. a Ts
RRNA ER ESSN
Gy
Yy
YY Y; Y yi
WXHV
\ .
VW ANC
~~
MOQ
SN
S
SS
RAH
~~
\
SS SS \N
~
YU Y
Z YH
Yy tii
SANS NNN ES EET
RRR ERRORS BINS
N d e .
3 RSS QVQAIAY
SN
Per
Kee e*
‘New York State Education Department
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
64th ANNUAL REPORT
1Q10
In 2 volumes
VOLUME 2
APPENDIXES 1 (continued), 2-5
‘( y,
eZ Tionat mus! sEUN ee
TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE Lee 20.) 1901
ALBANY
UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
IQi2
STATE OF NEW YORK
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
Regents of the University
With years when terms expire
1913 WHITELAW Reip M.A. LL.D. D.C.L. Chancellor New York
I9gi7 ST CLraIR McKetway M.A. LL.D. Vice Chancellor Brooklyn
tg1g DanieEL BeacH Ph.D. LL.D. - —------- Watkins
1914 Puiny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. - —------ Palmyra
tg12 T. GuItForD SmiTH M.A. C.E. LL.D. - -— - - - Buffalo
IgI5 ALBERT VANDER VEER M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. Albany
1922 CHESTER S. Lorp M.A. LL.D. - - - ----- New York
1918 WittiamM NottincHamM M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. — — Syracuse
1920 EuGENE A. Puitpin LL.B. LL.D. -— - - - - - New York
1916 Lucian L. SHEDDEN LL.B. LL.D. - - - - - - Plattsburg
1921 Francis M. CARPENTER — — — — —--—--—----— Mount Kisco
NOP eeu IIe cos IE Je, = = === eS SH New York
Commissioner of Education
ANDREW S. Draper LL.B. LL.D.
Assistant Commissioners
Aucustus S. Downine M.A. Pd.D. LL.D. First Assistant
CHARLES F. WHEELOCK B.S. LL.D. Second Assistant
THoomas E. FINEGAN M.A. Pd.D. Tlurd Assistant
Director of State Library
James I. WveEr, Jr, M.L.S.
Director of Science and State Museum
Joon M. CrarKxe Ph.D. D.Sc. LL.D.
Chiefs of Divisions
Administration, GEORGE M. Wirey M.A.
Attendance, JAMES D. SULLIVAN
Educational Extension, WILLIAM R. Eastman M.A. M.L.S.
Examinations, HARLAN H. Horner B.A.
Inspections, FRANK H. Woop M.A.
Law, FRANK B. GILBERT B.A.
Library School, FRANK K. WALTER M.A.
School Libraries, CHARLES E. Fircu L.H.D.
Statistics, Hiram C. Case
Visual Instruction, ALFRED W. ABRAMS Ph.B.
Vocational Schools, ARTHUR D. DEAN B.S.
Se ales:
-N Wi NV2z2.
Se or New York
No. 55
EN SENATE
ANU AR zon one
64th ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
VOLUME 2
To the Legislature of the State of New York
We have the honor to submit herewith, pursuant to law, as the
64th Annual Report of the New York State Museum, the report of
the Director, including the reports of the State Geologist and State
Paleontologist, and the reports of the State Entomologist and the
State Botanist, with appendixes.
St Crain McKetway
Vice Chancellor of the University
ANDREW S. DRAPER
Commissioner of Education
148
Appendix 1 (continued)
Geology
Museum Bulletins 148, 152, 153, 154
Geology of the Poughkeepsie Quadrangle
Geology of the Honeoye-Wayland Quadrangles
Geology of the Broadalbin Quadrangle, Fulton-Saratoga
Counties, New York
Glacial Geology of the Schenectady Quadrangle
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y.,
under the act of July 16, 1894
No. 492 MEAIB VAIN NEA ING NCE APRIL I, IQII
New York State Museum
Joun M. CLARKE, Director
Museum Bulletin 148
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE
BY
C.E. GORDON
PAGE PAGE
MimMEROGMCHON: ..: +c k enim oe cee 5 | The Wappinger creek belt....... 48
Location and other general features die wishkall@imestones.- esse ee 70
of the quadrangle............. 6 | The ‘Hudson River”’ slate group 82
Topography .............-.0.00% 7 | Preglacial history of the drainage 96
WAM AC Cree see ais ck syaees WW Sects. el | (Saal geologyic ies. hy ieee 99
General geology................. 9 | Retreat of the ice sheet...... Dee ATOO
pices Becloele werk Ginna 4 7° | Postglacial erosion.............. 104
fevoee nse aie 0 in | Tnewiecentidepescon | a) 105
The Hortontown basic eruptive Other drainage featuresand adjust-
and associated metamorphic TITOINGS ics lovateneucn evens Gieolohekeearece eter 105
Re ee cd es WT Ah 37 Land forms A a rascal ce ae a area 105
The basal quartzite (Poughquag) 39 | Economic geology............... 106
The Wappinger (Barnegate) lime- Bibliography.) cane ee I1O
UOMO Myr ceata ay otal uacotead ab. simiss Holes vod ial 6 0X6 (=> Saaremaa RE A aux Giceorh Gy ashy 117
‘
ie
‘+ ay
;
i. re
" *
i &
- 4.
. - ‘
. . saa 8
‘ om :
F a é Hi
€ i br
Pu a
% i i)
.
OD
* aed i) i
i Bir
MD AS ate iets
; 7 Yr,
: Camry? Re
# ; ae ae
‘o, a Ac ¥ i iy J S4 i U
7 - ; mh ry
‘ eine ROR co ca ae ce a
7 Ai a, ol ah 7 neat ey acne 7 ¥ 7
New York State Education Department
Science Division, November 5, 1910
onmAndrew S Draper LL. D.
Commussioner of Education
Dear sir: I beg to transmit to you herewith a manuscript en-
titled The Geology of the Poughkeepsie Quadrangle, accompanied
by a geological map which has been prepared under my direction
by Professor Clarence E. Gordon. The work has been executed
with circumspection and accuracy and I recommend the publication
of the matter transmitted, in the form of a bulletin of this Division.
Respectfully
Joun M. CLaRKE
Director
STATE OF NEW YORK
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
COMMISSIONER'S ROOM
Approved for publication this 7th day of November 1910
Commissioner of Education
~,
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under the
act of July 16, 1894
No. 492 Ae BAIN RON] axe APRiLy I) 19nT
New York State Museum
JoHn M. Crarke, Director
Museum Bulletin 148
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE
BY
CLARENCE E. GORDON
INTRODUCTION
The preparation of this paper was begun at the suggestion of
Professor J. F. Kemp. The field work was carried on at intervals
during the summers of 1906—7-8-9. During the intervening win-
ters the extensive literature dealing with the geology of eastern
New York State, western New England and the areas of similar
rocks at the south was read with care.
A preliminary map of the quadrangle was prepared by a sum-
mer school party of Columbia University at work for a week under
the direction of Professor Kemp, Professor A. W. Grabau and Dr
C. P. Berkey. This was of great assistance in the field. ‘i
The writer owes much to Professor Kemp for kindly criticism.
Dr Charles P. Berkey has offered important suggestions. Par-
ticular thanks are due Professor John M. Clarke for a generous
interest which has made some of the field work easier of execution.
6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
LOCATION AND OTHER GENERAL FEATURES OF
THE QUADRANGLE
The Poughkeepsie quadrangle lies in the Hudson river valley
about midway between New York city and Albany. It falls
between parallels 41° 30’ and 41° 45’ north latitude and meridians
73° 45 and 74° oo’ east longtitude, and is therefore 175 emiles
long by about 13.2 miles wide. It embraces an area of about 230
square miles. The Hudson river crosses the quadrangle from
north to south near the western boundary. The river is slightly
deflected to the west at New Hamburg and forms the quadrangle
boundary at the southwest corner.
The larger portion of the area lies east of the Hudson in the
southwestern part of Dutchess county. At the very southeast
corner is a triangular bit of the township of Kent in Putnam
county. West of the river is a strip of Ulster county and a block
from the northeastern portion of Orange county.
Poughkeepsie, the county seat, is a city of about 25,000 inhabit-
ants. Wappinger Falls on Wappinger creek, Matteawan on Fish-
kill creek and Fishkill Landing on the Hudson, opposite New-
burgh, are important villages. Wappinger Falls and Matteawan
are manufacturing towns and each owes its size and importance
to the stream on which it is located. East of the Hudson the
region 1s chiefly a farming country and is well adapted to tillage,
grazing and fruit growing. West of the river the topography,
soil and drainage are peculiarly adapted to the growing of fruit,
for which the proximity of the river affords excellent climatic
conditions.
Dutchess county was settled very early in the history of the
State. The country is attractive. It is easy to imagine that im-
migrants voyaging up the Hudson through the inhospitable region
of the Highlands would have been attracted by the stretches of
open country which lay north of the rugged mountains.
The quadrangle is easy of access. Boats plying between New
York and Albany stop at Newburgh and Poughkeepsie. The New
York Central and West Shore lines, connecting with Albany and
the West, follow the banks of the Hudson. The former joins with
the Newburgh, Dutchess and Connecticut division of the Central
New England at Dutchess Junction and Fishkill Landing, and at
Poughkeepsie with the main line division of that road. At Pough-
keepsie it also crosses the Highland division of the New York,
tie a
SCALE OF MILES
(as Be Se)
a 40 20
75°
(pie
Fig. 1 Sketch map showing location of Poughkeepsie quadrangle
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE vy,
New Haven and Hartford. Ferries cross between Fishkill Land-
ing and Newburgh and between Poughkeepsie and Highland on the
West Shore Railroad.
NOP OGRARENY
East of the Hudson the topography is chiefly that of a rolling
upland of moderate elevation, which is due in part to the nature
and structure of the underlying rock formations as affected by
erosion, and in part to the mantle of glacial deposits.
Along the southern margin of the quadrangle are several rugged
spurs of the Highlands. These are bold, often precipitous, and
usually wooded. They are known as the Fishkill mountains, receiv-
ing their name from old Fishkill township, of which they are a part.
These mountains are made up chiefly of Precambric gneisses and
are flanked by and faulted with the Paleozoics of the valley.
The westernmost Highland spur is the northern extension of
Breakneck mountain ridge and the part within this quadrangle is
known as Bald hill (see plate 1). It has a maximum elevation of
1540 feet. The Mount Honness spur next east has an elevation
of 840 feet at its northern extremity, Mount Honness proper, but ©
reaches a height of 1300 feet near the quadrangle boundary (see
plate 2). A short spur east of Honness, with an elevation of
885 feet, separates it from Shenandoah mountain, which has a
maximum height of 1115 feet. East of Shenandoah mountain the
Highland mass attains an elevation of 1232 feet at “ Looking Rock,”
which is at the summit of the steep northwestern slope. This
spot is widely known because of its fine view.
North of the Fishkill mountains the rocks within the quadrangle
are principally shales, slates, grits, phyllites and limestones. ‘The
more metamorphic character of these strata as they are followed
eastward from the Hudson finds expression in the higher elevation
of the slate and graywacke in the northeastern part of the area.
Here the hills in places reach a height between 700 and 800 feet.
West of the Hudson the average elevation in the slates and grits is
greater than on the east of the river, often attaining 400 to 600
feet. “Illinois mountain,’ the northern extremity of Marlbor-
ough mountain, is 1105 feet high.
In contrast to the heights is the gorge of the Hudson, which
borings have shown reaches a depth near Storm King of over
700 feet.
19,0)
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
DRAINAGE
The Hudson river is the dominating factor in the drainage of
this area. ‘The principal tributaries of the master river within
this quadrangle come in from the east. The most important are
Wappinger and Fishkill creeks; of lesser importance are Casper
and Fallkill creeks.
Wappinger creek has its source near Pine Plains, some 16 or 17
miles northeast of Pleasant Valley, on the southwest of a narrow
divide that separates its headwaters from the valley of Shekomeko
creek. It has a general southwest course along a narrow limestone
belt, and finally enters the Hudson at New Hamburg. At present it
bears away somewhat from the limestone along its lower reaches
and flows across the slates, over which it cascades gently in several
places. At Wappinger Falls it makes a descent of about 60 feet
over the slates, and from this village to the Hudson, a distance of
about two miles, it occupies a drowned valley. It receives a few
small tributaries within the quadrangle, the largest of which drains
the slates southeast of Wappinger Falls and empties into the main
stream below the village.
Wappinger creek furnishes power at Pleasant Valley, near Titus-
ville, and at Wappinger Falls, and formerly was utilized at
Rochdale.
Fishkill creek is a somewhat larger stream and has a greater
watershed. It also drains a large part of the area just to the east,
where the main stream has its source on the western slope of
Chestnut ridge, a high mass of schist separating the Clove and
Dover-Pawling valleys. East of the quadrangle it receives an
important tributary with its source in Whaley pond. Sylvan lake
sends a small tributary into this stream near the eastern edge of
the quadrangle.
Several good-sized brocks join the main stream from the north.
Of these Whortlekill creek is a small brook which enters the quad-
rangle just east of Arthursburg, about a mile from its source. It
joins the Fishkill about a mile south of Hopewell Junction. Jack-
son and Sprout creeks are larger. The former drains the western
slope of the ridge between Lagrangeville and the Clove valley,
while the headwaters of Sprout creek extend to the narrow ridge
northeast of Verbank, whose eastern slopes drain into the Dover-
Pawling valley. Sprout and Jackson creeks join north of Fishkill
Plains and the stream formed by their union flows into Fishkill
creek, two miles north of Brinckerhoff.
Plate 1
ture, as seen from Mount Beacon
1C
t of the pi
he left hal
in ¢
f Bald hill, shown i
1ew O
°
=
}
A
Jodoid ssouuo py JUNOW St sinjord 9y1 Jo 4yoy
°Y} HO s.usUTID ayy, “weYyUaTy JO dSPT[IA ay} Ieau WOT uaes se
‘SUIEJUNOW []IYYSIy oy} Jo Inds SSouUO FT JUNOT Yi Jo Mara
Z aed
a
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 9
Several brooks which drain the northern slopes of the Fishkill
mountains and the valleys between them join Fishkill creek from
the south. Of these, the largest are those leaving the Highlands
through Shenandoah hollow and the valley of East Fishkill Hook,
and “Clove creek” south of Fishkill Village. Fishkill creek fur-
nishes power at Hopewell, Brinckerhoff and Matteawan.
Casper creek rises near the northern boundary and flows south-
west in a rather wide valley to the Hudson which it joins two and
one-half miles north of New Hamburg.
Fallkill creek drains a large area to the north. It flows in a
general southwest course to Poughkeepsie where it turns on itself,
and, making a large loop, flows north for one-half of a mile and
then west to join the Hudson.
Several brooks, but none of any size, drain the slopes on the west
of the Hudson.
There are no. natural lakes or ponds of conspicuous size within
the quadrangle. Those of any consequence apparently date from
the time Of the retreat of the ice sheet from this region.
GENERAL GEOLOGY
~The Fishkill mountains belong to the Highlands province of Pre-
cambric rocks. ‘These have their greatest development in Putnam
county just to the south. The spurs that have been mentioned
are the northern terminations of ridges of gneisses which have a
general northeast-southwest trend. Above Peekskill these gneisses
are continued across the Hudson into New Jersey. Eastward they
extend into Connecticut.
The summits of the Fishkill mountains, with those of neighbor-
ing ones at the south, present a fairly even sky line which may be
followed northeastward along the crests of the ridges of the younger
rocks. This general uniformity’ of level is believed by many to
mark a former peneplain in this region toward the close of Cretacic
time (see plate 3).
North of the Fishkill mountains are the younger rocks of the area.
In general, these do not now tend to climb far up the flanks of the
older masses. In most cases the two are faulted against each other
and the rocks of the mountains reach close to their bases. In a few
places the younger strata extend up a moderate distance on the older
rocks and are disturbed relatively little.
These younger strata rest unconformably upon the Precambric.
They are the southwestward representatives of the rocks of western
Massachusetts and Vermont and are now known to include strata
10 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
which range in time from the base of the Paleozoic to the upper part
of the Ordovicic period. Northeastward these rocks extend into
Massachusetts and Vermont and southwestward into New Jersey,
Pennsylvania and beyond.
Within the quadrangle they are of considerably lower average
elevation than the gneisses of the mountains. This reduced eleva-
tion is believed to represent the erosion that has taken place in
these rocks below the Cretacic level after the peneplain had been
elevated at the close of Cretacic time.
So far as now known, these younger strata have no later rocks
older than the Quaternary overlying them within the limits of the
quadrangle.
PREVIOUS GEOLOGIC WORK
Because of the extensive geographic development of these rocks
and their difficult geology there has appeared, during the last fifty
years or more, a large body of literature dealing with them through-
out their length and breadth. The work has been carried on under
the auspices of State and federal surveys and by private enterprise.
Work within this quadrangle was undertaken early in the history
of serious geological investigation in this country.
In 1843 W. W. Mather submitted his quarto report on the Geology
of the First District of the State of New York. This dealt
with southeastern New York and was the first important contribu-
tion bearing on the geology of this area. With the exception, per-
haps, of an excursion by Sir William Logan and James Hall in 1864,
which resulted in the assignment of the younger rocks of this and
neighboring areas to Logan’s Quebec Group, and which introduced
much confusion at the time, no other important contribution was
made until 1878.
In that year T. Nelson Dale discovered fossils in the slates at
Poughkeepsie. The fossils were assigned by Hall to the “ Hudson
River Group.” The find attracted the attention of Professor J. D.
Dana to the strata of southern Dutchess county. This eminent
geologist, what the time was working at the difficult stratigraphy
of western Massachusetts and the neighboring portion of New
York State, now traced the limestones from the north to the Hud-
son river, discovered fossils in them at Pleasant Valley, and dis-
cussed their general geologic significance.
Apparently through the influence and encouragement of Dana,
Professor W. B. Dwight began his fruitful investigations in the
Wappinger limestones of Dutchess county. Professor Dwight’s
papers were published at intervals from 1879 to 1900. His investi-
ooUvISIP 94} UL dInjord dy} Jo JYSI4 oy} UO UMOYs st Bury WIOJS JO IWOp Pepunos oy T, “ule;dauod
‘UIRJUNOW YuYVaIG Suoje PteMjsomyjnos UoOoveg JUNO WOT, MaIA VY
IPT) PIJIISStP 9Y} SUIMOYS “IOALL uOspnyy 9y} Ssoroe
€ 331d
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 1 bal f
gations greatly extended our knowledge regarding the age of the
Wappinger limestones, particularly those of the Wappinger creek
belt.
In 1886 J. C. Smock, as a part of a preliminary report on the Pre-
cambric rocks of the Highlands east of the Hudson, discussed the
gneisses of the Fishkill mountains. But notwithstanding these con-
tributions, the areal geology has not been mapped in detail up to
the present time.
St kAriGhAPrIG AE al Bins
SEDIMENTARY
PERIODS sO ERUPTIVES
Formations Terranes
Alluvium Recent
Quaternary Terraces :
Kames Glacial
Drumlins
(Unconformity)
‘“Hudson River’’ slates, B
grits and phyllites Utica?
Trenton
Ordovicic Wappinger limestones and| Trenton
dolomites, in part (Disconformity)
Beekmantown
—————————_—___———| Hortontown hornblende
(Disconformity ?) rock
Cambric Wappinger limestones and! Potsdam
-dolomites, in part yeas
Georgian
Poughquag quartzite Georgian
(Unconformity)
; Gneisses of the Fishkill Shenandoah granite
Precambric mountains and inliers of| ‘‘ Grenville ”’ Bald Hill granite gneiss
these rocks
tlt RC RIC GNETS Sas
DISTRIBUTION
Within the Fishkill mountains the boundary of these rocks, as
shown by the map, follows closely the lower contour lines of the
spurs.
The Glenham belt is an inlier of these rocks. It has the same
trend as the ridges of the gneisses in the Highlands and extends as
a narrow strip from a point just north of the carpet mill at Glenham
northeastward to “ Vly mountain.”
1The hill marked Fly mountain on the map is just southeast of what,
in this vicinity, is called Vly mountain, corrupted to Fly mountain. The
swamp just south of the eminence doubtless suggested the name (Vly-
swamp).
[2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
South of the Glenham belt, in the town of Matteawan, are two
smaller inliers of the gneisses connecting the Glenham belt with
the Highlands.
Between the rocks of the Highlands and those composing the
masses of inliers there are some differences which help to throw
light on the history of both. There are also marked resemblances
which apparently serve to clinch their relationship.
PROBLEM OF THE GNEISSES
The study of the gneisses speedily develops very puzzling prob-
lems, which in all cases may not admit of satisfactory solution. In
some way these rocks must express the several successive changes
which they have experienced. A complex history is suggested, but
all its events are not easy to trace.
PROMINENT STRUCTURAL FEATURES
The most impressive feature of the gneisses is the northeast-
southwest alignment of the ridges which constitute their outcrop.
Between the ridges are parallel longitudinal valleys. From the
published descriptions, these features, with some exceptions, seem
to hold for the entire Highlands and to extend southward into West-
chester county.
The gneisses are uniformly banded or foliated throughout their
entire breadth from west to east, and the strike of the foliations
in general follows the trend of the ridges. In a few places only
does the foliation approximate schistosity in any degree.
Over most of the area there is an easily distinguishable arrange-
ment in parallel stratalike masses which also follow the topo-
graphic features. These do not show an orderly repetition, though
masses of very similar mineralogy are irregularly repeated. Occa-
sionally more massive types occur, but these, too, seem to follow the
structural features just mentioned. The prevailing dip of the folia-
tion planes to the southeast imparts a strongly isoclinal character.
The ridges clearly date from Postcambric time. It seems rea-
sonable to infer that the other structural features just outlined
have a common origin and belong to an earlier epoch.
There is much evidence of extensive faulting which is developed
chiefly, or at least most prominently, along the strike. Such faulting
might easily account for the lack of orderly repetition of character-
istic rock types. Most of this faulting belongs to the disturbance
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 13
that produced the ridges. The gneisses clearly show the effects of
repeated orogenic disturbances.
In some places it is clear, from the position and structure of the
overlying younger rocks, that most of the features of the gneisses
date from Precambric time. Where the relationship of the basal
quartzite to the underlying gneiss is most plainly seen, as in the West
Fishkill Hook,' the latter stands at a high angle with a uniformly
northeast-southwest strike, while the quartzite dips at a low angle
with varying strike. In other places the discordance between the
dips and strikes is plainly discernible. The quartzite has been folded
relatively little in many places, and never within this quadrangle to
the extent shown by the gneisses. Faulting, instead of extreme
folding, occurred in connection with Postcambric movements within
the gneisses.
The early crystalline condition of the gneisses would have favored
faulting and shearing and would have prevented much later folding
within them. It is certain that the isoclinal character is of Pre-
cambric age.
It seems possible, therefore, in a large way, to apportion the
structural features of these gneisses as seen in the field among
Oro%ene movements of Precambric and later time. It is quite
uncertain how many different disturbances may have occurred in
Precambric time and whether all the later structural features are
of similar age.
The lines of foliation, as seen in outcrops, are usually rectilinear.
When wavy, they are only slightly so. This latter feature seemed
most noticeable on Shenandoah mountain. Crinkling is rare. Two
or three instances of it were noted in the Glenham belt. Jointing
is common and frequently gives the appearance of thick exfoliation.
Faults are divisible into two kinds, reversed and normal. It seems
most likely that the normal faults followed the compression that
produced the thrusts and are therefore of the nature of adjust-
ments. All the faults that have been noted appear to belong to the
great mountain building process of Ordovicic time which elevated
the Paleozoics of the Green mountain belt. This is indicated by the
relations which exist between the younger and older rocks and by
the fact that the fault lines of the mountains are projected north-
1 The recesses east and west of the short spur that separates Mount
Honness from Shenandoah mountain are respectively known as East
and West Fishkill Hook.
I4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
ward into the younger strata, where they show features that leave
their age unmistakable.
Doubtless in some cases what now appear to be reversed faults of
moderate displacement within the gneisses, or along contacts, are
truncated thrusts of large size. This inference is borne out by the
presence of large thrusts in the Paleozoics at the north.
It would appear that not only did distinct normal fault breaks
occur as the result of adjustments following the elevation of the
Green mountains, but that normal slips occurred along the planes
of the earlier thrusts. |
This feature is best shown in the relations now existing between
Bald hill and the Mount Honness spur, and in similar ones between
Shenandoah mountain and the mass of gneiss at the east of it. In
these two instances the Paleozoics have clearly been dropped back
between the gneiss spurs with a large throw on the west, marked
in one case by the scarp on the east of Bald hill, and in the other by
that on the east of Shenandoah mountain.
The two spurs in each case tended to act as a single block. The
normal fault intersects the thrust at an acute angle forming a tri-
angular valley narrowing southward. Some backward movement
along the thrust plane must have accompanied the slump. Dimin-
ishing tension faulting eastward is marked by small scarps on the
west of the Honness spur but is not noticeable on the eastern gneiss
mass.
The Hook spur shows these features imperfectly developed.
PETROGRAPHY-
General. The gneisses show much similarity in their mineralogy.
Distinctive characters are furnished by the structure, the preponder-
ance of some minerals, or the degree of alteration in the rock. A
few composite types may thus be defined. It will be convenient
to describe these first, while the variations in many instances may
best be indicated in discussing their outcrops. The thin sections
may be reviewed as a whole later. Possible ancient surface altera-
tions must always be carried in mind.
Bald hill granite gneiss. This rock is prominently developed
within and south of the quadrangle. There is great uniformity in
its general color, mineralogy and texture. It shows a few variations,
but as a whole is remarkably homogeneous. In outcrops it is com-
monly drab colored and granitelike in appearance. The thin sec-
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE I5
tion of the usual variety shows quartz in large and small anhedrons.
Orthoclase and plagioclase are abundant, with the former slightly
imymexcessy -s Dinene 1s
some microcline and
hornblende is plentiful.
Irregular. grains of
magnetite are frequent.
There are a few. scat-
tered zircons.
In some instances,
even where the hand
specimen appears rather
massive, the thin sec-
tion shows a stringer-
like arrangement of the
hornblende (see figure
2 oe te magnetite 1s
often hydrated, giving
Fig. 2 Bald hill granite gneiss. Actual size 3 mm. Q, fy . z
Bent. O, orthoclase; P, plagioclase; H, hornblende; surface exposures a
black, magnetite rusty color.
The principal variation is a rock of coarser texture, with. the
mineralogy of a diorite. It shows hornblende, abundant plagioclase
and a very little quartz (see figure 3).
In one case where the
FOCk - was extremely
fresh the magnetite
formed a perfect pseu-
domorph after the am-
phibole and was abund-
ant in the section, while
the hornblende was
greatly bleached.
Minere 1s utter lack of
evidence to show that
the rock has undergone
a complete change from
an earlier condition. It
would seem that, so far
as the rock has just been Fig. 3 Diorite variation of the Bald hill gneiss. Actual
dicencced aie GS miner- size 3mm. P, plagioclase; H, hornblende; Q, quartz
alogy and texture, we are dealing with primary features. On the
whole, the sections indicate a rock of plutonic habit which took on a
gneissic character and underwent certain other changes at the time
Loe NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
of its formation. The gneissic character is best regarded as primary,
justifying the use of the term gneissoid granite to qualify the name
granite gneiss.
The restlessness of the magma at the time the minerals were
forming seems to find expression in the stringerlike arrangement
of the hornblendes and in parallelly arranged pellets of quartz occur-
ring in the feldspars, which do not appear to be secondary and of
later introduction. ‘hese features, with the rounded character and
smaller size of some of the grains and the absence of micropegma-
titic intergrowth, point to conditions hampering crystal formation.
The thin sections also show certain dynamic effects of later date,
in common with all the gneisses of these mountains, in the form of
strain phenomena of different kinds. There are one or two instances
of comparative freedom from such in which the quartz always gives
sharp, decisive extinction and in which prominent cracks and bent
lamellae are absent.
Hornblende gneisses. ‘The outcrops of these rocks are much
alike and the thin sections which have been examined agree very
closely. Exposures are dark in color. The essential minerals are
chiefly plagioclase and hornblende, with some quartz and a little
orthoclase. Magnetite is rather common as irregularly-shaped par-
ticles, or as “dusts:
Zircons are occasional.
Some sections show
biotite in addition ‘to
hornblende, but the for-
ies 3 mer is decidedly subor-
WE A dinate and usually has
Zs sil every appearance of
Bilsing being secondary. It ap-
VA 5 yi: ap
a, parently belongs to that
period of metamorph-
ism which more usually
found expression in
strain phenomena of
different kinds but
which sometimes _ re-
Fig. Sketch of a hornblende gneiss. Actual size 3 mm. : a! ‘;
MOS atete P, plagioclase; H, hornblende; black, mag- sulted in new minerals
re among the “ primary ”
ones, especially in those cases where the rock had previously been
exposed to unusual alteration. The feldspars also frequently show
evidence of former decay. The indurated and general compact
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE iy,
condition indicates that the alteration is an ancient character. Fig-
ure 4 gives a sketch of a thin section of typical hornblende gneiss.
val
aN
AS
Fig. 5 Sketch ofa micaceous gneiss. BS
QO, quartz; O, orthoclase; P, plagioclase; B, biotite
Actual size 3 mm.
Micaceous gneisses.
diineses may. sve passed
Ovetue Didehy.) Fle xcepe
that biotite plays the
role of hornblende, they
are very similar in their
mineralogy. In some
cases magnetite is asso-
ciated with a mineral
whose identity is lost or
obscured. The thin sec-
tions often suggest that
the prominent biotite is
secondary and in these
cases the outlines of an-
other mineral, possibly.
hornblende; “may~ © be
faintly traced. In these
instances it is possible that the biotitic gneiss was first a hornblende
rock and that it was subjected to more than usual alteration before
recrystallization.
Microcline is rather
abundant. Biotite oc-
curs abundantly as a
“primary ’’ mineral in-
dependent of ‘horn-
blende. Sometimes
these gneisses show
much quartz and are
finegrained, strongly
suggesting altered sedi-
ments.
Shenandoah moun-
tain granite. A coarse,
white granite made up
almost entirely of
quartz and feldspar was
noted on Shenandoah
Fig. 6 Shenandoah mountain granite. Actual size 3 mm.
Q, quartz; O. orthoclase; P, plagioclase; M, microcline;
Mu, muscovite
mountain at the summit of the steep northwestern slope, along the
road from the East Hook to Hortontown.
It is very massive in
18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
appearance in the ledge and hand specimen. The thin section
shows quartz, orthoclase, microcline and plagioclase. A few small
and scattered flakes of muscovite, which is probably a primary min-
eral, are present. Microcline is abundant. There is a tendency to
microperthitic intergrowth of plagioclase and orthoclase. It has
the earmarks of a plutonic rock and bears little evidence of
eneissoid structure, so that if it is of Precambric age it must be
thought of as having escaped any pronounced foliation. This seems
remarkable, considering the prominence of foliation in the gneissic
series. The effects of dynamic metamorphism are chiefly in the
form of strain shadows in the quartzes.
Glenham gneiss. The prevailing and characteristic surface rock
of the Glenham belt 1s a granitic gneiss. It appears to be an altered
derivative of other gneisses which are entirely similar to those of
the Highlands, and which are exposed in places within the belt.
The surface gneiss is
foliated in certain por-
tions, while in others it
is massive. «There ganre
, minor variations in tex-
SC \ ture and in mineralogy
MESS which depend upon both
an ancient and a more
recent alteration. These
varieties grade into one
another. The gneiss is
usually red from dis-
seminated iron stains
and over much of the
belt is deeply chlorit-
ized.
Fig. 7 Glenham gneiss. Actual size 3 mm. Q, quartz; ! : 5
M, microcline; P, plagioclase; CB, chlorite after biotite, The thin section
gts ae shows abundant quartz
with orthoclase, microcline, plagioclase, and biotite altered to chlor-
ite. Magnetite is abundant and zircons are occasional.
Occasionally the rock consists of feldspar and quartz with very
little or no mica.
OUTCROP .OF THE BISHRILE, MOUNTAIN: GNEISSES
Matteawan. Gneisses which can be readily traced into those of
the Fishkill mountains outcrop near their base in the eastern part
aS Ge bag:
es as « a
ae
“~~ eo
at
nt
6
LEGEND
if
|
i :
|
|
( |
Xu
+
8
a
ot
«
”
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 19
of the town of Matteawan. . The discussion of these may be fol-
lowed by reference to the map of Matteawan (figure 8).
The most western outcrop which has been noted is at the corner
of Vail avenue and Washington street. The gneiss at this spot
is very similar to that which composes the two inliers shown on
the map at the northwest. Another outcrop occurs at the junction
of Prospect and Mountain streets. A line drawn between these
two outcrops marks the western boundary of the gneisses of the
mountains, so far as they can be followed by actual outcrops. East
of Washington street along Prospect, Union, Robinson and Alice
thoroughfares and along Green, Park, Duncan and Goodrich side
Smeets OuLcEops are mumerous. North of Mountain street the
gneisses pass beneath the drift. A quarter of a mile to the north-
east they are exposed again in the gorge of Mount Beacon brook.
The reddish and greenish colors, characteristic of the Glenham belt
and the inliers farther west, and frequent epidotic gneiss, were noted
among the surface exposures of the gneisses just described. Other-
wise these exposures are similar to the rocks in the Mount Beacon
brook section.
Mount Beacon brook section. Above and for a short distance
below the bridge on Mountain street, near the foot of the mountain
road, the brook has cut an interesting section in the gneisses. Just
above the bridge the foliation and “ bedding” planes strike n. 54° e.
an@uaipeabout 75 s.e. Below the bridge the strike varies be-
tween this angle and 69° e. of north. The rocks in this section
show an isoclinal arrangement in “ beds ” with high dip to the south-
dst.
Below the bridge, the lowest portion of the section involves some
forty feet of dark hornblendic gneiss. This rock is banded, though
in places for the width of several inches it is massive. When water-
worm, such surfaces present a spangled appearance. This
“stratum” is abruptly succeeded by a lighter colored one of much
less uniformity of appearance. It is made up of imperfect alter-
nations of granitic, quartzitic and composite “ beds,’ which vary
in thickness from the width of an inch or less to two feet. Some
“beds” show light and darker bands. Others are uniformly light
colored, often with little or no trace of a ferromagnesian constitu-
ent, ~Uhis stratum’ continues up stream for a hundred feet or
more and passes beneath the bridge. It is succeeded by the Bald
hill gneiss with varieties that strongly resemble the rocks of the
Glenham belt and the Matteawan inliers in texture and mineralogy.
20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
In the upper portion of the gorge above the bridge the north wall
for some distance is a rusty, pinkish rock of fine grain and rather
massive appearance. It resembles certain phases of the basal quartz-
ite which have been noted outside the quadrangle, particularly the
outcrops in the brook crossed by the mountain road a mile south of
Dutchess Junction. This rock is jointed, and rests upon the gran-
itic derivative of the Bald hill gneiss.
Bald hill. The rock composing this spur of the Highlands was
carefully examined along its base while tracing the quartzite, and
also in two sections across its summit from west to east. One of
these sections was made across the northern portion of the spur
along an old wood road leading from the lane southeast of the
Maddock farm near Glenham station. The other was taken partly
along the road ascending Mount Beacon, then bearing to the left
past the Graham place through “ Hell Hollow ” to the Cold Spring
road. The rocks in the quarries near Mount Beacon reservoir, and
in the excavations made for the new house at the summit of Beacon
during the summer of 1908, as well as the section along the road
descending from the reservoir to Matteawan, were studied. Com-
parisons were made with the outcrops along the base of the ridge
to the quarry at Storm King station and in the railroad cuts from
Storm King to Cold Spring. An examination of other parts of the
ridge of which Bald hill is the northern extremity, was necessary
in order to form a clear idea of the character of the gneiss.
Along the northwestern slope of the spur the gneiss is mainly a
medium-grained, laminated hornblende rock with some micaceous
variations. Along the basal portion of this slope the gneiss is usually
rusty from included iron stains. Higher up it is commonly a drab
or gray rock. The laminated character is more noticeable and the
laminations are finer along the basal portion of the northwestern
slope. Throughout most of the mountain the gneiss is rather
coarsely or indistinctly foliated and in places is quite massive and
granitic in appearance.
The characteristic rock of Bald hill, as just described, is identical
in texture and mineralogy with the rock in the quarry at Storm
King station and with the prevailing type in the railroad cuts be-
tween Storm King and Cold Spring. It is the chief variety in the
quarries at Mount Beacon reservoir.
At the excavations for the new mountain house on Beacon, the
drab-colored granitic gneiss passed into a variety composed of
white feldspar and hornblende. In the hollow between Beacon
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE ‘OUADRANGLE 21
and Bald hills, along the road descending from the reservoir, the
granitic hornblende rock is often very dark in color, which cor-
responds with a greater freshness in the rock.
The presence of cccasional micaceous variations has been noted.
They are apparently confined to the more finely laminated portions
of the gneiss and there is reason for thinking that the mica is
secondary. The thin sections show abundant disseminated mag-
netite which has become hydrated in many places, giving surface
exposures a rusty color. |
The hcemogeneous character of the Bald hill granite gneiss is
noteworthy. In areal extent, it covers about eleven square miles
east of the Hudson. The general igneous character of the rock is
very impressive. The varieties that have been described would
appear to be explainable as normal variations from a common
magma.
Mincenock is certainly. of Precambric age. By its’ form and
isolation it Coes not appear to have the character of a basal mem-
ber. JI have been unable to discover any other type which could
reasonably be referred to this gneiss. If a basal formation, it
should be of more frequent occurrence in these greatly eroded rocks.
It therefore does not appear to be older than the other gneisses.
All evidence of a possible unconformity would have been com-
pletely obliterated.
If contemporaneous with the other gneisses, on the assumption
that they are sedimentary and that it is igneous and having the
character of a sill, it should then occur also in other places to the
east. It might be a laccolith, in which case it might have furnished
the initial bulge at the time of folding. The more strongly banded
character of the gneiss along the margin and the somewhat massive
central portions might permit the interpretation of anticlinal
structure.
The pronounced alignment which this granite has with the other
gneisses favors the view that it was thrust up into the gneisses at
the time of their folding. All possible exomorphic and endomorphic
effects would have been neutralized by the agencies of regional
metamorphism.
In addition to its other characters, the thickness of this formation
is opposed to the idea that it is of sedimentary origin.
The Mount Honness spur. A short distance east of the Cold
Spring road in the hollow between this spur and Bald hill the rock
resembles the Bald hill gneiss. In some places it is granitelike,
22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
coarse-grained and only slightly foliated, looking like an altered de-
rivative of the gneisses. The fault that borders Bald hill on the
east may be within the Bald hill gneiss for a distance.
North along the road toward Fishkill Village the rock becomes
more foliated. A thin section of this variety shows some biotite in
addition to hornblende, but the former is decidedly subordinate
and is apparently secondary.
Two mountain roads over this spur from the Cold Spring road
to West Fishkill Hook give fair sections. There are also numer-
ous outcrops in the fields to the north and south. Surface exposures
are confusing both as to structure and petrographic characters. In
some places the gneiss apparently dips to the northwest at low angles,
but where the foliation planes may be detected, they dip to the
southeast at high angles. The rock often has a granular and hybrid
character that seems best interpreted as the condition resulting
from the induration of a partially disintegrated rock which is pri-
marily a very ancient character. The apparent northwest dip is
accordingly best explained as a sort of exfoliation between the basal
eneiss and the altered surface derivative.
On the whole, the section is across a series of “strata” showing
tendency to definite alignment with each other and to variety of
composition. In the main the rocks of this spur may be classified
b
as micaceous and hornblendic gneisses forming rather thick
“strata,” which usually exhibit uniformity in mineralogy for some
distance across the strike.
The road from Brinckerhoff to Johnsville crosses this spur north
of Mount Honness proper. Fine exposures have been made in the
dark colored hornblende gneisses along the road in the process of
constructing the new State road, and in the quarries just south of
Arvis Haight’s, from which stone was removed. These sections
show thick masses of the hornblende gneiss. Lighter colored
eneisses have been noted interstratified with the hornblende
varieties.
In connection with the question of the origin of the hybrid char-
acter of the gneiss along the northwestern slope of this spur it is
interesting to note that the slope is gentle. Although it now lies
in a faulted position against the limestone, the basal quartzite may
have reposed on the gneiss along this slope subsequent to the eleva-.
tion which brought the gneiss against the limestone.
More distinct “ passage beds ” overlying the inclined gneiss occur
just beyond the point where the two mountain roads cross on the
crest of the ridge. Between the eastern fork of the roads thus
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 23
formed, west of the barn of Irving Knapp, thick masses, resem-
bling both the gneisses and the quartzite in their mineralogy, dip to
the north at a moderate angle. Farther along the road to the east
of the house, ledges more closely resembling the quartzite were
found. The woods and thick covering of drift, however, greatly
obscure everything to and for a short distance beyond the west
road into the mountains. South of the Carey farm, between the
brook and the road, the quartzite was found grading downward
imtonay hybrid rock. \ ;
The Hook district. South of the quartzite slope, back of the
farm of Garrett Smith, the thick woods obscure the succession in
the gneisses and good outcrops are scattered. The outcrops in the
field southwest of Alonzo Smith’s house (see plate 4) on the east
road into the mountains and in the neighboring woods, are micaceous
gneisses. Within the small space of the outcrop shown in the plate
the gneiss passes from a rather coarse rock with quartz stringers
through one with finer laminations into a purplish rock with still
finer laminations.
A comparison of the thin sections of these varieties shows a
similarity as to essential “primary” minerals with biotite as the
ferromagnesian constituent. The feldspar is chiefly plagioclase.
Omlantez 1s abundant
The degree of alteration
of the primary minerals
varies much. It is severe
both in the feldspars
and the biotite, but
shows itself chiefly in
Enter: lattetaae elem vlae
coarser gneiss the biotite
is only slightly altered, —
while in the finely lami-
nated purplish rock it is
represented by masses
of magnetite anda great
abundance of finely
Fig. 9 Altered micaceous gneiss from the Hook district. 2
cre eee ONC Tee iaiiciccace. piace, granular, material, prob-
tit ioti O90 0
pupae es ably sericite, with only
occasional traces of the boundaries of the original mineral (see figure
9). The second variety mentioned shows a gradation between the
24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
other two. The purplish color of the darker rock is plainly due to
the abundant magnetite.
Though apparently greatly decomposed, these rocks are firm
and compact in the hand specimen. The magnetite is not altered
into hematite or limonite. The conditions suggest that the altera-
tion of these rocks dates back to an epoch preceding the deposition
of the basal quartzite, which, as the proximity of this formation
shows, formerly covered the gneisses, probably until glacial time.
East of the east road into the mountains the quartzite has been
dropped by a fault. It extends farther to the south than on the
west of the road, partly on this account and partly because of a
syncline at this point. No peculiar variations were noted in cross-
ing the Hook spur to East Fishkill Hook. The southward exten-
sion of the quartzite leaves comparatively few outcrops outside the
thickly-wooded area of the spur.
Shenandoah mountain.‘ Above the drift-covered slope of the
quartzite, along the northwestern slope of the mountain, dark,
micaceous gneisses were noted in conspicuous ledges. Along the
road from the East Hook to Hortontown, these were succeeded near
the summit of the mountain by a light granite interbedded with the
gneisses and estimated to be from forty to sixty feet thick. I have
called this the Shenandoah mountain granite. With the exception
of one or two quartzitic members, the usual succession of the
gneisses is crossed in going from the granite “stratum” across the
mountain to Hortontown. On the whole, the micaceous types
seemed more abundant. Outcrops are numerous along the road and
in the fields on each side.
The age of the granite can not be affirmed. It appears to have
the strike of the adjacent gneisses; but it did not prove possible to
trace it more than a few hundred feet. The quartzite formation, or
its possible equivalent, was not found resting on the granite, so that
its age could not be definitely assigned by showing an unconformity.
If thrust up into the gneisses at the time of their folding, it has
escaped foliation. It probably belongs to the Precambric series. If
so, the absence of foliation indicates that Postcambric movements
did not contribute to the characteristic foliation of the gneisses.
The eastern gneiss mass. The rocks along the northwestern
base of the eastern gneiss mass in some cases suggest a continuation
of those of Shenandoah mountain.
1The spur next east is locally known as Shenandoah mountain, from
the hamlet of that name at its northern termination. The Shenandoah
of the map is East Fishkill Hook.
WTSIP YOOH TATYSH] Io 94} UL YWUUS OzUO;Y JO WAR}; dy} UO UDdyR} ydersojoyg ‘opsue
MOT B J JSVOYFIOU OY} OF SdIp punoIsstO}F 9Y} UL dpIzJIeNb sy} oTYM ‘o[sue Yysty e& je ysvayynos Aq ysvo ay} 0} sdip [jem oy}
puosoq sstous poyeprys oy yp, ‘oyzjsenb daquivg JOMOT OY} PUL SSIOUS ITIqUIBIAIG 94} UdaMjoq AjIUWIIOJUOUN 94} SUIMOYS
>
al
+
-
4 .
:
\
bem =
H
<
,
‘
-
- 1
~
> 4
a ~ u
i .
.
{
A a
f
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 25
At Fowler’s kaolin mine, east of Shenandoah, a rock was found
beneath the kaolin deposits that was almost identical with the Shen-
andoah mountain granite, though coarser in texture. The decom-
posed rock, from which the kaolin was derived, is usually coarse,
showing quartz chunks the size of a walnut in a mass of altered
feldspar. Probably the kaolin is the product of the disintegration
of a pegmatitic granite. The clay beds are apparently not very
extensive, although their exact extent is obscured by glacial deposits
along the slope. If the kaolin is thought of as the decomposition
product of an arkosic, conglomeratic quartzite, it is difficult to
account for the granitoid texture of certain specimens examined
and the perfect resemblance which they have to the Shenandoah
mountain granite. The quartz chunks are not rounded as one
would expect in a conglomerate. A careful search failed to reveal
the quartzite in the neighborhood.
The structural features suggest that certain gneisses of this
mass probably are faulted portions of the Shenandoah spur. Their
resemblance might, of course, be explained as due to repetition.
At Hortontown, near the quadrangle boundary, there were noted
certain gneisses which had an almost unmistakable sedimentary ap-
pearance. Though firmly crystalline, the quartzes frequently show
a granular character on the fresh surface of the hand specimen, and
the thin interlocking and dovetailing light and dark bands and fine
texture indicate an impure sediment. ‘There is nothing about such
varieties that points to an altered igneous rock.
The gneisses of the eastern mass were examined in their outcrops
along the base of the northwestern slope, along the mountain roads
and to some extent along the wooded summit. It did not prove
possible to assemble them into an orderly series. They present
irregular repetitions of hornblendic and micaceous gneisses with
some few minor variations. The micaceous gneisses were the more
abundant.
No decidedly massive types were noted. The thin sections are not
conclusive as to the early condition of these gneisses, although in
many cases they hint at altered sediments or ancient derivatives.
PEE RGINETS Sm NETERS
The Glenham belt. The southern extremity of this belt is a few
yards northwest of the dam at Groveville. Above the dam it forms
the west wall of the gorge of Fishkill creek as far as Glenham.
Northeastward it may be followed distinctly as a narrow belt as
26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
far as Vly mountain. North of this hill it disappears against the
slates. The belt is bounded by the slates on the west throughout
its entire length. Vly mountain is cut off from the main mass by
a transverse fault which has offset the main belt to the west by its
own breadth. This fault is occupied by a large swamp, to which the
eminence probably owes its name. The mountain is bounded on
the east by the slates and on the south by the Fishkill limestones.
The latter border the main portion of the belt on the east to its
southern extremity. ‘The southern end of the strip is faulted against
the slates.
Mather called this mass a ‘
‘
granite rock ” in his description! and in
his section the “ Matteawan granite” (see plate 12, loc. cit.). He
separated it from the gneiss of Bald hill, but apparently regarded
it as a part of the Highlands.
IX. IXmmons? cited this rock as an example of the uplift of in-
ferior rocks into the newer ones. He described the relations at Glen-
ham. His section is given herewith. :
Fig. 10 a, slate; b, granite (of Glenham belt); c, limestone; e, Fishkill mountain. (After Emmons)
Hall and Logan, in 1864, called it an ‘altered sandstone,” * J. D.
Dana, in 1870,* referréd to it as “ bastard granite’ and described it
as one of the “stratified deposits as is shown by its conformable
position and by its taking the color of the slate near its junction.”
The Highlands were the source.
Smock in 1886° expressed doubts of its being stratified. He
placed it with the Highlands, though the prevailing types of rock
were unlike the characteristic varieties of the Fishkill mountains.
In the southern portion of the Glenham belt the prevailing rock
is a massive variety of the granitic gneiss. This is exposed for
some depth in the railroad cut west of Glenham station. It is of
dark green color and shows scarcely any tendency to foliation.
South of this cut and for some distance to the north. surface out-
crops are almost always of this type of rock, though varying in
1 Geology of the First District, 1843, p. 437.
2 Agriculture of New York, Part IV, 1846, p. 103.
| Amer, JOUt. Sck, sen 2, 40:07
“Amer, Jour. Sct." Ser. 3, 27 480.
° Thirty-ninth Ann. Rep’t N. Y. State Museum, p. 176.
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE PAGE
the degree of chloritization of the mica. It is without evidence of
bedding. This rock grades in places at the south into a laminated
finer-grained variety which is common in the gorge of the creek
below the railroad bridge at Glenham. At the north this type is
more abundant, outcropping frequently between the road from [ish-
kill Village to Wappinger Falls and Vly mountain.
Vly mountain is composed of this variety. It grades into the
coarser rock and, like the latter, is usually chloritized, though the
red color of the iron usually predominates. The laminations strike
between n. 12° e. and n. 15° e. As was noted in the petrographic
description of this gneiss, it occasionally passes into a rock com-
posed only of feldspar and quartz.
The varieties so far described make up the surface rock of the
Glenham belt and are the ones which have been emphasized by
most observers.
The road from Fishkill Village to Wappinger Falls crosses the
Glenham belt diagonally about midway of its length. Several shal-
low cuts have been made in the gneisses along the road. Beginning
at the first cut on the south, the section is through about one hun-
dred feet of a coarse, granitic hybrid rock. This is followed by
hornblende gneiss and at the top of the hill the latter is succeeded
by a banded, slightly crinkled gneiss with pinkish red and dark green
laminae. A hundred yards beyond to the north of this rock on the
west side of the road is a massive, coarse granitoid gneiss with
quartz, light colored feldspar and biotite as the chief minerals. The
joints in this rock are filled or faced with epidote. Beyond this is
a fine-grained pinkish rock carrying epidote in many places and
very similar in essential mineralogy to that described in the Mount
Beacon brook section as composing the wall of the gorge above the
bridge. Beyond this the cut is for some distance through medium-
grained hornblende gneiss exposed on both sides of the road. The
last section, on the east side of the road, is mainly through this
hornblende rock which shows slight variations and fairly distinct
“bedding,” with a southeast dip.
These gneisses of the Glenham belt show no distinct types, except
as described above for the surface exposures. On the other hand,
the hornblende and other gneisses show marked resemblance to the
mountain rocks. Roughly correcting the section for the gradient,
the bearing of the road and the angle of dip, which seems a little
smaller than that of the mountain gneisses, the thickness of the
gneissoid types is similar to those observed in the gneisses of the
spurs.
to
CA
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The Matteawan inliers. The coarse granitic rock so character-
istic of the southern portion of the Glenham belt forms a small
inier farther south in Matteawan. It begins in “ Rock Hollow,”
just west of the intersection of Washington avenue and the road
that connects the latter with Liberty street, and extends south across
Rock Hollow road (Walnut street) to Anderson street, and then
aS a narrower strip to Grove street. (See map of Matteawan,
fig. 8.) The rock here is not quite so deeply chloritized as in the
Glenham belt.
Another mass of similar rock, about 700 feet long by 400 feet
wide, les to the south of this and forms the conspicuous knoll on
which the Matteawan schoolhouse stands. The principal outcrops
are between Spring, East and Falconer streets. This mass almost
certainly connects with the gneisses in the eastern part of the town,
but outcrops are concealed along Mill, Louisa and Washington streets
and Mountain avenue between this mass and the westernmost out-
crop of the gneisses at the east. Limestone may overlie the gneiss in
this interval. The latter outcrops between Woodall and Henderson
streets, and presumably has or had an eastward extension from here.
The first inlier described above is succeeded at the south by the
basal quartzite which forms a knoll between Anderson, Walnut and
Grove streets, and is separated from the Precambric on the north and
west by Anderson street. The contact could not be found; it may
be faulted. The quartzite is overlain by the limestone on the east
and south and on the west for a distance of 75 feet north of Grove
street. A small mass of slate has been faulted in between the lime-
stone and the spur of the Precambric on the west of Anderson
street, near the house of Mrs C. E. Phillips.
At the northern end of the Glenham belt on the southwest side of
Vly mountain, north of the road at its base, a small knoll of quartzite,
overlain by limestone, has been faulted with the gneiss of the moun-
tain. It is separated from the main mass of foliated, reddish gran-
itic gneiss by a narrow gully.
As noted above, a coarse granitic rock of a mineralogy quite
similar to that of the coarse granitic variety of the Glenham belt and
the inliers at the south, occurs in places in the bed of Mount
Beacon brook above the bridge. It occurs in outcrops among the
gneisses in the eastern part of the town and was noted on Prospect
street, 50 feet north of its junction with Walcott avenue and at the
corner of Vail avenue and Washington street.
The mineral epidote is of frequent occurrence in the Glenham belt
and in places among the gneisses in the eastern part of the town of
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 29
Matteawan, and the rock which carries it in these different localities
is often of very similar mineralogy and appearance in other
HESPECLS.
Interpretation. The Matteawan inliers connect the Glenham belt
with the Highlands in a very satisfactory way. Other field relations
which are cited above, show that the rocks composing these inliers
are of Precambric age. The banded gneisses seen in the section
on the Wappinger Falls road across the Glenham belt, bear strong
resemblance to many of the gneisses outcropping in the town of
Matteawan along the base of the mountain. The hornblende gneiss
in places is identical with those occurring on the road from Brincker-
hoff to Johnsville across the Honness spur. When the dip may be
observed in the gneisses along the Wappinger Falls road, it is prac-
tically the same as that of the Highlands rocks. The essential
identity as to the age and fundamental likeness in mineralogy and
relations of these inliers with the Highlands is almost certain.
The character shown by the rocks which make up so much of
these inlying masses, and upon which most observers have dwelt,
apparently admits of ready interpretation.
During the time the early Paleozoic sediments of this region were
being laid down the sea was progressively transgressing upon and
overlapping the old land mass from which its sediments were de-
rived. This old land mass would doubtless have become decayed
for moderate depths beneath the surface, or at least would have
suffered some changes in the minerals composing the rock. Where
subaerial disintegration actually took place, its products may. have
remained undisturbed in favorable places, and it is possible to
imagine that they were finally covered by the advancing waters
without having been much sorted. In other cases they would have
been washed away, leaving only the firmer rock, which probably,
however, had undergone some mineralogical changes, such as the
alteration of its ferromagnesian mineral. In other instances the
disintegrated rock would have undergone partial sorting. In other
cases it would have been completely sorted and a pure sandstone
formed. In some places the advance of the sea would have been
rapid enough to leave most of the material unsorted and only a
superficial layer of partially sorted stuff. All would probably
have been covered finally by a thoroughly worked over quartzitic
sand that deepened offshore as the sea advanced.
In the process of time burial in itself would have brought some
changes in the subjacent altered gneisses; but the principal ones
would have been effected by the same processes that changed the
30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
basal sandstone to a quartzite and metamorphosed the overlying
limestone and slate. The partly disintegrated upper portions of the
gneisses would have been thoroughly indurated into a compact rock
and probably partially recrystallized. ‘The less altered gneiss would
also have been changed, although not necessarily in such a way
as to form entirely new minerals. Chlorite would now appear
in a firm rock as a pseudomorph after biotite, or hornblende, and
the old iron oxids would have been preserved as magnetite or hema-
tite. In places where alteration had not taken place, the practically
unchanged gneiss would be preserved.
It is possible in this manner to account for the peculiar rock types
of the Glenham belt and for the occurrence of such features as a
coarse granitic “stratum” resting on upturned gneisses and _ fol-
lowed by a somewhat foliated, finer-grained, quartzitic rock as shown
in the gorge of Mount Beacon brook; or for the occurrence of such
extensive surface developments of rock as the chief varieties of the
Glenham belt, which so certainly rest upon and grade into the in-
clined gneisses. Conditions would have been very favorable for the
interaction of feldspars and ferromagnesians, which now find ex-
pression in the abundant and widely distributed epidote that clearly
belongs to an ancient period of alteration.
A relatively large proportion of the ancient altered gneisses has
been preserved in the Glenham belt. The section along the Wap-
pinger Falls road, with its assemblage of altered and unaltered types,
seems intelligible from this explanation.
At places, as at Vly mountain, and near “ Rock Hollow ” in Mat-
teawan, fragments of the quartzite have been preserved and these
apparently grade into the underlying rock with which they are both
unconformable and coextensive.
These principles of subaerial decay have been applied in the
foregoing discussion to certain altered gneisses and hybrid rocks
occurring in many places among the Fishkill mountains. They serve
to account for an evident ancient alteration in these recks and for
the occurrence of certain types that are intermediate in character
between the quartzite and the underlying gneiss.
SUMMARY OF THE MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS OF THE GNEISSES
A microscopic examination has been made of about twenty-five
sections of the gneisses of the Fishkill mountains, selected from
types which were believed to show the principal variations in the
gneissic series from west to east. A half dozen were also selected
from the Glenham belt.
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 31
These sections, except perhaps, those of the Bald hill granite
gneiss and the Shenandoah mountain granite, do not afford any
convincing evidence of the original character of the gneisses. ‘They
give some support to the inference made as to their alteration and
afford some ideas of the age of different characters in the rocks.
In instances, they bear out the character as seen in the hand speci-
~ men and in the outcrop. In other cases, on account of the coarse-
ness of the rock, they entirely fail to show the megascopic structural
features.
There are no striking variations: in the kinds of “ primary ” min-
erals present, except in the ferromagnesian, although the propor-
tions vary. Quartz is usually present, frequently in large anhed-
rons only, but oftener both as large and smaller ones. Sometimes
it is absent from the section or quite insignificant. Plagioclase 1s
universal, often with orthoclase, but occasionally alone in types
with much ferromagnesian content and little or no quartz. Ortho-
clase is occasionally in apparent excess of plagioclase and micro-
cline is frequent. Biotite often appears alone as a primary constitu-
ent, being clearly of the same age as the other essential minerals.
Hornblende often occurs alone in the same relationships. Buiotite
sometimes occurs with hornblende, but then often suggests a sec-
ondary character from its distribution and subordinate amount.
Magnetite is abundant and is evidently secondary. It occurs
chiefly in irregular grains in bunches or as dust masses in or near the
ferromagnesians, or scattered about the section within the feldspars
and along fractures. It is occasionally pseudomorphic after the
ferromagnesian. ‘The latter are plainly very ferruginous in char-
acter. Zircons are numerous and widely distributed. Tuitanite ap-
parently occurs as leucoxene about the magnetite at times. Chlorite
is abundant, often replacing all or most of the ferromagnesians in
the section, but this mineral is associated with the gneisses which,
in the hand specimen, betray an ancient alteration. Muscovite or
sericite occur only as secondary minerals in the feldspar, except
possibly in the Shenandoah mountain granite.
The textural features present some variations, but they do not
as a rule help much in deciding the question of whether the rock
is sedimentary or igneous in origin. Very often the arrangement
is very similar to that in plutonic rocks of the granitic or dioritic
types and the modifications shown might readily be explained as
due to conditions imposed on a magma. Other gneisses, either from
a more granular character or from the abundance of the ferro-
magnesian mineral, suggest altered sedimentary types. But these
32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
features are plainly far from decisive. On the whole, the sections
are less satisfactory than the field outcrops; but so far as they
go they sustain the uncertainty of the field examination.
If these gneisses are mainly altered sediments they have been so
thoroughly crystallized that they now often closely resemble igneous
types. The hornblendes in their relation to the feldspars sometimes
indicate a formation in the usual order of crystallization from a
magma. If mainly of igneous origin, these gneisses were greatly
squeezed in their formation and would now be more properly desig-
nated gneissoid eruptives than eruptive gneisses. In either case the
primary minerals (that is, those plainly belonging to the last change
that affected the whole rock) and their essential arrangement are of
contemporaneous origin. .
So far as examined, the sections are entirely free of the minerals
usually found in areas of profound dynamic metamorphism. It is,
of course, impossible to tell how many complete metasomatic or other
changes these rocks may have undergone, but there appear to be no
traces of any antecedent generations of minerals.
The sections sustain the belief that the primary features of the
gneisses, as a whole, are of very ancient character and of Precam-
bric age. They show, on the other hand, many evidences of subse-
quent metamorphism.
This later metamorphism is shown in the sections in several ways,
but chiefly as pressure effects. In almost all cases the quartz crystals
show pronounced strain phenomena, such as strain shadows and
Wavy extinction, and are often cracked. The plagioclases almost
always show pinched-out, bent or broken lamellae. Fractures and
long cracks are common. In places where the gneiss evidently had
undergone an early alteration, the rock was indurated and occasion-
ally new minerals formed. Some molecular movement is indicated
by chloritic fillings, disseminated magnetite and secondary quartz
injected into the feldspars. Some biotite very clearly belongs to this
later metamorphism.
Some of the sections from the Bald hill gneiss and those in the
bed of Mount Beacon brook show fewer appazent strain effects
than those from the spurs farther east, which may be interpreted
as the expression within these rocks of a somewhat lesser degree
of metamorphism at the west. The conclusion that the primary
gneissic characters were changed very little in Postcambric time
seems inevitable. As the field relations show the gneisses had reached
practically their present crystalline condition and gneissic structure
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 33
in Precambric time. Because of their early crystalline condition,
these gneisses would have undergone fewer changes and a relatively
lesser degree of metamorphism than the sediments which overlay
them, during the mountain building process of Ordovicic time. Such
changes as they underwent from this cause should, however, show
some correspondence with those in the younger rocks, as is perhaps
afforded in the apparent lesser degree of metamorphism at the west.
This difference is not, however, noticeable in the field unless the more
clearly “ bedded” strata in the bed of Mount Beacon brook and the
more clearly definable nature of the altered Precambric gneisses of
the Glenham belt are indications of it.
An examination of the thin sections of the gneissoid types from
the Glenham belt entirely supports the assertion that these rocks are
members of the Highlands gneiss series. In mineralogy, texture and
metamorphic characters they are entirely similar. The thin sections
of the more characteristic types of this belt afford the clue to their
interpretation and seem to show their original nature. They also
carry characteristic strain effects.
BAWIERS IN -DEs GNETSSES
During the Green mountain uplift the Precambric gneisses appar-
ently buckled somewhat, but seem to have yielded chiefly by break-
ing. These faults greatly complicate the problem of the configura-
tion of the Precambric land mass while the quartzite was being laid
down.
Beginning at the west, the first fault is that shown by the Glenham
belt. A reversed or thrust fault has thrown the gneisses against the
slates on the west and south. Evidently the slates were folded and
overturned and then overridden by the older rocks. The strati-
graphic displacement necessary to elevate the Precambric into con-
tact with the slates must have been an extensive one. Apparently
at Vly mountain the upthrust was greater, resulting in the elevation
of the mountain mass above the main portion of the belt and caus-
ing the transverse break between the two. ‘That Vly mountain
is not mainly an erosional feature is indicated by its relationships.
It forms an isolated block which is faulted against the slates on the
west, north and east. The transverse fault on the south involved
the limestones which were bought against the slates on the east
of them. The gneiss and limestone form the upthrow as a result
of reversed faulting, both resting against the slate. The gneiss
apparently also moved with reference to the limestone. Pro-
34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
jected southward, the fault on the east of Vly mountain falls in line
with the scarp on the east of Bald hill (see plate 5).
The gneiss inliers in Matteawan, south of the Glenham belt, are
also clearly faulted against the slates on the west. A long swamp
borders the northern one of these on the west, while on the north
it is in faulted contact with the slates.
The relationship existing between the limestone and the gneiss
all along the eastern margin of the Glenham belt and the smaller
masses at the south, is far from plain. Although relatively small,
there is probably some stratigraphic displacement, in places at least.
The Bald hill mass shows a still greater vertical displacement.
As now uncovered, the break is partly within the gneiss itself and
partly along a contact with the limestone, and probably in some
places with the quartzite. The slope of the gneiss is always very
steep and often precipitous. A moderate slope at the base, in
places, may be interpreted as that of the quartzite or the surface
from which it has been removed in late geological time. This kind
of slope usually changes abruptly to a sharp angle with the vertical
in ascending the mountain. The abundant talus at the bases of
these scarps is misleading and gives the appearance of a much
gentler slope than they really possess. The complementary result of
recession of the summits by weathering is also confusing.
Apparently the overthrust which elevated the Bald hill mass
involved a larger area of the gneiss. It seems reasonable to explain
the faulted contact of the gneiss of the Mount Honness spur and
the Fishkill limestone on the northwest of it as primarily due to
this thrust. Later or simultaneous tension faulting dropped the
limestone east of Bald hill into its present position. A number of
scarp faces at different elevations along the northwestern slope of
the Honness spur in line with the strike of the gneisses, and visible
even in the season of foliage, mark tension strike faulting of dimin-
ishing intensity eastward from the great normal fault on the east
of Bald hill.
The eastern face of Honness is marked by a rather conspicuous
normal fault scarp which diminishes and dies away to the south-
ward (see plate 6). The throw here was not so great as on the
east of Bald hill.
Along the west side of the east road from West Fishkill Hook into
the mountains, is a drop fault of small displacement. It is marked
first by a cliff of the quartzite, but higher up the mountain it is in
the gneisses. |
ITY preg Jo ysvo oy} uo divos yNvy
oa G 93e1q
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 35
On the east of the Hook spur another fault of moderate dis-
placement has dropped the quartzite and limestone into the East
Hook.
The northwestern slope of Shenandoah mountain is very steep
from the point where it cuts the southern boundary of the quad-
rangle nearly to Shenandoah. The quartzite has a northwest dip
of approximately 50°. The gneiss in places shows precipitous
ledges, though these are not very high. The angle of slope changes
abruptly from quartzite to gneiss. The steep dip of the quartzite
shows considerable disturbance before the break occurred.
East of Shenandoah mountain is a clearly defined normal fault
scarp along which the younger rocks were dropped. Their erosion
has formed Shenandoah hollow.
Along the northwestern slope of the eastern gneiss mass are very
steep and precipitous scarps, sharper even than those of Bald hill.
The drift-covered talus slopes at their bases are not to be confused
with the quartzite. It is probable, however, that in places the
quartzite was involved in the upthrow and was brought against the
limestone.
These breaks are interpreted as the result, primarily, of the com-
pression producing the Green mountain elevation. The tendency
was to produce a system of flexures like those in the younger rocks
at the north. The gneisses buckled relatively little but, unable to
resist the great pressure, were broken and thrust up into the younger
rocks. Tension faulting within the expanded arc accompanied
or followed the upward thrusting.
The faulting in the gneisses is clearly subsequent to the de-
position of the quartzite. The only disturbance capable of produc-
ing these effects would appear to have belonged to the close of
Ordovicic time.
These faults would certainly have greatly disturbed any orderly
sequence which the gneisses may have had.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The relatively brief treatment of the gneisses of this quadrangle
given above results from the impossibility of assembling them
into an orderly sequence. ‘The thickly-wooded character of the
country, the presence of faults and the difficulties introduced by
ancient subaerial alteration, greatly hinder their study and make a
Satisfactory map practically impossible.
9)
oa
36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The origin of the gneisses is very obscure. In some respects they
appear to be largely igneous in character. In many places their
sedimentary origin seems almost certain. It is entirely possible
that the two kinds occur together in a parallel and roughly alternate
arrangement, but faulting makes it impossible to decide this point
in the face of the other difficulties present. The thickness is too
great to permit the interpretation of a monoclinal series.
It seems entirely justifiable to attribute the apparent igneous
character to profound metamorphism. It is plain that if the
eneisses represent a sedimentary series in any part, the strata must ©
have been jammed into close folds and overturned. If folding
was accompanied by the injection of igneous rocks along the axes
of the anticlines, the accompanying alteration would have been very
severe and both sedimentary and igneous types would have come
strongly to resemble each other. There would probably be no dis-
tinguishable exomorphic and endomorphic effects to aid in separat-
ing the two.
The gneisses below the bridge in the Mount Beacon brook section
show a “ bedded ”’ character more clearly than at any other place.
The general absence of crumpling and crinkling in the gneisses is
noteworthy in considering the possibility of their sedimentary origin.
Interbedded limestones, if such could be found, were thought
of as likely to afford the most convincing evidence of a sedimentary
series in these gneisses. Dr C. P. Berkey has discovered such lime-
stones in the Highlands farther south’ and in the Fordham gneiss of
New York city. The possibility that the basic rock and bastite
ledges at Hortontown, described in the following pages, might be
altered calcareous and magnesian sediments of Precambric age
was considered, but the field relations do not easily permit this
interpretation.
Taken as a whole, the gneisses in this quadrangle present sufficient
diversity to be considered, at least in part, as an altered sedimen-
tary series.
NAME AND CORRELATION
Dr C. P. Berkey* has correlated the basal member of the Man-
hattan series with the basal gneisses of the Highlands and has
1Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the
Highlands. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107, 1907.
2 Science. n. S., 37 :936.
® Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the
Highlands. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107, 1907, p. 361.
JLISIP YOO] ISIA\ OY} wody Ud9S SB ‘ssoUUOFY JUNOP FO 4svo oy} UO d4vds qpNey
| 9 21d |
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE Sy,
called the whole the Fordham gneiss. This he correlates with the
Grenville of Canada and the Adirondacks.
ei ORTON TOWN BASI©C PRUEPLIVE AND
AS SOCEM DD Vii AMOR E ENC ROCKS
General relations. In the orchard by the house and near the
_ barn on the farm of Albert Lawrence at Hortontown, are several
outcrops of a massive, compact, greenish rock. One or two ledges
are of moderate size, but most of the outcrops are small and incon-
spicuous. This rock is traceable only a short way to the north or
south by actual outcrops, but in the fields and stone walls south of
the orchard there are numerous boulders of this rock. The actual
ledges disappear beneath the hill to the southwest of the orchard.
At the summit of this hill, in a west by southwest direction from
the house, and about 200 or 300 yards away, are numerous ledges
of a rusty, blackish rock, which may be followed to the southwest
ton a short distance and then are lost. Just to the west of these
outcrops, on both sides of the road and in the road itself, are numer-
ous outcrops of quartzite with southeast dip and a strike east of
north. A conspicuous ledge of this quartzite borders the west side
Ouevereade.) West of this)is a cully about 50 of 75 feet in width
which at the west is bounded by a perpendicular cliff of the
eneisses. The relationships just described are indicated on the
accompanying sketch map (see figure IT).
It was not possible to determine the configuration of the mass
to which the greenish rock belongs. The east-west. distance be-
tween outcrops was estimated at 50 feet, but there is reason for
thinking that the rock has a greater extent.
Petrography and general description. ‘The greenish rock is very
tough. It shows variations from a greenish black rock, streaked
with lighter green, through a mottled variety to a lighter, greener
rock with a tendency to fibrous structure.
The rock may be cut with a knife. Some varieties, when pol-
ished, give a rich, dark, glossy finish. When powdered and tested
by the magnet-it reveals large quantities of magnetite to which the
darker hues are due. Weathered surfaces show freckles of black
and greenish yellow, caused by the bleaching of the microscopic
crystals among the magnetite grains. The thin section in transmitted
light shows innumerable dustings and irregular grains of magne-
tite, while the rest of the section is yellowish white. With crossed
38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
nicols the latter appears as a network of spindles, flakes and needles
of bastite. There seems to be no trace of an antecedent mineral
(see figure I2).
The ledges of the
black rock are prevail-
ingly rusty. Excavation
has been made at one
place to a depth of two
or three feet, apparently
in a search for ore. |
These ledges are in-
conspicuous, and, when
surrounded and _ over-
grown by grass, are
readily missed, except
in systematic search.
The hand specimen
shows avery coarse tex-
ture. The rock is made
Fig. 12 Bastite rock at Hortontown. Actualsize 3 mm. , é
Showing a network of bastite needles and spindles with up chiefly of massive
ip euipee. tet hornbiende. There are
patches of finer texture in which magnetite is abundant. Small
pyrite grains are frequent. In some places the hand specimen
shows a relatively porous mass of rounded grains as though some
mineral had been dissolved away. The rock has a high specific
gravity and in almost all cases is rusty in color. The thin section
shows large, irregular pleochroic brown and green hornblendes, with
some pyroxene. Magnetite inclusions are numerous and this min-
eral also occurs abundantly along numerous cracks, sometimes in
association with serpentine borders or fillings.
The ledges of the quartzite are more numerous and more ex-
tensive than those of either of the other rocks. Its apparent width
is about 75 or 100 feet. It is thin-bedded and steeply inclined. It
is very similar to the basal quartzite as seen at certain places and
appears to belong to that formation. It may be followed distinctly
for several hundred feet.
At the north and south these types give way to the characteristic
eneisses of the mountains.
The exact field relations of these rocks are very obscure. No
contacts could be found. Seemingly the only clue to their age and
relationships is to be obtained from the structural features and the
associations.
CO
E RUPTIVE AINEISS
Fig. 11 Sketch map to show the general relationships at Hortontown. Scale
approximately 200 feet to the inch.
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 39
Interpretation. The possibility suggested itself that some of
these rocks might be members of the basal gneiss series. The
quartzite, however, is almost certainly Paleozoic in age. he black
hornblende rock has the characters of a basic eruptive. The green
serpentine variety gives little idea of its original character, but it 1s
apparently not an altered pyroxenic rock.
The southwestward continuation of the reversed fault along the
northwestern slope of the eastern gneiss mass would apparently
intersect the fault on the east of Shenandoah mountain in this
neighborhood. The latter scarp is only a short distance west of the
quartzite. This intersection would have been a most favorable point
for an igneous intrusion. Some of the basal Paleozoics were evi-
dently caught at this intersection and intruded by the hornblende
rock. The quartzite offered little for the eruptive to act upon. The
bastite rock very probably represents an impure ferruginous dolo-
mite. From what is known of bastite, it is commonly, at least, the
alteration product of orthorhombic pyroxene; but the present rock
gives no indication of the former presence of any antecedent min-
eral. There seems to be no grave objection to the inference that
the passage was direct.’
This is the only occurrence within the quadrangle that permits
the interpretation that an eruptive has penetrated and altered the
overlying Paleozoics.
(iio pS OUT ZItE (ROUGE OUAG)
Distribution and general structural features. This formation,
which has frequently been mentioned in connection with the
gneisses, in this quadrangle occurs only in proximity to the Pre-
cambric rocks. ,
In the town of Matteawan the quartzite forms a small inlier as
described above, in connection with the first small inlier of gneiss
south of the Glenham belt (see page 28). Outcrops were also seen
just north of Howland avenue in the open field at the foot of the
Mount Beacon incline. The only other outcrops which have been
noted in this vicinity occur farther north along the base of Bald
hill on the Maddock estate.2 About 300 yards south of the house
and well up in the woods, about 200 or 300 feet east of the private
1 Professor B. K. Emerson assisted the writer in the identification of
the mineral bastite.
2 The presence of the quartzite at this point was discovered by a com-
panion, Mr W. R. Clarke.
40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
drive, are two or three good-sized ledges. Farther up the hill on
Mountain street at the point where it forks, going east, is an outcrop
of the quartzite. This was first interpreted as a boulder, but the
proximity of this rock in place farther down the hill suggests that.
it is a small ledge which has been preserved. These outcrops are
the only ones which were noted in this town, after a careful search,
which were referable to the quartzite as typically developed in this
quadrangle.
As has been discussed above, there is strong reason for thinking
that certain phases of the gneiss owe their peculiar character to
the subaerial decay and partial sorting which took place during the
epoch of the transgression of the sea in which the quartzite was
laid down, and are therefore of the same general age.
At Vly mountain a small patch of the quartzite has been pre-
served just north of the road on the south side of the mountain at
the summit of the hill as the road descends into the swamp, going
west.
A careful search was made along the northwestern base of Bald
hill from the Maddock farm to the northeastern end of the spur.
The topography between the more precipitous portion of the hill and
Fishkill creek often suggests the presence of the quartzite. Out-
crops are few and the gentler basal portions of the slope are usually
drift-covered. ‘The foliated Bald hill gneiss outcrops in places north
of the Maddock residence between it and the farmhouse at the north-
east. QOutcrops are absent at the base of the gneiss to the northeast
of this farm, nearly to the end of the spur. The ledges of gneiss often
rise precipitously from the edge of the gentler portion of the slope
and the bases of the scarps are hidden by abundant talus which, in
many cases, doubtless forms the gentler slopes. Near the extremity
of the spur, due south from Fishkill Village, a ledge of the quartzite
was discovered in the woods near the edge of the gneiss. The gneiss
extends to the north of this ledge.
The Bald hill thrust carried the quartzite with it in places before
the rupture occurred and in these places a characteristic quartzite
slope has been preserved. Only a few scattered ledges now mark
the former presence of this formation in the eastern part of the
town of Matteawan. The small ledge near the extremity of the spur
seemingly belongs with the upthrow block and probably rests by
thrust against the limestone. It is a question whether the precipitous
ledges of the gneiss northeast of the Maddock farmhouse rest
against the quartzite or the limestone. |
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 4i
The map represents the quartzite slope, with the break to the
southeast of it passing into the limestone southwest of the Maddock
farmhouse. Northeast of that point it shows the gneiss against the
limestone for a distance as indicating the tendency of the thrust,
and then against the quartzite, with a probable break between the
quartzite and the limestone.
There are no traces of the quartzite south of Fishkill Village in
the valley of Clove creek, nor along the northwestern base of the
Honness spur. Along the northwestern base of Mount Honness
_ proper the gneiss is only 50 or 100 feet from the limestone, from
which it rises in bold ledges. The quartzite may once have covered
a portion of the northwestern slope of this spur.
East of Honness, about one-third of a mile south of Johnsville,
the compact quartzite with some conglomerate outcrops for a short
distance in the woods at the base of the scarp, but is soon lost
beneath the kames which rest against the cliff. South of these
kames on the farm of Irving Knapp, as mentioned above, a large
mass of rock with northerly dip forms conspicuous ledges in the
east fork of the mountain roads. It resembles both the quartzite and
the gneiss and probably represents a transition from one to the
other. The quartzite outcrops along the road east of Knapp’s, in one
or two places, but is mostly concealed by drift west of the west road
from the Hook into the mountains. It was found in the bed of the
brook just west of John Ireland’s house and about 300 yards south
of the Thomas Carey farm on the roadside just above the brook.
Some conglomerate occurs at this point. Eastward from the Carey
farm, on the farms of Garrett Smith and Ward Ladue, it forms
large conspicuous ledges and extends to a point one-fourth of a
mile south of Garrett Smith’s and terminates with an abrupt talus
slope in the woods. ‘The unconformity between the quartzite and
gneiss is plainly shown just south of Alonzo Smith’s (see plate 4).
East of the east road into the mountains, the quartzite extends a
little farther south before the gneisses are reached. The southern
boundary swings round northwest of the McCarthy place and then
east through the woods across the Hook spur to the fault on the
east of this. At this point the quartzite was dropped by a fault and
is now concealed by surface deposits nearly to the quadrangle
boundary. Just north of the road on the west side of the brook
it appears in large ledges. Low ledges of limestone outcrop in the
meadow just east of the brook.
Near the quadrangle boundary a small brook, which comes down
from Shenandoah mountain, has cut through the surface deposits.
12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The quartzite was found exposed well up the slope in the bed of this
brook dipping 50° to the northwest with a strike of n. 49° e.
following closely the strike of the ridge. For a mile and a half to
the northeastward this formation forms a clear topographic feature,
though concealed by drift. Farther on it outcrops frequently and
in large ledges along the south side of the road from the East Hook
to Shenandoah. It crosses the road less than one-fourth of a mile
west of that hamlet and is succeeded by the gneisses. There are
numerous outcrops of the quartzite just north of Shenandoah. It
is probably cut off at the east by the fault that borders the mountain
on the east.
The quartzite is absent along the eastern base of Shenandoah
mountain until one reaches the mass associated with the basic
eruptive at Hortontown (see page 39).
Along the northwestern slope of the eastern gneiss mass the
topography from the schoolhouse near Hortontown to Fowler’s
kaolin mine suggests the presence of this formation. The quartzite
was not found and the lower portion of the slope is covered with
drift which contains frequent large quartzite boulders. The kaolin
rock at Fowler’s mine may represent the quartzite. It seems likely
that the gneiss rests against the limestone southeast of Shenandoah,
and that the quartzite has since been eroded. South of the junction
of the Hortontown and Mountain roads, gneiss is the outcropping
rock in the valley of the brook as far as Hortontown.
Along the slope of the eastern mountain mass, northeast of the
kaolin beds and the ore deposits, everything is beneath the drift for
a long distance at the base of the mountain. The gentle slope which
is present is probably due to talus. No outcrops of the quartzite
were found. South and southeast of Charles E. Bailey’s the lime-
stone is only a short distance from the precipitous gneiss. Just
north of the road at the base of the mountain scarp, east of Bailey’s,
a wide swamp extends northeastward. Three-fourths of a mile east
of the point where this road turns southward into the mountains
the quartzite was found in good-sized ledges within the edge of the
woods.
The conditions along this slope resemble those described for Bald
hill. There was a tendency for the quartzite to fold somewhat
before the rupture occurred, and the slope of the hill marks the
slope of the quartzite as seen southeast of Shenandoah. Toward
the northeast the rupture occurred earlier, so that the gneiss now
stands in precipitous ledges against the limestone. Farther on, east
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 43
of Bailey’s, the quartzite was brought against the limestone marking
a diminishing tendency in the thrust to the east. As shown on the
map portions of the quartzite are yet preserved near the quadrangle
boundary. Where the quartzite could not be found the gneiss is
represented as resting against the limestone; but in some cases, as
discussed above, the quartzite may have once been present.
The wide swamp east of Bailey’s marks the northeastward con-
tinuation of the great thrust fault along the limestone-quartzite
contact.
Petrography and general description. This formation has
great uniformity of appearance and general character throughout
tievanea, lits principal variations may be stated very briefly. Whe
predominating variety is a compact, granular quartz-rock of medium
grain. This grades into a fine conglomerate at the base in a few
places and in others at the top into finer-grained quartzitic shales.
The predominating variety is either white or pinkish in color.
Feldspathic varieties are rare.
Within the quadrangle there does not appear to be any apprecia-
ble difference in metamorphism in this formation from west to
east. At the type locality at Poughquag there is indication of a
eneissoid character. Within this quadrangle the quartzite appar-
ently never was involved violently enough to induce this structure.
The thin-bedded varieties, often with shaly character, were noted
at the northern end of the Hook spur south of the Hupfel estate,
in the steep bed of the brook in the East Hook near the quadrangle
boundary, north of Shenandoah and at Hortontown. Conglomeratic
phases were seen southwest of Johnsville near Honness mountain,
south of the Thomas Carey farm in the West Hook and north of
the McCarthy place to the east of Ward Ladue’s.
Strikes and dips in this formation vary greatly. In Matteawan
good observations could not be made in the thick quartzite south of
Anderson street nor at the foot of the Mount Beacon incline. Read-
ings taken just south of the Maddock residence gave a strike of
ise. ald cayvcipr ot 54" on. we Whe enetss, only, 20
feet away, dipped 50° to the southeast. Observations at the
quartzite ledge at the extremity of the Bald hill spur gave a strike
Of Mm 42 e€. and a dip of 48° to the northwest. A treading
taken on the east of Honness gave a strike of m. 42° e. and a
dip of 35° southeast. South of the Carey farm in the West
Hook the dip is 15° to the northeast. On the farms of Garrett Smith
and Ward Ladue, west of the fault, the dip is to the north-
44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
west. East of the fault it is to the northeast. As the boundary
swings round the western slope of the Hook spur, the dip changes
from northeast to north and northwest, and at the northern end
of the spur from northwest to north. On Shenandoah mountain
in the East Hook, near the quadrangle boundary, the strike is
n. 49° e. and the dip 50° n. w. .This general strikeand@aip
holds to Shenandoah. North of Shenandoah the dip changes to
north. The quartzite disappears at the east under a mass of kames.
Readings made a mile east of Bailey’s gave a strike of s. 70° e.
and: a dip. of about. 18> n: e: :
The quartzite thus follows the folds of the gneisses and, although
eroded and disturbed by faulting, tends to fringe the spurs and
hollows along the northern margin of the Highlands.
The conformable series at West Fishkill Hook. East of the
normal fault that extends along the east road into the mountains,
the basal quartzite is overlain by bluish-gray limestones having
the same dip as the quartzite. The nearest approach to actual con-
tact is in Ward Ladue’s orchard, a few feet north of Jones’s barn.
The pinkish ledges of granular quartz rock are only a few feet
away from the limestone and the two are seen to be in strict con-
formity. The limestone, which is greatly broken up into large blocks,
can be followed to the south and east. In both directions it is suc-
ceeded by the quartzite. The limestone swings round the north-
western slope of the Hook spur and appears in numerous ledges
in the fields southeast of W. L. Ladue’s barns. Here it is con-
formably overlain by gray calcareous shales. At the eastern side
of the pasture, south of the orchard on W. L. Ladue’s farm, the
shales dip to the northwest and north. A little farther west, in the
center of the field, the interbedded shales and shaly limestones have
buckled into a low anticline.
Fig. 13. Generalized section to show the conformable series of the Lower Cambric in the West
Hook district. Distance approximately one-third of a mile
Fossils from the quartzite and overlying limestone. With the
exception of a few worm borings found in the quartzite along the
west road from the West Hook into the mountains in the summer
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 45
of 1906 (see figure 14), fossils had not been discovered in this
formation up to the summer of 1900.
inmeaueust of that? year the writer
discovered in the yard of Ward Ladue
at the West Hook a fossiliferous slab
Gi compact quartzite, about three
feet square, and plainly derived from
a bed about five inches thick. Both
surfaces were covered with fossils,
chiefly brachiopods and the cephalic
borders and spines of trilobites. Some
of the latter were from one and one-
half to two inches long.
itticeclanawas hom ad) Mile -Sralmeds m1, ) wer hornes an Lower
gray quartzite bed and was very compact Ce eee
and resistant. The fresh surface showed numerous rusty markings.
This discovery led to persistent search for the fossiliferous rock
in’ place. 3
Directly south from Ward Ladue’s house a gorge in the quartz-
ite apparently marks the beginning of the normal fault displacement
that extends southward just to the west of the public road. The
western wall of this gerge is composed of thickly bedded compact
quartzite. The eastern wall shows thinner rusty layers interbedded
with the compact rock. The fact that only a hundred feet or so to the
eastward the quartzite is overlain by the limestone, together with the
evidence of faulting, were taken to indicate that the rocks in the
eastern wall are younger than those on the western or upthrow side.
With this assumption as a basis, and in the belief that the rusty
layers interbedded in the superficial portion of the quartzite should
yield fossils, if such were present, the eastern wall was given a very
careful examination. No fossils could be found between Ladue’s
and the point where the gorge intersects the road. Although the
dip of the quartzite is very gentle along here, the thickness crossed
is considerable.
The gorge was then traced southward from the road. A rich
assemblage of fossils was discovered in the eastern wall about 250
yards southeast of Herman Adam’s house. The ledge occurs just
beneath an old stone wall that separates the gully from an old
orchard. The fossil traces were first discovered in the compact
rock similar to that seen in the slab in Ladue’s yard, and showing
the same rusty markings on the fresh surface. This rock overlies
46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
some thinner, rusty, decomposed layers in which fragments of
trilobites and brachiopods are very abundant. The trilobite
fragments are smaller than those displayed on the slab described
above, but in other respects are quite similar. They were identified
as fragments of Olenellus, probably thompsoni. The
brachiopods bear a strong resemblance to Obolella. Two speci-
mens of the rusty quartzite crowded with fossils are shown in
figure 15.
Fig. 15 Fossiliferous Lower Cambric quartzite
In the summer of 1908 the opercula of Hyolitheli@s
micans were discovered in the limestone overlying the compact
quartzite in Ladue’s orchard at an estimated distance of 20 feet
above the latter. After a careful search another operculum was
found at a slightly higher level in the first ledge east of the lower
barn on Jones’s farm.
Age and correlation. ‘These fossils prove the quartzite to be
of Lower Cambric age. The similar relations which it has to the
underlying gneiss indicate that it is the equivalent of the basal
quartzite at Poughquag. The latter was described and named by
Prof, J. D. Dana’ as the Poughquag quartzite.
1 Amer. Jour. Sci., Ser. 3, 1872, 3 :250—50.
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 47
Summary and conclusions. The relationships among the
quartzite, limestone and calcareous shale described above are ex-
hibited nowhere else in this quadrangle.
The field relations of the gneisses and the quartzite indicate that
the older rocks have been thrust up into the younger series and
that in general their present relative position must be regarded as
very different from that which obtained when the Cambric sea over-
lapped the older land. It is plain that the quartzite was involved
in the thrust movement and, although never violently folded, was
yet greatly disturbed by folding in certain places. In many instances
the quartzite was moved bodily with the gneisses, so that where it
is now present, or was apparently present up to a comparatively
recent epoch, it is not contiguous with the limestones of its own
epoch, but with later ones on which it has been thrust.
A not unreasonable restoration of the Precambric floor, which
is thus assumed to have been fractured and elevated, would allow
a considerable extension of the thick quartzite formation south-
ward from its present northern position. ‘The actual evidence for
such a former extent consists in the faulted mass at Hortontown,
which, since the thrust movement was northwestward, could hardly
have had an original position farther northwest, but which might
readily have come from the southeast, and in occasional ledges
observed in the woods during a reconnoissance south from West
Fishkill Hook across the quadrangle boundary. ‘The character of
the slope of the quartzite where least disturbed, as in West Fishkill
Hook, its thickness and the rather steep southern termination at
certain places, indicate a former southward extension.
The varying strike and dip of this formation is best interpreted
as the result of disturbance subsequent to its deposition, rather than
to original initial slope.
In attempting to explain the present valley position of the
younger rocks along the northern border of the Highlands, instead
of assuming that they were deposited in valleys, we are offered
the alternative explanation of down-faulting, and subsequent partial
or entire erosion in which the ice sheet may have played an import-
ant part.
The Precambric masses may have stood as isiands in the early
Paleozoic sea, but the present relationships do not require such an
interpretation.
The disturbance of the quartzite has given it such inclination that
it might be regarded as of different geological age at different
altitudes, Of this there is no evidence.
48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
THE WAPPINGER (BARNEGATE) LIMESTONE
This formation appears within the quadrangle in two main belts
with some smaller faulted masses lying between them. The west-
ernmost main belt is the Barnegate limestone of Mather, but now
commonly referred to as the Wappinger creek or New Hamburg
belt. It is followed by Wappinger creek from the latter’s source
near Pine Plains to the Hudson river, and its eastern contact with
the overlying “ Hudson River” formation crosses the river at New
Hamburg. The eastern belt is known as the Fishkill limestone,
as it lies chiefly in the town of old Fishkill.
THE WAPPINGER CREEK BELT
This belt enters the quadrangle from the north at Pleasant Valley
and continues in a southeast by south course to New Hamburg.
It reappears west of the Hudson and continues in the same direc-
tion beyond the western boundary. East of the Hudson it is broken
up into a central strip, with a large rectangular strip on the west
of this along its southern half and separated from it by a narrow
band of the slates, and several smaller masses lying to the east of
the central strip along its middle portion.
THE WESTERN STRIP
Boundaries. ‘This strip is clearly faulted against the slates at
the north. The fault line runs in a southeast-northwest direction
across the Poughkeepsie driving park. The western contact is
marked at many places by swamps or scarps which indicate that
the western margin is also a faulted one.” The presence of a fault
along here receives confirmation from the apparent age of the lime-
stone in contact with, or in proximity to, the slates. The western
boundary begins just southeast of the junction of Hooker avenue
and the road that runs southward from it on the west of the driving
park and passes across the northwestern part of the Ruppert farm
and just west of the old Hinckley house, and then may be traced
by swampy ground or a low scarp to the schoolhouse at the corner
of the Spackenkill and Poughkeepsie roads; thence under drift to
the first road leading to the river. The limestone outcrops on the
north side of this road in low-lying ledges and in more conspicuous
ones south of it in proximity to the slates. From here the contact is
1 Geology of the First District, 1843, p. 410. .
2 This fault was described by Professor W. B. Dwight. See Amer.
Jour. Sci Heb: 1236; 31:125-37, with) map:
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 49
indistinctly followed to the river, where the limestone terminates in
a bluff. The northern portion of its eastern boundary is concealed
by drift, but farther south to the east of the road that runs south-
ward on the east.of the driving park the limestone forms a con-
spicuous feature for several hundred yards along the eastern edge
of R. J. Kimlin’s farm. Southwest from here it apparently follows
Casper creek to the Hudson river. The slates which come in
between it and the central strip form conspicuous ledges both north
and south of the Spackenkill road and were noted southwest of the
Poughkeepsie-Wappinger Falls road, on the east side of the road to
New Hamburg, and also near the Hudson river. The lower
reaches of Casper creek, west of the Poughkeepsie road, are choked
with kame deposits.
Terranes present. The Potsdam and Trenton horizons have
been recognized in the strata composing this western strip of
limestone.
The Potsdam. Fossils belonging to this horizon have been
discovered in a few places. The first were reported by Professor
W. B. Dwight! from the northern portion of the strip. Just south
of the Poughkeepsie driving park, and to the west of the new pri-
vate road which runs south from the park to the Ruppert farm-
house, are a number of low-lying ledges. They have yielded:
BMtmathepiss pinmntorim Ss oo. minima, Ww. ac umit =
tae Omotella “CGeingulelia) prima, .Obolella
MecemMuline aia naqelatyceras «Ptychioparia (Con o-
Sepuaiies) mn. sp: -Wicellocephalus, Ptychaspis, Stromato-
cerium, encrinal columns.” A few months later Professor Dwight
reported other Potsdam fossils from a locality about a mile
southeast by south on the Spackenkill road, about one-half mile
east of the Ruppert farmhouse, at the point where the private
fod to the Warick farm leaves the main road. In addition to
Eingulepis pinniformis and allied species found at the
amet locality, he identified Ptychoparia saratogemnsis
Walcott, and P. calcifera Walcott. These fossils may be
seen in the museum of the Vassar Brothers’ Institute at Poughkeep-
sie. Another ledge yielding L. pinnifcormis was found by
Professor Dwight near the eastern margin of the belt about one-half
mile southeast of the first locality described. This ledge is just east
1 Amer. Jour. Sci., Feb. 1886, 31:125-37. See also Trans. Vassar Bros.
hist. 4.2ts0—7 12
2 rans, Vassar, Bros) Imst.,ve14, pt. 2) p) 200-14.
s Amer. Jour. Sci. July; 1887, 34 :28-32.
50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
of the little house north of Mr R. J. Kimlin’s barn. The ledge
carrying Solenopora compacta found by Professor Dwight
is only a short distance to the southeast.
In the summer of 1908 a new Potsdam locality was discovered
by the writer. The beds yielding fossils were found in the quarry
on the Ruppert farm about 200 yards north of the Spackenkill road.
The rock was being removed for lime and blasting operations greatly
facilitated the search for fossils. These are scattered and usually
fragmentary. They are embedded in compact, resistant limestone
which made the search difficult. A half dozen good specimens of ©
Lingulepis pinniformis were found, besides numerous
fragments; also a head of Ptychoparia sp. A photograph of
the quarry is shown in plate 7. Fossils seemed most abundant in
the middle layers. Figure 16 shows two of the best preserved speci-
mens of li -pitunifo rm es:.
Fig. 16 Two specimens of Lingulepis pinniformis from the arenaceous Upper Cambric
limestone beds at Ruppert’s quarry
The rock in the floor of this quarry showed many peculiar mark-
ings of concentric rings from three-fourths to one inch in diameter.
These were sectioned and examined by Professor John M. Clarke.
A part of a letter from Dr Clarke referring to these structures is
given below.
‘“T have had the specimen you sent to me cut and polished in the
hope of bringing out some structure from the concentric masses
therein. The result is not very satisfactory, except as indicating
what seems to be an inorganic origin, though I would not be willing
to say that the masses were not spongoid like Streptochaetus. The
successive laminae might indicate such a structure, but the intimate
composition of the skeleton has been so altered by granulation as
to seem to leave possibility of organic structure pretty hazy; yet I
am inclined to believe that the rock carries organic remains, as
‘ds erszedoyoAj}q pue stwiofyruurd ey nsuryT Pepfatd savy ssakey] appiw sy som oy} 0} ApWYSr[s dip
speq esoy fT, ‘osdsoyxysnog JO jsvoyjnos wey Sjioddny je Atienb 9y} ul Speq s1Iquiey Joddy [eJuOozIIOY Jsowye 94} Surmoys
~
-
+ =
= -
f '
-:
)
‘
on
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 5I
indicated by apparent fragments of shells seen on polished surfaces
amdeaim section, | returm these specimens fo you for your. ex-
amination. I notice that one side of the rock specimen exposes
something that suggests a head of Conocephalus or other primitive
trilobite.”
Figure 17 is a_ photomicro-
graph of a section of this roc
and shows what appears to be a
fragment of a tiny shell. The
microscope failed to bring out
any structure in the concentric
masses.
In addition to the suggestive
marking referred to by Doctor
Clarke as possibly representing
a trilobite cephalon, the writer.
noted another strongly suggest- Fig. 17. Showing a thin section of the lime-
stone in the floor of Ruppert’s quarry
ing a Hyolithes.
The rock layers in the floor of the quarry are about ten or twelve
feet below the layers yielding L. pinniformzis and the whole
are conformable.
The Trenton. This horizon, as mentioned above, was reported
by Professor Dwight from the eastern margin of the belt on the
tanmoieow Re | Kimlin and was recognized by the presence of
Solemopora compacta. No other localities have been
described.
Petrographic characters and further description. ~The Potsdam
rock in the locality first reported by Professor Dwight was described
as varying from a tough compact limestone through fissile, shaly
argillaceous types and arenaceous and oolitic limestones, into quartz-
itic varieties which were sometimes brecciated. All were calcareous.
M@hese'may be verified for the most part. Whe calcareous quartzite
is often friable from the loss of the carbenate and rusty from iron
discoloration. It frequently carries shell-like depressions or molds.
Along the western margin of this strip large quantities of sand
are dug and shipped away for molding purposes. In appearance,
it strongly suggests the rusty quartzitic phase of the Potsdam of
this western strip. As favorable a place as any for observing this
Sandeis (ome: tara or ivi Poel on the Camelot road north of
Casper creek.
A section beginning at the eastern margin of the belt, just south-
east of R. J. Kimlin’s farm, and running west along the Spackenkill
52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
road to the Poughkeepsie road, and then continued to the river
along the road to the molding sand dock a mile and a half north of
Camelot, and thence along or just east of the track to Camelot
station gives all the principal varieties of rock that have been met
with north of Stoneco quarry.
Beginning at the east, south of Kimlin’s farm, at the top of the
hill on the Spackenkill road, the rock in the ledges is of a light
steel-blue color and of medium grain (letter A in the section, fig. 18).
PoTSDAN
CR’s Quarry) 7 SHALY
LimcsTone
CHERTY Soreniee
Fig. 18 Section along the Spackenkill road
It often carries on fresh. surfaces markings of calcite, shaped like
the segments of various curves, and blackened depressions and pits
which have no particular or definite form. Just north of the junc-
tion of the two roads at this point on the east side of the road that
passes Kimlin’s house a brecciated conglomerate was noted re-
sembling the Trenton as seen elsewhere in the quadrangle and carry-
ing masses that resembled Solenopora compacta.
The next cut west on the Spackenkill road shows many chertlike
masses and scroll effects of silicilous material that have weathered
out. North of here in the fields of Mr Mulkemus and in the neigh-
boring woods the ledges carrying this variety of rock are very
numerous and may be traced some distance east and west (let-
tered B, fig. 18).
This rock gives place, near and at the junction with the Varick
road, to dull gray ledges of arenaceous limestone which has a coarse
sandpaperlike appearance on weathered surfaces. One-fourth mile
beyond this, rock outcrops on the north side of the road and lies
quite flat (lettered CG, fig. 18). The rock at Ruppert’s quarry,
one-fourth mile farther west (lettered D, fig. 18), in general
character is almost identical with that of the two previous outcrops.
The rock in the quarry varies in color from black to gray. The beds
average thicker at the base and grow thinner toward the top. There
are a few shaly layers. The strike of the quarry rock is about
n. 75° e. and the dip about 10° northwest.
At the corner of the Spackenkill and Poughkeepsie roads im-
pure limestone outcrops on the east side of the latter road with
1Camelot station is at the point marked Stoneco on the map. The
name Stoneco is usually applied to the Clinton Point Stone Company’s
quarry, a mile below Camelot station.
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 53
a strike of n. 23° e. and a dip of 70° s.e. This may belong with the
slate formation and may therefore be on the downthrow side (let-
tered F, fig. 18).
Ledges of rock similar to that in Ruppert’s quarry occur to the
southeast along the western margin of the belt, to the north and
south of the first road leading to the river, and west of the road
leading from this toward Camelot station. East of Camelot sta-
tion, about roo feet up the hill, on the south side of the New
Hamburg road, ledges of rock identical with that in Ruppert’s
quarry strike approximately east and west and dip about 12° to
the south.
The first road leading to the river, south of the Spackenkill road,
leaves the Poughkeepsie road (old Albany turnpike) one-fourth
mile south of the schcolhouse. The river road gives off two
branches, the shorter, lower one going to the dock of the White-
head Sand Company and the other to Camelot station.
On the east side of the lower road, just north of the red house,
coarse conglomerate, familiar in Trenton localities within this quad-
rangle, outcrops in one or two large ledges. This rock, in a brec-
ciated condition, was also noted farther south along the upper road
where this runs parallel with the railway track, about one-fourth
mile north of Camelot station.
Along the middle portion of this western strip the topography
generally indicates a very gently sloping almost flat substratum of
rock, and the extraordinary width of the belt is plainly due to the
nearly horizontal position of the underlying strata for long distances.
The varieties of rock described by Professor Dwight would
seem to be accounted for mainly as outcrops across the dip of several
beds showing variations of texture and composition, and partly to
the different effects of weathering on these, as well as to possible
frictional brecciation.
The portion of the section
which may be seen at Stonec )
in the quarry of the Clinton
Point Stone Company is be-
tween one-fourth and one-
third of the breadth of the
strip from its eastern margin
and displays a thick mass of dolomitic limestone dipping gently to
the west (see plate 8). For the most part it is thick-bedded. There
are some thinner layers near the top and in the middle. Some beds
carry numerous chertlike masses and in this particular, as well as in
Fig. 19 Section at Stoneco quarry
54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
general character, the reck strongly resembles the variety described
above along the Spackenkill road cn the farm of Mr Mulkemus
near the eastern margin of the belt. No fossils were found in the
beds of this quarry and hence no definite idea of its age could be
obtained.
Just east of Camelot station, as described above, arenaceous lime-
stone identical with that in Ruppert’s quarry, dips to the south at
an angle of 12°. This suggests a southward pitch and a superior
position for the strata in the Stoneco quarry, a mile to the south
of Camelot.
The stratigraphic position and estimated thickness of the Stoneco
beds agree with those of the cherty rocks along the Spackenkill
road to the northeast. Presumably these strata once entirely
covered the Upper Cambric (Potsdam) along the central and
western portions of the strip and have been preserved at the south
on account of the pitch of the series. )
Structural features. It is not possible to tell with absolute
certainty what the exact relationships are among the different strata
composing the series of this western strip. Presumably the Upper
Cambric beds are followed conformably by those which apparently
have a superior stratigraphic position. But in these latter strata
it is necessary to recognize a probable interval of erosion as is in-
dicated by relationships which can be determined with more exact-
ness within the central strip and which is shown by the presence
of a conglomeratic layer, even in this western belt. As will be
discussed farther on this conglomerate, though possessing peculiar
features, marks a change in fauna as well as in the lithic character
of the rock and must be taken as marking a definite hiatus.
The present almost horizontal position of the Upper Cambric
and overlying beds theoretically admits of two explanations. It
either represents a close overturned, recumbent fold, of else™a
reversed fault accompanied by westward thrusting, which was pre-
ceded by only relatively little folding.
These rocks show no indications of extensive slickensiding, of
compression of layers, or of flow structures such as would be ex-
pected in violently folded strata. There is evidence of some brec-
ciation and slipping in the rock along the eastern margin, but this
is not severe. There is extensive fracturing which is, however,
readily explained by the hypothesis of reversed faulting and thrust-
ing.
The field relations point to an upward movement of older strata
into overlying younger ones similar to that already described for
JSoM oY} 0} SuIddip sauojs
-SUT] Popped APY 9Y} SurmoYys ‘Od9u0}G ‘AuRdUTOD 90S WTO Uo TTD) oy} Fo AdIvND oy} }v [[eM ysvoayyNos oy} Fo uos0d vy
| 8 Id
.
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 55
the gneisses. Along the western margin of the strip the compres-
sion brought the Upper Cambric beds against the slates, which were
first folded and overturned and then overridden. At the quarry
at Stoneco and below Marlboro station across the river the west-
ward dipping younger strata show a diminution in the upward thrust
toward the southwest which may be associated with an earlier re-
lease that elevated the Glenham belt.
As already indicated, the conglomerate appears in places along
the western margin of the strip. It is best interpreted as belonging
with the downthrow block and is to be associated with the slate
rather than with the limestone. It is likely that there was a strong
horizontal component in the thrust that carried the older beds over
the slates to the west of this strip.
~The conglomerate alcng the eastern margin would appear to
occupy a normal position, but the fact that it is brecciated is note-
worthy. ‘The presence of ledges yielding Lingulepis pinni-
formis, as described above (see page 49), along the eastern
margin in the near neighborhood of the Trenton, seems best ex-
plained as an instance of faulting. The Potsdam beds seem clearly
to have been overlain by younger strata, as is now the case at
Stoneco quarry. It does not seem possible from the relationships
exhibited elsewhere that the overlying strata were eroded so as to
expose the Potsdam before the deposition of the Trenton.
Apparently the
limestone on the west
of the Hudson is es- <
sentially the continu- SE NW.
AMIOMeOn this westery
strip, but presumably
the beds are younger even than those of the quarry at Stoneco..
Some of them resemble the beds of the central strip, as shown at
the New Hamburg
tunnel. On the west
of the Hudson, near
ie rivers. wedge vat
Danskammer, the
limestone dips to the
southeast at an angle
Ol Ose wlonge thie
western margin, as
shown just below Marlboro station, the dip is to the northwest.
The limestones rest by overthrust on the slates at the west.
Fig. 20 Section at Danskammer
ae
Fig. 2t Section below Marlboro station
S.E,.
56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Metamorphism and alteration. Brecciation has been noted
along both margins of the strip. Fracturing has been extensive, pro-
ducing many small cracks that have been healed by calcite. The
broken surfaces of the rock along the eastern margin of the strip
show by the smooth, distorted blackened depressions that there has
been some movement in the rock. ‘The alteration is least where the
beds are flattest. The principal changes then are due to granulation
which usually has been sufficient to conceal or destroy organic
remains.
Summary. Presumably the Upper Cambric beds are followed »
in this strip by the Beekmantown (Calciferous), as is the case in
the central strip; but fossils belonging to this horizon have not yet
been discovered. This terrane may be represented by all or part of
the dolomitic strata shown in the Stoneco quarry and their apparent
equivalents to the north.
Locally about Saratoga a very fossiliferous limestone lens appears
in the basal portion of the dolomite formation.”
The trilobites discovered by Professor Dwight on the Spackenkill
road, as mentioned on page 49, were like those discovered by Mr
Walcott at Saratoga.®
No fossils have been reported from the limestone on the western
bank of the Hudson within this quadrangle. In 1879 R. P. Whit-
field* reported Maclurea magna from these limestones at
Newburgh and in 1880 W. B. Dwight® found an assemblage of
Trenton fossils in that city.
1The description of the cherty, dolomitic limestone at the Stoneco
quarry and overlying the Potsdam beds along the Spackenkill road was
written in October I909. At the meeting of the Geological Society at
Cambridge, Mass., the following December, Professors Ulrich and Cush-
ing described a dolomite in the Mohawk valley which “is found to con-
sist of two distinct formations, the lower a dolomite formation of Ozarkic
age, the upper a limestone of Lower Beekmantown age with a distinct
unconformity between the two.” The Beekmantown was described as
thinning to the west, so that west of Little Falls the Lowville rests on
the Ozarkic. The unconformity may be followed into the Champlain
valley, reappears in the St Lawrence region “and is believed to mark
the line of division between the two formations everywhere in northern
New York.”
2Preliminary list of papers. G. S. A., 22d winter meeting at Boston-
Cambridge, December 1900.
3 See Thirty-second Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Mus.; also U. S. G. S. Bul. 30,
p. 21, and Science, 1884, 3 :136-37.
4 Amer. Jour. Sci., Ser. 3, 18:227.
5 Amer. Jour. Sci., Ser. 3, 19 :50-54.
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 57
EE CE INGA 2 oi REP
Boundaries. This strip enters the quadrangle from the north
at Pleasant Valley. Its eastern margin forms the western bank of
Wappinger creek north of the covered bridge at Pleasant Valley
and southward follows the creek closely as far as Rochdale. At
this place the limestone is in contact with the slate at the dam and
on the island just below it. South of Rochdale the limestone fol-
lows the creek for one-half mile and then bears slightly to the west.
It apparently ends just north of the terrace one-fourth of a mile
east of Tompkins’s house (see plate 17) on the Pleasant Valley road.:
This terrace fringes an old meander of the creek and extends around
to the south side where the limestone appears again just south of
the road that skirts its edge. East of the portion of this road run-
ning north and south, just west of Frank De Garmo’s house, are
numerous outcrops of the slates, but these disappear at the terrace
slope and no outcrops appear in the deep westward embayment
formed by the old meander.
This embayment is regarded as lying in a zone of transverse
faulting. It seems probable that the slates were dropped down in
here. At any rate, either on this account or because of faulting, a
weakness was produced which the base-leveling forces caught and
finally left as a gap in the ridge of limestone. It seems probable
from the dimensions of certain faulted limestone blocks a short dis-
tance to the eastward that they belong in or near this gap. The
slate has been dropped between the faulted masses and the dis-
membered main strip.
South of the break in the central strip its eastern margin follows
the road until the latter turns eastward and then extends as a con-
spicuous wooded scarp in a north and south line to a point about
one-third of a mile south of Frank De Garmo’s house. At this
point the limestone sends a sharp angular spur eastward for about
200 yards, as shown on the map. The strike of the slates just west
of De Garmo’s house, projected southward, would bring them sharply
against the limestone in the included angle of this spur, showing a
transverse fault between the slates and the spur and indicating that
the eastern marginal scarp south of De Garmo’s is a faulted one.
Limestone outcrops at the apex of this spur, whence it may be
traced by continuous outcrop along the margin of the slate to and
across the railroad track and highway west of Manchester Bridge.
South of here the eastern margin follows the eastern base of an
immense drumlin and south of this distinctly to the Poughkeepsie-
8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
ot
New Hackensack road; then across this and fer a short distance
to the south. ‘The margin is then apparently broken by a spur in
a manner similar to that just described, although this time the break
appears to be along an extensive fault line. The slates which out-
crop south of the Poughkeepsie-New Hackensack road and west of
the cross road that leads from it to the Spackenkill road, lie in the
included angle of this spur.
The contact is then easily followed southward by the steep mar-
ginal scarp in the limestone, from the point where the cross road just
mentioned makes its turn, to and across the Spackenkill road, and
east of the old Boardman farm. The gully which, as shown on the
map, cuts across this central strip west of the northern termination
of the narrow faulted strip lying on the east, may represent a fault.
South of the Spackenkill road slates outcrop in numerous places
between the main strip and the narrow faulted mass just east and
south through the swamp to the southern end of the small strip,
leaving no doubt but that, at the surface, the two limestone masses
are separated by a narrow band of the siates. The eastern contact
is then very readily followed through the fields to Channingyville
and then less distinctly under the drift between the creek and the
New Hamburg road to the bank of Wappinger creek near its junc-
tion with the Hudson.
The western margin of the central strip could be determined with
much more exactness in certain places than in others. At the north
the surface deposits conceal it for the most part, but swamps and
other topographical features and oc¢asional outcrops enable one to
follow it approximately, and in a few places distinctly, until it
crosses the Pleasant Valley road just west of Rochdale. The lime-
stone then forms a distinct scarp east of the road to the break just
southeast of Tompkins’s house. South of this the margin is distinct
to the railroad, but across this it is soon lost under the drift com-
posing the large drumlin at this point. The limestone reappears
on the south side of this hill and again a little farther south as a
scarp which crosses the Poughkeepsie-New Hackensack road.
South of this road the margin is readily followed, often with the
limestone and slate in close proximity, to the Poughkeepsie-Wap-
pinger Falls road which, going south, ascends the western scarp of
the limestone. South along the New Hamburg road the contact
is clearly for a distance on the east side of the road as the slate was
noted in the latter. But along here the kame deposits effectually
conceal the exact relationships between the limestone and slate. At
the northern end of the New Hamburg tunnel the limestone rests
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 59
by overthrust upon the slate (see plate 9) and occasionally the
limestone outcrops along the slope to the northeast for a short
distance.
_ Terranes present. The Potsdam, Beekmantown (Calciferous-
Rochdale group) and Trenton horizons have been identified along
this central strip within the quadrangle.
The Potsdam. This horizon was first noted in this strip just
_ a little north of the quadrangle boundary half way between Pleasant
Valley and Salt Point At Pleasant Valley Lingulepis pin-
niformis was reported along or near the western margin of the
strip to the northwest of the village in rather characteristic argil-
laceous limestone, and also from some hills to the north of the vil-
lage between the old Poughkeepsie and Eastern Railroad bed and
Wappinger creek.2 At the latter place the beds carrying L. pinni-
formis also had small brachiopods, apparently Orthis and Tri-
plecia, as well as minute gastropods, fragments of trilobites and
Opimileta compacta. These beds were mixed with Calci-
_ferous and Trenton strata carrying other fossils characteristic of
these limestones in this region. The Potsdam was identified near
Rochdale, just west of the Poughkeepsie-Pleasant Valley road. The
beds exposed in the quarry just northwest of Alson De Garmo’s
house, from which stone was removed for the State road, are pos-
sibly of Upper Cambric age. A search for fossils in this quarry
was unrewarded. In a note to his paper on the discovery of Pots-
dam fossils in Poughkeepsie, south of the driving park, as described
for the western strip, Professor Dwight* mentioned the discovery
of a fragment of brachiopod shell which he believed to be that of
Miran leopis pinwitormis ma rock very similar to that
at the locality south of the driving park. He described this new
locality as about one-half of a mile south of the Boardman mansion
on the Spackenkill road, but it is uncertain from his description at
just what point the fossil was found.
The Beekmantown (Calciferous-Rochdale group). In Jan-
-uary 1880, Professor Dwight* reported the discovery of a rich
assemblage of fossils of Pretrenton age at Rochdale, a small fac-
tory hamlet four miles northeast of Poughkeepsie.
Wo be Dwight Amer jour Scr, July, 1881, 34:27—-32.
2(W. B. Dwight) J. M. Clarke. Guide to the Fossiliferous Rocks of
New York State. N. Y. State Mus. Handbook 15, p. 9-10.
3 Amer. Jour. Sci, Feb. 1886, 31 :136.
4 Amer. Jour. Sci., January, 1880, 19:50 et seq.
60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The following named fossils were enumerated as the most ‘im-
portant:
“Ophileta complanata (possibly Ophileta\ come
pacta), ©. levata, ©: > sordida ~ Qlacltiieawo aa:
dida), Orthoceras primigenium.” OthemMunivalge:
were noted but not identified. A network of “ fucoidal fronds ”
might be Bythotrephis antiquata. The fossils of the
neighboring Trenton at the east were absent from this rock and it
was believed to lie beneath the Trenton, both strata having an east-
ward dip. It was called the Calciferous.'
In October 1880, Dwight? found at the Rochdale locality another
remarkable assemblage: “ great numbers of Orthocerata and other
fossils, many of which are not reported as occurring in New York
State.” In lithology this rock was identical with that previously
assigned to the Calciferous. Orthocerata were abundant and dis-
coidal gastropods very plentiful. In addition to its own peculiar
fossils, it contained the “ fucoids”’ and other types of the adjacent
Calciferous. Dwight hesitated to announce the exact stratigraphical
position of this new fossil assemblage. The wealth of cephalopods
separated it very sharply from any other known terrane in the
United States below the Black River-Trenton, to which it was in-
ferior. In its numerous orthoceratite cephalopods it resembled the
Quebec group of Canada.
In 1882 Diwght® reported tracing the Calciferous in this strip to
a point five miles below Poughkeepsie. In addition to the above-
named *‘ Calciferous ” fossils he announced in this paper: A large
Holopea and smaller ones not identified, many Pleurotomaria re-
sembling Canadian forms, a minute Ophileta n. sp., a Mur-
chisonia resembling gracilis of the Trenton, one or two orthides,
many undeterminable fragments of Bathyurus, Chaetetes ly-
coperdon var. ramosa, not hitherto reported below the Tren-
ton, 25 to 30 species of Orthocerata, all apparently new in the
United States, two species of Lituites and a Cyrtoceras. In 1884*
a number of these fossils were described with figures; trilobite frag-
ments were provisionally assigned to the genus Bathyurus (B.
1 The ledges at the summit of the hill north of Alson DeGarmo’s house
on the Pleasant Valley road belong, in part at least, to Dwight’s Calci-
ferous locality.
2 Amer. Jour. Sci. Ser. 3, 21:78.
3 Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. (Montreal meeting), v. 31. Abstract Aug.
1882, p. 3-6. .
4 Amer. Jour. Sci., Ser. 3, April, 1884, 27 :249-59.
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 61
taurifrons and B. crotalifrons). New cephalopod species
wiene described as Cyrtoceeras vassarina, C. ? dacty-
fomates CC. microscopicum, Orthoceras apissi-
fomedim:) O: henrictta, Oncoceras vassifiorme.
In 1900 Dwight! designated the main Calciferous strata as the
Cyrtoceras vassarina beds and called attention to the great
persistence for a distance of nearly thirty miles in the Wappinger
limestone, of a layer which contains a fauna quite different from
that of the main beds. It lacked cephalopods entirely. There were
no important fossils in common in the two beds except two or three
always present in the Calciferous. In some respects it resembled
the Fort Cassin of Vermont, but differed in the extreme scarcity of
eepmalopods, ihe presence of Lingulepis pinniftormis
suggested a low horizon in the Calciferous. What Dwight has called
a low horizon in the Calciferous may be Upper Cambric discon-
formably overlain by Beekmantown.
The Trenton. Fossils belonging to this horizon were the first
to be discovered in the Dutchess county limestone und were hrst
reported from the area within this quadrangle.
Mather referred only in a footnote to their having been found in
a quarry south of Pleasant Valley by Professor Briggs. His assign-
ment of the age of this formation was based on fossils found in
the beds of limestone within the slate formation a mile or so north
of Barnegate.
In 1879 Professor Dwight? found the following Trenton fossils
fapnoccidaic: Weptaecna (Rlectambonites ) sericea,
Oraiisstricenaria, Receptaculites sp. A week after
the discovery Dwight and Dana visited this locality. The following
i@eciismmere found: Ika (PrP) serreea HE sehatr apo ait ec ta,
pibodictya acuta, the caudal shield of a trilobite probably,
PEE us wetwshis, Orthis tricenaria, \O! pec
mmella, ©, testudinaria, an- Endoceras, an’ Orthoceras:
specimens of Chaetetes, and encrinal columns.? On this same excur-
sion the quarry south of Pleasant Valley, mentioned by Mather,
was visited. A fossil assemblage very like that at Rochdale was
at once discovered. Subsequent examination of this collection
HoOWcda mo epopmonmena alternata © fragments: file
Chaetetes was named by Dwight C. tenuissima.
D Bul Geol. Soc. Amer, v. 12) 1900, abstract.
2;Amer. Jour. Sei May, 1870, 17 :380.
emer, our Sin i \Wlayasis70; «17300, See also p-138t-
62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
In 1880 Professor Dwightt added to the above from the Roch-
dale locality: a number of cyathophylloid corals, among them
Petraia corniculum, a head of Echinoencrintees
anatiformis, and the caudal shield of a trilobite identified as
Eilaenus (‘crass veanid a. The C. ténwisis timate
identified as in part at least, Stromatopora compaena
Billings (Chaetetes compacta Dawson). This tess
now recognized as Solenopora compacta.
The Trenton also occurs at Pleasant Valley in the railroad cut
just east of the Central New England station on the old Pough-.
keepsie and Eastern road. The Trenton beds here have yielded
Tetradium cellulosum and great numbers of entomostraca
and fragments of small trilobites.2 The characteristic Trenton con-
glomerate carrying Solenopora compacta occurs at the
northeast end of the cut. The Trenton apparently has an extension
eastward in the village. The conglomerate carrying fossils was
noted by the writer at the hose house.
It is quite probable that other Trenton localities in later years
were noted by Professor Dwight which were never published.
Petrography and further description. Beds from this strip,
which have been referred to the Potsdam, vary from argillaceous to
arenaceous limestones with occasional shaly layers. It is not pos-
sible to say much about the extent of the Potsdam along this strip
to the south. It may occur at many places for which, however, there
is at present no paleontologic evidence. ‘The structural features
suggest that it is probably confined to the northern and central por-
tions of the strip and that the beds at the south are probably younger
The shaly limestones in the quarry west of the tunnel at New
Hamburg have been thought to be of Potsdam age on stratigraphic
grounds.
The Beekmantown (Calciferous) of this strip is best studied at
its type locality at Rochdale. It is often, 1f not characteristically,
arenaceous and varies in color from a bluish gray to a gray with
lighter chamois-colored layers which weather very white. The two
are interstratified, though the writer's observations indicate that the
bluish beds are usually near the eastern margin and therefore in
the upper layers. The bluish beds carry grayish wavy markings and
are very tough and splintery, breaking with conchoidal fracture.
1 Amer. Jour. Sci., v. 19, January 188o.
2(W B. Dwight) J. M. Clarke. Guide to the Fossiliferous Rocks of
New York State. N. Y. State Museum Handbook 15.
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 63
The lower portion of the Calciferous shows many thick, grayish
layers in places.
Apparently the Beekmantown has a wide distribution in this
strip. It forms the main mass of the high hill northwest of the
Trenton in the cut at Pleasant Valley and may be traced rather
satisfactorily as a lithic unit to Rochdale, where it 1s seen to have a
great thickness, estimated at from 1000 to 1200 feet. Dwight
claimed to have traced it definitely to a point five miles below
Poughkeepsie (see above). The beds resting on the slates at the
New Hamburg tunnel are probably of Beekmantown age.
At Rochdale the Beekmantown in places passes through a heavy
conglomerate into the Trenton which rests upon it. Just a little way
south of a ledge of this conglomerate on the property of Henry Titus.
along the road, are fine exposures of the bluish-gray beds. These give
place at the west to the gray and dove-colored beds which compose
most of the hill between Rochdale and the Pleasant Valley turnpike.
The bluish-gray beds were noted farther south near the eastern
margin just north of the break in this strip. Taking the apparent
_ thickness at Rochdale as a guide, the beds intervening between these
biue beds and the scarp just east of Tompkins’s house are probably
all Beekmantown. South of here the lithology does not convey
very much, though indicating on the whole the southward continu-
ation of the lower portion of the Beekmantown as shown at Roch-
dale.
Within this strip farther south, about one-fourth mile north of
the Spackenkill road, along an old wood road, or cow path, are
probable beds of the Beekmantown within a few rods of coarse
Trenton conglomerate apparently carrying Solenopora com-
Daeta, Whe road from the orchard on the north side of ‘the
Spackenkill road, opposite the old Boardman farm, leads to these
outcrops. ‘This locality is seemingly not so far south as Professor
Dwight claimed to have traced the Beekmantown; but the writer
has not been able to add anything definite to the age of this belt to
the south of this point.
The Trenton, within this strip, is usually a dark blue rather
crystalline rock of quite different appearance from the Beekman-
town. Its lower portion is conglomeratic and carries colonies of
the coral S. compacta which, without careful examination,
might be taken for pebbles. This coral, or a conglomerate appear-
ance, is often the only means for identifying this member of the
limestone formation. The Trenton is also somewhat finely con-
glomeratic at times. The conglomerate was noted at Pleasant
64 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Vailey, at Rochdale and north of the Spackenkill road. - The
Trenton also is probably present in places not yet discovered along
the eastern margin of this strip. At Rochdale the dark blue Trenton
beds have a thickness apparently between 60 and 100 fee and i
a conspicuous stratum.
Strikes and dips within this strip show much uniformity. In the
Poughkeepsie and Eastern Railroad cut at Pleasant Valley the Tren-
ton beds show a strike about n. 37° e. and a southeast dip. In the
quarry on the Pleasant Valley road to the west of Rochdale the sup-
posedly Potsdam beds strike n. 42° e. and dip 60° to the southeast ;
at Rochdale in the road near the mill site, the strike is n. 40° e. and
the dip 55° southeast; at the conglomerate ledge on the Titus place
approximately n. 43° e. and 58° s.e.; at the eastern margin east
of Tompkins’s n. 28° e. and 35° southeast; north of the Spacken-
kill road in the woods near the old barn n. 53° e. and 42° s.e.; at
the New Hamburg tunnel about n. 60° e. and 30° s.e.
Structural features. The presence of an €roSiom) jimteage!
between the Trenton beds and the Beekmantown is conclusively
shown by the relationships at Rochdale. The Beekmantown is
separated from the Trenton by a heavy conglomeratic layer, and the
fauna and lithologic character of the two strata are markedly dif-
ferent. The general uniformity of dip shows a “ deceptive uncon-
formity”’ or “disconformity.’? From the apparent thickness of
the Beekmantown at Rochdale, it would seem that this formation
was not extensively eroded here.
The limestones of this central strip rest against the slates on the
west by overthrust. This is best shown at the north end of the
New Hamburg tunnel (see plate 9). The occurrences of the
Potsdam along this western margin is also evidence of it. Fre-
quent slips along and across the strike within the limestone are
probably present.
The slates along the eastern margin of the strip may be at places
in conformable relationship with the limestone. In other cases such
is almost certainly not the case.
Metamorphism and alteration. The strata composing this
strip are all visibly altered. Fossils have usually been greatly
obscured. The Beekmantown shows the metamorphism most.
Fossils in it are recognized or identified usually with difficulty
although they sometimes weather out with distinctness. The Tren-
ton beds are usually somewhat crystalline, but fossils are preserved
in them in better condition than in the Beekmantown.
1 Professor A. W. Grabau. Science, n. s., 22 :534.
Juuny SINQUIV FT MIN IY} FO Pus ULOYJIOU IY} Je Sope[S IY} UO JSNAIYIIIAO SoUc SOUT
=
:
rh
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 65
Summary and conclusion. The absence of the Trenton con-
glomerate at places along the eastern margin of the central strip
might be interpreted as the result of faulting and, in any event, is
probably due in part, at least, to faulting.
The presence of Tetradium cellulosum in the Pough-
keepsie and Eastern Railroad cut at Pleasant Valley is noteworthy.
Professor Clarke! has indicated that elsewhere this fossil 1s charac-
teristic of the Lowville. The Trenton conglomerate at this locality
is apparently a few feet above the beds carrying this fossil. This
would seem to indicate that the Lowville might have been deposited
here. Doctor Ruedemann? has discussed the Trenton, as descrbed
by Dwight, as probably not lower than Midtrenton in age.
The examination of this strip leaves one in great doubt as to how
to represent its structure. It is certainly very different from Pro-
fessor Dana’s early representation as a simple fold.* It is best inter-
preted as belonging to the same thrust that pushed the western
strip on the slates, but as the map shows the limestone broke both
along and across the strike and at the south was pushed farther
west, apparently feeling the influence of the Highlands mass.
MISCELLANEOUS FAULTED BLOCKS OF THE WAPPINGER CREEK BELT
Several smaller limestone masses, each of which can be reason-
ably shown to be a detached and separate block, forming an inlier
in the slates, are scattered to the east of the central strip along its
middle portion. The mantle of the surface deposits at times
greatly obscures their exact relationships to the slates, but as a rule
the field relations leave scarcely any doubt of their inlying character.
In most, if not all cases, these relations point to faulting, both
along and across the strike between the limestone masses and the
slates which surround them.
These blocks will be described separately and will be designated
by numbers from north to south. The occurrence of these faulted
blocks of limestone to the east of the central strip seems to be
-directly due to the thrust which carried the limestone of this belt
over the slates. They have been left, stranded as it were, behind
the main mass.
1 Guide to the Fossiliferous Rocks of New York State. N. Y. State Mus.
Handbook 15, p. 9.
2 Hudson River Beds near Albany and their Taxonomic Equivalents.
NEY state Mus: Bul 42500n,
ep
i Pes
‘ « j “vies
i
he
, ala
ote ‘
F:
ie:
“"
: ’
a
(se
”
e
‘ ;
na
ry
A}
ys
é
’
,
,
-
¥
. ;
4
aa 7
ow,
i “3, (ty
q j >
a a
bis, ovodisM, io aoieoel)
Ga a i cA vay " "
hae ya! ss Ae a. Ge , i
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 93
many points between or along the strike to the north and south, and
along the New York Central Railroad track. The coarser, gritty
members, or conglomerates, were noted about midway between the
strikes of the two bands of red slates.
The red slates suggest that they were formed under conditions of
regular exposure to the atmospheric influences, perhaps on extensive
tidal flats or river deltas. It is probable that these rocks were formed
on a gently subsiding sea floor which occasionally allowed for partial
nonmarine conditions of sedimentation. The relative horizon of the
red slates is indeterminate, but is probably not far from the base
of this formation. This is indicated by the geographical associa-
tions with the conglomerate and their absence northwest of the
Wappinger creek limestone.
North of Camelot, along the railroad track, almost to Pough-
keepsie, crushing has affected all members much the same, producing
‘coarsely splintered slates. The great confusion exhibited by the
slates about Poughkeepsie and on the west of the river north and
south of Highland seems to have been due very largely to the effect
of heavy beds interbedded with thinner ones.
Along the western bank of the Hudson from Marlboro to a
point two miles or so north of Highland, the rocks are quite similar
to those along the east bank. Westward from the Hudson the rocks
grow prevailingly coarser. The section along the Central New
England track between Highland and Lloyd shows thick masses of
quartzitic rocks interstratified with coarse grits and conglomerates.
The latter form relatively thin beds, perhaps from six to eight feet
in thickness, often with pebbles from two to four inches in their
longest diameters, embedded in a matrix of finer conglomerate;
while in the grits are scattered pebbles ranging from the size of a
walnut to that of a man’s head. These coarser types prevail along
the track west of Highland station and are particularly well shown
just east and west of the overhead trolley bridge on the New Paltz
road and at the foot of the mountain along the road just south.
These rocks appear to be the northward continuation of the rocks
of “Illinois mountain.” That some of the strata were deposited
under marine conditions is indicated by the fossils that have been
discovered on the eastern slope of “Illinois mountain” and on
Marlboro mountain farther south. While this is true, there
appears to have been a gradual coarsening of sediments westward
which suggests changed conditions in the source of supply, lying to
the eastward, as though terrigenous sediments gradually encroached
westward and contended with marine deposits. This idea would
O4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
seem to fall in line with what we know of the record of closing
Ordovicic time in eastern North America.
Some of the members of the slate formation on the west of the
Wappinger limestone belt may be much younger than those on the
east of it. They may be thought of as having been preserved partly
on account of their occupying, in general, a downthrow position
with reference to a tendency to thrust and reversed faulting to the
eastward, as well as on account of being west of the axis of maxi-
mum folding.
About two miles north of Poughkeepsie are strata of black, some-
what carbonaceous slates in which graptolites have been found.
They indicate changed conditions of sedimentation from those
which chiefly prevailed during the accumulation of these rocks.
These black slates have been thought to be of Utica age.
Structural features. Where the stratification dip has been
determined on what is plainly the limb of a fold, it is chiefly east-
ward. Judging from the conditions shown in the Fishkill limestone,
the structure is that of minor folds within a system of larger ones
with a tendency to overturning. The presence of strong cleavage
usually obscures everything in surface outcrops.
The dimensions of the larger folds seem to be smaller at the
north and northeast than at the southwest, and the folds seem to be
more open at the north. The slate ridge just east of Freedom Plains,
which ends abruptly at the south at a point due east from that
hamlet, has synclinal structure of a rather open character. At
various points along the southern portion of its eastern slope it
shows the slates dipping to the west into the hill. To the north,
along the south road from Moores Mill to Pleasant Valley, the
red slates come up on the western limb of this syncline and about
three-fourths of a mile farther northwest they appear again appar-
ently on the western limb of the succeeding anticline.
There was a tendency to form irregular folds. This is shown on
a small scale in plate 18, in which we have a small overturned and
compressed syncline on the right of the picture, followed by an
irregular anticline, which becomes compressed and pushed up at
the west, and then another compressed syncline not distinct in the
photograph but similar to the first. In this instance, it is seen that
the production of anticline and syncline in the middle part of the
ledge has been incomplete. With similar tendencies prevailing in
the larger folds, it is easy to see how, along the western portion of
the irregular anticline, there would have been a tendency to over-
thrust. Crumpling is not uncommon. The wrinkles vary from
AVA JuLseo[q FO so Sojrur doIy} ‘WIey s AA] UO S9}L[S 94} UL Sploy
St 9eld
,
: ‘
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 95
minute size to the dimensions shown in plate 19. These features are
more common at the east.
Cleavage is so prominent in surface outcrops that the stratifica-
tion dip is usually obscured. The prevailing eastward dip indicates
a common eastward inclination for the cleavage. The presumption
is that stratification and cleavage often coincide or approximate each
other very closely. Where the cleavage is not dominant to the
exclusion of the stratification, this fact is often observed.
Jointing is well displayed in Matteawan along the Newburgh,
Dutchess and Connecticut track. A prominent set of joints shown
here has a general strike of n. 20° e. and a dip of 80° w.
Some of the faults within the slates have been alluded to in
describing the limestone patches within this formation.
Extending in a northwest direction approximately parallel with
the road from Brush to Arthursburg, as shown on the map, is a
clear transverse fault. ‘This break is best seen from the southeast
near the old railroad bed. ‘This break intersects a line of strike
faulting at Arthursburg, and probably ends at that point. The
strike fault just mentioned dies away to the northward. Continued
south, it bounds the limestone triangle north of Hopewell Junction
on the west.
The high hill northwest of Lagrangeville is bounded by a fault
scarp on the west. ‘This scarp is a conspicuous cliff east of the
road from Lagrangeville to Freedom Plains. The high hill north-
west of Billings is bounded on the south by an east—west fault
whose scarp is very conspicuous.
The other lines of fracture shown on the map have already been
referred to.
A long line of swampy lowland, beginning two miles north of
Freedom Plains and running northward toward Pleasant Valley,
appears to mark a line of crustal weakness similar to that which
extends from Hopewell Junction to Manchester Bridge.
The fault which bounds the western strip of the Wappinger creek
limestone on the north may extend across the Hudson and bound
“ Tlinois mountain ” on the north.
Metamorphism and alteration. The members of the slate
formation show an appreciable increase in metamorphism toward
the east within the quadrangle, passing into slaty phyllites and gray-
wackes. ‘These rocks do not develop into perfect schists like those
occurring a few miles to the eastward, but pellets of decomposed
ferruginous particles, suggesting former garnets, were noted in the
phyllites east of Arthursburg. Veins, veinlets and nests of quartz
g6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
are most abundant in the northeastern part of the area. Sandstones
have been changed into quartzites.
Summary. There is no evidence at hand that any slates of
the quadrangle are older than the limestone conglomerate that has
been discussed, either as overlying the Beekmantown or as isolated
inliers within the slates. The slate formation was ushered in by
this basal conglomeratic layer. The area of deposition of the latter
may have been much more extensive than is indicated by its present
faulted outcrops. The period of its formation was of short dura-
tion.
Ihe most that can be said of the slate series is that it began in
some horizon of the Trenton and perhaps ranges upward an
indefinite distance into the Cincinnatian. Probably a large portion
is of Trenton age.
The Utica may be present, although the graptolite beds that have
been so called more probably represent an early invasion of the
Utica fauna in Trenton time in what is known as the Normanskill
subepoch. Some of the slates may be contemporaneous with the
Utica as developed elsewhere to the north, and possibly even
younger; or they may all be of Trenton age.
PREGLACIAL HISTORY OF THE DRAINAGE
Old valleys of the Tertiary cycle. During the erosion cycle
inaugurated by the Postcretacic uplift, the Hudson river then, as
now, must have been the dominant factor in the drainage of this
and adjacent areas. A broad valley region was formed and the
tributaries of the master river steadily pushed their valleys
eastward. The early Tertiary valley of the Hudson itself is now
represented by old rock terraces preserved at different points back
from the river’s edge. Near Poughkeepsie they have an elevation
of about 200 feet.
The rock valleys of the present tributary streams are in most
cases out of proportion to the present size of those streams. Dur-
ing the time the Hudson river occupied the valley now marked by
the terraces that have just been alluded to, its tributaries widened
their own valleys a good deal and acquired their present open char-
acter. ‘These branches formed a drainage system of the second
order within the broad valley region of the main river and a some-
what advanced stage of mature topography was attained. During
this time the various lines of crustal weakness became marked off
into their present prominence, without necessarily becoming prom-
inent lines of drainage; simply responding in a logical way, on
Plate 19
Crumpled slates east of Freedom Plains
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE Q7
account of reduced resistance, to the base-leveling forces of the
(Haakeee
Date Tertiary upliit, Late in the Tertiary cycle, probably
during the latter part of Pliocene time, it seems probable that an
elevation occurred which rejuvenated the whole river system. ‘The
Hudson began the construction of its present gorge and its tribu-
taries began to deepen their valleys within their former confines.
It has been suggested that the temporary shifting of the St Law-
rence drainage through the valley of the Mohawk gave the main
stream a tremendous advantage. It was able to sink its channel
at a very rapid rate. The larger tributaries were able to deepen
their gorges near their mouths and for some distance back from
the Hudson before the glacier invaded the land.
Buried river channels. Borings have been made at different
points across the Hudson river and its tributaries in connection with
the location of the aqueduct of the great metropolitan reservoir in
the Catskill mountains. These have yielded important data regard-
ing the preglacial channels of these streams. Professor Kemp has
summarized and discussed these data in an interesting paper.’
Borings across the Hudson have been made at Pegg’s Point, at a
point one-half of a mile north of that place, at New Hamburg and
at Danskammer within this quadrangle, and at Storm King just
south of Newburgh.
iitesimost northerly line of ‘borings is known as the ~ Tuff
crossing.” From this, only wash borings were secured. ‘The river
here is only 2200 feet wide.
At Pegeg’s Point the river narrows still more. A diamond drill
was sunk 720 feet from the west shore and reached the slate at
223 feet below sea level. Another sunk 440 feet from the east bank
reached the limestone at 92 feet. The distance separating these two
borings is 1040 feet. Professor Kemp believes that a deep and
relatively narrow gorge lies between. Several lines of wash borings
at this place gave depths to supposed bed rock varying from 1309.5
feet to 256 feet in what would perhaps be thought of as the deepest
part of the river.
At New Hamburg the river is 2300 feet wide. Drill borings on
each bank found the slate beneath the limestone. At the point of
boring on the east bank it was reached at 220 feet; on the west at
351 feet. Only wash borings were made in the river bottom. These
ranged from 130 feet to 263.5 feet below tide.
1 Buried Channels beneath the Hudson and its Tributaries. Amer. Jour.
SGi, Seis wh AOR ou 2s),
98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
At Danskammer the stream 1s about 3500 feet wide. The results
of wash borings gave a range in depths from 133.2 feet to 268.5
feet to supposed rock bottom, but the evident irregularity and
variability would seem to indicate a bed of loose material at these
depths at this crossing.
At the Storm King crossing the drill brought up from a depth of
617.4 feet a core of granite just like that on the east bank of the
river, which it had penetrated to a distance of 8.8 feet. The drill
was thought to have reached rock bottom at this point at a depth
of 608.6 feet not far from 750 feet from the east bank.
Casper creek was tested near its mouth by wash borings. ‘The
lowest point thus reached was 67 feet below tide.
CR,
CASPER
Fig. 28 The Casper creek crossing. (After Kemp)
In Wappinger creek one wash boring below the fails reached a
depth of 50 feet below tide. Of three core borings, the maximum
was 39 feet.
SSS :
SS
o
Fig. 29 The Wappinger creek crossing. (After Kemp)
A proposed line of the aqueduct crossed Fishkill creek near the
village of Fishkill. Everything is beneath the drift at this point.
Of two core holes, the deeper reached the limestone at 40 feet below
tide. After penetrating 8 feet of limestone, the drill encountered
fine yellow sand in which it continued for 60 feet, when the hole
was abandoned. This crossing is about five miles back from the
Tfudson.
= ee Seis ie ee Caren N
Fig. 30 The Fishkill creek crossing. (After Kemp)
RIM he me A
at etal
ras ~
™
uAhl hee ee
ge Pe SP ee Soe
pesanaae
woe :
; ! j Bape ht eae SS ae ae ee:
rammstein anus Hi) wD Aid nied eagtt:g ‘ BAIRAOTS - eh noabuli od? 20798 “eg
ee ) aes cr A mvs boa 2
ey 4 is sleigh cle eae
‘gciwode etodhee “ts ott
aCe a pes Rimes ct ot eset: a NC Te Ne et lhc et iene ET
Pa > = it king oe
Se a 4 ‘ne & 2 bs
a . ea esa Mec pdiicccanlitatiarnparksiucralenibiogns ER AMATI? LIV hee a iA cl h Ape a ai 4
ome tA
NoUsELe CROSSING,
2200
OG
v
ORINGS
PEGGS POINT
t-----—-4--
pedeslengy Ks we TAeeE
= j
= do :
cecal 2
SSassas E
isseses = x ;
sso Feu EX
teesaees eee ae a ase oP ce ee LES RSS
As ° Pipa ee es RS
Se i 6 WASH BORING
ise 200' \
sss .
SZ |
=— ae N
DOANSKAMMER
3500"
yyy O vy c
viviv viv v" BREAK NECK
vy MTA.
SSS =e
. Patna 5
Sen Aas = oi
ve STORM KING : :
GRANITE és eres j ; w
See. eae ; 5 a
¢ a sah ie
Fig. 27 Sections showing borings across the Hudson river at Tuff crossing, Peggs Point, New Hamburg, Danskammer
and Storm King (after Kemp)
1
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 99
The above-given numerals and description were taken from Pro-
fessor Kemp’s paper. The general conclusions to be drawn from
these facts to which Professor Kemp has called attention, are that
the Hudson river occupied a deep gorge at the close of the Tertiary
period and that its tributaries emptied into it from hanging valleys.
Unless a deep gorge exists at the Pegg’s Point crossing, as discussed
above, a rather large gradient between this point and Storm King
would have to be assumed.
The borings south of Fishkill Village suggest that this creek
deepened its gorge some distance back from the Hudson during late
Tertiary time. The other tributaries probably did the same to an
extent commensurate with their size and erosive power. All the
tributaries, however, occupied hanging valleys with reference to the
bed of the main stream.
The boring records also show that much glacial stuff now lies in
these buried channels.
GILJNOILAIL, (Gl OIOIENE
Erosion. ‘The elevation of the land at the close of the Tertiary
is believed by many to have ushered in the glacial epoch. The
passage of the ice sheet over this region is marked by grooves and
striae and characteristic deposits of surface material. ‘The ice sheet
may have assisted in gouging out the channel of the Hudson.
The following is a summary of observations by the writer on the
direction of glacial striae and grooves in different parts of the
quadrangle. West of the Hudson about two miles northwest of
Highland, along the road to Lloyd, a deep glacial groove was noted
with bearing true s. 15° w. One and a half miles west of Milton
another fine groove gave a reading of true s. 9° w. Fine roches
moutonnees occur to the west of “Illinois mountain” south of
Lloyd.
East of the Hudson in the eastern part of the city of Pough-
keepsie, near the driving park, striae were noted with bearing true s.
about 14° w. and farther east, just west of the central strip of the
Wappinger belt along the Hackensack road, a reading of true
S. I” w. was taken. Near the Central New England Railroad at
Poughkeepsie the striae had a bearing of true s. about 26° w.; north
of Poughkeepsie near quadrangle boundary, east of Fallkill creek,
true s. I1° w.; one mile north of New Hackensack, n. 21° w.: near
the Hudson, north of Fishkill Landing, true s. 33° w.
Some of the strike fault scarps, as, for instance, those of Bald
hill, Mount Honness and Shenandoah mountain of the Highland
4
100 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
spurs, and the fault east of Freedom Plains, appear to show the
effects of glacial plucking.
The Highland crests were buried by the glacier. Some places
along the northern slopes show polishing effects (see plate 6).
The excavation of the valleys between the northern spurs of the
Highlands was probably materially assisted by the ice.
Deposits during the advance. Drumlins, or drumlinoid
masses of till, are rather numerous in the quadrangle and often are
conspicuous features of the topography. They seem to be deposits
of the advancing ice sheet which molded them by pressure into their
usual elongated domelike shapes. These masses greatly obscure
the structural relationships over much of the area. They are the
most conspicuous features of the ground moraine. ‘The larger part
of the veneer of till, which is very plentiful, probably dates from
the advance of the glacier. About 200 feet of boulders and sand,
which rest on the bottom of the Hudson gorge, probably are a part
of the ground moraine.
REE On Tit ICk SHBET
It is generally held that accompanying and following the retreat
of the Wisconsin ice sheet from this region there was a slow sub-
sidence of the land. At this time a large body of water filled the
old valley of the Hudson within this area. It would appear that
the subsidence went on gradually and that during the earlier stages
much sand, gravel and sandy clay was deposited on the earlier
boulder material that covered the bed of the gorge to a depth of
200 feet, and then a thin layer of boulders representing a probable
flood of floating ice, and then typical river deposits.t Finally, it
would appear that the subsidence may have brought in estuarine
conditions, at which time the Hudson river clays were laid down.
These considerations assume an open gorge and postulate the prob-
able deposition of the clays entirely across it, their present condition
having been brought about by later dissection. It is proper to state
that there are exceptions to this idea. Professor Woodworth, from
a study of the entire Hudson and Champlain valleys, holds the
opinion or belief that, during the deposition of these clays, the
Hudson gorge was filled with a long tongue of ice against which
were standing bodies of water at a higher level than water could
have assumed in the open gorge. He cites many observations to
1See J. F. Kemp. Buried Channels beneath the Hudson and its Tribu-
taries. Amer. Jour. Sci. Ser. 4. 1908. 26:322.
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE IOI
show that the clays, and overlying sands and gravels are best
explained as depositions under such conditions.t. Woodworth’s
hypothesis does not call for so great a subsidence of the land as the
other, and logically explains the present bisected character of the
clays as their original condition. The proximity of the ice during
the deposition of the so-called Champlain deposits is shown in
several ways. It seems quite reasonable, however, to explain the
upward more or less perfect passage from coarse to finer detritus in
the Hudson gorge as due to gradual deepening, and a passage from
fluviatile to estuarine conditions which would furnish the conditions
for the accumulation of the finer material.
Terraces. The finer material in question takes the form of
stratified deposits of clay, capped with sand and gravel, which occur
in the form of terraces at various places along the Hudson gorge.
A number of these are in this quadrangle.
Such a terrace begins somewhat over a mile north of Fishkill
Landing and extends for a mile north of that point, varying in
width from about one-fifth to’three-fourths of a mile. It is about
1OOmccmmlen at tie outer edge and, a few feet higher at the inner
edge. It is followed on the north by a lower terrace varying from
30 to 40 feet in height, with varying depths of clay and covered
with coarse gravel. On the west bank of the Hudson at Roseton
and at Danskammer gravel-covered terraces also occur. These are
somewhat higher than the north terrace on the east bank. Terrace
deposits also occur at Marlboro.
At New Hamburg the deposits are a good deal coarser and
have a terrace delta form, The coarse sands and gravels of this
terrace and their general relations, as well as the Roseton and
Danskammer terraces, are thought by Woodworth to “ compel the
belief ” that they were deposited against the ice. In the case of the
Roseton terrace, he states that there are signs of inthrusting of drift
from ice movement (Joc. cit. p. 119) and further that the terrace
can not be attributed to a river pouring into an estuary after the
disappearance of the ice.
The diminishing altitude of the terraces northward has been inter:
preted as favoring the idea of their formation against the ice it
glacial lakes. The coarser material overlying the clays has beeu
attributed to the retreat of the ice front beyond the mouths of tribu:
tary stream valleys, allowing an influx of coarser sediments.
1 Ancient Water Levels of the Champlain and Hudson Valleys. N. Y
State Mus. Bul. 84, 1905, p. 66-265.
IO2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
By others, the lower level at the north has been attributed to
erosion accompanying elevation, and the coarser sediments to the
same cause.
C. E. Peet! has made the observation that, if the valley between
the low terrace just south and north of Carthage Landing and the
slightly higher one on the west of the river at Roseton and Dans-
kammer were filled with ice, the latter was stagnant, and may have
stood on the lower terrace at the east. He also admits the possibility
that the terraces may have been continuous and that the lower one
on the east is the product of the erosion of higher deposits.
Later, in discussing the history of the “ Hudson water body and
the successive positions of the ice as it retreated through the Hud-
son valley, Peet? states that the ice front appears to have assumed
two distinct phases in different parts of the valley. In some parts,
notably the narrower ones, it is believed that the ice protruded down
the valley and that accumulations took place at the edge of this
ice-tongue, or between it and the valley wall. The deposits at
Carthage Landing and New Hamburg might represent such con-
ditions, but the valley ice was probably not an active contributor,
although at the latter place waters from the valley ice may have
been active in the early stages of the plateau building. In the
broader parts of the valley the deposits were probably deposited in
an embayment of the ice front.
Peet cites many facts to show that the Hudson water body may
have been a lake made by a barrier at the south, or a succession of
lakes made by a succession of barriers or by a migrating barrier,
and, on the whole, leans toward the jake hypothesis as against a
salt water body. Whe reader is referred to the originalipapes
(see loc. cit. p. 640-56).
It is probable that a series of glacial lacustrine basins at the south
would have allowed both for open water and the many characteristic
glacial phenomena in connection with the deposition of this
material.
On the submergence hypothesis an elevation of between 100 and
150 feet was necessary for the bisection of the delta at New Ham-
burg, and at this time the deposits in the gorge of the Hudson may
have been dissected, although to a greater extent in the case of the
main river. The moot point seems to be the extent to which the
gorge was submerged by the sea.
1 Journal of Geology. 12:445.
2loc. cit., p. 618-21.
Ag[e@A JuRsra[q
0} oIsdooyYysSnog WoIZ peor oy} JO Jsvo “wuaey ssurydwmoy Ivou YIo1d Josurdde AA JO covsto} JOAo]-ysty oy} Fo uorsod vy
Oz 21e1q
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 103
Well-preserved sand and gravel erosion terraces occur at fre-
quent intervals along Wappinger creek. These are best shown in
the open portion of the valley of this stream in the neighborhood
of Manchester Bridge and between that hamlet and Rochdale. ‘The
road from Manchester Bridge to Rochdale for a mile north of the
former place closely follows the edge of a fine terrace that drops
with uniform slope from the 160 foot level to the present flood
plain of the creek. The cemetery at Manchester Bridge is built
on a projecting tongue of this fine terrace which is broken by the
limestone knoll on which Mr George Byer’s house stands. North
of here it may be followed for a short distance.
South of Rochdale, to the east of the Pleasant Valley road, on
the west side of the creek, the present flood plain makes a large
embayment to the west, north of Frank De Garmo’s house. This
embayment is fringed by a fine terrace, a portion of which is shown
in plate 20. Other terrace remnants may be followed southward
along the creek.
These dissected deposits clearly belong to an epoch when the
creek valley was flooded and the creek was able to aggrade its
valley floor to the level of these terraces, at least. It was probably
during this time that the delta deposits were making at the mouth
of the creek, whatever the conditions there may have been. These
features would appear to have been intimately connected with the
retreat of the ice sheet which, as it melted, would have furnished
both the floods and the material. This material is in the form of
sand and gravel. A good deal of finer detritus must have been
carried out into the Hudson gorge.
To allow for this accumulation of sand and gravel in the old
valley of the creek, either there must have been a body of standing
water in the Hudson gorge nearly 200 feet higher than now, or the
land must have been much lower than now.
Fishkill creek and its tributaries were also able to aggrade their
valley floors. Gravel deposits belonging to a former higher level
form imperfect terraces at different points. In some places, the
gravels look like outwash plains during a short halting of the ice,
as in the vicinity of Hopewell Junction. The Newburgh, Dutchess
& Connecticut Railroad apparently cuts a series of terrace remnants
from Hopewell to Brinckerhoff. Fishkill Village is located on a
terrace at the 200 foot level which extends southwest to Glenham.
Small, but perfect, terrace levels along brooks tributary to Fishkill
creek, belonging to a stage in the subsidence of the water correspond-
104 NEW YORK STATE. MUSEUM
ing to the rock barrier over which the main stream flowed at Glen-
ham, are preserved near Johnsville.
Kame deposits. These are prominently developed in places
along the northern margin of the Fishkill mountains. A con-
spicuous group occurs along the Cold Spring road south of Fish-
kill Village, near the quadrangle boundary.
Kame moraine deposits are prominently developed south of
Johnsville along the eastern base of Mount Honness, and still farther
south along the western road from West Fishkill Hook into the
mountains.
The brook flowing north from the mountains, through the hollow
of East Fishkill Hook, cuts through similar masses.
Kames are noticeable features along the road from East Fish-
kill Hook to Shenandoah. Northeast and east of that hamlet they
are pronounced topographic forms guarding the approach to
Shenandoah hollow (see plate 21).
Kames also occur along Casper creek between the Hudson river
and the Poughkeepsie road (see plate 22), and near Camelot.
POSTGLACIAL EROSION
After the retreat of the glacier either the land, which probably
was at a higher level than now, remained stationary, while the
water level in the gorge subsided, or it was elevated. The tribu-
tary streams, now greatly reduced in volume, meandered over their
old floor plains and began the vertical and lateral dissection re-
corded in part by the terraces described or alluded to above. Wap-
pinger creek, in seeking an outlet to the Hudson, was confined
near its mouth between narrower rock walls and began the bisec-
tion of its old delta of the flood period. It readil; found its old
preglacial channel, which it tumbles into at Wappinger Falls.
The precipice at this place forms a local base-level to which the
stream is slowly reducing its bed at various places along its course
at the north.
Fishkill creek is off its old preglacial channel for some distance
in Glenham, and between that hamlet and Matteawan. When the
stream was superposed on its former flood plain it was obliged to
make a wide detour at Glenham round the huge drumlin on which
the cemetery of Matteawan stands. It eventually found bed rock
and finally the contact between the limestone and the gneiss of the
rlenham belt, and has made the gorge shown in plate 23. At
the northeast end of the carpet mill the creek crosses a fault between
ainjoid oY} JO JYSII ay} uO puNoIsyOeq
“MOTOY Yeopueusys Jo sutusdo urayiiou ay} 3 yeopueusys JO jsvoyiou souey
oY} UL Uses oq AvU uUreJUNOW YeopueUaYysS
oes IZ 911g
sisdooyysnod 0} sj[ey Josurdde Ay Worf peor sy} JO JsamM YooId Jadsey suole sowey
| 7 | ZZ 911d '
* [0
F 7 Py i ~ ¢
“ 7 7 * be
BS ‘
, ; “
i —
,
1 . © of
} :
¢ r y
. ‘
‘ . yy
C ’ ‘ a ‘
- ‘ 2 *
‘
\) ; ;
*
=
i ‘ .
4
Fo] OY} SUOMI] PUL TJPA JYSII OY} SUIJOJ sSlouUr, “WeYUsTD 3 I8piiq PBOTILT IY} MOOG YIIO [[IYYSTY JO 98108 [eepsjsog
€Z 91e&Id
.
¢
‘
:
. a
;
s
3
‘
j
_
:
;
:
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 105
the limestone and the slate and from this point on cascades over
the slates until its own delta is reached. It is probably along or
very near its preglacial channel from Wolcott avenue southward.
The preglacial channel north of here is probably to the southeast
of the present course of the stream.
It may be that during this time of erosion the Hudson cut its
present gorge and that the gravel-covered, laminated clays are
erosion terraces instead of benches laid down against the ice.
Drie SaN DEPRESSION
Following the bisection of the Wappinger creek delta, the valley
of the Hudson suffered the depression that produced the present
estuary and the later channel of Wappinger creek was submerged
(see plate 24). Fishkill creek filled up its gorge to tide level and
produced its present delta.
OAR DRAINAGE FEATURES AND ADJUSTMENTS
Near Gregory’s mill at Old Hopewell, Fishkill creek was deflected
by the drift and imposed on the limestone through which it has cut
a gorge.
The rock valley of Casper creek, at points north of the Hope-
well branch of the Central New England Railroad, suggests a once
more powerful stream which may have drained a larger area to the
north of this quadrangle along the valley of the brook that rises in
the swamp east of Van Wagner, and now flows north to join a south-
ward flowing stream of considerable size, and which reaches Wap-
pinger creek by making an abrupt turn to the east-northeast.
The course of the Fallkill near Poughkeepsie suggests that this
stream has utilized certain fault features. Fishkill creek, along its
course within the quadrangle, makes a number of bends to the
northeast that are in line with the fault features of the Fishkill
limestone.
LAND FORMS
These are apparently of two fundamental types: those produced
by a sort of block faulting and those produced by folding, accom-
panied by faulting. Each is distinct, but is modified by the other.
Both apparently date from the time of the Green mountain
revolution.
At the close of Cretacic time this region was a peneplain. A re-
elevation introduced the history of the present topographic aspect
of the quadrarzle and subsequent erosion presents the striking dis-
100 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
cordance between the present topography and relations and those of
Precambric and early Paleozoic time.
The Precambric gneissic floor appears to have behaved in a
measure as though it had no load. It was twisted and broken into
blocks like a piece of glass and thrust up into the overlying forma-
tions, the force of the shove diminishing to the northwest. The
plateau type of the Highlands is primarily the result of upward
thrust as a mass and secondarily the effect of the resistant quality
of the Precambric rocks when subjected to erosion. The present
topographic level of the Fishkill limestone would appear to indicate
a normal position for the limestone now. Primarily, however, it is
a faulted up thrust block; erosion has exposed the older stratigraphic
series which were thrust up into the overlying slates.
The northern valleys of the Highlands represent down-faulted
masses of the younger rocks which later erosion cycles discovered
and removed.
As superstructures on these basal features are forms connected
with folding and breaks along the strike and dip.
Influence of the petrographic character of the rock. The low
average level of the Hudson valley is attributable to the ease with
which the slates are broken up and removed. ‘The relatively low
topographic level of the Fishkill limestone, corresponding with its
lower stratigraphic position, 1s deceptive. In this case, the removal
of the slates and the erosion of the limestone obscures the structural
position brought about by faulting.
The present altitude of the high ridge forming “ Illinois moun-
tain” is due in part to the resistant character of its grits.
The resistant quality of the metamorphosed rocks in the eastern
part of the quadrangle has been a factor in producing their present
relief.
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
The agricultural industry. The agricultural interests are
chiefly those of fruit growing and dairy farming. The former is
conducted on an intensive plan on the hilly land west of the Hudson
where well-drained hills of tilted slates, covered with a veneer of
till and coarse gravel, afford highly suitable soil conditions for
growing fruit of excellent quality. Large consignments of peaches,
apples, pears and small fruit are sent to New York city and New
England markets and some growers find a highly profitable business
for fancy fruit in the markets of England. Grapes are also a suc-
cessful and important crop.
yi1ou Suryoo] ‘sinquiezZ MIN FO YMOS So] OM} UIIS SB UOSPNFT IY} FO 951038 PIUMOIG
vz 93e[d
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE 107
Fruit growing is also practised east of the Hudson. Nearly
every large farm has its apple orchard, some of which are of large
size. Peaches are also successfully grown and apparently are grow-
ing in popularity as an investment. Some fine fruit is grown in
small orchards along the northern slopes of the Fishkill mountains.
The Hudson river affords favorable temperature conditions for the
budding season and insures good crops. The ravages of the coddling
moth and other injurious insects are, however, sometimes extensive.
The importance of the climatic influence of the Hudson river as a
successful factor in fruit growing is clearly recognized. Fruit is
not so successfully grown out of reach of this influence, even on
soils of the same character and with similar drainage.
Dairying is perhaps the largest farming industry and the one
most widely practised. The area enjoys unusual facilities for trans-
portation of farm products.
Soils, ) lite glacial ice, as shown above, moved in a course
generally roughly parallel with the longer axes of the rock ridges.
This fact seems to have had an influence on the character Of the
soil along these ridges. It is noticeable that the upland soils have a
definite relation to the underlying rock.
Lower levels, which mark the flood epoch of the waning ice
sheet, have sandy and gravelly soils, with clayey subsoils, and are
often of terrace form or in kamelike masses. In addition to these
are the drumlinoid masses of somewhat more compacted character,
often attaining or approximating boulder till. Finally, there are
the alluviums of the river bottoms.
The limestone areas are considered the finest grass lands, but
all the upland soils yield good grass crops. ‘The gravelly river
bottoms are usually good corn soils. ‘The more sandy terrace soils
mmensmitable tor garden truck or early fruit, Die slaty fill) sides
usually give good apple-growing soils when not too clayey.
The finest farms are in the limestone areas, but the slaty uplands
of moderate elevation are highly valued for both of the principal
farming pursuits of the present day.
Clays. All the important clays of this area are of sedimentary
character and belong to Pleistocene time.
A number of important brick industries are located within the
quadrangle. The laminated clays that have been briefly described
as forming the terraces along the Hudson, between Fishkill Land-
ing and New Hamburg, and on the west bank at Roseton and
Danskammer, are worked on extensive scales (see plates 25 and 26).
108 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
These beds form only a part, but are perhaps as important as any,
of the valued clays of the Hudson valley. .
These deposits are very similar in appearance. The lower por-
tions are usually bluish and the upper yellowish in color. The
laminated character 1s best shown in the upper layers. Thin laminae
of sand occasionally appear, in some places forming such proportion
of the masses as to require no admixtures of that material in the
process of brick manufacture. The coarser sandy material over-
lying the clay, when screened, furnishes sufficient quantities of sand
when that is required, which is usually the case on account of the
purity of the clay.
The chemical composition of the clay at Roseton is given from
the following analysis :*
SIO). oh Wis ikl 4 Salalhe oy aha ceelal ston ste ais tepeleneietse. aa sles ee er 55.00
Al1,O l
Fe,0,{ an wii e'ud ve eink gieel¢lepdtevadenete] cio) hehehe eae easiest Seno aa 34.54
OFT © ner NE Tennis h Mirra Oe MM ome Ne co snc ee 5233
MO fae hate Sr Tice eee hte Sere cic Gr UR grrr 3.43
KO l 8
Na,O( was paar es hcg aes, J eee alr Orr 2) Arr 0.4
Combined BLO) 5 Be
APareerne ae Rie aba ay dt Uy E Ue 0S Sy two Se eae eee :
100.00
Both the blue and yellow clays are calcareous and effervesce
with acid. They have been used as marls on account of their lime
content. The yellow color is due to oxidation. The clays are used
entirely for brick.
Clay deposits also occur at Arlington, a mile east of Poughkeepsie,
and are used for brick. The clay which is fairly abundant along
the banks of Casper creek in the neighborhood of Arlington is
covered with some sod, but is easily exposed by stripping this off.
Yellow clay is underlain by blue clay.
It seems possible that the deposits at Arlington were accumulated
in lacustrine waters, perhaps impounded by stagnant ice at the
mouth of Casper creek. The kames (see plate 21) that now lie
near the mouth of the creek may have been left by the melting of
such a mass of ice.
Limestone quarries. Quarries have been opened at places in
the limestone strips of the Wappinger creek belt. The largest of
these is Stoneco quarry, operated by the Clinton Point Stone Com-
1 Ries, N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 35, 1906, p. 381.
SAB]D OY} UT oINJONIYS JuIOf smoys Osye YdeiSoj}oydeyy, “Surpuey] [[rYShy Jo yJsou ‘paeckyorsq sokeg ‘f }e syd oy} ul skejd pojeuruey]
SZ 93eIg
UOoJssOy je sjid oY} UL JaAeIS SuIATIOAO pue ske[D poyeurmey, sy} Surmoys
Qz 93814
GEOLOGY OF THE POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE IO9Q
pany. The rock is somewhat silicious and dolomitic, as the follow-
ing analysis! shows:
TLATIRG is OUR HR RSPR cea 1 A (A al a 29.07
MMAR SI Ve (ca 2 cat Bee I eR tre eA ep ABE ee LEAR Hor eon Sake uve: oa) 16.29
GamooniG acid 2)./... Jee. Hg ee ct RIN TUN as UO VP Ne 40.76
PERM MIMTITU Ua Fis Sad ceca ce eR OME Sa e-ttt Seu tinal sO als Na NTN LI cleae tally 2EBe
JE @ TTF CO ed MEIN ante te 8 es Ge A aR Da WAG
Se clee tees co Ce esta agrte AR GA A ROR a thi una dteC ae Ui MEN eau er aU ag 1On 17,
Another quarry has been opened on the west bank of the Hudson
in the southwestern extension of the western strip of the Wap-
pinger creek belt, about three-quarters of a mile south of Marl-
Horo station. This is commonly known as Kerrs quarry. A
considerable enterprise was apparently projected and was in active
operation up to the season of 1909. During that season work was
suspended.
The limestone near New Hamburg was burned for lime in earlier
years. Its silica and magnesia content would necessitate lean
returns.
At Ruppert’s quarry near Poughkeepsie the Potsdam is burned
for lime for private use.
The Fishkill limestones were used for lime in earlier days, and
also as a flux in the operation of the Hopewell furnace a generation
ago. 3
Limonite deposits. Limonite, or brown hematite, beds belong-
ing to a fairly well-defined belt of these deposits occur two miles
south of Fishkill Village and near Shenandoah. A small quantity
of ore was taken from the former in 1885. The Shenandoah mine
was abandoned in 1879 en account of the small quantity of ore.
The question of the origin of these deposits was discussed by
Professor Dana.t According to his view, during the transition from
the limestone-making epoch to that of terrigenous sediments, iron-
bearing waters were washed into restricted basins and in the course
of time the calcareous and magnesian material became changed to
ferriferous rock. In some cases pure iron carbonate was probably
formed. The general magnesian character of the limestone was
taken as good evidence of the confined character of the basins re-
ceiving the additions of iron-bearing solutions.
Kaolin.
sip! i Be ar [om ete te
« % is
ae ; ; Lae ;
| RS pa
‘es
New York State Education Department
Science Division, December 2, 1910
Hon. Andrew S: Draper LL.D.
Comiuussioner of Education
Sir: I have the honor to transmit to you herewith and to recom-
mend for publication as a bulletin of the State Museum a manu-
script report and map covering the geology of the Honeoye and
Wayland quadrangles of the geological map of the State, which have
been prepared by Mr D. Dana Luther, of this-staff.
Very respectfully
Joun M. CLARKE
| Director
STATE OF NEW YORK
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
COMMISSIONER'S ROOM
Approved for publication this 2d day of December rtor10
Commissioner of Education
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under
the act of Congress of July 16, 1894
No. 504 ALBANY, N. Y. OCTOBER I, I9II
New York State Museum
JoHn M. Crarxke, Director
Museum Bulletin 152
GCP@LOGY OF THE HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUAD-
RANGLES
By D. Dana LUTHER
The Honeoye-Wayland quadrangles are included between the
lines of latitude 42° 30’ and 43° north, and of longitude 77° 30’
and 77° 45° west and contain one-eighth of a degree, or about Aas
square miles of territory.
The rocks of these quadrangles have an estimated aggregate
thickness of about 2660 feet, of which 1510 feet are surface rocks
because of the difference in altitude between the lowest outcrop,
which is on Honeoye creek near Sibleyville at 590 feet A. T., and
the highest, at the top of Sand hill near the south line of the Wayland
quadrangle at 2100 feet A. IT. Eleven hundred and fifty feet of
strata are brought to the surface by their elevation toward the north
at an average rate of about 33 feet per mile.
These rocks embrace the following geological subdivisions or
formations, twenty-four in number, which are represented by dis-
tinctive colors on the accompanying map.
6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Chemung shale and sand-
| stone
Wiscoy shale
Nunda sandstone
| Gardeau flags and shale
Grimes sandstone
Hatch shale and flags
Rhinestreet black shale
Cashaqua shale
Middlesex black shale
West River shale
Genundewa limestone
Genesee black shale
Pyrite layer. Tully horizon
|
Moscow shale
2S limestone
Senecan
Devonic
Ludlowville shale
Skaneateles shale
Cardiff shale
Stafford limestone
Marcellus black shale
| Erian
Ulsterian Onondaga limestone
Oriskanian Oriskany sandstone
Ontaric Cayugan
Bertie waterlime
or Siluric
| Camillus shale
FORMATIONS IN ASCENDING ORDER
ONTARIC OR SILURIC
CAMILLUS SHALE |
The drift hills on the northern border of the Honeoye quadrangle
rest upon thin magnesian limestones and soft gypseous shales
belonging to this formation, which receives its name from the town
of Camillus, Onondaga county, where the first discovery of gypsum
in the United States was made in the year 1792, and where the beds
of this formation are abundantly exposed.
GEOLOGY OF THE HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES Vi
The Camillus strata are entirely covered on these quadrangles,
but are exposed at Victor on the Canandaigua quadrangle and at
Wheatland and Garbuttsville on the Brockport quadrangle.
BERTIE (AND COBLESKILL?) WATERLIME
_ The Camillus shales are succeeded by 85 to 100 feet of water-
limes varying in character from hard, flaggy layers to beds of
soft dolomite in which lines of deposition are very obscure. At the
top. of this formation, in the vicinity of Honeoye Falls, there are
exposed 35 feet of waterlime, of which 3 feet 6 inches at the top
are in uneven layers 2 to 6 inches thick and break easily into small
rough blocks. It is quite probable that this stratum, which some-
what resembles the “ bullhead ” of Erie county, should be correlated
as Cobleskill waterlime, but no fossils are found in it.
Next below these are 20 feet of hard waterlimes showing faint
lines of bedding. Some parts have no regular fracture. In this
vicinity, this bed has been quarried quite largely for building
purposes.
iinesunderlying ten. feet of rock are: flaggy and at, one of
two horizons quite shaly. The lower beds are generally softer,
and in some parts shaly, but there are thin hard layers separated
by thin partings of black bituminous matter and heavier strata of
softer waterlimes that have no regular fracture. The contact with
the Camillus shales is not exposed on this quadrangle.
The waterlimes are exposed along the Hemlock outlet in the
village of Honeoye Falls below the milldam east of the high school
building, and along the stream to below the Lehigh Valley Railroad
bridge. There are quarries in the upper beds east and west of the
south end of'this bridge, where the contact with the Oriskany hort-
zon also appears. There are good exposures of forty feet of the
upper beds along Spring creek two miles west of Honeoye Falls,
and in the large old quarry one-fourth of a mile south of the New
York Central Railroad bridge over this stream.
There is a small exposure of waterlime near an old limekiln one
and one-half miles west of Spring creek with the Onondaga
limestone five feet higher, and small outcrops of this rock occur in
the bed of Stony brook at Five Corners.
In the central part of the State and in Erie county the waterlime
beds contain fossils of several species, but the strata exposed on
this quadrangle are almost barren. Leperditia alta (Con-
rad) and Whitfieldella laevis (Whitfield) are the only
forms observed,
8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
In the salt shaft near Livonia on the Honeoye quadrangle the
following fossils were found in these beds:
Spirifer vanuxem1i Hall
Stropheodonta varistriata (Conrad)
Liopteria rugosa Hall
Leperditia alta (Conrad) and a small Favosites
DEVONIC
ORISKANY SANDSTONE
This formation is represented here by eight inches of gray cal-
careous sandstone containing no fossils. It is exposed in the rock
wall along Hemlock outlet at the dam east of the high school at 634
A. T. in Honeoye Falls and also at the south end of the Lehigh
Valley Railroad bridge one-half mile northwest of the village. In
the Livonia salt shaft there were at this horizon five feet of coarse,
green and gray conglomerate containing eight species of brachio-
pods, suggestive of a commingling of the faunas of the Oriskany
sandstone and Schoharie grit of the eastern part of the State.
They are
Pentamerella cf. arata (Conrad)
Atrypa reticularis (Linné)
Orthis cf. propinqua (Hall)
Hipparionyx proximus Vanusem
Stropheodonta sp.
Pentagonia unisulcata (Conrad)
Spirifer cf. arenosus Conrad
ONONDAGA LIMESTONE
The Onondaga limestone is composed of layers or tiers of blue
gray limestone, separated by partings of dark shale or black bitum-
inous matter. pie
Dark chert or impure flint in nodules or nodular layers is un-
evenly distributed throughout nearly the entire formation, but is in
larger proportion in the lower part, except for an uneven stratum
two to five feet thick at the base, which is largely composed of
corals and from which chert is absent.
The cherty lower beds supply the material for the crushed stone
used in roadmaking and for ballast, while the basal stratum and
the layers clear from chert found in the upper part of the forma-
tion furnish an inexhaustible supply of valuable building stone and
quicklime.
GEOLOGY OF THE HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES 9
The entire section of this formation is exposed along Honeoye
creek from the Monroe milldam in Honeoye Falls to the north side
of the bend half a mile south of North Bloomfield, except for a small
hiatus in the middle of the formation between the two villages.
The lower beds may be seen along the bed of Spring creek and the
upper tiers in the quarry of the Genesee Lime Company two miles
southwest of Honeoye Falls. The basal layer, specially rich in
corals, outcrops over an area of half an acre near an old limekiln
three miles west of Honeoye Falls near a north and south road
one and one-eighth miles west of Spring creek. Some of the lower
tiers outcrop in the road south of Five Corners, and there are
several field outcrops farther south in the region drained by Stony
brook. |
The fauna of the Onondaga limestone 1s very large; a list of
species found in this formation, given in State Museum Bulletin
63, contains 3 fishes, 39 crustaceans, 13 cephalopods, 3 pteropods,
38 gastropods, 15 lamellibranchs, 48 brachiopods, 4 crinoids and 30
corals; total 193.
MARCELLUS BLACK SHALE
The blue Onondaga limestone is succeeded by black, carbonaceous
shales and soft, dark impure limestones to the thickness of 41 feet
in the Livonia salt shaft but somewhat thinner on the line of out-
crop. On these quadrangles this shale is terminated at the top by
the Stafford limestone, and it constitutes the lower division of the
“ Marcellus shale,’ as described by Hall and Vanuxem.
The lower beds are mostly calcareous and fossiliferous, while the
upper are composed mainly of densely black bituminous and pyri-
tiferous shale in which occur spherical concretions six inches to one
foot, six inches in diameter.
This formation is rich in hydrocarbons and is the source of the
natural gas produced by the shallower gas wells of this region.
Many of the concretions are septaria and the cavities within them
occasionally contain a small quantity of petroleum. On account
of the compact character of this rock, gas wells terminating in it
are not very productive except when a crevice or large pocket is
penetrated. Fossils are abundant, specially in the lower more cal-
careous part on this formation. 7
‘The following species were found in the Marcellus shale and
limestone in the Livonia salt shaft, in the upper black shale and
concretions :
ie) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Plates of Aspidicthys and Dinichthys halmodeus (Clarke)
Orthoceras nuntium Hall
O. subulatum Hall
Tornoceras uniangulare (Conrad )
Cyrtoceras citum Hall
Pleurotomaria rugulata Hall
Styliolina fissurella Hall
Panenka lincklaeni Hall
P. equilatera Hall
Nuculites nyssa Hall
Pterochaenia fragilis (Hall)
Liopteria laevis Hall
Pterinopecten dignatus Hall
Actinopteria muricata Hall
Orbiculoidea minuta Hall
Liorhynchus limitare (Vanuxem)
Chonetes mucronatus Hall
The following additional species occur in the more calcareous
beds near the base of the formation:
Phacops rana Green
Orthoceras incarceratum Clarke
O. linaa Hall
Tentaculites gracilistriatus Hall
Pleurotomaria lucina Hall
Aviculopecten cf. fasciculatus Hall
Modiomorpha subalata (Conrad)
M. concentrica Hall
Cypricardinia indenta (Conrad)
Microdon bellistriatus (Conrad )
Nuculites oblongatus Conrad
Palaeoneilo plana (Conrad)
Tropidoleptus carinatus (Conrad)
Spirifer audaculus Conrad
Ambocoelia umbonata (Conrad)
A. praeumbona Hall
Athyris spiriferoides (Eaton)
Coelospira camilla Hall
Terebratula sp.
Stropheodonta inequistriata (Conrad )
Leptostrophia perplana (Conrad)
GEOLOGY OF THE HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES II
Orthothetes pandora Hall
QO. bellulus Clarke
Orthis cf. lenticularis Hall
Chonetes deflectus Hall
C. lineatus (Conrad) —
C. cf. yandellanus Hall
Pholidops hamiltoniae Hall
Stictopora incisurata Hall
Stereolasma rectum Hall
The Marcellus beds are covered on this quadrangle except for a
small expostire under the Erie Railroad bridge over Little Conesus
creek a mile south of Avon.
® STAFFORD LIMESTONE
This formation takes its name from Stafford, Genesee county,
where if is well exposed. It is eight feet three inches thick at
Lancaster, Erie county, but diminishes gradually toward the east,
and at its extreme eastern exposure on Flint creek, Ontario county,
is but four inches thick.
On this quadrangle it 1s a hard blue limestone, in one stratum
14 to 18 inches thick with a few inches of calcareous shale above
and below.
There are no exposures of the Stafford limestone on these quad-
rangles but it may be seen below the second dam on Conesus outlet
west of Ashantee, and in the bed of Little Conesus creek east of
the Erie Railroad bridge.
The Stafford limestone is rich in fossils at every exposure and
a list published in State Museum Bulletin 49 contains the names of
118 species which have been collected from it. This stratum occurs
in the Livonia salt shaft at the depth of 823 feet and contained the
following forms:
Phacops rana Green
Orthoceras aedipus Hall
O. cf. marcellense Hall
Loxonema delphicola Hall
Pleurotomaria sulcomarginata (Conrad )
Re itys Elall
Pm ductal eal
Meristella barrisi Hall
I2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Camarotoechia sappho Hall
C. horsfordi Hall
Chonetes scitulus Hall
C, mucronatus Hall
Strophalosia truncata Hall
Ambocoelia umbonata (Conrad )
Orthothetes arctostriatus Hall
Spirifer subumbona Hall
S. audaculus (Conrad)
Atrypa recticularis Linné
Panenka lincklaeni Hall
P. aequilatera Hall
Pterinopecten exfoliatus Hall
Actinopteria muricata Hail
Aviculopecten bellus Conrad
Styliolina fissurella Hall
CARDIFF SHALE
The shales succeeding the Stafford limestone and formerly known -
as upper Marcellus, are richly bituminous, though in a somewhat
less degree than those below, for about sixty feet gradually becom-
ing more argillaceous and lighter colored, and passing into the
next higher formation.
The only exposure of the Cardiff shale on this quadrangle is along
Little Conesus creek between the Erie Railroad bridge and the Avon
reservoir. In the Livonia shaft section these beds were penetrated
at 753 to 823 feet and the following species were found in them:
Tornoceras uniangulare (Conrad)
Orthoceras subulatum Hall
O. nuntium Hall
Cyrtoceras sp.
Pleurotomaria rugulata Hall
P. capillaria (Conrad)
Bellerophon leda Hall
Liopteria laevis Hall
Modiella pygmaea (Conrad )
Pterochaenia fragilis (Hall)
Actinopteria muricata Hall
Buchiola retrostriata v. Buch
Actinopteria (small) sp.
Panenka lincklaeni Hall
GEOLOGY OF THE HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES 13
Pterinopecten dignatus Hall
Nuculites triqueter Conrad
Modiomorpha cf. subalata (Conrad)
Liorhynchus limitare Vanuxem
- Productella spinulicosta ‘Hall
Strophalosia truncata Hall
Orbiculoidea minuta Hall
Styliolina fissurella Hall
Reptaria stolonifera Rolle
SKANEATELES SHALE
This formation is a bed of soft dark clayey shales quite bitumi-
nous and pyritiferous in some parts and containing fossils. but
sparingly, though a few thin calcareous lentils are composed almost
entirely of compressed shells.
It is 145 feet thick and is terminated at the top by a stratum of
hard calcareous sandy shale containing cyathophylloid corals in
abundance.
Skaneateles shale is exposed along Little Conesus creek below
the Avon reservoir, but is not seen elsewhere on these quadrangles.
Its place in the Livonia shaft section is 608 to 753 feet below the
top.
The following fossils occur in these beds:
Phacops rana Green
Cryphaeus boothi Green
Tornoceras uniangulare (Conrad)
Orthoceras exile Hall
Gomphoceras sp.
Pleurotomaria rugulata Hall
Bellerophon leda Hall
Pterochaenia fragile (Hall)
Liopteria laevis Hall
-Panenka equilatera Hall
Palaeoneilo fecunda Hall
Orthonota undulata Conrad
Chonetes scitulus Hall
C. lepidus Hall
C. mucronatus Hall
Liorhynchus multicostum Hall
L. limitare (Vanuxem)
Styliolina fissurella Hall
Crinoid stems ,
I4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
LUDLOWVILLE SHALE
This formation consists of beds of shale varying in character from
black and bituminous to light colored sandy and calcareous. Cal-
careous concretions are quite common, and 65 feet above the base
and near the top there are even layers of limestone one to two feet
thick.
The Ludlowville shale is terminated at the top by the Tichenor
limestone.
The basal hard layer, which is a coral reef at Centerfield, Ontario
county, and a calcareous sandstone in the Livonia shaft section,
is exposed at an old mill site on Little Conesus creek near the Avon
reservoir, but is almost entirely devoid of fossils.
Along Gates creek two miles north of Allens Hill 15 to 20 feet of
the shales next below the Tichenor limestone are exposed.
This formation was named from its exposure along the shore of
Cayuga lake near Ludlowville, Tompkins county. It extends across
central and western New York and is everywhere richly fossilifer-
ous. Lists of the fossils composing its fauna may be found in
volume 1 of the Report of the State Geologist for 1893 and in State
Museum Bulletin 63.
TICHENOR LIMESTONE
A stratum of limestone about one foot in thickness overlies the
Ludlowville shale from Cayuga county to Lake Erie. It was known
by the geologists of the early State Survey as the Encrinal lime-
stone and serves as a bench mark in the stratigraphy of the western
part of the State. The name Encrinal limestone was applied to the
stratum on account of the abundance of crinoid fragments which it
contains and of which it is, at some localities, almost entirely com-
posed.
A calcareous stratum of somewhat similar appearance to the
Tichenor limestone which occurs at the base of the Ludlowville shale
and outcrops at Centerfield on the Canandaigua quadrangle, on the
Attica quadrangle and other places in western New York, has some-
times been erroneously identified as the Encrinal, hence a more
specific name has proved desirable. The favorable exposure in
Tichenor gully on the west shore of Canandaigua lake suggested the
present name. A small exposure on Gates creek near the old mill-
dam is the only one on these quadrangles where Tichenor appears.
The following is a partial list of the fossils that occur in it:
Phacops rana Green
Orthoceras caelamen Hail
GEOLOGY OF THE HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES 15
Diaphorostoma lineatum (Conrad )
Lyrtopecten orbiculatus Hall
Spirifer mucronatus Conrad
Sp. granulosus (Conrad)
Heliophyllum halli Edwards & Haime
Favosites argus Hall
F. arbusculus Hall
Eridophyllum sp.
Heads of Megistocrinus and other crinoids are sometimes found
in the soft shale that immediately overlies the limestone.
MOSCOW SHALE
Succeeding the Tichenor limestones there are 147 feet of shale,
in which calcareous concretions and thin calcareous lenses, com-
posed largely of crinoid and other fossils, are common. ‘The
principal part of the shale is light bluish gray and quite calcareous,
but at some horizons it is quite dark. Iron pyrite in nodules
is common, specially in the upper beds and occasionally occurs in
the shape of casts of small fossils.
East of Canandaigua lake the upper limit of this formation
is the base of the Tully limestone which does not extend west of
the town of Gorham, Ontario county, but in its place there is found
at some exposures a thin layer of iron pyrite separating the blue
Moscow shale from the black Genesee.
The upper part of the Moscow shale, with overlying pyrite layer
and Genesee shale, is exposed along Hemlock creek south of Rich-
mond Mills, and the base of the formation on Gates creek (some-
times called Beebe brook). Its place in the Livonia shaft section
is 280 to 427 feet from the top.
This formation is very rich in-fossils. For lists of species see
13th Report of the State Geologist, volume 1, 1893, and State
Museum Bulletin 63. |
PYRITE LAYER. HORIZON OF TULLY LIMESTONE
The formation ot hard limestone, named from its best develop-
ment at Tully, Onondaga county, where it has a thickness of 28
feet, thins out toward the west and disappears on the east side of
Canandaigua lake. Westward across the Canandaigua and Honeoye
quadrangles lentils of iron pyrites from one to four inches thick and
16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
two to ten rods across, occur in the horizon of the Tully limestone
so frequently as to appear at nearly every exposure of the Moscow-
Genesee contact. When freshly exposed the stratum is extremely
hard and refractory, but it softens and disintegrates in very old
exposures, its position in the walls of ravines being usually indicated
by a thin rust-colored band.
Fossils of 48 species have been identified from this layer in On-
tario and Livingston counties. A full description of the pyrite
lentils and a list of its fossils may be found in State Museum
Bulletin 69, 1903. |
GENESEE BLACK SHALE
Overlying the pyrite layer or, in its absence, the Moscow shale,
there is a bed of black bituminous shale similar in appearance to ©
the Marcellus shale 500 feet lower in the strata. As commonly used,
the term applied to these strata has included the succeed-
ing Genundewa limestone, the dark West River shale and the black
Middlesex shale above it. As here used, the term Genesee black
shale designates the strata between the Tully horizon and the
Genundewa limestone, which on these quadrangles have a total
thickness of 85 to 90 feet. The shales are mostly densely black and
contain a proportion of hydrocarbons sufficiently large to produce,
when freshly broken, a natural fetid odor. he Se
Pyrite in small nodules is common. Rows of spherical concre-
tions and a few thin flags of fine grained calcareous sandstone, also
occur.
Fossils, except a few plant remains, are almost entirely absent
from the black shale and are rare in the lighter beds. The follow-
ing have been obtained from the Genesee shale in this region:
Conodont teeth
Pleurotomaria rugulata Hall
Probeloceras lutheri Clarke
Bactrites aciculum (Hall)
Styliolina fissurella Hall
Pterochaenia fragilis (fall)
Lingula spatulata Hall
Orbiculoidea lodensis Hall
Liorhynchus quadricostatus Hall
Exposures of Genesee shale may be found on the Honeoye
quadrangle in two ravines on the east side of the valley two miles
north of the village of Honeoye, along the Hemlock outlet one to
GEOLOGY OF THE HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES 17
two miles north of Hemlock village, and in the ravine on the west
side of Conesus lake near Eagle point.
GENUNDEWA LIMESTONE
This designation has been applied to a band of thin impure lime-
stones separated by partings of a few inches or feet of black shale,
the whole having a total thickness of six to eight feet.
Some of the limestone layers are very uneven and somewhat
nodular, while others are even and compact; one of the latter,
twelve to fourteen -inches thick, has been utilized to a limited extent
for building purposes.
The limestones are composed principally of the minute shells of
the pteropod Styliolina fissurella Hall and the forma-
tion was formerly known as the “ Styliola band.” These shells give
the limestone a sandy appearance after long exposure. This forma-
tion is exposed in two ravines two miles northeast of Honeoye
and in the bed of Whetstone brook two miles northwest of
Honeoye. It may be seen in a gully near the first bridge over the
Hemlock outlet below Hemlock village, and in a larger ravine half
a mile farther north. It appears fifty feet above the lake level
in the ravine near Eagle point, Conesus lake.
Fossils are abundant in this formation, and the fauna is of pecu-
liar interest owing to the appearance of many forms not known to
occur in the rocks below. }
A list of fossils numbering forty-eight species, obtained from
the Genundewa strata, may be found in State Museum Bulletin 63.
WEST RIVER DARK SHALE
Succeeding the Genundewa limestones there are 65 to 75 feet
of dark gray shale in which there are interstratified beds of black
shale one to three feet thick, at intervals of three to eight feet,
which, in walls of ravines, give this formation a broadly banded
appearance. Calcareous concretions are common; some of these
are septaria and have been known under the names “ petrified tur-
tles,’ “niggerheads”’ and others of similar character. A few
thin flags of calcareous sandstone also occur.
At the top the passage to the succeeding black Middlesex shale
is through several alternations of dark and black shale in a few
feet.
The West River shales are exposed along Whetstone creek two
miles northwest of Honeoye; in all the large ravines toward the
18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
west to Hemlock lake; on Conesus lake in the ravines between
Old Orchard point and McPherson point, on the east side, and
between Eagle point and Long point on the west side.
Fossils are rare in the West River beds. A few individuals of
the following, species occur:
Bactrites aciculum (Hall)
Gephyroceras sp.?
Pleurotomaria rugulata Hall
Buchiola retrostriata v. Buch
Pterochaenia fragilis (Hall)
Lunulicardium curtum Hail
Panenka sp.
Lingula spatulata Vanuxem
Orbiculoidea lodensis Vanuxem
Melocrinus clarkei Hall
MIDDLESEX BLACK SHALE
A bed of black shale similar in appearance to the Genesee beds,
succeeds the West River shales to the thickness of 30 to 35 feet.
As the transition to the adjacent formations is gradual both above
and below, the assigned thickness is somewhat arbitrary. It may
be recognized beneath the lighter Cashaqua shale as far east as
Cayuga county, where it ceases to be separable from the West
River shale. Toward the west it is more distinctly differentiated
from the adjacent formations and on the shore of Lake Erie it is
a homogeneous band of black slaty shale six feet thick.
This formation is exposed in the ravines in the Honeoye Lake
valley and in the region two miles south of Richmond Mills. It
is finely displayed on the road one-half mile southeast of Hemlock
and in the ravine at Glenville. It also appears in all of the ravines
on both sides of Conesus lake in the vicinity of McPherson point.
Fossils are exceedingly rare inthe: Middlesex shale. The follow-
ing occur:
Plant remains
Fish remains
Conodonts
Sandbergeroceras syngonum Clarke
Ontaria suborbicularis (Hall)
EE LEE ee ee we
GEOLOGY OF THE HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES I9
CASHAQUA SHALE
The black shales are succeeded by nearly 200 feet of light col-
ored bluish gray or olive shale, in which thin flags occur occa-
sionally, and a few thin layers of black shale are interstratified.
Caleareous concretions, and thin concretionary layers, continuous
for but a short distance, are common in the higher portion of the
formation.
Occupying a position between two heavy beds of black shale
it is easily recognized by its lighter color and peculiar structure,
wherever it is exposed, from Seneca lake to Lake Erie, and its
peculiar and interesting fauna has made it the subject of careful
_ study, the results of which, with a list of its fossils, may be found
in State Museum Bulletin 63 and Memoir 6.
The Cashaqua beds are abundantly displayed in a very large
number of ravines on these quadrangles. Among the more favor-
able and accessible exposures are the upper beds of Whetstone
creek two miles west of Honeoye and the lower along the road
half a mile southeast of Hemlock; along Canadice outlet above the
Glenville mills; in Shurger’s glen two and one-half miles west of
Hemlock; in all of the large ravines on both sides of Conesus
lake, and the upper beds at the mouth of the two large ravines on
the east side of the valley half a mile south of the head of the lake.
RHINESTREET BLACK SHALE
The band of black shale that succeeds the Cashaqua shale and
has a thickness on these quadrangles of 30 to 40 feet, was formerly
known as the “upper black band.” It was designated as above in
State Museum Bulletin 63, from its exposure at the locality in the
Canandaigua lake valley known as Rhinestreet, where it is 22 to
25 feet thick. It increases rapidly toward the west and on Lake
Erie is 150 to 185 feet thick. |
It is a well-defined band of slaty, bituminous black shale between
formations of much lighter color, and, having greater power of
resistance to erosive forces than those beds, it frequently produces
cascades in the ravines along the line of outcrop.
It appears at most of the exposures of the upper Cashaqua
beds in these quadrangles. It is seen to great advantage in the
walls of the amphitheatre in the ravine of Whetstone creek half a
mile south of the Honeoye-Hemlock road. It is also well exposed
in Shurger’s gully two and one-half miles west of Hemlock; in the
two ravines half a mile south of the head of Conesus lake, east
20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
side, and in a Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad cut, at
the west line of the Wayland quadrangle.
The fauna of the Rhinestreet shale is very limited. The follow-
ing list shows the species that have been identified from it:
Polygnathus dubius Hinde
Prioniodus spicatus Hinde
P. erraticus Hinde
Palaeoniscus devonicus Clarke
Acanthodes pristis Clarke
Spathiocaris emersoni Clarke
Lunulicardium velatum Clarke
Pterochaenia fragilis ( Hall)
Leptodomus multiplex Clarke
Lingula cf. ligea
Plant remains are common, sometimes occurring in masses.
HATCH SHALE AND FLAGS
Next above the Rhinestreet shale there is a partial return to
the conditions in the Cashaqua beds below, though the light shales
are harder and less calcareous, and flags and thin sandstones are
more frequent. A few bands of black shale are interbedded, but
on the whole the principal lithologic difference between this forma-
tion and’Cashaqua shale is in the proportion of sandy sediment,
which is considerably larger in these beds and increases upward
to the top, where they are succeeded by the Grimes sandstones. _
About 200 feet of strata are embraced within this formation,
which was named from its abundant exposure on Hatch hill at
Naples, Ontario county. There are: many small exposures of
these rocks in fields and ravines and along the highways, but
only a few are sufficiently extensive to afford opportunity for
satisfactory examination of them. The best are along the road-
side and in a small ravine two miles southwest of Honeoye; in
some small gullies on the west side of Canadice lake; along the
roadside two miles north of Cemetery hill; in the north ravine
near the head of Conesus lake, and the Calabogue ravine at Cone-
sus, where the entire formation may be seen under favorable con-
ditions. In the Canaseraga creek valley the lower part of all the
ravines on the east side between West Sparta and Dansville show
Hatch shales and flags. They also appear on the west side north-
ward from Cumminsville.
GEOLOGY OF THE HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES 21
Fossils are very rare here. The softer shales in the lower beds
contain a few forms like those found in the Cashaqua. The
-sandier beds are quite barren except of plant remains. The col-
lector may expect to find:
Manticoceras pattersoni (Hall)
Probeloceras lutheri Clarke
Lunulicardium ornatum Fall
Honeoyea desmata Clarke
Buchiola retrostriata (v. Buch)
Palaeotrochus praecursor Clarke
Bactrites |
GRIMES SANDSTONE
This formation is composed principally of even layers of sand-
stone from .six inches to three feet thick, some of which are
rather: soft and shaly, while others are hard and calcareous. The
aggregate thickness is not far from fifty feet.
It appears on the next quadrangle toward the east in the Grimes
gully at Naples, where it contains a small brachiopod fauna
allied to the Ithaca fauna and other forms not known elsewhere.
Though these sandstones outcrop in many places on the Way-
land quadrangle there are very few good exposures of the entire
formation.
The entire section is shown in the Calabogue ravine below the
lower bridge in the village of ‘Conesus. The sandstones are quite
barren of fossils except at the top, where a 14 to 16 inch layer
is very hard, calcareous and concretionary and contains large
irregularly shaped concretions so frequently as to almost form a
continuous layer. It bears a close resemblance to a stratum in
this horizon in Tannery gully, Naples, and like that one, contains
brachiopod shells quite abundantly, but mostly in so fragmentary
condition as to preclude identification.
Entire valves of a small Rhipidomella and Productella
_spinulicosta occur and loose spines of a larger Productella are
abundant. Fragments of Liorhynchus may also be recognized.
The Grimes sandstones may be seen at the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & Western Railroad culvert in the Culberson gully three
and one-half miles north of Dansville, in other ravines and ‘quarries
in the east side of the Canaseraga valley, and on the west side at
the mouth of the Bradner creek ravine half a mile northwest of
Woodville.
i)
8)
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
GARDEAU FLAGS AND SHALE
Light bluish gray sandstones and flags separated by beds of blue,
olive or black shales succeed the Grimes sandstone for about 500
feet. In general stratigraphy this formation is much like
the Hatch shale and flags, but many of the sandstones and some
of the shale beds are thicker than are seen in that formation. It
is the surface rock over a large area on these quadrangles, the drift
cover of which, except in a few localities, is quite thin, and field
outcrops are frequent. Almost innumerable ravines:and small gul-
lies ori the hillsides show rock sections enbracing some part of the
Gardeau beds.
Among the best exposures on these quadrangles are: in Reynold’s
eulf, three miles north of Springwater; along Calabogue creek
above the mill at Conesus; the Culberson ravine above the railroad ;
the Bradner creek ravine north of Woodville; and at Stones Falls
and Stony brook glen south of Dansville. |
Fossils are rare, but a few brachiopods known in the Ithaca fauna
occur in some of the sandstones, and a few lamellibranchs and
cephalopods common in the Cashaqua shales are found in soft
shales, especially in the upper part of the formation.
The following is a partial list of the species occurring in the Gar-
deau beds:
Manticoceras oxy Clarke
Palaeotrochus praecursor Clarke
Grammysia elliptica Hall
Leptodesma robustum Hall
Productella lachrymosa Hall
P. spinulicosta Hall
Ambocoelia umbonata (Conrad)
Atrypa hystrix Hall
Orthothetes chemungensis Conrad
Liorhynchus mesacostalis Hall
Hydnoceras tuberosum Conrad
Aulopora sp.
Crinoid stems
NUNDA SANDSTONE
(Portage sandstone of early reports)
A heavy band of light bluish gray sandstone succeeds the Gar-
deau flags in central New York. It is a strongly marked feature
of the stratigraphy of the region and is of considerable economic
value as the source of fine building stone.
GEOLOGY OF THE HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES 23
The formation is nearly 200 feet thick in the Genesee river sec-
tion, but thins out toward the west and barely reaches Lake Erie.
‘It is less homogeneous toward the east, some parts becoming shaly,
but it is traceable to the Seneca lake valley.
On the Genesee river and farther west fossils, except plant re-
mains, are extremely rare, but on the Wayland quadrangle and
eastward, there are found lenticular masses of crinoidal limestone
that contain brachiopods and other fossils in large numbers.
Except in the southern part of the Wayland quadrangle, the
position of these sandstones is too high to permit of good ex-
posures, but they are well displayed for nearly a mile along the
Pittsburg, Shawmut & Northern Railroad two miles southeast of
Perkinsville. Extensive quarries on the hill east of Dansville are
in these beds, and they have also been quarried on the south face
of the hill one and one-half miles north of Perkinsville. Blocks
from a fossiliferous lentil at the south end of the hill four miles
east of Wayland have been utilized as firestone in that vicinity.
Calcareous slabs from this lens, or possibly another one, lie on the
north face of the hill one and one-half miles southeast of Wayland.
The fossils contained in these lentils have not been listed, except
in the case of the large one on High point on the Naples quad-
rangle three miles east of this quadrangle, from which 32 species
have been obtained. For list, see State Museum Bulletin 63.
WISCOY BEDS
About 200 feet of light and dark shales and soft sandstones that
contain a fauna bearing some resemblance to that of the normal
Portage and on that account have been considered as a separate
formation, succeed the Nunda sandstone on the Genesee river.
Though acquiring an increase of sandy material and appearing
mainly as a bed of rather soft olive sandstone, on the Wayland
quadrangle this formation is readily distinguished from the harder,
_ lighter colored and usually more fossiliferous sandstones and harder:
_ shales of the normal Chemung beds by which it is overlain.
There is a small exposure of Wiscoy beds by the side of the
Pittsburg & Shawmut Railroad where it crosses the south line
of the quadrangle, and a more extensive one from two miles south
_ of Patchenville to the south line of the quadrangle. Crinoid stems,
small brachiopods and a small Orthoceras occur here. The large
cephalopod Manticoceras oxy Clarke appears occasionally
in these beds.
24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
With the increase of sand in the sedimentation toward the east,
a few brachiopods which are not found at Wiscoy appear. __
CHEMUNG SHALE AND SANDSTONE
About 450 feet of the lower beds of this formation compose
the surface rock on the high land in the extreme southern part
of the Wayland quadrangle. In lithologic character they are not
materially different from the Gardeau beds, except that the sand-
stones are lighter colored and more micaceous.
Fossils are rare in the lower 300 feet but are in very great
abundance in the higher sandstones exposed on this quadrangle.
These may be seen to good advantage along the roadside three-
fourths of a mile northeast of Loon lake, where the rock is
crowded with large brachiopods. Hydnoceras nodosum
Hall occurs here also.
The rock lies near the surface over this region and small fieid
exposures are frequent, but there are no extensive outcrops.
DIP
The average dip of the base of the Onondaga limestone be-
tween Honeoye Falls and the salt shaft at Livonia is about 33
feet per mile toward the south. On an east and west line, though
made variable by frequent undulations of the strata, this lime-
stone is on the whole nearly level.
As all of the formations above the Onondaga up to the Wis-
coy shale, except the Stafford limestone and the Rhinestreet black
shale, thin out more or less rapidly toward the west, the dip
in that direction varies also with the contact line used as a base,
but is nowhere appreciable except on careful measurement. The
deep and narrow valleys partly occupied by Conesus, Hemlock
and Honeoye lakes are blocked at the south ends by enormous
beds of gravel, sand and clay which compose a part of the great
moraine of the second glacial epoch. The areas intervening be-
tween the lakes and the moraine are level beds of rich alluvium.
The Genesee river valley in the northwest corner of the Honeoye
quadrangle; the Canaseraga valley near Dansville; the bed of a
small lake near Wayland and another at South Lima, are of
similar character.
_A striking exhibition of the force of glacial action occurs in a
small amphitheatrical valley of Stony brook at Five Corners, four
miles west of Honeoye Falls. The bed rock, Bertie waterlime, is
GEOLOGY OF THE~-HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES 25
but slightly exposed, but a very large quantity of Lockport dolo-
mite-has been transported southward a distance of at least twelve
miles and deposited here. The sloping bank on the east side of
the little valley 1s almost covered by blocks of the brown scraggly
rock, some of which are twelve to fifteen feet across and six to
eight feet thick. They lie so close together that they present the
appearance of a broken escarpment, extending toward the north
for 60 to 70 rods.
Large blocks of the dolomite are common 1n this vicinity and a
morainic mass of this rock covers several acres half a mile west
of this locality, but is mostly in smaller blocks.
ad
ay
hs)
e
OCT NRO ERD ade
ee a ae ee a 3
a
ry;
.
a:
INDEX
Acanthodes pristis, 20. Cobleskill waterlime, 7.
Actinopteria sp., 12. Coelospira camilla, ro.
muricata, 10, 12. CGonesus 20; 21, 22.
Allens Hill, 14. Gonesusvlake, 17,18). 10; 20, 24:
Ambocoelia praeumbona, 10. Conesus outlet, II.
umbonata, 10, 12, 22, Conodonts, 16, 18.
Ashantee, I1. é Crinoid stems, 13, 22, 23.
Aspidicthys, Io. Cryphaeus boothi, 13.
Athyris spiriferoides, 10. Culberson gully, 21, 22.
Atrypa hystrix, 22. . ~ Cumminsville, 20.
reticularis, 8,. 12.
Attica quadrangle, 14.
Aulopora sp., 22.
Aviculopecten bellus, 12.
ee tasciculatus, 10:
Avon eT, EA.
Cypricardinia indenta, 10.
Cyrtoceras: Sp, /12:
citum, I0.
Dansville, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.
Diaphorostoma lineatum, 15.
Dinichthys halmodeus, Io.
Bactrites, 21. Dip of strata, 24.
aciculum, 16, 18.
Beebe brook, 15.
Bellerophon leda, 12, 13.
Bertie waterlime, 6, 7, 24.
Bradner creek ravine, 21, 22. ;
Brockport quadrangle, 7. Favosites, 8.
: : arbusculus, 15.
Buchiola retrostriata, 12, 18, 21. ae
argus, I5.
Fish remains, 18.
Hive, Corners, 47,0, 24:
Flint creek, II.
Eagle point, 17, 18.
Eridophyllum sp., 15.
Calabogue ravine, 20, 21, 22.
Camarotoechia horsfordi, 12.
sappho, 12.
Camillus shale, 6-7.
Canadice lake, 19, 20. Garbuttsville, 7.
Canandaigua quadrangle, 7, 14, 15. Gardeau flags and shale, 6, 22, 24.
Canaseraga valley, 20, 21, 24. Gates creek, 14, 15.
Cardiff shale, 6, 12-13. Genesee black shale, 6, 16, 17.
Cashaqua shale, 6, 18, 10, 20. Genesee Lime Company, 9.
Cemetery hill, 20. Genesee river valley, 24.
Centerfield, 14. Genundewa limestone, 6, 16, 17.
Chemung shale and sandstone, 6, 23, Gephyroceras s?., 18.
24. | Glacial action, exhibition of force,
Chonetes deflectus, 11. aa
lepidus, 13. Glenville, 18, 10.
lineatus, IT. Gomphoceras, SPp., 13.
mucronatus, IO, 12, 12. Gorham, I5.
scitulus, 12, 13. Grammysia elliptica, 22.
cf. yandellanus, It. Grimes sandstone, 6, 20, 21, 22.
28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Hatch hill, 20.
Hatch shale and flags, 6, 20, 21.
Heliophyllum halli, 15.
Hemlock, 17, 18, 109.
Hemlock lake, 18, 24.
Hemlock Voutlet)s 7.38 4155-16517.
Hipparionyx proximus, 8.
Honeoye, 16, 17, 19, 20.
Honeoye creek, 0.
Honeoye Falls, 7,8, 9.
Honeoye lake, 18, 24.
Honeoyea desmata, 21.
Hydnoceras nodosum, 24.
tuberosum, 22.
Lancaster, II.
Leperditia alta, 7, 8.
Leptodesma robustum, 22.
Leptodomus multiplex, 2c.
Leptostrophia perplana, 10.
Lingula cf. ligea, 20.
‘ spatulata, 16, 18.
Liopteria laevis, 10, I2, 13.
rugosa, 8.
Liorhynchus, 21.
limitare, 10, 13.
mesacostalis, 22.
multicostum, 13.
quadricostatus, 16.
Little Conesus creek, II, 12, 13, 14.
Livonia ‘salt shaft,6,.0, 2-13-14. U5.
Lockport dolomite, 25.
Long point, 18.
Loon lake, 24.
Loxonema delphicola, IT.
Ludlowville shale, 6, 14.
Lunulicardium curtum, 18.
ornatum, 21.
velatum, 20.
Lyriopecten orbiculatus, 15.
McPherson point, 18.
Manticoceras oxy, 22, 23.
pattersoni, 21.
Marcellus black shale, 6, 9, II.
Megistocrinus, I5.
Melocrinus clarkei, 18.
Meristella barrisi, I1.
Microdon bellistriatus, Io.
Middlesex black shale, 6, 16, 17, 18.
Modiella pygmaea, 12.
Modiomorpha concentrica, 10.
subalata, 10, 13.
Monroe milldam, 9.
Moscow shale, 6, 15, 16,
Naples, 20, 21.
Naples quadrangle, 23.
North Bloomfield, 9.
Nuculites nyssa, 10.
oblongatus, Io.
triqueter, 13.
Nunda sandstone, 6, 22, 23.
Old Orchard point, 18.
Onondaga limestone, 6, 7, 8-9, 24.
Ontario suborbicularis, 18.
Orbiculoidea lodensis, 16, 18.
minuta, I0, 13.
Oriskany sandstone, 6, 8.
Orthis cf. lenticularis, IT.
cf. propinqua, 8.
Orthoceras aedipus, II.
caelamen, I4.
exile, 13.
incarceratum, IO.
lima, Io.
cf. marcellense, IT.
nuntium, I0, 12.
subulatum, 10, 12.
Orthonota undulata, 13.
Orthothetes arctostriatus, 12.
bellulus, II.
chemungensis, 22.
pandora, II.
Palaeoniscus devonicus, 20.
Palaeoneilo fecunda, 13.
plana, Io.
Paleotrochus praecursor, 21, 22.
Panenka s/., 18.
equilatera, 10, 12, 13.
lincklaeni, I0, I2.
Patchenville, 23. :
Pentagonia unisulcata, 8.
Pentamerella cf. arata, 8.
Perkinsville, 23.
Phaceps tana, 10; 11, 13,708
Pholidops hamiltoniae, II.
Plant remains, 18, 20.
INDEX TO GEOLOGY DF HONEOYE-WAYLAND QUADRANGLES 29
Pleurotomaria capillaria, 12.
tvs, Te
hacina, AIO; II.
BAcUlata, 10, 12) 13, 16, 1c:
sulcomarginata, II.
Polygnathus dubius, 20.
Portage sandstone, 22.
Prioniodus erraticus, 20.
spicatus, 20.
Probeloceras lutheri, 16, 21.
Productella, 21.
-lachrymosa, 22.
spinulicosta, 13, 2I, 22.
Pterinopecten dignatus, 10, 13.
exfoliatus, 12.
Pterochaenia fragilis, 10, 12, 13, 16,
MO. 20:
Pyrite layer, Tully horizon, 6, 15, 16.
Reptaria stolonifera, 13.
Reynold’s gulf, 22.
Rhinestreet black shale, 6, 19-20, 24.
Rhipidomella, 21.
Richmond Mills, 15, 18.
Sandbergeroceras syngonium, 18.
Shurger’s glen, 10.
Skaneateles shale, 6, 13.
South Lima, 24.
Spathiocaris emersoni, 20.
Spirifer cf. arenosus, 8.
audaculus, 10, 12)
granulosus, I5.
mucronatus, I5.
subumbona, 12.
vanuxemi, 8.
Spring creek, 7, 9.
Springwater, 22.
Stafford limestone, 6, 9, 11-12, 24.
Stereolasma rectum, IT.
Stictopora incisurata, IT.
Stones Halls) 22:
Stony brook) 7.0% 22, 24.
Strophalosia truncata, 12, 13.
Stropheodonta sP., 8.
inequistriata, I0.
varistriata, &.
Styliolina fssurella, 10; 12, 13, 16, 17.
Tentaculites gracilistriatus, Io.
lerebratulay’ sp.) 10,
-Tichenor limestone, 6, 14, I5.
Tornoceras uniangulare, 10, 12, 13.
Tropidoleptus carinatus, Io.
Lilly horizon: pyrite layer, 6, 15, 16,
Wicton 7.
Wayland, 23, 24.
Wayland quadrangle, 20, 21, 23, 24.
West River shale, 6, 16, 17.
West Sparta, 20.
Wheatland, 7.
Whetstone creek, 17, 10.
Whitfieldella laevis, 7.
Wiscoy shale, 6, 23.
Woodville, 21, 22.
Tae
ete |
Sc.
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under
the act of July 16, 1894
_—
No. 508 ALBANY, N. Y. DECEMBER I, IQII
New York State Museum
JoHN M. CLARKE, Director
Museum Bulletin 153
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE,
FULTON-SARATOGA COUNTIES, NEW YORK
BY
WILLIAM J. MILLER
PAGE PAGE
HitenOG@UCtOM', 6.5 is ass oc ele os i is JAG ASSIOy ate 0) CISA Nee Nanay A, Ra em 50
General geography and geology.. 6 | Summary of geologic history.... 56
recaimMoriC TOCKS. 10 se ee Silas comonmic productSmras a... 45 4. 60
Me OZOIC FOCKS, 05. 4.6. et PAS a) lS aKG (es Guess Wo eer ae AS a or 63
JP QUES) a ea me 38
>
.
.
*
p
ra
ti . ;
i
New York State Education Department
Science Division, June 23, 1911
Hon. Andrew S. Draper LL.D.
Commissioner of Education
My DEAR SIR:
I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a report
entitled The Geology of the Broadalbin Quadrangle, accompanied
by a geological map. This report has been prepared under my
direction by Professor William J. Miller, and is recommended for
publication as a bulletin of the State Museum.
Very respectfully
Joun M. CLARKE
Director
STATE OF NEW YORK
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
COM MISSIONER’S ROOM
Approved for publication this 27th day of June ro11
MO
Commissioner of Education
.
1
.
.
.
ar |
%
. 1 ‘
i sm
= ‘
.
3
.
\
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under
the act of July 16, 1894
No. 508 ZNIEIBAUIN S05 INS NZ DECEMBER I, IQII
New York State Museum
JoHN M. CrarKke, Director
Museum Bulletin 153
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE,
FULTON-SARATOGA COUNTIES, NEW YORK
BY
VRE EAMe je MEER
IND RODE ERIOIN
The Broadalbin quadrangle (see map in pocket of back cover)
represents about 218 square miles and is bounded by latitude lines
igemandeAg- 5) Ni. and loneitude lines 74° and’74° 15 W. ‘ihe
geographic position is along the southeastern border of the Adiron-
dacks with the Fulton-Saratoga county line passing nearly north
and south through the middle of the territory. A few square miles
of the northwest corner lie in Hamilton county. The principal
villages are Northville and Broadalbin in Fulton county, and
Batchellerville and Galway in Saratoga county. Sacandaga Park,
the well-known summer resort, is located just across the river from
Northville. The Fonda, Johnstown and Gloversville Railroad has
its terminal at Northville which village, during the summer season,
is an important gateway to the southern Adirondacks. The region
was formerly heavily forested but practically all of the first growth
timber has been removed. The highlands of the north, which are
in most respects typically Adirondack in character, are still pretty
densely covered with second growth. These highlands are very
sparsely settled while the lowlands are mostly well occupied. Next
to farming, perhaps the chief industry is the manufacture of gloves,
factories being located at both Northville and Broadalbin.
6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY
In general the quadrangle presents a fairly rugged topography
and for some portions the term mountainous might well be applied.
The maximum range in altitude is from less than 720 feet, where
the Sacandaga river leaves the sheet, to over 2020 feet about two
and one-half miles west of Northville.
As shown on the topographic map, two mountain masses stand
out conspicuously in the northwestern and the northeastern por-
tions of the quadrangle respectively. The importance of these
features may be best appreciated by viewing them from the low
divide between Northville and Edinburg, from where they appear
like mountain ridges rising abruptly above the surrounding country.
The western highlands show elevations commonly from 1800 to
2000 feet, while the eastern highlands generally run from 1600 to
1800 feet above the sea.
Between the highlands lies a broad lowland district (elevation
720 to 850 feet) extending from Northville southward nearly to
Broadalbin. The lowest part is occupied by a great level stretch
of swamp land known as the “ Vly” and by the Sacandaga river
flats. The central northern portion, between Northville and Edin-
burg, is hilly with altitudes of from 900 to 1300 feet. The southern
portion of the quadrangle is mostly covered with deep drift and
is characteristically hilly with elevations of from 800 to 1200 feet.
The drainage of the district presents some unusually interesting
features. The largest stream is the Sacandaga river, a branch of
the Hudson, which enters the sheet from the northwest. At
Northampton this river suddenly swerves sharply to a north-north-
east course which is held for the eight miles past Batchellerville to
the map limit, whence it cuts across a wide belt of Precambric rock
to empty into the Hudson at Luzerne. Little less remarkable is the
course of Kennyetto creek which has its source in the western part
of the Saratoga sheet and, after a west-southwesterly course for
some fifteen miles to Vail Mills, suddenly swerves to the north-
northeast for over eight miles to empty into the Sacandaga at
Northampton. Hans creek also shows a similar change in its
course. This remarkable tendency of the streams to turn back on
their courses will be explained in a later portion of this report
[see page 54].
The watershed or division of drainage between the Sacandaga
and Mohawk rivers passes across the southern part of the sheet so
that only about one-third of the map area drains into the Mohawk.
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 7.
The largest south flowing stream is Chuctanunda creek which
reaches the Mohawk at Amsterdam.
Geologically considered the district shows a great variety of rock
formations and structures. The highlands of the north consist of
rocks which belong to the oldest (Precambric) known formations
of New York State. They comprise very ancient sediments and
igneous rocks which have been profoundly changed from their origi-
nal condition. No less than four distinct types of these rocks have
been recognized within the quadrangle.
Another great set of formations younger in age and resting upon
the Precambric belongs to the Paleozoic system. All the lowlands
of the district are occupied by these formations which are ancient
sediments such as limestones, sandstones and shales and which have
not been greatly changed from their original condition.
The most recent deposits of the quadrangle are of Pleistocene
age! They are vastly younger than the Paleozoics and include the
most recent deposits of the earth. They are merely superficial de-
posits of sand, gravel and clay irregularly scattered over the country
and were formed either during or after the Glacial epoch (Ice age)
when New York was buried under a great sheet of ice.
The structure or arrangement of the rock masses has been very
noticeably affected by displacements or faulting of the earth’s crust.
The quadrangle is unusual for its number of faults, no less than
fourteen with considerable displacement having been located. The
most prominent topographic features of the quadrangle are due to
faulting as, for example, the steep fronts of the highland masses
already described.”
LA chapter on the Pleistocene (glacial) geology of the quadrangle has
not been included in this bulletin because Professor Brigham, who has
carefully studied the glacial history of this and the neighboring Gloversville,
Amsterdam, and Fonda sheets, has already presented a brief report (see
paper below cited) and a more elaborate account will soon be forthcoming.
2 The following list comprises the principal papers having a bearing upon
the geology of the quadrangle:
es Steele. Geology of Saratoga Co. Mem. Board Agric. State N. Y.
mae. Vanuxem. Geology of the 3rd Dist. N. Y.
1843. Mather. Geology of the Ist Dist. N. Y.
1893. Darton. Geology of the Mohawk Valley, 13th An. Rept. N. Y. State
Geologist.
1894. Darton. Faulted Region of Herkimer, Fulton, Montgomery, and
Saratoga Counties. 14th An. Rept. N. Y. State Geologist.
1899. Kemp & Hill. Precambric Formation in parts of Warren, Sara-
toga, Fulton, and Montgomery Counties. 19th An. Rept. N. Y. State Geol-
ogist.
goo. Cumings. Lower Silurian System of Eastern Montgomery Co. N. Y.
State Mus. Bul. 34.
S NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
PRECAMBRIC ROCKS
The most ancient rocks, which are of Precambric age, occupy
about two-fifths of the area of the quadrangle. The term “ Pre-
cambric ” is used because these rocks have not, as yet, been corre-
lated with either the Archean or the Algonkian. They include both
sediments and igneous masses which have been highly metamor-
phosed, and represent a portion of the southern border of the large
Precambric area of the Adirondacks and underlie all the Paleo-
zoic rocks of the quadrangle.
GRENVILLE SERIES
The rocks of the Grenville series are the most ancient of the
Precambrics and consist of highly metamorphosed sediments.
These rocks represent old sandstones and shales together with some
limestones which have been so thoroughly crystallized and foliated
that most of the original sedimentary characters have been oblite-
rated. Within the quadrangle proofs of the sedimentary origin of
the Grenville consist in the occurrence of many layers of widely
different composition ; of crystalline limestone and quartzite strata;
and of graphite and garnet crystals. While in the field the writer
particularly observed the relation of the Grenville to the other rock
masses, but not even a suggestion of any older formation could be
found.
Varieties of Grénville. The Grenville, which is so abundantly
and magnificently shown and which presents extreme variations in
mineralogy, is exhibited under so many different facies that it would
be hopeless to attempt a description of them all. After studying
many specimens and microscopic sections, a careful selection of the
most characteristic facies has been made and the descriptions of
these immediately following will perhaps give the best idea of the
Grenville within the quadrangle:
1 Crystalline limestone. This rock, which is medium to coarse
grained and calcitic, is sometimes pure and white but it is often
mottled with green serpentinous material (ophicalcite) which is prob-
ably derived by the decomposition of pyroxene. It is in thin layers
1900. Prosser. Notes on Stratigraphy of Mohawk Valley and Saratoga
Counties. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 34
1908. Brigham. Glacial Geology of Amsterdam, Fonda, Gloversville and
Broadalbin quadrangles, N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 121, p. 21-31.
toro. Ulrich & Cushing. Age and Relation of the Little Falls Dolomite
of the Mohawk Valley. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 140, p. 97-140.
1o1t. Miller, W. J. Preglacial Course of the Upper Hudson Ree Geol.
Soc. Am. Bul. 22:177-186,
Plate 1
W. J. Miller, photo
Grenville gneiss showing stratification and steep dip. The rock
is chiefly quartzite interbedded with thin layers of gray gneiss.
Three-fourths of a mile north-northeast of Batchellerville.
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 0)
and closely involved with thin-bedded, gray, feldspathic and quartz-
itic gneisses. The only outcrop actually observed is in the bed of
Cadman creek just below the bridge three-fourths of a mile north-
northwest of Barkersville. Although other small occurrences may
have escaped notice, it is certain that the limestone is present only
in small amount.
2 Quartzite. The rock from one and one-quarter miles northeast
of Batchellerville is perhaps the most typical and is coarse grained,
light brown to almost white, and made up of nearly pure quartz
with occasional very. thin layers containing small flakes of badly
decomposed mica. The rock is foliated, highly granulated and often
stained with iron oxid. A thin section shows! 96 per cent quartz;
2 per cent orthoclase; 1 per cent biotite mostly changed to chlorite;
and small amounts of epidote, zircon, apatite and zoisite. The epi-
dote occurs in fine euhedral prismatic crystals which are sometimes
distinctly twinned and show a pleochroism from greenish yellow
to reddish brown to lavender blue. A thin section from north of
Northville shows a total absence of feldspar. In some cases, as one
mile northwest of Mosherville, the quartzite is quite feldspathic
and filled with graphite flakes.
3 A dark to pinkish gray, distinctly banded gneiss rich in garnet,
sillimanite and pyroxene. Under the microscope the rock shows
20 per cent orthoclase; 5 per cent plagioclase (chiefly andesine) ;
25 per cent garnet; 20 per cent quartz; 10 per cent pyroxene — pale
brown, euhedral, monoclinic crystals — probably augite; Io per cent
sillimanite in long slender prisms; 5 per cent biotite; 2 per cent
magnetite ; I per cent pyrite and chalcopyrite; and I per cent each
of epidote and graphite. The garnets are as large as one-quarter
of an inch across, of very clear amethystine color, and distributed
through the whole rock. The biotite is largely concentrated in dis-
tinct layers. This rock outcrops finely at Glenwild. Rocks very
similar to these except for lack of pyroxene are prominently ex-
posed two and one-half miles northwest of Cranberry Creek and
two miles northeast of Northville.
4 A very straight, light and dark banded, highly feldspathic
gneiss which in thin section shows 60 per cent orthoclase, microcline,
and microperthite in about equal amounts together with a little
plagioclase ; 20 per cent quartz; 10 per cent biotite; 5 per cent silli-
manite; 5 per cent garnet of amethyst color; and a little zircon.
_1Only a close approximation to the mineral composition (volumetric pro-
portions) is intended in this and the following sections of Precambric
rocks.
Io NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The whole rock shows decided evidence of severe dynamic meta-
morphism, the feldspars especially being crushed and granulated.
Such rock is common on the mountain side one and one-half miles
south of Batchellerville.
5 A light, gray, medium-grained, rather massive looking gneiss
occurring in abundance one and one-half miles southeast of Fox
Hill and consisting of 30 per cent orthoclase; 15 per cent plagio-
clase-oligoclase to andesine; 40 per cent quartz; Io per cent garnet;
5 per cent biotite; and a little zircon. Other gneisses similar to this
but very fine grained and lacking garnet are prominent at the base
of Bald Bluff and also two miles west of Cranberry Creek.
6 Light gray leaf gneiss. This rock is medium to coarse grained,
highly granulated, and contains 25 per cent orthoclase; 20 per cent
microcline; 5 per cent microperthite; 10 per cent oligoclase; 35
per cent quartz; 4 per cent biotite; and traces of magnetite, garnet,
zoisite, and zircon. It is a fine example of leaf gneiss, the quartz
crystals being drawn out into long flat forms. Good outcrops occur
two miles south of Batchellerville and similar rocks, but containing
some garnet, occur well up the face of Bald Bluff and along the
road one-half mile northwest of Northville.
7 A distinctly straight and thin banded, dark, hornblendic gneiss
in large exposures three miles northeast of Northville. It contains
18 per cent microperthite ; 15 per cent orthoclase ; 10 per cent micro-
cline; 5 per cent plagioclase (mostly oligoclase) ; 20 per cent horn-
blende in fine green pleochroic crystals; 18 per cent quartz; 5 per
cent biotite; 5 per cent garnet; 2 per cent magnetite; 1 per cent
zoisite; and small amounts of zircon, pyrite, and apatite. A rock
similar to this but not clearly banded and richer in plagioclase feld-
spar is abundant along the northern border of the Grenville area
southwest of Sacandaga Park.
8 A highly schistose rock showing thin, white and dark gray
bands and containing 15 per cent orthoclase; 8 per cent plagioclase
(oligoclase to andesine) ; 50 per cent quartz; 10 per cent garnet;
15 per cent biotite; and 2 per cent epidote and zircon in fine crys-
tals. The garnet and biotite are present in tiny specks and flakes
respectively. This is a fine illustration of a highly granulated and
dynamically metamorphosed, banded sedimentary rock. Large
exposures occur two miles west-southwest of Cranberry Creek and
one mile east of Fox Hill.
g White feldspar, quartz gneiss from large outcrops toward the
top of Bald Bluff. It is characterized by the total absence of dark
colored minerals and consists of 34 per cent orthoclase; 20 per cent
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 1
microcline; to per cent microperthite; 5 per cent plagioclase; 25
per cent quartz; 5 per cent garnet; and a very little zircon. The
rock is pretty well granulated and is perfectly white except for an
occasional large, light amethyst-colored garnet which stands out
prominently in the white matrix.
Igneous rocks in the Grenville. Closely involved with the true
Grenville sediments are occasional masses of what appear to be un-
doubted igneous rocks. A fine illustration occurs on the mountain
side one and one-half miles due south of Batchellerville where there
is a considerable belt (about ten feet wide) of very porphyritic,
dark, hornblendic, thoroughly gneissoid rock included within typi-
cal Grenville and parallel to its foliation. The thin section shows
20 per cent plagioclase (oligoclase to labradorite); 10 per cent
orthoclase ; 50 per cent hornblende; 10 per cent biotite; 8 per cent
quartz; 2 per cent magnetite; and a little apatite and zircon. It is
holocrystalline and has the composition of a quartz diorite. The
phenocrysts are sharp edged crystals of feldspar often an inch long
and mostly arranged parallel to the foliation but some are at vari-
ous angles.
Another igneous looking rock occurs in the Grenville toward
the top of Bald Bluff. This rock is very dark grey, medium grained
and distinctly gneissoid. It contains 10 per cent orthoclase; 20 per
cent plagioclase (chiefly labradorite but with some andesine) ; 30
per cent hypersthene (brown pleochroic) ; 20 per cent green horn-
blende; and 20 per cent biotite. Still another rock from two miles
northeast of Northville is similar to this except that it is richer in
feldspar and hypersthene and lacks the biotite. These last two rocks
have the composition of hypersthene gabbro or norite.
The examples above cited are illustrations of others which have
been noted in the field and the composition, texture, and field ap-
pearance all strongly argue for their igneous origin. The texture
and field relations show the intrusive character of the rocks and
that the intrusions probably took place practically parallel to the
bedding planes of the sediments. The gneissoid structure proves
that the intrusions must have occurred well before the cessation
of the dynamic forces of compression which developed the foliation
of the Grenville. On the other hand these rocks are older than the
nonmetamorphosed dike rocks below described.
Areal distribution of the Grenville. The Grenville is by far the
most widespread formation of the quadrangle, its areal extent of
Over sixty square miles being much greater than that of all the
other Precambrics combined. In addition to this the Grenville is
12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
also prominent in the areas of mixed gneisses below described but
it is there too intimately associated with the other rocks to admit
of separate mapping. ven in the areas actually mapped as Gren-
ville the rock 1s not always pure because at times small masses of
igneous rocks are intimately associated. In such cases the writer
has mapped as Grenville all areas where the sediments greatly pre-
ponderate. On the adjoining Saratoga sheet the Grenville is also
extensive so that it is much more prominent along the southeastern
than the southwestern border of the Adirondacks.
As shown on the accompanying geologic map the Batchellerville-
Barkersville area is the largest within the quadrangle. A strike of
from north 30° to 50° east with southerly dip of from 30° to 60°
is very common over all the area except the northeast por-
tion where the strike is north 80° east with dip 20° south
and the extreme south where the strike is north 80° east with dip
nearly. vertical. Nearly all the varieties above described are to be
found, the feldspar-quartz-biotite-garnet gneisses being by far the
most common. As already stated, limestone has been observed at
but one locality and such a small amount in this large Grenville
mass is not a little surprising. uartzites, which must have been
derived from very pure sandstones, are quite common and three
fairly well-defined belts are especially noteworthy [see map]. One
of these belts, about a mile long and a third of a mile wide, lies
just .to.the northeast of Batchellerville. Much of the quartzite is
very pure and in thin to thick beds with strike north 30° west, dip
30° south and apparently showing a thickness of hundreds
of feet. The second quartzite belt, about two miles long and one-
half mile wide, lies southeast of Fox Hill. The rock is thin-bedded
and much like a quartz schist with frequent thin layers of mica. It
strikes mostly north 70° west dip 20° south. A third belt
comprises all of the Grenville tongue just north of North Galway.
It is a very pure quartzite and the beds, which stand nearly vertical,
strike north 80° east. The four inliers! in the vicinity of North
Galway are also of quartzite. Throughout this great area the Gren-
ville is unusually pure and free from closely involved igneous in-
trusions except around Johnnycake lake and in the region to the
east of Parkersville, but even in these cases the sediments greatly
preponderate.
In the area northeast of Northville no limestone and little or no
quartzite has been noted. Frequently granitic and syenitic rocks
1The term “inlier” is here used as defined in Scott’s Geology, 2d edi-
tion, p. 384.
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE aS
in small masses have been encountered, as e. g. one and one-half
miles west and two and one-half miles northwest of Edinburg, but,
on the whole, the rocks are decidedly Grenville and have been so
mapped. For the most part they are feldspar-quartz-biotite-garnet
gneisses with occasional hornblende or sillimanite gneisses. The
strike is generally northeast and dip from 20 to 40° south.
Two small outcrops of the quartzite may be seen along Butler
creek (below the falls) at Edinburg where the creek has just cut
through the Potsdam, but they are too small to be shown on the
geologic map.
North of Northville the small area shows chiefly feldspar-quartz-
garnet-gneisses with a distinct belt of pure quartzite along the
northern border. These rocks strike east-west and dip 45° south.
The Grenville area southwest of Sacandaga Park is character-
ized chiefly by feldspar-quartz-biotite-garnet gneisses and schists.
Toward the west these rocks are rather massive looking, dark gray
and rich in hornblende; while toward the northeast and south they
are clearly banded, contain sillimanite and lack hornblende, and
frequently have in them small outcrops of granitic and syenitic
rocks. The strikes and dips of this area are very variable.
In the area west of Cranberry Creek the rocks are, toward the
north, mostly thin bedded, very schistose, granulated, and severely
dynamically metamorphosed. Toward the south, in the Precambric
tongue, they are mostly thin-bedded feldspar-quartz-garnet gneisses,
at times associated with small masses of good porphyritic syenite
or granite. Throughout this area the strike is fairly constant north
40° east, dip 30° south.
Stratigraphy and thickness of the Grenville. From the above
it is evident that the great bulk of original Grenville sediments were
shales, often sandy and carbonaceous, and that these were asso-
ciated with smaller amounts of pretty pure sandstone and impure
limestone. It was hoped that the largest Grenville area might fur-
nish some clew to the stratigraphy of these ancient sediments and,
although no conclusive results have been obtained, some suggestive
observations have been made. From a point three-quarters of a
mile north-northeast of Batchellerville to a point one and one-half
miles southeast of Fox Hill is four miles and the line connecting
these points passes, at right angles to the strike, over an apparently
regular succession of Grenville strata. The dip of the beds is
from 20° to 30° to the southeast. Taking the average dip
dss eene tnickwess sotmuie: Grenville’ in this spantial section
would be nearly 10,000 feet which is very small compared with re-
14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
cent estimates of Professor Adams for the Grenville of Canada.
Beginning at the west the base of this section is quartzite, in thin
to thick beds, about 800 feet thick, which grades into graphitic
(feldspar-quartz-garnet-biotite) rather thin-bedded gneisses ap-
proximately 1500 feet thick. Then come something like 6000 feet
of thicker bedded feldspar-quartz-garnet-biotite gneisses which are
succeeded by about 500 feet of thin bedded quartzites. Finally, at
the summit of the section, come at least 1000 feet of gray garnet
gneisses. The upper quartzite is not thought to be a repetition of
the lower quartzite because it is thinner bedded, more impure, and
is not succeeded by the graphitic beds. There is, of course, the
possibility that profound faulting has affected the section but there
is no evidence for this in the field.
SYENITE
The syenite as here described is regarded as being of the same
age and general character as similar rocks so common in the Adi-
rondacks. Within the quadrangle the rock shows its igneous origin
by its composition and uniform character in large masses as well
as by its relation to the Grenville. It is clearly intrusive into, and
therefore younger than, the Grenville as proved by frequent inclu-
sions of the latter rock within its mass. In the field the homo-
geneous appearance of the syenite is in. marked contrast to the
variable Grenville. The rock always shows a distinct gneissic struc-
ture which is often so straight and well developed as to give a
schistose appearance. The color of the fresh rock is greenish to
light gray and it weathers to a light brown. The main mass of the
rock is usually medium grained but it is frequently fairly porphyritic
with phenocrysts (up to one-half inch) of feldspar more or less
drawn out parallel to the foliation. In thin section the syenite ts
usually highly granulated and this, together with the frequent
schistose character, indicates that it has been subjected to very in-
tense compression.
Perhaps the best representative of the average syenite of the
quadrangle is the mass forming the high hill to the north of North-
ville. Under the microscope slides from this rock contain on an
average: 25 per cent orthoclase; 18 per cent microperthite; 8 per
cent plagioclase (oligoclase) ; 22 per cent quartz; 15 per cent horn-
blende; 6 per cent garnet; 5 per cent magnetite; together with a
little apatite, zircon and zoisite. This rock is much like Cushing’s
typical Loon lake syenite except that the pyroxene is here entirely
replaced by hornblende. This rock is greenish gray and fine grained
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE I5
except for occasional small porphyritic feldspars. The garnet and
magnetite are very fine grained and scattered through the rock.
An extreme variation of the syenite from near the top of Buell
mountain is notable for high quartz (25 per cent), magnetite
(10 per cent) and biotite (15 per cent) and failure of hornblende.
Another variation of the rock which in the field, two and one-
half miles north-northeast of Batchellerville, looks like typical
syenite shows in the slide: Ae per scent Ortmlociase ;) 10 pel
cent plagioclase (andesine to oligoclase) ; 20 per cent quartz; 20
per cent hornblende (changing to chlorite) ; 5 per cent magnetite ;
and small amounts of zircon, apatite and zoisite. This variety is
notable for its high hornblende content and lack of microperthite.
In still other cases biotite and hornblende occur in the same slide.
The failure of green pyroxene in the syenite here harmonizes
with the observations of Cushing regarding the Adirondack syenites
in general, namely, that in the more quartzose varieties the horn-
blende is likély to predominate even to the complete exclusion of the
pyroxene.
The syenite from the Round lake area is generally pretty
quartzose, has biotite instead of hornblende, and is unusually mas-
sive in appearance though clearly gneissoid. It is certainly an in-
trusive rock of syenitic or granitic makeup and in the absence of
evidence to the contrary is classed with the other syenite of the
_ quadrangle.
In the small area directly west of Cranberry Creek the rock is a
pure syenite but very porphyritic and gneissoid.
The following analysis of what is regarded as the most typical
syenite, from the quarry, near the river, one mile northwest of
Northville, has been made for the writer by Professor E. W. Morley:
Se die. o 6 o's Welly & eee ba tle MAA an SHIR Neel at ca yg Et deat in i Seam MOP rT UES agra 66.35
Briley Oseiie’ io ey oa Go A Se Ie PDH TO Tagg el AU a Be 14.09
IG Qhya.o digo bili d Wee a cue ae nee tert Ae LI ea eA Rare ay oe Re 1.81
Ie (Qa n'o-b'tis'c-a'h Gide ota one cs eh eae PRU nei UO DCE a Ue 4.49
hilse OQ) a ova Glee Big SST AS, SiMe eee lee Ne ica NUR pop eee UDP mre et eer a 1.05
Can (Os o'n Ging & Buia e ie oleae et SiR els aaa ee eR a a ey 3.16
Nici ©) mer MC Cr ee et ko eg CN 3.32
i B 00:00:06 6/6 019, 0\ bse 9 Svoraba GaBHEc-o elong by oescsete, caster St aue sea oueee AARSECEN Gia inash iyeotet ce eiice Meare 4.08
DO erecta War oleae ee es (ere RA erty ee ay lcaist ai ne Bh ach shee ielueledceehas vere rotten oils OURS 235
TE Ober cle Fig bi URI AIM STL Ae ae a OE ie od i RD ee IEC UO a dee
IPs Ops BS Sw rcc bo wish Aveta dco Whe crag teat Ree an Ic La Ma ene te OT -40
Nir © sr ey enn nt LS a hole Sh eek BG,
AGRO Den! GiBads 0S. S:osaneie) oa talk excites ARGles CONT eae enn a PG rn ee 04
. SP Blea A iy to BRIS bow 2c Ot ce I .02
Sie OGG Obi cia lS ole oA else eto ee MeO = CUA Re cng gree Bee ne eC BURG a .03
LBB CO) sfisabtesi oialos eed Siti’ 6 lf anche ere ae Ul ee en ee aa Geb ee .03
ean) oa ee a Pe mr ita gg es Sk ON EUR Ne ee ee en trace
16 NEW YORK STAT
E
MUSEUM
The norm and position of this rock in the quantitative classifi-
cation are as woos
l P25) ;
eee Mol. | Ilm. ree: Orth.) Alb. | An. | Mag. | Diop. | Hyp. | Qtz
} |
| | | “tae
SmOnes -|66.35 |1.106 fae | 254 318 82 -- 12 63 277
Aly Ogee =| 240) axss 42 Beye 44 53 AI 45 - ict Pe eee
Fe, O3.. THe orl ahs ah ay iat II peels Bar| RSS
Pe Osea | 4.49 | .063 13 eae ae ie II 3 367 year
Mig @ 5-7 eee I.05 026 ia ey alee Al Meroe a 2 2A eee
CaO 3.16 056 | 10 A Anat] Wenpaen e 4I 5}. Se tl eee
Na, O lise 053 335.4 53 | esse | cece |e eect ee
Kin Oxaceee 4.08 044 AA | cece | wees | 2see | = ee Rell eee eee
Hy ba) evelerelcleis © oD sites Soe s sos0 ooace | cle: [Nine ¥edieti oie
Lit Onn oer ie I.00 O13 BQwiefeeyand) o.2,580 sl cancel) Beene PM es
Po O-tn, Weenies .40 003 ae 3 Nees a | wlexedts: ul Weer RY ls
Mni@On are. S17, 003 : eon | 3: lone
Si. cee eee .O4 Dae SG ree MER oo 8 Sooo
Cle frees O02 4285 ae | oA ere Merrrairmen teria | isis 6s le
Bi dorakeraeeeine .03 See oe eee | silat ee opens
Bia (Os) yee .03 2 er caret | twee tery. wets | eke] eee eee
Zt OR eee trace | an wae [wees | wees | eee | one UT eete Iie
QOtz. 22°62 Sal. 86.25
Class = < 7/1> 5/3 — IL Dosalane
Orth 24.46 Fem 14.08
Sal.= 86.25
Alb. Dee 7, QO 22162
Order, == < 3/5 > 1/7 =4, Ausinane
AT, (ep e4O 63.63
Diop.. al 7 EO SEIN! 97
: an, 2 Rang, ——————_—_- >= — < 7/1 > 5/3 = 2, Dacase
Hyp 7-49 CaO 56
Mag... 972-55 — Hem=— 714-08
K20 44
itm Ee Subrang, = — < 5/3 > 3/5 = 3, Adamellose
Apat.. .93 ei) 5
100.33
The Sal-Fem ratio brings the rock pretty close to the Persalane
class, while the alkalicalcic ratio closely approaches that of Rang
S
(Tonalase) and the Subrang approaches Dacose.
Mode calculated from measured sections
Total Relative
diameters volumes
ene sae,
Microperthite....... 1687 19.68
Orthorlases. 2.52. 4.7 1824 | 21°25
PlariOelases agar ciae 1243 |} 14.49
Hornblende........ 1248 | 14.54
Oar: os ees 1935 22°57
Magnetite........%. 240 | 2.80
Garnety . « 330 3.84 |
PAT. COTM Meter te sas osatege 9 Soya
ADEE eee 2 Foe ote 17 .20
ZOUSEES OEE. 6 = sen ae 40 | -47
| 8573 | 99.97
Unit P t
Sp.gr. | by weight | weights.
2.6 A386 18.10
26 4742 | 19.57
2.63 3269 © 13.48
ae 3994 16.48
2.65 5128 | 21.17
5.25 1260 5.20
3.7 1221 aos:
4.5 at Li)
B20 130 54
| 24225 | 99.97
|
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE V7,
This rock which, under the old classification, is a quartz-horn-
blende-syenite 1s, under the new classification, a hornblende-ada-
mellose.
The high magnetite content of the measured sections calls for
more iron oxid than is shown in the analysis, but it must be re-
membered that the amount of magnetite varies notably even in very
short distances so that in the particular slides measured it runs
higehr than in the material analyzed. Also the titanium. most
likely replaces iron oxid in the magnetite to form a titaniferous
_ magnetite thereby lessening the necessary amount of iron oxid.
A comparison of this syenite with the granite porphyry and with
certain other Adirondack rocks is given in a table on page 21.
a ae
es
GRANITE PORPHYRY
The typical granite porphyry presents a striking contrast to the
typical syenite as regards texture, mineralogical composition, and
general appearance in the field. It is an unquestioned igneous rock
of gray to pinkish gray color, thoroughly gneissoid, homogeneous
in large masses, and intrusive into the Grenville. Three minerals
— feldspar, quartz, and biotite— are always prominent to the
naked eye. In the typical rock a finely developed porphyritic texture
never fails, the phenocrysts of feldspar, often an inch or more in
length, being more or less flattened out parallel to the foliation.
These phenocrysts are imbedded in a fine-grained mass of feldspar,
quartz and biotite. Often quartz also occurs in large crystals
(phenocrysts) which have been so thoroughly flattened out parallel
LOnthe toliation as to presenta decided leaf-oneiss effect. Vhe
rock, in thin section, always shows evidence of severe crushing and
granulation. The granulation of the feldspar phenocrysts is often
visible to the naked eye.
The features will perhaps be best brought out by a description
of the most representative rock from each of the areas shown on
the geologic map. What may be regarded as the most typical
granite porphyry of the quadrangle occurs in the area one and
one-half miles north of Northville and contains on the average
about: 20 per cent microperthite; 20 per cent microcline; 12 per
cent orthoclase; 10 per cent oligoclase to andesine; 30 per cent
quartz; 6 per cent biotite; 1 per cent magnetite: and small amounts
18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
of apatite, zircon and zoisite. This rock is light pinkish gray and
with phenocrysts of microcline. The analysis and quantitative
classification of a sample rock from this area is given below.
A representative granite from two and one-half miles west-
southwest of Sacandaga Park is similar in composition to the rock
just described except that it is slightly richer in microperthite and
quartz and lower in orthoclase. This rock is gray weathering to
brown, thoroughly gneissoid and granulated, and with phenocrysts
of microperthite. The leaf-gneiss structure is beautifully developed
owing to the flattening out of quartz into large plates.
Very similar in composition to these rocks is that from the small
area east of Batchellerville, except for a high biotite content and
the presence of I or 2 per cent of garnets scattered through the
mass. This granite is thoroughly gneissoid and granulated but ex-
hibits nothing of the leaf-gneiss effect. The reason for the garnets
here is not at all certain, but they may be due to a slight assimilation
of the surrounding Grenville by the molten granite.
From these descriptions it is seen that the typical granite por-
phyry differs from the typical syenite chiefly in its prominent
porphyritic character, higher quartz and biotite content, presence
’ of microcline, and total absence of hornblende.
Perhaps the best illustration of granite porphyry which presents
certain features very similar to the syenite is that from the area
just west of Sacandaga Park. A slide shows: 35 per cent ortho-
clase ; 12 per cent microperthite ; 18 per cent oligoclase to andesine;
25 per cent quartz; 7 per cent biotite; 2 per cent magnetite; and 1
per cent zoisite, zircon, apatite and garnet. Mineralogically this
rock is almost exactly like the more acid syenite except for the sub-
stitution of biotite for hornblende. The boundary line between the
granite and syenite here can not be drawn with accuracy because of
the apparent gradation of the one rock into the other and this fact,
together with the failure to find any evidence of one of these rocks
cutting the other, leads to the belief that the granite and syenite are
of practically the same age and that they are differentiation products
of the same magma.
The following analysis of what is regarded as the most typical
granite (above described), from one and three-fourths miles north-
northwest of Northville, has been made for the writer by Professor
E. W. Morley:
Plate 2
W. J. Miller, proto
Granite porphyry showing a typical outcrop with its jointing.
One-half mile southwest of Sacandaga Park.
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 19
100.04
The norm and place of this rock in the quantitative chemical
classification are calculated as follows:
Syl Mole rea: pate FOrtha Alba An) Gor Mag. | Hyp. | Qtz.
Si Oe ea 17 As DeTO yee owes Shy. A oc 390 252 SOA peers onli tan ee Zit 468
SIG (OA PSS ler LSSe |e ee ie ura 65 42 25 Seale arten ee lls co ae
emOnn 21 r ro ON all Saket Pere tel ear on aes Anal Ca ROM CHA BY :
ewO Me gee. Ole || 2026 Se bedecee ee aon Re NT od.
Wiles (O)5 2 ia SOM eaoneaee | 1) 10 aby uc py peo wAY) El erro le eae oe a ean On Oe TAC: |e
AM nO2On 0. o SoA NO eee AGT QS setece shee sce% (hs ’dts- tc. | eee
INamObe =). | 5-6 OAD iat wee Nee, ii godt te en) SUZ eee eect Meera al tes Sail 22 al
55a KG SOLO GAL Centar uli yl OS alc nemo hh oame Alea sale Hc eee
“Nw
a
ISG
MeOn se WOM moos In| ee ie es Sa (alse lM Bakes an | ea ie
pO: Se octane xO3¥I 0002) os Pa Purpenrne teieckouaiene: ce Siyraier yeh late eat « 1/7 = 4, Brittanare
Conga 31. F 65.10
Tivo 264" Ks0 + NasO 107
= = 7/1 = 5/342, Loscane
Mag. 1.62 Ca O 26 ase
When a aGKé K:0 65
= ap = 5/33 3/5 ae Woscanuce
pale 06 NazO 42
99.57
2
740) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The potash-soda ratio is such that the rock comes close to sub-
rang 2, Dellenose.
Mode calculated from measured sections
ees aan Sp. gr. hg eet pee :
|
|
- Micropenthite.. 5-6 1788 19.50 2.6 4648 18.95
Orthoclase..........| 1155 | 12.64 2.6 3003 12-2
Mitcrochimes 2 -eie0 1810 19.74 256 4706 19.18
Placioglasee eee ee IOI4 11.06 262 2667 10.87
Ouantge eens aie eet 2707, 29.63 2.65 7200 29.35
Biotites erat! yee 500 | 5.45 200 1500 O22
Magnettes: 30 a go | .98 e235 | 473 1.93
ZOISICE? Be ere oh ee 60 | .65 2E26 196 . 80
LAE COMME it ton: | Pe 22 4.5 94 .38
A Dative Renee a eanise 13 | 14 Be2 42 BI
9168 100.01 24529 99.99
| F
According to the old classification this rock is a biotite-granite-
porphyry while under the new classification it is a biotite-grano-
phyro-toscanose.
From the above it is seen that the Northville syenite and granite,
though in different classes, fall in exactly corresponding orders,
rangs, and subrangs and this, together with the fact that the syenite
is close to the Persalane border, shows that these two rocks are
closely related in the quantitative chemical classification. Thus the
field relations, examination of thin sections and chemical composi-
tion of these two rocks, which present such a marked difference in
appearance, afford practically conclusive proof that they are of the
same age and represent differentiation products from the same
magma, the granite representing merely somewhat more salic
(richer in quartz and feldspar) portions of the cooling magma.
In the following table the Northville syenite and granite are
compared with certain other carefully studied Adirondack rocks:
GEOLOGY, OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE Zi
I 2 3 + 5 6 i
‘Sil Osh. 5a | @5.85 | O4.47 | 2.40 | On.OW | Weeals |) OO.72 68.50
El OQ} ee ee (,©D | tO.5iu | ade | 55a | 12582 | WoL 14.69
Lay (OSA eee ree 1.81 4 i 2.49 2.98 1. UO 1 Le ih, yal
Fe O 4.49 Fe OT 4.91 ony I.91 BMW B25)
ORO ere haha 1.05 52 61 .78 56 AB 26
(Ca, (O) een eaten fee 2, 06) Bo UO Bley, 4.05 1.44 2ERON | 2620
Nai Cate gueioes Bee Dy OT 3.09) ||. G68 2.62 | A.aGree ao
lo. (OC) tea Seman cee emotes 4.08 Bn62 4.25 3.90 6.09 FOO) | 95) 100
1819, O) ioral Caras ei 5 198 WANT .49 32 07. .40
i Ob a eee Deh OOP MP De cur caer) {avs aware res AD galas a 42 Nee cst As
IB (Os iG nace .40 ZIG AN eae lar eee ge ROR BEIM Pes. OB
lila, (O)e cane eee 17 Nae ares ot (ons e .08 AG .07 10
Sac. co CGR aaa .O4 1 ROR an eae HO2N Weeneente h saua ee
Clls 5 3:0) ROD hee Pam Mees abe ati rem nataE | Ove Vel i shee oe Aaa Ro eed
JE). oo. See POSING HORA Va Srnec IM A eS SO a ok ane ten eS
184, ©). Seen re EOF Pal Sees ee chon etter a eee ae RODe ie Seeger .05
JE (OQ). Ae IRV OEM haere hee abel eee oreo i eet ae HOD eRe el ess Mee
C. Qa, ee ren eee Witenes FS ean a: Open ReN e7 Nee are eae tere cee NN. SIN aia
100.39 | 99.49 |100.09 |100.10 |100.04 |100.18 ; 100.22
I Quartz-hornblende-syenite (Adamellose) from 1 mile northwest of Northville. E. W. Morley,
analyst.
2 pycuite, eee (Adamellose). Whitehall, N. Y. W. F. Hillebrand, analyst. N. Y. State
us. Bul. 138,
3 Augite-syenite ORE Ticonderoga, Essex co. M. K. Adams, analyst. N. Y. State
Mus. Bul. 138, p. 45.
4 Augite-syenite (harzose). 33 miles north of Tupper Lake Junction. E. W. Morley, analyst.
N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 115, p. 514
5 pial eeranite: -porphyry Gaon 12 miles north-northwest of Northville. E. W. Morley,
analyst
6 Augite-syenite (Toscanose). Little Falls, N. Y. E. W. Morley, analyst. N. Y. State Mus.
Bul. 115, p. 514.
7 Quartz-syenite (Toscanose). 23 miles south of Willis pond, Altamont, Franklin co.
Morley, analyst. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 115, p. 514.
These analyses represent rocks of the syenite-granite series from
widely separated places in the Adirondacks and they serve to illus-
trate the close chemical relationship existing between the rocks of
the series. Still other analyses may be found in Museum Bul-
letins 115 and 138.
Numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4, in the quantitative system, all belong
imeelass 2 Dosalane) and ender, 4) (Austrare). Ihe trst three are
in rang 2 (Dacase) and subrang 3 (Adamellose) while the fourth
is in rang 3 (Tonalase) and subrang 3 (Harzose).
Numbers 5, 6, and 7 are all in class 1 (Persalane) ; order 4 (Brit-
tanare) ; rang 2 (Toscanase) ; and subrang 3 (Toscanose).
Thus, according to the chemical classification, the only important
difference between the first four and the last three is that of class
and even this is not always sharp as shown in the cases of the
Northville syenite and granite.
22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
MIXED GNEISSES
Under this heading are included various gneisses but chiefly more
or less intimate mixtures of Grenville, syenite, and granite. For
most part the Grenville appears to predominate but because of
the presence of so much other rock it is thought best to map these
mixed gneisses separately. It is often difficult to draw the bound-
ary lines between these gneisses and the other rocks because any-
thing like sharp contacts are wholly lacking. The Grenville has
been much cut up by intrusions of syenite or granite so that small
masses of good igneous rock and good Grenville often exist in
close proximity. At times rather clear-cut inclusions of Grenville
occur within the igneous masses. Again, gneisses are commonly
seen which could scarcely be called good Grenville nor yet good
syenite or granite, but which in every way look like rocks which
may have resulted from the incorporation, by fusion, of Grenville
into the molten masses. The more the writer observes these mixed
gneisses along the western and southern border of the Adiron-
dacks, the more is he impressed with the very strong evidence in
favor of assimilation. |
A great variety of gneisses is shown in the area northeast of Batch-
ellerville. Grenville is present to a greater or less extent throughout
the area and is at times very pure as, for example, where it forms
the wall rock of the feldspar mine on the south side or just east
of the end of the branch road shown on the map. Porphyritic
granitic looking gneiss is abundant from the mine northward, while
syenite shows in large exposures one-third of a mile south of the mine.
South of the branch road gray, rather massive, granitelike gneisses
are common. |
Due north of Northville the mixed gneiss area, with numerous
outcrops, affords a fine illustration of intimately associated Gren-
ville, syenite, and granite. The continuation of this area to the
west of the river well shows the passage of the mixed gneisses
into pure syenite through uninterrupted exposures. The Grenville
generally preponderates but often massive syenitic rocks are present.
One and one-quarter miles due north of Buell mountain a mass
(forty or fifty feet across) of typical thin-bedded Grenville quart-
zite forms a clearly defined inclusion in the syenite.
In the area west-northwest of Cranberry Creek the Grenville is
frequently intimately associated with masses of granite porphyry or
syenite. The Grenville is often badly twisted and looks like inclu-
sions or masses more or less melted in with the igneous rock.
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 23
PEGMATITE DIKES
Numerous pegmatite dikes have been found cutting through the
Grenville, syenite, and granite. A few of the larger and more
accessible ones are located as follows: At the feldspar mine two
and one-half miles north-northeast of Batchellerville; two miles
north of Edinburg; two miles northeast of Northville; and about
two miles west of Sacandaga Park. These dikes are apparently
all nonmetamorphosed and they cut through the country rock in
very irregular shaped masses and stringers. A description of the
pegmatite at the feldspar mine north of Batchellerville will be fairly
illustrative of the other occurrences. This rock has recently been
described by Mr E. S. Bastin of the U. S. Geological Survey and
the following extracts are from his report: “ The rock is a granite
pegmatite which has been worked from two open pits. Quartz
occurs in pure masses several feet across and also in graphic inter-
growth with feldspar. The feldspar is light gray microcline,
finely intergrown with small amounts of albite. It occurs in pure
masses, the largest four feet across, and the feldspars of some of
the coarser phases of the graphic granite are three feet across. The
finer grained parts of the pegmatite contain ‘books’ of muscovite
oriented in every direction. Biotite is not abundant, but one flat
crystal observed was four feet long and three feet wide. Beryl,
of dark blue-green color, translucent to transparent, is moderately
abundant. The pegmatite for two or three feet next to the contact
of the pegmatite with the schist at this pit is an irregular or ar-
borescent intergrowth of quartz and feldspar inclosing some large
muscovite ‘books.’ The pegmatite is intrusive, with sharp con-
tacts with a light gray to dark gray quartz-biotite-feldspar gneiss
of variable character. The contact in some places parallels the
foliation and in other places cuts sharply across it.”
Whether the pegmatite is older or younger than the black basic
dikes below described has not been determined within the quad-
rangle. However, just beyond the map limits, and in an abandoned
feldspar mine two and one-half miles west-northwest of Cranberry
Creek, a pegmatite and a basic (diabase?) dike may be seen in
sharp vertical contact and the basic rock cuts the pegmatite thus
proving the greater age of the latter in this case at least.
1 Feldspar Deposits of the United States, U. S. G. S. Bul. 420.
24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
GABBRO AND DIABASE DIKES
With one or two possible exceptions, these black dike rocks rep-
resent the latest igneous activity of the district. Some are true
gabbros while others are diabases. In all, nine of these dikes —
four west of Northville, four in the vicinity of Batchellerville and
one at Barkersville — have been noted, but more than likely others
occur in the woods. The dike at Barkersville is somewhat
gneissoid and for this reason is rather doubtfully classed with the
other eight, all of which appear to be entirely devoid of metamor-
phism. In all cases the rock is hard and fresh, due to the fact that
the decomposed material has all been removed by ice erosion.
These basic rocks are certainly younger than the Grenville, syenite,
or granite since these latter have all been cut by the dikes. Also
the eight non-metamorphosed dikes were certainly intruded after
the cessation of the pressure which produced the foliation of the
Precambric rocks. ‘That they are of Precambric age has not been
proved within the quadrangle itself, but their close similarity to such
rocks occurring in the Adirondacks, and the fact that no such
rocks have been seen cutting the Paleozoic in this part of the State,
leaves little room for doubt regarding their Precambic age. The
gneissic structure of the Barkersville dike suggests that it is older
than either the nonmetamorphic basic dikes or the pegmatite, but
its mineral composition is almost precisely like that of the Batchel-
lerville dikes.
The variations in these rocks will perhaps be best shown by
describing several types. A thin section from the dike one mile
northeast of Batchellerville shows: 60 per cent lath-shaped plagio-
clase (andesine to labradorite) ; 25 per cent hypersthene (faintly
pleochroic) ; 10 per cent biotite (much changed to chlorite) ; and 5
per cent magnetite (much changed to leucoxene). This rock is a
true hypersthene diabase with the ophitic texture beautifully shown.
The dike is about 400 yards long and of varying width up to 100
feet. The rock is fine to medium grained, weathers brown on the
immediate surface, shows no sharp contacts, and strikes parallel
to the general foliation of the Grenville. In close proximity to
the dike the Grenville is usually badly twisted, probably due to the
force of intrusion of the molten rock. The composition of the
dike at Barkersville is almost exactly like this except for a little
hornblende and pyrite.
The dike three-quarters of a mile west-northwest of Northville
shows about: 50 per cent basic plagioclase; 25 per cent hyper-
W. J, Miller, photo
Dikes of basic rock (norite) cutting hornblende syenite. One
mile north-northwest of Northville and at the edge of the river.
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 25
sthene; 15 per cent hornblende; 5 per cent biotite; and 5 per cent
magnetite. This rock is a non-metamorphosed, medium grained
hypersthene gabbro or norite which, in every way, greatly resembles
the dike gabbros of the North Creek sheet now being studied by
the writer and which, in that region, seem to be older than the
fine grained diabases.
A slide from the basic dike rock one mile north-northwest of
Northville contains: 35 per cent plagioclase (labradorite with some
andesine) ; 15 per cent orthoclase (some with albite twinning) ; 20
per cent hypersthene (pale green to reddish brown pleochroism) ;
25 per cent hornblende; 5 per cent magnetite; and a little pyrite
and zircon. The rock shows a fine grained granitoid texture
which, because of its unusual composition, should be called a horn-
blende-orthoclase-hypersthene gabbro or norite. At this locality
there is not a single dike but rather a number of small branching
tongues which are beautifully shown in relation to the syenite.
Some of the branches cut through the syenite very irregularly while
Gulers are, perectly parallel to the emeissic bands. Where is no
sign of contact metamorphism along the very sharp contacts with
the greenish gray syenite.
MO OZOUG INOGES
The Paleozoic formations, which are all of Cambric and Or-
dovicic ages, occupy about three-fifths of the area of the quadrangle.
Because of their distinct stratification, fossil content, and lack of
metamorphism they present sharp contrasts to the Precambric
rocks. ‘These strata have been little disturbed by folding or tilting
except near the faults where the dip is often pronounced. Because
of the faulting the general Paleozoic dip can not be well determined,
but from Barkersville southward it is something like seventy-five
or eighty feet per mile southwestward.
POTSDAM SANDSTONE
The Potsdam sandstone, which is of upper Cambric age, is the
oldest Paleozoic formation of the district. It everywhere rests
upon the Precambric, being separated from the ancient gneisses
by a profound unconformity. The absence of Lower Cambric
strata here and their presence along the eastern border of the
State clearly shows that the Cambric sea encroached upon the land
from the east. Speaking of the Potsdam sandstone of the Adiron-
26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
dack region Cushing says:! “It is thickest on the northeast, thin-
ning out to disappearance both to the south and west. As, further-
more, it appears to be the upper beds which persist, and the lower
ones which disappear in these directions, it seems certain that, so
far as the immediate region is concerned, the marine invasion came
on it from the northeast.” This accounts for the fact that, in the
Broadalbin region, the Potsdam is so thin and represents only the
upper part of the formation. In Clinton county it is thickest, being
certainly over one thousand feet. The evidence is clear and con-
cise that, within the quadrangle, the Potsdam was deposited on a
fairly uneven surface [see page 51] which accounts for the rapid
local changes in the strata from place to place. Although the
formation is widespread under cover of later sediments, the present
outcrops are limited to a few comparatively small areas as shown
on the geologic map.
The base of the Potsdam in the southeastern portion of the
quadrangle is characterized by a coarse conglomerate of unusual
interest. The best exhibitions of this basal member are in the
vicinity of Kimball’s Corners one-half mile northeast of North Gal-
way. Here are fine exposures of Grenville quartzite and the con-
glomerate, resting upon the Grenville, shows in large almost con-
tinuous outcrops for nearly half a mile. The actual contact may
be seen at one or two points as shown in plate 5. The conglom-
erate varies in thickness from nothing to eight or ten feet and the
grayish-white fragments, ranging in size up to two or three feet, are
often angular so that the term breccia might well be applied. The
fragments are imbedded in a matrix of sand and are all of quart-
zite which have been directly derived from the immediately under-
lying Grenville by wave action. The surface on which the con-
glomerate was deposited was locally very irregular and the large
boulders seem to have got into the small depressions along the shore
as shown by the occurrence of heavy beds of conglomerate either
side of a little tongue or ridge of Grenville near Kimball’s Corners.
Only at times is there evidence for very crude stratification and
this, together with the large size and angular character of the
fragments suggests a rapid deposition of the material. Above the
conglomerate there is very little sandstone, the succeeding passage
beds being within a few feet, so that the Potsdam is represented
nearly altogether by the conglomerate.
Smaller outcrops of similar conglomerate practically in contact
with the Grenville occur one-third of a mile southeast of North
tN. Y. State Mus. Bul. 95, p. 354.
27
\ fine ex-
the small
due north
e west of
ile south-
_ has been
Vells and
hing* has
ery thick
contains
nd along
andstone
y ripple-
ysherville
ontact 1s
‘ry fault.
Chee at
andstone
ayer ex-
atic rock
cactically
1 a very
he lower
conglom-
as much
‘ate beds
Lingula.
of good
he high-
itty, fcet
dutheast.
ed sand-
“irge out-
with the
ind look
‘heast.
.
‘
.
’
_ GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 39
ness of the formations at this point shows that the displacement is
at least five hundred feet. The fault line is not straight but its
general course is northward to northwestward from the Mohawk
river to where it cuts across the northwestern corner of the Broad-
albin quadrangle. This fault has been traced for a distance of at
least thirty miles.
The Noses fault enters the sheet two and one-half miles north-
northeast of Mayfield from which point it strikes north-northeast
along a fairly straight line through Gifford’s valley and thence off
the map. The upthrow side is on the west. Because of heavy
drift piled against the fault scarp the fault plane is at no point
visible, but the line of fracture can be pretty accurately traced.
Every evidence points to a very steep if not vertical fault plane.
A good idea of the amount of displacement may be obtained in
Gifford’s valley where the base of the Little Falls dolomite is
sharply faulted against the Precambric under Buell mountain. The
base of the dolomite here lies at an elevation of 800 feet, but there
are something like 200 feet of Paleozoics below the dolomite so
that the Precambric surface is about 600 feet above sea level.
On top of Buell mountain the Precambric lies at 2020 feet which
makes a difference of 1420 feet in elevation of the Precambric
on opposite sides of the fault, all due to faulting. If we add the
unknown thickness of Precambric eroded from the mountain
top since the faulting occurred we get a total displacement of
the fault here of at least 1500 feet. The dolomite beds dip toward
the fault plane at angles of from five to twenty degrees and this
is quite the reverse of the updrag effect in the shales along this
fault west of Johnstown as well as along most of the Mohawk
valley faults. A small but very distinct fracture, which appears
to be a branch of the main fault, runs through Gifford valley.
This fault is clearly traceable by means of the topography and by the
brecciated zone, and although its throw could not be exactly deter-
mined, it is probably not over fifty feet. It downthrows to the
east.
The presence of this little outlier of Paleozoics in Gifford valley
is due to the fact that the sediments have been sharply faulted
against the base of the mountain and have thus been protected
against entire removal by erosion since the faulting.
On the divide, about a mile south of Gifford valley, the throw
of the Noses fault has diminished by two or three hundred feet.
Two miles south of the valley a small wedge of the Theresa forma-
tion lies against the fault plane. West of Cranberry Creek the
40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
base of the dolomite comes against the fault at about 800 feet ele-
vation which means that the Precambric rock surface on the east
side of the fault lies at an altitude of something like 600 feet. But
the Precambric just west rises to 2140 feet so that the amount of
displacement, is here at least 1540 feet.
JACKSON CREEK FAULT
One and one-half miles west-northwest of Cranberry Creek a
fault, apparently a branch of the Noses fault, strikes southwest
through the Precambric and has its upthrow side on the west. It
has been traced for two miles as a distinct topographic feature
and by occasional outcrops of brecciated Grenville. Such brecciated
Grenville is beautifully exhibited where the fault runs parallel to
the private road near the map edge. This fault probably joins the
Noses fault to the east of Jackson summit on the Gloversville sheet.
Me erecamaric KNorenvicce. Ex)svenite. Ee} potsomm. EER tHencen
FFocirrce FALLS BS TRENTON, [=] CANAUOMARIE DRIFT.
SCALE:
Mmice. Mmoce.
HORTZON TAL. VERTICAL.
Fig.5 North south section from a point two miles west of Cranberry Creek toa point one-half
of a mile southeast of Mayfield station
Fig.6 Northeast-southwest section from a point one mile east-northeast of Cranberry Creek
to a point one and one-half miles due north of Mayfield
ROBERTS CREEK FAULT
One and one-half miles west of Cranberry Creek another dis-
tinct fracture branches off the Noses fault. It strikes a little east
of south and can be traced for about two miles after which its
course is uncertain. The upthrow side is on the west which ac-
counts for the presence here of the tongue of Grenville gneiss
extending out from the main Precambric area. Potsdam sand-
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 4!
stone rests upon the Grenville on the west side and this is followed
by the Theresa formation which, on the Gloversville sheet, is fol-
lowed in regular order by the Little Falls dolomite, Black River-
Trenton limestone, and Canajoharie shale. These strata all show
a dip of several degrees westward due to the faulting. On the
downthrow side a wedge of Black River-Trenton limestone 1s
faulted against the Grenville, this limestone in turn being followed
in regular order (downward) by the Little Falls dolomite and
Theresa formation. The displacement, where the section (fig. 6)
crosses the fault, is about four hundred feet.
SACANDAGA PARK FAULT
This, the most important branch of the Noses fault within the
quadrangle, leaves the main line of fracture at a point about one
and one-half miles southwest of Sacandaga Park. The place of
divergence is wholly obscured by drift but the fault, which strikes
north-northeast, is readily traceable along the eastern foot of the
ridge of porphyritic granite at Sacandaga Park, thence through
the western edge of Northville and along the eastern foot of the
high hills north of Northville. The upthrow side on the west con-:
sists wholly of the various Precambric formations as shown on the
map. The downthrow side, so far as can be determined, consists
of Little Falls dolomite, but heavy drift completely conceals all
Paleozoic rocks near the fault. The nearest outcrops are dolomite,
such as those on the western side of Bunker hill (along the rail-
road) and in the little creek at the southeast edge of Northville.
The best evidence to show the character of the rock on the down-
throw side close to the fault comes from a deep well along the
river at the west edge of Northville. This well was drilled to a
depth of several hundred feet and the first rock struck is reported
to have been a limestone which is doubtless the Little Falls dolomite.
The displacement of the fault has not been accurately determined,
but, comparing the altitudes of the Precambric rock on opposite
sides, it must be at least five or six hundred feet.
MAYFIELD FAULT
This is a small fracture which can be distinctly traced from a
point just northeast of Mayfield for one and one-half miles along
a north 70° east strike. It probably passes through the northern
part of Mayfield village but is there drift covered. The fault plane
is almost vertical and the scarp is much more clearly shown in the
42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
field than on the map. The upthrow side is on the north and con-
sists of Little Falls dolomite which, near the fault, contains white
chert and is more or less broken. Dolomite also makes up the
downthrow side except for a long narrow wedge of Trenton lime-
stone with more or less Lowville limestone. This limestone wedge,
which is never over seventy-five yards wide, is badly broken and
shows varying dips. The Little Falls dolomite here shows a thick-
ness of about one hundred and fifty feet and, at the map edge, the
Trenton is sharply faulted against its base so that the displacement
is approximately one hundred and fifty feet. This fault seems to
cross the Roberts creek fault at right angles near the railroad but
the relations are here wholly uncertain because of heavy drift.
CRANBERRY CREEK FAULT
This interesting dislocation runs nearly parallel to the Noses
fault, the writer having traced it with considerable certainty along
a north-northeast strike from a point about one mile north-north-
east of Mayfield, past the village of Cranberry Creek, to a point
about one and one-half miles south of Sacandaga Park. Its
northern extremity is obscured by drift. Between Cranberry Creek
and Mayfield the relations are somewhat complicated because of
the Roberts creek cross fault which causes the upthrow side to
be now on one side and now on the other, due to tilting of the
strata during the adjustment of the earth blocks and we have here
a fine illustration of pivotal faulting.
One mile north-northeast of Mayfield the upthrow is on the east
with lower Little Falls dolomite (containing chert) faulted against
upper dolomite. Fault breccia is here shown and the throw of the
fault must be something over one hundred feet. A mile farther
northwestward the dolomite comes against the Grenville so that
here the upthrow side is on the west with an amount of throw prob-
ably in the neighborhood of two hundred feet. Just after cross-
ing the Roberts creek fault the relation is again changed and the
upthrow is on the east because of the wedge of Black River-Trenton
on the west side. Where the fault crosses Jackson creek the rela-
tion changes again so that the upthrow side is on the west. This
is shown by the small area of the Theresa formation. From here
northward the upthrow continues on the west. Where the fault
crosses Cranberry creek the strata are disturbed and good ex-
posures of the cherty beds of the lower Little Falls dolomite are
seen on the upthrow side. From a point about a mile north of
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 43
Cranberry Creek village the fault is clearly traceable as a topo-
graphic feature and by frequent outcrops of fault breccia. On
the west side of Bunker hill a small mass of Trenton limestone is
faulted against lower (cherty) beds of the dolomite so that the
amount of displacement is here approximately represented by the
thickness of the dolomite formation or about two hundred feet.
NORTHVILLE FAULT
This fault passes through the depression just east of the village
of Northville. Its strike is nearly north and south and the upthrow
side is clearly on the east. The relations are well shown at only
one point and this is along the creek at the southeastern edge of
the village. Here are exposed about twenty-five feet of hori-
zontal, cherty Little Falls beds, the rocks being considerably broken
or brecciated. Within two hundred yards eastward and on the
hillside are large outcrops of Precambric. Immediately to the
north and to the south of these Precambric ledges, Potsdam sand-
stone outcrops close to the fault on the upthrow side. Three-
foutths of a mile south of these Precambric ledges the Theresa
formation is well shown on the upthrow side.
This fault probably connects with the Sacandaga Park fault in
the depression north of Northville but the relations are wholly ob-
scured by drift. The amount of the dislocation at the southeast
edge of the village is probably about two hundred feet since the
lower dolomite is there faulted against the Precambric.
BUNKER HILL FAULT
This fault, showing a strike of north 40° east, passes across the
top of Bunker hill and has its upthrow side on the east. Where it
crosses the road on the hill, Potsdam sandstone is exposed in a large
quarry and shows a dip of 10° toward the southeast. To the
east and south of the quarry no outcrops were found but the pas-
sage beds of the Theresa formation are thought to come in as shown
on the map. Within a few hundred yards to the west of the quarry
upper dolomite and Trenton limestone are exposed. Since the
Potsdam is brought up to the level of the Trenton, the amount
of displacement must be measured by the combined thickness of
the Little Falls and Theresa formations which here are approxi-
mately three hundred feet. This fault is probably only a south-
ward extension of the Northville fault but the utter lack of out-
crops across the river makes it impossible to positively connect
44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
the two. Southwest of Bunker hill the course is purely conjectural
but it may connect with the Cranberry Creek fault as shown on
the map.
BATCHELLERVILLE FAULT
The Batchellerville fault is here described for the first time, and
considering the boldness of topographic form due to the faulting
it is not a little surprising that earlier observers have not called
attention to it. From the standpoint of amount of displacement,
and possibly also of length, this fault takes rank as one of the
greatest along the southern border of the Adirondacks. The up-
throw side is on the east and this is of particular interest because
we have here by far the greatest of the few Mohawk valley faults
which show upthrow on the east side.
From a point two and one-half miles southeast of Northampton
the fault is clearly traceable northward along the base of Bald
Bluff where it gradually changes strike to the north-northeast and
then passes on a nearly straight line along the base of the mountain
through Batchellerville and to the map limit. The northern ex-
tension of the fault has not been investigated but it certainly runs
some two or three miles beyond the map. The southern extremity
of the fault is completely drift covered so that the relations there
are not well shown. In spite of the fact that the actual fault plane
is everywhere talus or drift covered it can be pretty accurately
mapped. .
Except for a small area to the north, the upthrow side consists
of a great block of Grenville gneiss which everywhere dips at angles
of from 15° to 30° away from the fault. Close to the fault
on the downthrow side, east of Northampton, there are no actual
outcrops but the numerous drift fragments make it quite certain
that the Theresa transition beds are present as shown on the map.
From Bald Bluff northward all the available evidence points to the
presence of Little Falls dolomite on the immediate downthrow side
except possibly near Batchellerville where the Potsdam or passage
beds from the vicinity of Edinburg may reach across the river.
The dolomite, which outcrops at several places along the western
side of the river, always dips at a low angle toward the fault. On
the mountain side, just above the feldspar mine (two and one-half
miles north-northeast of Batchellerville) fault breccia indicates
minor fracturing which most likely accompanied the major faulting.
The amount of dislocation may be fairly well determined by
comparing the altitude of the Precambric on each side of the fault.
‘AoT[VA IY} IAOGe Jo9f¥ OOOI Jnoqe st daeds dy} JO 4soto oY,
‘uojdueYyION WOLF JSVIYWIOU OY] pAeMO} UddS se divds JN} opIAooyIeg oy]
ojoyd ‘r97TTTT “f “MA
———————o
| . § Id
7 ~
_
.
ba 1
t
.
|
>
>
.
Pera
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 45
The crest of the Grenville fault block, between Bald Bluff and
Batchellerville, rises to eighteen hundred feet or over within a mile
of the fault. On the downthrow side the Little Falls dolomite
lies at an altitude of seven hundred feet but the Precambric is
buried under the Potsdam and Theresa formations and a part of
the dolomite. The thickness of these formations here is not exactly
known but to say that the Precambric near the fault is buried three
hundred feet is approximately correct. This means that the Pre-
cambric on the downthrow side is now at an altitude of four hun-
dred feet or fourteen hundred feet lower than that on the upthrow
side. Thus if we allow for even a small amount of erosion along
the crest of the fault-block, the displacement is in the neighbor-
hood of fifteen hundred feet.
A feature of interest in connection with this fault is the rapid
diminution of throw along the southern portion. On the western
side of Bald Bluff the throw reaches nearly its maximum, while, in
spite of the heavy drift, it is certain that the fault has completely
disappeared within two or three miles southward.
EDINBURG FAULTS
The faults here described are named from the fact that they
occur in the town of Edinburg and near the village of the same
Names he writer is indebted to Mr |. W. Latcher of Edinburg
for assistance in locating certain important outcrops in this vicinity.
That at least two dislocations occur approximately as shown on the
map is quite certain, but very accurate work is impossible because
of the deep drift and scarcity of exposures. —
Of these two faults the more prominent one follows along the
eastern base of Fraker mountain (Stony Creek sheet) and thence
strikes nearly southwest to cross Butler creek about one mile west
of Edinburg. Farther southward the region is heavily drift cov-
ered. North of Fraker mountain the fault has not been studied.
The upthrow side is on the west and the Grenville, in great ledges,
forms a pretty distinct fault-scarp. Heavy drift almost completely
conceals the downthrow side but the rock appears to be chiefly Little
Falls dolomite. A good dolomite outcrop occurs just below the
road crossing on a little creek near the map edge and two and one-
half miles north-northeast of Edinburg. This rock dips slightly
eastward and is within one-third of a mile of the fault at the base
of Fraker mountain. The thickness of the Paleozoics here is prob-
ably in the neighborhood of two hundred feet which means that the
46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Precambric surface lies at about five hundred feet. The Precam-
bric on the west side (Fraker mountain) of the fault rises to over
fifteen hundred feet so that, disregarding subsequent erosion, the
amount of displacement near the map edge is approximately one
thousand feet. Dolomite was formerly exposed near the road one
mile northeast of Edinburg. Black shale fragments may be seen
along the road one-half mile north of Edinburg and this suggests
that shale may now exist under cover of the drift or a small shale
mass may have been completely removed by ice erosion.
The second and much smaller fault passes just north of Edin-
burg and strikes a little to the north of east. Its exact location
and relations are rather obscure, except that the upthrow side
is on the south and at the village are excellent exposures of Pots-
dam sandstone dipping toward the southeast.
HOFFMAN’S FERRY FAULT
This has long been known as one of the greatest Mohawk valley
faults and as usual the upthrow is on the west. Just north of
Hoffman’s Ferry (on the Mohawk river) the displacement is esti-
mated at 1300 feet by Cumings! and at 1600 feet by Prosser.?
Where this fault enters the Broadalbin quadrangle, one and
three-fourths miles southwest of Galway, Black River-Trenton
limestone may be seen sharply faulted against the upper portion of
the Theresa formation and the amount of displacement is esti-
mated at two hundred and fifty feet. The limestone is in the form
of a narrow wedge crowded against the fault plane and showing
varying dips. One-half of a mile west-northwest of Galway lower
dolomite beds containing chert are faulted against lower beds of
the Theresa formation and the displacement is about equal to the
height of the hill here, or two hundred feet. East of North Galway
the dolomite comes against the Precambric so that the displacement
is about two hundred and fifty feet. [See fig. 7.] The occurrence
of the small separated masses of Precambric against the fault in
this vicinity is due to the faulting and later erosion of the scarp.
A mile north of Mosherville Potsdam sandstone outcrops in the
creek with Precambric a little to the north. The relations of the
fault are here not clearly shown but judging by the elevation of
the Precambric just to the north, the throw is probably in the
1N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 34, p. 450.
2loc. cit. p. 476.
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE AV,
neighborhood of two hundred feet. This fault continues on a
north-northeast course across the Saratoga sheet toward Corinth.
The throw increases northward until, in the town of Corinth, it
reaches a thousand feet or more.
TJ 3 (: J+]
Vv] pREcAmaBRiC RS ietereronGne Beall Borrsbam EA tueresa
——)
BY cirtce FALLS eel ew TON ea UTICA Elem ance
Q 1
SiGrAyEie: HORMONAL aM VERTICAL oa CLES
Fig. 7 Northwest-southeast section across the Grenville tongue and the Hoffman Ferry fault
three-fourths of a mile east of North Galway
Fig. 8 Section passing through Parks Mill and to a point at the map edge two miles east-
southeast of Galway
(CoE ANNE IROL ALY IN(OL At
According to the geologic map of the Amsterdam quadrangle this
important fault is a branch of the Hoffman’s Ferry fault. It enters
the Broadalbin sheet one and one-fourth miles south of Galway
and, after continuing northwesterly for two and one-half miles,
leaves the map one and two-thirds miles east of Galway. The
upthrow side is on the west. South of Galway Frankfort shales
are faulted against upper Little Falls dolomite. Thus the displace-
ment must be measured by the combined thickness of Black River-
Trenton limestone, black shale, and a small portion of the Frank-
fort. In the vicinity of Amsterdam the black shale is from twelve
hundred to fourteen hundred feet thick and although it is probably
less here the displacement of the fault no doubt is more than one
thousand feet.
East of Galway a small fracture branches off on the north side
4s NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
and in about a mile again joins the main fault. A well-defined
block of Black River-Trenton limestone is included between the
main fault and this branch and where the branch crosses the road
near the four corners the fault plane is exposed showing Trenton
in contact with dolomite. On the downthrow side of the main fault
here Utica black shale comes against the Black River-Trenton and
the shale dips 25 degrees away from the line of fracture due to
updrag during the faulting [sce fig. 8].
GALWAY FAULT NO. 2
This is another branch of the Hoffman’s Ferry fault which enters
the sheet one and one-third miles south-southwest of Galway;
passes through the eastern edge of the village of Galway; and
leaves the map two-thirds of a mile east-southeast of Parks Mull.
About a mile still farther eastward it seems to join Galway fault
no. 1. The upthrow side is on the west and from Galway south-
ward a large wedge of Black River-Trenton limestone is faulted
against the dolomite. The amount of throw 1s not definitely known
but at Galway it is quite certainly under one hundred feet. - The
relations are well shown near the schoolhouse in Galway village.
Where the fault leaves the map the Little Falls dolomite comes
against the Theresa formation and the throw has increased to over
one hundred feet.
About a mile northeast of Galway a small branch fracture strikes
north-northeast through Parks Mill and then dies out rapidly. The
fault plane is exposed in the bed of Glowegee creek where the
lower dolomite beds (with chert) are in contact with the passage
beds of the Theresa formation.
BROADALBIN FAULT
The Broadalbin fault strikes northeast-scuthwest along a very
straight line past the northern edge of the village of Broadalbin,
and is one of the few Mohawk valley faults with upthrow on the
east side. The fault plane is nowhere visible but the outcrops are
so distributed as to permit fairly accurate mapping. The down-
throw side is entirely of Canajoharie shale which outcrops near
the fault one and one-half miles west, and in the creek three-fourths
of a mile north, of Vail Mills; and one mile south of North Broad-
albin. In large outcrops west and northwest of Broadalbin the
shale beds are considerably tilted. On the upthrow side the Little
Falls dolomite is exposed at only one place, three-fourths of a
haa GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 49
mile west of Broadalbin. In the village, however, the dolomite
was struck under thirty feet of drift in a well on the Husted place.
A mile south of North Broadalbin Trenton and Canajoharie out-
crop close together. Where the fault crosses Kennyetto creek
numerous fragments of the Trenton and Lowville limestones make
the presence of these formations almost certain here. The south-
ward extension of the fault is completely drift covered but it prob-
ably disappears near the map edge. Northward it has disappeared
before reaching the point one mile south of North Broadalbin
where Trenton and Canajoharie are in normal position. Just west
of Broadalbin the dolomite lies about sixty feet above the Canajo-
harie shale and to this must be added the whole thickness of Black
River-Trenton limestone and an unknown thickness of shale in
order to give the amount of dislocation. Darton estimates the
throw here at two hundred feet and it is quite certainly not more
than this.
TROUGH FAULTING
The Batchellerville and Noses faults run approximately parallel
and are about six or seven miles apart, the great escarpment of
Precambric rock of the one fault facing the equally great escarp-
ment of the other. In other words we have here a fine illustration
of trough faulting, the whole country between the Batchellerville
and Noses faults being a great depressed block much of which now
lies fully one thousand feet below the level of the scarps on either
side. A glance at the Broadalbin sheet will show the extent of
this fault block which occupies at least seventy-five square miles or
all of the region between the following points: Three miles north
of Batchellerville ; two and one-half miles northwest of Northville;
two miles west of Mayfield; and two miles southeast of North-
ampton. On the State geological map the deep indentation caused
by the northward extension of the Paleozoic rocks to Northville
roughly corresponds to this depressed block, although recent map-
ping by the writer shows that the Paleozoics should extend at least
six or eight miles farther northward along the Sacandaga river.
This great trough block is not perfectly simple because, on the west
side especially, a number of minor fractures have considerably
modified it and some of these minor faults are so arranged, as at
Northville, that small trough fault blocks are included between
them.
Eastward from the great trough block and lying between the
Batchellerville and “loffman’s Ferry faults is a great upraised block
50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
(horst) of Precambric rock covering at least one hundred square
miles and including all of the high country in the northeastern por-
tion of the Broadalbin and the northwestern portion of the Sara-
toga quadrangles. It comprises the large tongue of Precambric
rock shown on the State geologic map between Saratoga Springs
and Northville. .
The profound influence of trough faulting upon the topography
in this region strongly suggests the occurrence of similar phe-
nomena well within the Adirondacks. As Professor Cushing
stated several years ago, the topography of the eastern Adirondacks
often suggests faulting of this sort but positive proof has hereto-
fore failed. The finding of such a large and clear-cut trough fault
at the southern margin of the Precambric area greatly strengthens
the belief that faulting of this kind has had an important influence
upon the topography of the eastern Adirondacks.
EINES I@ Giese
PRECAMBRIC PHYSIOGRAPHY
‘During Grenville times the physiography was very simple, the
whole Adirondack region being covered by ocean water and recety-
ing an immense accumulation of sediments. Then came a time of
intrusion of tremendous igneous rock masses into the Grenville.
The whole region was uplifted some thousands of feet above sea
level. We have no knowledge of the character of the topography
of this land mass when it was high above the sea, but we know that
it underwent erosion for a vast length of time extending into the
early Paleozoic era.
PALEOZOIC PHYSIOGRAPEHY,
It is certain that, during the Lower and Middle Cambric, the Adi-
rondack region was above water and suffering erosion because Lower
and Middle Cambric strata are everywhere absent from the region
and there is not the slightest evidence that they ever were present.
During the long Prepotsdam time the ancient Adirondack land mass
had become worn down to the condition of a peneplain or almost
smooth surface and the Potsdam (Upper Cambric) sea encroached
from the northeast upon this peneplain during its gradual sub-
sidence. By the work of Kemp, Smyth, Cushing, and the writer
it is now known that the surface of this peneplain was more or less
uneven, the greatest unevenness being along the northeastern border
of the Adirondacks and the smoothest surface along the southwest-
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 51
ern border. The smoothest surface on the southwest is just what
would be expected because that region was longest a land surface,
thus affording opportunity for cutting away nearly all irregulari-
ties. Within the Broadalbin quadrangle all but a few miles of this
ancient shore line have been lost to view due to the extensive
faulting and the portions not thus faulted out are most heavily
drift covered. However, certain phenomena are very clearly ex-
hibited, especially between Barkersville and North Galway, and give
us important additional information for the southern Adirondacks.
GRENVILLE. POT Ss DRAM, THERESA
SCALE: HORIZONTAL i) 0 Ba VERTICAL =e) REET
aS TE EO
Fig.9 Section passing from a point two-thirds of a mile south of Barkersville south-south-
westward through North Galway. The overlap of the Theresa transition beds upon
the Precambric hillock is clearly shown
In the vicinity of North Galway the evidence is conclusive that
the Precambric surface on which the Potsdam was deposited was
fairly uneven. The tongue of Grenville quartzite which extends
out so prominently here is very significant because the same quartz-
ite stood out as a ridye in the shallow Potsdam sea and was never
covered with Potsdam sandstone or conglomerate. So far as can
be determined the Potsdam is wholly absent around this Grenville
tongue except along the east side of the southern border where it
is entirely represented by the coarse conglomerate. Elsewhere the
passage beds of the Theresa formation rest directly upon the Gren-
ville, thus overlapping the Potsdam. This feature is perhaps best
shown along the road three-fourths of a mile northeast of North
Galway where the passage beds are practically in contact with the
Grenville and show a low southwesterly dip. [See fig. 9.] On
the south side of the Grenville tongue the passage beds show a
southwesterly dip of three or four degrees. The sandstone, and
even limestone, layers close to the Grenville contain quartz pebbles
up to one-half inch in diameter which were derived from the Gren-
ville and deposited in the encroaching sea. The Grenville here
certainly projects upward as much as fifty feet into the passage
beds which means that, at the height of the Potsdam sea, this Gren-
ville rose fully fifty feet above sea level. If we add to this the
A
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
or
tN
thickness of the Potsdam sandstone as shown in the nearby areas,
it seems clear that this Grenville mass must have risen fully seventy-
five feet above the surrounding country (peneplain) just before
Potsdam submergence. About two-thirds of a mile south-southwest
of North Galway the passage beds are practically in contact with
the Precambric so that we have here another, but smaller, hillock.
The relations are not so well shown around the Grenville area on
the west side of the Amsterdam reservoir but doubtless this, too,
represents a low knob which rose above the general level of the
peneplain. The locations of these knobs or hillocks have no doubt
been largely determined by the very hard and resistant character
of the quartzite which, of all the Grenville rocks, would stand out
longest against atmospheric action prior to, and wave action during,
Potsdam submergence.
North of Barkersville the mapping suggests an uneven surface
but positive evidence was not found. In the small Potsdam area
just east of Northville the beds are practically horizontal and they
appear to occupy a depression in the Precambric but, because of
nearness to the fault, the amount of unevenness can not be satis-
factorily determined. Elsewhere within the quadrangle the char-
acter of the Precambric surface can not be studied.
During the early Paleozoic there were certain minor oscillations
of level (already referred to) when at times the region was a low
lying land area undergoing erosion. For most part, however, the
whole district was under water and remained so until after the
deposition of all the Paleozoic sediments when a great uplift, with-
out folding but with some tilting of the strata, brought the whole
Adirondack region (then mantled with sediments) well above the
water. This uplift probably occurred at the close of the Paleozoic
era. The simple elevation of this ocean bottom would have given
rise to a comparatively smooth and featureless topography, but it
is generally considered that the faulting of the eastern Adirondacks
accompanied the uplift. As Cushing says:? “The forces which
folded the region to the eastward affected the Adirondack district
but slightly and the rocks are not folded. But in the reaction of
the region from compression, tension faulting took place on a large
scale, and its eastern portion was sliced by a series of meridional
faults which cross it.” According to this the topography of the
Broadalbin district was that of the uplifted sediments which were
greatly dissected and increased in ruggedness by the faulting.
1N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 95, p. 421-22.
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 53
POSMZANE OZ Ol Cre Lis lO Give En
In the northern Appalachians and in southern New England the
great areas upraised at the close of the Paleozoic underwent vast
erosion during the Mesozoic era so that by its close the well-known
Cretaceous peneplain had been developed. ‘There is considerable
reason to think that this Cretaceous peneplain was developed more
or less perfectly over the Adirondack region although there is no
evidence in favor of this view within the Broadalbin quadrangle
itself. Granting the presence of this peneplain, the topography of
the Broadalbin district must have been rather smooth and feature-
less with the fault scarps’ practically removed by erosion.
This great peneplain was elevated about the close of the Mesozoic
era and thus the region of the Broadalbin quadrangle was rejuve-
nated and the revived streams vigorously renewed their work of
erosion which has continued to the present time. The present
topography of the quadrangle, except for the local glacial deposits,
is the result of this long period of erosion and most of the faults
have again been made prominent as topographic features by the
unequal erosion of the harder and softer rocks on opposite sides of
the faults.
The detailed topography of the district has, of course, been quite
appreciably affected by the distribution of glacial drift.
PRESENT SLOPE OF THE PRECAMBRIC SURFACE
The extensive faulting has precluded the possibility of studying
the slope of the Precambric surface except in a limited way in the
southeastern portion of the quadrangle. At Barkersville the Pre-
cambric surface clearly slopes southwestward at the rate of over one
mimedredsreet per mile) From just north of Barkersville’ to the
north end of the Amsterdam reservoir is about four miles and the
difference in elevation of the Precambric is fully four hundred feet
so that the general slope southwestward along this line is at least
one hundred feet per mile. Similar results have been obtained by
Professor Cushing and the writer in the Little Falls and Trenton
Falls districts and also two or three miles northwest of Saratoga
Springs. Thus we see that a southwestward slope of a little over
one hundred feet per mile of the Precambric surface under the
Paleozoics appears to be general along the southern Adirondacks.
One-half of a mile south of Round iake the Precambric lies at
about 1550 feet while just north of Barkersville, and three miles
54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
distant, it lies at 1250 feet thus giving a southwestward slope of
100 feet per mile where the Precambric is not now covered by the
Paleozoic. The slightly lessened slope in this case has been due
to a reduction of level by erosion since the removal of the Paleozoic
sediments. The Hoffman’s Ferry fault may have somewhat affected
the Precambric slope here but more than likely not enough to make
any material difference in the result. In other portions of the quad-
rangle the faults have so affected the slope that any results are
unsatisfactory.
DRAINAGE OF THE QUADRANGLE!
Sacandaga river. Asa result of the Ice age the drainage of the
quadrangle, including the four largest streams, has been very
notably affected. The most striking change has taken place in the
course of the Sacandaga. This river, after emerging from the
Adirondacks, enters the Paleozoic lowland between Northville and
Northampton and at the latter place turns back sharply (north-
northeastward) on its course past Batchellerville and Day and then
across a divide in the Precambric at Conklingville soon to enter the
Hudson at Luzerne. It is certain that, before the Ice age, the
Sacandaga river continued southward from Northville and was
tributary to the Mohawk. Its preglacial channel doubtless passed
between Broadalbin and Mayfield, because here the Paleozoic rocks
are the lowest within the quadrangle. That the course past Conk-
lingville is postglacial is proved by the gorge at that village; the
almost imperceptible gradient of the river between Northampton ;
and by the perfectly aggraded character of the river channel be-
tween the two villages just named. The remarkable deflection of
the course of this river was due to the great accumulation of glacial
drift, especially in the interlobate moraine, acting as a dam across
the southern portion of the Broadalbin sheet. The deflection was
aided by the presence of the deep trough of the Batchellerville fault
and also probably by a comparatively low preglacial divide at
Conklingville.
According to borings for a dam site made by the New York
Water Commission in the bed of the river at Conklingville, rock
was not struck within two hundred feet. If the channel is thus
drift filled it clearly means that the rock channel was cut prior to
the last ice invasion. This seems to imply at least one earlier
advance and retreat of the ice over the region since it is pretty cer-
1See paper by writer entitled Preglacial Course of the Upper Hudson
River, in Geol. Soc. Am. Bul. 22 :177-86.
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 55
tain that the river did not occupy this course in preglacial time. It
would seem that the rock channel which may have been cut during
an interglacial epoch was drift filled during the last ice invasion
orthville.
Batchellerville.
Fig 10 Sketch map showing the principal preglacial drainage lines of the Broadalbin quadrangle
and that the river has not yet removed this filling. This whole
question, however, needs to be more carefully studied.
Kennyetto creek. The peculiar course of this stream has already
been referred to. After flowing southwestward for many miles to
56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Vail Mills it turns back on itself by making a sharp swerve north-
ward and then northeastward to empty into the Sacandaga river.
The course of Hans creek is similar though not quite so striking.
In preglacial time these streams were doubtless tributary to the
Sacandaga when it flowed southward into the Mohawk (see figure
10). The accumulation of drift across the southern border of the
quadrangle, which caused the northeastward deflection of the
Sacandaga, also caused a deflection of Kennyetto and Hans creeks
by forcing them to flow northward down the slope of the great drift
dam (interlobate moraine).
Mayfield creek is postglacial in origin and has come into exist-
ence by finding a northeasterly channel down the slope of the
morainic belt.
Batchellerville creek. During preglacial time the Batchellerville
fault trough had in it a considerable stream (Batchellerville creek)
which flowed south-southwestward, past Batchellerville and North-
ampton, as a tributary of the Sacandaga. The filling up or aggrad-
ing of this preglacial channel during the Ice age and the deflection
of the Sacandaga northward through this filled channel affords a
fine illustration of complete reversal of drainage.
Lake Sacandaga. Immediately after the final disappearance of
the great ice sheet from this region, all of the present river flat area
as well as the area of the great swamp known as the “ Vly ” were
covered by the waters of Lake Sacandaga which has been named
and described by Professor Brigham.! It is interesting to note that
the great Sacandaga reservoir proposed by the State would almost
exactly restore what was once a natural lake.
SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC HISTORY
Because of the variety and complexity of the geologic problems
involved it seems advisable to give, in regular order, a summary
of the geologic history as exhibited within the quadrangle as well
as some idea of the relation of this history to that of the Adi-
rondacks in general.2 The combination of such a variety of rock
formations is due to the favorable situation along the border of the
Adirondacks where the Precambric crystalline rocks are overlapped
by the unaltered Paleozoic sediments.
The definitely known history of the quadrangle begins with this
UN. Yo State ins Bull tem vp: zo:
“For this broader outlook upon the subject the writer feels especially in-
debted to Professor H. P. Cushing who, for many years, has so zealously
and ably labored to unravel the intricate history of the Adirondack region.
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 57
district, as well as the whole Adirondack region, covered by ocean
water. We know this because the most ancient formation, the
Grenville, is sedimentary in origin and is abundantly represented,
not only within the map limits, but also throughout the Adirondacks
and in Canada. We have every reason to believe that the Grenville
sediments were sandstones, shales and limestones of the ordinary
kinds. Judging by the great but unknown thickness of the forma-
tion we are led to the conclusion that the oceanic conditions per-
sisted for a great length of time which must be measured by hun-
dreds of thousands, if not some millions, of years. The Grenville
belongs to the most ancient rock group in New York State, or, so
far as we know, in the world and, though any attempt to fix its age
in years must be very general, it is certain that many millions of
_ years have passed since its formation. The still more ancient land
mass from which these sediments were derived and the very ancient
ocean bottom upon which they were deposited have as yet not been
recognized. That life of some kind was fairly abundant in the
Grenville ocean is proved by the presence of graphite which is of
organic origin.
After the Grenville sediments were deposited the whole Adiron-
dack region, including the Broadalbin quadrangle, was elevated
some thousands of feet above sea level. Tremendous masses of
molten rock were intruded into the Grenville just before, during
or after the uplift. It is highly probable that the intrusion occurred
during the uplift because the force of elevation might also well have
pushed the molten masses upward. These igneous rocks are repre-
sented within the quadrangle by the syenite and granite. In some
cases the Grenville was left practically intact as, for example, the
large area on the eastern side of the map; while in other cases it
became more or less involved with the molten flood to give rise to
a series of varied rocks as illustrated by the Grenville-Syenite areas
on the map.
After this igneous activity all of the rocks were severely meta-
morphosed or changed from their original character by being com-
pressed, folded and converted into gneisses. Thus we explain the
gneissic or banded structure of all the rocks and the complete
crystallization of the sediments.
Immediately after the great elevation above referred to, the
whole land mass began to be eroded and this period of erosion ex-
tended over an immense length of time when rock materials of
thousands of feet in thickness were removed. This we know be-
cause the folded and gneissic structures now at the surface must
58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
have been developed at great depth (thousands of feet) below the
surface. Judging by the present rate of erosion of rock masses we
believe that the erosion period had a duration of at least several
million years extending into the early Paleozoic era.
Toward the. close of this erosion period minor igneous intru-
sions occurred, such as are represented by the small dikes of
gabbro or diabase of the quadrangle. These rocks are certainly
much younger than the rocks already referred to as shown by their
occurrence in the form of dikes and by their lack of metamorphism.
Their fine-grained texture shows that they were cooled much nearer
the surface than were the syenites and granites.
As a result of the vast erosion the whole land mass was worn
down to near the sea level and presented only a moderate relief.
Then a gradual sinking took place when the sea steadily encroached
upon the land and caused a deposition of one layer of sediment
(Paleozoic) after another upon the former land surface. The
whole area of the quadrangle as well as most, if not all, of the
Adirondack region was thus submerged. The deposition of these
sediments, largely derived from a wearing away of the sinking
land, upon the ancient gneisses has given rise to the profound un-
conformity now existing between the Paleozoic and Precambric.
The first deposit to form upon the sinking Precambric rocks of
the quadrangle was the Potsdam (Upper Cambric) sandstone. The
coarse conglomerate and sandstone now seen at the base of the
Potsdam literally represents the boulders and sand accumulated
along the encroaching shore line those millions of years ago. With
a deepening of the water came the deposition of the alternating
sandstones and limestones of the Theresa formation and above
these the Little Falls dolomite (Upper Cambric).
After the deposition of the Little Falls there was a gentle upward
oscillation of the area above sea level so that the Little Falls dolo-
mite suffered erosion. This old eroded surface may be seen
throughout the Mohawk valley and marks (by unconformity) the
boundary between the Cambric and Ordovicic systems.
Next came a sinking of the land below the ocean surface when
the Tribes Hill (Ordovicic) limestone was formed. This was fol-
lowed by another gentle emergence of the land above the sea when
a notable amount of erosion again took place. This emergence and
consequent erosion is shown by the distinct unconformity now ex-
isting between the Tribes Hill and overlying Black River-Trenton
in the Mohawk valley as well as by the practical absence of the
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 59
Tribes Hill from the Broadalbin sheet because it was removed
during this time of erosion.
Another downward movement brought a return of marine con-
ditions when the Black River-Trenton (Ordovicic) limestones were
laid down. The profusion of animal life in the ocean of that time
is proved by the abundance of fossils embedded in the rocks of
Black River-Trenton age. After this the waters became muddy
when the Canajoharie and Utica black shales were deposited and
then the alternating sandstones and shales of the Frankfort (Ordo-
vicic). Although the Frankfort is the youngest Paleozoic forma-
tion of the quadrangle, it is quite certain that still later sediments
were here deposited but have since been removed by erosion.
_ After Paleozoic sedimentation there was a great uplift, most
likely at the close of the Paleozoic era, which raised the region high
above the sea level. Thus another vast erosion cycle was estab-
lished to extend through all the millions of years to the present
time. There is no evidence whatever that the region was ever
again submerged below the ocean level. The Paleozoic sediments
have been completely removed from those portions of the quad-
rangle where the Precambric rocks are now exposed, while they
have suffered great erosion over the Paleozoic area itself.
Postpaleozoic erosion must have been vigorous during the long
time of the Mesozoic era and there is good reason to think that,
by the close of that era, the whole region was reduced to the con-
dition of a fairly good peneplain (part of the well-known Creta-
ceous peneplain of the Appalachians) and that at the close of the
Mesozoic the peneplain was upraised. According to this the pres-
ent major topographic features are the result of erosion since this
late Mesozoic uplift or rejuvenation of the region.
Another feature of great importance in the history of the quad-
rangle is the faulting or fracturing of the earth’s crust which oc-
curred sometime after the deposition of the Frankfort, since that
formation is involved in the faulting. The exact date of this fault-
ing is not known but it probably took place at the time of the great
uplift at the close of the Paleozoic.
The most recent event of special interest in the history of the
quadrangle was the existence of the great ice sheet during the
Glacial epoch. Extensive superficial deposits and rock scorings
bear testimony to the vigorous glaciation of the quadrangle. From
the geologic standpoint this ice sheet was present only very recently
and covered most of New York State.
60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
ECONOMIG PRODUCTS
ROAD METAL
Road metal of good quality is abundant within the borders of
the quadrangle. To get the best results a road metal should be
homogeneous, hard and possess a good binding or cementing power.
Among the Precambric rocks the Grenville is perhaps least valuable
because the rocks of that formation are mostly micaceous and the
presence of the slippery mica flakes in the crushed stone tends to
prevent a proper binding. The porphyritic granite is also not a
first class road metal because of the mica content. The syenite,
though still little used, should furnish very satisfactory road ma-
terial since the rock is hard, pretty homogeneous, free from mica,
and rich in iron minerals. The iron minerals on decomposition
would supply a cement. During the summer of 1910 a large quarry,
for State road work, was opened in the syenite along the river road
just north of Northville.
By far the best rock in the whole district for road building is the
gabbro or diabase which occurs in the small dikes shown on the
map. The supply of this rock is not large but enough is available
to build many miles of highway. This rock, commonly called
“trap rock,’ is black, hard, very homogeneous and very rich in
iron minerals. Its durability and binding power are scarcely sur-
passed by any other kind of road rock.
Among the Paleozoic rocks the Potsdam sandstone and the pas-
sage beds of the Theresa formation are of little value as road metal
because of the tendency to crumble under the traffic. The Little
Falls dolomite, especially where freest from sand grains, is better
adapted for road work. A large quarry in the dolomite has been
opened on the George Close farm about one and one-half miles
east of Mayfield and on the railroad. The rock is crushed at the
quarry and shipped for road metal and is said to be of good quality.
Some of the beds here have a pink color and all of the rock is
very compact and homogeneous. The Trenton limestone has been
considerably used, especially on the State road between Amster-
dam and Broadalbin. A large quarry for this purpose was opened
in the Trenton about two miles south-southeast of Perth. The
rock gives good satisfaction except perhaps that it is too soft.
In the State road work during 1909 glacial boulders or erratics
were largely used in the vicinity of Broadalbin. Although fairly
good results seem to be obtained with this readily available: ma-
GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 6i
terial, the chief objections are the heterogeneous character of the
material and the presence of so much mica which affects the bind-
ing power. |
‘ BUILDING STONE
Building stone of good quality is common throughout the Pre-
cambric areas, but the comparatively slight demand for such stone
has prevented any extensive exploitation. One and one-half miles
north-northeast of Northville a quarry has been opened in the
mixed gneisses. This rock, though called granite,'is really a Gren-
ville facies of the mixed gneisses. It is a gray, medium grained
mock tich in feldspar, quartz, biotite, mica and garnet. ‘The rock
takes a high polish and has been used in Northville especially for
tombstones in the cemetery on the north side of the village.
Building stone of fine quality may be obtained from the Pots-
dam, especially where the sandstone beds are regular and the
cementing material is silica. There is a large quarry in such rock
on Bunker hill and the nearness to the railroad affords good ship-
ping facilities. Stone from the Trenton and Little Falls forma-
tions has been locally used to a small extent.
LIMESTONE FOR QUICKLIME
An excellent limestone used in the production of quicklime is
obtained from the Amsterdam formation. A number of quarries
have been opened and in nearly every case this heavy bedded, pure,
crystalline limestone just below the Trenton is preferred. The only
quarry and kiln now in operation within the map limits is three-
fourths of a mile east of Cranberry Creek. This is known as the
Kegg quarry. Mr Haines owns two quarries, one just off the
map and one and one-half miles north of Mayfield and now in
operation, while the other is two miles southwest of Cranberry
Creek and temporarily closed.
Other quarries in the Amsterdam formerly worked are: In the
small area east of Mayfield; on the west side of Bunker hill; two
miles east of Broadalbin; and one and three-fourth miles east of
Galway.
On the Beecher farm, one and one-fourth miles north of North-
ampton, the Little Falls dolomite has been tried for quicklime.
This rock is said to make a lime which sets very hard but is ob-
jectionable because hot water is necessary for slaking.
62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
FELDSPAR
Although feldspar is the most common mineral among the Pre-
cambric rocks it is never likely to become commercially important
except in the pegmatite dikes or veins [see page 23]. Feldspar is
a valuable mineral used in the manufacture of porcelain and china-
ware. During 1909 the only mine in cperation was the one owned
by the Claspka Mining Co.! of Trenton, N. J., and situated two
and one-half miles north-northeast of Batchellerville. Many acres
in this vicinity are rich in pegmatite veins although mining has
been carried on at but two points. The feldspar is very pure and
the deposit is no doubt a large one, but the mineral is generally so
intimately associated with quartz that a considerable expense is
involved in separating them. The feldspar is drawn to Northville,
from which point it is shipped to Trenton, N. J.
MICA
Mica is very commonly distributed through the Precambric
Grenville rocks in small flakes but only the large, clear (musco-
vite) mica is valuable. Much prospecting has been done for this
mineral but no mine has been successfully operated. A mine was
operated for a time two miles north-northeast of Northville and
just beyond the map limit.
GRAPHITE
Graphite, or so-called black lead, has been frequently noted in
the form of small flakes in the Grenville. So far as observed it
is most bundant in the rocks to the northeast of Batchellerville and,
about one and one-fourth miles east-northeast of that village, a
prospect cut some thirty or forty feet long has been run into the
Grenville, but real mining has never been attempted. The graphite
occurs irregularly in flattened masses, sometimes five or six inches
long and half an inch thick, between the layers of thin-bedded
Grenville. The Grenville rocks east of Batchellerville are much
like those farther eastward in Saratoga county where graphite is
being mined and it is quite possible that a workable deposit may
sometime be found.
1 This property has recently been acquired by the Adirondack Spar Co. of
Glens Falls.
INDEX
Adams, cited, 14
Albite, 23, 25
Amsterdam, 47
Amsterdam limestone, 34, 35, 61
Analyses, syenite, 15; granite por-
phyry, = 20): syenite-granite
series, 21
Andesine, 9, 10, II, 15, 17, 18, 24, 25
mmatite, ©, 10, 11, 14, 15, 18
Augite, 9
Bald Bluff, 10, 11, 44, 45
Bankersville, 9; 12, 24) 27, 51; 52, 53
bastin, ©. S,, cited, 23
Batchellerville, 5, 9, 10, II, 13, 15, 18,
22923,024,) 31,932; 40) 54, 02
Batchellerville — Barkersville
1
Batchellerville creek, 56
Batchellerville fault, 44-45, 40, 54
Beaver creek, 37
Beryl, 23
Eaotines ©; 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18,
Bae. 25
Birdseye limestone, see
limestone
Black River-Trenton limestone, 32,
33-30, 41, 42, 46, 47, 48, 49, 58, 59
Black river valley, 35
Brigham, report on glacial geology
of quadrangle, 7; cited, 8, 56
Broadalibin, 5,32, 33, 35, 30, 37. 54;
60, 61
Broadalbin fault, 48-49
Broadalbin quadrangle, area, 5;
geographic position, 5; general
geography and geology, 6-7
Buell mountain, 22, 39
Building stone, 61
Bunker hill 28.034 43) 6s
Bunker hill fault, 43-44
Butler creek, 13, 45
area,
Lowville
Cadman creek, 9
Canajoharie, 35
Canajoharie shale, 36-37, 41, 48, 49,
59
Chalcopyrite, 9
Chazy limestone, 33
Chlorite, 9, 15, 24
Chuctanunda creek, 7
Columnaria alveolata, 35
Conklingville, 54
Corinth, 47
Cranberny Creek, O10" 15, .22)9284)20;
BUS 27 359) 345° 355139) 400 Ol
Cranberry Creek fault, 42-43, 44
Cranesville, 33
Cretaceous peneplain, 53
Crystalline limestone, 8-9
Cumings, cited, 7, 38, 46
Gushine erie citedsn Oo) sl55, 20m 275
AS, 20, 0; SA 6, 0, G2) So, SO
Dalmanella testudinaria, see Orthis
(Dalmanella) testudinaria
||; Devcon, Clrecl, 74 sui, Zo)
Day, 54
Diabase, 60
Diabase dikes, 24-25, 58
Dikes, diabase, 24-25, 58; gabbro,
24-25, 58; pegmatite, 23
Drainage of the quadrangle, 6, 54-
56
East Galway, 29
Economic products, 60-62
i dinbuceialsa 23) 27.130) 944
Edinburg faults, 45-46
Epidote, 9, 10
Faulting, 50
Raultse7 (e850; trough) ftaultine:
49-50
ReldsparOnlOn liens ih eno eEt EO,
22402
O4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Fox Hill. (10,9127 53
Fraker mountain, 45
Frankfort shale, 38, 47, 59
Gabbro, 60
Gabbro dikes, 24-25, 58
Galway, 5, 20, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37,
46, OI
Galway fault no. I, 47-48
Galway fault no. 2, 48
Garnet,0; 10) Ti 16) aA
Geologic history, summary of, 56-
59
Gifford valley, 28, 20, 30, 31, 32, 39
Glacial geology, 7, 590
Glens Falls, 35
Glenwild, 9
Glowegee creek, 48
Gieisses, vO; TO!) 132 mixed) 22 ase
also Grenville gneiss
Granite, mixed with other rocks, 22
Granite porphyry, description, 17-21;
analysis of, 18-20; compared with
other Adirondack rocks, 20-21
Granitic rocks, 12
Graphite, 9, 57, 62
Grenville series, 26, 27, 30, 40, 41, 42,
AA, 45; 51, 523.57, 005 OL. O22 ade-
scription, 8-14; proofs of sedi-
mentary origin, 8; varieties of,
S-It; igneous rocks, 112 ‘areal
distribution, 11-13; stratigraphy
and thickness, 13-14; mixed with
other rocks, 22
Hans «creek, 6, 56
Hill, cited, 7
Hoffman’s Ferry fault, 46-47, 49, 54
Hornblende, 10, I1, 13, 14, 15, 25
Hoyt limestone, 29, 30
Hypersthene, II, 24, 25
Igneous rocks in the Grenville, 11
Jackson creek, 42
Jackson creek fault, 40
Johnnycake lake, 12
Johnstown, 39
| Kemp, cited, 7, 50
Kennyetto creek, 6, 32, 34, 37, -49,
557-56
Shins
Kimball's Corners, 26
Labradorite, II, 24, 25
Lake Sacandaga, 56
Latcher, J. W., mentioned, 45
Leucoxene, 2
Limestone, 12; for quicklime, 61
Little Falls, 35
Little Falls dolomite, 31-32, 33, 38,
30, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 58,
60, OI
Lowville limestone, 32, 33, 34-35, 42,
49
Luzerne, 54
Magnetite, 9, 10, IT, 14, 15, i75ume
2AW2S
Mather, cited, 7
Mayfield, 30, 31, 32, 33,34) 35auam
39, 42, 49, ‘54, 60, 61
Mayfield creek, 56
Mayheld fault, 41-42
Mica, 9, 12; 61, 62
Microcline, 0, 10, IT, 17, i824
Microperthite, 9, 10, Tt, 14. E5ammee
18
Miller, W. J., cited, 8
Mixed gneisses, 22
Mohawk river, 6
Mohawk valley, 35
Mohawk valley faults, 38
Monticulipora (Prasopora) lycoper-
don, 36
Morley, E. W., analyses by, 15-16,
18-20
Mosherville, 9, 27, 29, 46
Munsonville, 37
Murchisonia bellicincta, 36
Muscovite, 23
Norite, 11
North Broadalbin, 35, 37, 48, 49
North Galway, 12, 26, 29, 30, 46, 51,
52
Northampton, 6, 29, 32, 44, 49, 54,
56, 61 |
INDEX TO THE GEOLOGY OF THE BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE 65
INouthvallies sO, 10, Il, 14.23) 24;
Zee meOnsl 32, 41, 49) 52,201, 162
Northville fault, 43
Noses fault, 38-40, 49
Oligoclase, 10, II, 14, 15, 17, 18
Ophicalcite, 8
Orthis (Dalmanella) testudinaria, 36
Orthoclase, ©, 10, 11, 145 15, 17, 18,
25
Paleozoic physiography, 50-52
Paleozoic rocks, 7, 25-38
Ranks vin 320, 31, 48
Pegmatite dikes, 23
Regtaes2, 34, 30, 60
Physiography, 50-56
Plagioclase, 9, 10, II, 14, 15, 24, 25
Pleistocene deposits, 7
Postpaleozoic physiography, 523
Potsdam conglomerate, 30
Potsdam sandstone, 25-28, 40, 43, 44,
Ag eAG 552) 56, 60, O1
Prasopora lycoperdon, see Monti-
culipora (Prasopora) lycoperdon
Precambric physiography, 50
Precambric rocks, 7, 8-25
Precambric surface, present slope of,
53-54
Prosser, cited, 8, 38, 46
Pyrite, 9, 10, 25
Pyroxene, 8, 9, I5
Owartz5 10) 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18
2028
Quartzite, 9, 12, 13, 14
Quicklime, 61
Rafinesquina alternata, 36
Road metal, 60
Roberts creek, 28, 30
Roberts creek fault, 40-41, 42
Rock City Falls, 32
Round lake, 53
Round lake era, syenite, 15
Ruedemann, cited, 36, 38
Sacandaga lake, 56
Sacandaga Park, 5, Io, 13, 18, 23, 42
Sacandaga Park fault, 41, 43
Sacandaga river, 6, 40, 54
Schists, 13
Sillimanite, 9
Sillimanite gneiss, 13
Smyth, cited, 27, 50
Steclew cited iz,
Streptelasma, 35
Syenite, description, 14-17; analy-
ses, 15; compared with other
Adirondack rocks, 20-21; mixed
with other rocks, 22
Syenite-granite series, analyses, 21
Syenitic rocks, 12
Theresa formation, 28-31, 39, 41, 42,
43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 51, 58, 60
Traprock, 60
Trenton limestone, 32, 35-36, 42, 43,
48, 49, 60, 61
Tribes Hill, limestone, 32-33, 58, 50
Trinucleus concentricus, 36
Trough faulting, 49-50
Ulrich, cited, 8, 20, 30, 32, 33
Union Mills, 32
Utica shale, 36, 37, 48, 50
Vail Mills, 36, 37, 48, 56
Vanuxem, cited, 7
Vly, 6, 56
Watertown limestone, 34
West Galway, 29, 32
Yosts, 38
Zircon, 9, 10, II, 14, 15, 18, 25
ZZOISNE, Oy UGK iy 1S 16S
Aor a le cane ee Samira oe ee aes
poche tit ms ods bade rota w Tt
tee seen
rd
Bo ewe tae aa aie iota encom S Le a
i eee Ee LE Pe is ala tS ee
a
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under
the act of July 16, 1894
No. 509 ALBANY, N. Y. DECEMBER I5, IQII
New York State Museum
JoHN M. CLARKE, Director
Museum Bulletin 154
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY
QUADRANGLE
BY
JANOS Isl, SUOVEIOZ
PAGE PAGE
THO CUCHON. ck. ste elise oxic se 5 | Economic values of the Lake Al-
Topography due to rock surfaces. 5 bany, depositset.... .- ea ceil tain’ 24
Modifications of rock topography Nodiimedetillee sk cule ss nesee conics 28
during Pleistocene period..... Ou Recent deposits ayn .ous als wes: Ba
Siupiacemdeposits. oss. 2.220.245. - TA alNe vaewaatidy Stina tvs steer 30
LIGNE Sas UN Er ea BEN ar ee TA Seitr ae 43
1
.
- -
.
.
a
oo
5 =
>
.
-
- ‘
- “
7 i
_
: ’ ,
at
©
’ .
.
'
» 7
° ‘
i
i
‘ 2 ,
ri s ‘i vs
th
‘ , 1
‘ j
i , i » Ki >
New York State Education Department
Science Division, May 22, I9rt
Hon. Andrew S. Draper LL.D.
C Commissioner of Education
DEAR SIR:
I beg to communicate to you herewith for publication as a bulletin
of the State Museum a manuscript entitled Glacial Geology of the
Schenectady Quadrangle, which has been prepared -for this division
by Professor J. H. Stoller.
Very respectfully
Joun M. CLarKE
Director
Sl AD ROR INEW: VYORIS
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
COMMISSIONER'S ROOM
Approved for publication this 24th day of May rorr
Commissioner of Education
Education Department Bulletin
-Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under the
act of July 16, 1894
No. 509 ALBANY, N. Y. DECEMBER 15, 1911
New York State Museum
JoHn M. Crarke, Director
Museum Bulletin 154
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY
QUADRANGLE
BY
JAMES H. STOLLER
The bedrock of the area comprised in the Schenectady topographic
sheet consists of the sandstones and shales of the Lorraine forma-
tion. The present report has to do with the materials overlying the
bedrock, that is, the soils and earthy materials of whatever kind,
whether fragmentary or more or less compacted, including clays,
sands, gravels, hardpan, loose stones and boulders. These surface
materials (excepting such additions as are of recent origin, as
stream alluvium and blown sand) were brought to their present
location by the agency of moving ice or by the flooded waters result-
ing from the melting of the ice. They are deposits of the Pleisto-
cene, or Glacial period.
The distribution of these deposits, especially those laid down
during the epoch of flooded waters, was determined largely by the
general topography of the region, as due to the slope and surface
features of the bedrock. A brief description of the more important
of these topographic features will therefore first be given.
NOLO Gke MaENe DU T@ ROCK SURBACES
THE MOHAWK CHANNEL
The area under consideration is crossed by the Mohawk river
which pursues a zigzag course across the southern half of the sheet.
Where the river enters the area, at its western edge, its valley is
-
6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
broad and bounded by rocky slopes rising, on the north side, to the
Glenville hills which attain an elevation of upward of 1000 feet and,
on the south, to hills of still greater height. This portion of the
valley, therefore, exhibits the features characteristic of a river val-
ley of mature development.
The valley further widens toward the east forming a broad basin,
filled with a thick mass of gravel and sand, through which the river
has cut its way dividing into several streams which unite at the site
of the old city of Schenectady. Rocks are exposed only on the
northern slope of this basin, its southern boundary being a bluff of
clay and sand forming the edge of the great sand plain that stretches
southeast from Schenectady to Albany. There is evidence, how-
ever, that there is a rocky bluff, buried by the sand and clay de-
posits, lying to the south of the surface bluff. The borings made
in 1899 by the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Water-
ways! show that near South Schenectady the bedrock stands at an
elevation of 320 feet and that it then abruptly falls off to 210 feet
beneath the valley of the Poentic kill, a southern tributary to the
Mohawk basin, about three-fourths of a mile to the north, beyond
which rock was not reached. How far eastward the rock-bluff ex-
tends is not known. The streams which enter the basin from the
south flow on clay bottoms, not having cut their beds deep enough to
expose rock. Eastward from Schenectady, near the margin of the
sand-covered area, rock shows at the level of 340 feet.
Below Schenectady the valley gradually narrows and rocks out-
crop on the slopes on both sides of the river.
Just east of Aqueduct there is an abrupt change in the features
of the valley. Here the flood plain of the river comes to an end
and the stream enters a narrow gorge bounded by nearly vertical
walls of rock. This portion of the Mohawk valley, as will be more
fully explained farther on, has been formed since the melting of the
ice of the Glacial period.
Where the gorge ends near Vischer Ferry the valley again
widens, forming a basin, but no rocks are seen on its slope until
near Dunsbach Ferry where they appear on both sides of the river.
Borings made by the Deep Waterways Survey” met with no rock at
a depth of 65 feet below the surface of the basin.
“Deep Waterways Report, pt 1, p.540, plate 30; House Doc. v. 71, 1900,
* Op. cit. p.522.
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY QUADRANGLE If
THE BALLSTON ROCK-CHANNEL
The name Ballston Channel has been given by Woodworth! to
the topographic feature described by him as follows: “ From near
Schenectady an old rock-channel trends north north-eastward by
Ballston toward Saratoga.”
In the present account this rock-channel will be limited to the
broad troughlike depression, extending from near East Line, in the
northern part of the sheet, in a general direction about 20 degrees
west of south and joining the Mohawk valley west of Aqueduct. A
low divide, at about 300 feet A. T., occurs in the bottom of the
trough at about one-third of its length from the southern end. North
of this divide lies Ballston lake, a narrow body of water, occupying
Biemaeepest portion of the ‘channel. Uhe outlet Stream of the
_lake flows sluggishly northward for a mile and then turning east-
ward descends to the Round lake basin, described below. South
of the divide the drainage is to the Mohawk river by Alplaus creek
which enters the channel from the west through a narrow defile cut ¢
into the rocks. The altitude of Ballston lake is 285 feet; the slopes
of the channel on either side of the lake rise to upward of 400 feet
A. T. The width of the channel taken across the southern end of the
lake is a little less than a mile. The floor of the channel, especially
its middle portion and on either side of the divide, consists of bare
rocks or rocks thinly covered with detritus. Rocks are exposed on
both slopes of the channel, especially in the Baliston lake region.
As stated by Woodworth,’ this rock-trough has been determined
partly by structure. On the slopes at either side the rocks are gen-
erally horizontal in position. In the floor of the trough west of
the lake, however, there is a line of outcrop following the axis of
the channel, where the rocks are nearly vertical in position. This
outcrop is best seen near the station Timeson on the trolley line
about one and a half miles north of Ballston Lake station. Outcrops
of vertical or highly inclined strata parallel with the axis of the
trough occur farther to the north. They are well shown near where
Mourning kill turns northerly in its course; and again east of the
same stream, along the road, near the northern edge of the map.
THE ROUND LAKE DEPRESSION
About four miles east of the Ballston rock-channel there is a
large depression, somewhat circular in outline, in the bottom of .
* Ancient Water Levels, N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 84, 1905, p.75, 76.
OP cit N70.
5 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
which hes Round lake. The floor of this depression is largely cov-
ered with materials of Glacial age but on the slopes, at their lower
levels, there are frequent exposures of rock. Rock appears only
a few feet above the level of the lake on the northern side where
the rock-valley, through which the outlet stream of Ballston lake
flows, opens into the depression. Exposures of rock appear at sev-
eral places on the road, recently macadamized, running southeasterly
from Maltaville. On the south side of the depression, rock is seen
on the banks of the stream below the pond at Usher.
Concerning this depression and that in which lies Saratoga lake,
four miles to the north, with an elevation of 204 feet, Woodworth
says: “It seems probable that Round and Saratoga lakes are un-
filled depressions marking the site of an old valley west of the
present Hudson gorge.” J. H. Cook, in a paper read before the
American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1908,
gives additional facts indicating that an old rock-channel, now cov-
ered, extends southerly from the Round lake region, intersecting
the valley of the Mohawk below Vischer Ferry.
THE GLENVILLE ROCK BASIN
I give this name to the extensive depressed area bounded to the
west by the slope of the Glenville hills and on the north and east by
the more gradual and broken slope of the Charlton hills. The basin
is drained by two streams: Alplaus kill, which lies at the base of
the Charlton slope, emerging from the basin at High Mills where
it enters a gorge that opens into the Ballston channel; and a creek,
unnamed on the topographic sheet, that skirts the base of the Glen-
ville hills and joins the Alplaus creek in its course through the
southern end of the Ballston channel. Both these streams receive
small tributaries. One of these marks the extension of the basin
to the south where it opens into the Mohawk channel.
For the most part the rock underlying this basin has but a thin
covering of soil. The Alplaus kill traverses lacustrine deposits, as
will be later explained, but the streams draining the rest of the basin
show frequent exposures of rock.
GLAGIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY QUADRANGLE Q
ODAC MONS TOERVROCK TOPOGRAPHY PRODUCED
IDUIRIONG, isle, ALBIS WOCRINIS: 1181 )
V 94eI[q
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY QUADRANGLE 27
an extensive land surface. These deposits fiiled the lake up to the
level of 420 feet.
The overflow waters of the lake followed lines of depression
across the belt of moraine forming the dam. Gradually, through
difference in rate of erosion a single outlet stream was formed and
began to cut out the gorge east of High Mills. At the same time the
lake was drained leaving the deposits in the form of a plain, 420
feet in elevation.
Alplaus creek and its tributaries, by downward cutting and
meandering, have since formed broad and deep ‘valleys in the de-
posits; while below High Mills the gorge with vertical walls of
rock in places 60 feet high, has been eroded out.
28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
MODIFIED TILL
The surface materials thus far described, namely, the unmodified
till and the deposits made in Lakes Albany and Alplaus, cover about
five-sixths of the area of the Schenectady quadrangle. Of the re-
maining area much the larger part is covered by glacial till which
has undergone more or less extensive modifications since it was left
by the melting of the ice. The modifications were due either (1)
to additions of other materials, at first generally covering and after-
ward becoming more or less intermixed with the till, or (2) to the
removal by erosion of a portion of the materials of the till, altering
its surface features and to some extent its composition.
Glacial till more or less covered and mingléd with mar-
ginal lake deposits or with glacio-fluviatile deposits or
with wind-blown sands. In the work of mapping it was found
that in many localities it was difficult to fix the marginal boundary
lines for the lacustrine deposits, since the sands of the latter graded
into the materials of the adjoining areas of till. This is interpreted
as due to marginal lake deposits having originally overlapped the
till and subsequently become mixed with it. Such intermixing would
result from the cultivation of the land, the tunneling of the soil by
burrowing animals and the roots of trees, and to some extent by the
processes of weathering. Accordingly for the sake of accuracy it
seemed best in the localities in question to indicate a marginal area
or belt separating the undoubted lake deposits from the evidently
unmodified till. This expedient did not, however, always render the
task of fixing the lines an easy one and in some localities they have
been drawn somewhat arbitrarily.
A like difficulty was experienced where areas of till lie on the
side of the sand regions toward which the prevailing winds (north-
west) blow. Sands blown by the wind have been deposited on the
till and subsequently intermixed with it in the ways above described.
On the upland slopes east of Schenectady this condition is developed
over a considerable area. This has been mapped as modified till.
A third condition is that produced by the spreading of materials
(mostly sands) over the till by glacio-fluyiatile waters. The glacial
streams derived from the melting ice lingering on the uplands of
the northern part of the sheet carried the finer materials of the debris
derived from the glacier to lower levels. It was from this source
that materials deposited as sediments in Lake Alplaus were largely
derived. But, apparently, before the Alplaus area had become freed
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY QUADRANGLE 29
of ice, glacial waters swept across the floor of the Glenville basin,
along the foot of the Glenville hills, and southward to the Mohawk
channel. These waters deposited sands over an already till-covered
area, thus forming the surface materials of mixed composition —
sands or clayey sands of loose texture, with cobbles and boulders —
of the southeastern portion of the town of Glenville.
Glacial till more or less washed and eroded by powerful cur-
rents of water, boulders mostly of large size. The vicinity of
East Line in the northern part of the sheet exhibits in its typical
development the glacial till as modified by powerful currents of
water. The surface of the country is marked by a general even-
ness or absence of hilly features. It is thickly strewn with boulders
and large cobbles. The soil or mantle of materials covering the
bedrock, is generally thin, with frequent exposures and outcrops of
rock. The soil is generally clayey, evidently consisting partly of
till clays and partly of residual clays from local rock detritus.
Features and materials of like description mark the several water-
courses that radiate from the East Line vicinity. In the valley of
Drummond creek, flowing to the northeast, and in the valley and
on the slopes of Mourning kill, flowing north, and of Anthony kill,
flowing southeast across the Round lake depression, evidences of
the washing and eroding effects of moving flooded waters are definite
eM@metmmistakable. Im the fast named valley, in the sec=
tion extending from near East Line to Round lake, the floor and
lower slopes have been stripped of all the till except large boulders
which now lie on the surface of rock. On the floor and slopes of
the Round lake depression the till shows eroded and water-swept
surface features.
The three glacial watercourses just noticed were branches of a
more general watercourse occupying the Ballston channel. The
evidences are of the same nature as already described. The
region north of Ballston lake to East Line and on either side of the
northern end of Ballston lake is strewn with boulders and shows
water-swept surface features. The floor of the channel farther to
the south, near the head of the lake, is neither eroded till or worn
rock surface, partly covered with rock detritus. Similar features
characterize the southern end of the channel except that on its
western slope erosion took effect in the Lake Albany deposits and
not to the extent to expose the underlying till.
30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The inference to be drawn from these facts is plain. A: flood of
waters once swept northward through Ballston channel, dividing in
the vicinity of East Line into three currents which pursued the sev-
eral courses described above. The time in glacial history when this
took place was subsequent to the general disappearance of the ice
and also subsequent to the stage of maximum development of
Lake Albany. For these currents eroded out the Lake Albany de-
posits that filled at least the southern end of the Ballston channel
and the deposits that filled the Round lake basin and then cut into
the underlying till and, in places, through the till to bedrock.
Fig. 4 Sketch map showing the distribution of land and water on the area of the Schenectady
quadrangle when Lake Albany was at its height. Shaded part denotes waters of Lake Albany
Plate 5
In Ballston channel, east of the northern
Glacial till washed and eroded by powerful currents of water.
end of Ballston lake.
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY QUADRANGLE cyl
The flood which coursed northward through the Ballston chan-
nel was a part of the Mohawk flood when the stream was the
outlet of Lake Iroquois. There were several conditions which
determined this diversion of the Mohawk waters into the channel.
(1) The subsidence of the waters of Lake Albany. When Lake Al-
bany was at its fullest development, the Mohawk discharged into the
body of the lake near Schenectady, its waters spreading widely into
the lake as shown by the delta deposits previously described. Later
when the lake began to subside and the delta emerged as land sur-
face the river became gradually confined to the Mohawk channel
and flowed in great volume and with high velocity in that portion
of the channel which now forms the basin near Schenectady.
(2) But the preglacial channel of the Mohawk from near Schenec-
tady eastward had been filled by deposits'and the waters now cut
off from the old outlet sought the lowest levels of discharge left
open to them under the new conditions. (3) At Aqueduct and east-
ward, where the river now occupies a gorge, a barrier of rock then
existed. The present elevation of the rock surface on the north
side of the river east of Rexford Flats is the same (according to
the contour lines) as the elevation of the bluff bounding the
Mohawk basin on the south, near Schenectady. This elevation
may be taken at 350 feet. The surface slope of the rocks in that
region is toward the south and a thick mass of till overlies the rocks
south of the river. ‘These conditions show that when Lake Albany
had so subsided that the Mohawk waters flowed within the
Schenectady basin, an overflow took place across the Aqueduct
barrier and a spillway became established there, the waters entering
Lake Albany near Vischer Ferry after flowing over the surface
Ounce rocks» and jor a distance jof Some three mules, (4) Bhe
Aqueduct barrier acted as a dam against a great rush of waters
and while the spillway just described was forming, a second place
of discharge from the basin had become established. This was
through the Ballston channel.
The southern end of this channel had been filled with sediments
deposited in that portion of Lake Albany now indicated by the small
sand plain east of East Glenville. The Ballston lake section of the
channel had probably remained open. ‘There is no clear evidence
that it received Lake Albany deposits at any time. Woodworth,!
as already quoted, has suggested that during the Mohawk delta
stage “the ice sheet lay over this region (Ballston lake) while
“Ancient Water Levels. Mus. Bul. 84. 1005. | p. 76
32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
these clays were deposited on the east and south.” It is true that
Lake Albany deposits occur north of Ballston lake (crossed by the
northern edge of the sheet). These deposits, however, represent
deltas made by currents flowing from the north. They are thickest at
the edge of the sheet and thin out toward the south, indicating that
the currents dropped their loads not much south of the present
boundary lines of these deposits.
There was, therefore, little to obstruct the northward flow of
strong currents through the Ballston channel. The Lake Albany
deposits in the southern end offered at least no more resistance than
ming ri
annel
our
ch
Vv
ROUND LAKE
portion of Lake Albany
Schenectady
Basin
Fig. 5 Sketch map showing the distribution of land and water on the area of ane Schenectady
quadrangle when Lake Albany had subsided to the level of about 320 feet
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY QUADRANGLE 33
the barrier of till, or till and rock, in the Aqueduct region. The
dammed up waters, everywhere pressing against the slopes of the
basin, gradually cut through these deposits and coursing northward
}
flowed over the area in the vicinity of East Line, discharging into
Lake Albany in that quarter.
These two exits of the Mohawk flood waters from the basin near
Schenectady to Lake Albany continued for a considerable period.
During this period the waters of Lake Albany further subsided.
The three watercourses radiating from the East Line locality were
established and the erosion of the Lake Albany sediments now rep-
resented by their channels, in their broader aspects, including the
Round lake depression, took place.
At the same time the spillway in the Aqueduct region had deep-
ened in that portion of its bed which was least resistant to erosion
and had thus gradually acquired the character of a gorge. Its
capacity, however, had not been increased to the extent that it
afforded an exit for the entire volume of waters that the Mohawk
poured into the basin, so that the excess of waters, above the
capacity of the nascent gorge, continued to be diverted into the
Ballston channel.
While the condition just named must have been for a long time
a factor in the maintenance of the two contemporaneous outlets, it
does not appear that it was a condition necessary to this end. For
if we suppose that the rate of subsidence of Lake Albany was not
greater than the rate of lowering of the channel of the two streams
by erosion then the two outlets must have persisted. Even when
the Aqueduct gorge, in the process of its gradual enlargement,
acquired a capacity sufficient to contain the entire volume of
Mohawk waters, the Ballston channel remained open as long as its
bed was maintained at the same level as that of the Aqueduct chan-
nel. As long as, due to the subsidence of Lake Albany, an impetus
was given to the flow of the waters in the two channels and as long
as this flow kept the beds of the two channels eroded to the same
level, both outlets must have persisted.
At length the time came when the Ballston channel currents were
unable to maintain this equality of erosive effects. The greater
length of bed to be deepened as compared with its rival gave the
advantage to the latter. As soon as a slight difference in depth of
bed was established in favor of the Aqueduct passage, the waters
of the Ballston channel began to be drawn off. The divide in the
channel emerged as land surface and the present system of drain-
age was initiated.
34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
MOHAWK FLOOD DEPOSITS OF GLACIAL AGE
The broad basin of the Mohawk, west of Schenectady; is largely
filled with deposits of gravel and sand. ‘These deposits appear as
the surface materials of the extensive depressed area, north of
Scotia, crossed by the trunk-line railways. Farther to the south,
along the river, gravels underlie the alluvium, as is shown where, on
the shores of the islands, the alluvium has been swept off. The
bed of gravel has been cut into by the river near the western edge
of the sheet exposing a thickness of about 50 feet. The materials
as here exhibited consist of cobbles of considerable size, generally
smoothly worn, mixed with coarse sand and clay. The clay, or clay
and lime, constituent to some extent acts as a cementing sub-
stance and masses of considerable thickness, appearing somewhat
stratumlike in arrangement, are of conglomerate composition. Huge
fragments of conglomerate have become detached and fallen to the
base of the bluff.
The wells from which the public water supply of the city of Sche-
nectady is obtained are excavations in this bed of gravel. They
are located just south of the river at a point about one mile west of
the western extremity of Van Slyck island. There are three wells,
varying in depth from 42 to 44 feet. The deepest one is farthest
to the east and is excavated entirely in gravel. The other two pene-
trate the bed of gravel and have their bottoms on a compact clay of
dark bluish color.
There is an evident gradation from the coarser gravels in the
western portion of the area referred to above to finer gravels and
coarse sands farther to the east, passing to sands in the immediate
vicinity of Scotia. Northwest of Scotia and extending as far as
Alplaus the surface materials are mainly coarse sands and gravels.
North of the tracks of the New York Central & Hudson River
Railroad there is a depression which was evidently at one time a
watercourse. The soil here is clayey in composition and is believed
to represent a deposit of alluvial origin. Another narrow area of
clay of similar composition occurs farther to the east, extending
toward Alplaus and bordering the modern river alluvium. In map-
ping it was thought best to distinguish between these, although the
line of demarkation could be drawn only somewhat arbitrarily.
The bed of coarse gravels above described lying northwest of
Scotia and extending to the edge of the sheet and beyond is inter- _
preted as a deposit made by the Mohawk in the flooded or Iroquois |
stage of that river. It represents the heavy materials which were
JOALI YMLVYOTP YI Aq yd 6e1}OIG FO JsamyY.IOU sjoAvIS POOH [ery
re
cabrmteenes S
[oes Le
The ner seam
tion
mccain
sciptesiemons
eel A nbenniN ay 5 ABET ae
9 9%Id .
— .
‘
.
a ki
*
y me -
4 re |
;
\ i
4
ApepauayIS JO JSAM UISeq YMLYOT IY} Ssosoe SuryooT
LZ 93eI1d
rs)
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY QUADRANGLE 35
carried or pushed along by swift currents of water and which were
deposited where the currents entered the static waters of Lake AI-
_bany. The less coarse materials were carried farther on and de-
posited in the order of their fineness. The fine clay and sand sedi-
ments were borne far out into the lake, building a great delta, as
already described.
When Lake Albany had subsided to the extent that the Mohawk
currents were held within the present boundaries of the basin the
deposits were powerfully affected by the increased erosive force of
the currents. The surface of the mass of coarse gravels heaped up
in the western portion of the basin was swept by the swift currents
and the finer constituents were picked up and carried on toward the
Aqueduct spillway and (as soon as opened) the Ballston channel
outlet. These sediments, however, owing to the damming effect of
the Aqueduct barrier, were to a large extent redeposited, especially
along the northern slope of the valley, thus giving rise to the coarse
sands and fine gravels which constitute the surface materials of a
somewhat broad area extending from north of Scotia to Alplaus.
At a later date when the gorge at Aqueduct had been cut to the 300
foot level, the surface of the coarse gravel bed emerged, forming
an island where the highest part of the gravel area northwest of
Scotia now appears. This island increased in extent with the fur-
ther lowering of the waters and the river thus became divided into
two streams, one between the island and the slope of the hills to the
north, the other approximately where the present river channel is
located. As the northern stream gradually shallowed it began to
deposit fine sediments and when finally the river abandoned this
channel, the sediments remained as the soil of alluvial character
described above.
DEPOSITS FROM FLOATING ICE
At the time of its flooded condition, especially in the early stages,
the Mohawk waters doubtless transported numerous masses oi
floating ice. As these blocks melted, and where they became
stranded and subsequently melted, the debris inclosed in them was
dropped and added to the deposits already made from the waters.
In this way the occasional boulders found buried in sands or min-
gled with gravels may be accounted for. Interesting examples of
these are found in several localities. There is evidence that an ice
block was stranded a short distance north of Scotia. A kettle hole
(shown by a depression contour line on the topographic sheet) has
36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
a number of boulders of considerable size lying on its bottom.
They are the more noticeable as occurring in the midst of an area
of sand and fine gravel.
Boulders inclosed in sand, and dissociated from the underlying
till, occur in the fields where molding sand is obtained southeast of
South Schenectady. Also in the deep cut made in grading the new
railway line to South Schenectady a large boulder imbedded in sand
is exposed.
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY QUADRANGEE Bi.
INICILIN I IOS
The deposits belonging to the recent epoch or period that has
elapsed since the final subsidence and disappearance of glacial
waters are (1) the alluvium laid down on the flood plains of the
Mohawk river and the larger creeks and (2) the wind-blown sands
of the sand plain areas. Mention may also be made of the peaty
accumulations of swamps, or partially drained areas formerly lakes.
STREAM ALLUVIUMS
The alluvial deposit in the basin west of Schenectady is some-
what notable both for areal extent and for thickness. Some four
or five square miles of valley lands, including the several large
islands in the river, are composed of soils of alluvial origin. It is
said that it was the fertility of these soils of the “ great flats ” that
determined the original settlement of Schenectady. x
The lower portion of the basin is still an area of sedimentation.
This is shown not only by the overflow of the river on the flood
plain at times (high water), but also by the steady growth of the
islands west of the Schenectady-Scotia bridge at their lower (down-
stream) ends, and the silting up of the channels between them. It is
also interesting to note that two new islands have been formed in
recent years farther down the river, about half a mile west of the
mouth of Alplaus kill. On the other hand, at the western end of the
basin the alluvium is to some extent being swept away by the river
currents, as is shown by the fact that the underlying gravel has in
places been laid bare.
Another extensive alluvial deposit made by the Mohawk occurs
farther to the east below Vischer Ferry. Here the river, aban-
doning the rock-bottomed channel which begins at Aqueduct, enters
the territory of Lake Albany deposits. The stream has cut through
the sands and clays and swept out a broad basin the floor of which
consists mainly of till, overlaid, in the flood-plain area, with alluvium.
WIND-BLOWN SANDS
The regions of Lake Albany deposits where the surface materials
consist mainly of sand show the effects of the drifting and heaping
of sands by the winds. Some portions of these areas present a
highly distinctive sand-dune topography. This is conspicuously the
case in the Schenectady-Albany sand plain. The dunes are for the
38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
most part in the form of ridges with axes parallel to the direction
of the prevailing wind that is, northwest-southeast. These dune
features are brought out strikingly by the contour lines of the sheet
in the portion of the plain crossed by the New York Central &
Hudson River Railroad tracks, southeast of Schenectady.
The extent to which sands have been shifted by wind agency is
clearly indicated on this plain. The western portion is nearly level
and its soil has some clay mixed with the sand. It bears the appear-
ance of a wind-denuded plain, from which the surface sands have
been partially stripped leaving the underlying clays. To the east
of this level area lies the highly irregular surface, marked by ridges
and hillocks of sand. The highest dunes attain an elevation of 400
feet or 60 feet above the level of the denuded portion of the plain.
This does not represent, however, the full extent to which the sands
have been lifted, as farther to the east where the hills of till rise
to the height of 500 feet, the country is more or less overspread
with wind-laid sands.
In the sand region of the eastern portion of the sheet lying
between the Mohawk valley and the Round lake depression there
are extensive areas marked by the effects of wind agency. The
country around Clifton Park is especially characterized by hills and
hollows of sand. There is no evident regularity to the forms of the
dunes, indicating that winds blowing from different directions have
had part in their formation. Recent effects of the wind in modify-
ing existing surface features are noticeable.
soUnp SUIWIOF “‘SpuIM oY} AQ UMOTA
Udoq IAVY SpuLS dy} IXTIYM ApePoUaYS JO }svoyjNos uolses ured purs oy; JO Aydessodo} oy} SuUIMOYS
8 2d
wt
ApeyouayIS
YyNoS JO jsvo Posyeoso] FspUIM 94} Aq UOl}Vepnusp suOSsIopuN sey YSIYM UOiss1 urejd pues sy} Jo uonsod Vv
6 2}%Id
‘
- ¢
= _
a
‘
-
7
)
‘
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY QUADRANGLE 39
REVIEW AND SUMMARY
The Pleistocene history of the area of the Schenectady quadrangle
begins with that condition of glaciation which produced the striae
now observable on the surface of the bedrock. We start, then, with
the conception of a sheet of ice overspreading the country and
moving in a general direction of some 30 degrees west of south.
The number of localities where striae were observed is insufficient
to determine differential movements due to the adjustment of the
flow of the ice to local irregularities of surface. A comparison with
similar observations for adjoining territory would also be necessary
to determine whether the direction of movement was influenced by
the regional topography which, as suggested by Chamberlain,'
caused a westward movement of ice in the eastern portion of the
Mohawk valley. It may be noted, however, that at the western edge
of the sheet striae showing a direction of 57 degrees west of south
were observed in one locality.
With the change to climatic conditions that resulted in the gen-
eral retreat of the ice sheet to the north, we conceive that the south-
ern portion of the area was first freed of ice. Its lower altitude as
compared with the northern portion of the sheet strengthens the
probability of this inference. The withdrawing ice sheet left in its
wake the materials of the ground moraine together with the debris
dropped by the melting ice, forming the sheet of till that now over-
lies the bedrock.
As the channel of the Mohawk became uncovered it seems prob-
able that glacial waters filled the rock depression underlying the
present basin west of Schenectady. Rocks lie at a considerable,
though unknown, depth below the present surface of the basin; we
also lack knowledge of the present extent of this rock basin toward
the south. We may, however, with considerable confidence assume
the accumulation of glacial waters in this locality before the
Mohawk valley to the west was opened. It is likewise probable
that the rock basin below Vischer Ferry filled in with waters
derived from the melting ice.
How soon after the withdrawal of the ice from the southern
portion of the sheet the Lake Albany waters spread over the bared
area could be determined only by a study of the general conditions
involved in the origin and development of Lake Albany. It is even
1U. S. Geol. Survey, 3d An. Report, p.361-65.
40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
possible that the two local accumulations of glacial waters just
referred to were parts of that general body of water.
lf, however, the lower Mohawk valley became open prior to the
time when Lake Albany had developed to the extent that it covered
the general region from the Mohawk valley near Schenectady to the
Hudson, then the Mohawk waters found an outlet to the Hudson
channel at the lowest level left open by a topography modified by
glacial drift. It is possible that at this time the preglacial channel
of the Mohawk still afforded this passage.
As the ice sheet receded farther to the north, uncovering the
region of the Glenville basin, glacio-fluviatile waters swept in con-
siderable volume across the floor of that depression, bearing sands
to the area southward.
In the region of Burnt Hills there was a temporary halt in the
recession of the ice sheet, giving rise to morainic accumulations.
Behind these accumulations glacial waters became ponded, thus
originating Lake Alplats.
We pass then to the stage when Lake Albany had reached the
development’ evinced by the clays and sands of the plain region
between Schenectady and Albany. These deposits are likewise the
witness of a flooded condition of the Mohawk which we correlate
with the Iroquois stage of that river. Where the flooded river issued
into the lake, somewhat west of the western edge of the Schenec-
tady sheet, it dropped the coarser materials of its load, building a
bed of gravel into the lake; the finer sediments were carried farther
out into Lake Albany, palling a delta. For a long time these finer
sediments consisted mainly of clays derived from the shale rocks
which predominate in the drainage basin of the river. Later, when
the southern slopes of the Adirondack region became freed of ice,
the Mohawk received from its tributaries from the north the sands
derived from the Precambric rocks and these were deposited in
Lake Albany overlying the clays.
It was perhaps during this time that the preglacial channel of
the Mohawk from near Schenectady eastward was filled up by sedi-
ments. The alternative view is that it had been filled at an earlier
time by glacial debris, or drift.
At some time after the ice in its retreat to the north had passed
beyond the northern edge of the area of the Schenectady sheet, the
waters of Lake Albany covered all parts of the area, the present
elevation of which is from about 350 feet in the southern part to
380 feet in the northern part. Besides the Mohawk delta, above
GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF THE SCHENECTADY .OUADRANGLE 4!
described, sediments borne by currents from the north were de-
posited in the lake, forming the clays and sands of the eastern and
northern portions of the sheet. There is evidence that a tongue of
ice lingered in the depression of the Ballston channel, thus prevent-
ing the accumulation of sediments in the northern portion of this
depression. :
The time came when Lake Albany waters began to subside
The delta southeast of Schenectady emerged as land surface and
the Mohawk currents became confined within a channel conforming
with the basin near Schenectady. For a time the flooded waters
may have found a passage to the east near South Schenectady in
the course marked by the present valley of the Poentic kill. But
as the divide between Poentic kill and Normans kill is now about
350 feet elevation and allowance must be made for postglacial
erosion, it is evident that a spillway was found across the rocks
below Aqueduct and the flow of the currents was established in this
direction. The rush of waters, impeded by the Aqueduct barrier,
forced an entrance into Ballston channel, eroding the sands de-
posited in that portion of Lake Albany which occupied the southern
end of the channel. The northward moving currents emerged from
the Ballston channel near East Line, there discharging into Lake
Albany. As the lake further subsided the currents established three
watercourses: two northerly, initiating the present valleys of
Mourning kill and Drummond creek and one_ southeasterly,
initiating the valley of Anthony kill. The current pursuing the last
named course eventually swept away the sands and clays in the
Round lake locality resulting at length in the present depression in
that region.
The two outlet streams from the Mohawk basin to Lake Albany
_ were maintained as long as through erosion their beds were kept at
the same level. This equality of erosive effects: was probably de-
termined by the circumstance that the rate of subsidence of Lake ©
Albany was no greater than the rate of lowering of the beds of the
two streams by erosion. At length, however, owing to the greater
extent of bed of the Ballston stream, it failed to deepen its channel
as rapidly as its rival and its waters were drawn off in favor of the
Aqueduct course of the Mohawk.
The present conditions of drainage having thus been initiated,
the Mohawk gorge below Aqueduct, the Alplaus gorge below High
Mills and the gorge of Anthony kill from near East Line to Round
Lake have since been developed. Probably the greater part of the
42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
erosion resulting in these gorges was the work of the flooded
waters of the late glacial and early postglacial times ; but the process
has continued during the present epoch and 1s still in progress.
With the gradual deepening of the Aqueduct gorge the Mohawk
waters, sweeping in a great half circle, cut into the western edge
of the Lake Albany deposits forming the basin near Schenectady.
At the same time the waters, as they issued from the gorge, spread-
ing in their course, swept away the sands and clays in their path,
forming the basin east of Vischer Ferry. In the recent epoch the
surfaces of these basins have been overlaid with alluvium.
The plains left by the subsiding Lake Albany waters were early
swept by strong winds which, over extensive areas, lifted the sur-
face sands, transporting them mainly eastward. Thus were
formed, on the one hand, wind-denuded and leveled tracts and, on
the other, the regions marked by hills and ridges of wind-blown
sands.
INDEX
Albany, Lake, 30, 39, 40; subsidence
of waters, 31, 41
Albany, Lake, deposits, 16-18, 19; re-
lation, to the till, 18-19; near
Schenectady, composition and ar-
rangement, Oil S economic
values, 24-27
Alluvial deposits, 37
Alplaus, 35
Alplaus basin, 18, 41
Alplaus kill, 7, 8, 37
Alplaus, Lake, 16, 40
Alplaus lake deposits, 26-27
Anthony kill, 29, 41
PGueduct, 11, 14, 17, 31, 33,. 35, 41,
42
Ballston channel, 7, 12, 18, 29, 30,
41; probable agency of ice in the
formation of, 10-11
Ballston lake, 7
Ballston lake section, no evidence
that it received Lake Albany de-
posits, 31
Ballston Spa, 19
Boulders, buried in sands
mingled with gravels, 35
Brick clays, 25
Burnt Hills, 15, 16, 40
Burnt Hills district, 26
or
Carman, 24
Cement blocks,
25
Chamberlain, cited, 39
Charlton hills, 8
Clays, Lake Albany deposits, 16, 19;
brick, 25; Alplaus lake deposits,
26
Clifton Park, 16, 38
Cook, J. H., cited, 8
sand for making,
Drumlins, 15
Drummond creek, 29, 41
Dunes, 38
_Dunsbach Ferry, 6, 24
43
East Glenville, 31
Past Wine 20%304 35.) 40
Economic values of Lake
deposits, 24-27
Elnora, 24
Albany
Floating ice, deposits from, 35-36
Glacial scratches, 9-10
Glacial till, see Tull
Glenville, 15, 17
Glenville basin, 8, 29, 40
Glenville hills, 6, 9, 14
Gravel, Mohawk flood deposits, 34
Hardin’s crossing, 10
High Mills, 8, 16, 26, 41
Ice erosion, 9; probable agency in
the formation of the Ballston
channel, 10-11
Knolls, 14
Lake Albany, see Albany, Lake
Lake Alplaus, see Alplaus, Lake.
Lorraine formation, 5
Malta, 22
Maltaville, 8, 21
Merrill, G. P., cited, 24
Modified till, 28-36
Mohawk channel, 5-6, 39
Mohawk delta, 17, 18, 40; elevation
of, 19
Mohawk flood deposits of glacial
age, 34735
Mohawk gorge, II-13, 41
Mohawk waters, diversion into
Ballston channel, 31; two exits,
33
Molding sands, 24; theory of ‘the
secondary origin, 24-25
Morainic hills, 15-16
Mourning kill, 7, 29, 41
Niskayuna, 15, 17, 24
Normans kill, 41
Ad NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Poentic kill, 18, 20, 41
Rexford Flats, 10, 31
Rock surfaces, topography due to,
Se :
Rock topography, modifications pro-
duced during the Pleistocene
period, 9-13
Round lake, 8, 18, 24
Round lake depressions, 7-8, 29, 33
Round lake region, 21-23, 41
Sand plain region, 17 ’
Sand-lime bricks, sands for making,
25
Sands, Lake Albany deposits, 16, 19,
42; molding sands, 24; for mak-
ing sand-lime bricks, 25; for mak-
ing cement blocks, 25; Alplaus
lake deposits, 26; Mohawk flood
deposits, 34; wind-blown, 37-38
Saratoga lake, 8
Schenectady, 6; Lake Albany de-
_ posits, 19-21
Scotia, 34, 35
South Schenectady, 24
Stream alluviums, 37
Surface deposits, 14-23
Till, unmodified, 14-18; relation of
Lake Albany deposits to, 18-19;
modified, 28-36; mingled with
marginal lake , deposits, 28-29;
washed and eroded by currents of
water, 20-33
Timeson, 7
Topography due to rock surfaces,
5-8
Town House Corners, 9, 10
Unmodified till, 14-18
Usher, 8, 24
Vischer Ferry, 6, 8, 12) 17A3ieage
39, 42
Watervliet Center, 19
Wind-blown sands, 37, 38
Woodworth, cited, 7, 8, 16, 17, 18,
10; 31 -
Appendix 2
Economic geology
Museum Bulletin 151
151 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1910
= :
“lh :
aie
-
i
é
f —.
a A
t
Sr on
" r ?
a /
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under
the act of July 16, 18904
Se
No. 496 ALBAN YS N-GY. JUNE I, IQII
New York State Museum
Joun M. Crarke, Director
Museum Bulletin 151
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY
OF
NEW YORK STATE
KwPORT OF OPERATIONS AND PRODUCTION DURING to10
BY
D: oH. NEWLAND
PAGE PAGE
ME GROGICTION tes nels ye sk ee 5 NMiimernaliwatens: s. .otae i. 4 ween ene 40
‘Mineral productionof New York 9 NPs pe aS Mees lie Seca ts ser oes 45
Bamana: teva ciccads: = Risse sa Beane seweays verses 13) RE tROLEUIUIM es 65e 0 oc ne eee heen ene 48
(CH 5 Re Oe i Grae re ee 160 ayptal eM s ere evens cc aia aes 50
Production of clay materials... 16 RS) IIE at isi ree ea URGE aM i 52
Manufacture of building brick. 19 Sand andsornavieling ss ise see ee 56
@enen clay materials ses... 23 SBS re es Sa Gace ieecaeeemee ns 50
ERO ibe te vier ec) Sa ine Boas Shen Selanne 24 Stoners ws... Mpa ne AL uscd 60
CGrodeiclay cen esa. men cee ees 25 Production) Of St@me: sate ree 61
IMC TS yada cys arash eee a eens Me he 26 Giramikends Gos ENG Marianas 6
REIS alin ek aa en Neola 27 Imes tonenic 5: vives saan ae 63
Grarigiae Fry is yates cava a 27, Mifare lei. d ecu Uae ena yale oe 67
Grapiee eit. ).weod se oece eee es 29 Samad stone's cainig sites samira 68
GO SMI sae trey Ren ey atcron. 30 STAD Hee is ic Ukacotcey Mester ee 72
IISA CNGT ROS aS Sere s ee ne caces cate gst eRe 33 SINC ee lS BOR pt cea a tare 74
iis:
‘a ee cue,
oe
)
New York State Education Department
Science Division, June 16, I9rt
on: Anarew.S. Draper LED.
| Commissioner of Education
My DEAR SIR:
I transmit to you herewith the manuscript of our annual report on
The Mining and Quarry Industry of New York State, for the year
t9g10, and I recommend its publication as a bulletin of the State
Museum.
Very respectfully
JoHN M. CLARKE
Director
STATE OF NEW YORK
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
COMMISSIONER’S ROOM
Approved for publication this 17th day of June rort
Commissioner of Education
t
1
: 7 =
'
.
i
- Er
= < ¢
a
‘
x
. 5
aa
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y.,
under the act of July 16, 1894
No. 496 BIAS VINES Na Nhe JUNE I, IQII
New York State Museum
JoHn M. Crarxe, Director
Museum Bulletin 151
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY
OF
NEW YORK STATE
REPORT OF OPERATIONS AND PRODUCTION DURING 1910
BY)
D. H. NEWLAND
INTRODUCTION
The year 1910 did not witness any notable extension of mining
and quarry operations in the State. The outlook at the opening
seemed propitious for a very busy season for these industries and a
substantial advance in most branches, but the activity of the first
few months was not maintained. Toward the middle of the year
a reaction set in which soon caused general curtailment of produc-
tion and put a definite end to further progress. In this respect the
industrial record was exactly the reverse of that for 1909 when the
depression which lasted during the first few months gave way to
a period of marked expansion and prosperity.
A summary of the reports rendered by the mining and quarry
enterprises shows that the value of the mineral production of the
State amounted to $35,400,257. The total represents a slight gain
5
6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
as compared with the value of $34,742,287 for the output in the
preceding year, but it falls considerably short of the high mark
reached in 1907 when a production of over $37,000,000 was re-
ported.
The figures as given are based on some thirty different materials
in their crude or first marketable forms, but can not be considered
as representing the full importance which the mineral industries
share in the activities of the State. They are serviceable, however,
as standards for comparing the conditions in these fundamental
branches so closely allied with many other businesses of chemical,
metallurgical or engineering nature. The manufacture of pig iron
by local furnaces is alone nearly equal to the totals given for the
entire output of the mines and quarries.
One of the few mineral products that showed a decided gain
during the year was iron ore, of which the gross output amounted
to 1,517,880 long tons. This is probably the largest quantity that has
ever been hoisted from the New York mines. After allowance for
concentration there remained suitable for furnace use a total of
1,159,067 tons of ore which had a value of $3,906,478. The cor-
responding figures for 1909 were 991,008 tons valued at $3,179,358.
The Adirondack region furnished, as usual, the greater part of the
product, but the mines in the Clinton belt of central and western
New York were more active than for some time. Altogether there
were thirteen companies who reported a production, as compared
with twelve in 1909 and ten in 1908.
The clay-working industries contributed an important share of
the total value with an aggregate of $11,518,982 for the various
materials which were manufactured. In comparison with the record
for 1909 this showed a slight decrease, for which the dull season in
the building trades was mainly responsible. The output of clay struc-
tural materials, such as brick, terra cotta, tile and fire proofing, was
valued at $8,067,098 against $9,342,015 in 1909, a decline of nearly
I5 per cent. The number of brick for building purposes made last
year was 1,404,345 thousands against 1,518,023 thousands in 1909,
of which the plants in the Hudson river region contributed about
three-fourths. On the other hand the value of the pottery manu-
facturers showed a good gain with a total of $2,136,518 against
$1,827,193 in the preceding year. The number of plants engaged in
the different branches of clay manufacturing was 223, or nine less
than 1909.
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO I
The value of the quarry materials last year was $6,193,252, also
a loss as compared with the record for 1909 when the sum of
$7,061,580 was reported. The total was divided according to various
uses into: building stone, $780,333; monumental stone, $101,673 ;
curb and flagstone, $484,020; crushed stone, $3,042,136; other uses,
$1,785,090. The output of slate, millstones, and limestone used in
making hydraulic cement is not included in these totals. All kinds
of stone were quarried less extensively last year, though the falling
off was particularly noticeable in granite and sandstone which are
used largely for structural purposes. The production of limestone,
marble and trap was but little smaller than in the preceding year.
Conditions in the hydraulic cement trade were rather unfavorable
last year, yet there was a notable gain in production from the
local mills. The total quantity of cement manufactured was
3,657,015 barrels valued at $3.087,020, against 2,610,383 barrels
walued at $2,122,902 in i909. The gain came from the portland
cement plants which contributed a total of 3,364,255 barrels as com-
pared with 2,061,019 barrels in the preceding year; the production
Or natural cement continued to decline. as for:a number of years
past, and amounted only to 292,760 barrels, or about one-half the
quantity reported for 1909. ‘The latter industry, once so important
in the State, has thus been reduced to small proportions, but there
is every prospect of a continued growth of the portland branch in
which some large developments have recently been in progress.
The production of salt from the mines and wells of the State
amounted to 10,270,273 barrels, exceeding that of any previous
year. The value of the output was $2,258,292. As compared with
the totals reported for 1909 there was a gain of about 4 per cent
in quantity, but a slight reduction in the value of the product. The
two rock salt mines were very active and served to keep Livingston
county, in which they are situated, in the leading place as a salt
producer. Onondaga county had the second largest industry,
though it contributed very little for actual sale, most of its output
being consumed locally for alkali manufacture.
The mining of gypsum has assumed large proportions of late
years due to the increased manufacture of gypsum plasters for
building purposes. The output from the mines last year reached a
total of 465,591 short tons as compared with 378,232 short tons for
1909. The value of the different gypsum materials, including wall
plaster, plaster of paris, and gypsum sold in unburned condition,
was $1,122,952, against $907,601 in the preceding year. The gain
8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
which exceeded 20 per cent came mostly from the mines in the
western section where a number of new enterprises recently entered
the field.
The combined value of the petroleum and natural gas produced
in the State last year was $2,869,893 against $3,059,308 in Igog.
The quantity of petroleum, all from the wells in Allegany, Catta-
raugus and Steuben counties, amounted to 1,073,650 barrels with
a value of $1,458,194. This was a reduction from the previous
year’s total of 1,160,128 barrels attributable to the recent drop in
prices which discouraged exploration work. The gas wells, how-
ever, made a larger output than ever before, the total flow amount-
ing approximately to 4,815,643,000 cubic feet with a value of $1,-
411,699 against 3,825,215,000 cubic feet and a value of $1,045,693
in 1909. The Erie county wells contributed the largest increase of
output for the year.
The talc industry is one of the smaller mining activities repre-
sented in New York and the output came mostly from a single dis-
trict in St Lawrence county. The amount obtained last year was
about 65,000 short tons, valued at $552,500, a gain of 15,000 tons
over the total for t909. The St Lawrence county mines have prac-
tically a monoply of the fibrous tale consumed in paper manufacture.
Garnet for abrasive uses was produced to the amount of 5297
short tons, valued at $151,700, a large gain over the figures reported
for the preceding year which were 3802 tons, valued at $119,190.
The production of crystalline graphite from the Adirondack
mines amounted to 2,619,000 pounds with a value of $160,700. The
corresponding total for 1909 was 2,342,000 pounds with a value of
$140,140. :
The mineral springs that were used for commercial purposes re-
ported sales of 8,432,672 gallons valued at $675,034 as compared
with 9,019,490 gallons valued at $857,342 in 1900.
Among the other mineral materials which had a place in the list
of products reported last year were apatite, carbon dioxid, clay,
diatomaceous earth, emery, feldspar, lead ore, marl, millstones,
metallic paint, slate pigment, pyrite, quartz, slate, sand and sand-
lime brick. The collected value of these materials was $2,904,454
as compared with $2,170,881 in 19090.
THE MENING- AND OUARRY, INDUSTRY I9O1O
Mineral production of New York in 1906
PRODUCT
UNIT OF
MEASUREMENT
Rorilamdscement. .. 2... sasee+ ea.
INeisunalerock Cement... 5. osm a5 0s
Pee OMIOTICK 8s eins ae ee ee
JE OIUENEIGT Seal 5 een ee
Wihenclay products.5....5.....
WirGerolavin och os ee ws ek
TESTA 5 oe Re
Heldcoan andyquartz......0..5..
Ec OURM es tas Pah cat let eed
(SiO JOISTS are
(CAVIDSITIID) ay cd gee ea
INROW CES eae eae eee eee eee mare
Me raMINCTMeNTE es wc wea a ks
DIAUCMOISTMEN Gs «cide ey ee eek es
Mimetaliwaters: 2.6.6 50. eee de
INO OMMOASIATC Gos Sic bc ee ss
Dlaveumanuractures...2...7......
RAUCOUS 5 NS a
a sie Keiiie uesielte: egietcetked tales
J thith Oko. OOM O06 O00 50
onoxtonsanr ne:
SOLE CONS eae
Shon vonshe as.
Potndsieece se
Short tonsryn.
one tonseeyac:
Gallonsae. ss.
1000 cubic feet. .
Barrels ee sees
Moneitonss ea.)
eo 8 © © © © © eo ole ew ew
Onc) Ol) Olce-cld Oth On Ont Or
®)/[e16) 16) (eee!) e:!Je) co! 19] (0; ee) he)
fe, “eilja’ "e. {el eis)! (6.0 je ie ‘ej « [e
oe ee ew ee ew ee ee
oe © © © © © 8 we ee 8 lw
eye) te te) he ley te) (0, 10! 0) ee) ee! 10
9
QUANTITY VALUE
2 423 374 | $2 766 488
I 691 565 I 184 211
I 600 059 9g 688 289
ete eens Sate I 795 008
SRE eee 2 472 003
5 477 9 125
n2O7, 13 870
13 660 44 350
4 729 159 298
g 000 8 600
2 811 582 96 084
262 486 699 455
905 367 3 393 609
eae vine 22 442
2A: 29 140
2 045 15 960
8 000 000 I 000 000
3 007 086 766 579
I 043 088 I 721 095
II 798 39 Doo
Oy OSS INS) 2 131 650
16 248 Dias
UM lara nent 4 150
17 080 122 340
A Leagan aMtenel ae 255 189
Me etn en 2 963 829
Faniein, cab warns 460 915
a et un voue as I 976 829
ee eee tOe 847 403
64 200 541 600
Re ewe he 8 I 850 000
Dies eunalalac aa $37 132 832
1Tncludes apatite, arsenical ore, carbon dioxid, diatomaceous earth, fullers earth, marl and sand
and gravel exclusive of glass sand.
IO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Mineral production of New York in 1907
UNIT OF
PRODUCT MEASURE EMI REE QUANTITY
Portlandicementae a eee iBarnelsaaa ere 2 108 450
Naturalsrockicemente. ere iBarrelstes ae aoe E037 9279
Buildingubrick: (ase ere (chousandsse- I 366 842
15/0) Fics ean eee IME MATa na ean vy olsid Cod) men bw 066
Other ‘clay products i575). 2 ce ea ee ee ee rs or) ay eee
Crude clay) ee ce see ee SHOOVE WOSSs go od: 21027
EMeny.. |. coc. bes te ee Ge eee Shortaonssse i) BR
Eeldsparand quantz*en sree Long toms). oe 4.) SEZ
GaTnets oo an ate tee gs eae | SIMO WOMIS. 4 oc 5 5 709
Glassisandis: ficient tare cea HOTU LONS Hs ase I 200
Graphiter unin Meria ere Roundstae sae 2 950 000
Gy PSU ie eee ated eater STO WTS; 65 aoe BOO BAG
[ronore 4 farsi Seer eerie Rong tonsa ear I O18 O13
Mallistoties %, 2. Argss ts oan Se incds ce eed eee eae oie ee re
Mietalliehpaintperrn ane SIAOIG HOM a6 og oc 5 269
SHWRS. [ONAN TN. 5p oo go GDo GHA Sone Short tonsyA. 4. 620
Mineral waters: ease) a5 ae oe en Callonspeeme ee 8 000 000
Naturaligasirr witenrmc enue re 1000 cubic feet..| 3 052 145
Petroleumissgie ee von ee IBarnel Sy eee I 052 324
PYTil se cers arene oie anit nae: ongatons-uma ee 49 978
ALLE. EA ae ea Ro es ent ome ae amen Barrel Saye eeee 9 657 543
Roofing: slate sane eve S@ManeSpraet ewer II 686
Slatevmaniulacturesme at tear oe Wetce. Sees ea tte tee eee on eae
Sandalime bricks mace errr athousands aa. . 16 610
Granites sist erence octet Mery earn tate le tek an rca rice pc seer 27 aoc
TAMeStOMe 2, e a eye cared es hia em ccereeen Aoi all, Sere ae eee
Marbled. 2: ci: Seceiie a, Biba in ee arg aa lbar hot Oe Tas SPT SUR ed ly ake te aa
Sandstone eae eur week yc e eee |Peeeee elon eretrcialeesh ofall iclaah aun dee ag
0 Bs r= 0 ane cL SRL AGA ah ete eek anal, Chen aaaV Ger tele ea tee MEM SSE
Tale. so eee ee Ee Short tonsa. 59 000
Other miaterials tenia ee el ea lige eas sete tee stata Vie [eau ye nee ae
Total valerie Uc Paes cue iret Rarer tke | teat eee
VALUE
$2
NON
$37
141
090
730
294
895
679
163
057
230
800
380
951
556
493
806
521
700
000
O14
335
430
178
625
175
677
goo
447
936
417
627
500
000
006
1 Includes apatite, arsenical ore, carbon dioxid, diatomaceous earth, fullers earth, marl and sand
and gravel exclusive of glass sand.
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO ital
Mineral production of New York in 1908
UNIT OF
PRODUCT aR AGTONT QUANTITY VALUE
onulandycement.... ida. coho BART OLS MMR a eos)... I 988 874 | $1 813 622
Meniimalerock cement. 0.1.0.5. Bagrels oases ais 9 623 588 441 136
mn GiMe TIC A025) soe Se ees Mhousands*a-s. 5. I 066 533 5 200 951
Meuse tay PUM ee Ae Tk Coe oes beer Uae ste et aye gS IME fe st arate, el hs I 653 241
Mie neimelan pe LOGUCESe ech sno /5.5.0 alia ees dis dots al foals snare des 064 671
Wrideclay......... Siena ei er Slory conse a. 4 697 II 605
eae BM es ek routed Aen ey ea em Se I 206 618 I 460 008
NOOB a Seater ile Be se cenon 6 Bs ol ONE a IL TG) F/2X0) I 530 852
NOOR 33, rates chat Micd Man ane ce MUG LG. 0 ine a ee I 162 978 I 849 135
GOA oe Ae eh ci ee fa gig aah ats RO ae ne T5OZOu1 79 1-709) 770
TOO iis take Saw eae, Sars Arete © ht SS ee NC mE a 949 5II I 566 931
OOO Bs cs SUN es aban ie hs eo ase a lg Re I 043 088 I 72I 095
OO irns oe se paisa eens RI NC eee S| SG SOARS) Rake Seana eek I 052 324 1b WeX6) Bais
OOS Se Are act sole a. toil ce Ne ane 1 T6On123 24071538
ROOM (eure ia mmcoim Manette rns iy Li ef oN Sy I 160 402 I 914 663
TQ) ang ee gttNet RIB eI as Ce OC ee Pea 1072, 650307 pie A5en lod
1 The statistics for the years 1891-1903 inclusive are taken from the annual volumes of the
Mineral Resources.
cn
Oo
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The most notable feature in the industry recently has been the
violent break in the market prices of crude oil from the Appalachian
field. The quotations for Pennsylvania crude, which are taken as the
basis for rating the New York output, fell off from $1.78 a barrel,
the average price paid in the early months of 1909, to $1.43 a barrel
at the close of that year. A further decline took place during the
past season which brought the quotations down to $1.40 a barrel at
the opening and finally to $1.30 a barrel, the ruling price for the last
few months.
In response to the market decline there was a notable decrease of
activity in new drilling. The records for the past year showed that
a total of 283 wells were completed in New York as compared with
457 wells in 1909. The increment of production from the new wells
amounted to 368 barrels a day, while in 1909 it was 715 barrels. Of
the number drilled 61 were dry holes as compared with 32 in the
preceding year.
VARIN s,
The production of pyrite, confined to St Lawrence county, showed
a large increase last year and reached the highest total that has been
recorded for the State. Most of the ore came from the mines at
Stellaville, near Hermon, owned by the St Lawrence Pyrite Co.-
which for several years previous had supplied the entire output.
During the last season the Cole mine, near Gouverneur, which had
been closed since 1907, resumed operations and contributed to the
product. |
The pyrite deposits of this section are associated with belts of
gneisses, schists and crystalline limestones — the same series of rocks
that inclose the hematite ores which have been mined at various
places in St Lawrence and Jefferson counties. The principal belt
of these metamorphosed strata extends from near Antwerp, Jeffer-
son county, across Gouverneur, De Kalb and Clinton townships, St
Lawrence county, a distance of some 40 miles. Pyrite zones are
found at intervals along the belt, following the general northeast-
southwest strike and extending for variable distances. The pyrite
is generally intermixed with quartz, hornblende and feldspar and
other minerals of the wall rocks so as to form a lean ore. In places,
however, bands and lenticular bodies of fairly rich pyrite occur and
it is these which constitute the workable deposits.
Up to the present time mines have been opened only at three
localities; near High Falls on the northeastern end of the belt, at
Stellaville in the town of De Kalb and near Gouverneur. The
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO 51
High Falls deposits have not been actively worked in the last five
years, though they were recently explored by diamond drilling.
The mines at Stellaville operated by the St Lawrence Pyrite Co.
are opened on a parallel series of pyrite bodies, of which the largest
is known as the Stella. ‘A second important deposit, the Anna, ts
found in the footwall 1600 feet to the southeast and others occur
improve interval: ihe ore’ carries trom 15 to 40 per cent of sulfur,
with an average probably between 25 and 30 per cent. The mine
output is crushed and concentrated so as to bring the sulfur up
to 40 per cent or more. The concentrates are shipped to acid
burners in the East. Though of lower sulfur content than the
imported ores they are desirable material for acid making on ac-
count of their freedom from arsenic and other injurious impurities.
The Cole mine, just north of Gouverneur, is based on a large out-
cropping deposit that was first worked as an open cut. Under the
early operations by the Adirondack Pyrite Co. extensive shipments
of lump ore were made, as much of the output was sufficiently rich
to be used without concentration. The property was equipped with
a mill, however, for treating the leaner material. Recently work
has been renewed by the Hinckley Fibre Co., which used the output
last year in connection with sulfur pulp manufacture at Hinckley.
Besides these mines there are many prospects and exposures of
pyrite in the metamorphic belt of Jefferson and St Lawrence coun-
ties. As has been noted by C. H. Smyth, the hematite ores of that
section are often accompanied by bodies of pyrite in the adjoining
wall rocks. The iron ores in fact have probably been derived from
the decomposition of the pyrite and their distribution affords a
useful clew to exploration for the latter mineral. Some of the bet-
ter known localities are on the Alexander Farr farm, two and a half
niles northeast of Bigelow; on the George: Styles farm one and a
half miles west of Bigelow; S. Hendricks one mile south of Bige-
low; and L. Hockens seven miles west of Rensselaer Falls. Near
Antwerp pyrite is found in vicinity of the Dixon and Old Sterling
mines; it is also found farther north in the vicinity of Ox Bow.
The pyrite industry in this section has not evidenced, hitherto, the
activity that might have been expected from its favorable situation
in regard to markets. The fact that the ores are low grade for the
most part has restricted their exploitation, as they could not be
shipped any distance without concentration. This has involved the
erection of expensive milling plants and a heavy outlay for other
development.
52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Recent experiments in the use of low-grade pyrite for sulfite
manufacture are said to have been successful and to have demon-
strated that ores carrying but 25 or 30 per cent sulfur can be eco-
nomically employed if obtainable at low cost. Under such conditions
there should be opportunity for enlarging the output from the de-
posits which are within easy shipping distance of the Adirondack
sulfite mills. According to-a leading manufacturer in that section,
the output of sulfite fiber by the local plants amounts to about goo
tons a day, for which 135 tons of commercial sulfur, at an average
cost of $3300, are consumed. An output of from 400 to 600 tons of
pyrite of the grade found in northern New York would be required
to supply the equivalent of that amount of sulfur.
SAUL AE
The salt industry of the State is very important; the annual out-
put amounts to about one-third of the total for the entire country.
The local product thus finds an extensixe market, and it is in fact the
excellent situation with respect to trade facilities that are supplied
by the railroads and canals of the State, more than any other factor
apparently, that has been responsible for the continued progress of
the industry. Of late years competition has been very keen, owing
to the growth of the production in Michigan and the states of the
Middle West, which has curtailed the outlet for the local product in
that direction. Michigan is also a competitor for the eastern trade
in evaporated salt, as a lower cost of manufacture counterbalances
to some extent at least the shipping advantages which the local pro-
ducers enjoy. The latter supply, of course, the greater part of the
New York and New England requirements and will doubtless con-
tinue to hold a preponderant share of this trade in the future. The
rock salt from New York is marketed over a wide territory; until
recently it has had no near competitors, though the cheaper grades
of evaporated salt are used as a substitute when they can be obtained
at sufficiently low prices. Since tgog Michigan has been a producer
of rock salt, a mine having been opened in that year near Detroit.
Returns received from the companies engaged in the salt industry
for the year 1910 showed a slight gain of production which brought
the total up to a new record, but in other respects the conditions
appear to have been rather unsatisfactory. Prices were lower than
at any time for a number of years. The increased output was due
to the activity in rock salt and in the manufacture of alkali products. |
The salt used for alkali manufacture is consumed in the form of
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO 53
brine without evaporation. The actual product of evaporated salt
for the market was less than in 1909.
The total quantity reported by the mines and wells for last year
was 10,270,273 barrels of 280 pounds, as compared with 9,880,618
barrels in 1909, showing’ an increase of 389,655 barrels or about 4
per cent. The production in tg09 was the largest up to that time
and represented a gain of 875,307 barrels for that year. Converted
to a tonnage basis the output in 1910 amounted to 1,437,838 short
tons against 1,383,386.5 short tons in the preceding year.
Notwithstanding the gain in quantity, as shown in the above fig-
ures, the value of the output last year was less than that reported in
1909, the amount being $2,258,292 as conpared with $2,208,652.
The value averaged 22 cents a barrel, against 23.3 cents a barrel in
GeO. 23.7 cents im 1908 and’ 25 cents in 109007. _ Prices have thus
diminished steadily for a number of years. It is to be noted, how-
ever, that the average values are reduced to some extent by the in-
clusion of the salt used in the form of brine for alkali manufac-
ture. Since this salt is not marketed as such and is not even evap-
orated it is given only a nominal valuation, representing practically
the cost of pumping. The production of this brine 1s confined to a
single company, the Solvay Process Co., which has a number of
wells in the town of Tully, Onondaga county, whence the brine 1s
carried through a pipe line to the alkali works near Syracuse.
The year was unmarked by any notable developments or changes
in the industry. The list of producers included about thirty works
and mines or the same number as in 1909. Under the conditions
which have obtained during the last few years, there has been no
incentive to the establishment of new enterprises. On the other
hand the low prices for evaporated salt have caused the closing of
some of the smaller plants and those less favorably situated with
respect to manufacturing and marketing facilities. Another effect
has been to introduce more economical methods by the use of the
grainer and vacuum pan which have generally superseded the old
kettle or direct-fire process of evaporation.
A small part of the evaporated salt is made by the solar process.
Its manufacture is limited to Syracuse and vicinity where it has
survived from the early days of the industry, though it has lost its
former importance. The product is mainly coarse salt and is used
for practically the same purposes as rock salt. It is marketed
through the Onondaga Coarse Salt Association. The wells are
situated on lands once included within the Onondaga reservation;
54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
until recently the State supplied the brine to the individual plants,
exacting a sma!l tax on the product to cover the cost of pumping
and supervision. The lands and wells were sold in 1908 to private
companies and the historic connection of the State with the salt
business has been definitely terminated. Solar salt is made from a
natural brine, the only instance of its use in New York.
The accompanying tables give the statistics of salt production for
recent years. The output for 1909 and igto is distributed accord-
ing to grades, so far as the classification could be made without re-
vealing the individual figures. The grades depend upon methods
of manufacture and the purposes for which the salt is used. Rock
salt and salt in brine consumed by the alkali industry appear in the
last item of the tables which also includes small quantities of evap-
orated salt not specially classified in the returns. The evaporated
salt is chiefly marketed under the grades of common fine and table
and dairy salt. Common coarse, coarse solar, and packers are the
other grades of evaporated salt. The prices range all the way from
about 50 cents a barrel for the table and dairy grade down to a few
cents for the salt used for chemical manufacture.
Production of salt by grades in 1909
VALUE
GRADE BARRELS VALUE PER
BARREL
Comment fine tay ee ee 12426) 223 $494 464 § 825
Common coarse. seer ee ee 130 200 45 569 -35
Table .andidainy aoe ae ee eee 1129 207 633 195 .50
Coarse solar :23e he seer ee poe eee 540 614 TO2s253 .30
Packers) 25h ai ase ele ote aint ae ram 99 123 38 344 .40
Other grades ae pase ee epee 6 393 241 924 877 Sic
Potala ss S25. sera ee eee eee 9 880 618 | $2 298 652 & 233
1 Common fine includes a small amount of common coarse.
2Tnclude rock salt, salt in brine used for soda manufacture, and small amounts of brine salt
or which’ the uses were not specified in the returns.
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO 55
Production of salt by grades in 1910
VALUE
GRADE BARRELS VALUE PER
BARREL
@omimion fine te. oy ele ee ee I 322 O15 $378 547 $ .28
Womimon Coarse. See a oe 243 928 S232 328
Meainlevanad’ dairy oot). ekg kek I 258 089 611 271 .49
(COPNESS IONE ee Rm cei Sun ora eed 439 780 129 295 .29
Packers Bie). Named is aeer a Se aM ae Pala 37 935 Ne ala 35
Opmeronades 2 i es ee Ss 6 968 526 I 044 669 15
MNO cals: When octane mee eee LON 270 12720) b22588202 $322
1 Common fine includes a small amount of common coarse.
2 Include rock salt, salt in brine used for soda manufacture, and small amounts of brine salt
for which the uses were not specified in the returns.
Six counties of the State are represented in the industry. Liv-
ingston county leads in quantity and value of output, its importance
being due chiefly to the mines of rock salt, of which there are two
in active operation, situated at Retsof and Cuylerville and owned
respectively by the Retsof Mining Co. and the Sterling Salt Co.
The mines are worked through vertical shafts from 1000 to 1100
feet deep. They are capable of a much larger output than is made
at present. The Genesee Salt Co. is the only producer of evaporated
salt in Livingston county. |
Onondaga county ranks second in output though it actually pro-
duces little marketable salt. Its prominence is due to the operations
of the Solvay Process Co., whose alkali works at Solvay are the
largest of the kind in this country.
The other counties in order of production are Tompkins, with
three evaporating plants, two of which are owned by the Interna-
tional Salt Co., and the other by the Remington Salt Co.; Wyoming
county with two plants, owned by the Worcester Salt Co., and the
Rock Glen Salt Co.; Schuyler county with two works, owned by the
International Salt Co., and the Watkins Salt Co.;.and. Genesee
county with the single plant of the Le Roy Salt Co.
The salt production during the last 25 years is summarized in the
accompanying table which has been prepared from the preceding
issues of this report and fron the statistics published in the volumes
of the Mineral Resources, issued by the United States Geological
Survey.
56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Production of salt in New York since 1886
YEAR BARRELS VALUE
TSSO ry, 0.2 Poa eee aicaee ee era te ne O 2 431 563 $1 243 721
T8878 5 Se So ee Py or ee ee 2 353 560 936 894
DSSS Fac shsdotaeiad elec eee aah cee Wear ean ei ret ea eae 2 318 483 I 130 409
L889... oo ee i sn ak Ses et ee ee ae 22725007, I 136 503
| ho) 0 (6 Paar Veen MINN iS Boe tn aWir o Gigs Gp S 25221026 I 266 O18
ESOT gg She eee ca cae eee ee a na 2 839 544 I 340 036
| ko 18 | eee eit RMU Raia Als nie eth ohne Sco 20472 O72 I 662 816
DPSOB es, wre ae, Oates Sere UR a ON ad gage ane 5 662 C74 I 870 084
LSQ4s bik os ae asec aed Sen ee ee 6 270 588 I 999 146
L8Q 55-5 5 ee Re He Oe cc ia gee oR 6 832 331 I 943 398
T SOG. oo USUAL Sent he cag Soe tae ae ee 6 069 040 I 896 681
ESQ 725.2 aq eee ic) Soke ee ee ee 6 805 854 I 948 759
TBS ol te in aS a OSC Ee eae 6 791 798 2 1260"323
LE QO oe eee ka oh es irae cle aks iene eR 7 489 105 2 540 426
TP OQOO 2 eect. ap RR yi ty at RE ae 7 807 O71 2 171 418
TL QOM 2 eC: eae in at ee 1 Ree ata as a re 7 280) 320 2 089 834
TQO2 as ie at nen ote ene aes Seats ie era 8 523 389 I 938 539
1010 1e eae MC, 1 Satan nay Ae Oey MEE Ser Car meh DOC beg es 8 170 648 2 007 807
1.0 0). Peepers Ey Os RR RAN Ra ne Sn Ny 8 724 768 2 102 748
TOO 5 oe e eee mee tine OR ea ORC URS SA. oS em 8 575 649 2 303 067
TQOG Sessa Nene ih ree eine aN ia 5 eeepedetes 9 O13 993 2 131 650
LOO Fs sshx8 aire ey ee eh a teste aa 9 657 543 2 449 178
1 (0.0 RM ane pseac GL ye Mraas, COUR Pag ME SAR EAL ABIL race ae Q 005 311 2 1365746
pO O10 Wemmarrecene SR ONDE RUDE SU ore Sees fs [icem nr Aa Lae re manne te g 880 618 2 298 652
ROW MO Wes RES So te on tania, “Gee pan aC um mnmcr Rea es Vente LO 270 272 2 258 292
SAND ANDY GRAY ELE
Surficial deposits of sand and gravel are widely distributed in the
State and supply most of the needs for such materials in local build-
ing, engineering and metallurgical operations. The molding sands
of the Hudson river region also have an extensive sale outside of
the State. :
The sand and gravel deposits are mainly of glacial origin, as the
whole territory within the limits of New York, in common with the
northern section of the United States east of the Rocky mountains,
was invaded by the Pleistocene ice sheet which removed all the
loose material accumulated by previous weathering and erosion and
left on its retreat a mantle of transported boulders, gravels, sands
and clays. In places these have the character of unmodified drift,
or morainal accumulations in which the materials are more or !ess
iatermixed, and are then of little industrial value. But more gen-
erally the deposits show a sorted stratiform arrangement due to
their having been worked over by the glacial streams and lakes.
Such is the condition in many of the larger valleys like those of the
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO 57
Hudson, Genesee and Champlain, where the sands, gravels and clays
occur separately in terraced beds extending far above the present
water level. Later water action may have effected a beneficial re-
sorting of the materials as in the case of the beach sands on Long
island and some of the lakes in the interior of the State.
The industry based on the extraction of sand and gravel for indus-
trial uses is a very large one, but the conditions under which it is
carried on make it very difficult to obtain complete or reliable in-
formation of current production. The operations are widely scat-
tered and in most sections of the State have little permanency. For
the year 1910 the reports received from the industry show a produc-
tion of sand and gravel of all kinds amounting in value to
$2,129,708. This total should be considered as an approximation
only and is based on the reports of about one hundred producers
and dealers in the business. It undoubtedly represents the larger
part of the output, but may fall short of the actual total by as much
as 25 per cent, due to incomplete returns from the building sand
trade.
Production of sand and gravel
MATERIAL 1908 1909 I9IO
itolcliinousenmGd ey he bs $277 290 $437 402 $424 O15
Worms as cree AS se he an 2D Bal 20,220 ¢ 33, 709
BitlchtncesainGeiay sn hives. Py ta: 666 809 b I O16 598
WiermsanGla sec 43 368 i 65 835°:
(GTEC! sees RUE Sa Nir ts 120 453 b 589 551
BRO Mahe el. alse i Sih aT 3 O20, she weve tenet ara $2 129 708
“ Includes glass sand, furnace sand, filter sand, engine and polishing sand.
eieleies cies aie sana
Molding sand. The use of sand for the casting of metals calls
for a large supply of special grades which have a rather limited dis-
tribution, compared with building sands, and consequently greater
value.
In New York there are two main areas in which good molding
sands occur: (1) on the lands bordering the Hudson river on both
sides tom, Orange to Saratoga county ; (2) in Enie county. (The
sand is found in shallow deposits immediately beneath the sod and
often covers extensive tracts. In the Hudson river region, which is
by far the most important, beds 8 inches thick may be worked if
convenient to transportation. From this they range up to 7 or 8 feet
CO
58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
thick, though usually the finer grades occur in relatively thin beds.
The sand is graded roughly according to size, which varies from
extremely fine sand that will pass through a 100-mesh sieve to
rather coarse gravel. The business of mining and shipping the
sand is mainly conducted by a few large companies who operate in
several places and are able to furnish all the grades demanded by
the foundries.
The production of molding sand in 1910 amounted to 471,351
short tons valued at $424,015, or almost the same as in the preced-
ing year when the total was 468,609 tons valued at $437,402. These
figures are probably close to the actual amounts, as the molding sand
trade is on a fairly stable basis and can be canvassed with some
degree of accuracy.
Of the total production last year the Hudson river region fur-
nished 448,805 tons valued at $406,542. The remaining 22,546 tons
valued at $17,472 came mainly from Erie county, though small
quantities were reported from Cayuga, Chautauqua, Essex, Living-
ston, and Oneida counties. In 1gog the Hudson river region con-
tributed an output of 450,989 tons valued at $422,144.
Core sand used in connection with molding sand for the cores
of castings is obtained from Oneida lake and from Erie county.
Its production in 1909 amounted to 30,230 tons valued at $25,472.
For 1gto the figures were included with those of fire sand, the com-
bined total of the two materials amounting to 76,589 tons valued at
$33,709.
Building sand. The use of sand and gravel in building and en-
gineering work calls for enormous quantities of those materials and
is the basis of a productive industry that 1s carried on more or less
actively in nearly every county of the State. The business is purely
local, as the towns and cities are generally well supplied with de-
posits close at hand. The value of the materials is mainly repre-
sented in the cost of excavation.
An incomplete census of the industry for the past year showed a
production of sand and gravel valued at $1,606,149. Of this value
sand constituted $1,016,598 and gravel $589,551. The quantity of
sand reported was 3,838,976 cubic yards and of gravel 1,037,026
cubic yards, a total of 4,876,002 cubic yards. Reports were re-
ceived from 56 producers distributed among 32 counties. The
largest business was on Long island, principally in Nassau county,
where the supply for New York is obtained. Nassau county alone
contributed a total of 2,903,600 cubic yards valued at $1,020,247.
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO 59
SIAN,
The quarrying of slate in New York is restricted at present to a
snail district in eastern Washington county. The district extends
north from Salem through the towns of Hebron, Granville, Hamp-
ton and Whitehall and is’ practically continuous with the Vermont
slate district which has much greater economic importance. The
slate occurs at several horizons among the metamorphosed Paleo-
zoic strata of the region, but belongs mostly to the Cambric and
Ordovicic systems. The associated rocks include limestone, shale,
sandstone and quartzite. Extensive slate beds are found also in the
southern continuation of the metamorphic region along the east side
of the Hudson river, in Rensselaer, Columbia and Dutchess coun-
ties. Attempts to work the slate in this section, however, have not
been permanently successful, though it 1s recorded that quarries
were operated for a time at Hoosick, New Lebanon and Hamburg.
The slate from Washington county is remarkable for its variety
of colors. Red slate is the characteristic product, and has the great-
est value owing to its rarity elsewhere. It is quarried chiefly near
Granville and in the Hatch Hill and North Granville sections. Pur-
ple, mottled and different shades of green slate including the
unfading green are also quarried. Nearly all of the product is sold
for roofing purposes, as the manufacture of other materials has not
been developed to any extent in this State.
A paper by Henry Leighton, descriptive of the general occurrence
of slate in Washington county, and of the practice of quarrying and
preparing the material for the market is included in the issue of this
teport for the year 1900.
The production of slate increases and decreases irregularly from
year to year, though no very great change has taken place in the
industry for some time. During the past year the demand for roof-
ing material was rather poor owing to the dull conditions in the
building trades. The total value of the output as reported by the
quarry companies amounted to $83,090 as compared with $127,050
in 1g09 and $111,217 in 1908. This shows a falling off in the value
of nearly 35 per cent. The product of roofing slate amounted to
14,107 squares with a value of $79,857, an average value per square
ef $5.66. In 1909 the roofing slate amounted to 21,187 squares
valued at $126,170, an average of $6.99 a square. These averages
are above those obtained for the slate in other districts, due to the
fact that the red slate commands a very high price, usually from $8
60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
to $10 a square. The balance of the slate output last year consisted
of mill stock with a total value of $3,233, against a value of $880
in 1909.
STONE
Quarry materials are among the leading items in the mineral pro-
duction of the State. In the aggregate their value ranks second only
to that of clay manufactures and the quarry industry is even more
widely represented throughout the various sections. They include all
the principal varieties of stone used for building purposes, some of
which are worked on a fairly extensive scale. The production of
building stone, however, has never approximated the requirements
of the local markets, and very large quantities of that material are
brought in from other states. The main developments in quarrying,
hitherto, have taken place in the branches that supply stone for en-
gineering work, road improvements and such purposes which entail
a minimum amount of labor for extraction and preparation.
The production of stone in 1910 was valued at $6,193,252 as
compared with $7,061,580 in the preceding year. A decrease of
$868,338, or about 12 per cent, thus occurred in the industry and
was distributed among all the different branches. It should be
noted that these figures do not include slate, millstones or limestone
used for cement manufacture, which are reported separately.
The output of granite fell to nearly one-half the amount reported
in 1909. The value of the product was $244,763 as compared with
$479,955 in the preceding year. Both the Adirondack quarries and
those in southeastern New York reported a reduced business. New
developments that may bring about an expansion of the industry in
the near future have been under way in the Adirondack region.
Limestone showed a relatively small decrease; the output was
valued at $3,245,807 against $3,300,383 in the preceding year. The
wide use of limestone for road work was largely responsible for
maintenance of the output.
The value of the marble that was quarried last year amounted to
$341,880 against $380,016 in 1909. The Gouverneur and Columbia
county quarries both shared in the decline.
Sandstone accounted for a value of $1,451,796 in the total as
compared with $1,839,798 for the preceding year. A slight gain in
the sandstone for building uses was more than counterbalanced by
the falling off in the other kinds like curb and flagstone.
The Hudson river trap quarries were worked on about the usual
scale. The value of the product was $900,006 against $1,051,428 in
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO 61
1909; the quantity of stone quarried was actually larger than in the
preceding year, the lower selling price accounting for the decrease
in value.
Production of stone in 1908
toe CURBING
vaRrery eS et cag eee el
Vgire FLAGGING
(CGramiterert oko an ka $71 122 S27 SCS a $152 783] $116 074| $367 564
WGiMMESTOME Mn. oe okiejaee es ZAC MOS Sir ilmiiysiacranse: $15 668] I 647 629] I 210 883] 3 II9 835
MIKE ONES sig WY Gia eats sen SOT AAA Ges TEE AO 2 ie coh, Meeps Nayre arn tae team lane vires I3 921 692 857
WaAndstomernmon) ceteris SSO OMT 2 in| ne rains O12 843 1358 WAT 282 819} I 7II 585
Sl btecaso Mra nn carseat cin) ah ll les eekbecerata, cicahare eee [iatraiear se itera lutte: stellen st smamare 722 863 910 ADE as
Mb@talllteanrrsttecis fo vse urs $1 264 403 |$139 077) $928 511/$2 6590 O16|$r 624 607/$6 615 614
a Included under ‘‘ All other.”
Production of stone in 1909
CURBING
ere | woe) Tae ekesee (Ae | eae
' FLAGGING
Grameen s rics lie. $35 O19 $33 818 $x 352| $182 020| $227 737| $479 955
Winmestonena atten 6 sal). ARG. LOO! Ss dao boon I5 363] I 744 314| I 323 597] 3 300 383
IV iteiiainlCppmcwen ea i eee s 262 934 I04 495 25 6 403 6 159 380 O16
SHINGISHOINGs obs 4 555 hl aie BES. FXO, ooo odcade 783 880 220 200 477 129] I 839 798
“UNTENID) oo a oer GLOCerSeR Eo OLN eS Oil We Renee el PUNE) AU a oe eR IG @\ONE AZRS| id gale cee I O61 428
IUGH EUs Sheet aie ae an eee eae $873 651) $138 313] $800 620/$3 214 374|$2 034 6221$7 061 580
Production of stone in 1910
CURBING
vannery Pee ean oer AEE eee
5 7 FLAGGING
Grramiteeen wy ve awe aiaektee $40 O11 $12 989 a $or 988 $08 875| $244 763
NOiIMESEOMEN. sees eke beaks « 60) OAM Gsc'o a duu o $3 888] rT 815 8090] I 327 O61] 3 245 807
Vital MMe eran kn si giate 252 905 SSMOS ATG ei inn see PUM MUMN keds re re kus ice 2231 341 880
Sandstomeante. oan BOT MAO SINK Wee Lites 408 132 225 408 358 848) I 451 796
“TDSREWO) GS" Aor eer che eae yee rT Repeat se tse cert lo am vo ee a a 908 931 75 909 006
MNO Cally spae pap genesis te lets $780 333} $101 673) $484 020/$3 042 136/$1 785 O90/$6 193 252
a Included under ‘‘ All other.”’
GRANITE
In the strict sense granite is an entirely crystalline igneous rock
made up of potash, feldspar and quartz, usually with subordinate
amounts of mica, hornblende or pyroxene. Among quarrymen and
builders, however, the name granite is given to various other types
of rocks, such as the heavier and darker colored diorites, norites,
gabbros, syenite which resembles granite but lacks quartz, and the
bedded or banded rocks known as gneisses and schists.
62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Two main areas of extensive outcrops of granites and gneissic
rocks are found in the State: the Adirondacks and bordering region
and the Highlands of southeastern New York. In both areas a
wide variety of these rocks exists from which material suitable for
almost any purpose can be obtained. Up to the present time, how-
ever, the local granites have not been utilized to any great extent
for cut and polished work, of which trade the New England quar-
ries have long held control.
In the Adirondack region the prevailing rock formations are gran-
ite, syenite, anorthosite and norite of both massive and gneissoid
types. Quarries have been opened only in the more accessible places
en the borders.
One of the best known products from this region is the red granite
which is obtained on Picton and Wellesley islands in the St Law-
rence river. This is a true granite, of attractive red and pink shades,
ranging from fine to course texture, and takes a handsome polish.
It ought to command a wide market for monumental and building
purposes.
Green syenite is quarried at West Chazy and Ausable Forks. The
Adirondack Granite Co. has recently undertaken the development of
large quarries at the latter locality and intends to erect a dressing
and polishing plant for turning out all classes of work. The com-
pany has secured the quarries formerly worked by the Ausable
Forks Granite Co., as well as additional properties. The products
of the quarries are green and dark green granite (syenite) and light
sray granite (anorthosite). The syenite is particularly adapted for
polished material. The anorthosite has the qualities of an attractive
building stone.
An outlying mass of Adirondack crystalline rocks occurs at Little
Falls, Herkimer county, where quarries have been opened princi-
pally for supplying crushed stone. The crushing plant of the
Syenite-Trap Rock Co., which was destroyed by fire in 1909, is in
course of reconstruction.
The granite quarries of southeastern New York are mainly sit-
uated in Westchester county. The Fordham gneiss, a well-foliated,
grayish biotite gneiss, supplies stone for foundations and rough
masonry. The Yonkers gneiss, more massive than the former and
containing hornblende, affords a good building material. Dikes and
bosses of massive granite are also common in this region and have
been quarried quite extensively for building purposes at New
Rochelle, Mount Vernon and Lake Mohegan, Westchester county ;
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO 63
Round Island, Rockland county; and Pine Island, Orange county.
The Storm King granite, below Cornwall, is used for crushed stone.
The granite trade last year showed a marked recession, the produc-
tion falling below that of any recent year excepting 1907. ~The de-
crease was mainly in the crushed stone and paving block industries,
though the output of granite for building and monumental work did
uot attain the usual proportions. The total production was valued
at $244,763 against $479,955 in 1909 and $367,564 in 1908. Build-
ing stone, rough and dressed, contributed $40,911 to the total as
compared with $35,019 in the preceding year and $71,122 in 1908.
The output of crushed stone amounted in value to $91,988 against
$182,029; monumental stone to $12,989 against $33,818; rubble and
riprap to $20,272 against $12,737; and paving blocks and other kinds
to $78,603 against $216,352 in 1909.
Production of granite
1908 1909 1910
HB yenGhnMePSEOME 2 ac. we spate ees = $71 122 $35 O19 3 $40 OII
Wiomumiemtal se ee ee 27 585 33, 818 12 989
CGiisinedesvOne ey aoe nice Maes ee 152 783 182 029 QI 988
tioioleemtorayo. 260, cues ee es 15 351 12 737, 20272
Wilnerkeinds en ei Pet ek oe ee 100 723 216 352 78 603
TOtall fe :51s Ae i Oy ae cee tang $367 564 $479 955 $244 763
i Includes curbing, paving blocks and minor uses.
LIMESTONE
The stone classified under this heading consists for the most part
of the common grades of limestone and dolo nite such as are char-
acterized by a compact granular or finely crystalline texture and are
lacking in ornamental qualities.
A smaller part is represented by crystalline limestone and by the
waste product of marble quarrying which is sometimes employed for
crushed stone, lime making or flux. Limestone used for the manu-
facture of portland and natural cement is, however, excluded from
the tabulations so as to avoid any duplication of the statistics.
Limestones are widely distributed in the State; the only region
which is not well supplied with this stone being the southern part
_where the prevailing formations are sandstones of Devonic age. In
the western and central parts the Onondaga and Cobleskill lime-
64 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
stones and the Lockport dolomite furnish material for most require-
ments, though they are as a rule rather impure. In the northern
section the Trenton and Chazy limestones and the Precambric cry-
stalline limestone are well represented and in some localities are of
very high quality. The Hudson river region has an important
quarrying industry which is based on limestones of various ages,
ranging from the Precambric crystalline series in the Highands of
southeastern New York to the Salina and Helderberg limestones of
the eastern counties. Besides the hard limestones as noted; there are
unconsolidated calcareous deposits or marls which are found in
swamps and old lake beds, particularly in the central and western
parts of the State. They are utilized to some extent tor cement:
manufacture and for fertilizer.
The limestone quarries rank first in importance among the stone
industries. The product for 1910 was valued at $3,245,807, and was
distributed among 32 counties. The returns showed a slight de-
crease as compared with the output in 1909 which was valued at
$3,300,383.
Erie county has the largest product of any county, with a value
of $866,335 for last year. Onondaga county ranks second, its im-
portance being chiefly due to the operations of the Solvay Process
Co., a large consumer of limestone in alkali manufacture. Then
follow in order Dutchess, Jefferson, Genesee, Warren, and Albany
counties, each reporting a product of more than $100,000.
The distribution of the limestone by counties and also according
to uses 1s shown in the accompanying tables.
Production of limestone
MATERIAL 1908 1909 I9IO
Crushedistome: yea ye ee eee $1 647 629 $1 744 314 $1 815 809
Eimietimade +. cir Mate eo neem 401 728 452 874 365 839
Buildingistonens esa ee 245 655 217 109 99 049
Burnaceyflixe, cp see eee 220) Tie 434 311 538 491
Rubble piprap een eee CRE VER sts 82 748 30 819
Plagcines cinbinon mre mca 15 668 15, 208u\0 3 888
Miscellaneous nee ee b579 038 b353 664 6391 QI2
Totals sherri inc ames $3 119 835 $3 300 383 $3 245 807
> Included in ‘‘ Miscellaneous.”
Includes lime made by Solvay Process Co. and Union Carbide Co., also rubble and riprap.
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO 65
Crushed stone. [Limestone finds its principal application as
crushed stone in which form it is extensively employed for road
ieetal, concrete, and railroad ballast. Where are Jarge quarries in
Erie, Genesee, Dutchess and Rockland counties, besides a great num-
ber of smaller ones elsewhere that are equipped with crushing plants.
The recent canal and highway improvements have furnished a large
market for the material and the production has shown a steady in-
crease. The fine product that results from crushing is finding use
as a fertilizer for soils deficient in lime.
The value of the crushed limestone for 1910 was reported as
$1,815,809 as compared with $1,744,314 for the preceding year. The
amount of the product was about 2,800,000 cubic yards. Erie
county led with a production valued at $476,490 against $447,605 in
190g. The other counties reporting values over $100,000 were
Dutchess, Rockland, Onondaga, Albany, and Genesee.
Lime. The total value of lime made in 1910 was $365,839. This
branch of the industry experienced a poor season owing to the dull
conditions in the building trades. In the preceding year the value
was reported as $452,874. The lime made by the Solvay Process
Co. and the Union Carbide Co. has not been included in the totals,
but classed under “ Other uses.” The leading’ counties in the manu-
facture of lime for the trade were Warren with a total value of
$140,576; Jefferson with $55,837; and Clinton with $48,823.
Building stone. The limestones found in the State have only a
limited sale for building purposes, and few quarries supply more
than a local demand, so that their output fluctuates greatly from
year to year. The restricted market is probably due largely to the
fact that the limestones are prevailingly of dark or somber colors,
_ whereas the present demand is for the lighter colors like those of
the Bedford limestone and Ohio sandstone. The extending use of
concrete has also been a factor in the recent decline of the cut stone
trade, though it has increased the sale of crushed stone.
The returns for 1910 indicated a total product of building stone
valued at $99,049 as compared with a value of $217,109 for the
preceding year and $245,655 for 1908. The loss was distributed
among various counties, but it was most apparent in Erie where
the output showed a falling off from a value of $119,134 1n 1909
to $53,881 last year. The quarries in Schoharie and Herkimer
counties which have been notable producers in earlier years were
either inactive or were operated on a small scale.
66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Furnace flux. The value of the limestone used in blast furnaces
for flux is second only to that of crushed stone. The principal
quarries of this material are in the Onondaga limestone of Erie and
Genesee counties, from which the Buffalo iron furnaces derive much
of their supply. The Lockport dolomite is also quarried in Niagara
county and shipped to furnaces in that section. The furnaces of
northern New York derive their supply of flux from the Chazy lime-
stone of Clinton county and the crystalline limestone in Essex
county. One quarry in the Gouverneur marble district ships its
product to furnaces in western New York.
The production of flux in 1910 reached a value of $538,491 which
was the largest ever recorded. The output for the preceding year
was valued at $434,311, so that the gain was nearly 25 per cent.
Erie county contributed a value of $322,067, or about 60 per cent of
the total. Genesee county made an output valued at $90,132.
Production of limestone by counties in 1909
CRUSHED | LIME fied OTHER
oe STONE MADE FLUX STONE USES ee
MNilowyany. o 26/6 6506s SILOS 440|. 4 GOO... 4... $200) “ee $110 240
Cayuga ae. 36 734 400 £610] 6 835) $2 500 47 079
Clintonan menue Pe WAS AGE Uore| = Ak ALCO 112) Bas) 532 97 280
Coltimibiae eee OSS ley ski ats 3 460 ZOO |e tee 13 543
Diutchesse2 sae sor 365 661 A OOO)! SSE Bit, ae ee 369 661
Erie e ec aay ee tee 447 605 375| 257 966, 119 134| 28 684| 853 764
alton San) eae pae ee ranerageye 1S) (GOO tae? ee 18 900
Genesee) (See. 123) 784 5 400) 99 814 L225 |taon eee 230 223
Greene) acne a ATA Maia nes sys | eon ome 500 30 4 707
Hlerkimente" sca 6 611 Be BOON ca tear ses lee et oer ae 9 961
Jietierson eae [ O00) 457, 208) 2 ae. 562| 153 420 212 350
TEE WAG ik Enna om 940 SROOO |e ee 887 2 359 12 186
MiadiSomerags eae PH Waal 7A | ee cree seca Ssh Wht 840] 12 000 37 O16
Monroe: aera 2OU25 8) 22502) nara ees 3 917 2 454 50 182
Montgomery..... BD? 83D) ees Tae Rane 10 440 I 503 54 775
Niagarass tecirea 2 060 3 000) 27 920 5 587 612 39 179
Onondaga.) Ghia. 110 886 @ OOO ie eee: 17 380| 231 842 360 708
Rensselaer. .2 3. 155/700; Wer 75 3 550 6 750 26 075
Sin WamaencCe nan: 6 630 5 350] 23 994 2 993 I 103 40 070
DALALOSAN ee ae EL 206 © ohoe malin LOOM hee II 416
Schoharicw. iyamiay 18 913) AOO Nt At eee 25 S85 eee 45 198
DEMCCA ye eee I 050 360 40 865 210 2 525
Uisterne cio eee AS (O22) pst 9 360|beeae Te 200 |eqne anes 60 582
Warren: ine 22,028) 117/51 OBO ie eee: I 156 I 750 201 674
Washington...... 47000) 43 2OOlr eee elaelias eee 2 000 92 860
Westchester...... 82521) ZOMOOO My acca neta 3 465 Avlengalag,
Other countiesb... 240 OO! 6) BOO] G Bee 328 561 256 512
Potala: BI 744 314 $452 874/$434 311/217 109/451 775 $3 300 383
p Lime used by Solvay Process Co, and Union Carbide Co. included in “ Other uses.”
Includes Essex, Ontario, Oneida, Orange, Rockland and Schenectady counties.
THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY IQIO
Production of limestone by counties in 1910
67
CRUSHED | LIME |FURNACE|BUILDING) OTHER
ee STONE MADE FLUX STONE USES Pore
PIANO eas ss ST 25 AKO MM eqae SOO eras: lic els c's [ss 4 wins os $129 950
CAC eae BO GLOW he prea eee tale ws. PH AOOON es oe auehe 46 709
Clintons... 13 54 O ose ateplen SOA 4. TOO)... 3 2).2.).. 78 8096
IDNs bad see eee 476 490 152) 322 067| 53 881) $13 745 866 335
KGenesee.......-. 118 797 5 000} 90 132 480 200| 214 609
ieenern ss... :. SY PIPL a ie ce on ‘all oor Sh eee ee 8 225
lerkaimMens 6... . SUS EPXO)| 0 6) AU 3c big Giese ae eee ce ae ea 10 434
iletterson..:.. TGO2I GG Seo sii ernen sete: 200| 168 265 225 995
ILE 5 eee TOS |. est OO lar wari s: 520 726 5 641
Madison 52 O26 eee 2 625 SOO ie rear. 551453
INIGHEOCe 6.2... ... 17, 42S 2Oy 520 erence 2 Felo}) 10 7/0) 51 251
Montgomery..... 207) STO) Wieqeene ole ece sy wices BO22)| 2125 40 557
INje@eara wi. l sk 5 000|; 4 000) 76 695 eke yal 406 89 298
Wnondaga........ 1.50" O40) pn) 1) O20 eae I2 092| 233 228] 397 580
Nensselder........ 15) OOO tepiees 9 alee pees 100 70 I5 170
Duleawrence.... . . 870 7 240\- 27 008 362 HE TEN) 36 596
DANAUOSAe cs... . TST PLA esy ey Al eterna yee Tee os i) at
DeMOMAIes 6.225. I2 441 TSI purienrde I 567 624 14 760
SOneC2,5 soe eee I 625 192 192 1) 1Q2 75 By 276
WIISCits a eee PROMO aval | aEI A RaXOV7Al 3 each eo) His, call ey os er Se eRe 32 551
Wiatiremy 4s. caus. BU as! 160) SO una ado 6 1 ONE eee uae 1730537.
Weashimeton.....'. ES OMOOO Aino OO fee eine eet aie Sa ce ere el aida 3 94 200
Westchester!) . .. (Ohi RoirA tye Sosa Gey Tier raat cua NA Care 3 802 63 189
Other countiesp... 561 501 5 840| 7 408 Fee SIS 575 ey
ACCOR aera $1 815 809'$365 839)$538 491, $99 049'$426 619|$3 245 807
, Lime made by Solvay Process Co. and Union Carbide Co. included in ‘‘ Other uses.”’
Includes Columbia, Dutchess, Essex, Fulton, Oneida, Ontario, Orange and Rockland counties.
The granular crystalline limestones and dolomites
MARBLE
classed as
marble are found in the metamorphosed areas of the Adirondacks
-and southeastern New York. A few varieties of compact, noncrys-
talline limestone, such as the black limestone of the Trenton forma-
tion occurring at Glens Falls and the fossiliferous Chazy limestone
along Lake Champlain, possess ornamental qualities that fit them for
special uses and pass as marble in the trade.
The principal quarries of monumental marble are situated in the
vicinity of Gouverneur, St Lawrence county. The typical product
is a rather coarse-grained, mottled white and gray marble which
takes a lustrous polish. It is graded according to color effect into
pieier mediim,, Virom
granite, 63; from limestone, 64;
from sandstone, 71.
Butldine tiles 17, 18).24.
Burke, sandstone, 60.
Byron, mineral waters, 42.
Calcined plaster, 32.
Caledonia, cement, 16.
(Caillalnaia, | je we Sous, C74
Carbon dioxid, 42:
Carbonate, 34.
Carrolton, petroleum, 48.
Catskill, sandstones, 70.
Cattaraugus: county, brick,).20, #22):
clay andustry., 10). natural seas, 45,
46, 47; petroleum, 48.
Cayuga county, brick,-20; clay in-
Gisiniay, wove lktmmeswone, Co, G72
molding sand, 58.
(CSunSiate, 7, O, wh Wit, 12,146.
Champlain valley, clays, 16.
Chateaugay Ore and Iron Co., 34.
Chautauqua “county. brick, 720022
clay industry, 19; molding sand,
is metbhrall RIS, ZIS, AG, AS.
Chazy, limestone, 64, 66, 67, 68.
Cheever Tron Ore Co:,34) 37;
78 NEW YORK STATE
Chemung county, brick, 20; clay in-
dustry, 19.
Chenango county, bluestone, 70, 71.
Chilson lake, graphite, 30.
Clay; 6: 16525;5) crude 2 10) china.
13. 25> “Prodiucts On TOs: laa nkS:
Clay materials, 16-19, 23-24.
Clifton Springs, 41.
Clinton, 1n0m ‘ore; 235) 330:
Clinton county, brick, 20; clay in-
dustry, 19; iron ore, 35; lime, 65;
limestone, 66, 67.
Clinton township, St Lawrence ca.,
pyrite, 50.
Cobleskill limestone, 63.
Columbia county, brick, 20, 22, 23;
clay industry, 19; limestone, 66;
marble, 60; slate, 50.
Columbia Pipe Line Co., 40.
Conduit pipes, 18.
Conklingville, graphite, 30.
Corevsand, 57, so:
Cornwall, granite, 63.
Crown Point, feldspar, 27.
Crown Point Graphite Co., 30.
Crown Point Spar Co., 27.
Crushed stone, 7; from granite, 63;
from limestone, 63, 64; from
Sandstone, 71; irom trap, 72:
Curbing, 7; from granite, 62; from
limestone, 64; from sandstone, 60,
a1.
Cuylerville, salt, 55.
DeKalb, pyrite, 50.
Delaware river, bluestone, 69, 71.
Diabase, 72.
Dobbs Ferry, marble, 68.
Dolomite, 63.
Dover White Marble Co., 68.
Drain: tile, 175 16.23:
Dutchess county, brick, 20, 22, 23;
clay industry, 18, 19; crushed
stone, 65; limestone, 64, 66; limo-
nites, 39; sandstone, 69; slate, 50.
Earthenware, 25.
Easton, Pa., emery, 26.
Electric supplies, 24, 25.
MUSEUM BULLETIN
Emery, 9, 10; miner2: 14) Zo"
Emery Pipe Line Co., 4o.
Empire Gas & Fuel Co., 46, 47.
Empire Graphite Co., 30.
Empire Portland Cement Co., 16.
Erie county, brick, 20; building
stone, 65; cement, 14; clay in-
dustry, 18, 19; crushed stone, 65;
fireproofing, 24; limestone, 64, 66,
67; molding sand, 57; snatusal
gas, 8, 45, 46, 47; potteneese
tile, 24.
Essex county, garnet, 28; graphite,
30; limestone, 66; molding sand,
58.
Faxon property, 30.
Feldspar, 0) 10,"11,) 12581seer
Finch, Pruyn &rCosees:
Fire: brick; 16, 1791S eee
Fire tile, 18.
Fireproofing, 6, 17, 18, 23.
Flagstone, 7; from limestone, 64;
from sandstone, 60, 70, 71.
Floor tile, 24.
Flue lining, 18.
Flux, from limestone, 64, 66.
Fordham gneiss, 62.
Fords Brook Pipe Line Co., 49.
Fort Ann, sandstone, 60.
Fort Montgomery, iron ore, 35.
Franktonrd,: Pa-, emery, 26:
Franklin county, sandstone, 69.
Fronts brick 17, 164-10:
Frost Gas Co., 48.
Fulton county, limestone, 66.
Furnace flux, from limestone, 64, 66.
Furnaceville Iron Co., 35, 30.
Garnet1o0, 10,10, 12513527420)
Genesee county, crushed stone, 65;
limestone, 64, 66, 67; natural gas,
45, 47; salt, 55.
Genesee Salt Co., 55.
Glass sand, 9, I0.
Glens Falls, marble, 68.
Glens Falls Graphite Co., 30.
Gneisses, 61.
ae an
rm =
INDEX TO MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY 79
Gore mountain, garnet, 28.
Gouverneur, marble, 60,
pymte, 50; talc, 74, 76:
Gouverneur Marble Co., 67.
Granite (village), millstones, 40.
Granite, 7, 9; 10; 11, 12, 13, 60) 61-03.
Granville, slate, 50.
Graphite (village), 3o.
Graphite, 8,-9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 20-30.
Gravel, 11, 13, 56-58.
Greene county, brick, 20, 22, 23;
‘clay industry, 19; limestone, 66,
67; sandstone, 70.
Greenfield, trap, 72, 73.
Greenfield Center, graphite, 30.
Greenport, marble, 68; portland
Cement, 15.
Gypsum 7, 0, 10, LI, 12, 13, 30-33.
CON O7;
Hague, graphite, 30.
Hamburg, slate, 50.
Hampden Corundum
Springfield, Mass., 26.
Hampton, slate, 59.
lslanea, labile
Haverstraw, trap, 72.
Hebron, slate, 59.
Helderberg limestone, 64.
Hematite, 34, 35, 30.
Herkimer county, building stone, 65;
etamite, O2;)) limestone, 66, (67;
sandstone, 609; trap, 72.
High Falls, millstones, 40; pyrite,
50.
Highlands, granite, 62.
Hinckley Fibre Co., 51.
Holley, sandstone, 60.
Hollow brick, 23.
Hoosick, slate, 59.
Hudson Cement Co., 15.
Hudson Iron Co., 35.
Hudson river region, bluestone, 71;
building brick, 21; clays, 16; lime-
stones, 64; molding sand, 57;
sandstone, 69; trap, 60.
Hydraulic cement, 7.
Wheel Co.,
International Pulp Co., 74, 75.
inibepnational Salt Co, 55.
ions one, 10,9, 10) 1, )12, 13) 33-38:
Inoquois: Co. 10:
Jamesville, cement, 16.
Jefferson county, brick, 20; clay in-
dustny., 10;) iron! ore, 35, lime, 05);
limestone, 64, 66, 67; pyrite, 50,
Fes
Joseph Dixon Crucible Co., 30.
Kaolin, 24.
Keeseville, garnet, 28.
Kendall Refining Co., 4o.
Kerhonkson, millstones, 40.
Keystone Emery Mills, Frankford,
IP2l. \ AO),
Kings county, clay industry, 18, 19;
fireproofing, 24; pottery, 25; tile,
24,
Kingston, millstones, 40; sandstone,
70.
tate bam Ta Sons. 27.
Knickerbocker Portland Cement
Cores:
Kyserike, millstones, 4o.
Lake Mohegan, granite, 62.
Lakeville, iron ore, 35.
Lancaster, R., Peekskill, 26.
Lancaster-Depew Natural Gas Co.,
47.
Rand, plaster (31.
Lead hill, graphite, 30.
Lebanon Springs, 41, 42.
Leighton, Henry, mentioned, 50.
Ibe INonr Salle Cros Sey
Lewis county, limestone,
tales:
Lewiston, sandstone, 60.
Lima, electrical supplies, 25.
Lime, 64.
Wimlestone77/0) 10. Tl, 12; Eeoowor
63-67.
Limonite, 34, 35). 30.
Lincoln Spring Co., 42.
Cittlewhallshseranite, 62) trap, 72)
Livingston county, brick, 20; cement,
16 (clay industry,” 10; moldimne
Sands Sos mattinal’ gas) 46)" saltuas.
605) 075
SO NEW YORK ‘STATE
Lockport, sandstone, 69.
Lockport dolomite, 64, 66.
Long island, building sand, 58; clays,
160, 24,725.
Lyon Mountain, iron ore, 34.
Madison county, clay industry, 19;
limestone, 66, 67.
Magnetite, 34, 35.
Malone, sandstone, 69.
Manhattansdarapy WocksCo.m72:
Marble, 7, 0,10, 115112, 13, (On, 167-68.
Marengo Portland: Cement Cor. 16:
Massena Springs, 4I.
Medina sandstone, 69.
Metallic: paing 0; 10, 0l.6i2; oT:
Millen, Thomas, & Co., 16.
Millstones, 9, 10, II, 12, 13, 39-40.
Mineral production, value of, 5.
Mineral waters co, 0.) 1Ovn lis i213)
40-44.
Mineville, iron ore, 34, 30-37.
Molding sand, 56, 57-58.
Monroe county, brick, 20; clay in-
dustry, 19; fireproofing, 24; lime-
Stone, ) 100. 674) Sandstone: 60);
sewer pipe, 23; tile, 24.
Montgomery county, limestone, 66,
67.
Monumental stone, 7, 63.
Mt Bigelow, garnet, 28.
Mount Vernon, granite, 62.
Nassau county, brick, 20; building
Sand 5Or smiclay) Guiadtstmyys aOy
pottery, 25.
National Carbonic Gas Co., 42.
Natural Bridge, talc, 75.
Natural gas, 8, 9, 10, II, 12, 13, 45-48.
Nattital jrock cement) 20 1O. sin aan2
ey ay ies
New Lebanon, slate, 59.
New Paltz, millstones, 4o.
New Rochelle, granite, 62.
New York Carbonic Acid Gas Co.,
42.
New York county, fireproofing, 24;
DOUUEIN. “AAs.
New York-New England
and Mame (Go, 15;
Cement
MUSEUM BULLETIN
New ‘York Dransit(€o.,. 40:
Niagara county, brick, 20; clay in-
dustry; “10; limestone) \60moa-
_ sandstone, 609.
Niagara Light, Heat (&) RowemuGo-r
47.
North Granville, 509.
North River (Garnet i@ora2es
Norwich, sandstone, 70.
Nyack, trap, 72.
Oak Orchard springs, 42.
Oil, 48-50.
Oil G@ity;, Pa, naturalvcas 16:
Old Sterling: Iron Co.) 35:
Olean, natural gas, 46; petroleum,
49.
Oneida county, brick, 20; clay im=
dustry, 19; fireproofing, 24; mold-
ing sand, 58; tile, 24.
Onondaga Coarse Salt Association,
53:
Onondaga county, brick, 20; cement,
16; clay imdustry,.)16, Owe
crushed stone, 65; fireproofing,
24; limestone, 64, 66, 67; natural
gas, 45, 40; pottery, 25e0 salient
GUSERYZ) 788535. 55:
Onondaga limestone, 63, 66.
Ontario county, brick, 20; clay in-
dustry, 19; pottery, 25.
Ontario Iron Ore Co., 35, 30.
OntarioyalcmComu7A
Orange {county, brick, 20;.225n2e"
clay industry, 18, 10; oramitemnog:
Orleans county, sandstone, 69, 71.
Ossining, marble, 68.
Oswego county, natural gas, 45, 46.
Palisades, trap, 72.
Palisades Interstate Park, 73.
Pavilion NaturalsiGasy Comsage
Paving blocks, from _ granite,
63;
from sandstone, 71.
Paving, Drick, 10,107,106, 23) spices:
22h
Peekskill, emery, 26.
Rerun steelac sliron iCon acs
FetGOleuti a(S iON eOemn male
48-50.
WAG, = Ie
INDEX TO MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY SI
Pig iron, manufacture of, 6.
Pine Island, granite, 63.
Riaster Of paris, 31.
asters, 31.
Plattsburg, marble, 68.
Pleasantville, marble, 68.
oOncelain, 24, -25.
Port Henry, sandstone, 69.
Bort Elenry Iron Ore Co., 34, 36:
RoGuand cement, 7, 0) 10) Il; 12) 13=
BAN 1S.
Potsdam sandstone, 69.
Pouren, Gas (Co:, 47.
Other sO) O; 10, 1, 12, 12, 17, 18,
PAS 227
Pottery clays, 25.
Henoducers, Gas “Co, 46, 47.
invite. ©; LO, 11; 13, 50-52.
Quarry materials, value of, 7.
Onan oO, TO; oT, 12) 13,+27.
Queens county, clay industry, 18,
KOPOLLEEY. 25 ,aterra- Cotta, 24.
Ramapo. Prap Rock Co., 73.
Red slate, 50.
Redwood, sandstone, 69.
iNcmuneton Salt €o., 55.
inmensselaer, county, brick, 20; 21, 22,
23; clay industry, 19; fireproofing,
24; limestone, 66, 67; sandstone,
CO slates 50:
Rensselaer Falls, pyrite, 51.
Retsof, salt, 55.
Retsof Mining Co., 55.
Richfield Springs, 41.
Richmond, trap, 72:
Richmond county, brick, 20; clay
MCtistry. 1S. 10; mrebrick . and
stove lining, 23; terra cotta, 24.
Riparius, garnet, 28.
Riprap, from granite, 63; from lime-
stone, 64; from sandstone, 71.
IRogGl new) uel, 72, See also
Crushed stone.
Rochester, petroleum, 40; sand-
stone, 60.
noc Glens Salm Con esse
Rock Salt. 7.
jixockland: county,- brick. 20) 22) 23;
Clays midtstiyy 016.8 LO wecrushied
stone, 65; granite, 63; trap, 73.
Roofing material, feldspar, 27.
Roofing slate, 9; 10, 13, 59.
Roofing tile, 24.
Round Island, granite, 63.
Rubble, from granite, 63; from lime-
stone, 64; from sandstone, 71.
Rutland-Florence Marble Co., 68.
St Josen, millstones, 40.
St Lawrence county, limestone, 66,
Gis Maes, (Crs) jpewsy KO ily
sandstone, 69; talc mines, 8, 75.
St Lawrence Marble Quarries, 67.
St Lawrence Pyrite Co., 50.
St Lawrence river, granite, 62.
St Lawrence Talc and Asbestos Co.,
75:
Salem, slate, 50.
Salina limestone, 64.
Salisbury, steel ce Tron) Con sass:
Sali, 9, O, AKOh Wily 1A 13, 0:
Sands) 1,12)! 135) 50-58:
Sandie. bricks O)9 £0, 11,112) 13:
SNAG WONG, 7, O, io, i, 1) iy (Oue,
68-71.
SAMitamy awanes,.24)) 25.
Saratoga county, brick, 20; clay in-
dustin 10>) feldspar, 27.) etaplaite.
30; limestone, 66, 67; trap, 72,.73.
Saratoga Springs, 40, 42.
Saugerties, sandstone, 70.
Schenectady, electrical supplies, 25.
Schenectady county, clay industry,
18, 19; pottery, 25.
Schists, 61.
Schoharie county, building
65; limestone, 66, 67.
Schuyler county, isalt, 55.
Seneca county, limestone, 66, 67.
Sewer. pipe, 17, 16, 23.
Sharon Springs, 41.
Shawangunk conglomerates, 40, 60.
Silver Creek Gas & Improvement
Com 47,
Seve, ©), 10}, “ini, 1, 10 GOs
Slate pioment. O,.10) 11) 02) 03:
stone,
82 NEW YORK STATE
Smyth, C. H., mentioned, 51.
Solvay Process Co., 53, 55, 64, 65.
South Dover Marble Co., 68.
South Shore Gas Co., 48.
Spring waters, 42.
Springfield, Mass., emery, 26.
Springville Natural Gas Co., 47.
State park, 73.
Staten island, clays, 16, 24, 25; trap,
Tn
Stellaville, pyrite, 50.
Sterling Iron & Railway Co., 35.
Sterling Salt Co., 55.
Steuben county, brick, 20, 23;
Cement.) 105) “clay, industry.) 10);
natural gas, 46; petroleum, 48;
terra cotta, 24.
Stone, 6, 60-76.
Stoneware, 16, 25.
Storm King granite, 63.
Stove lining, 17, 18, 23.
Stower, J. N., 35.
Stroudsburg, Pa., emery, 26.
Sultern> sthaps73:
Suffolk county, brick, 20; clay in-
dustry, 19; pottery, 25.
Sullivan county, sandstone, 70.
Syenite, 62.
Syenite-Trap Rock Co., 62.
Syracuse, china tableware, 25; elec-
trical supplies, 25.
ARE Wor rch Ch ko, Wie, A aie}. 7/4-9/6),
Tanite Co: Stroudsbunes eae e2o:
Terra cotta, 6, 10:17) 16,.237724
Terra cotta tile, 24.
Ticonderoga, feldspar, 27; graphite,
30.
Tide Water Pipe Co., 40.
ile Ox TOS ae:
Tobacco pipes, 25.
Tompkins county, salt, 55.
Drap,, 7,10) LO Salih eno OOM Oe
72-73-
Trenton limestone, 64, 68.
Tuckahoe, marble, 68.
Tully, salt. 5347
MUSEUM BULLETIN
Ulster county, bluestone, 70; brick,
20, 22, 23; clay industry, 16.2108
limestone, 66, 67; millstones, 30.
Uniform Fibrous Tale Co; 72:
Union Carbide Co., 65.
Union Pipe: Line ‘Como:
Unions salem Cora As.
United Natural Gas Co., 46, 47, 48.
United States Gypsum Co., 32.
United States Talc Co., 74.
Vacuum ©il “Co; 40.
Victor, electrical supplies, 25.
Wall plaster, 31.
Warners, cement, 16.
Warren county, garnet, 28; graphite,
30; lime, 64, 65; limestone, 64, 66,
67.
Warsaw, sandstone, 70.
Washington county, clay industry,
19; limestone, 66, 67; pottery, 25;
slate, 50.
Watkins Salt Co., 55.
Wayland Portland Cement Co., 16.
Wayne county, limonite, 309.
Welch Gas Co., 48.
Wellsville, natural gas, 46; petro-
leum, 40.
West Chazy, syenite, 62.
West Union, petroleum, 48.
Westchester county, brick, 20, 22,
23; clay industry, 19; emery, 20;
feldspar, 27; granite, 62; lime-
stone, 66, 67.
Westfield, natural gas, 48.
White Plains, marble, 68.
Whitehall, sandstone, 69; slate, 509.
Witherbee, Sherman & Co., 34, 35,
26.
Worcester Salt Co., 55.
Wyoming county, natural gas, 46;
salt, 55> Sandstoney 701. 7as
Yonkers eneiss, 62.
oe ns
' ; 7 .
i Appendix 3 | : i: .
- : Sinonclosy . |
3 Museum Bulletin 147 oe |
147 ‘ 26th Report of the State Pee oiseet I9QIO | |
pe
oo)
\
ms
.
9
La X
aT 4 a ee
as Sey Pig SE
ee
ee
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N Y.,
under the act of July 16, 1894
No. 490 PIGS IAIN Nhs ING SEe MARCH I, IQII
New York State Museum
Joun M. CrarKe, Director
EPHRAIM PoRTER FELT, State Entomologist
Museum Bulletin 147
26th REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST
ON
INJURIOUS AND OTHER INSECTS
OF THE
STATE OF NEW YORK
I9IO
PAGE PAGE
MAEROGMCHION. 5. 34's iS 50 eissueleice se g, INCOSE RSS MMSE, oh Gkooososc 57
MiGbI@ US MSE CtS. 2222-2... - HN vMiscellaneousen aust) eee 66
Codling moth................ 12 | Publications of the Entomologist 70
Jumper webwotie jsos.4.6.. .- SD eee eer lees
Kayseaphidyspruce gall... :. 36 TER ene kan aun gC ie
ENS Sill aber ier ee tecete alas eles S56 abs 39 Appendix Tce unease: ciel canna 82
INjOteSMor the syearesc.6 cae. +. AI Miastor americana Felt, an
FUGUE UMSCCES. cals, See osesc «cms AI account of pedogenesis...... 82
Garden and grain insects...... 47 Explanationyonplatesss oss eren 105
Sihade vtree pests.) ./.4... Seale mL INGhe XG ee eres ce aes cabana ae oan mn 175
New York State Education Department
Science Division, December 21, 1910
Hon. Andrew S. Draper LL.D.
Commissioner of Education
Dear stk: I have the honor to communicate herewith for publi-
cation as a bulletin of the State Museum the Annual Report of the
State Entomologist, for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1910.
Very respectfully
Joun M. CiarkeE
Director
STATE OF NEW YORK
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
COMMISSIONER'S ROOM
Approved for publication this 22d day of December roro
Commissioner of Education
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y.,
under the act of July 16, 1894
No. 490 ATBAN YW Ne Ye MARCH 1, I9Q1!
New York State Museum
Joun M. CrarKke, Director
EpHRAIM PorTER FELT, State Entomologist
Museum Bulletin 147
26th REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST, 1910
To John M. Clarke, Director of Science Division
I have the honor of presenting herewith my report on the injuri-
ous and other insects of the State of New York for the year ending
October 15, I9IO.
The past season has been remarkably quiet so far as unusual out-
breaks of injurious insects are concerned. The entomologist was
exceptionally fortunate in discovering a colony of pedogenetic
letiavdewpresumably those of Miastor americana. hese
extremely peculiar forms were previously unknown in this country
and have been studied by only a few Europeans. A summarized
account of these interesting larvae is given in an appendix.
Fruit tree pests. The experimental work with the codling
moth was continued the present season under more diverse condi-
tions, and data which will be of great value in the practical control
of this species, was secured. The experiments were conducted in
the orchards of W. H. Hart, Poughkeepsie; C. R. Shons, Washing-
tonville and William Hotaling, Kinderhook. Great pains were
taken to secure an ample number of trees likely to produce a nearly
uniform amount of fruit. Each plot, as last year, except in the case
of Mr Hotaling’s orchard, consisted of 42 trees, the fruit from the
central six alone being counted. Comparisons were made to ascer-
tain the relative efficacy of one spray given just after the blossoms
dropped, with this treatment supplemented by a second application
6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
about three weeks later. The unusual abundance of the codling
moth the past season renders the data secured of exceptional value
because they show the possibilities under very adverse conditions.
Assistant State Entomologist Young aided in the field work and was ——
responsible in large measure for the computation of the tabulated
data. These experiments and their application are discussed on
subsequent pages.
The San José scale is still very destructive, especially to peach
trees, though our progressive orchardists have comparatively little
difficulty in controlling it. A lime-sulfur wash, particularly that
known as the concentrated wash, either homemade or commercial,
has proved very satisfactory, as a rule, in checking this pest. There
was complaint of injury by the cherry maggot in the Hudson valley
and an investigation of the pest and methods of controlling it was
inaugurated. The cherry and pear slug was exceptionally abundant
in this region and also in the western part of the State. The pear
psylla was somewhat numerous in the lower Hudson valley and
reports of serious injuries were received from certain sections in
the western part of the State.
The work of a new apple pest which may be known as the lined
red bug (Lygidea mendax Reut.) -was observed @inteue
Hudson valley. This insect occurs in early spring, lives upon the
more tender terminal leaves and, under favorable conditions, may
inflict considerable injury.
Shade tree pests. The injurious work of various species has
been brought to our notice. The more important of the shade tree
pests is the elm leaf beetle, a well known form which has been
exceedingly abundant on Long Island, throughout the Hudson val-
ley and in certain cities-in the western part of the Stareg@adige
sugar maple borer has been unusually numerous on the trees of
Fulton, Oswego county, destroying or practically ruining a number
of magnificent trees. The cottony maple scale has been somewhat
abundant in the lower Hudson valley, while the injurious work of
the false maple scale was observed in several localities in the vicin-
ity of New York city.
Forest insects. The snow-white linden moth, a pest which
has been very destructive in the Catskills for the past three years,
was abundant in limited localities last season and its flight in small
numbers was observed in various places. A series of outbreaks by
another leaf feeder was reported from several localities. They
were due to the operations of a green, white-striped caterpillar
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 7.
@Gy lina vantennata ) frequently designated as the green
fruit worm. The destructive work of the hickory bark beetle,
noted in a preceding report, has been continued. An unusual out-
break was that of Abbott’s sawfly, a false caterpillar which stripped
or nearly defoliated many white pines in the foothills of the Adi-
rondacks. The spruce gall aphid has continued to be abundant and
injurious on Norway spruce; in particular. Jt is interesting to
record the discovery of another species of gall aphid, new to the
State, occurring upon the Colorado blue spruce. The above noted
insects have been the subject of correspondence and, in some
instances, of field investigations during the past season.
Gipsy and brown tail moths. Much interest was aroused
early in 1909 by the finding of thousands of winter nests of the
_ brown tail moth on many shipments of French seedlings. A num-
ber of such nests occurred on shipments received in 1910, though
the pests were not so abundant as during the preceding year. The
careful inspection of the stock appears to have prevented this insect
from becoming established in the State. There is much more dan-
ger of this moth being brought into New York State on shipments
of full grown nursery stock originating in infested American terri-
tory than there is of its being introduced with imported seedlings.
It has been found necessary to give considerable time to the deter-
mination of remains of caterpillars, cocoons and egg masses in order
to be certain that none of these fragments on nursery stock indi-
cated the presence of either the gipsy or brown tail moth. ‘The
mounting of such fragments has devolved upon Miss Hartman.
A personal investigation of conditions in eastern Massachusetts
shows that no pains are being spared to prevent the dissemination
of either the gipsy or the brown tail moth. Particular attention
-has been given to keeping the property abutting on the principal
highways free from the pests so as to eliminate in large measure
the danger of their being carried by vehicles of any kind. There
has been, however, some extension of the territory occupied by
these two pests. The gradual spread of these insects appears to be
inevitable, though the utmost care is taken in the treatment of the
outlying colonies. It is gratifying to state that the serious infes-
tation recently discovered at Wallingford, Conn. has been handled in
such a satisfactory manner that only a very few specimens rewarded
a week’s careful search by a gang of fifteen men. An examination
of the work with parasites showed that no stone was being left
unturned in an effort to find, rear and liberate a large number of
8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
efficient enemies of these pests. The entomologist would emphasize
once more the grave danger of bringing either one or both of these
pests into the State on nursery stock originating in the infested
area, and would call attention to the great desirability of promptly
exterminating any isolated colonies which might be found in the
near future.
House fly. The popular interest in the control of this pest
has continued and bids fair to result in important and far-reaching
sanitary changes. The demand for information along these lines
speedily exhausted the edition of Museum Bulletin 129 on the
Control of Household Insects and necessitated its republication in
an extended and revised form as Museum Bulletin 136 entitled:
The Control of Flies and Other Household Insects. The entomo-
logist has been called upon to give a number of popular lectures
upon this insect and has made personal examinations of conditions
in several localities, giving special attention to situations favorable
for the production of flies in cities and villages.
Gall midges. Our studies of this extensive and interesting
group have been continued and the results are now in manuscript.
This publication will describe fully some 800 species, 441 having
been reared. The tabulation of midge galls, made with the assist-
ance of Miss Hartman, shows that we know some 538 species
representing 44 génera and living at the expense of some 177 plant
genera referable to 66 plant families. In addition to the above,
there are some 5 species reared from unknown plants and II
species belonging to 3 genera known to be zoophagous.
A number of new species have been reared during the year.
Miss Cora H. Clarke of Boston, Mass. has continued collecting
and forwarding to us excellent series of galls from which we were
able to rear several previously unknown species. The care of this
material has devolved largely upon assistant D. B. Young and
Miss Hartman. The latter has also made a large number of micro-
scopic mounts of these fragile forms.
Miscellaneous. The entomologist spent nearly six weeks in
Europe, giving special attention to museum methods, shade and
forest tree insects and the gall midges. Collections were studied in
the following institutions: British Museum of Natural History,
London; the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge; the Tropical
School of Medicine, Liverpool; the zoological gardens at Antwerp;
the Royal Museum of Natural History at Brussels; the botanical
gardens of Ghent; Museum of Natural History and also the ento-
- REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST I9QIO 9
mological station, both of Paris; the University at Zurich; the
exceptionally valuable collection of forest insects in the forestry
school at Munich; the natural history collections in the Sencken-
berg Museum at Frankfurt; the Winnertz collections in the Uni-
versity of Bonn; the Museum of Natural History, Berlin, and the
Museum of Natural History at Hamburg. In addition, the entomo-
logist spent several days with Prof. J. J. Kieffer of Bitsch, Ger-
many, studying his exceptionally valuable collection of Cecido-
myiidae, and a day with Prof. E. H. Rubsaamen at Remagen, Ger-
many, which was devoted largely to examining his numerous excel-
lent drawings and a discussion of the classification of this group.
A portion of a day was spent with Oberforster H. Strohmeyer of
Munster, Germany, studying his excellent collection of Scolytidae,
while another day was passed with Oberforster Karl Philip at
Sulzberg obtaining first-hand information of forestry methods as
practised in Germany.
Publications. Numerous brief, popular accounts dealing with
injurious insects have been prepared by the entomologist for the
agricultural and local press, besides a few more technical papers
for scientific publications. A revision of Museum Bulletin 129, as
noted above, was issued during the year, while the report for 1909
appeared July last. A tabulation of the midge galls known to occur
upon several plants was published in August under the title of
Gall Midges of Aster, Carya, Quercus and Salix.
Collections. A most valuable addition to the collections was
Scetmec threteh they generosity ot Prot. |. j. Kieffer, of Bitseh,
Germany, who kindly donated to the museum a number of his
generic types of European gall midges. ‘These have been carefully
mounted and are now accessible to students in the group. A fine
series of Italian midge galls was secured by exchange with Dr
Mario Bezzi. ‘These were carefully arranged and labeled by Miss
Hartman. Miss Cora H. Clarke, as in preceding years, has con-
tributed some valuable biological material, mostly insect galls.
The arrangement and classification of the collection has been
pushed as rapidly as possible, though it should be remembered that,
with the limited office staff, it 1s practically impossible to keep the
collections properly classified, while the securing of extremely desir-
able additional material must of necessity proceed slowly. The
restrictions due to a small staff will become more apparent with
the occupancy of quarters in the new building, accompanied by the
obligation of maintaining a larger exhibit. The school teachers of
IO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Albany, Troy and presumably other near-by localities are making
extensive use of our exhibit collections in connection with the
regular school work. It is the aim of the Department to have a
representative collection of the species occurring in the State, though
the assembling of such means the work of years.
The nearly completed monograph on the gall midges shows that
the State collections in this family will far exceed anything that
can be assembled elsewhere for some years to come. It will always
be exceptionally valuable because of the very large series of generic
types or cotypes. Assistant State Entomologist Young has identi-
fied and arranged the Conopidae, besides doing much miscellaneous
work in classifying insects collected during the year and identifying
species sent in for name. A number of Hemiptera have been very
kindly determined by our well known authority in this group, Mr
EK. P. Van Duzee of Buffalo. Miss Hartman has also assisted in
the arrangement of the collection and has reared and spread a
number of specimens.
The value of the exhibit collections will be greatly enhanced
when the fine series of plant groups, designed for the exhibition
of insects in their natural environment in the new Educational
Building, has been completed. The wax work for four of these
groups has been delivered and it is planned to complete the
remainder next year. Several excellent models representing injur-
ious insects are now on exhibition and more should be secured,
preferably made to order, since only a few can be purchased in the
market, while no one has attempted to prepare models of many
forms which could be exhibited in this manner to very great
advantage.
Nursery inspection. There has been close cooperation with
this phase of the work conducted by the State Department of Agri-
culture. Numerous specimens of both native and foreign insects
have been submitted to this office for name, and the entomologist
frequently consulted in regard to various problems. ‘This work,
while consuming much time and often necessitating identifications
of minute forms, like scale insects or the recognition of species by
fragments or the comparatively unknown early stages, is very
important, since the treatment of large shipments must depend in
great measure upon our findings.
Office matters. The general work of the office has progressed
in a satisfactory manner, the assistant State entomologist being in
charge of the office and responsible for the correspondence and
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO iF AL
other matters during the absence of the entomologist in Europe
and while away on vacation. Miss Hartman, in addition to matters
noted above, has rendered material assistance in bibliographic work
and in translating from German, French and Italian works.
Numerous specimens have been received during the year for identi-
fication and many inquiries made concerning injurious forms.
1445 letters, 37 postals, 417 circulars, 1475 packages were sent
through the mails and 44 packages were shipped by express.
General. The work of this office has been greatly facilitated,
as in past years, by the identification of certain species through the
courtesy of Dr L. O. Howard, chief of the Bureau of Entomology,
UW. S. Department oi Agriculture, and his associates. Several cor-
respondents have aided materially in securing valuable specimens
of one kind or another, and, as heretofore, there has been a most
helpful cooperation on the part of all interested in the work of this
office.
Respectfully submitted
EPHRAIM PORTER FELT
| State Entomologist
Office of the State Entomologist, October 15, ToT0
[2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
INJURIOUS INSECTS
CODLING MOTH
Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.
The apple worm, or larva of the codling moth, is such a common
pest that comparatively few appreciate the losses caused by its
operations, and altogether too many regard it as a pest which it is
almost useless to combat. This latter notion is a very erroneous
one. There is abundant data to prove not only the possibility, but
the practicability, of controlling this insect in a very satisfactory
manner. This is shown in a very striking way by the experiments
conducted last year. Even one thorough application resulted in the
production of nearly 99 per cent of worm-free fruit, while check
_ trees did not produce quite 73 per cent of sound fruit, | Ehese
experiments were continued the present season for the purpose of
testing more thoroughly and under varying conditions the relative
value of one or more sprays for the control of this serious pest.
General observations. The season of 1910 has been remark-
able for the development of a large second brood and a consequent
prevalence of wormy apples. The work of this pest was very
evident in Genesee county as well as in the Hudson valley, and in
some unsprayed orchards over 50 per cent of the fruit had been
injured by the apple worm. May 320th there was a severe hail storm
in sections of the Hudson valley, and an examination of the wormy
fruit showed that from 50 to 60 per cent of the apple worms had
entered at points injured by the hail. Cacoecia larvae were rather
prevalent in one orchard and their operations were very frequently
followed by codling moth larvae entering at such places. Moreover,
badly rusted, rough spots on the fruit were also favorite points of
attack. Comparative freedom from codling moth injury was
observable in orchards where pigs or sheep had been allowed to
run, this being especially true if the animals had been pastured in
the orchards for several years, even in those where there was no
spraying. One codling moth larva was found spun up in a slight
depression on the under side of an apple resting on loose soil, and
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO Tks
another had prepared a similar retreat for the winter on an apple
before it had dropped from the tree.
Life history and habits. Before discussing the experimental
work of the season we will briefly summarize the life history of this
Species. | Line apple worm, as is well known, winters in a tough,
silken cocoon, usually found under the rough bark of trees. The
advent of warm weather in spring, which in New York means late
April and early May, is followed by the caterpillars transforming
within their silken retreats to pupae, and a week or ten days after
the blossoms drop the moths commence to emerge and continue to
appear throughout the greater part of June. The minute, whitish
eges are deposited largely upon the leaves, though a number may
be found on the young fruit. These hatch in about a week and
~ as a consequence the young apple worms of the first brood may be
entering the small apples from early in June to nearly the end of
the month, or even later. The caterpillars require about four weeks
to complete their growth, at which time they desert the fruit, wander
to a sheltered place, spin a cocoon, transform to pupae and in about
two weeks, namely the very last of July or in August, another
brood of moths appears. These in turn deposit eggs which hatch
iMmmenemtunmie and the youne larvae usually enter the side of the
fruit. Two broods appear to be the rule in the northern fruit-grow-
ing sections of the United States, though some investigators claim
a third in the southwest.
Experimental work. It was planned the present season to
test, under varying conditions, the relative efficacy of but one spray
given just after the blossoms fall, compared with other plots where
the application just described was followed by a second about three
weeks later, designed to destroy the codling moth larvae just as
they are hatching, and a third plot where but one spraying was
given about three weeks after the blossoms fell. This plot was
designed to show the relative efficacy between the treatment at this
time, which is markedly out of season, and the time applications
are usually made, namely just after the bloom falls.
Series 1. This series of experiments were conducted in a young
orchard belonging to Mr W. H. Hart of Arlington, near Pough-
keepsie and close to Briggs Station on the Hopewell branch of the
Central New England Railroad. The orchard is on a moderately
high hill, the trees being thrifty, about 16 years old, 16 to 19 feet
N
NEW YORK
O
O
O
O
O
O
@
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
Ge Our Oo 1@ © ©. ©. © ©. 0 © © ©: O40 © .O -O
STATE MUSEUM
O
O
Openers © One © - ©) 0: 20 © 0. - © -0O* 02.0 70 10:40 2-6
OQmu@m© 2 ©-= © OO ©. © © - 0 "0.0 07 0. 0: 10.70
Wales
Portion of orchard at Arlington showing the location of the experimental plots
I
Fig.
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO T5
high and 30 feet apart. The actual experimental trees were northern
spy. Each plot consists of 42 trees, six trees in a row one way and
Sevetr in a row the vother way, the central six-beime the actual
experimental trees. These were carefully selected for uniformity
in size, fruitage and infestation. There was a large crop of Baldwin
apples in this orchard last year and some of the northern spys
produced a fair yield. The check trees of the two plots in this
orchard were located in the same north and south rows of trees
near the western edge of the orchard, and were some little distance
Monmuer te road. Plots: 1 and) 2 were! still iucther, morta, | Bhese
two plots were thoroughly sprayed May 12, 1910 with-seven pounds
of arsenate of lead (15 per cent arsenic oxide) to each 150 gallons of
spray, together with one gallon of a homemade concentrated lime-
sulfur wash (Cordley formula, testing probably from 30 to 31°
Baumé) to each 25 or 30 gallons of spray. The day was dry,
nearly quiet and conditions were almost ideal. The pressure was
maintained at from 100 to 150 pounds, Friend nozzles being em-
ployed and 150 gallons of spray sufficing for about 105 trees. Ali
of the spraying was from the ground, the hose being tied to poles
and the nozzles set at an angle so as to discharge almost directly
into all the blossoms. The application was sufficiently thorough te
cover practically all of the foliage in a very uniform manner. The
trees were fairly well fruited and had just completed blossoming.
The second application was made on plot 2 June 2d. The day
was cloudy, with a strong southwest wind and, as a consequence,
the spray was applied from only one side, the eastern portion of
the trees not being well covered, though special attention was given
to the center where the greater portion of the fruit was located.
The formula for the spray was practically the same as in the preced-
ing application; 140 gallons were necessary to spray the plot of 42
trees. The fruit was in fine condition and the foliage had made
excellent growth since the earlier application, which was plainly
evident. At this time there were no signs of codling moth work.
An examination of this orchard June 30th showed a very gratify-
ing condition. The check trees were in excellent foliage and already
exhibited a markedly greater codling moth infestation. Plot 1,
which received but one spraying, showed practically no wormy fruit
and no signs of injury to the foliage. The same was true of plot 2
which was sprayed twice. |
16
NEW YORK STATE
MUSEUM
The fruit was picked up from under these trees and carefully
classified August 23d and September 12th, the remainder being
picked October 6th.
was most excellent, the color being fine, the surface smooth and a
very high percentage with few defects.
data is given below.
TREE
DATE
Cr
©,1e1eileere
seer ee eee
Grand total...
Series 1, plot 1
The condition of the fruit on this latter date
A tabulation of the entire
CLEAN FRUIT | WORMY FRUIT
TOTAL |
FRUIT End Exit | Exit
Total % | Total % | End | and | Side | hole | hole
| ‘\wormy side |wormy]| I 2
| hares.
eee lea hn a Poet es ie
9 GALA eA ee Rial Peacacts Penton heeec ee aanaay Meat trea 3 3 Uliesoeaene
6 Alter togcreters Dei Wodsnet stars ct |lcneae mae womee acon 2 2 Whee
148 TiS alison NESE A oeiaicto Biol te & Bes 3° | Io 3 I
os TASH | ESSEO5 eS ere sO! IS n Sys 3 15 8 I
| I Tailors eee: | eae ee eae Roan oem 0 bio dic |. » curl by ee eee
8 Soe leucine til Eero oe boac cic insos Dain Ore | B Milano 2
105 O09 teraecioe Oil ica Bees | it BQ || 3 2 I
Tr4 | Los | 92210 fe) | 7.90 | I 2 6 5 I
1) 4 (sane po tar ene ee eats been SOS I 7 7 lace pews
22 NOS a cle ONG Sees sore | Seas I 8 Ore sas
409 BEND) Wes 56 G96 B Dailies ace ny 5 7 I5 Oz) Siaestge
443 | 309 | 90.07 | 44 | 9.93 5 | 9°... 30\\ee2" eae
I4 27a een TEAR ER CEA IRC ENE ase 7 VN Goa oo
20 134 |Geeone i[ | tees renee | Bilis ace eee 4 Gislieere
593 Osi te a few \ EAOYE | aichore ie | I 2 Ar. Zaller
627 | 583 | 92.98 44| 7.02 4 2 28) |. 160] ee
5 Tai [esta ease Ae items. locsn or We sceetgs 4 A | Aiea
6 (SH eae eee [eae cs hesrell lot ey Secgenes Us, 25 vie taille @ «ue haa) <7euavere Oe | eee
160 139 |...---- ZT \ierig oie a 4 3 I4 5 I
171 TAG.| 185038) | 25 |e a4 62 4 3 18 9 I
I2 Be eee Oye ede vecaiall te telerewe hltcre reece ts 9 8 Slee
ire «| Silt ees ices Bills cusweyoreeelts ereieceue | @ teue lene 3 3 er aeeene
208 ifise ike Phoidie oc QB Wailers. yale ens ohio Te Wee ashe 33 HSI ie Ae eet
S@ioiks aeeie alo iotate 83 ie ty Cater DNS Nal oe aie 3 Bh Nore sees 22 20 I
OCtASS 05 ee: BEd UEC) |co6o600 ROM yaaa OU Gana 92 ZOU \enenetens
s 102 TET RIN entaaeeoke DAN HUN Pe Moet AN) oe es 21 Daly erates
Oct. 18-19..... RG KOR lego ee ee LOM euee eae: | ri era Oy eee eae epee
TOOT OO2" i S2).22 TOS lee TS ON arn en ei, 85 I
10) || Paulas ob Seca 60 38 ae arate DBI vacua Te lye aay acs Oe 16 See
SeptesESue ac we 48 Belle ear: TES lb ah cme ral sve Mercian lane ts sacks I5 ideally ae
OGtig AHH aio ob 185 RSIS Aue Uane cae 100 oe 9 5 86 BO lwoogo
vA 1S ZEUS Wags cobs OS iieses teens II 2 52 ORs ees
Oct. 18-19..... { GOA BBS se sosee TEN ahve ee ulins tet 16 Bh Wee Aas
1078) 859 | 79.68 219, | 20.32 22 Lh I90 SOME oes
19) W DNukee, Sa elo an ae | 59 Alia Ne eae a ae A Gv eteunes an I 4 Io TOpullsee ees
Septs L3n es sue 35 PAO er ane ite OR er eaiienes Din lis epee 7 (oval enier ues
Lb Obs ASocascdc DCN OTS Se Ware tases THOTT earache SS alliceevcu ners 116 AOnile eee
ae 2YT 7s Mam OVEN ine sant SOP yaracaies ts 8 I Hoh Me 65 ollooo-o'e
Oct. 18-19..... { Ooze SS7ateee ae TSH ete aes ea ee eee 12 ro eek
I492| 1276 | 85.52 216 | 14.48 19 5 192 So Naa sac
PE Atos 2A sc: 33 TOYS esate s Gg Nei Aue eel eae te EM Vi AN 107) 13 ie
Sep beml Sisk akc aiece Bal Drm Messe mare TED Nes cic meee atten Pion eerie mene 12 Olen Weber
(OGG ASBoocooad 152 SAP areRe Noor O8K liana: 8 2 58 BONG heperrcr
ha 163}8} SOUEP Ae ah neds il iaicus sansa 9 I 42 CE He ce ae
Oct. 18-I9..... ZO aS tS ah evede, excuses TAT il earencietecs Be Naga WA MN Gold.dllb coc
884) 721 | 80.43 TOS | LOM 57; 19 3 I4I Ms lo bacs
a Grand total..| 8135| 6677 | 82.08 | 1458 | 17.92 160 27a) Teal eA'S 15) 3
24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Series 2, plot 2
CLEAN FRUIT WORMY FRUIT
| | | as
TOTAL | es
TREE | DATE — FRUIT | End Exit | Exit
| | Total; % Total; % End | and | Side | hole | hole
| wormy] side |wormy}] I 2
hae
Res ae ee
ees l
IA Ato saan TOW MS als ee: TOml ease I I 17, || Sage sees
SOep tents merece 49 BONN pete eae eT OPA eee enaes Syl tence edna ek ee Io Hoos Soe
Octa4=Se-e oe ; 273| Teg Dealt s ee [eee |e be ee 7a eae 2 137 Alla ae
- 12 SOME eee AOes| ite shaters DG Sal oe en Acs 29 Qo Seeker
Oct. 18-19..... (We ERS S772" NN. Be oo ox TVs | ee sep acter oes 82). coed eee
| II01| 880 | 79.93 22I | 20.07 19 it 201 73 eter
IBM Senta 1a 272 7)\\n 1:2) 7 | eee TOO | Ree taker 12 | SAR oe 88 65 aoe
Oct. 4-5 ae 23 Silleeceeree sed eran ioeebe BUN Sree 74 31 ieee
fi eval! ORG) le Ga.6 oc FT Nee pes sete ie faa ee acciop 54 AN eee
Oct. 18-19..... { YOR) HAY IG Seno - Patel eee 7 Een es 27 2 ieee
2258] 1963 86.94 2905 | 13.06 62512) erase | 2334| LOS 4 pee
(Cl) UN PS oo xads 38 Pa sutton TOW eeceeey. 2 Taleo Oi Ssere
Septe Ils cites 55 EKG ll cee ak DA aWebetreraclh Sree me) 22 Tel he
OctaA—5eee ee PIAG||_ IESE NS 6h ce 95 | Barter Tein panes 94 25 I
Ss 127 Sips eee AGA 4 Ne eee I iL AO (oy ease
Oct. 18-19..... { 685 O7eule eee es TiO UN Roe ae Pee ainiins IB oe dete |. 10 rhizo-
mane lus. collected at tludson Falls May 16, 1910 by Stewart
H. Burnham, assistant to the State Botanist. The infested leaves
3
68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
presented a peculiar appearance at that time, since many of
them were margined on the upper surface with a more or less linear
series of equidistant, brownish elevations which, upon examination,
proved to be the tips of the puparia. The larvae evidently live in
communal mines and, when full-grown, cut a slitlike orifice and
transform so as to leave the brownish bispinose apex of the puparia
protruding from the orifice. A series of these presents an unique
appearance. The puparium is about 2 mm. long, nearly 1 mm. wide,
rather stout, a variable reddish brown, the exposed tip being a little
darker. Apically there is a pair of dark brown, short, stout,
chitinous, recurved processes. One parasite, kindly described
through the courtesy of Dr L. O. Howard, by Mr J. C. Crawford
as Sympiezus felti, was reared at the same time the flies
issued.
The parent insect has been described? by C. W. Jonneee under
the name of A. flaviventris as follows: ~
Head light yellow, occiput black; antennae yellow, aristae black.
Thorax light yellow, with a large black dorsal spot, which extends
narrowly from the cervix, expanding dorsally, with lobes above the
humeri and base of the wings; scutellum yellow, metatarsus black.
Abdomen dull light yellow, terminal segment black; halteres and
legs yellow. Wings grayish hyaline. Length of the larger speci-
men 2 mm.; the smaller one 1.5 mm.
These specimens were taken at Niagara Falls. It has been listed
by Smith from New Jersey, recorded by Loew from the District of
Columbia and identified from the Bahamas.? In addition this
species has been reared at Washington, D. C., by Coquillett? from
leaf mines in a species of cultivated Philadelphus and also from the
common Plantain, Plantago major.
Coquebert’s Otiocerus (Otiocerus coquebertii Kirby).
The slender, yellowish or yellowish red marked insects belonging to .
this species and resembling somewhat in general appearance Caddis
flies, are rather common and widely distributed, having been recorded
from Canada, south to Texas and, in addition, from several Eastern
and Middle States. The delicate adults have been taken upon a
variety of trees, namely hickory, oak, beech, maple and also on
grape.
This attractive insect belongs to the Hemipterous family Ful-
goridae, noteworthy because of the large exotic lantern flies. The
Brazilian Laternaria phosphorea has a wing spread of
11902 Can. Ent. 34:242.
21908 Psyche 15 :8o.
31898 U. S. Dep't Agric., Div. Ent., Bul. 10 n.s., p. 77.
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST I9QIO 69
fully 6 inches and an enormous miter-shaped head as long and
nearly as thick as its body. The subfamily Derbidae to which
Otiocerus is referable, is a group of moderate extent, comprising
some of the most beautiful and delicate forms found in the Hemip-
tera. The head in this’ subfamily is generally produced forward,
sometimes extremely compressed and with the sides prominently
carinate as is the case with Otiocerus.
he adult of this species when at rest is mearly half an inch
long to the wing tip (the length of the body is only three-sixteenths
of an inch). It rests with the long, delicate wings folded together
parallel and thus presents a general resemblance to a Caddis fly. It
may vary in color from a nearly uniform, pale yellowish or yellow-
ish green in the one female obtained to a yellowish green marked
with strongly contrasting red or reddish brown in the males as fol-
lows: The broad stripe extends from the tip of the head on either
side to the bronzy or blackish eyes, is continued by broken spots just
below and behind these organs, and a larger, reddish area laterally
on the pronotum and on the anterior portion of the mesonotum, and
may be followed as an oblique stripe from the base of the fore wing
to its posterior margin near the distal third, which latter is marked
by a slight marginal fuscous line. From this point the reddish
markings are produced in a more or less broken, marginal line to
the anal angle, there being a small subapical branch near the distal
fifth and a much more conspicuous one at the distal third and ex-
tending as an irregular, oblique mark to the anterior distal angle.
There is, in addition, an irregular, reddish mark near the middle
of the wing; the hind wings are nearly colorless. The head is
strongly compressed, being greatly produced anteriorly and with
strong lateral dorsal carinae. The male antennae are a variable
reddish and remarkable, since each is composed of three irregular
branches apparently arising from a basal segment, the anterior
Gistmetly “capitate, Ihe antennae of the female dre but two-
branched, the anterior one slightly capitate and apically with a
bristle nearly as long as the branch. The ovipositor is short, the
organs uniting to form a conical apex. The legs are a nearly uni-
form yellowish transparent. The pale yellowish abdomen extends
only to about the middle of the wings and is variously shaded with
reddish. The male is easily recognized by the conspicuous pair of
yellowish transparent, inflated, strongly curved clasping organs.
A colony of nymphs of this species were taken at Poughkeepsie,
N. Y. May 12, 1910 under the dead bark of a stump, possibly beech.
The insects moved slowly, and eleven days later adults emerged.
70 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Nymph. Length one eighth of an inch, width about one-sixteenth
of an inch. Color an obscure brown, the sutures yellowish brown;
the head small, partially concealed by the prothorax; the wing pads
short, extending to the third abdominal segment, each of the latter
with a series of obscure tubercles, fuscous basally, lighter apically ;
along the anterior third the head and thorax apparently with simi-
lar though more rudimentary structures. Legs a yellowish brown.
It is remarkable that such an apparently large adult should de-
velop from so small a nymph. A partial explanation is found in
the fact that the abdomen of the adult is much shorter than one
would be led to expect from the length of the wings.
PUBLICATIONS OF TH ENTOMOLO@OGISa
The following is a list of the principal publications of the Ento-
mologist during the year 1910. Fifty are given with title’, time of
publication and a summary of the contents of each. Volume and
page numbers are separated by a colon, the first superior figure
gives the column and the second the exact place in the column in
ninths: e. g. 75:9° means volume 75, page 9, column 1 in the fifth
ninth, 1. e. about one-half of the way down.
Grain Weevil. Country Gentleman, Jan. 6, 1910, 75:9'°
A summary discussion of repressive measures.
Two New Cecidomyiidae. Entomological News, Jan. 1910, 21 :10-12
Lasioptera tripsaci.and Cecidomyia opuntiaecmdes-
cribed.
Deformed Apples. Country Gentleman, Jan. 27, 1910, 75 :827°
A brief discussion of the work of the tarnished plant bug, Lygus
pratensis Linn. The plant louse outbreak of 1909 is commented upon
and control measures discussed.
Corn, Cutworms and Ants. Country Gentleman, Feb. 3, 1910,
75 Osis ;
A brief discussion of methods for controlling various cutworms and ants
in cornfields.
Scale and Fungus Attacks. Country Gentleman, Feb. 3, 1910,
7.5) Oyen
The San José scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst. is identified
and remedial measures briefly discussed.
1 Titles are given as published and in some instances they have been
changed or supplied by the editors of the various papers.
REVORD TOM Tih oli ENTOMOLOGIST: LOL 71
Observations on the House Fly. Economic Entomology Journal,
IQ1O, 3 :24—26
Summary of experiments showing that the house fly, Musca domes-
tica Linn. does not invade darkened apartments.
Semewlbree Crickets, | Country Gentleman, Peb. 24, 71910; 75, 71827"
Oecanthus niveus DeG. appears to be limited mostly to apple trees,
cw O mM nner 1 clon mis Valk. and Oh quad rip une tatus) Beutnr.
have been recorded as the species injurious to raspberry and blackberry
bushes. Preventive measures are discussed.
Control of Flies and Other Household Insects. New York State
Museum Bulletin 136, 1910, p. 1-53 (Issued Feb. 26, 1910, a
revised and extended edition of Bulletin 129).
Contents
PAGE PAGE
HMERO CUICELOM: 11.06, cos cus ss eieielne ous Gre bia tel CH DESESM La) hile tout vis eum eke 28
IDISCaSe. CAUTICLS. {55.3006 e cae e as 6 Clothes pmo thiswivco. odccontsqueces 28
iivonord or house flys... ....- 6 Carpets beetles iurvsmauen 6 coos 30
JSTIPEULE SOU ERIN Sine ea eA a Mane 16 Silver fish, bristle tail or fish
Witla Giala@mOSquitO:s «2... oo sic8 17 MOthe ease es acolo wena tba ab 33
Yellow fever mosquito....... 20 BOOKuIOUSes ani oe sacs epenie 33
Becton sense. oe Sisee tiscdiaa eet <20 WV ilnitewamtsietene facia sce cake 34
EMIMTOV AMC TORS 6 oss ccs cles has 22 Gricketismrer te ee ey edn care 35
Glisten ctliysics soe ails oc e eh ae 22E HOO UUDESES IE ee enh erie NS Sie dl seis 35
Wiis psmamd nOnmets: 24 .)...). +0...) 23 TEROUSE Vata tSutsntys Sie seis aoa 35
House or rain barrel mos- Cockroaches waee en we teens 37
CERNE) Se NS os elec To eae ie eae 23 ardersbeetle 2. sre saison en 40
SaleemarshemOsquitO. «22.2. 24 Ghieeseriskipperineas ce. vice ine 40
OMS E PICASN OS Po oc ess o otiie 8 26 @ereal and seed pests... 25.5.5. 4I
Bedbuerhunter. ... 2, cad adn ne 27 Fumigation with hydrocyanic
slotise, (cemtipede wi .4 5.008 se 28 ACI Sastre waaay erasers 48
MANGE aN OT etic aoe cua ae ae tae 5I
Work with the Codling Moth. Country Gentleman, Mar. 3, 1910.
75 230)>
A summary comparison of results obtained against codling moth, Car-
pocapsa pomonella Linn., between coarse and fine sprays and one,
two and three applications. One thorough application of a mist spray gave
98-09 per cent of worni-free fruit.
Struggle with the Scale. New York Apple Orchards Saved. Rural
New Yorker, Mar. 5, 1910, 69 :25614
A summary account of the work against San José scale, Aspidiotus
Denn iciosus Comst., with special reference to the success of Mr
W. H. Hart in his old orchard.
to
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
NY
Bleeding Elm— Beetle. Country Gentleman, Mar. 10, IgIo,
75:245°° ,
Discusses the causes of bleeding in trees and gives remedy for the elm
leaf beetle, Galerucella luteola Mill.
The Apple Maggot. Country Gentleman, Mar. 17, 1910, 75:2717°
A general discussion of Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh, with
reference to work against fruit flies in South Africa with poisoned syrups.
Spraying for Codling Moth. Country Gentleman, Mar. 31, 1910,
75 3221
A summary discussion of remedial measures for Carpocapsa
pomonella Linn., with special reference to results obtained with the
single spray and with observations on prepared insecticides.
Schizomyia ipomoeae n. sp. Entomological News, April,
IQIO, 21 :160-O1
A description of this West Indian species reared from the flower buds
of Ipomoea.
Methods of Controlling the House Fly and thus Preventing. the
Dissemination of Disease. New York Medical Journal, April 2,
IQ10, QI :685—-87
A summary account of the house fly, Musca domestica Linn., with
special reference to control measures.
Oyster-Shell Scale. Country Gentleman, April 7, 1910;-75:447—
Remedial measures for Lepidosaphes ulmi Linn.
Spraying for the Codling Moth. Economic Entomology Journal,
IQIO, 3:172-76 |
Summary of experiments for the control of Carpocapsa pomonella
Linn., and emphasizing the effectiveness of one thorough application of
poison.
Leopard Moth. Country Gentleman, April 21, 1910, 75 :396*
Brief economic account of Zeuzera pyrina Fabr., with special refer-
ence to control measures. }
Peach Twig Borer. Country Gentleman, May 12, 1910, 75:470**
Summary economic account of Anarsia lineatella Clem.
Borer. Country Gentleman, Mayezo, 1010; 75.5 17--
A brief discussion of the peach borer, Sanninoidea exitiosa
Say and methods of controlling it.
Cutworms in the Garden. Country Gentleman, May 26, I9I0,
75 :518°°
A discussion of remedial and preventive measures.
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 73
West Indian Cecidomyiidae. Entomological News, 1910, 21 :268~70 |
Cacidomyia manihot on Gassava, Camptoneuromyia
meridionalis from flower buds of Ipomoea are described as new. The
larva of Schizomyia ipomoeae Felt is also characterized.
Maple Leaf Aphis. Country Gentleman, June 23, 1910, 75 :603"4
A brief general account of Pemphigus tessellata Fitch on maple.
Beet Leat Miner. Country Gentleman, June 30, 1910, 75 :622°
A summary economic account of Pegomya vicina Lintn.
Flies in the Stable. Country Gentleman, June 30, 1910, 75 :628'?
A general discussion of the house fly problem, Musca domestica
Linn., with special reference to stables and methods of preventing breeding.
Onion Maggot. Country Gentleman, July 7, 1910, 75 :642""
' Remedies for Phorbia ceparum Meign. are briefly discussed.
mipple free Borer. Country Gentleman, July 7, 1910, 75 :642°"
Brief discussion of remedial measures for Saperda candida Fabr.
Green Fruit Worm. Country Gentleman, July 7, 1910, 75:646%"
Records injuries by a green fruit worm, Xylina antennata Walk,
in New York State.
Beans Hurt by Maggot. Country Gentleman, July 14, 1910,
75 0001"
A summary account of Phorbia fusciceps Zett., with special refer-
ence to remedial measures.
Hiea Beetle: Country Gentleman, July 21, 1910, 75 :6827°
PMEVGictepractical account of Mpltiix cucu meris Harr,
Corn Worm. Country Gentleman, July 28, 1910, 75 :703**
Control measures for Heliothis armiger Hubn. are briefly out-
lined.
Maple Scale. Country Gentleman, July 28, 1910, 75:703"
A summary discussion of the cottony maple scale, Pulvinaria vitis
Linn., with mention of the woolly Phenacoccus acericola King
and the alder and maple plant louse, Pemphigus tessellata Fitch.
ialanteice: Country Gentleman, Aucust 4, 1910, 75,-7227-
General directions for spraying for plant lice or Aphididae.
25th Report of the State Entomologist on the Injurious and Other
Insects of the State of New York, 1909. Education Department
illevine | Neo Yo State) Mus, Bul) 141, toto, Pp.) 1-178, 22) pl:
(Issued August 4, 1910)
74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Contents
PAGE PAGE
[niroductiones..-e6 cee eee 5 Shade’ tree: pests:..5.. 4.2 Q7
[njUTOUSMINSeCises eee eee oe 12 Forest insects. \ ./) cee eee 100
Typhoid or'‘house fly.......... 12 Publications of the Entomologist. 104
Brown tatlem Oot eee 17. Additions to collections......... 113
Codlingimoth cee eee 25 Insect collections: 2.4 se-5eee 118
Hickory leaf stem borer...... 71. Insect types in New York State
Rhododendron lace bug....... 72 Museumi:...i..:.05 0 oe eee II9
Plamtwlice tee Sea ake ree 2 75 Additional list of Adirondack in-
Notesstormthe year. ae eee 89 sects.. .D. B. YouNc ses eee 123
Eiruite theeupestsmmacace cre ome 89 Explanation of platess....-eeeee 127
Smalleintitunsectsms ee o2” indexn. 2: Gin ae ee ecncueg 171
Miuscellaneousante scone ene 94
Malaria and Mosquitos in New York State. Atti della Societa per
eli studi della malaria, vol. 9, 1910, Separate p. I-12
Summary discussion of malaria in New York, with a brief notice of the
malaria-carrying species, their breeding places, enemies and legislation in
relation thereto. A brief account is given of the mosquito control work in
the State.
The Elm Leaf Beetle. Country Gentleman, Aug. 11, 1910, 75 7740”
A record of injury with a summary discussion of remedial measures for
Galerucella luteola Mull.
Recent Observations upon European Insects in America. Economic
Entomology Journal, 1910, 3:340-43
Notes are given on Pissodes notatus Fabr., Dich npommenas
marginellus Fabr,Hyponomeuta malinella Zell, Saturnia
pavonia Linn, Monarthtopalpus bux1 Lab. and) @iiieiemmess
piceae Ratz., all recently brought into this country.
Gall Midges of Aster, Carya, Quercus and Salix. Economic Ento-
mology Journal, 1910, 3:347-56
A tabulation of the American species of Cecidomyiidae occurring upon the
above named plants—46 being recorded on willow. A new genus,
Asteromyia, is erected and two new species, Oligotrophus salici-
folius and Dasyneuralcorticis described:
Scientific Notes. Economic Entomology Journal, 1910, 3 :381
Galerucella luteola Mill is recorded from Fort Ticonderoga and
serious injuries are reported throughout the Hudson valley. Observations
are presented on the work and flight of the snow-white linden moth,
Ennomos subsignarius Hibn.
Red Spider. Country Gentleman, Aug. 18, 1910, 75 :762°°
A discussion of injuries and remedial measures.
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 75
Melon Aphis. Country Gentleman, Aug. 18, 1910, 75 :764
Remedial measures for Aphis gossypii Glov. are given.
Tree Spraying. Country Gentleman, Aug. 25, 1910, 75:789%°
Observations on methods employed by “tree-protecting companies ” and
those of service in controlling elm leaf beetle.
Scale on Maple. Country Gentleman, Aug. 25, 1910, 75 :7897°
Putnam’s scale, Aspidiotus ancylus Putn. is identified and spray-
ing with a lime-sulfur wash advised where the scale is abundant.
Vermin in the House. Country Gentleman, Aug. 25, 1910, 75 :80072
The bed bug, Cimex lectularius Linn. is briefly described and
exterminative measures fully discussed.
Asparagus Beetles. Country Gentleman, Sept. 8, 1910, 75 :8407*
Arsenical applications, preferably arsenate of lead, are recommended for
the control of both species of asparagus beetles, Criocerus asparagi
winnwand ©. duodecim p unc ta t.a, Linn,
ailips scale: “Country Gentleman, Sept.'8, 1910, 75 :840°
Spraying with contact insecticides in early September to destroy the young
of Eulecanium tulipiferae Cook is advised.
Harvest Mites. Country Gentleman, Sept. 8, 1910, 75 :840%"
The life history of this pest is briefly sketched and methods of avoid-
ing infestation and allaying the irritation following an attack given.
Woolly Aphis. Country Gentleman, Sept. 8, 1910, 75 :840*?
Remedial measures are given for the woolly aphis,s Schizoneura
lanigera Hausm. and also for the scurfy scale, Chionaspis
font una Fitch.
Horticulture: Diseases and Pests. New York State Education
Department. Review of Legislation, 1907-8. Legislation 3091,
p. 119-22 (Issued Sept. 1910)
A review of legislation for the years 1907 and 1908.
The Leopard Moth. Country Gentleman, Sept. 29, 1910, 75 :9227
This insect, Zeuzera pyrina Fabr. and its work is described and
~ control measures summarized.
76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
ADDITIONS TO COLLECTIONS, OCT. 16, 190090-OCT 05) 10xe,
The following is a list of the more important additions to the
collections:
DONATION
Hymenoptera
Thalessa atrata Fabr., black long sting, adult on maple, June 13, S. W.
Stillwell, Charlotteville
T. lunator Fabr., lunate long sting, adult, July 23, A. L. Kampfer, Albany
Aulacidea tumidus Bass., gall on Lactuca, August 30, Roy Latham, Orient
Point
Neuroterus batatus Fitch, galls on white oak, July 8, J. H. Dodge, Roch-
ester. Through State Department of Agriculture
Lophyrus abbotii Leach, Abbott’s sawfly, larvae on pine, August 3,
Andrew Lackey, Johnsburg. Same, from J. W. Wilson, Olmstedville
L. ? lecontei Fitch, Leconte’s pine sawfly, larvae on pine, October 20,
Townsend Cox, jr, Setauket
Trichiocampus viminalis Fall., poplar sawfly on poplar, August 209, H. S.
Post, Albany
Eriocampoides limacina Retz., cherry and pear slug, larvae on cherry,
August 22, L. A. Rose, Rensselaer
Harpiphorus tarsatus Say, sawfly, larvae on Cornus mascula, September
15, J). H. Dodge, Rochester. Through State Department of Agriculture
H. versicolor Nort., sawfly, larvae on Cornus alternifolium, September 18,
L. F. Rinkle, Boonville
Coleoptera
Entimus imperialis Forster, diamond beetle, adult, May 7, Richard Lohr-
mann, Herkimer
Calandra granaria Linn., granary weevil, adults in grain bins, December
27, P. A: Schaefer, Allentown, Pa.
Magdalis ? barbita Say, black elm snout beetle, grubs on elm, March 18,
S. L. Frey, Palatine Bridge
Pissodes strobi Peck, white pine weevil, larvae on pine, July 13, Benjamin
Dorrance, Dorranceton, Pa. Through Hermann Von Schrenk
Phloeodes diabolicus Lec., adult on Polyporus growing on Eucalyptus,
March 20, Hermann Von Schrenk, Southern California
Bruchus obtectus Say, bean weevil, adults, March 21, F. A. Fitch,
Randolph
Haltica ignita Ill., strawberry flea beetle, adults on Virginia creeper,
August 3, Miss L. E. Clarke, Canandaigua
Galerucella luteola Miull., elm leaf beetle, larvae and pupae on elm, July Io,
F. T. Clark, Ticonderoga
Melasoma scripta Fabr., cottonwood leaf beetle on poplar, September 7,
Theodore Foulk, Flushing. Through State Department of Agriculture
Centrodera decoliorata Harr., adults on locust, October 18, Mrs J. De P.-
Lynch, Barneveld
Desmocerus palliatus Forst., cloaked knotty horn, adults on elder, June 6,
H. T. Brown, Rochester
Elaphidion villosum Fabr., maple and oak twig pruner, work on oak,
July 31, W. A. Payne, Bronxville
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO ; WI)
Prionus laticollis Dru., broad-necked Prionus, adult, July 18, Burton
Ellison, Poughkeepsie
Xyloryctes satyrus Fabr., rhinoceros beetle, August 1, D. T. Marshall,
Hollis
Euphoria inda Linn., bumble flower beetle, adult, September 6, J. D.
Keating, Fort Edward ~
Cotalpa lanigera Linn., goldsmith beetle, adult, April 15, J. R. Gillett,
Kingston
Thanasimus rufipes Brahm, adult, July 29, L. H. Joutel, New York
(European)
Podabrus rugosulus Lec., adults, June 16, H. B. Filer, Buffalo
Agriotes mancus Say, wheat wireworm, larvae on oats, May 20, Purley
Minturn, Locke
Diptera
Caliphoras viridescens Desv., larvae, July 30; Mrs EG.) Reist,
- Schenectady
.Bombyliomyia abrupta Wied., adult, July 26, H. E. A. Dick, Rochester
Rhyphus fenestralis Scop., adults, April 24, G. C. Hodges, New Hartford
Bibio xanthopus Wied., adult, May 18, Richard Lohrmann, Herkimer
Contarinia johnsoni Sling., grape blossom midge, adult, May 28, Fred
Johnson, North East, Pa.
Monarthropalpus buxi Lab., pupae on box, May 19, A. E. Stene, Kingston,
Rev
Joanissia aurantiaca Kieff., Aprionus miki Kieff., A. pinicola Kieff. Ms.,
Monardia stirpium Kieff., Bryomyia bergrothi Kieff., Miastor cerasi
Kieff. ms., Brachyneura squamigera Winn., Winnertzia fusca Kieff. Ms.,
W. pinicola Kieff. ms., Colomyia clavata Kieff., Colpodia anomala Kieff.,
Dicerura scirpicola Kieff., Porricondyla venustus Winn., Camptomyia
? binotata Kieff., C. nigricornis Kieff., Holoneurus pilosus Kieff. M.s.,
Lasioptera rubi Heeg., Baldratia salicorniae Kieff., Stefaniella atriplicis
Kieff., Trotteria sarothamni Kieff., Rhizomyia silvicola Kieff., Cysti-
phora taraxaci Kiefi., Macrolabis stellariae Kieff., Arnoldia castanea
Kieff. ms., A. sambuci Kieff., A. cerris Koll., Lasiopteryx (Ledomyia) divisa
Kieft., L. (Ledomyia) lugens Kieff., Dasyneura sisymbrii Schrnk., D.
urticae Perris, Rhabdophaga karschii Kieff., R. pierrei Kieff., Mikiola
fagi Hart., Psectrosema tamaricis Stef., Schizomyia galiorum Kieff.,
Zeuxidiplosis giardiana Kieff., Stenodiplosis geniculati Reut., Thecodi-
plosis brachyntera Schw., Bremia longipes Kieff., B. ramosa Kieff.,
Aphidoletes urticariae Kieff., Massalongia rubra Kieff., Hormomyia
cornifex Kieff., Monarthropalpus buxi Lab., Pseudhormomyia granifex
Kieff., Xylodiplosis aestivalis Kieff., X. nigritarsis Zett., Putoniella
marsupialis F. Lw., Endaphis perfidus Kieff., Macrodiplosis volvens
iMicne Clhinodiplosis calliperda ho bw All irem¢ Prot: o>). Kiefer,
Bitsch, Germany, and especially valuable because a number are cotypes
Lepidoptera
_.Sphecodina abbotii Sm. & Abb., Abbott's sphinx, larva on woodbine,
Hulyerzy Vins (Carriere, Albany,
Saturnia pavonia Linn., Emperor moth, cocoon on French nursery stock,
January 31, Rochester. Through State Department of Agriculture
78 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Anisota senatoria Sm. & Abb., larvae on oak, September 9, L. C. Griffith,
Lynbrook. Through State Department of Agriculture
Basilona imperialis Dru., Imperial moth, larva on pine, August 18,
Andrew Lackey, Johnsburg
Ctenucha virginica Charp., larvae on pine and gooseberry, L. H. Adams,
Johnstown.. Through State Department of Agriculture
Halisidota caryae Harr., hickory tussock moth, larvoe on maple, July 11,
L. C. Griffith, Lynbrook. Through State Department of Agriculture
Arsilonche albovenosa Goeze, larva, September 27, William Hotaling,
Kinderhook
Xylina antennata Walk., green fruit worm, larvae on maple, June 16, Alex
Anderson, Stonyford. Same, larvae on apple, June 28, Geneva.
Through State Department of Agriculture
Notolophus antiqua Linn., rusty tussock moth, eggs, March 9, H. W.
Gordinier, Troy. Same, caterpillars on elm, June 18, H. E. Vaughan,
Ogdensburg
Datana ? integerrima G. & R., larvae, July 311, L. C. Griffith, Lynbrook.
Through State Department of Agriculture
Schizura concinna Sm. & Abb., red-humped apple caterpillar, larvae on
apple, September to, C. C. Perry, Eagle Bridge
Synchlora viridipallens Hulst, adult, August 4, Louis Capron, Menands
Cingilia catenaria Dru., chain-spotted geometer, larvae on sweet fern,
bayberry, August 2, L. C. Griffith, Sag Harbor. Through State Depart-
ment of Agriculture
Ennomos subsignarius Htibn., snow-white linden moth, eggs on maple,
March 28, Edward Thomson, Frost Valley, Denning. Same, adult,
July 22, J. C. Ayer, Glen Cove
Phobetron pithecitum Sm. & Abb., hag moth caterpillar, larva, September
13, W. A. Bullis, West Sand Lake
Zeuzera pyrina Linn., leopard moth, pupae, July 1, H. I. Newell, Rich-
mond Hill. Same, exuviae on maple, July 5, T. J. Beam, Port Chester.
Through State Department of Agriculture. Same, larva on apple,
September 17, E. G. Serins, South River, N. J. Through Country
Gentleman
Hyponomeuta malinella Zell., ermine moth, larvae on imported French
apple stock, June 24, J. H. Dodge, Rochester. Same, larvae on apple,
June 27, J. J. Barden, Orleans
Ancylis nubeculana Clem., larvae on apple, September 1, R. H. Ham,
Niverville
Dichomeris marginellus Fabr., Juniper webworm, larvae on Juniper,
February 28, S. G. Harris, Tarrytown. Same, larvae on Irish Juniper,
April 26, L. D. Rhind, Plandome. Through State Department of Agri-
culture
Aspidisca splendoriferella Clem., resplendent shield bearer, winter cases,
March 24, Benjamin Hammond, Fishkill
Hemiptera
Belostoma americanum Leidy, giant waterbug or electric light bug, adult
attached to a fish, May 4, J. D. Collins, Utica
Brochymena quadripustulata Fabr., adult, July 15, D. H. Cook, Altamont.
Same, nymphs, August 26, W. P. Thorne, Lagrangeville
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 79
Blissus leucopterus Say, chinch bug, nymphs on corn, August 5, Fred
Wheeler, Mongaup Valley. Through State Department of Agriculture
Haematopinus piliferus Burm., sucking dog louse, adult on dog, Jan-
uary 8, V. P. D. Lee, Altamont
Ormenis pruinosa Say, lightning leaf hopper on matrimony vine, August
26, Mrs C. F. Webber, Athens
Aleyrodes vaporariorum Westw., white fly on coleus, August 26, Mrs
C. F. Webber, Athens
Chermes abietis Linn., spruce gall aphis, galls on spruce, June 23, F. F.
Briggs, Pocantico Hills. Same, adults on spruce, June 26, S. G. Harris,
Tarrytown. Same, galls on spruce, October 12, Theodore Foulk,
Flushing
C. cooleyi Gill., galls on Colorado blue spruce, August 4, White Plains,
State Department of Agriculture
C. pinicorticis Fitch, pine bark aphid, adults on pine, May 12, M. T.
Richardson, New York city. Same, eggs, February 12, Miss Pauline
Goldenmark, New York city
C. piceae Ratz., adults and eggs on Nordmann’s fir, May 17, Rochester.
Through State Department of Agriculture
C. pinifoliae Fitch, pine leaf aphid, adult on black spruce, January 20,
Miss Edith M. Patch, Orono, Me.
©; /consolidatus Patch, adults on larch, January 20, Miss Edith M. Patch,
Orono, Me.
C. floccus Patch, adult on black spruce, January 29, Miss etn M. Patch,
Orono, Me.
C. lariciatus Patch, adults on white spruce, January 29, Miss Edith M.
Pateh, Orono, Me.
Pemphigus imbricator Fitch, beech blight, neh on beech, August 31,
G. C. Wood, Barneveld
P. tessellata Fitch, woolly maple leaf aphid, adults on maple, June 16,
Mabe knapp,) iullisdale, Nj. Dfhrough Country Gentleman: — Same,
eggs, June 20, Miss May Seymour, Lake Placid
Schizoneura americana Riley, woolly elm leaf aphid, adults on elm,
June 5, R. M. Boren, Ballston Lake. Same, adults and young on elm,
June 10; W. FP: Judson, Broadalbin. Same, adults- on elm, June 18,
H. E. Vaughan, Ogdensburg
S. lanigera Hausm., woolly apple aphis, nymph on apple, November 9,
C. S. Ashley, Old Chatham. Same, Mrs S. H. Niles, Coeymans. Same,
November 10, J. F. Rose, South Byron. Same, November 13, Bell &
Smith, Castleton. Same, C. C. Woolworth, Castleton
Lachnus abietis Fitch, on balsam, September 8, C. H. Peck, Lake Placid
Psylla pyricola Forst., pear psylla, adults on pear, September 20, John
Dunbar, Rochester
Pachypsylla celtidis-gemma Riley, hackberry nodule gall, galls on hack-
berry, February 16, H. B. Smith, Nashville, Tenn. Through Garden
Magazine, Doubleday, Page & Co.
Eulecanium tulipiferae Cook, tulip tree scale on tulip, August 31, O. W.
Peterson, Fairfield county, Conn. Through Country Gentleman
Asterolecanium pustulans Ckll., golden oak scale, adults on oak, May 16.
Through State Department of Agriculture
8o NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
4\. variolosum Ratz., on oak, September 7, Theodore Foulk, Flushing.
Through State Department of Agriculture
Phenacoccus acericola King, false cottony maple scale, young, January
21, Archibald Beresford, Mt Vernon. Same, eggs on maple, July 18,
Mrs Alice G. Fisher, Batavia. Same, females and young on maple,
October 4, Miss Fanny G. Dudley, Newburgh
Pseudococcus longispinus Targ., mealy bug, February 24, C. E. Olsen,
Winfield. Same, larvae on coleus, August 30, Albany. Through
Country Gentleman
Pulvinaria vitis Linn., cottony maple scale, females and young on maple,
July 26, G. W. Morley, Haverstraw. Through State Department of
Agriculture
P. occidentalis subalpina Ckll., immature, August 31, T. D. A. Cockerell,
Boulder, Col.
Gossyparia spuria Mod., elm bark louse on elm, July 9, R. H. C. Bard,
Syracuse. Through State Department of Agriculture
Eriococcus azaliae Comst., on azalea, November, Brooklyn. Through
State Department of Agriculture
Aulacaspis pentagona Targ., West Indian peach scale, adult on imported
Japanese flowering cherry, January, P. L. Huested, Kingston. Same,
adult on Japanese cherries, February 3. Through State Department of
Agriculture
A. rosae Bouché, rose scale on rose, November 13, C. C. Woolworth,
Castleton. Same, adults on rose, April 29, L. L. Woodford, Pompey
Chionaspis americana John., elm scurfy scale, crawling young, May Io,
W. B. Landreth, Schenectady
C. euonymi Comst., euonymus scale, eggs on ? Euonymus, May 19, C. EE
Hechler, Roslyn
TFiorinia fioriniae var. japonica Kuw., adults on Japanese hemlock, June
9, Long Island. Through State Department of Agriculture
Orthoptera
Chortophaga viridifasciata DeG., green-striped grasshopper, nymphs,
March 26, N. Ashley, Old Chatham
EXCHANGE
Galls received from Prof. Mario Bezzi, Torino, Italy
Cystiphora sonchi F. Lw. on Sonchus arvensis L., Sondrio, Italy
Drvomyia circinans Gir. on Quercus cerris L., Mantua, Italy
Dryomyia lichtensteinii F. Lw. on Quercus ilex, Macerata, Italy
Dasyneura sisymbrii Shrnk. on Nasturtium silvestris L., Milan, Italy
1 Perrisia sp. on Cucubalus bacerifer (7?) L., Bergamo, Italy
Perrisia sp. on Polygonum bistorta L., Sondrio, Italy
Perrisia alpina F. Lw. on Silene acaulis L., Sondrio, Italy
Perrisia capitigena Br. on Euphorbia cyparissias L., Macerata, Italy
Perrisia crataegi Winn. on Crataegus oxyacantha L., Milan, Italy
Perrisia ericina F. Lw. on Erica carnea L., Como, Italy
Perrisia fraxini Kieff. on Fraxinus excelsior L., Sondrio, Italy
1A synonym of Dasyneura.
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST :IQIO SI
Perrisia oenophila Haimh. on Vitis vinifera L., Sondrio, Italy
Perrisia pustulans Rubs. on Spiraea ulmaria L., Sondrio, Italy
Perrisia rosarum Hdy. on Rosa canina L., Sondrio, Italy
Perrisia salicariae Kieff. on Lythrum salicaria L., Milan, Italy
Perrisia ulmariae Br. on Spiraea ulmaria L., Sondrio, Italy
Rhabdophaga rosaria H. Lw. on Salix purpurea L., Sondrio, Italy
Mikiola fagi Hart. on Fagus silvatica L., Bergamo, Italy
Rhopalomyia artemisiae Bouché on Artemisia campestris L., Sondrio,
Italy
‘Oligotrophus sp. on Juniperus communis L., Mallare, Italy
Oligotrophus capreae Winn. on Salix caprea L., Sondrio, Italy
Oligotrophus corni Gir. on Cornus sanguinea L., Relegon, Como, Italy
Oligotrophus reaumurianus F. Lw. on Tilia parviflora Clerk., Sondrio,
Italy
Oligotrophus solmsii Kieff. on Viburnum lantana L., Sondrio, Italy
Oligotrophus taxi Inchb. on Taxus baccata L., Mallare, Italy
Mayetiola poae Bosc. on Poa nemoralis L., Sondrio, Italy
Asphondylia sp. on Scrophularia canina L., Selvius, Bergamo, Italy
Asphondylia sarothamni H. Lw. on Sarothamnus scoparius Link., Son-
drio, Italy
Schizomyia pimpinellae F. Lw. on Pimpinella magnus L., Como, Italy
Harmandia petioli Kieff. on Populus tremula L., Sondrio, Italy
Harmandia tremulae Winn. on Populus tremula L., Sondrio, Italy
Clinodiplosis vaccinii Kieff. on Vaccinium uliginosum L., ? Valmaleneo,
Sondrio, Italy
82 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
APPENDIX
MIASTOR AMERICANA FELT
An account of pedogenesis
The remarkable larvae of Miastor, presumably M.americana
Felt, were found Oct. 5, 1910 under the partially decayed inner bark
and in the sapwood of a chestnut rail used to fence a shady road-
side in the vicinity of Highland. Additional material was secured
October 19th, and from these two lots we have been fortunate in
being able to follow through the larval life cycle and to actually
witness pedogenesis, now regarded as a modification of partheno-
genesis. These minute larvae are very easily handled and studied
and should therefore be extremely serviceable to teachers of zoology
and biology desiring to give their classes first-hand information
respecting this phase of reproduction. Our studies of this form are
given below in some detail in the hope that many teachers will find
it advantageous to make use of these larvae in their class work.
Habitat. The moist inner bark of various trees showing
incipient decay is the most likely place to find Miastor larvae. Those
discussed in these pages were discovered in the fall, working in the
partially decayed chestnut bark of a rail fence along a shaded road-
side. The larvae were most abundant in the soft, partly decayed
bast just beyond the point invaded by various borers in dead wood
and the accompanying predaceous Dipterous larvae. An allied,
though undetermined, species was taken under similar bark of a
chestnut stump in a wood lot. European observers report the occur-
rence of these and allied larvae under the bark of a variety of trees,
stich as beech, birch, poplar, oak, elm, ash and ironwood, and even
in sugar beet residue.
Recognition characters. It is very probable that these larvae
have been repeatedly overlooked by collectors, simply because when
occurring singly or in small colonies they present no very striking
characteristics. Large colonies of this remarkable form are easily
recognized by the masses of more or less adherent yellowish or
whitish larvae, and especially by the presence here and there of
larger, motionless individuals, some of which usually contain young
= weil developed as to be easily seen with a hand magnifier. A
careiui examination with a pocket lens will show, even in the case of
isolated larvae, a distinct head and a fuscous ocular spot in the
sedgment just behind. The head is flattened, triangular, with a pair
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 83
of diverging antennae and quite different from the strongly convex,
usually fuscous head of Sciara larvae sometimes occurring in similar
situations. Predaceous larvae likely to be associated with Miastor,
may be instantly recognized by the body tapering to the small
anterior segments, and especially by the chitinized, usually fuscous,
hooked mouth-parts. Small Dipterous maggots having a length
of one-twentieth to one-eighth of an inch and occurring under con-
ditions described above, should be carefully examined if one is
searching for this or allied species.
- Value to zoologists and biologists. Miastor larvae and their
allies should be of great service to teachers of zoology and biology,
since they admit of the study at first-hand of one form of partheno-
genesis. It is possible with a no more elaborate outfit than an ordi-
nary student’s microscope equipped with a three-quarter objective,
a microscopic slide and a few cover glasses, to observe the vital
activities of the young larva, to see the muscular, respiratory,
digestive and nervous systems, to identify the ovaries and to
watch the gradual development of the semitransparent embryos
within the mother larva. Furthermore, this larva is well adapted to
more exact histological methods, being soft and therefore an excel-
lent subject for serial sections and stains, particularly as it is com-
paratively easy to secure from one colony a series of individuals
representing different stages of development. |
There are other considerations aside from the interest attaching
to their morphology and biology which should appeal strongly to the
teacher of zoology. These larvae are widely distributed and, with
an understanding of their habits, there should be little difficulty in
finding them. Moreover, they are small, and a piece of wood six
inches long, three inches wide and half an inch thick may contain
or produce material enough for a fair sized section or class in
zoology. The larvae are prolific and under favorable conditions
would probably multiply at any season of the year. This is cer-
tainly true of the fall, the early winter and the spring. They are
so amenable to artificial conditions as to make it possible to keep
them alive for at least a month in microscopic cells, and with care
a larval generation will develop in such restricted quarters. We
have kept larvae healthy and multiplying for more than three
months with nothing more elaborate than a moist piece of decaying
wood clamped lightly to an ordinary microscopic slide. These
remarkable larvae are very hardy. Prolonged dryness simply results
in a suspension of activities, while they are quite resistant to an
2)
4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
abundance of moisture. We have kept them alive in sealed water-
filled cells without food for five weeks. With our present knowl-
edge we see no reason why artificial colonies might not be established
in the vicinity of a zoological laboratory and maintained with very
little or no attention from year to year, if not for a decade or more.
Description. The parents of these remarkable larvae are
small midges belonging to the Dipterous family Itonidae, - better
known as the Cecidomyiidae or gall midges. The members of this
family are all small Diptera with the tibiae unarmed apically, the
coxae not produced and the wings usually with but three or four
long veins and no cross veins. Extreme forms may have six or
seven long veins and one cross vein or, as a result of reduction, the
veins may have nearly disappeared.
The subfamily Heteropezinae, to which Miastor and its allies
belong, comprises a number of exceedingly peculiar forms, some of
them most remarkable on account of the great degree of specializa-
tion by reduction — physiological as well as morphological. Mem-
bers of this subfamily may be separated from the Itonidinae by the
absence of circumfili, and from the Lestremiinae by the great reduc-
tion in the venation, there being at most, three long veins. The
metatarsus may be longer than the following segment, while the
number of tarsal segments may be reduced to two. Certain species
have quinquearticulate tarsi and the wing membrane thickly clothed
with rather broad, striate scales. The production of larvae by
larvae or pedogenesis is known to be true of several genera referable
to this subfamily, the larvae of which appear to live for the most
part in decaying vegetable matter and are therefore likely to be
found in searching for Miastor larvae. The adults of Muiastor
appear in June, while the one known American species of Oligarces
was taken in July. The following table will facilitate the recogni-
tion of the genera in this group.
KEY TO GENERA
a Metatarsus longer than the second segment
b Tarsi quadriarticulate; 3 long veins; palpi biarticulate Miastor Mein.
bb Tarsi triarticulate; 2 long veins; antennal segments cylindric
Heteropeza Winn.
aa Metatarsus shorter than the second segment
b Tarsi quinquearticulate
c Wing membrane finely haired
d 3d vein extending to the apex of the wing
e Palpi quadriarticulate
f 5th vein forked Haplusia Karsch
jf sth vein simple Johnsonomyia Felt
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 85
ee Palpi triarticulate Meinertomyia Felt
dd 3d vein not extending to the apex of the wing
eee Palpi uniarticulate Leptosyna Kieff.
e Palpi biarticulate Frirenia Kieff.
ee Palpi triarticulate Epimyia Felt
cc Wing membrane scaled; 3 simple veins; palpi triarticulate
Brachyneura Rond.
bb Tarsi biarticulate Oligarces Mein.
Fig. 7 Fifth antennal seg- Fiz. 10 Side view of thorax, legs and Fig.8 Palpus of
ment of Miastor ameri- abdomen of Miastor americana. Miastorameri-
cana, greatly enlarged. (Original) cana, greatly en=
(Original) larged, (Original)
KS cc
Fig.9 Wing of Miastor americana, greatly
enlarged. (Original)
M. americana. Female. Length 2.5 mm., slender. Antennae
extending to the base of the coxae, sparsely haired, brown; 11 seg-
ments, the first short, stout, irregularly subglobose, the second 1%
longer, the fifth subcylindric, with a length about 4 greater than
its diameter, tapering at both extremities, subsessile; a very sparse
subbasal whorl of stout setae; subapically and apparently on the
ventral surface, a pair of large, irregularly subconic, semitransparent
processes (fig. 7); the distal segment subglobose, broadly rounded
apically. Palpi biarticulate, the first segment irregularly oval, the
second ¥4 longer, broadiy oval, both sparsely setose. Mesonotum
86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
dark brown. Scutellum reddish brown, postscutellum fuscous yel-
lowish. Abdomen pale salmon, fuscous basally, yellowish apically.
Wings hyaline, costa pale yellowish, subcosta uniting with the mar-
gin at the basal third, the third vein, curving distally, just before the
apex, the fifth simple and disappearing just before the basal half;
fringe long, slender. Legs a nearly uniform yeilowish brown, the
tarsi quadriarticulate, the first segment short, about % longer than
the second, which latter is distinctly longer than the third, the fourth
a little longer and stouter than the second; claws long, slender,
simple, the pulvilli nearly as long as the claws. Ovipositor short,
the lobes long, slender, triarticulate, the basal segment stout, sub-
triangular, the second longer, subrectangular, the third narrowly
oval, all sparsely setose; on the venter of the seventh abdominal
segment there is a submedian pair of obpyriform, chitinous ap-
pendages, possibly orifices of odoriferous glands.
Larva (presumably M. americana). Length 1.25 to 4 mm.
Young larvae yellowish or whitish transparent, the larger larvae
whitish or reddish orange. The large, white larva is rather stout,
tapering somewhat at both extremities and frequently nearly filled
with white adipose tissue. There are 13 body segments. The head
(pl. 26, fig. 2) is small, triangular and frequently retracted within
the body segments. The palpi are short, stout, biarticulate and
arising from the anterior portion of the head, the tip of the head
usually fuscous. The irregularly bilobed ocular spot is usually
seen as a fuscous mass in the third segment. The posterior ex-
tremity tapers to an obtuse apex bearing a series of 6 stout, fre-
quently recurved, cuticular processes. The body segments are
banded ventrally (pl. 29, fig. 2) with closely set series of short,
stout spines pointing backward, these spines being most strongly
developed upon the anterior body segments, especially the third,
fourth and fifth (pl. 22).
The quiescent larva, easily recognized by its somewhat stiff atti-
tude, due probably to the relaxation of the transverse muscles
girdling each segment, may be whitish and contain semitransparent
embryos, easily seen by reflected light (pl. 23, fig. 1) or yellowish
and filled with nearly mature embryos (pl. 24, fig. 1).
The young larvae are 1.2 to 2 mm. long and present all the char-
acters described above for the larger white larvae except that they
are yellowish or yellowish transparent, usually more slender and
appear to have a relatively much better developed musculature.
Musculature. The muscles are especially well developed in the
young larvae. They consist of a series of longitudinal and oblique
muscles extending from the anterior to the posterior margins of the
body segments. There are a number of transverse, girdling mus-
cular bands, which are particularly well developed at the union of
the body segments, though several distinct broad bands may be
observed near the middle of each segment.
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 87
Respwatory system. ‘The tracheal trunks comprise a double series
on each side extending nearly the entire length of the body and
sending minute branches to lateral spiracles on the fourth to the
eleventh body segments. The dorsal trunks are united to each other
by transverse tracheae in the posterior third of body segments five
to eleven inclusive and, in addition, send minute branches to the
various organs of the body. The tracheal system of a living,
semitransparent larva may be easily examined in a water mount.
Nervous system. This 1s composed of the pyriform submedian
optic lobes and the fuscous, lobulate, socalled ocular spot, the bi-
lobed brain in the fourth and fifth body segments and a series of
ganglia united by submedian nerves as follows: A broadly oval
ganglion occupying the length of the third body segment and with
a width fully equal to half its diameter; a shorter, more slender
ganglion in the anterior portion of the fourth segment; a broadly
pyriform ganglion in the anterior third of the fifth body segment.
Separated slightly therefrom, another ganglion lies in the posterior
portion of the fifth and the anterior part of the sixth body seg-
ments. It is a little narrower than the preceding though it has an
equal length. The fifth and sixth ganglia, each short, subquadrate,
occur in the sixth body segment; the seventh ganglion is one-half
longer than the sixth and is situated in the middle of the seventh
body segment; the eighth to the twelfth body segments each appear
to have one ganglion, the posterior one almost extending to the
anterior margin of the thirteenth body segment.
Digestive system. The digestive system, difficult to study because
of its being largely inclosed by nearly opaque adipose tissue, consists,
according to Kahle, of a comparatively simple tube extending the
entire length of the body, the granular salivary glands occurring in
the fifth to the ninth body segments, while the long, slender,
malpighian tubes may be found in the 11th to 13th segments,
inclusive.
History of pedogenesis. The discovery of this remarkable
phenomenon is credited to Nicolas Wagner, professor of zoology
at Kasan. He published a short note in the Journal of the Univer-
sity of Kasan in 1861 or 1862, and in 1865 a detailed account. The
latter was held by the editor for almost two years because of its
“almost increditable” character. The observations of Wagner
were confirmed by Meinert and Pagenstecher in 1864, and by Hanin,
Leuckart and Mecznikoff in 1865. Wagner believed at first that
the embryos originated in the adipose tissue, at the expense of
which they develop very largely. Later he, Leuckart and Meczni-
koff satisfied themselves that the embryos originated from ovaries.
88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The investigations of these scientists covered approximately a dec-
ade, 1862 to 1872, which was followed by a long period of ap-
parent lack of interest in these larvae, very little original being
published from the latter date until the exhaustive studies in 1908
by Kahle, who employed modern laboratory methods, demonstrated
the general correctness of the earlier observations and satisfied him-
self that the process was a true parthenogenesis. It does not seem
to have occurred to any one that these larvae might be of great
service to the teacher of biology.
This method of reproduction has been observed by Meinert in
Miastor, Oligarces and Meinertomyia (Pero Mein.) and by Kieffer
in Leptosyna. The latter believes the same to be true of Frirenia,
though he has not observed mother larvae, since the females con-
tain the unusually large eggs characteristic of genera reproducing
in this manner.
Pedogenesis or close approach thereto is known to occur in the
Chironomidae. Grimm in 1870 describes a larval Chironomus in
which eggs develop, they escaping, however, from paired submedian
ventral orifices in the eighth abdominal segment of the pupa. This .
must be construed as at least a modification of the process exhib-
ited by Miastor and its allies. Professor Johannsen recorded in 1910
a pedogenetic larva, Tanytarsusdissimilis Jhns., which
had come under his observation and that of the late Dr James
Fletcher, though no data has been published to show the exact
character of this process. Professor Johannsen also refers to an
account of pedogenesis in this genus observed in Bohemia by Pro-
fessor Zavrel.
Habits. These larvae appear to thrive only in the moist,
partly rotten inner bark and punky sapwood which has not been
invaded to any considerable extent by other Dipterous larvae or
Coleopterous borers. They exhibit a manifest tendency to occur in
segregated masses, frequently between loose flakes of bark or in
rather broad crevices. These colonies contain in autumn old empty
skins of mother larvae; a number of yellowish mother larvae with
approximately five to fifteen young within; very numerous, small,
yellowish larvae showing no trace of embryos; a number of white,
various sized active larvae, frequently white, sometimes semitrans-
parent ; and a few quiescent white larvae containing young embryos.
Such larval colonies are most likely to be found in somewhat flaky
inner bark, especially where conditions allow several larvae to lie
side by side (pl. 26, fig. 1).
REPORT (OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST I9TO 89
Slender, yellowish larvae are often found lying between wood
fibers, in some instances apparently having penetrated several inches
from the nearest adjacent larvae. ‘These latter do not appear to
grow so rapidly as is the case in the more populous colonies, and
they also seem to be less.prolific, since the few larvae we have
Observed under such conditions, produced only three or four, and
mostly but one, young. The small, yellowish larvae lying in
crevices, mentioned above, frequently occur in series, sometimes
one or two lying side by side. They move comparatively little, action
being confined largely to the head and the semitransparent anterior
body segments. Such larvae appear to remain almost unchanged
for two weeks or more. These muscular larvae, with their bands.
of retrose spines especially well developed on the anterior body
segments, are admirably adapted for forcing their way between par-
tially rotten tissues, a procedure which is also of material service in
giving them relative immunity from attack by natural enemies. The
small yellow larvae were most abundant in our material during the
winter months.
Active larvae crawl rapidly over moist wood and glass, and have
even been observed wriggling between colonies of mold. Lack of
moisture appears to cause a partial suspension of vital activities,
while flooding does not seem to be very injurious. The mouth-
parts of the larvae, though the anterior portion of the head is
strongly chitinized, appear to be comparatively weak, and, while
we have repeatedly observed these larvae moving the head about
and examining adjacent tissues, we have seen no indication of
gnawing or boring. The alimentary canal contains little that can
be discerned with the aid of a compound misroscope, and we are
inclined to believe that a considerable portion of their nourishment
is absorbed by osmosis after escaping from the mother larva, as.
well as before. It would appear as though the several types
of larvae occurring in a colony are possibly only modifications, due
to the relative amount of nourishment obtained by the individual.
Normally, reproductions by pedogenesis occurs throughout the
warm months of the year and even into late fall, and commences in
early spring, the cold weather of winter simply causing a suspension
of activities. Dr Kahle, after an extended series of observations,
was led to believe that asexual multiplication might continue unin-
terruptedly for possibly a period of two or three years. This
appears reasonable, since somewhat recent experiments by Slinger-
land have shown that a plant louse might produce nearly 100 asexual
QO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
generations in almost four years and presumably was capable of
continuing this much longer. The adults of Miastor and Oligarces
occur in midsummer, a season when the midges of most of these
forms are probably abroad.
Biological observations. The first larvae secured were taken
October 5, 1910, placed in an ordinary fruit jar with moist sand
and subsequently allowed to become rather dry. A second lot was
obtained October 19 and on examining the latter November 18th, an
adherent mass of young larvae evidently recently escaped from the
mother larva was found. Soft, partially rotten wood was taken
from the earlier lot presumed to contain little or nothing alive, and
one or two of these young larvae placed in a groove in each piece
of wood, the latter being attached by light clamps, either directly
to a microscopic slide or held between a pair. These preparations
were kept in a closed tin box on damp blotting paper. It was hoped
that we would be able to watch the development of the one or more
larvae thus placed in each piece of wood. Most of these for some
reason or other escaped and we soon found that the additional
moisture given these pieces resulted in renewed activities on the
part of many larvae concealed in the woody tissues. On Novem-
ber 28, ten days after these preparations had been made, numerous
young larvae were observed in most of the preparations, the ma-
jority probably recent young of larvae stirred to renewed ac-
tivity by the addition of moisture. Throughout November and in
eatly December large, white mother larvae capable of producing
from five to perhaps fifteen embryos were frequently seen. The
latter part of December and during January large, white larvae
were difficult to find and the major portion of the reproduction was
by the small, yellow mother larvae usually occurring in crevices in
the sapwood and producing only one or two young. These prepara-
tions afford an excellent opportunity for determining the duration
of the quiescent period under nearly natural conditions. This was
found, as a result of observations upon a number of larvae, to be
in the vicinity of a week, the movements of the embryo with the
fuscous ocular spot and brown anterior portion of the head being
observable about five days prior to the escape of the young. The
occurrence of a small amount of mold did not seem to have a
material effect upon the health of the larvae, and the same was
true respecting the presence of mites, Tyroglyphus, which were
upon occasions rather abundant in some of the preparations. The
larvae crawl readily between the glass and the wood, occasionally
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST 1910 Ol
making their way to the margin of the preparation and sometimes
escaping. A few were found lying upon the damp blotters in the
bottom of the box, others between the blotters and more under
the lower blotter on the tin bottom of the box. The larvae are
evidently able to remain active for considerable periods without
nourishment and with comparatively little oxygen, since it was
observed that flooding of the preparation, even though continued for
two or three days, apparently had no ill effect upon the larvae —
subsequently we found that larvae would live submerged several
weeks and the embryos develop.
The above was continued by isolating one or more larvae on
ordinary microscopic slides. Each of these contained several small
slivers of wood approximately .2 mm. thick and I to 1.5 em. long.
These were laid upon the slide, moistened, several larvae added
and a square cover glass placed over the whole, the margins being
more or less perfectly sealed with vaseline. These preparations
were designed primarily to secure more accurate data as to the
length of the quiescent period, ‘to facilitate observation upon the
development of the embryo and also to ascertain the feasibility of
rearing the larvae under such conditions. It was soon noted that
while the vital processes were not at once inhibited by submersion,
they were greatly retarded and if flooding was long continued, the
embryos were unable to escape from the mother larva, though ap-
parently well developed.
One moderate sized, apparently quiescent larva with finely granu-
lar contents and a brownish discoloration on one side was placed
in such a cell December 12, 1910, together with a moderate sized,
yellowish or yellowish white larva and a number of smaller ones.
The 16th it was evident that the adipose tissue of this large larva
was disintegrating, the several embryos being about one-half the
length of the mother larva. On the 22d the embryo was apparently
about three-fourths the length of the mother larva and there were
no signs of either head or ocular spot. The next day the develop-
ing ocular spot was seen.as a pair of narrowly oval, fuscous, sub-
median bodies, while most of the posterior part of the larva was
filled with large, cuboidal cells arranged in a series of columns.
The embryo at this time extended from the fifth to the thirteenth
body segments of the mother larva. The following day the ocular
spot was more evident and the apex of the head discernible. The
27th we were able to recognize two embryos, both with the large
cells as described above. The 30th there was a distinct bulging
Q2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
of the mother larva in the region of the fifth body segment, a con-
dition presaging the nearly developed embryo. The next day the
ocular spot was black. Observations were continued daily from
January Ist to the 13th, during which time development appeared
to be slow and a clear definition of the changes undergone almost
impossible because of the condition of the ceil. January 16th the
embryos had escaped.
The moderate sized, yellowish or whitish larva mentioned above
was lost sight of for a time, not being located till December 23,
tQ1o, at which time it was found well established on the underside of
a splinter of wood and with a length of about 3mm. It remained
moderately active for a time, two embryos being observed the 26th,
at which time its color approximated closely that of the wood and
accounted in large measure for its being overlooked earlier. The
28th the adipose tissue of the mother larva had nearly disappeared
and on the 31st an ocular spot was visible in the young. January
Ist the head and ocular spot of two embryos were recognized, and
on the 5th embryonic movements were observed. The next day
one embryo had extruded its head through the skin of the mother
larva. Our records show that embryos remained within this
mother larva till the 20th, possibly one.or more perishing.
There were at least three small, yellowish larvae placed in this
preparation with the two larger ones discussed above. These re-
mained active for some days, two being located as quiescent, each
containing an embryo about half the length of the mother larva,
December 23, 1910, and from this on were subjected to daily ob-
servation. The first of these showed a grouping of the cells in
rows the 24th, which became more distinct the next day, and
on the 26th a median tract of darker cells was observable. The
28th the embryo extended from the second to the eleventh body
segments of the mother larva and showed rather distinct masses
of adipose and mesodermal tissue (pl. 35, fig. 3). The ocular spot
was evident and the head slightly fuscous. On the 30th movements
of the anterior extremity of the embryo and streaming of the body
contents were observed, the mesodermal tissue was less conspicuous
and the adipose tissue occupied more space. The embryo escaped
from the mother larva January tst. This was unusually early and
may have been hastened by artificial causes.
The second small, yeilowish, quiescent larva was located De-
cember 23, 1910 at which time it contained a large-celled embryo
with a length fully one-half that of the mother larva. Three days
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 93
later the embryo extended from the fifth to the thirteenth segments
of the mother lavra, the cells being arranged in indistinct rows
and larger at the extremities. Owing to its position, 1t was im-
possible to properly illuminate this mother larva. The ocular spot
and fuscous head were observed on the 30th and an active, well-
developed larva seen January 2d, which remained within the skin
of the mother larva till the 12th, an unusually long period, due
possibly to the mother larva being partially surrounded by vaseline
and therefore deprived of a proper supply of oxygen.
Three months after the establishment of the cell containing the
larvae discussed above, their progeny were living under substantially
the same conditions and gave every indication of producing young
in due time.
A large, white, active larva was isolated under another slide
December 12, 1910 with the conditions practically as outlined
above. Six days later this larva had worked itself to the margin
and become practically inclosed in a vaseline, water-filled cell where
it remained for over a month, namely till January 2oth. ‘The de-
velopment was unusually slow, probably due in large measure to the
deficient supply of oxygen. Young, oval embryos were observed in
the region of the sixth and seventh body segments December 109.
@n tie 24th several embryos were found on. the venter in the
region of the tenth or eleventh segments, each with a length nearly
equal that of the body diameter. There was a gradual increase in
tenet and on the 26th one extended from the eleventh fo the
fourteenth segments of the mother larva. The adipose tissue was
yellowish and reticulate by the 29th, though no signs of ocular
spot or mouth parts were to be seen. January 2d a slight row
of cells was visible in one embryo, this median streak becoming
more apparent on the 5th. Extended masses of large, cuboidal
cells were observed on the 7th, the ocular spot showing as a pair of
minute, brownish spots. On the 16th well formed, embryonic
heads and brown ociar spots were visible. This appeared to be
about as far as development could go without additional oxygen,
and though the vaseline cell was ruptured on the 20th no larvae
escaped. Ihe record <6 imteresting since it gives an idea of the
vitality of these larvae under adverse conditions.
Another quiescent, white larva containing at least two embryos
was isolated December 12, 1910. The adipose tissue was granular
and irregular. On the 16th the larva was nearly filled with
whitish transparent embryos, the latter with a distinct median
O4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
streak. Five days later one embryo kad a length equal to one-half
that of the mother larva, the embryonic adipose and mesodermal
tissue were rather distinct, while the adipose tissue of the mother
larva was largely absorbed. On the 22d the form of the mother
larva was distinctly modified by the obliquely-lying young, each
with a length approximately three-fourths that of the parent. The
next day we observed the mesoderm, composed of irregularly ar-
ranged, subhexagonal cells, accompanied by the appearance of
incipient ocular spots in various embryos. The tip of the head
became fuscous by the 28th and on January 5th, slight movements
of the embryos were observed. Owing to the reduced oxygen
supply, due to the larva being in a practically sealed cell, the em-
bryos experienced difficulty in escaping. One was observed Jan-
uary 9th with the seven anterior segments protruding from the
posterior extremity of the mother larva, remaining in the same
position and nearly motionless the three following days. The cell
was opened January 14th and the mother larva given air, but the
action was apparently too late, as the young failed to revive. There
appears to be sufficient oxygen in the tissue of the mother larva to
permit the embryos to become fully developed.
Methods. The material taken in October was kept in ordi-
nary fruit jars for a time, some of these at least being allowed to
become rather dried. There was very little or no multiplication. On
November 18th small pieces or slivers of somewhat dried wood con-
taining these larvae were either clamped directly to ordinary
microscopic slides or laid between two held together by means of
light wire clips. These portions of infested wood were kept on
moistened blotting paper in a dark, tin box, being examined every
two or three days. Large, white mother larvae were produced from
time to time and occasionally considerable colonies of small young
were observed in the vicinity of the empty skins of mother larvae.
Such preparations enabled us to keep track, not only of a colony
but, by noting the location of quiescent larvae, even of individuals.
Later this series was supplemented by a few fragments of wood
laid upon microscopic slides, covered with large, square cover glasses
and the margins more or less perfectly sealed with vaseline. The
cell thus formed was kept moist and sometimes flooded with water.
Under such conditions full grown white larvae, quiescent larvae and
small, white or yellowish larvae were also studied. They apparently
thrived for one week at least. Finally we selected a series of small,
yellowish, active and quiescent larvae, placed them in water cells
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 95
and observed the embryos and their various stages of develop-
ment, photomicrographs being successfully made from this living
material.
The observations on the small lots of material noted above were
checked by examinations of the fruit jars containing larger amounts
of material. The latter jars were especially useful because the very
numerous maggots made it possible to select at one time practically
all stages, which were mounted in considerable abundance. Some
of the larvae were cleared with potassium hydrate and then stained
with Fuchsin, Hematoxylin, Eosin and Eosin-Hematoxylin. The
actions of the stains were all somewhat unsatisfactory and the
majority of our most successful mounts were entire larvae in
ordinary balsam preparations which had been thoroughly cleared.
The study of the mounts was checked by examination of living
material as detailed above.
Embryology. The development of the embryo may be observed
in the living larva. It is easily seen in the larger, white individuals
common in the fall and producing a number of young, though the
changes in the embryo are best observed in the small, yellow lar-
vae, especially 1f they are mounted in shallow water cells.*
The region of the ovaries is marked in the large, white larvae by
an irregular, yellowish green streak in the tenth or eleventh seg-
ments. A close examination of such a larva may disclose the oval,
large-celled ovaries nearly concealed by the submedian masses of
opaque, white adipose tissue, especially if the larva rolls slightly.
These organs are more easily detected in the young yellowish
larva. They are submedian, whitish transparent, contrast rather
strongly with the darker, more refractive adipose tissue and are
located in the posterior portion of the tenth or the anterior part
of the eleventh segment, one frequently being somewhat in advance
of the other. They are composed of globular or oval, nucleated
cells.
The youngest embryos we have observed are oval, granular and
may be found in the large, white larvae in the vicinity of the
_ovaries. The motion of the internal organs appears to distribute
the embryos through the body, there being from one to as many
as seventeen in individual mother larvae. The young embryos are
semitransparent and present a strong contrast to the opaque adi-
pose tissue of the large, white larvae or the denser cells of the
small, yellowish larvae. The youngest embryo photographed is
1We have used a ring of vaseline to support the cover glass and found
such a cell very satisfactory as well as economical.
96 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
represented on plate 30, figures 2 and 3. It occurred in a small,
yellow larva and had a length nearly equal to that of the ninth ©
segment of the mother larva, its width being about one-fourth the
diameter of the parent. This embryo is evidently in the morula
stage, it being composed of a rather indistinct mass of irregular,
closely placed cells, apparently with a slight infolding, the begin-
ning of the blastoderm. At the posterior extremity there is a
group of nucleated, large, polar cells. The next stage observed,
though not photographed, was seen in larva Y. This embryo had
a length equal to nearly twice the diameter of the mother larva. It
was narrowly elliptical, with a length approximately three times
its diameter and the polar cells, though visible, were not so evi-
dent as in the embryo described above. At its anterior extremity
there was a slight thickening, apparently the much reduced cells of
the corpus luteum. The median portion was occupied by a rather
broad streak of dark, granular cells, bordered on either side and
at the extremities by lighter, small-celled tissue. A more advanced
stage is shown on plate 30, figure 1, and plate 31. This represents
an embryo dissected from the large, white type of mother larva.
It shows a distinct darker ectoderm and a lighter mesoderm, the
anterior extremity having a conspictious cap of large, dark cells.
Portions of the posterior extremity and of the middle of the same
embryo are represented still more enlarged on plate 31, figures I
and 2. The time required for the small embryos to migrate from
the region of the ovaries and develop to such an extent as de-
scribed above and thus produce a quiescent stage in the large, white
type of mother larva is approximately four to five days, much
appearing to depend upon the size of the mother larva and the
number of embryos present. The latter are perhaps most easily
seen when viewed by reflected light (pl. 23 fig. 1, 2). The next
stage in the development is illustrated on plate 32, figure 1. The
embryo has a distinct cephalic cap of dark-celled tissue, a well
defined germinal streak, the latter being broadly produced to one
side in the region of the anterior third. The same general condi-
tion, though in a more advanced stage and apparently from a
somewhat different viewpoint, is illustrated on plate 32, figure 4,
and plate 33, figure 2, the dark ectoderm occupying one-third the
width of the embryo and extending from approximately the re-
gion of the sixth to the twelfth segments; the cephalic cap persists
as before. This condition appears to be followed shortly, though
we have observed it somewhat clearly only in embryos developing in
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO Q7
the large, white mother larvae, by a great increase in the ecto-
derm, accompanied by its folding and extension anteriorly around
the posterior extremity, the development of the large lobes an-
teriorly and its segregation into somatic masses, indistinctly shown
on plate 27, figure 2, and’apparently producing a peculiar cuboidal
aspect illustrated on plate 28. The greatly developed mesoderm in-
cludes a series of large, cuboidal cells, some at least probably being
the polar cells, and a certain portion destined to develop into a
much more conspicuous mass to be described later. These changes
are accompanied by a shrinking of the embryo from the extremi-
ties of the amniotic sac and the development of the digestive sys-
tem by an invagination from both extremities. This latter is in-
dicated in living embryos of young yellowish larvae, by the forma-
tion of irregular lobes at each extremity and the appearance in
the region of the sixth to the twelfth segments, of a considerable
mass of large-celled tissue, occupying most of that portion of the
body cavity and which we believe to be mesoderm (pl. 35, fig. 2)
and identical with that mentioned above. The changes from now
on are rapid. This conspicuous mass of mesoderm gradually be-
comes absorbed or reorganized into organs such as the digestive
system, its appendages and especially the ovaries, while the de-
veloping adipose tissue expands, occupies more space and _ pro-
duces a three-rowed appearance in the embryo (pl. 35, fig. 3).
Development of the head now proceeds, the mouth parts become
more definite, the ocular spot visible and the lobes at the posterior
extremity become well defined. Motion may be observed in the
embryo and shortly it is ready to escape from the mother larva.
The length of the fully developed embryo is about 1 mm. It is
frequently nearly as long as the small, yellow mother larva and
approximately half as long as the large, white larva.
The development of the embryo reacts upon the mother larva
and she soon assumes a rather characteristic quiescent form, un-
doubtedly an outcome of her lowered vitality due to the rapid ab-
sorption of nourishment by the young. This results in the relax-
ing of the muscles, especially the transverse girdling bands at the
margins of the segments. The change in the condition of the
mother is probably explainable solely upon physiological grounds.
The time elapsing between the assumption of the quiescent stage
by the mother larva and the escape of the young is about seven
days. The first part of this period the embryos rarely exhibit signs
of life, though distinct motions of the head and anterior segments
98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
may be observed five days before they escape. The embryos
are inclosed in the amniotic sac, which latter is ruptured before
they escape from the body of the mother larva. There is a marked
tendency among the embryos, when more than one occurs, to de-
velop with their heads toward both extremities of the mother larva.
ive growth of the embryo is correlated, as alluded to above, by
interesting modifications in the mother larva. The large, well
developed mother larva is easily recognized by her plump condition
and the nearly solid, submedian masses of white adipose tissue filling
the body from the fifth or sixth segment to the posterior extremity.
Shortly after the escape of the embryos from the ovaries we observe
clear patches (pl. 23, fig. 1), here and there in the mother larva,
bordered by cells well filled with adipose tissue. Within a few days
there is a striking modification and these large cells lose, probably
by osmosis, a large proportion of the white, fatty matter and
assume a somewhat reticulate character (pl. 23, fig. 2), which is
soon followed by their disappearance, and the embryos absorbing
practically all of the contents of the mother larva.
Records of individual embryos. The embryo in larva A was
first detected January 17th. It then had a length about equal to
two and one-half body segments of the mother larva. There was
a distinct median streak of large, irregular cells, with a broad pro-
jection to one side near the anterior third, and a distinct cephalic
cap of dark cells at the anterior extremity (pl. 32, fig: 1s) Witemmers
day the germinal strip occupied an area approximately equal to
one-third the width of the embryo (pl. 32, fig. 2), extending the
following day to about half the width of the embryo, the clear
space just behind the cephalic extremity being decidedly smaller.
At this time the embryo had increased in length so that it extended
from the posterior third of the fifth to the anterior fourth of the
eighth body segment of the mother larva. There was some in-
crease in length and minor changes in development from that date
to the 27th, at which time there was a remarkable change, the
germinal streak and its production to one side becoming narrower
and being composed of unusually large cells; this change was soon
followed by disintegration, the condition on the 28th being well
illustrated on plate 32, figure 3.
The embryo of larva B was recognized January 17th, at which
time it extended from the fourth body segment of the mother
larva to the twelfth. The greater portion of the embryo consisted
of a nearly uniform series of small, globular cells, though a darker
area was visible on one side near the middle (pl. 34, fig. 1). Pulsa-
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 99
tions were visible in the body of the mother larva. The next day
a series of moderately large, cuboidal cells were observed near the
posterior extremity. This tissue became more distinct as develop-
ment progressed, it becoming more evident by the 21st and occu-
pying a still more prominent place the 23d and 24th. On this latter
date two-thirds of the posterior portion of the embryonic body were
filled with this tissue, somewhat as illustrated on plate 35, figure 2.
The masses of adipose tissue on either side commenced to develop
and eventually overspread and apparently absorbed in considerable
measure the substances of the mesodermal tissue, a portion of
which apparently develops into the ovaries. The embryonic di-
gestive tract, apparently marked by large-celled tissue, appeared
on the 27th to be nearly continuous throughout the entire length
of the embryo. The embryo had shrunk a perceptible distance
from the ends of the amniotic sac and the developing extremities
were observed. The lobes of the antennae were recognized the
following day as obtuse, buttonlike projections having a length
less than three-fourths their diameter. Two days later the an-
tennae had a length a little greater than their diameter; the ocu-
lar spots were indicated by indistinct, submedian, pigmented areas ;
the lobes of the brain could be traced; the salivary glands were
-submedian, narrowly lanceolate masses of large, glistening cells
lying in presumably the sixth or seventh segments of the embryo,
while the mesodermal tissue had retracted somewhat. The posterior
extremity of the embryo was also well defined. February Ist
there were three distinct rows of embryonic tissue, the two strips
Oi adipose tissue and the large-celled mesoderm, the latter being
less extensive the following day and largely obscured by adipose
tissue on February 3d. There was a slow development from this
time subsequently. On the 8th the ocular spots were light brown,
diffuse, and the semitransparent mouth parts well developed, a
fuscous appearance showing on the gth. This embryo failed to
escape from the mother larva.
_ The embryo in larva C extended from the third to the eleventh
segments of the mother larva and had a distinct median streak
January 17th. The latter on the 20th was seen to be composed of
smaller, dark cells. The next day the embryo extended from the
third to the middle of the twelfth segment of the mother larva.
Development continued until the 27th, at which time it was nearly
in the condition illustrated on plate 35, figure 2, the posterior por-
tion being largely occupied by the mesodermal tissue. The an-
4
100 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
terior five or six segments of the embryo were semitransparent
and the ocular spots represented by minute, brownish, submedian,
pigmented areas. The next day the three-rowed condition, indi-
cating the development of adipose tissue, was more apparent, while
the lobed posterior extremity of the embryo was fairly definite.
On the 3oth developing salivary glands were distinguished near
the anterior extremity of the adipose tissue. Free movements of
the embryo were noted the 31st, and on February Ist it was seen
that the head was weil developed though semitransparent, the
antennae having a length twice the diameter. The mesodermal
tissue was obscured or absorbed to a considerable extent by the
developing sublateral masses of adipose tissue. The head of the
embryo was slightly infuscated on the 2d and the ocular spots
purplish brown. Free movements of the embryo continued and
on the 6th the mesoderm was largely concealed by adipose tissue.
There was comparatively little development from this date onward,
though the embryo continued active in the mother larva til the
1oth. Owing probably to an insufficient supply of oxygen it was
unable to escape.
One larva (4) separated January 17th, contained two embryos,
each with a length about half that of the mother larva and both
showing a distinct infolding near the middle of the germinal
streak. The posterior extremities of these embryos showed several
exceptionally large, compound cells— polar cells. Six were ob-
served in the anterior embryo and apparently three in a row in the
posterior embryo, the latter apparently moving anteriorly. Un-
fortunately this promising larva was accidentally destroyed.
Larva J, isolated January 17th, contained an embryo extending
from the fifth to the eleventh body segments of the mother larva.
The next day four presumably polar cells were recognized at the
posterior extremity. There were no evident streaks in the em-
bryo. On the 19th one very large aggregation of unusually dark
cells was observed just before the posterior extremity, the opposite
extremity being largely filled with globular ectodermal cells, espe-
cially abundant on one side. The following day a distinct tract of
darker tissue was observed on one side of the embryo, extending
from its anterior third to its posterior fifth and representing ap-
proximately the area occupied by the mesodermal tissue. January
21st the embryo extended from the fifth to the anterior margin
of the thirteenth segment of the mother larva. There was a dis-
tinct fold of ectodermal tissue, presumably in the region of the
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO IOI
eighth to the twelfth embryonic segments, extending a little over
half the width of the embryo. Posteriorly there were several
large, globose, nucleated cells, presumably polar cells, while at the
opposite end there was a considerable mass of large cells having
a diameter of one-fourth’ to one-third that of the embryo. “Two
days later the posterior extremity of the embryo contained a mass
of large-celled tissue in which were several larger, indistinct, pre-
sumably polar cells. The large, glistening mesodermal tissue was
observed in the region of the ninth to the twelfth segments, while
the sublateral developing adipose tissue was seen on either side.
This condition is well shown in a photograph taken the following
daye(pl. 35, me. 2), at which time the embryo exhibited distinct
movements. The rather well formed head was colorless and moved
from side to side. Streaming of the body contents was observed
though the fat bodies occupied a comparatively small space on
either side. The fine-celled, slender, malpighian tubes were noted.
The posterior extremity had well developed lobes. On the 25th
the median mass of mesodermal tissue had begun to contract, the
developing adipose tissue increasing considerably. Two days later
the head was well developed; the ocular spot black; the salivary
glands were recognized; the malpighian tubes were distinct, while
the mesodermal tissue extended approximately from the tenth to
the twelfth segments and had a width only about one-fourth the
diameter of the embryo. The following day the embryo escaped
from the mother larva. |
Larva N was a small, yellow larva separated January 30th and
containing an embryo extending from the posterior third of the
ninth to the posterior third of the eleventh segment of the mother
_larva. .The embryo exhibited a distinct germinal strip extending
from the anterior third to the posterior fourth and with a broad
band of ectodermal tissue extending to one side and including ap-
proximately the middle of the embryo. The anterior extremity of
the embryo is capped as it were with dark-celled tissue, while large
yolk cells may be seen here and there in the germ plasma. This
embryo was about as far advanced as the one illustrated on plate 32,
figure 4. The next day there was a median germinal strip of lighter
cells and on one side a layer of decidedly darker cells, much as
shown in plate 30, figure 1. February Ist the two layers described
above were more distinct and broader, the median lighter one being
crowded a little to one side by the greater development and conse-
quent breadth of the darker ectoderm, which latter extended al-
IO2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
most to the middle of the embryo and from its anterior third to its
posterior fourth. The anterior extremity of the embryo is charac-
terized by irregular series of moderately large cells in the germ
plasm. February 2d the median mesodermal tissue was crowded
still further to one side by the darker ectoderm which now extends
to the middle of the embryo and appears to have elongated. some- —
what. Both extremities of the embryo have retracted a little from
the tip of the amniotic sac and are occupied by irregular series of
large cells. The following day the mesoderm was crowded still
further to one side by the darker ectoderm. At the anterior ex-
tremity of the embryo there was a mass of rather dark, fine-celled
tissue, possibly the corpus luteum and apparently separating by
fission, while the greater portion appears to be composed of globu-
lar, highly refractive cells grouped much as at the posterior ex-
tremity, which latter is narrowly margined by rather large, highly
refractive, indistinctly grouped cells, one or more being unusually
large. February 4th there was a distinct clear space in each ex-
tremity of the amniotic sac. The anterior extremity of the em-
bryo is distinctly lobed, the broader, less produced portion capped
with a mass of large, refractive cells, the small protuberant lobe
composed of fine tissue. The posterior extremity of the embryo is
distinctly bilobed. Unfortunately the numerous changes observed
in this embryo from this point on at least appear to be abnormal,
since the embryo disintegrated February 9th, though pulsations in
the mother larva continued normally till the 15th.
A very interesting embryo was discovered in larva Y February
6th. The embryo extended from the seventh to the eighth ab-
dominal segments and had a length equal to nearly twice the dia-
meter of the mother larva. It was narrowly elliptical, with a
length approximately three times its diameter. The polar cells,
though visible, were not so conspicuous as in the younger embryo
illustrated on plate 30, figures 2 and 3. This embryo is composed
of nearly uniformly developed, rather transparent, semicuboidal,
ectodermal cells. At the anterior extremity there was a slight
thickening, apparently the much reduced cells of the corpus luteum.
The median portion was occupied by a rather broad streak of
dark, granular cells bordered on either side, including the ex-
tremities, by lighter, smaller-celled tissue. The mother larva was
alive, as evidenced by distinct pulsations. The following day a
distinct though small cap of cells was observed at the anterior
extremity of the embryo. At the posterior third of the embryo
REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO 103
there was a distinct constriction, almost a division, the tissues
adjacent thereto being markedly larger and darker, while at the
posterior extremity there was a distinct lobe occupying about two-
thirds the width of the embryo. February 8th there was a shrink-
ing from both extremities’ of the amniotic sac, and other changes
which are not described in detail, since they appeared to be pre-
liminary to disintegration the next day, though the mother larva
continued alive until the 15th.
An active, moderate-sized, white larva was isolated February
27th and its granular ovaries were seen partially to divide into
irregular lobes, the one at the posterior extremity of the left devel-
oping into an ovum larger than the remainder of the ovary. The
anterior third of the ovum was filled with darker, granular matter,
while the remainder consisted of clear plasm containing about
seven large, nucleated cells. This ovum increased in size until it
was larger than the remainder of the ovary in which it originated,
gradually separating therefrom by fisston and shortly developing
into a small embryo in the morula stage with distinct polar cells
much as is illustrated on plate 30, figures 2 and 3.
Bibliography of pedogenesis. Reference to the literature
shows that investigations of these forms have been confined to
Europeans, only minor notices being given by Americans. The
following citations include most of the important literature and
practically everything that we have been able to find in English.
1862 Wagner, Nic. Ueber spontane Fortpflanzung der Larven bei den
Insekten (in Russian) Kasan Fol. 50, p. 72, 5 plates.
1864 Meinert, F. R. Miastor metraloas. Naturhist. Tidsskrift, p. 37-43.
1864 Pagenstecher, H. A. Die ungeschlechtliche Vermehrung der Fliegen-
larven. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 14:400-416, plate 30, Ao.
- 1865 Baer, K. v. Ueber Prof. Nic. Wagner’s Entdeckung von Larven,
die sich fortpflanzen, etc. L’Acad. imp. des sciences de St Petersbourg.
Buk O; p. 64-137, plate I.
1865 Hanin, M. Neue Beobachtungen ueber die Fortpflanzung der
Viviparen Dipterenlarven. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 15:375-90, plate 27.
1865 Leuckart, Rud. Die ungeschlechtliche Fortpflanzung der Cecido-
myidenlarven. Archiv. fir Naturg. 31st year, 1:286-303, plate 12; Ann. &
nee Nata list, Sem..3) 7210173, plate (a ‘translation by W-. S. Dallas),
_ 1865 Mecznikoff, Cand. Ueber die Entwickelung der Cecidomyiden-
larven aus dem Pseudovum. Archiv. f. Naturgesch. 31st year, I :304-I0.
1865 Meinert, F. R. Om Larvespirernes Oprindelse i Miastorlarven.
Naturhist. Tidsskrift, p. 83-86.
moos usiepold, ©. Dh. v. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 15:115-10.
1865 Wagner, Nic. Ueber die viviparen Gallmiickenlarven. Zeitschr.
f. wiss. Zool. 15 :106-15, plate 8.
IO4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
1866 Mecznikow, Elias. Embrylogische Studien an Insecten-Ueber die
Entwicklung der viviparen Cecidomyidenlarve, nebst Bemerkungen tiber den
Bau und die Fortflanzung derselben. Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool: 16:407-20-
plates 24, 25 and 27
1870 Grimm, v. Osc. Die Ungeschlechtliche Fortpflanzung einer
Chironomus-Art und deren Entwicklung aus dem Unbefruchteten Ei. Acad.
Imp. d. Sci. St Peters. Mem. T. 15, No. 8, p. 1-24; 3 plates!
1872 Meinert, F. R. Om Aegetts Anlaeg og Udvikling og om embry-
onets forste Dannelse 1 Miastorlarven. Naturhist.. Tidsskrift p. 345-78,
Dlatemna:
1880 Packard, A. 8S. Zoology, p. 28 ee
1883. Claus, C. Lehrbuch des Zool. p. 88 (Mention).
1892 Schiedt, R. C. Principles of Zoology, p. 68 (Mention).
1895 Sharp, David. Cambridge Nat. Hist. Ins. 1:142 (Mention).
1896 McMurrich, J. P. A Text Book ou Invertebrate Morphology, p. 60,
499 (Mention).
1896 Williston, S. W. Manual North American Diptera, p. 10 (Sum-
mary notice).
1898. Packard, A. S. A Text Book of Entomology, p. 580-81.
1900 Kieffer, J. J. Cecidomyides d’Europe et d’Algerie. Soc. Ent. Fr.
Anne 602326520 (Summary).
1903 Phillips, E. F. A Review of Parthenogenesis. Amer. Philosoph.
Soc. Proc 42-200) (Briek summary).
1905 Haeckel, Ernst. The Wonders of Life, p. 252-53 (Mention).
1905 Hertwig, Richard. A Manual of Zoology, p. 142 (Mention).
1906 Folsom, J. W. Entomology, p. 142 (Mention).
1907 Zavrel, Jan. Paedo-und Parthenogenesis bei Tanytarsus. Prag,
Cas. Ceské Spol. Entomolog. 4:64-65.
1908 Kahle, Walther. Die Paedogenesis der Cecidomyiden. Zoologica,
Heft 55, p. 1-80; 38 text figures, 6 plates. (An extended biblography).
1908 Williston, S. W. Manual of North American Diptera, p. 121-22
(Summary notice).
1909 Shipley, A. E. In Sedgwick’s Students Text Book of Zoology
3:640, 742 (Mention). |
1910 Johanssen, O. A. Paedogenesis in Tanytarsus. Science, Nov. 25,
32:768.
1o1t Felt, E. P. Miastor and Embryology. Science 33:302-3. (A sum-
mary statement as to the availability of Muiastor larvae for embryological
work).
ay
PLATE 1
5
Es " ay, te
x
1
ie :
~ %
é :
/
Je =
i)
i
{
~ x eG
i A
i om
y ‘ Sie }
a
EXPLANATION OF PLATES —s_—-
2
rh
x te
ie
Ui]
ie
pealy
NI
ys
1
1 f '
‘ ot AT,
2 °
e eu)
; ¥ (se
~ i
S)
y
;
‘
f {
aya
r
;
t \
\
t
©
‘
‘
;
i bs
'
(
‘ '
{
i]
?
f —~ 7,
fe
‘
t {
} =e
2
ey
r
f
a
i
f .
2
i i;
YY
i
ay,
=
Codling moth work
Sprayed but once
ta Picked fruit: 135 sound, 13 wormy apples
1c Picked fruit: 382 scund, 27 wormy apples
1d Ficked fruic: 563 sound, 30 wormy apples
106
Sprayed apples
~
Codling moth work
Sprayed twice
2a Picked fruit: 414 sound, 27 wormy apples
2b Picked fruit: 347 sound, 15 wormy apples
2d Picked fruit: 941 sound, 13 wormy apples
108
Plate 2
Sprayed apples
PLATE 3
LOG
ack
: Codling moth work C § .
Unsprayed or check trees i
X Picked fruit: 86 sound, 69 wormy apples
Y Picked fruit: 97 sound, 233 wormy apples _
Ras
pples
sprayed a
)
U
~~ .
- »
Re og oie
= |
‘
y
iF 5
= w P
.
‘
se
> Saat Ps
, € a=
= * —
= ‘ a
SR =) Stee ie
“ i :
= . = 7 :
a Nee - x, if S ;
» 3 . j
©
artis
! ahs
: S.
.
| 2
/ :
Ay % ne
= — ans
Se ee
| | z ‘ se oe
aa Sa! re ia aot eat:
a
ir
P
j
3 cas
1 A :
Codling moth work
Sprayed but once
1b Picked fruit: 1394 sound, 117 wormy apples
1d Picked fruit: 703 sound, 82 wormy apples
If Picked fruit: 596 sound, 65 wormy apples
112
Sprayed apples
PLATE 5
[13
2a Picked fruit:
2b Picked fruit:
2c Picked fruit:
Codling moth work
Sprayed twice
658 sound, 51 wormy apples
1501 sound, 88 wormy apples
760 sound, 52 wormy apples
114
a9
; He ke ee
eS Cee arate et
Spraved apples
f
c = a!
Ey
~ = s
se ”
:
t
: c
\ © 4
“ j
! 4
i s = 3
. tL ie
af peru.
> ‘ rs :
PA 2 ‘
~ ms (he . 7 - o as
res 7
; ean ‘ ' ' ah Z 5 ; . .
2 5
x ? 5
z
u ip
. X Tas
.
‘
ES 3
— 5 :
E ~ Pa 5
Ag
i’ ie f = 4
A = Pm
iN
2 2
- ~
he WE
©
Codling moth work
One late spraying
3a Picked fruit: 392 sound, 198 wormy apples
3d Picked fruit: 830 sound, 128 wormy apples
3e Picked fruit: 467 sound, 163 wormy apples
116
Plate 6
pples
Sprayed a
i=
rate
¢
HE go
ee
X Picked fruit: 126
Ve Picked PTUIt sien
) Seti
¥
7 ‘i
a ‘
{ y
= ri
S Pept
- ao
' ‘-
Ne
’
.
\
A
_ Z
Ny
st »
\ ae
| Codling moth work — . oo
_ Unsprayed or check trees ;
sound, 47 wormy apples Cees
sound, 325 wormy apples Mie
| rie ee
wv
’
~f
x
ye nt
i
¢
25
&
=
p= ye
»
fe
2
(08
\
.
4 fits
Plate 7
Unsprayed apples
b “
Fane
& i :
- Ue
a a
ee ee P
e a .
= rs
; ~ 0
- = stat
.
1
‘
S =
5 \
‘
« =
’
ah
- Codling moth work |
Upper figure, Wealthy tree in series 3
125 sound, 250 wormy apples
— ¢
i —
° : .
a~
Plate 8
tal trees
xperimen
H
Codling moth work
Apples showing the characteristic end wormy infestation, also one which
has been entered at a slight depression by a larva of the second brood
122
<=
Plate 9
Wormy apples
Codling moth work
1 Baldwin showing a moderate amount of bordeaux injury
2 Work of Tortricid followed by codling moth injury
124
Plate ro
Russeted and wormy fruit
Codling moth work
Two apples showing work of Tortricid
1 The operations of the insect about the blossom end
2 Its feeding near the end and upon the side of the apple
126
sejddv uo ploltz1oy, JO YAIOAA
i
Il 93e[g
‘ t as a
i oe
& Re
(er \
} .
wal
B
t
ut % Ruvtaut
ui ”
Ae
1 2 -
es ; 4
l
7 ee
<5 :
es SS
re 4
oe F.
iy
Nts
Codling moth work
1 Baldwin showing a moderate amount of injury by bordeaux mixture
2 Baldwin with more severe injury and incipient cracking, a codling moth
entrance in the middle of a crack
128
Aimlut yout surppoo pu surjossnyy
ZI 93e[d
a
tay
Codling moth work
1 Asymmetrical Ben Davis with one side badly deformed, probably from
injury by bordeaux mixture
2 Another apple badly injured though not deformed by bordeaux mixture
130
qinaiy pozyossny
€1 93e[d
re
_ PLATE 14
1
. % '
a Rei p
. ’
bag pay
y
1
{
'
x 0
Ps a
* 4
- ge
Codling moth work
Badly checked apples on unsprayed trees. Such crevices are
for entry by codling moth.
; her 132
‘
ae
~ ?
*
ae os,
= 7
—
* j
~ eA
z
oe es 22q
—
x J me
@ o
,*
’ ped
= Lik =
~t iD .
= 4
rh
C
7 , 21
fl a
is a ee
~ Ms
ui
'
< j aN
C ia
fe Jy 4 ty,
hs : 2 :
% i i
ta
Cu ehs
LAI peyoeyo puv pepossnyy
VI 931d
PLATE 15
133
ee renee ‘. WM thee a Lt oh oe
_ Psyllopsis fraxinicola Forst. —
Distorted ash leaves, showing work of thi
i
species
ae a
poe
i
Pete
™
we @
\
:
nN
es
F
\
re ‘
.
Plate 15
Work of ash psylla
ef)
ae
ree
Sa
Aer
r Alt
Psyllopsis fraxinicola Forst.
1 Anterior wing, male. x I5
2 Posterior wing, male. x 15
3 Apex of male abdomen, showing genitalia. x 20
4 Apex of female abdomen, showing ovipositor and accessory organs. x 20
5) leads 15
6 Antenna, portion of anterior leg and part of rostrum of female. x 30
136
Plate 16
psylla
Ash
ay
PLATE 17
137
1 Gall of Chermes cooleyi Gill. on blue spruce, natural size
2 A portion of a printed page showing a crane fly which had been pressed
into the paper in the calendering process. Natural size
138
AY oueito pue [peo sonaidg
N
=—
THUUO) oy} FO JUNODOe
‘AUD 9} 0} eoererd
D4 ‘uot Ao1dult ‘SoueU
soo 44 yoo} @
- osye Se Sout
} pue soos} foo
a jo uoly, Rags
01 qYS8nos / set
UL, epeyg faut
94NqI41jU09 0}
&
» oI Sunsey, iH 1 javd
‘s
HavVHS a 2
LI 91eI1d
eT
PLATE 18
139
Chermes piceae Ratz. ‘aie
1 Ventral aspect of female. x 35
2 Posterior extremity showing ovipositor. x 2c0_
aes 140
.
.
t
4
&
C 7
— (
set ie
5
* (a:
\
.
Ree; Be
'
© Rel
‘
Pe
f
~
Fa,
a
“
be
a b's ee
ak
os S
=,
Plate 18
fir aphid
Silver
Camponotu:
- Work of carpenter ant in poplar
,
-
¢ md
y
4S
Ox:
hel 3
,
a &
pu ay
a t
ke =
. “
; sce
o~ bar
*
~ . =
7 =
i%
t Poy
a
é Py
Lo
’
f
a=
‘
7 < 5 J)
Lee
is ,
&
ant
k of carpenter
Nor
\
Camponotus herculeanus Linn.
Work of carpenter ant in poplar; another view
144
Plate 20
ant
penter
Work: of ear
1 Snow-white linden
2 Adult moths
-&
Snow-white linden moth
2
oS
moth; eggs, slightly enlarged
Plate 21
Snow-white linden moth
ae
Miastor ? americana Felt :
is i
1 Large, white, living larva chilled. Photographed by reflected light.
o
E
&
~
- hs
,
x
.
fi
AS a
O.
i
z ~
4
A Piper
if ar ee
i '
Plate 22
Miastor larvae
Miastor ? americana Felt
1 Mother larva containing a number of semitransparent embryos. Note cells
well filled with adipose tissue. x 50. By reflected light
2 Mother larva containing several semitransparent embryos. Note compara-
tively few large cells filled with adipose tissue. x 50. By reflected light
150
Plate 23
I 2
Miastor larvae containing embryos
) \ } “4 i fi
5 : ;
‘ . j j
' . a
t r
\ ‘
' i
1 .
4 ‘ i
i ‘
‘ ¥ ‘
{ ] y
/ f
j \ / J | j ‘
| i ; ,
‘ fl i
‘ i , 7
‘ : : vi
1 ’ ‘ y f ¥
. { \ |
Tower
Miastor ? americana Felt
2 Mother ies Hat oe two nearly deniedea embryos. Note —- m
large cells. x 50
ome 152
?
. =
|
‘i
" eh
"ise re
. P
ss oh
* gh
te
ly
4
9
.
‘
fn *
1
fa z +
< cf
ns u
a ay,
,
Plate 24
Embryos in Miastor larvae
Na PLATE Se
Miastor ? americana Felt
Posterior extremity of a large mother larva filled with numerous embryos,
one lying free across the broken end. x I00
154
Plate 25
iastor embryos
M
ER
y if ‘
APaS hie
Pre { :
155
hare a
Miastor ? americana Felt
1 Portion of chip showing a number of Miastor larve. x 20
2 Head and anterior body segments of larva, showing the shape of the head,
with the anterior third fuscous, the short, diverging antennae, the ocular
spot and the lobed brain. x 120
3 Posterior extremity of larva, showing cuticular processes at its apex. x 50
156
Plate 26
Miastor larvae
PLATE 27
157
Miastor ? americana Felt
1 Mother larva filled with partly broken down adipose tissue, the embryos
concealed beneath. x 50
2 Embryo in mother larva, showing general outline and an indistinct segmen-
tation along the germinal streak. x 120
158
Miastor larvae
Three segments of a large, white mother larva, showing ser
cells. x 2007
Miastor ? americana Felt
Ae Pa
‘) Ww = vi A
& a 7 iM
= & - a cy ay
fe =
J ~
7 >
= . > j
: aren A eee
Pe
a, ier) La |
Aa em oe
‘S a ey ty
> = Sn
LA i
re
- wt
& aL}
ay kek
i «
7 st
ef =
ret
r wa
i2 - i
as
s a
t
: ;
“SS
a ‘
x a}
ay f
t is ee
x} ‘*
it y
rh ae
vey
‘ 20
Plate 28
Portion of Miastor larvae
ls
Miastor ? americana Felt
1 Ovary of mother larva. Note the large-celled, oval mass of tissue near the
discolored area. x 325
2 Portion of a band of spines. x 325
162
Plate 29
Miastor larvae 2
Miastor ? americana Felt
1 Young embryo dissected from a large mother larva and showing a darker
strip of ectoderm, a lighter mesodermal area and a dark mass of tissue at
the anterior extremity toward the left. x 100
2 Young living embryo lying mostly in the ninth segment of a small, yel-
lowish mother larva. Note the large polar cells at the lower posterior ex-
tremity. x 200
3 The same, more enlarged. x 400
164
Plate 30
Miastor embryos 3
Miastor ? americana Felt
1 Anterior extremity of embryo illustrated in figure I
x 300 :
2 Middle portion of same embryo. x 300
e 166
2
Miastor embryos
%
?
pe
PLATE 32
167
La)
_ Miastor ? americana Felt
Living embryo within a small, yellowish larva. Note the distinct germinal
streak with its broad projection to one side near the anterior third, and the
cephalic cap of fuscous cells. x 100
The same embryo photographed 24 hours later and showing some change.
This photograph was relatively not as good as the first. x 100
The same embryo several days later showing the condition after disintegra-
tion has begun. x 100
A larger embryo in a small, yellow mother larva extending from her fifth
to eighth body segments. Note the great extension of the ectoderm from
about the anterior fourth to the posterior fifth, and the cephalic cap of
dark cells. x 100
Empty skin of a portion of a mother larva. The irregular, dark, longitu-
dinal lines represent tracheae while the transverse fuscous bands are spines
on the segments. x 100
168
Miastor embryos
~ bp Ser , 4 0 . } j
PLATE 33
169
Miastor ? americana Felt
1 A portion of a segment of the larva illustrated on plate 35, figure I show-
ing the character ef the large-celled median mass of mesoderm. x 200
2 Embryo illustrated on plate 32, figure I. x 300
3 Enlargement of same embryo from photograph made the following day.
-X 300
170
ee i
Plates33
Miastor embryos
PLATE 34
171
Miastor ? americana Felt
1 Small, yellowish mother larva containing an embryo extending from the
fourth to the eleventh body segments and illustrating an early stage in the
development of the mesoderm and adipose tissue. x 75
2 Small, somewhat shrunken, yellowish mother larva containing a nearly fully
developed embryo, the fuscous anterior portion of the head and the black
ocular spot showing distinctly in her posterior (lower) body segments. x 75
3 Portion of a large, white mother larva packed with numerous embryos.
The two conspicuous black spots near the middle of lighter areas represent
well developed ocular spots of embryos nearly ready to escape. This mother
larva contained about 10 such embryos, the heads of three at least, being
included in the portion illustrated. x 200
172
Plate 34
coc
Miastor embryos
PLATE 35
Miastor ? americana Felt
1 Mother larva containing an embryo extending from about the fifth to the
tenth body segments and showing an early stage in the development of the
mesOdermal tissue. x 100. A portion of the latter more enlarged as illus-
trated on plate 33, figure I.
2 Small, yellow mother larva containing an embryo extending from the fourth
to the twelfth segments and showing in the posterior part of the embryo
a conspicuous mass of large-celled mesodermal tissue with distinctly
rounded extremities. x 100
3 Small, yellow mother larva containing a nearly developed embryo showing
the three-rowed condition due to an increase in the embryonic adipose tissue
and a correlated decrease in the mesoderm. x 100
All on this plate are arranged with the head of the mother larva up, the
anterior extremity of the embryo being toward the bottom of the plate.
174
mbryos
Miastor e
INDEX
abbotii, Lophyrus, 58.
Abbott’s pine sawfly, 7, 58.
abietis, Chermes, 37, 39.
acericola, Phenacoccus, 55, 73.
Additions to collections, 76-81.
Adirondack insects, 74.
Agriotes mancus, 51.
Agromyza flaviventris, 68.
melampyga, 67.
Alder plant louse, 73.
americana, Chionaspis, 55.
Miastor, 5, 82-103.
Anarsia lineatella, 72.
ancylus, Aspidiotus, 75.
amtemiata, XNvlina, 7, 21, 73:
Ants, 70.
house, 71.
large black carpenter, 57.
white, 71.
Aphelinus diaspidis, 49.
Aphid spruce gall, large, 36-39.
Aphididae, 73.
Aphis gossypii, 75.
Aphis, woolly, 75.
Apple maggot, 72.
Apple tree, injurious insects:
cigar case bearer, 4I.
codling moth, 12.
lined red bug, 6, 43.
Oecanthus niveus, 71.
San José scale, 71.
tarnished plant bug, 70.
Apple tree borer, 73.
Apple worm, 12.
green-striped, 21.
armiger, Heliothis, 73.
Arrhenophagus chionaspidis, 49.
Arsenate of lead, 15, 19, 28, 35, 41,
Ales Wits SAI I), 7/5):
Ash psylla, 39-40.
asparagi, Criocerus, 75.
Asparagus beetles, 75.
Aspidiotus ancylus, 75.
perniciosus, 46, 70, 71.
Asteromyia, 74.
Aulacaspis rosae, 47.
Bag worm, 54.
Balsam, large black carpenter ant
injuring, 57. |
Beans, Phorbia fusciceps on, 73.
Bedbug, 71, 75:
Bedbug hunter, 71.
Beech, injurious insects;
bert’s Otiocerus, 68.
snow-white linden moth, 62.
Beech tree blight, 65.
Beet leaf miner, 73.
Beetle catcher, 43.
Birch leaf skeletonizer, 64-65.
Blackberry bushes, injurious insects:
Oecanthus nigricornis, 71.
quadripunctatus, 71.
rose scale, 47.
Blister mite, 47.
Blow fly, 66.
Blue cornus sawfly, 60.
Book louse, 71.
Bordeaux mixture, 19, 22, 28.
Brachyneura, 85.
Bristle tail, 71.
Brown tail moth, 7-8, 74.
Bucculatrix canadensisella, 64.
buxi, Monarthropalpus, 74.
Goon
Coque-
Cabbage, harlequin cabbage bug in-
juring, 53.
Calliphora viridescens, 66.
vomitoria, 66.
Calosamia promethea, 67.
Camponotus herculeanus, 57.
Camptoneuromyia meridionalis, 73.
176
Camptosorus rhizophyllus, 67.
canadensisella, Bucculatrix, 64.
candida, Saperda, 73.
Carpet beetles, 71.
Carpocapsa pomonella, 12-35, 71, 72.
Cecidomyia manihot, 73.
opuntiae, 70.
Cecidomyiidae, 70, 73, 74, 84.
Centipede, house, 71.
ceparum, Phorbia, 73.
Cereal pests, 71.
Cheese skipper, 71.
Chermes abietis, 37, 39.
cooleyi, 36-39.
funitectus, 66.
piceae, 65, 74.
Cherry, pear slug injuring, 41.
Cherry fruit fly, 42-43.
Cherry maggot, 6.
Cherry slug, 6.
chionaspidis, Arrhenophagus, 49.
Chionaspis americana, 55.
fubEUna, 75
Chironomidae, pedogenesis, 88.
Cigar case bearer, 41-42.
Cimex lectularius, 75.
cingulata, Rhagoletis, 42-43.
Clothes moths, 71.
Cluster fly, 71.
Cockroaches, 71.
Codling moth, 5; 12-35,.7s72 4
general. .observations, 12-13; life
history and habits, 13; experimen-
tal work, 13-34; conclusions, 34-
35.
Coleophora fletcherella, 41-42.
Coleoptera, additions to collection,
70-77.
Collections of insects,
tions to, 76-81.
Colorado blue spruce, injurious in-
sects:
aphid spruce gall, 36.
gall aphid, 7.
Conotrachelus nenuphar, 42.
cooleyi, Chermes,. 36-30. _ .
coquebertii, Otiocerus, 68.
Corn, injurious insects:
ants, 70.
Q-10; addi-
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Corn, injurious insects (continued)
cutworins, 70.
wheat wireworm, SI.
Corn worm, 73.
corticis, Dasyneura, 74
Cottony maple scale, 6, 55, 73.
‘ false, 55.
Crickets, 71.
Criocerus asparagi, 75.
duodecimpunctata, 75.
cucumeris, Epitrix, 73.
Cutworms, 70, 72.
Dasyneura corticis, 74.
diaspidis, Aphelinus, 40.
Dichromeris marginellus, 35-36, 74.
Diptera, additions to collection, 77.
domestica, Musca, 71, 72, 73.
duodecimpunctata, Criocerus, 75.
Elm, large black carpenter ant in-
juring, 57.
Elm leaf beetle, 6, 53-54, 72, 74, 75.
Elm scurfy scale, 55.
Ennomos subsignarius, 62, 74.
ephemeraeformis, Thyridopteryx, 54.
Epimyia, 85.
Epitrix cucumeris, 73.
Eriocampoides limacina, 4I.
Eriophyes pyri, 47.
Eulecanium tulipiferae, 75.
Europe, study of museum methods
and collections, 8.
European insects in America, 74.
exitiosa, Sanninoidea, 72.
Fabric pests, 71.
False cottony maple scale, 55.
False maple scale, 6.
felti, Sympiezus, 68.
ferrugalis, Phlyctaenia, 40.
Firs, silver fir aphid injuring, aS
Fish moth, 71.
flaviventris, Agromyza, 68.
Flea beetle, 73.
Fleas, house, 71.
fletcherella, Coleophora, 41-42.
Flies, 72; control of, 71.. See also
House fly.
Food pests, 71.
Forest tree insects, 6-7, 57-66, 74.
INDEX TO REPORT OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO
fraxinicola, Psyllopsis, 39.
Frirenia, 85.
Enuit flies, 71, 72:
Fruit tree pests, 5-6, 41-47, 74.
Fruit worm, green, 7.
funitectus, Chermes, 66.
hMitrkuta, Chionaspis, 75.
fusciceps, Phorbia, 73.
/
Galerucella luteola, 53, 72, 74.
Gall midges, 8, 10, 84; of Aster,
Carya, Quercus and Salix, 9, 74.
Garden insects, 47-53.
Gipsy moth, 7-8.
gossypii, Aphis, 75.
Grain insects, 47-53.
Grain weevil, 70.
Grape, Coquebert’s Otiocerus injur-
ing, 68.
Greeny iruit worm, 7, 73:
Green-striped apple worm, 21.
Greenhouse leaf-tyer, 49-51.
Haplusia, 84.
Harlequin cabbage bug, 53.
Harpiphorus tarsatus, 50.
versicolor, 60.
Harvest mites, 75.
Heliothis armiger, 73.
Hellebore, 40, 51.
Hemiptera, additions to collection,
78-80.
herculeanus, Camponotus, 57.
Heterocordylus malinus, 43, 44.
Heteropeza, 84.
Hickory, Coquebert’s Otiocerus in-
juring, 68.
Hickory bark beetle, 7.
Hickory leaf stem borer, 74.
histrionica, Murgantia, 53.
Hornets, 71.
House centipede, 71.
House fleas, 71.
FlOUSe flys Sh 7) 725-73):
House mosquito, 71.
Household insects, 71.
Hydrocyanic acid gas, 51, 71.
Hymenoptera, additions to collec-
tion, 76.
Hyponomeuta malinella, 74.
177
imbricator, Pemphigus, 65.
ipomoeae, Schizomyia, 72, 73.
Johnsonomyia, &4. |
Juniper webworm, 35-36.
Kerosene emulsion, 40, 45, 49, 57.
lanigera, Schizoneura, 75.
Bardermubectle, 71.
Lasioptera tripsaci, 70.
Laternaria phosphorea, 69.
Leaf bug, four lined, 44.
lectularius, Cimex, 75.
Legislation, relating to insects, 75.
‘Leopard moth, 72, 75.
Lepidoptera, additions to collection,
VG ksh
Lepidosaphes ulmi, 72.
Leptosyna, 85.
limacina, Eriocampoides, 41.
Lime-sulphur wash, 6, 15, 28, 40, 42,
As 40) 47,75:
Limneria lophyri, 509.
Linden moth, snow-white, 6, 62, 74.
lineatella, Anarsia, 72.
lineatus, Poecilocapsus, 44.
Lined red bug, 6, 43-45.
lophyri, Limneria, 59.
Lophyrus abbotii, 58.
luteola, Galerucella, 53, 72, 74.
Lygidea mendax, 6, 43.
Lygus pratensis, 70.
Malarial mosquito, 71, 74.
malinella, Hyponomeuta, 74.
malinus, Heterocordylus, 43, 44.
mancus, Agriotes, 51.
manihot, Cecidomyia, 73.
Maple, injurious insects:
Coquebert’s Otiocerus, 68.
cottony maple scale, false, 55.
Putnam’s scale, 75.
snow-white linden moth, 62.
sugar maple borer, 54.
Maple leaf aphis, 73.
Maple plant louse, 73.
Maple scale, 73.
cottony, 6.
false, 6.
178
marginellus, Dichromeris, 35-36,
Meinertomyia, 85.
melampyga, Agromyza, 67.
Melon aphis, 75.
mendax, Lygidea, 6, 43.
meridionalis,
Miastor, 84.
Miastor americana, 5, 82-103; habi-
tat, 82; recognition characters, 82-
83; value to zoologists and biolo-
gists, 83-84; description, 84-87;
74.
Camptoneuromyia, 73.
habits, 88-90; biological observa-
tions, 90-94; methods, 94-095;
embryology, 95-98; records of in-
dividual embryos, 98-103.
Midge galls, 8; tabulation, 9.
Monarthropalpus buxi, 74.
Moosewood, snow-white linden moth
injuring, 62.
Mosquito, house, 71.
malarial jad:
salt marsh, 71.
yellow fever, 71.
Murgantia histrionica, 53.
Musca domestica, 7I, 72, 73.
Muscina stabulans, 67.
nenuphar, Conotrachelus, 42.
Nicotine, 40.
nigricornis, Oecanthus, 71.
niveus, Oecanthus, 71.
Norway spruce, spruce gall aphid
injuring, 7.
notatus, Pissodes, 61, 74.
Nursery inspection, 10.
Oak, Coquebert’s Otiocerus injur-
ing, 68. rab
Oecanthus nigricornis, 71.
niveus, 7I.
quadripunctatus, 71.
Oligarces, 85.
Oligotrophus salicifolius, 74.
Onion maggot, 73.
opuntiae, Cecidomyia, 70.
Orthoptera, additions to collection,
80.
Otiocerus coquebertii, 68.
Oystershell scale, 72.
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Paper, insects and paper, 67.
Paris green, 19, 52.
pavonia, Saturnia, 67, 74.
Peach borer. 72:
Peach trees, San José scale injur-
Th aes Oy
Peach twig borer, 72.
Pear psylla, 0, 30, 45=40:
Rearrsiiss On an.
Pedogenesis, an account of, 82-103;
history of, 87-88; bibliography,
NOZ=A:
Pegomya vicina, 73.
Pemphigus imbricator, 65.
tessellata, 73.
perniciosus, Aspidiotus, 46, 70, 7I.
Petroleum emulsion, 40, 45.
Phenacoccus acericola, 55, 73.
Phlyctaenia ferrugalis, 49.
rubigalis, 49.
Phorbia ceparum, 73.
fusciceps, 73.
phosphorea, Laternaria, 69.
piceae, Chermes, 65, 74.
Pine weevil, spotted, 61.
white, 61.
Pines, injurious insects:
Abbott’s pine sawfly, 7, 58.
spotted pine weevil, 61.
Pissodes notatus, 61, 74.
strobi, 61.
Plagionotus speciosus, 54.
Plantelice.725-74:
Plum curculio, 42, 43.
Poecilocapsus lineatus, 44.
pomonella, Carpocapsa, 12-35, 7I, 72.
Rhagoletis, 72.
Poplar, large black carpenter ant in-
juring, 57.
Potassium, cyanide of, 49.
Potatoes, wheat wireworm injuring,
Bie
pratensis, Lygus, 70.
promethea, Calosamia, 67.
Psylla, ash, 39-40.
Psylla pyricola, 30, 45.
Psyllopsis fraxinicola, 39.
Publications, 9, 70-75.
Pulvinaria vitis, 55, 73.
Putnam’s scale. “5.
INDEX TO REPORI OF THE
pyri, Eriophyes, 47.
pyricola, Psylla, 30, 45.
pytina, Zeuzera, 72, 75.
quadripunctatus, Oecanthus, 71.
Rain barrel mosquito, 71.
Raspberry bushes, injurious insects:
Oecanthus nigricornis, 7I.
quadripunctatus, 71.
rose scale, 47.
Red bug, 44.
lined, 43-45.
Red spider, 74.
Remedies and preventives:
arsenate ot lead, 15, 10/28, 35, 4a,
42, 51, 54, 59, 75.
bordeaux mixture, 19, 22, 28.
cyanide of potassium, 49.
hellebore, 49, 5!.
hydrocyanic acid gas, 51, 71.
kerosene emulsion, 40, 45, 49, 57.
lime-sulfur wash, 6, 15, 28, 40, 42,
45, 46, 47, 75.
Paris green, 19, 52.
petroleum emulsion, 40, 45.
tobacco extract, 40, 46, 51.
whale oil soap solution, 30, 40, 45,
46, 49.
Remedies and preventives for:
Abbott’s pine sawfly, 50.
ants, 70.
aphid spruce gall, 30.
apple tree borer, 73.
ash Psylla, 40.
asparagus beetles, 75.
bed bug, 75.
beech tree blight, 67.
beetle catcher, 43.
blister mite, 47.
cherry fruit fly, 42.
cigar case bearer, 42.
codling moth, 5, 13, 71, 72.
cutworms, 70, 72.
elm leaf beetle, 54, 72, 74, 75.
false cottony maple scale, 57.
fruit flies, 72.
grain weevil, 70.
greenhouse leaf-tyer, 49, 51.
harvest mites, 75.
house fly, 72, 73.
_ STATE ENTOMOLOGIST IQIO
179
Remedies and preventives for (cont'd )
Heliothis armiger, 73.
leopard moth, 72, 75.
melon aphis, 75.
inosquito, 74.
onion maggot, 73.
oyster shell scale, 72.
peach borer, 72.
pear psylla, 45.
Peaia slugs Al.
Phorbia fusciceps, 73.
plant lice; 73.
plum curculio, 43.
Putnam’s scale, 75.
red bug, lined, 45.
red spider, 74.
rose scale, 49.
San José scale, 6, 46, 70, 71.
scurfy scale, 75.
snow-white linden moth, 64.
tarnished plant bug, 70.
tree crickets, 71.
tulip scale, 75.
wheat wireworm, 52.
wooly aphis, 75.
Rhagoletis cingulata, 42-43.
pomonella, 72.
rhizophyllus, Camptosorus, 67.
Rhododendron lace bug, 74.
rosae, Aulacaspis, 47.
Rose scale, 47-49.
rubigalis, Phlyctaenia, 49.
salicifolius, Oligotrophus, 74.
Salt marsh mosquito, 71.
San Jose scale; 6;-46-77,-70, 71:
Sanninoidea exitiosa, 72.
Saperda candida, 73.
Saturnia pavonia, 67, 74.
Sawfly, Abbott’s pine, 58.
blue Cornus, 60.
spotted Cornus, 50.
Schizomyia ipomoeae, 72, 73.
Schizoneura lanigera, 75.
Scurfy scale, 75.
Seed pests, 71.
Shade tree insects, 6, 53-57, 74.
Silver fir aphid, 65-66.
Silver fish, 71.
Snow-white linden moth, 6, 62, 74.
180 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
speciosus, Plagionotus, 54. ulmi, Lepidosaphes, 72.
Spider, red, 74.
Spotted Cornus sawfly, 59. versicolor, Harpiphorus, 60.
Spotted pine weevil, 61. vicina, Pegomya, 73.
large, 36-30. vitis, Pulvinaria, 55, 73.
Stable fly, 67. vomitoria, Calliphora, 66.
stabulans, Muscina, 67.
strobi, Pissodes, 61.
subsignarius, Ennomos, 62, 74
Sugar maple borer, 6, 54-55.
Walking leaf, 67.
Wasps, 71.
|
Spruce gall aphid, 7, 37, 39. viridescens, Calliphora, 66.
Whale oil soap solution, 39, 40, 46,
Sympiezus felti, 68. 40.
Wheat wireworm, 51-52.
Tarnished plant bug, 70. | White pine weevil, 6r.
tarsatus, Harpiphorus, 509. Willow, Cecidomyiidae injuring, 74.
tessellata, Pemphigus, 73. Wireworm, wheat, 51-52.
Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, 54. | Woolly aphis, 75.
Tobacco extract, 40, 46, 51. Woolly maple scale, 73.
Tobacco whale oil solution, 45.
Tortricid leaf feeders, 21, 35. Xylina antennata, 7, 21, 73.
Tree crickets, 71.
tripsaci, Lasioptera, 70. Yellow fever mosquito, 71.
Tulip scale, 75.
tulipiferae, Eulecanium, 75. Zeuzera pyrina, 72, 75.
Typhoid fly, 71, 74.
‘
\
‘
= a
1
“ . ,
= )
{
é
i +
,
a
‘
Ps
\
: Appendix 4
- Botany
Museum Bulletin 150
Report of the State Botanist 1910
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office, at Albany, N. Y.
under the act of July 16, 1894
No. 495 UII AU NG Yat NEY. May 15, IQ!I
New York State Museum
Joun. M. CrarKke, Director
CHARLES H. Peck, State Botanist
Museum Bulletin 1 50
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST ro10
2
PAGE PAGE
MMEROCUCHOM 4.35 vent lalos ee eee 5 LB Ghl oN On by gical IS nue PEPSI Na Bui 65
Plants added to the herbarium. -- Il Cranberry and Averyville marshes 69
eo and their contribu- New York species of Hypholoma 73
BP odcl icinra reported... 43. | New York species of Psathyre. |: 84
Remarks and observations ...... 42 Explanation ofplates............ 87
New species and varieties of ex- liga 6 Koo Sonera eee ar PP Re IMP MESS I Met 97
tiraillincaticey agbhaved aha mumieui tensile 50
'
1
New York State Education Department
Science Division, January 25, 1OTT
Fion. Andrew S. Draper LL.D:
Commissioner of Education
sir: | have the honor to transmit herewith the report of the
State Botanist for the fiscal year ending September 30th, tg1o, and
to recommend the same for publication as a bulletin of the State
Museum.
Very respectfully
Joun M. CLARKE
i Direcior
STATE OF NEW YORK
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
COMMISSIONER'S ROOM
Approved for publication this 27th day of January rori
Commissioner of Education
fl
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under
the act of July 16, 1894
No. 495 ALBANY, N.Y. May 15, 1911
New York State Museum.
JoHN M. Crarxke, Director
Crartes H. Precx, State Botanist
Museum Bulletin 150
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST 1910
Dr John M. Clarke, Director of State Museum:
I have the honor to submit the following report of work done
in the botanical section of the State Museum:
Since the date of my last report specimens of plants for the
State lerbarium have been collected in the counties of Albany,
Chemung, Columbia, Essex, Greene, Livingston, Rensselaer, Sara-
toga, St Lawrence, Steuben, Ulster and Warren. There have been
contributed specimens of plants that were collected in the counties
of Albany, Cayuga, Cortland, Delaware, Essex, Franklin, Fulton,
Greene, Genesee, Hamilton, Herkimer, Monroe, Nassau, Oneida,
Onondaga, Ontario, Orleans, Oswego, Saratoga, Schoharie, St Law-
rence, Suffolk, Tompkins, Warren, Washington, Wayne and
Wyoming.
There have been received specimens of extralimital species of
plants that were collected in Alabama, Colorado, Connecticut, Dis-
trict of Columbia, Florida, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine,
Massachusetts, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi,
Missouri, Nebraska, New Brunswick, New Jersey, New Mexico,
North Carolina, Nova Scotia, Ohio, Ontario, Pennsylvania, Texas,
Utah, Washington and Wisconsin.
_ The number of species of which specimens have been added to
Mier neroariim eis 270) This includes contributed, and collected
specimens. Of this number, 79 species are new to the herbarium
and 23 species are believed to be new to science. The new species
arevall funet. A list of the added species’ is marked ~ Plants
added to the herbarium.”’
The number of those who have contributed specimens is 176.
This includes those who sent specimens merely for identification
6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
if the specimens were collected in our State and were desirable
additions to the herbarium. The number of identifications made
of specimens sent or brought to the office by inquirers is 2419.
The number of persons for whom identifications were made and
the number of identifications made exceed the corresponding num-
bers, 152 and 1717, for last year. This indicates a gratifying
increase in the general desire for botanical information. A list
of the names of the contributors and their respective contributions
is marked “Contributors and their contributions.”
Names and notices of species new to our New York flora and
descriptions of new species are given in a chapter marked “ Species
not before reported.”
New localities of rare plants, descriptions of new varieties and
any facts of interest that may have been observed are given in a
chapter entitled “ Remarks and observations.”
Species of fungi collected outside our State limits are fre-
quently sent for identification. Sometimes specimens are received
that do not correspond to any published description. In such cases
the fungus is given a name and a description of it prepared. These
names and descriptions make a chapter with the heading “ New
species and varieties of extralimital fungi.”
Specimens of five species of Crataegus, or thorn bushes, have
been added to the large number already represented in the
herbarium. Four of these have not before been reported and are
new to our flora.
Specimens of five species of mushrooms have been collected and
their edible qualities tried and approved. These make the whole
number of our New York edible species and varieties 205. Three
plates have been prepared on which the five added species are
represented by colored figures, natural size. Descriptions of these
species may be found in a chapter on “ Edible fungi.” ‘Two other
plates have been prepared on which three new species of mush-
rooms are represented.
One species has been tried which, when eaten freely, causes a
profuse perspiration but no other inconvenience. Its flavor, tex-
ture and digestibility are faultless, but its effects are such as to
place it among medicinal, not edible, mushrooms. -My attention
was first called to this peculiar character of the mushroom by Mr
F. G. Howland and through his kindness in furnishing me samples
of it I have been able to verify its sudorific properties. Perhaps
experimentation may prove it to be useful in cases of illness where
a sudorfic medicine is desirable. An account of my experiment
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO Wf
may be found under the name Clitocybe dealbata sudo-
rifica, in the chapter entitled “ Remarks and observations.”
Having been informed that the raspberry patches of the fruit
growers in the vicinity of Marlboro, Ulster county, were suffering
{from disease and wishing to know the cause of it, a visit was made
to that place in July. An examination of the diseased canes showed
that they were suffering from an attack of a parasitic fungus whose
bOrmcal name is Sphaerella tubina Pk The frinitine
canes develop their leaves and flowers as usual but before the
fruit ripens it withers and dries on the branches. The dryness of
the season and an attack of “red spider” on the foliage were
apparently contributing causes of the failure of the crop and the
loss was severe. The diseased canes bore patches of the fungus.
It matures its spores early in the season. In the type specimens
they were found in May. The young canes showed brown or
blackish patches one or two inches long on the lower part. In
some cases they were near the ground, thereby indicating a prob-
able infection while they were but a few inches tall. ‘These spots
had not yet developed their perithecia or spore cases but doubtless
would toward the end of the season and next spring be ready to
shed their spores and renew the species in the succeeding crop of
young canes. Theoretically the disease should be prevented by
spraying the young canes with a good fungicide like Bordeaux
mixture or lime sulfur mixture, but it would be necessary to give
the first spraying when the young shoots are only three or four
inches high. This should be repeated once a week till the canes of
the previous year begin to blossom.
While there, my attention was called to a diseased chestnut tree.
It was a young tree with sickly looking foliage and a few dead
branches. It was suffering from the chestnut bark disease caused
by a parasitic bark fungus. Both branches and trunk were affected
Dyatne iuneus, the latter but a few feet above the’ ground. It
was my first opportunity to see a tree affected by this disease
about which much that appears to me to be overdrawn and need-
lessly alarming has recently been published in magazines and news-
papers. Remarks concerning its distribution in our State are
given under the name Valsonectria parasitica (Murr.)
Rehm in the chapter headed “ Remarks and observations.”
In 1899 a census of the flowering plants and ferns of Bonaparte
-swainp was taken and a list of the species was published in the
report of the Botanist for that year. The swamp is a large one
8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
lying in the northern part of Lewis county a short distance east of
Lake Bonaparte. It 1s about two miles in diameter where the
Carthage and Adirondack Railroad crosses it. The number of
species of flowering plants and ferns found in it is 128.
The swamps and peat marshes of the State are a part of our
natural resources. When cleared, drained, and properly cultivated
they constitute some of our most valuable agricultural lands. Their
gradual formation from a water surface to a land surface is interest-
ing and due chiefly to the agency of plants. If the original pond
or lake is very shallow its whole surface, except the central chan-
nel through which the stream flows, is occupied by aquatic plants.
These by their annual growth and partial decay form a sedi-
mentary deposit which gradually fills the lake until water-loving
mosses, sphagnum, and other marsh plants take possession. When
this has taken place we have a sphagnum marsh. If the lake is
deep in the center the marsh forms only along the shallow mar-
gins. By the yearly growth and decay of the plants of the
sphagnum marsh its surface gradually becomes firmer and small
shrubs and herbs of wet places take possession. When the shrubs
predominate it is called a shrubby marsh; when marsh grasses
and sedges are the prevailing vegetation it is a grassy marsh. In
due time the surface of the shrubby marsh becomes sufficiently
firm to sustain and support certain kinds of trees whose roots do
not object to an abundant and constant supply of moisture. When
this stage has been reached we have a swamp, a low wet piece
of woods covered with trees and tall shrubs. The border of a
marsh may be and often is a wooded swamp which is itself merely
an older part of the marsh. The grassy marsh appears to be less
inviting to the advent of trees than the sphagnum marsh, and
prairielike, it often remains open an indefinite time. Among the
natural products of our marshes are the two species of cran-
berries, the large or common cranberry and the small cranberry,
the mosses used by florists and nurserymen for packing material
and the peat used as an absorbent or bedding in stables and ulti-
mately in this way as a component of the stable manure. The
more firm and fibrous peat from bushy marshes is used for various
purposes requiring a fibrous material and for heating purposes.
The grasses and sedges of the grassy marsh are sometimes cut for
hay, but this is rarely done except in cases of scarcity or very
high prices of hay of better quality. The sedges of certain species
are sometimes utilized in making “crex carpets” and various
articles of furniture.
REPORT On) THE STATE” BOLANIST LOLO 9
That we may have a more definite knowledge of the species of
plants that are most prevalent in our marshes, and consequently the
most common agents in transforming our marshes into a more
useful condition, a list of the flowering plants and ferns of two
of our marshes has been made. This list, with a description of
the marshes, will be found in a chapter entitled “ Cranberry and
Averyville marshes.”
In accordance with the plan previousiy adopted, a revision of
our species of Hypholoma and Psathyra has been made. The
descriptions have been rewritten and the species arranged in the
groups or sections in which they were distributed by Fries, and
the usual “keys” prepared. The chapters containing these descrip-
tions are respectively entitled “ New York species of Hypholoma ”’
ance New York species of Psathyra.”
The coincidence between a plentiful crop of wild mushrooms
and good crops of staple agricultural products has been noticed in
previous reports. The past season has furnished a noticeable
confirmation of the results of previous observations. While the
usual summer drouth in the eastern and southeastern parts of the
State was quite severe and wild mushrooms correspondingly scarce,
in other parts of the State the rainfall has been more abundant
and the crop of wild mushrooms has been plentiful. One corre-
spondent writing from Silver Springs, Wyoming county, in speak-
ing of one of his collecting excursions, says, “I am swamped with
the number and variety of mushrooms now growing in the woods.
lteseeas that | find a new kind at almost every step. I hada
market basket full of specimens which comprised about fifty spe-
cies.’ Another correspondent writing from Fourth lake, Herki-
mer county, says, “ Mushroom hunting has been very delightful
here this season. I have found so many fine specimens I could
not keep pace with them.”
The season has been specially favorable to the development of
Mcmuatant epmuball @alyvatia cigantea. (Batsch). | Phey
have appeared in unusual numbers and, in some cases, of unusual
size. A correspondent writing from Pittsford, Monroe county,
says, 1 am sending you a specimen of Calvatia gigantea
weighing seven pounds. They are very plentiful here this season.
I have seen thirty-five or more, one weighing twelve pounds.”
A single one of medium size, that 1s, eight to ten inches in diam-
eter, is sufficient to afford a meal to a family of ordinary size.
The same correspondent says “ Puffballs are growing here by the
hundred and we are enjoying them very much. Mushrooms in
LO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
this part of the country are very plentiful.” The giant puffball
usually grows in open places and but one or two in a place, but
in New Lebanon, Columbia county, there is a station shaded by
young deciduous trees where I saw about a dozen specimens grow-
ing in close proximity to each other.
Mr S. H. Burnham, my assistant, has continued the clerical
work of the office, doing all the typewriting of labels, letters and
reports, attending to the correspondence of the office during my
absence on collecting trips, preparing, disinfecting, labeling and
arranging the specimens in their proper places, and aiding in the
identification of specimens. He has also aided in the investigation
of the pine rust that has been proving injurious to young planta-
tions of white pine.
Respectfully submitted
CHARLES H. PECK
State Botanist
Albany, December 28, 1910
REPORG ONT HE Siatiy BOLANIST: TOlO il
MIEN S) 2 DID 1D) INO) INSUSy Ua Neveu RAL ME
New to the herbarium
Amanita bisporigera Atk.
A, floccocephala Atk.
A. velatipes Atk.
Ascochyta menyanthis Oud.
Aulographum ledi Pk.
Biatora coarctata (Sm.) Ny.
Calvatia craniiformis (Schw.)
Camelina sativa (L.) Crants
Cercospora phlogina Pk.
Cladosporium paeoniae Pass.
Climacium kindbergii (It. & C.)
Clitocybe biformis Pk.
ee ingelvobaney (Gi ep 9k
Cortinarius croceofolius Pk.
©. glaucopus (Schaeff.)
(© napus Fr.
c triumphans Fr.
Craraeaus anistata S.
(CE brainerdi S.
Ce calvini S,.
( longipedunculata S.
Cc nemorosa S.
Crepis setosa: Hail. f.
Cryptosporium macrospermum Pk.
Cycloloma atriplicifolium (Spreng.)
Cytospora microspora (Cd.) Rabenh.
Diplodia linderae E. & E.
Eccilia mordax Aik.
Eurotium subgriseum Pk.
Gloeosporium caryae FE. & D.
G divergens PR.
Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal
Helianthus petiolaris Nutt.
Heterothecium pezizoideum (Ach.)
Hygrophorus caprinus (Scop.) Fr.
Hypericum prolificum L.
Hypholoma delineatum Pk.
Hypochnus tristis Karst.
Inocybe rimosoides Pk.
Lactarius boughtoni Pk.
Lentinus piceinus Pk.
Lychnis coronaria (L.) Desr.
Machaeranthera pulverulenta (Nuit. )
Macrosporium heteronemum (Desi. )
Marasmius contrarius Pk.
Myxosporium carpini Pk.
Naemospora croceola Sacc.
Naucoria sororia Pk.
Oidium asteris-punicei Pk.
Oxybaphus floribundus Chozts.
Pertusaria leioplaca (Ach.)
Pholiota terrigena Fr.
Phoma piceina Pk.
Be simillima Pk.
iy StiChican Dan oawade
Phyllosticta betae Oud.
12 subtilis PR.
Physcia hispida (Schreb.)
Picris hieracioides L.
Pilocratera abnormis PR.
Placodium ferrug. discolor Willey
Plasmodiophora elaeagni Schroet.
Pleurotus approximans Pk.
Ramalina rigida (Pers.) Tuck.
Rhabdospora physostegiae Pk.
Scirpus occidentalis (Wats.) Chase
Sideranthus gracilis (Nuitt.) Rydb.
Sphaeropsis smilacis latispora Pk.
Sporotrichum egrisellum Sacc.
Theloschistes flavicans Wallr.
Thlaspi perfoliatum L.
Trichothecium subgriseum Pk.
Triosteum perfoliatum L.
Usnea trichodea Ach.
Vermicularia beneficiens Pk,
Wie pomicola PR.
Verticillium agaricinum (Lk.) Cd.
Viburnum venosum Britton
Vicia villosa Roth
Not new to the herbarium
Acalypha virginica L.
Agaricus abruptibulbus Pk.
7Ne arvensis Schaeff.
Alisma plantago-aquatica L.
Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.
Amelanchier oblongifolia (7. & G.)
Antennaria neglecta Greene
Apocynum cannabinum L.
i NEW YORK
Arabis laevigata (Muhl.) Poir
Arceuthobium pusillum PR.
Aristolochia clematitis L.
Artemisia biennis Wulld.
Asclepias syriaca L.
Aspidium thelypteris (L.) Sw.
Aster laevis L.
JAN schreberi Nees
/a\. undulatus L.
Astragalus neglecta (T.
Barbarea stricta Andrs.
Boletinus paluster PR.
Boletus clintonianus Pk.
B. elbensis Pk.
B. parasiticus Bull.
Brassica arvensis (L.) Kize.
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.)
Calvatia gigantea (Batsch)
Calyptospora goeppertiana Kuehn
Camelina microcarpa Andrz.
Cantharellus infundibuliformis (Scop.)
Cardamine parviflora L.
Carex canescens L.
C longirostris Torr.
Centaurium umbellatum Gilib.
Cerastium viscosum L.
Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa (Muell.)
Cladosporium carpophilum Thuem.
Cinna arundinacea L.
& latifolia (Trev.) Griseb.
Collybia butyracea (Bull.) Fr.
Cornus canadensis L.
Coronilla varia L.
Cortinarius sanguineus Fr.
Crataegus apposita S.
colorata S.
dissociabilis S.
dissona S.
foetida Ashe
grayana Eggle.
inopinata S.
inusitula S.
leiophylla S.
pellecta S.
punctata Jacq.
Fectawor
spatifolia S.
succulenta Lk.
tenuiloba S.
Eatetican: canadensis (L.)
Bp ee een
& G.) Sheld.
STATE MUSEUM
Cynoglossum officinale L.
Cynosurus cristatus L.
Cyperus grayi Torr.
Daphne mezereum L.
Daucus carota L.
Desmodium canescens (L.) DC.
Epilobium hirsutum L.
Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf.
Eriophorum callitrix Cham.
Es: virginicum L.
Erysiphe polygoni DC.
Eupatorium hyssopifolium L.
E. purpureum L.
Euphorbia corollata L.
ie peplus L.
Fusicladium dendriticum (Wallr.)
Galium aparine L.
G. palustre L.
Gentiana quinquefolia L.
Gerardia maritima af.
G. purpurea L.
G. virginica (2) Bie
Gnaphalium uliginosum L.
Habenaria dilatata (Pursh) Gray
Hedeoma hispida Pursh
Helvella crispa (Scop.) Fr.
H. gracilis Pk.
Herpotrichia diffusa (Fckl.)
Hieracium canadense M+.
Ee murorum L,
Hordeum jubatum L.
jails trifurcatum Jacq.
Hydrastis canadensis L.
Hygrophorus eburneus (Bull.) Fr.
Hypholoma appendiculatum (Bull.)
Hex verticillata (L.) Gray
Ilex verticillata (L.) Gray
Juncus bufonius L.
Kalmia polifolia Wang.
Lechea racemulosa Mx.
Lenzites sepiaria Fr.
Leontodon nudicaulis (L.) Banks
Lepidium campestre (L.) R. Br.
Le diralya we
Lepiota procera (Scop.) Fr.
ib, rubrotincta Pk.
Liatris scariosa Walld.
Lithcspermum arvense L.
ie: officinale L.
Lotus corniculatus L.
Luzula spicatar G2) OE
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST 19010 1s
Lycoperdon atropurpureum V itt.
Massariella scoriadea (fr.) Sacc.
Melissa officinalis L.
Mitrula cucullata Fr.
Monarda fistulosa L.
Monilia crataegi Diedicke
Mycogone cerv. subincarnata Pk.
Myrica asplenifolia L.
Oidium destruens PR.
Onosmodium hispidissimum Mack.
Osmorhiza slaytoni (M-x.) Clarke
Osmunda cinnamomea L.
Panax quinquefolium L.
Panicum agrostoides Spreng.
P. amarum Ell.
PS boreale Nash
123, scribnerianum Nash
Ps spretum Schultes
Paspalum circulare Nash
IP muhlenbereit Nash
12 setaceum Myx,
Phyllosticta podophylli (Curt.)
Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP.
Plantago elongata Pursh
iP. media L.
Polygonum prolificum (Small)
Polypodium vulgare L.
Polyporus circinatus Fr.
P. frondosus Fr.
iP pubescens (Schum.) Fr.
Potamogeton americanus C. & S.
Prunus cuneata Raf.
PR: pennsylvanicus L. f.
Puccinia rubigo-vera (DC.) Wint.
Ribes prostratum L’Her.
Roestelia aurantiaca PR.
Rudbeckia laciniata L.
Rumex hastatulus Baldw.
Russula brevipes Pk.
Sabatia stellaris Pursh
Sagina decumbens (Ell.) T. & G.
Salix petiolaris Sm.
S: purpurea L.
S: rostrata Richards.
S: tristis Ait.
Scirpus olneyi Gray
Sedum purpureum Tausch
Septoria violae West.
Serapias helleborine L.
Setaria verticillata (L.) Buv.
Solidago neglecta T. & G.
Sparganium minimum Fr.
Spartina patens juncea (V/¥.)
Spergularia marina (L.)
Sphaeronema acerinum Pk.
Sphaerotheca humuli (DC.)
Sphenopholis pallens (Spreng.)
Spirea latifolia Borkh.
Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.)
Steironema ciliatum (L.) Raf,
Stipa avenacea L.
Teucrium canadense L.
al occidentale Gray
Thaspium barbinode (Myx.) Nutt.
Thymus serpyllum L.
Tilia michauxii Nutt.
Tricholoma vaccinum (Pers.) Fr.
Trichostemma dichotomum L. -
Tridens flavus (L.) Hittche.
Urtica lyalli Wats.
Ustilago longissima (Sow.)
Wl zeae (Beckm.) Ung.
Vaccinium atrococcum (Gray)
V. macrocarpon Ait.
We oxycoccos L.
Valsonectria parasitica (Murr.)
Veronica anagallis-aquatica L.
Viburnum dentatum L.
We pauciflorum af.
Vicia americana Muhil.
VE angustifolia (L.) Reich.
Viola Blanda Willd.
Viola pallens (Banks) Brain.
CONDRIBULORS AND DEALER CONTRIBURIONS
Miss L. C. Allen, Newtonville, Mass.
Lentinus spretus Pk.
Lepiota allenae Pk.
Miss H. C. Anderson, Lambertville, N. J.
Boletus albus Pk.
Psathyrella graciloides Pk.
I4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Miss F. Beckwith, Rochester
Aster laevis L. Lotus corniculatus L.
Helianthus petiolaris Nutt. Machaeranthera pulverulenta (Nutt.)
Leontodon nudicaulis (L.) Banks Sideranthus gracilis (Nutt.) Rydb.
Mrs E. B. Blackford, Boston, Mass.
Clavaria pulchra Pk. Hebeloma mesophaeum f7.
Flammula graveolens Pk. Naucoria myosotis Fr.
Miss E. S. Blunt, Elizabethtown
Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.
Miss G. S. Burlingham, New York
Lactarius glyciosmus f7.
Miss M. C. Burns, Middleville
Lepiota procera (Scop.) Fr.
Mrs C. F. Davis, Portland, Me.
Peziza aurantia Pers.
Mrs E. P. Gardner, Canandaigua
Astragalus neglectus (7. & G.) Melissa officinalis L.
Gryptataenia canadensis C2) DG: Monarda fistulosa L.
Lychnis! cononanian@2)) s2esrm Steironema ciliatum (L.) Raf.
Teucrium occidentale Gray
Mrs L. L. Goodrich, Syracuse
Centaureum umbellatum Gilib. Daphne mezereum L.
Lepidium draba L.
Miss A. Hibbard, West Roxbury, Mass.
Entoloma cyaneum Pk. Naucoria myosotis Fr.
Lactarius colorascens Pk. Pholiota duroides Pk.
Russula bresadolae Schulz
Mrs S. Manning, St Paul, Minn.
Flammula flavida Pers.
Miss E. W. Mische, Syracuse
Daphne mezereum L.
Mrs C. E. Putnam, St Paul, Minn.
Flammula flavida Pers.
REPORD OF THE STATE, BOTANIST LOO 15
Mrs S. W. Russell, Glens Falls
Polypodium vulgare L.
Mrs F. C. Sherman, Syracuse
Clitocybe maxima G. & M. Stropharia depilata Pers.
Miss A. Van Horne, Montreal, Can.
Cantharellus brevipes Pk.
Miss E. C. Webster, Canandaigua
Crataegus calvini S. Plantago media L.
©: gemmosa S. Puccinia rubigo-vera (DC.) Waint.
(Ge longipedunculata S. Scirpus occidentalis (Wats.)
Cynosurus cristatus L. Serapias helleborine L.
Hieracium murorum L. Setaria verticillata (L.) Bu.
Vicia americana Muhl.
Miss H. Whalen, Ballston Spa
Agaricus campester hortensis Cre.
Mrs M. E. Whetstone, Minneapolis, Minn.
Flammula pulchrifolia Pk. Psathy nella icaudatayl7,
Lentinus tigrinus (Bull) Fr. Tubaria inquilina Fr.
Lepiota rubrotincta Pk. Volvaria peckii Atk.
Mycogone cery. subincarnata PR. We speciosa Fr.
F. H. Ames, Brooklyn
Amanita radicata Pk. Lactarius torminosus Fr.
Boletus vermiculosus Pk. Usnea trichodea Ach.
G. F. Atkinson, Ithaca
Amanita bisporigera Atk. Hypholoma boughtoni Pk.
A. floccocephala Atk. Kuehneola albida (Kuehn) Magn.
AN. velatipes Atk. Lactarius camphoratus (Bull.)
Bubakia crotonis (Cke.) Arth. Naucoria sororia Pk.
Collybia familia Pk. Panaeolus papilionaceus Fr.
Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pholiota terrigena Fr.
Eecilia mordax Atk. : Plasmopara halstedii (farl.)
Eocronartium typhuloides Atk. Polyporus caeruleoporus PR.
Hygrophorus caprinus (Scop.) Fr. Russula crustosa Pk.
ele chrysodon (Batsch) Sporotrichum grisellum Sacc.
Jal luridus BY S.C. Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.)
G. G. Atwood, Albany
Cryptosporium macrospermum PR. Roestelia aurantiaca Pk.
Sphaerotheca humuli (DC.) Burr.
16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
H. J. Banker, Greencastle, Ind.
Hydnum combinans PR.
Et: farinaceum Pers,
Hydum populinum Pk.
Irpex ambiguus Pk.
E. Bartholomew, Stockton, Kan.
Basidiophora kellermanii (E. & H.)
B. kell. paupercula Pk.
Bertia querceti Rehm
Bispora effusa Pk.
Cercospora clavata (Ger.) PR.
G, | verbenae-strictae Pk.
Coniosporium arundinis (Cd.) Sace.
(& perplexum Pk.
Crucibulum vulgare Tul.
Cyathus striatus schweinitzi Tul.
Cylindrosporium conservans PR.
(Ce padi cerasina Pk.
Daedalea unicolor (Bull.) Fr.
Dasyscypha bicolor (Bull.) Fckl.
Diaporthe alnea Fckl.
1D): callicarpae PR.
Diatrype bullata (Hoffm.) Fr.
Diplodia alni-rubrae PR.
Eutypella ailanthi Sacc.
FE. stellulata (F7.) Sacc.
Helminthosoporium macrocarpum
Grev.
H. subapiculatum Pe.
Hormiscium ambrosiae PR.
Hymenochaete rubiginosa (Schrad.)
lel tabacina (Sow.) Lev.
Hypochnus sambuci (Pers.) Fr.
Hypoxylon bartholomaei PR.
Hypoxylon fuscum (Pers.) Fr.
Leptosphaeria sambuci Fautr.
Leptothyrium punctiforme B. & C.
Macrosporium sarcinula Berk.
Melanconis anomala Pk.
Melanconium bicolor candidum Pk.
Melanomma pulvis-pyrius (Pers.)
Merulius corium Fr.
Microdiplodia viciae Pk.
Microsphaera alni (Wallr.) Salm.
Ovularia rigidula De/ac.
(O): stachydis-ciliatae PR.
Phleospora mori (Lev.) Sace.
Phyllosticta paupercula PR.
Polystictus abietinus Fr.
Ramularia virgaurea Thuem.
Septoria aceris-macrophylli Pk.
Se ficarioides Pk.
Se samarae Pk.
Sphaerella gaultheriae C. & P.
oF rumicis (Desm.) Cke.
Sphaeromyces delphini PR.
Sphaeropsis melanconioides PR.
Trimmatostroma americana Thuem.
Uredo quercus Broud.
Valsa minutella Pk.
We salicina tetraspora (Curr.)
Valsella salicis Fckl.
M. S. Baxter, Rochester
Cinna arundinacea L.
Epilobium hirsutum L.
Euphorbia corollata L.
Helianthus petiolaris Nutt.
Hieracium canadense M+.
Onosmodium hispidissimum Mack.
Panicum boreale Nash.
j2e scribnerianum Nash
Panicum spretum Schultes
Paspalum muhlenbergii Nash
Rynchospora alba (L.) Vahl
Sideranthus gracilis (Nutt.) Rydb.
Solidago neglecta T. & G.
Sphenopholis pallens (Spreng.)
Tilia michauxii Nutt.
Tridens flavus (L.) Hitche.
C. E. Bessey, Lincoln, Neb.
Pholiota squarrosa Muell.
E. Bethel, Denver, Colo.
Allantonectria yuccae Earle
Pholiota comosa Fy.
Peridermium harknessiana Moore
Septoria samarae Pk.
REPORT OF THE STATE VBOTANIST 1O1O V7,
E. F. Bigelow, Sound Beach, Conn.
Calostoma cinnabarinum Desv.
E. S. Black, Little Silver, N. J.
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent.
F. S. Boughton, Pittsford
Agaricus silvaticus Schaeff. Inocybe modesta Pk.
Boletus albus Pk. Lactarius boughtoni Pk.
Calvatia gigantea (Batsch) Lepiota rugoso-reticulata Lorin.
Cortinarius napus F7. Thelephora willeyi Clinton
Verticillium agaricinum (Lk.) Cd.
E. L. Bradley, Cato
Hydrastis canadensis L.
F. J. Braendle, Washington, D. C.
Clitopilus washingtoniensis Braend.
S. H. Burnham, Hudson Falls
Acalpha virginica L. Hygrophorus minutulus Pk.
Ascochyta menyanthis Oud. Hypoxylon morsei B. & C.
Aster undulatus loriformis Burg. Lepiota clypeolaria (Bull.) Fr.
Biatora coarctata (Sm.) Nyl. Iss rubrotincta PR.
Boletus felleus Bull. Massariella scoriadea (Fr.) Sace.
Clitocybe candida Bres. Oxybaphus floribundus Chots.
Clitopilus caespitosus PR. Pertusaria leioplaca (Ach.)
Collybia zonata PR. Placodium cerin. sideritis Tuck.
Cortinarius aureifolius Pk. Pleurotus atropellitus Pk.
Cronartium ribicola F. de W. ‘ iP. ulmarius Fr
Cycloloma atriplicifolium (Spreng. ) Psilocybe camptopoda Pk.
Desmodium canescens (L.) DC. Puccinia hieracti (Schuwm.) Mart.
Diplodia linderae E. & E. Sedum purpureum Tausch
Eupatorium purpureum L. Septoria sedicola Pk.
Hedeoma hispida Pursh S: violae West.
Heterothecium pezizoideum (Ach.) Tricholoma terreum Schaef.
Hordeum jubatum L. Triosteum perfoliatum L.
Veronica anagallis-aquatica L.
H. P. Burt, New Bedford, Mass.
Collybia maculata (A. & S.) Fr. Stropharia semiglobata Batsch
G. H. Chadwick, Canton
Vicia villosa Roth
18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
S. Davis, Boston, Mass.
Boletus chrysen. sphagnorum PR,
Clavaria fusiformis Sow.
grandis Pk.
pallescens Pk.
a platyclada Pk.
litocybe centralis Pk.
compressipes Pk.
maculata Pk.
Discina leucoxantha Bres.
Entoloma cyaneum Pk.
Geoglossum difforme Fr.
VAIOQAOO
G. glabrum Pers.
Gomphidius gracilis Berk.
G. vinicolor PR.
Hebeloma discomorbidum Pk.
lak. parvifructum Pk.
Hygrophorus coloratus Pk.
la hypothejus Fr.
Inocybe flocculosa (Berk.)
IE geophylla (Sow.) Fr.
Ji umboninota Pk.
Leptonia longistriata PR.
Te, strictipes Pk.
Microglossum rufum (Schw.)
Naucoria myosotis Fr.
Nolanea delicatulus Pk.
Pholiota autumnalis Pk.
Tricholoma ustale Fr.
B. O. Dodge, Madison, Wis.
Boletus elbensis Pk.
Collybia lacunosa PR.
Discina orbicularis Pk.
Lactarius zonarius (Bull.) Fr.
Lycoperdon cepiforme (Wallr.) Bon.
Marasmius minutus Pk.
Polyporus guttulatus Pk.
By lentus Berk.
Steccherinum adustulum Banker
J. Dunbar, Rochester
Aster schreberi Nees
Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray
J. Dearness, London, Can.
Cladosporium triostei Pk.
Discosia artocreas (Tode) Fr.
Hypoxylon perforatum (Schw.)
Lachnella fraxinicola (BG ere)
Lophiostoma triseptatum Pk.
Ombrophila thujina Pk.
Pezicula acericola Pk.
C. E. Fairman, Lyndonville
Aleurodiscus oakesii (B. & C.) Cke.
Cytospora microspora (Cd.) Rabenh.
Dinemasporium acerinum PR.
Gloeosporium caryae FE. & D.
Hymenula olivacea Pk.
Naemospora croceola Sace.
Peziza griseo-rosea Ger.
Plasmodiophora elaeagni Schroet.
Polyporus adustus (Willd.) Fr.
1 adus. carpineus Sow.
P: resinosus (Schrad.)
Poria aurea Pk.
Rhabdospora physostegiae Pk.
Sphaeronema acerinum PR.
Sphaeropsis smil. latispora PR.
Stereum complicatum Fr.
W. G. Farlow, Camabadize. Mass.
Polyporus sulphureus semialbinus PR.
G. C. Fisher, DeFuniak Spa., Fla.
Agaricus floridanus Pk.
REPORT OF “THE STATE _BOTANTSE ITOLO m9)
M. J. French, Utica
Boletus parasiticus Bull, ‘ Lentinus lepideus Fr.
Hygrophorus chlorophanus Fr. Stropharia bilamellata Pk.
Polyporus radicatus Schw. Thelephora willeyi Clinton
H. Garman, Lexington, Ky.
Macrophoma suspecta PR.
A. O. Garrett, Salt Lake City, Utah
e
Discula cuncinata F. GE. Lophodermium pinastri (Schrad.)
N. M. Glatfelter, St Louis, Mo.
Helvella macropus brevis Pk. Psathyra umbonata Pk.
Panaeolus retirugis Fr. Russula eccentrica Pk.
G. S. Graves, Newport
Fuligo ovata (Schaeff.) Macbr.
S. J. Greenfield, Ilion
Clavaria coralloides L.
J. G. Grossenbacher, Geneva
Myxosporium carpini Pk.
€.-€. Hanmer, East Hartiord, Conn.
Lepiota densifolia Gull.
F. D. Heald, Austin, Tex.
Cercospora kaki FE. & E.
G. T. Howell, Rockville, Ind.
Merulius tremellosus Schrad. Polyporus radicatus Schw.
Nolanea howellii Pk. Trichia scabra ikost.
F. G. Howland, Saratoga Spa
Clitocybe dealbata sudorifica Pk.
M. E. Jones, Salt Lake City, Utah
Aecidium psoraleae Pk. Puccinia clarkiae Pk.
Cystopus candidus (Pers.) Lev. P. gayophyti Billings
Hyalospora polypodii (DC.) Magn. PP. gentianae (Str.) Link.
Melampsoropsis pyrolae (DC.) Arth. P. jonesii Pk.
Phyllosticta arnicae Fckl. Septoria lacustris S. & T.
Puccinia aberrans PR. Thecaphora deformans D. & M.
P asteris Duby. Uredo bigelowii Thuem.
P. balsamorrhizae Pk. Uromyces astragali (Opiz) Sace.
IP. circaeae Pers. Ih borealis PR.
20 ie NEW YORK
STATE MUSEUM
C. H. Kauffman, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Pilocratera abnormis Pk.
F. D. Kern, Lafayette,
Ind.
Septoria angustissima Pk.
L. C. C. Krieger, Cambridge, Mass.
Boletinus castanellus Pk.
W. T. Lakin, Cumberland, Md.
Boletus caespitosus Pk.
Boletus subtomentosus L.
H. Lansing, Albany
Agaricus placomyces PR.
R. Latham, Orient Point
Apocynum cannab. pubescens (RB)
Asclepias syriaca L.
Buellia myriocarpa (DC.) Mudd
Calvatia craniiformis (Schw.) Morg.
Camelina sativa(L.) Crantz
Cardamine parviflora L.
Carex canescens disjuncta Fernald
Carya alba (L.) Koch
Cinna latifolia (Trev.) Griseb.
Cladonia boryi Tuck.
Climacium kindbergii (R. & C.) Grout
Coronilla varia L.
Crepis setosa Hall. f.
Cyperus grayi Torr.
Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf.
Fomes annosus Fr.
Gerardia maritima Raf.
G. So purpinea ys
Glonium parvulum (Ger.) Sacc.
Gymnosporangium macropus Link
Herpotrichia diffusa (Fckl.)E. & E.
Hysterium pulicare Pers.
Juncus bufonius L.
Lecanidion indigoticum (C. & P.)
Lecanora varia saepicola Fr.
Lechea racemulosa Mx.
Lenzites betulina (L.) Fr.
Liatris scariosa Willd.
Osmorhiza claytoni (M-x.) Clarke
Panicum agrostoides Spreng.
P: amarum £/l.
Parmelia borreri rudecta Tuck.
borr. hypomela Tuck.
cetrata Ach.
colopodes (Ach.) Nyl.
perforata (Jacq.) Ach.
perfor. hypotropa Ny.
Ser eh AS) ee 98
Parmelia saxatilis sulcata Nyl.
Paspalum circulare Nash
P, setaceum My.
Phaeangella deformata (PR.)
Physcia granulifera (Ach.) Tuck.
P hispida (Schreb.) Tuck.
RP stellaris (L.) Tuck.
Physma luridum (Mont.) Tuck.
Picris hieracioides L.
Placodium cerinum (Hoffm.) N. G& H.
lec ferrug. discolor Walley
Plantago elongata Pursh
Pleospora herbarum (Pers.) Rabeni.
Polygonum prolificum (Small)
Polyporus giganteus (Pers.) Fr.
Poria subacida vesiculosa (B. & C.)
Ramalina calicaris fraxinea Fr.
ARS rigida (Pers.) Tuck.
Sabatia stellaris Pursh
Sagina decumbens (Elil.) T. & G.
Salix purpurea L.
Scirpus olneyi Gray.
Scleroderma flavidum E. & E.
Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf.
Spartina patens juncea (Mvz.)
Spergularia marina (L.) Griseb.
Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.)
Stipa avenacea L.
Teucrium canadense L.
Theloschistes conc. effusus Tuck.
aly flavicans Wallr.
Trametes pini (Brot.) Fr.
Trichostemma dichotomum L.
Usnea trichodea Ach. ~~ .
Viburnum dentatum EL.
Ve venosum Britton
ee
REPORT OF DHE STATE BOTANIST TOTO Zi
C. E. Lewis, Orono, Me.
Phoma mali Schulz. & Sacc.
C. A. Mabie, Holley
Clitocybe multiceps tricholoma Pk. Lepiota rhacodes (Vitt.) Fr.
Flammula flavida Pers. Pholiota squarrosa J/uell.
Hypholoma sublateritium Schaeff. Pleurotus terrestris Pk.
Polyporus radicatus Schw.
A. H. Mackay, Halifax, Can.
Armillaria ventricosa PR. Clitocybe vilescens Pk.
Helvella sulcata Afzel.
J. A. Maney, Geneva
Peridermium pyriforme Pk.
. E. R. Memminger, Flat Rock, N. C.
Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pers.
G. E. Morris, Waltham, Mass.
Boletus parasiticus Bull. Lepiota rubrotincta PR.
Pholiota autumnalis Pk.
M. V. Munger, Malone
Specimen of fruit of English walnut, Juglans regia L., with 3-valved shell
and 3-lobed seed.
J. B. S. Norton, College Park, Md.
Psathyrella disseminata (Pers.) Fr.
J. F. Peck, Rexford Flats
Two connected trunks of Ostrya virginiana (Muill.) Koch
F. T. Pember, Granville
Alisma plantago-aquatica L. Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal
L. H. Pennington, Syracuse
Fomes fraxineus (Buli.) Fr. Rosia: floccosaee 7
Guepinia palmiceps Berk. Jee mutans Pk.
Iitpex mollis B. GG: Pp: obducens Pers.
D. Reddick, Ithaca
Lysurus borealis (Burt) C. G. Lloyd
22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
L. D. Rhind, Gloversville
Peridermium pyriforme Pk.
W.H. Ropes, Salem, Mass.
Agaricus campester L. Flammula pulchrifolia Pk.
Cortinarius intrusus Pk. Ornithogalum nutans L.
L. L. Shaff, Hannibal
Hypericum prolificum L.
P, Spaulding, Washington, D. C.
Cryptosphaeria populina (Pers.) Cryptosporium macrospermum Pk.
F. C. Stewart, Geneva
Fusarium roseum Link Phoma simillima Pk.
Gymnosporangium globosum Far. 12 Stichica 5.) Cumlape
Hordeum trifurcatum Jacq. Phyllosticta betae Oud.
‘“Myxosporium castan. quercus Pk. Stereum complicatum Fr.
Thlaspi perfoliatum L.
W. G. Stover, Columbus, Ohio
Marasmius delectans Morg. Pleurotus corticatus Fr.
D. R. Sumstine, Pittsburg, Pa.
Hebeloma flexuosipes Pk.
K. F. Symonds, Utica.
Panus torulosus Fr. Stropharia bilamellata Pk.
R. Thaxter, Cambridge, Mass.
Chaetomium indicum Cd.
C, Thoms Storrs, Conn:
Boletus subluteus Pk.
J. A. Thompson, Rochester
Roestelia aurantiaca Pk.
H. L. True, McConnelsville, Ohio
Gyromitra brunnea Underw.
L. Tucker & Son, Albany
Vermicularia beneficiens PR.
REPORD FOPY Dik SLATE BOTANTSE: Oro 23
D. B. Van Buren, Albany
Cladosporium paeoniae Pass. Roestelia aurantiaca Pk.
J. M. Van Hook, Bloomington, Ind.
_Sporotrichum chryseum Pk, Stropharia thrausta Kalchb.
H. L. Wells, New Haven, Conn.
Boletus gertrudiae Pk. Pholiota dura Bolt.
H. H. Whetzel, Ithaca
Phoma simillima Pr.
T. E. Wilcox, Washington, D. C.
Boletus bicolor Pk. Boletus gracilis Pk.
Melanogaster durissimus Che.
C. L. Williams, Glens Falls
Fusicladium dendriticum (Wallr.) Polypodium vulgare L.
D. B. Young, Albany
Cytospora salicis (Cd.) Rabenh. Eurotium subgriseum Pk.
Phoma piceina Pk.
SE Wels NOM Ra BORE REPORG ED
Amanita bisporigera Atk.
fhacae GH Atkinson, (Collected by CT. ‘Kauttman.> aris
appears like a dwarf white form of A. phalloides Er.
Amanita floccocephala Atk.
Ithaca. G. F. Atkinson.
| Amanita velatipes Atk.
Cortland. = July. 1G) Po Atkinson,
Ascochyta menyanthis Oud.
Eivimleavess of mmickbeam, Micemya nth es) tn ito twa ta
Near Clemons, Washington co. August. S. H. Burnham.
Aulographum ledi n. sp.
Spots orbicular, grayish white, surrounded by a brown or pur
plish brown border; perithecia epiphyllous, few on a spot, elliptic
24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
or oblong, often substellately lobed by confluence, erumpent, black,
context whitish; asci obovate or subglobose ; spores ovate or oblong,
continuous, at length uniseptate, hyaline, 12-15 » long, 6-8 »
thick.
Upper surface of leaves of Labrador tea, Ledum groen-
landicum Oeder Hime St Mawrence) coms anette
Remarkable and very distinct by its subglobose asci.
Maculae orbiculares, griseo-albidae, margine brunneo vel pur-
pureo-brunneo circumdatae; perithecia epiphylla, pauca, elliptica
oblongave, saepe confluentia et substellatim lobata, erumpentia,
atra, contexta albida; asci obovati subglobosive; sporae ovatae
oblongaeve, continuae, demum uniseptatae, hyalinae, 12-15 x 6-8 p.
Biatora coarctata (Sm.) Nyl.
On nodules in drifting sand. Karner, Albany co. November.
S. H. Burnham.
Calvatia crantiformis (Schw.) Morg.
Ground. Orient Point, Suffolk co. November. R. Latham.
Camelina microcarpa Andrz.
Graim fields’ Bergen, Genesee ‘co: June. Phis planters
erroneously reported as Camelina sativa (2) )@ramz
Specimens of the true C. sativa with broader seed vessels have
been collected in oat fields near Orient Point by R. Latham and
contributed by him to the herbarium.
Cercospora phlogina n. sp.
Spots orbicular or nearly so, .5-1 cm broad, sometimes con-
fluent, blackish brown, usually with a small grayish center on the
upper surface; hyphae epiphyllous, densely tufted, flexuous or
irregular, 30-40 long, commonly aseptate, slightly colored; spores
oblong or slightly narrowed toward the apex, 2-4-septate, 35-60
v long, 3-4 thick.
Leaves of cultivated phlox. Floral Park, Nassau co. June.
pee Gar Stewarrt:
This:species is related to ©. omphacodes EB. & apm
it differs in the characters of the spots, the position of the fungus
and the thicker spores with fewer septa.
Maculae suborbiculars, .5-1 cm latae, aliquando confluentes,
fuscoatrae, in centro supra griseae; hyphae epiphyllae, dense caes
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 25
pitosae, flexuosae vel irregulares, 30-40 » longae, vulgo asep-
tatae, leviter coloratae; sporae oblongae vel ad apicem attenuatae,
2-4-septatae, 35-00 x 3-4 »,.
Cladosporium paeoniae Pass.
Living leaves of paeonia. Batavia. August. D. B. VanBuren.
Collected by Alice G. Fisher. The fungus forms large brown spots
on the leaves. It sometimes occupies the entire leaf and kills it
Climacium kindbergii (R. & C.) Grout
INOots/ of trees in swampy places, Orient Point.’ Wecember
R. Latham.
Clitocybe biformis n. sp.
Plate VI, figures 9-15
Pileus fleshy, thin, firm, broadly convex or nearly plane, be-
coming centrally depressed, subumbilicate or broadly infundibuli-
form, glabrous, even or slightly striate on the margin, pale buff,
sometimes more brightly colored in the center, flesh white or
whitish, margin at first involute; lamellae thin, close, narrow, de-
current, whitish, becoming pallid or subcinnamon with age or in
drying; stem equal or nearly so, firm, solid or stuffed, often curved,
sometimes eccentric, tomentose at the base, colored like the pileus ;
spores subglobose or broadly elliptic, 5-6 » long, 4-5 » broad.
Pileus 2:5-7.5 cin broad; stem 2.5—3.5 cm long; 4—8 mm thick.
In mixed woods. Growing in arcs of circles. North Elba.
iesexcOn Septem per.
When young the pileus is convex, when old it is centrally de-
pressed or sometimes broadly infundibuliform. This change of
shape has suggested the specific name. The change in the color
of the lamellae is more remarkable. The species is closely allied
frolic eo cybe S1lya) (Pers) Eri trom, which itvmay be
separated by the whitish color of the flesh and the peculiar change
of color in the lamellae. This passes from whitish to fawn color
or pale cinnamon. Its habit of growing in circles is also peculiar.
The mycelium binds together a mass of dirt and decaying vege-
table matter. These adhere closely to the base of the stem when
the mushroom is pulled from its place of growth, and make the
stem appear as if bulbous. :
Pileus carneus, tenuis, firmus, late convexus vel subplanus,
deinde centro depressus, subumbilicatus vel late infundibuliformis,
20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
glaber, margine levis vel striatulus, pallide luteolus, in centro ali-
quando luteus, carne alba albidave; lamellae tenues, confertae, an-
gustae, decurrentes, in senectute siccitateve pallide cinnamomeae;
stipes subaequalis, firmus, solidus, farctusve, aliquando curvus vel
eccentricus, basi tomentosus, in colore pileo similis; sporae sub-
elobosae vel late ellipsoideae, 5-6 x 4-5”.
Clitocybe maxima G. & M.
Catskill mountains. September. Mrs F. C. Sherman. North
Elba. C. H. Peck. “This is a large and. care species, sappeamuns
as if it might be a luxuriant development of Clitocybe in-
fundibuliatoerimis (Schaenm jar
Cortinarius croceofolius n. sp.
Plate VI, figures 1-8
Pileus fleshy, thin, broadly convex or nearly plane, obtuse or
obtusely umbonate, dry, slightly fibrillose specially on the margin,
brownish cinnatron, often paler or saffron yellow on the margin,
flesh pale yellow, grayish or dingy when dry; lamellae thin, close,
saffron yellow verging to orange, then brownish cinnamon, often
yellow crenulate on the margin; stem equal or slightly thickened
at the base, fibrillose above, saffron yellow, hollow, veil similarly
colored; spores broadly ellipscid, 6-7 » long, 4-5 » broad.
Pileus 2.5-5 cm broad; stem 2.5-4 cm long, 4-6 mm thick.
Mossy ground in or on the borders of woods of spruce and
balsam fir trees. North Elba. September.
This species belongs to the section Dermocybe and is closely
related to.Cortinarius: cinnamomeus )(.)) Said
C. semisanguineus (Fr.) Kauiim. but®in the veolonmien
the lamellae it is intermediate between them and from both it is
readily separated by its smaller spores. From C» crojee@e
color Kauffm., of which I have seen no specimens, it may be
separated by the darker color of the pileus and the different colors
of the lamellae.
Pileus carneus, tenuis, late convexus vel subplanus, obtusus
vel obtuse umbonatus, siccus, leviter fibrillosus, fusco-cinna‘ro-
meus, saepe margine pallidior vel croceus, carne flava, in siccitate
grisea; lamellae tenues, confertae, croceae aurantiacaeve, demum
fusco-cinnamomeae, saepe acie flavo-crenulatae; stipes aequalis vel
leviter basi incrassatus, supra fibrillosus, cavus, croceus, velo cro-
ceo; sporae late ellipsoidece, 6-7 x 4-5 1’.
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST I910 27
Cortinarius glaucopus (Schaeff.) Fr.
Woods. North Elba. September.
Cortinarius napus Ir.
Pittsford, Monroe co. September. F. S. Boughton.
Cortinarius triumphans Fr.
In groves of young deciduous trees. New Lebanon, Columbia
co. September. The pileus in our specimens was viscid but
glabrous.
; Crataegus aristata n. sp. Sarg.
( Pruinosae )
Glabrous with the exception of the hairs on the young leaves
and calyx-lobes. Leaves ovate to oval, long-pointed and acuminate
at the apex, cuneate at the entire base, finely often doubly serrate
above, with straight glandular teeth and slightly divided into
4 or 5 pairs of small acuminate lobes; more than half-grown when
the flowers open early in June and then yellow green, smooth and
furnished with a few hairs on the midribs above, and pale below,
and at maturity thick, bluish green, paler on the lower surface
‘than on the upper surface, 4.5-6 cm long and 3-5 cm wide, with
_ thin midribs and primary veins; petioles slender, narrowly wing-
margined at the apex, slightly hairy on the upper side early in the
season, soon becoming glabrous, I-1.2 cm in length; leaves’ on
vigorous shoots broadly ovate to slightly obovate, rounded or
cuneate at the base, more coarsely serrate, conspicuously lobed, and
often 7-8 cm long and 5.5-6 cm wide, with stout rose-colored
midribs and petioles. Flowers 1.8-2 cm in diameter, on long
slender pedicels, in 6—-15-flowered corymbs, the lower peduncles
from the axils of upper leaves; calyx-tube narrowly obconic, the
lobes gradually contracted from the base, short, broad, acuminate,
glandular-serrate near the middle, slightly hairy on the inner sur-
face, reflexed after anthesis; stamens 20; filaments persistent on
the fruit; anthers pink; styles 3 or 4. Fruit ripening early in
October, on long slender drooping pedicels, in few-fruited clus-
ters, subglobose, slightly 5-angled, pruinose, bright red, marked by
occasional pale dots, about 1 cm in diameter; calyx prominent
with a long tube, a deep broad cavity wide and tomentose in the bot-
tom, and spreading and reflexed lobes; flesh thick, yellow, dry and
mealy; nutlets 3-5, narrowed and rounded at the apex, broader
bo
(@,6)
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
and rounded at the base, 5.5-O mm long and 4-4.5 mm wide, the
narrow hypostyle extending to below the middle of the nutlet.
A shrub 3-4 m high, with numerous wide spreading branches
and slender zigzag branchlets dark orange green and marked by
pale lenticels when they first appear, becoming pale orange brown
in their first season and light brown the following year, and armed
with numerous stout straight or slightly curved purple spines
3.5-4.5 cm long.
Roadsides near- Rossie, St Lawrence co. C. H. Peck (#22
Re), June 12 and September 29, Igog.
Crataegus brainerdi Sarg.
Rocky places. Rossie. June. The plant reported under this
name in Bulletin 75, page 12, was later decided by Professor Sargent
to be a distinct species and was described and reported under the
Name. Crakaeous melita oare
Crataegus longipedunculata Sarg.
Near Canandaigua. June and October. Miss E. C. Webster.
Crataegus nemorosa n. sp. Sarg.
( Medioximae )
Glabrous. Leaves ovate, acuminate, rounded or abruptly cune-
ate at the base, sharply often doubly serrate with straight glandular
teeth and deeply divided into 3 or 4 pairs of slender acuminate
lobes usually pointing toward the apex of the leaf; about one-half
grown when the flowers open at the end of May or early in June
and then very thin and yellow green, and at maturity thin, blue
green and lustrous on the upper surface, pale on the lower surface,
4.5-5 cm long and 3-3.5 cm wide, with thin midribs and primary
veins, turning deep vinous red in the autumn on the upper side and
remaining pale below; petioles slender, slightly wing-margined at
the apex, glandular, with minute persistent glands, 1.5-2 cm in
length ; leaves on vigorous shoots broadly ovate, acute, long-pointed
at the apex, rounded or truncate at the entire base, coarsely ser-
rate, deeply lobed and often 8-9 cm long and broad. Flowers
1.5-1.8 cm in diameter, on long slender pedicels, in small 5-8-
flowered corymbs, the lower peduncles from the axils of upper
leaves; calyx-tube broadly obconic, the lobes gradually narrowed
from a wide base, short, acuminate, entire or furnished near the
REPORDVO Lib STATE, BOLANTSL TOlO 29
middle with 1 or 2 minute glandular teeth, reflexed after anthesis.
stamens 5-10; anthers pink; styles 3 or 4. Fruit on slender droop-
ing pedicels, in few-fruited clusters, short-oblong to obovate,
crimson, slightly pruinose, marked by dark dots, about I cm in
diameter; calyx little enlarged, with a wide shallow cavity pointed
in the bottom and spreading and appressed persistent lobes; flesh
thin, dry and hard, green tinged with red; nutlets 2-4, broad and
rounded at the apex, acute at the base, rounded and only slightly
ridged on the back, 5.5-6 mm long and 3-3.5 mm wide.
A shrub 2-3 m high, with small stems covered with dark gray
bark and numerous ascending and spreading branches, and slender
slightly zigzag branchlets dark orange green and marked by pale
lenticels when they first appear, becoming bright chestnut brown
and lustrous in their first season and dark reddish brown the fol-
lowing year, and armed with numerous slender straight chestnut
brown spines 3.5-6 cm long.
Hillsides near Painted Post, Steuben co., G. D. Cornell ( ¥ 119
Diem oeprember 22 1007, Nay 26,1908; ©. Ty Peck, June 2
did september 27, 1900); G. Di Corel (* 119 A with 6-10
stamens and larger short-oblong fruit a little if at all narrowel
duiespase), ieaimted Post, September 22,-1907, May 28-1902.
Crepis setosa Hall. f.
Ornent) Pomt. (September. Ik) Wathans.
Cryptosporium macrospermum n. sp.
Heaps scattered, at first covered by the epidermis, then erumpent
taronel orbicular or elliptic apertures, ebout 1 mm broad,- black,
sometimes capped by a whitish or greenish white globule of spores,
the spore mass enlarged and softened when moist; spores. slender,
fusiform, falcate or rarely sigmoid, generally subulate at one end,
acute or subacute at the other, hyaline and often 2-6 nucleate,
60-80 » long, 5-6 » broad.
Dead bana Oreroalsamentn eA bites ba lisa mica, Glee) a Mal
Adirondack mountains, Franklin co. May. G. G. Atwood and
ens padldine:.
The fungus has so far developed only where the bark is dead and
it is therefore uncertain that it causes the death of the bark and
the wood beneath.
_ Acervuli sparsi, primus epidermide tecti, deinde per aperturas
orbiculares ellipticasve erumpentes, I mm lati, nigri, aliquando
30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
sporarum globulum albidum exudantes; sporae graciles, fusiformes,
falcatae, rare sigmatoideae, vulgo apice subulatae, basi acutae sub-
acutaeve, hyalinae, saepe 2—-6-nucleatae, 60-go x 5-6.
Cycloloma atriplicifolium (Spreng.) Coult.
Waste places. Albany. September. 5S. H. Burnham
Cytospora microspora (Cd.) Rabenh.
Dead branches of thorn bush. Medina, Orleans co. October.
Gy ann ame:
Diplodia linderae E. & E.
Dead branches of. spice bush; Bemzoin aestivallvem@us
Nees. Tripoli, Washington co. April, S. HM. Burnham
Eccilia mordax Atk.
Near Ithaca. July. G. F. Atkinson. Collected by C. O: Smith.
Eurotium subgriseum n. sp.
Perithecia minute, 100-125 » in diameter, densely clustered,
globose or subglobose, pale yellow; spores globose, greenish yellow
in mass, 6-8 » in diameter.
Dead wood and bark of sycamore branches, Platanus occi-
dentalas Ls) Brooklyn. March DBs Youn,
This is found growing with and among the conidial form,
Aspergillus subgriseus Pk. Torrey Bot. Clib@Bae
22:210. The color of this mold varies from whitish to grayish or
bluish gray. The fertile hyphae are erect, continuous, 100-125
long and 7-8 » thick, terminating in a subglobose vesicle 30-40 p»
in diameter, on which strings of globose hyaline spores or conidia
are borne. These conidia are 3.5-4 » broad. They are smaller
than those of the Aspergillus glaucus (lL) Mimkeeane
conidial form of Eurotium herbariorum (Wige ) Siem
The branches were collected in Brooklyn by J. J. Levison, May 12,
1909 but were kept in a moist atmosphere under cover for several
months and the fungus probably developed during this time.
Perithecia minuta, 100-125 y» in diam., dense caespitosa, globosa
subglobosave, flava; sporae globosae, flavido-virides, 6-8 » in diam.
Gloeosporium caryae E. & D.
Leaves of hickory. Lyndonville, Orleans co. October. C. E.
Fairman.
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST I9QIO 31
Gloeosporium divergens n. sp.
Spots large, irregular, commonly occupying the lobes and margin
of the leaves, definite, pale brown, either with or without a slight
inconspicuous reddish brown margin on the upper surface; heaps
mostly hypophyllous, rarely epiphyllous and then chiefly along the
veinlets, 120-160 » broad, darker colored than the spots; spores
narrowly elliptic or oblong, often 2-nucleate, hyaline, 10-15 v
long, 4-6 ,, broad.
Living leaves of white oak, Quercus alba L. Menands,
Albany co. July.
Maculae magnae, irregulares, foliorum lobas marginemque oc-
cupantes, definitae, pallide brunneae, interdum supra margine an-
gusto inconspicuo, rufescento-brunneo; acervuli vulgo hypophylli,
rare epiphylli et tune ad venulas, 120-160 » lati, maculis brunniores ;
sporae anguste ellipsoideae oblongaeve, saepe 2-nucleatae, hyalinae,
10-15 x 4-64.
Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal
Dry pastures on hillsides. Granville, Washington co. Septem-
bem. 2. ember, A showy introduced plant.
Mr Pember remarks concerning it, “I can only suggest that
it may have been introduced in western grass seed. It is scat-
tered about over two acres, and in some places constitutes nearly all
the vegetation. There must be several thousand plants of it.”
Helianthus petiolaris Nutt.
itivavlawm INochester. © july)’ M.S. Baxter. Introduced from
the West. Determined by Dr P. A. Rydberg. Possibly not perma-
nently established.
Heterothecium pezizoideum (Ach.) Flot.
Spruce bark. Black mountain, Washington co. August. S. H.
Burnham, |
Hygrophorus caprinus (Scop.) Fr.
Near Ithaca. November. G. F. Atkinson. Collected by C. H.
Kauffman.
Hypericum prolificum L.
Hannibal, Oswego co. August. L. L. Shaff.
This is a large shrubby plant and it seems strange that it should
so long have escaped detection in our State unless it is very local.
32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The station is on or near its northern limits. Mr Shaff writes that
he first discovered the plant about 25 years ago. At that time and
for 8 years after he kept sheep and the plant did not spread much.
For 17 years he has kept no sheep and during this time it has
spread over his pastures and now occupies about five acres.
Hypochnus tristis Karst.
On the base of young spruce trees. North Elba. September.
The specimens are sterile and to this extent are doubtful. Pro-
fessor E. A. Burt, specialist in this group of fungi, decides that it
is probably this species.
Inocybe rimosoides n. sp.
Pileus thin, broadly campanulate or expanded, umbonate, gla-
brous, shining, substriate, radiately cracked, pale yellow; lamellae
close, sinuate, adnexed or nearly free, pallid becoming brownish
ferruginous ; stem equal, glabrous, hollow, pallid; spores even, 8-10
yp long, 5-6 ,, broad, cystidia none.
Pileus 2-3.5 cm broad; stem 2.5-4.5 cm long, 2-3 mm thick.
Grassy ground. Menands. August.
Related to Inocybe rimosa (Bull) Fr. from) ahichee
may be distinguished by its paler and more acutely umbonate pileus,
its hollow stem, smaller spores and the absence of cystidia.
Pileus tenuis, late campanulatus expansusve, umbonatus, glaber,
nitidus, substriatus, radiate rimosus, luteolus; lamellae confertae
sinuatae, adnexae vel subliberae, pallidae deinde brunneo-ferrugi-
neae; stipes aequalis, glaber, fistulosus, pallidus; sporae leves, 8-10
x 5-6 » cystidia nulla.
Lactarius boughtoni n. sp.
Plate VI, figures 1-7
Pileus fleshy, firm, becoming fragile with age, broadly convex
nearly plane or centrally depressed, often deflexed on the margin,
dark brownish red (walnut brown), flesh whitish, subconcolorous
when moist, milk white very scanty or sometimes none, taste acrid ;
lamellae thin, close, adnate or slightly decurrent, whitish becoming
pale buff or darker with age; stem firm, nearly equal, hollow, gla-
brous, colored like but often paler than the pileus, generally paler
at the top than below and there slightly pruinose; spores subglo-
bose, 8-9 » long, 7-8 » broad.
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 33
Pileus 5-10 cm broad; stem 4-10 cm long, 6-12 mm thick.
Ground in woods and in swamps. Old Forge, Herkimer co.
August. F. S. Boughton. North Elba. September. C. H. Peck.
Closely allied to Lactarius ruias (Scop.) Pr but sepa-
rated by its paler lamellae, hollow stem, absence of an umbo and
very scanty milk. The stem is often pointed at the base. Edible
according to F. S. Boughton, who says it ‘entirely lost its acridity
in cooking and was very fine in flavor.” I have not tried it.
' Pileus carneus, firmus, senectute fragilis, late convexus subplanus
vel centro depressus, saepe margine deflexus, lateritius, carne al-
bida, lacte albo, parco vel nullo, sapore acri; lamellae tenues, con-
fertae, adnatae vel subdecurrentes, albidae vel lutescentes; stipes
firmus, subaequalis, cavus, glaber, pileo in colore similis vel pal-
lidior; sporae subglobosae, 8-9 x 7-8 ,,.
Lentinus piceinus n. sp.
Pileus thin, dimidiate, sessile or with a very short stem, broadly
convex or nearly plane, glabrous, pale alutaceous; lamellae few,
distant, unequal, serrate-dentate, pallid; stem when present very
short; spores minute, subglobose, 4-5 » 1n diameter.
Pileus 8-12 mm broad; stem about 2 mm long.
bagenol ted spruce, Picea rubra ,(DuRoi) Wietr, Long
Lake, Hamilton co. July.
A small and rare species. Found but once.
Pileus tenuis, dimidiatus, sessilis vel breviter stipitus, late con-
vexus subplanusve, glaber, subalutaceus; stipes brevissimus ; sporae
minutae, subglobosae, 4-5 » in diam.
Lychnis coronaria (L.) Desr.
Gamandaicua. | fully.) irs WP. Gardner.. An imtroduced plant
cultivated for ornament but sometimes escaping from cultivation.
Machaeranthera pulverulenta (Nutt.) Greene
Cons suilieneam Wochester, july. Miss.) Beckwith) ~Intro-
duced from the West. Determined by Dr P. A. Rydberg.
«
Macrosporium heteronemum pantophaeum Sacc.
In gardens on young decaying summer crookneck squashes. Me-
nands. August.
34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Marasmius contrarius n. sp.
Pileus submembraneous, broadly convex or nearly plane, often
slightly uneven, glabrous, whitish or white with a brown center
becoming grayish or subalutaceous in drying; lamellae thin, sub-
distant, sometimes branched or irregular, adnate or slightly decur-
rent, whitish, the interspaces slightly venose; stem slender, solid, —
downy, grayish-tawny, with tawny tomentum at the base, white
within; spores 7-9 » long, 4-5 ,», broad.
Pileus 4-10 mm broad; stem 2-3 cm long, I-1.5 mm thick.
Gregarious. Damp mossy places under spruce and balsam fir
trees to the fallen leaves of which the stem is commonly attached.
North Elba. June.
The texture of both pileus and stem is tough. The brown center
often disappears in drying. This, and the whitish color changing to
pale tan in drying, are such an unusual occurrence as to suggest the
specific name. Related:to M. ramulinus Pk butapgomee
separated from it by its pileus changing color in drying, its longer
solid stem being more downy and tawny with a distinctly tomentose
base and by its habitat. )
Pileus submembraneus, late convexus subplanusve, saepe sub-
rugosus, glaber, albus albidusve in centro brunneus, in siccitate
griseus vel subalutaceus; lamellae tenues, subdistantes, aliquando
irregulares vel ramosae, adnatae vel leviter decurrentes, albidae,
interstitiis venosis; stipes gracilis, solidus, pubescens, fulvo-griseus,
basi fulvo-tomentosus, intra alba; sporae 7-9 x 4-5 v.
Myxosporium carpini n. Sp.
Heaps minute, greenish black, nestling in the bark, covered by
the epidermis; spores oblong or elliptic oblong, exuding in pale
yellow tendrils, binucleate, hyaline, 8-12 » long, 3.5-4 broad.
On bark of water beech, Carpinus caroliniana Walt.
Geneva. June. J. G. Grossenbacher.
Acervuli minuti, in cortice nidulantes, epidermide tecti, olivaceo-
nigri; sporae oblongae vel oblongo-ellipsoideae, binucleatae, hya-
linae, 8-12 x 3.5-4, in cirrhis exudantes.
Naemospora croceola Sacc.
Oak bark. Lyndonville. October. C. E. Fairman. :
Naucoria sororia Pk.
Growing on manure. McLean, Tompkins co. September. G. F.
Atkinson. This species is doubtless often confused with
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 35
Nawcorta suborbicularis (Bull) Fr. from which it is
separated by its farinaceous odor and taste, its fragile character,
lacunose or pitted pileus and its stem striated at the top.
Oidium asteris-punicei n. sp.
Amphigenous indeterminate, widely and thinly effused, whitish ;
fertile hyphae suberect, hyaline, septate, simple; spores terminal
catenulate, ellipsoid or oblong, rounded or subtruncate at the ends,
hyaline, 30-60 , long, 15-20 , broad.
ivines on languchine leayeswot ted stemmed aster, Aster
pumicens LL. Letchworth Park, Wyoming co. September.
inclatred to Oidiunt erysipmotdes Mr, but | find no rosy
tinted tufts and the hyphae are nearly as broad as the spores. Per-
Mapswiaus the conidial stage of Birysiphe cichoracearum
IDG:
Amphigenum, indeterminatum, late et tenuiter effusum, albidum ;
hyphae fertiles suberectae, hyalinae, septatae, simplices; sporae
catenulatae, acrogenae, ellipsoideae oblongaeve, utrinque obtusae
subtruncataeve, hyalinae, 30-60 x 15-20.
Oxybaphus floribundus Chois.
Wiacvemplacess Albany. “september, 5S: Hi. Burnham. Intro-
duced from the West but apparently well established.
Pertusaria leioplaca (Ach.) Schaer.
Dabkewoushop hormbeam ('Olstrya. virginiana (Mill)
Koch. Helderberg mountains, Albany co. May. S. H. Burnham.
Pholiota terrigena Fr.
Grassy eround. Utica. (October. G.iF. Atkinson.” In-drying,
this mushroom is said to emit an odor similar to that of mice.
Phoma piceina n. sp.
Perithecia few, scattered, prominent but minute, black; spores
ellipsoid or oblong, hyaline, 8-12 long, 4—5 », broad.
Ongleaves ousted uspruce Picea rubra ~(dulkoi) Wietr
Adirondack mountains near Lake Pleasant, Hamilton co. May.
Dy 3. Young.
In these specimens the leaves have been injured by some insect
which has caused a swelling at the base and may have been the
primary cause of the death of the leaves.
2
4
36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Perithecia pauca, sparsa, prominentia, minuta, atra; sporae ellip-
soideae oblongaeve, hyalinae, 8-12 x 4-5 p. |
Phoma simillima n. sp.
Perithecia densely gregarious, slightly prominent, at first covered
by the epidermis, then erumpent, convex or depressed, minute,
black ; spores ellipsoid, hyaline, 8-12 long, 5-8 v broad.
Dead .bark of pear trees, Pyrus conimu mis) elie
Hi. El. Whetzel)” Rochester: Aprile Cy Stewart.
This differs from Cytospora piri Fckl., which inhabits
branches of pear trees, by its much smaller spores. The perithecia
commonly burst through transverse apertures in the epidermis.
Perthecia dense gregaria, leviter prominentia, primus epidermide
tecta, deinde erumpentia, convexa vel depressa, minuta, atra; sporae
ellipsoidea, hyalinae, 8-12 x 5-8».
Phoma stictica B. & Br.
On: leaves of common box tree, Buxus Sem per wilienmcmeee
Geneva. January. F. C. Stewart. — Collected by S. My MeMiniweanm
This Phoma is said to be the spermogonium of Diaporthe
Pete Cwe, (lace IN5)) Sece:
Phyllosticta betae Oud.
Living leaves of beet, Beta vulgaris L. Flint (@ntaniogeo
August. “H.1@. stewart
Phyllosticta subtilis n. sp.
Spots suborbicular, .5—3 cm broad, sometimes confluent, indefinite,
reddish brown; perithecia numerous, densely gregarious, hypo-
phyllous, minute, 80-120 » broad, blackish; spores minute, oblong,
straight or curved, hyaline, 8-12 » long, 1.5—2 u broad.
Leaves of Carya. Painted Post. September.
This species departs from the ordinary character of the genus in
its narrow spores.
Maculae suborbiculares, .5-3 cm latae, aliquando confluentes, in-
determinatae, fuscae; perithecia numerosa, dense gregaria, hypo-
phylla, minuta, 80-120 » lata, nigra; sporae minutae, oblongae,
rectae curvaeve, hyalinae, 8-12 x 1.5-2 hu.
Physcia hispida (Schreb.) Tuck.
On ted cedar wood. |unmiperus vine in ita nao Orient
Point. April) “Stemle tori Ree atharnd
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 37
Picris hieracioides L.
Orient Point. August and September. R. Latham. An intro-
duced plant.
Pilocratera abnormis n. sp.
Cups scattered, stipitate, small, r-4 mm broad, obconic or saucer-
shaped, pale grayish, obscurely pubescent; stem 1-3 mm long, in-
serted or swollen at the base into a minute hairy bulb, colored and
adorned like the cup; asci subcylindric, 160-200 » long, 10-12 4
broad, spores oblong or subfusiform, straight or slightly curved,
slightly narrowed toward each end, commonly containing a single
large central nucleus, 25-40 » long, 8-10 uw broad, paraphyses
filiform.
Decorticated wood of yellow birch, Betula lutea Mx.
Fine. August. Found also on decaying wood at Ishpeming,
Michigan. August. €: HH. Kaufiman.
The minute pubescence is somewhat compacted into tufts on the
margin but the tufts are not long enough to give a fimbriate or
ciliate appearance to the margin.
Cupulae sparsae, stipitatae, parvae, I-4 mm latae, obconicae vel
acetabuliformes, pallido-griseae, minute pubescentes ; stipes 1-3 mm
longus, insititius vel basi bulbillosus, hirtus, cupulae in colore similis ;
asci subcylindracei, 160-200 x I0-I2 y ; sporae oblongae subfusi-
formesve, rectae vel leviter curvatae, utrinque leviter angustatae,
vulgo uninucleatae, 25-40 x 8-10 v, paraphyses filiformes.
Placodium ferrugineum discolor Willey
Ongwatiootred cedar Juniperus virginiana LL) Onent
ome. April. RR. Latham.
Plasmodiophora elaeagni Schroeter
@merootssot Mlaeagnus longipes Gray. ILyndonvalle:
November. C. E. Fairman.
Pleurotus approximans n. sp.
Pileus thin, tough, subgelatinous, dimidiate or subflabelliform or
with a short stemlike base, at first involute on the margin and more
or less strigulose hairy, specially toward the base, becoming pruinose
or subglabrous with the thin even margin expanded or slightly re-
curved, pallid, grayish brown or smoky brown, 6-12 mm broad;
lamellae narrow, close, tapering toward each end, converging to a
38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
basal point, creamy yellow, minutely bristly on the edge and sides
with the projecting hyaline pointed cystidia which are 60-80 4 long,
15-20 v. broad.
On decaying wood and bark, apparently of red maple, Acer
rubrum Ly SylvanvBeach @neida com mys
This species is closely related to Pletirotus spicuseemer
Berk., a species founded on specimens collected on decaying
wood on New Ireland island in the Pacific ocean, and described as
having the pileus very glabrous membranous and pellucidly striate,
characters not applicable to our specimens. For this reason we have
considered our mushroom distinct, though in other respects the
characters are very similar. Our specimens revive on the applica-
tion of moisture and then the flesh is colored like the surface of
the pileus and subgelatinous, .4—.5 mm thick. When dry it is white,
slightly thinner, and appearing to have a thin upper gelatinous layer.
The spores are not known in our specimens nor described in
le, SOLE wilt er.
Pileus tenuis, lentus, subgelatinous, dimidiatus aut subflabelli-
formis, sessilis vel substipitatus, primo margine involutus, hirtus
praesertim ad basem, demum pruinosus vel subglaber, margine tenue
expanso vel leviter recurvato pallidus, griseo-brunneus vel fumoso-
brunneus, 6-12 mm latus; lamellae angustae, acie lateribusque
cystidiis minute setulosus; cystidia hyalina lageniformia, 60-80 x
I5-20 p.
Ramalina rigida (Pers.) Tuck.
On red cedar, Juniperus virginiana LL. Onentaeome
December. RY Latham
Rhabdospora physostegiae n. sp.
Perithecia caulicolous, scattered or seriate, erumpent, globose-
depressed, black; spores filiform, hyaline, nearly or quite straight,
25-30 » long, I-1.5 » broad.
Dead stems of Physostegia virginiana (L.) Bent
Lyndonville. May. C. E. Fairman.
Perithecia sparsa vel seriatim posita, erumpentia, globosa de-
pressave, atra; sporae filiformes, hyalinae, subrectae, 25-30 x I-1.5 vp.
Sideranthus gracilis (Nutt.) Rydb.
In a lawn. Rochester. July. M.S. Baxter) Neat tesmeser.
voir on Cobbs hill. Miss F. Beckwith. Introduced from the West
and possibly not permanently established.
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 39
Sphaeropsis smilacis latispora n. var.
Dead branches of hispid greenbrier, Smilax hispida Muhl.
Neess Oneans co. March) ©. > Painmnan.
This variety differs from the typical form in its broader spores.
Spores 17-20 » long, 11-13 » broad. In the type they are 15-20
long, 6-8 » broad.
Sporae 17-20 x II-I3p.
Sporotrichum grisellum Sacc.
Wead bark. Ithaca. (G: By Atkinson, Collected by C. ©. Sith;
Theloschistes flavicans Wallr.
Onened cedar, Juniperus virgintana 2) Orient Point
mprile R. Latham. This is a beautiful lichen but the specimens
are sterile.
Thlaspi perfoliatum L.
Geneva. May. EF: (©. Stewart. A rare plant mtroduced from
MK Ope,
Trichothecium subgriseum n. sp.
Hyphae thinly effused, covering the matrix with a very thin
grayish buff subvelvety stratum, sparsely branched, septate, hyaline,
6-8 » thick; spores obovate or oblong-elliptic, simple or obscurely
uniseptate, hyaline, 16-24 » long, 8-Io » broad.
Decaying wood of yellow birch, Betula lutea Mx. and sugar
maple meer saccharum Marsh. Eine. August.
Pppauenewyn nelatedatovul ti Clot heciu mS hise um Sper
but differing in its branching hyphae and more narrow and often
simple spores.
Hyphae tenuiter effusae, matricem strato tenue, griseo-luteolo sub-
velutino obducentes, sparse ramosae, septatae, hyalinae, 6-8 » latae;
sporae obovatae oblongae vel ellipsoideae, continuae vel obscure
uniseptatae, hyalinae, 16-24 x 8-10 v. |
Triosteum perfoliatum L.
Glenmont vaulbany con ime. S, i) Burnham, ihe, specinrens
formerly attributed to this species are now referred to Trios-
teum aurantiacum Bickn. which is the more common species
in the northern part of the State.
40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Usnea trichodea Ach.
Orient Point. December. R. Latham: Whe specimiencmane
sterile.
Vermicularia beneficiens n. sp.
Perithecia thin, depressed, orbicular or ellipsoid, .3-.5 mm broad,
densely gregarious, at first covered by the epidermis, then erumpent,
black, adorned with numerous black setae, sometimes paler at the
top, 80-240 p. long, 4-6 » broad; spores cylindric, straight or slightly
curved, acute at one or both ends, sometimes pseudouniseptate,
hyaline, 20-30 » long, 4—-4.5 » broad; sporophores cylindric or sub-
clavate, obtuse, crowded, 12-15 long.
On living stems of live-forever, Sedum pdr piaiiver
Tausch. Davenport, Delaware co. July. WLuther Tucker icasou
Collected by W. Gillander. .
The fungus attacks the stem at or near the base which soon turns
brown both without and within and becomes hollow in the affected
part. The leaves, being deprived of their necessary nourishment,
gradually wither, fade and drop, beginning at the lower part of the
stem and gradually advancing upward until the stem is nearly or
wholly denuded and finally dies. The root also early becomes dis-
colored and must necessarily cease to perform its natural functions.
The species is similar to Vermicularia hepbaniem
West. and may possibly have been previously confused with it, since
that species has been reported as occurring on Sedum acwemes
S. album L., S. maxiimtm: Suter-and’S. 1 et Weesmimageee
Our plant, however, differs not only in its host plant, but also
differs from the characters assigned to V. he rbarum in having
the perithecia larger and densly gregarious and in having the spores
longer, acute at the ends, and often spuriously septate. It also
appears to be specially distinct in its parasitic character. On this
account it has been announced as a beneficial fungus because of its
availability as a destructive agent in destroying a weed so tenacious
of life as the live-forever. This character of the fungus has sug-
gested the specific name here assigned to it.
Perithecia tenua, depressa, orbicularia vel ellipsoidea, .3-.5 mm
lata, dense gregaria, circumambientia, primum epidermide tecta,
deinde erumpentia, atra, setis numerosis, rigidis, erectis vel diver-
gentibus, acutis, atris ornata, quae aliquando apice pallescentes, 80-—
240 x 4-6». ; sporae cylindraceae, rectae vel leviter curvatae, vulgo
utrinque acutae, aliquando pseudouniseptatae, hyalinae, 20-30 x
4-5 v, basidia cylindracea subclavatave, obtusa, conferta, 12-15 4
longa.
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IOIO AI
Vermicularia pomicola n. sp.
Perithecia gregarious, hemispheric or subglobose, bristly with
numerous subulate black erect or divergent setae, 120-280 yp long,
7-8 » broad; spores straight or slightly curved, pointed at each end,
25-35 w long, 4-5 » broad.
On apples lying on the ground. New Lebanon. September.
Spoues longer than am) Vieni Wewlar a) po mom a. ace
which occurs on appletree leaves and is considered a variety of
Weeemichella Br
Perithecia gregaria, hemisphaerica subglobosave, setis numer-
osis subulatis, atris, erectis divergentibusve ornata, 120-280 x 7-8;
sporae rectae vel leviter curvae, utrinque acutae, 25-35 x 4-5 p.
Verticillium agaricinum (Lk.) Cd.
One Elammiula squalida Pk. W@hompsons lake, Albany
co. September. The parasite forms a thin whitish pruinosity on
the surface of the deformed pileus. It occurs also on the pileus
Omi nenoloma russtula CSchaeli.) Pr, at Pittsford, Mon-
toe co. September. F. S. Boughton. ‘The spores of the parasite
are very variable, 6-12» long and 4-5» broad. The mycelium
causes the pileus to become enlarged, irregular or deformed anid
the lamellae to become irregular and sometimes branched or even
anastomosing and discolored. It is perhaps the conidial stage of
some species of Hypomyces.
Viburnum venosum Britton
Omen omits july.) IRs) Wathan, Whe species iis" well named:
the veins of the leaves being very prominent and conspicuous on
the lower surface.
Vicia villosa Roth
Canton, St Wawrence co." june. G. H. Chadwick. Introduced
and cultivated for fodder, but escaping from cultivation and mani-
festing a tendency to become naturalized. The flowers are com-
monly plwe sand tescimble those of Vicia czacca Lj but a
white flowered form occurs.
42 NEW YORK STATE) MUSEUM
REMARKS AND OBSERVATIONS
Aster laevis L.
A very noticeable form or possibly a variety of this species occurs
on Pinnacle hill near Rochester. November. Miss F. Beckwith.
It differs from the common forms in its late flowering and in its
long narrow panicle the branches of which are suberect, 2.5-5 cm
long.
Aster undulatus loriformis Burg.
West Fort Ann, Washington co. October. S. H. Burnham.
Boletinus paluster Pk.
This beautiful small species often grows on decaying wood and
the mossy bases of trees. It has a white mycelium and pale yellow
flesh. Wounds of the flesh often become red after long exposure.
The flavor is tardily but sharply acrid.
Brassica arvensis (L.) Ktze.
A white flowered form occurs occasionally. Menands. July.
Cantharellus infundibuliformis nigricans n. var.
Pileus blackish; hymenium very decurrent, the decurrent part
destitute of lamellae. Otherwise as in the common form with
which it grows.
Among mosses in swamps. North Elba. September.
Pileus nigricans; hymenium valde decurrens, pars decurrens
lamellis carens.
Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa (Muell.) Macbr.
Decaying wood. Edwards, St Lawrence co. June. A yellow
form occurs growing with the common white form and sometimes
confluent with it.
Clitocybe multiceps tricholoma n. var.
Flesh of the pileus rather thin, taste mild; lamellae rounded be-
hind, slightly adnexed, otherwise like the type. Holley, Orleans
co. September, (©, Ay Mabie:
This variety, by the attachment of the lamellae, connects the species
with the genus Tricholoma, to which at first sight it is likely to be
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST 1910 43
referred. The naked margin of the pileus and its close agreement
in general characters with Clitocybe multiceps Pk. lead
ilemto Teter it to this Species.) Like it, it is edible but scarcely
first quality.
Pileus tenuior, sapor mitis; lamellae adnexae.
Clitocybe dealbata sudorifica n. var.
Pileus whitish, not shining, sudorific when eaten freely. Other-
wise like the typical form. Grassy ground. Saratoga Springs.
November. F. G. Howland.
Pileus albidus, non nitens; sudorificus.
Mr F. G. Howland recently reported to me that the white
washed mushroom, Clitocybe dealbata Sow. when eaten
freely caused profuse perspiration. I, with others, had eaten
sparingly of this mushroom several years ago without experiencing
any ill effects. At my request he kindly sent me a good supply of
the fresh mushrooms that I might try them myself. Eight caps
of average size were fried slightly in butter with a little milk and
Hotimadded, Diese were eaten at supper time. In texture and
flavor no fault could be found with them. In about half an hour
perspiration began to appear on my forehead, and gradually spread
over the whole body. It lasted about five hours. It was unaccom-
panied by any pain or distress of any kind. There seemed to be
a slight acceleration of the pulse, an unusual catarrhal discharge
from the nostrils, a little stimulation of the salivary glands and
an occasional hiccup. At the end of five hours the perspiration
ceased, I fell asleep and slept till morning when I arose feeling
as well as usual. This peculiar action of the mushroom suggested
the thought that possibly I had erroneously referred our mushroom
to C.dealbata ; that it must be some other closely related species
for no record of such effects had been attributed to the white washed
mushroom by those writers who have published it as edible. A
careful comparison of our specimens with the published descrip-
tions of the white washed mushrooms revealed no well-marked
characters by which to separate them. In the color of the cap
alone does there appear to be any available mark of distinction.
This, in the white washed mushroom, is described as white and
rather shining, or as one writer expresses it, “exceedingly like
ivory.’ In our plant it is better described as whitish, or dull white,
not at all shining. So close is the morphologic relationship that
it appears to me to be better to separate the mushroom under con-
44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
sideration as a mere variety of the white washed mushroom and
not as a distinct species. I would not class it as an edible mush-
room but rather as a medicinal one. Its physiologic effects ap-
parently separate it more decidedly than any of its external
characters.
Clitocybe morbifera Pk. collected by FY jj @Biraendle
near Washington, D. C., is a closely related species. Its name
was suggested by the fact that those eating it had been made sick.
In the dried state it is scarcely distinguishable from our sudorific
mushroom in external appearance, but its stem is hollow. When
fresh its pileus is tinged with grayish brown, but it becomes paler
in drying. This has also been collected near Minneapolis, Minn.,
whence it was sent by Mrs M. E. Whetstone with an account of
a case of short illness caused by it in one who ate freely of it
for breakfast. Dr O. E. Fisher has sent specimens of it from
Detroit, Mich., with an account of the sickness it produces and
the accompanying symptoms. From these cases it appears. that
the ill effects of the sickening mushroom are much more serious
and uncomfortable than those of the sudorific mushroom.
Cornus canadensis elongata n. f.
Stem elongated, bearing a pair of opposite leaves at each of
three or four nearly equidistant nodes, or bearing a whorl of four
leaves near the base and two or three pairs of opposite leaves
above, instead of the usual peduncle and flower cluster. Cran-
berry marsh, Sand Lake, Rensselaer co. and Averyville marsh,
North Elba. July and September. Sterile.
This peculiar form has the appearance of Cornus suecica
L., the northern dwarf cornel, but its leaves have the venation of
the common dwarf cornel. No flowering or fruiting specimens
were seen.
Crataegus grayana Eggleston
This rare thorn bush occurs in a single clump on Crown Point
west of the ruins of Fort Frederick. At Rossie it is represented
by several clumps near the Laidlaw house and a single outlying
clump about two miles south of the village.
Cronartium ribicola F. de W.
Leaves of red currant, Ribes vulgare Lam. West Fort
Ann. October, 1909. S. H. Burnham. This is an interesting
discovery of a new locality for this fungus of which the uredo
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 45
form is the white pine rust Peridermium strobi Kleb.,,
a pernicious pest destructive to young white pines. . This station is
far removed from the one originally discovered at Geneva. For-
tunately it 1s apparently very scarce in this new locality. In
neither instance was any white pine found to be affected by the
rust. The question arises in each case. Whence came the spores
that infected the currant leaves? Can the fungus perpetuate itself
without the intervention of the white pine rust?
Daphne mezereum L.
This early spring flowering shrub is quite hardy and escaping
from cultivation it becomes established in pastures and waste
places. It is beautiful both in flower and in fruit. Fine specimens
were contributed by Miss E. W. Mische and Mrs L. L. Goodrich.
They were collected near Homer, ‘Cortland co. and were so abun-
dant on a hillside near the cemetery that they were cut with a
scythe as if they were noxious weeds.
Euphorbia corollata L. _
Sandy barrens near Bushnells Basin and Perinton, Monroe co.
itilvyeand]Avicust, M.S. Baxter. This rare plant is apparently
limited to the western part of the State.
Fuligo ovata (Schaeff.) Macbr.
This is one of our largest slime molds and one of the most vari-
able in external color. A specimen found near Newport, Herki-
mer co. by G. S. Graves was 25 cm long, 20 cm broad and about
6 cm thick.
Glonium parvulum (Ger.) Sacc.
Decorticated wood. Orient Point. January. R. Latham. Rare.
Herpotrichia diffusa (Schw.) Ellis
In Sylloge this species stands under the name Herpotrichia
Tino om pia las (Berk) Sacc. Under this mame it was
recorded in the Annual Report of the State Botanist for 1889, page
34. Specimens found at Orient Point in March by R. Latham have
some of the perithecia wholly red, others partly so. They were
growing on decaying wood of locust, Robinia pseuda-
Cai a ale.
46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Hordeum trifurcatum Jacq.
Cultivated specimens from Medina were contributed by F. C.
Stewart. It is cultivated under the name of beardless barley and is
said to be very productive. It sometimes springs up spontaneously.
Such specimens were erroneously reported under the name
oir dean shvexca stein onamulees
Hydrastis canadensis L.
This valuable medicinal plant has become exceedingly rare in
our State. It is therefore very gratifying to know that it still
exists in Cayuga co., whence fruiting specimens were sent by E. L.
Bradley.
Lecanora varia saepicola Fr.
On fence rails; | Orient Pomts) Aprile Re eathand
Lepidium draba L.
Waste ground in Syracuse near Onondaga creek. June. Mrs
L. L. Goodrich. Collected by Miss Belle Douglass. This intro-
duced plant was found many years ago near Astoria, Queens co.
by Prof. D. C. Eaton, but that station for it has since been reported
as destroyed.
Mycogone cervina subincarnata Pk.
In State Museum Report 32, page 44 this fungus was reported as
a Sepedonium. It should be referred to the genus Mycogone and isa
mere variety of Mycogone cervina Ditm. differing only in
its smaller spores and more pinkish color. “Its habitat is the same as
that of the typical form. The spores are 20-28 » long, 12-20 p
broad in the widest part. The upper cell is globose, verrucose, and
much larger than the smooth lower cell.
Sporae subincarnatae, 20-28 x 12-20.
Myxosporium castaneum quercus n. var.
Heaps slightly prominent, orbicular or oblong, erumpent through
transverse chinks of the epidermis. Otherwise like the type.
Branches of chestnut oak, Quercus prinus L. Riverhead,
Suffolk co. October. F. C. Stewart. |
Acervuli minuti, orbiculares oblongive, per rimulas transversas in
epidermide erumpentes.
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 47
Oidium destruens Pk.
This destructive parasitic fungus begins its work early in the
seasom, ) Young leaves, ot, the shad) ‘bushoAmelanchier
oblongifolia (T. & G.) Roem. were found near Albany
affected by it the last week in April.
Parmelia borreri hypomela Tuck.
Banke or reducedat. |) Ua pre Gls ain ol nila magne. sOqient
ote vapril. | Ro Watham,.
-Parmelia perforata hypotropa Nyl.
batik Of red cedar, Juniperus virginiana IL: .Ortent
Boint. .pril, Ik. wathan.
Peronospora ficariae Tul.
imine leaves of ‘buttercup, Ranuneulws acris 1, Me=-
nands. May.
Plantago media L.
Near Canandaigua. August. Miss E. C. Webster. This intro-
duced plantain is rare. Its spikes resemble those of the English
plantain but it is easily distinguished from that species by the broad,
hoary pubescent leaves.
Polypodium vulgare L.
A singular small sterile fern which, on account of its venation
has been referred to this species, was collected near Lake George
and specimens were contributed by C. L. Williams and Mrs S. W.
Russell.
The fronds are 5-12 cm long, 1-2 cm broad, sinuate lobed or
irregularly pinnatifid, the lobes being broad, obtuse and unequal.
Ramalina calicaris fraxinea Fr.
Orient Point. November. R. Latham.
Roestelia aurantiaca Pk.
The orange colored rust occurs on various species of shad bush,
Amelanchier, and of thorn bushes and trees, Crataegus. Also on
quince trees. It attacks the leaves, fruit and sometimes the twigs.
itswsalternate fon. is Gymnosporangium (clayipes
48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
C. & P. which lives on red cedar, ium 1 plewi sv ia, @ deadeameee
L. and the common juniper, J’ communis depres samiunsima
The spores of the Gymnosporangium are produced in spring and
serve to infect species of shad bushes, thorn bushes and quince
bushes or trees, but instead of reproducing the Gymnosporangium
in them, they develop into the orange rust or Roestelia, whose spores
are carried back to the red cedar or common juniper and produce in
them the Gymnosporangium. The Roestelia frequently causes great
loss to quince growers by attacking the young quinces and rendering
them worthless. Fine specimens of it were contributed by Messrs
J. A. Thomson, D. B. VanBuren, and G. G. Atwood. Quince fruits
from I-1.5 inches in diameter were practically covered by the cups
of the fungus filled with their orange colored spores. In some cases
even the twigs bearing the fruit had been invaded and were swollen
by the fungus. This rust appears to have been unusually abundant
the past season, in the western part of the State. Mr D. B. Van
Buren found quince orchards there badly infested by it, even in
localities where no red cedar trees were known to exist within many
miles. This would indicate that the orange rust has some way of
reproducing itself without the intervention of the red cedar or that
some unnoticed juniper trees may exist in the vicinity of these
orchards and furnish the Gymnosporangium spores. Experiments
should be made by which the fact can be ascertained if the orange
rust can reproduce itself in the quince either the same or the follow-
ing year. Also if the mycelium may live in the twigs during the
winter and renew the development of the rust in the leaves and
fruit developing from the infested twigs.
Sagina decumbens (FIl.) T. & G
Orient Point. June. R. Latham. This is a rare andiidelicate
little plant.
Scirpus occidentalis (Wats.) Chase
Canandaigua. August. Miss E. C. Webster. The longer spikes
separate this species from its near relative Scirpus validus
Vahl. The plant previously reported under this name proves to
be a mere form of S. validus Vahl.
Sphaerotheca humuli (DC.) Burr.
Living leaves and aments of hop vines. Middleburg, Schoharie
co. G. G. Atwood. The fungus attacks the leaves, diminishing
their vigor; also the aments or fruit, arresting their proper devel-
opment and causing partial or sometimes serious failure of the
crop.
—_
REPOM OR VTE RaSh An Ea bOMINIST 1 1O AQ
Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray
Sandy soil. Webster,” Monroe) co, September: J. Dunbar.
@rient) Pomt: September, IR) Watham, “Not common.
Thaspium barbinode (Mx.) Nutt.
IRocky places near Corning. May. Rare or wanting in the
eastern part of the State.
Theloschistes concolor effusus Tuck.
@©n bark of-trees. Orient Point. January. R. Latham.
Valsonectria parasitica (Murrill) Rehm
bay sor chestnut, Castamea dentata (Marsh) Borkh:
Mianinoro, Ulster co. ! july.
iinicwetineus was described) under the name Diaporthe
Dia sitica, (but it does not well agree with the character
of that genus, inasmuch as it has a bright colored perithecium in-
stead of a black one. It agrees much better in this respect with the
genus Valsonectria. The locality here mentioned is the most north-
ern, with one exception, of any known to me. It is also the first
one in which [ have seen a tree affected by this fungus, though I
have looked for it for three seasons whenever I have been where
chestnut trees are common. Specimens have been seen that were
collected at Visher Ferry, Saratoga co. This is the most northern
station for it known to me. It has been reported to have been
found at Cooperstown but no specimens from that locality have
been seen by me.
Viburnum dentatum L.
A form with leaves decidedly acuminate was found at Orient
Point in July by R. Latham.
Vicia angustifolia segetalis (Thuill.) Koch
Orient Rem july. RR. Watham:
Viola pallens (Banks) Brainerd
In woods. Edwards. May. This violet was formerly confused
with Virotalnlanida Willd. It istiseparated) from) it (by ‘the
dull reddish spots of the petioles and scapes, the bearded lateral
petals and the broader upper petals. In our specimens the capsules
are subglobose and about twice as long as the sagittate sepals.
50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
NEW SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF EX2RAMIMNMaAle
FUNGI
Agaricus floridanus
Pileus hemispheric or campanulate, becoming nearly plane.
rimosely areolate or slightly strigose, becoming glabrous, whitish
with a yellow or yellowish center; lamellae at first white, then
pink, finally dark brown or blackish; stem easily separable from
the pileus, equal or slightly thickened at the base, solid, becoming
fibrous when old, whitish, annulus small; spores globose or broadly
elliptic, 5-6 » long, 4-5 » broad.
Pileus 9-15 cm broad; stem 5-10 cm long, 1.5-3 cm thick.
Single or subcespitose. Grassy fields of sandy soil. DeFuniak
Springs, Florida. March. G. Clyde Fisher.
The mycelium often binds the particles of sand into a globose
mass which adheres to the base of the stem. This gives the stem
a bulbous appearance, though it is not strictly bulbous. This
species is apparently closely allied to Agaricus campester
americanus Speg. a South American species. It may he
separated from that variety by its rimosely areolate pileus, its stem
easily separating from the pileus, solid and not bulbous, and by its
smaller annulus. The spores are the same size in both and smaller
than in the common mushroom. In both the lamellae are at
first white.
Pileus hemisphericus campanulatusve, deinde subplanus, rimose
areolatus substrigosus, demum glaber, albidus, in centro luteus vel
flavidus; lamellae primo albae, deinde incarnatae, postremo atro-
brunneae vel nigricantes; stipes ex pileo facile separabilis, aequalis
vel basi subincrassatus, solidus, in senectute fibrosus, albidus, annu-
lus parvus; sporae globosae vel late ellipsoideae, 5-6 x .4-5 v.
Boletus gertrudiae
Pileus fleshy, broadly convex, glabrous, soft, dry or nearly so,
orange yellow or brownish yellow, rarely bright yellow, flesh white,
unchangeable; tubes long, bright yellow when young, brownish
yellow when mature, adnate or but slightly rounded at the stem,
the mouths minute; .stem rather long, equal or nearly so, solid,
glabrous, yellow above, white below, white within or sometimes —
more or less yellow within the upper part; spores oblong fusi-
form, 15-20 ,, long, 5-6 v broad.
REFORT FOE) THE ySiALE sBOTANISE 1910 51
Pileus 5-12 cm broad; stem 10-15 cm long, 12-24 mm thick.
Ground yin woods, Old Lyme, (Connecticut, August. HH. L.
Wells.
This is a fine large species with a beautifully colored stem, the
upper half usually bright yellow, the iower half white. The two
colors sometimes blend into each other and sometimes are quite
definitely terminated. They grow scattered but sometimes two with
stems united at the base. The pileus is apt to be badly infested by
insect larvae. ‘This species may well commemorate Miss Gertrude
Wells who, though young in years, has already manifested a re-
markable interest in mushrooms and a wonderful proficiency in the
knowledge of them.
Pileus carneus, late convexus, glaber, mollis, siccus, aurantiaco-
luteus vel brunneo-luteus, rare flavidus, carne alba, immutabile;
tubuli longi, primus flavidi, deinde fulvo-ochraecei, adnati vel cir-
cum stipitem leviter depressi, pori minuti; stipes longus, subaequa-
lis, solidus, glaber, supra flavidus, infra albus, carne intra alba, vel
supra flavida; sporae oblongae vel fusiformes, 15-20 x 5-6»,
Cercospora verbenae-strictae
Spots numerous, small, angular, yellowish green; hyphae hypo-
phyllous, tufted,short, simple, slightly colored, 20-40 » long, 4-5 p
broad; spores slender, commonly tapering upward, obscurely 3-6-
septate, hyaline, 20-100 » long, 3-4 » broad.
Lower surface of living or languishing leaves of Verbena
stricta Vent. Stockton, Kansas. August. E. Bartholomew
and W. T. Swinele.
Maculae numerosae, parvae, angulares, luteo-virides; hyphae
hypophyllae, caespitosae, breves, simplices, leviter coloratae, 20-40
x 4-5 4; sporae graciles, vulgo sursum attenuatae, obscure 3-6-
septatae, hyalinae, 20-100 x 3--4 y.
Clitocybe subnigricans
Pileus fleshy in the center, thin toward the margin, convex be-
coming nearly plane, glabrous, whitish or smoky white, flesh
whitish, slowly changing to grayish on exposure to the air, taste
slightly and tardily acrid, odor earthy, slightly pungent and dis-
agreeable, persistent, lamellae thin, narrow, close, slightly or in
some specimens very much decurrent, whitish becoming blackish
where bruised and in drying; stem solid, slightly fibrous striate,
somewhat thickened or distinctly bulbous at the base, colored like
52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
the pileus but becoming blackish in drying; spores white, 6-7 »
long, 4-6 » broad.
Pileus 2.5-5 cm broad; stem 4—7.5 cm long, 6-12 mm thick.
Subcespitose or gregarious. Rye Beach, New Hampshire. G. B.
Fessenden.
A fine species easily distinguished by its strong odor and the
blackening of the lamellae and stem where bruised and in drying.
Pileus carneus, ad marginem tenuis, convexus, demum subplanus,
glaber, albidus vel fumoso-albus, caro albida, vulnera ad griseum
tarde mutantia, sapor leviter et tarde acris, odor terrenus, ingratus,
persistens; lamellae tenues, angustae, confertae, leviter vel valde
decurrentes, albidae, ubi vulneratae nigricantes et in siccitate; stipes
solidus, leviter fibroso-striatus, basi incrassatus vel bulbosus, albidus,
in siccitate nigricans; sporae albae, 6-7 x 4-6.
Clitopilus washingtoniensis Braend. in lit.
Pileus thin, broadly convex, nearly plane or centrally depressed,
sometimes undulate on the margin, glabrous, at first bluish, soon
pale purple or mauve, flesh white, taste mild; lamellae narrow,
close, decurrent, slightly tinged with pink; stem short, central,
eccentric or almost lateral, equal or tapering downward, fibrillose
and longitudinally rimulose, solid, brownish; spores elliptic, 6-7 p
long, 4-5 » broad.
Pileus 1.6-2.5 cm broad; stem 1-2 cm long, 2-4 mm thick.
Gregarious or cespitose. Washington, D. C. June. F. J.
Braendle.
Remarkable for the peculiar colors of the pileus and for its —
variable attachment to the stem.
Pileus tenuis, late convexus subplanus vel in centro depressus,
glaber, aliquando margine undatus, primus subcaeruleus deinde
pallide purpureus, carne alba, sapore miti; lamellae angustae, con-
fertae, decurrentes, subincarnatae; stipes brevis, centralis, eccen-
tricus vel sublateralis, aequalis vel infra attenuatus, fibrillosus, int
longum rimulosus, solidus, brunneus; sporae ellipsoideae, 6-7 x
4-5 ¥.
Coniothecium perplexum
Effused, forming a thin black crust; hyphae inconspicuous, short,
continuous, creeping, colored, 3-4 ,, 1n diameter; spores minute,
subglobose or irregular, colored, 4-6 » in diameter, persistently
adhering and forming subglobose, irregular or oblong opaque
masses, 20-40 » in diameter or 20-35 » long, 40-60 » broad.
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 53
Decaying wood of ash posts below the surface of the ground.
Stockton, Kansas. December. E. Bartholomew.
Effusum, stratum tenue nigrum formans; hyphae inconspicuae,
breves, continuae, repentes, fuscae, 3-4 w trassae; sporae minutae,
subglobosae vel irregulares, fuscae, 4-6 » in diam., persistenter
adherentes, acervulosque subglobosos, irregulares vel oblongos
nigricantes formantes, 20-40 » in diam. vel 20-35 x 40-60 p.
Cylindrosporium conservans
Spots numerous, amphigenous, suborbicular, sometimes conflu-
ent, I-3 mm broad, green; acervuli epiphyllous, commonly 1-6 on
a spot; spores filiform, curved, 40-75 » long, 3-4 » broad, oozing
out and forming persistent whitish or honey colored masses or
tendrils.
Meavesot ocoulers willow, Salix scouleriana .Banr
Rolling Bay, Washington. August. E. Bartholomew.
The spots are surrounded by the yellow or greenish yellow tissue
of the leaves, the fungus apparently preventing the discoloration
of the tissues in proximity to it. This character is suggestive of the
specific name. The center of the spots appears paler on the upper
surface because of the spore masses.
Maculae numerosae, amphigenae, suborbiculares, aliquando con-
fluentes, I-3 mm latae, virides; acervuli epiphylli, vulgo 1-6 in
quavis macula; sporae filiformes, 40-75 x 3-4, curvatae, exun-
dantes et massas aut claviculas persistentes albidas melleasve for-
mantes.
Diaporthe callicarpae
Stroma effused, thin, blackening the surface of the wood; peri-
thecia immersed in the wood, commonly 2-6, depressed-globose,
.2-.5 mm broad, black, ostiola minute, barely emerging from the
blackened surface of the wood and rupturing the epidermis; asci
very slender, narrowed at each end, 60-80 » long, 6-8 » broad,
spores distichous, 4-nucleate, 12-15 long, 3-4 » broad.
Dead stems; of Sambucus callicarpa Greene) Rolling
Bay, Washington. August. E. Bartholomew.
This species belongs to the section Euporthe. The spores and
asci are very slender and the septum of the former 1s scarcely
perceptible.
Stroma effusum, tenue, ligni superficiem nigricans; perithecia in
ligno immersa, vulgo 2-6, depresso-globosa, .3-.5 mm lata, nigra,
54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
ostiola minuta ligni superficiem vix superantia; asci graciles, utrin-
que attenuati, 60-80 x 6-8 » ; sporae distichae, 4-nucleatae, 12-15 x
3-4 p.
Diplodia alni-rubrae
Perithecia densely gregarious, sunk in the bark, covered by
the slightly elevated epidermis, .3—.5 , broad; spores ellipsoid or
broadly ellipsoid, oozing out and staining the matrix black, 16-20 »
long, 10-14 » broad.
Rolling Bay, Washington. August. E. Bartholomew.
The dead bark of Alnus rubra Bong. Closely related to
Diplodia alni Fckl, but with shorter and broader spores
which emerge and stain the matrix black.
Perithecia dense gregaria, in cortice insculpta, epidermide ery
elevata tecta, .3-.5 » lata; sporae ellipsoideae vel late ellipsoidae,
exudantes matricemque inquinantes, 16-20 x IO-I4 p.
Flammula graveolens
Pileus fleshy, broadly convex or nearly plane, sometimes slightly
depressed in the center, viscid, glabrous or very obscurely innately
fibrillose, reddish brown or yellowish brown, at first paler on the
margin, the thin pellicle subseparable, flesh pale yellow, odor strong,
earthy; lamellae thin, moderately close, adnate or slightly decur-
rent, pale yellow becoming subferruginous; stem equal or tapering
at the base, solid or with a very narrow cavity, silky fibrillose, pale
yellow without and within, becoming brownish at the base, veil
floccose or webby, pale yellow, visible in the young plant, soon
disappearing; spores brownish ferruginous, elliptic, 6-8 » long,
4-5 » broad.
Pileus 2.5-7 cm broad; stem 5-7 cm long, 5-10 mm thick.
Under pine trees. West Gloucester, Massachusetts. October.
Mrs E. B. Blackford.
A species well marked by its pale yellow flesh veil and stem, its
viscid pileus, brownish ferruginous spores and strong odor. It is
sometimes cespitose.
Pileus carneus, late convexus vel subplanus, aliquando in centro
depressus, viscidus, glaber aut obscure fibrillosus, rufo-brunneus
vel flavo-brunneus, primus margine pallidior, pellicula tenue subse-
parabile, carne flavida, odore grave, terraneo; lamellae tenues sub-
confertae, adnatae, vel subdecurrentes, flavidae, deinde subferru-
gineae ; stipes aequalis vel basi attenuatus, solidus vel leviter cavus,
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 55
sericeo-fibrillosus, extra intraque flavidus, demum basi brunneus,
velum floccosum arachnoideumve, flavidum, evanescens; sporae
brunneo-ferruginosae, ellipsoideae, 6-8 x 4-5 p.
Hebeloma flexuosipes
Pileus thin, convex, glabrous, slightly viscid when moist, dingy
buff or clay brown, flesh white; lamellae close, adnate, brownish
ferruginous ; stem fibrous, equal or slightly thickened at the base,
flexuous, solid or stuffed, pruinose-pubescent and minutely gland-
ular at the top, pallid or similar to the pileus in color, with an
~ abundant white fibrillose mycelium at the base, veil none; spores
subellipsoid, brownish ferruginous, 12-16 » long, 7-9 v. broad.
Pileus 2.5-6 cm broad; stem 3.5-7.5 cm long, 4-8 mm thick.
Ground. Schenley park, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. July. D. R.
Sumstine. Said to be edible.
Pileus tenuis, convexus, glaber, viscidulus, luteolus vel argillaceo-
brunneus, carne alba; lamellae confertae, adnatae, brunneo-ferru-
gineae; stipes fibrosus aequalis vel leviter basi incrassatus, flexuo-
sus, solidus farctusve, ad apicem pruinoso-pubescens et minute
glandulosus, pallidus vel pileo in colore similis, velo nullo, mycelio
fibrilloso, abundante, candido; sporae subellipsoideae, brunneo-fer-
ruginosae, 12-16 x 7-9 p.
Helminthosporium subapiculatum
Tufts effused, black ; hyphae erect, rigid, subflexuous, often nodu-
lose and irregular above, obscurely septate, variable in length, 8-10
pv. thick; spores variable, oblong or subfusiform, 6—-7-septate, 35-80
» long, 12-16 » broad.
Deadewoodvon Sambucus calincar pa Greene) Nolling
Bay, Washington. August. E. Bartholomew.
itisanelated to, LLelminthosporium apiceulatu ms, Cd
but differs in its longer oblong spores without an apiculus.
Caespites effusi, atri; hyphae erectae, rigidae, subflexuosae, saepe
superne nodulosae et irregulares, obscure septatae, 8-10 y» crassae;
sporae variables, oblongae vel subfusiformes, 6—7-septatae, 35-80 x
IAG D,.
Hormiscium ambrosiae
Tufts commonly effused, black; chains of spores persistent,
straight or slightly curved, commonly tapering toward the apex or
broader in the middle and tapering toward each end, 40-100 » long;
56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
spores subglobose, commonly broader than long, colored, smooth,
4—16 in a chain, 6-10 » long, 8-18 » broad.
On dead stems of Ambrosia trifida “Li Womscvalle
Kansas. September. E. Bartholomew.
Caespites vulgo effusi, atri; catenae sporarum simplices persis-
tentes, rectae vel leviter curvatae, vulgo ad apicem attenuatae vel in
parte media latiores utrinque angustatae, 40-100 » longae; sporae
subglobosae, leves, fuscae, 4-16 in quavis catena, 6-10 x 8-18.
Hypoxylon bartholomaei
Stroma effused, thin, about 1 mm thick, 2-3 cm long, .5-1 cm
broad, subelliptic, sometimes with a slight narrow sterile black
margin, even, black, opaque; perithecia monostichous, subglobose,
.5 mm broad, the ostiola scarcely visible; asci cylindric, 160-200 p»
long, 8-12 » broad; spores monostichous, ellipsoid, at first pale
and 1-2-nucleate, then colored, 16-24 » long, 8-12 » broad; para-
physes filiform.
On decorticated wood of red alder, Alnus rubra esone
Rolling Bay, Washington. August. E. Bartholomew.
The distinguishing characters of this species are the thin subel-
liptic stroma and its dull even black surface. The ostiola are not
visible to the naked eye. The young conidial state not seen.
Stroma effusum, tenue, circiter 1 mm thick, 2-3 cm longum, .5—1
cm latum, subellipticum, leve, atrum, opacum; perithecia mono-
sticha, subglobosa, .5 mm lata, ostiola vix visibilia; asci cylindraces,
160-200 x 8-12 » ; sporae monostichae, ellipsoideae, primo pallidae.
_ uninucleatae vel binucleatae, deinde coloratae, 16-24 x 8-12 vp; para-
physes filiformes.
Lepiota allenae
Pileus thin, conic, convex or campanulate, widely striate on the
margin, unpolished, whitish or tinged with pale yellow, often yellow-
ish brown in the center; lamellae thin, I-2 mm broad, free, close,
whitish or tinged with pale yellow; stem slightly tapering upward,
glabrous, hollow, colored like the pileus, the annulus slight, per-
sistent or evanescent; spores broadly ellipsoid or subglobose, 5-7 u
long, 4-6 v broad.
Pileus 8-15 mm broad; stem 12-20 mm long, 1-2 mm thick.
Cespitose. In a greenhouse. Newtonville, Massachusetts. Au-
eust. “Miss WaiG ellen:
REPORT, Oh tiibesShATE bOrANis } 1O1O 57
This is a small delicate, beautiful, and nearly uniformly colored
species. The small smooth disk is sometimes brown or yellowish
brown and in very young plants looks like a cap on the apex of
the small undeveloped pileus. It may possibly be an introduced
species. It is respectfully dedicated to its discoverer.
Pileus tenuis, conicus, convexus campanulatusve, margine late
striatus, impolitus, albidus flavidusve, saepe in centro flavido-
brunneus; lamellae tenues, I-2 mm latae, liberae, confertae, albidae
flavidaeve; stipes supra leviter attenuatus, glaber, cavus, pileo in
colore similis, annulus parvus, persistens vel evanescens; sporae
late ellipsoideae, vel subglobosae, 5-7 x 4-6 pv.
Leptonia longistriata
Pileus conic or convex, submembranous, fragile, umbilicate, sub-
hygrophanous, squamulose, striatulate nearly or quite to the um-
bilicus both when moist and when dry, grayish brown; lamellae
thin, fragile, subdistant, eroded or wavy on the edge, whitish becom-
ing flesh color; stem straight, slender, tough, glabrous, shining when
dry, hollow, colored like the pileus with a white mycelium at the
base; spores irregular or angular, uninucleate, 12-16 » long, 8-10 pv
broad.
Pileus I-1.5 cm broad; stem 3-5 cm long, I-2 mm thick.
Ground by roadsides. Stow, Massachusetts. August. S. Davis.
The distinguishing character of this species is the widely striated
margin which is suggestive of the specific name.
Pileus conicus convexusve, submembranaceus, fragilis, umbilica-
tus, subhygrophanus, squamulosus, fere ad umbilicum striatulatus,
griseo-brunneus; lamellae tenues, fragiles, subdistantes, acie erosae
undulataeve, albidae deinde incarnatae; stipes strictus, gracilis,
lentus, glaber, in siccitate nitens, cavus, in colore pileo similis, basi
mycelio albido; sporae irregulares angularesve, uninucleatae, 12-16
x 8-10 vv.
Leptonia strictipes
Pileus thin, campanulate or convex, obtuse or slightly umbilicate,
even or striatulate on the thin margin, yellow brown or dark brown;
lamellae thin, narrow, close, adnate or slightly sinuate with a de-
current tooth, dusted and subincarnate by the spores; stem long,
slender, straight, glabrous, hollow, equal or slightly tapering up-
ward, with a whitish mycelium at the base; spores angular, uninu-
cleate, commonly with an oblique apiculus at one end, 10-14 4
long, 7-9 » broad.
58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Pileus 1.5—2.5 cm broad; stem 6-8 cm long; 2~3 mm thick.
Among sphagnum. Taylor's swamp, Stow, Massachusetts.
August. S. Davis.
Known by its variously colored pileus and long straight stem.
It is a larger species than Leptonia lon gistifanameee
to which it is closely related, and has a different habit and habitat
and smaller spores.
Pileus tenuis, campanulatus convexusve, obtusus vel leviter um-
bilicatus margine tenue levis striatulatusve, flavo-brunneus vel nigro-
brunneus; lamellae tenues, angustae, confertae, adnatae vel leviter
sinuatae dente decurrente; sporis pulverulentae, subincarnatae;
stipes longus, gracilis, rectus, glaber, cavus, aequalis vel sursum
leviter attenuatus, basi mycelio albido; sporae angulares, uninu-
cleatae, vulgo oblique apiculatae, 10-14x 7-9 p.
Macrophoma suspecta
Perithecia minute, 120-160 » broad, gregarious or scattered, oc-
cupying large areas on the upper surface of the lower leaves, at
first covered by the epidermis, then erumpent, thin, convex, orbi-
cular, opening by a pore, black; spores oblong or cylindric, obtuse,
hyaline, continuous, 2—-4-nucleate, 12-18 » long, 4-5 + broad.
Dead basal leaves of winter wheat, Triticum vulgare
Vill. Lexington, Kentucky. May and June. H. Garman.
Related to Phoma hennebergii J. Kuehn but differing
in its place of growth and in its broader spores and perithecia. It
is suspected of killing the host plant, hence the specific name.
This is very distinct from Colletotrichum ‘cereame
Manns, which is parasitic on wheat, rye, oats, barley and various
grasses in Ohio.
This species is a good illustration of the difficulty sometimes
encountered in assigning definite limits to a genus. The genus
Macrophoma was first suggested by Professor Saccardo as one that
might be instituted for the reception of species of Phoma hay-
ing rather thick perithecia and spores. Berlese and Voglino, act-
ing on this suggestion, instituted the genus Macrophoma and in-
cluded in it species whose spores should equal I5 » or more in
length. The spores in the species here described vary in length
from 12-184. It therefore stands on the border line between
Phoma and Macrophoma and so far as this character goes might
be placed in either genus. Because some of the spores exceed the
limiting dimension we have placed the species in Macrophoma.,
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST 1910 59
thought it might be possible to find an occasional perithecium in
which no spores would be 15 v long.
_ Perithecia minuta, 120-160 » in diam., gregaria sparsave, foli-
orum basalium areas magnas occupantia, primum epidermide tecta,
tenua, convexa, orbicularia, poro aperientia, atra; sporae oblongae
vel cylindraceae, utrinque rotundatae, hyalinae, continuae, 2-4-
nucleatae, 12-18 x 4-5 p.
Microdiplodia viciae
Perithecia hypophyllous, sometimes amphigenous, thin, covered
by the epidermis, erumpent, black, 80-120 » in diameter; spores at
first hyaline, then colored, ellipsoid or oblong, 8-12 , long, 4-5 v
broad, not at all or but slightly constricted at the septum.
iDeadileaves of linear leayed vetch, Vicia linearis (Nutt.)
Greene. Stockton, Kansas. May. FE. Bartholomew.
The spores are similar in size and shape to those of Microdi-
plodia mori Allesch., but the habitat is so distinct it 1s scarcely
probable that the two can be the same.
Perithecia hypophylla, aliquando amphigena, tenua, epidermide
tecta, erumpentia, nigra, 80-120 » in diam.; sporae primo hyalinae,
demum fuscae, ellipsoideae oblongaeve, 8-12 x 4-5 », non aut vix
constrictae ad septum.
Nolanea howellii
Pileus thin, conic or convex, minutely tomentulose, intensely
blue; lamellae broad, adnate, subdistant, pale yellow or straw
color, becoming flesh color; stem slender, equal, hollow, glabrous,
but covered with white silky fibrils at the base, colored like the
pileus; spores oblong or subglobose, angular, with an oblique apicu-
lus at the base, 10-12 » long, 7-8 ». broad.
Pileus 1-2 cm broad; stem 4-6 cm long, 1-2 mm thick.
Among fallen leaves in damp places in thick woods. Rockville,
Indiana. September. G. T. Howell.
Colored much like INolanea atrocyanea Clem but ya
much larger species. From N. caelestina Fr. it scarcely dif-
fers except in the yellowish color of the young lamellae, the uni-
form deep blue color of the pileus and the longer stem with white
silky fibrils at the base. Respectfully dedicated to its discoverer.
Pileus tenuis, conicus convexusve, minute tomentosulus, intense
-caeruleus; lamellae latae, adnatae, subdistantes, stramineae, deinde
incarnatae; stipes gracilis, aequalis, cavus, glaber, basi fibrillis albis
60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
sericeis tectus, pileo in colore similis; sporae oblongae subglobo-
saeve, angulares, oblique apiculatae, 10-12 x 7-8 p.
Ombrophila thujina
Cups minute, .5-.75 mm broad, scattered or subcespitose, sessile
or subsessile; hymenium plane or convex, not or scarcely margined,
pale orange; asci oblong or subclavate, 90-100 ,, long, 15-20 ,
broad; spores crowded or distichous in the asci, oblong or sub-
fusiform, rounded at the ends, hyaline, 18-22 » long, 6-8 » broad;
paraphyses filiform, free at the tips.
Smooth bark of the branches of white cedar, Thuja occi-
dentalis 1... Near Mondon, Ontariot |] Deamiess:
This differs from Ombrophila enterochromay( ee
Sacc. in being less distinctly stipitate or sessile, in retaining its
color in drying, in its less fusiform spores and in the free, not ag-
glutinate, apices of its asci and paraphyses.
Ascomata minuta, .5-.75 mm lata, sparsa vel subcaespitosa, ses-
silia vel subsessilia; hymenium planum vel convexum, submar-
ginatum, pallide aurantiacum; asci oblongi vel subclavati, go-100
X 15-20"; sporae in ascis confertae vel subdistchae, oblongae vel
subfusiformes, utrinque rotundae, hyalinae, 18-22 x 6-8 +; para-
physes filiformes, apicibus liberis.
Ovularia stachydis-ciliatae
Spots angular, 2-5 mm broad, limited by the veinlets, subcon-
fluent, pale yellowish green, sometimes becoming brownish or red-
dish brown: hyphae hypophyllous, very short, hyaline; spores very
variable, globose, obovate or ellipsoid, hyaline, 6-16 » long, 6-12 p»
broad.
Living leaves of Stachys ciliata Dougl. Alki Point,
Washington. August. E. Bartholomew.
The hyphae and spores form a thin inconspicuous grayish cov-
ering on the spots beneath.
Maculae angulares, 2-5 mm latae, venulis limitatae, subcon-
fluentes, pallide flavo-virides, aliquando brunnescentes vel rufo-
brunneae; hyphae hypophyllae, brevissimae, hyalinae; sporae vari-
abiles, globosae, obovatae vel ellipsoideae, hyalinae, 6-16 x 6-12 p.
Phyllosticta paupercula
Spots very small, .5-1 mm broad, numerous, sometimes conflu-
ent, angular or suborbicular, reddish brown or whitish, scarcely
REPORT) OF THEY SLALE BOLANTSL 1OTO 61
visible on the lower surface of the leaf; perithecia minute, epiphyl-
lous, one or two on a spot, black; spores ellipsoid, 4-6 y» long,
3-3.5 p broad.
leivine leaves of ‘cultivated Amvelanchier alnifolia
Nutt. Stockton, Kansas. September. E. Bartholomew.
Blasely related tom kvhwal lo sitalcranipas un co la i(©p:)) Sace:,
Eaamahaleb @hiuem. and Pimesp ili Sace. but easily distin-
guished by the peculiarly colored and very small spots and by the
small number of the perithecia on a spot.
Maculae minutae, .5-1 mm latae, numerosae quandoque conflu-
entes, angulares aut suborbiculares, rufo-brunneae vel albidae,
infra vix visibiles; perithecia minuta, epiphylla, in aliqua macula
unum duove, atra; sporae ellipsoideae, 4-6 x 3-3.5 .
Russula eccentrica
Pileus fleshy but thin, firm, eccentric or deformed, at first cen-
trally depressed, with even incurved margin, becoming nearly plane,
dry, glabrous, brownish or brownish gray, faintly reddish brown
when dry, flesh white, odor disagreeable; lamellae thin, subdistant,
broad, adnate or adnexed, pallid or tinged with pink, becoming
reddish where wounded, reddish brown and subpruinose with age
or in drying; stem smooth, equal, spongy within, white; spores sub-
globose, even or nearly so, 6-7 » in diameter.
Pileus 5-10 cm broad; stem 4-6 cm long, 1.5—3 cm thick.
Grassy ravine in open oak woods. Near St Louis, Missouri.
August. Rare and local. N. M. Glatfelter.
This is the third species known in which wounds assume a red-
distecolor.), From) Russula nigricans (Bull) hrs it @it-
fers in its dry and eccentric pileus not becoming blackish and from
iemGucmlcHiMn Ol tay Sec on itsy eccentnic pileus) and jsubdistant
pinkish tinted lamellae. It belongs to the section Compactae.
Pileus carneus, tenuis, firmus, eccentricus vel deformatus, primus
centro depressus, margine leve incurvato, deinde subplanus, siccus,
glaber, brunneus vel brunneo-griseus, siccitate leviter rufo-brun-
neus, carne alba, odore ingrato; lamellae tenues, subdistantes, latae,
adnatae vel adnexae, pallidae vel subincarnatae, rufescentes ubi
vulneratae, in aetate vel siccitate rufo-brunneae et subpruinosae;
stipes aequalis, levis, intus spongiosus, albus; sporae subglobosae.
subleves, 6-7 » in diam.
62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Septoria aceris-macrophylli
Spots distinct, orbicular, 3-8 mm broad, amphigenous, pale red-
dish, slightly paler in the center; perithecia minute, 1/6 mm broad,
on the upper surface of the leaf, central, few, black; spores fili-
form, curved, 20-40 » long, 1.5-2 » broad.
Living leaves of Acer macrophyllum Bursheeeeon
Madison, Washington. August. E. Bartholomew.
Maculae distinctae, suborbiculares, 3-8 mm latae, amphigenae,
pallide rufescentes, centro leviter pallidiores; perithecia minuta,
1/6 mm lata, in pagina folii superiore, centralia, pauca, nigra:
sporae filiformes, curvae, 20-40 x I.5-2 v.
Septoria angustissima
Spots amphigenous, .5-I1.5 cm broad, sometimes confluent and
occupying half the leaf or more, reddish brown above, paler he-
neath, not brown margined; perithecia mostly epiphyllous, densely
gregarious, orbicular, about .5 mm broad, depressed or broadlv
conic, opening by a central pore, black; spores filiform, extremely
slender, curved or straight, continuous, eguttulate, hyaline, 18-30 v
long, scarcely 1 » broad; sporophores shorter and thicker.
@n. leaves of osage orange) Maclura pomiferaGkam
Schneider. Aberdeen, Mississippi. August. F. D. Kern. Col-
leetediby (a Comic:
Remarkable for its very narrow spores.
Maculae amphigenae, .5-1.5 cm latae, aliquando confluentes
foliique partem dimidian occupantes, supra rufo-brunneae, infra
pallidiores; perithecia vulgo epiphylla, dense gregaria, orbicularia
depressa vel late conica, poro aperientia, nigra; sporae filiformes,
pergraciles, curvatae rectaeve, hyalinae, eguttulatae, 18-30x 1 p ;
sporophori breviores et crassiores.
Septoria ficarioides
Spots amphigenous, suborbicular, usually only one or two on a
leaf, pallid; perithecia few, epiphyllous, too-150 » in diameter,
black; spores filiform, straight or slightly curved, hyaline, 25-40
long, 1-2 » broad.
Leaves of Ranttneulius icy mbalaria Purch seed
River, Nebraska. July. “KE. Bartholomew, (Collected by. i) eave
Bates. |
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 63
Closely related to Septoria ficariae Desm. but differ-
ing in the color of its spots and in its larger and black perithecia,
fewer on a spot, and in its different host plant.
Maculae amphigenae, suborbiculares, in folio quoque vulgo unus
vel duo, pallidae; perithecia, pauca, epiphylla, 1too-150 » in diam,
atra; sporae filiformes, rectae vel curvulae, hyalinae, 25-40 x I-2 p.
Septoria samarae
Perithecia minute, 80-120 » in diameter, numerous, amphigenous,
occupying the whole wing of the fruit, superficial, black; ‘spores
filiform, curved or rarely flexuous, hyaline, 22-44 » long, 1.5-2
broad.
Wing of the fruit of box elder, Acer negundo L. and the
dwarf mountain maple, Acer glabrum Torr. Morrison,
Colorado. September. E. Bartholomew. Collected by E. Bethei.
Golden, Colorado. E. Bethel.
The wings have lost their green color, but the covering of the
seed is still green.
Perithecia minuta, 80-120 » in diam., numerosa, amphigena om-
nino fructus alam occupantia, superficialia, atra; sporae filiformes
curvatae vel rare flexuosae hyalinae 22-44x1.5-2 ».
Sphaeromyces delphinii
Subiculum of few radiating branched colored hyphae; sporo-
phores short, very dense; spores catenulate, oblong or subfusiform,
forming a dense subglobose brown or black mass, subhyaline by
transmitted light, 8-12 long, 1.5-2 v broad.
Dede stems, of “western larkspur, Welphinium? ocer-
dentale Wats. August. Salt Lake co., Utah. E. Bartholomew:
Collected by A. ©: Garrett.
In the spore character this species does not agree well with the
character of the genus to which it is here referred, but it seems
better to place it here than to make a new genus for its reception.
Both it and the species on which the genus was founded are mani-
festly very rare. In some of the specimens the sporodochium ap-
pears to sit upon a gelatinous film which at length becomes black-
ened by a layer of the fallen spores.
Subiculum hyphis paucis, radiantibus, fuscis, sparse ramosis com-
positum ; sporophori breves, densissimi; sporae catenulatae oblongae
vel subfusiformes, massam subglobosam densam fuscam nigramve
formantes, subhyalinae sub lente, 8-12 x 1.5-2 p.
04 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Sphaeropsis melanconioides
Perithecia membranous, orbicular or discoid, I-2 mm _ broad,
wanting or scarcely developed above, numerous, nestiing in the bark
to which it is adnate at the base, erumpent, black; spores com-
pact, ellipsoid or oblong, 16-24 iong, 10-12 » broad, supported
on more or less slender filiform hyaline sporophores.
Dead branches of Ailanthus ¢landulosmsmeDeage
Stockton, Kansas. September. E. Bartholomew.
The perithecia are so imperfectly developed that the fungus
might easily be mistaken for a species of Melanconium. Hence the
specific name.
Perithecia membranacea, orbicularia discoideave, 1-2 mm lata,
parte superiore carentia, numerosa, in cortice nidulantia, basi
adnata, erumpentia, atra; sporae compactae, ellipsoideae oblongae-
ve, 16-24x 10-12, sporophoris hyalinis gracilibus vel filiformi-
bus suffultae.
Sporotrichum chryseum
Hyphae slender, 3-4 » thick, continuous, long, intricate, hyaline,
forming a soft thin subrosy separable membrane, golden yellow
beneath; spores abundant, minute, globose, 2.5-3 » 1n diameter.
On the hymenium of a resupinate form of Fomes con-
chatus (Pers.) Fr. Bloomington, Indiana. J. M. VanHook.
The spores appear to give the yellow color to the under surface.
Hyphae graciles, 3-4 » crassae, continuae, longae, intricatae,
hyalinae, membranam mollen tenuem subroseam separabilem sub-
ter aureum formanies; sporae abundantes, minutae, globosae,
2.5-3 » in diam.
Basidiophora kellermanii paupercula
Spots few, small, more scattered, snowy white; oospores globose,
smaller, 20-24 » in diameter. ,
Living leaves of Iva xanthifolia Nutt. Chama, New
Mexico. August. E. Bartholomew. Collected by W. T. Swingle.
Maculae paucae, parvae, sparsiores, candidae; oosporae globosae,
minores, 20-24 » in diam.
Boletus chrysenteron sphagnorum
Pileus hemispheric or very convex, reddish brown, the extreme
margin thin, slightly surpassing the hymenium, incurved, flesh
white or whitish; tubes longer than the thickness of the flesh.
Pileus 2-3 cm broad; stem 2-4 cm long, 5-8 mm thick.
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 65
Among sphagnum. Stow, Massachusetts. September. S. Davis.
The peculiar habitat, deeply convex reddish brown pileus wita
its slightly extended incurved margin and white flesh are distin-
guishing features of this variety. In the last mentioned character
imecesemoless Bohetus albiocarneus Pk.
Pileus hemisphaericus convexissimusve, badius, praeter lamellas
margine tenue incurvo extentus, carne alba albidave; tubuli pilei
carnis carassitate longiores.
Melanconium bicolor candidum
This differs from the typical form in having the stroma pure
white and the spores obovate or narrowed toward one end.
baiieyor red mulberry. Morws rubra’ L. Rolling’ Bay,
Washington. July. E. Bartholomew.
Stroma candidum; sporae obovatae vel basi angustatae.
EDIE De ONG
Boletus albus Pk.
WHITE BOLEDUS
Plate 121, figures 1-5
Pileus convex, viscid when moist, white, flesh white or yellow-
ish; tubes small or medium, subrotund, adnate, whitish becoming
yellow or ochraceous; stem short, equal or slightly tapering down-
ward, glandular dotted, white; spores ochraceous, subfusiform,
8-9 v long, 4-4.5 » broad. i
The white boletus is easily distinguished from all our other
species by its white viscid cap and its glandular dotted stem. Its
cap varies in its horizontal diarneter from 1.5-3.5 inches. It is
generally convex, but in large plants it is often expanded until it
is nearly or quite plane. Its white color is not well retained in
drying. It is therefore important to see fresh specimens in order
to identify the species satisfactorily. The flesh is white or barely
tinged with yellow. Sometimes the fresh plant emits a peculiar,
somewhat fetid or strong, odor.
The tubes in the young plant are whitish or ee slightly tinged
with yellow, but when mature they are ochraceous and the mouths
are dotted with dark reddish brown glands. The stem is short,
generally less than the diameter of the cap, cylindric or slightly
narrowed at the base, solid, without any collar, dotted with reddish
66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
brown glands and white or sometimes tinged with pink at the base.
It occurs in the vicinity of pine and hemlock trees during July and
August. It is not very common. It has an agreeable flavor, is
tender and harmless.
Cantharellus aurantiacus (Wulf.) Fr.
ORANGE CHANTARELLE FALSE CHANTARELLE
Plate 122, figures S—I6
Pileus fleshy, soft, minutely tomentose, plane or centrally de-
pressed, yellowish orange, sometimes tinged with smoky brown or
brownish in the center only, flesh whitish or yellowish; lamellae
narrow, close, decurrent, repeatedly forked, reddish orange, some-
times yellowish orange; stem equal or slightly tapering upward,
solid, glabrous, colored like or paler than the pileus; spores subel-
lipsoid, 6-8 » long, 4-5 » broad.
The orange chantarelle is sharply separated from the other species
by its usually bright orange gills which are regularly and repeatedly
forked. The cap varies from I-3 inches broad and its upper sur-
faces may be convex, nearly flat or centrally depressed. It is soft
in texture and covered with a minute scarcely visible tomentum.
Its color is commonly a pale yellowish orange or tawny orange more
or less suffused with a dull smoky tint. Sometimes the center is
more distinctly brownish than the margin. The extreme margin is
frequently decurved or involute. The flesh is soft, whitish or
slightly yellowish.
The gills are very pretty by reason of their commonly bright
orange color and regular forking.
The stem is 1-3 inches long and 2-5 lines thick. It is solid, equal
in diameter throughout its length or sometimes slightly narrowed
upward. In color it is generally similar to the cap, though usually
paler and sometimes even darker or blackened toward the base.
There is a rare form in which the cap is white or nearly so.
There is also a variety pallidus Pk. in which both cap and gills
are pale yellow or whitish yellow. It occurs in swamps.
The orange chantarelle occurs most often in woods and unculti-
vated places in hilly and mountainous regions from July to Octo-
ber. It was formerly reputed poisonous or dangerous and credited
with having a disagreeable flavor. In my own experiments with it
the flavor has been found to be agreeable and fair trials of eating
it have shown it to be perfectly harmless. J therefore have no
hesitation in adding it to our list of edible species.
—
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 67
Lactarius camphoratus (Bull.) Fr.
CAMPHORY LACTARIUS
Plate 126, figures I-7
Pileus thin, convex, nearly plane or centrally depressed, often
with a small umbo, glabrous, dry, bay red or brownish red, flesh
tinged with the color of the pileus, milk white, taste mild; lamellae
thin, narrow, close, adnate or slightly decurrent, dull reddish or
similar to the pileus; stem subequal, glabrous, stuffed or hollow,
colored like or a little paler than the pileus; spores globose, white,
S—9 » in diameter.
The camphory lactarius is closely related to the sweetish lactarius,
Macraqims subduleis (Bull) Pr. from which it is sepa-
rated by its darker red color and its agreeable odor. In color it
aqponodcies Iwactarius Tutus (Scop.) Fr. .from which its
smaller size and mild taste easily separate it. Its umbo, when pres-
ent, is very small and its margin is sometimes wavy. The color is
generally bay red, but occasionally it approaches the color of the
cap of the sweetish lactarius from which the odor is then the most
available character for the separation of these species.
The gills also are occasionally paler than usual and thereby tend
to the confusion of these two species. The odor is less pronounced
in the fresh plant than in the dry. It becomes more distinct in dry-
ine and persists a long time. It is not like that of camphor as the
name would suggest, but resembles more the odor of dried melilot.
It is not always wholly dispelled by cooking, but the flavor is not in
our opinion a serious objection to the edibility of this mushroom.
It occurs in swamps, wet places and in woods from July to
September.
Lactarius lignyotus Ir.
SOOTY LACTARIUS
Plate 123, figures 1-6
Pileus convex, plane or slightly depressed, dry, with or without a
small umbo, often radiately wrinkled in the center, pruinosely
velvety, even on the margin or crenately lobed and distantly but
briefly plicate striate, sooty brown, flesh white, milk white, taste
mild or tardily and slightly acrid; lamellae subdistant, adnate or
slightly decurrent, white or creamy yellow, assuming reddish tints
3
OS NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ‘
where wounded; stem equal or tapering upward, stuffed, rather
long, colored like the pileus; spores globose, echinulate, 8-10 » in
diameter.
The sooty lactarius is a very noticeable species, well marked by its
dark brown color, velvety appearance, long stem and wounds of the
gills and flesh slowly assuming reddish hues.
The cap varies from 1-4 inches broad, and is usually marked in
the center by slight radiating rugosities or wrinkles. It is often
marked by a small central prominence. Its dark sooty color and
soft velvety appearance are attractive features. The margin 1s
sometimes even, sometimes scalloped and marked with short
parallel striations.
The gills are moderately distant from each other, and vary in
color from white to creamy yellow or pale ochraceous. Where
cut or broken the wounds slowly assume a reddish tint. The milk
is scanty, white and mild.
The stem is generally from 2-4 inches long and 2-4 lines thick,
but sometimes these dimensions are exceeded. It is often abruptly
narrowed at the top and there slightly striate. Its color is like that
of the cap.
It occurs most often in hilly or mountainous places, growing in
shaded, mossy or damp places in woods and swamps. It is an
excellent edible species, and occurs from July to September.
Variety tenuipes Pk. has the pileus about 1 inch broad, and
the stem 2-3 inches long and about 2 lines thick.
Lycoperdon atropurpureum Vitt.
PURPLE SPORED PUFF BALL
Plate 121, figures 6-10
Peridium variable in size and shape, 1—2 inches broad, globose,
subglobose or obovoid, clothed with slender hairs or spinules which
are longer and convergent on the upper part of the peridium, shorter
or wanting on the lower part, grayish, brownish or blackish above,
paler below, easily rubbed off, commonly disappearing from the
mature peridium, the young peridium is whitish below, tinged with
gray or brown above, the whole becoming at last smooth, shining
and brown, the interior at first fleshy, white, becoming olivaceous
with age and finally purplish brown, dry and dusty; the threads of
the capillitium are branched, the main stem is about equal in thick-
ness to the diameter of the spores; spores purplish brown, globose,
warted, 5-7 » in diameter.
REPORT VOR Laibe slLaAtie BOTAN Is. IO LO 69
Ground in woods or in bushy places. August to September.
Common. .
This, like other puff balls, is edible only while the flesh is clear
white. When it assumes a yellow hue it is no longer palatable and
when it becomes dry and dusty with the mature spores no one would
think of eating it. In the edible state the texture and color of the
flesh of this species may be compared to those of a very fine grained
soft cottage cheese.
CRANBERRY AND ANA RAV AIEIEE MEASIRES EL Eis
Cranberry marsh is in the eastern part of the town of Sand Lake,
Rensselaer county. It is an irregular oblong marsh apparently
about a half mile long and one-fifth mile broad in its widest part. A
sluggish stream flows centrally through its longest diameter.
Sphagnum moss is plentiful and forms a soft carpet over most of
its surface. Cranberries were formerly produced on it in great
abundance, but now these plants are limited to the banks of the
stream and a few of the more wet and boggy places. The surface
of the marsh is mostly much more firm than it was sixty years ago.
Shrubs are more numerous and widespread and small coniferous
trees have sprung up in some of the older parts. Some of the
orchids that beautified the marsh less than twenty-five years ago
have now nearly or quite disappeared. The purple fringed orchis
is no longer found there, and of the white fringed orchis only a sin-
ele fiowering specimen was seen in my recent visits. The bladder-
fruited or bottle sedge, which formerly bore seed freely there, has
now become smaller, less vigorous and completely sterile. The
changed conditions induced by the destruction of the surrounding
forests and the often recurring summer drouths are gradually
exterminating those plants that require a more uniform temperature
and constant moisture. The advancing shrubs crowd out or over-
power the weaker and less persistent herbaceous plants. This
marsh is steadily approaching the shrubby stage in which sphagnum
and marsh herbs will scarcely be able to maintain their existence.
The number of species of flowering plants and ferns found in this
aENESIaY IS) YG
Averyville marsh is in the town of North Elba, Essex county. It
is about three miles south of Lake Placid. It is apparently about
one mile long and one-third mile broad in its widest part. Near
the middle it is much more narrow than toward either end by
reason of the encroachment of the forest on both sides. ‘This con-
7O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
traction in width divides it into two nearly equal parts, the northern
and southern. Chub river runs through its longest diameter from
south to north. At the contracted part and for a short distance
north of it the river runs close to-the margin of the forest on the
eastern side, leaving most of the marsh here on the west side of
the river. In the rest of the marsh the river is more central. This
marsh is peculiar in having the two parts wholly unlike in character
and representative of two different kinds of marsh. The northern
part is a shrubby marsh. Low shrubs like Labrador tea, sheep
laurel, pale laurel, bog rosemary and leather leaf have taken almost
complete possession. The usual marsh herbs are nearly extermi-
nated except along the banks of the river and in a few low places.
The sphagnum has a dwarf, starved appearance and is evidently
struggling for existence. A few dwarf, unthrifty black spruce and
tamarack trees are scattered here and there over this part of the
marsh. The balsam fir is strangely absent from the open space, but
it occurs sparingly along the margin. It is apparently less fitted to
-endure the unfavorable conditions of the marsh than either the
black spruce or the tamarack.
The southern part is a grassy marsh. It is locally known as a
beaver meadow.” It is mostly occupied by grasses and sedges.
Blue joint grass, Calamagrostis canadensis (Mx.) By.
and slender sedge, Carex filiformis L. are the preyatlime
species. They are so abundant that in past times it was customary
to mow this part of the marsh and stack the hay till winter when
it would be possible to draw it away and make use of it. The
scaffoldings of the stacks are still in place, but as this marsh hay
is of inferior quality it 1s not now gathered, other hay of better
quality being available. It is remarkable that not a single example
of the slender sedge gave any evidence of having borne fruit this
-season. My visit was too late in the season to find fruit on the
plant, but a careful search for old fruit-bearing stems was vain.
Possibly the previous cuttings of the plants weakened their fruiting
capacity till now they depend entirely on offshoots or stolons for
propagation. On the contrary, the blue joint grass was -fruiting
imee lye
The grassy marsh, like the open prairie, appears to be unfavor-
able to the production of trees. No spruce or tamarack trees were
seen in this part of the marsh. Even the shrubs that are so abund-
ant in the northern part are mostly wanting here. Those that do
appear are chiefly along or near the river.
oe
REPOLD TOD ESS Vit LOrMN IS. loro 7
The number of species of flowering plants and ferns found in
this marsh is 57. This is considerably less than the number found
in Cranberry marsh, though the area of the marsh is apparently
more than twice as large. On the other hand, but one visit was
made here and that so late in the season that probably some early
flowering herbaceous species were overlooked.
A list of the names of the species found in each marsh is given
below. It will be seen that 33 species are common to both marshes.
This is more than half the number of species found in Averyville
marsh. ‘These are species likely to be found in most of our larger
cold sphagnum bogs and marshes. They are the active agents in
the formation of peat beds and in preparing the marsh for the
habitation of the larger shrubs and trees. In other words, they
are the forerunners of swamps, the trees and shrubs of which, in
turn, prepare the way for productive lowland meadows and truck
gardens. Of the 33 species common to the two marshes 15, or
nearly half, are trees or shrubs. This indicates an advanced stage
of the marshes toward a wooded swamp. In Bonaparte swamp the
number of trees and shrubs is 29, in Cranberry marsh 20, in Avery-
ville marsh 21. The number of species common to the three marshes
is 19. In the following list of spectes will be found the names of
the species of each of the two marshes and those common to the
three marshes.
Plants of Cranberry marsh, Sand Lake, Rensselaer co.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mull.
Acer rubrum L.
Alnus incana (L.) Moench
Andromeda glaucophylla Lk.
Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Schott
Aspidium cristatum (L.) Sw.
A. noveboracense (L.) Sw.
Aster puniceus L.
Calamagrostis canadensis (M-v.)
Calla palustris L.
Calopogon pulchellus (Sua) 1k, IEE.
Carex canescens J:
filiformis L.
folliculata L.
intumescens Rudge
leptalea Wahl.
limosa L.
magellanica Lam.
pauciflora Lightf.
Ci@er@arere
Carex stell. angustata Carey
C. trisperma Dew.
Ce utriculata Boott
Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.)
Chelone glabra L.
Cinna latifolia (Trev.) Griseb.
Cornus canadensis elongata Pk.
Drosera longifolia L.
1D); rotundifolia L.
Dulichium arundinaceum L.
Epilobium palustre L.
Eriophorum callitrix Cham.
Es virginicum L.
Galium palustre L. :
Gaultheria procumbens L.
Glyceria canadensis (M-x.) Trin.
G. pallida (Torr.)’ Trim.
G. torreyana (Spreng.)
Habenaria blephariglottis (Wulld.)
72 NEW YORK
Habenaria clavellata (Mv+x.)
Hypericum virginicum L.
Impatiens biflora Walt.
Iris versicolor L.
Kalmia angustifolia L.
IK polifolia Wang.
Larix laricina (DuRo1) Koch
Ledum groenlandicum Oeder
Lycopodium inundatum L.
Lycopus virginicus L.
Lysimachia terrestris (L.) BSP.
Menyanthes trifoliata L.
Nemopanthes mucronata (L.) Trel.
Nymphaea advena Ait.
Preea mariana (CVG) BSE:
EE rubra (DuRoi) Dietr.
Pinus strobus L.
Pogonia ophioglossoides (L.)
Polygonum sagittatum L.
STATE MUSEUM
Potomogeton epihydrus Jaf.
Pyrus melanocarpa (M-+v.) Willd.
Rosa blanda Ait.
Rubus hispidus L.
IR triflorus Fichards.
Rynchospora alba (L.) Vahl
Sarracenia purpurea L.
Scheuchzeria palustris L.
Scutellaria lateriflora L.
Sparganium minimum fr.
Spiraea latifolia Borkh.
Trientalis americana Pers.
Utricularia cornuta Mv.
Vaccinium canadense Kalm
We corymbosum L.
V. macrocarpon Ait,
Vi oxycoccos L,
WA pennsylvanicum Lam.
Viburnum cassinoides L.
Plants of Averyville marsh, North Elba, Essex co.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
Agrostis hyemalis (Walt.) BSP.
Alnus incana (L.) Moench
Andromeda glaucophylla Lk.
Aspidium cristatum (L.) Sw.
Aster puniceus L.
iM umbellatus Mill,
Bromus altissimus Pursh
Calamagrostis canadensis (J/1.)
Campanula aparinoides Pursh
Carex filiformis L.
Ce leptalea Wahl.
Cc pauciflora Lightf.
Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.)
Cicuta bulbifera L.
Cirsium muticum Mv.
Cornus canadensis elongata Pk.
C: stolonifera My,
Dalibarda repens L.
Epilobium palustre L.
Eriophorum callitrix Cham.
E. virginicum L.
Eupatorium purpureum L.
Galium asprellum J/x.
Gaultheria procumbens L.
Gentiana linearis [roel.
Glyceria canadensis (M-x.) Trin.
Hippuris vulgaris L.
Hypericum ellipticum Hook.
Hypericum virginicum L.
Iris versicolor L.
Juncus brevicaudatus (Engelim.)
Kalmia angustifolia L.
Ke polifolia Wang.
Larix laricina (DuRoi) Koch
Ledum groenlandicum Oeder
Lysimachia terrestris (L.) BSP.
Nemopanthes mucronata (L.) Trel.
Nymphaea hybrida (Pk.)
Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP.
Potamogeton epihydrus Raf.
Pyrus americana (Marsh.) DC.
oR melanocarpa (Mx.) Willd.
Rubus triflorus Richards.
Salix rostrata Richards.
Sambucus canadensis L.
Senecio robbinsiit Oakes
Solidago altissima L.
Ss: serotina Ait.
Ss uliginosa Nutt.
Spiraea latifolia Borkh.
Thalictrum polygamum Mull,
Thuja occidentalis L.
Vaccinium canadense Kalm
Wi. oxycoccos L.
Ne pennsylvanicum Lami.
Viburnum cassinoides L.
REPORT VOR TEES EATE BORANISE TOTO 73
Common to the two marshes
Abies balsamea (L.) Mull. Hypericum virginicum L.
Alnus incana (L.) Moench Iris versicolor L.
Andromeda glaucophylla Lk. Kalmia angustifolia L.
Aspidium cristatum (L.) Sw. I, polifolia Wang.
Aster puniceus L. Larix laricina (DuRoi) Koch
Calamagrostis canadensis (M..) Ledum groenlandicum Oeder
Garex filiformis L, Lysimachia terrestris (L.) BSP.
C. leptalea Wahl. Nemopanthes mucronata (L.) Trel.
@: pauciflora Lightf. ) Picea manmana (Val ws Se.
Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.) Potamogeton epihydrus af.
Cornus canadensis elongata Pk. Pyrus melanocarpa (Mx.) Willd.
Epilobium palustre L. Rubus triflorus Richards.
Eriophorum callitrix Cham. Spiraea latifolia Borkh.
IBS virginicum L, Vaccinium canadense Kalm
Gaultheria procumbens L. V. oxycoccos L.
Glyceria canadensis (Mx.) Trin. Wi pennsylvanicum Lam.
Viburnum cassinoides L.
Common to the two marshes and Bonaparte swamp
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. Eriophorum callitrix Cham.
Alnus incana (L.) Moench EE virginicum L.
Andromeda glaucophylla Lk. Glyceria canadensis (M-x.) Trin.
Aster puniceus L Hypericum virginicum L.
Calamagrostis canadensis (Mv.) Iris versicolor L.
Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.) Ledum groenlandicum Ocder
Carex filiformis L. Nemopanthes mucronata (L.) Trel.
CS leptalea Wahl. Riceawmanianay (ail) SB Sie
Epilobium palustre L. Rubus triflorus Richards
Vaccinium oxycoccos L.
NEWS MORI: SP Clas OF TY rEOLONA
Hypholoma Fr.
Pileus more or less fleshy, the margin at first incurved; lamellae
adnate or sinuate and adnexed; veil interwoven, adhering in frag-
ments to the margin of the pileus, not forming a distinct mem-
branous annulus on the stem; spores brown or purplish brown.
The appendiculate character of the margin of the young pileus
is a distinguishing feature of the genus and is suggestive of its
name. Many of the species grow on wood and are cespitose in
their mode of growth. The spore color is brown or purplish brown,
but in a few species the spore print on white paper is almost black.
The genus corresponds in structure to the white spored genus
Tricholoma, the pink spored Entoloma and the ochraceous spored
74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Hebeloma. Species with a luxuriant development of the veil must
be carefully distinguished from Stropharia on one hand, and those
with a scanty development of it, from Psilocybe on the other.
The species are not in all cases sharply limited and connecting
forms are not always satisfactorily located. They have been dis-
tributed in five sections, one of which, the Viscida, is yet unrepre-
sented in our flora. The following synoptical key gives the dis-
tinguishing characters of the sections.
—
KEY, TO) GEESE CMONS
Piléus.-hygrophanousns 245" tes oe ee ee eee eee ee A ppendiculata
Pileus not hygrophanous ..10 2.05. Soe goes ae eee I
1 Pileus glabrous red or yellow its prevailing colors........ Fascicularia
1 Pileus not wholly glabrous and with other prevailing colors............. 2
2 Pileus silky or floccose when younges.5 5-04.) 455 2e eee Floccosa
2 Pileus hairy or fbrillose, brown om browmish.. >>... Velutina
Appendiculata
Pileus hygrophanous, glabrous when mature.
The species are commonly small, the pileus rarely exceeding two
inches in diameter. They inhabit decaying wood or ground rich in
humus and are gregarious or cespitose. The color of the pileus
In some species is greatly changed by the escape of its moisture,
in others but slightly. This may be regarded as a difficult section
because of the variability of the species and their close resemblance
to each other.
KEY TO THE SPECIES
Pileus at vhirst wihitishmoreyellowishies. ee oe e ae ee incertum
Pileus at: first-some, other -colof 4.252. ee ses ee ee I
I Young lanellaewirolaceotseeee en eee ee candolleanum
I Young lamellae: not, violaceousS.<... 4.0. 6). soe hoa ee eee 2
2 Moisture of fresh pileus escaping first from the margin...madeodiscum
—
2 Moisture_of fresh pileus escaping first from the center....:. 22-5. 3
3 Plants’ gregarious, terrestiial@rcer eee ene eee ree hymenocephalum
3 Plants commonly, cespitose and siematile 2s. oe appendiculatum
Hypholoma incertum Pk.
UNCERTAIN HYPHOLOMA
N. Y. State Mus: Reéep’t 20;,p.40) Mas! Miem. 45 p. 165, plco. ies
Pileus thin, fragile, ovate or subcampanulate becoming yellow,
especially in the center, commonly white when dry, even or radiately
wrinkled, the thin margin sometimes wavy or irregular and when
young adorned with fragments of the white fugacious veil, flesh
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST I910 75
white; lamellae thin, close, narrow, adnate, whitish then rosy brown,
finally purplish brown; stem equal, hollow, easily splitting, white or
whitish; spores 8-10 » long, 4-6 » broad.
Pileus 2-6 cm broad; stem 2.5-7 cm long, 2-6 mm thick.
Gregarious or sparingly cespitose in lawns, pastures, grassy an«
bushy places and by roadsides in showery weather. May to Sep-
tember. Common. Edible and of excellent flavor.
This species differs from the next following species in its paler
young pileus, its adnate lamellae which also are not at first viola-
ceous and in its stem which is not striate at the top. It differs
also from the appendiculate hypholoma, Hypholoma ap-
pemitcwlatum (Bull) hee by mts; paler piletis, its) larger
spores, its more gregarious habit and in its habitat. It occasionally
has the pileus radiately and areolately rimose.
Hypholoma candolleanum ['r.
CANDOLLE HYPHOLOMA
Sylloge V, p.1038
Pileus fleshy but thin, convex or subcampanulate, becoming ex-
panded, obtuse, glabrous, hygrophanous, bay when young and moist,
white with a yellowish center when dry, flesh white; lamellae
rounded behind, adnexed, close, at first violaceous, then cinnamon
Drow; stem fragile, subfibrillose, hollow, ‘striate. at the apex,
white; spores 8-9 » long, 4-5 » broad.
Pileus 5-10 cm broad; stem 5-7 cm long, 3-6 mm thick.
‘Cespitose. Growing on the ground. Silver Springs, Wyoming
Con eAueust:, Rare.
We have not seen young and fresh specimens of this plant and
doubtfully admit it on the strength of specimens which, in this case
as in others so referred, do not show young lamellae with a viola-
ceous color, though in other respects they appear to belong to it.
Even the figures of it given in Mycological Illustrations and in
Illustrations of British Fungi do not show this color to the lamellae,
though the description of the species requires it.
Hypholoma madeodiscum Pk.
MOIST DISK HYPHOLOMA
N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 38, p.88
Pileus thin, convex becoming nearly plane, hygrophanous, reddish
brown when moist, grayish, tawny or ochraceous and rugose in the
76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
center when dry, the moisture escaping first from the margin,
slightly silky fibrillose on the margin when young; lamellae close,
slightly sinuate, adnexed, whitish becoming brown or purplish
brown; stem equal or slightly thickened at the base, hollow, slightly
silky fibrillose, obscurely striate at the apex, white; spores 8-10 »
long, 5-6 » broad.
Pileus 2.5-5 cm broad, stem 4-7 cm long, 4-6 mm thick.
Single or gregarious. Decaying wood. Adirondack mountains.
June. Rare. Found but once.
Remarkable for the persistency of the moisture in the center
of the pileus. ‘This character is suggestive of the specific name
and separates it from allied species. It has some points of agree-
ment with the candolle hypholoma, ly pholoma candol-
leanum Fr., but differs from it in its mode of growth and in
the color of the young lamellae. ;
Hypholoma hymenocephalum Pk.
THIN CAP HYPHOLOMA
INE You State Mins, dkepit 3iap.34
Pileus very thin and fragile, campanulate or convex becoming
expanded, sometimes umbonate, hygrophanous, brown and _stria-
tulate when moist, pallid or whitish and radiately rugulose when
dry, subatomate, the whitish appendiculate veil soon evanescent;
lamellae thin, narrow, close, dingy white becoming purplish brown;
stem slender, fragile, hollow, striate, slightly mealy at the top,
white; spores 8 » long, 4 » broad.
Pileus 2.5—5 cm broad; stem 5-10 cm long, 2-3 mm thick.
Gregarious. Damp ground among fallen leaves, especially under
shrubs or small trees. Occasional. July and August.
The species is remarkable for its very thin and fragile pileus
and for its fragile striate stem. The margin of the pileus is some-
times deeply split, forming radiating lobes and giving a stellate
appearance to the cap.
Hypholoma appendiculatum (Bull.) Fr.
APPENDICULATE HYPHOLOMA
Sylloge V, p.1039
Pileus thin, fleshy, ovoid or convex becoming expanded, glabrous,
hygrophanous, bay brown or tawny brown when moist, ochraceous
or pale ochraceous and rugose after the escape of the moisture;
REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST I'O1O WJ
lamellae close, narrow, adnate, whitish or creamy white becoming
purplish brown; stem slender, equal, hollow, glabrous, pruinose at
the top, white, the veil webby, white or whitish attached to the
margin of the pileus when young, quickly disappearing; spores
5-7 » long, 3-4 » broad.
Pileus 2-6 cm broad; stem 5-7 cm long, 4-6 mm thick.
Densely cespitose. Decaying wood chiefly in woods of hilly or
mountainous districts. August to October.
This name as used by Bulliard appears to have been applied to
at least two species and on this account some confusion has re-
cuinedu in the Outlines or Biitish seuncology, plate, nim heures
3 and 4, two species are evidently included under this name. In
Sylloge V, page 1039, the name is limited to the species represented
by figure 3. In our treatment of this species we have limited it
to those specimens which best agree with the characters ascribed
to it in Sylloge. The agreement is good except in the color of
the gills, which in our specimens passes from whitish to purplish
brown instead of incarnate brown. The peculiar characters of the
species are its tendency to form dense tufts, to grow chiefly on de-
caying wood, to be very hygrophanous, the difference between
the color of the moist cap and the dry being well marked, and in
the lateness of its appearance. The dimensions of the spores are
given in Sylloge as 6-8 x 3-4 », in British Fungus Flora as 5 x 2.5 p.,
In our specimens they agree better with those given in Sylloge.
Fascicularia
Pileus tenacious, glabrous, bright colored, dry, not hygrophanous.
The flesh of the pileus in this section is thicker and more firm
than in the species of the preceding one. The prevailing colors
of the pileus are red and yellow and its surface is smooth and not
at all hygrophanous. They usually grow in tufts on dead or
decaying wood and appear in autumn. The species resemble each
other closely and should be cautiously separated.
KEY TO THE SPECIES
Mommies shemestitiiednn i: Mie cee calen ak hcl eyan Wiad wictibe le th sublateritium
NAOMI MISE MIM MOL ove e ree icra eA on shot et cys “alee Ge ntyara Mecuieles suepeiantcaten iceh oy tet enetafons I
ievenevaunineycolon oi they pilletiss*Ged)~ ws )s0s she sto wise 28 ct ead ode aoe es ere ee perplexum
Menen allies color Or utmMepiletisy yellOw. ssc ayes aes ols oe kde capnoides
a)
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Dy
Hypholoma sublateritium (Schaeff.) Fr.
BRICK RED HYPHOLOMA
Sylloge V, p.1028
Pileus fleshy, convex or nearly plane, glabrous, obtuse, dry, dark
brick red, often paler on the margin, flesh whitish or yellowish,
taste commonly bitter, sometimes mild; lamellae close, adnate,
whitish becoming sooty olivaceous or purplish brown; stem equal
or tapering downward near the base, glabrous or slightly fibrillose,
stuffed, sometimes becoming hollow when old, ferruginous; spores
6-8 » long, 3-4 » broad.
Pileus 2.5-7.5 cm broad; stem 5-9 cm long, 4-12 mm thick.
Comnionly cespitose. On or about old stumps, prostrate trunks
of trees and on decaying wood covered with earth. August to
November. Common. Edible. Occasionally several stems grow
from a common base.
Hypholoma -sublateritium sSquamosumu@re
Pileus spotted with appressed darker scales, otherwise like the
type. This variety is rare, having been found but once. Piseco,
Hamilton co. August.
Hypholoma perplexum Pk.
PERPLEXING HYPHOLOMA
N. Y. State Cab. Rep’t 23, p.o9. Mus. Mem. 4, p.166, pl.6o, fig.10-17
Pileus convex -or nearly plane, sometimes umbonate, glabrous,
reddish or brownish red, usually yellowish on the margin, flesh
white or whitish, taste mild; lamellae thin, close, slightly rounded
behind, adnexed, pale yellow becoming tinged with green, finally
purplish brown; stem rather slender, equal or nearly so, firm,
hollow, slightly fibrillose, whitish or yellowish above, reddish brown
below ; spores 6-8 » long, 3-4 » broad.
Pileus 2.5-7 cm broad; stem 5-7 cm long, 4-8 mm thick.
Generally cespitose. On or about stumps or prostrate trunks of
trees in woods or open places. Common. August to November.
Edible.
This is very closely related to the preceding species, its dis-
tinguishing features being its commonly smaller size, paler margin
of the pileus, mild taste, paler and more slender stem which is
always hollow, even when young. A small form of it has been
found by F. C. Stewart growing from the base of cultivated red
currants. This may indicate a parasitic tendency of it.
REPORT OF GHEE STATE SBOTANIST, TOTO WS)
Hypholoma capnoides F'r.
FIR WOOD HYPHOLOMA
Sylloge V, p.1028
Pileus fleshy, convex or nearly plane, obtuse, glabrous, dry, yel-
lowish, often reddish or ochraceous in the center, flesh white, odor
and taste mild; lamellae moderately close, adnate, dry, smoky
gray becoming purplish or brown; stem equal or nearly so, silky,
striate at the top, sometimes curved or flexuous, hollow, pallid;
spores 7-8 » long, 4-5 v broad.
Pileus 2.5—4 cm broad; stem 4-7 cm long, 4-6 mm thick.
Single or cespitose. On or about pine and spruce stumps or
prostrate trunks. Adirondack mountains and Albany co. May to
Sepvemlbetr. | Ware:
The Friesian description ascribes only yellowish and ochraceous
colors to the pileus of this species, but in our specimens the center
of the pileus is often reddish or orange tinted. This color is also
shown in the figures of the species as given in Icones, plate 133,
ii@minliiitstrations of British Pune, plate 550. Ihe mature
lamellae of the typical form are described as purplish, but in our
specimens they are brown with no apparent purplish tint. We
have not thought it best to separate our plant on account of this
slight deviation from the description of the color of the mature
lamellae of the European form of the species.
iy eA Ta, x - ws!
y «SRB HERR Minas BS Aiea” Ly : ; eC
Floccosa
Pileus silky or adorned when young with superficial floccose
scales. This section. at present is represented in our State by two
species only,
KEY, DOP THE SPECIES
Pileusmonlia ot npnilloselyespotted 4. cfr. bocce tase sees le orl ie aggregatum
FICMSMMOCCOSCIVmNSCaly sti ta Se cine oot scare ce elds dar aysi cians eg ulaneiaia le fragile
Hypholoma aggregatum Pk.
AGGREGATED HYPHOLOMA
N. Y. State Mus. Ann. Rep’t 46, p.106; Botanist’s ed. p. 26
Pileus thin, convex or subcampanulate, obscurely spotted by ap-
pressed brownish fibrils, grayish white, flesh white; lamellae sub-
distant, rounded behind, adnexed, whitish becoming brown or
SO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
blackish brown, whitish on the edge; stem long, slender, hollow,
slightly floccose or fibrillose, white; spores 7-8 yu long, 4-5 v broad.
Pileus 2-3 cm broad; stem 5-8 cm long, 3-4 mm thick.
Densely cespitose. Base of trees and stumps. Albany co. Sep-
tember. Rare.
The densely tufted mode of growth and the grayish white, ob-
scurely spotted pileus are distinguishing features of this species.
From Hypholoma silvestre Gill. it may be separated by
its smaller size, densely tufted mode of growth and adnexed lamellae
with no rosy tint.’ From Hypholoma storea Fr. it is dis-
tinguished by its hollow stem, adnexed lamellae and the absence
of an umbo.
Hypholoma aggregatum sericeum Pk.
N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 54, p.972, pl.70, fig.8-14
This variety differs from the typical form in its pileus being
silky and destitute of spots and in having its stem striate at the top.
Warren co. September. Rare. Edible.
The edibility of the typical form of the species. has not been
tested by myself, but according to McIlvaine the caps are fine.
Hypholoma fragile Pk.
FRAGILE HYPHOLOMA
Ns Y. State Mus) Bul.-130,-p:22, pl.V, fig. 17
Pileus thin, fragile, conic or subcampanulate becoming convex,
obtuse or subumbonate, floccosely squamulose when young, glabrous
when mature, yellowish, grayish or subochraceous, sometimes more
highly colored in the center, the thin margin at first appendiculate
with fragments of the white veil; lamellae thin, narrow, close,
adnate, whitish or pallid becoming purplish brown; stem slender,
fragile, stuffed or hollow, glabrous or minutely floccose, white or
pallid; spores 8-10 » long, 4-5 » broad.
Pileus 1.2-2.4 cm broad; stem 2.5—5 cm long, 2-3 mm thick.
Gregarious. Decayed wood and among fallen leaves in damp
places in woods. Starlake, St Lawrence co. Painted Post, Steuben
co. August. Not common.
A small, delicate and fragile species. The specimens from Star
lake are smaller and more highly colored than the others, but do
not seem worthy of separation. The dried specimens bear some
resemblance to Hypholoma incertum Pk., but the ab-
REPORT, OF THES siAnEy BOTANIST LOO Si
sence of the hygrophanous character of the pileus, its smaller size
and more fragile nature and its different habitat lead me to keep it
separate,
Velutina
Pileus silky or streaked with innate fibrils, sometimes glabrous.
The characters of this section, as given in Sylloge, would strictly
admit only species having a silky or fibrillose pileus, but inasmuch
as species like jbl) pliodte mya ae aireh tim wy Berke and
levecastanophyllum Berk:, of which the pileus is described
as glabrous, have been admitted to it, we have extended the defini-
tion to include glabrous species which in other respects belong here.
The species of the section generally have the color of the spores
darker than in the preceding sections. Therefore the color of the
mature lamellae is almost or quite black and the spore print on
white paper appears black or nearly so. On this account the
species are liable at first sight to be referred to the black spored
series. The shape and size of the spores are in some cases 1m-
portant characters in distinguishing closely related species.
KEY TO THE SPECIES
Enlencapersistentiys haimyasquamose Or mbrilloses s/o. 45. ...6 + vee I
Mets Arlyn OF WiMOlbyesolAaW ROMS) © ae can 5 cose oleh se ste ie. ers b's nn (ee aes eevee 2
1 Plant cespitose, spores 8-10 x 5-6 p........... POR One RE Ut lacrymabundum
I Plant gregarious, spores 10-12 x 6-8 p........ a arena Mine een EN ene rigidipes
Bmnilencuevens the) Cubicle orem TumOSey a. go. ee se) eel al boughtoni
Peles rucOose ok Tadiatelynwitnkledias 2... si. s.lue os spe se one eae 3
Oe NOUSMEAW Ne. SPORES) FOUSM a adit hye s cee ciaielatees crc oeisiege oe a! rugocephalum
Bunilensabrown, Spores smooth... 0.2... < OV ay RN RE cena delineatum
Hypholoma lacrymabundum I'r.
.WEEPING HYPHOLOMA
Sylloge V, p.1033
Pileus fleshy, convex, obtuse, persistently squamose with dark
brown or blackish hairy tufts, not hygrophanous, often irregular
from its crowded tufted mode of growth, brown or tawny brown,
flesh whitish; lamellae moderately close, adnate or subsinuate,
whitish becoming purplish brown, almost black when fully mature,
whitish on the edge, often beaded with tearlike drops of moisture
in damp weather; stem equal or nearly so, fibrillose or squamose,
hollow, whitish, pallid or brownish; spores purplish brown, 8-10 +
long, 5-6 » broad. |
2 NEW. YORK STATE MUSEUM
Pileus 5-8 cm broad; stem 5-8 cm long, 5-8 mm thick.
Single or cespitose. On or about old stumps. Albany co:
August to October. Not common.
The ornamentation of the pileus is variable. The hairlike fibrils
are sometimes elongated and appressed, sometimes collected in
tufts. They are often black and occasionally coarse and strigose,
specially on the margin.
Hypholoma rigidipes Pk.
RIGID STEM HYPHOLOMA
N. Yo State Mus] Bulsizorpi245 pial tie 1—o
Pileus fleshy, thin, convex or broadly convex, dry, fibrillose
squamulose, tawny brown, often reddish in the center, flesh
whitish, taste mild; lamellae close, narrow, slightly sinuate, ad-
nexed, brownish red becoming dark purplish brown or black; stem
slender, rigid, equal, hollow, fibrillose squamulose, colored like or
little paler than the pileus; spores broadly ellipsoid, apicuiate,
10-12 » long, 6-8 » broad.
Pileus 2.5-5 em broad; stem 5-10 cm long, 4-6 mm thick.
Gregarious. Damp places among tall herbs. North River, War-
Teil Con Seprembenumlwane:
This species is well marked by its gregarious mode of growth.
In the ornamentation of the pileus it is related to the preceding
species, but it differs in its mode of growth, smaller size, more
slender rigid stem and larger apiculate spores.
Hypholoma boughtoni Pk.
BOUGHTON HYPHOLOMA
N. Y. State Minus: Bull 10 p23, plus fei,
Pileus fleshy, thin except in the center, broadly convex or sub-
hemispheric, rarely with an umbo, glabrous or slightly fibrillose,
often concentrically or areolately cracking, pale reddish brown or
grayish brown, flesh whitish, taste disagreeable ; lamellae moderately
close, adnate, purplish brown, seal brown or blackish, obscurely
spotted, whitish on the edge; stem equal, floccosely fibrillose, striate
at the top, hollow, white or whitish; spores broadly and unequally
ellipsoid, apiculate, black on white paper, 10-12 » long, 7-8 p
broad.
Pileus 2.5-7 cm broad; stem 2.5-6 cm long, 4-10 mm thick.
Ground in woods or open places. Albany, Monroe, New York
and Tompkins counties. August and September. :
REPORD OP DHE STAREy BOLANISE IQ1O 83
Hypholoma rugocephalum Atk.
RUGOSE HYPHOLOMA
Mushrooms, Edible and Poisonous, 2d ed., p.30, pl.8, fig.29
Pileus fleshy in the center, convex becoming expanded, broadly
umbonate, glabrous, irregularly wrinkled or rugose, tawny, the thin
margin often curved upward, flesh tinged with yellow; la-’
mellae thin, shghtly sinuate, adnate, easily seceding from the
stem, spotted, purplish black when mature; stem even, irregular,
fleshy, hollow, glabrous, subbulbous, colored like the pileus, paler
above the slight filamentous often spore-blackened remnants of
the annulus; spores oval or broadly ellipsoid, inequilateral, pointed
at each end, echinulate or minutely tuberculate, 8-11 » long,
6-8 » broad, black; cystidia cylindric, slightly enlarged at the top,
hyaline, clustered.
Pileus 6-10 cm broad; stem 7-10 cm long, 6-10 mm thick.
Single or cespitose. Damp places in woods. July and August.
Tompkins and Suffolk counties. 7
This is related to the preceding species from which it may be
separated by its wholly glabrous tawny pileus and its rugosely
wrinkled continuous cuticle. Both are allied to Hypholoma
Vaclintl mum: (Pers:) Br., but may be distineuislred from: it by
the absence of the hygrophanous character and by their broader
spores.
Hypholoma delineatum n. sp.
DELINEATED HYPHOLOMA
Pileus fleshy, thin, convex or nearly plane, often slightly de-
pressed in the center, glabrous, rugose or radiately wrinkled, com-
monly marked toward and on the margin even when dry with
irregular radiating lines or ridges, occasionally wavy or irregular
on the margin, brown, tawny brown or reddish brown, often darker
in the center, flesh whitish; lamellae thin, close, adnate, brown
becoming blackish brown; stem equal, glabrous, hollow, pallid or
colored like the pileus; spores even, ellipsoid, not apiculate, 8-10
long, 4-0 » broad; cystidia scarce, 40-60 » long, 16-20 » broad.
Pileus 2.5-5 cm broad; stem 3-5 cm long, 3-6 mm thick.
Gregarious. Ground and decayed wood. Port Jefferson, Suf-
HOUICOn Nest, | Nate:
This species is likely to be easily mistaken for the preceding
Cewek oO MoOnLom an ti eoc exp ha lt) “Atk. wich jit) fe
4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
sembles externally but from which it is separated by its more
narrow obtuse and smooth spores and by its broader flask-shaped
cystidia. Its glabrous rugosely and radiately wrinkled pileus
separate it from H. velwtinum (Pers.) Fr. ~ Dhewipilens
also having neither spots nor regular striations distinguishes it
from H. lepidotum Bres. Specimens of it have been re-
ceived from Eglon, West Virginia, and from Rockville, Indiana.
Pileus carnosus, tenuis, convexus vel subplanus, in centro ali-
quando leviter depressus, glaber, rugosus vel radiate rugosus, in
siccitate margine striis irregularibus radiantibus ornatus, aliquando
margine irregularis, brunneus fulvo-brunneus vel rufo-brunneus,
frequenter in centro nigrescens, carne albida; lamellae tenues, con-
fertae, adnatae, aliquando leviter sinuatae, brunneae deinde nigro-
brunneae; stipes aequalis, glaber, cavus, pallidus vel pileo in colore
similis; sporae laeves, ellipsoideae, 8-10 x 4-6 »; cystidia 40-60
x 16-20 pf
Several species formerly referred to this genus have been omit-
ted because of erroneous determination or because they are more
closely related to the genus Psilocybe.
NEWOYORIG SPBCIES OF PSAME REA
Psathyra ['r.
Pileus membranaceous, conic or campanulate, fragile, hygro-
phanous, the margin at first straight and appressed to the stem;
wature lamellae brown or purplish brown; stem subcartilaginous,
fragile, polished, hollow; veil none or only universal and floccose
fibrillose.
The genus may be separated from Psilocybe by the fragile
character of the pileus and stem and by the straight appressed
margin of the young pileus. It is divided into three sections,
Conopileae, Obtusatae and Fibrillosae. Of the first section no
representative has yet been found within our limits.
Obtusatae
Pileus campanulate or convex, glabrous or atomate; lamellae
plane or arcuate; veil none.
ISEY) LO” DELLE “SPECIES
Pileus srowine on decaying woods. ee eee cee ee conica
Pileus growing on ground among hair cap mosses............ polytrichophila
REPORT OF THE LATE BOTANIST,) LOLTO
CO
cn
Psathyra conica Pk.
CONIC PSATHYRA
INS Y. state Mus. Rep’t 54, v. 1; report of the State Botamist.p.153, pl.H,
IHUkeaalh 9/29)
Pileus thin, conic, rarely convex, glabrous, hygrophanous, dark
brown when moist, pale ochraceous when dry; lamellae very broad,
close, adnate, whitish or pallid when young, dark brown when
mature, often white crenulate on the edge; stem slender, hollow,
silky fibrillose, brown; spores 5-6» long, 3-4 » broad.
Pileus 8-12 mm broad; stem 2-4 cm long, 1 mm thick.
Decaying prostrate trunks of spruce. Franklin co. September.
Rau |
Psathyra polytrichophila Pk.
MOSS-LOVING PSATHYRA
Ne Yo State Mins, Rept 30, ps 42
Pileus thin, convex or subcampanulate, glabrous, fragile, some-
times with a slight umbo, hygrophanous, brown and striatulate on
the margin when moist, pale ochraceous or buff color when dry,
subshining; lamellae plane, adnate or slightly arcuate and subde-
current, broad, subdistant, purplish brown; stem slender, equal,
stuffed with a whitish pith, mealy at the top, slightly fibrillose to-
ward the base, colored like the pileus; spores purplish brown,
8S » long, 5 v broad.
Pileus 4-10 mm broad; stem 2.5-5 cm long, 1-2 mm thick.
Gregarious. Ground among hair cap mosses, Pelytrichum. AI-
bany and Oneida counties. May. Rare.
Fibrillosae
Pileus and stem at first floccose or fibrillose from the universal
veil.
KEY TO THE SPECIES
Piles. CUMS ES lL le Oe RC a eee ame ne Ren Ren umbonata
TP MEWS >OEBISEY Wt EA LCi aah a VRE Re eR Re CRRA Se vestita
Psathyra umbonata Pk.
UMBONATE PSATHYRA
INE Va State: Mus. Rept sor 106
Pileus submembranous, campanulate, strongly umbonate, hygro-
phanous, purplish brown and striatulate when moist, grayish white
when dry, even or slightly rugulose, atomate, often radiately sul-
86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
cate and slightly fibrillose on the margin, the umbo usually becoming
paler than the rest; lamellae broad, subdistant, ventricose, subad-
nate, brownish red becoming purplish brown, finally almost black;
stem slender, flexuose, hollow, white, commonly hairy tomentose
at the base and slightly mealy at the top; spores blackish brown
or almost black, 12-16 » long, 6-8 » broad.
Pileus 2-3 cm broad; stem 4—7 cm long, 1.5-2 mm thick.
Gregarious or subcespitose. On chip dirt and vegetable mold.
Hamilton co. July. > Rare.
It is closely related to Psathyra corrus is) Geenceaarme
from which it may be separated by its much darker colored and
striatulate moist -pileus, atomate and with a white umbo when dry,
less glabrous and more slender stem and broader spores. The
umbo is very prominent and loses its moisture before the rest of
the pileus. In consequence it becomes very conspicuous, appearing
like a white knob in the midst of a dark background. Because
of the fibrils on the margin of the pileus it is placed in this section
though the fibrils are not always present. In the dried specimens
the margin is sulcate striate.
Psathyra vestita Pk.
CLOTHED PSATHYRA
N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 105, p.28
Pileus submembranaceous, ovate, conic or subcampanulate, ob-
tuse, at first covered with white flocculent fibrils, reddish becoming
pallid or white and silky fibrillose, sometimes slightly striate on
the margin when moist, striate to the center when dry; lamellae
thin, narrow, close, adnate, white when young, becoming blackish
brown; stem equal, hollow, flexuous, floccose fibrillose becoming
silky fibrillose, mealy and often striate at the top, white; spores
purplish brown, 8-10 » long, 5-6 » broad.
Pileus 8-16 mm broad; stem 2.5-4 cm long, 2-3 mm thick.
Gregarious. Among fallen leaves and grass. Essex co. Sep-
tember.
This species is closely related to Psathyra semivestita
B. & Br. from which it differs in color and in being wholly clothed
when young with white floccose fibrils.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES
a
Plate 121
87
—
Le)
Cie ss (SS
Boletus albus Pk.
WHITE BOLETUS
Young plant
Mature plant
Vertical section of upper part of a young plant
Vertical section of upper part of a mature plant
Four spores x 400
Lycoperdon atropurpureum V\itt.
PURPLE SPORED PUFF BALL
Two young plants
A mature plant
Vertical section of a fully grown plant while yet in edible con-
dition
Vertical section of a fully mature plant
Four spores x 400
8S
N. Y. STATE MUS. 64 EDIBLE BUNGI PLATE 121
ay, KE
be Pp len AAR
a) Gaston
Fic. 1-5 Fic. 6-10
BOLETUS ALBUS PK. LYCOPERDON ATROPURPUREUM Virr.
WHITE BOLETUS PURPLE SPORED PUFF BALL
Lactarius camphoratus ['r.
FRAGRANT LACTARIUS
1 Young plant
2 Mature plant showing hymenium
3 Mature plant showing umbonate pileus
4—5 Vertical section of upper part of two plants
6 Transverse section of stem
7 Four spores x 400
Cantharellus aurantiacus Fr.
ORANGE CHANTARELLE
8 Young plant
Q Mature plant
10 Mature plant with brown center of pileus
11 Mature plant with gills paler than usual
12 Mature plant with white pileus and pale gills
13-14 Vertical section of upper part of two plants showing varia-
tion in color of gills
15 Diagrammatic representation of forking of the gills
16 Four spores x 400
90
N. Y. STATE MUS. 64 PDIBEE FONG PLATE 1226
Fic. 1-7 Fic. 8-16
LACTARIUS CAMPHORATUS ER. CANTHARELLUS AURANTIACUS FR.
CAMPHORY LACTARIUS ORANGE CHANTARELLE
Lactarius lignyotus Fr.
SOOTY LACTARIUS
t Young plant :
2 Plant of medium size showing crenate and striate margin of cap
3 Large plant with fully expanded cap showing a small umbo and
irregular radiating ridges; also discolored wound of gills and
drop of milk issuing from it
4 Vertical section of upper part of a young plant
5 Vertical section of upper part of a mature plant
6 Four spores x 400
N. Y. STATE MUS. 64 EDIBLE FUNGI PEATEs i23
LACTARIUS LIGNYOTUS FR.
SOOTY LACTARIUS
Lactarius boughtoni Pk.
BOUGHTON LACTARIUS
Young plant
Middle-aged plant
Mature plant
Vertical section of upper part of a young plant
Vertical section of upper part of a mature plant
Transverse section of a stem
Four spores x 400
v4
PLATE IV
FUNGI
N. ¥Y. STATE MUS. 64
.
LACTARIUS BOUGHTONI Px
BOUGHTON LACTARIUS
Cortinarius croceofolius Pk.
SAFFRON-GILLED CORTINARIUS
rt Young plant
2 Middle-aged plant
3-4 Mature plants
5 Vertical section of upper part of a young plant
'6 Vertical section of upper part of a mature plant
7 Transverse section of a stem
8 Four spores x 400
Clitocybe biformis Pk.
TWO-FORMED CLITOCYBE
9g Young plant
10 Middle-aged plant
ti Mature plant showing more highly colored cap and gills
12 Mature plant with eccentric stem
13 Vertical section of upper part of a middle-aged plant
14 Vertical section of upper part of a mature plant with eccentric
stem
15 Four spores x 400
96
N. Y. STATE MUS. 64 FUNGI PLATE VI
Fic. 1-8 Fic. 9-15
CORTINARIUS CROCEOFOLIUS Px. CLITOCYBE BIFORMIS Px.
SAFFRON GILLED CORTINARIUS TWO FORMED CLITOCYBE
INDEX
Abies balsamea, 20.
Agaricus campester americanus,
floridanus, 50.
Amanita bisporigera, 23.
floccocephala, 23.
phalloides, 23.
velatipes, 23.
Ascochyta menyanthis, 23.
Aspergillus glaucus, 30.
Suberiseus, 30.
Aster laevis, 42.
puniceus, 35.
undulatus loriformis, 42.
Aulographum ledi, 23.
Averyville marsh, 69-73;
plants in, 72-73.
Hist Ov
Basidiophora_ kellermanii
cula, 64.
Biatora coarctata, 24.
LBoletinus paluster, 42.
Boletus albocarneus, 65.
albus, 65-68.
explanation of plate, 88.
chrysenteron sphagnorum, 64.
gertrudiae, 50-51.
Boughton, F. S., quoted, 33.
Brassica arvensis, 42.
Burnham, S. H., mentioned, Io.
pauper-
Calamagrostis canadensis, 70.
Calvatia craniiformis, 24.
gigantea, 9.
Camelina microcarpa, 24.
sativa, 24.
Cantharellus aurantiacus, 66.
explanation of plate, go.
infundibuliformis nigricans, 42.
Carex filiformis, 70.
Carpinus caroliniana, 34.
Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa, 42.
Cercospora omphacodes, 24.
phlogina, 24.
verbenae-strictae, 51.
Cladosporium paeoniae, 25.
Climacium kindbergii, 25.
Clitocybe biformis, 25.
explanation of plate, 96.
dealbata sudorifica, 7, 43-44.
gilva, 25.
infundibuliformis, 26.
maxima, 26.
morbifera, 44.
multiceps tricholoma, 42.
subnigricans, 51-52.
Clitopilus washingtoniensis, 52.
Colletotrichum cereale, 58.
Coniothecium perplexum, 52-53.
Cornus canadensis elongata, 44.
suecica, 44.
Cortinarius cinnamomeus, 206.
croceocolor, 26.
croceofolius, 26.
explanation of plate, 06.
eglaucopus, 27.
napus, 27.
semisanguineus, 26.
triumphans, 27.
60=72)4n list
Cranberry marsh,
plants in, 71-72.
’ Crataegus, 6.
Abisuatane 27:
brainerdi, 28.
grayana,: 44.
longipedunculata, 28.
mellita, 28.
nemorosa, 28.
Crepis setosa, 20.
Cronartium ribicola, 44-45.
of
Cryptosporium macrospermum, 20.
Cycloloma atriplicifolium, 30.
Cylindrosporium conservans, 53.
Cytospora microspora, 30.
DiGi sO}
97
08 NEW YORK
Daphne mezereum, 45.
Diaporthe callicarpae, 53-54.
parasitica, 40.
retecta, 36.
Diplodia alni, 54.
alni-rubrae, 54.
linderae, 30.
Eccilia mordax, 30.
Edible fungi, 65-60.
Erysiphe cichoracearum, 35.
Euphorbia corollata, 45.
Eurotium herbariorum, 30.
STATE MUSEUM
boughtoni, &2.
candolleanum, 75.
capnoides, 79.
castanophyllum, 81.
delineatum, 83-84.
fragile, 80-81.
hymenocephalum, 76.
incertum, 74-75, 8o.
lacrymabundum, 81-82.
lepidotum, 8&4.
madeodiscum, 75-76.
perplexum, 78.
rigidipes, 8&2.
rugocephalum, 83.
silvestre, 8o.
storea, 8o.
sublateritiuyn, 78.
squamosum, 78.
velutinum, 83, 84.
Hypochnus tristis, 32.
Hypoxylon bartholomaei, 56.
subgeriseum, 30.
Fascicularia, 77.
Fibrillosae, 85.
Flammula graveolens, 54-55.
Floccosa, 79.
Fuligo ovata, 45.
Fungi, extralimital, new species and
varieties, 50-65; edible, 65-60.
Inocybe rimosoides, 32.
Gloeosporium caryae, 30.
divergens, 31.
Glonium parvulum, 45.
Grindelia squarrosa, 31.
Gymnosporangium clavipes, 47.
Lactarius boughtoni, 32.
explanation of plate, 94.
camphoratus, 67.
explanation of plate, 9o.
lignyotus, 67-68.
explanation of plate, 02.
meLeHIS, Sy, (7,
subdulcis, 67.
Lecanora varia saepicola, 46.
Lentinus piceinus, 33.
Lepidium draba, 46.
Lepiota allenae, 56-57.
Leptonia longistriata, 57.
strictipes, 57-58.
Lychnis coronaria, 33.
Lycoperdon atropurpureum, 68-60.
explanation of plate, 88.
Hebeloma flexuosipes, 55.
Helianthus petiolaris, 3T.
Helminthosporium apiculatum, 55.
subapiculatum, 55.
Herpotrichia diffusa, 45.
rhodomphala, 45. |
Heterothecium pezizoideum, 31.
Hordeum hexastichon, 46.
trifurcatum, 46.
Hormiscium ambrosiae, 55-56.
Howland: thisiG.2 6:
Hydrastis canadensis, 46.
Hyerophorus caprinus, 31.
Hypericum prolificum, 31.
Hypholoma, New York species of,
73-84.
ageregatum, 79-80.
sericeum, 8o.
appendiculatum, 76-77.
atrichum, 81.
Machaeranthera pulverulenta, 33.
Macrophoma suspecta, 58.
Macrosporium heteronemum _ pan-
tophaeum, 33.
| Marasmius contrarius, 34.
ramulinus, 34.
Melanconium bicolor candidum, 65.
INDEX TO REPORT OF THE STATE BOTANIST IQIO 99
Microdiplodia mori, 50.
Viciae, 50.
Mushrooms, see Fungi.
Mycogone cervina subincarnata, 46.
Myxosporium carpini, 34.
castaneum quercus, 46.
Naemospora croceola, 34.
Naucoria sororia, 34.
suborbicularis, 35.
Nolanea atrocyanea, 509.
caelestina, 50.
howellii, 59-60.
Obtusatae, 84.
Oidium asteris-punicei, 35.
destruens, 47.
erysiphoides, 35.
Ombrophila enterochroma, 60.
thujina, 60.
Ovularia stachydis-ciliatae, 60.
Oxybaphus floribundus, 35.
Parmelia borreri hypomela, 47.
perforata hypotropa, 47.
Peridermium strobi, 45.
Peronospora ficariae, 47.
Pertusaria leioplaca, 35.
Pholiota terrigena, 35.
Phoma piceina, 35.
simillima, 36.
Stileiica, 30.
Phyllosticta betae, 36.
mahaleb, 61.
mespili, 61.
paupercula, 60.
prunicola, 61.
subtilis, 36.
Physcia hispida, 36.
Eieris) hieracitoides, 37.
Pilocratera abnormis, 37.
Placodium ferrugineum discolor, 37.
Plantago media, 47.
Plants, species added to collection,
5, II-13; species not before re-
ported, .6, 23-41; contributors and
them jconthibutions,. 5, 13—23.
Plasmodiophora elaeagni, 37.
- Platanus occidentalis; 30.
4
Pleurotas approximans, 37.
spiculifer, 38.
Polypodium vulgare, 47.
Psathyra, New York species of,
84-86.
conica, 85.
corrugis, 86.
polytrichophila, 85.
semivestita, 86.
umbonata, 85-86.
vestita, 86.
Ramalina calicaris fraxinea, 47.
rigida, 38.
Rhabdospora physostegiae, 38.
Roestelia aurantiaca, 47.
Russula densifolia, 61.
eccentrica, 61.
nigricans, OT.
Sagina decumbens, 48.
Scirpus occidentalis, 48.
validus, 48.
Septoria aceris-macrophylhi, 62.
angustissima, 62.
ficariae, 63.
ficarioides, 62.
samarae, 63.
Sideranthus gracilis, 38.
Sphaerella rubina, 7.
Sphaeromyces delphinii, 63.
Sphaeropsis melanconioides, 64.
smilacis latispora, 39.
Sphaerotheca humuli, 48.
Sporobolus cryptandrus, 4o.
Sporotrichum chryseum, 64.
grisellum, 30.
Thaspium barbinode, 49.
Theloschistes concolor effusus, 40.
flavicans, 30.
Thlaspi perfoliatum, 30.
Trichothecium griseum, 39.
subgriseum, 309.
Triosteum aurantiacum, 30.
perfoliatum, 30.
Usnea trichodea, 40.
100 NEW YORK STATE MJSEUM .)
Valsonectria parasitica, 7, 40.
Velutina, 81. Viburnum dentatum, 49. —
Verbena stricta, 51. - venosum, 41. “a
Vermicularia beneficiens, 40. — Vicia angustifolia seget aes :
herbarum, 4o. Peracea we:
pomicola, 41.
villosa, 41. —
pomona, 4I. Viola blanda, 49. —
trichella, 41.
pallens, 49.
Verticillium agaricinum,
is
Appendix 5
Archeology
Museum Bulletin 144
144 Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y.,
under the act of July 16, 1894
No. 482 ALBANY, N. Y. NOVEMBER I, IQIO
New York State Museum
Joun M. CrarkeE, Director
Museum Bulletin 144
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE AND OTHER
FOOD PLANTS
BY
ANDER C2 PARKER
PAGE PAGE
epekacOmyaMOte s.. 65 .cc eis oe. 58 5 | IX Foods prepared from
TP ayb TINIE Ia See ee 9 | COR Mats Hine ort ae 66
I Maize or Indian corn in X Uses of the corn plant. 80
[MUSE OI tele hcee eee tite c.g g | Part 2 Other food plants....... 89
II Early records of corn culti- XI Beans and bean foods.. 8g
WENN. Ges ee a ay a eee 15 XII Squashes and other vine
III Customs of corn cultiva- vegetabless.. 2 4.000 go
(IO ND oleae ote a ee 21 Mi weatvandistalk foodsi7eaneg
IV Ceremonialand legendary XIV Fungi and lichens..... 93
allwstoms tOlCORNs. 42.6 - 36 XV Fruit and ~— berrylike
V Varieties of maize used.. 41 fOOdS iva eee O4
VI Corn cultivation termin- XCVil “Food uauts 4 eee 99
UGE AT Se eer a eee eee 44 XVII Sap and bark foods.... 102
VII Utensils for the prepara- XeV LT hood roots 4-225 e-c 104
Hon OLCconMtOG foOd.... 45 | List ok authorities'quated2 =... —.- TIO
VIII Cooking and eating cus- Price sen. Gs ie ca ee gen ii
WONITSE SRG F oicin Marrs Greece 59
New York State Education Department
Science Division, September 27, 1910
Flon. Andrew S. Draper LL.D.
Commissioner of Education
Str? I have the honor to submit herewith for your approval, a
- manuscript entitled Jroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants,
which has been prepared by Arthur C. Parker, Archeologist of the
State Museum, and to recommend its publication as a museum
bulletin.
Very respectfully
Joun M. CLARKE
Director
State of New York
Education Department
COM MISSIONER’S ROOM
Approved for publication Sept. 28, 1910
Commissioner of Education
sot
=
ae
Education Department Bulletin
Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York
Entered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under
the act of July 16, 1894
No. 482 ALBANY, N. Y. NOVEMBER 1, IgI0
New York State Museum
Joun M. Crarke, Director
Museum Bulletin 144
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE AND OTHER FOOD
PLANTS
BY
ARTHUR C. PARKER, Archeologist
PREFATORY NOTE
These notes on the preparation and uses of maize and other vege-
table foods by the Iroquois have been gathered during a period of 10
years, while the writer has been officially concerned with the arche-
ology and ethnology of the New York Iroquois and their kindred in
Canada. They embrace all it has been possible for him to gather
from the Iroquois themselves concerning the uses of their favorite
food plants. Scores of Indians were questioned and many interest -
ing facts were brought out from almost forgotten recesses of their
minds,
The greater part of this treatise is the result of a purely original
inquiry. An attempt has been made to cite the records of early ex-
plorers and travelers where the case seemed of interest or importance,
but no general historical review of the subject is given.t The aim is
rather to present an ethnological study of the Iroquois uses of food
plants. This it is hoped will also have an economic and sociologic
value.
Maize played an important part in Iroquois culture and history.
Its cultivation on the large scale to which they carried it necessitated
_ permanent settlements, and it was, therefore, an influential factor in
1For a general review of the subject of Indian foods consult Thomas.
Mound Explorations, Bureau of Ethnology, 1890-91; Carr. Mounds of the
Mississippi Valley, Smithsonian Rep’t, 1891; Carr. Foods of Certain Ameri-
can Indians, Am. Antiq. Soc. 1895.
6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
determining and fixing their special type of culture. They had ceased
to be nomadic hunters when their corn fields and vegetable gardens
flourished. Many of the tribes of eastern North America were agri-
culturalists to an extent hardly realized by those unfamiliar with early
records and-this is especially true of the Huron-Iroquois family,
though it is not to be disputed that the Algonquin tribes of the east
and southeast had large fields and raised corn and other vegetables
on a large scale.
My principal informants as to names and recipes are the follow-
ing Iroquois Indians: on the Tonawanda Seneca Reservation, Lyman
Johnson, Otto Parker, Peter Sundown; on the Allegany Reservation,
Mrs Henry Logan, Mrs Fred Pierce and others; on the Cattaraugus
Reservation, Mrs Aurelia Jones Miller, George Dolson Jimerson,
Thomas Silverheels, Mrs Frank Patterson, Mrs Emily Tallchief, Mrs
Julia Crouse (Aweniyont), Chief and Mrs Edward Cornplanter,
Chief and Mrs Delos Big Kettle, John Jake, George Pierce, John
Lay jr, Skidmore Lay, Mrs Emily C. Parker (Tuscarora), Mrs Cas-
sie Gordon (Cayuga), Job King, Mrs Naomi Jimeson and many
others; on the Onondaga Reservation, Chief and Mrs Baptist
Thomas, Marvin Crouse and others; on the Grand River. Reserva- |
tion of the Six Nations, Canada, Albert Hill, Chief and Mrs D. C.
Loft, Mr and Mrs Seth Newhouse (all Mohawks), Chief Michael
Anthony and Lawson Montour (Delaware), Chief Josiah Hill (Nan-
ticoke), Chief Jacob Johnson, Fred Johnson (Oneida), Chief Gibson
(Seneca) and many others, of the Oneida of Muncytown, Ontario,
‘Chief Danford, Elijah Danford, and of the Caughnawaga Mohawk,
Mr and Mrs Longfeather (James Hill), Mrs Dibeux, Mrs Saylor
and others. |
As far as practicable the writer has followed the system of orthog-
raphy used by the Smithsonian Institution in recording American lan-
guages, and especially that employed by Hewett in his Cosmology.
For certain reasons there are a few minor departures from the sys-
tem as employed by Hewett but in general there is little difference.
Alphabet and abbreviations
as in father, bar; Germ. haben
the same sound prolonged
as in what; Germ. man
as in hat, man, ran
the same sound prolonged
as in law, all; Fr. o in or
go> sor} mm: oc a oo
Gr We (2) ©. tapes} ee ek Gee LICE Tho (0) Oc o
,
th
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE Fh
as in aisle, as i in mine, bind; Germ. Hain
as ou in out, as ow in how; Germ. Haus
as sh in shall; Germ. sch in schellen; Fr. ch in charmer
as th in wealth
pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching the upper teeth
as in enunciating the English th; this is the only souna of d
in the language
as e in they, as a in may; Fr. ne
as in met, get, then; Germ. denn; Fr. sienne
as in gig; Germ. geben; Fr. gout : ;
as in has, he; Germ. haben
as in pique, machine
the same sound prolonged
as in pick, pit
as in kick, kin
as in no, nun, not
as ng in ring, sing
as in note, boat
as iem in Gerin. ich
as in see, sat ry
pronounced with the tip of the tongue on the upper teeth, as in
enunciating the English th, this being the only sound of t in
the language
as in rule; Germ. du; Fr. ou in dour
as in rut, shut
as in wut, win
as in yes, yet
as j in judge
as wh in what
as ch in church |
marks nasalized vowels as a™, e", €", 0", 4", ai", etc.
indicates an aspiration or soft emission of the breath which is
imitial or final, thus “h, e"*, o, etc.
marks a sudden closure of the glottis preceding or following a
Sound, tiitiss aor, a2, a, etc:
marks the accented syllable of a word
in this system are always pronounced separately
In abbreviating the names of the various languages the following
have been used: Mk., Mohawk; Od., Oneida ; Onon., Onondaga;
Caz, .
Cayuga, and Sen., Seneca.
8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Unless otherwise specified the Iroquois names and words used in
the body of this paper are all Seneca. The writer is more familiar
with this dialect of the Iroquois than the others, and this coupled
with the fact that the Seneca are the most conservative of the Iro-
quois and remember more concerning their ancient usages, it is hoped
will justify the employment of that tongue to the exclusion of the
others.
In a work of this character one is always tempted to add in full
the myths which hover about the subject and to describe the various
rites and ceremonies that attend it. These things, interesting as they
are, are reserved however for notice in other works where they will
be more properly correlated.
ARTHUR C. PARKER
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 3)
I MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN IN HISTORY
1 The origin of maize. From the Greek few meaning to live
has come the Latin gca, the family name of Zea mays Linn.,
Indian corn or maize. The term zea as applied to the name of maize
is highly significant and most appropriate for with the Iroquois as
with many other Indian tribes maize was the principal and favorite
vegetable food. So important was it to the Iroquois that they called
it by a name meaning “ our life” or “ it sustains us.” ,
That maize is a native American plant there is now no question.
The testimony of archeology, history and botany all point to this con-
clusion. From botanical studies its origin in southern Mexico can be
practically demonstrated.
Several early investigators have endeavored to show that Zea
mays is not indigenous to America by referring to the corn of
Egypt and the Levant.? Most of these writers, if not all, have based
their premises upon statements by no means unassailable. It is
difficult to imagine what advantage is to be derived from creating
or fostering misstatements as to the origin of maize but this has
been done by several writers. In 1810 Molinari, a European writer,
published a work called Storia d’Incisa in which there was a refer-
ellecetOnis | “.. a plirse containine a kind of seed of a golden
color and partly white, and unknown in the country and brought
from Anatolia.”* This strange seed was supposed to have been
given by two crusaders, companions of Boniface III, to the town ot
Incisa. This reference to the seed “of golden color” caused some
discussion at the time and many believed it to be maize, but after
much controversy the celebrated Storia was found by the Comte
de Riant to be a pure forgery, but not until it had been cited widely
as proof of the Old World origin of maize.® There are many his-
torical references as vague and unreliable as this which nevertheless
seemed to have a certain weight.
1For origin and botanical character of maize see Harshburger. Botanical
Studies, Univ. Pa. and Iowa Agric. Exp. Sta. Bul. 36, 1907. See also Brown,
Eee oHanmens Cabinet, 1 2. Albany 1838; Brown, D> J.- Amer. Inst:
Trans. 1846.
2Cf. Van der Donck. New Netherlands. Amsterdam 1656. 1:158. Reprint
Esta SOC brans..cen.2.
3 Compare the account of Lundy, John P. Zea Mays, as it is Related to
the Incipient Civilization of Red Men all the World Over. Numismatic &
Antiq. Soc. Phila. 1883.
4De Candolle. Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 388, Internat. Sci. Ser.
No ¥: 1885.
6 Riant. La Charte d’Incisa. 1877. Reprinted from Revue des Questions
Historiques.
IO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The names applied to maize during the 16th century in Europe
have confused some writers. It was variously called Roman corn,
Turkish wheat, Sicilian corn, Spanish corn, Guinea corn, Egyptian
corn and Syrian dourra. The people or localities after which the
corn was named, however, universally disclaimed all knowledge of
its origin and referred it to some other scurce, and so named it; thus
the Turks called it Egyptian corn and the Egyptians always referred
to it as Syrian dourra, each in turn disclaiming its origin. Possibly
the most widespread name by which maize was known in Europe
was Turkish wheat which was the name generally used by the Eng-
lish., The name seems to have been first used by the botanist, Reul-
lins,t in 1536, and later, in 1552, Tragus represented a maize plant
in his Stirpium calling it Frumentum turcicum, but after-
ward, having read some vague reference to a plant thought to be
similar he conceived the idea that it must be a species of Typhia
grown in Bactriana. Other writers, however, denied this, Matthiole
in 1570, Dodens in 1583 and Camerarius in 1588, all asserting its
American origin.?
(D’Herbelot, the oriental scholar, thought he had discovered maize
in the references of the Persian historian, Mourkoud, who lived in
the 15th century and who recorded that Rous, son of Japhet, sowed
a certain seed on the shores of the Caspian sea.2 He could not, of
course, substantiate his belief but his statements at the time had a
certain weight. Candolle* cites the finding of an ear of corn in an
Egyptian sarcophagus at Thebes by Rifaud but says that the inci--
dent was probably the result of a trick played by an Arab imposter.”
If maize had grown in Egypt, says Candolle, “it would have been
connected with religious ideas like all other remarkable plants.” He
further cites that Ebn Baithar, an Arab physician, who had traveled
through all the territory lying between Spain and Persia mentions no
plant which may be taken for maize. Maize was so little known as
a food plant in India in the 18th century that it was only grown in
gardens as an ornamental grass.° In China it has been cultivated
since the middle of the 17th century’ although there are attempts to
show earlier introduction, which, however, are denied by the best
Chinese authorities.
1 Reullins. De Natura Stirpium, p. 428. Cf. Candolle, p. 339.
2Candolle. Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 389. N. Y. 1885.
3 Tbid. p. 390.
4 Ibid. p. 390. : :
5 See Reply of President Price to Lundy’s Paper Zea Mays. Numismatic
& Antiq. Soc, Urans: Pinila wees:
6 Roxburgh. Flora Indica, III :568.
7Candolle. Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 392.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE ik
A review of the subject ! leads to the fact that there is no authentic
_ reference to maize in the writings of travelers or naturalists prior to
the discovery of America by Columbus. Hebrew parchments and
Sanscrit scrolls are alike silent. With the opening up of the New
World and the discovery of the great staple grain of the western
continent, maize cultivation spread with lightning rapidity through-
out the eastern hemisphere. It became a definitely known and accu-
rately described food plant.
One early writer,? who no doubt had iced with interest the early
discussions as to the origin of maize says: “ Maize was carried from
America to Spain and from Spain into other countries of Europe, to
the great advantage of the poor, though an author of the present day,
would make America indebted to Europe for it, an opinion the most
_ extravagant and improbable which ever entered the human brain.”
If the grain had been known before the Columbian epoch it would
have spread quite as rapidly as it did subsequently, which is good
evidence of its American origin and this origin is no longer disputed
by competent authorities. Edward Enfield in his book on maize
is SO positive that maize is an American plant that he declares that
is if any further evidence were wanting on this point 1t may be
found in the impossibility that a grain so nutritious, prolific and val-
uable, so admirably adapted to the wants of man could have existed
in the eastern world before the discovery of America without com-
ing into general use and making itself universally known. Had this
cereal existed there at that period it would have made its record too
clearly and positively to leave any doubt on the subject.” *
The researches of Harshburger and others indicate that maize is
a development of a Mexican grass known as teosinte (Euchlaena
mexicana Schrad.). Maize and teosinte by cross fertilization
produce fertile hybrid plants known as Zea canina Watson, or
1See Salisbury. History and Chemical Investigation of Corn, p. 8.
Albany 1846.
en Ueero. History of Mexico; trans. by Charles Cullen, Lond. 1787.
2
Clavigero in a footnote further Sates that the name Grano di Turchia,
by which it (maize) is at present known in Italy, must certainly have been
the only reason for Bomares adopting an error, so contrary to the testimony
of all writers on America, and the universal belief of nations. The wheat
is called by the Spaniards of Europe and America, maize, taken from the
Haitina language which was spoken in the island Hispaniola Ow yot
Domingo.”
Gio Bevierlye. tlist.of. Va. Lond: 1722) p. 125:
“They say that they had their corn and beans from the southern Indians,
who received their seed from a people who resided still farther south.” Van
der Donck, New Netherlands, (1656). Reprint N. Y. Hist. Soc. Trans.
T0377,
ae Bailey. need of American Agriculture, I :404.
12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
as the Mexicans call it, mais de coyote (Lupus latrans).
Harshburger says that our cultivated maize is of hybrid origin prob-
ably starting as a sport of teosinte which then crossed itself with its
normal ancestor, producing our cultivated corn.t Plants which by
hybridizing and cultivation will produce maize are not found outside
of Mexico and for this reason, if no other, it would seem conclusive
that maize had its origin there. As to the exact locality, Harsh-
burger who has made a special study of the plant and its origin, says
that it originated in all probability north of the Isthmus of Tehuan-
tepec; and south of the 22° of north latitude near the ancient seat
of the Maya tribes.? In this connection it is worthy of notice that
nearly all the traditions of the Indians, not pure myths, point to the
far southwest as the mother country of the corn plant.
An important proof of the cultivation of maize in America before
the Columbian epoch is the fact that the kernels and cobs in a charred —
state have been found in ancient pits and refuse heaps all over eastern
North America. Impressions of the kernels have been taken from
Precolumbian mounds and the actual ears and cobs from the
storage places of the Pueblos, Cliff Dwellers, Aztecs and Peruvians
where time and crumbling ruins had sealed up the stores. No Ameri-
can archeologist doubts the cultivation of maize in America in Pre-
columbian times. The revelations of his own spade and trowel assert
the fact in no uncertain way.
The name marge is derived from the Arawak maiz. Columbus
found maize growing on the island of Hayti and his mention of it is
the first record of that plant. In the Life of Columbus, By His Son,
under the date of November 5, 1492, is the following note:
There was a great deal of tilled land some sowed with those roots,
a sort of beans and a sort of grain they call maize, which was well
tasted, baked, or dried and made into flour.’
This is the first historical reference to maize which it is possible to
find in any work and the first use of the term maize.*
1Harshburger. Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory of the
University of Pennsylvania, v. I, no. 2. ;
2Harshburger. Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, I :399.
3 Life of Christopher Columbus, By His Son, in Pinkerton’s Voyages and
Travels: “ond: 16325 12.38:
4Among the first probable references to Indian corn is one by Capt.
John De Verazzano, who early in the 16th century coasted along the middle
Atlantic coast. In his report to the King of France, under date of 1524,
32 years after the discovery, he said in describing the Indians whom he
saw: “Their food is a kind of pulse which there abounds, different in
color and size from ours and of a very delicious flavor.” In the light of
subsequent descriptions by other explorers it seems very probable if not
certain that the pulse was maize.
“
TROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE LB
2 Importance of maize in the early English colonies. There is
no plant more vitally or more closely interwoven into the history of
the New World? than maize or Indian corn.* At the most critical
stages in colonial history corn® played an important part. Our Pil-
grim fathers and the less hardy cavaliers of Jamestown and Mary-
land were rescued from starvation more than once when it was hard
upon them by foods made from the corn given them by the Indians
who had cultivated and harvested it. Had it not been for the corn
of the Indians the stories of Jamestown and Plymouth instead of
being stirring accounts of perseverence and endurance might have
been brief and melancholy tragedies. The settlement and develop-
ment of the New World would have been delayed for years.* His-
tory would have been changed, the foothold of the English colonists
weakened and another tongue spoken along the Atlantic coast.
1 Prescott in reviewing this subject says: “The great staple of the
country, as indeed of the American continent, was maize, or Indian corn,
which grew freely along the valleys and up the steep sides of the Cordil-
leras to the high level of the tablelands. The Aztecs were as curious in
its preparation, and as well instructed in its manifold uses, as the most
expert New England housewife. Its gigantic stalks, in these equinoctial
regions, afford a saccharine matter not found to the same extent in north-
ern latitudes, and supplied the natives with sugar little inferior to that of
Gane itself =. . .~ Conquest of Mexico. N. Y. 1866. . 1:112.
John Fiske in his Discovery of America, writes: “ Maize or Indian corn
has played a most important part in the history of the New World, as re-
gards both white and red men. It could be planted without clearing or
plowing the soil. It was only necessary to girdle the trees with a stone
hatchet, so as to destroy their leaves and Tet in the sunshine. A few
scratches and digs were made in the ground with a stone digger, and the
seed once dropped in took care of itself. The ears could hang for weeks
after ripening and could be picked off without meddling with the stalk;
there was no need of threshing or winnowing. None of the Old World
cereals can be cultivated without much more industry and intelligence. At
the same time when Indian ,corn is sown on tilled land it yields with
little labor more than twice as much per acre than any other grain.” Fiske,
Discovery of America, 1:27.
2In using the term corn hereinafter we refer exclusively to maize.
3 Lawson very emphatically, describes the utility of maize in the follow-
ing: “The Indian corn or Maize proves the most useful Grain in the
World; and had it not been for the fruitfulness of this species, it would
have proved very difficult to have settled some of the Plantations in Amer-
ica. It is very nourishing whether in Bread, sodden or otherwise; and
those poor Christian Servants in Virginia, Maryland and the other north-
erly Plantations, that have been forced to live wholly upon it do mani-
festly prove that it is the most nourishing Grain for a Man to subsist on,
WaiLMtouteaniy< Otter Wictuals... Elistory of Carolina, Wonds 1714, 6 f> Car-
Wet Voyages. Tross ed.
ate we are indebted to the Indians for maize, without which the
Pin of America would have been delayed for a century. Cyrus
Thomas. Agriculture, in Hand-Book of American Indians. Bureau of
Ethnology Bul. 30.
TA: NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Almost the first discovery which the Pilgrim historian records is
that of a cache of Indian corn found along the shore. On Novem-
ber II, 1620 the historian writes:
They found a pond of clear fresh water and shortly after a good
quantitie of clar ground where y® Indeans had formerly set corne
and some of their graves. And proceeding furder they saw new-
stuble wher corne had been set y® same year, also they found where
latly a house had been wher some planks and a great ketel was re-
maining and heaps of sand newly padled with their hands, which
they digging up found in them diverce faire Indean baskets filled
with corne and some in eares faire and good of diverce colours
. and took with them parte of y® corne and buried y° rest
: And here is to be noted a spetiall providence of God .
that hear they got seed to plant them corne y® next year, or els they
might have starved for they had none, nor any liklyhood to get any.*
Few of us in these modern days realize the frightful struggles of
these early pioneers to obtain food enough to sustain even the spark
of life. It is recorded that some of the desperate Pilgrims, driven
by the despair of hunger would even cut wood and fetch water for
the Indians for a cap of corn. Others, we are told, “ fell to plaine
stealing both night & day from ye Indeans of which ny (the In-
dians) greviously complained.” ”
The bitter experiences of the winter of 1622-23 compelled them
to think how they might raise as much corn as they could and “ ob-
taine a beter crop then they had done, that they might not still thus
languish in miserie.”*® The struggle for existence was a hard one
with all the colonists until they had mastered the methods of corn
cultivation. The Indians who were the teachers soon found that they
had students that outclassed them in many ways. Bradford’s ac-
count of how the settlers !earned to plant and cultivate is both inter-
esting and enlightening. He writes: * :
Afterwards they, as many as were able, began to plant ther corne,
in which servise ‘Squanto stood them in great stead, showing them
both ye maner how to set it, and after how to dress and tend it. He
also tould them excepte they gott fish and set with it in these old —
grounds it would come to nothing.
Trumbull also tells that the Connecticut Indians instructed the
first settlers in the manner of planting and dressing corn.°
1 Bradford. History Plymouth Plantation, p. 49. Cols. Mass. Hist. Soc.
Ser. 4. 1TE:87. Bost..1650:
2 Tbid. p. 130.
3 Ibid. p. 134.
4 Ibid. p. 100.
5 Trumbull. History of Connecticut, Hartford 1797. 1:46.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE L5
It was the success of the corn crop that made it possible for the
eager colonists to live and to become the Pilgrim Fathers. The ex-
periences of the Connecticut colonists did not differ, for as one his-
torian says,. . . by selling them corn when pinched with famine
they relieved their distress and prevented them from perishing in a
strange land and uncultivated wilderness.” 4
Significant also is the statement of Capt. John Smith in his History
of Virgima: “ such was the weakness of this poor common-
wealth, as had not the salvages fed us we directlie had starved. And
this relyfe, most gracious queen (Anne), was brought by this lady
Pocahontas; . . . during the time of two or three years, shee next
under God, was still the instrument to preserve this colonie from
death, famine and utter confusion.” ?
Corn saved the colony as it had others before and after Smith’s
time, and as in other instances, our historian naively remarks, to
obtain it, “. . . many were billited among the savages.” ®
And thus it is that the maize plant was the bridge over which
English civilization crept, tremblingly and uncertainly, at first, then
boldly and surely to a foothold and a permanent occupation of
America.
II EARLY RECORDS OF CORN CULTIVATION AMONG THE
IROQUOIS AND COGNATE TRIBES
As early as 1535, Jacques Cartier, pushing his way up the St Law-
rence, saw fields of waving corn on the island of Hochelaga where
Ihe found a thriving village occupied by Iroquois people. He left us
the record that these Indians had large fields and that they stored
the harvested corn in garrets “at the tops of their houses.” * Car-
tier also described the Hochelagans as “ given to husbandrie
but are no men of great labour.” ®
Nearly every explorer who left a detailed record of his voyages
recorded in a minute way his impressions of Indian agriculture and
particularly of their cultivation of corn. Henry Hudson repeatedly
mentioned in his records the maize which he saw on his voyage up
the river which takes its name from him. Recording the events of
1Trumbull. History of Connecticut, 1:47.
zSmitha Capt. jon Elistory of Virginia. Lond: 1632) =p. 121.
3 [bid. 2:229. Richmond reprint. 18109.
ee Voyages. Lond. 1810. 3:272.
5 Ibid.
16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
September 13,.1609, and giving the latitude’ as 42° 18’, Hudson
wrote: *
I saw there a house well constructed of oak bark ...a great
quantity of maize or Indian corn and beans of last year’s growth,
and there lay near the house for the purpose of drying enough to
load three ships, besides what was growing in the fields.
In the journal of Robert Juet,* mate on the Hali Moonie a
statement under date of September 4, 1600, that ~~ semen
have a great store of corn whereof they make-good bread.” This
corn was undoubtedly maize, if we are to judge by contemporary
descriptions that name the corn specifically.
Sagard has left us a good description of corn cultivation among
the Huron, and his account being one of the earliest and most de-
tailed, we quote it in full.
The wheat (Indian corn) being thus sown in the manner that we
do beans, of a grain obtained only from a stalk or cane, the cane
bears two or three spikes, and each spike yields a hundred, two hun-
dred, sometimes 400 grains, and some yield even more. The cane
grows to the height of a man and more, and is very large, (it does
not grow so well or so high, nor the spike as large nor the grain so
good in Canada nor in France, as there) in the Huron country. The
grain ripens in four months and in some places three. After this
they gather and bind the leaves (husks), turned up at the top and
arrange it in sheaves (braids), which they hang all along the length
of the cabin from top to bottom on poles, which they arrange in the
form of a rack descending to the front edge of the bench. All this
is so nicely done that it seems like a tapestry hung the whole length
of the cabins. The grain being well dried and suitable to press (or
pound) the women and girls take out the grains, clean them and put
them in their large tubs (tonnes) made for this purpose, and placed
in their porch or in one corner of the cabins.*
It, however, remained for Champlain to give us the first detailed
accounts of the cornfields and the methods of cultivation by the
Indians in the region of the St Lawrence and lower lake district.
Champlain in the beginning probably believed much as many per-
1The present city of Hudson lies in latitude 42° 14’.
2De Laet. New Netherlands. N. Y. Hist. Soc. Col. Ser. 2. N. Y. 1841.
I :300.
3 Extract from the Journal of the Voyage of the Half Moon, Henry
Hudson, Master, From the Netherlands to the coast of North-America in
the Year 1609 by Robert Juet, Mate. Republished by the N. Y. Hist. Soc.
Col.’ -‘Sére2. NY eared 28"
4Sagard. Voyage to the Hurons. (Le Grand Voyage du pays des
Hurons, 1632). Tross ed. Paris, 1865. 1:135.
‘ose AINJUID & JO SWI] eIIUIS
oy} JO Osye [eordA} se popaesor oq ALU YY “BIIUSS PATVVATOSUOD OY} JO Wey [eoTdA)
Be SI SIUT, ‘S}ey snsneiejyeg 94} UI SpjoyusoD pue Spur] Waiey BVoIUaG JO MIA
I 97e1q
IROQUOIS USES. OF MAIZE 7.
sons do even now, that the Indians were hunters only but his changed
opinion is recorded as follows:
July the tenth, 1605.
They till and cultivate the soil, something which we have not
hitherto observed. In place of ploughs, they use an instrument of
hard wood, shaped like a spade. This river is called by the inhab-
itants of the country Chouacoet. The next day Sieur de Monts and
I landed to observe their tillage on the banks of the river. We saw
their Indian corn which. they raise in gardens. Planting three or
four kernels in one place they then heap up about it a quantity of
earth with shells of the signoc before mentioned. Then three feet
distant they plant as much more, and this in succession. With this
corn they put in each hill three or four Brazilian beans which are
of different colours. When they grow up they interlace with the
corn which reaches to the height of from five to six feet; and they
keep the ground very free from weeds. We saw many squashes and
pumpkins and tobacco which they likewise cultivate . . . The
Indian corn which we saw at that time was about two feet high and
some as high as three. The beans were beginning to flower as alsa
the pumpkins and squashes. They plant their corn in May and
gather it in September.*
When the Iroquois took possession of the territory which we now
know as New York State, they carried on corn culture on a large scale
and so important an article of food and commerce was it that most
of the European invaders of their territory burned their cornfields
and destroyed their corncribs instead of shooting the Iroquois
themselves but, as one writer says, the power of the Confederacy
remained unbroken.’ |
The French made a mistake fatal to French supremacy in the
middle Atlantic region. In 1609 under Champlain they fired upon
a small detachment of Iroquois at Ticonderoga and thereafter the
Iroquois were the bitter enemies of the French, while they espoused
aieecause on tie English Phe Erench realized their error most
1 Voyages of Samuel de Champlain, 2:64-65. Prince Soc. Reprint 1878.
Cf. also p. 81-82.
= Carr. Mounds of the Mississippi Valley, p. 515. Smithsonian Report.
1801.
3The Iroquois, especially the Seneca, were not always uniformly con-
sistent in their alliances with the British, but in general their arms were
at the disposal of the English colonial authorities. The espousal of the
English cause by the Iroquois greatly strengthened the hold of the British
in eastern North America and led to the expulsion of French domination
from the continent.
- In an address before the New York Historical Society in 1847, Dr. Peter
Wilson, a Cayuga-Iroquois, reminded the society of this fact in the following
18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
keenly when they found the Iroquois a barrier between them and
the trails to central New York and down the Ohio river. To break
the power of the Iroquois Confederacy, expedition after expedition
was sent out against them, notably those of Champlain in 1615, of
Courcelles in 1655, of De Tracy in 1666, of De la Barre in 1684,
of Denonville in 1687 (whose work was particularly destructive to
cornfields), and of Frontenac in 1692 and 1696. All these gallant
commanders failed to accomplish the destruction of Iroquois power
perhaps for reasons such as given by Denonville in the following:
I deemed it our best policy to employ ourselves laying the Indian
corn which was in vast abundance in the fields, rather than to follow
a flying enemy to a distance and excite our troops to catch only
some straggling fugitives. . . We remained at the four Seneca vil-
lages until the 24th; the two larger distant four leagues and the others
two. All that time was spent in destroying the corn which was in
such great abundance that the loss including old corn which was in
cache which we burnt and that which was standing, was computed
according to the estimate afterwards made at 400 thousand minots
(about 1,200,000 bushels) of Indian corn. . . A great many both
of our Indians and French were attacked with a kind of rheum —
which put everyone out of humor. :
The quantity of corn here destroyed by Denonville is claimed by
some authorities to be overestimated and perhaps this is true, as
being “out of humor,” the amount may have seemed larger than
it really was.
The corn-destroying habit of the invaders of the Iroquois dominion
was still active when later, in 1779, Maj. Gen. John Sullivan made
his famous raid against the Iroquois. The accounts of his officers
and soldiers which have come down to us in their journals. are most
illuminating, when aboriginal corn statistics are sought. “ The
Indians,” said Gen. Sullivan in discussing the subject, “ shall see that
there is malice enough in our hearts to destroy everything that con-
tributes to their support.” How well he fulfilled his threat may be
known by reviewing the record of his campaign. ee
The journals of Sullivan’s campaign through the Iroquois country
are replete with descriptions of the Iroquois cornfields and the fre-
words: “Had our forefathers spurned you from it (the Iroquois © Long
House”) when the French were thundering at the opposite end, to get a
passage and drive you into the sea, whatever had been the fate of other
Indians, the Iroquois might still have been a nation and I too might have
had a country.” .
1 Doc. Hist, of the State of N. Y. 1:328-29. Albany 1849. Cf. Charle-
voix. Nouvelle France, 2:355; Lahontan. Voyages, I, p. 101.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE IQ
quent mention indicates the importance of corn as a food to the Iro-
quois. The destruction of the corn supply was a greater blow to
the Iroquois than the burning of their towns. Huts might easily
have been built again but fields would not yield another harvest after
September. 7
In the journal of Maj. John Burrowes, as in other journals cov-
ering the Sullivan campaign, there are many references to the Indian
fields. Some instances follow:
Friday, August 27, 1779. Observations. We got this night at a
large flat three miles distant from Chemung where corn grows such
as can not be equalled in Jersey. The field contains about 100 acres,
beans, cucumbers, Simblens, watermelons and pumpkins in such
quantities (were it represented in the manner it should be) would
be almost incredible to a civilized people. We sat up until between
one and two o’clock feasting on these rarities.
Monday, Middletown, 30th Aug. The army dont march this
day but are employed cutting down the corn at this place which being
about one hundred and fifty acres, and superior to any I ever saw
mee cOuUservatons )) The land exceeds “any I have ever seen
Some corn stalks measured eighteen feet and a cob one foot and a
half long. Beans, cucumbers, watermelons, muskmelons, cimblens
are im ereat plenty. ..
Camp on the Large Flats 6 Miles from Chenesee 15th Sep. Wed-
nesday morning. ‘The whole army employed till 11 o’clock destroy-
ing corn, there being the greatest quantity destroyed at this town
than any of the former. It is judged that we have burnt and de-
stroyed about sixty thousand bushels of corn and two or three thou-
sand of beans on this expedition.
In his letter to John Jay under date of September 30, 1770, General
Sullivan reported among other things:
Colonel Butler destroyed in the Cayuga country five principal
towns and a number of scattering houses, the whole making about
one hundred in number exceedingly large and well built. He also
destroyed two hundred acres of excellent corn with a number of
orchards one of which had in it 1500 fruit trees. - Another Indian
settlement was discovered near Newtown by a party, consisting of
39 houses, which were also destroyed. The number of towns de-
stroyed by this army amounted to 4o besides scattering houses. The
quantity of corn destroyed, at a moderate computation, must amount
to 160,000 bushels, with a vast quantity of vegetables of every
kind... I flatter myself that the orders with which I was entrusted
are fully executed, as we have not left a single settlement or a field
of corn in the country of the Five Nations. . .
In his report of Sept. 16, 1779, to General Washington concerning
his raid against the Seneca on the Allegany, Daniel Brodhead said:
The troons remained on the ground three whole days destroying.
the Towns & Corn Fields. I never saw finer corn altho’ it was
20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
planted much thicker than is common with our Farmers. The
quantity of Corn and other vegetables destroyed at the several
Towns, from the best accounts I can collect from the officers em-
ployed to destroy it must certainly exceed five hundred acres which
is a low estimate and the plunder is estimated at 30m Dollars?
1 Meaning probably $30,000.
Quotations from the journals of soldiers and officers could be mul-
tiplied to some length with but one result, that of. corroborating the
fact that the Iroquois cultivated corn, beans, squashes, pumpkins
and other vegetables in large quantities and to an extent hardly ap-
preciated by the general student of history.”
The beautiful valley of the Genesee, renowned among the Indians
as the fertile garden region of the Seneca was cultivated for miles
of its length. Lwuxuriant fields, patches of forest land and wide
openings of grass land were found throughout the valley. The im-
petuous army of Sullivan, inflamed by the depredations of the Iro-
quois and bent upon wreaking vengeance upon a tribe of ignorant
savages entered the Genesee valley with feelings of utmost surprise
for they found the land of the savages to be, not a tangled wilder-
ness but a smiling blooming valley, and the savages domiciled in
permanent houses and settled in towns. General Sullivan describes
the town of Genesee, for example, as containing 128 houses, mostly
large and elegant, and names it as one of the largest. It was beauti-
fully situated, he added, “almost encircled with clear flat land ex-
tending a number of miles; over which extensive fields of corn were
waving, together with every kind of vegetable that could be con-
ceived.” Forty towns were obliterated, 60,000 bushels of corn de-
stroyed, fruit orchards uprooted, girdled or chopped down, one
containing 1500 trees. Ruin was spread like a blanket over the Iro-
quois country and their garden valley reduced to a desolate blighted
and forsaken region dotted with blackened ruins. Hardly a food
plant remained for the oncoming winter.*
2See Stone. Life of Brandt. N. Y. 1838. v. 2, ch. 1; Journals of the
Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan against the Six Na-
tions, 1779. Auburn 1887.
3 Cf. Stone. Brant,22:33:
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 21
III IROQUOIS CUSTOMS OF CORN CULTIVATION
1 Land clearing and the division of labor. Land for corn-
fields was cleared by girdling the trees in the spring, and allowing
them to die. The next spring the underbrush was burned off. By
burning off tracts in the forests large clearings were made suitable
for fields and towns. Early travelers in western New York called
these clearings ‘‘oak openings.’ Certain tracts, however, seem
always to have been open lands and it is a mistake to believe that
the country was entirely wooded.
Van der Donck was much impressed by the “ bush burnings ” of
the Indians of New Netherlands and records that they present a
66 9
grand and sublime appearance.’ ? Unless the trges were girdled
or dead they were not ordinarily injured by the “ bush burning.”
The work of girdling the trees* and of burning the underbrush
was that of the men. With the tall trees girdled and the under-
brush burned off it was an easy matter to scrape up the soft loam
and plant the corn but the field was not considered in fit form until
the small shrubbery and weeds had been subdued. Fields with
standing dead trees were. not regarded as safe after the first year
1See Ketchum. Buffalo and the Senecas, 1:17-19. Cf. Dwight. Travels
in New England and New York.
2Van der Donck. New Netherlands. Amsterdam 1656.
Bieasmothente. Earis 1722, 3:18:
4Sagard in his Voyages des Hurons has left us a good description of
' this work among the Hurons. The translation which follows is taken from
Carr’s Mounds of the Mississippi Valley.
“The Indians belt (coupent) the trees about two or three feet from the
ground, then they trim off all the branches and burn them at the foot of the
tree in order to kill it and afterwards they take away the roots. This being
done, the women carefully clean up the ground between the trees and at every
step they dig a round hole, in which they sow 9 or 10 grains of maize which
they have first carefully soaked for some days in water.”
Peter Kalm, whose observations of Indian usages were accurate and
detailed, records:
“The chief use of their [stone] hatchets was according to the unani-
mous accounts of all the Swedes to make good fields for maize-plantations ;
for if the ground where they intended to make a maize-field was covered
with trees they cut off the bark all round the trees with their hatchets,
especially at the time when they lost their sap. By that means the tree be-
comes dry and could not take any more norishment and the leaves could
no longer obstruct the ravs of the sun from passing. The smaller trees
were pulled out by main force, and the ground was turned up with crooked
or sharp branches.” Kalm, 515, Pinkerton’s Voyages
22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
and speedy means were taken thereafter to burn them down. In the
Seneca invocations to the Creator at the midwinter thanksgiving is
a prayer that the dead branches may not fall upon the children in
the fields.
In time the trees were burned or rotted away to leave cleared
patches. The Iroquois men? did very little in the way of field work
but it is said that they sometimes helped clear the land but never
allowed any one to see them. Some of the old Indians whom the
writer interviewed told laughable stories of grim old “ warriors ” who
had been caught with a hoe and how they excused themselves.
One early writer even goes so far as to say that if a man loved
his wife devotedly he often helped her with the field work. As a
rule, however, among the Iroquois the men disdained the work which
they deemed peculiarly that of women.
One writer remarks that the Iroquois were too busy with their
conquests to engage in field work and this is largely true. In the
age of barbarism the condition of society is one of constant emer-
gency. Invasion and the destruction of property is momentarily
expected. The Iroquois by dividing the labors necessary to sustain
life in the manner in which they did contributed much to the strength
of their nation and its arms. The function of the men was to
hunt, to bring in the game and stand ever ready to defend their
people and their property and to engage in war expeditions. An
Iroquois man must be ever generous and give to every one who
asked for his arms or his meat. If he brought his bear to the vil-
lage it became public property, to the material injury of himself and
family. He therefore left his game hidden in the outskirts of his
town and sent his wife? to bring it in She was not bound to
give of her husband’s bounty and could properly refuse the appeals
1La Potherie in his Historie de ’ Amérique, volume III, page 18 et seq.
says that the men cleared the ground and assisted in braiding the harvested
ears. Cy: Lawson. «Carolina:
2The writer in mentioning Indian females never uses the term squaw.
As a name in colonial days it may have been proper but it is no longer good
form and its use is frowned upon by the Iroquois women of this State and
Canada. It has come with them to mean a degraded female character.
The Superintendent of the Six- Nations of Canada was severely rebuked
several years ago by an old Mohawk woman who resented the term as ap-
plied to the women of her nation. The term is of course of Algonquin
origin. An Allegany Seneca once explained to me that this word was no
longer good language, just as Shakspere’s word wench is no longer good
English as applied tc a housewife, or villian as applied to a farmer.
3 Cf. Carr. Food of Certain American Indians, p. 167; Tanner. Narra-
tive, p. 362; Cadillac in Margry 68, Charlevoix, v. 171.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 23
of the hungry, lazy or others who loved to prey upon generosity.
After the meat was cooked, however, the case was different and
she was bound to feed any who came to her door.
The Iroquois and other Indians have frequently been reproached
by writers for allowing or forcing their women to do field labor
while the men enjoyed the hunt? or lazily fished, or perchance went
“high ho!” on the war path. It should be remembered, however,
that hunting in those raw days was no easy task. It was not sport
then as it is now but work that demanded the use of every faculty.
Heckewelder? remarks most aptly that the “ fatigues of hunting wear
out the body and constitution more than manual labor.” Another
writer says, and there is a sense in which his description might apply
in these modern times, that “their manner of rambling through the
woods to kill deer is very laborious exercise, as they frequently walk
25 or 30 miles through rough and smooth grounds, and fasting, be-
fore they return to camp loaded.” °
Heckewelder sums up the case when he says that woman’s labor
in the fields consumed but six weeks out of the year while “the
labor of the husband to maintain his family lasts throughout the
weal. | =
Woman’s part in the division of labor was not a hard one nor even
a compulsory one. The labor of the fields was a time welcomed by
the women then as modern people now welcome an outing. It was
the occasion of productive pleasure. As Heckewelder says,° “. .
The cornfield is planted by her and the youngsters in a vein of early
and frolic. It was done in a few hours and taken care of in the
same spirit.” |
In the Life of Mary J emison, ® the white captive of the Genesee,
she states:
Our labor was not severe, and that of one year was exactly similar
in almost every respect to that of others, without that endless variety
that is to be observed in the common labor of white people. Not-
withstanding the Indian women have all the fuel and bread to pro-
cure, and the cooking to perform, their task is probably not harder
than that of white women who have those articles provided for them;
and their cares certainly not half as numerous, nor as great. In
the summer season we planted, tended and harvested our corn, and
1Cf. Lawson, p. 188.
2 Heckewelder. Historical Account of the Indian Nations, p. 146.
3 Adair. History of the American Indians. Lond. 1755. p. 402.
4Heckewelder. Historical Account of the Indian Nations, p. 142.
5 Ibid. p. 142.
6 Seaver. Life of Mary Jemison, p. 69.
24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
generally had our children with us; but had no masters to oversee
or drive us, so that we could work as leisurely as we pleased.
With the breaking up of the military power of the Iroquois and
the subjection of all Indian tribes to the federal government, the
men were left freer. War with them was over. The disdain which
they had for field labor, and the feeling that it was not a part of
their work clung for some time, but as the old reason for abstaining
from field work passed away and as the environment of the white
man was forced upon them, the Iroquois man gradually became the
man with the hoe and thought it no disgrace. This was hardly the
case, however, a century ago.
The women of each settlement each year elected a chief matron,
ona™o gain’dago™ et’igowané' to direct their work in the communal
fields. She ordered all the details of planting, cultivation and har-
vesting. She also had the right to choose one or two lieutenants
who could give out her orders.
Certain fields were reserved for the use of the nation, that is, to
supply food for the councils and national festivals. These fields
were called Kéndit’’gwa’ge’ hodi’yén’tho’. |
2 Preparation of the soil and planting. In preparing the soil
a digging implement made of wood, somewhat resembling a short hoe
was used. The blade was sometimes a large flat bone or simply a
piece of wood worked flat. The hoe in this case was of one piece,
the trunk of a sapling serving as a handle and the tough bulbous
root end which ran off at right angles, shaped into a blade, served
as the digging end.?
1Literally meaning “corn plant, its field’s female chief.
2“ Use wooden hoes,’ Williams. Key, p. 130. .
“Spades made of hard wood.” Bossee. Travels Through Louisiana,
p. 224
“Tls ont un instrument de bois fort dur, faict en facon d’une besche.”
Champlain, I :95.
“Tl leur suffit d’un morceau de bois recourbe de trois doigts de largeur,
attaché a un long mauche qui leur sert a sarcler le terre et a la remuer
legerment.” Lafitau. Moeurs des Sauvages Ameriquains, II :76.
“Use shoulder blade of a deer or a tortoise shell, sharpened on a stone
and fastened on a stick instead of a hoe.’ Loskiel. Missions of North
America, p. 67.
“Performed the whole process of planting and hoeing with a small tool
that resembled in some respects a hoe with a very short handle.” Seaver,
Life of Mary Jemison, p. 70.
Cf. Hakluyt. Voyages, IIT :320.
“Tn order to sow Indian Corn they make Pick-Axes of Wood.” A Con-
tinuation of the New Discovery, Hennepin, Father L. Lond. 1608.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 25
The writer has found in various old sites pieces of flattened antler?
[see fig. 1] with one worn edge and the lower surfaces well polished
which seem to have been hoe blades. In
the Mississippi valley and often in New
York hoe heads of picked and chipped
stone were used.
Where wooden hoes were used it is
probable that the digging ends were hard-
ened in the fire by a semicharring of the
surface. Hardening in this manner was
usual where a resisting surface was
needed.
Thomas Hariot, a keen and reliable
observer though not always a good specu-
lator, has left us in his Brief ana True
Report an excellent description of the
Fig. 1 Antler hoe blade (Cut cultivation of maize by the coastal In-
is $ actual size.) :
dians om Viroinial ini 1587, hel writes: 1
All the aforesaid commodities for victuals are set or sowed some-
times in grounds apart and severally by themselves, but for the most
part together in one ground mixtly: the manner thereof with the
dressing and preparing of the ground, because I will note unto you
the fertility of the soil, I think good briefly to describe.
The ground they never fatten with muck, dung, or anything,
neither plow or dig it as we in England but only prepare it in a sort
as followeth: A few days before they sow or set the men with
wooden instruments made almost in the form of mattocks or hoes
with long handles, the women with short peckers or parers, because
they use them sitting, of a foot long and five inches in breadth, do
only break the upper part of the ground, to raise up the weeds grass
and old stubs of .cornstalks with their roots. The which after a day
or two days drying in the sun, being scraped up into many small
heaps, to save them the labor of carrying them away, they burn to
ashes. And whereas some may think that they use the ashes for to
better the ground, I say that then they would either disperse the
ashes abroad, which we observe they do not, except the heaps be
too great, or else would take special care to set their corn where the
ashes lie, which also we find they are careless of. And this is all
the husbanding of their ground that they use.
Then their setting or sowing is after this manner. First, for their
corn, beginning in one corner of the plot with a pecker they make a.
1Cf. Parker, A. C. Excavations in an Erie Indian Village. N. Y. State
IMaISseee ule 11722. ps 535:
26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
hole wherein they put out four grains, with care that they touch not
one another (about an inch asunder), and cover them with the mould
again; so throughout the whole plot, making such holes and using
them in such manner, but with this regard, that they be made in
ranks, every rank differing from the other half a fathom or a yard
and the holes also in every rank. By this means there is a yard of
spare ground between every hole; where according to discretion here
and there they set as many beans and pease; in divers places also
among the seeds of Macocqwer, Melden and Planta Soles. .
Another early description of corn and its cultivation is given by
Harris in his Discoveries and Settlements. For the purpose of com-
parison with the foregoing, as well as for its information, this de-
scription is given verbatim:
The manner of planting is in holes or trenches, about five or six
feet distance from each other; the earth is opened with a hoe (and
of late years, with a plough), four inches deep, and four or five
grains thrown into each hole or trench, about a span distant from
each other, and then covered with earth; they keep weeding it from
time to time, and as the stalk grows high they keep the mould about
it like the hillocks in a hop garden; they begin to plant in April but
the chief plantation is in May, and they continue to plant till the
middle of June; what is planted in April is reaped in August; what
is planted in May is reaped in September; and the last in October.2
While the ground is being prepared for sowing, the seed corn is
soaked? in warm water or in a decoction made of helebore*® root
and some other herb which the writer has not yet identified. These
roots are said to be a “medicine for the corn” but in reality the
“medicine ” is a poison for crows and other field pests which might
eat the seed corn. A bird eating this “ doctored” corn becomes dizzy
and flutters about the field in a way which frightens the others.
1 Harris. Discoveries and Settlements Made by the English. Jn Pink-
erton. Voyages, 12:242. Cf. Beverly, p. 126-27.
Cf. Their manner of planting it is to make with the finger or with a little
stick, separate holes in the ground, and to drop into each one eight or nine
grains which they cover with the same soil that had been taken out to make
the hole.” Jesuit Relations, 67:143. (Rale’s letter to his brother.)
Cf. Beverly. History of Virginia, p. 127.
2Cf. Sagard. Voyages des Hurons, p. 134. Paris 1632.
3Cf. Kalm. Travels in North America. Lond. 1772; Pinkerton. Voy-
ages, 132527.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 27
Peter Kalm is the only observer in whose writings the author has
found the use of the poison decoction mentioned.t _
Handsome Lake, the prophet, in his code commanded that these
herbs always be used.
The corn was carefully dropped in the hills so as not to break the
germs which had nearly burst through. Among the Senecas, in
planting corn the seeds of the squash and bean were sown in every
seventh hill because it was thought that the spirits of these three
plants were inseparable. They were called Diohe”’ko, these sustain
us.2, In the Green Corn Thanksgiving the leader rises and says,
“ Diettino™ nio’ diohe”’ko", we give thanks to our sustainers.”
Certain women banded themselves together in a society called the
Tofiwisas? or To™wi’sas Oa’no. They propitiated the spirits of the
three sisters by certain ceremonies. In their ceremonial march, We-
nuntofiwi'sas, the leader holding an armful of. corn and a cake of
corn bread leads her band in a measured march about a kettle of
corn soup. The ritual of this society has been translated by the
writer. A pen drawing of the march of the Tofiwi’sas made by a
Seneca youth is shown in figure 2.
Each year at planting time each community observed a plants
festival in which the Creator was implored to continue his bounty
and his accustomed ways. Sacrifices of tobacco and wampum were
made to the spirits of growth and to the pygmies, Djo"ga’o", and a
general thanksgiving for past blessings was given. Especial favor
was asked in the growth of the corn.‘
The Planting Thanksgiving was called by a council of elders in
whose charge this festival was placed and lasted for a full day. The
addresses to the Creator, however, were all given in the early morn-
1[bid. p. 531.
See also Kalm on bird pests, Ibid. p. 523, 527, 531.
2The Aztecs called the corn goddess Tonacaygohua, She feeds us.
She was sometimes called Centeotl. She was also regarded as the god-
dess of the earth and was the most beloved deity worshiped by the ancient
_ Mexicans and was the only one that did not require the sacrifice of human
victims. It is interesting to note that the Corn goddess was also called
Tzinteotl, the original goddess. Her name changed to Xilonen, Iztacac-
cuteotl, and Tlatlauhquicenteotl according to the various stages in the
growth of the corn.
3 For a fuller description see American Anthropologist. New Ser. 1900.
v. II, no. 2. Parker, A. C. Seneca Medicine Societies.
- 4Clark, J. H. V. Onondaga. Syracuse 1849. 1:54.
28
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
3 = ENT
si A \ \
: VAN
\Y \e
TaN
(&
\
3 NY Ne
NSE = a
SSS
S <
Fig. 2. Ceremonial march of the Tofi’wisas Company. The leader carries an armful of ears of corn in one arm and a tortoise
(From a drawing by Jesse Cornplanter, Ganundaiyeoh, a Seneca boy)
shell rattle in her outstretched right hand.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 29
ing. The office of speaker belonged of course to a man but other
offices were held by women.
The address to the Creator as given by Morgan, follows:
Great Spirit, who dwellest alone, listen now to the words of thy
people here assembled. The smoke of our offering arises. Give
kind attention to our words, as they arise to thee in the smoke. We
thank thee for this return of the planting season. Give us a good
season, that our crops may be plentiful.
Continue to listen, for the smoke yet arises. [Throwing on
tobacco] Preserve us from all pestilential disease. Give strength to
us that we may not fall. Preserve our old men among us and pro-
tect the young. ,
Help us to celebrate with feeling the ceremony of this season.
Guide the minds of thy people, that they may remember thee in all
their actions, na-ho.?
‘Earlier in the spring the Thunder dance was held to honor He’”-
no" Ti'sot, Thunder, our grandfather. He was asked to remember
the fields with a proper amount of rain and prevent the maize fields
from parching. If rain failed to come another Thunder ceremony
might be held.?
Cornfields were not always owned by the tribe or clan. Indi-
viduals might freely cultivate their own fields* if they were willing
to do their share in the tribal fields. If they did not do this they
could not claim their share of the communal harvest. Individual
fields were designated by a post on which was painted the clan totem
and individual name sign. Any distressed clansman, however, might
claim a right in the individual field and take enough to relieve his
wants, provided he notified the owner. |
‘The first hoeing* is called de’owényé‘, and takes place when the
corn is a span high. The second and final hoeing is called the filling ©
up, éye™”o™ or hadiyé"s’, and is called for when the corn is knee
high.
3 Communal customs. The women of a community who own
individual fields and their husbands or male friends may form a
1 Morgan. League, p. 106.
2Tbid. p. 196-97.
3Cf. Margry 1:123; Jesuit Relations, 52:165.
4“ The Indians used to give it one or two weedings, and make a hill about ~
it, and so the labor was done.” Beverly. Hist. of Virginia. Ed. 2. p. 125-28.
Lond. 1722.
30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
mutual aid society! known as “(Ju the) Good Rule they assist one
another,’ Gaiwiu O"dannide’osha, (Sen). This society chooses a
matron of the cornfields, eti’gowané, who inspects the individual
fields or gets reports regarding their progress and who orders the
rest of the band to go to the field she wishes cultivated at a certain
day and hour. She commences the hoeing and ranges her helpers in
equal numbers on either side and a little to the rear and hoes to the
end of the row a little in advance of the rest, counts off the unhoed
rows and takes her position again.
1Roger Williams in his Key notes this custom among the New England
Algonquins. “ When a field is to be broken up,” he says, “they have a very
loving, sociable, speedy way to dispatch it; all the neighbors, men and
women, forty, fifty or a hundred, do joyne and come in to help freely with
friendly joyning they break up their fields and build their forts.”
“As an organized body of workers, the women of each gens formed a
distinct agricultural corporation.” Stites, Sara H. Economics of the Iro-
quois, p. 31, Bryn Mawr Col. Monographs v. 1, no. 3.
In Seaver’s Life of Mary Jemison [see p. 70-71] we find a detailed de-
scription of this cooperative work:
“We pursued our farming business according to the general custom of
Indian women, which is as follows: In order to expedite their business,
and at the same time enjoy each other’s company, they all work together
in one field, or at whatever job they have at hand. In the spring they
choose an old active squaw to be their driver and overseer, when at labor
for the ensuing year. She accepts the honor and they consider themselves
bound to obey her. ‘
When the time for planting arrives and the soil is prepared, the squaws
are assembled in the morning and conducted into a field where each one
plants a row. They then go into the next field and plant once across and
so on until they have gone through the tribe. If any remains to be planted,
they again commence where they did at first (in the same field) and so keep
on till the whole is finished. By this rule, they perform their labor of
every kind and every jealousy of one having done more or less than another
is effectually avoided.” : .
This custom of helping is continued to this day. Among the Christian
Iroquois such work is called a “bee” but among the followers of the old
ways the mutual aid societies still exist and they continue “in the good rule
(gai’wit) to assist one another.” A. C. P.
Compare also Lawson’s Carolina, page 179. “ They are very kind and
charitable to one another, but more especially to those of their own Nation
The same assistance they give to any Man that wants to build a
Cabin, or make a Canoe. They say it is our Duty, thus to do; for there are
several Works that one Man can not effect, therefore we must give him our
Help, otherwise our Society will fall, and we shall be deprived of those
urgent Necessities which Life requires.”
Chi Adair p.A07: :
Cf. Cullen. Clavigero’s Mexico.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 3h
It is the duty of the owner of the field to provide a feast at the
end of the hoeing and each helper takes home her supply of corn .
soup, hominy or ghost bread. After the hoeing and before eating
the women flock to the nearest stream or pond and bathe. The
whole work is accompanied by singing, laughing, joking and inof-
fensive repartee! and the utmost humor prevails, topped off by a
splash in the water to remove dust and fatigue.
This hoeing “bee” is called éndwa”’twenogwa’, (Sen.).
4 The harvest. In the autumn when the corn is ripe, when the
“great bear chase is on in the heavens,” the harvesting begins. The
corn standing in the fields may be stripped of the ears by the har-
vesters who throw the ears over their shoulders, generally the left,
into a great harvesting basket, ye’nisté"nk’wista’. The corn is then
deposited in piles in the field or carried to the lodge. Sometimes the
cornstalks are pulled up by the roots and carted to the house where
they are piled up in layers crosswise for future husking. The pluck-
ing bee was called hadi’nest’e’oes or if engaged in by women alone,
wadi‘’nést’eoes.
The husking bee that followed was called hadinowe'’ya’ke’ or if
women only engaged in the work, wadinowi’ya’ke’. Husking time
was another time for a long season of merry industrial gather-
ings. Work was play in those days when mutual helpfulness made
‘money unnecessary. It was not uncommon for men to engage in
this work. They were lured to the scene by the promise of soup,
song and the society of. wise old matrons and shy maidens. The
old women carefully noted the industry of their younger assistants
and scheming parents were able to obtain information about pros-
pective mates for their children.
The older men did some work but not much. They aired their
wisdom by making wise observations but soon lost their reserve in
narrating exciting stories of personal adventure or by relating folk
tales, gaga’a‘. They knew full well that a pail full of soup awaited
them when the husking ceased whether they worked or not. Often
WiGp, ENG Ios AOA
2Lafitau, volume 2, page 78, says that the men braided corn, but that
this was the only time when they were called upon to do such menial work.
3 Lafitau, volume 2, page 70, writing of. harvest customs says: “At har-
vest time the corn is gathered with the leaves surrounding the ears which
serve as cords to keep the ears together. The binding of the ears belongs
to a peculiar ceremony which takes place at night and it is the only occasion
where the men, who do not trouble themselves about harvesting or field
work, are called by the women to help.”
32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
the “bee” would be enlivened by a marching dance, and for this
emergency the men brought their water drums! and horn rattles and
cleared their throats for singing.
The men smoked incessantly of native tobacco mixed with dried
sumac leaves and red willow bark. Some of the older women; if
not all, claimed the same privilege. The writer has attended some
of these “ bees” and though he never saw a pipe in a young woman’s
mouth,* he sometimes thought he saw a quid of store tobacco tucked
away in a bloomy brown cheek, no doubt used as a toothache pre-
ventive.
The “ bees ” were often conducted out of doors under the white
moonlight. A roaring fire of sumac brush or logs tempered the crisp
air of the night but left it sufficiently invigorating to keep up spirit
and keep the workers active. There was nothing unhealthful in these
night carnivals where the smell of the corn plant, the breath of the
pines blown by the autumn wind, the smoke of the fragrant burning
wood and the pure merriment of the workers and the knowledge of
good work furnished the sole exhilaration. ,
Husked ears may be placed in a corncrib, ona™o‘ iada’kwa, or
arranged for roasting. When the husk is stripped back for braid-
ing the ears are stood up in rows, against the wall or log with the
husks on the floor or ground. When the worker arose for rest the
others covered the husks with corn leaves and loose husks to keep
them moist. The work of braiding was called waest’’shani’ (com.
gen.), or wasté"’shani (fem. gen.).
Sick and injured members of the “ mutual aid company” were
always assisted by the company even in the matter of preparing the
soil, planting and harvesting. This help was considered as a right
and never as a charity.
In the work of tillage plows or digging sticks are called yetoga-
tot’tha ; hoes are called gau’’djisha’. The bone husking pin is called
yé"nowtya” tha.
Husking pins are shaped much like the ancient bone and antler
awls but generally have a groove cut about a third of their length
about which is fastened a loop, through which it is designed that the
middle finger be thrust. The point of the husking pin is held against
the thumb. In husking the hand is held slightly open, the ear grasped
i Cf. Adair, p. 407.
2 Cf. Jesuit Relations, 67 :141.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 33
in the left hand, ear butt downward, the point of the husker thrust
into the nose of the ear and under the husk, by a sidewise shuttle
motion, the thumb closes quickly over the pin and tightly against the
Fig. 3 Seneca husking pin (specimen is 4% inches in length)
husk, and a pull of the arm downward and toward the body tears
away the husk. Many of the ancient bone awls found in refuse pits
may be husking pins as well as leather awls.
a Abnormal ears. When harvesters find a red ear all the har-
vesters give the finder for his or her own use two ears of corn with
the husk pulled back ready for braiding. The red ear is called the
~ King ear’ or Hosan’nowa’né™.
When one finds an ear with only two diametrically placed rows
filled out the finder receives as a reward an ear of corn ready for
braiding from each harvester. This ear is called oa’de meaning the
roadway, ‘The unfilled space is “ caused by the devil who has licked
the cob with his tongue! ”
When a large ear is found on which no kernels have grown or on
which they are undeveloped, it is called gagé™tci, it 1s an old one.
The finder is rewarded by the gift of a single ear of normal corn
with the husk pulled back ready for braiding. The finding of one
of these abnormal ears is the cause of much merriment. The
gagé™’tci ear is short and of unusual diameter,— “it is all gone to
cob.” Sometimes these ears are collected and braided in strings for
decorative purposes.
When the husk is pulled back for braiding the ear is called ganofi-
yon or onofi’yo". If men, boys, girls and women engage in this
work the process is called hadi’nonyofita’. If only women are work-
ing the work is called wa’dinonnyonta’.
When the ears are entirely stripped of husks the ear is called
ganowiya”go". The work of husking by a mixed company is called
ha’dinowiyas, or if by women alone, wadi’nowiyas.
Corn smut is called odjitgwé"sho‘ (syphilis). The smut-blighted
ear is termed odjigwés o‘nisda”’ge.1 The blighted cornstalk and
its fruit is not used but cast aside and burned.
1The pink azaleas, Rhododendron nudiflorum, are known as
odji gwé2da’we20', syphilitic. flowers.
34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
5 Storage of corn. The braided bunches! of corn? were hung
on poles in the house or in a protected outbuilding. The shelled
corn was preserved in bark barrels and might either be natural kernels
or charred. When the braided strings of corn were stored in the
house the pole hung .from the ridge pole or from the cross beams.
Cartier noticed this‘method in all probability when he wrote that they
preserved it in garrets at the tops of their houses.®
Champlain mentions that corn was stored in the tops of the houses
and enough cultivated to last three or four years.*
Lafitau® described minutely the Iroquois long house and said
that it had storerooms for barrels and bark shelves above for storing
provisions. Certain spaces below also were reserved for this purpose.
The description left us by Sagard previously quoted in this work,
of the rows of braided corn, is a most vivid one. He says it hung
like a tapestry the whole length of the cabin.®
The Iroquois harvested corn in greater quantities than they could
consume and thus generally had a surplus for trade or emergency.
Should one: of the five nations have ill luck with their crops. the
others would respond to the need, for a consideration or gratuitously,
as the case demanded.
The storage of corn was an important matter. Morgan, however,
says:’ “ The red races seldom formed magazines of grain to guard
against distant wants.” A little examination of the works of early
writers contradicts this statement which Morgan knew did not apply
at any rate to the Iroquois.
Referring to the custom of burying corn and vegetables in pits ©
Lafitau wrote :§ :
Didore of Sicile said that the first people of la grande Bretagne,
having gathered their corn, kept it in subterranean granaries and it
was only taken out in quantites immediately necessary. The Indian
women have some sort of an underground granary where also they
keep pumpkins (citroulles) and other fruits. It is a hole four to
1Cf. Sagard. Voyages des Hurons. Ed. n. 1865. pt I, p. 135; or see
footnote p. 31 of this work.
2 Ibid. p. 93.
3 Cartier in Hakluyt’s Voyages, 3:271.
4Champlain. Voyages. Paris 1682. p. 301.
5Lafitau. Moeurs des Sauvages. Paris 1724. 2:12 et seq.
6 Cf. Morgan. Leasuesps sic
7Morgan. League, p.372.
8 Lafitau, 2:80.
‘Joyseq oy} JsuTeSe dn ssou poojs Jv9 9Yy} pue Yoeq poy[nd ose sysny sy} MOY 9;0N ‘“SuIpresq io} us0d
eloieosny, Surysnzy c “JoYseq Suryord oy} OUT JOpyMoys oy} JOAO UMOIY} PUL Yes oy} wolf; Poyonyd st UsOd Fo vo oy], I
Z 3eId
=
Ds eo
a a ae
Ul
ret
ay
oe
‘yoyseq SuNSIAIeY Is1e]
dy} OWT podump st yoeq ey} UO potiieo yoyseq Suryord [jews eyy, “U1OS BIOIvISH], Suryon[d UsUIOM wIIUIG
€ a3e1d
o =
Qa, v
BS
Q,
fe)
Uo
ge
es
Gc
o 5
>
om BD
yy cS)
Ga
(cB)
CRS
=
ee
a
cB)
Sse)
eS
q
u
3 I
o Ss
a ae
Sa
ES
So
©) ‘a
oO
= ¢
ae)
1S)
go ie
» OS
3 ©
a)
nN 5
oes
we
rome
zy
Hor
as
YN
others.
Atay
ely
*
gyi sie ian «seb ies |
=O (egea 24
ae a yuand tide’ ae
PP heen cette! ;
a ee eae
= eG stiicaiccis
— TPA Tae
: pr Tete geatarte tis ® 2
Collected 1908 by A. C. Parker
hes high.
imc
pecimen is 31
Seneca elm bark storage barrel, now obsolete among the Iroquois.
)
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE Be
five feet deep, lined with bark and covered with earth. Their fruits
keep perfectly sound during the winter without any injury from the
frost. As for the corn,— it is different,— instead of burying it, ex-
cept in the case of necessity, they allow it to dry on scaffolds and
under the eaves or in sheds outside of their houses.
At Tsonnontouann! they make bark granaries round and place
‘them on elevations, piercing the bark from all sides so that the air
will get in and prevent the moisture from spoiling the grain.
Morgan in his League? describes the cache in a somewhat similar
mv yes .
The Iroquois were accustomed to bury their surplus corn and also
their charred green corn in caches, in which the former would pre-
serve uninjured through the year, and the latter for a much longer
period. They excavated a pit, made a bark bottom and sides, and_
having deposited their corn within it, a bark roof, water tight, was
constructed over it, and the whole covered with earth. Pits of
charred corn are still found near their ancient settlements.
The writer has found these corn pits throughout the Iroquois re-
gion in New York, one of them shown in plate 6. Many of these
ancient pits show that they had been lined with long grass or with
hemlock boughs,’? for after the corn had been removed the pit was
filled with rubbish and the entire matter burned or charred. In
this manner the grass lining, if it were carbonized, was preserved -
and when excavated the charred grass lining could be removed in
chunks or sheets. Mr Harrington has also noted this occurrence
throughout his field of investigation in New York. The Iroquois
have not abandoned this custom even now. Among the more primi-
tive the custom of burying parched corn and other vegetables is still in
vogue. In plate 7 is shown a group of pits on the Cattaraugus
Seneca Reservation in Erie county. In the background the Council
1 Also known as Sonnontouan, Totiacton and La Conception. The site
of this old Seneca town is in the present town of Mendon, Monroe co., 1%
miles from Honeoye Falls.
2 Morgan, iD, Say .
3In describing corn storage, Kalm writes: “After they reaped their maize,
they kept it in holes underground during winter; they dug these holes
seldom deeper than a fathem. and often not so deep; at the bottom and
sides they put broad: pieces of bark. The Andropogon bicorne,
a grass which grows in great plenty here, and which the English call Indian
grass . . . supplies the want of bark; the ears of maize are then thrown
into the hole, and covered to a considerable thickness with the same grass
and the whole is again covered by a sufficient quantity of earth; the maize
keeps extremely well in these holes and each Indian has several such sub-
terranean stores where his corne lay safe though he travel far from it.”
Kalm. Pinkerton’s Voyages, 13 :539.
36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
or Long House is to be seen. These pits are near the house of Ed-
ward Cornplanter and were photographed in the SpEne: of 1909 after
the store had been removed.
The custom of caching vegetables in the ground is, of course, one
now followed by white people generally. Beauchamp says the
Mohawk word for making a cache is asaton. The Seneca word is
similar, being wae’sado", meaning she buried it. It is buried would -
be, gasa’do".
The modern caches are lined with hemlock boughs instead of bark
although wood is sometimes used and sometimes bark instead of
boughs at the top. Over this is placed a mound of earth.’
Champlain is the first writer to describe the pit method of storing
corn. He says: “ They make trenches in the sand on the slope of
the hills some five to six feet deep more or less. Putting their corn
and other grains into large grass sacks* they throw them into these
trenches and cover them with sand three or four feet above the sur-
face of the earth, taking out as their needs require. In this way it
is preserved as well as it would be possible in our granaries.”
The corn found by the Pilgrims in November 1620 was buried in
a similar manner.
In the Journal of a Dutch agent, by some supposed to be Arent Van
Curler, who journeyed among the Mohawks and Oneidas in 1634-35,
is a statement that the houses were full of corn, some of them con-
taining more than 300 bushels.*
Corncribs are an Indian invention and for general construction
have been little improved upon by white men. Figure 2 in plate 7
shows a modern Seneca crib.
IV CEREMONIAL AND LEGENDARY ALLUSIONS TO CORN
In the cosmologic myth of the Senecas corn is said to have sprung
from the breasts of the Earth-Mother who died upon delivering the
twins, Good Minded and Evil Minded. Thus the food of the
mother’s bosom still continued to give life to her offspring. Esquire
Johnson, an old Seneca chief, in an interview with Mrs Asher
1Beauchamp, Dr W. M. N. Y.:State Mus. Bul. 89. p. 193.
2 Compare the following: “ The Indians thrash it as they gather it. They
dry it well on mats in the sun and bury it in holes in the ground, lined
with moss or boughs, which are their barns.” Pinkerton. Voyages, 12:258.
3 Cf. Hennepin. Voyages. Lond. 1608. p. 104.
4 Amer. Hist..Ass’n Trans. 1895. Wilson, Gen. J. G. Arent Van Curler,
Tournal of, 1634-35, p. OI.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE By
Wright, the missionary, in 1876 said that the beans, squashes, pota-
toes and tobacco plants sprang also from the grave. Some of the
writer’s informants declare that the squash grew from the grave
earth directly over the Earth-Mother’s navel, the beans from her
feet and the tobacco plant from her head. Thus it is said of the
latter plant, “ It soothes the mind and sobers thought.”
From the manuscript of Mrs Wright’s interview with Johnson, the
following is quoted:
Johnson says that a long time ago squashes were found growing
wild. He says that he has seen them and that they were quite un-
palatable, but the Indians used to boil and eat them. He says that
in their ancient wars with the southern Indians they brought back
squashes that were sweet and palatable and beans which grow wild
in the south, calico colored, and which were very good, and he thinks
the white folks have never used them. Also the o-yah-gwa-oweh -
(oyen’kwaof’we", tobacco) they brought from the south where it
grows wild, also various kinds of corn, black, red and squaw corn,
they brought from the prairie country south where they found it
growing wild. All these things they found on their war expeditions
and brought them here and planted them and thus they abound here,
but he does not know where they first found the potato.
The mythology of the Iroquois is full of allusions to corn, its.
cultivation and uses. The story of its origin from the breasts of
_ the mother of the two spirits, previously referred to, is generally
accepted as the proper version, but there are other stories which,
however, are regarded simply as gaga”’, or amusement tales, rather
than religious explanations. One story relates that an orphaned
nephew who had been adopted by an eccentric uncle with strange
habits thought that he would discover how his uncle obtained food.
He pretended to be asleep and looking through a peephole in his skin
coverlet found that the old man had a strange lot of nuts fastened
on a stick (a corncob). Cautiously removing a nut (kernel) he
placed it in a small pot of water and making some mysterious passes
over it as he crooned a mysterious song, he caused the vessel to ex-
pand to a great size and fill with a delicious food. The next day
the old man went on a journey to a distant gorge and the young man
determined to try the experiment which he had seen his uncle per-
form. He shelled all the corn from the cob, threw it in the pot, -
sang and motioned until the pot swelled up so large that it filled the
house and burst the walls. A great mound was formed and when
the old man returned he cried out in dismay, ** You have killed me,”
and gave as his reason that he was the custodian of the corn which
38 NEW YORK <-STATE MUSEUM
was the only ear in the country, the remainder being in the posses-
sion of a ferocious company of women who killed by their very
glances. Beasts and serpents guarded the path to their houses and
as there was nothing else to eat the nephew and uncle must starve.
The nephew laughed and set out to conquer all the difficulties. The
story of his conquest of all these things is detailed and ‘exciting.
However, he chased the women up a tree and made them promise
to deliver up the corn, which they did and the hero went home, step-
ping disdainfully over the carcasses of monsters and serpents. Since
then corn has been plentiful.
Beauchamp refers to this tale which he found among the Onon-
daga but thinks it of European origin. Hewett in his Cosmology*
gives this tale substantially as outlined above. The reference in the
tale to the nuts on the stick has given some Iroquois the idea that
chestnuts were meant and the story is given as the origin of chest-
nuts. The Seneca names for chestnuts and corn kernels are not
dissimilar, the former being o‘nis’ta’ and the latter o’nie’sta’
Dr Beauchamp relates another tale which he had from Joseph
Lyon, an Onondaga. A fine young man lived on a small hill, so the
story runs, and being lonely he desired to marry some faithful, agree-
able maiden. With his long flowing robes and tasseled plumes he
lifted up his voice and sang, “ Say it, say it, some one I will marry.”
He kept up his song day after day and at last there came a fair
maiden, arrayed in a flowing green mantle over which were fastened
beautiful yellow bells. “I have come to marry you,” she smiled, but
the tall young warrior responded, “No, you are not the one, you
wander too much from home and run over the ground so fast that
I can not keep you by my side.”’ The poor rejected pumpkin maiden
went sorrowfully away and floating after her came ite echo of the
song, “ Some one I will marry.”
One morning a tall slender maiden pipe ei drawn toward the
singer by the magic of the song (which even we of these degenerate
days must confess, though even inaudible, is a song that attracts).
The maiden was covered with clusters of flowers and gracefully
dangling leaves. The tall young man needed but to look and there
was an immediate consciousness of affinity. The two embraced each
other and to this day in the Indian’s cornfield the two plants are
inseparable. The cornstalk bean twines around her lover still.
1 Bureau of Ethnology Rep’t. 1903.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 39
Dr Beauchamp adds that they are inseparable even in death “ for the
beans make a part of Indian corn bread.” 4
Mrs Converse relates a very pretty story of the three plant sis-
ters in her Myths and Legends.2 The writer has heard the same
story. The corn, however, is a female and not a pining, singing lover.
The corn plant in the old days produced a heavy grain rich in an
oil which was most delicious. The Evil Minded spirit, jealous of the
good gifts which the Good Minded had given men beimgs watched
his opportunity to capture the spirit of the corn. Detaining the spirit
he sent his messergers to blight the fields. The sun sent a ray of
light to liberate the captive spirit but ever since corn has been less
productive and required greater care. Morgan also mentions this
legend in the League.®
There is an allusion to the spirit of the corn plant in the code of
Handsome Lake, as follows: )
It was a bright day when I went into the planted field and alone
I wandered in the planted field and it was the time of the second
hoeing. Suddenly a damsel appeared and threw her arms about my
neck and as she clasped me she spoke saying ““ When you leave this
world for the new world above it is our wish to follow you.” I looked
for the damsel but saw only the long leaves of corn twining round
my shoulders. And then I understood that it was the spirit of the
corn who had spoken, she the sustainer of life. [See Code of Ga-nio-
dai-o,* § 48, J 2]
1Jour. Am. Folk Lore, p. 195.
2Converse. Myths and Legends of the Iroquois; ed. by A. C. Parker.
Neer State Mus: Bull 125: |
- 48Morgan. League of the Iroquois. Rochester 1854. p. 161.
4 Manuscript in N. Y. State Library, trans. by. Parker, A. C. and Bluesky,
William.
40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
WS
Ss 3 SS
SSE
Sea eee Se]
SR ERC
(From a drawing by Jesse Cornplanter, a
Spirit of the Corn speaking to Handsome Lake, the Seneca prophet.
Fig. 4 The
Seneca boy artist)
Plate 6 |
Corn pit excavated by Harrington and Parker, 1903 (Peabody Museum
of Archeology and Ethnology Expedition) on the Silverheel’s site, Brant
township, Erie county, N. Y.
Ce 2
I Vegetable storage pits near Uhief E. Cornplanter’s house, Cattaraugus
Reservation. 2 Seneca corncrib on the James Sandy place, Cattaraugus
Reservation
Plate 8
iS
RA
C= See \
=" ~
— SSS
>. —<——\ ae .
A mae eh a
“py, "Y, SES I /z
SW d
ae
ma Vi i]
y', fp’
\ ON
Gi;
Wy
49
\ “Ip
B\ i
, A
aK
NY)
AY
Note the manner in which
a Seneca youth.
e by Jesse Cornplanter,
‘-k house, from a drawin
t
L
Scenes about an Iroquois ba
the corn braids are placed on the drying pole.
,
. t r
’
; *
* tr
—
o AS
~
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 4!
V VARIETIES OF MAIZE USED BY THE IROQUOIS AND
OTHER EASTERN INDIANS
I Varieties mentioned by historians. Few authorities agree as
to the varieties of Indian corn. Beverly! mentions four “ sorts”
among the Virginia Indians, two of which he says are early ripe and
two late ripe. He describes the four varieties carefully and ends by
saying that his description is without respect to what he calls the
“accidental differences in color, some being blue, some red, some
yellow, some white and some streaked.” He continues that the real
difference is determined by the “plumpness or shriveling of the
grain.” To him the smooth early ripe corn was flint corn and the
“other .. . with a dent on the back of the grain .. . they call she-
corn.” This is probably the Poketawes of the Powhatan Indians.
In Harris’s Discoveries? is another description of corn giving the
variety of colors as “red, white, yellow, blue, green and black and
some speckled and striped but the white and yellow are most
common.” ® |
Thomas Hariot in his Brief and True Report, reports* the “ divers
colors”’ as red, white, yellow and blue which in the light of the de-
scriptions of his contemporaries would seem to make his report true
but not the whole truth.
Morgan® is even more unsatisfactory in his descriptions and records
1 Beverly. Virginia, p. 126.
2 Pinkerton. Voyages and Travels, 12:242.
3“. | . maise or Indian corn, which is not our pease in taste, but grows
in a great ear or head as big as the handle of a large horse whip, having
from three hundred to seven hundred grains in one ear, and sometimes one
grain produces two or three such ears or heads; it is of various colours,
red, white, yellow, blue, green and black, and some speckled and striped,
but the white and yellow are most common; the stalk is as thick as an
ordinary walking cane, and grows six or eight feet high, in joints, having
a sweet juice in it, of which a syrup is sometimes made, and from every
joint there grow long leaves in the shape of sedge leaves.” Jbid. p. 242.
4Pagatowr, a kind of grain so called by the inhabitants; the same is
called mayze, Englishmen cal! it Guinywheat or Turkey-wheat, according to
the names of the countries from whence the like has been brought. The
grain is about the bigness of our ordinary English pease and not much
different in form and shape; but of divers colors, some white, some red,
some yellow-and some blue. All of these yield a very white and sweet
flour being used according to his kind, it maketh a very good bread.”
Hariot. Reprint. N. Y. 1872. p. 13-16.
5 League of the Iroquois, p. 370.
42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
only three kinds of corn among the Seneca. He enumerates them
as white, O-na-o-ga-ant, red, Tic-ne, and white flint, Ha-go-wa.
These were the varieties which he collected and sent the State Cabi-
net (Museum) in 1850.
It is difficult to say what kind oie corn Columbus saw on the island
which he discovered, but we may be reasonably sure that Cartier
mentioned the white flint corn when he described the corn of the
Hochelagans. Morgan? mentions this as the bread corn of the Seneca
mistaking it for the white Tuscarora or squaw corn.
Sweet corn was long known to the Indians and its seed was first
obtained by Sullivan’s soldiers from the Seneca fields on the Susque-
hanna.?
Purple or blue corn is mentioned in the Journal of Lieut. Erkuries
Beatly, an officer under Sullivan. In describing the events of Friday
the 3d of September he says “. . . the Indians had just left their -
kettles on the fire boiling fine corn and beans which we got, but what
39
was most remarkable — the corn was all purple. . .
Esquire Johnson, an aged Seneca chief, in an interview with Mrs
Laura Wright in 1879 said, “. . . They brought it from the south,
also various kinds of corn black, red and squaw corn. . . All
these things they found on their war expeditions and brought them
here and planted them and thus they abound.” The object of Iro-
quois raids, according to many of the old Indians, was to get new
vegetables and slaves as well as to subjugate insubordinate tribes.
Dent corn, with the Iroquois (Seneca), is called ono’dja, tooth.
Tradition relates that this is a western form derived from Sandusky
Iroquois in Ohio.
The writer has conducted a lengthy inquiry as to the varieties of
corn cultivated by the Iroquois during the last too years and the
result is embodied in the list, which is found below.? At the present
day while they conserve the forms with a zeal that has in it a
religious and patriotic sentiment, they also cultivate the new varieties
with equal ardor for in the modern types is found the corn which
produces the most money in the markets.
1[bid. p. 370.
2 Cf. Journal of Capt. Richard Begnall.
°Cf. Harrington. Seneca Corn Foods, Am. Anthropologist, new ser-
v. 10, no. 4, p. 575, 576. Four varieties are mentioned.
eer, OT ee ee ee! —————- SC
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 43
2 Varieties of corn used by the Iroquois
Zea mays amylacea, soft corns
Tuscarora or Squaw, Ona/ofiga"== 1 white corn
Tuscarora short eared, Onyui’gwikta’= growing over the tip
Purple soft, Oso"gwtdji’ == purple
Red soft, gwe"da‘'a = red
Zea mays imdurata, flint corns
Hominy or flint, dionéo”state’=the corn glistens
Hominy or flint, long eared, hé’kowa
Cali ( yodjisto’goiinyi = it spotted is
eo) ue
j ‘ deyuneo™ detiis —— mixed colors
Yellow, djitgwa™a" hé’kowa = yellow hé”kowa
Zea May's saccharata, Sweet corns
Sweet, diyut’gotnogwi= puckered corn
Black sweet, cso"gwud’dj1 deutgo™ negaidé = black puckers
, Zea mays everta, pod corn
Red pop, gwe"’’da‘a wata’tongwus = red, it bursts
White pop, wata’/tofgwus == 1t bursis
Zea mays (variety ?), pod corn
Sacred corn, ona’o"wé = original corn
The Mohawks cultivate some of these varieties now. Mr William
Loft, a Mohawk Indian of the Six Nations Reservation. in Canada,
gives the Mohawk names for the following:
Tuscarora, ono"staga™ rha
Tuscarora, short, ono™staoan’nal
Sweet corn, degon’derho"wix
Hominy or white flint, onust’teonwe’
Hominy, longeared, ga’hrades
Yellow, o‘jinegwa‘’onuste‘
Purple, orhon’ya‘
Husk or pod, oo?’nat
Pop, wadada’gwas oniuste‘
1 Seneca terminology.
44
a
b
C
d
(fs
f
g
hh
;
;
k
]
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
VI CORN CULTIVATION TERMINOLOGY!
1 The process of growing
SENECA
Ona’o'
waeeyunt'to’ .
ohwe"o‘dadyie’
oga’’hwaoda"
otgaa’haat
otga’aahat
deyuaha’o
ogwa” daaodyie’
ogwa" daa’e’
oge’’odadyie’
owa"’da’
Oo’ geot
m ogwandu’ae’, ogwa”’ dares
HW
O
p
q
—=
&
U
ai
So 2
Q
ono” gwaat
déju’go"saat
oweadaddyé’, owérdadyé’
oné’oda’dyie’
’ hadi’nonyo"cos
yesta’anyo™nyano’
dusta™ shoni
gasda"t’shudoho’
gano” gadi‘
ENGLISH
Corn
She plants
It is just forming sprouts
It has sprouted
The blade begins to appear
The blade has appeared
The blade is already out
The stalk begins to appear
The stalk is fully out
It is beginning to silk
The ears are out
It has silked out
The tassels are fully out
It is in the milk
It is no longer in the milk
The ears are beginning to set
The kernels are setting on the cob
They are husking (indefinite as
to method )
She is braiding
It is braided
It is hung over a pole
It is strung along a pole
a Terminology of cultivation
wae’yuntto’
yeeo’do’gwts
7 / Ss a?
deyonanyaoh, or deyo’wénnyé
wae’oao", or waea
She plants
She weeds
She stirs up the earth
She hills it up
3 Parts of com
b
oea
odjo™ wa’sa
oaya’, oe'a'
Leaves
Leaves of corn
Stalk
1 Based upon manuscript lexicon of Rev. Asher Wright. For the sake
of uniformity the Wright system of orthography has been changed to that
used in the body of this work.
‘OZIS [BINJVU PITY} 9U0 o7e suaUTIOdd "UIOS
SATVU SB PI}VATINO SOlIIVA J9yIO UdAVS ore SFY, “OdT[W poies-j10yS g ‘JUIBE OT AA y eee 9
O) d ‘ . 6 . .
IGing &$ VY ‘pay € Z BTOTBISHT, I :9J8 -sies ay} JysII 0} f9[ WOT “UO stonbory fo SOTJOTIV A.
Ca |
yy”
re | if
Fh
ARE?
be
aid
Yom eel
y
ERE LEE CELIA GE
a
eo daeLETEGT ED
P2444 449995 O90 98 FOE EER,
t
e
=
=
E
:
z
F
z
ra
&
6 93e1g
t
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 45
d ono®’gwa"™ a’ Cob
€ gagosswa’ge’, ogoisha’ge Butt of cob (meaning nose)
f ojijut Tassels
g onao onius’ta or o’nis’ta’ Kernels
h onyo’nia’ Husk
1 oaya Okdaya, or ok’te’a Roots
7 okta’a Hulls
k ogai‘ta’ Waste matter
1 onao’a wén’niasa’ Germ = heart
m ogudjida’ Pollen when it comes off
n ganaongwe’ ° : Seed corn
O OUBOM | Silk
VII UTENSILS EMPLOYED IN THE PREPARATION OF CORN
FOR FOOD
The implements and utensils employed for the planting, cultivating
and harvesting and the preparation of corn for food embraced the
larger part of Iroquois domestic furniture. To a large extent many
of the old-time corn utensils are still made and used by the Iroquois
who prefer the “ old way ” and it is surprising to find that even the
Christianized Iroquois, who generally live in communities away from
their “pagan” brothers, cling to their corn mortars and the other
articles which go with them. Today on all the Iroquois reservations
both in New York and Canada the corn articles form the great part
of their Indian material, and in fact constitute much of their aborig-
inality. As far as the writer can learn this same observation applies
to all of the Indian tribes or remnants of such east of the Missis-
Sippi river.
ce
Corn mortars are still made in the ancient way by burning out the
hollow. | 3
The men probably made most of the bark and wooden dishes
and carved the spoons and paddles while the women made the baskets
and sieves.
Hennepin writing on this subject remarks: “ When the Savages
are about to make Wooden Dishes, Porringers or Spoons, they form
the Wood to their purpose with their Stone Hatchets, make it hollow
with their Coles out of the Fire and scrape them afterward with
Beavers Teeth for to polish them.?
1See Jesuit Relations, 23:55, 13:265; Lawson. Carolina, p. 208.
2Hennepin. Voyage, p. 103.
46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Large kettle, Gano®’djowané’. Anciently large clay vessels were
used. Later brass or copper kettles obtained from the whites were
used. The use of clay vessels was early noticed by travelers! among
the Indians of eastern North America. There are several good de-
scriptions of the methods of pottery making, references to the use
of the vessels for cooking and several illustrations of them [see
fig. 15]. It seems most probable from these early accounts and illus-
trations that the clay kettles were placed directly over the fire, though
perhaps supported by three or four stones properly arranged. School-
craft, however, illustrates one suspended over the fire. The writer
once found a clay vessel in a fire pit with the remains of the fire
about it and four or five pieces of angular shale at the bottom as a
supporting base. There are several illustrations depicting this
method in old works. |
The coming of the traders with brass kettles was an event in the
history of Indian cooking. It enlarged their capacity for cooking
food in quantities. As brass kettles became common with them the
smaller clay vessels passed out of use and were made but rarely. In ~
this way the art gradually became forgotten.
Among the Seneca the writer found several persons who remem-
bered hearing in their youth how the vessels were made. They as-
serted that clay was thus occasionally employed up to the middle of
the last century. The Seneca seem to have conserved the art* at
any rate for some time after their settlement at — anda, Alle-
gany and Cattaraugus.
The use of brass kettles among the Iroquois is still found, some
of the more conservative seeming to prefer them [see pl. 10], but the
majority now use iron or the more modern enameled ware pots.
Wooden mortar, Ga’niga‘’ta.? The corn mortar was made of
the wood of the trunk of a niiu’gagwasa, pepperidge tree or ogo’wa,
1 These vessels are so strong that they do not crack when on the fire
without water inside, as ours do, but at the same time they can not stand
continued moisture and cold water long without becoming fragile and
breaking at any slight knocks that any one may give them but otherwise
they are very durable”’ Sagard. Histoire du Canada. 1638. Tross ed.
Paris: 1866) 4p. 260:
2Cf Harrington. Last of the Iroquois Potters. N. Y. State Mus. Rep't
of Director. 10908.
3 Ga’ni’ga‘ in Mohawk.
Sebastien Cramoisy in his relations aS said= “= = we flame
learned by experience that our sagamites are better pounded in a wooden
mortar in the fashion of the Savages than ground within the mill. 1 believe
it is because the mill makes the flour too fine.” [See Jesuit Relations.
Thwaite’s ed. v. 8]
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 47
black oak. To conform to the proportions specified by custom the
log was reduced to a diameter of 20 inches and then a section 22
inches long was cut or sawed off. A fire was built in the center of the
end naturally uppermost and when it had eaten its way into the block
for half an inch or thereabouts, the charcoal was carefully scraped
out to give a fresh surface to a new fire which ate its way still deeper.
The process was repeated until the bowlike hollow was of the de-
sired depth, generally about 12 inches.t. In this hollow was placed
the corn to be pulverized. The relative values of mortars depended -
on their freedom from cracking and the grinding quality of the wood.
The use of the mortar? and pestle is shown in plates 11, 12 and
20. In the same illustrations is shown the corn strung or braided
for convenience in handling, after the. old Indian style now univer-
sally adopted by farmers. | :
The wooden mortar and pestle are found among most of the east-
ern Indians. The styles and shapes differed greatly. The Cherokee,
for example, had a shallow saucerlike depression in the top of their
mortars anda socket in the center. Their pestles were bulbous at the
top but the grinding end was small and of a size designed to fit the
socket loosely. As the meal was pounded it rose to the top and
settled around the “saucer” top where it could easily be swept or
scooped into a receptacle. Cherokee mortars like the Iroquois were
made upright. The Pottawatomie, Chippewa and some others had
horizontal mortars, that is the cavity was made in the side of the
mortar log. The Seminole not content with one cavity made three
or four in the side of a fallen tree. The Nanticoke made their
mortars vase-shaped with a supporting base and the Choctaw chopped
their mortar vases to a point to hold them stationary. Dr Speck
found an odd mortar among the Connecticut Mohegan. It had been
carved so as to resemble somewhat an hour glass. He was not able .
1 Adair describes the process as follows, “. . . cautiously burned
a large log to a proper level and length, placed fire a-top, and with mortar
[clay] around it, in order to give the utensil proper form, and when the
fire was extinguished or occasion required, they chopped the inside with
their stone instruments, patiently continuing the slow process till they
finished the machine to the intended purpose.” Adair, p. 416. Lond. 1725.
Gi Mekratzo bans 1724. 2:177.
2“ The Indians always used mortars instead of mills and had them with
almost every other convenience when first opened to trade.” Adair, p. 416.
“They pound it in a hollow tree.’ DeVries. Second Voyage. Hoorn
ose peeOs TIN Ns Eliste Soc.) Cols) Seri 2.1v.93, pt i:
}
48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
to obtain it because the tribe held it as communal property and looked
upen it with a feeling of veneration. The pestles differ as much as
the mortars, some being mere clublike sticks.
Pestle, Hétge’o‘ or He’tgén“kha’! The Seneca words mean
upper part and are derived from hetgaa’gwa, meaning upper. The
pestle is generally of hard maple wood about 48 inches long. It is
shaped the same on both ends and either may be used for pounding,
although one end is generally chosen and always used thereafter. The
other end serves as a weight that adds to the power of the arm in
making the stroke. The mortar and pestle are used in pulverizing
corn. for soups, hominy, puddings and bread, and are by far the most
important utensils used in preparing corn foods made from meal.
Stone mortar and pestle, Yeistonnia’’ta’. Up to within the time of
the Civil War it was a common thing for the Seneca, as well as
others of the Iroquois, to use stone mortars and pestles or rather
mullers. Some of these mortars were so small that they could easily
be carried in a basket without inconvenience. Corn could be cracked
for soup by a single blow or by rubbing once or twice it could be re-
= tite
Fig. 5 eneca stone mortar and muller. The mortar is 8 inches in length
duced to meal. Many of the older people remember these “stone
mills” by which their odjis’to"nonda‘, cracked corn hominy was
made? [see fig. 5] |
M. R. Harrington found one of these mortars still in use by the
Oneida in Madison county and described it in the American An-
thropologist.®
1 Ga’ni’ga‘ in Mohawk. :
2Cf. Jesuit Relations, 1716-27, v. 67:213. They crush the corn between
two stones reducing it to a meal; afterward they make of it a porridge
which they sometimes season with fat or with dried fish.
3 New Ser. v. 10, no. 4. 1908. p.-579.
Interior of the Canadian Seneca ceremonial cook house, Grand River
Reservation. Note the large brass kettle. From a photograph by the author
a — ee Se eo eee ee iat 2 aus I Ey oe RN ee = awe = =
Plate 11
25 inches high.
1S
ithe ‘mortan 4
(Museum collection)
Iroquois corn mortar and pestle
Plate 12
Feast makers at the New York Seneca midwinter festival, February 1909.
The costumes and other articles except the corn mortar are now in the
State Museum collections.
Plate 13
Illustrations are one fifth actual size. A. C. Parker, collector, 1908
Hulling and hominy baskets.
~
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE AQ
Mullers and mealing slabs are commonly found on Iroquois vil-
lage sites and sometimes may be picked up near log cabin sites on the
present reservations. The Iroquois probably did not use the long
cylindrical pestles to any great extent, as did the New York Algon-
quins as late as the Revolutionary War.
Mr Harrington found one of these cylindrical pestles among the
descendants of the Shinnecock at Southampton, Long Island, to-
gether with a small wooden mortar. The Minisink Historical So-
ciety has one which was given an early settler by one.of the Minsis
before the Revolutionary War.
Hulling basket, Yegai”toata’.». The Seneca word for hulling
basket means if washes corn. This basket is woven with tight sides
La
aR ANN
Fig. 6 Technic of the hulling basket
and a coarse sievelike bottom. It is about 18 inches deep and as
many broad at the top tapering down to 12 inches at the bottom. In
this basket is put squaw or hominy corn after it has been boiled in
weak lye to loosen the hulls and outer skin. The basket of corn is
then sotsed up and down in a large tub of water until all the hulls
are free and have floated off in the many rinse waters.
The details of weaving the hulling basket are shown in figure 6
and the basket itself in plate 13. Hulling baskets are made in four
styles; without handles of any sort; with handles made by openings
in the body of the basket just below the rim; by raised loop handles
made by fastening pieces of bent wood through the rim and into the
body of the basket; and by a raised handle that arches from side
to side. For the various styles see figure 7. This type of basket is
1 Yegahreda®da’kwa‘ in Mohawk.
50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
widely found among the eastern Indians although the Iroquois basket
seems to have been higher.
The hominy sifter is-woven in the same manner and the State
Museum has specimens from the Cherokee and Shawnee which are
CN
eT aM Yin
Fig. 7 Various forms of hulling baskets
similar in all details to the Iroquois baskets. Both of these peoples
of course have been in contact with the Iroquois at different periods.
The Delaware sifting and washing baskets were often made of shreds
of bark but the Iroquois preferred the inner splints of the black ash.
Hominy sifter, Oniius’tawanes.t The Seneca term means
coarse kernels. This basket is of the same weave as the hulling
basket. It is a foot square at the top and tapers down to Io inches
at the bottom. The bottom is sievelike, the openings being about
+s inch square. The hominy corn cracked in the mortar is sifted
through this basket and the coarser grains that remain are thrown
back in the mortar to be repounded and resifted until all are of the
requisite size. |
Meal sifter,2, Niu’nyo™sthasa’.2 The Indian word is derived
from niwa’a, small, and oniius’ta’ kernels. In size and shape this
basket is like the hominy sifter. The splints of which it is woven,
however, are very fine, being about yg inch wide. Except for
decorative purposes, no baskets were ever woven finer. The
niu’nyo"s’thasa’ was used for sifting corn meal for bread puddings.
Sometimes it was used to sift other things, such as maple sugar,
salt, seeds etc. So much labor was required to make one of these
meal sifters that many of the Iroquois ceased to weave them when
cheap wire sieves could be obtained, the price of the meal sieve
basket being as high as $1 [see fig. 8].
1Yuno®’owa’nés in Mohawk.
2“ They have little baskets which they call notassen, and which are made
of a kind of hemp the same as fig frails, which they make to serve as
sieves.” DeVries, p. 187.
3 Niga’te’sera, flour sieve, in Mohawk.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE ; 51
\
Metallic meal sifters, now sometimes used, are regarded as inferior
for sifting the Indian prepared meal because they give a metallic
Fig. 8 Meal sifter. Specimen is r2 inches in diameter and 4 inches deep.
The mesh is #5 inch.
taste to the food. It is said that the basket sieve makes lighter
flour. |
Ash sifter, Oga’yeo™to’.t The ash sifter was a small basket
about 6 inches square at the top, 5 inches square or less at the bot-
tom and about 3 inches deep. It was woven like the hominy sifter,
the sieve bottom having somewhat smaller openings.
Ash sifters are rare in collections illustrating the series of baskets
used in the preparation of corn for food. One in the State Museum
is very old and was collected by Morgan at Tonawanda in 1851.
Bark bread bowl, Gusno"gaof’wa’.? This dish is made from
bark peeled in the spring or the early summer time, bent into the re-
quired shape and bound around the edges with a hoop of ash sewed
on with a cord of inner elm or basswood bark. The usual dimen-
1 Yo"ga"rawakto’ is the Mohawk form.
2 Ga"’sna’gahof’wa’ in Mohawk.
52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
wn
sions are from I to 2 feet in diameter and from 4 to oQmmenes
deep. Some bowls are elliptical in shape. These bark bowls were
used for mixing the corn meal into loaves previous to boiling and
afterward for holding the finished loaf.
The writer has seen these bark bowls used for cooking vessels,
heated stones being thrown into the liquid within it. The bark vessel
can also be put over an outdoor earthen or stone fireplace and water
heated if the flames are kept away from the rim. Bark bowls are
still used in some parts of the Seneca reservations as dish pans, sap
tubs, wash pans, etc. Bark dishes are easily made and their first use
may be referred to very early times. Two of these bowls are
shown in plate 14. Morgan collected a series of bark vessels for the
State Museum in 1854 and some of the specimens are still on
exhibition.
Wooden bread bowl, Owé"ga‘ga’on’wa’. + Sometimes ine ofa
bark dish a wooden one was used for a bread bowl. It was of about
the same relative size and carved from pine or maple. The form
naturally differed somewhat from the bark bowls, but in general out-
line followed them. Some of these bowls are carved from maple
knots, or knots from other trees. Usually, however, they were
carved from softer wood.
Wide paddle, Gatgun’yasshuwa’ne.? The wide paddle was
used for lifting corn bread from the kettle in which it was boiled.
Some of these paddles are beautifully carved and ornamented. The
wide bread paddle took two forms, the round blade and the rectan-
gular bladed paddle [sce pl. 16]. A feature which distinguishes a
lifting from a stirring paddle is the hole made in the middle of the
blade. ,The holes are either round or heart-shaped:
Narrow paddle, Nigat’gwiinyashaa’.* This paddle was used
for stirring boiling soups and hulled corn.
Both wide and narrow paddles were carved from some hard wood,
preferably some variety of maple. Some are decorated with carv-
ings of phallic symbols. Such designs are regarded as sacred, in the
Iroquois religion, and are never looked upon with levity. The
carving of paddles gave opportunity for the carver to display his
best genius. Chains were carved from the solid wood of the paddle
handle and balls cut in barred receptacles [see pl. 16, fig. 3]. Even
some of the plainer forms had decorations made by carving a series
of small triangles arranged in figures on the handle.
1 Oyén’de=gaon"wa’ in Mohawk.
2 Gagawe’tserhowané‘ in Mohawk.
3 Nigagawe”tsélha in Mohawk.
— ti‘ ete ee
’ .
ee
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 53
Within recent years this work of making and decorating these
kitchen utensils has been the work of the men. No doubt they
thought that a fine paddle would furnish a proper incentive for the
making of a good soup.
Great dipping spoons, Ato’gwassho"wa’ ne‘? For Heme hulled
corn soup, or in fact any other soup from a kettle, a large dipping
spoon was generally used when there was one at hand. In form it
was like the common eating spoon used by the Iroquois but very
much larger, the bowl being about a foot in diameter. At present
these large spoons are very rare. One specimen that the writer
obtained for the American Museum of Natural History is said to
have been used for years in council meetings on the Genesee Reser-
vation, especially at the Green Corn Festivals. There are several
large dipping spoons in the State Museum, but they are now not
to be found in use on the New York Indian reservations. The. speci-
men shown in the illustration, figure 1, plate 17, has a shorter handle
than mest.
The great dipping spoons were used for apportioning out ne con-
tents of the great feast cauldrons. The activity of collectors and the
greater convenience of civilized articles has brought the tin dipper
into greater prominence.
Deer jaw scraper, Yigassho™ gaya”to’.*. This implement is a
very rare one. It is simply one of the rami of a deer’s lower jaw and
Fig. 9 Deer jaw scraper for green corn. Specimen is about 8 inches long; “4
is complete without trimming or finishing in any way. The jaw was
held by the anterior toothless portion and with the sharp back teeth
the green corn was scraped from the cob. The name of the imple-
ment, Yigassho"’giya”to’, is derived from ogo™’sa, green corn, and
yigowe"’'to’, it scrapes.
The Seneca housewife when she uses the jaw scraper, with char-
acteristic humor, says, “I am letting the deer chew the corn first
h@te talent
1 Wadogwa’'tserhowané in Mohawk.
2Yé"nos’stoga®yatha’ in Mohawk.
54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Another method of bruising green corn on the cob was to place a
flat grinding stone in a large wooden or bark bowl, hold the ear on
the stone with one hand and mash the unripe kernels with a milling
stone held in the other hand. The bruised corn was then brushed
from the mortar stone and the kernels that yet adhered to the cob,
scraped off. When enough material had been thus prepared the lower
stone was removed from the bowl and the mashed corn removed
for cooking.
Dried corn was milled much in the same way. A handful of the
corn was placed on the millstone and pulverized with the miller. The.
cracked corn would fall into the bowl and -be pounded again and
again until enough hominy or meal was obtained. The Seneca aban-
doned this method about 50 years ago, although a few have used it
in recent times when a wooden mortar was not accessible.
The writer collected a deer jaw scraper in 1903 for the American
Museum of Natural History and believes his description and speci-
men the Arst on record. Mr Harrington later collected and described
the deer jaw scraper in Canada, corroborating the writer’s data."
Sagard in his Voyages to the Hurons describes another jaw method
of removing green corn from the cob but says the jaws were those
of the old women, the maidens and children who prepared the mass.
He remarks that he had no liking for the food. |
Eating bowl, Ga’on’wa’. Eating bowls? were made from bark
or wood and were of various shapes.
Feast bowls oftentimes were of large size and were ornamented
in various ways to distinguish them from ordinary dishes. There
are two interesting specimens of feast bowls in the State. collec-
tions. Both are Mohawk bowls from Grand River, Can. One has a
handle styled after a beaver tail, a beaver’s tail being the symbol of
a feast. The other bowl is made of elm bark. It was used at one
of the Five Nation’s councils some 10 years ago. The interior is
divided into five sections by painted lines of yellow radiating from
the center. At the angles of the radiating division lines are beaver
tails, five in all. Upon the inner raised sides of the bowl is painted
in red the names of the five nations and in black beneath the modern
council names :.Ga-ne-a-ga-o-no, Mohawk, Owner of the Flint; Gue-
gweh-o-no, Onondaga, On the Hill; Nun-da-wah-o-no, Seneca, The
1 See also Parker, A. C. N. Y¥. State Mus. Bul. 117, p. 544
2“ Their dishes are wooden platters of sweet timber.” Raleigh, in Hak-
luyt’s Voyages. Lond. 1600. 3:304.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 55
Great Hill People; O-na-ote-kah-o-no, Oneida, The People of the
Stone. The label reads as follows:
(CANADIAN ) MOHAWK BREAD BOWL.
This decoration is a fac-simile of the old bowl taken by the Mo-
hawks when they left the League and departed with Brant.
5 yellow lines — ‘The sun’s path guarding the 5 nations. 5 Beaver
tails — the beaver tail soup symbol. At the 5 Fire councils each Fire
(or nation) -was compelled to dip his: soup from its own national
division of the bowl. The dipping of the spoon into each portion
allotted to its Fire signified union and fidelity. This bowl, obtained
in Canada, was decorated by a Seneca Indian Artist on the Catta-
raugus Reservation, June 12, 1899. :
Harriet Maxwell Converse
Cattaraugus Reservation, N. Y.
June 15, 1899.
Ordinary eating bowls were smaller than feast bowls and were
often carved with great nicety from maple, oak or pepperidge knots.
After carving and polishing the bowls were dyed in a solution made
from hemlock roots: Continual scouring soon reduced the bowl to
a high polish and the grease which it absorbed gave it an attractive
luster which contributed in a large measure to preserve the wood.
Bowls which have been in the State Museum for 50 years still yield
grease if scraped with a penknife.
Eating bowls are usually round but many of the older forms have
suggestions of handles oppositely placed. Some of these handles go
beyond mere suggestions and take the form of a bird’s head and tail
or two facing human effigies.t_ Bowls are shown in plates 14 and 15.
Wooden spoons, Atog’washa.? Great care was exercised in
carving wooden spoons. As a rule, each individual had his own
Fig. ro Wooden™spoon from bottom of Black lake. ‘ollected by E. R. Burmaster!
I910. Specimen is 15 inches in length,
spoon which he recognized by the animal or bird carved on the
handle. In olden times, the dream animal or clan totem was usually
carved upon the handle, but specimens of later times nearly always
1 See Harrington. Some Unusual Iroquois Specimens. Am. Anthrop-
ologist. new ser. 11:85.
2 Niwado®kwatserha, in Mohawk.
56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Pw
have the conventionalized forms of birds carved upon them. In
rare instances the figure was carved from a separate piece of wood
and attached to the spoon handle with a peg. |
The wood chosen for spoons was usually curly maple knots,
although knots of other woods were valued and often used. The
Iroquois preferred to have their spoons of a dark color and as the
“spoon wood” was white or yellow, they used dyes to darken
them. Hemlock bark or roots were boiled in water until the liquid
was of the proper shade, which was dark red, and then the spoon
oS
Fig. 11 Types of Seneca and Onondaga eating spoons. 1, wooden spoon; 2, bark ladle;
3, buffalo horn spoon. Number 3 was collected by E. R. Burmaster, 1910, from the
Alec John family who had preserved it as an heirloom for many years.
was plunged in and boiled with the dye until it had become
thoroughly saturated with the dye and had partaken of the desired
color. By use and time the spoon became almost as black as ebony
and took a high polish.
Spoons were sometimes shaped from elm bark but these were
not durable. They were scoops rather than ladles or spoons.
The Iroquois did not readily abandon the use of wooden spoons
and in some districts they are still used. The Indians say that food
Plate 14
I Seneca bark bowl. 2 Mohawk feast bowl used at the Six Nations
annual meetings. The beaver tail symbols refer to a section in the Iroquois
Constitution and symbolize peace and plenty. Illustrations are one sixth
actual size. Coverse collection
Plate 15
Iroquois bread and eating bowls
UOT9]JOO WnesnfT 9381S “SJouIN} pue sajpped peoiq pue dnos stonbosy
QI s1%Iq
Plate 17
1 Seneca feast dipping spoon. 2 Mohawk beaver tail national feast bowl.
Illustrations are about one fifth actual size. Mrs H. M. Converse collection
in State Museum
uoods s,pjlyo o1emejod § :uoods esepuoug Pb :uoods voaueG € *[Moq Surjea voauag z {];Moq jes BSepuoUG I
gi a1eId
‘sudtUTdeds JO 9ZIS Y}INOF 9UO IV SUOTILIISH][] “WNosnyL 9389S oY} OF UOJSUTIIVTET YW
Aq poeo[foo ‘Joyseq sutured oiemepad Z “UOTPII{[OD URSsIOP| ‘Joyseq Joxood-s[qnop vooueG I ‘sjoyseq sutjuryd yreq wyy
61 a1e[q
TROOUOIS USES) Ol MAIZE 57
tastes much better when eaten from one and those who have not
used them for some years express a longing to employ them again,
recalling with evident pleasure the days when they ate from an
“ atog’washa.” ?
The favorite decorations for the tops of the handles were ducks,
pigeons and sleeping swans. The tails of the birds projecting. back-
ward afforded a good hold for the hand and at the saine time acted
as a hook that prevented the spoon from slipping into the bowl when
it was rested within it [see pl. 18].
The shape of the wooden spoon bowl is significant and seems to
suggest that it was copied from the form of a clam shell or from
a gourd spoon, these forms perhaps being the prototypes. Various
types of spoons are shown in figure 11 and plate 18.
Husk salt bottle, Ojike’ta’hda’wa. While not employed directly
as a utensil for preparing corn foods, the husk salt bottle was used
as a receptacle for the seasoning sub-
stances used for giving an added flavor ©
to soups, bread etc. made from corn.
The bottle was made of corn husk in-
geniously woven. The stopper was a
section of a-corncob. Corn husk bot-
tles sometimes were woven so tightly, it
is said that they would hold water. On
the other hand the bottles were valued
for their property of keeping the salt
dry, the outer husk absorbing and hold-
ing the moisture before it reached the
salt within [see fig. 12].
The Iroquois have used these salt
bottles within the last 10 years but only
a few are now to be found.
The Iroquois say that they have not Fie. r Husk salt bottle. Cut is
always used salt in the quantities which Meee eae
they now do and say that it has a debilitating effect upon them.
Parched corn sieve, Yundéshoyondagwatha. This utensil was
first described by Morgan? who collected a single specimen for the
1 Beverly in describing the eating customs of the Virginia Indians, says,
“The Spoons which they eat with do generally hold half a pint; and they
laugh at the English for using small ones, which they must be forced to
carry so often to their Mouths, and their Arms are in Danger of being
tir’d before their Belly.”
2See Morgan. Fabrics of the Iroquois. State Cabinet of Nat. Hist.
Fifth An. Rep’t 1852. p. o1. ;
58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
State Museum in 1850. It consists of strips of wooden splints a
little more than an $ inch wide laid longitudinally, bound together
with basswood cords.and fastened tightly at either end making a
canoe-shaped basket. It was used for sifting the ashes from
parched corn and for sifting out the unburst kernels from pop
corn. The writer has not been able to collect another old specimen
of this basket and was told that the hominy sieve is now used
instead. 7 3
The corn sieve is an interesting survival of a form of basket (the
melon basket) now obsolete among the Canadian and New York
Iroquois.’ It has been preserved, however, among the Cherokee
and 1s common among other southern tribes. Morgan’s figure in
the Fifth Museum Report is a poor illustration of the specimen and
has confused several writers who have attempted to copy it. A
better drawing is shown in the accompanying cut, figure 13.
Fig. 13 Popcorn sieve. Morgan specimen. This type is a survival of the melon basket
now obsolete among the Iroquois except perhaps the Oneida.
Specimen is 20 inches long.
Planting and harvesting baskets
Planting basket, Yundushinun’dakhwa’.2? This is the small
basket used for containing the seed corn for planting. The basket
is generally tied to the waist so as to leave both hands free for
dropping the seed and covering it with the hoe.
One planting basket in the museum collection is made of bark
doubled in such a maner as to leave pockets on either side and a
handle in the middle [see fig. 1, pl. 19]. . .
Carrying basket, Ye’niste™neék’wista’ or Yuntge’dastha.2 This
basket is generally tied by a carrying strap, gusha’a, to the head or
chest and the ears of corn thrown over the shoulders into it as they
were picked. The use of this basket is shown in plate 2, fig. 1.
1 Harrington collected some interesting forms from the Oneida, two of
which were acquired by the State Museum.
2 Yutterhaha’wida”’kwa’ in Mohawk.
3 Yorda’’terhagehtslakwa in Mohawk.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 59
VIII COOKING AND EATING CUSTOMS
I Fire making. The precolonial method of producing fire was
of course by friction and there were a number of ways for this
Fig. 14 Iroquois pump drill used for producing fire by friction. Collected by
L. H. Morgan, 1850. Specimen is 18 inches high.
purpose. The most characteristic contrivance was the pump drill
Morgan figured a pump drill in his report? to the Regents of the
University. A pump drill is simply a weighted spindle of resinous
1 Mason. Origin of Inventions, p. 88.
4N-Y. State Cab. Nat: Hist. Third An. Rep’t. Albany 1851, p. 88.
60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
wood to the top of which is fastened a very slack bow string, the
bow hanging at right angles to the weight. By twisting up the
string and then quickly pressing down on the bow a spinning motion
is imparted to the spindle which immediately as the string unwinds,
winds it up again in an opposite direction. The bow is then quickly
pressed downward again and so continuously. The top of the
spindle is inserted in a greased socket and the foot in a notch in a
piece of very dry tinder wood. The rapid twirling of the spindle
creates friction which as it increases ignites the powdered wood. A
piece of inflammable tow is placed near this dust which suddenly
ignites in the socket and fires the tow which is quickly transferred
to a pile of kindling. Pump drills of course are not characteristic-
ally Iroquois, though the Iroquois used this means of producing
fire by friction more generally than other methods [see fig. 14].*
TERMINOLOGY OF FIRE
Fire | ode’ka’
Match (it makes fire) yiondékada‘’kwa*
I make a fire engade’gat tne
Fire wood oyan’da‘
Charcoal odja”’ sta’
Ashes o'ga’a‘
Smoke (in house) odia’gwa‘
Smoke (out of doors) odia” gweot
Flame o‘do™’ kot
Bake or broil waen’dasko"dé
For cooking food anciently the fires were generally made in
sunken pits, variously called fire pits, pots or sunken ovens.
Pots of clay were probably placed only in shallow saucerlike
depressions and held up by stones. The writer discovered such a
pot at Ripley in 1906. It stood upright in a pit and was supported
by some chunks of stone. Charcoal lay about it as if the fire had
been hastily smothered. Schoolcraft pictures a clay pot suspended
from a tripod, but most explorers picture the position of the clay
vessel as above described.
Pits often were heated to a good temperature, the embers raked
aside and corn, squashes or other foods thrown in, covered with
1 See Morgan League, p. 381. -
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 61
cold ashes and allowed to bake by the heat that remained in the
ground. Small pits were thus made in clay banks and beans and
other vegetables boiled to perfection. The remains of these pit
ovens are found by all field archeologists who have worked in New
pork + |
2 Meals and hospitality. The Iroquois in precolonial and
even during early colonial times had but one regular meal each day.
This was called sédetcinegwa, morning meal, and was eaten between
g and 11 o'clock. Few of the eastern Indians had more than two
regular meals each day, but this did not prevent any one from
eating as many times and as much as he liked for food was always
ready in every house at all times.”
The food for the day was usually cooked in the morning and
kept warm all day. For special occasions, however, a meal could be
cooked at any time, but as a rule an Iroquois household did not
Fig. 15 Drawing of an Indian and his wife at dinner, from Beverly’s Virginia. The
numbers refer to Beverly’s description which is as follows; ‘‘1. Is their Pot boiling
with Hominy and Fish in it. 2. Is a Bowl of Corn, which they gather up in their
Fingers, to feed themselves. 3. The Tomahawk which he lays by at Dinner. 4. His
Pocket, which is likewise stript off, that he may be at full liberty. 5. A Fish.
6. A Heap of roasting Ears, both ready for dressing. 7. A Gourd of Water. 8. A
Cockle-Shell, which they sometimes use instead of a Spoon. 9. The Mat they sit on.”’
expect a family meal except in the morning. As every one had four
or five hours exercise before this meal it was thoroughly enjoyed.
mel CF: eerineton! Mohawk Strongholds. Manuscript in N. Y. State
Museum.
2 Cf. Heckewelder, p. 193 ; Morgan. House Life, p. 90.
62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Large eaters were not looked upon with favor, but every one was
supposed to satisfy his hunger.
The housewife announced that a meal was ready by exclaiming
Hau! Sédek’oni, and the guest when he had finished the meal always
exclaimed with emphasis “ Niawé"”” meaning, thanks are given.
This was supposed to be addressed to the Creator. As a response
the host or hostess, the housewife or some member of the family
would say “ Niu”” meaning it is well. Neglect to use these words
was supposed to indicate that the goddess of the harvest and the
growth spirits or “the bounty of Providence’ was not appreciated
and that the eater was indifferent.
In apportioning a meal the housewife dipped the food from the
kettle or took it from its receptacle and placed it in bark and wooden
dishes, which she handed the men. They either sat on the floor or
ground or stood along the wall as was most convenient. The
women and children were then served. This old time custom still
has its survival in the modern eating habits of the more primitive
Iroquois. There are now tables and chairs and three regular meals,
to be sure, but the women serve the men first and then, when the
men have gone from the room, arrange the meal for themselves.
Regular meals two and three times a day did not come until the
communal! customs of the Iroquois had given way to the usages of
modern civilization. Even then, as Morgan observes, one of the
difficulties was to change the old usage and accustom themselves
to eating together. It came about, as this author says, with the
abandonment of the communal houses and the establishment of
single family houses where the food for the household was secured
by the effort of the family alone.
Under the old régime food was kept ready for any one whe migit
call for it at any time. The single meal of the late morning did not
prevent any one from eating as many times as he pleased.
Springing from the law of communism came the law of common
hospitality. Any one from anywhere could enter any house at any
time if occupants were within, and be served with food. Indeed it
was the duty of the housewife to offer food to every one that entered
her door. If hungry the guest ate his fill but if he had already
eaten he tasted the food as a compliment to the giver. A refusal
to do this would have been an outright insult. There was never
need for any one to go hungry or destitute, the unfortunate and
46 Morgan. House Life, p. go.
~ IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 63
the lazy could avail themselves of the stores of the more fortunate
and the more energetic. Neither begging nor laziness were encour-
aged, however, and the slightest indication of an imposition was
rebuked in a stern manner. |
_ Heckewelder explains this law of hospitality in a forcible manner.
“ They think that he (the Great Spirit), made the earth and all that
it contains,” he writes,t “that when he stocked the country that
he gave them with plenty of game, it was not for the benefit of the |
_few, but for all.’ This idea that the Creator gave of his bounty
for the good of the entire body of people was one of the funda-
mental laws of the Iroquois. As air and rain were common so was
everything else to be. Heckewelder expresses this when he con-
tinues, “ Everything was given in common to the sons of men.
Whatever liveth on land, whatsoever groweth out of the earth, and
all that is in the rivers and waters flowing through the same, was
given jointly to all, and every one is entitled to his share. From
this principle hospitality flows as from its source. With them it
was not a virtue but a strict duty ; hence they are never in search of
excuses to avoid giving, but freely supply their neighbors’ wants
from the stock prepared for their own use. They give and are
hospitable to all without exception and will always share with each
other ‘and often with the stranger to the last morsel. They would
rather lie down themselves on an empty stomach than have it laid to
their charge that they had neglected their duty by not satisfying the
wants of the stranger, the sick or the needy. The stranger has a
claim to their hospitality, partly on account of his being at a distance
from his family and friends, and partly because he has honored them
with his visit and ought to leave them with a good impression on
his mind; the sick and the poor because they have a right to be
helped out of the common stock, for if the meat they are served
with was taken from the woods it was common to all before the
hunter took it; if corn and vegetables, it had grown out of the com-
mon ground, yet not by the power of men but by that of the Great
Spirit.”
When distinguished guests came into a community a great feast
was prepared for them. Various French, Dutch and English
writers who visited the Iroquois during the colonial period have
written of these feasts and some of them describe the feasts in
a vivid way. Sometimes the food was unpalatable to European
1 Heckewelder. Indian Nations, p. Iotr.
64 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
taste and sometimes howsoever unpalatable it was eaten with great
gusto, so sharp a sauce does hunger give.
John Bartram, who made a trip from Philadelphia to Onondaga
in the middle of the 18th century, with Conrad Weiser, Lewis
Evans and Shickalmy, records in his Observations:* —
We lodged within 50 yards of a hunting cabin where there were
two men, a squaw and a child. The men came to our fire, made us
a present of some venison and invited Mr Weiser, Shickalmy and
his son to a feast at their cabin. It is incumbent on those who par-
take of a feast of this sort to eat all that comes to their share or
burn it. Now Weiser being a traveler was entitled to a double share,
but being not very well, was forced to take the benefit of a liberty
indulged him of eating by proxy, and he called me. But both being
unable to cope with it, Evans came to our assistance notwithstanding
which we were hard set to get down the neck and throat, for these
were allotted to us. And now we had experienced the utmost bounds
of their indulgence, for Lewis, ignorant of the ceremony of throwing
a bone to the dog, though hungry dogs are generally nimble, the In-
dian, more nimble, laid hold of it first and committed it to the fire,
religiously covering it over with hot ashes. This seemed to be a kind
of offering, perhaps first fruits to the Almighty Power to crave future
success in the approaching hunting season.
Instances of the hospitality of the Iroquois toward the whites and
Indians could be cited at great length,? with but one result, that of
confirming the statement that hospitality was an established usage.
The Indians were often greatly surprised to find that on their visits
to white settlements they were not accorded the same privilege,
and thought the whites rude and uncivil people. “They are not
even familiar with the common rules of civility which our mothers
teach us in infancy,” said one Indian in expressing his surprise.
The Iroquois were not great eaters, that is to say, they seldom
gorged themselves with food at their private meals or at feasts,
except perhaps for ceremonial reasons. To do so ordinarily would
be a religious offense and destroy the capacity to withstand hunger.
Children were trained to eat frugally and taught that overeating
was far worse than undereating. They were warned that gluttons
would be caught by a monster known as Sago’dikwits who would
humiliate them in a most terrible manner if he found that they
were gourmands.
1 Bartram. Observations. Lond. 1751. p. 24.
*See Morgan. House Life, p. 45-62.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 65
The large appetites of white men who visited them was often a
matter of surprise to the Indians who entertained them. Morgan?
commenting on this says that a white man consumed and wasted
five times as much as an Indian required. In a footnote? he quotes
Robertson as writing that the appetite of the Spaniards appeared
insatiably voracious; and that they affirmed that one Spaniard de-
voured more food in a day than was sufficient for 10 Americans
(Indians).
The food and eating customs of the eastern Indians are described
by various early writers with some conflict of opinion, but in gen-
eral their system of free hospitality has the commendation of the —
majority of writers.®
There were and still are among the Iroquois, innumerable ways
of combining foods and several ways of cooking each variety.
Nearly all the early travelers expressed themselves as impressed
with the number of ways of preparing corn and enumerate from
20 to 40 methods, though some are not so explicit.*
TERMINOLOGY
Food gttk’wa‘
Breakfast (early morning meal) séde’tciane’gwa
Midday meal ha‘de’weénisha
Sunset meal hega’’gwaane’gwa’
Appetite yveo"kwan’owas
A glutton ha’kowane‘
(Come thou) eat (imper.) sedéko’ni
I eat | aga’dekoni
You eat | e"sa’dékon1
Cook (she cooks) yeko"’nis
=) (he cooks) ha’ko"’nis
Hanging crane : e"sa’’énondat
Kettle hook adius’ha
Oven : yonta‘gonda’gwa‘ge
1 Morgan. House Life of the American Aborigines, p. 60.
2[bid. p. 61.
ESiecebahontan. 2mm Vander Donck. ~N: Yo Hist:Soc) Gols-v. & ser.
2, 192; Jesuit Relations, 67:141; Adair, p. 412; Bartram. Observations, p.
16, 590, 63; Smith. Virginia. Richmond ed. 1:83, 84; Heckewelder, p. 193;
Morgan. House Life, 45 et seq.; Robertson. History of America, p. 178.
INE YS 1856; -
_ 4“ Forty-two ways,’ Dumont. Memoirs sur La Louisiane. Paris 1753.
I :33-34. Cf. Loskiel, p. 67; Adair, p. 409; “40 methods,” Boyle, Report
for 1808; cf. Jesuit Relations, 10:103, “twenty ways.”
3
66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
IX FOODS PREPARED FROM CORN
Leaf bread tamales, onia’tci‘da’. This is prepared from green
corn. The kernels are cut or scraped from the cob and beaten to
a milky paste in a mortar. The corn used for leaf cake tamales
should be too hard for green corn good for boiling and eating on
the cob. The paste will then be of the proper consistency. The
paste is patted into shape and laid in a strip on one end of a broad
corn leaf, the free half being doubled over the paste. Other leaves
are folded over the first, the ends all projecting uniformly from
one end for tying. The onii’tci‘da’ was then tied three timés
laterally and once transversely and dropped into boiling water.
When cooked — cooking requires about 45 minutes—the wrap-
pings are removed and the cake is eaten with sunflower or bear oil,
though in these modern days bacon grease or butter are more in
vogue. Oftentimes cooked beans are mixed with the mass before
wrapping in the leaves. These impart their flavor and give variety.
Leaf cakes may be dried for winter’s use if no beans have been
ised with the corn. In wrapping the leaf bread a bulbous shaped
bundle is made resembling a large braid of hair doubled and tied,
hence the name onia”tci‘da’, derived from _yenya’tei'dot, doubled
braid of woman’s hair.
Heckewelder? describes this bread but says it is too sweet al-
though the Indians consider it a delicate morsel. He says the
inashed green corn is put in the corn blades with ladles.
Adair? in describing it remarks, “This sort of bread is very
tempting to the taste, and reckoned most delicious by their strong
palates.”
David DeVries® writing of the dish says, “ They make flat cakes
of meal mixed with water, as large as a farthing cake in this
country, and bake them in the ashes, first wrapping a vine or maize
leaf around them.
Sagard in describing leaf cakes says that the Hanon called it
Andataroni. He describes the process of preparing it substantially -
as given above. He mentions that berries and beans are often
added.*
1 Heckewelder, p. 195.
2 Adair. North American Indians.
Second Voyage. N. Y. Hist.- Soe. Gol. Ser 2 ve 6) pt 2b ee
Cf. Vincent. History of Delaware. Phila. 1870. p. 74.
4Grand Voyage. Tross ed. p. 96.
Plate 20
g Tuscarora corn. Photograph by M. R. Harrington
Seneca woman poundin
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 67
These early citations are interesting because they prove how
persistently the Iroquois have clung to the dishes of their ancestors.
Baked green corn,' Ogon’sa’. When the milk has set, Tusca-
rora and sweet corn is scraped from the cob and beaten to a paste
in a mortar. This should be done just before the evening meal.
After the housework is finished the housewife lines a large kettle
with basswood leaves three deep. The corn paste is then dumped
in up to two thirds the depth of the vessel. The top is smoothed
down and covered by three layers of leaves. Cold ashes to a
finger’s depth are now thrown over the leaves and smoothed down.
A small fire is built under the kettle which hangs suspended
from a crane or tripod. Glowing charcoal is placed on the ashes
at the top. The small fire is kept brisk and the coals at the top
renewed three times. The cook may now retire for the night if
her kettle hangs in a shielded place or in a fire pit. In the morning
the ashes and top leaves are carefully removed and the baked corn
dumped out. The odor of this steaming ogon’sa’ is most appetizing
and it is eaten greedily with grease or butter. For winter’s use the
caked mass is sliced and dried in the sun all day, taken in at night
‘to prevent dew from spoiling it and dogs or night prowlers from
taking too much of it, and set out again in the morning to allow the
sun to complete the drying. The ogon’sa’ is then ready to be stored
away for the winter. When ready for use the winter’s store of
ogon’sa’ was taken from storage and a sufficient quantity for a meal
thrown in cold water and immediately put on the stove. Boiling for
a little more than a half hour produces a delicious dish. Ogon’sa’
was one of the favorite foods of the Iroquois and remains so to this
day. An Onondaga or Seneca can hardly mention the name without
showing that it brings memories of the pleasant repasts that it has
afforded.
In recent years the corn paste is prepared with a potato masher
in a chopping bowl, or by running the corn as cut from the cob
through a food chopper. Baking is done in shallow dripping pans
in the oven. The food so prepared, however, lacks a deliciousness
that makes the older method still popular.
Boiled green corn, O‘kni’staga™”o‘.” This is simply the green
corn on the cob with which we are all familiar. Tuscarora corn
as well as sweet corn, however, was used with equal favor. It was
_1This is the ble’-grillé of the French.
2Ganossto’ho® is the Mohawk equivalent.
68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
eaten on the cob or scraped off and eaten in dishes. Sometimes the
kernels were cut from the cob and boiled as a soup. 3
The Seneca name means delicious corn food, from o‘nius’ta,
corn, and oga™o", delicious food.
Fried green corn, Gagon’s‘a ge’da. This dish was prepared by
scraping the green corn, in the milk, from the cob, mashing it in
a mortar and either patting it into cakes or tossing it in a basket to
make a loose light mass. The corn was then ready for frying. The
older Indians say that the frying could be done in a clay kettle and
that corn so prepared was especially good 1f cooked in bear oil.+
Succotash, Ogon’sa’ ganon’da.*_—s- Iroquois succotash was pre-
pared much as is the modern form made by white people. The .
green corn cut or scraped from the cob was thrown in a pot of
beans which had nearly been cooked and the mass cooked together
until both ingredients were done. A sufficient quantity of salt and
grease or oil was added for seasoning and flavor. The favorite
ccrn for this dish was Tuscarora or sweet corn.
Baked cob-corn in the husk, Wades’konduk o‘nis’ta. This was
a popular way of preparing green corn on the cob. The ashes
from the camp or hearth fire were brushed aside and a row of un-
husked ears laid in the hot stones or ground. These were then
covered with cold ashes. Embers were now heaped over and a hot
fire built and continued until the corn beneath was thought suffi-
ciently baked. Corn baked in this manner has a fine flavor and
never becomes scorched.
Baked scraped corn, Ogo’sa’ ohon’sta‘.* The green corn is
scraped from the cob with a deer’s jaw or knife, pounded in a
mortar or mashed in a wooden bowl with a stone, patted into cakes,
sprinkled with dry meal and baked in small dishes. For baking in
the ashes the cakes are wrapped in husk and covered with ashes.
Embers are heaped over and a brisk fire built, this being kept going
until the cakes were considered baked.
Carver, the British traveler, in writing of his experiences among
the aboriginal Americans, says of this dish “. . . better flavored
bread I never ate in this country.” In describing the preparation
1Carr, quoting Carver's Travels (London 1778), notes, “We . 295 scook
our vegetables by themselves though formerly this was not the case for
according to an old writer (Carver), when made with bear oil ‘the fat
moistens the pulse and renders it beyond comparison delicious.’ ”
2Onon’darha is the Mohawk name for succotash.
3 O‘gaserho’da is the Mohawk name.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 69
of these cakes he said that they were “. . . made without the
addition of any liquid by the milk that flows from them; and when
it is effected they parcel it out into cakes and enclosing them with
leaves place them in the hot embers where they soon bake.”
Cracked undried corn, Odjis’tanonda. he ripened but not
dry corn was shelled from the cob and smashed kernel by kernel
on a flat stone, a muller being used as a crusher. The crushed corn
was mixed with new harvested beans and boiled for nearly three
hours. Salt was used as a seasoning and deer or bear meat mixed
with the mass if desired (see fig. 5). :
Boiled corn bread, Gagai‘te™ta™a’kwa’.t For bread, purple,
calico and the two hominy corns were used. After the corn was
shelled it was boiled for from 15 to 30 minutes in a weak lye made
of hard wood ashes and water. The lye solution in order to be of
the proper consistency must be strong enough to bite the tongue
when tasted. When the hulls and outer skins had been loosened,
looking white and swelled, the corn was put in a hulling basket,
taken to a brook or large tub, where it was thoroughly rinsed to
free the kernels of any trace of lye and to wash off the loosened
hulls and skins. The corn was then drained, thrown in a mortar
and pulverized with a pestle. The granules were sifted through
the meal sieve to make the meal fine and light. After this process.
the meal was mixed with boiling water and quickly molded into a
flattened cake about 8 inches in diameter and 3 inches thick. The
cake was then plunged into boiling water and cooked for nearly an
hour. The object of mixing the meal with boiling water was to
coagulate the starch and make the meal stick together. After the
meal is mixed with the hot water and molded, the hands are
plunged in cold water and rubbed over the loaf to give it a smooth
glossy surface. When the loaf floats it is considered properly
cooked. Sometimes the molded loaf is baked instead of boiled,
specially for journeys. The loaf is buried in hot ashes and a roar-
ing fire built over it until it is baked thoroughly. When it is to be
eaten the ashes are washed off and slices cut from the loaf. The
baked loaf if not wet will not become moldy like boiled bread and
this is the approved form for hunting and war parties.
1 Gano®’stoharhe ganada’rho®, in Mohawk.
70 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
In the course of boiling some of the meal on the outside of the
cake comes off, together with a quantity of starch and gluten, and
mixes with the water. When the bread is sufficiently cooked this
liquid is poured out in bowls and drunk as a tea. The Iroquois
considered this gruel a great delicacy.
Fae!
Fig. 16 Bark tray containing boiled bread, dried. Specimens 3} actual size. Seneca
specimens collected 1908
£
=
Corn bread is fairly hard but readily crumbles when masticated.
It is not dry, but moist and mealy. Before eating the cake it is
sliced and spread with tallow or butter, bear or deer oil. It is a
delicious food and considered highly nutritious. Often cooked
cranberry beans or berries were mixed with the meal before boiling.
These added to the flavor as well as nourishment.t
One of the best descriptions of boiled bread has been left us by
Adair? who writes:
They have another sort of boiled bread which is mixed with beans
or potatoes; they put on the soft corn till it begins to boil and pound
it sufficiently fine ;— their invention does not reach the use of any
kind of milk. When the flour is stirred, and dried by the heat of
the sun or fire, they sift it with sieves of different sizes, curiously
made of the coarser or finer cane splinters. The thin cakes mixt with
bear’s oil, were formerly baked on thin broad stones placed over a
fire, or on broad earthen bottoms fit for such a use, but now they use
kettles. When they intend to bake great loaves, they make a strong
1“ Some of the loaves were baked with nuts and dry blue berries and
grains of the sunflower.” Van Curlers Diary, p. 91. 7 he
2 Adair. History of the American Indians. Lond. 1775. p. 407. See also
Boyle. Ontario Arch. Rep’t 1808. p. 188. Sao
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE el
blazing fire, with short dry split wood on the hearth. When it is
burnt down to coals they carefully rake them off to each side, and
Sweep away the remaining ashes; then they put their well kneaded
broad loaf, first steeped in hot water, over the hearth, and an earthen
basin above it, with the embers of coals atop. This method of baking
is as clean and efficacious as could possibly be done in any oven; when
they take it off they wash the loaf with warm water, and it soon
becomes firm and very white. It is likewise very wholesome, and
well tasted to any except the palate of an epicure.
Lafitau had no such pleasant impressions of the bread which
would seem to bring him under the class of epicures. As a matter
of fact white people of today regard the Iroquois boiled bread as a
“well tasted” food, though a trifle heavy. The writer during his
school days on the reservation often “swapped” his lunch of civil-
ized viands with other Indian boys who were lucky enough to have
half a loaf of boiled bread and a chunk of maple sugar or perhaps
a leaf cake.
Beverly! describes the baking of corn bread in his History of
Virgyua and says that the Indians first covered the loaf with leaves’
and then with warm ashes over which were heaped the hot coals.
The ash baked corn bread of the Indians has survived in the ‘South
as hoe cake, ash cake and “old fashioned ” journey or Johnny cake.
Corn soup liquor, O‘niyustagi’. The liquor in which the corn
bread was boiled was carefully, drained off and kept in jars or pots
as a drink. It is said that the Indians were not fond of drinking
water and preferred various beverages prepared from herbs or corn.
One writer? in discussing this subject says: “ Though in most of
the Indian nations the water is good, because of their high situa-
tion, yet the traders very seidom drink any of it at home; for the
women beat in mortars their flinty corn till all the husks are taken
off, which having well sifted and fanned, they boil in large earthen
pots; then straining off the thinnest part into a pot they mix it with
cold water till it is sufficiently liquid for drinking; and when cold
it is both pleasant and very nourishing; and is much liked even by
_ genteel strangers.”
Wedding bread, Go"nia’’ta’ o&’kwa. Corn was prepared in the
same manner as for bread but was wrapped in two balls with a
short connecting neck like a handleless dumbbell wrapped in corn
1 Beverly. Virginia, p. I51. —
2 Adair, p. 416.
72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
husk and tied in the middle. It was then ready for boiling. To
complete the cooking required about one hour.
I’wenty-four of these cakes were taken by the girl’s maternal grand-
mother (by blood or by clan appointment, if the maternal grand-
mother was dead) to the door of the maternal grandmother of an
eligible male. The recipient, who had previously conferred with
the donor, 1f she favors the alliance suggested by the gift, tastes
the bread and notifies her daughter that her (the daughter’s) son
is desired to unite with a certain young woman in marriage by the
grandmother of that young woman. The mother of the boy must
submit to her mother’s wish if she can offer no substantial objec-
tion. The boy’s grandmother then makes 24 wedding cakes! and
carries them to the girl’s grandmother who then notifies her
daughter that the girl must marry a certain man. If the suit is
rejected at the first proposal the wedding cakes are left untouched
and the humiliated donor must creep back and reclaim the cakes.
My informant says the rejected cakes were never eaten, but prob-
ably reserved as ammunition with which to pelt the offending old
dowager, who had given reasons to believe that the suit was smiled
upon. The bounds of a cake recipe forbid further discussion.
Sagard found this bread among the Huron who, he says, called
it Coinkia. He remarked that instead of being baked it was boiled.
His description “ deux balles jointes ensemble” makes the identity
of the dish absclute.?
Early bread, Ganéo"té’’do".* Before the corn was thoroughly
dry in the autumn it was plucked for making early bread. The
unhulled corn was mixed with a little water in a mortar and beaten
to a paste instead of a meal. Loaves were molded by the hands from
the paste and boiled. This bread was considered a great delicacy
and valued especially as a food for invalids. _
Early corn pudding, Ganeo"té”’do" cdjis’kwa. The paste from
the mortar, as described above, was sometimes drained, sifted and
tossed into a wet meal. -It was then thrown in boiling water and
boiled down into a pudding.
1Morgan. League, p. 322; cf. Sagard, p. 94, 136.
2“. . excepté le pain mis et accommodé comme deux balles iointes
ensemble, enueloppé entre des. fueilles de bled d’Inde, puis boitilly et cuit
en l’eau, et non sous la cendre, lequel ils-appellent d’vn nom particulier
Coinkia.” Sagard, Grand Voyage, p. 136, Paris 1682, see also Tross ed. p. 94.
3 Ga‘te’do®gana’darho, pounded bread, Mohawk form.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 7B
Dumplings, Oho?’sta’. Moisten a mass of corn meal with boil-
ing water and quickly mold it into cakes in the closed hand moist-
ened in cold water. Drop the dumplings one by one into boiling
water and boil for a half hour.
Dumplings were the favorite thing to cook with boiling meats,
especially game birds.
To fish the dumplings from the pot every one had a sharpened
stick or bone. The dumplings were speared and held on the stick
to cool and nibbled with the meat as it was eaten. The sticks after
use were wiped off and stuck between the logs or bark of the wall
for future use.
Many of the sharpened splinters of bone now excavated from
village and camp sites are probably nothing more than these primi-
tive forks, or more properly food holders.
Oho"sta’ was one of the foods of which children were very fond,
nor did grown people despise it as a bread with their meat.
Hominy, Onon’daat.! Hominy is prepared from flint corns.
For a family of five persons, a quart of corn was thrown in a
mortar and moistened with a ladleful (four tablespoonfuls) of
water.2, To make the pounding easier a teaspoonful of white ashes
or soda is thrown in also. The pounding with the pestle proceeds
slowly at first to loosen the hulls, this work being accelerated if
ashes have been used. When the hulls begin to come off easily the
pounding is quickened until the corn is broken up into coarse pieces.
Tt is then ready for the first sifting, e"yowo"k’. A basket called a
oniius’tawanés is used for this purpose. The hominy passes through
and is placed in a bowl while the uncracked corn is thrown back
into the mortar to be repounded. After the second sifting the un-
cracked kernels that remain are thrown out to the birds or chickens.
The hominy 1s then ready for winnowing. The results of the two
poundings are carefully mixed and then put in a tossing bowl or
basket. The hominy is tossed with a peculiar motion the bow! being
held at a slant. The lighter chit rises to the top while the heavier
portion stays at the bottom. The hulls and chit are thrown out by
hand or by the use of a fan made of a bird’s wing, called onég’osta’.
The process of winnowing is called waegai‘’tawak.
1 Onofi’darha is the Mohawk word.
2 Harrington says cold water. See Seneca Corn Foods. Amer. Anthrop-
ologist. New Ser. v. 10, no. 3, p. 587.
74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The coarse granular meal so prepared is now ready for cooking.
One part of meal is put in eight parts of water and boiled for two
hours. Pork or bear’s meat and beans are cooked with the
hominy! for flavoring. When cooked. salt or sugar were added,
according to taste.
Sagard? in his Grand Voyage refers several times to this dish as
Sagamite. In one instance he calls it a “ good sort of substance ”’
and says that its sustaining qualities surprised him.
With the Dutch hominy was called by another name. In Van
der Donck’s Description of New Netherlands, we find that the pap
or mush of the Indians is called sapaen (suppawn). It was the com-
mon food of all Indians, he says, without which no Indian would
think he had a satisfactory meal.
Hulled corn, O"no“’kwa’.2 This favorite dish was made from
some soft corn treated as corn used for bread. It was washed
until free from skins and hulls and then put in cold water and boiled
for four hours until the kernels had burst open and were tender.
Small chunks of meat and fat were thrown in the boiling liquid and
sometimes berries. O"™no‘’kwa’ is the favorite feast dish of the
Iroquois. This dish is a most palatable one and appeals to all tastes.
It is used at Indian social ‘gatherings as white people use ice cream,
that is, as a fitting food for festal occasions. It must be confessed
that the Indian’s food was the more solid and perhaps the more
sensible. Several canning companies now put up hulled corn under
_the name of Entire Hominy and it may be purchased in many
modern provision stores.
Dried corn soup, Onddoononda.* For winter’s use, green,
white, sweet or squaw sweet corn was cut from the cob and dried
before a fire, taking care that the drying was rapid enough to pre-
vent the milk from souring. The dried corn when prepared for
1 This is the sagamite of the French. See Jesuit Relations. .
2“ Le pain de Mais, et la sagamite qui en est faicte, est de sort bonne
substance, et m’estonnois de ce qu'elle nourrit si bien qu’elle facit: car
pour ne boire que de l’eau en ce pays-la, et ne manger que sort peu
sonnent de ce- pain, et encore plus rarement de la viande, n’vsans presque
que des seuls Sagamités auc vn bien peu de poisson, on ne laisse pas de
se bien porter, et estre en bon poinct, pourueu qu’on en ait suffisamment,
comme on n’en manque point dans le pays; mais seulement en de longs
voyages, ou l’on souffre souuent de grandes necessitez”, Le Grand Voyage
du pays des Hurons. Paris 1632.: p. 137; Tross ed. Paris 1865. p. 07:
3 Gagarhedo”’to® is the Mohawk form of the word.
4 Ganahan’dat is the Mohawk word.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 75
food was boiled until tender, three-quarters of an hour. This dried
cern was sometimes roasted and pounded for pudding meal.
Nut and corn pottage, Onia‘ degaiyist’o" ond’o‘khu‘. This
was prepared by mixing nut meal or nut milk, onia’ge’, with
parched corn meal.
Heckewelder! describes the use of nut milk with corn in a fairly
detailed way as follows:
The Indians have a number of manners of preparing their corn.
They make an excellent pottage of it, by boiling it with fresh or
dried meat (the latter pounded), dried pumpkins, dry beans and
chestnuts. They sometimes sweeten it with sugar or molasses from
the sugar-maple tree. Another very good dish is prepared by boiling
with their corn or maize, the washed kernels of shell bark or hickory
nut. They pound the nuts in a block or mortar, pouring a little warm
water on them, and gradually a little more as they become dry until,
at last, there is a sufficient quantity of water so that by stirring up
the pounded nuts the broken shells separate from the liquor, which
from the pounded kernels assumes the appearance of milk. This
being put into the kettle and mixed with the pottage gives it a rich
and agreeable flavor. If the broken shells do not all freely separate
by swimming on the top or sinking to the bottom, the liquor is
strained through a clean cloth before it is put into the kettle.
~9/
Corn and pumpkin pudding, Oniw’’sa‘ odjis’kwa.”? This favorite
pudding was made from parched or yellow corn meal mixed with
sugar and botled pumpkin or squash. It was often used instead of
gago"sa odjis’kwa. 3
Samp, Gwda’ononda’ or O‘ni’/yustagé’. In making samp the
corn was treated with the same process as for corn bread except
that 1t was not beaten so fine in a mortar. It was boiled in water
-and when cooked tasted like the soup of corn bread, but it did not
have so delicate a flavor. Often berries or meat were mixed and
cooked with samp. For samp any corn that would hull easily was
used.
Adair after describing hominy says, “ the thin of this is what my
Lord Bacon calls Cream of Maize, and highly commends for an
excellent sort of nourishment.” ‘This is the samp, or gwa’ononda’ of
the Iroquois. he a
Corn pudding, O*"so™wa.? For o"so™wa white corn was
1 Heckewelder, John. History, Manners and Customs of the Indian
Nations. Hist. Soc. Pa. 12:194.
2 Onoo'se’rhagowa odjis’kwa is the Mohawk name.
3 Wadénosstatsaha’to’", burnt corn, is the Mohawk name.
76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
roasted brown and pounded slowly in a mortar and sifted until all
the granules were uniform, the coarser ones being pounded and
resitted until this end was achieved. ‘The meal was then thrown in
boiling water and cooked until tender.
Preserved in skin bags this meal was carried by hunters and
either eaten raw with water, boiled as above or thrown in with boil-
ing meat.*
Van der Donck, in his Description of New Netherlands, says:
When they intend to go a great distance on a hunting expedition
. where they expect no food, they provide themselves severally
with a small bag of parched corn meal which is so nutritious that they
can subsist upon the same many days. A quarter of a pound of the meal
is sufficient for a day’s subsistence; for as it shrinks much in drying,
it also swells out again with moisture. When they are hungry they
take a handful of meal after which they take a drink of water, and
then they are so well fed that they can travel a day. [See N. Y.
Hist. Soc. Cols Se, 2) lOc ovr ane 4s 3
Heckewelder describes this food as follows: ‘“ Their Psindamo-
can or Tassmanane, as they call it, is the most durable food made
out of the Indian corn. The blue sweetish kind is the grain which
they prefer for that purpose. They parch it in clean hot ashes until
it bursts, it is then sifted and cleaned, and pounded in a mortar into
a kind of flour, and when they wish to make it very good they mix
some sugar with it. When wanted for use they take about a table-
spoonful of this flour in their mouths, then stooping to the river or
brook, drink water to it. If, however, they have a cup or other
small vessel at hand they put the flour in it and mix it with water,
in the proportion of one tablespoonful to a pint. At their camps
they will put a small quantity in a kettle with water and let it boil
down, and they will have a thick pottage. With this food, the
traveler and warrior will set out on long journeys and expeditions,
and, as a little of it will serve them for a day, they have not a heavy
load of provisions to carry. Persons who are unacquainted with
this diet ought to be careful not to take too much at a time, and
not to suffer themselves to be tempted too far by its flavor; more
1“ The Indians boil it till it becomes tender and eat it with fish or veni-
son instead of bread; sometimes they bruise it in mortars and so boil it.
The most usual way is to parch it in ashes, stirring it so artificially as to
be very tender, without burning; this they sift and beat in mortars into
a fine meal which they eat dry or mixed with water.’ Harris. Discoveries
and Settlements. Pinkerton’s Voyages. 12:258.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE WG)
than one or two spoonfuls at most at any one time or at one meal
is dangerous; for it is apt to swell in the stomach or bowels, as when
iteaved OVeT a fire.” .:
A handful of the parched meal, 2 or 3 ounces, was considered a
rather large meal if eaten out of hand and this quantity was even
considered dangerous unless cooked in a pot.
Most of the old writers refer to this dish? and agree that it is
a most sustaining food. Sugar was often mixed with the meal to
give it flavor and dried cherries were sometimes pulverized with
the parched corn. In this form the Mohawk call it O‘hogwitz’
orha.
Beverly® in describing traveling customs says, each man
takes with him a Pint or Quart of Rockahomonie, that is, the finest
Indian corn, parched and beaten to powder. When they find their
Stomach empty, (and can not stay the tedious Cookery of other
things) they. put about aspoonful of this into their Mouths,
and drink a Draught of Water upon it, which stays in their
‘Stomachs. Z
Roasted corn hominy, Odjis’tanonda’. The ripe corn was
husked by the harvesters and stood “nose” upward against the
top pole of a roasting pit. This pit was a long narrow trench a
foot or more deep with Y-shaped sticks at either end as supporters
tor the top pole, which was placed horizontally in the crotches, after
a fire of saplings and sticks had been reduced to a mass of glowing
embers [see pl. 21]. The ears were then leaned at an angle against
the pole, drawn out and roasted. Watchers turned them as they
were parched sufficiently while other helpers gathered them up when
done and shelled the kernels into a bark barrel.
The meal from this roasted corn was called odjis’tanonda’. If
the parched corn was boiled it was called ona"da’ono™kwa’.
It should be noted that this dish is prepared from roasted green
corn and not from ripe dried corn as is o"so™ wa.
Parched corn coffee, O‘nis’tagi’. Corn. was well burnt and
parched on the coals, scraped from the cob and thrown in a dish.
Upon this boiling water was thrown and the dish or kettle placed
over the fire again. To produce the burnt corn drink the boiling
was continued for about five minutes.
66
1 Heckewelder. History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations.
Hist. Soc. Pa. 12:1095. ;
2This is the Nocake or rockahominy of the New England Indians. See
Williams. Key. Narragansett Club Reprint, 1:40.
3 History of Virginia, p. 155.
78 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Roasted corn, Gani’sté’da. ‘This was the husked ear of green
corn baked in hot embers. ,
It is related that one of the old methods was to dig a long trench
and place the ears across two slender green saplings and allow the
heat of the hot coals to cook the corn. The ears could easily be
turned over and the roasting made uniform (see pl. 21).
Sometimes a husked ear of corn,was incased in clay and baked.
This was called Oga’goak’wa or gago"duk. For roasting ears’
singly a sharpened stick was shoved into the stem and the ear held
in the embers.
If kernels of the corn prepared in this way were sufficiently dried
and parched the entire ear or the shelled kernels were capable of
long preservation. The writer has found roasted corn on the cob,
several centuries old, buried in pits which evidently once had been
bark lined cellarettes. Parched shelled kernels are commonly found
in caches in Indian village or lodge sites. |
Pop corn pudding, Watatofi’gwis odjis’‘kwa. Corn was
popped in a metal or clay kettle and then pulverized in a mortar and
mixed with oil or syrup. The writer has often seen the modern
Iroquois run their corn popped in a modern popper through a chop-
ping machine and eat the light white meal with sugar and milk or
cream.
Ceremonial foods
Bear’s pudding, Niagwai‘’tato™ odjis’kwa.? This was a cere-
monial food prepared from yellow meal unseasoned and mixed with
bits of fried meat. The meal was boiled into a pudding and the
meat thrown in afterward. Bear dance pudding was only used as
a ceremonial food in the Bear Society meetings or by members
performing some of the rites.®
Buffalo dance pudding, Dégi’yago" odjis’kwa.* Squaw corn
is pounded to a meal, boiled as a pudding and sweetened with
maple or corn sugar. This pudding is harder than Bear dance
pudding, its proper consistency being like the mud where the bufta-
1 Beverly says, “They delight to feed on roasting ears, that is Indian
corn, gathered green and milky, before it is grown to its full bigness.”
History of Virginia.
2 O‘kwa’rhi odjis’kwa is the Mohawk form.
8 See Parker, A. C. Seneca Medicine Societies. Am. Anthropologist.
New ser. v. XI, no. 2.
4 Dege’lhiyagon odjis’kwa is the Mohawk form.
Plate 21
Corn is roasted on a frame or pole placed over a pit filled with glowing
embers. The roasted corn is used for parched meal.
Plate 22
t Long House of the Canadian Onondaga, Grand River Reservation.
It is here that the feasts and thanksgivings for the products of the fields are
held by the Canadian Onondaga.
2 Cook house of the Canadian Seneca. The architecture of the building
follows the lines of the bark house. Note the smoke hole in the roof.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 79
Ices go when they dance off the flies. This pudding is used only by
‘members of the Buffalo company, a “‘ medicine” society.’
‘ Ball players pudding, Gadjis’kwae‘ odjis’kwa.2. This is a
charm pudding and made like false face pudding except that it is
a little sweeter and contains more meat. A woman afflicted with
rheumatism or some like disease prepares this pudding and pre-
sents it to a ball player, who, eating it, is supposed to charm away
the disorder by his activity. He sets at defiance the spirits which
have crippled the patient. If her case is very severe she bathes her
limbs in sunflower oil and drinks it with the pudding.
False face pudding, Gago"sa odjis’kwa.* This was a cere-
monial pudding eaten at the False Face dances, at special private
lodge feasts or in the ceremonies of healing the sick. It was com-
posed of boiled parched corn meal mixed with maple sugar. Sun-
fiower or bear oil was used with it in special cases. This pudding
is considered a most delicious food and believed to be a very power-
ful factor for pleasing the masks. No one must make a disrespect-
ful remark while eating this pudding as the mysterious faces were
thought to be able to punish the offender by distorting their faces,
and cases are cited to prove this assertion.
Unusual foods
Decayed corn, Utgi/onado‘*. A corn food of which the Iroquois
of today have no memory is described by Sagard who calls it bled-
puant. ‘To prepare this viand the ear of corn before it was fully
mature was immersed in stagnant water and allowed to “ ripen”
for two or three months at the end of which time it was taken out
and roasted or boiled with meat or fish. The odor of this putrid
corn was so frightful that the good father either through imagina-
tion or from good cause relates that it clung to him for a number
of days from simply touching it. Nevertheless he adds that the
Indians sucked it as if it were sugar cane.*
It is safe to say that among the Iroquois no knowledge of this
food remains. An Iroquois whom the writer interrogated said that
1See Parker, A. C. Seneca Medicine Societies. Am. Anthropologist.
New ser. v. XI, no. 2.
2 Dehaji’'gwa’es odjis’kwa is the Mohawk form.
3 Ago hwarha odjis’kwa is the Mohawk name.
4Sagard. Le Grand Voyage du Pays Des Hurons, p. 97; Tross ed. 1865,
p. 140; orig. ed. Paris 1632.
8o NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
he could imagine that the Huron would eat such food but that he was
sure that Iroquois never used anything so questionable.
Another writer mentions a variety of bread mixed with tobacco
juice. He says: “ When they were traveling or laying in wait for
their enemies they took with them a kind of bread made of Indian
corn and tobacco juice, which says Campanius was a very good
thing to allay hunger and quench thirst in case they have nothing
else at hand.*
X USES OF THE CORN PLANT
1 The stalk. Stalk tubes, gishe’da’ or deyus’wande‘, were
made for containing medicines. A section of the stalk was cut off
at a joint, the pith removed, plugs were inserted at each end and
the tube complete. Tubes were made from 2 to 8 inches long.
Syrup, oshésta’, was extracted by boiling or evaporating the juice
of young and green cornstalks. The top of the corn above the corn
sheaths was cut, the stalk bruised and then thrown in a kettle and
boiled, the juice was then strained off and evaporated. A metal
polish, yesta’teda’kwa, was made from the pith. The outer cover-
ing was stripped from a dry stalk and the pith used for rubbing
copper and silver ornaments to a polish. Absorbent, ne’déskutk,
qualities of the dry pith were recognized and it was employed ac-
cordingly. A lotion, vago’gatha, of the juice of the green corn-
stalk and root was employed for cuts, bruises and sores. Fish line
floats, hétgésho™iodyé’, were made from sections of the dry stalk.
Cornstalk war clubs and spears, gadji’wa, were used by boys in sham
battles. Counter or jack straws, gasho’wéda, were cut from the
tassel stems and used with bean counters in games. Children were
taught to count with these “straws.”
2 Uses of corn husks. Single husks or strips pressed or folded
together and dried were used to convey lights short distances, much
as the rolled paper “lamp lighters” are used where matches are
scarce. The Iroquois indeed now use husks for lighting lamps,
calling them yediistofida”kwa. A larger quantity of dried husks
was used in kindling a fire. Husks are shredded and used for
pillow, cushion and mattress fillings, onion’nya’gago™sha’. For
making “ bride’s bread ” the corn pudding or grated green corn is
wrapped in the green husk and baked or boiled as the case mav re-
quire. Another use for the simple husks is as the water sprinklers
(
1Vincent. History of Delaware Phil. 1870. p. 74-75.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 81
used by the Otter company, Dowaando”’, in their winter ceremony
[see fig. 17]. In this instance the husks are pulled back over the
stem and the cob broken midway as a handle. The sprinklers are
called dionégo’gwita’.
ye
raplanter —
Jrawyn
iG:
of the
orety of Otters —
PU@IFICAT! ON CEREMON VA
ss
Fig. 17. Purification ceremony of the Society of Otters, a Seneca women’s winter ceremony
SS JIN /
Pl Seay Sy = IPS
> a Ze ¥Z Fx - Al Le
2 \
ee ee =i
ae Le 2 iS .
28 a Wye VA
Husks were sometimes braided in long strands and used for
clothes. lines, gao"’ga’, in.the houses. ~The -loosely. braided husks
82 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
from the strings of corn, osté"sé™ gas’ské"doni, were used by the
“buffalo head” (Hade’yeo") announcers of the midwinter thanks-
giving. A crown is arranged for the head and trailers tied to each
ankle. Braided in fine ropes, the husk was coiled up into the masks,
gatci’sha, used by the husk face (Gatci’sha‘oano’) company [see
pl. 23]. The braided coils are sewn with thread. An outer binding
is fastened to the face, from which long shreds of the husk hang to
represent hair [see pl. 23, fig. 1].
Another variety of the husk mask is woven entirely and is not
sewed [See pl. 23, fig. 2]. These particular masks are used mostly
on the Allegany Reservation. Husk bottles, trays.and baskets are
woven in the same manner as the woven mask as also are sandals
and moccasins although the latter are about obsolete now [see pl. 24].
Another interesting article manufactured from corn husk is the
lounging mat, ono’/nya’ géska’a or yiondyadé*kwa’. This is made
of short lengths of the husk neatly rolled and folded at the ends,
into which other lengths were inserted and tied in place by a warp
_ of basswood cord. A specimen of this mat is shown in plate 25.
It was collected by the author in 1907 on the Tonawanda-Seneca
Reservation. It was claimed that it was the old form of the Iro-
quois sleeping and lounging mat. It can easily be rolled up and is
of no great weight. The writer is not aware of another specimen
in any museum. No great age is ascribed to the State Museum
specimen, the owner, Lyman Johnson, Gaiént’waké’, claiming it had
been made in about 1900 by his mother. ©
Probably the corn husk article most familiar to white people sur-
rounding Indian reservations is the husk door mat, gadji’sha’. This
mat is braided in such a manner that tufts of the husk are left pro-
truding from the top of the braid. The braid then is coiled so as
to form an oval or round mat and the thick tufts of still husk
trimmed off evenly, and the flat braids sewed securely with threads
of husk. Mats of this kind are common on all the reservations.
The details of the foot mat are shown in plate 26.
Dolls, gaya’da’, are made by folding the husk in a pestlelike
form for the neck and body. Room is left for the head and neck
and the central core is pierced to allow a wisp of husk to be pulled
through to be braided into arms. The lower portion is pierced in
the same way and the husk for the legs pulled through. Husks are
rolled around the upper portion of the neck and the head is formed.
Auedwoy 998.7 YsnyZ 9y} Aq pasn ‘Ysny peprteiq Jo sparys WO} speuUl sysepL
€z 93d
Plate 24
Seneca husk moccasins. Once common, these articles are now obsolete among
the Iroquois. Collected by A. C. Parker, 1910
Husk bed mat. A rare Seneca specimen. Collected 1907 by A. C. Parker
Plate 26
Husk foot mat, Seneca specimen
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE | 83
Husks now are placed over the back of the neck and carried diag-
-onally across the chest from either side. The same process is re-
peated from the front and the husk drawn diagonally across the
back. This produces body and shoulders. The legs are then
braided or neatly rolled into shape, wound spirale. with twine and
tied tightly at the ankle. The foot
is then bent forward at right
angles to the leg and wound into
shape. The arms undergo a simi-
lar process but no attempt is made
to simulate hands. The head and
body are now ready for covering.
For the head the wide husks are
held upward against the top of
the head and a string passed
around them. The husks are then
bent downward and the string
tightened. This leaves a little cir-
cular opening at the top of the
head. The head cover husks are
drawn tightly over the form and
tied at the neck, which is after-
ward wound neatly with a smooth
husk. More diagonal pieces are
placed over the shoulders fore and
aft and drawn tightly down to the
waist. A wide band is then
drawn around the waist and tied.
The doll is now ready for corn
silk hair which may be sewn on,
and its face may be painted
on. These dolls are sometimes
dressed in husk clothing but more
often cloth or skin is used.
Dolls are dressed as warriors and
women and are given all the ac-
cessories, bows, tomahawks, baby-
Fig. 18 Common type of the husk doll
made by the Iroquois of New York and
Canada. Figure is half size.
boards or paddles, as the sex may require.
‘Among the articles made from husks, moccasins are perhaps as
uncommon as any. Morgan collected a pair for the State Museum
in 1851, but the specimens are not now to be found. In I9I0
84 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
the writer succeeded in getting two pairs on the Cattaraugus Reser-
vation from a husk worker who spent some time in finding among
the old women one who remembered the art. She was successful
in her inquiries and was able to make
two pairs for the State Museum.
‘They are most ingeniously woven but
are as snug as any slipper ever made.
The details of these moccasins are
shown in plate 24.
Small baskets were woven from
twisted corn husks. Trays, table
inats.and salt bottles were similarly
made. The basket was commenced
by tying two rolled husks together
with another single husk inserted,
and then starting two oppositely
placed husks about them by the twin-
ing process as the width of the warp
increased, as it radiated from the
center others were inserted and the
twining process repeated. When the
desired size of the bottom was reached
Fee 19 a ieee eR tous Gao the warp was bent at right angle:
some malady. Specimen is-actuas sie upward and the twining comimaned
until the hight wished had been achieved. The warp was then
bent over along the top and braided, in a three strand plait.
This stiffened and protected the top. Husk baskets are called
ononya’ gatis’ha’ (==husk basket).
Husk bottles for containing salt or ashes or other substances are
called ond’nya’ gtis”heda’ (husk bottle) or yedji’keda’kwa
(salt dish, from ve, feminine affix, and odjike’da, salt, and
lakwa‘, meaning containcr, in compounding words). Salt bottles
were tightly woven and some are said to be water tight. The Iro-
quois prize them, believing that the husk absorbs the moisture be-
fore it reaches the salt which is thereby kept dry.
Husk trays are used for containing smail objects or food and are
designed to be kept on a flat surface only. They are called o‘dion’ha‘
iakwa‘ (—crumb dish). .
Baby hammocks, ond’nya’ gao"’wo", or gao™yofi, ( ond’nya’
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 85
.
Fig. 20 Corn husk basket. Collected by Lewis H. Morgan, 1850.
Specimen is 12 inchesin diameter.
Fig. 21 Corn husk salt basket and bottie, about 2 actual size. Collected
1908 by A.C. Parker. Seneca specimens
86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
+ gao™ wo" — boat, or gao™yofit—hanging boat). Hammocks
are woven like the sleeping mat but they are shaped so that they
will hang properly and hold a baby in safety. These hammocks are
suspended over the beds of the parents where they can be swung
and the babies easily cared for. Hammocks are now made by sus-
pending a blanket or a quilt in the same manner. These modern
contrivances are called iyds’gasha™ nia’do™ gao"wo"’, blanket, it is
made from boat, (a hammock). |
Husk pudding wrappings are called deyé”’hodyé™yikta’ (=a
wrapping). Husks were braided for ropes and clothes lines,
240" “ga- (—— Tope).
A woman unable to deliver the placenta is held over a pan in
which a couple of handfuls of husks are burning. The smoke rises
and exercises a medical function, it is thought, which facilitates the
delivery. This was widely practised by the Iroquois as late as 1875,
and now to some extent.
To stop “nose bleed” a small strand of husk is tied about the
little finger. A wad of husk or kernel of corn was placed under the
upper lip next to the gum and just over the middle incisors.
There are references to clothing of corn husk and Father Dablon
in 1656 wrote of the brother of his host who arrayed himself to
impersonate a satyr, “covering himself from head to foot with
husks of Indian corn.”
3 Uses of corn silk. Corn silk (when on_ stalk =odiot’ ;
off =oga”) was used commonly for the hair of husk dolls. It
was rarely used for adulterating tobacco. Another use of the dried
corn silk was an adulterant for certain medicines. The dried silk
was pulverized and kept in cornstalk bottles.
4 Uses of corn cobs. Cobs (Ono”’gwé"a") were used toe smok-
ing meats and hides. A slow fire of cobs was built under the meat
and then smothered so that the cobs merely smoldered and smoked.
In smoking skins the skin was folded into a tentlike cone, suspended
froma limb or crane and smoked on the underside from a small pit
beneath, in which’ was a smoldering fire of cobs. The skin was then
reversed and smoked. Cobs were not the only substances used for
smoking.
1 Gani’yon = hanging, gao®’wo?=boat; gao"yof, hanging boat—ham-
mock. The earlier form is gao’wo’niyofi, hanging boat. Cf. Awé®’o™niyon
=hanging flower; Awé®’o"= flower. Gano” djaniyofi=hanging kettle,
gano’dja—kettle+ (ga)ni yofi= hanging.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 87
- Segments of cob are used for stoppers for husk salt bottles and
for the openings in gourd rattles. Cobs were and still are used for
hand and flesh scrubbing brushes, oyén’nyi‘ta’, and for pipe bowls.
Cobs were “ singed ” and used as combs, é"yéské"é"wai‘, with which
to clean pumpkin and squash seeds. Singed cobs were also used as
back scratchers, yiontge™’data’.
The ashes, o’ga"’, of the cob in quantities were used to make a
lye, o’ga™’gi’, that induced vomiting. In small quantities cob ashes
were used as a seasoning for food. “ They killed stomach worms
and prevented dyspepsia.”
5 Uses of the Caryopsis. Besides their use as food, corn ker-
nels were used as beads and decorations, as a medium for trade for
the oil, for rattlers in gourds, and for sacrificial purposes.
CANOLA
Zi , Lee
S y) of We,
tie i Os Y
Fig. 22 Section of ceremonial cane showing the use of kernels of corn as a decorative motive
When used as decorations the various colored corns were soaked
in water until soft and then strung, sometimes with beads alternat-
ing upon thread. Such strands could be used as necklaces and the
writer has seen them strung as portieres. Oil, Ona’o" ono”, was
extracted from the kernels and used for a rubbing oil and various
poultices, oyé™’sa‘,! were made of corn meal. There are a number
of references to the sacrifices to various spirits.
White Tuscarora corn kernels were parched on the stove and
pulverized on a hot stone. The powder, 0na’o ot’on’yosha, was used
as a compress on the navel of a baby from whom the dried navel
chord (hoshet’dot, masc., goshet’dot, fem.) had just been removed.
It was thought to be a nonirritating absorbent and a valuable heal-
ing agent. .
1Troquois use poultices of boiled maize flour and apply them hot to the
cheek. “I have found that this remedy has been very efficacious against
a swelling,’ says Kalm, “as it lessens the pain, abates the swelling, opens
a gathering if there be any, and procures a good discharge of pus.” Kalm.
Travels in North America, p. 514; Pinkerton. Voyages, p. 13.
88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
In notifying people of the death feast an ear? or kernel of corn
is given as a token, The person receiving it is bound to attend the
ceremony.
The pulp of crushed green corn has been used effectively by the
Iroquois asa substitute for deer’s brains as a filler in tanning skins.
At the unveiling of the Mary Jemison monument in Letchworth Park
on September 19, 1910, a Seneca girl threw handfuls of Tuscarora
corn upon the grave and Mrs Thomas Kennedy, a Seneca and de-
scendant of Mary Jemison, made a short address, saying that as the
corn which Mary had so often planted sprang into life again, so it
was hoped that her spirit would blossom in the heaven world.
6 Uses of corn leaves. Corn leaves, odio"’sa’, newly torn from
the stalk are used as wrappings for green corn tamales, or boiled
cakes, onia’tcida’. (== folded braid of hair). The ereenteomamente
from the cob is thrown into a mortar and beaten into a ‘paste and
wrapped in corn leaves which are doubled over and tied three times
laterally and once transversely.
In the Jesuit Relations of 1652-53, a Jesuit Father relates that his
finger, the end of which has been cut off, was wrapped in a corn
leaf to staunch the flow of blood.?
1 Beauchamp... Am. Polk) Wore jour. 1:3:
2 Jesuit Relations. 40:153.
‘eoLIoWy jo
SULIPUT IY} Suoure zuL[d UIOD 9Y} JO UOHPIOUA peoidsopim oy} 0} sB¥ UoJsossns & se poonpoides st sinyord
‘Sagl4y, woipus Sayersjooyss Ur JAP “A “A Aq Sutaeisuo ue Woy ‘uTWepueyy JO ysvof CUL
SLUG,
Lz 91e[q
USWIOM IY} IJOFoq Sojejou sy} pue sqod puke SIvd pate}jvoS oY} ‘sjod
Aep oy} ON “oIAeS “FT [Teysseyy “Forg Aq ydessojoyd ve wolf ‘MOYO UPIPUT UPoTxoPy Uopow Jo JO11oUT
82 218d
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 89
Pari 2
NOTES ON CERTAIN FOOD PLANTS USED BY
THE IROQUOIS
XI BEANS AND BEAN FOODS
Beans next to corn were regarded as a favorite food and quanti-
ties are still eaten. The Iroquois have to or more varieties of beans
which they claim are ancient species which have long been culti-
vated. Some are said now to be cultivated only by the Iroquois.
The cornstalk bean,! oa‘’géka, is thought by the Seneca ‘to be the
most ancient bean and perhaps the species which grew from the
Earth-Mother’s grave.
The bean is an indigenous American plant, at least it grew here
in Precolumbian times. Explorers and early writers have left us
many references to it and most agree that it is an American plant.
Varieties of Iroquois beans
Beans, osav'dw
Bush beans dega’gaha’
Wampum o'tgo’a osai’da’
Purple kidney awe’ondago”
White kidney Osa dagan oe
Marrowfat osai’’dowanés
Stine | { otgo™ wasaga*on
| odji’stanokwa
Cornstalk oa’ geka
Cranberry hayuk’osai’dat
Chestnut lima onii‘sta’
Hummingbird djutowéndo®
White (small) | osai’daga‘n
Wild peas owéndo‘ge’a‘ osai’da’
Bean vines 007’sa’
Poles yoano‘da’kwa‘
Bean foods
Among the varieties of bean foods may be mentioned:
Bean soup, osai’’da’gi’. This was made in several ways: from
string beans cooked in the pods, from shelled green beans and from
dried beans. Often sugar was put in as a seasoning.
Cin we Meakin, Soe) ice, Sen a isso,
gO NEW YORK .STATE MUSEUM
Fried cooked green beans (none”owi = it is done). The cooked
green beans were fried in sunflower or bear oil and eaten with
salt.
Mashed bean pudding (osai’da’ odjiis’kwa). Dried beans
were put in a mortar and pounded coarsely, soaked in cold water
and boiled down to a pudding with bear meat or vension.
Boiled beans (osai‘’duk odjis’kwa). These were mashed and
mixed with sugar and grease.
Beans and squash “ together ” (Ganiu‘’suk osai’da’ kho). Cook
cranberry beans with the pods and when beans are aimost dry serve
in the shell of a boiled squash. This dish is served at the Green
Corn Thanksgiving ceremony and is called Onon’deikwawas, cooked
together food.
Beans with corn (Gai’nondaé). Green shelled beans were
boiled with green sweet corn, meat or fat. The red beans were
preferred.
XII SQUASHES AND OTHER VINE VEGETABLES
The squash plant is indigenous to America and was cultivated to
a large extent by the Iroquois and other eastern stocks. The word
squash is derived from the Algonquin akuta squash or 1squouter
squash (colonial spelling). Roger Williams' writing on the agri-
culture of the New England Indians says: “Askuta squash, their
vine apples, which the English from their call squashes, are about
the bigness of apples of several colours, a sweet light wholesome |
refreshing.”
Van Curler in the same year wrote in his journal: “ We had a
good many pumpkins cooked and baked that they called anansira.”
This was in December which of course shows the use of squashes
in winter. Van Curler attests the hospitality of the Mohawk when
he writes: “A woman cate to meet us bringing us baked pumpkins
to eat.” [See Am. Hist. Soc. Trans. 1895. p. 91-92|
The squash was one of the principal foods of the Iroquois who
even yet regard it.as a favorite. The records of early travelers?
abound in references to the uses of squashes and pumpkins. Some
of them praised “pompions” for their goodness while others
1 'Williams.- Key. 1643. -p; 125.. Narragansett Club Pub. “Gye = Weed
New England Prospect. 1634: “In summer when their corn is spent Is-
quoter squashes is their best bread, a fruit like young Pompion.”
2 Heckewelder, p. 194-95; Jesuit Relations, 10:103.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE gli
affirmed that the “citrules”’ were hard tasteless things. Hunger
and mood largely govern descriptions of food.
(Lahontan? records that the citruls (pumpkins) of this country are
sweet and of a different nature from those of Europe. “. . . and I
am informed,” he writes, “that the American citruls will not grow
in Europe. They are as big as our Melons; and their Pulp is as
yellow as Saffron. Commonly they are bak’d in Ovens, but the
better way is to roast ’em under the Embers as the Savages do.
Their Taste is much the same with that of the marmalade of Apples,
only they are sweeter. One may eat as much of ’em as he pleases
without fearing disorder.”
Charles Hawley in his Early Chapters of € ayuga History? quotes
Dr Shea’s translation of de Casson’s Historie de Montreal which
gives the account of the journey of Trouve and the Catholic fathers
fowemr, Al part of the narrative reads :
Having arrived at Kenté we were regaled there as well as it was
possible by the Indians of the place. It is true that the feast con-
sisted only of some citrouilles (squashes) fricasseed with grease and
which we found good; they are indeed excellent in this country and
can not enter into comparison with those of Europe. It may even be
said that it is wronging them to give them the name citrouilles. They
are of a very great variety of shapes and scarcely one has any re-
semblance to those in France. They are some so hard as to require
a hatchet if you wish to split them open before cooking. All have
different names.
A favorite way of preserving pumpkins and squashes for winter
use was to. cut them into spirals* or thin sections and hang them
on the drying racks to evaporate. Sometimes even now this method
is used but the modern way among the Seneca and Onondaga at
least is to cut off thin sections and string the pieces on cord. A
string would hold about half a pumpkin or squash and be suspended
perpendicularly to pegs back of the stove or near the fireplace.
Varieties of squashes
The Iroquois generally planted their squashes in the same hills
with corn and some kinds of beans. Beside the iand and labor saved
by this custom there was a belief that these three vegetables were
fo 151.
2 Early Chapters of Cayuga History. Aathen 1870.
SG i, NGait. ps 40c,
Q2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
guarded by three inseparable spirit sisters and that the plants would
not thrive apart in consequence.
Crook neck squash onya’sa‘
Hubbard squash odaint’dowane®
Scalloped squash onya‘sao”’ we"
Winter squash gai dowan¢
Hard pumpkin nyo’ sowane®
Squash foods
Baked squash (wandenyo"sonduk). Squashes were baked in
ashes and the whole squash eaten, the shell and seeds included.
Boiled squash (Ganyu‘’so). Squashes were split and cleaned
and boiled in water salted to taste.
Boiled squash flower (ojaint’duk).1 The infertile flowers of
the squash were boiled with meat and the sauce used as a flavoring
for meats and vegetables.
Melons
Cucumber ; ontos’kwae'
Musk melons wa’yais
Water melons o nyut’sutgus
Other vine foods
‘ Husk tomatoes ” dji’wewa’ yas
Melons were planted in patches in the woods cleared by burning,
the leaf mold furnishing a good medium for growth. Those who
planted melons in cleared woodland tracts set up poles upon which
were painted the clan totems and the name signs of the owners.
The totem sign signified that while, according to the communistic
laws, the patch belonged, nominally, to the clan, and that any clans-
man might take the fruit if necessary, yet by virtue of the fact that
the garden was cleared, planted and cultivated by the individual
whose name was indicated, the individual claim and right should be
recognized as actually prior, though not nominally.
Before the frost the melon vines that still had unripe fruit were -
often dug up without disturbing the roots, and replanted in a basket
of sand to be taken to the lodge and kept under the beds or in small
cellars. During the winter months, so several informants said, the
melons would mature and were reserved for the sick.
1Bartram in his Observations, page 16, writes of “one kettle fuil of
young squashes and their flowers boiled in water and a little meal mixed.”
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 93
XIII LEAF AND STALK FOODS!
Wild pea Lathyrus maritimus awéndo‘ge’a osai‘’da’
Berry sprouts ! wase’oik’da’ (= new
sprouts )
Sumac sprouts Rhus glabra o'tgo’da’
Wild asparagus Asparagus officinalis deo’dai‘ho
Sorrel OZ ahs varsos) deyu’yu‘djis (= sour)
Yellowdock Rumex crispus ivet(—she: stands)
Mustard Brassica (var. sp.) dyitgwa’a niayawe"o"’ da
(= yellow blossom)
Dandelion. Taraxacum officinale odjisshotda’ (= yellow star)
Pokeberry plant? Phytolacca decandra o’shea oné”ta’ (== crimson
leaves )
Milkweed Asclepisa syriaca onaos’ka™
Cowslips Caltha palustris gano™now’s (it wants)
Pigweed Chenopodium gwis’gwis gane’das
(Wale, SD-) .
‘Burdock Arctium lappa ono"dowa’nées (= big comb)
Berry and sumac sprouts newly grown and sorrel are eaten raw.
and esteemed an excellent alterative. In the spring new stalks of
wild asparagus, peas, yellowdock, poke and milkweed are cooked as
greens. The plants must be young and tender and not more than
6 to 10 inches high. All greens are supposed to be good for the
liver, for the blood and as a remedy for rheumatism. Young dande-
lions, cowslips and mustard were cut at the ground and: boiled as
greens. Fat meat was generally cooked with greens.
XIV FUNGI AND LICHENS
Mushrooms onen’sa’
Puffballs one”’sa’wa’ne‘
Lichens Ststa@t one, tay
Mushrooms, puffballs and other edible fungi were esteemed as
good materials for soup. The fungus is first peeled and then diced
and thrown in boiling water, seasoned with salt and grease. Some-
times bits of meat are added. The Iroquois like edible fungi quite
as well as meat.
1Adair, p. 415.
2 Ibid. 412.
04 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Puffballs were peeled and sliced and mushrooms peeled and fried
entire in grease, sunflower or bear oil, though sometimes deer tallow
was used. |
Ralet mentions the use of tree fungi and says that they were
‘‘ white as large mushrooms; these are cooked and reduced to a sort
of porridge, but it is very far from having the flavor of porridge.”
Lichens have been eaten but rarely within the memory of my
oldest informants. Hunters when pressed by hunger, they remem-
bered, had sometimes scraped the lichens from a tree or rock and
boiled them with grease. In preparing them the lichens were first
washed in a mixture of camp ashes and water to remove the bitter-
ness. In times of great emergency, however, with hunger: pressing,
the cook did not stop to soak the lichens but cooked them as they
were. The Jesuit Rale, in his letter to his brother mentions lichens
and calls them “ rock tripe.” 2 When cooked, he says, they made a .
black and disagreeable porridge.
In Iceland for centuries lichens have been an. important food and
other peoples have not despised them. The nutritive value lies in
the lichenin and starch which the plant contains.
= Act
XV FRUIT AND BERRYLIKE FOODS
The Iroquois considered fruits and berries a necessary part of
everyday diet. Long before the Revolutionary War they had, in
many places, extensive orchards of apples, peaches and plums. It
is probable that at that period they cultivated fruit trees to a greater
extent than any other native American people. The Iroquois loved
the apple above other fruits, a fact which several writers mention.
General Sullivan in his famous raid against the hostile Iroquois cut
down a single orchard of 1500 trees.*
A list of the principal fruits used by the Iroquois follows:
ganyu oya
Apple Pyrus (var. sp.) Ae pedi
Crab apples Pyrus coronaria djoik’dowa
Thorn apples Crataegus (var. sp.) awe’owek
1 Jesuit Relations, 67 :223.
2 Jesuit Relations, 67 :223.
3. See Schoolcraft. Senate Document 24. Albany 1846. “The apple is
the Indian’s banana.”
4 History of New York during the Revolutionary War. New York 1879.
113334. . Life of Brant. Albany. 18655 sy, euchete
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 95
Cherry, wild Prunus (var. sp.) oya’gane gowa
Cherry, choke Prunus virgimana gane’, or dyagyonya’-
tas
Peach! Prunus persica gai'dae’ odji’ya’
Plum Prunus americana ga’e*
Grapes Vitis (var. sp.) onilng’wisa‘
Pawpaw Asimina triloba ‘hadi’ot
Peart PYrUs. (wat sps) odji’djo‘gwa
Quince? Cydonia vulgaris odji’ju_ oya’dji
Mandrake Podophyllum oda’onosha’
peltatum
Terminology
direce gé’it
Fruit skin oa‘ wista’
Fruit seeds or pits oska‘’e"
Core Oar.
Stem (also tree trunk) oonda’
Cluster wa gwais’hanion
Apples were generally eaten raw but they were often boiled entire
or cut up for sauce. The favorite way, however, was to bake them
in ashes. The camp fire was brushed aside and the apples laid on
a layer of hot gray ashes, covered with the same material, the hot
embers raked over these and the fire rebuilt. Baked apples are
called wada’gondiik and the boiled sauce ganyaoya‘ odji’skwa. The
latter was eaten with roasted meats or bread.
Apples were stored in bark barrels and buried in winter pits with
other vegetables. Apples were cut up in thin slices, strung on twine
and dried. Even now it is a common thing to see apples strung up
over the stove or hung on a pole at the top of the room in the houses
of the more primitive Iroquois.
Cherries were dried for winter use and pulverized in a mortar
and mixed with dried meat flour for soup.
Small fruits. Of the smaller fruits and berries the list which
follows includes those most commonly used:
Blackberries Rubus (var. sp.) otga’asha’
Black raspberries R. occidentalis ton’ daktho‘
Red raspberries R. strigosus dagwa’ danné‘
1 Postcolumbian.
96 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Vaccinium (var. sp.)
Blueberries
Huckleberries Gaylussacia baccata
Thimble Rubus odoratus
(Vac. macrocarpon )
High cranberries
3 Viburnum opulus
Nannyberries V. lentago
Mulberries Morus rubra
Strawberries Fragaria virgumiana
Elderberries Sambucus canadensis
Gooseberries Ribes (var. sp.)
Dewberries Rubus viliosus
Wintergreen Gaulthena procum-
bens
Partridge vine
Squaw vine
Oneberry
os, ella repens
Amelanchier obleng-
if olia
A. canadensis
Tapes, Gvar. sj.)
Rhus glabra
June berries
Currants
Sumac berries
Terminology
Bush
Berries
Blossoms
Briars
Green fruit
Seeds
Berry time’
Berry picker
I pick berries
getdatge’a
oyadj1”
onao"sha”’
ha’nonundjuk
ga‘né’sa° wanunda
odji‘now0"’ wadisiyas
djo’yesshayes
odjistondas’ha‘
oniot’sutgus
nu”’’gwussot
ogau‘o’gwa’
djisda”’ gea’
oshaista” wayas
ha’do®
djoaga”’ wayas
o’tgo"'da’
o1’kta’
odji’/ya’
awe’o?
o1’kdaii‘
ogan’s‘a‘
oska™a‘
o‘wal’yat
ha’yagwus
ga’yagwus
Berries when in season were eagerly gathered by the Iroquois and
even today berries have not lost favor with them. They were eaten
entire raw, crushed and mixed with sugar and water or mixed with
various. puddings. Blackberries, strawberries, elderberries and huckle-
berries seem to be the favorite varieties.
For winter’s use black-
berries, black raspberries, huckleberries and blueberries are dried.
Strawberries were also dried but required a great deal of care.
These dried fruits were either soaked in sugared water and cooked
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 97
as a sauce or thrown in soups, puddings and breads or other foods.
For making an expedition food berries were pounded with meat,
parched corn and sugar. his food was eaten sparingly and washed
down with quantities of water. |
Dried blackberries are soaked in honey and water and used as a
‘ceremonial food by the Bear Society in their rites.
Dried, and in modern times, preserved strawberries are mixed
with water and maple sugar and used as a refreshment by the
Guardians of the Little Water Medicine’ during their night song.
Strawberries are eagerly gathered in the spring and eaten by
every one as a spring medicine. Handsome Lake, the prophet, com-
mands their use for this purpose in his code, the Gai’ witu.’
Juneberries were considered as a valuable blood remedy, which
was given to mothers after childbirth to prevent afterpains and
hemorrhages. ‘The smaller branches of the Juneberry bush were
broken up and steeped as a tea for the same purpose.
Cranberries were a favorite autumn food and were considered
“good” for the blood and liver. Huckleberries were also valued
for the same purpose.
-Elderberries were eagerly gathered for sauce. They were con-
sidered a valuable remedial agent for fevered patients and con-
valescents.
Partridge berries were not generally eaten as food except perhaps
by women. They were supposed to prevent severe labor pains and
to facilitate easy delivery. There were other herbs also used for
this purpose.
The drying of berries and small fruits in the late summer and
autumn was and now to a certain extent is an important item in the
domestic economy of the Iroquois.
Blackberries, black raspberries, huckleberries, elderberries and blue-
berries are easily dried entire 1f care is taken not to allow them to
become damp during the process, which may spoil them. It is said
that blackberries were best when dried on the stalk. The stalk or
cluster stem was broken and allowed to hang on the bush where the
sun could dry down the fruit with all its natural juices. The smaller
pulpy berries were dried in shallow basket trays [see pl. 30]. The
juicy berries such as strawberries and red raspberries were mashed
1 Parker, A. C. Secret Medicine Societies of the Seneca. Am. Anthro-
pologist. New ser. v. II, no. 2.
2 Translated by Parker & Bluesky. Manuscript in New York State
Library.
4
98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
in a wooden bowl and with as much juice as the mass would hold
placed on basswood leaves on slabs of slate or other flat rocks. The
juice that remained in the bowl was given to the children who even
in those days loved to “ lick out the bowl.”
For winter’s use the dried berries were soaked in cold water and
then heated slowly, maple sugar being thrown in as a seasoning. The ~
berries were then either eaten as a sauce or mixed with bread meal
or onon’da’, hominy.
The gathering of the autumn berries was regarded more of a
pastime than work. In fact, work with these people in many lines
was made easier by its social character, and seemed more like a game
where the thrill of it all kept the thought of fatigue away.
The work of berrying was left of course to the women and girls.
They would go in groups to the places where patches of the vines
and bushes grew and sing their folksongs as they gathered the fruit.
Every one laughed or sang and picked as fast as their two hands
could touch the berries. The picking baskets yiondasste’nondakwa‘
held about 5 quarts. They were suspended from the back of the
neck and the chest, one fore, the other aft. The forward basket lay
against the abdomen so that it was within easy reach. This being
filled the berries were covered with sumac or basswood leaves held
in place by two sticks, slung to the rear, the rear basket brought
forward and filled. The two baskets were then carried to a larger
basket holding about $ bushel. One large basket and the two pick-
ing baskets full of berries constituted a load for a woman to carry.
Huckleberries were raked from the bushes with the fingers.
Swamp huckleberries, bushes that grew along streams running
through marshes, were bent over into a canoe and stripped of their
berries which fell into large containing baskets. In picking mountain
huckleberries or those which grew in snake infested places the
moccasins were smeared with lard to frighten away the rattlers.
The snakes, scenting the hog fat, would think that pigs were scout-
ing for them.
This description of the berry-picking industry applies to a large
extent to the Iroquois of the present day, especially the Seneca along
the Cattaraugus, Allegany and Tonawanda. ;
The first fruit of the year is the wild strawberry and this the
Iroquois takes as a symbol of the Creator’s renewed promise of
beneficence. Quantities are gathered and brought to the feast-
makers at the Long House for the Strawberry Thanksgiving. his
is an annual ceremony of importance though it lasts but a day.
O61 ‘UO}SuTIV_ “YW Aq wWnesnyT 23¥IG 9Y} JO} PepeJOD ezIs [eNjoe Jojienb suo ynoqe o1v
SUOTJLIJSH[] ‘suoutsods eproug © ‘ez :usupods sayOIEYyD I “Selttoq SulIoy}eS IOF posn ‘sjayseq uojout fo sodAy,
6z 33e[q
Plate 30
Seneca evaporating tray and berry picker’s basket. The evaporating tray
is used for green corn, pulpy fruits and berries. The tray is 40 inches in
length. E. R. Burmaster, collector, 1910
ak
Plate 31
Cache of charred acorns excavated by Harrington and Parker, 1003
(Peabody Museum of Archeology and Ethnology Expedition) on the Silver-
heels site, Brant township, Erie county, N. Y.
oh
=
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 99
The thrifty housewife examines the teeth of the June mullet
which her husband has caught in the creeks to see if the base of its
teeth is black. If so, it is an omen of a good blackberry year. A
legend states that frost will never come when blackberries are in
blossom in berry. Ha’tho, the frost spirit, once entered the lodge of
O‘swi’noda’, the summer spirit, but a boy entering and seeing the
strange cold spirit in his father’s house threw a pot of hot blackberry
Sauce in the frost spirit’s face to his intense discomfort. ‘There-
after Ha”tho never ventured from his hiding place in the north from
the time blackberries blossom until the fruit is mature. Blackberry
juice makes a fine drink in the winter for it frightens away the
cold. “Do not even bears eat berries all summer and defy the
blasts of winter?” Blackberry roots are considered an effectual
astringent and the tender new shoots as a fine blood remedy.
Thimble berries were eaten in the late summer as a diuretic.
Dried for winter use they were valued for the same purpose. Sumac
bobs were boiled in winter for a drink.
XVI FOOD NUTS OF THE IROQUOIS
Nuts formed an important part of the Iroquois diet. Great
quantities were consumed during the nut season and quantities were
stored for winter use. The nut season to the Iroquois was one of
the happiest periods of the year’ especially for the young people
to whom fell the work of gathering most of the nuts. The women,
however, often went in companies when serious business was meant,
for with the failure of other crops, nuts formed an important food
source. The nut season was called o'wadawisa’ho™.
The favorite food nuts of the Iroquois were hickory and chest-
nuts though other nuts were valued: A list of the principal nuts used
by the Iroquois follows:
Acorns Quercus (sp) ogowa"’
Beechnuts Fagus grandifoha oska"a
Black walnuts Juglans mgra ‘djonyot’ gwak
Butternuts J. cinerea djonot’gwes
Chestnuts. Castanea dentata onye’sta
Hickory, bitter Carya cordiformis onio"gwadjiwageé"
Hickory Carya ovata djistaga’o"
Hazel Corylus americana oso’ wisha‘
1 See Relation of 1670, ch. IX.
100 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Terminology .
Nut onio‘’gwa’
Husk or shucks goktdo"’tso™
Shells oktda”
I shuck them ~— o'gekdo"tci‘
Meats onia’’
Burs osi’ga‘
I crack nuts degadenut’dyak
Pitted nut stone dyiodeda’kwe2
Stone hammer yetye™” dakwa’‘
Entire outfit for cracking nuts ge’ondeniya”’ dakta‘
Nut meal onia‘’degai‘to™
Nut oil onia‘’deyo"no"go
Nutimilks onia‘ono®’gwa*
It is.cracked eat deganyo’dya‘go"
Rancid meats ~. oniat’ga‘
Good meats onye’iu*
*Ripe meats onie’’stat‘
Ripe (on tree) o‘wadawis’a‘
Ripe (on ground) odawis’sa"0"
It is not ripe 3 doodawis’sa’o™
Nut time o‘wadawis’aho™
Roasted chestnut _ wade’nyistdonduk
Boiled ganie’’stok
Entire nut meat dey nace oe
I gather nuts ogeniogwe’oek
They are gathering hadinio‘gwe’oek
Fresh nut meats were crushed in wooden bowls. The crushed
meats were then thrown into a kettle of boiling water and the oil
skimmed off. This oil was kept as a delicacy to be used with corn
bread and puddings. Hickory and butternut oil was regarded
especially palatable, the former being used for feeding infants.
After the nut meats and oil were skimmed out the liquid was used
asa drink. The crushed meats were often mixed with corn pudding
or bread.
Chestnuts were boiled and the mealy interior used for puddings
or the dried meats were pounded into a flour and mixed with bread
meal to give the bread flavor.
1 Means also boiied chestnut meats. —
2Means Spreads its legs.
~~)
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE IOI
Acorns were boiled in lye and roasted* much as corn was to re-
move the bitterness, and after several washings pounded up in a
mortar and mixed with meal or meat and made into soup or
pudding. Children even now commonly eat raw acorns but their
elders at present seldom use them for cooking. Their former em-
ployment remains only a memory.
The name hickory in its original uncorrupted form is derived
from the name given by the Virginia Indians to a food or flavoring
liquor prepared from a nut meat emulsion. John Smith in 1612
described this nut preparation as follows: “Then doe they dry
them againe upon a mat over a hurdle. After they put it into a
morter of wood and beat it very small: that done they mix it with
water that the shells may sink to the bottome. This water will be
coloured as milk; which they call Pawcohiccora and keepe it for thei
use.”
_ The original Lenape form of the word according to William
Gerard® was patahikareo.
For cracking nuts cuplike depressions, the size of the nut were
picked into small boulders or slabs of shale. The nut was placed in
the depression and cracked or crushed with a suitable stone. These
“nut stones”? and hammers were used on the various reservations
up to within a few years and there are many Indians in New York
State who can remember having used them. ‘These stones are to
be found today near large old nut trees and the writer in his child-
hood days often hunted about for them in his grandfather’s back
fields and used them for the purpose previously mentioned. In the
Cattaraugus valley where black walnut trees once were plentiful
these nut stones are common. The Seneca call the pitted nut stone
dyiodeda’kwe". The hammer is called ye"yé’dakwa’ and the entire
nut cracking outfit deyondentya’ dakta‘.
The Seneca say that in the early days dry butternut and hickory
meats were pulverized and mixed with dried bear or deer meat pul-
1“. . . they search for—even acorns, which they value as highly as
corn; after having dried these, they roast them in a kittle with ashes, in
etder to take away their bitterness. As for me, I eat them dry, and they
take the place of bread.” Rale. 1716-27. Jesuit Relations. 67:215; cf. also
COLON pn 244), Lawson, p.. 178. - : 3
2Smith. Map of Virginia (1612) p. 12. Cf. Strachey. History of Travile
into Virginia (1616); Norwood. Voyage to Virginia (7649), 1 p. 37; Bev-
erly. History of Virginia (1705). Bk 2, p. 16.-
3 Am. Anthropologist, Neu ser. v. 9, no. I, Jan.-Mar. roan, p. 92
102 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
verized in a mortar. This powder was thrown in a quantity of
boiling water and used as a baby food.
The nursing bottle was a dried and greased bear-gut. The nipple
was a bird’s quill around which was tied the gut to give proper size.
To clean these bottles they were untied at both ends, turned wrong
side out, rinsed in warm water, thrown into cold water, shaken and
hung in the smoke to dry.
Sunflower oil was used in quantities by the Iroquois, with whom
it was a favorite food oil. It was prepared by bruising the ripe
ceed in a mortar, heating the mass for a half hour and then throw-
ing it into boiling water until most of the oil had been separated
from the pulp. The water was cooled and strained and then the oil
skimmed off.
The use of this oil is mentioned elsewhere in this work.
XVII SAP AND BARK FOODS
The maple tree was one of the trees venerated by the Iroquois.
It was in fact the goddess of trees and the only one to which a stated
ceremony was dedicated and to which offerings were made. Pine,
hemlock, elm and basswood of the forest trees were esteemed, but
the maple was a special gift of the Creator and every spring at the
foot of the largest maple tree in each village a ceremonial fire was
built and a prayer chanted by the Keeper of the Maple Thanksgiving
ceremony as he threw upon the embers pinches of sacred incense
tobacco. The maple tree started the year. Its returning and rising
sap to the Indian was the sign of the Creator’s renewed covenant.
The Iroquois will ever remember the maple tree, but few now even
remember the tradition of how it was, during the maple sap season,
that the Laurentian Iroquois? struck their blow for freedom from
Adirondack domination and fled into northern and central New
York.?
Trees were probably tapped in early times by sawing a slanting
gash into the trunk with a chert knife or saw. A flat stick was driven
1 The Mohawk, the Oneida and Onondaga. :
2One Mohawk tradition relates that the women flung hot maple sap into
the faces of the Algonquin chiefs and thus helped their people in the fight
for independence.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 103
into the gash and the sap run dowrr over it into bark tubs. For
boiling the sap the Iroquois had in early times only their clay vessels
but these were suitable receptacles though their capacity was small.
Z; Yl 7 L | lh
an Weed Wilh i? "
NX nlf wn
. ne . yan i
MW
—ae
=
a ——————
We OM
an I! i IAC \ \\
Fig. 23 Seneca sap basket or tub of elm_bark, collected by L. H. Morgan.” Specimen
is 18 inches in length.
Maple sap was drunk as it came from the tree? and, fermented,
was some times used as an intoxicant, the only record of such a thing
which the writer has been able to find as used anciently by the Iro-
quois. When fermentation went too far a vinegar was produced
which was highly esteemed. It was called wat’da dyono®ga’yotdjis.
The sugar syrup was sometimes poured into the empty shells of
quail and duck eggs and these sugar eggs were valued by travelers.
One of the best early descriptions of maple sugar making has been
left us by Lahontan whose description follows:
Whe maple-tree .. . yields a sap, which has a much pleasanter
Taste than the best Limonade or Cherry Water, and makes the whole-
somest Drink in the World. The Liquor is drawn by cutting the
Tree two Inches deep into the Wood, the cut being run sloping to
the Length of ten or twelve Inches. At the lower End of the Gash,
a knife is thrust into the Tree slopingly so the Water running along
the Cut or Gash, and falling upon the Knife that lies across the Chan-
nel, runs out upan the Knife, which has Vessels placed underneath
to receive it. Some Trees will yield five or six Bottles of this Water
1 Lahontan, 2:50.
104 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
a Day; and some Inhabitants of Canada, might draw twenty Hogs-
heads of it in one day, if they would thus cut and notch all the
Mapples on their respective Plantations. The gash do’s no harm to
the tree. Of this Sap they make Sugar and Syrup, which is so
valuable that there can’t be a better Remedy for fortifying the
Stomach.
Bark was eaten by certain Indian tribes but seldom if ever by the
Iroquois. Their aricient enemies and captors, the Adirondacks,? (in
Seneca, Hadi’ ondas, in Mohawk, Adirhon’daks, meaning, tree eaters)
ate bark in quantities. They were especially fond of the inside bark
of the top of the pine aS the spring when it was full of
Sweet Sap.
The Iroquois in emergencies ate elm and basswood bark*® and
perhaps other barks but it was never a general article of diet. Sassa-
fras bark and root as a carminative and aromatic was regarded with
favor, as were several other spicy barks.
Maple | wat’ da’
Sap owa™ norgi'
Sugar owa™ no"
Syrup , owa” norgi‘
Boiling sap goste‘’do®
Saptime 3 o‘ga’not
Sap runs o‘ga’not
He taps ? - thage’orta
Sap spout nio™ geoda’kwa
XVIII FOOD ROOTS, Okdea
Root foods were not despised by the Iroquois but with few ex-
ceptions they were seldom used unless the scarcity of other foods
made it necessary. It is difficult. at this time to enumerate all the
food roots used by the Iroquois since they have long since ceased to
use wild roots and tubers as food, preferring, of course, cultivated
1Lahontan. New Voyages to America. Lond. 1735. 1:249.
2 Tree Eaters, a people so called (living between 300 and 400 miles west
into the land) from their only Mihtuchquash, that is trees: They are Men-
eaters, they set no corne, but live on the bark of Chestnut and Walnut
and other fine trees: They dry and eat this bark with the fat of beasts,
and sometimes men eae Williams. Key. pee R. 4s
Soc. Col. Providence 1827. vol.
Rale mentions the use of green ae bark and “a kind of wood” which
he was compelled to eat for want of anything better while among the
Indians of the north St Lawrence vale Jesuit Relations, 67 :223.
3 See Swetland. Captivity.
3)
\
MEER oe ie ere
+
‘)
4
Pt SA ioe! oS PS tee a 4%
bined | at ty
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 105
varieties. Even wild onions and artichokes are now seldom used.
There is a dim recollection of food roots, however, and the writer
succeeded in getting the list which follows:
Artichokes - Helianthws tuberosws otwe™a”
Ground nuts - Apios tuberosa yoandjago™
Wild onions Allium canadense —- gahadago*ka’
Wild leek A. tricoccum - o'’no’sao”
Yellow pond lily - Nymphaea advena owa™ osha’
Cat-tail Scirpus validus ono”’’gwerda
Arrowhead Sagitiaria latifoha co"wa’ho’no™
Indian turnip Arisaema triphyllum — ga”’osha’
Milkweed Asclepias syriaea ono’ska’
Sol rf Polygonatum biforum ga’ga’wiyas
olomon’s seal : a:
| P. commetatum (= crow eats It)
Potato Solanum tuberosum — onon’o™ da’
Skunk cabbage Symplocarpws niagwal ‘igas
foeditus a bear eats it)
Terminology
ENGLISH : SENECA
Root ee [2 okde a,
_I pull roots o gik’teodagok
Root gatherer hakde’ogwas.
Root eater thakde’as
Artichokes were valued for their tasteful tubers which were edible
raw as well as cooked. The boiled artichokes formed a dish which
if properly seasoned with oil had some degree of palatability. Arti-
chokes as food was early noted by explorers? and later writers men-
tion their use. Champlain is the first writer to note their cultiva-
tion. The Iroquois so far as it has been possible for the writer to
" Hak-de’-as, from h, masculine affix; okde’a‘, root; initial o changes.
to broad d, terminal a‘ is elided; ids or ias, in compounds meaning eater of,
loses initial 1 after e thus h-akde-as, he root eats.
2On September 21, 1605, Champlain wrote of his axqloreons along the
New England coast, “ Wietsaw = 9. .. very good foots, which the
savage cultivate, having a taste similar to that of chards.” Elsewhere it
was stated that these roots were Jerusalem artichokes. The Rev. Edmund F.
Shafter commenting on this subject says that the Italians had procured
these tubers for cultivation before Champlain’s time, calling them girasole,
corrupted and anglicized to Jerusalem.
3 Champlain. Voyages. 11:112 footnote. Prince Soc. Bost. Pub. 1878.
106 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
inquire, never cultivated the plant but it frequently grew in their
cornfields on flat lands along streams, and roots, raw or roasted, fur-
nished food for the camp dinners of husking parties. Some women
became especially fond of the tubers and were called otwaé"yas,
artichoke eaters, a name which survives today among the Seneca.
Ground nuts, yoandjago"o™, were used in considerable quantities
up to within the past 25 years. Their use early attracted the atten-
tion of explorers. The ground nut was the favorite root food
of a captive tribe, according to a tradition, and became the totem
name of a clan.?
The plant grows on the rich alluvial bottom lands and the tubers
which are strung along on the roots are easily dug and when boiled
or roasted furnish a food which can be made palatable.
Several early writers mention the ground nuts used by the Indians,
among them Peter Kalm, whose account follows:
Hopniss or hapniss was the Indian name of a wild plant which
they ate at that time. The Sweedes still call it by that name and it
grows in the meadows in good soil. The roots resemble potatoes, and
were boiled by the Indians, who eat them instead of bread. Some of
the Sweedes at that time likewise ate this root for want of bread.
Some of the English still eat them instead of potatoes. Mr Bartram
told me that the Indians who live further in the country not only
eat these roots which are equal in goodness to potatoes, but likewise
take the pease which lie in the pods of the plant, and prepare them
like common pease.®
In the Paris Documents of 1666, is an account of the Iroquois
who are there said to be divided into nine tribes the sixth of which
was the Sconescheronon, or Potato People. A drawing is appended
showing a string of potatoes as the tribe’s totem. There is now
only a dim recollection of this clan whose name and symbol was the
ground nut rather than the potato.
Indian turnips,‘ ga’osha, at first though, scarcely seem an invit-
ing food. The acrid repugnant taste of the fresh root leaves an
impression not soon forgotten. The juice is an actual poison if used
1Ground nuts are probably what the French called “des chaplets, pource
qu’elle est destingue par noends en forme de graeaes.” Jesuit Relations
1634. p. 36.
2 See Documentary History New York. 1:10.
3Kalm. Travels in North America. Lond. 1772. See Pinkerton. Voy-
aves, Lond 1812136533:
4Synonyms: Jack-in-pulpit, wake-robin.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 107
even in a small quantity and yet there seems to be good historical’
evidence of the use of the root as food, not only by Indians but by
white men as well. Harris has made a special study of this root
and embodied a most interesting account of it in the Proceedings of
the Rochester Academy, volume 1.
To prepare the roots they were sliced and dried and pulverized.
Harris by inquiries among the old residents of the Genesee valley,
found that the pioneers of that region had used the powdered roots
of the Arum triphyllum as a substitute for flour and that
they had obtained the receipt from the ‘Seneca.’
Wild onions and leeks though often eaten raw with meat were a
favorite substance for making soups. The onions were boiled and
seasoned with oi!. The writer was unable to find that onions were
used as a flavoring for other soups or foods. The Iroquois seemed
to like their onions in an unadulterated form.
The Iroquois have about forgotten the ancient use of yellow pond
lily roots but a few old people were able to describe their use as
food. The tuberous roots were gathered in the fall by treading them
out with the toes and then sccoping them up. When it is realized
that the roots generally grew in 5 or 6 feet of water the difficulty
of procuring them may be realized. A few Indians filched them
from muskrat houses*® but for superstitious reasons the practice never
became general. Water animals were considered powerful magic
agents and were thought to visit frightful vengeance when outraged.
They might be killed for their meat or pelts but never robbed of
their roots without special ceremonies.
1“ Cos-cus-haw groweth in very muddy pools and moist ground. The
juice is poison, and therefore heed must be taken before anything be made
therewithal; either the roots must first be sliced and dried and then being
pounded into a flour, will make good bread; or else while they are green
they are to be pared, cut in pieces and stamped [pounded]; loaves of the
same to be laid near or over the fire until sour, and then being well pounded
again, bread or spoonmeat, very good in taste and very wholesome, may be
made thereof.” Thomas Hariot, Virginia 1585.
“The chief food they have for food is called loc-ka-whough. It grows
in the marshes . . . and is much of the greatness and taste of potatoes
y Raw it is no better than poison, and being roasted, except it be
tender and the heat abated, mixed with sorrel or meal, it will prick and
torment the throat extremely; yet in summer they use this ordinarily for
bread.” Smith. Virginia. 1606. See Harris. Root Foods. Rochester Acad.
Proc. 1:111 et seq. Cf. also Carver's Travels; Kalm, see Pinkerton. Voy-
ages, 13 :534. :
2 Harris. Root Foods. Roch. Acad. Proc. Rochester, 1891. 1:113.
8 Harris, page I15, says it was the usual custom when hunting the little
animals (muskrats) to search their houses for roots. This was probably the
case only when the muskrats were killed.
108 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
The roots of the yellow pond lily are porous and somewhat sweet
and glutinous. They were either boiled with meat or roasted. Early
explorers frequently mentioned the use of these roots and left in-
teresting descriptions. Few, however, agree as to their taste. Some
say that they tasted like the liver of a sheep,’ others that they tasted
like licorice and still others possibly in the throes of starvation en-
thusiastically describe their fine flavor. Pond lily roots are one of
the most widely known food roots on the continent and were eaten
from eastern Canada to the Pacific coast.
The roots of the cat-tail were often used. Dried® and pulverized
the roots made a sweet white flour useful for bread or pudding.
Bruised and boiled fresh a syrupy gluten was obtained in which
corn meal pudding was mixed. i
My Abenaki informants told me that the juice ‘Gon the bruised
roots was eaten raw with bread within very recent years.
Arrowhead tubers* were esteemed as good if boiled: Sometimes
they were eaten raw but in this state the bitter milky juice made them
repugnant to any one but a starving person.
Kalm says that the Swedes of New Sweden called the root
Katniss after the Indian name and that the Indians boiled the root
or roasted it in ashes.t |
The potato is a native American plant® but it seemed to have
1“ The Indians eat the roots which are long aboiling. They taste like
the liver of a sheep. The moose deer feed much upon them; at which time
the Indians kill them when they have their heads under water.” Josselyn.
New England Rarities Discovered. London 1672. p. 105-238. Reprint Am.
Antig. Soc. Trans. v. [V. Bost. 1860. Cf. Pickering. Chronological His-
tory of Plants. Bost. 1879; Le Jeune. Relation 1633-34, p. 273.
2 See Palmer, E. U.S. Dep’t Agric. Rept. 1870. Washington 1871. p. 408.
3 [bid. p. 408.
4 Pinkerton. Voyages, 13 :533.
5 The potato was certainly indigenous. Sir Walter Raleigh, in his efforts
to colonization, had it brought from Virginia, under the original name of
openawg. But none of the North American tribes are known to have cul-
tivated it. They dug it up, like other indigenous edible roots from the
forest. But it has long been introduced into their villages and spread over
the northern latitudes far beyond the present limit of zea maize. Its culti-
vation is so easy and so similar to that of the favorite corn, and its yield
so great that it is remarkable it should not have received more general
attention from all the tribes. Schoolcraft. Census of the Trodtiers 1845.
p. 12-13. Senate Document 24, Albany 1846.
Hariot who came to: Virginia with Raleigh in 1584 described potatoes as
Openawk, “a kind of root of round form, some of the bigness of walnuts.”
In 1586 the openawk. were carried back to England and later in 1597 were
figured by Gerard under the name of Potato of Virginia. Cf. Harris,
p. 109.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 109g
been cultivated but little before -the colonia! period. After and dur-
ing that time however the Iroquois began to plant potatoes in increas-
ing quantities until now as a food they are consumed in greater
quantities than corn. To give the Indian method of preparing po-
tatoes for food now would be merely to repeat what every modern
cookbook gives. Their favorite recipes, however, were potato soup,
boiled and baked potatoes. Distinctive flavoring was given by mixing
in bear oil, sunflower oil and white ashes. Potatoes were sometimes
dried and made into a flour.
The Seneca cultivated the potato long before the Revolutionary
“War. To them it was known as onon’nonda’ while groundnuts
~ were often called onon’nonda’on’wé", original potatoes. |
The root of Solomon’s seal is said te have been used for food.
The mature roots were gathered in the fall, dried, pounded and
worked up into bread. Harris cites that a Seneca Indian in passing
through Highland Park, Rochester, called the attention of his white
companion John Nott to the plant saying it was once highly prized
for its root.
The roots of skunk cabbage Lymplocarpus foetidus were also used
being dried and pulverized. Harris says it was sometimes roasted
or baked to extract its juice. The modern Seneca call it bear root.
The stalk of the milkweed rises froma tuberous root of consider-
able size. Western Indians it is said boil these roots for food. One
writer’ says that the Sioux gather the roots early in the morning
while the dew is on the plant and prepare a crude sugar from them.
He also states that the young seed pods are eaten after boiling them
with buffalo meat and that the-young stalks were used as white men
use asparagus.
Wild rice was an important food of the Indians of the eastern
portion of the continent, especially along the great lakes and the
Mississippi valley. It was little used by the Iroquois however,
although there are records of its employment. The Seneca some 40
years ago gathered a great quantity of it but the writer does not
know of its use subsequently.
1Palmer, Dr E. U. S. Agric. Com’n Rep’t 1870, p. 405.
IIO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED
State Library number at extreme right
Adair, James, History of the American Indians. London 1775.
970.1 gAd.I
American Anthropologist. New ser. Various issues; see citations
572) ORS
American Antiquarian Society. Proceedings 1895. Carr, Lucien. Food
of Certain American Indians and their Method of Preparation.
906 ~Am.3
American Historical Association. Transactions 1895. Wilson, Gen.
James Grant. Journal of Arent Van Curler.
Bailey, L. H. The Evolution of Our Native Fruits. New York 1808.
6345 seaoa:
Bartram, John. Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers,
Productions, Animals, in a Journey from Pennsylvania to Onondaga.
Reprinted, Geneva 1895. 9017.47. B 28:
Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, 1789. Re-
printed in facsimile by the Am. Eth. Soc. 1909. j
Beauchamp, W. M. Aboriginal Uses of Wood. N. Y. State Mus.
Bul. 89. Albany 1905.
Corn Stories ard Customs. Jour. Am. Folk Lore, 2:195.
History of the New York Iroquois. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 78.
1905.
Beverly, Robert. The History of Virginia, Ed. 2. London 1772.
975-5 B 46
Boyle, David. Reports. Archeology of Ontario (Canada). Submitted
to Minister of Education.
Bozman, J. L. History of Maryland, from the First Settlement in 1633.
Baltimore 1837. 075.2) baz
Bradford. History of Plymouth Plantation. Mass; Hist. Soejeor
Ser. 4, v. IIT. Boston 1856. 975.4 M38 v.33
Brown, P. A. History of Maize, v. 2. Farmer’s Cabinet Albany 1838.
Brown, D. J. History of Corn. Am. Inst. Trans. 1846.
Burnaby, Rev. Andrew. Travels through the Middle Settlements in
North America. London 1708.
de Candolle, A. L. P. Origin of Cultivated Plants. Appleton’s Inter-
nat. Sci. Ser. New York 1885. 581.6 0.5
Carr, Luclen. The Food of Certain American Indians and their Meth-
ods of Preparing It. Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc. 1895. New ser. v. 10, p. I.
906 Am. 3 17
The Mounds of the Mississippi Valley Historically Considered;
Memoirs of the Kentucky Geological Survey, 1883. Also Smithsonian
Rep’t 1801. 506 K7 a 46
Cartier, Jacques. Bref Recit Voyages, 1535-36. Tross ed. Paris 1863.
O73 21 Ca2n:
Carver, Jonathan. Travels in the Interior Parts of North America.
Phila. 1792. 52 O17. 35125
Caswell, Mrs H. S. Our Life Among the Iroquois. Boston 1892.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE IE Teak
Champlain, Samuel de. Voyages of Samuel de Champlain. Reprint
Prince Soc. Boston 1878. OMe KC 3351
Charlevolx, P. F. X. Hist. de la Nouvelle France. Paris 1774; trans.
by Dr John G. Shea. New York 1900. g71 qC 382
Colden, Cadwallader. MHistory of the Five Indian Nations. London 1767.
Cullen, Charles. History of Mexico. London 1787 (Translated from
fie wlitalian version bye) Dates. Clavigera). | Ov Oi Cl A711
Creux. History of Canada.
Cyclopedia. Bailey’s, Cyclopedia of American Agriculture.
De Laet, John. Description of New Netherlands. Col. N. Y.- Hist.
Soc. New York 18at.
De Vries, David. Journal Notes of Several Voyages. Hoorn 1655,
Comp Ye Enst Soc 141
Gray, Asa. Manual of Botany. Ed. 6. New York 1889. FOL. O73: ©. 6
Greenhalgh. Documentary History of New York. v. I.
Hakluyt. Collection of Voyages. London 1810.
Hariot, Thomas. Brief and True Report of a New Found Land in
Virginia. Pinkerton’s Voyages.
Harrington, M. R. Some Seneca Corn Foods and their Preparation.
Reprinted from Am. Anthropologist. New ser. v. 10, no. 4. Lancaster
1908
Some Unusual Iroquois Specimens. Am. Anthropologist. Let-
ters to: author and manuscripts in N. Y. State Museum.
Harris, George H. Root Foods of the Seneca Indians. Reprinted from
the Rochester Acad. of Sci. Proc. 1801. v. 1. 970.6 H 241
Heckewelder, John. Hrstory, Manners, and Customs of the Indian
Neiions,) Nev. ed.» Hust. .Soc.. Pa. 1876. 074.8 P3283
Hennepin, Louis. A New Discovery of a Vast Country in America.
London 1698. Also edition of 1903 (Chicago). Edited by Reuben G.
Thwaites. 917.3 H 306
American Folk Lore Journal. v.18; W. M. Beauchamp. Corn Stories and
Customs. 398 J 82
Kalm, Peter. Travels into North America. London 1772. See Pinker-
ton’s Voyages. .
Lahontan, A. L. de L. New Voyages to North America. London
1735. O17 le leet 31
Lafitau, Joseph F. Moeurs des Sauvages Ameriquains. Paris 1724.
Oyun —Glky 1%}
Lawson, John. History of Carolina. London 1714. 917.560 L 44
Lescarbot, Marc. History of New France. Champlain Soc. Pub.
Toronto 1907.
Loskiel. Missions in America. London 1794.
Marchand, Henri. Translations of certain early French explorations:
Manuscripts in Archeology section archives, N. Y. State Museum.
‘Megapolensis, Johannes. Mohawk Indians, (Korte Ontwerp van de
Mahakanse Indianen of 1644). Antwerp 1651; J. B. Broadhead,
translator Ne Elish sSoOCuMimdnGaT Sete) 1O52s Ve 3.1 pt L
Morgan, Louis H. Fabrics, Inventions, Implements and Utensils of the
Iroquois. 5th Annual Report of the New York State Cabinet (Mu-
seum) 1852.
NAL NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
League of the Iroquois. Rochester 1851.
Report to the Regents of the University of the State of New York
on the Articles Furnished the Indian Collection. Univ. State of N. Y.
3d Annual Rep’t 1850.
Houses and House Life of the American Aborigines. Washington
1881.
N. Y. Historical Society. Collections, Ser. 2, v. 1, 2, 3. Proceedings.
1847, 1849. ae
N. Y. State Museum. Reports and builetins, individually cited.
O’Callaghan, E. B. Documentary History of the State of New York.
Albany 1849.
Ontario Archeological Rep’t. Report for 1898; by David Boyle.
Palmer, Edward. Food Products of the North American Indians. U. S.
Agric. Com’n Rep’t 1870.
Parker, Arthur C. Erie Indian Village. N: Y.. State Musi Buleeue
Albany 1907.
Am. Anthropologist.
New Ser. v. 11, no, 2:
Unpublished notes and manuscripts in N. Y. State Museum.
Pinkerton, John. Collection of Voyages and Travels. London 1812.
910.8 qP 65
Popular Science Monthly. What Is an Ear of Corn? Jan. 1906.
505 N2
Prescott, William H. Conquest of Mexico. New York 1866.
Relations of the Jesuits. Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents. Bur-
rowes Brothers ed. Edited by R. G. Thwaites. Cincinnati 1900.
O71 Sexe
Ruttenber, E. N. History of the Indian Tribes of Hudson’s River.
Albany 1872. 070: 4-. 08
Sagard, Gabriel. Histoire du Canada, 1615. Tross ed. Paris 1866.
O7F Sanat
——— Le srand: Voyage. Pays, des) Eluyons= “Erosssed. -rans, 1605
070.3 Sa a
Salisbury, J. H. History and Chemical free aicn of Maize or Indian
Corn. Reprinted from N. Y. State Agric. Soc. Trans. Albany 1849.
Sargent, Frederick L. Corn Plants, their Uses and .Ways of. Life.
Boston 1899. 638.P 9
Schoolcraft, Henry. Census of the Iroquois. N. Y. State Senate Docu-
ment 24. Albany 1846.
— History of the Indian Tribes of the United States. Philadelphia
1857.
Seaver, James E. Life of Mary Jemison. Ed. by W. P. Letchworth.
Ed. 6. New York 1808.
Shea, John G. Charlevoix,. History of New France. New York 1000.
971 qC 382
Skinner, Alanson B. The Lenape Indians of Staten Island. Am. Mus.
Nat. Hist. Anthropological Papers, v. 3. New York 1909.
Letters to Author.
IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 113
Smith, Capt. John. General History of Virginia, New England and the
Summer Isles. See Pinkerton’s Voyages, v. 13.
Speck, Frank G. Personal Notes and Letters to Author.
Stites, Sara Henry. Economics of the Iroquois. Bryn Mawr Col.
Monogr. v. I, no. 3. Bryn Mawr 1905. O77, O:3, StS
Stone, William L. Life of Joseph Brant. v. 2. New 1838. O70. 2° Be 73
Sturtevant, E. L. Varieties of Maize. Am. Nat. 1884. p. 532.
Sullivan, Gen. John. Journals of Sullivan’s Campaign. Secretary of
State, Albany 1887.
Swetland, Luke. A Narrative of the Captivity of Luke Swetland, 1778-
1779 among the Seneca Indians. Waterville, N. Y. 1875. 07063") Owe
Thomas, Cyrus. Mound Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology.
Bureau of Ethnology An. Rep’t 1890. : 572.07 GOL Vc l2
Thwaites, R. G. Hennepin’s A New Discovery; ed. by R. G. Thwaites,
Chicago 1903. 917.3 H 396
-——— Compilation of Jesuit Relations.
Trumbull, Benjamin. History of Connecticut. Hartford 1797, Re-
printed at New London 1808.
‘United States Dep’t of Agriculture. Foods of the North American
Indians. Dep’t Agric. An. Rep’t, 1870. 630.6 KO v. 22
United States Bureau of Ethnology. Handbook of American Indians.
Bil Zo. 1007.
Annual Reports, see citations.
Van der Donck. New Netherlands. Amsterdam 1616; N. Y. Hist. Soc.
Proc Reprint Ser. 2. 1841. > v.-1. .
Williams, Roger. Key into the Language of the Indians. Reprint, R. I.
RiisteSoc Col. v. 1. Providence 1827.
Willoughby, Charles. Virginia Indians of the 17th Century. Am.
Anthropologist. New ser. v. 9. Lancaster 1907.
Wilson, Gen. James Grant. Arent Van Curler and His Journals, 1634-35.
IMephint Ame tists soc An: Rept. 1805.
INDEX
Abbreviations, 7.
Acorns, 99, IOI.
Adair, James, cited, 23) 30, ‘31, 32, “,
G57 00, 70, 75,01, 03, 110,
Alphabet and abbreviations, 6, 7.
American Anthropologist, cited, 110.
American Antiquarian Society, cited,
TIO,
American Folk Lore Journal, cited,
III.
American
cited IIo.
Apples, 94, 95.
Arrowhead, 105, 108.
Artichokes, 105.
Psiesitter, SI.
Asparagus, wild, 93.
Historical
Bailey, 1. H:, cited, 11, 110, IIT.
Baked cob-corn in the husk, 68.
Baked green corn, 67.
Baked scraped corn, 68.
Ball players pudding, 79.
Bark bread bowl, 51-52.
Bark foods, 102-4.
Bark ladle, figure, 56.
Bartram, John, cited, 64, 65, 92, I10.
Baskets, 58.
Beads, corn kernels used as, 87.
Beans and bean foods, 20, 37, 38,
89-90, OI.
Bear root, 100.
Bear’s pudding, 78.
Beatly, Lieut. Erkuries, quoted, 42.
cited, 36, 38,
Beauchamp, W. M.,
88, TIO.
Beechnuts, 90.
Begnall, Capt. Richard, cited, He
Berries, list, 95-06.
Berry-picking industry, description,
08.
Berry sprouts, 93.
Berrylike foods, 94-09.
Association,
Beverly, Robert, cited, 11, 26, 29, 41,
Bs flo Iie oe LOL LEO!
Black raspberries, 95, 97
Black walnuts, 99.
Blackberries, 95, 97, 99.
Blue corn, 42.
Blueberries, 96, 97.
Boiled corn bread, 60.
Boiied green corn, 67-68.
Bossee, cited, 24.
Bowl, eating, 54.
Boyle, David, cited, 65, IIo.
Bozman, J. IL) cited, 110;
Bradford, cited, 14, II0.
Brant, cited, 94.
Brass kettles, 46.
Bread, boiled, 69; figure, 70; leaf
bread, 66.
Bread bowl, 55;
wooden, 52.
Bread paddle, 52.
Brodhead, Daniel, quoted, 19
Brown, D. J., cited, 9, 110.
Brow. A cited: 0) TO:
Buffalo dance pudding, 78.
Burdock, 93.
Burnaby, Rev. Andrew, cited, 110.
Burrowes, Maj. John, journal, 109.
Butternuts, 99, IOT.
leghele, = Gite
Camerarius, cited, Io.
Candolle, A. L. P. de, cited, 9, 10, 110.
Carr, Lucien, cited, 5, 17, 21, 22, 68
110.
Carrying basket, 58.
Cartier, Jacques, cited, 15, 34, 42, I10.
Carver, Jonathan, cited, 68, 107, IIo.
Caryopsis, uses of, 87-88.
Caswell, Mrs H. S., cited, 110.
Cat-tail, 105, 108.
Ceremonial allusions to corn, 36-40.
Ceremonial foods, 78-709.
Champlain, Samuel de, cited, 17, 24,
GVA. BOW TOS. iti
’
116
Charlevoix, P. F. X., cited, 18, I11.
Cherries, 95.
Chestnuts, 99, 100.
Clark J. Ee Ves cited;27:
Clavigero, cited, II.
Clay vessels, 46.
Cobs, uses of, 86-87.
Coffee, parched corn coffee, 77.
Colden, Cadwallader, cited, III.
Columbus, mention of maize by, 12.
Communal customs, 20.
Converse, Mrs, cited, 39.
Cooking customs, 59-65.
Copper kettles, 46.
Corn, in using term, author refers
to maize, 13; early records of cul-
tivation among the Iroquois, 15-
20; destruction by European in-
vaders, 17-20; Iroquois customs,
21-36; land clearing and division
of labor, 21-24; preparation of the
soil and planting, 24-29; com-
munal customs, 29; harvest, 31;
storage, 34-36; ceremonial and
legendary allusions to, 36-40;
varieties of, used by Iroquois and
other eastern Indians, 41-43;
terminology, 44-45; utensils em-
ployed in the preparation of,
for food, 45-58; removing from
cob, 53-54; number of ways of
preparing, 65; foods prepared
from, 66-80. See also Maize.
Corn and pumpkin pudding, 75.
Corn cobs, uses of, 86.
Corn husks, uses of, 80.
Corn leaves, use of, 88.
Corn mortars, 45.
Corn pits, 35.
Corn plant, uses of, 80-88.
Corn pudding, 75-76.
Corn sieve, 58.
Corn silk, uses of, 86.
Corn soup liquor, 71.
Corncribs, 36.
Cowslips, 93.
Crab apples, 94.
Cracked undried corn, 60.
Cramoisy, Sebastien, cited, 46.
Cranberries, 96, 97.
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Creux, cited, III.
Cucumber, 92.
Cullen, Charles, cited, 30, IIT.
Currants, 90.
Dandelion, 93.
Decayed corn, 79-80.
Decorations, corn kernels used as,
87.
Deer jaw scraper, 53; figure, 53.-
D’Herbelot, cited, Io.
DeLaet, John, cited, 16, IIT.
Denonville, quoted, 18.
Dent corn, 42.
DeVries, David, cited, 47, 66, 111.
Dewberries, 96.
Dipping spoons, 53.
Dodens, cited, I0.
Dried corn soup, 74.
Dumont, cited, 65.
Dumplings, 73.
Dwight, cited, 21.
Early bread, 72.
Early corn pudding, 72.
Eating bowl, 54.
Eating customs, 59-65.
Edible fungi, 93.
Elderberries, 96, 97.
Enfield, Edward, cited, 11.
False face pudding, 79.
Feast bowls, 54.
Fire making, 59-61.
Fiske, John, cited, 13.
Food nuts of the Iroquois, 99-102.
Food plants used by the Iroquois,
notes on, 89-100.
Food roots, 104-9.
Foods, prepared from corn, 66-80;
ceremonial, 78; unusual, 79-80.
Fried green corn, 68.
Fruit, 94-00.
Fungi, 93-04.
Genesee valley, depredations by
Gen. Sullivan, 20.
Gooseberries, 96.
Grapes, 95.
Gray, Asa, cited, IIT.
INDEX TO IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE 117
Greenhalgh, cited, 111.
Ground nuts, 105, 106.
Hakluyt, cited, 15, 24, III.
Handsome Lake, 27, 39, 97.
Hariot, Thomas, cited, 25, 41, 107,
NOs ll Ts
Harrington, M. R., cited, 35, 42, 46,
48, 54, 55, 61, 73, 111.
Harris, George H., cited, 26, 41, 76,
N07, LOO, Ili.
Harshburger, cited, 9, II, 12.
Harvest, 31.
Harvesting baskets, 58.
Hawley, Charles, cited, 91.
Hazel, 99.
Heckewelder, John, cited, 23, 61, 63,
Os O08 75,870 775) 00" UIIe
Hennepin, Father Louis, cited, 24,
BOCAS, LIT.
Hewett, cited, 38.
Hickory, 99, IOI.
Hoe, blade, figure, 25.
Hoeing “bee,” 31.
Hominy, 73; roasted corn hominy,
77°
Hominy sifter, 50.
Hospitality of Iroquois, 61-65.
Huckleberries, 96, 97, 98.
Hudson, Henry, cited, 15.
Hulled corn, 74.
Hulling basket, 49; figures, 40, 50.
Husk baskets, figures, 85.
Husk doll, figures, 83, 84.
Husk salt bottle, 57; figure, 57.
Husk tomatoes, 02.-
Husking bee, 31.
Husking pin, figure, 33.
Husks, uses of, 80.
Indian corn, in using term, author
refers to maize, 13.
Indian turnip, 105, 106.
Jaw scraper, 53.
Jemison, Mary, cited, 23.
Jesuit Relations, 26, 32, 45, 46, 48,
65, 74, 88, 90, 94, IOI, 104, 106, 112.
Johnson, Esquire, quoted, 36, 42.
Josselyn, cited, 108.
Juet, Robert, cited, 16.
June berries, 96, 97.
Kalm, Peter, cited, 21, 26, 27, 35, 87,
106, 107, 108, III.
Ketchum, cited, 21.
Kettle, large, 46.
Lafitau, Joseph F., cited, 24, 31, 34,
Ae Tait,
Lahontan, A. L. de L., cited, 18, 65,
On, WO, WOA, wir,
Land clearing, 21-24.
La Potherie, cited, 21, 22.
Eawson, John, cited, 13, 22, 23, 30;
AB. WO, Wiig
Leaf and stalk foods, 93.
Leaf bread tamales, 66-67.
Leeks, 105, 107.
Legendary allusions to corn, 36-40.
Le Jeune, cited, 108.
Lescarbot, Marc, cited, III.
Lichens, 93-94.
Loskiel, cited, 24, 65, IIT.
Lundy, John P., cited, 9.
Lyon, Joseph, 38.
Maize, cultivation by Iroquois, 5;
origin, 9-12; native American
plant, 9; names applied to, 10; no
authentic reference in writings.
prior to discovery of America, I1;
origin in Mexico, 12; proof of
cultivation in America before the
Columbian epoch, 12; derivation of
~ name, I2; mentioned by Colum-
bus, 12; first use of term, 12; im-
portance of in early English col-
onies, 13-15; cultivation by coastal
Indians of Virginia, 25. See also
Corn.
Mandrake, 95.
Maple sugar making, 103.
Maple tree, venerated by the Iro-
quois, 102.
Marchand, Henri,
Margry, cited, 20.
Mason, cited, 50.
Matthiole, cited, Io.
Meal sifter, 50; figure, 51.
cited, IIT.
118 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Mealing slabs, 49. .
Meals of Iroquois, 61-65.
Megapolensis, Johannes, cited, III.
Melons, 92.
Mexican grass, II.
Milkweed, 93, 105, 109.
Molinari, cited, 9.
Morgan, L: Hj cited>20,7345535,530;
41, 42, 57, 50," 60), OF, 702 O40.
72. We
Mortar, stone, 48; figure, 48.
Mortar, wooden, 46.
Mourkoud, mentioned, Io.
Mullberries, 96.
Mullers, 49; figure, 48.
Mushrooms, 93.
Musk mellons, 92.
Mustard, 93.
Nannyberries, 96.
New York Historical Society, cited,
112.
New York State Museum, cited, 112.
Norwood, cited, 101.
Nursing bottle, 102.
Nut and corn pottage, 75.
Nut stones, IOI.
Nuts of the Iroquois, 99-102.
Nuts, ground, 105, 106.
O’Callaghan, E. B., cited, 112.
Oneberry, 96.
Onions, I05, I07.
Ontario Archeological Rep’t, cited,
112.
Paddle, narrow, 52; wide, 52.
Palmer, Edward, cited, 108, 100, 112.
Parched corn coffee, 77.
Parched corn sieve, 57-58.
Parker, Arthur ‘@) cited) 2542754
78, 79, 97, 112.
Partridge berries, 96, 97.
Pawpaw, 95.
Pea, wild, 93.
Peaches, 94, 95.
Pear, 95.
Pestle, 47, 48.
Pickering, cited, 108.
Pigweed, 93.
Pinkerton, John, cited, 12, 26, 36,
AI, 70, 100, 107, 20S. Ee:
Planting baskets, 58.
Planting Thanksgiving, 27.
Plums, 94, 95.
Pokeberry plant, 93.
Pop corn pudding, 78.
Pop corn sieve, figure, 58.
Popular Science Monthly, cited, 112.
Potato, 37, 105, 106, 108.
Pottery, 46.
Prescott, William H., cited, 13, 112.
Pudding, 75.
PPuiipaliss03%
Pump drill, 59; figure, 59. ©
Pumpkins, 20, 90; 01: )
Purification ceremony of the Society
of Otters, figure, 81. .
Purple corn, 42.
Quince, 95.
Rale, quoted, 94, 104.
Raleigh, cited, 54.
Raspberries, 95, 97.
Red raspberries, 95, 97.
Reullins, cited, 10.
Riant, cited,.0>
Rice, wild, 100.
Roasted corn, 78.
Roasted corn hominy, 77.
Robertson, cited, 65.
Root foods, 104.
Roxburgh, cited, 10.
Ruttenber, E. N., cited, 112.
Sagard, Gabriel, cited, 16, 21, 26, 34,
54, 66, 72, 74, 79, 112.
Salisbury, | Ji H,, cited; iy ue
Salt bottle, husk, 57; figure, 57.
Samp 75-
Sap basket, figure, 103.
Sap foods, 102.
Sapaen, 74.
Sargent, Frederick L., cited, 112.
Schoolcraft, Henry, cited, 94, 108,
yee)
Seaver, James E., cited, 23, 24, 30,
112.
| Shafter, Rev. Edmund F., 105.
INDEX TO IROQUOIS USES OF MAIZE
Shea, John G., cited, 112.
Sifting baskets, 50.
Skinner, Alanson B., cited, 112.
Skunk cabbage, 105, 109.
Smith, Capt. John, cited, 15, 65, 101,
nO. 112.
Solomon’s seal, 105, 100.
Sorrel, 93:
Speck, Frank G., cited, 112.
Spoons, dipping, 53; wooden, 55;
figure, 55, 50.
Squashes, 20, 37, 90-02.
Squaw, term not used by writer, 22.
Squaw vine, 96.
Stalk, uses, 80.
Stites, Sara Henry, cited, 30, 113.
sotone, VWilliam I, cited, 20, 113.
Stone mortar and pestle, 48.
Strachey, cited, 101
Strawberries, 96, 97, 98.
Sturtevant, E. L., cited, 113.
Succotash, 68.
Sullivan, Maj. Gen. John, campaign
through the Iroquois country, 18;
mentioned, 94; cited, 113.
Sumac sprouts, 93.
Sunflower oil, 102.
Sweet corn, 42, 67.
Swetland, Luke, cited, 104, 113.
Tanner, cited, 22.
Teosinte, II.
Thimble berries, 96, 99.
Thomas, Cyrus, cited, 5, 13, 113.
Thorn apples, 94.
Thunder ceremony, 20.
Thwaites, R. G., cited, 113.
Tobacco plant, 37.
Tofiwisas, 27.
Tofiwisas Company, ceremonial
march, figure, 28.
L19
Tragus, cited, I0.
Trumbull, Benjamin, cited, 14, 15,
113.
Turnip, Indian, 105, 106.
United States Bureau of Ethnology,
cited, I13.
United States Dep’t of Agriculture,
cited, I13.
Van Curler, cited, 70, 90.
Vian den Donck cited so; ii, 21; Be
74,70, 118:
Verazzano, John de, cited, 12.
Vincent, cited, 66, 80.
Walnuts, 90.
Washing baskets, 50.
Watermelons, 92.
Wedding bread, 71.
Wild leeks, 105, 107.
Wild onions, 105, 107.
Wild rice, 1009.
Williams, Roger,
60; 4104, 113:
Willoughby, Charles, cited, 113.
Wilson, Gen. James Grant, cited, 36, -
3},
Wilson, Dr Peter, quoted, 17-18.
Wintergreen, 96.
Women, field labor, 22-24.
Wooden bread bowl, 52.
Wooden mortar, 46.
Wooden spoons, 55; figure, 55, 56.
Wright, Rev. Asher, 44.
Wright, Mrs Asher, 37, 42.
Citeds 24-307,
Yellow pond lily, 105, 107, 108.
Yellowdock, 93.
‘ < t . . .
P f
A . 7
t
\ ; : 7 ‘
: t \ b
fs i . pas
‘ a . . y
. . q 5
‘ A ,
- rps . ‘ +3
‘ \ ; cS , a ; ‘ ' [ f : :
- / . ‘ f . 0 vt
. by ica, Fi Lae , ( * Cae rn , ‘ r
: y i LJ ’ ,
5 :
. x 1 i
’ ~ . . 1 ‘ i
: r ; : at ) ‘
‘
aoe oe
Seat
> ay
i ‘es
"% ¥
,
1 =
.
.
2
~
; a “6 ‘
‘
> t Fy
f
‘
—
.
o
i .
yy ls r
t
8
; . d
i + ki a
il A . j
aySuespenb ApeqaauayIS 24) jo dew 1801095 = igs ar os Se =
(St NILATING
3jZuespenb ulqrepeoi1g ay} jo dew s180j0an
esr ea ae :
~
S3]duespenb purée -adoau0zy ou} jo dew 3180}035)
Sse : wt NILA TING WONASNN
" arsuespenb asdaaqysnog: 243 jo dew ore Oj0aD
str NILATING WnasoaNW
a: 7
»
’
~
a
== 7
if
-
+
5
= rc
«
7
A
RY =
(an
+
EOUCATION DEPARTMENT UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
JOHN M. CLARKE
STATE MUSEU
STATE GHOLOGIST STATE MUSEUM
POUGHKEEPSIE QUADRANGLE
(Bamquconr)
Yeats)
o a \ te
Fishikill Mains ,
LEGEND
~
“Hudson River’
“roup; shiles, slates,
grits, conglomerates,
und phyllites,
aes
Includes Trenton,
Black River (Norman-
skill) and probably
Utica, 3)
lens
Includes Georgian,
Potsdam, Beekman-
town and Trenton,
J
Basal ('Ponghqnag”)
Quartzive: granular
quartzite, occasionally
fonglomeratic or
ie
sha!
Georgian
S J
“Basal Gacncoe)
hornblendicand mica-
ceous gneisses and al-
tered derivatives,
‘Grenville’
a)
we
Important or congpic-
Wous outerops.
Numerous outcrops
Probable Faults
Formation contacts:
interpreration left
open; probably faulted
in many cases; normal
between quartzite and
gneiss.
Quartzite at Rochdale
R
Red Shales
F
Fossil Localities
ORDOVICIC
CAMBRIC AND
ORDOVICIC
CAMBRIC
PRE-CAMBRIC
1 =
.
.
. 4 2
Ee t a §
‘
’
G 2)
4
‘
i
P ci
a
es .
- ie
i
i)
x tr
[ —
a .
aa
‘
4 ‘
ree en f
" , ii fae ate
, ‘i i PrylagT"
2 re)
a]guespenb Ape auIyIS 9y} Jo dew 3130joay
St NILATINGA WOASAW
a[sueipenb ulqyepeoig ay} jo dew 2130;095
et NILATING WOASAW
Sajsueipenb purlAepy\-aXoauo0zy ay} jo dew II-SO]O94)
v1 NILATING wnasnW
2[sueIpenb s1sdaaxYysnog ay} jo deur 3130;0a5
s¢r NILATINA WNASON
—
= 4
— ali
'
]
y
eae
ABYNY3LYND
)INOAZGOAN
SINDASGOSaN
DiNOABCOBIVS
=
DIENTISOSN
mnyanny
oruns
Soom As
ory taoaman
ona
sal
orice
sori,
ES
ONa937
01-606)
sewnny “a “a Aq ABo\085
FIONVEGYNo
IASOW ALVIS j ere
S3IONVYOWNO GNVIAYM--3AOSNOH wan OTe GAL 40 ALISHSAING ye
zat NiaTINe wHOA : ; L
|
7
9] 8uespenb ApeyauayIs oy jo deur 2130]0a5
St NILAIING WNasnw
q[suespenb uiqiepeorg ayy jo dew 2130j0an
€Sr NILATING ee
~
een purse sy\-af0au07y 24} Jo dew I180joan
eS1 NILA TING WNaASsnW
- arsuespenb asdaaqysnog: 343 Jo dew arenes)
$hr NILATING WNASnW
4
=
Poa)
\
1
~
vd
f
te
€
ey
- i‘
aa
rn
0
iar
}'
“a
=e
if
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
BULLETIN 154
SCHENECTADY QUADRANGLE
SrATE GROLOGIOT STATE MUSEUM
(Amsterdany,
| Lake Albany.
LEGEND
Be
Rock onterops along
highways
Glacial scratches
Swamps or partially drained
areas; mainly vegetable
debris.
Modern riyer and stream
alluvium.
Dunes of cand well defined.
Wind-blown sands more or
Jess heaped into dunes.
Mohawk flood deposits of
glacial age, mainly clays of
alluvial origin.
Mohawk flood deposits of
lacial age; coarse gravels
(eaiaativet of Scotia) grading
to fine gravels and sands.
A
Rocks formerly laid bare by
powerful currents of water;
now mostly thinly covered by
rock detritus or residua
clays; boulders large when
present.
LI
Glacial till more or less
washed and eroded by power-
fulcurrents of water; boulders
mostly of large size.
a
Glacial till more or less
covered and mingled with
marginal lake deposits or
with glacio-fluyiatile deposits
or with wind-blown sands.
LU
Clays or sandy clays de-
posited in Lake Alplaus;
stratified.
|
Clays or sandy clays, grading
into overlying sands;
stratified; deposits made in
* - = .
,
1 =
.
€
Sn )
« ¥ a =
- .
E "1 =
= s 4
.
.
’
= .
- Ss
-
.
= -
= 4
‘
>
i bs ~~
= a8
FF aay
= & ae
- | 9]3uespenb Apeyauayss Tee) jo deur 3130]0a5 . *E a Pern =
Sr NILAIING WNaSnW vu
a[sueIpend uiqjepeoig ayj jo deur s130[0a5
eS1 NILATING WNasnw
a
See seny pur Ae \-aA0au0 Fy am jo dew 2130095
pas 4 2 st NILATING WOESAW
eee ae 21Suespenb eisdaaqysnog 943 jo dew 3180109
gtr NILATINaA WAASANW
fis : cas a f fe pet pike I " iat
>
re
w
Pal
zy
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
JOHN M CLARKE
STATE GEOLOGIST
UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
STATE MUSEUM
(Gloversville!
BULLETIN 153
BROADALBIN QUADRANGLE
LEGEND
a
RECENT
Mostly modern alluvium
and river deposits.
°
>
Frankfort shales and
Sandstones in alternating
thin layers.
DOoviIcic
Utiew black shale
c
?
Canajoharie black shale.
o
‘Trenton and Black river
limestones.
cit
Little Palls dolomite.
cr
Theresa formation. Alter-
nating sandstone and
dolomite beds.
Potsdam sandstone.
Diabase or gabbro dikes.
te Precambric and
mostly non-metamor-
phosed,
Grenville-syenite mixed
gneisses. Chiefly Gren-
ville much cut up by in-
trnsions of syenite.
to)
CAMBRIC
Granite porphyry. Coarse
PEa an ENeedecimotly
gneissoid and probably
the same in age as the
syenite.
Syenite. A aC ely
gneissoid igneous roc
which is ‘Gee than
the Grenville.
Grenville quartzite.
Grenyille. Gneisses and
schists representin
highly metamorph |
iments,
Faults.
cy
‘Stone quarries.
PRECAMBRIC
== INSTITUTION LIBRARIES
SU
|
088 01300 6200
39