discussion of function we must note that it raises a question as to the nature of the canal coverings. With contractile b.vs., such as are here postulated, there must be some provision for filling with fluid the space between the canal wall and the bv. during the contraction of the latter.” Wath canal covering formed by an impervious sheet of epistereom, the compensating fluid would have to be drawn from beneath the theca and, as there is no evidence for any pores through the mes- ostereom itself, such fluid would have to ascend in the vertical canals and outside of the tubular walls of the b.vs. The larger diameter of the sutural canals would allow them to serve such a purpose. We have evidence, however, that the camaleeemen ings were not impervious and that water could enter the canal from the outside on contraction of the b.v. within it. An exam- ination of the ascending canals on the basal represented in plate 5, figures 1 and 2, shows a line of very porous epistereom lying directly over the canal. Where the covering has been broken away, as at a, this seam of porous epistereom : seen to penetrate tothe canal itself. Ihe thickmess of this epistereom, and yer tme maintenance of the porous seam, is very decided evidence for the respitatory mature of tae structure. Text figures 4 amd 5 smo this same feature and also suggest that with the external thick- ening of the ridge the deeper layers of the porous epistereom were absorbed, thus leaving a narrow slitlike cavity over the b.vs. The thickening of the ridges was by growth on the outside and a new sievelike epistereom was formed over the more porous older material. Water evidently filtered through these lines as ‘throdgh a madreporite. The study se far given ‘Seems abundantly to justify the conclusion that we are dealing with respiratory processes and this conclusion is but strengthened when we note that they form an elaborate system and cover all the plates of the theca. Whether or not one accepts the interpretation here given, we may note that the evidence so far presented is very decidedly against Certain former interpretations. These ridges are mess certainly not “axial folds of the plates” as others have called them. They are not in any way indicative of nerve branching to supply distant organs, nor do they indicate either “ incipient hydrospires ” or the former possession of such structures. The suggestion that we here have grooves for stroma strands or for muscular processes is negatived by the deepening of the surface REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR TOIO 223 & canals at the suture to form pelvislike depressions that com- municate by a vertical canal with the interior. If Palaeocrinus, with practically only three circlets of plates of five each, needed such an elaborate system of stroma strands or muscular processes to hold its plates together, why do we not find a similar arrange- ment in Cliocrinus with its hundreds of separate plates? These structures are canals and each was occupied by a branchial vesicle. Plate development and_ the vesicles. serial formation of branciual An examination of plate 5 will show that the epithecal extensions of the b.vs. become shorter and less prominent as we pass from the middle of sutures toward their ends and figure I. of plate 6 will show that the shortening is correlated with a decrease in diameter of the sutural canals. On this evidence we should be warranted in assuming that these structures were serially formed and that those nearest the ends of the sutures were youngest. As the lateral extension of a plate takes place only by the addition of stereom to its mar- gins we may, without great SHOnolmiime aA plake Vas lit existed in some earlier stages of its development. This we have essayed to do in text figure 9. It will be at once seen that the smaller the size we make the plake the tewer bivs. it could have possessed and the inner outline shows a condition where there was but a single b.v. to a suture. These are at the ends of those longest epithecal canals which we have already deter- apaots Fic. 9 View of a portion of the holotype of mined to be the oldest and the shorter ones simply did not exist at this time. Palaeocrinus striatus Billings. From a photomicrograph, x10. Outlines show prob- able forms of the plates at earlier stages in their development. We may express a law concerning these b.vs. as follows. On any suture the longest b.v. is the oldest and the newer members were added serially on one or both sides of this as the suture was 224. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM extended. If now these plates have so grown as to give their common sutures equal extensions, it will follow that the distance of any b.v. from the point of meeting of these three sutures is proportional to its age, provided we do not pass the middle of the suture or the longest exothecal canal which crosses it. Let us apply this rule to the region around the orad angle of r.post.B. The primary interradial groups of branchial vesicles. On the photographs used for figures 3 and 4 of plate 5 was measured the distance of the middle of each sutural canal from the apex of the orad angle of r.post.B. The average of each pair of measure- ments was taken as the distance of the b.v. in question. These positions are now indicated by dots on text figure 10 and the distances there recorded. The b.v. 21.5 mm out is by eus tule made the oldest and is marked no. 1. “Whey eager smaller distance is 19.1 mm and this b.v. ‘has> jbeem marked no. 2. These larger numbers thus indicate the order of succession and it turns out to be a fegulan spiral with a counter-clock- wise rotation. The very reg- ular sequence and rotation of the twelve b.vs. constituting this triangular area (but ten have been numbered in the figure) is remarkable enough Fic. 10 Viewofa portion of the holotype of Palae- i ocrinus striatus Billings. Fromaphotomicro-¢g merit further considera- graph, x10. The spiral is drawn to show the order of development of the b,vs. tion. Suppose that during the nepionic stage a b.v. was developed at the point of contact of these three plates and that soon after its exit it had budded a new b.v. aborad, which also sought exit at the same point. No. 1 would be thrust orad and reach in this direction to exercise its function. The growing points of r.post.R and r.post.B would push by and finally surround it, thus giving it a position not at the corner but on the suture. A third b.v. seeking exit also at the plate corners might force no. 2 to the left and would itself, in seeking freedom for its function, pass to the right and thus become inclosed between the growing points REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 225 of r.post.B and r.ant.R. A new factor would now enter to deter- mine the position of the fourth b.v. Nos. 2 and 3 would be its nearest neighbors. It would find water richer in oxygen and freer from excretory matters in the direction of no. 1. Its own effort to function to better advantage might alone insure for it a position on the suture next no. I, but natural selection would soon fix any variation in this direction however caused. To follow the Series in this manner down to no. 12 and find a probable cause for each position, is a simple matter. The evidence seems to favor the idea that the b.vs. of a triangle are organically related to each other and are but external branches of one internal tube or chamber. There is no evidence, however, to warrant our associating the group with the circumoral ring of the water vas- cular system though a connection was not at all unlikely. It is of course possible that nos. I, 2 and 3 were independent b.vs. and that, as the sutures were extended, each politely awaited its turn to send a branch through the point of least resistance. Such a condition could be made to speak eloquently against the idea of struggle for existence between parts of an organism, but there seems to be no evidence in its favor. An examination of the sutural faces of the plates might decide the question and free plates of this species may yet be found and examined. If the development was as at first suggested, the sutural canals should show an inclination toward a point under the plate corner and that would be the position of the larger subthecal canal or sac Fic. 11 From a photomicrograph of a plate of a species of Palaeocystites, seen from ‘the edge The edge of a steel mm rule shows just below. into which the b.vs. would periodically discharge their contents. If the development and grouping was of the other type, the 8 226 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM sutural canals would be inclined toward a point under the middle of a plate suture and the b.vs. would discharge in this direction to reach the common tube or sac of the group. It is quite evident in text figure 3 that the triangles at the plate corners form the related groups in Clhiocrinus. Text figure 11 will show that the sutural canals of Palaeocystites are inclined toward a point under the plate corner and that here also the corner groups are the related ones. Such evidence as there is then is markedly in favor of calling the triangular series a natural group and not the parallel series. “The primary interradial group just described may be con- sidered as typical also of four others which were simultaneously developed at the orad angles of the other BB. Development in complexity. The small portion of the cup of Cliocrinus perforatus shown in text figure I was pos- sessed of more than 230 b.vs. This would indicate that the com- plete specimen possessed some 5000 similar structures. Palaeo- crinus striatus on the other hand had a cup practically re- duced to but three circlets of five or six plates each and its b.vs. were less than 150 in number. We should therefore expect to find some compensatory arrangement whereby the physiological balance of respiration might be maintained. The arms doubtless came to take a larger share of this function and so relieve the cup surface, but the latter abundantly shows that it also became adapted to carry on the same function to a greater extent than formerly. We have already seen that the oval sutural canals of Cliocrints pen foratus may be indicative of the movement of the free ends of b.vs. toward the plate centers or to regions of purer water. If the b.vs. could branch under the theca to give rise to new members, their branching or forking outside of the theca need not be unex- pected. Any b.v. possessing a forked structure would come to hold the arms of the Y in the best functional position which would be in a line crossing the suture. Such a structure could not be easily withdrawn and protection would be first secured by making the arms of the Y lie close to the plate surface and thus changing the Y toa‘I, ‘The close contact of the arms of the b.vs,wGhgeme plate surface might inhibit the formation of epistereom immediately beneath them and stimulate growth between them. Ridges so formed would be an additional means of protection and, however initiated, would be favored by natural selection. With the necessity for occasional withdrawal removed, the arms of the b.vs. could extend with plate growth and all available plate area be used for respiratory purposes. The form might thus easily REPOR MOP Tit) DIRECTOR: LOO 227 pass from the primitive arrangement in which its b.vs. simply occupied the lines of plate boundaries to the more complex arrange- ment by which its b.vs. came to occupy the area of plate surfaces. It is probable that in Palaeocrinus the development of T-shaped b.vs. was not so simple as the processes above outlined. The youngest b.vs. found in the type are already a little distance from the corners and appear as small low mounds that sometimes show more on one side than the other. It looks as if free or uncovered external b.vs. had already been suppressed and that the extension to the surface did not break through the epidermis, but lifted it as a mound which became elongated with the growth of the plate and under which the b.vs. extended their arms. As several layers of tissue are involved in these body wall extensions, the outer layer or the next layer under this might form porous stereom and the deeper layers form the walls of a contractile tube free to move inside of its rigid but porous covering. Evidence of additional (abnormal) forking is shown in plate 5, figure 4. Both of the epithecal canals below the longest are distinctly double near the suture but are single in their earlier por- tions. At least three b.vs. here came to empty into a single sutural Cane One aim Of tie frst fork evidently tried to repeat the process. . The b.vs. as mdexes of plate growth. Could we determine the rate or regularity of b.v. development we could use the position of these structures as indexes of the relative rapidity of plate growth during different ontogenic stages. If the new b.vs. appeared at regular time intervals their distance apart on any suture would be in strict proportion to the rate of plate extension. Text figure 11 may be made to offer an illustration. The measurement of position of the b.vs., in part recorded in the figure, is as follows: Table 2 : 2s min 4 15.8 mm Me oa7 min 10-377 mm 7 leat 127 S170 Ti 2.5 or 17 6 10.5 Oe 5.5 L210 From the measurements of position recorded in table 2 we have deduced the following table of distances between one b.v. and the next younger on the same suture. Mable 32 1 to 4=5.7 mm 4 to 76.1 mm ato) 10 — 6-0 mm 2tod=6.4 5 to 8=5.7 8 to Ll—4.5 3 to 6=6.6 Gito 9 — 5.0 Oo 2 — 705 8 22¢ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The first vertical column gives the distance of each member of the first triad from the corresponding member of the second triad, or from that member which came to occupy the next position on the same suture. The second vertical column does the same for the distances between the second triad of b.vs. and the next three b.vs. to appear. The first horizontal line of figures gives the distances for the vertical suture, the second line gives them for the diagonal suture at the left and the last line gives them for the diagonal suture at the right. Interpreted according to the above assumption, the distances indicate that the most rapid growth was after the development of the first triad and between the times of the fixing of b.vs. 3 and 6 on the same suture. This would be during adoles- cence. Uhe marked decrease next the end of the senses would indicate that the specimen was practically fully grown or mature. By measuring these distances on a number of different areas and using averages one could plot a curve representing this variation of plate extension in time and the character of such a curve mp itsels would be good evidence that our assumption was not far wrong. The b.vs. speak still more clearly of variation of rapidity of plate extension in certain directions. Suppose we ask if the elongate form of the species has been brought about by adding stereom more rapidly to the orad and aborad sutural faces of the plates than to their lateral sutural faces. We may question text figure Io con- cerning this matter. The average distance apart of the b.vs. from 2 to 8 (on the tight aborad suture of r.post.R) is Genes from 3 to 9 (on the left aborad suture of r.ant.R) it is 5.80 mm. Averaging the two we obtain 5.925. On the vertical suture from 1 to 10 the average is 5.9033 mm. Ihe ditteremeemmene is so remarkably little that it would be unwise to use it as the basis of a declaration that the vertical elongation of the aborad half of a R. was in excess of the lateral extension of one side. We shall soon find, however, that the plates of the two lower circlets give very decided evidence that vertical extension was in marked excess of lateral. We may also note here that. r.post.R seems to have added stereom to its right side a little more rapidly than r.ant.R did to its left. This point will be again referred to when we come to discuss the lateral extension of the theca. The aborad radial groups. We have so far given particular attention only to one of these groups of b.vs. which developed about the orad angle of each B. These groups are interradial in posi- REVORD Ok Tih DIREETOR, LOO 229 tion. A group of b.vs. was developed at the orad angle of each 1B and a group also at the aborad angle of each R. These ten additional groups are all radial in position. To distinguish between them we shall call one series orad and the other aborad: Text figure 12 shows two of these groups, an orad radial group around the aborad angle of a R and an aborad radial group around the orad angle of an IB. The lat- ter group will now re- ceive our attention. The members of this group occupy a triangular area and are numbered inom 1. to ©. lhe evi- dence here is for regular serial formation with counter-clockwise __rota- tion as in the interradial group. For instance, we have three b.vs. on the left upper shoulder of the IB and but two on the mci ble distance OF 2 from the apex of the IB is greater than that Of 3, Fic. 12 View ofa portion of the holotype of Palaeo- : : crinus striatus Billings. From a photomicrograph, and the distance of 5 1S x1o. The spiral lines are drawn to indicate the order of Srewier tian that ote. In 2 oP table 4 we have entered the measured distances of all these b.vs. from the point in question, arranging those of each suture in a separate vertical group as below. Table 4 Peo) antea 2, W225 man oo) 15, mam 4 1.3 O77 Ge .6 @ 75 Sr Co These distances have been plotted in figure 12 and a spiral line drawn through them to more clearly express their serial formation and its direction. 230 NEW YORK “STATE MUSEUM We may now turn again to the questions of variation of rapidity of plate extension in time and in direction. Taking the distances between one b.v. and the next younger on the same suture and arranging as in table 3, we have = Table 5 LL to 40.5 nim tO we ——O©.55 mim 7 to 90175 am tO VO =o Dite: == *.A0 3) 10, G7 55 When we compare these b.vs. with the interradial group just studied, we find that they are fewer in number and the distance separating the oldest two on any suture is also less. Were the time intervals recular for b.v. branching, we should have to concede that this group is a younger group and the shorter distance between its oldest members, as shown in table 5, would tend to corroborate this view. We might then be led to believe that the new series was developed from an early branch (perhaps the first) of the older interradial series when the two b.vs. would have been separated by the very short distance across an angle of the young plate. We shall do well, however, neither to accept nor reject the ideayi om mind can thus hold judgment long in suspension. We may also note that the younger b.vs. on a suture are nearer together than the older and this again we may interpret as due either to a more rapid formation of b.vs. near maturity or to diminished speed of stereom formation. The latter explanation seems the more probable to the writer. We take up again the question of difference in rate of plate ex- tension in direction. From our study of the relative positions of the b.vs. in one of the primary interradial groups we were forced to conclude that the building of stereom on the aborad sutures of the radials was but little, if any, in excess of the building on the lateral sutures of those plates. With equal growth on all sutures of a hexagonal plate there would be no change in plate form. The radials of a mature Palaeocrinus have much the same form as the radials of a very young specimen, at least so far as concerns that portion which lies to the right, left and below the center of the original plate. With the group now under consideration (an aborad radial group) there is evidence for marked difference in rapidity of plate extension in direction. In order to present this evidence more clearly and to show its bearings on change in plate form during ontogeny, we have formed REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI1O 231 a new table (table 6) in the following manner. The distance of b.v. I from the orad angle of the IB as measured on the vertical suture of figure 12 (1.80 mm) has been used as a minuend; the iictamce or the f.v. 2) irom te same point or angle of the IB (1.25 mm) has been taken as a subtrahend; the difference between tiese mumbers, the remamder, (0.55 mm) has been entered as the imeemmenmer or the mew table. Taking b.vs. 2 and 3 and treating them in the same manner, we obtain a remainder of 0.10 mm and enter this as the second member of the table. The other differences expressed in the table were found in a similar manner. The two numbers before any sign‘of equality designate the b.vs. whose dis- tances (from the orad angle of the IB) were used for minuend and subtrahend. Table 6 _ Giving, for an aborad radial group, the difference between distances from the orad angle of the IB (expressed in mm) of a b.v. on the vertical suture and the next left diagonal suture and the right diagcnal suture and b.v. to appear next b.v. to appear the next b.v. to appear T—2) (1-60-—1.25) 0.55 2—3 (1.25—-1.15) =-0.10 3—4(1.15—1.30)=— .15 f= 7(1-30-— .70) = 60 5—6 ( .7o— 60) = .10 6—7( .60— .75)—=— -15 feet oe 30). = 45 S—9 © 30 .30) — .00 To quickly, clearly and visually explain table 6, let us take a hypothetical orad radial group. The b.vs. are to appear in sequence with a time interval that shall be miemsame tor all. The. addition of stereom to the aborad sutures of the basals are supposed to be constantly and regularly in excess of the amount added to their com- imonm Wertical sutures.) his will result in increasing the length of the, plate: more rapidly than the width. Let us suppose the ratio between verticle and lateral rate mol extension toube as 4,10: 3, Then when b.v. 1 has increased its dis- tance from the orad apex of an IB by 4 units, b.v. 2 will have in- Beeacedie olistagecsbywomlyas tits) Gs ieonticien coon ia chick the ate Figure 13 shows the condition of Pe ee ee ea F018 things when the tenth b.v. has just appeared at the orad apex of the 18 and Dv. 9 is just 0.3 millimeters distant. from the ‘same is) (oe) bo NEW ‘YORK STATE MUSEUM point. If now we construct a table after the manner of table 6, but using text figure 13 for the basis, we shall have the result here given as table 7. A comparison of the two tables will speak eloquently for our contention. Mable I—2 (3.6—2.4) = 1.2 2—3 (2.4—2.1) =0.3 3—4 (2.1I—2.4)=— .3 4—5 (2.4—1.5) = .9 5—6 (1.5—1.2)=— .3 6—7 (1.2—1.2)=— . Oo 7—8 (1.2— 6)=— .6 8—9 ( .6— .3)=—= 3 We shall find that the ratio between lateral and vertical extension varied during development. Between the appearance of b.vs. 1 and 4 the vertical suture of this group increased 0.5 mm in length. Between the appearance of 2 and 5 the left diagonal suture increased 0.55 mm. Lateral extension appears to have been slightly in excess of vertical at this time. They soon become equal. Between the appearance of 5 and 8 the lateral expansion was only 0.4 mm. At this period of growth the ratio between vertical and lateral ex- tension seems to have reached the ratio of 11 to 8. A study of the basals as presented in the cup analysis and in the photograph will show that this ratio is not far out of the way, but it must be remembered that it is not for the whole B but for the lower part of it and that the ratio 1s one that changes all along the edge of the vertical suture, the most rapid addition being at the top of this suture where it practically equals the rate of addi- tion to its orad sutures and the least rate being at the bottom or aborad end of the same vertical suture. This growth ratio clearly indicates that very young plates were no longer than wide or, in other words, that they were practically symmetrical and so sug- gestive of cystidean plates. With the aid of this ontogenic evidence we have attempted to present the probable outlines of two young or primitive plates in text figure 9. It is interesting to note that this increase of vertical plate exten- sion had carried b.y. 7 so far from the apex of the 1B atjiihestme of the emergence of b.v. 9 as to offer the latter as much freedom, apparently, on the suture occupied by b.v. 7 as on the suture occu- pied by b.v. 6. The irregular position of b.v. 9 in figure I2 is thus seen to be in harmony with our suggested physical reason for rotation and to rather strengthen that hypothesis, for heredity should have placed this b.v. next to no. 6. The position occupied by b.v. 9 in this group is not normal for all of the other IBB possess a third b.v. on their right-hand upper sutural faces with the pos- sible, though not probable, exception of I.post.I1B. The upper edge of this plate has been so badly damaged that an accurate count is REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 232 not possible, but its width suggests the presence of a third b.v. The measured length of the upper right-hand sutures of the IBB ies tollows: -post.(B 2.2 mm; r.post.1B 2.2 mm; r.ant.1B 2.0 mm; mle i 7 mim: lant lS 16 mm. An additional reason for the choice of the vertical suture by our aberrant b.v. 9 may be here seen, as what should have been its normal suture offered it the least room for the exercise of its function. The oral radial group. Text figure 12 shows a triangular area of b.vs. developed around the aborad apex of l.ant.R. In order to avoid confusion we have used letters to designate the members of this group. As these were developed at the upper right-hand corner of l.ant.B., their places of origin on the plate must occur along a line connecting the primitive plate corner with the pres- cCilimplace commer) nis line is represented by a series of ten equidistant and numbered dots. ‘The upper left-hand portion of I|.post.B. has been treated in the same manner and it must be seen that the position of any dot of either series, was, at some time during growth, identical with that of the similarly numbered dot Cerhevomleresemcs. ova cid not appear until the plate had attained about one-third of its present diameter, or until the plate corners had reached the position of dot 4. B.v. d appeared when the plate corners had reached dot 7 and b.v. g when the plate cor- ners had reached dot 10. The extension of b.v. e suggests dot 8, while f would correspond well with dot 9. This indicates a counter-clockwise rotation for this group. We must note that the correspondence is not exact and exact- ness should not be expected where rate of growth is compared with a hypothetical mathematical schedule. The diagram, how- ever, contains some errors. First its dotted “ lines of origin” are a little too long and bring b.v. 1 of the aborad radial group in line with the upper ends instead of the lower ends of the common suture of the BB. Second, the line should be a curved line and not a straight one as the plate is not flat but convex. Equidistant dots on a curved surface would no longer be equidistant when Eeprodiuced on a photeotapm er,that suriace. Ihird, the plate center is in itself a point which can not be located with exactness. This form of diagram has been used for its suggestiveness and its simplicity. Another manner of approach would have been eimotein extending biys.a,4 and g to the “line of origin’ and then dividing these portions of the line into three equal parts. We may, however, strengthen our suggestion of counter-clock- wise rotation for this group by using the measured distances of 234. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the b.vs. from the aborad angle of the radial. ‘These are pre Sented in table's. Table 8 C— i. suai D— 1 7@@) im C= 0 00 Qik Fea 555 | es Es 225 Ci ts jae) Using these to form a table after the pattern of table 6 we have Table 9 a—b (1.30—I.00) 0.30 b—c (1.00— .90) 0.10 c—d _ (0.90—0.80) 0.10 d—e ( 80-155) = -25 e-fe( .55— 35) = .20 f—9. ( -35nes Ge) eee This also shows the more rapid vertical extension of the BB. We may again note that the difference between the rates of verti- cal and lateral plate extension is not so great here as in the lower area of this figure. In other words, the vertical extension of the aborad portion of a R was very nearly as rapid as the vertical extension of the orad portion of a B. The portion of b.v.1, so near the center of the, vertical suture, shows also that stereom formation was but little more active on the aborad sutural faces of the BB than on their orad. The greatest difference in growth rate was along the vertical sutures and the modification of form was brought about by decreased or inhibited growth aborad ‘rather than by increased growth orad. je Infrabasals. he absence of the formation of ‘bivSe@angame aborad angles of the BB is correlated with a very marked lack of stereom formation along the common sutures ot the Weiaie) ie first b.vs. to extend their arms over the IBB once occupied nearly central positions on the orad shoulders of these plates. Had stereom extension occurred equally at the right and left of these b.vs. they would have retained their central positions, while now they are close to the outer edges of these shoulders. At the time of protrusion of b.v. 2 (see text figure 14) it was about 0.3 milli- meters distant from a vertical line bisecting the plate and con- tinuous with the suture between the IBB below it. Following the external canal down to the suture we find that the opening to the interior was 0.5 millimeters distant from the same line at death. The difference of 0.2 millimeter represents the widening which has taken place on this portion of the B during the last three-quarters of its growth. ‘This very slight divergence of the two longest b.v extensions on a B offer a valuable character for REBORD Ob (Ti DIRECTOR, 1O1O 235 use in recognizing the BB of this species and in orienting them. Looking for the earliest position of this b.v. on the IB we find it close to the point marked a and about 0.6 millimeter distant iomeiie suture. | lhis older portion of the IB has added but 0.3 mil- ltimeterm to ifs ~ side, while it has added 2.3 millimeters to its orad sutural faces. In other words, the rate of stereom addition to the orad sutural faces was nearly eight times as great as was the rate of addition to the lat- Sraveesmtiunes of thie plate. The growth has not only been slight be- Imeecar ten BIS. Spat it has not extended to the Oulrey = stittace of thie plate. The result 1S a Fic 14 View of a portion of the holotype of Palaeocrinus striiat us? Billings. From a photomicrograph, x1o, and well-marked groove showing r.post.B., r.post.IB. and r.ant.IB. The probable s & forms of two of these platesat an early stage in their devel- widest next to the orig- opment are’shown in outline. inal position of the proximal stem joint and becoming gradually narrower and less deep orad. The groove is very smooth and shows only faint vertical growth lines. This lack of growth at the suture has left its impression on the B and has caused the groove to be Canitcd orad on the latte; mearly to its center. lhe B has kept a record of the cross section of the groove, as it appeared at the suture, from its earliest stages to the time of death. This very char- acteristic feature of a Palaeocrinus B, together with the slight widening of the oldest aborad b.vs. (already mentioned) will be referred to again under our remarkson Paleocystites chap- mani Bill. Using the different growth rate with reference to direction, we have outlined a young IB in text figure 14. It ap- proaches somewhat the character of a stem joint in that it is wider than high and has no b.vs. on its lateral sutures. 230 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Making a general review of the differences in rate of growth already recorded we may say that the vertical element was strong throughout the three circlets of plates, except on the orad ends of the RR and the aborad ends of the IBB, but that the lateral ele- ment was exceedingly weak near the proximal stem joint and eradually became stronger on ascent of the cup. At the base of the arms it very nearly equalled the rate of the vertical element. The cup thus received its presemutusitonm character The orad interradial series. ‘There remain five b.vs. not yet accounted for and these apparently had their points of origin at the erad ends of the sutures) between the RR. ~ Pach member semanme Fic. 16 series seems to have had no room for further development but the position is so close to the arms that the series may be connected with the more elaborate respiratory system of the latter. Relations of the b.vs. The relations of the four classes of groups as we have interpreted them may be shown by text figure 15, REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I910 237 in which the size of the dot at the supposed points of origin is made commensurate with the importance or age of the group. If the orad radial groups and orad interradial series were developed as branches of one of the others, a still more primitive form would be ihepmesemted by text figtire 16. AS soon as each b.v. of figure 16 had given rise to two other b.vs. we should have a condition like that shown in text figure 17. At about this stage we may suppose that the initial members of the orad radial and orad interradial series made their appearance. The possibility of a primitive or nepionic stage like that shown in text figure 18, where these b.vs. may be supposed to have appeared simultaneousiy and not at the angles but on the middle of the sutures, should perhaps not be dismissed from mind. In this case new b.vs. would be formed by branches, simultaneous or alternate, on each side of these and also on the sutures, if the first were so formed. There would be as many natural groups as there were sutures in this case and we should have no difficulty in accounting for the upper young members on the common sutures of the radials. A form like this appears rather complex for a beginning though even here we might credit acceleration with changing a primitive series of three into a simultaneous group of three and credit natural selection with the placing of such a group at the middle of the sutures where it could function to best advantage and not interfere with new mem- bers protruded at the corners. These oldest b.vs. are, however, not now on the middle of the sutures, but differences in rate of growth might have displaced them. It has seemed to the writer that the evidence from this form and also that from Cleiocrinus is on the whole strongly against the latter view. Utilizing a recommenda- tion of the late Professor Rowland, we may keep both hypotheses in mind, but for the present may give the former a position of from 80 to 95 points of credibility on our mental sliding scale of 100 and wait for the evidence yet to come from future research. Growth limes. The plates so far discussed all show minute growth lines, but these are only noticed between the ridges. On finding a plate in which the canal coverings had been worn away and the number of ridges therefore doubled, we might be able to use this character to aid in distinguishing between the canal bottoms and the true external plate depression between the canals. The canal floors would show no growth lines. The radianal. In normal plate development the plate angles OCG witere tiere is least nesistance to plate extension or at the 238 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM boundaries between neighboring plates. In other words, two sutures meet to form an angle at a point which lies in one extremity of a third suture. Plate 6 figures 1 and 2, show that our radianal forms no exception to the law though it has a rather rounded outline which at a 1s so marked and further intensified by the prominent middle epithecal canal from r.post.B as to give it the appearance of possess- ing a fifth angle. The plate 1s, however, essentially quadrangular, as in Porocrinus, and was truly so in its early neanic stages. Bath- er’s figure, already cited, makes the projection at a one of the angles of the plate and places additional ones midway of each of the other three sutures bounding the plate. Not one of the angles so drawn meets a third suture in the figure he has used. In addition to these erroneously placed angles, the true upper and lower angles of the plate were recognized, thus making it hexagonal. The angles at the junction of r.post.R with r.post.B and that at the junction of x and post.B were not seen. The mounting process has, however, made these clearly visible in the untouched photograph used for plate 6, figure 2. “Ihe reunded surface of the plate makes: themes appear as meridians viewed from the side. With the sutures in the center of the field of view they show more nearly as straight lines and, with the exception of the abberant suture next r.post.B, they have been so represented in text figure 4. Even this suture becomes a nearly straight line when viewed as in text figure 5. The epithecal canal passing on to this plate from r.post.B has had its covering and a good portion of the sides removed. ‘The floor of this canal may be distinctly seen in plate-6, fivure 2, lyin eee right of a wide portion of its left wall. Where it is broken or cut off at the radianal end, there is a black patch that represents a limon- ite mud-filled basin which occupied this left canal wall and opened into the canal itself by a smaller pore. This same figure also shows a series of such limonite mud-lined or filled basins along the left side of the strong exothecal canal which runs from r.post.B over r.post.R. The pit shown in plate 6 figure 2 D is so definite, so well lined with limonite-colored mud and afterward filled with calcite that it challenges attention. Many similar pits are suggestive of protected side water pores opening into the canals, but the structures are so irregular in arrangenent and so large a portion of them may be due to differential solution or other erosive process that they will be dismissed with this mention. Another very definite structure that is perhaps connected with respiration may also be mentioned here. It is found close to the plate angles and is in the form of two very RETO Oh Ey DIRECTOR LOro 239 small depressions, one on either side of the suture. A portion of the plate between a pit and the suture is distinctly raised. Plate 5 figure 4 shows a pair of these near the lower end of the suture between r.ant.R and r.post.R. They are suggestive of end openings to young canals, but they are difficult structures to photograph and will also be dismissed with this brief notice of their presence. Lateral extension of the theca. Text figures 5 and 6 show a somewhat marked antero-posterior flattening of the species that is but very slightly due to compression by overlying deposits. Text figure 19 shows a view of the proximal ends of the IBB and the im- ] post.1B vy. post_IB. 53° Lant IB ante 9: ES Fic. 19 Proximal end of Palaeocrinus striatus Billings. From a photomicrograph x10. The angles indicated are those of the ends of the sutures nearest the proximal columnal. The - figure shows clearly the five depressions due to inhibition of stereom formation on the lateral sutures of the IBB. This is most pronounced opposite the oldest portions of these plates. The r.post.I1B carries a good cast of one of the sutures of the proximal columnal. print of the proximal stem joint, which in two places clearly shows the imprints of its sutures. There is no evidence for a pentagonal column. The flattening of the theca is manifest even here and the MSH MEOMMMAl mas ai evalvand mot a circle, On extending the sutures shown in this figure and measuring the angles between them, it will be seen that l.post.IB and r.post.IB together take up 158° of the posterior side of the column, or 14° more than their share. There can be no question here but that we are dealing with differences due to growth. The Lant.JB came on one edge of the fold and is the 240 - NEW ‘YORK STATE MUSEUM smallest plate in the figure. The fold on the other side came between r.post.IB and r.ant.IB and both of these plates are larger than the others and have undergone excessive widening at their orad ends. The variation in rate of growth in this part of the theca is shown by the following table: abies ro Height Length of two orad sutures heidi Doman wemrepeanaeen nears tS 3.8 mm 4. 2 aaa = GTIGN Al 5 PaO Myrna Si 8 a Bis 218 amt EB 2 ahi Slee eee BS Buz sD OLS Ol AI Re UR Sei 210 BEO i POSL Bs: sh. 2s eee Bee7 4.4 Just above the place of most rapid growth lies r.post.B and this plate is quite distinctly folded vertically. Had this folding been due to compression after death, the RA would show signs of dis- placement. Instead of this it shows the peculiar extended growth to the right which gave it the appearance of possessing a fiith angle. The folding and bowing out of the center of r.post.B which is still further accentuated by its central knob, is readily seen in text figure 6 and is therefore normal to the species. This compression reminds us of the more markedly folded plates of the Anomalocys- tidae, but our theca 1s compressed at right angles to the plane of the thecal apertures and not in this plane. Wauth five basals, but one would be subjected to this folding. On examining these BB for postmortem changes, we find only a very slight disturbance of r.ant.B and this is shown in text figure 8. We may now recall the evidence found on p. 228 where it was shown that r.post.R had been adding stereom to its right side more rapidly than r.ant.R had to ES eae The tegmen and plates above the anus. This region is taken next for the purpose of completing the evidence for flattening dur- ing ontogeny. The series of plates over the anus form a long line in which the madreporite is the most prominent, but plate 7, figure 2, shows that none of these plates have been displaced and their sutures show that no shortening of this line was possible. The widened anal area has so thrust the arms away from it as to cause those of l.post.R and r.ant.R to lie almost opposite each @nmer This may be seen in plate 7, figure 1.. The five food @rooves de not run to one center but clearly express the hypothetical primitive food grooves with the forking of the right and left rays (see Bather, op. cit. p. 11). L.post.O and r.post.O have an acute angle at tiem REFORT OF THE DIRECTOR LOTTO 241 orad ends while l.ant.O and r.ant.O have widely truncated ends. The openings between the orals to admit the visceral extensions of the arms are relatively large, but orad of these the orals meet and thus form a very solid or strong tegmen. The only evidence for displacement to be found in this figure is the slightly disturbed position of the upper edge of ant.R. The ambulacra pass over the edges of the orals and are small and irregular. Still more irregular, and larger, are numerous interam- bulacrals. These are best seen in plate 7, figure 2 above the madre- porite, but show also for I.post.R. The anal, X. The anal plate is fully as wide as the smaller radials and we have therefore six subequal plates surrounding the tegmen. This should make room for the development of a sixth member Ontie Orad radial Series of bys. There seems to be’ evi- dence for such a group, as may be seen by a study of the first three figures of plate 6, but there is at the same time a concomitant and marked weakening of the group which should have developed nor- midlwedatne aboral angle ot rpost.R. For instance, no b.vs. to represent a group here have been added to the suture between epost bana gpost.k. .@ross sectioms of a few sutural canals can be detected between RA and r. post. R, but they seem to be poorly developed and of very small diameter. The group has but one strong member to represent it and that is the oldest and central b.v. on the suture between r.post.B and RA. It should be noted that this b.v. represents the first formed of the series ‘whose initial position would have been at the aborad angle of r.post.R and this position has been accorded it in text figure 3. There seems to be evidence here that a branch from this group made an early exit at the aborad angle of x and, by developing there, practically stopped further development at the original position. It we may so interpret the evidence, we have nothing to disturb the fundamental pentamerism so clearly marked in all other places. If these groups of b.vs. were connected by subthecal canals which in turn were connected with the circumoral canal of the water vas- cular system and these canals should run so close to the under sur- face of the thecal plates as to become attached to them, we should find markings present so remarkably like the “ hydrophores pal- meécs”’? which Barrande discovered in Aristocystites, Pyrocystites and Craternia that we must hesitate to accept Neumayr’s suggestion 242 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM that they are subtegminal food grooves and believe with Barrande that the structures are respiratory in their nature. Endothecal structures. An examination of plate 6, figures i and 2, will reveal another reason tor the difficulty hereteiore found in determining the position of the sutures bounding RA. The undercutting of the specimen to remove it from its bed removed also so much of RA and X as to carry away nearly all of the com- mon sutural edges of these plates. This suture was 2.8 mm long, but all that remains of i is .25 mm next “to jmpecene and about the same next to post.B. It could not be seen) beeatice nearly five-sixths of it had been removed. The cutting had not only carried away nearly all of the surface of these plates but it had also penetrated beneath the plates and exposed a little over four square millimeters of the interior. This area, the greater part of which is immediately under the stereom of x, is of peculiar interest fon ae displays markings in carbonized lines which appear like sections of a network of tubes having a diameter of about 0.2 mm. When first noticed, it appeared as if we had here the remains of a colony of Bryozoa but so soon as it was discovered that these structures were not on the surface of the plates, but beneath them, they received more careful examination. In plate 6, figure 3, we have marked a sutural canal ¢ and at the extreme right-hand side of the figure there is a broken piece of r.post.R with an angle of the crystalline calcite resting on the su- ture. This angle, which is marked d, may be seen in all four figures. If now on figure 1 of this plate we piace a millimeter rule tan- gent to the under surface of the sutural canal designated as c and let the edge of the rule run by the lower angle of the broken calcite designated as point d, we shall have a line 58 mm long which will afford us a good basis for study and comparison of the figures. Resting on this line and 28 mm out from) the suttiral (cameiee we find a dark triangular area with a base of 2 mm. Below this are three parallel tube sections which together occupy a width of 6 mm. Tubes also lie against the other two sides of the tri- angle, but a series parallel to these is not detected: The tube sec- tions here display rounded ends showing the sections to be in part longitudinal and in part tangential. In other words, the tubes were curved. Outside of this area the sections approach more closely the character of circles and it is apparent that we are here dealing REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO ZA 4 with cross sections of tubes belonging to the same system. As to the character of these marks we must note that the boundaries show only as carbonized lines and spaces in places made more distinct by an internal tube lining of limonite-colored mud. There are no distinct walls as in sections of bryozoan colonies. The fact that these tubes are commensurate in diameter with the sutural canals would lead one to question as to whether or not they were internal continuations of the exothecal canals. The fact that they contain limonite-colored muds would negative this idea, for we have supposed that b.vs. contain coelomic or other body fluids and not sea water. The idea is also negatived by the direction taken by the tubes, their curved character, and their great number. Another hypothesis is open for us. We have seen that the con- ditions of existence favored a system of anal respiration. Such a system would favor saclike extensions of the rectum that would tend to become branching diverticula and so form respiratory trees very like those possessed by Holothurioidea. These might be either homo- generic or homoplastic. As the specimen died with the anal area down, the intestine would press any structure between it and the plate against the latter. In this case we should find portions of the supporting tubes on their sides and variously bent. Surrounding these would be a border of tubes whose tips only touched the inside wall of the anal plate and these would give us the cross sections we find. These tubes would contain more or less of the limonite-colored muds of the bottom, drawn in by the last respiratory efforts of the creature as we found them drawn in in Blastoidocrinus. ‘This limon- ite-colored mud is most often very suffuse and only faintly apparent. In other places it has collected as little lumps but always in the tubes. The tube walls are very poorly preserved and appear as if partly ruptured or decayed. Their soft walls were often compressed, thus making them present angular outlines. Through the courtesy of the late Doctor Whiteaves the writer was allowed to develop this portion of the specimen. From 0.1 to 0.2 mm of this surface was removed with a fine narrow file and the area photographed again under the gum dammar mounting and with an amplification of 10 dia. The result is shown in plate 6, fig- ure 3. Another thin sheet was removed, but in order not to destroy any of the sutures next r.post.R it ran from a thickness of o mm on the right to between 0.1 and .2 mm on the left. The uncovered 244 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM area was thus extended slightly toward the left. A new photo- micrograph was now made and a colored screen used in order to show if possible the limonite-colored mud fillings. This photomi- crograph is reproduced as figure 4 of plate 6. The subject is a difficult one both for photography and for reproduction, but it is hoped that the plate will present enough detail to be both of interest | and value. Palaeocrinus chapmani Billings Palaeocystites chapman? Bill. Canadian Ore, Remea@ecwun p.71-72. No figure. The description of P. chapmanz given by Billings in no par- tictlar differentiates that species from P, striatas + 9 Mitesremm “radiating ridges” is not used by him to designate either the cov- ered epithecal canals or the side walls of the latter when the covering is removed, but is used simply to designate the larger and more gen- eral.relief features of the plate. Thus one of the ~ radiating fidgees 1“ Description. The few plates of this species that have been collected exhibit the peculiar character of the genus in a most interest’ng and satisfac- tory manner. Without being acquainted with the structure of the plates, the observer would almost unhesitatingly refer them to two very distinct species, so great is the change in their appearance produced by the wearing away of the external surface. The perfect plates resemble those of P. dawsoni, inasmuch as the number of radiating ridges is the same as the number of sides. ~The “ridges are’ however of a different form. | In) “Bee soni they are narrow at the base, and the space between them is flat; but in P. chapmanti they are broad at the base, or root-shapedamime base of each spreading out to a breadth equal to that side of the plate to which it extends. A perfect plate of this species, for instance one of six sides, may therefore be described as presenting six furrows radiating from the center to the six angJes, these furrows gradually increasing in depth and width as they recede from the center of the plate. Or it may be characterized as exhibitirg six roof-shaped ridges radiating from the center to the sides, and iu*reasing in height and width at the base as they approach the side. When, however, the external surface is worn away, the plates assume a very different appearance. They then become covered with deep fissurelike striae, like those of P. tenuiradiatus, to which they bear so close a resemblance, that to the unpracticed eye, they appear to be the same. They can always, however, be distinguished by this character. The ridges or partitions between the fissures, which terminate at the centers of the sides of the plates, are the highest, those at the angles being the lowest; but in P.tenuiradiatus it is the very reverse; the angles of the plate are more clevated than the centers of the sides.” REEORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1910 245 of his P. chapmani (see upper left-hand region of text figure 20) consists of a long, high, large, central, covered epithecal canal with the younger, shorter and smaller canals grouped on either side @iete) Wiese all crossed the suture and so form a ridge ~ broad at the base, or roof-shaped.” The canals themselves Billings calls “deep fissurelike striae” and, as shown by our figure, a “ radiating ridge’ may consist of a group of seven or eight of these fissurelike striae. His whole description, given in the footnote, tells us only, sO far as concerns the descrip- tion of the species, that it ex- hibits “six roof-shaped ridges radiating from the center and increasing in height and widtivee | = as they approaca iiemsides. When", . = tiie external surface 1s worn away, “ie plates = ©. . -. become cov- ered with deep fissurelike striae, hive thoseor P tenuiradia- Meo wee Mid expkess. tile essence of the description as fol- lows: the plates of P. chap- mani show as many radiating groups of covered canals as there are angles to a plate. The older, central canals are higher Fic. 20 From a photomicrograph (x10) of the amd longer and from these we — fr oy inthe Macoum af the Geologial Sur- may pass down a regular slope 7 4 a to the smallest and shortest canal which is always situated next to the angle of a plate. His means of distinguishing between his P. Supls ane i teatmigadtatrus ilall is but a means of Wistinemishme between his’ Palacocrimus Striatus and nail eaiite ey sites temuiradiatus. The holotype consists of a single plate so badly weathered as to lose some portion of the entire surface and very much of that sur- face as the plate margins are approached. A small portion of the ‘ sutural faces is also lost. If we examine in detail the figure of the type, here given, we may note the following resemblances to the Rimmer PaleOcriniis striatus. 246 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Table 11 3 Palaeocrinus striatus Palaeocystites chapmani r.ant.B (text fig. 8) (text ig, Zoe No. of b.vs. crossing common basal sutures 7. 8. ai 7 letts Grad euttiness 0 7. Fe fi ie “ PWOrAG wm Subtre.. 32). 4. Distance apart (at suture) of oldest b.vs. Crossine to By 2 2 eee 0.7 mm. "| -©, oyaanina Dist. trom orad 10 aAbonadwamedens2. 0... 5.6 5.8 “ \ a@eross at orad ends o1 coimimon Sutures 4.8 Ave : > aboradvendsjeicemmion sutures, 35 22 Meneth of der common cmunines. 4... 4... Cua) ea In addition to the tabulated resemblances it may also be seen: 1 That the two longest and largest epithecal canals passing aborad have no younger canals between them. 2 Thatin P. chapmani we have the divergence of these canals and the peculiar groove between them which we found in figure 14. 3 That of the primitive canals the most prominent on P. chap- mani are those passing orad or over to the probable RR of this species, the next in prominence are those passing aborad or over to the probable IBB, while the least prominent are those passing over to the neighboring plates of the same circlet or to the BB. This relation is the same as that expressed by the B of P. striatus shown in text towne; 12 When we note how mitch the BB of Palaeoer gn striatus *ditter mom each other, we: must say tat tiemeonne spondences noted above very strongly suggest the idea that in this type of Palaeocystites chapmani we are dealne agit single basal Or (asuae @ent Miss St ria iis As P. chapmani appears to have its nearly horizontal canals a little closer together tham” P: striatus, anmd.as themtipges “radiating ridges” of Billings’s description seem more raised and rounded and the depression between them somewhat deeper than in the type of P. striatus, we may for the present retaimiaie ings’s name and know his type as Palaeocrinus cnapmani until additional specimens are found. 1 The poor state of preservation of the plate of P. chapmani has no - doubt rendered some of these measurements inexact, but the error can hardly be greater than 4 per cent. 2 This relative prominence apparently expresses relative age, though the lessened rate of stereom formation along the common sutures of the BB might make the primitive b.vs. crossing these sutures appear younger than the first b.v. to cross to an IB. REPORT Ol tart sl Rise m Ol IQ1O i) 4S NI Genus PALAEOCYSTITES Billings CanvOren (Neme, Dee VIL p..68=60 Palaeocystites dawsoni Billings Gane One Nem iDec Lil p. 70271 As this species has some valuable evidence to offer concerning the question of respiration and as it allows the cystids to be better represented in our discussion, we will give it a somewhat detailed description and admit its testimony. Diee, orm, cic. Whe more pertect specinen of the two syn- types in the collection of the Geological Survey of Canada at Ottawa Commit lone tand about tO “min in .ereatest width: The upper half is somewhat cylindrical with a hemispherical top, the lower half is obconic and tapers very regularly to a diameter of Zo ais) specimen iS illustrated by text figure 21 and is here designated as Syntype A. The following quotation from Bill- ings’s description is evidently a reference to it: “ The largest speci- men collected is a fragment of the lower) Walt and indicates that the length of the body was about one inch, its greatest diameter being half aoc le should be noted that,’ while Billings called this syntype “a fragment of the lower half,” yet he found it complete enough to enable him to determine the length of the species. As he left it, no portion of the orad end was visible, it being heavily covered by a colony of bry- ozoa, and the side uppermost in the bed had” but ome plate sutficiently weathered to remove a portion of its SUlpiaeerCsee mee 20)n enemioval Of CR ICKHStANOM Or some GIStANCS po 7. palacocystites dawsont aroumeemoccems tovctiow tat we 9 21ers) Peele mim are dealing with a nearly complete specimen and one in which the epithecal canal coverings were well preserved. The specimen has the crystalline calcite of its plates broken and shattered on one side, caused by its removal from its bed, and a piece broken from its opposite side which was afterward replaced. These in- 248 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM juries have combined to make a complete analysis not only one of great difficulty but one of danger to the specimen as well. The cir- clet of five contiguous and similar plates next the proximal stem joint is, however, clearly seen and the outlines of other plates of the injured area may be easily followed. A partial analysis of this syntype, showing five vertical rows of plates, is presented in text figure 25. The other syntype is here designated as B and is illustrated by text figure 22. This specimen shows some thirty and more plates in Fic. 22 Palaeocystites dawsoni Bill. Syntype B. x3 Fic. 23 Palaeocystites dawsoni Bill. Apotype x3 the vicinity of the mouth and anus. Early efforts to clean the speci- men seem to have removed some portions of the plate surfaces, but sutures and sutural canals are very clearly seen. Syntype B thus supplies a large and important area for analysis and the plate arrangement of this region is presented in figure 24. These two syntypes were both collected by E. Billings from the Chazy of the island of Montreal. With some specimens also collected from the Chazy of the island of Montreal by ©. Billmgs, but. labeled, Palaeo c yciuigers tenuiradiatus Fall, isa third specimen of PP. daywiemam which is here made an apotype and is illustrated by figure 23. The specimen is only a fragment but it presents us with a complete cross section of the theca just below the anus. The ten vertical rows are here represented by a zigzag circle of plates, a higher and a lower regularly alternating with each other. Several plates show above this ring but the plates nearest the mouth seem to be lost. The epithecal canal coverings of this specimen have been removed by purely natural processes and in so delicate a manner that their ex- treme thinness is still manifest by their remaining edges. The character of both epithecal and sutural canals is revealed with excep- REVORTSOL Tt PIRBETOR 1OLO 249 tional clearness. ‘The greatest width of this specimen must have been 13 mm. Plate arrangement. The following description of the plate arrangement is based on the drawings here given and is further aided by an examination Otte tjtired area of Syntype A and the cross section of the apotype. dite: cincle: jmext the stem consists of five, similar pentagonal plates which strongly suggest ties BIS or Crinoidea. Above these and _ alter- Haine with them is another circlet of five plates. These are sep- tagonal and suggest the BB of Crinoidea. The two aborad shoulders of each of these plates rest against the orad shoulders of two plates of the first circlet, while their ver- tical shoulders meet each other. There remain three shoulders which lie above their common ver- tical bi : ‘ ¥ th y A eee : y Kh i ; ’ \ die 1 a s t ‘ west Blastoidocrinus carcharidens Billings Fig. 1-2 Photomicrographs of nearly the same area of but from different aspects xIo eal 264 oe ay 1 3 a, ¥ 1 Y ‘4 > , F i ' * 4 ~ i (2 aa 5 ERaCr e é ¢ Las Plate III N. Y. State Museum Bulletin 149 G. H. Hudson, Photo. 7 Blastoidocrinus carcharidens Billings Fig. 1 Reproduced from photomicrograph of the weathered face of the type and showing the position of the stem which Billings took to be a natural one. xz. Shows also the outer edges of three displaced columnals at lower right of stem. These were uncovered by the re- moval of some of the foreign material lodged in the basin formed by the infolded radials. 2 The proximal portion of the stem shown above as revealed COE by a photomicrograph taken through a gum dammar mounting. The broken edges of the basals are clearly revealed and the beginning of the narrow stem lumen shown. The displacement of the columnals due to prob- able inthrust at death (the form being covered and pre- served from passage through the alimentary canal of some larger form with consequent plate separation) is clearly manifest. detail of the hydrospires shown just to the right of the proximal end of the stem in fig 1, x10. The rounded inner edges of the water-bearing cavities of the hydrospires have been weathered away in the upper portion of the figure but still show just below the broken edges of the sheetlike sides of these cavities. 266 N. Y. State Museum Bulletin 149 Plate IV G. H. Hudson, Photo. Palaeocrinus striatus Billings Fig. 1 Ten diameter enlargement of area over l.ant.IB 2 Same area as photographed under a mounting of gum dammar 3 Ten diameter enlargement of area around upper angle of r.post.B. The probable path of the right-hand branch of the oldest b.v. is indicated by four dots on r.ant.R 4 Same area as it appears under a mounting of gum dammar. The curved bands of light and shade which appear near the corners of the two lower figures are due to refraction and reflection from the edges of the drying gum 268 N. Y. State Museum Bulletin 149 Plate V Palaeocrinus striatus Billings The figures are from photomicrographs of the holotype x1o and taken under a mounting of gum dammar. They are here repro- duced without retouching. Each figure is from a separate negative. Figures 1 and 2 show this surface as it was when Mr Billings made his description. Fig. 1-2 Radianal and adjacent plates. That the radianal is four sided instead of six, as heretofore figured, may be here clearly seen. The approach to an angle on the lower right margin (next r.post.B) is due to the bowing out of the plate and the angle from which this curved sur- face is seen. The effect is very like that of a meridian on a globe photographed at an angle. The cross sec- tions of carbon lined sutural canals on upper margins of post.B are fairly well shown. 3 A view of this region after the removal of a layer about ©.1 mm thick from a small area of the X©amey ie 4 A view of the same area after the removal of an additional thin layer. The thickness of the last layer removed was from o mm at the right to between o.1 and 0.2 mm at the leit. The area of subthecal tubes is seen to be mignerem. tended at the left. A yellow color screen was used for this negative | Figures 3 and 4 do not reveal the finer detail of sections of supposed diverticula from the rectum which is shown in the photomicrographs. If it be remembered that in these figures the area around the suture between RA has been cut down with a file and that such features as show are subthecal the figures may still show features of interest. 270 Plate VI N. Y. State Museum Bulletin 149 G. H. Hudson, Photo. Palaeocrinus striatus Billings Fig. 1 View of oral region from photomicrograph x1o. The area was not covered by the gum dammar mounting 2 View of the anal area from photomicrograph xio. The area was covered with gum dammar solution and a cover glass. The madreporite and the ambulacrals and adam- bulacrals of the food groove above and to the right of it aire all ‘cleaimly, Seen | 272 N. Y. State Museum Bulletin 149 Plate VII G. H. Hudson, Photo. EN DE x Abbott’s sawfly, 37. Accessions to collections, 66-82. Adams, Frank D., analysis by, 148. Adirondacks, field work, in, 12; maenetic Ores, 21. Albion quadrangle, 8. Pullen ns, Cibed, 154. mumna VV. lacey, cited, 155. Angola, 8. Anorthosites, 14. Archeologic frauds, 51-52. mMrereolosy section, report —on, 43-46; bulletins, 64; accessions to collections, 77-80. Areal geology, 6-17. Arnold hill, magnetic ores, 21. Asterias forbesii, 212. Athyris subtilita, 180. Attica quadrangle, 8 Auburn-Genoa quadrangles, geology of, by DD. Luther, 60. Aviculopecten acadicus, 172-73, 186. debertianus, 183, 186. lyelli, 150, 160, 171=72, 186. Aviculopinna, 159. egena, 182-83, 186. Backstr6m, acknowledgments to, 105. Bakewellia antiqua, 156, 170. Batavia quadrangle, 8. Beceher(@. Hs cited, 106. Beecheria davidsoni ?, 159, 167, 178, 185. Beede, J. W., Carbonic Fauna of the Magdalen Islands, 156-86. Benjamins. G, Wi citedy 155. pperkey, (C.Ps) study vot leienlands district, 14; exploratory work on the geology of the Catskill aque- duct, 15; to report on the geology of Greater New York, 1 Billings, cited, 208, 210. Birds of New York, 43, 50, 64. Black River limestone, 8, 9. 273 | Blastoidocrinus, respiration in, 203-8; additional remarks on, 208. carcharidens, explanation of plate, 260, 262, 2604, 206. Bonaventure sands and conglomer- AES, UAB A Botanist, report of, 32-36, 63, 65. Botany, bulletins, 63-64, 65. - Brayman shale, 12. Pisieiaine a, b. VCiteds ic. Brooks, A. EE) Cited) mee, Brown, R., cited, 157. Brown tail moth, 38. Bucanopsis, 159. perelegans var. minima, Bulletins, 60-64; in press, 183, 186. 64. Calcites of New York, 25-27, 60. Camarophoria explanata, 167. Camarotoechia cf. dryope, 129. Canajonarie shale, 11, Candinia imara: 150 subquadrata, 171, 186. Carpenter, P. Herbert, cited, 105. | Caryocrinus ornatus, 203. Case, cited, 148. Catskill aqueduct, @hadwack, Wa,veited; 126: Elm leaf beetle, 37. Endolobus ?, 174, 186. avonensis, 174, 180. Entomologist, report of, 36-41, 63, 65. Entomology, bulletins, 63, 65; ac- cessions to collections, 7c-75. Erie county quadrangle, resirvey of, 8. Ethnology, report on, 46-54; acces- sions to collections, 81-82. Euomphalus? sp., 186. exortivus?, 150, 173, 180. sulcifer angulatus, 173. Euphemus?, 159, 184, 186. Eurypterida, monograph of, 27-31, 64. Exfoliation domes in Warren county, by W. J. Miller, 187-04. ‘Explanation of plates, 250-72. INDEX: DO) REPORT OF ainchild. i 1:, study of special features of Lake Iroquois and Gilbert gulf, 17; Geology of the Thousand Islands Region, 62. False maple scale, 37. Fauna of Coffin island, 175-86. Gem.) P. Control of Flies. and Other Household Insects, 63. Fish beds, at Migouasha, strati- graphy of, 128-30. Flies, 38-39, 63. Fordham gneiss, 16. Forest insects, 37—38. Fossils, collections of, 31. Enanktort beds, 11, 12. Fruit tree pests, 30-37. Fruit worm, 37. iGabpros, 13. Gall midge, 39, 40. Gaspé Basin, lead mines, historical MOLE VOM, - 130-33. Gastropod, 186. Gastrioceras ?, 174, 186. Gavelin, acknowledgments to, 105. Geljeiey Cited, s Thr, 1l2 PT 3) Geologic maps, 64; list, 7. Geological survey, report on, 6-31. Geology bulletins, 60-62, 64. Gilbert 2uli, study of, 17. Gipsy moth, 38. Girty, cited, 165. Glacial geology, 17. Glacial phenomena, of Adirondacks, 03, Gloversville moraine, 10. iCnetses on aichlandse, star of southeastern New York, 106. Gordon, survey of Poughkeepsie quadrangle, 14. Granites, I3. Graphite, 11. Green fruit worm, 37. Grenville gneisses, II, 13, I4. Gulf of St Lawrence, notes on the geology of, by John M. Clarke, Tae Gypidula pseudogaleata, 126. Gypsum, report on, 19—20. THE, DIRECTOR IOI1O 275 Gypsum deposits, by D. H. New- land and Henry Leighton, 62. Gypsum in Magdalen islands, 149- 51. ‘etal ©. cited) 106: Halysites, 120. Etanibache Ge cited 1055) 205. Elartnagel, work of, 31. Haworth, E., cited, 106. Helderbergs, 18. Hemiptychina, 170. sparsiplicata, 170. waagenl, 150, 178, 185. Hickory bark beetle, 37. Highlands district, study of, 14. ielogbom,. 1 \Gcrcited. G5, (O00, 00: 00, 100, If, 113; acknowledg- ments tO, 105. Flollick, to report on the geology of Greater New York, 17; geo- logical structure of Staten Island, 7 Holmquist, acknowledgments to, 105. Honeoye-Wayland quadrangles, geology of, 64. House fly, 38-30. Household insects, IB; IP hehe, (03%, Huckleberry mountain, 180. Hudson, George H., survey of Val- cour island, 14; Studies of some early Siluric Pelmatozoa, 195-257. Hudson river, course before glacial epoch, 14. Hudson River shales, It. bulletin on, by Igneous rocks, 13. ihidian Wadden beds, 12: indians Jot iNew.) York, 44-45. Industrial geology, 19-21. Iron mines, 20. Iron ores, notes on the geology of the Swedish magnetites, 107-109. Ioques, Lake, study ‘of,)' 17. Iroquois uses of maize and other food) plants,;, by Ay G, Parker, 64, study of, 276 NEW YORK Jemison, Mary, monument, 54-58. Johansson, “Hy cited) 116," 2165 ac- knowledgments to, 119. Johnsburg, lake in vicinity-of, 14. Keith, mentioned, 118. Kelm mountain, 180. Kemp, J. Fs work on Mi) Marcy, quadrangle, 14; to report on the geology of Greater New York, 17; Comparative Sketch om ethe Precambric Geology of Sweden and New York, 093-106; cited, 100. and Ruedemann, Rudolf, Geol- ogy of the Elizabethtown and Port Henry Quadrangles, 61. Kirk, Edwin, Monograph of the Devonic Crinoidea, 31; acknowl- edgments to, 207, 257. 7 Klein, Alfred J., resignation, 42. Lagenidae, 175. Lake Iroquois, see Iroquois, Lake. Lake Warrensburg, 13. Larsson, acknowledgments to, 119. Lead mines of Gaspé Basin, his- torical note, 130-33. Leidy, cited, 148. Leighton, Henry and Newland, D. H., Gypsum Deposits of New York, 62. Leptodesma borealis, 169, 186. Leptostrophia, 129. Linden moth, snow-white, 37. Eimed red@buc, 37. Lingula, 150. albipinensis, 177. eboria, 177, 185. ligea, 177. membranacea, 177. parallela, 177. Liopteria, 159, 161, 186. AcAdica, 170-71, Iso: dawsoni, 169-70, 186. Litchfield waterlime quarries, 10. Little Falls dolomite, 8, 13. Logan, Sir Wollsam,; icited; 122,0057. Lorraine formation, 8, 9, 10. SLATE MUSEUM Lowville limestone, 8, 9. Lull, cited, 7148. Lundbohm, cited, 114; IMICHTS | LOn sO: Luquer, L. Mcl., cited, 25. Luther, D. D., resurvey of Erie and Chautauqua county quadrangles, 8; Geclogy of the Auburn—Genoa Quadrangles, 60. Luzerne topographic sheet, 187. Lyell) ciredieus7. acknowledg- Macrodon hardingi, 168. Magdalen islands, carbonic fauna, by J. W. Beede, 156-86; observa- tions on, 131, 134-37; history of, 137-44; topography and geology, 144-55; analyses of sands from, 153; literature relating to, 155. Magdalen islands faunas, tabular list) Ob) os =0: Magnetic ores of Adirondacks, 21. Magnetites, see Swedish magnetites. Malocystites barrandi, 253. emmonsi, 253, 255. murchisoni, 254, 255. Manlius formation, 8, I0. Maple scale, cottony, 37. false, 37. Maps, geologic, 64:> lista Marginifera muricata, 165. splendens, 165. wabashensis, 165. Marsters, V. F., cited, 108 Martinia slabra, 150, 160,470; a70: 185. Medina quadrangle, 8. Meek cited, 157. Memoirs, 50-00; in press, 64. | Migouasha, stratigraphy of Devonic fish beds, 128. Mill mountain, 180. Miller, W. J., survey of Saratoga region, 10; field work in Adiron- dacks, by, 12; Geology “or ihe Port Leyden Quadrangle, 60; Exfoliation Domes in Warren County, 187-094; cited, 94. Mineral materials, aggregate put, 20. out- INDEX TO REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO Mineralogy, report on, 24-27; ac- cessions to collections, 68~70. Mines, review of, 20. Mineville, magnetic ores, 21. Mining and Quarry Industry, by Diet Newland, Or: Modiola, 156. . DOOM) 150,173) 180: Mohawk-Hudson region, 18. Moon mountain, 189. Moraines, 10. Morley, E. W., analyses by, 152. Mt Marcy quadrangle, 14. Nason, |. L., cited, 05, 106. Nautilus avonensis, 174. New York City (Catskill) Aque- duct, geology of, 15, 64. gists to report on geology of, 17. New York State Museum Associa- tion, 83-01. Newberry, cited, 157. Newland DD: r. ~ Minne and Quarry Industry of New York state, 61; Notes on the Geology of the Swedish Magnetites, 107-19; quoted, ISI. and Leighton, Henry, Gypsum Deposits of New York, 62. Nine Mile creek, 9. Nodosinella, 160. clarkei, 175, 185. dieitata, 175. (Dentalina) priscilla, 175. North Creek, topographic sheet, 12, 187, IOT. Northumberland volcanic plug, 11. Notothyris, 170. Nova Scotia faunas, correlation of, E57: Nucula, sp., 159, 160, 181, 186. houghtoni, 180. illinoisensis, 181. iowensis var. magdalenensis, 180, 186. parva, 180. rectangula, 180. tumida, 181. Nursery inspection, 41. New York, Greater, certain geolo- 277 Oneida conglomerate, 9, 10. Oneida-Medina formation, 8. Oxrbicnlordea es limatay 150.) Lon, 77. 185. @rthoceras spi, 150, 174, 185, 180. Osigacodaliysps 150, 185.) Uso: Packard, quoted, 154. Palaeocrinus chapmani, 244. Simiaiis,. 206," 2IO—Aae 2A5 8) 246) 251; explanation of plate, 268, 270, 272: Palaeocystites, 247-57. chapmani, 244. dawsoni, 244, 247-53. tenuiradiatus, 244, 245, 248. mAleOntologys — GepOht | 1Olle 27-41 - accessions to collections, 67. Paralllelidon 2 sp 18h, 186: cochlearis, 160; dawsoni, 159, 168, 186. hardingi, 168, 186. obsoletus, 160. Ranken C.ultogtoise Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants, 64. Patterson, George, cited, 155. imeamapsvalllass 37. Pear slug, 37. Pegmatite dikes, 13. Pelecypoda sp., 183-84, 186. Pelmatozoa, early Siluric, studies of, Dy Geonee Isl nudsony) 105-257: Pentremites sulcatus, 205. Percé, relations of the Paleozoic terranes in the vicinity of, 121-25. Petersson, acknowledgments to, 119. Pholidops, 120. Plates, explanation of, 259-72. Pleurophorus? sp., 159, 183, 186. Popeye vetted ots 5: Port Henry quadrangle, geology Of bys Je... Kemp, and: Rudolt Ruedemann, OT. Port Leyden quadrangle, geology of, by W. J. Miller, 60. Potash mountain, 188. Potsdam sandstone, 13. Poughkeepsie quadrangle, On, 4 ecoloow Of, 04) survey 278 NEW YORK Poughquag sandstone, 95. Productus, sp., 161, 185. arcuata, 166. arseneaui, 162, 185. auriculispinus, 159, 166, cora, 166. cora var. dawsoni, 162. dawsoni, I61, 162, 185. dawsoni var. acadicus, 185. dissimilis, 165. doubleti, 163, 165, 185. elobulina, 167. laevicosta, 161. laevicostus, 163, 185. nebraskensis, 178. Ovata, 1Or, prouti, 163, 185. tenuicosta, 161, 165. tenuicostiformis, 150, 185. Prout, John, mentioned, 154. Pteronites latus, 170, 171, 186. Publications, list, 59-65. Puenax, M50} Pugnax magdalena, 166-67, 185. Putnam, mentioned, 21. 159, TOL, \ 103, Quadrangle maps, list, 7. Quarries, review of, 20. Quensel, acknowledgments to, I05. Raymond, Percy AVEMTS 2. 257, Rhombopora exilis ?, 150, 161, 185. Richardson, James, cited, 146,° 155, 156. Ruedemann, Rudolf, Elizabethtown sheet, gations by, 31; Geology of the Thousand Islands Region, 62; cited, 94, 100; survey of Sara- toga region, 10; acknowledg- Ments 0, 257, | and Kemp, J. F., Geology of the Elizabethtown and _ Port Henry quadrangles, 61. T., acknowledg- HEpOME, -.Om 14; investi- St Lawrence, Gulf of, notes on the geology of, by John M. Clarke, 121-55. SLATE MUSEUM Salina formation, 8, Io. Salisbury, cited, 193. San José scale, 36. Sanguinolites insectus? 186. Saratoga quadrangle, Io. Schenevus creek moraines, 109. Schizodus, 161. cuneus, 160, 181-82, 186. curtiformis, 182. denysi, 159, 182, 186. ellipticus, 171. iowensis, I7I. HichaArdsom,.17 1, 160: trigonalis, 182. wheeleri, 182. Schuchert, cited, 158, 16t. Schuchertella sp., 130. Schuylerville quadrangle, Io. Science Division, staff, 65-66. Scientific collections, condition of, 6. sederholm, J. J. cited) as sicunmuae 106; scheme of classification, I05. Seismological station, 21. Seminula dawsoni, 180. Serpula infinitesima, 159, 176, 185. Serpulites annulatus, 176. annulites, 156. Shade tree pests, 37. Sigmacystis, 254. emmonsi, 253, 254, Sjogren, cited: Lil, “tmey mes acknowledgments to, II9. Smock, J. ©., mentioned, 21 Smyth, C. H. jr, Geology of, Gie Thousand Islands Region, 62. Snow-white linden moth, 37. Spandel, cited, 175. Sphaerodoma ? sp., 184, 186. Spiritera elabra, 170. Spirorbis sp., 150, 161, 185. Springer, Frank, cited, asm Spruce gall aphid, 37. Staten island, Ono Ty, Stenopora sp., 150, 170; 185. exilis, I6T. sienata, 170. Stockton mountain, 180. 168," “Fat IWIKO) S geological structure INDEX TO REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQiO Strophalosia, 159. nebraskensiformis, 177-78, 186. iuElcata, 17o; Simtzer, ©. cited. 112, 113. Sugar maple borer, 37. Surficial geology, 17-109. Susquehanna river, moraines, 19. Sweden and New York, compara- tive sketch of the Precambric seolocy of, by J. F. Kemp, 03- 100. Swedish magnetites, notes on the geology of, by D. H. Newland, 107-10. Syembes, 11, 13: Tarrytown quadrangle, 14. Tegengren, F. R., 108. Thousand Islands Region, geology of, by Cushing and others, 62. Three Sisters, 188-80. Topographic quadrangles, 6. ornenvoum. 4 cited, 160, -o0, 100, 106. Trenton limestone, 8, 9. Utica formation, 8, 9, 10, II. Utica quadrangle, 8. 279 Valcour island, survey of, 14. Van Deloo,. Jacob, MIENtS: CO, 1257. von Huene, cited, 148. acknowledg- Ward, Frank H., resignation, 42. Warren county, exfoliation domes in, by W: J. Miller, 187-04. Warrensburg, 13. Weidman, S., cited, 106. Weller, Stuart, HOR i 50; West Canada creek, 9. Westfield, 8. White creek, 9. Whiteaves, J. B., 200) 210, | 243): tO, 257. NWyiiittloc. HP Calcites or New VO) 25-27, 00: Walliams, Ga He cited: 106: Woltt, J. E., mentioned, 05: cited 100. acknowledgments mentioned, 203, acknowledgments Yeigh, Frank, cited, 155. Zoology, TOUTE Zoology section, accessions to collections, HeEPO ne Onlue42ectice | Appendix 1 ) Geology — M useum Bulletins 145, 146 Geology of the Thousand Islands Region | Geologic Features and Problems of the New York City (Cats- | kill) Aqueduct oe * ‘ - - * + tr ' r Sra i 4 . k * > = L % 2 . i i e z r x te) ‘ 5, . } ; a ; , 1 ki ¢ A ih ‘ ‘i 5 « Ve AG % a { iJ vi ou } ah! ei x ; st A Ces = ; f a, Co yA yi y “ya 2, ——™ " F, 2 r ’ P iSer A i i” (se 7 ea D> ting =¢9 des Beat itat) oe basyec oes ES . eg a ca a Ese i aaertal . ; ad's, Education Department Bulletin Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office, at Albany, N.Y., : under the act of July 16, 1894 No. 485 | ALBANY, N.Y. DECEMBER I5, I910 New York State Museum Joun M. Crarke, Director Museum Bulletin ‘4 5 GEOLOGY OF THE THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION ALEXANDRIA BAY, CAPE VINCENTE, CLAYTON, GRIND- STONE AND THERESA QUADRANGLES BY H. P. CUSHING, H. L. FAIRCHILD, R. RUEDEMANN AND C. H. SMYTH JR | PAGE PAGE DANE OCHONCHI OTA teen a eer ee ee 5 Paleozoic altitude and climate.. 122 Location and character.......... 6 Avinaount OF -eGOSIOM...5- 65. --: 123 Summary of geologic history..... NS Oniommealvidrainage: oi... - + 124 lieneoussintnusionse. 7... 0... 9 Desai Chol bitty Aas a erin 125 Close of the long period of shenbiamyn@mainaee. oi. 01s)... 125 SOC aire as cake kh ie eR 14 Plateaus, terraces, scarps...... ¥29 Raleozoic sediments....2......- 14 KES a Oa een crete eee E31 Subsequent history of the Underground drainage......... 133 CSSIOTON & EM trate grt erence ee 20m Picistocene SeOlOsy. «21... . 5. 136 dine Pleistocene.) voit ss 238 PIS UO tae ae VSS SNS! Sh alae 8S Boece 136 PC OCK GS ae Ee oe a hese 24 Pig NOStaMliy ca. ss nce ae 141 FeueCaimbRiGeTOCkKS.< 4. ei... 4, dhs 24 Glacialidepositss. 241...) 150 Great Precambric erosion..... 53 Glacio-aqueous deposits........ 156 PRLS CVACIG. SHOCAS We, ee eas ane 54 Gilacialerosions. 555-4510. 2... 159 Precambric surface under- Prewisconsin glaciation........ 164 Meat athe Potsdam .:¢.)..0.5 Be Ey comomic ScOlOe yess... sna. - 5 172 Preopsdamesandstone: 4...) 5 60. Roache ees ocane os oeete 173 Theresa and Tribes Hill forma- GramitesGuanness . oo. ei mane - 174 DICT 2, SO a > We xen a eae nan 64 Sandstone quarries........ ee nA Pamela tormation 7... %o. 2. 68 Wamestone Guarnies: 5.0.1. «:- a8 Oks Mohawkian series............. 79 | Petrography of some Precambric Summary of Paleozoic oscilla- JOCKS a Ee Ene ne en Re 175 blonstorrlevel..o om eke. 92 Bleached) eramite. i 5.7.1... 177 Dip of the Paleozoic rocks..... 98 RiekoneoramitGss. 4ua- enc. s «in 181 Rock! Ghunctutes..606 2. a 99 Pdexamatias SVemiue 7.2.4... .. 182 PON AM Ofer." 5x hc cae ates hy 99 Granitized amphibolite and Stee hi FGA SP) ene ws 103 amphibolitized granite TE CIICI Ns eve rescence genes att 108 | (SOaKkedUtOCKS) a .cecae - 184 Baultise: 8.22. dedhaw att Ten UMA EXE yap Ps eee fae ee Pigs olarge <*'s 180 Mopoctaply: os nukes Polos ay! 121 oh « : sy ice ’ . rt ‘y ee h eo eu - “ ’ Bi SSN yea deliaas “a De te Se oy Sra Resin Oe Soe as ns ag ead: € y NY SoU poet) eS aS: pete ae Soma JEN New York State Education Department Science Division, October 4, 1909 Hon. Andrew S. Draper LL.D. Commussioner of Education Sir: I have the honor to communicate herewith for publication as a bulletin of the State Museum a manuscript entitled Geology of the Thousand Islands Region, covering the areas known as the Alexandria Bay, Cape Vincent, Clayton, Grindstone and Theresa quadrangles. This is a report upon several seasons of field work in the region re- Hemeeaero py ener, fl. PP. Cushing, Prof, Herman L, Fairchild, Dr Rudolf Ruedemann and. Prof. C. H. Smyth jr of this staff. Very respectfully, Joun M. CLARKE Director State of New York Education Department COMMISSIONER’S ROOM Approved for publication this 5th day of October 1909 Commissioner of Education Education Department Bulletin Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under the act of Congress of July 16, 1894 No. 485 ALBANY, NY: DECEMBER 15, 1910 New York State Museum Joun M. Crarke, Director Museum Bulletin 145 GEOLOGY OF THE THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION ALEXANDRIA BAY, CAPE VINCENT, CLAYTON, GRIND- STONE AND THERESA QUADRANGLES BY Bee CUsSEING aa, 1 PAIRCHILD, R. RUEDEMANN & GE Shy Tri: JR INTRODUCTION 1 The field work on which the accompanying report is based was done during the field seasons of 1906, 1907 and 1908. The dis- trict was chosen for work chiefly on the recommendation of Professor Smyth, and work was begun by the writer with the understanding that we were to collaborate in doing it. Unfortu- nately this plan failed of realization, owing to Mr Smyth’s inability to take the field, so that his actual participation in the work was limited to a portion of the season of 1908, during which he mapped the major portion of Wellesley island. Dr Ruedemann assisted in the mapping of the southern part of the Theresa quadrangle during two weeks of the season of 1907 and in 1908, mapped Cape Vincent and the southern half of Clayton. The remainder of the areal mapping is the writer’s contribution, comprising the Theresa, Alexandria and Grind- stone sheets (with the exception of Wellesley island) and the north half of Clayton. Note. The photographs credited to Ami and Ulrich are published by permission of the Directors of the Geological Surveys of Canada and of the United States. 1 By H. P. Cushing. 6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Professor Fairchild spent the season of 1908 and portions of two previous seasons in the study of the Pleistocene geology of the area, and his reports will be found included in their appro- priate places. During both the seasons of 1907 and igo8 Dr E. O. Ulrich of the United States Geological Survey was in the field for a time with Dr Ruedemann and myself. In 1908 Dr H. M. Ami of the Geological Survey of Canada was also present and we spent Io days together, chiefly in study of the Pamelia, Lowville and Black River limestones, with a short excursion to the district around Kingston, under Dr Ami’s guidance. Combined work of this sort is of the utmost value, and as a result of it the indirect contribu- tion of both these gentlemen to this report is most important and is gratefully acknowledged. In a previous year Professor Smyth had reported upon the larger part of the district comprised in the Alexandria and Grind- stone sheets, as well as their eastward extension, doing the work -as accurately as the imperfect base map at his disposal war- ‘ranted. It is a pleasure to testity to the importance ameuac. curacy of this report, especially in view of the date at which, and the circumstances under which the work was done.* The different rock groups and their relations to one another were thoroughly worked out, and the independent mapping here re- ported upon has done little more than to repeat his work and emphasize its correctness. This of itself would justify his ap- pearance as a collaborator in this report, independently of his direct contribution. For five weeks of the season of 1908 Dr H. N. Eaton of Chapel Hill, N. C., served as voluntary assistant. This generously given help is gladly acknowledged, and the report also bears witness to the service of his camera. : LOCATION AND CHARACTER 2 These five quadrangles constitute the extreme northwestern portion of northern New York, bordering the lower end of Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence river in the Thousand Islands region. The area mapped extends from the meridian of 75° 45” w. longitude to Lake Ontario and from latitude 44° to the national boundary. It comprises some 560 square miles. 1 Geology of the Crystalline Rocks near the St Lawrence River. N. Y. State Geol. 19th An. Rep’t 1899. p.r85—104. 2By H. P. Cushing. GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 7. The area is one of low altitude and comparatively little relief, forming the west end of the plain which borders the entire north front of the Adirondack highland, and merges hereabouts into the north end of the Black river lowland. To the southward the altitude considerably increases and a bit of the high Trenton escarpment which forms the west wall of the larger part of the valley of the Black river, appears in the extreme southwest corner of the Theresa sheet, reaching an altitude of over 800 feet, the highest elevation in the mapped district. Altitudes con- siderably in excess of this appear not far to the southward on the Watertown sheet. But with this one trifling exception the high- est elevations in the mapped area but little exceed 600 feet (this in the southeast corner of the Theresa sheet) and thence drop gently to the north and west to the level of the lake and mien. (246, feet). Though the district is thus moderately flat, the local relief is considerable, in minor fashion. Ridges and valleys characterize the districts underlaid by Precambric rocks. The flat-lying Paleozoic rocks form plains which are fronted by steep cliff escarpments. In both cases abrupt changes of level of from 50 to 100 feet are quite common. These features also are most pronounced in the eastern part of the area and fade out westward, so that but little relief is manifested on the Cape Vincent and the larger part of the Clayton sheet. With the exception of the St Lawrence, the Black and Indian rivers are the only streams of respectable size within the mapped area. Most of the streams flow in narrow, steep walled valleys, and no deep, broadly opened valleys have been detected. There are many features of interest in the minor drainage to which attention will be directed later on. The group of lakes of an unusual type forms a very prominent feature. Several of these lakes may be noted near the eastern edge of the Alexandria sheet and there are a few more beyond the map limits. They are not a usual feature of this part of the State. Their presence and their very localized distribution require explanation. Glacial deposits are in small bulk in the district and much bare rock appears, with wide areas where the soil is very thin. In the limestone districts the streams show a tendency to go under- ground and bared limestone surfaces show considerable amount of rock removal through solution along the joint planes. The district is largely one of small farms. Little or no forest remains on it, though there is much waste land. The largest 8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM single area of the sort appears in the southeast part of the Theresa sheet, on which is found the western portion of the “sand plains,” the great Pleistocene delta of the Black river. Interesting historically from having been the scene of exploita- tion and settlement by French immigrants of high class, during the early part of the nineteenth century, the district preserves many traces of this immigration, especially in the matter of geographic nomenclature. SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC HISTORY: The rocks of the region are readily separable into two great eroups, the one of older crystalline rocks, and the other ws vounger sandstones, limestones and shales which rest upon the older group. The rocks of the older stoup are of Precanmeme age, are among the most ancient rocks of which we anywhere have knowledge, and are in most respects identical with the © crystalline rocks which compose the great central region of northern New York, the Adirondack region, and with those of - the much more extensive area which lies to the northward in Canada. These rocks, in the district here reported upon, form a narrow connecting link, or isthmus, between the exposures of these two areas, which otherwise are completely separated from one another by a belt of country of considerable width in which the surface rocks belong to the younger group. It is only in the immediate region therefore that direct connection can be traced between the old rocks of Canada and of New York, and this fact gives added interest to the study of these rocks here. These Precambric rocks furnish us with our most ancient direct records of the history of the earth, but like most ancient records they are fragmentary and difficult to. decipher. Nevertheless they plainly indicate that Precambric time was of enormous duration, involving many millions of years. Here, as elsewhere in northern New York, these rocks consist of but a single series of water-deposited rocks, so far as our knowledge goes. This is known as the Grenville series, and comprises rocks which, originally deposited as shales, limestones, and sandstones, are now greatly changed in character and have become white, coarsely crystalline limestones, glassy quartzites, and schists and gneisses of many varieties. Curiously we have not as yet, in 1By H. P. Cushing. This is a simple statement of the outlines of the hice of the region as disclosed by the study of the district. The detailed evidence upon which these statements are based, will follow later. GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 9 New York, been able to discover. anywhere any trace of the older rocks which formed the floor upon which these water-laid sediments were deposited, though plainly, with such an origin, they must originally have been laid down on some such floor of ‘older rocks. It follows therefore that we do not know the base of this Grenville series. Neither do we know its summit, since that has apparently been everywhere removed by erosion. Hence we can not know its thickness, though we do know that it is a very thick rock series, several thousands of feet at least. Since the deposition of this formation it has undergone many changes. The rocks have been greatly compressed and intri- cately folded and plicated. They have been invaded from be- neath by huge masses of igneous rocks, which have broken up the once continuous Grenville formation into separate and discon- nected belts and patches, have probably engulfed and digested large amounts of it, and are likely responsible for the utter dis- appearance of the old floor on which the formation originally rested. Asa result of this mishandling the rocks have been pro- roundly changed in character. [hey have been entirely re- crystallized, with complete destruction of the textures which, as sediments, they originally possessed, and with the production of a foliation cleavage, or schistosity, due to a banded arrangement of the minerals formed by the recrystallization. Jn addition a quantity of contact rocks has been produced in the vicinity of, and by the action of, the igneous rocks, which interact with the others to produce rocks quite different from either, and with opportunities for manifold variation, with variation in the character of either or both sets of the original rocks. In this manner many rock types have arisen, often of puzzling nature. The changes which have been produced in these Grenville rocks are of such nature as to lead to the confident belief that they took place at some considerable depth below the surface, or in other words that a considerable thickness of other rocks then overlay them, a rock thickness which subsequently disappeared because of surface wear continued through long ages. Igneous intrusions As has been implied the Grenville sediments are the most ancient rocks of which we have definite knowledge in northern New York. Subsequent to their formation they were repeatedly invaded from beneath by igneous rocks in molten condition. In the immediate district the bulk of this igneous rock consisted of granite, and Io NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the more basic rocks which appear in large quantity further east are but sparingly present. But granitic intrusion took place on a large scale at least twice, probably three times, and possibly sev- eral times. This it was which was so effective in breaking up, al- tering and destroying wholesale the Grenville sediments and their floor. : Laurentian granite gneiss. The oldest of these igneous rocks is a granite which has, since its intrusion, been sufficiently sub- jected to compression to have become pretty thoroughly crushed, or granulated, with the development of a rude foliated, or gneis- soid, structure. It is a reddish to gray granite gneiss which con- tains nearly everywhere inclusions of the Grenville rocks in vary- ing abundance, but always most abundant near the contacts with the Grenville, into which it always sends a multitude of dikes. The inclusions are usually of amphibolite and all stages of their assimilation by the granite are found, giving rise to a group of intermediate rocks which seem unquestionably to have been de- rived from the digestion of the one rock by the other. It is pos- sible that some of these amphibolite inclusions may actually repre- sent fragments of the old Grenville floor, and furnish the sole re- maining traces of that floor, but as yet this is mere conjecture. This granite gneiss occurs in both large and small masses, so called bathyliths and stocks, which invaded the Grenville rocks from be- neath at an exceedingly early period In addition to forming a large portion of the present surface occupied by the Precambric rocks it likely also underlies the Grenville rocks over the entire district, except where they have been cut away by succeeding igneous rocks. Since the rock solidified it has been subjected to compression, together with the Grenville rocks, giving to each a foliation parallel to that of the other, and elongating the bathyliths in a northeast-southwest direction with corresponding shortening at right angles to this, the shortening being of course in the di- rection of the pressure and the elongation at right angles to it. Alexandria syenite. On the Alexandria quadrangle, some 3 miles a little west of north of Redwood, is a mass of rather coarse grained igneous rock which shows little sign of crushing and is un- ' questionably younger than the Laurentian granite gneiss. In as- sociation with it is a much greater amount of a coarse, but crushed, porphyritic igneous rock, now converted into an “augen” gneiss. 1 Bathylith is a term applied to large masses of igneous rock, which masses are believed to continue to great depths with generally increasing size downward. A stock is a smaller mass of the sort. GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION Ff What relation the two bear to one another could not be definitely ascertained. Either the augen gneiss is a crushed border phase of the other, that representing an uncrushed core, or else it is a separate and older rock. It is a fairly basic rock, varying much in this respect, seems at times to owe its character to partial as- similation of amphibolite, and so far as seen, its exposed contacts are all with Grenville rocks, which it cuts. If the two intrusives belong together the mass reaches considerable size and is to be classed as a small bathylith. If the augen gneiss is distinct from the other the latter is only a stock. In case the augen gneiss is distinct the question naturally arises whether it may not be merely a porphyritic phase of the Lauren- tian granite gneiss. A decisive answer to this question can not be given owing to lack of contacts between the two classes of rock. But such evidence as there is seems decidedly against such a cor- relation. The rock is a more basic one than the general run of the granite gneiss, and is not so severely crushed, or granulated. The weight of the evidence is decidedly in favor of the view that it is a gneissoid, border phase of the syenite. Syenite southwest of Theresa. Up the creek valley above Theresa are exposures aggregating about a square mile in extent of a gray to gray green rock which is a syenite. It may have con- siderably greater extent underneath the sandstone which adjoins it on each side. It is by no means so mashed as the granite gneiss and seems clearly a younger rock, but since it is not found in as- sociation with any of the other younger igneous rocks its age rela- tions to them are not ascertainable. There is a single outcrop of a coarse, unmashed eruptive which is to be classed as a gabbro, close to the upper bridge at Theresa on the west bank of the river. It may have considerable extent under the adjacent sandstone but with the most generous possible allowance for such extension the mass would still have to be rated as a stock of no great size. Picton granite! The most extensive and important of these younger Precambric intrusives is the coarse red granite which out- crops widely on Grindstone, Wellesley and some of the smaller 1The most considerable outcrops of this rock within the State are on Grindstone island, but the name of Grindstone granite would perhaps be misleading, and Grindstone Island granite is too long a name. The smaller Picton island is however the seat of the chief quarries at the present time and the name would be wholly appropriate except for the fact that the island appears on the maps as Robbins island. It is universally called Picton island by residents, many of whom have no knowledge of any such name as Robbins island. 12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM islands, and to a small extent on the mainland, and which is named from Picton (Robbins) island; where the most extensive quarries occur. This rock shows little or no signs of the crushing which has affected the other Precambric intrusives in greater or less de- gree, though it becomes fine grained in certain situations, chiefly marginal, and notably so in many of the dikes which it sends out. into the adjoining rocks. The rock holds a multitude of inclusions, of Grenville quartzites and schists, of Laurentian granite gneiss, and of the augen gneiss associated with the Alexandria syenite. Over much of Wellesley island the abundant inclusions are but little disturbed. in other words their dips and strikes are concordant and in accord with those of the neighboring Grenville rocks, and with these un- — changed dips and strikes the inclusions occur in linear belts, now of quartzite, now of schists and again of granite gneiss, so that the original distribution of these rocks can be mapped as con- fidently as though the granite invasion had never been. This in- dicates that here we are near the very roof of the granite bathy- lith, where cooling had rendered it so stiff and pasty as to be no longer able to pluck away and engulf blocks from its roof, the present inclusions being such as had been last broken away but were unable to founder and retained their original orientation. The utter lack of signs of crushing in the rock leads to the rather confident belief that it is the youngest of all these early Precam- bric intrusives, though there is some question as to whether it is actually younger than the syenite and the gabbro about Theresa, and with no possibility of definitely settling the matter. The bathylith is also of large size, extending out of New York into Canada among the islands and on the mainland. The granite which outcrops about Kingston seems surely identical, and is dis- tant 17 miles from the nearest outcrops of the rock on the west end of Grindstone island. The molten mass of the granite was also richly charged with mineralizing fluids and hence exhibits prominent contact effects on the adjacent rocks, much more prominent than those shown by any of the other intrusives of the immediate region. When compared with the Precambric rocks of the general Adiron- dack region (the rocks hereabouts comprising the extreme western edge of the Precambric of northern New York) the most obvious difference to be noted is the comparative scarcity of igneous rocks belonging to the syenites and gabbros in this western area. It seems also to be the case that metamorphism is not so extreme GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 13 here as farther east, in fact there seems to be a slow but progres- sive increase in severity of metamorphism in passing east. The differences in this respect are not so prominent in the Grenville and Laurentian rocks as in the later igneous rocks, but character- ize all. Even here, however, the character of the metamorphism in- dicates a considerable depth for the rocks concerned during the time when it took place. But it also suggests a less depth of over- lying material than is possessed by the region farther east. This overlying material has since been removed by slow surface erosion. Greater thickness has been removed on the east than on the west apparently, the differences in metamorphism being thus most readily explained. Further, this removal by erosion took place wholly in Precambric time indicating that the region was a land area for a long period. Precambric time however was very long, the Grenville sediment# were deposited early in it, the district sub- sequently rose above sea level and remained as land during the long ages of the middle and late Precambric. The large amount of rock thickness removed not only argues for a long erosion in- terval but likely indicates renewal of uplift on one or more oc- cas‘ons, since it is not probable that the region ever attained an altitude as great as that represented by the thickness of rock re- moved. Late in Precambric time, and toward the close of this long, erosion period, came renewed igneous activity, an upward move- ment of heavy, black, basic lava taking place. Not improbably some of this material reached the land surface of the time and spread out as lava flows. If so subsequent wear has removed every trace of their presence, cutting away the surface sufficiently so that the only sign of this igneous activity which remains on the surface of today is the trap dikes, the lava-filled channels of ascent of the molten rock. The trap is absolutely unmetamorphosed and gives every indication of having solidified at quite shallow depth. Hence the conclusion is forced that the eruption occurred toward the close of the long Precambric erosion period previously described, and since only a comparatively slight amount of wear followed, that these dikes are of very late Precambric age; in fact it is by no means impossible that they may be as young as the early Cambric. If we could follow these dikes down into the earth beneath the surface of today, no doubt we should find that they lead upward from underground masses of trap of considerable size, quite analo- gous to the bathyliths of the earlier granites. 14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Close of the long period of erosion Eventually this long period of surface wear. on a land area drew to a close, and for a time the history of the region became of very different nature, in other words instead of loss of surface material it began to gain it in the shape of deposits on the old, worn land surface. These deposits blanketed and preserved the old erosion surface, and since the wear of today has come down to that precise horizon over parts of the district, and the overlying deposits are being peeled away from it, it is returning to daylight with precisely the characters it possessed when it was buried and preserved ages ago. Seldom does a district reveal so abundant and clear evidence of the nature of an old*tocsil land surface. lf 1s cleam sommes study that long wear had reduced it to a surface of comparatively slight relief, showing that no considerable elevation of the region occurred during the latter portion of the long erosion interval. Nevertheless it is very far from being a plane surface, but is of considerable minor relief, of low ridges and shallow valleys, or of low knobs and basins, the depressions eaten out on the weaker rocks, chiefly the Grenville limestones and some of the schists, while the more elevated ridges and knobs are due to the resisting qualities of the Grenville quartzites and of many of the igneous rocks. The knob structure is practically confined to the igneous rock areas, chiefly in the Laurentian gneiss. | While the region therefore is quite rugged in a mild fashion, the extreme differences in altitude are but slight. One hundred feet is about the measure of difference. Seldom does the difference in level between valley bottom and ridge crest reach that figure, and rarely does it exceed it. This is a small difference, considering the wide variation in resisting power to wear which the various rocks present and is indicative of a long period of wear under comparatively stable conditions of level. Paleozoic sediments Potsdam sandstone. A change in conditions followed and de- position of sand commenced upon this old land surface. It natur- ally began on the valley bottoms and encroached on the ridges only as the valleys filled. The old limestone surfaces were pitted by small depressions, and were somewhat intersected with widened joint cracks also, and in these the first materials collected, some- times full of coarse fragments of resistant thin quartzite bands or GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION T5 granite dikes such as are found nearly everywhere in the Grenville limestones, sometimes containing only sand. There is comparatively little basal conglomerate in the district back from the river, but there, both on the mainland of the Alexandria quadrangle and on Wellesley and Grindstone islands is an exceedingly coarse conglom- erate, from Io to 20 feet thick, full of coarse cobbles derived from the ponderous and resistant Grenville quartzite of the vicinity. Except for these conglomerates the formation is everywhere a sandstone and mostly pretty thoroughly cemented, the cement being chiefly of silica. Its colors are red, brown, yellow, white, and rarely black. Its thickness over the immediate district will scarcely exceed 100 feet, and it thins out toward the west and south. The deposits of sand began forming first in the Champlain region and gradually worked their way westward, being deposited in a shallow trough or basin whose axis roughly coincided with the modern St Lawrence axis, so that hereabouts we find simply the thinned western edge of the formation. As its thickness here is substantially equal to the difference in altitude between the ridge crests and valley bottoms of the old erosion surface upon which it was deposited, it follows that it varies rapidly in thickness from place to place and was but scantily deposited upon the elevations, some of which it utterly failed to overtop. It is not known whether or not the formation in its entirety is a marine formation. The sparse fossils indicate such origin for the upper beds with comparative certainty, but many things about the remainder of the formation suggest a land surface and an arid cli- mate as the conditions under which the accumulation took place. Theresa dolomite. A change in conditions ensued and de- posit of dolomite began. Some sand was still supplied from the neighboring land however, as the dolomite is everywhere sandy, and at first the supply was from time to time in excess, so that layers of coarse weak sandstone alternate with those of dolomite. Hence there is a gradation from one rock to the other instead of a sharp boundary between the two. The greatest thickness of the formation within the area mapped does not exceed 35 feet, though its original thickness may have been somewhat greater. The thickness increases eastward and diminishes to the west and south as was the case with the underlying sandstone. The waters were more fitted for the existence of life and the fossils are more abundant than in the sandstone, but unfortunately conditions for their preservation have not been favorable, 16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The Theresa-formation followed close after the Potsdam and they were laid down in a trough or bay along the present St Lawrence line which was landlocked on the north, south and west. The depression of this trough originated to the eastward, where the deposits are thickest, and deposits did not commence in the immediate region until late in Potsdam time. The ex- treme western extremity of the bay can not have lain many miles west of the immediate region at the time of its greatest expan- sion. Then it commenced to contract and slowly work back east- ward.t 3 Uplift following the Theresa. This tendency to contraction of the trough, caused by slow uplift of the land, seems to have continued until the bottoms of both the St Lawrence and the Champlain troughs had been raised above sea level, so that all the northern portion of the State was above that level. After a time renewed depression followed, apparently commencing simul- taneously on the west, south and east sides of the Adirondacks, and the Tribes Hill phase of the Beekmantown formation was laid down. This was followed by uplift which began at the west and worked eastward, bringing the west and south sides of the district above sea level, while subsidence still continued in the Champlain valley, in which a large thickness of later Beekmantown focks was deposited. This Tribes Hill subsidence came in on our dis- trict here from the south and its deposits constitute the upper portion of what is mapped as the Theresa formation. Until the Beekmantown formation along the St Lawrence valley has received further study we can not say whether the Tribes Hill limestone extends east of the Frontenac axis or not. Our present view is that it did not, and that the Beekmantown of the St Lawrence valley represents the higher portion of the formation, deposited in a trough which extended westward up the valley from the Champlain basin. This depression did not carry the immediate region below sea level. The district tilted to the southwest and received a thin edge of Tribes Hill deposition, then rose and was tilted back to the eastward, though not sufficiently to allow the later Beekmantown sea of the district to the east to quite reach it. 1 Since the field work was completed and this report written, work else- where in New York has shown that probably the Theresa formation, as here mapped and described, is in reality composed of two probably unconformable formations, of quite different ages, and that the name should be restricted to the lowermost of these, the upper being of lower Beekmantown age, and equivalent to what we are calling the Tribes Hill formation in the Mohawk valley. The matter is discussed in more detail on a later page. GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION D7, In the Champlain valley the Beekmantown rocks are overlaid by the Chazy limestones. There is evidence there of a break between the two formations and the Chazy has a basal sandstone. The Champlain Chazy trough also had a westerly bay but it never extended as far west as the district under discussion. During the long time interval therefore during which Beekmantown and early Chazy sedimentation was transpiring in the subsiding Champlain trough, the district here was above sea level and experiencing wear rather than receiving deposit. Considering the length of the interval the amount of erosion which it suffered was but slight, arguing for low altitude and gentle slopes for the land. Broad, shallow valleys were cut in the surface of the Theresa limestone but the depth of cutting seems never to reach the base of the formation. Pamelia (Stones River) limestone. The Chazy basin of the Champlain, St Lawrence and Ottawa valleys was landlocked to the south and west during lower and middle Chazy time. Dur- ing this time interval, however, other and larger basins of sub- sidence and deposit existed to the south and west but completely separated from the Chazy basin. Both the rocks and the con- tained fossils therefore differ from the Chazy and the formation is known as the Stones River. Notwithstanding difference of name the two formations represent substantially the same time interval. : As Chazy time passed on, the large Stones river basin to the southward encroached northwardly and toward the latter part of the interval had become sufficiently extended to submerge the immediate district. The slow warping of the land which brought about this subsidence gave the district a wholly different direc- tion of slope. In Potsdam and Theresa times it had sloped to the northeast and formed part of the extreme westerly end of the subsiding trough. It now came to slope to the southwest, was in- vaded by the sea from that direction, and to the northeast lay a land area which separated it from the Chazy basin beyond. Though the district was covered by the waters of both marine invasions it was near the shore line in each case and received only comparatively thin, marginal deposits, representing only a small fraction of the entire thickness of the formations con- cerned. Hence in a broad way it is true that what had been the western shore of the earlier sea became now the eastern shore of this later western sea, or that the general district formed an axis or pivot from which the land tipped now in one direction 18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and now in the other, remaining throughout an area of small subsidence. The deposits laid down in this depression are of upper Stones River age and the name of Pamelia limestone is proposed for this New York phase of the formation. Locally it is known as the “ blue limestone ” though the local name commonly includes the overlying Lowville limestone as well. A thin, basal sand- stone appears, after which follow alternating black, blue and gray limestone beds, then the black limestone disappears and white, earthy limestone alternates with_the others. During the deposit of this upper portion the waters seem to have become shut off from the open sea, by the development of some shoal or reef as a barrier, and in the lagoon thus formed water lime was deposited, the waters often evaporating sufficiently to expose wide mud flats which dried and cracked under the sun’s influence. The marine fauna found these conditions uncongenial and disap- peared, though returning from time to time for a brief space with fresh influx of water from the sea outside. Deposition became intermittent and eventually ceased and some slight wear oc- curred locally. Lowville, Watertown and Trenton limestones. Subsidence then recommenced, and upon this slightly worn Pamelia surface the dove-colored limestones of the Lowville formation were laid down. The Lowville submergence was somewhat more exten- sive than the Pamelia, since the former appears in the Mohawk valley while the latter does not. And though both formations occur along’ the Black river valley it seems probable that the Lowville sea encroached more widely upon the borders of the land which lay to the eastward. | The Lowville is a quite pure limestone for the most part, and carries a much more abundant and varied marine fauna than do any of the older rocks. Above it lies a more massive, cherty lime- stone, separated from the main mass of the Lowville by an un- conformity, which we are calling the Leray limestone, and classing as an upper member of the Lowville. Above this, also with an unconformity between, comes a similar massive limestone, without chert, which we are proposing to call the Watertown lmestone. The Watertown and Leray limestones taken together are known in the region as the Black River limestone, the Leray being locally more like the Watertown than like the Lowville in character. Be- cause of this, and because of their small thickness (about 10 feet each), we have felt constrained to map them together. They carry GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION I9 an abundant marine fauna, the large cephalopods being especially conspicuous. , The Watertown limestone 1s unconformably overlain by the thin bedded limestones of the Trenton. The time interval between the Lowville and the Trenton was a considerable one, but the surface exposures of these rocks in New York are so near the old shore lines of the time, that the deposits exposed represent the interval very imperfectly. The shore line was one of many and frequent local oscillations, and the rocks which have, of late years, been classified as Black River limestone, represent very different parts of this general interval. The Trenton limestone is abundantly fossiliferous and has a thick- mess of 400 feet or more in the immediate region, exceeding the combined thickness of the Potsdam, Theresa, Pamelia, Lowville and Black River together. Found on all sides of the Adirondacks, and with large thickness everywhere, the Mohawk valley excepted, large subsidence is shown, witn probable great encroachment of the waters upon the Adirondack island, much diminishing its size. As Trenton time drew to a close fine muds commenced to appear in the waters, brought in by currents from the northeast, and in slowly increasing amount. Hence the limestones become impure and grade upward into black shales, at first strongly calcareous, later on lacking lime. This change came on the region from the eastward, hence shales were forming there while limestone was still being deposited on the west. But the change to mud deposit spread slowly over the whole region and the Trenton is found everywhere to be overlaid by the black Utica shales. This Utica submergence seems to have been the most extensive in the State’s geologic past, and it is quite possible that the entire Adirondack island was submerged. If so it seems to have been the last time that such was the case, as it was the first. Above the Utica lie the lighter colored shales and shaly sand- stones of the Lorraine formation, the combined thickness of the two shale series being several hundred feet. While neither formation is found within the limits of the area mapped, in which the lower Trenton is the youngest rock found, yet they outcrop in great thick- ness on the Watertown quadrangle and reach to within 6 miles. of the south margin of the Theresa sheet, and it seems quite certain that they were originally deposited over part, and likely all, of the district mapped, and are now absent from it because of subsequent erosion. It is even probable that the Oswego and Medina sand- stones, thick sand formations which overlie the Lorraine shales, 20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and whose present northern margin of outcrop is distant but 15 miles from the map limits, may also have been somewhat deposited within it. Certainly the sandstone extended orginally farther north than now, but just how far no one can say. The deposit of these sands indicates a shallowing of the waters over the region, following which it was uplifted above sea level. Thenceforth in the main, throughout the millions of years which have since elapsed, the district has remained a land area. It is quite possible that the succeeding Siluric and Devonic seas, whose waters covered central and western New York, may have washed over this district, and laid: down thin deposits. But if so, every trace of such deposits hereabouts has disappeared through erosion, so that no certainty can be arrived at in the matter. As a result of the various oscillations of level which the region has undergone the rocks described have been changed from their original nearly horizontal position, into a series of low folds. ‘This folding seems to have commenced early and to have been continued on various occasions, since there is some evidence that the Pots- dam and Theresa formations were somewhat folded before Pa- melia deposition began. Subsequently more folding took place, in- volving the entire series, and though the folding is gentle its topo- ‘graphic expression is plain. The principal folds have axes which trend northeast-southwest, but there is also present another set with northwest-southwest trend, or at right angles to the first set, whose arches and troughs are thus folded up and down, producing gently elevated domes and de- pressed basins, the former where the arches of the two sets cross, and the latter at trough intersections. Many of the outliers shown on the accompanying geologic maps owe their existence and pres- ervation to this folding. Subsequent history of the region But little that is definite can be said of the history of the district during its long existence as a land area following the deposition of the rocks previously described. It seems quite certain that the amount of rock worn away from the surface during this time is slight, considering the length of the time interval, and that there- fore the land has seldom had any considerable altitude. Where the entire thickness of overlying rocks has been worn away and the Precambric exposed at the surface, as is the case on parts of the Theresa and Alexandria sheets, it seems quite certain that not GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 21 over 3000 feet of rock thickness has been removed, and likely con- siderably less. Since the overlying rock has been worn away down to the Precambric over only a small portion of the whole district, it follows that in the remainder the erosion has been less than the above amount by the remaining thickness of such overlying rock. The character of the district to the south of the map limits however indicates an uplift of the land of comparative recency to the amount of several hundreds of feet, and the present-day stream valleys of the region have been worn down below this old level in this comparatively recent period. This relatively considerable recent elevation and erosion makes still more emphatic the necessity for assuming slight elevation of the region during the much longer in- terval which preceded it. As compared with much of the district surrounding it this area has been one of but slight changes of level during its past history. While in their early history these surround- ing districts were submerged and subsiding, allowing thick accumu- lations of deposits, this area subsided less and received but scanty deposit. Only during middle and late Lower Siluric time, during Lowville, Trenton, Utica and Lorraine deposition, was it a dis- trict of considerable subsidence and deposit. In its subsequent history as a land area it seems to have been one of but small uplift as compared with much of the adjacent region. As has been stated, in the comparatively recent past the district experienced uplift to the amount of several hundred feet. Prior to this it had been worn down to a surface of comparatively slight relief. The uplift gave the streams power to deepen their valleys by an equivalent amount, and the processes of wear which have given the present relief to the region were set in motion. Then, as now, the Black river was the chief stream of the neighborhood, and perhaps turned west into the Ontario lowland as it now does; but the lake was not in existence then, nor was the drainage of the lowland to the eastward, but the Black river flowed through it in a westerly direction, receiving many tributaries from the north and the south. There were also easterly flowing waters in the district, however, the beginnings of streams which drained down the St Lawrence valley. But the St Lawrence of the time had its sources in the immediate region, and contained no waters coming from farther west, the divide between the easterly and westerly flowing waters being here, crossing the present St Lawrence in the Thou- sand Island region on the hard rock barrier which the Precam- bric rocks furnish. On the New York side the divide can be traced across the Clayton, Alexandria and Theresa quadrangles in a south- 22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM easterly direction, with sharply cut ravines heading against it on both sides, marking the extreme heads of the small streams which flowed on the one hand northeast to the St Lawrence, and on the other hand southwest to the Ontario drainage. On the Clayton quadrangle the French creek valley belongs to the former, and the Chaumont river valley to the latter category; on the Alexandria most of the country was on the St Lawrence side of the divide, - the valleys of Crooked creek, Cranberry creek, Butterfield lake- Black creek, and the valleys now occupied by the other lakes be- longing there, while Mullet creek valley drained the other way; on the Theresa the valley into which the Indian river breaks at Theresa village seems to belong to the easterly drainage, while the remain- der of the valleys on the quadrangle carried water to the westward drainage. The valleys excepted, the prominent topographic feature of the region is the rock cliffs, usually low, which mark the edges of out- crop of the various formations, and which owe most of their pres- ent relief to the wear which followed the considerable uplift. In general, each rock formation of the region is somewhat less resistant to wear than the formation beneath and somewhat more so than the formation above. Hence the overlying formation tends to be slowly stripped away from that beneath, which yields more slowly and, because of the nearly horizontal attitude of the rocks, remains as a comparatively flat terrace, above whose level stands the re- ceding front of the overlying formation, while in the opposite di- rection the lower formation has its terrace terminated by a similar front which drops down to the level of the formation next under- lying. Each formation then shows a receding front of the sort, the Theresa above the Potsdam, the Pamelia above the Theresa and so on. Because of the greater thickness of the formations the Trenton and Pamelia fronts are the highest and the most conspicu- ous as topographic features. The Trenton front only gets within the map limits in the extreme southeast corner of the Theresa sheet, but the Pamelia front can be followed as a cliff of more or less prominence across the Theresa and Clayton quadrangles, until the formation is lost beneath the river. This is the kind of topog- raphy invariably produced when a district of nearly horizontal rock formations of varying resistance is being worn down, but the general type is magnificently illustrated in the region here. GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 23 The Pleistocene! During the geologic periods of the Devonic, Carbonic and Permic, and the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, each millions of years in length, our area was doubtless always above the sea and subjected to the wasting processes of atmospheric erosion. Closing the immensely long time of erosion and bringing the history down to the present time, three geologic episodes are conspicuously recorded in the existing surface features. The first of these episodes was the burial of the entire area for some scores of thousands of years under the Labradorian ice sheet with its grinding flow. ‘The second was the burial for further thou- sands of years under glacial and marine waters that immediately succeeded the latest of the ice bodies. The third episode is the present time, a restoration of the subatmospheric conditions of erosion, which has endured, probably, some 10,000 or 20,000 years. | It is now comparatively certain that during the long geologic history great changes of climate have occurred. The idea, once prevalent, that there had been during all geologic time a steady lowering of temperature and refrigeration of climate from a primitive condition of excessive heat and moisture is wholly an error. The oldest rocks of sedimentary origin contain records of glaciation. In the Permic, ice work was great and wide-spread, and glaciation was probably frequent during past time in elevated regions now eroded. The warm climate of the middle Tertiary was followed by glacial cold in northern lands, and all of New England, New York State and the basin of the Great Lakes was deeply buried under successive sheets of ice which had their origin or centers of accumulation in Canada and Labrador. The peculiar effects of the glacial invasions will be described in a later chapter. Following at least the latest of the ice sheets the entire area under description was buried for some thousands of years be- neath waters held up to high levels by the glacier acting as a barrier across the St Lawrence valley. The shore features and deposits characteristic of lake action are found over the region. During the time of the ice retreat this portion of the continent was lower, or nearer ocean level, than at present, and when the ice barrier melted away in the St Lawrence valley, the glacial waters (Lake Iroquois) were drained down to sea level, and the north and west sections of our area were long swept by oceanic waters, a branch of the Champlain (Hochelagan) sea called eye he 1, Bairchnld. 24. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Gilbert gulf1 The shores of the glacial and sea level waters are conspicuously preserved in many places, and specially in. Jefferson county immediately south of the area; while their sedi- ments occupy the valleys [see pl. 29]. The slow tilting uplift of this part of the continent finally raised the Thousand Islands district above the ocean level and then Lake Ontario was initiated. The uplifting has continued until the outlet and lake are now 246 feet above tide. As the lake and marine waters were slowly drained away from the gently sloping surface of the area the storms and streams resumed their briefly interrupted work, and for a few thousand years they have again been gnawing at the rocks and land surface with important effects. THE ROCKS? Precambric rocks The Precambric rocks of northern New York, as at present known, may be most conveniently classed in four groups, (a) a series of old sediments or rocks laid down under water, the Grenville series; (b) a series of granitic gneisses of igneous origin, which cut the Grenville sediments intrusively and hold abundant inclusions of them and which, in so far at least as the immediate region is concerned, are correlated quite confidently with the Laurentian granite-gneisses of Canada; (c) a series of somewhat younger igneous rocks which cut and hold inclusions of both the preceding groups, which have a great development in the eastern Adirondacks but occur in less force in the imme- diate region, and which consist of anorthosites, syenites, granites and gabbros, the last three of which occur here in masses of usually small size; and (d) of much younger igneous rocks, of late instead of early Precambric age, which appear as dikes of diabase or trap, and which have some development in the region, though less abundant than in the eastern Adirondacks. The Grenville sediments are the oldest known rocks of the region, and the fact that they are water-deposited rocks necessi- tates belief in the existence of a floor of older rocks on which they were laid down. No certain trace of this old floor has ever been discovered in New York, and though it is possible that fragments of it may be contained as inclusions in the granite eneiss, we are as yet unable to distinguish such, if present, from * Gilbert Gulf (Marine waters in Ontario basin). Geol. Soc. Am. Bul. 17 7Acae: 2By H. P. Cushing. GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 25 the similarly situated inclusions of the Grenville rocks them- selves. ‘The same conditions prevail in general over the much more extensive Precambric areas of eastern Canada. Recently, however, Miller and Knight have announced the discovery, in central Ontario, of a basement to the Grenville formation, Gren- ville limestone being found resting on an ancient lava flow, whose surface is thought to show signs of slight previous wear.1 Miller and Knight correlate this old lava, or greenstone, with the oldest known formation of the upper lake region, the Keewatin, which consists mainly of greenstones, old lava flows and beds of frag- mental volcanic materials. There are present, however, some associated sediments, and Miller and Knight regard the Grenville as of Keewatin age. These are most important results and if future work fully establishes these correlations, it will follow that the Keewatin has steadily increasing sedimentary content and less and less volcanic material as it is followed eastward. By the time New York is reached the greenstones have entirely disappeared, so far as is known. At least no rocks similar to them have ever been discovered in the New York Precambric. It should also be stated that Adams is not disposed to accept the reference of the Grenville to the Keewatin on the basis of the evidence yet in hand, believing a reference to the next overlying group, the Huronian, to be more probable.” However this may be, the difficulty of accounting for the dis- appearance of the old floor of deposit is not helped, but merely pushed a stage further back. Miller and Knight speak of only slight erosion of the old lava flow prior to the deposit of the Grenville limestone upon it. It is of course possible that this may be merely an interbedded flow of Grenville age and itself rest upon other Grenville sediments. But in any case these Keewatin lava flows and fragmental deposits are surface deposits and require the presence of a floor on which they were laid down just as much as do the Grenville sediments; but no such floor to the Keewatin is known. It is always found resting on Lauren- tian granite gneisses of igneous origin, or upon yet younger igneous rocks which invaded it from beneath in molten condition, cut it to pieces, and apparently engulfed and assimilated its basal portion along with the floor upon which it rested. Precisely these same conditions prevail in general in respect to the Gren- ville and its former floor. *Bureau of Mines, Ontario. 16th An. Rep’t, pt 1, p. 22-23. 2Adams, F. D. Jour. Geol. 16 :634-35. 26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In New York then the Keewatin volcanics are wholly absent, except for the possibility that some of the amphibolite inclusions of the granite gneiss may be greenstone fragments considerably metamorphosed. Otherwise the Grenville sediments are the oldest recognized rocks, and they occur in patches or in belts of varying size and extent, resting on, surrounded by, and all cut to pieces by the granite gneiss and the yet later intrusions. Grenville rocks. These rocks as originally deposited con- sisted of limestones, shales and sandstones, both pure and in their various transitional phases. In all probability too there was some intermingled volcanic material, though the presence of such material has never been definitely proved for the New York Grenville. The rocks have been profoundly changed in char- acter since their formation, in part owing to great compressive stresses which operated throughout the district, and in part owing to the heat and pressure furnished by the great igneous intrusions, and also to the mineralizing agents to which these gave rise. These changes moreover were brought about early in Precambric time and under deep-seated conditions. As found today the rocks are wholly crystalline, having completely recrystallized under the severe conditions to which they were subjected, with loss of all traces of their original clastic textures. In their stead there has been developed a cleavage, or foliation, due to parallel arrangement of the mineral particles on recrystal- lization. The old bedding planes of the rocks can still be made out, however, in. places where the composition of the original rocks changed, as where limestone was succeeded by shale or by sandstone, and from these old bedding planes it can be seen that the development of the foliation is parallel in direction to them. The original limestones have become coarse, white crystalline limestone or marble, the sandstones are now hard, glassy quartzites, while the shales and impure limestones and sandstones have become schists and gneisses of many types, while yet other varieties are contact rocks whose nature is due to action of the intrusives upon adjacent sediments. The variety of rocks is so great that it would be a hopeless task to attempt to map them all upon any such scale as that of the maps which accompany this report. One or more beds of very thick lme- stone occur, such as that along the Indian river northward from Theresa, or that along Butterfield lake; thick quartzites also occur, especially on Grindstone and Wellesley islands; a large thickness of green schists of a peculiar type is found to the south : 3061 ‘ojoyd ‘SuIysny ‘dq “H “Yys0uU syoo] MorA "a SS dip pue ‘os (Se “U sjstyos fo oyttiG «© “Aeq emoddiyD jo yqnos sol Yc ‘ojsuvipenb Aegq PClIpUexXs[Y ‘“SUIPUR] SiojSIOT JV QDUIIMET 1G OY} Io SISTUDS UdIS d]]IAMOIN I o}eIg GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 27 and southwest of Alexandria Bay. But the bulk of the Grenville of the district occurs as a great schist series, with rather rapid alterations of varying types in bands of no great thickness, and interbanded with these are thin limestones and quartzites. After trial of various methods it was found that, on a map of this scale, and with rocks of this rapidly varying character, no further subdivision of the Grenville was possible than a separate map- ping of the thicker limestone and quartzite beds, the entire remainder being mapped singly as a schist formation. It is feared that even this amount of subdivision has resulted in a map too complicated for easy use. It was hoped that the careful, detailed mapping attempted might solve the problem of the order of superposition of the rocks and give some definite idea of the thickness of the whole. The outcome was disappointing and neither hope distinctly fulfilled, though some results were obtained. The mapping therefore is purely lithological and not on a structural basis, as it was endeavored to make it.! . : fine average trend, on strike, of the Grenville rocks is to the northeast. The direction to be sure varies considerably, swinging around to the north on the one hand, and to the east or even some- what to the south of east on the other, yet these variations are not sufficiently frequent to offset the general statement. The dips are usually high, seldom less than 45° and frequently very steep or evem vertical [pl 1,2). Over the greater part of the area north dips prevail, but are replaced by south dips throughout a belt of country from 2 to 3 miles broad across the Alexandria quadrangle. This is certainly indicative of folding of large magnitude, and is corroborated by the fact that in many localities minor folds are clearly to be made out, and intricate minor puckering and corruga- tion. Of the two broad limestone belts within the map limits, the one along the Indian river north of Theresa, and the one about Butterfield lake, the former has a north, and the latter a south dip, and in each case the breadth of outcrop across the strike is about a mile. With the steep dips a thickness of about 4000 feet is in- dicated for this limestone in each case, and it is therefore conjec- tured to be the same thick stratum, with the structure synclinal. If this be the true interpretation then the complex of quartzite and 1 Though the work was of vastly more detailed character than the earlier work of Smyth on the same rocks, it will be seen by any one who will take the trouble to compare the two maps that the basis for the subdivision of the Grenville is substantially the same in each case. No more convincing testimony could be given as to the high class character of Smyth’s work, 28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM schist, which lies between the two in the southeast corner of the Alexandria sheet, and which consists of alternating bands of quart- zite and various schists of no enormous individual thickness, but which, taken together, must have a thickness of several-thousand feet, rests upon the thick limestone and is the youngest portion of the Grenville exposed within the map limits. To the north, and be- neath the limestone would come the great complex of green schists and impure greenish limestones which there occurs, which have steep dips and must have large thickness, at least as great as the two previous groups, and likely greater. Doubt is thrown, however, upon this interpretation by the fact that the rocks which follow the thick limestone to the south, on the Theresa sheet, differ consider- ably from the green schist series which follows it to the north on the Alexandria sheet, and yet according to this interpretation the two should be identical, representing the series directly beneath the thick limestone. Each does consist of schist, calcareous schist, and thin limestone bands, with an occasional thin quartzite, but the Theresa rocks are not of this distinct green schist type. A possi- ble answer to this objection may be found in the fact that, not- withstanding a rather intimate acquaintance with the Grenville series all over northern New York and in parts of Canada, the writer has nowhere else seen the counterpart of this green schist series. It is in rather close association with the Picton granite, which was richly supplied with mineralizing agents, and is every- where cut with numerous dikes from this granite, so that its pecu- liar characters are thought to be largely, or wholly attributable to this contact action, and thus explained as due to these local condi- tions. If this be not the explanation there seems no alternative but to regard the two thick limestones as separate beds, thus largely increasing the thickness of the section, already great. If the struc- ture is thus correctly interpreted, a thickness of at least 20,000 feet is indicated for the Grenville of the district, and this is a conser- vative estimate. If the structure is not synclinal this thickness must be nearly doubled. This matter will be discussed somewhat more in detail on a later page. The purpose here is simply to give an outline of the sup- posed Grenville succession and some idea of the great thickness of the series. Limestones. The general Grenville limestone of the district is a coarsely crystalline and quite pure white marble, only sparingly charged with other minerals. The great bulk of the rock of the thick belt, or belts, just referred to, consists of 95% or upward of Road metal quarry in Grenville limestone at-Theresa near the falls, Ihe limestone bed is a thin one in the general schist series and the quarry face is down the dip, here 75°. At the upper part of the cliff is Potsdam ndstone with irregular contact with the limestone, and showing one of €pressed pockets characteristic of these contacts, filled with. winaldy ted calcareous sandstone. H. P. Cushing, photo, 107 ie > : 4 bs \ ; e maf hte es SEN Eade BALES | Plate 2 Road metal quarry in Grenville limestone at Theresa near the falls. The limestone bed is a thin one in the general schist series and the quarry face is down the dip, here 75°. At the upper part of the cliff is Potsdam sandstone with irregular contact with the limestone, and showing one of the depressed pockets characteristic of these contacts, filled with weakly cemented calcareous sandstone. H. P. Cushing, photo, 1907 GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 29 calcite. Toward the edges, however, the rock becomes much less pure, and at times the same thing happens in the near vicinity of the igneous intrusions, large and small, which repeatedly cut through it. This is by no means the invariable rule however. In the case of the thin limestone bands which occur in the general schist series [pl. 2] there is much less pure limestone, since these bands show the same impure borders as does the thick belt, leaving only a small central thickness of the purer rock. In this pure rock oc- casional graphite scales, flakes of brown mica (phlogopite) and oc- casional small crystals of white pyroxene (diopside) are the usual accessory minerals and in very small amount. Others occur, but very sparingly. These rocks must originally have been extremely pure limestones, slightly contaminated with organic matter, which now appears in the form of graphite. The impure limestone of the area is owing to two distinct causes. Certain thin bands of impure limestone in the schist series, and the impure borders of the otherwise pure bands seem unquestionably owing to original deposit as shaly or sandy limestones, forming gradations between the pure rock and the overlying and underlying shales and sandstones. Hence on recrystallization a much smaller percentage of calcite and a much larger one of other minerals has resulted. The other cause is the interaction of the limestone with igneous rocks, producing what are known as contact rocks, in which certain added ingredients are supplied to the limestones from the igneous rocks and react with the limestone to form minerals which thus have a mixed origin. Such contact rocks are thus limited to the near vicinity of the igneous rocks. The two most common kinds of impure limestone of the first type in the region are the quartzose limestones, and the pyroxenic limestones. Much of the marginal limestone seems to have been sandy, and even to have contained thin layers of fairly pure sand- stone. This has recrystallized as quartz, partly in fine grain, form- ing a mosaic with the calcite, and partly coarser and in films and patches in the limestone. Each mineral at times contains inclu- sions of the other, they evidently recrystallized together, and the quartz evidently had the stronger crystallizing force. There is a considerable amount of limestone in the area which is a calcite- quartz rock, with little or no admixture with other minerals. Even more common is the pyroxenic limestone, where the cal- cite is accompanied by a greater or less amount of a white or a light green pyroxene. This is prone to alter to serpentine, a dull green, greasy to earthy looking mineral, producing a mottled green 30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and white rock which is of common occurrence in the Grenville wherever known. In the writer’s experience this is far from being true of the quartzose limestone which occurs in much greater force here than is customary. Of the various Grenville rocks the limestones are much more yielding under compressive stresses than are the schists and quart- zites, behave more like plastic and less like brittle bodies, and hence change shape more readily. Asa result rocks which much resemble coarse conglomerates are a frequent feature in the Grenville lime- stone. Frequent dikes of granite traverse it, many of which are of slender width. Under compression these are brittle under condi- tions which are sufficient to cause flowage in the limestone, hence the dikes fracture, the separate fragments are somewhat shifted in position and limestone is squeezed in between them. The same thing takes place where thin bands of quartzite or of schist are present in the limestone, as is frequently the case. These frag- ments of granite, quartzite or schist weather less rapidly than the surrounding limestone, and hence project somewhat on weathered surfaces, with considerable increase in conspicuousness, and the separate fragments surrounded by calcite give an admirable mim- icry of a conglomerate in appearance. In addition to the normal white limestone frequent patches or streaks of gray or blue limestone also occur in association with it, which outwardly look much more like ordinary limestone. This is in line with the further fact that all the Grenville rocks seem somewhat less severely metamorphosed than is the case with the equivalent rocks to the eastward. Even the white marble has at times a grayish or bluish cast, and does not average as coarsely crystalline as the eastern Grenville limestone. On the other hand limestone of these characters is commonly not so pure as is much of the white limestone, and these gray or blue portions often occur in such situation as to suggest that they are contact effects of igneous rocks on the white limestone. In some instances certainly the white limestone changes to gray adjacent to an igneous rock mass of good size, and in others gray patches in white limestone occur in direct contact with granite dikes, an unlikely situation if they are really less metamorphosed portions of the white limestone. It is also true, however, that some of the gray limestone is very pure, that in some places it has no discoverable nearness to any igneous rock, and that in general the contact action of the igneous rocks of the district upon the limestone has been but slight, though with local exceptions to this statement. With such arguments in GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 31 mind it has seemed to the writer as though the weight of the evi- dence were in favor of the view that at least some of the gray and blue limestone was representative of the white in less metamor- phosed condition, and if some, then likely all. Nowhere else in northern New York has the writer met with Grenville limestone of this fine grained, darker colored type. A comparison is at once suggested with the district in Ontario re- cently described by Adams who has shown that a similar, though better marked change comes over the Canadian Grenville limestone when followed westward, a local development of bluish limestone in thin bands within the coarser white limestones. The evidence seems to indicate that we have here in New York the first glimpses of a similar tendency. The consideration of the contact effects which the various igneous rocks have had upon the limestones is deferred until the igneous rocks themselves have been described. Quartzites. There are two belts of ponderous quartzites in the region, one on Wellesley and Grindstone islands, and the other in the district east of Redwood (Alexandria sheet). In both cases the quartzite is interbanded with various schists and amphibolites, in highly folded condition, so that the number of quartzite beds is uncertain, and whether there is more than one massive, thick quart- zite can not be positively stated. There is certainly a considerable number of thinner bands. Unless our interpretation of the struc- ture is wholly at fault, these two belts represent lines of outcrop of the same geologic horizon, and form the youngest rocks of the series exposed in the district. In addition to this main horizon there are also frequent quartzite bands found in the general schist series, and thin bands even occur at times with the limestones. The more prominent of such bands are indicated upon the maps. The ponderous quartzites are the most resistant rocks of Pre- cambric age in the region, and since they are interbedded with schists which are far weaker, the districts where they outcrop are quite rugged topographically, as Smyth pointed out 10 years ago. The quartzite ridges tower abruptly above the narrow valleys eaten cut along the schists. Since the rock is an altered sandstone, recrystallized under heat and pressure, and since sandstones often range in composition from a high degree of purity to those which are quite impure, either shaly, or calcareous, it is but natural to find much variation in the rock from place to place. The thick bands are chiefly constituted * Adams, F. D. Jour. Geol. 16:623-24. 32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of massive, coarsely crystalline quartz, running up to as high as go¢ of the rock, though feldspars and accessory minerals are always present. The thinner quartzite beds are generally more impure, though containing layers of coarse, massive, quite pure quartzite. The impurer beds are often well foliated, consisting of alternate films of pure quartz and of other minerals, the former very resistant to the weather, the latter less so, so that on the weathered surfaces the contortions and puckerings of the complexly folded schist series are much more perfectly displayed than in any other rock type of the region. They are often very close jointed, especially near granite, weathering out into small blocks [pl. 3]. Much of the quartzite of the district is more or less permeated with brown, iron-stained spots, due to the weathering out of some mineral with iron in its composition. These spots vary greatly in abundance in different occurrences and different layers, and may have a fairly uniform distribution, or, in the foliated varieties, be confined to the films containing other minerals than quartz, giving a brown and white, banded rock. In some cases, notably those of the first type, the mineral removed seems to have been pyrite, a mineral of consistent occurrence in the quartzite; in other cases it seems to have been pyroxene, though even here probably oxidized pyrite was responsible for most of the yellow, iron stain. In texture the rock shows great variation, ranging from the very coarsely crystalline, glassy rocks, down to varieties which have a finely granular make-up. Next to quartz, feldspars form the most prominent mineral con- stituent, orthoclase, microperthite and oligoclase all occurring. Much variation in relative amounts of the two mineral groups is shown, but in the great bulk of the rock, quartz is in excess and usually greatly in excess. In some varieties white to light green pyroxene appears in quantity, when the feldspar retreats. There is considerable of such quartz-pyroxene gneiss in the region; ste quartz usually constituting 75¢ of the rock. Light brown mica (phlogopite) is sparingly present in much of the quartzite, and some varieties become quite micaceous. Pyrite is a frequent mineral, as has been stated. Zircon and titanite are nearly always present, and at times fine needles of rutile are abundantly included. Here and there in the region rocks are found which present a puzzling half way stage between quartzite and granite, so that they are likely to be classed, now with one rock, and again with the other, according as the observer comes upon them from quartzite, or from granite. In all cases where the relations could be worked Grenville quartzite of the much jointed type showing its characteristic weathering. The Potsdam lies just above but shows poorly in the view. Locality near the south margin of the Alexandria Bay quadrangle, nearly 1 mile south of Crystal lake, by the roadside. H. P. Cushing, photo, 1907 GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 33 out such rocks either occur along granite-quartzite contacts, or else are included in granite. They are apt to show close set, block jointing, like the quartzite. They have been found only in asso- ciation with the granite gneiss. The field evidence seems to us strongly indicative of the fact that these are really intermediate rocks, in the sense that they represent quartzites in various stages of granitization; that the quartzite is being permeated, soaked and even digested by the granite. The character of the intermediate rock, the shading of the two into one another, and the field oc- currence of the intermediate stages, all point to this conclusion, and seem incapable of explanation on any other hypothesis. Amphibohtes. The name amphibolite isa convenient, compre- hensive term for a group of rocks of gneissoid habit and dark color, composed essentially of hornblende and feldspars, with often consid- erable amounts of biotite or pyroxenes, and with accessory minerals | of which magnetite is easily chief, and quartz and garnet of fre- quent occurrence. In respect to origin, the rock has long been a puzzling one since apparently identically appearing amphibolite might be produced by metamorphism from either igneous or from sedimentary rocks of the proper character. In a multitude of locali- ties in the Adirondacks it has been shown that gabbro intrusions (whose character and origin is rendered certain by a core of prac- tically unchanged rock) are largely changed over into amphibolites, every step in the process being open to inspection. Similar rela- tions have been shown in many localities in all continents. Also in the Adirondacks, wherever the Grenville series is exposed, bands of amphibolite of varying thickness are found so definitely interstratified with other Grenville rocks of unquestioned sedimen- tary nature, that there seemed no escape from the conclusion that the rock must have resulted from the metamorphism of a sedi-_ ment; and amphibolite of such origin is equally of world-wide dis- tribution. In addition it has recently been shown by Adams that amphibolite can also be produced on a large scale by the contact action of granite on limestone. Here are therefore three different _ modes of origin, and the rock may be either igntous, sedimentary, or a contact rock. Each occurrence of the rock must therefore be studied by itself, in so far as its origin is concerned. Amphib- olite of all three types is present in our district. Within the mapped area amphibolite has not the bulk and im- portance that it has in much of the Precambric district adjacent. There is much of it present as inclusions in the granite gneiss bathyliths and stocks, inclusions of much variation in size and in 34. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM abundance. Frequent bands of it occur within the Grenville series, but these are usually of no great thickness. There is but little of the rock present to which an igneous origin may be definitely as- signed. There are small areas of such rock in the district north and northeast of Theresa, where a somewhat more heavily bedded am- phibolite occurs, which holds much pyroxene in addition to the hornblende, and which seems to definitely cut the limestone with which it is associated. There are, however, amphibolite bands in- terstratified with the same limestone, and the mass has been severely deformed, with the production of flow in the limestone and the fracturing of the amphibolite into blocks, making one appear to cut and be included in the other, but this does not seem to be a case of the sort. In our experience amphibolites which result from the metamorphism of gabbro, usually contain pyroxene in quantity, while those originating from calcareous shales are more apt to be micaceous and lack the pyroxene, but this is far from being an in- variable rule, and is only suggestive of origin, not demonstrative. The amphibolites interstratified within the Grenville series, and regarded as metamorphosed sediments,, calcareous shales or some- thing of that sort, are mostly quite finely and evenly granular rocks, which have wholly recrystallized, and vary from very solid look- ing, dense rocks in which mica is but sparingly present, to very schistose, highly micaceous rocks, which rapidly break down under the weather. In most of these orthoclase feldspar is apt to predomi- nate over plagioclase, and much of the rock contains some quartz, the micaceous varieties often considerable. The manner in which ‘tthe variations appear is itself highly suggestive of metamorphosed sediments which differed somewhat in character from bed to bed. Some of the rock contains garnets, in some cases reaching large size, but they are exceptional rather than the rule. The amphibolite of contact origin will be discussed under the general topic of contact rocks. Schists. Under this heading are included a large nuns of rock types, so many that it seems hopeless to attempt to describe all, or many of thtm. No doubt they have diverse origins. Some of them quite certainly owe their present character to contact action, and no doubt contact action of varying“kind, and in varying degree, is in large measure responsible for the great diversity of the group. Some of the rocks grouped here are no doubt igneous, and in their character distinctly suggest such an origin, though the proof is dif- ficult to obtain. A very common variety of Grenville schist, the so called “ rusty GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 35 gneiss’ with its characteristic yellowish tinge on weathered sur- faces, is but sparingly present in our area here. In the district east of Redwood it occurs somewhat, as it does also to the north- ward of Theresa. It is a quartzose gneiss, usually containing the mineral “ sillimanite”’ and holding pyrite in quantity, the easy de- composition of which is chiefly accountable for the weakness and the color stain of the rock. There are reddish, acid gneisses which, so far as composition goes might be either original granites, or shaly sandstones. There are black and white gneisses, which are feldspar-pyroxene-quartz gneisses. There are very granular, dark reddish, weak, microper- thitic feldspar-hornblende gneisses; gray, feld-spar-hornblende gneisses, holding much pyrite and titanite; there are leaf-quartz gneisses, the quartz in coarse spindles or lenses, and with little other than feldspar in addition; evenly granular, white, spotted gneisses which are microperthite-quartz-hornblende rocks; garneti- _ ferous, quartz-biotite gneisses, with but little feldspar and a lot of pyrite; quartz-feldspar-phlogopite gneisses with graphite; gneisses which somewhat suggest metamorphosed volcanic tuffs, though in no case has it been possible to demonstrate such an origin for them. Many of the rocks contain calcite, which at times has resulted from alteration and at times suggests itself as an original constit- uent. Graphite is a frequent mineral in many of the schists. Nowhere in the district has a rock been found which at all sug- gests the greenstones of the Keewatin formation. Belts of badly altered rock, considerably impregnated with iron, so as to constitute lean iron ore, occur within the Grenville schist belts, striking with the belt and apparently behaving like an in- tegral part of the series. Fragments of one such belt are found in the granite of the Alexandria bathylith near Cranberry creek, and a prominent belt occurs east of Redwood, especially along the north side of Millsite lake. The rock is exceedingly weak, earthy looking, either red, or yellow brown in color, and has a consider- able local use for road metal. It is so thoroughly altered that it is almost impossible to get any clear notion of its original character being simply a mass of clayey, alteration prodticts, with consider- able calcite, and the whole impregnated with hydrated iron oxid, chiefly the red oxid. There are fresher streaks and bunches here and there which appear to be granite gneiss. None of the so called “serpentine” rock, which is generally associated with the similar, but richer, belt of iron ore which runs through Antwerp 2 36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and Rossie, just east of our map, has been noted here, but with that exception there is a strong resemblance in the material. Igneous rocks. Guneissic granites (Laurentian). There are two extensive (bathylithic) masses of granite gneiss in the district, both of which are only in part within the mapped area. The western end of what we have called the “ Antwerp bathylith ” is exposed on the Theresa quadrangle, disappearing westward under a Paleozoic cover. The Alexandria bathylith, on the main- land and islands of the Alexandria quadrangle, seems of smaller size but also disappears under a Paleozoic cover, both eastward and westward, and passes across into Canada as well. There are in addition numerous smaller masses. It is highly probable — that all are connected underground, and represent the upper portions of a great, underground mass of granite, underlying all of the Grenville of the district, except where cut away by the later intrusions. . That this granite came to its present resting place after the Grenville was deposited was pointed out by Smyth 10 years ago, and is shown clearly in a host of exposures. Dikes without number run out from the granite masses into the Grenville rocks, the granite is everywhere full of included fragments of the Gren- ville, and along the contacts between the two sets of rocks, the Grenville rocks have plainly been modified by the contact action of the intrusive. The general rock is a quite acid, red PN os comnpasenl chiefly of feldspars (microperthite, microcline and oligoclase) and quartz, with smal! amounts of mica (both biotite and muscovite) and magnetite, and with zircon, titanite and apatite as acces- sories. Such rock does not appear especially gneissoid, though usually of rather fine and even grain, but in thin section it invariably shows much crushing, and a considerable amount of recrystallization. The rock is everywhere cut by its own aplite, pegmatite and quartz dikes, some of which are much coarser grained, as usual. Many of the granite dikes which penetrate the Grenville, especially the limestones, are coarser grained, and less mashed than the general rock. : In a minor way the rock of the bathyliths is quite variable, and that in two main ways, one apparently representing original variations in the rock, and one owing to relative abundance of inclusions and the effect of the granite on them. The rock varies from one which is almost wholly constituted of feldspars and quartz, to one which contains several per cent of mica, which GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 37 thus becomes a conspicuous constituent. The rock changes from deep red through lighter shades to nearly white. It varies also much in texture, from throughly solid looking, crystalline appear- ance to varieties which weather to a sugary, granular aspect. As usual in the Laurentian, inclusions abound, and as usual the bulk of these are of amphibolite. Quartzite inclusions also occur, but infrequently, limestone inclusions never. The amphibolite inclusions are found everywhere but always most abundantly near the margins, where they abound. In fact a sharp boundary line between the granite gneiss and the adjacent Grenville rocks can not be drawn. In passing from granite to sediments the inclusions show steady increase in number until they come to constitute 50% of the rock, beyond which we find sediments cut by granite dikes rather, than granite holding inclu- sions of sediments. This reduces boundary mapping to a matter of estimating equality or inequality in amount of the two rocks, or in drawing a boundary where no real one exists. An attempt, however, has been made to indicate, by convention, on the maps, the actual state of things found in the field. The granite dikes usually represent the extreme acid state of the rock. The main mass averages less acid, chiefly because of ite inelusions and of tle attack of the granite upon them. In its preliminary stages this usually takes the form of an injection of the granite in thin sheets along the foliation planes of the amphibolite, the so called “ lit-par-lit,’ or leaf type of injection, producing a banded rock of alternations of igneous and sedi- mentary material. Then, here and there, the granite breaks out from the foliation planes and spreads through the rock adjacent, forcing its grains apart by the injection of a thin film of granite between. ‘This process becomes more and more pronounced, until much of the rock is broken up into a granular mosaic of particles cemented together by granite films, producing what may be called the mosaic type of injection, as distinguished from the leaf type. A fine example of injection of this type is shown in plates 4 and 5. The injected rock is not amphibolite, but is green schist, a closely related rock, and the type of injection is identical. As a further stage, in both types of injection, the sharp bound- aries become blurred, and this shading of the two rocks into one another becomes more and more prominent until finally rocks result which seem unquestionably to be due to the complete digestion of the amphibolite by the granite, gray gneisses of distinctly intermediate composition. As would be expected 38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM these more advanced stages are usually found in the case of inclusions away from the near vicinity of the border. We have not, up to the present time, definitely classed any of the granites of northern New York as of Laurentian age. Just across the border in Canada however, where the rocks are identi- cal, this term is definitely applied to the granite gneiss of the bathyliths which invaded the Grenville series from beneath, broke it up into disconnected belts and patches and destroyed all trace of its floor. The absolute identity of the rocks and their relations, leads us to apply the name here to the granite gneiss bodies with much confidence in the wisdom and propriety of the correlation. Whether these Laurentian granites are recognizable, however, over any considerable part of the Adirondack region, in distinction from granites of later date, is a much less certain matter, though we believe it to be the case. It is thought for example that what we have called the Saranac gneiss in Clinton county, and the Long Lake gneiss of that quedkaner are in all probability of Laurentian age. Theresa syenite. This comparatively small intrusive mass lies to the southward of Theresa, in a valley floored by Precambric rocks, but walled in by Potsdam on all sides It is somewhat less than 2 miles in length and with a breadth of less than half a mile, so far as the exposures go; at the south it may have greater breadth underneath the Potsdam. The general rock is of medium coarseness and granitic texture, though always with evidence of mashing and granulation, and of gray to greenish color. Most of it is chiefly made up of feld- spars. It resembles in high degree the common greenish, augite syenite of the Adirondack region, is unhesitatingly classed with that, and is the only representative of that rock type within the mapped area. Like it, this rock is quite variable, becoming red and granitic looking on the one hand, and more basic with increase of black minerals on the other. Near the border some varieties become feebly porphyritic. Microperthitic feldspar is always the chief constituent of the rock. Some oligoclase is always present. Quartz varies from some 15% in the more granitic, red varieties, down to complete absence. Augite is the most prominent black mineral in the ordinary rock, with biotite usually and hornblende sometimes sparingly present; magnetite, apatite, titanite and zircon are the chief accessories, the apatite usually quite prominent, another feature which the rock has in common with the general Adiron- 9061 ‘ojoyd ‘BulysnDg ‘q@ “HR ‘owes oy} Aq 4sIYoS 94} JO UOTsesSIp oY} fo ssod01d oY} Ul dojs [eIIUT oY} Se Popiesol SI SIY], ‘o[voOS [[euIs eB UO 9IN}XIW OWS 94} 91 Spueq o}ITYA Jopeorq oy} Inq MOIA OY} UL [JOM MOYS 9S9y} JO JasivOd oY} AJUG ‘SUIeIS IO SYSOTq esow OUI jsyos OY} sutjyeredas ‘soeds SUIUIAIOUL OY} OJUT JNO soyUeL Usy} pue 4styos ey} Fo souvjd UoljeroF oY} sue peaqoolur st opUeIs oY], ‘OYM oUeIS oy] pue Yep sMOYS JsIyOS OY] Joo} OL ynoqe st UMoYS jYStpy "yseo SUIYOO] SI ayerd ur uMoys Jods wolf Ie} JOU opIspeor Aq “SUIPUR] Stojsioy “ouUPeIs Aq JNO AJI}VUIZUL SjsIYIS WIS I][IAUSIN) Upper figure. Hand specimen of the green schist, injected by granite, shown in plate 4. The central band here is one of those which appear as uniform, white bands in that view; here shown to consist of schist thoroughly and minutely broken up by, and inclosed in the granite. Lower figure. Hand specimen of sheared, banded, acid gneiss from near the shore of Wellesley island, due west of Alexandria Bay. Shearing has produced numerous, slight faults, the shear planes are solidly welded up by secondary minerals, and dikes of the Picton granite cut across these, these of course not showing in the specimen. H. P. Cushing, photo GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 39 dack syenite. In the most basic variety seen, these dark minerals constitute no more than 15% of the rock, the remainder being feldspar with a little quartz. Granting the equivalence of the rock with the general augite Syenite, its age is rather definitely fixed as one of the great intrusives of the region, younger than the Grenville and the Laurentian granite, and also younger than the anorthosite intru- sion. Since this latter rock is not represented in the district, and mie omly* direct evidence of age seen im connection with the Theresa syenite is that 1t cuts the Grenville, this additional evi- dence is welcome. Alexandria syenite. The intrusive mass of syenite called for convenience by the above name, since nearly the entire mass is in Alexandria township, lies west and north of Redwood, with a major axis of nearly 6 miles, and with a greatest breadth of nearly 2 miles; this on the supposition that but a single intrusion is here represented, as is believed to be the case. It 1s possible that two intrusions are here in which case the southern one fourth must be separated from the rest. Much of the rock is considerably crushed, granulated and recrystallized, converting it into an augen gneiss. The size of the augen, many of which are a half inch long, bespeaks either a very coarse grained rock originally, or a porphyry, the latter being regarded as most probable. These coarse augen gneisses _ are chiefly peripheral, and mostly at the south end of the mass. Centrally, considerable cores of much less mashed rock remain which, while of medium coarseness of grain, do not approach the coarseness of the augen. The bulk of the rock is an augen eneiss with small augen, and it may be that the coarse augen eneiss at the south should be separated from the remainder; the two seem, however, to grade into one another, and no evidence that one cut the other was found, except that in a few localities the coarse augen gneiss is cut by dikes of fine grained red granite. These seem rather acid for dikes from the syenite. It is possible that they are stray dikes of Picton granite. The least mashed cores show a rock of granitic texture and medium grain, composed chiefly of a reddish feldspar and black hornblende, the latter in sufficient quantity to give some of the rock a strong resemblance to a diorite. These least gneissoid por- tions always show much mashing, when seen in thin section, the feldspars being granulated at their margins, and the hornblendes fraying out into biotite scales. This change increases until 40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM finally we get a rock in which but few unmashed feldspar centers remain, the hornblende has entirely disappeared, and the rock is a finely granular aggregate of feldspars, mica scales, and some quartz. Of accessory minerals, apatite and titanite are prominent, the former being abundant for this mineral, and of good size, the latter usually rimming the magnetite, as well as occurring away from it. The feldspars comprise microcline, microperthite and plagioclase (oligoclase-andesine), with the latter somewhat in excess when the plagioclase in the microperthite is included with it. The quantity of the two, however, is not far from equal in most cases. There is little or no quartz in the least mashed rock, and the quantity steadily increases in the gneissoid varieties. Some of this increase is certainly due to reactions during recrys- tallization since quartz commences to appear with the appear- ance of biotite. On the other hand the rock varies somewhat in acidity and some of the quartz is unquestionably primary. The coarse augen gneiss at the south has much the same mineralogy as the remainder, though more quartzose and acid, approaching a granite in composition. Smyth holds the view that it is a separate intrusion from the main mass of the syenite, and older, having noted an exposure in which the syenite appeared to cut the augen gneiss. We did not have the good fortune to observe any such exposure, hence his positive evidence must outweigh our lack of such. Chemically also the augen gneiss is mttich more acid than the syenite, being remarkably like the Picton granite in composition. If the two are separate, the augen gneiss is the older, and both are younger than the ~ Laurentian, while the Picton holds inclusions of the augen gneiss. This syenite differs considerably from the usual type of syenite of the Adirondack region, represented here by the Theresa syenite, both in general appearance and in mineralogy. Analyses and more detailed description will be given in a later section of this report. It is more gneissoid, giving the appearance of greater deformation than the Theresa syenite, and hence it is tentatively inferred that it is somewhat older than that. The appearance may however be entirely deceptive, since the one rock gives rise to abundant mica when deformed, and the other furnishes little or none, nor any other mineral which promotes foliation. Hence the same amount of deformation would produce a better foliated rock in the former case than in the latter, a rock which would appear more greatly deformed. GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 4! Picton gramte. This is the latest, most extensive, most inter- esting, and most important of the intrusives of the region. It is named from Picton island (called Robbins island on the map) where it is most extensively quarried. It is, however, best and most extensively exposed on Grindstone island and would have been named after it except for the fact that the whole name was too long, and the term “ Grindstone granite” possibly misleading. It is extensively exposed also on the west end of Wellesley island. Abundant dikes of it appear on the mainland of the Alexandria sheet, cutting the Alexandria granite gneiss and the Grenville schists, but the main mass falls short of reaching the shore. It does reach the mainland on the Clayton sheet, how- ever, judging from the exposures of the Precambric inlier up French creek, and may have wide extent here under the Paleo- zoic rocks. Across the border in Canada it seems to have large exieme toueh if mas met yet been differentiated from the Laurentian in mapping. If, however, we are correct in correlat- ing the granite at Kingston with this rock, a bathylith of consider- able extent is implied. : The general rock is a rather bright red granite of quite coarse grain. It varies much in this respect however, and much of the border rock is of much finer grain, as is also true of the general run of the dikes which radiate out from the mass. To a certain extent this diminution in apparent size of grain is due to mash- ing, but certainly the major part of it is a primary difference. Red feldspars (microperthite, microcline and oligoclase) con- stitute 75% or more of the rock. Considerable quartz is usually present and is frequently characterized by a slightly bluish cast, which makes a helpful diagnostic feature of the rock. Horn- blende and biotite are sufficiently abundant to show prominent black spots in the otherwise red rock. In the finer grained border varieties and dikes, these black minerals retreat, quartz becomes somewhat more prominent, and the rock appears more acid. The general rock, however, does not impress one as a particularly acid rock for a granite, and this impression is borne out on analysis (given in a later section). The rock of the inlier to the south of Clayton, and that at Kingston are correlated with this granite with some reserve. The Kingston rock is a red granite of almost identical appear- ance with this, agrees closely in composition, and the only hesi- tancy felt in the matter is-owing to the distance separating the two areas. In all likelihood the rock can be carried across on 42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Canadian islands to the mainland and thence west to Kings- ton, but until this has been done some reserve must be felt in making the correlation. The rock near Clayton differs in con- taining no quartz, and in being somewhat more mashed than the generality of the rock. It is in fact an acid syenite rather than a granite. Otherwise the two are exceedingly alike, and | since the granite itself is low in silica for a granite, approaching a syenite in that respect, but slight variation is needed to cause the disappearance of the quartz. It must be borne in mind, in inspecting the maps, that the boundaries drawn between the Picton granite and the Laurentian are in the. highest degree conventional. They are of the same vague sort as those between the Laurentian and Grenville, but even more vague than those because of the similarity of the two rocks. The fine grained dikes of the Picton are exceedingly like the acid dikes sent out from the Laurentian, and it is almost an impossible matter to tell which rock is in excess. On the other hand the maps do show the chief areas of the two rocks, bring out the fact that the one is younger than the other, and show their relative distribution and extent as accurately as possible in rocks of this kind. That the rock is the youngest of the intrusives of the region is indicated in several ways. It shows less sign of mashing than do any of the others, that is its unmashed central core is rela- tively much larger. Besides its abundant inclusions of various Grenville rocks it contains also frequent masses of granite gneiss of Laurentian type, and sends abundant dikes into similar rock where bordered by it, as it is locally on both Wellesley and Grindstone islands; and also it contains inclusions of an augen gneiss which is absolutely identical in character with the rock of the Alexandria syenite. Such age for the rock then seems to us in the highest degree probable, though it falls somewhat short of actual demonstration. Dikes of the granite are thought to range widely in the rocks east and south, though no attempt to indicate this upon the areal maps has been made. They are believed to be numerously present in the green schist belts of the western part of the Alexandria quadrangle, and also in the granite gneiss of that quadrangle. Even as far east as Alexandria Bay broad dikes of acid, usually fine grained, granite occur abundantly, cutting the granite gneiss all to pieces, and often inclosing sharp inclusions of it. We have never seen inclusions of this type held abun- GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 43 dantly in the aplite dikes of the granite gneiss itself, and regard the granite of the dikes as likely Picton. The contact relations of this rock with those adjacent are of much interest. It was apparently richer in mineralizing fluids than any of the other intrusives, and gives rise to interesting contact rocks, to be described in the succeeding section. But the field relations are also most important and interesting. While mapping Wellesley and Grindstone islands it quickly caught our attention that the abundant inclusions with which the Picton granite is everywhere charged were arranged in belts, that is, along a given line the inclusions were all quartzite, along an adjoining line they were all amphibolite, along another nothing but granite gneiss inclusions appeared. It was also seen that these belts had northeast-southwest trend, concordant with the general rock strike of the region, and that further the . individual inclusions to large extent retained their original orientation and dip, notwithstanding the intrusion. Our strikes and dips, read on the rocks in the field, gave absolutely con- cordant results as we passed from one inclusion to another, results also concordant with the readings obtained on the same rocks beyond the reach of the intrusion. We were able to map the original belts of Grenville quartzite and schist, and the intrusions of Laurentian granite gneiss, as accurately as though the Picton granite was not present, so little had they been dis- turbed by the intrusion. An attempt has been made to bring out these facts upon the geologic maps. We could only account for the phenomena on the assumption that we have exposed here the very roof of this portion of the bathylith, the abundant inclusions representing masses but just loosened from their original place, not greatly sunken, and preserving unimpaired their original orientation. If this be the correct interpretation, the locality furnishes a fine illustration of the general phe- nomenon. . Other intrusions. While the above furnish the only examples of intrusions of considerable size in the region, there are many others of small size, mostly too small to map, and which it seems hardly worth while to describe in detail. These are chiefly of granite gneiss, and are regarded for the most part as of Laurentian age, and as representing comparatively small upward protrusions from the general roof of the great mass of Laurentian granite gneiss which is believed to underlie the entire district, except where broken through by the later intrusions. A good 44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM illustration is that of the granite gneiss in the extreme southeast corner of the Alexandria sheet, which forms a wonderful cliff along the Indian river. In quite a number of localities syenitic rocks were found, always of trifling extent, and with field relations wholly indeterminate. At the west end of the upper bridge at Theresa, is a small intru- sion of gabbro, which is but little mashed, and has some features of interest in that it recalls the anorthosites and gabbros of the general Adirondack region, and is the only representative of these rocks seen here. It is a dark colored rock, showing numerous, glittering, lath-shaped feldspars up to an inch in length, on broken surfaces. It is made up of feldspar (labradorite), augite, hypersthene and hornblende, with considerable magnetite, and a little pyrite and apatite as accessories. ‘The feldspar constitutes from 60 to 70% of the rock. In composition therefore it is distinctly a gabbro, though with more abundant feldspar than the usual Adirondack gabbro. Yet, in spite of the coarsely lath-shaped feldspars the structure is more nearly that of a gabbro than a hyperite, recall- ing in this respect the anorthosite-gabbros farther east. Diabase. Cutting all the other Precambric rocks of the region, occasional dikes of trap rock are found. The fact that they cut all the other rocks shows that they are younger, but it can also be shown that they are much younger than the other igneous rocks, though nevertheless older than the Potsdam sandstone. They are found only in the form of dikes, which are lava-filled fissures that in general represent plugged channels of ascent of the molten rock, leading downward to some source of supply of the material, and tending upward toward the surface. The dikes have chilled borders, showing that the inclosing rocks were compara- tively cool and hence at no great depth beneath the surface at the time of solidification. Furthermore they show no sign of having undergone the kind of deformation which all the other igneous rocks have experienced in greater or less degree, a kind which takes place only at considerable depths. Since the dia- bases cooled much nearer the surface than the granites and syenites, a long time interval of surface erosion during which a considerable rock thickness was worn away from the surface. must separate the two. In the district mapped these dikes have a somewhat unequal distribution. They are most abundant on Grindstone island, seven having been noted there, mostly of large size, none of them less than 20 feet wide, and ranging from that up to 100 feet in the case GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 45 of the dike numbered 1 on the map. Two have been found on Wellesley island, the wider of which measures 30 feet. Seven have been found on the mainland of the Alexandria sheet, in rather widely scattered distribution, and in general much narrower. None have been observed on the Theresa sheet. Smyth has described them as abundant on the Canadian mainland and islands in the vicinity of Gananoque, hence in the near vicinity of Grindstone island, which would seem to have been the chief center of activity. For petrographic details the reader is referred to his account which, though based on Canadian material, also describes these accurately.? The dikes trend in various directions, from northwest around through north to northeast. Smyth states that those seen around Gananoque trend chiefly to the north, and were all cutting granite. It is to be noted that all those trending northeast, in our district here, are cutting Grenville rocks with general northeast strike, while all the dikes cutting the igneous rocks trend north or northwest. This is also true of two of the dikes cutting the Grenville, but in both cases the Grenville is in comparatively small bulk, and entirely inclosed by igneous rocks. The dike directions are therefore appar- ently determined by preexisting structures in the rocks, by the strike in the Grenville, and by a joint set in the igneous rocks. Small masses Of Grenville rocks did not suffice to change the direction of dikes passing across them, the ignecus rocks here being the deter- mining factor. Though they give no evidence of having been severely deformed, yet the rock of the larger dikes does show evidences of considerable pressure. Many of the feldspar crystals are distinctly bent, and both the feldspar and augite of the rock shows evidence of strain by their undulatory extinction. In this respect they contrast with the diabases of the eastern Adirondacks, which show no such strain effects. The eastern dikes also have chiefly east-west trends, differ somewhat in mineralogy, and are more numerous and widespread; and are also separated from this area by a wide regicn in which such dikes are absent. We seem here therefore to be dealing with a wholly different center of igneous activity, and a much less extensive one than that farther east. Owing to their size and comparative freshness these dikes have a potential value in the region as a comparatively accessible source of good road metal. } Contact rocks. The contact effects of the igneous rocks upon the Grenville sediments, and vice versa, may be grouped under three TNE Y. Acad.: Sci. Trans. 13:200-14. 40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM categories, effects produced upon the igneous rocks themselves, effects of the igneous rocks upon the sediments whereby rocks of intermediate composition are produced, and effects produced upon the sediments by the injection into them of fluids from the igneous rocks, fluids rich in mineralizing agents, and of quite different com- position from the general mass of the igneous rock. Bleaching of gramite by limestone. In the early stages of the work it was noted that, while granite dikes and knobs of all sizes were of frequent occurrence, cutting the Grenville limestone wherever exposed, in all cases the granite was white, nearly as white as the limestone in fact. The granite of the bathyliths is, however, uniformly of red color, as are also the dikes in rock other than limestone. This led to search for limestone contacts along the mar- | gin of the Antwerp bathylith and of the smaller granite intrusions of the Theresa sheet, when it was found that in every case the margin of the granite, adjacent to the limestone, was turned white. It also proved to be the case in subsequent work that whenever, in passing over granite country, a whitening of the rock was observable, directly beyond crystalline limestone was sure to be found. It also was found that the general granite of the Antwerp bathylith had had singularly little contact effect upon the limestone, pure, unchanged limestone lying directly in contact with the granite in most cases, and that the dikes also had had no contact effects, so that the rather unusual condition was presented of granite-limestone contacts in which the granite was the rock showing contact effects, not the limestone. Study of the white granite, both chemically and in thin section, affords no explanation of the change. The white granite is in general somewhat more acid than the red, but that is believed to be nothing more than an expression of the general fact that the dikes which radiate out from the bathyliths are more acid than the main mass, whether they be red or white (they are usually red in all rocks except the limestone), and that the granite also is apt to become more acid near the margins. A little tourmalin is sometimes devel- oped in the granite where white, but it also developed elsewhere. The change seems to consist merely in a decoloration of the feld- spar, changing it from red to white; that of course on the as- — sumption that the red color of the feldspar is original and not a later coloring due to slight alteration. In that case, however, it is difficult to understand why both feldspars, of the white granite as well as of the red, should not have undergone the alteration; this seems in fact so highly improbable, that we seem justified in regard- GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 47 ing the color as beyond question original. The red color which so many feldspars possess is usually ascribed to ferric oxid, though in general without any definite proof in the matter. In such case the loss of color might be ascribed to simple reduction of the iron, but what reducing agent the limestone might furnish is a difficult prob- lem and greenish, rather than white, feldspar would likely result. Analyses of both white and red granites are given on a later page, where the matter will be somewhat further discussed. The chemical differences between the two rocks are but slight, and we are in doubt whether in any recognizable respect they are due to influence. of the limestone. ‘The field relations are, however, perfectly clear, and susceptible of no other explanation. Mixed rocks. Rocks which seem definitely of intermediate com- position between the intrusive and a sediment, to be due to the intimate penetration and final digestion of the latter by the former, and which show all stages in the process, occur as the result of action of granite upon amphibolite and upon quartzite. In the former the action is chiefly seen in the case of the amphibolite inclusions which so abound in the granite gneiss, and which are found in all stages of being first penetrated by films of the granite and later slowly absorbed by it. The process has already been described; so has the gradation of granite into quartzite which is found in some localities and which seems only explainable on the assumption of production of a border zone of true mixed rock between the two. Contact rocks.. These, as here understood, result from the injec- tion into the sediment of fluids from the igneous rock which contain only certain of its constituents instead of all, and which may, and often do, differ very materially in composition from the rock itself. The injection is apt to be more or less local, here much, there little, or none at all; the injected fluid may differ in composition at different points along the border of the igneous mass; the bordering rocks themselves differ from place to place, and finally the various igneous masses are quite sure to differ among themselves in the character of their mineralizing fluids. Since we have here three separate granite bathyliths, to say nothing of the syenites and smaller granite masses, and Grenville rocks of great variety of composition, — the opportunity for contact action of diverse sorts is exceedingly good. Green schists in Alexandria. Reference to the geologic map of the Alexandria quadrangle will show, to the south and southwest of Alexandria Bay, three northeast-southwest ridges of Grenville schists. These are cut out on the north by the granite of the 48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Alexandria bathylith, though there is a zone between the two in which exposures are poor and infrequent. They are separated from one another in part by tongues of Potsdam sandstone, and in part by low, marshy valleys in which no rock outcrops appear. The exposures, however, cover an area of several square miles, and extend to a distance of at least 3 miles from the edge of the bathy- tith. The schists are everywhere cut by dikes of granite, most numerously as the granite is approached. While chiefly of the Alex- andria granite gneiss, it seems to us that dikes of the Picton gran- ite are also present numerously, though it is difficult to arrive at certainty in the matter. Certainly they are present in the granite eneiss itself. Nowhere else in northern New York have we seen just this type of schists, except as occasional occurrences of small extent and bulk. We are disposed to regard them as contact rocks, produced by the action of the granite upon what were, prior. to the intrusion, somewhat impure limestones. We are disposed also to re- gard the Picton granite dikes as especially influential in the action. It must be frankly stated, however, that there are certain difficul- ties in the way of this view, and they will be later summed up. The schists are well banded and foliated and range from light to dark green, or greenish black, in color. They are usually of finely granular texture though these alternate with somewhat coarser grained bands. These latter show poorer foliation and are mottled green and pink in color. Narrow, dark red bands some- times appear, due to subsequent infiltration of ferric oxid. At times the green minerals become scant, and the rock then has a light red to pink shade. Narrow bands of black amphibolite and of finely micaceous schist also appear, and an occasional thin quartz- ite band. But the bulk of the series is of green schist. Granite dikes and dikelets abound everywhere, cutting across or parallel with the bedding, in the latter case often forming a good injection gneiss. The dikes are of fine, granite gneiss, of coarse granite, of yet coarser granite pegmatite, or of quartz, the first most abund- ant. In composition these green schists are essentially feldspar-pyrox- ene rocks, the latter of green color and responsible for the general hue of the rock. Actinolite is commonly present, and very abund- ant in some of the bands; it is the only amphibole noted in the schists, except in the occasional amphibolite bands. Epidote is often present, though far less common than the actinolite. Some layers hold frequent, small, light colored garnets. Small, scattered, black tourmalins occur throughout the rock in all exposures. GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 49 Small titanites abound in the rock, magnetite and hematite appear in varying quantity, with pyrite, apatite and zircon as other acces- sories. Quartz is present in many of the bands but seldom in any great quantity and often wholly absent. The feldspar is in part micro- cline and in part plagioclase (andesine-labradorite) ; some micro- perthite is usually found also, and often much feldspar not char- acteristically marked. In addition to the above minerals the rock nearly always con- tains calcite, and this in steadily increasing quantity as the dis- tance from the granite bathylith increases. The rocks from the schist inlier in the Potsdam due east from Omar, average 20 to 26% of calcite; in the long ridge just to the north of this it occurs in large, though somewhat less amount; while in the ridge north- west of this, and nearest the granite, much of the rock shows but little calcite, only the coarser, mottled beds having it in quantity. The calcite is coarsely crystalline, in sharply bounded individuals, and clearly formed at the same time as the other constituents of the rock. : | | The mineralogy of the schists strongly suggests contact effects, the tourmalin, actinolite and epidote being especially suggestive in this respect, none of them being normal Grenville minerals, away from the immediate vicinity of igneous rocks. The green pyrox- ene also is an abundantly formed contact mineral in the Grenville, though not so distinctive of contact metamorphism as the others. These, with the constant presence of calcite, give an impression that we are here dealing with a limestone belt much changed by contact action, with the granite and pegmatite dikes which abund- antly penetrate the series as the source of the mineralizing fluids. The fact that these green schists, though here present in great bulk, are not a usual member of the Grenville succession in the general region, also suggests a local cause for their presence. It would seem that a series so thick could not but occur repeatedly elsewhere were it an ordinary member of the general series. Sim- ilar rocks do occur in small bulk in the general schist series north of Millsite lake, but their small amount here but emphasizes the bulk of the other occurrence. As opposed to this suggestion of contact origin, the breadth of the belt and the distance it extends from the granite margin, its general uniformity of character, whether in contact with a dike or at a considerable distance from one, whether near the granite margin or remote from it, (the only observed difference 50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM being in the amount of calcite, and that a very slow and gradual change), seem more suggestive of regional than of contact meta- morphism. On this view the belt would consist of original impure limestones and calcareous shales, metamorphosed to the pyroxene- feldspar-calcite combination, and with the tourmalin, actinolite and epidote alone due to the later contact action. While unable to definitely decide between the two, the first seems to us the more probable. It is possible that the granite is close in place under- neath the whole belt. In our view, then, the belt is due to the con- tact action of an especial granite, its localization being thus ex- plained, acting upon a limestone series of considerable thickness, and certainly somewhat impure at least, as shown by the bands of quartzite, amphibolite and mica gneiss within it. Part of the reg- ular Grenville succession of the area consists of alternating thin beds of limestone, various schists and an occasional quartzite, and it would seem as if such a combination might well be turned over into a group like that of the green schists by contact metamorphism. This would be all the more likely if acted upon by two successive, — granite injections as is supposed to be the case here, since dikes of Picton granite are believed to be present. The coarse pegmatite dikes of the north schist ridge, which furnish well crystallized specimens of orthoclase and specular hematite, to be found in many mineral collections, have already been described by Smyth. | Tourmalin contact zones in Alexandria. The Picton granite is found cutting Grenville quartzite and amphibolite, but no other members of the series, and the same is true of its known dikes; that dikes suspected to belong to it cut other members has just been seen. This granite seems to have been much more potent in tour- malin-forming capacity than any other granite of the region and its contacts with the Grenville on Grindstone and Wellesley islands are characterized by narrow tourmalinized zones which Smyth has clearly described, as follows: Along their margins these dikes frequently show much black tourmalin and this is usually most abundant in the very narrow ones, in which the imperfect crystals of tourmalin interlock across the entire width. At the same time the schists along the contact become impregnated with fine, granular tourmalin, producing strips and irregular areas of a lustrous ‘black rock. The remarkable feature about these contact zones in the schist is their extreme ir- regularity in form and extent, and their entire independence of the magnitude of the accompanying dike. A dike of granite a foot wide lop cit. p. rQ4. GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 51 may have no contact zone, while a mere thread of granite a few feet distant, may be bounded on each side by a band of the tourmalin rock 2 or 3 inches wide. Again, the tourmalin, in- stead of forming a continuous band, appears in lumps and bunches of every conceivable shape, irregularly scattered along a dike, and sometimes extending several inches away, at right angles to the course of the dike. Tourmalin is also at times developed in the quartzite as well as the schists, but not in the same definite manner. It is not at all certain that dikes from the Alexandria bathylith are excluded from the category of rocks producing this contact effect. In many cases the dikes from the two bathyliths can by no possibility be distin- guished from one another. In addition to these bands and bunches of abundant tourmalin, developed in this localized fashion, more scattered crystals of tourmalin, of the same evident origin, range much more widely through the rocks. Smyth dissents. from the view that the Picton granite was espe- cially influential in the formation of these tourmalin zones, and in other contact phenomena. He points out that, in his belief, the tourmalin zones are most abundant at the extreme east end of Wellesley island, quite remote from the Picton granite, though with the Alexandria bathylith near at hand; also that the Alex- andria bathylith is much nearer the Alexandria green schists than tae Picton, Ele therefore regards the Alexandtia bathylith as the most important granite of the region in producing contact ef- fects. We are not sufficiently certain of the truth of the opposite view to urge it, and simply chronicle the matter as one on which we mildly disagree. It is not a matter of great importance in the interpretation of the geology of the region, on the general features of which we are in absolute agreement. Contact amplubolites. Adams has recently shown conclusively that, in central Ontario, amphibolite occurs as a result of intense contact alteration of Grenville limestone by granite, limestones pass- ing into rocks in which pyroxene, hornblende, feldspars and scapo- lite appear in increasing quantity up to final disappearance of cal- cite, and with final entire replacement of pyroxene by hornblende and scapolite by feldspar.2 We have had the privilege of going over his territory with him, and fully agree in his conclusions. Per- haps the chief interest attaching to his work is the explanation thereby afforded of the abundance of inclusions of amphibolite in the Laurentian granite gneisses, where cutting the Grenville rocks, lop cit. p. rgo. 2Adams, F. D. Jour. Geol. 17:7-18. 52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the scarcity of inclusions of other types, and the invariable utter absence of limestone inclusions, notwithstanding the abundance of limestone in the formation. Beyond doubt many of these in- clusions represent limestone fragments altered in this fashion. In- tense alteration, however, seems necessary, and that perhaps fur- nishes a reason why the comparatively small fragments caught up in the granite mass are so uniformly changed over, while at the contacts the change is much less obvious, or common. In our dis- trict here we have amphibolite inclusions everywhere in the granite gneisses, but no instances of the conversion of pure limestone into amphibolite along the contacts, similar to those in Ontario. There are, however, one or two instances of similar alteration on a small scale, in connection with narrow bands of limestone and small granite intrusions. The most clearly shown of these is right in the village of Theresa, at the road metal quarry near the lower bridge. The rock quarried here is a contact phase of the limestone cut through and through by granite dikes. The chief rock is green _ in color and consists of pyroxene, titanite, feldspars and calcite, the latter running as high as 50% of the whole in the portions of the rock most remote from the dikes. In contact with these, however, the rock is black, consists chiefly of hornblende and feldspars, though with a little remaining pyroxene and calcite, and has nearly completed its transformation into amphibolite. Very near at hand is the pure limestone band shown in plate 2, and there can be little question but that the green rock of the quarry is an altered phase of that, and no question at all but that the green rock is changed into amphibolite by the granite. On a small scale then it is a change identical with that described by Adams. Contact rocks of the Antwerp bathyhth. In so far at least as the portion of the Antwerp bathylith included within the mapped district is concerned, the contact action of this granite is but slight, and it would seem to have been quite deficient in mineralizing agents, though as effective in the production of mixed rocks as the other granites. The dikes and stocks of white granite run every- where through the limestones without affecting them any, except in trifling amount in a few localities, nor does near approach to the margins of the bathylith produce any observable change in the Grenville rocks. In the case of dikes of granite pegmatite however, some contact action is the rule, coarsely micaceous rocks being the usual ones produced. Locally the mica becomes very-coarse and in well formed crystals, so much so that at one locality north of Theresa an attempt was made to mine it commercially. The mica GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 53 is of light brown color, in the coarser varieties very light brown, resembling muscovite, though it seems undoubted phlogopite. _Scapolite is also an abundant mineral in these zones, a phlogopite- scapolite-calcite rock being the usual combination. This is not one of the customary types of Grenville contact rocks in the general region, though the common one here. There are two other types of contact rocks which occur in small quantity within the area here, though common enough elsewhere, which call for brief attention. They occur in the district east of Redwood where Grenville rocks of all types are cut by small gran- ite masses. One is a heavy, basic, black rock, weathering rapidly, and composed chiefly of green pyroxene and black hornblende, with a little graphite, considerable pyrite, and some 154% of calcite re- maining. Heavy, pyroxenic rocks of this type occur throughout the Adirondack region at limestone contacts, though usually not so hornblendic as this rock. The other rock consists of large, gray green pyroxenes set in a felt of tremolite needles, with rather abundant pyrite as the only accessory mineral. Such tremolite rocks occur not infrequently in the Grenville, the tremolite quite commonly altering to talc. The especial interest attaching to this particular exposure is that the tremolite rock is developed at the contact of granite against Gren- ville rusty gneiss, and seems quite certainly a result of the con- tact action of the one upon the other. So far as we recall, just that type of contact action has not heretofore been noted in the region. Great Precambric erosion The Grenville rocks are the only Precambric sediments in the region, and are of very early Precambric age. The remaining rocks of this age in the district are all igneous, and there is no evidence that any later Precambric sediments were ever deposited here- abouts, though it is possible that some such were deposited and subsequently worn away. ‘The Precambric rocks of the present surface, both sedimentary and igneous, present characters which, so far as we know, ate only given to rocks under conditions of high pressure, and at least moderately high temperature, conditions which in general prevail only at considerable depths below the surface. All the igneous rocks except the diabases give evidence that they solidified well beneath the surface, and the deformation of both these and the sediments is of deep-seated type. It is, however, not 1Tt is of the second order and with very small axial angle. 54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM quite so prominently of this type as in the case of the corresponding rocks of the central and eastern Adirondacks. We are forced to argue that, when these rocks were deformed, a considerable thick- ness of other rock overlay them, which thickness was subsequently worn away. This surface wear goes on very slowly at best, and must have been continued through long ages, yet was completed before Potsdam deposition began. The time involved is many mil- lions of years, in all probability a rock thickness of at least a mile or two was removed, and yet at the close the region was pared down to a surface of comparative smoothness. Much Grenville has thus disappeared, the tops of the igneous bathyliths are gone, together with whatever of younger rocks may have been present above them. The diabases were intruded toward the close of this long period, since plainly they solidified not far beneath the surface. PALEOZOIC ROCKS 1 The Paleozoic rocks of the district, for mapping purposes on maps of this scale, are separable into six quite distinct lithologic units, which in large part coincide with the subdivisions of these rocks made long ago by the early geologists of the State. These are, in order of age from below upwards, the Potsdam sandstone, Theresa dolomite, Pamelia limestone, and Lowville, Black River and Trenton limestones. Above the last named the Utica and Lor- raine shales come in, but these nowhere reach the map limits, their northerly boundaries being found on the Watertown and Sacketts Harbor sheets, next south. The basal member of this sedimentary series, the Potsdam sand- stone, was deposited upon the worn surface of the Precambric rocks, and in order to properly describe the sandstone it is neces- sary to present in some detail the character of this surface. Precambric surface underneath the Potsdam That the surface on which the Potsdam sandstone was laid down was far from being an even one was clearly stated by Smyth, in his report on the district.” That a similar irregular floor is present in many parts of Canada, of the upper lake region and of northern New York, has been shown by many observers. There is therefore nothing novel in the features to be described, but they are worthy of somewhat extended descrip- 1By H. P. Cushing. 2N. Y. State Geol, roth An. Rep’t, p. r100-1. Zo61 ‘ojoyd ‘Surysng “qd “H ‘“yWAYeq oyueis dioMjUYy oY} JO Sqouy [[eUls [eIoAVS PUR ISIeT DUO Sul -MOYS ‘JSVdyJNOS SuUTYOOT ‘esotoyyT, JO Jsvoyyos soi € AjJIvou Wolf; Uye} MoTA “AIJUNOD ,, GOUY ojULIS ,, oY : 3) Se ahal 3061 ‘ojoyd ‘sulysng ‘g “H ‘9jsuri -penb elipuexejy ‘Aeq emoddiyy jo yynos jo qseva sopiul € “SuIpue] stojsiOy ‘ssoq o}UeISs V L a3e[d GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 55 tion since it is very exceptional to have the evidence as abundant and as clearly shown as it is here. The evidence of surface irregularity is of threefold nature, (a) that given by exposures of direct contacts, (b) that given by the tracing of the lines of contact of the Potsdam and Precambric, even without exposures of the actual contact, and (c) that given by the topography of the present Precambric surfaces, since it can be shown that these surfaces are substantially those upon which the Potsdam was originally deposited; in other words that the Potsdam iPa(Uemveime parc away trom the Precambric over part-of the district, its numerous outliers testifying to its former presence over the whole and to the recency of its removal where now absent. Where the Potsdam has been removed the Precambric surface disclosed is one of low ridges and valleys, with general northeast- southwest trend. The ridges are low and with hummocky surface, and the valleys are broad and shallow, and developed on the weak rocks (such as the limestones and weak schists) or on lines of structural weakness (as along lines of sheared and shattered gran- ite). ‘The extreme of relief does not much exceed 100 feet, and is generally less. The quartzites, resistant gneisses and some long and wide granite dikes constitute the ridges. In the relatively ele- vated country occupied by the igneous bathyliths the surface is of the knob and basin type [pl. 6 and 7]. The numerous granite dikes and small bosses which cut the limestone and are resistant to weathering, diversify the valley bottoms. Hence a large part of the area consists of slopes, and extensive flats do not appear. The surface underneath the Potsdam is precisely of this sort. The smaller Potsdam outliers are usually mere remnants remaining in places where the floor was lowest and the sandstone thickest. The larger outliers cover both high and low ground. The Pots- dam resists wear, and hence usually presents cliff fronts at its mar- gins, showing thicknesses of from 20 to more than 60 feet of sand- stone, yet even with these thicknesses the summits of the outliers are often overtopped by neighboring granite knobs. The evidence of the occasional inliers of Precambric rocks in the Potsdam is even more obvious. The two small inliers east of Goose bay (Alex- andria quadrangle) along the road from Alexandria Bay to Chip- pewa Bay, have their tops at the same level as that of the sandstone plain in which they lie, yet a 20 foot thickness of sandstone shows at the Potsdam margin, just to the northward. This line of evi- dence might be pursued at great lergth but since it is less conclusive than are the other lines the above will suffice. 56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The second line of evidence is that obtained in following and mapping the long Potsdam boundaries. A single example, that of the Potsdam margin along the west bank of Indian river in the southeast corner of the Alexandria sheet and for 1 mile southward on the Theresa sheet, will serve as well as a multitude of illustra- tions to indicate what the evidence is. The section is convenient since it has a horizontal base, the edge of the Indian river marsh. The Potsdam faces the river in a prominent bluff which, when it comes down to the marsh level, as it frequently does, forces the pedestrian to take to the swamp, so that the walk is not recom- mended as a pastime. But the unbroken cliff margin renders accu- rate mapping of the Potsdam base possible, and underneath it Pre- cambric exposures are numerous. At the south end of this section, on the Theresa sheet, inspection of the map will show the Potsdam coming down to the river level in a point. Going northward it soon runs up the bank until the base is 40 feet above the river, with Grenville limestone outcrops showing beneath, then it returns to the river level and again rises, repeating the performance three times within a mile of distance. Soon after passing on to the Alexandria sheet the sandstone retreats prominently up the bank and back from the river, showing a 60 foot thickness of limestone underneath, then returns to marsh level, withdraws 30 feet up the bank, comes back again forming a point, retreats quickly for 60 feet up the bank and again returns to the river, all the while with limestone underneath, cut by occasional granite dikes, so that all these oscillations merely represent irregularities of the limestone surface. Northward from this last point of reaching the river, however, the limestone is cut out by granite: gneiss, and this turns the Potsdam straight up the bank and out to the road, with a rise of more than 100 feet in the level of the Precambric surface. Equally striking are the oscilla- tions in level of the same margin when followed southward on the Theresa sheet, and this margin is easy to follow, using the railroad asa base. There are many other excellent examples, since this sort of thing is the rule throughout the district. The mapping of the Potsdam base is thereby rendered laborious but nothing can be imagined more beautifully demonstrative of the character of the surface on which the Potsdam rests and its identity with that of the surface from which the Potsdam has been removed. Lastly there is the evidence given by the actual contacts. There are quite a number of these, more than the writer has seen in the entire remaining border of the Adirondack region. Besides the actual contacts there are a host of others where but a few feet of ith pe dw w 4G) - § a kT SHEEN Ray ai Br cioait S) Z061 ‘ojoyd ‘Sulysny ‘qd “H ‘soyqqed yyM posseyo Ajsulsieds st sty], “posodxs ouojspues 94} JO 9defIns JopuN [enjoe ay} Fo Uorj10d e SuIAva] AeMe Ud}e2 JeYMoUTOS UIoq MOU sel] IUOjJSOWT OY} Pu “OpIsT]Iy Suoysoumy suidojs Aesdsojs B UO pajtsodap Sem wWepsjog WL Spiiq Joddn oY} JeoU IORI[IA SOO], Ul BUOSOWIT] op[IAUOI4) UO JUOJspULS lWepPs}Og JO joRJUOD 6 a1eId = ets | soit. apa Plate 10 Upper view. Contact of Potsdam sandstone on Grenville limestone just north of lower bridge at Theresa, near the point at which plate 11 was taken. The Potsdam base rests against the side of a limestone hill, and the boy is seated on the limestone, with his hand resting on a portion of the Potsdam base from which the limestone has been removed. Lower view. Nearer view of a portion of plate 9 showing the rotted limestone and the portion of the Potsdam base which projects out beyond it owing to removal of the limestone. H. N. Eaton, photo, 1908 Plate 8 Contact of the Potsdam sandstone on Grenville quartzite by roadside I mile southeast of Redwood, looking west. The quartzite is somewhat contorted but its dips are not steep, from 20-30°. The upper view is from 15 feet distance, the lower with the camera only 4 feet away and showing only the lower layer of the Potsdam clearly. H. N. Eaton, photo, 1908 GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 57 space intervenes. ‘This is due in part to the many miles of Postdam boundary in the region and in part to the scanty glacial deposit and hence abundant rock exposures. Many of the exposed contacts are on slopes, and on limestone, and it is these that are most unusual ‘and interesting. : | Plate 8 shows Mr Eaton’s photographs of a contact on quartz schists, 1 mile southeast of Redwood on the Rossie road, a contact already described and figured by Smyth. The contact here is on the summit of a ridge of quartzite, hence is fairly horizontal where photographed, though the level drops away on each side at no great distance. Two fine examples of contacts on slopes occur within the limits of the village of Theresa, along with others almost as good. One of these is by the roadside a short distance west of the upper bridge. A high Potsdam cliff borders the roadway for a few rods, with the base of the formation well below the road level. At the west end the base comes up to the road level, the cliff sets back some 20 feet, and the base rises sharply to from 12 to 15 feet above the roadway, exposing impure Grenville limestone underneath. The recess faces north, and is beset with shade of trees so that satisfactory pho- tography is difficult, the view shown in plates 9, 10 being unsatisfac- tory. The surface of deposit has an angle of slope of 45° or more, and the soluble limestone has been somewhat eaten away from beneath the sandstone, so that several square yards of the actual basal surface are exposed. This is set with occasional quartz peb- bles, but these are sparse, and except for them the rock is quite like that above. The sandstone is very massive and irregularly bedded, with a semblance of parallelism to the floor of deposit as is usual with the basal Potsdam hereabout. The other contact mentioned is exposed on the north side of the river just above the lower bridge. The map shows a small Potsdam outlier there, whose narrow, southwest edge appears as a low cliff by the roadside [pl. 11]. The ground level falls toward the river and at the south end of the cliff the base of the sandstone is exposed, resting on Grenville limestone underneath. Plate 10 is a photo- graph of this contact. At the south the cliff bears sharply away from the road and by turning into the yard of the first house to the south a fine exposure of the south margin of the outlier is obtained, showing the Grenville limestone rapidly rising in altitude and car- rying up the Potsdam base with it. The limestone surface falls not only to the west but also to the north. As in the previous case a part | 58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of the sandstone base is exposed, owing to solution of the limestone beneath. A sketch of the relations here is given in figure 1, the Fig. 1 Potsdam contact on Grenville limestone, just north of lower bridge at Theresa, showing the sloping ; Grenville hillside on which deposition took place, and the sand-filled cracks in the limestone. arrow showing the camera position for plate 11. It is at this locality that the best examples of sand extending down into widened joint cracks in the Grenville limestone were seen. At the east end of the outlier the limestone is cut out by granite gneiss, whose summit is 20 feet above the top of the sandstone, hence terminating the outlier in that direction. Of course the full original thickness of the sand- stone is not present in the outlier, but only the mere basal portion, and formerly the sandstone extended over the granite as well. Another interesting contact occurs along the Potsdam front, 214 miles northeast of Theresa. From a previous northeasterly trend the front here turns and for a mile and more runs northwest across the strike, crossing a prominent granite ridge and then dropping 70 feet in level into a limestone valley. Near the turn the contact sketched in figure 2 is shown. A low knob of ferruginous, quartz schist projects upward into the Potsdam to the amount of 20 feet. Fig. 2 Potsdam contact on Grenville quartz schist, 2% miles northeast of Theresa. The much contorted and steeply dipping schists constitute a ridge over 20 feet high around which the Potsdam was deposited. The Potsdam here is more evenly bedded than in the cases described at Theresa, the bedding abutting squarely against the sides of the knob. Its small size as compared with the long ridge slopes of the other contacts is thought to be the chief reason for this difference. GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 59 There is an occasional quartzite pebble along the contact, otherwise the sandstone is normal, and gives no sign of basal conditions. ~ Around to the left the slope of the knob steepens. There are occasional bands of coarsely crystalline, purer quartzite in the schists which are far more resistant to weathering. On this steep front one such layer projects as a cornice with the sand-filling beneath, as shown in figure 2. Photographic attempts here proved wholly un- satisfactory. Besides the contacts on larger slopes, of which the preceding a Fig. 3 A nearer view of a portion of the Bere: here are a number of (piers sPoving «local sieep clove of the minor examples of the sort, chiefly sistant quartzite layer. as filled hollows of the limestone surfaces. A sand-filled hollow of the sort appears at the top of the limestone quarry near the Theresa boat landing, and is shown in plate 2. In the section there shown the hollow is about 6 feet deep and with twice that width at the top. Another example may be seen at the quarry just south of the Theresa depot, though the overlying sandstone is gone except for the small residual patch resting in the hollow so that its original size can only be guessed at. A considerable number of other examples have been seen, some merely sand-filled, others containing rock frag- ments as well. In all cases the cement is calcareous and the rock weak and easily removed. | The above evidence of the character of the surface on which the Potsdam was deposited, is of precisely the sort so convincingly set forth by Wilson in his discussion of similar features in Ontario.! In New York these features are developed in a belt of considerable breadth across the strike, showing a great number of ridges and valleys, with patches of overlying Potsdam, and with the relief in every case owing to differential erosion on rocks of varying resist- ance, atid im no case to subsequent folding. In this State exposed patches of residual materials resting on the old surface are more numerous than in Ontario, and these are in the depressions in all cases, showing that the depressions were in existence and served as receiving pockets for this material at the commencement of sand- stone deposition. The evidence is abundant, clear and convincing that the Precambric surface underneath the sandstone is precisely like that where the sandstone is absent, and that the present topogra- phy of the Precambric areas is that resulting from recent stripping * Wilson, A. W. G., Can. Inst. Trans. 7:146-55. 60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM away of the sandstone; in other words that it is the reappearance at the surface of a topography of tremendous antiquity. It further shows that this surface was little affected by the ice sheets of Pleistocene times, otherwise this identity of character could not have been so well retained. Except for the local accumulation of a very scanty amount ot residual material in small pockets in the depressions (and this almost exclusively quartzose) the Precambric surface, as it passes under the Paleozoics, is remarkably free from signs of surface decay, even the weak rocks being astonishingly fresh. In this respect also the conditions are like those noted in many places in Canada and the United States, as described by numerous observers. The relief of the Precambric surface under the Potsdam is much ~ the same in character here as elsewhere along the northern and eastern borders of the Adirondacks, but is apparently less in amount than it is further east, where there are differences in level of three © or four hundred feet at least. The evidence there, however, is com- plicated by the presence of numerous large faults and is by no means so well shown as it is here. On the south border, in the Mo- hawk valley region, the surface was much smoother than here, ex- ceedingly smooth in fact. Potsdam sandstone The first deposits laid down upon the worn Precambric surface consisted of medium grained, quite pure quartz sand, now firmly cemented to sandstone. On the Alexandria quadrangle the forma-. tion attains a maximum thickness of about 125 feet. This thickness diminishes both southward and westward, but shows a steady in- crease to the eastward of the area mapped. Within that the thick- ness of the sandstone is not greatly in excess of, or else does not quite equal, the variation of level shown by its floor, so that it is subject to continual variation from place to place, and thins to 20 feet or less over the old ridge summits. On the Theresa quad- rangle, and on Wellesley island, it locally failed to overtop the highest of these, and the Theresa dolomite is found resting directly on the Precambric. The bulk of the formation consists of a very pure quartz sand, quite thoroughly cemented with a silicious cement. The general color is light gray to buff, weathering white, but in the northern portion of the mapped area there is much red, or banded red and white rock in the lower half of the formation. The bulk of the formation is evenly bedded, and the greater part is thick bedded, 9061 ‘oJoyd ‘surysny ‘d ‘H ‘UMOP PIR] seM JT YOIYM UO IOOY 94} JO AjlrepNsSorIt oy} 0} onp jsed ur AyurejzI99 st YoryM ‘suo -en}is YOns UI Weps}og 9Y} JO JojoVIeYyo poppoqg AjIe[NSo1I~ AOA 9Y} So}eISNI]I MOIA OY], “ooejins Sut -do]s pue svjnsetit Ue UO SUTaq }OeJUOD JY} ‘posodxd St 9UOJSOUN]T I{[IAUSIN) SuUIATIOpUN 94} YIIM 49v]U09 S}I MOIA 9} JO JYSII oY} 0} JSN{ “OSpIIq JOMOT 94} Jo YjIOU Jsnf oSeT[IA esata], Ul suOJspueS Wepsjog II 9}e[q Zo61 ‘ojoyd ‘surysngd -g ° eae : dH Iyslr sui PprewNo7 worneo0 -1eyd pod i es ; [SIP 1YSIj[s 942 Os{e {i 2 DSP pOg! AU IS SE MON BSED SUP HOO] Tessn Gp, YO. Ulow: Were Sipe eee nae Be | Od UL mo peosEy PEELE RE LEELA AEE IETS ee oe Sane TRO RELATE ND ZI 9ie[d r ~ iy ay ie de 2 A ; ‘epeuey) fo AVAING [eorsoyoary) Aq ojoyd pury yoy {uy Ww oH Aq ojoyd puey-ysry = MOTA YORo UL APMPIUI SMOYS _,SUOTJIIOMOI 901},, 94} JO o[duexe yUaTJooxe UY ‘IYM YIM popued JeyMoWOS ‘sUOJSspURS Pot ‘OTIVJUG “Nvopry Jeou “Aqivenb dAodjssiop[r4) ‘auojspurs wepsjog — = C1 91e[q GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 61 with thinner bedded upper portions; where deposited on sloping surfaces the lower portion is often very massive, and quite ir- regularly bedded with a rude tendency to conform to the surface of deposit [pl. 11, 12]. Cross-bedding is present somewhat but in by no means prominent development. Ripple marks, however, abound.- Much of the silicious cement has been deposited as secondary enlargement of the original quartz grains, the slides fur- nishing some beautiful examples of this. Occasional long, cylindrical concretions (?) of a telegraph pole type appear in the sandstone, and are called “tree trunks” by the populace. As seen in cross section on rock surfaces they appear as circular portions of the rock, from 1 to 3 feet in diameter. On cliff sides they are long, vertical cylinders of sandstone. There is no perceptible difference in composition between them and the adjacent rock, but in every case the two are sharply separated by what may be for convenience styled a circular joint. No tendency to taper at the ends was noted, but the actual terminations were in no case seen. They certainly reach a length of 20 feet and may be considerably longer. Unless they represent a type of concre- tionary structure,.we are wholly at a loss to account for them. If so they certainly are an unusual type both because of size and shape, and because of having the same composition as the inclos- ing rock. In plate 13 is shown an excellent example of one of them, in the Potsdam sandstone at Rideau, Ont., seen by us in 1908 under Dr Ami’s guidance. This has been already described by the Canadian geologists, and is here introduced because, while corresponding precisely to the New York examples, it furnishes a much better illustration than any there seen. Only at the base and the summit does the sandstone vary from these general characters. Basal conglomerates are present in but scant amount, with small thickness and patchy distribution. The majority of contacts show only a few, scattered quartz or quartzite pebbles in the basal layer of the sandstone. There are, however, frequent patches of coarse, basal conglomerates, especially on the Theresa quadrangle. They seem in all cases to occupy local hol- lows in the limestone valley floors, and to occur only where the limestone contained thin quartzite bands, or granite dikes. The pebbles. are all sizes up to that of the fist, and show little or no rounding in most cases, being usually very angular. They con- _ sist chiefly of quartzite and of white granite, though in some cases pebbles of red, quartzose sandstone also occur. The cement is pwllewee VWekoy, Soc. Can.. irans.,.ser. 2, v. 9, § 4, p. 103. 62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM calcareous in all cases. The angular form of the pebbles is due to the close jointing of the quartzite bands and granite dikes in the limestone, and the trifling amount of wear -exhibited points to residual accumulation in the hollows, whereby they were pro- tected from abrasion. The very small supply of such material, taken in conjunction with the small amount of decay shown by the underlying rocks, is a factor of much significance. On the Alexandria quadrangle, both on the mainland and on Wellesley and Grindstone islands, a more extensive and bulky con- glomerate occurs, which has already been described by Smyth [see pl. 14].1. The most impressive display of this conglomerate known to us is that in the cliff along the St Lawrence in the extreme north- east corner of the Alexandria sheet where, rising sharply from the river level it reaches a hight of 20 feet above it. Here, as usual, the deposit has a calcareous cement which dissolves away, loosening the cobbles, and giving an exterior resemblance to a cobbly mo- raine, while the adjacent river bottom is solidly paved with the material which has already weathered out. The deposit is every- where very coarse, a cobble deposit rather than a gravel. In the exposure here the cobbles run up to a foot in diameter, and average probably 3 inches. They are round to subangular and consist ex- clusively of Grenville quartzite. Smyth notes the presence of a few small pebbles from the tourmalin contact zones, but agrees in asserting the entire absence of granite and schist material, though several of the conglomerate outcrops rest on these rocks. In addition many of the exposures show that the conglomerate is not strictly basal, but has pebbleless sandstone beneath, up to a thickness of at least 10 feet; and in all cases the abrupt transition from sand to coarse cobble at both upper and lower contacts is one of the most interesting features of the deposit. Its coarseness, its abruptness, its horizon, and the lack of variety in material of the cobbles render it an exceedingly difficult deposit to explain. There occur, in a few localities on the Theresa quadrangle, small patches of a dark red, very thoroughly indurated and vitreous sandstone which thus differs from the general run of the sand- stone of the district, though similar rock occurs in the formation — elsewhere, as in the Clarkson quarry at Potsdam. As it occurs here it seems to be distinctly older than the general formation. All seen of it was absolutely basal, nowheré was the thickness as great as I foot and it is only visible at actual exposures of the Potsdam contact on the Precambric. But all the sand-filled cracks seen in LOOP. Cit. Dp; Loo: go6r ‘ojoyd ‘pyryosrey "T “H ‘Ie 9ysnoyjooyss jo yynos pur ‘ueIATA Jurog eysoddo Ajivou “puvjst Aaqsoqja\A ‘oJVIewO[su0d wepsjog VI 911d GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 63 the Grenville limestone were filled with this type of sandstone, and it occurs frequently as pebbles in the otherwise basal conglomer- ates, being the only sort of sandstone occurring as pebbles in such situation. The thorough induration seems certainly to have taken place before the pebbles were formed. There seems no way to ac- count for these conditions except to assume that there was an earlier deposit of sand in the district, likely in no great amount, and chiefly in the Grenville hollows, deposition ceased, thorough cementation followed and then erosion; in other words that there was a slight amount of deposition here in earlier Potsdam time, separated by an erosion unconformity from the bulk of the forma- tion. Occasional beds of black, and of mottled black and white sand- stone appear in the upper part of the formation. The coloring matter is entirely in the cement, which is silicious, and is wholly discharged at a low red heat, hence likely organic. In the uppermost to to 15 feet of the formation calcareous ce- ment reappears, foreshadowing the change which gave rise to the overlying dolomite formation. In consequence of this the rock weathers easily to a weakly holding, brownish sand, usually mottled with spots of deeper brown. This portion is mostly thin bedded but terminates above in a very massive layer, 2 feet thick or more, which is comparatively resistant owing to its massiveness; and this heavy, brown mottled layer often full of small, rounded sand concretions, makes a convenient summit for the formation, owing to its rela- tive prominence. The first layer of gray dolomite usually comes in directly above, and if not, no more than a foot or two of sand- stone intervenes. The two formations grade into one another, so that any line of subdivision must be an arbitrary one. We have drawn it at the base of the first dolomite layer to appear, and this closely corresponds with the summit of this thick sandstone. There is, however, some reason for the belief that the base of the upper, calcareous sandstones should be made the division line. With the exception of the long trails of an unknown animal, to which the name of Climactichnites has been given, some of which have been found in the sandstone 1 mile west of Theresa, no fossils have been found in the formation in this district except in these upper, calcareous beds.1 In these a large linguloid shell (iden- tied by Ulrich as Lingulepis acuminata) is quite com- mon, and passes up into the lower beds of the Theresa formation. 1 Woodworth, J. B. N. Y. State Pal. Rep’t 1902. p. 959-66. 64. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Theresa and Tribes Hill formations These formations, as mapped, consist chiefly of rather thin bedded layers of blue gray, sandy magnesian limestone which are exceed- ingly tough and resistant rocks when fresh, but weather rapidly to an ocherous, rotten stone [pl. 15]. The basal portion, through a thickness of 15 feet, carries frequent beds of weak, calcareous sandstone in alternation with the limestone, the sandstone being identical in character and appearance with that forming the sum- mit of the Potsdam. These form apparent “ passage beds ” between the sandstone and the limestone above. The overlying beds consist chiefly of magnesian limestone though occasional sand streaks con- tinue throughout, and there is a varying and, in general, consider- able amount of sand in most of the beds. While this tends to have a streaky distribution, it seldom wholly gives out. The sand is chiefly of quartz, certainly go% of it consisting of that mineral, but grains of feldspar, mica, magnetite, pyrite, titanite and zircon are also present and all in quite fresh condition. All the rock effervesces freely with acid, and the thin section shows this to be chiefly due to the presence of calcite cement, most prominent in the more sandy portions of the rock. A prevailing and highly characteristic feature of the rock is the appearance, on freshly broken surfaces, of lustrous calcite cleavages. These are due to the coarsely crystalline character of the calcite cement, the crystals ranging from %4 inch to 1 inch in length, and inclosing a number of sand grains, so that they are veritable sand crystals. This lithologic peculiarity is a feature of the rock of this horizon across the entire northern border of the Adirondacks. As mapped the general thickness of the formation over the district is from 60 to 70 feet, but the thickness is variable. The thickness steadily diminishes to the west and to the south in the same fashion as the Potsdam’s. But there are also local variations in thickness which are to be ascribed to wear of its summit during an erosion interval which separated its completed deposition from the beginning accumulation of the succeeding formation. For instance it has a thickness of but 20 feet near the north end of Perch lake (Theresa sheet) though recovering - its normal thickness of 60 feet both to the east and to the west: and that the diminution in thickness is because of the wearing away of its upper beds with the production of a shallow valley is shown by the fact that the overlying formations thicken here by the same amount that the Theresa thins, and that the thicken- R061 ‘ojoyd ‘surysny “gq “TY yaoy SI WOT}I0S TO JYUSIpy ‘UMOYS [JOM IIe WIOF Poppodq JOUUTY} OJUT Joy}VaM 0} ADUDPUD} ITOY} YIM c ‘spoq OAIsseUl ATITe} OY], “JSOM SUTYOO] ‘o][fAvsIveFeT JO JsoM [IU T [TBM Yoold Ul 9UOSOUT] [ITF] Soqsay, GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 65 ing is due to the presence of basal layers which disappear to the east and west as the Theresa thickens. The field work in the district was completed, and this report written under the impression that this comparatively thin forma- tion was a unit and all of the same age. In its lower portion Lin- gulepis acuminata is abundant; above, specimens of a rather large, flat-coiled gastropod occur abundantly in places; occasional cystid plates are found, and unrecognizable traces of other forms. The horizon seemed the same as, and the beds identical with beds which directly overlie the Potsdam sandstone all across northern New York, a length of outcrop of 150 miles, and which have heretofore been called “ passage beds” between the Potsdam and the Beekmantown, the Beekmantown being the formation which overlies the Potsdam for much of this distance. In the belief that no Beekmantown was present here, and yet that there was here a formation which required mapping separate from the Potsdam, the name Theresa was proposed for this magnesian limestone formation, it being well exposed in the township of that name. Recent work by Ulrich, Ruedemann and myself in the Mohawk valley has, however, tended to throw much doubt upon the entire correctness of this position. We find that the formation in the Mohawk valley known as the Little Falls dolomite, and heretofore regarded as of Beekman- town age, is made up of two unconformable formations, the uppermost of which is of lower Beekmantown age, and is a quite fossiliferous limestone which we are proposing to separate and. call the Tribes Hill formation; while the underlying dolomite formation is of Upper Cambric (Ozarkic) age. Now the Tribes Hill formation contains, as one of its fossils, a gastropod (named fweucoroOmaria hunterensis by. Cleland) which Ulrich regards as identical with the gastropod from the Theresa formation; it also contains numerous cystid plates, and these he also regards as identical with those from the Theresa. The _Lingula, however, occurs in the Little Falls dolomite, instead of the Tribes Hill formation, and is in fact a characteristic Ozarkic fossil all around the Adirondack region. Ulrich’s present view is therefore that the Theresa formation, as here mapped, is in part of Ozarkic, and in part of Tribes Hill (lower Beekmantown) age. If this be true there must be an undetected unconformity between the two portions. In the field the only lithologic difference noted between the upper and lower portions of the 1Geol. Soc. Am. Bul. 19 :155-76. 66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM formation was the absence above of the sandstone beds which are interstratified with the limestones in the lower division. Otherwise the formation constitutes an apparent lithologic unit and appears as such on the maps; and it seems better to leave it as such instead of attempting to subdivide it at this juncture. If, however, it does consist of these two separate formations the necessity for the name largely disappears, and it is rather a pity that it was ever suggested. It is likely, however, to prove use- ful as a name for the considerable thickness of alternating beds of sandstone and magnesian limestone which everywhere im- mediately overlie the Potsdam sandstone in northern New York, and which should be mapped separately. There is then some reason to believe that there is present in this district a thickness of from 20 to 30 feet of limestone of lower Beekmantown age, quite like a similar thickness of rock at the summit of the Little Falls dolomite at Little Falls (where an unquestioned unconformity exists between the two), and hold- ing the same fauna. This is to be separated from the Little Falls dolomite under the name of the Tribes Hill limestone, and the same separation needs to be made in this district. The Theresa formation is to be restricted to the alternations of sand- stone and magnesian limestone which constitute the lower half of the formation as mapped. Age of the Potsdam and Theresa formations. These two formations, with a maximum thickness in this district of from 125 to 150 feet only, represent the attenuated western edge of forma- tions which, in the Champlain valley, have tenfold that thickness. Their distribution shows that they were deposited in a subsid- ing trough along the present St Lawrence valley line, and that their deposit commenced at the east and worked westward. Everywhere along this line we find a sandstone beneath, grading upward into an overlying dolomite, and everywhere the horizon is characterized by the presence of the fossil Lingulepis acuminata. Everywhere along this line too there seems to be a break between these formations and the next formation above. The two formations seem then to be indissolubly bound together, to rest unconformably on the Precambric, and to be separated by an unconformity from the overlying formation. Since the formations are thin in the immediate district, and are thinning to the west and south, it follows that we are here in the vicinity of the western edge of the subsiding trough. Just how far west its deposits extended can not be told. According to GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 67 Ells the Theresa formation outcrops on Howe island, and on the Canadian mainland to a point midway between Gananoque and Kingston! In the district about Kingston, as seen by us in 1908 under Dr Ami’s guidance, the Potsdam is certainly present, though no Theresa was seen. The Potsdam is in patchy distri- bution, in depressions of the old Precambric surface, and is still thinner than it is at Clayton. Ihe Theresa may never have been deposited here, or it may have been thinly laid down and then eroded, prior to Pamelia deposition. But it certainly seems as if, here at Kingston, we are very near the westerly end of this old, St Lawrence, Upper Cambric trough. On the basis of its fauna and position the Potsdam sandstone of northern New York was classified as of Upper Cambric age by Walcott, and in this he has been followed by practically all geologists. One can start on the formation at Lake Champlain and follow it without a break to Clayton, as a single continuous sandstone formation. Unquestionably its deposition commenced first at the east, and gradually extended westward; unquestion- ably the basal portion in the western sections is younger than the base in the east. But, so far as known to us, there is not a scrap of evidence to show that the deposition of sand had ceased, and that of dolomite begun on the east, before sand deposit had even commenced on the west. And even were this true, as is quite possible, there is certainly no evidence of such considerable age difference between the eastern and western ends of the formation, as to warrant their classification in two entirely dif- ferent geologic periods, the one end Cambric, the other Ordovicic, as has been recently done by Professor Grabau, who classes the ~ etsdam tete as ot Beekmantown age.2". That seems to us a stretching of facts to fit theory that is certainly not permissible. It is quite possibly true that the sandstone deposition slowly worked its way westward by progressive overlap, as the trough continued to subside; but the evidence seems to us to indicate clearly that the length of time consumed in the process is far less than Grabau would have us believe. We have now gathered evidence from many points in New York indicating that every- where the Beekmantown formation is unconformable on what lies beneath. Detailed study of section after section has shown the presence of the unconformity in every case; and though the *Roy. Soc. Can. Trans., ser. 2, v. 9, § 4, p. 97-108. 2 Science, n. s. 29 :356—58. 3 68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM work is only begun we are strong in our belief that uplift of the whole region preceded the Beekmantown. _ The type locality of the formation, at Potsdam, is precisely midway between Clayton and Lake Champlain. If one of these ends is of Potsdam, and the other of Beekmantown age, it is of interest to conjecture what the age may be at the type locality. To the writer it has long seemed clear that the sandstone and the overlying dolomite must be classed in the same period, not only here on the west but everywhere in northern New York.. By the overlying dolomite is meant not the true Beekmantown formation, but the dolomites which underlie this and which, the evidence indicates, underlie it everywhere unconformably. These dolomites have heretofore been classed with the Beekmantown and constitute Brainard and Seely’s “ Division A”’ of that forma- tion in the Champlain valley, with the underlying “passage beds.” But while the beds of this division grade downward into the Potsdam they are separated by an unconformity from the beds of “ Division B” just above, as recently shown by Ulrich; be- cause of which the writer has recently argued that, since this unconformity is everywhere present in New York, marking the emergence of the entire region, it forms the logical plane of division between the Ordovicic and the group beneath. If this contention be well founded, the Potsdam and Theresa formations, the Little Falls dolomite, and “ Division A,” fall into the upper Cambric group of present classifications. Ulrich has, however, recently proposed a different classification, involving the in- sertion of a new group of period rank between the Cambric and Ordovicic, for which he proposes the name “ Ozarkic,” and into which the Potsdam and Theresa formations would fall. For many reasons the writer is in accord with this suggested innovation. Pamelia formation In our district here the Theresa formation is everywhere over- laid by the limestone group here called the Pamelia formation. This is in some respects the most interesting formation in the section since it represents the thinned, shoreward edge of a formation which, while widepread elsewhere, has not hereto- fore been recognized in New York, and is in existence as a sur- face formation in the State only in this immediate area. Be- cause of its wide separation from other areas where the forma- tion appears, and because it represents only a local facies of the GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND. ISLANDS REGION 69 mere upper part of the whole, the giving of a local name seems justified, and in Pamelia township the entire thickness is exposed. . As has been shown there is plain evidence of an erosion interval between this and the Theresa, indicative of uplift to above sea level and of erosion on this land surface. As will be later shown this is an important and widespread break. The comparatively slight amount of erosion is indicative of low altitude for this land surface. _ The renewed depression which initiated Pamelia deposition came in from the southwest instead of from the east, involving change in the direction of slope of the surface. The formation consists essentially of limestone, though much of it is not pure limestone. It is conveniently separable into lower and upper divisions which differ in lithologic character. The lower division has always a sandy base, followed by alterna- tions of black limestone, blue limestone and gray (somewhat -magnesian) limestone, often with shaly partings between the beds. The upper division contains much whitish, earthy lime- stone, with interbedded dove limestone and gray magnesian limestone. The black limestone characterizes the lower, and the earthy and dove limestones the upper division. In the western portion of the Theresa quadrangle the forma- tion has a thickness of 150 feet or more. Traced eastward across the quadrangle it thins considerably, and on the eastern margin appears to have less than half this thickness though here the drift is so heavy, and exposures so poor, that no good measurements can be obtained. However, 60 feet seems a generous allowance for the thickness here, and it is the beds of the lower division which have disappeared. Following the formation westward, across the Clayton quad- rangle to its disappearance beneath the river, the belt of outcrop Swerves somewhat to the north, and the formation thins somewhat in this direction also. If it could be followed due west across the quadrangle it would no doubt hold its thickness or even perhaps increase. It is the northward shift that causes the thinning. A thick- ness of at least 80 feet is maintained to the river however, and the formation passes across into Canada with this amount not materially reduced. The shore lines of this depositional basin then lay not far distant to the east and north of the district and the invasion of the sea must have come from the opposite direction. | In the immediate district the formation rests everywhere on the sandy dolomites of the Theresa. In the district about Kingston it 70 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM rests either on the Potsdam or on the Precambric. In the upper - Black river valley it lies on the Precambric. All these formations are capable of furnishing sandy material and hence the sandstone . base of the formation is but natural. The Theresa, however, is less capable in this respect than are the other formations, thus account- ing for the fact that this sandy base is a less prominent feature of our area here than it is in the others. | Hereabout, the best section of this basal material seen is at the foot of the Pamelia inface, 2 miles east of Perch lake) Wineresa sheet. The small creek there runs over a massive, bared layer of Theresa dolomite, above which a 14 inch layer of the same shows in the bank. Above this lie weak, greenish sands and sandy shales, with an exposed thickness of some 714 feet, the basal layer some- what pebbly and more massive than the remainder. The cement is calcareous and abundant. ‘The rock is therefore weak and seldom exposed, yet in a sufficient number of places, and sufficiently well to show that it everywhere underlies the limestone throughout the district with a thickness of from 10 to 15 feet, much of which is shaly. It is a more calcareous, and vastly weaker rock than even the most calcareous beds’ of the Potsdam, and quite different from it lithologically ; so unlike in fact that the two rocks can be readily distinguished from one another by lithologic character alone through- out the whole region. This becomes of importance in the region around Kingston, where in our opinion both sandstones are pres- ent but without the separating Theresa formation. The Pamelia basal sandstone rests, now on the Potsdam and now on the Pre- cambric, is less shaly and attains greater thickness than on the New York side, and shows at times astonishingly coarse basal conglomerate. In its green color, weathering to a red mottling, in its abundant calcareous cement, and in its weakness, it corre- sponds exactly with the New York rock, while the silicious Pots- dam beneath also corresponds with the Potsdam across the river in every minute lithologic detail, even in the “tree” concretions. In the upper Black river valley both Potsdam and Theresa are absent and the Pamelia rests on the Precambric. At Martinsburg the wonderfully complete section shows a thickness of 19 feet for the basal sandy portion, weak green sandstone, blotched with red, ‘abundant calcareous cement and with thin conglomerate at the base. Where thickest, the limestones of the lower division show, above the basal sandstones, beds of gray, magnesian limestone with fre- quent shale partings; these are followed upward by black, fos- siliferous limestones, holding a rather abundant marine fauna; then GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 71 succeed. alternations of blue limestone and gray, magnesian lime- stone, with occasional white; earthy beds, and with thin recur- rences of the blackish limestones with traces of the marine fauna; in the other beds the fossils are chiefly, or exclusively, ostracods. As the formation thins to the east and west the lower gray beds disappear, bringing the basal sands up under the black limestone: with further thinning this disappears in its turn, but at the same time the higher black layers seem to show increased thickness and prominence, so that where the lower division has been thinned to a few teet, as it has ovet much of the region, it‘is still character- ized by black, fossiliferous limestone. This lower division has a measured thickness of 70 feet in a nearly complete section by Perch lake. It is likely somewhat thicker to the west but probably does not exceed this more than I5 or 20 feet. A well near Stone Mills was drilled 125 feet in the formation without reaching the base, but drilling commenced in the upper division and how large a part of that is involved is not known, though likely 50 feet must be allotted to it. The upper division consists of alternations of white earthy lime- stone, and of dove limestone, with occasional beds of gray, and of blue, hard, subgranular or subcrystalline limestone; there is also some yellow, earthy limestone, and a horizon where a reddish tinge is likely to prevail. The summit is chiefly of dove limestone. The earthy limestones hold numerous nodules of coarsely crystalline calcite, which attain quite large size in some of the upper layers, with diameters of from 3 to 5 inches. Celestite nodules also occur, but much less frequently. Much of the upper division is thin bedded, weathering into small, yellow stained slabs an inch or two in thickness; and the stone walls of this thin material which linc the roadsides and separate the fields everywhere characterize the upper Pamelia country. The surfaces of many of the layers are covered with shrinkage cracks, especially in the upper part of the division. Sand grains also appear in some of the.white, earthy beds. Abundant Stylio- lites occur at certain horizons in the upper dove limestones. The evidence of estuarine, or lagoon deposition, with evaporating waters, occasional exposure of broad mud flats, and from time to time replenishment of the water from the sea outside, freshening it and bringing in traces of the outer marine fauna to mingle with the ostracod fauna of the lagoon, is very plain and conclusive; prevalence of somewhat arid climate is also suggested. The rock is very-like, and the climatic and depositional conditions very simi- 72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM lar to those which prevailed during the formation of the Siluric ~waterlimes of central New York. The thickest measured section of the upper division, 1 mile southwest of Depauville, Clayton sheet, gave a thickness of 82 feet. The contact with the overlying Lowville was shown, and the base of the section can not have been greatly above the base of the upper division. Near the river west from Clayton a similar thickness was found, though the upper part of the section was considerably in-_ terrupted. In all probability the thickness does not vary greatly from this over the entire map limits, with the exception of the eastern margin of the Theresa quadrangle. The thickness of the two divisions together then indicates a maximum of about 150 feet for the formation hereabout. The fauna of the formation consists chiesly of ostracods, which are found at all horizons, and Ulrich remarks on the absence in the formation of certain large sized species of Leperditia and Isochilina which occur in the Lowville above. The marine fauna of the lower division includes gastropods, cephalopods, lamelli- branchs, trilobites, corals and sponges. The most abundant and characteristtc form: is the coral’ Tetradium sy mimsegne: roides, which abounds in certain layers of the black limestone. The most common trilobite is a species of Bathyurus which is very like the common Bathyurus extans of the Lowville, but which Ulrich distinguishes as a different and unnamed species, which is a common Stones River form. Among the gastropods he identifies Lophospira perangulata, another Lophogpira, and a Helicotoma. The fauna as a whole is quite similar to that of the Lowville, though the differences are characteristic. Since the formation is a new one to the State the publication of a few detailed sections is advisable. The best continuous section of the lower division is found in the bed of a small creek which tumbles down the steep bluff face east of Perch lake (Theresa sheet), cutting the 400 foot contour where the figure 400 appears on the map. i White, earthy limestone in thin beds, often shaly looking ' 6” Brittle, tough, blue to blue black limestone, thick bedded . Ye Gray, ‘subgranular, magnesian limestone, weathering white Massive bed of blue, subcrystalline limestone Meee Massive bed of gray, magnesian limestone I I 5 Blue, subcrystalline limestone 1.8” Gray, magnesian limestone, two layers - FE Concealed 8 Finely laminated gray to blue gray, magnesian limestone, fine-line weathering on edges 10’ Concealed 10’ 3” + Black to blue black, fossiliferous limestone, upper 3 feet thin bedded, remainder fairly massive < = ‘ EE a a a ae ee re Plate 16 i eae ~ rina Ue ; Exposure 1% miles east of Perch lake, of limestones of the lower division of the Pamelia formation; about 6 feet of black, fossiliferous lmestone above and twice that thickness of gray, magnesian limestones beneath. hie Cusine, photo, ro07 GEOLOGY OF THOUSAND ISLANDS REGION 73 8’ Gray magnesian limestone, weathering whitish, fairly massive be- low, upper 2 to 3 feet thin bedded and earthy 1 6” . Curdled looking intergrowth of blue limestone and gray, mag- nesian limestone, the former weathering most rapidly with pro- duction of fantastic weathered surface IQ’ Alternating, gray, earthy, impure magnesian limestones, and thin, shaly looking partings, limestone weathering at times to a green- ish tinge, at other times whitish 2 Greenish to olive, calcareous shale Zs Greenish, calcareous sandstone, coarse, well rounded sand grains set in calcite paste Eee The lower 4 feet of the section belong with the basal, sandy por- tion of the formation, without any question, so that the actual base is nearly reached. Above is a thickness of 28 feet of im- pure, magnesian limestone before reaching the base of the fos- siliferous black limestone, the most characteristic member of the lower division. Plate 16 is a photograph of beds of this hori- zon exposed in the creek bed just north of the road 114 miles east of Perch lake. In the section here 14 feet only of gray magnesian beds are found underneath the black limestone, as against the 28 feet of the Perch lake section. A mile further east these have dis- appeared letting the black limestone down on the basal sand beds, or rather bringing them up to it. Judging from other sections the concealed 10 feet of the section is occupied by weak, earthy, thin bedded, whitish limestone, and the section would be capped by a very massive, blue, subcrystalline limestone which forms a strong shelf ‘everywhere through the district. The best sections of the upper division are all on the Clayton quadrangle. One measured up the bed of the small creek which tumbles down the bluff into the Chaumont river a mile southwest of Depauville is as follows: r 8 Brittle, light gray, subcrystalline limestone TOW meee elu in bedded, brittle limestone, mostly dove, but with beds of grayer limestone Massive layer of dove limestone 10 8” Trregularly bedded, ‘gray to white, earthy limestone, mostly thick bedded ; midway. is somewhat sandy sf Thick bedded, uneven, gray limestone a Thin bedded dove limestone in 3” to 6” layers 4 2” Gray white, earthy, irregular limestone, both thick and thin beds Go 40 Dark and Wieht-eray, brittle, subcrystalline limestone 1’ 8” Gray white, impure, earthy limestone 1 8 Brittle, blue gray, subgranular limestone Ee lOr Impure, earthy, white limestone, irregularly bedded Tr - Hard, blue gray, subcrystalline limestone ~ 3 On N 4 74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The section terminates downward 20 feet above’ the river level. Above, after a 10 foot gap, come 15 feet of thick and thin bedded, dove limestone, often mud cracked, and then the Lowville base, giving an 80 foot thickness to the section. It is not certain whether its base overlaps the summit of the previous section of the lower division or not, though it is thought not. But the uppermost 6 feet of that section belong to the upper division and the thickness is nearly the same as that of the impure, earthy limestone at the base of this section. Even granting that amount of overlap, the two sections taken together give a certaim thickness of 150 feet to the formation and this may need to be increased by from 10 to 20 feet. Another most excellent section is that given in a quarry up the river bluff 4 miles west of Clayton [pl. 17].