Srartaer Fata Pott reas pay iers j Raia : i 1Be fh eth 3 fae) bested ders tate Aoi ; = Me Ss oh saa Esra i ‘ BY seahin ‘ : Nee i A LEN re a2 aie GSE BEANS { yft pinta Pecan + He Me rtf ae Seen chs SEs UM Nn ONS areas 75 sips wy aN % uh 4 i . anise ae) SOE a yom rer, my Ni wae ees ae LN Me ie NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN COR ee bee UNIVER SIT Y, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Agricultural Experiment Station. VERACA,N. Y:., 1880. ‘That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their sus- tenance, and two hundred millions of men expend their daily toil, must be the most important of all; the parent and precursor of all other arts. In every country, then, and at every period, the investigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds.’’—JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON. PUBLISHED. BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., 1890. C Weim, 1g CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Aoricultural Experiment Station. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President C. K. ADAMS. ONAL) WEED. ee ners ote (we eatin Trustee of the University. Hom. JAMES WOOD, 205 fe.) st President State Agricultural Society. Le OBE RUGS Ua inthe alma hepac' test ck tare, hai ctateu Professor of Agriculture. MCU CAL DWVEEL Vt, pnts eile! ole el gen ela luny ney) ce Professor of Chemistry. APACS IVAN Bentcebeniiet) carafiuclaten coy snip eo Renuateresite Professor of Veterinary Science. APPIN EDIUEONELSS a cteteGi artes teeth s) «(cot aw idiatuay fem follceiy nee Professor of Botany. Maer COMGTOCKS 15 hice sy acmretcllas a. csnre set tay bie wea eks Professor of Entomology. Vials Cyd BY NTO Ca EAE MRA nt a nee ARP Be Professor of Horticulture. NV oe CDI EUW diva ll at wspnteme-varou =) sao, Apia Ass’t Prof. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. if PP HROBER TS: chive), io cs) leis epheeth atl es ike recanted Teneaenae Director. EDEN RE VWIENG, ede yeh ah cine) tate Deputy Director and Secretary. See PVA Te VAMS Se ee tats ty 2 Th ments are ahi ede cn een ers Treasurer. ASSISTANTS. PNOPICUILUTES 1 5.50 gap Fel vss yelPse om er fa ater faereale tears ED TARBELL,. (SH emmiStiyaue ye hey, ls ped Me oct cre ie mmerelte larerae WILLIAM P. CUTTER. Veterinary SCICHCE win-uatis) =e oles nes sun ¥ -uyeures Etomologysy i. Gus ee = Coe okie tenon ere JOHN M. STEDMAN. Horticulture ts. :A is) eljcuas) cell cs yeuuel certo raerepetcunc rs W. M. Munson. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Letter of Transmittal, - : Report of the Director, - - “s «« Treasurer, - - ve ‘© Chemist, - - - ss ‘* Botanist and Arboriculturist, Cryptogamic Botanist, sf ‘« Entomologist, - rh ‘* Agriculturist, - “ “‘ Horticulturist, - Appendix I. Bulletins V to XV, inclusive. Appendix II. Detailed Statement of Receipts and Expenditures. PAGE. 21 23 oe { A hg ; | eli Pierre: : t ‘s ‘ j Te ‘ aye if} en a 4 Ae Lae 7 has nab a bh vii AS a y | eae at, oy ry ) Aa LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. To Fits Excellency, The Governor of the State of New York: SIR : I have the honor herewith to transmit the Second Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell Univer- sity, in accordance with the provisions and requirements of the Act of Congress, approved March 2, 1887, establishing the Station. This Report consists of the following documents : The Report of the Director of the Station. . Acknowledgments of donations. — . The Report of the Treasurer. . The Report of the Chemist. . The Report of the Botanist. . The Report of the Cryptogamic Botanist. . The Report of the Entomologist. . The Report of the Agriculturist. 9, The Report of the Horticulturist. 1o. Appendix I., containing copies of the eleven Bulletins Lol oN DAMN PW DN published in the course ot the year. 11. Appendix II., containing a detailed statement of the re- ceipts and expenditures of the Station. From the reports of the various officers of the Station it will be seen that the year has been one of productive energy. The Bulletins issued have been received with gratifying favor by the agricultural press of the country. During the year the office has LG as received more than one hundred and sixty extracts from, or notices of, the Bulletins published by the Station, in several in- stances the Bulletin having been copied entire. The notices have been so highly commendatory in character that we can have no doubt as to the general favor with which the work of the Station has been received. I have the honor to be Your obedient servant, [Signed] Cc. K. ADAMS, President of the Cornell University. CoRNELL UNIVERSITY, | Jan. 30th, 1890. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR: To the President of the Cornell University : SiR: I have the honor herewith to transmit the Annual Report of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, which in- cludes the reports of the Treasurer and Deputy Director and Sec- retary, together with those of the divisions of Chemistry, Bot- any, Eutomology, Agriculture, and Hortictilture; also Bulletins Nos. V to XV inclusive, and a detailed statement of receipts and expenditures for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889. The eleven bulletins issued during the year embrace a wide field of investigation. Some of them are of a scientific character, but are none the less valuable on that account. It is impossible to make steady advancement in our investigations without the aid of the knowledge which purely scientific investigation gives. The Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station published in June a valuable bulletin on the potato blight. As that disease had appeared in many places in this State, it was decided to pur- chase three thousand copies and distribute them in the potato growing districts. The aim has been to give immediate help to those who are seek- ing for it, so far as we might be able, while at the same time, do- ing much work in perfecting new methods, and testing and in- vestigating the accuracy of methods now in use, in order that our results may be as perfect as human skill can make them. There are many indications that the work done in the last year has been of marked and permanent value. The mailing list, home and foreign, has now reached upwards of seven thousand, and is increasing rapidly. ; There are not less than five hundred thousand adult men in the State who are directly engaged, to a greater or less extent, in growing animals and plants, and to reach all of these with bulle- tins would absorb the greater share of our resources, and leave little for doing the work out of which bulletins should naturally grow. iid Qe iss So far this difficulty has been met by the liberal and progressive spirit of the Agricultural Press. It has uniformly shown such a broad and kindly spirit, not only towards the workers of the Sta- tion and their investigations, but to the cause of improved agri- culture, thereby arousing interest and aiding the Station in get- ting before the public the results of its work, that I desire here, publicly, to acknowledge the great obligation to it we and our constituents are under. The policy of aiding the reader to understand and remember the results obtained in our investigations by numerous illustrations, which was begun last year, has been enlarged upon and continued this. It was early found that untrained laborers were illy suited to perform even the most common operations of experiment work without careful and constant supervision. So, for the sake of both economy and accuracy, the common laborer has been largely dis- pensed with, and the work has been performed by the salaried as- sistants. This gives the appearance in the financial report of having spent a small amount for labor and a large amount for salaries. In some branches of the Station work, some difficulty is found in writing the bulletins so that they will be entirely clear to the ordinary reader, because no common or popular names and terms can be found which can be used instead of those adopted by the scientists. We trust that the criticisms and difficulties will grad- ually disappear, as the readers become more familiar with scien- tific terms, and we more expert in avoiding and in coining popular substitutes or brief explanatory terms for them. I. Pe ROBERTS; Director. Hee ea We are pleased to acknowledge the receipt of the follow- eng donations. Retsof Mining Co., Piffard, N. Y.—1 bbl. Cattle Salt. D. H. Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y.—1 Gal. Hansen’s Rennet Extract. D. W. Beadle, St. Catherines, Ontario.—Cuttings of Russian Grape. V. H. Hallock & Son, Queens, N. Y.—Seeds. J. M. Thorburn & Co., New York-—-Seeds. John G. Gardner, Jobstown, N. J.—Tomato Seeds. W. O. Shallcross, Locust Grove, Md.—Apple Scions. Ohio Experiment Station, Columbus, O.—Apple Scions. Missouri Experiment Station, Columbia, Mo.—Apple Scions. Edwin Allen, New Brunswick, N. J.--Apple Scions. W. D. Barnes, Middle Hope, N. Y.—2 Paradox Grape Vines. J. Laws, Geneva, N. Y.—1 Jennie May Grape. Farmers’ Fertilizer Co., Syracuse, N. Y.—2 sacks Fertilizers. Per Oxide Silicates Co., New York.—20 lbs. Per Oxide Silicates. N. Y. State Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.—Strawberry Plants. U. S. Dep’t of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.—Seeds; Scions of Kelsey Plum; Specimen of Cocoanut. Sherman & Crouch, Sydney, N. Y.—Plant Protectors. Michigan Experiment Station, Agricultural College, Mich.—Tomato Seeds. T. H. Hoskins, Newport, Vt.—Apple Scions. H. M. Jaques, Wright’s Corners, N. Y.—Apple Scions. L. H. Bailey, South Haven, Mich.—Apple Scions. Dr. E. L. Sturtevant, S. Framingham, Mass.—Seeds. Nauvoo Fruit Growers’ Association, Nauvoo, Ill.—Strawberry Plants. N. Hallock, Creedmoor, N. Y.—Strawberry Plants. A. W. Smith, Americus, Ga.—Four varieties of Moon Flower. Alabama Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala.—White Field Corn. South Carolina Experiment Station, Columbia, S. C.—White and Yellow Corn. Delaware Experiment Station, Newark, Del.—Apple Scions. Dakota Experiment Station, Brookings, S. Dak.—Apple Scions. Foster Udell, Brockport, N. Y.—Apple Scions. F. L. Peirs, New Providence, Ind.—Crab Scions. Dr. J. F. Appell, Lake City, Fla.—Two species Wild Garlic ; Specimens of diseased Peach root. Northrup, Braslan & Goodwin Co., Minneapolis, Minn.—Seeds. a sits Sra sah y pasha P< NA ae aa wie! rate ae busca te eli ade ich yf * aa iki saga ie. Bas fy ay 3 one ae ty se Bid He ea et ea ee a Meh ne REPORT OF THE TREASURER. The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, In account with The United States Appropriation. 1889. To Balance of Appropriation for 1888 on hand Dr. Ertl OS Orel ota a Fol coy sh ur ont aya he $ 4I gI To Receipts from Treasurer of the United States, as per appropriation for year ending June 30, 1889, under Act of Congress ap- proved (Mareli 20188750 20.00 3) eben (=) sag = $14,958 09 $15,000 00 Cr ee GOW, By1ORlALICS, oc) si do eel Sees ss $8,335 42 SS Tey moula nave) 671s Aveta A) ia pom) cae Giiacade 750 00 SC IEAb MANE hus yh Ag WA lo ono) mcs) Gideon 0 uc I,306 63 “OC (QHnGS JIGS 4 4 6 ao 6 Oo oo ob 436 34 ** Equipment, Labor and Current Expenses: Apaakepitgince, 6 a 8 5.6 6: 6 a 6 kao. 606 22 ISsloynoeublons, 5G Gib Gbe old 6 coc 2,493 53 Rat MOO PAS BASH Solos) oF 260 46 IBS OLATIY eee optics soos lem eas) ter sr eterg re 597 13 Ghrenaistiye yo sae uence cuiche econ see Sirens 214 27 ——-—— $15,000 00 Receipts for Produce sold : Agricultural Department,...... $ 190 87 Horticultural Department, ..... 103 38 SSS AS We, the undersigned, duly appointed auditors for the corpora- tion, do hereby certify that we have examined the books and ac- counts of the Experiment Station of Cornell University for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889; that we have found the same well kept and correctly classified as above, and that the receipts for the time named are shown to have been $15,000, including un- expended balance of July 1, 1888, and the corresponding disburse- ments, $15,000, for all of which proper vouchers are on file, and have been by us examined and found correct : (Signed. ) H. B. Lorp, \ Auditing Committee Gro. R. WILLIAMS, § Board of Trustees. II I hereby certify that the foregoing statement of account to which this is attached, is a true copy from the books of account of the In- stitution named. (Signed. } Emmons lL. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. STATE OF NEW YORK, TompKrins Counry. ; Me On this 31st day of January, 1890, appeared before me Emmons L. Williams, personally known to me to be the person whose sig- nature is attached to the above certificate, and acknowledged that he executed the same. (Signed. ) HorRACE MACK, [Suh Notary Public. REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Expert- ment Station : SIR :— I submit herewith a summary of the work of this division of the Experiment Station. All the actual analytical work mentioned below was done by Mr. W. P. Cutter, the assistant chemist, or under his immediate supervision. ‘The number of analyses to be made was so large that additional help was necessary in the laboratory of the Station during a small portion of the year. Upon Mr. Cutter, also, devolved the preparation of the samples of fodder to be used in testing methods of analysis, and their dis- tribution to the several Experiment Station Chemists, who con- sented to make the analyses for the Association of Official Agri- cultural Chemists ; and much time was given by me in the course of the summier to the preparation of the report to the Association on these results, and a complete bibliography of journal literature on methods of analysis of cattle foods. This work appears in the Annual Report of the Association, now going through the press. The material equipment of the laboratory of the Station is essen- tially the same as it was at the time of the last report, no impor- tant additions having been made. Yours Respectfully, G. C. CALDWELL, Chemist. LIST OF ANALYSES MADE FOR THE CORNELL, UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION—1889. Fodders. 1 Sample Sunflower Seed. 3 Samples for the Association of Offi- s ae poe eee cial Agricultural Chemists. 1 Sample Corn Germ Meal. : rine Se Sron: 1 Sample Condimental Cattle Food. ; Hone Cl Ta Peis as ok Professor of Chemistry. APA IAW irou ets las! Se ten Ne ed oh icv yeahs on eh Professor of Veterinary Science. BERN RERIEON DISS: gal Ay iod can ceicuccn ta Lee gonleeath tien tsk Professor of Botany. ig Es (COMSTOCK, | yss a4 a se se St iy deh Moh apie BA seem Professor of Entomology. GPa VAT Tee We Shee Bee PS patos tice Voth tai Panes . . . . Professor of Horticulture. Veg PDD GW) tres ctleeci pac ee SN ese oi Ass’t Prof. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. TOP VIROBE REG: wepact aegde seca Klace stent nc) sap ist meets acemaeae Director. HENRY IH: WING 2 ek . Deputy Director and Secretary. Sel NV LD AAS yy 50. Sts AIS, foe oo eee ie we 2» e Mredsuren. ASSISTANTS. A Sricnltnee sit.) co trte jira aes A ee eliae ayer oot pret eh tins ED TARBELL. HEMmISery as) tails sect) acd. pus aa Bee ete WILLIAM P. CUTTER. V CLC ALY SRICIICES sere ct et a a ee ee ne Feritomologiys 46:9 \s Rls ey ssn Sea es JOHN M. STEDMAN. UPC TAEERS Yo yond es oat acl el eines ae . . . W. M. Munson. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 18 A, Morrill Hall. Persons who desire this Bulletin will be supplied on addressing CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION, Ithaca, N. Y. OLeine, PRODUCTION OF LEAN. .MEAT- IN MATURE ANIMALS. It has heen pretty conclusively shown in experiments by Henry,* Sanborn,t and at this Station,{ that the relation between the lean and fat in the carcass of young animals can be varied in quite wide limits by varying the relation between the nitroge- nous and carbonaceous matters in the ration fed. But it has been stoutly maintained that, in the mature animal or the animal whose muscles have once been formed, it is practically impossible to increase, either relatively or absolutely, the amount of muscle or lean meat. It was to throw some light on this question that the experiment recorded below was determined upon. At the outset numerous difficulties confronted us, chief among them being the necessity of relying wholly on comparison between individuals, for the composition of an animal’s body manifestly cannot be determined at two different periods of its life. Another obstacle in work of this kind is the difficulty of completely separating the fat and lean of the carcass by mechan- ical means, particularly when tiere is any considerable amount of what may be termed ‘“‘intermuscular fat’’ and connective tissue. After a careful consideration of all the difficulties involved, it was finally determined to make a preliminary trial upon the fol- lowing basis: Two mature animals in poor condition, as nearly alike as may be, and if possible of near blood relationship, to be selected. One of these to be slaughtered, the carcass rendered and the nitrogenous matter and fat determined in the products by chemical analysis. ‘The other to be fed witha ration calcu- lated to produce muscle or lean meat for a sufficient length of time and then treated as the first. After some search, two animals fairly satisfactory were secured in two grade Yorkshire sows, three and four years old, one the * Fourth Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Wisconsin, p. 83, and Fifth do., p. 92. _ t Bulletins, Nos. 10, 14, 19, and 27, of the Missouri Agricultural College Farin. Bulletin, No. II, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. Be mother of the other. The younger we shall designate No. 1, the other No. 2. They were very thin in flesh, as each had run on pasture and suckled a litter of pigs during the summer. Some idea of their condition may be formed from the photo-engraving of No. 2, forming the frontispiece of this Bulletin. For two reasons we determined to slaughter No. 1, and feed No. 2. First, No. 1 had apparently a little more fat. Second, No. 2 from her greater age would be less likely to form muscle or lean meat as a result of the feeding. Accordingly, Sept. 22, 1888, No. 1 was slaughtered, and the fol- lowing data secured : Live Wweipht.o ic ae) one SC ere Oo alloiss Dressed weight including kidneys, Bic Aeeics ley ee ena BOMES 5 eee ee Ree is ae hd Sar hp Fea ns i Total nitrogenous matter, A ans cathe aT ete tries rte Kot, oN" e Motalsfats nin oe eile le Ae cats sea. ©. Eee NTO] Omar Percentage protein matter HIVACALCASS; 7) alee, fee T7020 Rercentase fatyim carcass, ae nate gaat cael 27 Sie At the time that No. 1 was killed, No. 2 weighed 240 pounds. We then commenced to feed her a ration of four poutids of wheat bran, two pounds of cotton seed meal, and two pounds of shelled corn per day. After a few days feeding she refused to take a ra- tion so rich in nitrogenous matter, and the cotton seed meal was lessened. She would hardly take any for a time, but gradually she was induced to eat one-half a pound per day. The amounts of the various fodders consumed in the course of the experiment is given in the table below : ae | COTTON SEED :p | CORN. ae | MEAL. LBS. | LBS. ——— = os ~ = = } Sept. (from 22d) and October,| 69. | 30.75 | 64. INOVenIbemrs- ear ervreer. ss ome ee 15. jess IDE Cem Dera: tales eee ek 77-5 | 15.5 | 62. JaAnWVaAny ye iL cee sae kd Wis 15.5 (eos February (to 12th, va foie 25 | 6.25 ee Total food consumed, : a 327. 25 | 83. | 247. The Sncoen a Tee ration eared Someniat during the course of the experiment from the fact that we were not able to get the hog to take as much of the cotton seed meal as we desired. Below is given the digestible composition of the ration for the first month, a part of the last month, and for the whole period : ety La 1 *NITROGEN— *NUTRI- *PROTEIN, Fat, < *FIBRE, = Pounps. | Pounps. oes aS POUNDS=|' paced | { | Ration for Sept. and Oct.,} 18.23 G27, 73-95 .89 site ‘Ration for February, . 6.68 227 29.58 .29 1:5.3 ‘Ration for whole period,) 71.71 25.05 304.16 Bron Bie It will be seen that the nutritive ratio of the ration was not par- ticularly narrow, averaging 1:5.2 for the whole period and not varying greatly from it at any time. In the experiments by Henry already referred to, the ration of the pigs making the most striking development of lean meat, had a nutritive ratio of 1:2. The feeding standard recommended by Armsby + for fattening swine has a nutritive ratio of 1:6. It is probable that in warm pens a narrower nutritive ratio than this could be economically ‘used. We had intended to use a nutritive ratio of about 1:3.5, but in this were balked by the individual tastes of our subject. The experiment continued without any accident for 143 days, or until Feb. 12th, 1889, at which time the animal was slaugh- tered and the following data secured. For convenience of com- parison we repeat the data already secured from No. 1: Hog slaughter-|Hog slaughter- ed before feed-| ed after feed- ing. No. 1. ing. No. 2. MAVeWeIslit. aes sy ok ed oP OZ, 296. Dressed weight including kidneys, Tae 2B BONES OSs Miter cha ly cars ee ree 16.63 Total-protem: matter, Ibs. 5... :. | 18:10 59.09 otaletate bsyssale a ois tee. eo) s 16.70 48.29 Per cent. protein in carcass,.. . . 13.82 28. Per cent. fat in carcass,. is 12.75 22.89 Per cent. dressed to live weight,. . 63.29 71.28 | * By Prolein or Crude Protein is meant aclass of substances containing nitrogen, estimated by multiplying the total nitrogen in a substance by 6%. ‘rhe protein compounds are often called albuminoids, and are often familiarly spoken of as flesh formers. Nitrogen-Free Extract is mace up of a class of substances’soluble in water and contain- ing no nitrogen. Sugar, starch and gum are the most common and familiar examples of - this class. ‘They are often called carbhydrates. Fibre is also a carbhvdrate, but is not soluble in water or dilute acids. It is less digesti- ble than the other carbhydrates and therefore less valuable as a constituent of fodders. The fat, the nitrogen-free extract and the fibre are often spoken of collectively as heat and fat formers. The Nutritive Ratio is the ratio of the nitrogenous substances to the non-nitrogenous and since fat will make nearly two and one-half times as much heat as an equal weight of other non-nitrogenous substances, it is multiplied by two and one-half and added to the carbhydrates in calculating the nutritive ratio. In other words the nutritive ratiois the ratio of the protein to the carbhydrates plus two and one-half times the fat. ¢ Manual of Cattle Feeding, p. 492. — § — As has been stated the hog that was slaughtered before feeding was evidently in slightly better condition. We may be fairly certain that the one slaughtered before feeding, or No. 1, was at least not richer in nitrogenous matters than the one fed, or No. 2. We will therefore as- sume that the two hogs were of the same composition at the time the first one was slaughtered. On this assumption the composition be- fore and after feeding of the hog fed, and the gain or loss of the va- rious constituents, are shown in the following table : a Assumed com-| ie we _,\Com position af- | | posztzon before pepataed: Gain* 1 HOG No. 2. | seating a epepregen| dene | of No. Tf. yale Igivesweig lity sie pees nae 240. 296. *56.. | | Dressed weight,.. .. . 151.9 Pw Me “5975 | BONES Feehan ee eee cee 16.63 | 16.63 heed; Broteintumatter,..)-5 02 0: 20.99 59.09 °38.1 IE Ea a SP ime ae ame CO 19.37 | 48.29 28.92 Water and ash (by diff.) . 94-91 | 86.99 t7.92 = = 2.) = = = 5 i’ = The table shows a marked increase of the nitrogenous matter over the fat and a considerable falling off of water as a result of the feeding. This experiment was in every sense preliminary and of course the data are insufficient to furnish positive proof as to the questions asked, still all the indications are that a mature animal ean be readily made to increase in muscle or lean flesh. ‘his is apparent to the eye in comparing the photo-engravings of sections of the hog No. 2 and sections of hogs of about the same weight, fattened in the ordinary manner, as found in the Ithaca markets. The upper section in each plate is from hog No. 2, the middle and lower sections are from carcasses selected in the Ithaca market ; both of them of about the same weight as our hog No 2, and both considerably younger. They were fattened by farmersin the neigh- borhood, in the usual wav, largely oncorn. The reader will notice the remarkable proportion of lean to fat in the carcass of hog No. 2. We had carried on an entirely parallel experiment with mature grade Merino ewes, except that an additional lot was added that were fed a strongly carbonaceous ration ; unfortunately an ac- cident occurred during the rendering of the carcasses and all com- parative results by analysis were lost. In so far as the results could be judged by the eye they. were in accordance with those obtained from the carcass of the hog. I. P. ROBERTS. SECTIONS THROUGH LOIN. a ee ee B hy fe sr 0 =) © 4 a & Y vA © ml a 3) ea ND ra Kabat ial ; CEL tt f ei DOES HEATING MILK AFFECT THE QUAN- TITY OR QUALITY OF BUTTER. It is generally conceded that for best results in butter making, where the milk is set in deep cans, the milk should be placed in the creamer as nearly as possible at the temperature at which it is drawn from the cow ; there being a considerable loss of fat in skim milk if the milk is allowed to cool to any great extent before being set. Of late there has been considerable controversy as to whether it is advisable under any conditions to warm the milk before set- ting, and the limit of temperature beyond which it is not safe to go. Mr. E. W. Stewart in the Country Gentleman of Feb. 14th, 1889, in answer to a correspondent in regard to milk from thor- oughbred and high grade Jersey cows that had been in milk for a long time, and from which only a pound of butter was secured from 28 pounds of milk, says: “Tt is highly probable that not more than two thirds of the fat is obtained from this milk. If this milk were heated in a water bath to 135 degrees, immediately after milking, and set in shallow pans ina temperature of about 60 degrees, the amount of cream and butter would be largely increased, and the cream would churn in the same time as from fresh milch cows, and probably it would not take more than 17 to 20 pounds of milk to a pound of butter. Butif the cream be raised by cold deep setting, then it should be set directly from the cow, and the cream may be heated to 130 degrees when skimmed, and after ripening will churn much better for it and make more butter.’’ On the other hand we have the following report from a firm of extensive and very successful dairymen : ‘“We took some milk from the vat just after milking, and after stirring it thoroughly we took two samples of exactly the same Sp amount. One sample was scalded at 120 degrees, the other with- , out scalding, and both stood for twenty-four hours in ice water at 40 degrees ; they were then both closely creamed, the cream ri- pened and the two samples churned, worked, and in every way except the scalding treated exactly the same. ‘The scalded milk produced 6 Ibs. 11 ozs. and the other 5 Ibs. 15% ozs. ‘The for- mer was white and pasty and could not be worked into butter ; it was impossible to get the buttermilk and curd out of it ; the latter made a good product of marketable butter. ‘* We then took two samples, each of the same amount exactly, heated one to 120 degrees and left the other normal and put both in ice water the same as before for 20 hours. ‘They were then ripened without skimming and treated exactly the same, churned the same and worked the same and in every way treated alike ex- cept the heating. ‘The scalded milk produced 4 Ibs. 5 ozs. and the other 2lbs. 134 ozs. That from the scalded milk had the appearance of Dutch cheese and could not be worked into butter ; it was i1mpos- sible to get rid of the curd and buttermilk. The other was a very handsome sample of well colored marketable butter. These tests were both made with the utmost care in every particular. The test of the scalded milk made without skimming showed more curd than when skimmed, and hence the larger proportionate pro- duct.” We have made the following experiments intended to throw light on this important point. February 17; 1889. ‘The mixed evening milk of six grade Jer- sey cows was used. ‘Three of the cows had dropped calves in Jan- uary, 1889, twoin August, 1888, and onein May, 1888. ‘The milk was divided into four parcels of 14 pounds each and treated as fol- lows : No. 1 set direct from the cow without treatment at a tempera- ture of 93 degrees. No. 2 cooled to 60 degrees with more or less stirring, strained into another can and set. No. 3 cooled to 60 degrees as No. 2, then warmed to 93 degrees in a water bath and set. No. 4 cooled to 60 degrees as No. 2, then warmed to 135 degrees in a water bath and set. All were set in the same Cooley creamer with water at 40 degrees and were skimmed after setting twenty-two hours. Ten pounds of skim milk were taken from each can. ‘There was no percepti- ble difference in the bulk of cream. The different lots of cream were then ripened and on February 21 were churned all at the same time in the same test churn. The butter was washed in the granular state, allowed to drain thoroughly and weighed without working or salting. The results were as follows : No. 1, 1.03125 lbs. No. 2, 1.1875 lbs. No. 3, .9375 Ibs. No. 4, -9375 Ibs. ~ The butter so far as we were able to judge was very uniform in quality from all the lots of cream. ‘These results gave no confir- mation to either theory. We had no pasty, cheesey butter, and the difference in weight, as we afterwards learned, was in all pro- bability due to a varying percentage of water in.the different sam- ples of butter Thinking that a larger quantity of cream churned in an ordi- nary churn might give us results more comparable with actual practice, the experiment was repeated as follows : No. 1 February 26th, 1889, the mixed evening milk from the same Jersey cows used before. 48 pounds set without treatment at go degrees. No. 2, February 27, 1889. Same amount of the evening milk from the same cows. First cooled to 60 degrees by pouring from can to can, then warmed to 135 degrees and set. No. 3, February 28, 1889. The mixed evening milk of five gerade Holstein cows. Three had dropped calves in September, one in August, and one in October, 1888. 48 pounds of milk set without treatment at 88 degrees. No. 4, March 1st 1889. Same amount of milk from the same cows as No. 3 set in the same manner as No. 2. In this trial all the milk wasskimmed after setting twelve hours, ripened, and churned in an ordinary barrel churn. ‘The results of the churnings were as follows : No. 1 Jersey cows, untreated - 3.15625 lbs. NOY 2 6.0" Panwaniled to 1345" - aon és No. 3 Holstein cows, untreated - PiGO25 eee Noe ai Li ‘* warmed to 135° 2.25 i These results as far as they showed anything indicated the ac- — 1 — curacy of our former work but otherwise left us in much the same position as before. We therefore determined to go over the whole ground again, if possible, more thoroughly and more carefully than before, and to make analyses of skim milk and the butter from the various kinds of treatment. In this trial the data were as follows: In all cases the mixed milk of five cows was used. The cows of the two breeds were the same as had been used in the previous experiments. The milk was set in a Cooley creamer in which the temperature of the water was 40 degrees. The cream was churned in an ordinary barrel churn. The butter was washed in granular form drained dry as possible and weighed without working or salting. No. 1, Grade Holstein cows, Monday evening, March 25, 48 pounds of milk set without treatment at gt degrees, skimmed after thirteen and three-quarter hours. Tuesday morning March 26th, 48 pounds of milk set without treatment at 89 degrees, skimmed after eleven and one-quarter hours. The two samples of cream were mixed and ripened and churned Friday, March 29th. Temperature of churning 64 degrees. ‘Time of churning seventeen minutes. Weight of butter 4.28 pounds or -22.43 pounds of milk to one of butter. No. 2, Grade Holstein cows, Tuesday evening, March 26th, 48 pounds of milk cooled to 60 degrees and set at that temperature, skimmed after fourteen hours. Wednesday morning, March 27th, 48 pounds of milk cooled to 60 degrees and set at that temperature, skimmed after eleven and one-quarter hours. The two samples of cream were mixed and ripened and churned Tuesday, April 2n1. Temperature of churning 63 degrees. ‘Time of churning sixteen minutes. Weight of butter 4.03 pounds or 23.82 pounds of milk to one of butter. No. 3, Grade Holstein cows, Wednesday evening, March 27th, 48 pounds of milk cooled to 60 degrees and then warmed to 135 degrees in a water bath and set. Skimmed after thirteen and one- quarter hours. Thursday morning, March 28th, 48 pounds of milk cooled to 60 degrees and then warmed to 135 degrees and set, skimmed after twenty-two and one-quarter hours. The two samples of cream were mixed and ripened and churned Wednesday, April 3rd. Temperature of churning 64 degrees. Time of churning eleven minutes. Weight of butter 4.37 pounds or 21.96 pounds of milk to one of butter. No. 4, Grade Jersey cows, Thursday evening, March 28th, 48 pounds of milk set without treatment at go degrees, skimmed after thirteen and three-quarter hours. Friday morning, March 29th, 48 pounds of milk set without treatment at go degrees, skimmed after 2414 hours. The two samples of cream were mixed and ripened and churned Wednesday, April 3d. Temperature of churning 64 degrees. Time of churning fifteen minutes. Weight of butter 6.4061. lbs., or 14.98 lbs. milk to one of butter. No. 5, Grade Jersey cows, Friday evening, March 29th, 46 lbs. of milk cooled to 60 degrees and set at that temperature, skimmed after fourteen and one-half hours. Saturday morning, March 30th, 48 lbs. of milk cooled to 60 de- grees and set at that temperature, skimmed after twenty-four hours. The two samples of cream were mixed and ripened and churned Wednesday, April 3d. ‘Temperature of churning 64 degrees. Time of churning eighteen minutes. Weight of butter 6.5 Ibs. from 94 Ibs. of milk, or at the same rate 6.6 Ibs. from 96 lbs. of milk, or 14.46 lbs. milk to one of butter. No. 6, Grade Jersey cows, Saturday evening, March 30th, 48 lbs. of milk cooled to 60 degrees and then warmed to 135 degrees, skimmed after fourteen hours. Sunday morning, March 31st, 48 lbs. of milk cooled to 60 de- grees and then warmed to 135 degrees, skimmed after twenty-three hours. The two samples of cream were mixed and ripened and churned Wednesday, April 3d. Temperature of churning 64 degrees. Time of churning thirteen minutes. Weight of butter 6.406 lbs., or 14.96 lbs. milk to one of butter. It will be seen that im some cases the milk stood about twelve hours and in others about twenty-four before skimming. ‘That the creaming was perfect is shown by the fact that none of the skimmed milk showed any more cream after standing for some time, and also by the analysis of the skimmed milk given below. 2 a ges ‘ese Sone OA et cr Sa Re eee ea Sn 2 Ue | No TEME. yale EVENING. FER ICY: MORNING. ee AVE. | rindi ab eg? March 25, .| .9o0 |March 26, .| .80 | .85|) Milk fr. 2 | 60° March 26; .{ 1.02 |March 27, .| .97 |1.00 \scats 3 135° March 27, . .68 |March 28, .| .35 -52|) cows. | 4 go? March 28, . 24° March 29; 2-58 .21| ) Milk fr. = 60° March 29, . .41 |March 30, .| .14 .28 ee 6 at 35° March 30, . fork “Pwkige al sees] oly .c6| ) cows Two things are shown by the table: first, that the Jersey milk was more completely creamed than the Holstein ; second, that the treatment of the milk before setting had a slight, but well marked, influence upon the amount of fat left in the skimmed milk. If we > rearrange our table this last will be brought out more clearly. PERCENTAGE OF FAT IN SKIM MILK. | TREATMENT OF MILK. Nosh, | POESP RR CRE awe Set direct from cow, . . ..|/1and4j .85 S210 al 5 3 Cooled to 60 degrees,. . . .|2and5} I.00 .28 .64 Cooled to 60 degrees, warmed Ho) Tein CKCASS GC! 47 4 1G GE 3 and 6 52 .06 | .29 * Average percentage of fat in skim milk of between 200 and 300 settings, with three Jersey and grade Jersey cows, - - = - = -35 It will be seen that the difference in the amount of fat in the skim milk from the different treatment before setting is so small as to appear insignificant, being only .11 of one percent. against al- lowing the milk to cool before setting and only .24 of one per cent. in favor of heating the milk up to 135 degrees. Yet even this slight difference with a herd of thirty cows giving thirty pounds of milk per day would involve a loss of just about a pound of butter fat in the one case and a gain of about two pounds and a sixth in the other. The next point that demands attention, is the relative amount of butter secured from the cream raised at different temperatures of setting. When we came to analyze the butter, as will be shown further on, it was found that the percentage of water was both very high and very variable. (It will be remembered that the * Dr. H. P. Armsby. Bulletin No. 7, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Oct. 1885, p. Il. butter was not worked, but merely drained as dry as possible in the granular condition.) We have therefore reduced the butter to a uniform water content of 12%. WEIGHT OF BUTTER FROM 96 POUNDS OF MILK. | Weight} Percent. |Weight of butter Pounds of milk| Ty . of 2 - | dt No. | Serting. | Butter a eaters: abe | make one of | utter. =) —— | Seek ee ae go° 4.28 | 16.20 4.10 23.41 |) Milk fr. | E60" | 403.-| 19:60 3.72 25.81 paces Bel] ee 4.37 17.99 4.04 23.76 cows. | 4. go° 6.41 15-73 G7 15.56 Milk fr. | BR) ) 60° 6.60 18.54 6.17 hig5-50 | i aces | & | 135° 6.41 | 19.60 5.92 | 16.21 | J cows. AVERAGES. sec Weight of TREATMENT OF MILK. Nos Bt 2 pe Set direct from the cow,... - . I and 4 5.14 Cooled to 60°, . . . 2and 5 4.94 Cooled to 60° then warmed to 135°. 3 and 6 4.98 The differences in the amount of butter, as in the richness of the skimmed milk, are smal!, but they do not correspond. While there is a falling off in the amount of butter from the milk that was allowed to cool, there was not a corresponding increase in the butter from the milk that was heated to 135°, in fact, almost as great a loss. The quality of butter, especially as to the amount of casein or curd in it, is shown in the following table of chemical analysis, which has been reduced to the uniform basis of 12% of water in all the samples. there was Temp. of Nos. Setting. Water. Curd. Ash. Fat. L go° 12.00 1.03 .06 86.91 Milk fr. | 2. 60° | 12.00 1.29 .05 86.66 wo Bs 135° 12.00 1.15 05 86.50 paca 4. go° 12.00 16 Oy .05 86.78 Milk fr. 5- 60° 12.00 1.29 04 86.67 Grade 6. 135° | 12.00 SI Pe Ny oon eee Aver.land4| .. /|12.00 | 1.10 .06 | 86.84 | Aver. 2 and 5 12.00 | 1.29 .05 | 86.66 Aver. 3 and 6 12.00 .98 .05: | 86:97 eet ne While there is a slight variation in the percentage of curd, there is no increase in the amount of curd that can be attributed to the warming of the milk. In fact the sample containing the least “amount of curd of any was obtained from the Holstein milk that had been heated to 135 degrees. SUMMARY. We may conclude as the result of these investigations, first, that there is a loss of butter when the mllk is allowed to cool much below the normal heat of the cow before being put in the creamer ; second, that while there may not be any very great increase of butter when the milk is heated there is no risk of injuring the quality of the butter by incorporating an excess of casein even when the milk is heated as high as 135 degrees. LAP? ROBB Re: COB UNEVERSITY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. BULLETIN OF THE Aoricultural Experiment Station. 7 | LIBRARY : NEW vor! JUNE, 1880. BOTANIC Al GARDEN I. On the Determination of Hygroscopic Water in Air- Dried Fodders. II. The Determination of Nitrogen by the Azotometric Treatment of the Solution Resulting from the Kjeldahi Digestion. III. Fodders and Feeding Stuffs. “That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their sus- tenance, and two hundred millions of men expend their daily toil, must be the most important of all; the parent and precursor of all otherarts. In every country, then, and at every period, the investigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds.’’—JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., 1889. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Aoricultural Experiment Station. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. Pres’t C. K. ADAMS. Hon AcwD: WATEDE, | cots om. 2G sae: SARS ln eee Trustee of the University. Hon, apAMES NVOOD) oc onc Bede OSs Pres’t State Agricultural Society. TP SRIOBER TS: cisco ae Sk teues cess eS bee eee Professor of Agriculture. CC) CALDWHEL,, (iis) in, Qa M Ree cabbie, Beate Professor of Chemistry. [ACME PUPA Wh ton ollie sie tetS easy iy ag ios, pee ees Professor of Veterinary Science. NASI MP RIGIDISS 15. 5 tie 2 01. Lots RT oe te ee emer mm oe fa Og Professor of Botany. Noa COMSTOCK. 8 6 Ao e) carn) Puwiceh, win ciks ie eae Professor of Entomology. AMATI Vener ae sR re eRe. ce eet ee et ee Professor of Horticulture. ‘ADE ol 0 0p 0) 6 A ea ee em a Ass’t Prof. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. Toh ROBERTS 2. cote. h rece, fe ren, ome Toe eine te teoaet de Director. HENRY J. WING, gets 6 ahd Deputy Director and Secretary. ly WILLTAMS) <0) 5... sR etd tees ted eee oe Eee eae Treasurer. ASSISTANTS. PATCICHINEINES Cr Wal Sepia Cees" a cabnoteah eta Mek eae ee ED TARBELL. ASIVENTISEE 2: ) aati sor citeah stag eey een aie WILLIAM P. CUTTER. Setermary Sciences Wee. eee a eye eee BEntomologmy ss ut. earn toes atl cer eee r we JOHN M. STEDMAN. Horticulture) sus8. 0S. ts oy es dies BUM We Psy raeiie ss . . W. M. MuNSON. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 18 A, Morrill Hall. Persons who desire this Bulletin will be supplied on addressing CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION, Ithaca, N. Y. ON THE DETERMINATION OF HYGROSCOP- IC WATER IN AIR-DRIED FODDERS. The determination of moisture is one of the most important operations in fodder analysis, but as yet little attention has been given to fixing a standard method, based on the results of actual experiments. The amount of dry matter, which serves as a basis for the calculation of the amount of ether-extract, nitrogen, ash, crude fibre, and nitrogen-free extract being directly dependent on the amount of moisture, any inaccuracy in this determination af- fects the amount of the several other constituents found. Dr. Jenkins of the Connecticut Experiment Station, in his report to the Committee on Cattle Foods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, published in Bulletin No. 19, Division of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, gave results obtained (1) by drying at 100° in an air bath; (2) by drying in a current of hydrogen at the same temperature ; and (3) by drying in hydrogen at II0°-115°. He shows that in three samples of fodder the amount of moist- ure found is larger when the current of hydrogen is employed— also that a temperature of 110°-115° causes a greater loss than takes place at 100°. Ina similar report, as yet unpublished, he obtains somewhat similar results. The following experiments were undertaken to throw some further light on this important matter. Three samples of fodder, viz.: hay, wheat bran, and cotton-seed meal, were pulverized as for a complete analysis. ‘Ten different methods of drying were tested, described briefly as follows : A.—Drying in watch-glasses in a boiling water bath, tempera- ture quite constant viz., 97°. B.—Drying in watch-glasses in an air bath. The temperature did not vary one degree either way from 100°. C.—Similar to B, the temperature, however, being raised to IIO°-115°. D.—The substance was placed in a tube through which a cur- rent of dry air was passed, the tube being heated in the water bath at97°: E.—The substance was treated, as in D, with the temperature at 100° F.—Similar to E, temperature 110°. G.—Similar to D, dry hydrogen being used in place of air, tem- perature 97°. H.—Similar to G, temperature 100°. I.—Similar to G, temperature 110°. J.—Drying in a vacuum, over sulphuric acid for 72 hours. Three gms. of substance were used in every case, and the samples were cooled in a desiccator thirty minutes before weighing. Complete drying was assured by further treatment for one hour, and re-weighing ; except when otherwise mentioned the full time of treatment was three hours. The results obtained are shown in the following table, each re- sult being the average of four determinations, the highest and lowest agreeing within .15 per cent. In open watch [In tube, in current,In tube, in current glass. of dry air. of dry hydrogen. | Ina a eee ee aa eee ee pees = ee vacu 97° } 100°] 110¢| 97° | 100°f 110°] 97° | 100°] 110°} um. A B ¢ D E F G H I Jj | Hay - - - - | 8.39 | 9.46 | 12.93 | 8.87 | 9.81 |,12.26}| 8.52 | 9.75 | 10.40} 9.58 BRAN - - - 7.73 | 8.13 | 8.31 | 8.59 | 8.54 | 8.71 | 7.90 | 8.02 | 8.91 | 8.02 COTTONSEED MEAL 6.78 | 7.89 | 7.91 | 7.29 | 8.16 | 8.11 | 7.02 | 8.03 | 8.43] 7.98 The conclusions to be arrived at from inspection of the foregoing table are— 1. Raising the temperature raises the percentage of loss, as would be expected. 2. The loss at 100° in an air bath corresponds closely to the loss in a vacuum. 3. The effect of the temperature of 110° is greater in the deter- mination on the hay, than on the bran and cotton seed meal. This seems to indicate either the presence of a greater percentage of easily volatilized constituents in the hay, or that the hay gives up its moisture with more difficulty. The first explanation is supported by the results of the following experiment. The current of air after passing through the sub- stance [methods D. E. F.] was passed over red hot copper oxide, through a series of drying tubes containing sulphuric acid, and finally through a Geissler potash bulb. The gain in weight of this bulb, due to the carbonic acid formed by the oxidation of the volatile carbonaceous constituents carried along by the current of air, was used as a measure of those constituents. ‘The amount of carbonic acid obtained from three gms. of the different substances was as follows : At 100° At I10° Hay, - - .O156 .0213 Bran, - . - .0032 .0069 Cottonseed Meal, .0026 .0042 The hay loses much more by volatilization and oxidation than the bran or cottonseed meal. In another experiment, indicating loss by oxidation alone, the current of air was passed through the sulphuric acid and potash bulb without the interposition of the copper oxide. Coloration in the sulphuric acid showed the volatile constituents to have been absorbed there ; the yield of carbonic acid was as follows: Too ce. 110 ce. Hay, - - .0069 -O125 Bran, - . - .0020 .0030 Cottonseed Meal, .0o008 .0O13 The hay contains a larger percentage of easily oxidizable con- stituents, with volatile oxidation products than the other two. It is evident from these results that in the determination of moisture in fodder there is a decided choice as to methods of treat- ment. Drying by heat with exposure to air is plainly inadmissi- ble, as it involves more or less of substance not moisture, which is even evident to the senses if done in an open dish at 110°. Dry- ing in vacuum over sulphuric acid may be free from any such ob- jection, but requires too much time. Drying in hydrogen at 110° gave such a large increase in loss of weight over the loss at 100° as to arouse suspicion, which was supported by the following re- sults: when this hydrogen was carried from the substance through potash, the increase in weight of the potash bulb after three hours treatment at 100° was less than one mgm.; but it was from 3 to 20 mgms. with a heat of 110°, on another portion of the substance. The hydrogen used may possibly have contained a little oxygen, being made in an ordinary generator, from chemi- cally pure zine and sulphuric acid, and this might have affected the result somewhat, although slightly. Drying at 100° in a current of hydrogen appears, therefore, all things considered, to offer the least objection, and the nearest ap- proach to a correct determination of the hygroscopic moisture in fodder. W.-P.-CULLER. THE DETERMINATION. OF NITROGEN BY THE AZOTOMETRIC TREATMENT OF THE SOLUTION RESULTING FROM THE KJELDAHL DIGESTION. In the Chemiker Zeitung, vol. 12, p. 217, Schoenherr states that, if the solution resulting from the Kjeldahl digestion is diluted, neutralized, and an aliquot portion treated with sodium hypobro- mite in an azotometer, the results obtained are very accurate. In order to test this apparently very convenient method, the follow- ing experiments were performed. The solution of sodium hypobromite was prepared by dissolv- ing 50 gms of sodium hydrate in 125 cc. of water and adding 12 ee. of bromine. A. In order to test the hypobromite solution and the azotometer, a solution of ammonia containing 3.265 gms nitrogen in one liter was prepared. Ten cc. of this ammonia solution when treated with 50 cc. of hy- pobromite, gave 32.60, 32.52, 32.60, 32.70 mgms. of nitrogen, the theoretical amount being 32.65. B. A sample of cotton seed meal [Sample No. 2 from the Nitro- gen Committee of the Association of Official Agricultural Chem- ists, 1888], on treatment by the ordinary Kjeldahl method, gave as an average of several determinations, 7.54 per cent. of nitrogen. In attempting to determine the nitrogen by the azotometer, re- sults much lower were obtained, viz., 5.92, 5.30, 5.92, 5.40. C. When repeating the experiment, by mistake the solution was not neutralized before treatment with hypobromite. The re- sults obtained were 7.55, 7.67. Repeated without neutralizing 7-97, 7-55) 7-54; 7-60. Repeating these determinations, the following results on a sam- ple of wheat bran anda mixed fertilizer, were obtained : f Distillation, Bran - Azotometer, a | a if || |) hope |) age} Average 2.72 2567 1) 2.68) || 21675) 2.720 | e270 Average 2.69 Distillation, | 3.36 | 3.36 Average 3.36 Fertilizer] Azotometer, | 3.31 | 3-32 | 3.36] 3.34 Average 3.33 Several repetitions of the method, partially neutralizing, as directed by Schoenherr, gave results very much toolow. The solution of ammonia used in A, having sulphuric acid added, after neutralization, gave on treatment in the azotometer, about half the nitrogen originally present. Attempts to neutralize the solution by barium carbonate gave similar results. The method, compared with a single determination by distilling with soda, is much simpler. But as with a single azotometer only one determination can be made at a time, and the labor of calcula- tion is much greater, it is doubtful if the method is of great prac- tical value. The chief argument in its favor is the fact that the purity of the reagents is of less importance than in the usual method. For the benefit of anyone who may care to repeat these experi- ments, the following directions are given : To 1 gm of substance in a 250 cc. Kjeldahl flask add 20 ce. of c. p. sulphuric acid and .7 gm. mercuric oxide. Digest until colorless, and add potassium permanganate until the solution is green. Cool, make up to 100 cc. and at once measure out 25 cc. portions for treatment in the azotometer. Add the liquid to the hypobromite cautiously. Measure the nitrogen evolved and cal- culate to standard temperature and pressure. A modification of the Knop-Wagner azotometer, constructed in this laboratory, was used. W. Po CULLIER. FODDERS AND FEEDING STUFFS. The analyses recorded below were made partly in connection with experiments on the farm or at the barn, and have been al- ready in some cases partially reported in other Bulletins where these experiments are described. The results of these analyses are thus brought together in full, in tabular form, in order that they may be more conveniently referred to as a contribution to our knowledge of this subject. Many other analyses were made, some of fodders called timothy, or clover, alone: — 28 — but as no sample really consisted of pure or even nearly pure timothy or clover, the results of these analyses have no value except in connection with the experiments concerned. The method of analysis followed was in all cases the latest re- commended by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. In the case of the fodder corn, some of the very noticeable differences in the percentages when reckoned to dry substance, may be explained by the fact that the plots from which these samples were taken were treated differently, for purposes of exper- iment. By referring each sample, as designated in the table, to corresponding numbers in Bulletin No. IV, December 1888, pp. 50, 51, 52, the data in regard to treatment of these plots may be found. The most marked of these differences, the lower per cent. of protein in numbers 3 and 4 seems to find an explanation in the crowded stand of the plants that is usual when the seed is sown broadcast. SUBSTANCE AS COMPOSITION OF DRY RECEIVED. SUBSTANCE. . D Crude | Ether Crude Crude N-free Fodder Corn. Moisture. Matter. Ash. |Extract.] Protein.| Fibre. | Extract. Table 1V—I, 14.74 85.26 8.19 2.10 12.53 23.87 53-31 a —Il, 13.51 85.49 6.43 2.03 9.12 23.65 58.77 —Ill, 12.35 87.65 3.64 217 8.12 28.04 57-44 Plot 1, 7.38 92.62 5-04 2.18 10.05 21.24 62.48 Plot 2, 8.92 gt.08 5.19 2.10 10.00 22.18 61.53 Plot 3, 11.54 88.46 4.77 1,64 7.56 20.65 65.38 Plot 4, 43-58 56.42 6.92 2.41 7-19 24.64 58.84 Plot 5, 17.78 82.22 8.11 2.45 £3.12 29.24 47.03 Plot 6, 9.88 90.12 5-37 2.66 16.00 23.62 55.35 Plot 7, 29.08 79.92 6.56 1.65 13.54 26.25 52.00 Plot 8, 38.60 61.40 6.02 2.23 11.62 26.56 53-57 Average, 18.03 81.97 6.02 2.20 10.26 24.54 56.98 Wheat Bran, 8.45 91.55 7.58 4.54 19.13 10.86 57.89 a ve 13.70 86.30 7.32 4.87 13.21 8.82 68.77 sf e 8.84 91.16 7.00 4.88 16.97 9.72 62.63 . S 11.81 88.19 5.00 4.79 14.88 7.40 56.12 Cotton Seed Meal, 6.76 93-24 9.23 10.68 50.93 6.70 22.46 “ HC S 10.68 89.32 6.88 11.86 37.68 6.72 36.56 oF te a 7.66 92.34 8.86 9.93 52.32 5.83 33.06 eS ee 7-95 92.05 4.41 11.73 53-91 3.45 26.50 Turnips, 90.90 g.10 10,00 11.07 15.60 10.1 53-22 es QI.51 8.49 II.10 5.61 13.08 11.87 58.34 Cotton Seed Hulls, 9.70 90.30 2.20 2.64 4.84 55-04 35.24 W. P. CUTTER. CORNEB EL UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. BULLETIN OF THE Aoricultural Experiment Station. HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. Malle 01 JULY, 1889. On the Influences of Certain Conditions upon the Sprout- ing of Seeds. . “That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their sus- tenance, and two hundred millions of men expend their daily toil, must be the most important of all; the parent and precursor of all otherarts. In every country, then, and at every period, the investigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds.’’—JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., 1889. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Agricultural Experiment Station. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. Pres’t C. K. ADAMS. Hon. fAe-Di WHITE) 2 )255°) Jo oe his (A ee. 72 Trustee of thle Miniveteitye Hon. JAMES Woop,....... .. Pres’t State Agricultural Society. By PUROBERTS. 600 6! 5,2 yl ca Glstgecsanta’ awa | Wilk erOfeSSonObn a a hieniantes Ga CiCATDWEGEL. yl. KARR) chee _. . Professor of Chemistry. JAMES LAw, Ol a OP a aiProfessor of Vetertsianyscience: A. N. PRENTISS, Py ios he = vat Jf bust eh) oe eoeProfessorsom borane Teel (COMSTOGK (2... bs city ot) 2 Professor of Butonmiare. apa ANT Ve a siete hee . . .. . . Professor of Horticulture: W.oR. DUDLEY, 2... .. . 6. > .-4 ; Asst Prof, Cryptogannice:Bocaar: OFFICERS OF THE STATION. ieee ROBERTS yey Ree dicey oe » » eipes oHDirector HENRY H. WING,..... . . Deputy Director and Secretary. 12. 10, \Waneseonisy, 1S gute tare ce suai wee PEAS TLE te ASSISTANTS. Agriculture, se). le ees Re Vee a eo, Dip ARB EIer Cheniistryyy:, agiseh bn eile tee Sed ioe hte Ae oes Cea Veterinary Science, . Ores OPN need anny (ies Eutomology, 4.) oY ee, ee ORIN Mn Sirona Horticulture,. . .. RE ee Ge aie tae t . . . W. M. Munson. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 18 A, Morrill Hall. Persons who desire this Bulletin will be supplied on addressing CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION, Ithaca, N. Y. On the Influences of Certain Conditions upon the Sprouting of Seeds. a is well known that germination of seeds is more or less in- fluenced by many comparatively trivial circumstances and conditions ; yet there have been no general inquiries in this coun- try into the exact effects of these conditions, or their importance to the cultivator. Their relations to seed-testing have always seemed to the writer to be of special importance, and it is in this direction that the present investigation has been undertaken. Most of the published records of seed-tests are obviously nearly valueless, because they take no account of the conditions of test. This is particularly true of those cases in which germina- tive vitality is recorded as low, for no assurance is given the read- er that other or more careful management might not have in- creased the percentages. The writer has found repeatedly that a sample which gives very poor results under one treatment may give good results under another. The notes of experiments which follow may serve as suggestions to those who test; at all events, it is not too much to expect that the importance of care and uni- formity in seed-testing will be emphasized. It is not to be ex- pected that laws can be announced as the results of these some- what discursive tests, but indications may be safely drawn in some instances. Seed-tests are of two sorts: the determination of the purity of the sample as regards foreign material, as weed seeds, chaff, dirt, and the like ; and the determination of the germinative vi- tality. The former series of tests require a simple mechanical separation of the ingredients of the sample.* Germinative vitality is commonly estimated by per cent. and rapidity of sprouting.t Rapidity of sprouting is held to indicate vigor or strength of seed, yet the results of many tests show that it is even more influenced by conditions than is the ultimate per- * About a hundred packages of seeds have been carefully separated for impurities, and it was the intention to present the figures in this paper, but space will not permit. The results show that impurities in garden seeds are trifling. . { The verb sprout is used in preference to germinate, as germination is complete only when the plantlet has assumed its true leaves and has begun to assimilate. In seed-testing, the process is rarely carried to full germina- tion. centage of sprouting. Causes which determine the viability and vigor of seeds are either congenital, or due to the conditions of harvesting orstoring. The expression or measure of this viability and vigor is again determined by the conditions of germination. In the present investigation, with the exception of studies of the relations of weight and color to sprouting, only the conditions of germination have received attention. Seeds can be so readily se- lected in reference to weight and color, that it was thought advi- sable to study these phases of the subject in connection with condi- tions which may be fully controlled by the operator. The importance of seed-testing is obvious, yet its value is appa- reutly commonly misapprehended. Its primary value is the de- termination of the vitality of a given sample. This testing, ex- cept in rare instances, should be conducted by the grower himself. The proper work for the experiment station is that of determining the best methods and conditions of testing each species and va- riety ; 1n other words, it seems that the sphere of the stations is to discover and announce laws and rules, rather than to perform the petty tests for the multitude. Merely testing seeds for the purpose of determining how many will grow, is surely not experiment, and the publication of disconnected tests seems to be entirely un- profitable. The endeavor to determine the relative merits and honesty of seedsmen, by means of testing their seeds, is the merest folly. There appears to be no necessity for seed-control stations in this country, certainly not for such seeds as fall to the hands of the horticulturist. The control stations of the Old World have sufficiently exposed the tricks of. seedsmen, and have rendered open dishonesty unprofitable. There is now such sharp competition in the seed business that seedsmen themselves must exercise every caution in order to demand trade. Improved methods and apparatus for harvesting and cleaning are giving us clean samples. The greatest risk in the purchase of seeds is the possibility that inferior strains or varieties may be procured, but this is a risk which the control station could not assume to govern, inasmuch as the substitution becomes apparent only when the crop is grown. The experiment stations may be expected to influence sufficient control in the seed business, as occasion shall require. The tests enumerated in the following ‘pages have been con- ducted with the greatest care. Unless otherwise recorded, they have been made in a steam-heated forcing-house. As a rule, they have been made in earth in shallow earthen seed-pans. ‘These pans are exceedingly convenient, and they afford good drainage. In some cases, lily-pans have been used, but they differ from the seed-pans only in their circular outline and somewhat greater depth. Illustrations of seed-pans may be seen in Figs. 3 to 7. For sowing seeds at uniform depths, two devices have been used. The simpler of these, (Fig. 1), is nothing more than a block of half-inch stuff, two inches wide, of the required length, upon which is nailed a cleat Pte. AL: equal in thickness to the depth of sowing. ‘The cleat is pressed into the soil evenly, and the seeds are dropped into the furrow it makes. The other device, (Fig. 2). may be called te. Pracy planter: It consists of two strips of Heavy — tin plate nearly FIG. 2. three inches wide, hung upon two wire pivots or hinges some two inches long. At their upper edges and equidistant from either end, the plates are joined by a firm spiral spring, which serves to throw the upper edges apart, and to cause the lower edges to join. This trough is now filled with the required num- ber of seeds, and is then inserted into the earth to a given depth, when the fingers push inward on the spring and the trough opens and delivers the seeds. In this paper, the following points are discussed : I. Influences of temperature upon sprouting. II. Influences of varying amounts of water. III. Influences of soaking seeds before sowing. IV. Influences of soil. V. Influences of light. VI. Influences of weight of seed. VII. Influences of color of seed. VIII. Influences of latitude. IX. Duplicate tests. X. Comparisons of tests and actual plantings. XI. Impurities in samples. General Summary. * Mr. W. W. Tracy, of the firm of D. M. Ferry & Co., gave the writer the plan for this implement. I. INFLUENCES OF CONSTANT AND VARI- ABLE TEMPERATURES. The tests here enumerated were made in an incubator of which the temperature was controlled by a galvanic current communica- ting with clock-work, and in a steam-heated forcing-house. In the incubator the temperature rarely varied three degrees, while the position of the seed-table in the forcing-house was such that variation sometimes amounted to sixty-five degrees. In some cases, duplicate tests were made in an out-door cellar which was used for the storing of nursery stock. ‘ 1. Bean, Green Flageolet.—Department of Agriculture. No. I, 100 beans in folds of cloth in seed-pan, in incubator. No. 2, same in forcing-house. SOWN MAR. 29. DaILy SPROUTINGS. | | Average | Per | tempera- SAMPLES. APRIL q | cent. lture dur- Aeatate | S | | ing test. P ; 2 Saal er4en eis One nes No. 1 Incubator, 56 | 18/15] 2 | Qt | 91 75° Gen Gi No. 2 Forcing-house, gO | 38 | 11} 2| 1] 82| S2 76° 118°, 53° Epitome.—Under constant temperature sprouting was much more rapid, and the total per cent. was also greater, although the mean temperature in the other test was somewhat higher. Bean, Green Flageolet.—Department of Agriculture. No. I, 100 beans on sand and covered with cloth in seed-pan, in the incubator. No. 2, same in forcing-house. SOWN MAR. 29. DAILY SPROUTINGS. Average ne ee Extremes Per | tempera- SAMPLES. APRIL, q | cent. ture due. of ae = ing test. || P= ea I = 3/4|5|8 No. 1 Incubator, 4t | 19 92 | 92 75° 73°, 76° No. 2 Forcing-house, 51 | 18 95 | 95 76° 118°, 53° Lpitome.—Sprouting was rather more rapid under constant tem- perature, although total per cent. of sprouting was slightly higher under varying temperatures. It is probable that this method of sowing is unreliable, as the repetition of this test appears to indi- cate : 3- Bean, Green Flageolet.—Department of Agriculture. No. 1, 50 beans on sand and covered with cloth in seed-pan, in incubator. No. 2, sanie, in forcing-house. SOWN APR. I5. DAILY S JTINGS. tgrahesaes Bebe oe Per abs Extremes SAMPLES. APRIL. — |cent.|ture dur- ikee Faia Sa Ge aL tes ing test. P q 17 | 18 | 19 | 20| 21] & No. 1 Incubator, 2| 36 I*| 39 718 75° (eee yex No. 2 Forcing-house, 3|\|26 11 1 2] 43 6 78° to1°, 57° * The beans decayed badly. Epitome.—Better results, both in rapidity and per cent. of sprout- ing, occurred under varying temperatures. In constant tempera- ture the beans decayed badly, owing, perhaps, to the manner in which they were sown; the sprouting was slow, evidently from the same reason, as the beans were probably too moist in the con- fined atmosphere of the incubator. 4. Bean, Green Flageolet.—Department of Agriculture. No. I, 100 beans in folds of cloth in seed-pans, in incubator. No. 2, same in forcing-house. SOWN APR. I5. DAILY SPROUTINGS. ele eee SAMPLES. APRIL. < |cent. |ture dur-| Of ‘€™ | Ss : perature, 3 ing test. 17 18 19} 20] gf No. 1, Incubator, 25 | 63 See sul 96 96 75° TEM OTISN No. 2, Forcing-house, 8 | 50 | 32 2 |) oe 93 78° TOTS 57 Epitome.—Much greater rapidity of sprouting occurred under constant temperature, although the mean temperature was higher in the other case. The total per cent. of sprouting was also slightly higher under constant temperature. 5. Bean, Green Flageolet.—Department of Agriculture. No. 1, 50 seeds, green-colored, between cloth, in a seed-pan, in incubator, No. 2, same in forcing-house. SOWN APR. 23. DAILY SPROUTINGS e Average E = xtremes Wig ces tee a arr Per | tempera- SAMPLES. APRIL. ra) |\cents Give due: of somes Paar (ae a aes ing test. perature: 25 26 27 | 28] we | No. 1, Incubator, 13| 18 T2 2ee 45 90 74° FE | No. 2, Forcing-house, I*| 22 | O/ Olle 2a 62 Cee oe go°, 60° * No. 2 was not so uniformly moist during the first day as No. 1. Epitome.—Sprouting was more rapid under constant tempera- ture, and the total amount was nearly 30 per cent. higher. a 6. Bean, Green Flageolet.—Dreer. No. 1, 100 white beans on sand in 5-inch seed-pan, in incubator. No. 2, same, in forcing-house. SOWN MAY 6. DAILY SPROUTINGS. Per ronpoea Beer SAMPLES. MAY. = | Cent.) ture dur- oe nee 5 ing test. Perature- 8 | Oy [ech oe |) = No. 1, Incubator, 19 | 66 | 7 | 92 | 92 74° 72°, 750 No. 2, Forcing-house, X17 | 33 | 23] 8| 8 81 76° 105°, 46° Lpitome.—Sprouting was much more rapid under the constant temperature, although the mean temperature in the other test was 2° higher. The total sprouting was also greater under constant temperature. 7. Bean, Green Flageolet.—Dreer. No. I, 100 green-colored beans on sand in 5-inch seed-pan, in incubator. No. 2, same in forcing-house. SOWN MAY 6. DAILY SPROUTINGS. Pet fee Extremes SAMPLES. MAY. | Cent.| ture dur- of ae = ing test. | P°T@ ep 8 QL} 1Ou}) LEP} re ua No. 1, Incubator, 4 |78| 16 | 98 | 98 7g We25 ide No. 2, Forcing house, 5 |14| 30 36/11 | 96 | 96 76° 105°, 46° EA aa aN L£pitome.—Sprouting was much more rapid under constant tem- perature, although the mean temperature in the other test was 2° higher. The total amount of sprouting was slightly higher under constant temperature. 8. Pea, White Garden Marrowfat.—Thorburn. 30 Peas in each of six 5-inch seed-pans, % inch deep in sand. Nos. 1 and 2, placed in incubator. Nos. 3 and 4, in forcing-house. Nos. 5 and 6, in cellar. SOWN APRIL, 29. f DAILY SPROUTINGS. Average |Extremes Per |‘Tempera- of SAMPLES. MAY. | Cent. |ture dur-|Tempera- > ing test. ture. 3 4}516|718\9 IO |I1}12}13 4 No. 1 Incubator, * ? 74° 72°, 75° No. 2 Incubator, 29 . No. 3 Forcing-house, ois 16] 3| 2| I alae vs 83 Tek si : 74° 105°, 46° No. 4 Forcing house, B16) 5} 4] 1] 1 30/ 10O No. 5 Cellar, IO|14| 2) (26|/86% 53° : (For first7| 83°, 43° No. 6 Cellar, X2| 6 1| 1 20\66%/days 46°.) *Owing to a defect in the incubator, the temperature ran up to 90° on May 4. Atthis time the remainder of the seeds (g1) had sprouted, but this test was discontinued; and this part of the experiment was repeated with the fol- lowing results : SOWN MAY 4. DAILY SPROUTINGS. i _| Per SAMPLES. MAY. 3 Cent. TEMPERATURE. Be) 6th. | 7th. | 8th. | oth. 5 No. 1 Incubator, 5 19 2 26 86%) Onthefifthdaythetemp- | erature again ran too high | No. 2 Incubator, XI | 20 6 |27 90 | and the test was discun- | tinued. Epitome.—The rapidity of sprouting was much greatest under constant temperature, while in the cellar, with a mean temperature 21° lower, the seeds were about nine days behind. Percentages were rather better under variable high temperatures, and lowest under variable low temperatures. g. Radish, HalfLong Early Scarlet.—Vilmorin. 50 seeds in each of 6 5-inch seed-pans, 4 inch deep in sand. Nos. 1 and 2, placed in incubator. Nos. 3 and 4, in forcing-house. Nos. 5 and 6, in cellar. SOWN APR. 26. DAILY SPROUTINGS. of [eee | = S© |Extremes & | tempera- SAMPLES. APR. MAY. Pale eee ae eh tem j | Hl ss ing test perature. 28] 29 |30] 1] 2| 3] 4! 5] 6] 7| 8] g/1ojz1]12/13} 9] vw h isl Es 4 No. 1, Incubator, 24 | 6] 8 | 41| $2 74° 3° 750 No. 2, Incubator, 2X | 3] 1| 2 27| 54 4 TE US: No. 3, Forcing hse. 22| 3) 2] 1] 1| 29| 58 719 82°. 62° No. 4, Forcing-hse,| 3) 24 | 2} 3} 2| 2 36| 72 | Wei} No. 5, Cellar, 3 5}toj10} 2} 3) 1 1/35| JO ee 2 pee No. 6. Cellar, 17 8] 4] 2] 2 40|$o s4" 83°, 43 | * Average for first nine days, 484°. Epitome.—There is no marked difference in rapidity of sprout- ing, between samples in constant temperature and those in vary- ing temperatures with a high mean, but there is great difference between these two sets of samples and those under varying tem- peratures with a mean 17° lower. ‘Three days after sowing, 45 seeds had sprouted in the incubator, and 49 in the forcing-house, while it was not until the eleventh day that 42 seeds had sprouted in the cellar. Yet the total sprouting was greatest in the cellar by 7 aud ro per cent. 10. Turnip, Red 7op Strap Leaf.—Thorburn. 50 seeds of each number, inch deep in sand, in 5-inch seed-pans. Nos. 1 and 2, placed in incubator. Nos. 3 and 4, 1n forcing-house. Nos. 5 and 6, in cellar. SOWN APR. 24. DAILY SPROUTINGS. “ipaeeereee | ° = Extremes 5 lt = SAMPLES. APR. MAY al 3 Nee ott a of tem- ee ing test. |Perature. 26 | 27 |28)29/30] 1 2| 3] 4) 5| 6) 7| 81019 S No. 1, Incubator, 8 | 27 Ij Ij 1 38| 76 Be: eee No. 2, Incubator, 13 | 22) 1 I} 1) 1) 1 39| 78} 74° 72°, 75 No. 3. Forcing-house,| EK | 27] 8| 1| 2 1| 2) 1 43| 86 No. 4, Forcing-house, 16/21} 3) 2 42| $4. 747° 105°, 56° — | —| | — | — | — | —|} —| —| —| —| — | — —] — No. 5, Cellar, 3) 16)17 1137| 7 e No. 6, Cellar, 9/ 8)14) 7| 1) [39] 7 51.8° 83°, 43 Epitome.—Sprouting was decidedly most rapid under constant temperatures, and it was fully nine days behind in the cellar where the mean temperature was about 22° lower. The rapidity was also greater in samples under constant temperatures than in those under equally high varying temperatures. The greatest per cent. of sprouting occurred under high variable temperatures, while there was scarcely ay difference between percentages under con- stant and low variable temperatures. 11. Turnip, Red 7op Strap Leaf.—Thorburn. 50 seeds in each of four 5-inch seed-pans, 4 inch deep in sand. Nos. 1 and 2, placed in incubator. Nos. 3 and 4, in forcing house. SOWN MAY 4. DAILY SPROUTINGS. eweeagre Extremes Per | temperature of SAMPLES. MAY Total. | Cent. during tem pera- test. ture. Da EEA Nets No. 1, Incubator, 38 2 40 8o 720750 | No. 2, Incubator, 34 3 I 38 76 74° No. 3, Forcing-house, 4.1 I 42 8 ° B e8 | No. 4, Forcing-house. 44 3 I 48 ne 77 101”, 56 * At this time trouble with the incubator caused the work to be coun- cluded. Epitome.—Sprouting was somewhat more rapid under varying temperatures, while the total amount of sprouting at the end of five days was 12 per cent greater under varying temperatures. 12. Onion, Giant Yellow Globe Rocca.—Department of Agri- culture. No. 1, 50 seeds, soaked in water 10 hours and sown ¥ inch deep in sandin 5-inch seed-pan, in incubator. No. 2, same, in forcing-house. SOWN MAR. 29. DAILY SPROUTINGS. 2 paia sd Extremes ~ ; er fo) SAMPLES. APRIL. Total. Cent. ee tempera- ae test ture. 3 | 4| 5 | &| 7} 9|r0 No. 1, Incubator, Fp iio te /\| war Mest ey ey sal yu 88 74° Ps Ge No. 2, Forcing-house, © | 13 | 15 | 9] 2 45 90 76° nigsey Gee Epitome.—Under constant temperature, rapidity of sprouting was much greater, while per cent of sprouting was essentially the same in both tests. 13. Onion, Giant Yellow Globe Rocca.—-Department of Agri- culture. No. 1, 50 seeds soaked in water 20 hours aud sown ¥ inch deep in sand in 5-inch seed-pan, in incubator. No. 2, same, in forcing-house. SOWN MAR. 29. DAILY SPROUTINGS. Average — Per | tempera- pera SAMPLES. APRIL. Total. lGent.| 'Ue | tempera- Sea aiapea el (| fee ture. 3 4 5| 6) 7| 8| glroj11 : No. 1, Incubator, 9 | 8 | 6 3] 2] 1/2] 1] x] 33 66 74° Wee ah ‘No. 2, Forcing-house, SB 14) Si 6|2) alex) 2) 9 37 qA4 76° 118°, 53° Lpitome.—Under constant temperature, sprouting was more rapid, but the total per cent. was slightly less. 14. Onion, Giant Yellow Globe Rocca.—Department of Agri- culture. No. 1, 50 seeds soaked 30 hours in water and sown ¥ inch deep in sand, in 5-inch seed-pan, in incubator. No. 2, same, in forcing-house. SOWN MAR 29. DAILY SPROUTINGS. Average Extremes SAMPLES. APRIL, Se ep all votteme & “| Fre perature ig test. AN S| Ol ee | Oy | euraiie H No. 1, Incubator, rxix4| 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 \39) 78 74° 72°; 75° No. 2, Forcing-house, 7 | x8| 11 | 6 r | 1 |44} 88 76° 118°, 53° L£pitome.—Under constant temperature, sprouting was a trifle more rapid, although, at the end of the second day, the same num- ber of seeds had sprouted in each test. The per cent. of sprout- ing was greater under varying temperatures. 15. Onion, Giant Yellow Globe Rocca.—Department of Agri- culture. 50 seeds of each number sown ¥ inch deep in sand, in 5-inch seed-pans. No. 1, placed in incubator. No, 2, in forcing-house. No. 3, in cellar. SOWN APR. 23 DAILY SPROUTINGS. | re | AVCraRS |rextremes| «oI SAMPLES. APR. MAY. la Y | anens tempera- | be ure. | 28 | 29 | 30 | 1| 2| 3] 10 r1|r2|13 6 | re | test | No. 1, Incubator, | o- 23 15 4 I | 47\94| 74° | 72°, 95° | | | No. 2, Forcing-house, 7 |} 25) 5 | 2) 2 i | a $4| 72° | 90°, 60° | | Valle al No. 3, Cellar, | | 25lIT| 1} sl40| Sa 7530) 83243 * The door was open and the sun shone in in the afternoon. + Average for the first thirteen days, 49°. There was no sign of germina- tion in the cellar until circumstances demanded the admission of air and sunlight for the good of other things in the cellar. Epitome.—There were no important differences in rapidity of sprouting between the sample under constant temperature and that under high variable temperatures, but the seeds in the cellar, in which the mean temperature was 19° and 21° lower than in the other cases, were about twelve days behind. Percentages of sprouting decreased with the decrease of the mean temperature, though not proportionately. CONCLUSIONS From the Foregoing Tests, upon the Influences of Constant and Variable Temperatures upon the Sprouting of Seeds. 1. Different results are obtained from the same sample of seeds under different variations of temperature, of which the daily mean is essentially the same. 2. Sprouting takes place more quickly under essentially con- stant temperature of about 74° than under a temperature ordina- rily variable, which gives about the same mean. 3. Rapidity of sprouting is particularly marked in beans and peas. 4. As the mean temperature becomes lower, rapidity of sprout- ing becomes slower. 5. Greater rapidity of sprouting does not appear to be correlated with greater per cent. of total sprouting. 6. Constant temperature, of the degree here mentioned, does not appear to give greater percentages of sprouting ; at least, the variation in this respect between the constant and variable tem- peratures is no greater than that which is usually obtained from tests conducted under identical conditions. In the seven tests with beans, however, there is an average gain of 5 per cent. in favor of those under constant temperature. II. INFLUENCES OF DIFFERENT QUANTI- TIES OF WATER UPON SPROUTING. Mr. W. W. Tracy, of Detroit, well known as an expert in the handling and testing of seeds, once said to me that he rarely obtained the same results from different tests of the same sample, if made in houses under the care of different men. He attributed this variation mostly to the various amounts of water habitually used by the different men. Acting upon this suggestion, a number of very careful tests have been made in weighing the amounts of water used. The results have been the most marked of any which have ever come under my no- tice in the testing of seeds. The tests were all made side by side in a forcing-house, unless otherwise recorded, in earthen pans. The soil, with one excep- tion, was a good quality of light potting earth, containing a good admixture of field sand. Although the pans were very shallow, extra drainage was given by the use of broken pots. The sam- ples which received the most water were rarely wet enough to drip; in fact, they had no more water than is given in many houses. The pans sparingly watered were drier than they would be kept in most houses. ‘The 8-inch round lily-pans are 4% in. deep. The 10-inch seed-pans are 2% in. deep, and the 12-inch pais 3 in. deep. 16. Tomato, Green Gage.—Thorburn. 100 seeds in 8-inch round lily pans, sown 3¢ inch deep. No. I, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered. SOWN MAY 7, 6 P. M. AMOUNTS OF WATER, IN OUNCES. SPROUTINGS. 0 MAY. re) SAMPLES. paso = vth | 8th | oth | rrth| 14th} & iS lag 6 5 5 6 6 © | 13th! rq4th| 15th) 16th) 17th) © = |P. M.|P. M.|/P. M.|P. M.|P. M. rs ks |) INO= 2, | Profusely watered, | 16 9 7 6 6 |440z i3| 2 13 19 | 47 | 47 No. 2, | Sparingly watered,| 7 3 3 6 \190z2 12 )|18 | 8 21 5 64 | 64 Epitome.—Sprouting was much more rapid in the seeds which were sparingly watered, and the total per cent. of sprouting was 17 per cent. greater in the same test. Two other pans were prepared in the same manner but were subjected to a lower temperature for two consecutive nights to im- itate the conditions of testing in an ordinary kitchen. The re- sults are recorded in the next table. 17. Tomato, Green Gage.—Thorburn. (Compare with No. 16.) 100 seeds in 8-inch round lily-pans, sown 34 inch deep, and placed in a cellar, with atemperature at 45°, for the first two nights after sowing. The pans were at other times set in the forcing-house alongside those of No. 16. No. 1, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered. SOWN MAY 7, 6P. M. ' AMOUNTS OF WATER IN OUNCES. SPROUTINGS. MAY. SAMPLES. ERE caer 7th | 8th | oth | rth | 14th mo. | Total. Prd, 6 5 5 6 tal 14th | 15th |16th)17th 4d P. M.|P. M.|P. M./P. M./P. M. ; | No. I, | Profusely watered,} 16 | 9 af 6 6 |440z| 2 | xx | 20 (14) 47 AZ No. 2, | Sparingly watered,| 7] 3 3 6 19 0z| 12 | 56 6 | 74 44 Epitome.—Sprouting was very much quicker in the sample which was sparingly watered, and the per cent. of sprouting was 27 per cent. greater. The low temperature of the cellar delayed sprouting about twenty-four hours, or essentially the length of ' time the seeds remained in the cellar. 18. Cucumber, Michol’s Medium Green.—Department of Ag- riculture. 50 seeds in 8-inch round lily pans, sown 4 inch deep. No..1, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered. SOWN MAY 8, 6 P. M. AMOUNTS OF WATER IN OUNCES. SPROUTINGS. MAY. MAY. SAMPLES. | of ee 8th gth | 11th ; 14th |Total. Total aoe 6 5 6 6 13th) 14th) 15th) 16th / P. M.|P. M.|P. M.|P. M. | No. 1, | Profusely watered, | 16 7 6 FO 39102Z)| Bale 2Oy eso ers) ese 706 No. 2 ” Sparingly watered,| 7 3 3 5 180z |28| 4] 1 | 33 | 66 | Epitome.—Sprouting was very much more rapid in the sample which was sparingly watered, although the total amount of sprout- ing was Io per cent. less. The lower percentage appeared to be due to the fact that near the close of the test the pan became too dry. Two similar pans were prepared and set in a cellar for two nights, after the manner of the preceding experiment. The re- sults are as follows : 19. Cucumber, Wichol’s Medium Green.—Department of Ag- riculture. (Compare with No. 18.) 50 seeds in 8-inch round lily-pans, sown % inch deep, and placed in a cellar, with a temperature of 45°, for the two nights following sowing. At other times the pans were placed in the forcing-house with those of No. 18. No. 1, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered. SOWN MAY 8, 6 P. M. AMOUNTS OF WATER, IN OUNCES. SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. MAY. MAY. = = n 7) Sth | 9th | roth] rith| x4th) = | etl ride 6) 5 5 | 6 © | 14th | 15th | 16th} 3 v P. M.|P. M.|P. M.|P. M./P.M.| © | | & es lei jase oh can ae me No. 1, | Profusely watered, 16 7 6 lo |390z) 18 7 rr |) 136 42 No. 2, Sparingly watered, | 7 3 3 3 5 |210z) gO 5 I 36 72 \ Epitome.—Sprouting was more rapid in the drier pan, while per cent. of sprouting was the same in each. The low tempera- ture of the cellar delayed sprouting about twenty-four hours, or essentially the length of time the seeds were left in the cellar. 20. Lettuce, Boston Market.—Department of Agriculture. - roo seeds in 12-inch seed-pans, sown ¥% inch deep. No. 1, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered, SOWN MAY 7, 5 P. M. AMOUNTS OF WATER, IN OUNCES. SPROUTINGS. MAY. MAY. zs SAMPLES. | = 7th | Sth | oth | roth | 11th | 14th | ¢ | | | _q| oO 5 5 | 5 | 5 6 6 S jiith)r3th/14th)i5sth) 16th 5) 5 .M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.] & | | elias No. 1, Profuse-| | | | | | ly watered, 27 10 20 | 6 6 |69 oz.|2Q9|/ KO} 5| 1] 2 147/47 No. 2, Sparing-| ly watered, 8 5 7 5 3 6 |34 02z.| 34) 17] 5 | 8 | 13 |77|\77 Epitome.—Sprouting was considerably more rapid in the drier pan, while total sprouting was 30 per cent. greater. 21. Carrot, Vermont Butter.—Hoskins. (Fig. 3.) roo carpels, in 10-inch seed-pans, sown % inch deep. No. 1, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered. SOWN MAY 4, 6P. M. AMOUNTS OF WATER, IN OUNCES. MAY. SAMPLES. = > ; 4th | 6th | 6th | 6th | 7th | 7th | 8th | oth | roth) 11th| 14th) To- 6 10 2 6 5 5 5 5 6 tal. p-M.|a. m.)p.m./p.M.)Noon p.m. p.m.|p.m.|p.m.|p.m./p.m. Nona; | Profusely watered, 1629 4 9 10 7 6 | 61 oz No. 2, Sparingly watered, 4 2 3 2 5 5 3 3 4 |310z SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. MAY. Total. | Per Cent. 10 II 13 14 15 16 17 No. I, Profusely watered, I 3 8 14 9 35 35 No. 2, Sparingly watered, | 17 | 38] I9 7 I 82 $2 Epitome.—Sprouting was remarkably more rapid in the drier an, aud the per cent. of sprouting was also very much greater, pau, iy amounting to 47 per cent. sion. Figure 3, from a photograph, represents this test at its conclu- Wet Pan. Carrot, Zarly Forcing.—Thorburn. 100 carpels, in 8-inch round lily pans, sown ¥% inch deep. No. I, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered. SOWN MAY 6, 3 P. M. AMOUNTS OF WATER, IN OUNCES. SPROUTINGS. | MAY. | MAY. eal =— — } & | SAMPLES. els on a = —|—|—|—|—|—| ||| —| || —|—| |= |— No. 1, Profusely watered, 16} 9] 9] 7 a] 7| 3] 7| 7| 5} 4] 4] 4] 4] 6] 41 99 02. No. 1, Sparingly watered, 4 3} 3} 3] 6] 3] 3] 3] 4] 3] 4! 4] 4] 4] 61 4] 61 oz. SPROUTINGS. MAY—JUNE. SAMPLES. Total. Per cent. 18 | 20 |21|22/23)25|27|28] 1] 6|10 No. 1, Profusely watered, 3\to| 4] 6) 6] 5} 7/10) 1) 1 53 53 No. 2, Sparingly watered, 28) 23) 4) 1) 1) 1| 1 2 61 or Epitome.—Sprouting was most remarkably more rapid in the drier pan, although the total sprouting was only 8 percent. greater. 26. Lima Bean, Large White.—Dreer. 30 large white beans, in 10-inch seed-pans, sown I inch deep. No. I, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered. SOWN MAY 4, 6P. M. AMOUNTS OF WATER, IN OUNCES SPROUTINGS. MAY. MAY—JUNE. SAMPLES. H/F igid| |elsie/e/aja By) S| A) a) 8] a) a) ol) | 16|18|20)21| 1] 4) 5| 9/13 = WL ALN/O/R) wml wjyolOlo[n as as ra £le\sls\s|\slslsisieize Gg Mill Fe SSISPS RIS S/ES/RIS| & S 2 No.1, Profusely watered |16| 9 4 9\10 7 4| 7| 6|72 oz.) |g3\ 1 4| 13% No.2,Spari’gly watered| 4) | 2 3] 5] 5] 3] 5] 7] 4/38 oz.} | 1] 1] 1] 2) 4) 2) 1) 1 16 53/5) Epitome.—There was a gain in rapidity of sprouting in the drier pan, and 4o per cent. gain in per cent. of sprouting. The seeds appear to have been poor from the first. Beans of which the epidermis was slightly broken were taken from the same package, and tested in the same manner with the following results : 27. Lima Bean, Large White.—Dreer. (Compare with No. 26.) Fig..4. 28 beans, of which the epidermis had heen slightly broken in threshing or cleaning, in 10-inch seed-pans, sown one inch deep. No. I, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered. SOWN MAY 4 6 P.M. AMOUNTS OF WATER, IN OUNCES. SPROUTINGS. MAY. MAY. SAMPLES. -|d] |. -|eleldidia e|F/e)2| 3/85 |=/5 12/2] to. I1/13)I 16|20|22| F0-| Per aS) alalSialaarOiS1 2! tat. 3/15 tal.| cent. WlAIN OE] wi wlw) 2] ol Ca Ws (eee eal No iesd eal ost stl Es Se Sle ERE /S/8 2/2 No. 1, Profusely watered, 16] 9 4| 9] |to] 7 4/59 0z.| 2 2|7 1-7 No. 2, Sparingly watered, 4 2 2] 2) 5| 5] 3| 3] 5| 3202. 2| 3] 6] 1/10] 22 |78.5)| Epitome.—Per cent of sprouting was over 70 per cent. greater in the drier pan. This was due to the fact that more of the beans rotted in the wet pan. On May 22nd, twenty-six of the beans in the wet pan were rotten. Only six were rotten in the drier pan and ten were sprouting. It is known that seeds with a slight surface abrasion often germinate better than those which are un- injured ; but this test indicates that great care must be exercised to water such seeds sparingly, as they are more likely to rot. Figure 4, from a photograph, represents this test on May 2oth. 7 ka SUNT ALE —— Wet Pan. Fig. 4.—Table 27. Dry Pan. 28. Cobcea scandens.—Vaughan. 50 seeds, in 10-inch seed-pans, planted on edge, the middle of the seed being % inch deep. No. 1, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered. SOWN MAY 4, NOON. AMOUNTS OF WATER, IN OUNCES. MAY—JUNE. E Ree SAMPLES. a) c|2l¢ BIS/EIBlSIS/ S/S] Sle EBS) E/E/5| « Bi s/A Sa aidid aa cad adad dda ga a Wc Nec posh ona bee ol a et ocd fc ao : eldlgisieigielglelgigigieieigisigigigig] = S/S) | P1B OVS TES EI@ 1815) 9) 18] 2 OO | D o me a NIN INN NY OD H <= Fs meal cm Sse |e a faces (oe ed lle ele ee, No. 1, Profusely watered, 16) 9 8] 8] 6| 5] 3} 6) 4| 5| 5 4| 5| 6| 6| 4) 6) 6) 11202 No. 2, Sparingly watered, 8} 2) 3} 6| 6) 5] 3] 5} 6 4 5} 4] 5 6} 6 74 OZ SPROUTINGS. MAY—JUNE. SAMPLES. | = : : a 18 20 21 24 25 28 I Asters io) od a \o) vo No. 1, Profusely watered, 2 5 4 I 12 2 No. 2, Sparingly watered, 4 6 I I I 5 18 3 Epitome.—The differences in rapidity between these tests are not pronounced, although the per cent. is considerably higher in the drier pan. Owing to an accident, pan No. 2 became very wet June 1, and it was discarded. At this time thirty of the un- sprouted seeds were rotten. ‘This indicates that the common advice of catalogues to keep cobcea seeds nearly dry during sprouting is correct, as even in the drier pan over half the seeds rotted. The seeds were probably not good, else the totals of sprouting would have been greater. Shee 29. Coboea scandens.—-Vaughan. 50 seeds, in 10-inch seed-pans, planted flatwise, %4 inch deep. No. I, profusely watered. No. 2, sparingly watered. SOWN MAY 4, NOON. AMOUNTS OF WATER, IN OUNCES. MAY—JUNE. merase Mohit | SAMPLES. al" I8) 5/E/E/S/S/S/S/8/8/s/alsidldigiaie 8| 5 | S| S| A) a) dl al ala) A) shal a) dial og] dla ol el De Hn neha ocd fl gl Pl Poneto cal has ce : ad eS eS I SS et) Sa I | HS le | ed pieced fe aed em Slslsislcidididiaicicislsisididiaiglalca| § S/S RZ Bz =/S|5|2 o Arar: Slelela & | | PIAA SSIRIS| Sia] 8] ella) aro] A os ne oi eee ar ae tei rods mb si laa arte fits chias [ror lee iA ela hel No. 1, Profusely watered, 16| 9} | 3| 8) 6 5| 3) 6| | 4| 5| 5] 4} 5| 6 6 4| 6 Bees oz No. 2, Sparingly watered, 8 | 2 3) 6| 6 5) 3] 5] 6) 4, 5} 4| 5| 6| 6 4 6) 6) go Oz SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. MA .—JUNE. | To-| Per 16 | 17 | 18 | 20 | 21 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 27 a I | tal.|Cent. No. 1, Profusely watered. I Hi,/%2 I I G27 | ae: No. 2, Sparingly watered, | Tig MS eee Tee eee | alle 16 | 32 Epitome.—Here, as in the preceding test, rapidity of sprouting is not markedly different in the two cases, but the total is twice larger in the drier pan. CONCLUSIONS Drawn from the Tests with Different Quantities of Water. 1. The quantity of water applied to seeds under test may make a remarkable difference in the results. > 2. Sprouting is decidedly more rapid in tests which receive less than the usual amounts of water given in green-houses. ‘This is markedly the case in all the tests, with the exception of three in- different and comparatively unimportant instances, (Nos. 27, 28 and 29). 3. Per cent of sprouting is much greater, as a rule, in the drier tests. 4. The addition of water above the amount to keep the earth simply moist, is injurious. 5. The wide differenees between the results of the wet and moist tests, are not necessarily due to the rotting of the seeds in the wet tests. This is shown in the tests with cucumber seeds, (Nos. 18 and 19), in which the drier tests gave similar or even smaller totals than the wet tests. Il. INFLUENCES OF THE SOAKING OF SEEDS BEFORE SOWING. It is a common practice in both field operations and seed-testing to soak seeds in water before sowing. The following tests indi- dicate very clearly the leading results of this custom. In this con- nection it is interesting to study results with the Geneva seed- tester, which tests seeds by soaking them. A number of tests were made with the Geneva tester in comparison with sowing in potting soilin forcing house. The results, which are too extended to be detailed here, indicate that higher sprouting tests are given by the Geneva tester than by planting under known conditions. Ten tests in each case with Marblehead Mammoth Cabbage seeds gave an average germination of 88 per cent. in the tester, against 77.6 per cent. in the soil. The earliness at which the sprouting is visible in the tester, renders testing expeditious. But it must be remembered that full germination cannot often be secured in the apparatus. (Cf. § IX.) 30. Carrot, Early Forcing.—Thorburn. too carpels in 10-inch seed-pans, sown % inch deep in sand. No. 1, dry. » No. 2, soaked in water Io hours before sowing. No. 3, soaked in water 36 hours before sowing. ‘ SOWN May I8. SPROUTINGS. MAY—JUNE. SAMPLES. J Total. | Per Cent. 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 ei eh og No. 1, Dry, I 5| 17/35] 8 I 2 I 70 70 No. 2, 10 hours, 5 | K2| 14 | 32} 11 I I I I 78 78 No. 3, 36 hours, 2] 16) 3r | 3| 2/,3] 2 I 70 70 Epitome.—Sprouting was most rapid in the seeds which had been soaked 10 hours, and slowest in those which had not been soaked. The total percentages were essentially the same, al- though the seeds soaked 10 hours gave the best results by 8 per cent. 31. Carrot, Vermont Butter.—Hoskins. too carpels in 10-inch seed-pans, % inch deep in sand. No. 1, dry. No. 2, soaked 24 hours. No. 3, soaked 36 hours. SOWN MAY 21. SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. _ = MAY. JUNE. d Sas 29 | 30 | 31 ee a ae fa eal ooo No. 1, Dry, 15 35 II 4 65 65 No. 2, 24 hours, 3 54 14 6 3 80 8o No. 3, 36 hours, I 23 36 8 5 I 74 44 Epitome.—Sprouting was most rapid in the sample soaked 36 hours, although at the end of the third day there was little differ- ence in the results, those soaked 36 hours showing 60 per cent. of sprouting, those soaked 24 hours showing 57 per cent., and the dry sample 50 per cent. Total sprouting was greatest in the 24- hour sample, although but 6 per cent. higher than in the 36-hour sample. The dry sample showed a considerable lower figure. 32. Tomato, Green Gage.—Thorburn. 1oo seeds in 10-inch seed-pans, % inch deep in sand. No. I, dry. No. 2, soaked 8 hours. No. 3, soaked 46 hours. SOWN MAY 18. SPROUTINGS. Y—JUNE. SAMPLES. ep lle BS Total. | Per Cent. 251126 eo 7a zoe COU SOti Sh Hike la2ules tl Ast Sale No. 1, Dry, 21 TQ) EXO) |) F2)|/'6.|| 3)51 ox 72 és No. 2, 8 hours, | 2 4|}30| 8| 12 Sauls I 69 9 No. 3, 46 hours,| x | $ jax | 22) 7| 1] 8|1/1)]1 I| 1 73 13 Epitome.—Sprouting was most rapid in the 46-hour sample, and slowest in the dry sample. Totals of sprouting were not essen- tially different. 33. Tomato, Belle.—Cornish. 100 seeds in 12-inch seed-pans, % inch deep in sand. No. I, dry. No. 2, soaked 24 hours. * The sudden increase in sprouting on the 28th, in this and the next test, was due to the turning on of steam, necessitated by the unprecedented cold weather. Fire had been out for some days. SOWN MAY 2. SPROUTINGS. | | MAY. SAMPLES. Total. Per cent. r] | 8 9 10 | No. it, JOA 18 21 4 43 43 | No. 2. 24 hours, 15 73 4 I 93 93 ] Epitome.—Sprouting was decidedly more rapid in the soaked seeds, and the totals were 50 per cent. more in the same instance. This test is unlike all others made in this series in its total results, aud is evidently abnormal. The test was twice repeated, with the following results : 34. Tomato, Bel/e.—Cornish. 100 seeds, sown in 12-inch seed-pans, % inch deep in sand. No. 1, dry. No. 2, soaked 24 hours. SOWN MAY I5. SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. MAY. = a 20 Zi ||| oe | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 31 2 Cent Neuve, |= [axls}|z}sls| |s|+] |#|se | No. 2, 24 hours, 4 | 26 | 20) eed) aclees |r|) ra iens i 83 | $3 | Epitome.—Sprouting was more rapid in the soaked seeds, but the totals were essentially the same in the two cases. 35- Tomato, e/le.—Cornish. 100 seeds in 12-inch seed-pans, % inch deep in sand. No. I, dry. No. 2, soaked 24 hours, SOWN JUNE 7. — SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. JUNE. Total. | Per Cent. 12 13 I4 15 16 17 | 18 No. 1, Dry, EX SO 27 II 5 6 96 No, 2, 24 hours, 6 | 66 | I: 3 2 I 89 89 Epitome.—Sprouting was very decidedly more rapid in the soaked seeds, but the total was 7 per cent. less than in the dry sample. 36. Turnip, Early Six Weeks.—Department of Agriculture. 100 seeds in $-inch lily-pans, 4% inch deep in sand. No. I, dry. No. 2, soaked 15 hours. SOWN MAY 2I. SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. —JUNE. = MAY—JUNE z Per | 26 ce ||" els 29 30 31 I 2 s Cent No. 1, Dry, q 62 9 8 4 I I 3 95 | 95 No. 2, 15 hours, 38 | 33 16 3 2 4 94 94 Epitome.—Sprouting was more rapid in the soaked sample. Totals were esseutially the same. 37. Radish, Early Scarlet Globe.—Henderson. 109 seeds in 20-inch seed-flats, % inch deep in potting earth. No. 1, soaked 12 hours. . No. 2, soaked 24 hours. SOWN APR. 27. | SPROUTINGS. | APRIL—MAY. Per | SAMPLES. a cent. | 29 30 I ZeNbeet ath die end eye |uaite’ | 9 | IL rs) & | No. 1, 12 hours, Qo goa. |e sei ere |e 80 | So | No. 2, 24 hours, MB RAAT Ns Ane S. 20 | eT I Tpeo2 82 | Epitome.—Sprouting was decidedly more rapid in the 12-hour sample, while the totals were essentially the same. 38. Radish, Early Scarlet Globe.—Henderson. (Compare with No. 37.) 100 seeds in 20-inch seed-flats, % inch deep in potting earth. No. 1, dry. No. 2, soaked 6 hours. SOWN MAY 3. SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. MAY. Per Total. Cent. 6 | 7 | 8 9 Il 12 No. 1, Dry, 5 | 56 3 5 I I 71 71 No. 2, 6 hours, ra 58 4 i I 72 42 Epitome.—There were no marked differences in results between these tests, owing, no doubt, to the fact that the soaking of the second sample, was not long enough continued. In comparison with No. 37, it is found that quickest returns were obtained from the sample soaked 12 hours. 39. Onion, Giant Yellow Globe Rocca.—Department of Agri- culture. 50 seeds in 5-inch seed-pans, 4% inch deep in sand. _ Nos. 1-3, in forcing- house ; Nos. 4-6, in incubator. No. 1, soaked to hours. No. 4, soaked Io hours. No. 2, soaked 20 hours. No. 5, soaked 20 hours, No. 3, soaked 30 hours. No. 6, soaked 30 hours. SOWN MARCH 29. SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. APRIL. Total. Per Cent. Ee fives? eee 6 GM tedii|f mays Nie Koyn| pare FORCING-HOUSE: No. 1, 10 hours, Galersinletsalieio 2 45 90 No. 2, 20 hours, Sqalfatebeltie cshillie Coy] Rg etl one si 2 37 a No. 3, 30 hours, af \o ated | ag 6 I I 44 8s INCUBATOR : No. 4, 10 hours, TEP AGP ape shia YM oa 44 8s No. 5, 20 hours, 97) Sl 6) 3) 2 I 2 I I 33 66 No. 6, 30 hours, ete seu Nee Gel Zul 2 39 18 Epitome.—The results are conflicting, and indicate that marked differences from different periods of soaking are less likely to occur in onions than in some other seeds. CONCLUSIONS Drawn from the Foregoing Tests upon the Influences of Soaking upon the Sprouting of Seeds. 1. Great gain in rapidity of sprouting, counting from the time of planting, may be expected as a rule, if seeds are previously soaked in water ; and the longer the seeds are soaked, within rea- sonable limits, the greater is usually the gain in rapidity of sprout- ing. This fact is interesting, in face of the experience that very profuse watering after sowing gives an opposite result. (Cf. § IT.) 2. This gain in rapidity of sprouting in soaked samples is really fictitious, however, inasmuch as germination actually begins in the soaked seeds before the dry samples are sown. In truth, the soaked seeds are sown earlier than the dry ones. If this advance in period of sowing is added to the date of sowing of the dry seeds, it will be found that dry seeds as a rule sprout fully as early as soaked seeds, and many times much earlier. 3. Total amount of sprouting does not appear to be influenced by soaking. 4. Similar results are not to be expected from all species of plants. lV. INELUENCES OF CHARACTER OF SOIL UPON SPROUTING. It is well known that texture of soil often has much to do with the germination of seeds in the field. Soils which bake, which become very dry, or which hold too much moisture, always tend to give a poor ‘‘stand’’ of crop. But the soils used in houses are such as to occasion no thought of their influence upon germina- tion ; yet there are cases in which such soils cause variation in seed tests. This was particularly marked in a lot of beans which we tested this spring. Samples happened to be sown at the same time in potting soil on a bench, and under a cloth on the surface sand. Those in soil gave much poorer germinations than the others. Other sowings were therefore made from the same lot at given depths in sand for purposes of comparison. The figures can- not be presented in the limited space of this article, but it was found that sproutings were in some cases nearly twice as many in sand as in potting soil. More beans rotted in the soil than in the sand. ‘The soil had not been sifted, and it contained some ma- nure, yet it was only four inches deep on the bench and it would seem that the drainage was good. Our tests in this direction war- rant the following CONCLUSIONS. 1. Variations in results of testing may sometimes be expected in consequence of character of soil in which the tests are made. 2. In the present instance, low results in potting soil as com- pared with tests in sand, appear to be due to the greater amount of water held in the earth, causing the seeds to rot. ‘The results may, therefore, be studied in connection with those upon the influ- ence of varying amounts of watering. (Cf. § II.) V. INFLUENCES OF LIGHT UPON THE SPROUTING OF SEEDS. “*On other occasions, from the want of time, the seeds, instead of being allowed to germinate on damp sand, were sown on the opposite sides of pots, and the fully grown plants measured. But this plan is less accurate, as the seeds sometimes germinate more quickly on one side than on the other. It was, however, necessary to act in this manner with some few species, as cer- tain kinds of seeds will not germinate well when exposed to the light. .... This occurred in the plainest manner with the seeds of Papaver vagum and Delphinium Consolida, and less plainly with those of Adonts estivalis and Ononis minutissima. Rarely more than one or two of the seeds of these four species germinated on the bare sand, though left there for some weeks ; but when these same seeds were placed on earth in pots, and covered with a thin layer of sand, they germinated immediately in large numbers.’’— Darwin, Cross and Self Fertilization, Amer. ed. 13. Of late years there has been more or less said concerning the sowing of seeds for test upon the surface of soil and covering with glass, in order that every seed may be watched, and certain seed testing apparatuses have been devised upon this principle. It ap- pears from Darwin’s experience that with some seeds grave errors may occur from this practice, and further evidence of the same nature is furnished from the tests here recorded. The seeds, in the following trials, were sown upon the surface of soil in pots or pans, the pots, unless otherwise mentioned, being plunged in sphagnum moss, to keep the soil moist. Over the top of the pot or pan was placed a pane of glass, or a close fitting iron saucer or a board. 40. Papaver Rheeas, English Poppy.— Henderson. 50 seeds on sand, in 4-inch pots plunged in sphagnum. No. I, covered with glass. No. 2, covered with a plate. SOWN MAY 27. SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. ehigeee SENS: Ss |Cent i} £-|(-20| {aie doh veetne"| «74 eel. 911 ne | = No. 1, In light, BP SOn |, eile Salers aes) | 3 28 | 56 No. 2, In darkness, ¥4\|10| ©} 3 I 3 Kf ee (2 | Lpitome.—Sprouting was very much slower in the seeds ex- posed to light, and total sprouting was 18 per cent. less in the same case. 41. Larkspur, Dwarf Rocket.—Vaughan. 100 seeds on sand, in 4-inch pots plunged in sphagnum. No. 1, light-colored seeds covered with glass. No. 2, light-colored seeds covered with a plate. No. 3, dark-colored seeds covered with glass. No. 4. dark-colored seeds covered with a plate. SOWN MAY Io. SPROUTINGS. | SAMPLES. MAY—JUNE. ates | 6 |Cent. 26 Sia 8 12 22 u Light Colored Seeds. No. 1, In light, o | oO No. 2, In darkness, I I TI 3 4 20 | 2O Dark-Colored Seeds. No. 3, In light, o | o No. 4, In darkness, 4 6 10 5 2 3 30 | 30 Epitome.—There were no sproutings in the seeds exposed to light. The low totals in the seeds which sprouted indicate that this method of sowing is not advisable, for other samples of these seeds germinated well when sown in the ordinary manner. 42. Adonis zstivalis.—Henderson. 25 seeds on sand, in 4-inch pots plunged in sphagnum. No. 1, covered with glass. No. 2, covered with a plate. ' SOWN MAY 27. SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. JUNE. Total.| Fer “ Cent 8 9 ut 13 15 | 21 No. 1, In light, I I 4 No. 2, In darkness, 3 3 4 I 3 3 17 68 Epitome.—But one seed sprouted in the samples exposed to light, and even this seed had become embedded in the sand so as to be but partially exposed. AS: Radish, Early Scarlet Globe.— Henderson. roo seeds on sand, in 5-inch seed-pans No. 1, covered with glass. No. 2, covered with a board. . SOWN MAY 27. i} SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. MAY—JUNE. < Per wa ETP ne eee ent Z9% |! 30). 3 Slee alia 4 s* | a No. 1, In light, IS 54 2 16 4 gi 91 No. 2, In darkness, 2); 30 18 16 I I 3 71 71 * All that remained of No. 1, were decayed at this date ; 12 of No. 2 were still souud, but though left two or three days showed no signs of germinat- ing. The test was repeated with the following result : SOWN JUNE II. SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. JUNE. Total. Per Cent 16 17 18 19 21 No. 1, In light, 62 13 2 4 I 82 82 No. 2, In darkness, 84 4 3 I 92 92 £pitome.—The two tests with radish seeds show marked differ- ences, yet the totals of sprouting are not very widely dissimilar. The results indicate that light has less influence upon radish seeds than upon seeds of some other plants. Similar indifferent results were obtained with onion seeds. CONCLUSIONS from the Test of the Influence of Light upon Sprouting. 1. Very great differences in results may sometimes be expected between samples exposed to light during the process of sprouting, and those kept in darkness. 2. When such differences occur, they indicate that light retards or even wholly prevents germination. 3. In some species this influence of light is greatly marked, while in others it is not apparent. 4. It is apparent that those apparatuses which test seeds by holding them on a porous plate above water, are to be looked up- on with distrust, unless provided with an opaque covering ; and even then they may prove unsatisfactory, as the experience with the larkspur seeds indicates that best sproutings follow planting in the soil. VI. WEIGHT OF SEED IN RELATION TO SPROUTING.* Many experiments have been conducted here this year upon the relation of weight of seed to germination, but the figures are too numerous to be recorded here. ‘The general results of the tests may be indicated, however. *Most of the work recorded in Sections VI and VII was performed, under the direction of the writer, by Mr. B. R. Wakeman, of the class of 1889, in preparation of a thesis for graduation. Of itself, per se, weight appears to exercise no influence upon germination, but it is often a tolerably accurate measure of viabil- ity as determined by various causes. Broadly stated, it may be said that comparative lightness in a seed indicates arrested growth, and consequent lowness of germinative vitality. A few instances may be given: 44. Cabbage, Flat Dutch.—Thorburn. 100 seeds in seed-pans, sown % inch deep in sand. A parcel of seeds were thrown in a pan of water, and allowed to remain one minute, when 100 of those which sank and too of those which floated were chosen for test. No. 1, heavy seeds .average weight .065 grains). No. 2, light seeds (average weight .052 grains). SOWN APRII, 25. SPROUTINGS. | | Per SAMPLES. 4th | sth | 6th | 7th | 8th | oth | roth | rth | x2th | _; | cent. Day.| Day.| Day.| Day. | Day. | Day. | Day. | Day. | Day. < | | | & No. 1, Heavy, | x@)| 31 18 | Bes 3 2 I 77 47 No. 2, Light, 4 9 1 (am eed | 3 2 2 2 I 32 32 Epitome.—Total of sprouting was over twice greater in the heavy samples, and rapidity of sprouting was proportionately greater. 45. Cabbage, Red Dutch.—Thorburn. 100 seeds in seed-pans, % inch deep in sand. The samples were separated in the same manner as in the preceding test. No. 1, heavy seeds (average weight .075 graius). No. 2, light seeds (average weight .07 grains). SOWN APRIL, 18. SPROUTINGS. li, Pheer BoP OEE Total.| cont 4th Day 5th Day 6th Day 7th Day 8th Day 9th Day | No. 1, Heavy, 45 23 7 I 3 79 | 79 No. 2, Light, 22 32 8 4 I 67 | 67 Epitome.—Sprouting was both more rapid and greater in amount in the heavy sample. The difference in total sprouting was less in this test than in No. 44, owing to the much smaller difference in weight between the heavy and light samples. eae ee 46. Radish, arly Scarlet Globe.—Henderson. 100 seeds in seed-pans, % inch deep in sand, selected by hand.* No. 1, heavy seeds, (average weight 2.53 grains). No. 2, light seeds, (average weight .13 grains). SOWN APR 26. SPROUTINGS. = Per SAMPLES. | | | Total. Cent 3rd Day. | 4th Day. be Day. | 6th Day. | 7th Day. No. 1, Heavy, 13 48 5 8 4 78 18 No. 2. Light, 6 30 8 3 3 50 50 Epitome.—Sprouting was higher and quicker in the heavy seeds. Figure 5, from a photograph, illustrates another test with radish seeds, in which the differences were more marked than in the above instance. Heavy Seeds. Fig. 5—Radish. Light Seeds. It is often true that over-ripe seeds germinate more slowly, and give lower total results than others, and this over-ripeness is some- times indicated by additional weight. It is to be expected, there- fore, that in some instances best results in germination come from the seeds of lighter weight. Possibly the two following tests are instances in point ; 47. Bean, Jmproved Green Flageolet.—Department of Agricul- ture. . . 25 selected white beans in seed-pans, 3 inch deep in sand. No. 1, heavy seeds, (6.25 grains). No. 2, light seeds, (2 grains). * In selecting the samples, it is advisable to choose only such seeds as re- present nearly the extremes of weight. By thus discarding the intermedi- ate weights, the results become more marked, and give more accurate measures of the relative values of heavy and light seeds. — 61 — SOWN APR. II. SPROUTINGS. | SAMPLES. Total. Per Cent. 4th Day. _| .5th Day. | 6th Day. | No. 1, Heavy, | 6 10 | 4 | 20 | So No. 2, Light, | 23 I 24 96 48. Lathyrus sativus (Gesse).—Michigan Experiment Station. Ico seeds in seed-pans, 14 inch deep in sand. No. 1, heavy seeds, (7.1 grains). No. 2, light seeds (3.27 grains). SOWN APR. 8. SPROUTINGS. SAMPLES. Total. | Fe Cent 2d Day|3d Day|4th ed ‘sth Day, ‘6th Day 7th Day ‘8th Day No. 1, Heav I 3 61 3ae gy “2 s9 99 | No. 2, Light, 23 67 5 I I I 8 98 Epitome.—Light seeds in each case sprouted more rapidly than heavy ones, while in the beans they gave 16 per cent. higher total sprouting. CONCLUSIONS From Many Tests upon the Influences of Weight of Seed upon its Sprouting. 1. Variations in results of testing, both as regards rapidity of sprouting and the total amount, may be expected between seeds of different weights in the same sample. 2. ‘This variation is much greater in some species than in others. In our tests, the variation was particularly marked in cabbage, radish, sweet pea, bean, gesse (Lathyrus sativus), burnet. (Poter- zum Sanguisorba), martynia, orach. 3. As arule, the heaviest seeds in any sample give earliest and highest results. 4. In some cases, the lightest seeds in the sample give earliest aud highest results, apparently because the heaviest seeds, with which they are compared, are over-ripe ; or, 11 some instances, un- der-maturity may result in earlier germinations, and such seeds are sometimes light in weight. — (2 — Vil. COLOR OF SEED IN RELATION TO SPROUTING. Color may be assumed to indicate, in most cases, some vital char- acter of the seed, as determined by various causes. In one species, or even in one individual sample, it may indicate a different charac- ter than the same color does in another species or sample. It may in- dicate degree of maturity, method of curing, age of seed, or other peculiarity. It is to be expected, therefore, that color may some- times designate more or less accurately the germinative vitality of the seed. It follows, however, that no general law of rélation of color to germination can be announced: every species, and some- times every sample, must be investigated for the law which gov- ers itself. Many tests in this direction have been made, but one example will show something of the extent of variation in seeds of different colors : 49. Bean, Green Flageolet.—Dreer. 50 beans in soil on a bench. No. I, white beans, % inch deep. No. 2, green-colored beans, % inch deep. No. 3, white beans, 1% inch deep. No. 4, green-colored beans, 14 inch deep. SOWN May 6. SPROUTINGS. MAY. Per SAMPLES. RRO iS ee is Se a otal Cent. 10 | II D258) T4 a ers LOM era ers ang ONE-HALF INCH DEEP: No. 1, White. ey) Zl e 2 17 34 No. 2, Green-colored, | 24] 9] 7] 1 tit aeeelhy ee 44 ONE AND A HALF IN, DEEP: No. 3, White, B59 I rm 2 A 18 36 No. 4, Green-colored, SG Nmttesal| 7/ (le 77S i Salt mech eek 41 82 Epitome.—Sproutings were most rapid, and higher in total per cent. in the green-colored samples. This test was twice repeated with similarly marked results. The same variety from the Department of Agriculture gave opposite results, however. Fig. 6 shows tests of white and green-colored Lima beans, sown at the same time. The green-colored seeds are ahead. ‘The white sample is the No. 2 of Table 26. The other had the common care of the forcing-house. Green-Colored Seeds. Four tests with Morning Glories (both Convalvulus major and C. minor) gave results uniformly in favor of white seeds as con- trasted with black ones in the same sample. From a considerable study of the importance of color in relation to germination, we have drawn the following CONCLUSIONS. 1. Seeds which differ widely in color in any sample frequently give different results under test. 2. This variation in results may lie in greater rapidity of sprout- ing, or in higher total amounts, or in both. 3. The relative values of seeds of different colors vary with each species, or sometimes with each sample. VIII. INFLUENCES OF LATITUDE UPON THE SPROUTING (OP SEEDS: Plants of high latitudes are more sensitive to heat and cold than those of the same species growing nearer the equator, 7. e., they start or vegetate relatively earlier in Spring. This subject has been investigated in several directions, but, so far as the writer is aware, it has not been pursued in this country in relation to ger- mination of seeds. ‘The following tests are incidental to this in- vestigation, being a part of a general series of researches upon the influence of latitude upon plants, but they are suggestive in this connection. A sample of white dent corn was secured from the Alabama Experiment Station, and samples of white and yellow dents were ob- tained from the South Carolina Station. The germination of these samples was compared with that of corn grown on the farm of this University. 50. Corn, from different latitudes, 50 kernels in each sample, sown one inch deep in 12-inch seed pans. (Fig. 7.) No. 1, yellow dent (Pride of the North), from Ithaca. No. 2, yellow dent, from South Carolina. No. 3, white dent, from South Carolina. No. 4, white dent, from Alabama. SOWN MARCH 19. SPROUTINGS. Per SAMPLES. MARCH. Total. | Gent 23 24 25 26 27 No. 1, Ithaca, 14 33 2 49 98 No. 2, South Carolina, 35 12 I 48 96 No. 3, South Carolina, 29 15 3 2 49 98 No. 4, Alabama, 34 5 I 40 80 Epitome.—Sprouting was much the most rapid in the New York corn, but differences in totals were evidently not due to influence of latitude. The difference in rapidity of germination was much more marked than would appear from the table. The plants from New York seed were by far the largest and most vigorous of any in the test during the month which they remained in the house. The Alabama seed gave the least vigorous plants, while the South Carolina seeds gave intermediate results. Figure 7, from a pho- tograph, illustrates the New York and Alabama samples, ten days after sowing. bain dove CMAN Ae ! Ithaca. Fig. 7—Table 50. Alabama. Three other tests were made, with the same result. In one test the sample from New York was represented by seed taken from a crib of soft corn, yet this sample gave earliest results, though less marked than in the other instances.* CONCLUSION. Northern grown corn appears to germinate more quickly than southern grown corn. IX. VARIATIONS IN DUPLICATE TESTS UNDER LIKE CONDITIONS. It may be well to briefly call attention to the fact that scarcely any two tests made with seeds from the same sample, under con- ditions apparently identical, are exactly alike in results. It fre- quently happens that these results are so dissimilar as to give us no warrant for expressing an opinion of the value of a sample, from two or three tests. The variation in a certain tomato test recorded in this paper, (Cf. Nos. 33 and 34), may be taken as an illustration in point. The following table shows the variations be-_ tween twenty tests: *A similar lesson appears to be taught by the behavior of the seeds of spe- cies of Carex, which were planted this spring. Of some 80 pots of seeds, collected by the writer in Europe last year, 13 show germination at the pres- ent time, and of these, all the most forward, with two exceptions, are north- ern species, collected in Scotland. Petey ia 51. Cabbage, Marblehead Mammoth.—Department of Agricul- ture. 50 seeds in each of ten tests in both the Geneva tester,* bearing folds of cotton flannel, and in potting soil in forcing-house. Series I.—Tests in Geneva tester. Series II.—Tests in earth. SERIES I—GENEVA TESTER. | SERIES II—EARTH. Average | Actual Bee ge Average || Average | Actual _ es Average ee per aaa Waniation ae in See per aay ation pate Sprouting] Sprouting eee tt variation. || Sprouting) Sprouting ae variation. 72 16 58 19 6 80 8 70 7.6 82 6 72 5.6 86 2 78 6 88 go 2 6.4 77.6 80 2.6 6.7 92 4 80 2.6 94 6 82 4.6 94 6 82 4.6 904 6 } 84 6.6 96 8 go 12.6 CONCLUDIONS. 1. One test cannot be accepted as a true measure of any sample of seeds, 2. Variation in duplicate tests is likely to be greater when seeds are planted in soil than when tested in some sprouting apparatus like the Geneva tester. (Cf. introduction to § IIT.) 2? X. COMPARISONS OF RESULTS OF SEED: TESTS WITH RESULTS OF ACTUAL SOWING IN THE FIELD. It has been said recently that the ideal test of seeds is actual sowing in the field, inasmuch as the ultimate value of the seed is its capability to produce crop. This notion of seed tests is obvi- ously fallacious, although the statement upon which it is based is true. In other words, actual planting rarely gives a true measure of the capabilities of all the seeds of any sample, because of the impossibility to control conditions and methods in the field. The * This apparatus holds the seeds in pockets of cloth which hang over a pan of water. For a full description, see Second Rep. N. Y. Exp. Sta. 67. object of seed tests is to determine how many seeds are viable and what is their relative vigor; if planting shows poorer results, be- cause of covering too deeply or too shallow, by exposing to great extremes of temperature or moisture or a score of other untoward conditions, the sample cannot be held to account for the short- coming. ‘The following table indicates the extent of variation which may be expected between tests and actual plantings of seeds from the same samples : 52. Various samples tested in-doors and actually planted in the field. ‘The seeds were sown in the field June 5, and the last notes were taken from them July 5. They were sown on a gravelly knoll. Rain fell about every alternate day, and the soil was in good con- dition for germination throughout the month. The in-door tests were made in loose potting earth, or in sand in seed-pans. No. of No. of Per Cent. | Germ.in | Per Cent. | Per Cent. SAMPLES. Germ. in of field. of of house. Germ. in | (200 Seeds | Germ. in | Difference. house. sown.) field. Endive, Green-Curled, 200 Seeds. Thorburn. 88 44 53 26.5 17-5 Tomato, Green Caee, “ 100 Seeds. horburn. 72 72 6. 25- Turnip, Die ere Weeks, 200 Seeds. a 8 rind Dept. of Agriculture. 180 0 6 oe - Pea, White Garden Marrow-| 60 Seeds. 2 e aa didi Sat, Thorburn. 55 91.6 181 90.5 X.I Celery, White Plume, too Seeds. Thorburn. 41 41 22 II 30 Onion, Red Wethersfield, 200 Seeds, Thorburn. 148 74 84 42 32 Carrot, Early Forcing, 100 Seeds. Thorburn. 70 70 39 19.5 50.5 Carrot, Vermont Butter, — 100 Seeds. Hoskins. 65 65 45 22.5 42.5 CONCLUSION. 1. The table indicates that actual planting in the field gives fewer germinations than careful tests in conditions under control. This difference in total of germination, even under favorable con- ditions of planting, may amount to over 50 per cent. 2. In planting, due allowance should be made for the compara- tively bungling methods of field practice by the use of greater quantities of seeds than would seem, from the results of tests, to be sufficient. ey yee XI. IMPURITIES IN SAMPLES OF GARDEN SEEDS. Over one hundred packages of seeds have been carefully exam- ined for impurities, and in ninety separate instances the results have been tabulated and compared. ‘This examination consisted in counting every seed in the sample, counting the impurities, weighing the seeds and the impurities, and determining, so far as possible, the character of the impurities. The percentages of im- purities, both by number and weight, have been calculated. From these analyses it is easy to draw conclusions as to the probable ex- tent of adulteration or impurity in garden seeds. No evidence of adulteration was found, and weed seeds were few and unimpor- tant. In some cases the sample had not been properly cleaned, but in general the more important seeds were very free from im- purities. The impurities were very largely immature and imper- fect seeds. The average of impurities, by number, was found to be 2.76 per cent., and by weight, 1.38 percent. ‘The investiga- tion appears to indicate that there is no necessity for seed-control stations in this country, for the purpose of preventing dishonesty and carelessness in the sale of garden seeds. ‘The detailed results will soon appear in Agricultural Science. GENERAL SUMMARY. I. The results of a seed-test depend very largely upon the known conditions under which the test is made : 1. Variations in temperature may cause variations in rapidity of sprouting. 2. An essentially constant temperature of about 74° gives quick- er results than an ordinarily variable temperature of a similar mean. 3. It is probable that any constant temperature gives quicker results than a variable temperature of which the mean is the same as the constant temperature. 4. As the mean temperature lowers, sprouting, as a rule, be- comes slower. 5. In some instances, greater rapidity of sprouting due to a constant temperature of 74°, does not appear to be correlated with greater per cent. of total sprouting. In beans, however, greater per cent. of sprouting appears to follow greater rapidity of sprouting. 6. There is probably a tolerably well-defined optimum tempera- ture for each species of plant, in which best results from seed-tests can bé obtained. ‘This limit is not closely determined for most garden seeds. 7. The quantity of water applied to seeds may determine both the rapidity and per cent. of sprouting. 8. A comparatively small amount of water gives quickest and largest results. g. Greater quantities of water than are required for best results, lessen rapidity and per cent. of sprouting either by causing the seeds to rot or by retarding germination, or by both. 10. The soaking of seeds in water before planting does not ap- pear to hasten sprouting, if the planting time is reckoned from the time at which the seeds are put tosoak. But if planting time is counted from the time of placing the seeds in soil, quicker sprout- ings are the result; this method of reckoning is incorrect, how- ever. 11. The soaking of seeds does not appear to influence the total amount of sprouting. 12. The results of soaking appear to vary in different species. 13. The character of soil in which the test is made may influ- ence the results, both in rapidity and per cent. of sprouting. 14. Light has great influence upon the sprouting of the seeds of some species. 15. When light has any influence, it retards or wholly prevents sprouting. 16. The effects of light upon sprouting are different in different species. 17. The weight of the seed is often a tolerably accurate meas- ure of its viability, as determined both by rapidity and per cent. of sprouting. 18. Asa rule, heavy seeds germinate better than light ones of the same sample. 19. Seeds of different species may vary in sprouting in reference to weight. 20. The color of the seed in some cases is a tolerably accurate measure of rapidity and per cent. of sprouting. 21. When there is any variation in viability in reference to color, it is usually found that the stronger sproutings occur in the darker colored seeds. , 22. The relative values of seeds of different colors vary with each species, or sometimes with each sample. 23. The latitude in which seeds are grown may determine their behavior in germination. 24. Northern grown corn appears to germinate quicker than southern grown corn. It is to be expected, from our knowledge of the variation of plants in reference to latitude, that seeds of most species will give similar results. 25. Variation in results of seed-tests may be due to the appa- ratus in which test is made. 26. Those apparatuses in which the seeds are exposed to light are to be distrusted. 27. Those apparatuses which afford no protection to the seeds other than a simple layer of cloth, paper, board, or similar cover, are usually unsafe, from the fact that they allow of too great ex- tremes in amounts of moisture. (Cf. Tables 2, 3, and 41.) 28. The so-called Geneva tester appears to give better results of sprouting than tests made in soil, probably from the fact that moisture and temperature are less variable than in the soil tests. 29. In order to study germination to its completion, tests must be made in soil. 30. Tests made in-doors are more reliable than those made in the field. II. Results commonly vary between tests made under appar- ently identical conditions, even with selected seeds. Therefore, 31. One test cannot be accepted as a true measure of any sam- ple of seeds. III. The results of actual ordinary planting in the field cannot be considered a true measure of the viability or value of any sam- ple. IV. Rapidity of sproutings, unless under identical conditions, is not a true measure of vitality or vigor of seeds. V. There appears to be no pernicious adulteration of garden seeds in this country, and, asarule, there are no hurtful impur- ities. In the ordinary farmer’s garden seed-testing is perhaps of little or no value, but to the market gardener, who plants considerable areas to special crops, and to the seedsman, it is highly profitable. It is possible that in some cases the character of the crop can be prognosticated with some degree of certainty from behavior of plants in germination, wholly aside from percentages of sprouting. The studies of experts in this country and Germany indicate that when accurate information is desired as to the value of seeds, the seed-test should present at least the following data: Name of vari- ety ; where grown; when grown; how kept; per cent. by weight of foreign matter ; per cent. by weight of apparently good seeds ; nature of foreign material ; weight of seeds ; manner of testing ; number tested ; average and extreme temperatures during trial ; first germinations in hours ; last germinations in hours; per cent. by number germinated ; per cent. unsprouted but sound at end of trial; date of test ; estimate of agricultural value. i BRAN : = Lead ‘ ett wh f Het i Mamie 8 Ooh vi a7 De aOR Re le | 9, va Bn ke f eit is 1h mere: as maa ae hoe: ifn) in wi i hie hy ae os Pn a 4, ER) : ., i . ‘ a yt , ‘ Ws Cine by Ren Yi {aa Sh a - . : wae PS ae J a wh Aiea hy ina Shak 7 cal te Pit ee ema fn) Lt iN a a in Be cieiaerts( eRRETE Te eR ter ; feet) ree sib bet. tha fit yeaa tee Bi s d Leite S¥¥ CAN Silaaat pow | ; af wey a By Sane iy ean eet Sars ou HA Oiaayh ALPE “iad ae pS peg 1%, Seg tet Tye ese bo es LEMME Red vit Fe merece yin Pe aban et De etary Sieg eye th ipaettinrae aly eit pre Raber see AP LUTE ey EO ea) ata Bratt 1 ra er TAG AL) cok ae Pia eb tep A (eee ee Rey eet” ip epetdh Rah ate irre: minke Nias pe 5 BIN A) i Baas ale LV e ik Why tke wt Whey . Ne aD Ue ees teed Bee ae Hike eat, MME Bin) ef are mera i att Pe ty Pai. ere ae ier soe” oe Bike i le niet) pH yi) ‘sphere ine oi Beedle Pe Ae “vpyblaetial Pinks gel hd Nee a aCe UPR Y Bh TMs) aL vin a er ica pene lei! titre rear, hie Verh a eae Ale is ater ae ; caualnhe et ia i Renn ‘tae vA eae sag Ca AY ate ea fee iM ' J 2 a5) mired di foe at ae we ‘at re meer ha 4 1 NS ag ' i i, # Ay aoe A ir WEA ’ sat faa 7) ini ; le pai Lay i pig at 1 ‘has es a all < ren Revere, vet a rae 4 Dai Bat ps sae a A ren, i ‘ ei ist Rt } 1 4. aay 4 aia Mu Be hi Hn Ves % ‘ ips ie ay aut ik a nee ae is NCTE, oN Re atin) Pa Bi: Np aleniag on ri a aoe» Te i y , we ha" ¥ mane i hy ye mu eo. VOPR LO ee SOM Ye AOR ar Diva ee “i a 4 ee aed at me x ' ; hin ia an ~ ‘ Ae ¥ : ; Nhl x ay oe basin eaey, teapnktie ne hea iy i os a adh 2 ‘ial ie hae Hota Bis i Hi he exe Ke a ae ony rity id SOtm heat NIV ER SITY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. BULLE LIN OF THE Aoricultural Experiment Station. AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. VIIL BOTAN AUGUST, 1880. On the Effect of Different Raticns on Fattening Lambs. “That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their sus- tenance, and two hundred millions of men expend their daily toil, must be the most important of all; the parent and precursor of all other arts. In every country, then, and at every period, the investigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds.’’—JAMES F, W. JOHNSTON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., 1889. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Aoricultural Experiment Station. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. Pres’t C. K. ADAMS. 18 (oral, AL, ID WASGONS Bd Go 6 6 6 Geo 5) Ge Trustee of the University. Hon. JAMES WOOD,.......- ... . Pres’t State Agricultural Society. TAPE ROBE RTS ea ected core ioite| (ere) ce! el te) (ol faite Professor of Agriculture. Gy Gy ONDE Gig) o 6 ole bo Ge e.o & Ol ole Professor of Chemistry. AMM S TUAW a aches ee. Stem Vel os Jiai ebro Ho fos, 2 Professor of Veterinary Science. ACN DP PRRN(TISS: 20 g. lecrr iol ie: va at ode: Meine Mle acl eee dee ye Professor of Botany. ankle (COMSTOCK: (2 6" Ci, eel ties) hott ayes Professor of Entomology. JE) Bai SYN BON Ge as rte ev hor URL GM ry ar icr eechie NO I>aee Professor of Horticulture. Wiig DRG ORONO Ne ee) Gace Uk Gl oelo) dlbaue Ass’t Prof. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. AWE ReMROBHR TS hp 05 freee) tay opeecae eens) Melynciiges tel cous in aati Director. HENRY H. WING,..... . . . Deputy Director and Secretary. pe PAVE VATIGM trie) poo os cod chase tor sarfoyy oh ieapiee toute eae ieee Treasurer. ASSISTANTS. IASETCHIEUTE SS pcs se ok Gute Sesh or JG 22%) eacD ARBEIT Chemistry da urs nk ae on to) Wee ed eee ih WILLIAM P. CUTTER. Veterinary SClIEnGe, .'r-) © belya > a eel ise. -rolie as PSTtOmOlOsy,. he dy. 5 sare Vou ae edie Sone JOHN M. STEDMAN. HOrticul tures ss) lay ae ca eiee eee nee cera . . W. M. Munson. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 18 A, Morrill Hall. Persons who desire this Bulletin will be supplied on addressing CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION, Ithaca, N. Y. tah ete Pee OF DIFFERENT RA’TIONS ON FATTENING LAMBS. HESE experiments were, in the main, a continuation of those carried on at this station one year ago, and reported in Bulle- tin No. II, and very nearly the same foods were used, none of them being out of the reach of the general mass of farmers. GENERAL PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT. The period of feeding lasted five full months, from November 25th, 1888, to April 25th, 1889. The lambs, twelve in number, were selected from a lot that had been picked up in the surround- ing country for shipment. They were coarse wool grades, Shrop- shire or Southdown, dropped late the previous spring, and had evidently been scantily fed during the summer. ‘They were not such animals as would have been selected to give the best finan- cial results, but being thin in flesh and fairly uniform, were well adapted to the purposes of the experiment. The twelve were closely shorn, and then divided into four lots of three each, in such a manner as to have as nearly as possible an equal weight in each lot. ‘Three lambs were used in each lot, so that if for any reason there should be an accident to one there might be two left at the end, from which to gather data in regard to the effects of the rations. The lots were numbered respectively III, IV, V and VI, and each lamb was labeled with a separate numbered ear tag, so that data in regard to increase in weight, etc., could be collected indi- vidually and by lots. The experiment progressed satisfactorily from beginning to end, with but two exceptions. Lamb No. 12, in lot III, made scarcely any growth from beginning to end, as shown by the weekly weigh- ings. Lamb No. 18, in lot IV, grew and thrived as well as any until about February ist, when it began to lose weight, though not noticeably ailing. About March it became sick, refused to eat, and was doctored for costiveness, but continued to grow worse, and died March 13. A post mortem examination showed that death was caused by a stone in the bladder. For these reasons all the figures and computations are based upon the two heaviest lambs in each lot. THE RATIONS FED. Lot III was fed what may be called a carbonaceous ration. The lambs were given all the timothy hay and whole corn they would readily eat, and in addition about a half pound of roots each per day. ‘Turnips were fed as long as the supply lasted ; after that mangels were used. Lot IV was fed a nitrogenous ration, although it was not so ex- cessively rich in nitrogen as that used by some experimenters in trials of this kind. The grain ration was made up of two parts wheat bran and one part cotton seed meal. A pound per day per lamb of this mixture was fed at first ; afterward it was somewhat increased or diminished, as the needs of the case required, the ob- ject being to feed about all that would be readily eaten. This lot received clover hay instead of timothy, and roots, as lot III. Lot V was fed an intermediate ration. ‘The grain part was com- posed of three parts corn and one part each of wheat bran and cot- ton seed meal. It was eaten in about the same quantity as lot IV. Timothy hay was used for this lot, and roots were fed as in each of the others. Lot VI was fed the same as lot V, except that they received no roots at all. In the table below is given the amount of the vari- ous fodders consumed by each lot, together with the amount of the various digestible nutrients that each contained, and the cost at the following prices: Coin, $20 per ton; timothy hay, $10 per ton; mangels, 5 cents per bush.; turnips, 5 cents per bush.; wheat bran, $18 per ton ; cotton seed meal, $22.50 per ton; and clover hay, $7 per ton. RATIONS. LOT IIl. Cost. | Protein.) N—Free.| Fibre. Fat. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ags Mos, (Cosy Yo 606 doo 6 $2.38 20.15 | 152.74 DBT 10.54 223m) eelnino thy shaiyaner nine I.14 6.39 76.74 32.94 1.99 TA OO) GR, 6 G5 sone 10 1.38 11.38 He 142) ag 7 ines PaLSIRAL Shite teimetoec nena .08 1.08 4.83 83 .58 Lotaliee yh ed ina eee: 3.70 29.00 | 245.69 2727 13.24 ee LOT Iv. Cost. | Protein.) N-Free.| Fibre. Fat. MOM ela ci dyajios Masleubee) |. kbs, \|o nba) | tba. 233 lbs. Wheat bran, $2.10 19.91 96.73 6.56 3.63 106 ‘‘ Cotton seed meal, . 1.19 37.89 10.39 1.31 8.85 t Pl CLOVEDU AV Ly usc. 505107/ 15-43 95.48 36.75 7.34 Tem we IVIATISELS Ws Jones. sii 1.66 123573 1.36 15 age dee LAPnAps,. | .O7 -99 4.49 Sify 54 Total, . . "4.66 | 75.88 | 220.82 | 46.75 | 20.51 OAV Cost. | Protein.| N-Free.| Fibre. Fat. mn Me ee ee Wires. Wires fines Cape. 62 lbs. Wheat bran, $ .56 5.32 25-83 1.75 .97 62 ‘* Cotton seed meal, . .70 22.28 6.11 S97] 5-20 | 20 COLI ny.) te 2.04 17.27 | 130.90 2.03 9.03 255 ‘‘ Timothy hay, . 1.28 Fatty 86.00 36.92 2D, TR SS IEVRREIES 5 4 aa o le 1.58 13.04 1.29 14 son > -Lurnips,, . 08 1.09 4.91 85 59 RGtatyalac siete Baul ora ace cad anton Mesion | LOT VI Cost. | Protein.| N-Free.| Fibre. Fat. 62 lbs. Wheat bran, $ .56 5aa2 25.83 sas .97 62 ‘* Cotton seed meal, . .70 22.28 6.11 “af 5.20 2A me INSETS AG Beg) 2.08 | 17.55 | 133-04 2.06 9.18 | 234 ‘* Timothy hay, ME 1E/ 658 78.91 33.88 2.05 Matai fa gc hele 4st | 51.73 | 243.89 | 38.46 | 17.40. We get a much better understanding of the above rations if we compare them by the standard known as the nutritive ratio. The nutritive ratio in a given ration is obtained by multiplying the amount of digestible fat by 2%, and to this adding the amount of digestible fibre and nitrogen free-extract, and dividing the whole by the amount of the digestible protein ; or, in other words, the nutritive ratio is the ratio of the protein to the carbhydrates plus 2% times the fats. Applying this formula now to the rations given above, we get the nutritive ratio of the rations of the various lots as follows, and since Lot II and Lot I of the experiments reported in Bulletin II were fed rations similar in character to Lots III and IV respect- ively, we give the nutritive ratios of the rations of those Lots for purposes of comparison. Nutritive Ratio. Nutritive Ratio. WOE IONE, G5 168 WEL) Pore JOE (Asie, 300), 4 308 hal Wot UVier we Toe 442 eye WW UO). 5 we ae ie Wn Ts OSS Ibpaye WAL Tee O As stated in Bulletin II, according to the German standards, as laid down by Armsby (Manual of Cattle Feeding, Page gor), 1: 4 is the narrowest and 1: 7 the widest ratio advisable for fattening sheep. It will be seen then that our Lots Nos. V and VI were fed what might be called an intermediate ration, from the use of which good results might be expected, while Lot III received a ration far too rich in carbonaceous matter, and Lot IV a ration ap- proaching the limit of richness in protein. The ration of Lot III was considerably richer in carbonaceous matter than that of Lot II of last year, while the ration of Lot IV was not so rich in protein as that of Lot I of last year. This should be borne in mind, in what follows. THE WATER DRANK. The lambs had access to water the whole time. Inthe winter it was warmed to about 80° before being offered them. The weight was obtained in the following manner: A pail of water was weighed and placed in the pen, where it remained till the next morning, the sheep drinking whenever they wished. Each morn- ing the pail, with whatever water remained in it, was weighed back, the difference in weight being the amount consumed. A fresh pailful was then weighed out, and the process repeated. This was kept up during the whole course of the experiment. The water was warmed when it was first put in, and during the cold weather the lambs soon learned to take nearly all their water as soon as fresh water was given them. From the first a marked difference was seen in the amount of water consumed by the dif- ferent lots, and this difference continued through the whole course of the experiment. Below is given the total amount of water drank : Lot III drank 308 Ibs., or 1.03 lbs. per lamb per day. Lot IV drank 1185 lbs., or 3.95 lbs. per lamb per day. Lot V drank 735 lbs., or 2.45 lbs. per lamb per day. Lot VI drank 847 lbs., or 2.82 lbs. per lamb per day. The very much larger quantity of water consumed by the lambs fed a highly nitrogenous ration is at once apparent. It will be seen that Lot IV drank nearly four times as much as Lot III (fed carbonaceous food), and about 60 per cent. more than Lot V. These three lots were all fed roots in equal kind and quantity, so that it would seem that the different amounts of water consumed must be due to the nitrogen in the ration. The same thing was noticed in the experiments reported in Bulletin No. II, although in that experiment the water was only weighed for six days at one time in the course of the experiment. In that case Lot I (fed on nitrogenous food) drank three times as much water as lambs fed on corn and hay. Lot V and Lot VI were fed on the same ration, except that Lot VI had no roots. Probably for this reason they drank about 15 per cent. more water. THE GAIN IN LIVE WEIGHT. Below is given, in tabular form, the gain in pounds, and also in per cent. of weight at beginning, of each lamb in each lot: — 80 — | Wt. Nov. 25 | Wt. Apr. 25| Gain, Lbs. |Gain, per ct. Lot IlI— IN@s WE go 6 59. 78.88 19.88 33.7 INO. 72s s)ccins 36. 64.88 28.88 80.2 AV CTAS CM isnts 47-5 71.88 24.38 51.3 Lor Iv— INH GH 45-5 85.13 + 39.63 87.1 INK} 1's Se 50.5 88.19 37.69 74.6 ISSIR S 6 Sn ie 48. 86.66 38.66 80.5 Lor V— INONA Saien 53. 96.44 43.44 82. NCHA. G6 50. 81.69 31.69 63.4 IMYSHI® 5 5 G 6 51.5 89.06 37.56 igs Lor VI— INO PLS yale 58. 91.88 33.88 58.4 INCH UG) a Mave 51.5 75.31 23.81 46.2 INVSTIRS 6 5 5 ¢ 54.75 83.59 28.84 52.7 The lambs fed on nitrogenous food, or Lot IV, made much the largest average gain, and those fed on carbonaceous food, or Lot III, made the smallest gain, though not very much smaller than ot yi. Animal individuality, a very perplexing consideration in all work of this kind, shows its influence very strongly here. If we study the individual gains of the animals we find that there is a much greater difference in the gain of the two lambs in Lot III than there is in those of any of the other lots. Lamb No. 21, in Lot III, the smallest of all at the beginning, made almost as large a gain as any in the whole lot, and far greater than its companion. Of course, it is impossible to say that this is an individual varia- tion ; and it may be urged that No. 11 was quite as likely to be the eccentric individual as No. 21, but it will be remembered that the third lamb of this lot, No. 12, made almost no gain at all, so that circumstances indicate that No. 21, the smallest of all at the beginning, was affected by influences not affecting the others. However this may be, the calculations are based on the figures as they stand. Notwithstanding the gain in live weight was very markedly in favor of the lambs fed on nitrogenous food, it is when we come to — 8r — compare the amount of gain in relation to the amount and cost of the food consumed that the most striking figures are brought out. This is shown below in tabular form : GAIN IN LIVE WEIGHT IN RELATION TO AMOUNT AND COST OF FOOD. ILO | “Sus Gf UNSINS REURMGe Ou Aue Vows Mrmnee Somes ork JOO i) LAY Wie W/L: Digestible carbonaceous food consumed, lbs. . | 296.20) 288.08] 328.56 299.75 Digestible nitrogenous food consumed, lbs. . | 29. 75.88] 54.71] 51-73 Total digestible nutrients consumed, Ibs... .'| 325.20 363.96} 383.27 351.48 INURE TVA ROACELOM ie yet 5 ae ss Pees ne is |I: 10.9) 1: 4.2| I 6.5) it BCLS) | ee ee ee ee a ee eee | | Total gain in weight (both lambs), lbs... .| 48.75] 77.31) 75.13] 57-69 Pounds nutrients consumed for 1 lb. gain . .| @.6@7| 4.71 5-10 6.09 Total cost of food consumed. . .. .. . .| $3.70) $4.66) $4.78) $4 51 Cost of gain per roopounds. .... .. . «| 7e5Q|/ 6.03 6.36, 7.82 Here again, both in the items, ‘‘ Amount of food consumed for one pound of gain,’’ and ‘‘ Cost of gain per 100 pounds,”’ the ad- vautage is very markedly in favor of Lot I[V—the lot fed on nitro- genous food. ‘This is illustrated graphically on page 82. It cost us a little more than a cent and a half per pound, or 26 per cent. more to put a pound of gain upon our lambs that were fed on corn, timothy hay and roots than it did to put a pound of gain on those that were fed wheat bran, cotton seed meal, clover hay and roots. THE WOOL PRODUCED. The lambs were shorn November 15th, or ten days before the beginning of the experiment. They were shorn again the day be- fore they were slaughtered, so that the wool obtained was the growth of 160 days. The weight of the wool from both lambs in each lot was as follows : Per cent. increase MEMOS SS ee 4.25 lbs. over Lot III. OCD Ne ta aay ss 7.31 lbs. 72 UGE Wee ns 6 o tonegy Mos, 56 TE OES VALS yoy lMeet ts 6.19 lbs. 46 This coincides with the results of our experiments last year, in that nitrogenous food seems to largely affect the growth of wool. It seems to show further that even a small increase in the nitro- — 82 — Amount of digestible dry matter consumed. Each inch! in length represents roo lbs. Gye TOL HIQVE PAY A ES Amount of Food required to make one pound of gain in live} weight. Each inch in length| represents one pound. IE IONO AVY Y We NAL + 325 364 383 352 —— Cost of Gain per 100 lbs Each inch in length repre- sents $2.00 per. cwt. Lot III IV 6.67 4.71 5.10 6.09 $7.59 $6.03 $6.36 $7.82 genous matter of a ration has a decided influence on the growth of the wool, for Lots V and VI, whose ration was intermediate in character, gave very nearly as much wool as Lot IV. In the experiments of 1888, already referred to, the percentage was not so great in favor of the lambs fed on nitrogenous food. For the sake of comparison, both are given below: In experiments of 1889, Lot IV gave 72 per cent. more wool than Lot III. In experiments of 1888, Lot I gave 55 per cent. more wool than Lot II. The nutritive ratios of the rations were as follows: 1889—Lot IV, 1:4.2; Lot III, 1: 10.9. Tose wot) W033); Wot Ti 1s 8:42 While both were wider in 1889 than in 1888, there was a greater difference between them this year than last. THE DRESSED WEIGHT AND INTERNAL ORGANS. The lambs were slaughtered on April 25th. The blood was carefully caught in a clean pail, and it and all the important in- ternal organs were weighed. ‘The carcasses were hung up ina cool place to stiffen for two days, and were then cut up, and the parts carefully examined. Before they were taken down, how- ever, they were weighed and most carefully inspected by the dif- ferent members of the staff. The most striking difference that was apparent, as the carcasses hung upon the hooks, and after they were cut up, was the evident leanness of the two belonging to Lot IV (fed nitrogenous food.) The kidneys were not covered, and there was very little loose fat next the skin, while in all the other carcasses the kidneys were more or less completely covered, and there was a layer of tallow of greater or lesser thickness between the skin and body. ‘The carcasses of Lot III had the most of this tallow. The same thing is shown in the amount of caul fat and kidney fat, as shown in the table of weights following. While an expert butcher would have undoubtedly selected the carcasses of Lots V and VI as furnishing the most saleable mutton, the car- casses of Lot IV had little or no unpalatable adipose matter, and those of Lot III showed much the largest percentage of waste, fat- ty matter about the root of the tail and in the flanks. In the table below is shown the weights of the dressed carcasses and the various organs for each animal, and the averages for each lot: = 2 Dressed} .~,8 © Tntes- ip NPS es any h : : ; SE see 3s Weight.(4 ; 7-4] tines. FS Ie 1H |x 8 ./2@ .(@ Sie tbs. [22 | us. SSleslesesigsis cts [ze ee Nea ee Siar IM A Lot III. IN, wy" BXoy 8.69 ELOY PGs ie Zs |] WA MGs) Bo Bs) Bue | Ss INO s2i)| 932: 9.06 ES AA 5130. Mi Ze, 0 | DE. Eze eee eae recOen aa Average] 35.5 8.88 M52 LO} | AA o/s 1255 | LSre liens ees MONA Lot IV No. 13] 38. 12.19 PAIS) POs | ue | AR | 2s i 2 || ws It aes No. 16] 37. 13.56 Pipegetsy MACON Ne Gy Meno Np ly || es Wes. |] ate. | a8) Average] 37.5 12.88 22.28 |62.5] 5.5/17.5/24.5| 2 3.5| 16. | 15 ILE We No. 14} 42. 14.56 AST) | OAL || Fe | © | Bee ||) 5. | 23. | 18 No. 20) 37.5 12.63 21.69). | 5655) 5:4) 18./\ 00.3), 2s PAs ee eaalaes Average} 39.75 13.59 24.19) || GO) | “657/185 21-5|| Losi) 4552255 toss Lot VI No. 15]} 46. 12.06 19 51 Gp |} IWS, |) Sie TS) S425 4a! No. 19] 36. 10.75 IdStotsy |i Uits Mi Ale Ns lay, |) i, || 2G 40, || 27 5 Average] 4I. II.4I 17.94 | 46. 14, | 25. 122512. 75| Ate5 40.5 In the proportion of dressed to live weight is to be found the main discrepancy between the experiments of 1888 and 1889. Last year the dressed weight of the nitrogeneous fed lambs was nine per cent. greater than those fed carbonaceous food. ‘This year the difference was about as much in the other direction. Be- low is given the percentage of dressed to live weight for each lamb, and the averages for the lots. ENE WG, yn pene Re ee IGS IONE IN Koy at ett oy Ine TEN Welt eee 200 ie eee 50.6 IN Ob 2 5 ety oO aoaales G2hS aed) cried ten BO) Pmisulougt a 1 51.2 av. 50.9 DE OLAIV ENO: SLBG8 fh een it ee D atau me si) sts Gan emma 46.3 IN OMTOS EA spot fae Sy Rea a ol tle Baw tinae eth sla. & 44. av. 45-2 Wot. Va==NO: 94, foc 6 OB sa tener cores AD my Areney . ts 45-2 INO 200 eee oe 7 kodisy area eomis a sees ont 37-55 +. . 47-7 av. cao OE WAL INiOy Wy, Sib bo SOME At cea SOR Canoe Sito 97 INO MOS heen 2a ciecstet unenes BOranis is rales 2 50. av. 5069 The differences between Lots III and IV in proportion to the live weight, in the dressed weight, wool, and some of the more im- portant internal organs is shown in the following statement. The following parts and organs were greater in the lambs fed on nitrogeneous food by the following percentages in proportion to the live weight: WiOolwe = 44 percent. Ieattyer 4 ONpericent. Kidneys, . . 18 up IASG 6 We Bale as Blood, . 2.19. bk Lungs; . 5 .18 oh The following were greater in the lambs fed on carbonaceous food : Dressed Weisht, 4 «0... 13 per cent. GCaulhBat sn 2s fe 242 es Kidney Nats 42) Mises 6 198 oe In the experiment of 1888 the organs greatest in the animals fed nitrogenous food, were : Dressed Weight, . . 9 per cent. Caul Batis i) ghee 13 per cent. ROO lemcmero.cams kates 20 es KGdneysye: shel Gus 13 “ And those that were greatest in the animals fed carbonaceous food, were : Heart, . ~ . 26 per cent. Liver,.. . . 4 percent. Bilcodse 19 we in SS en aS ss SUMMARY. The weight of evidence of all of our experiments, together with results obtained by other experimenters in the same field, seems to show : That corn, as an exclusive grain ration, does not give the best results, either in amount, quality or economy of production, when fed to growing or fattening animals. That the amount of water drank (especially in the case of our lambs) is a pretty certain indication of the rate of gain. That the production of wool-is very greatly dependent upon the nitrogen in the ration. THE MANURIAL VALUE OF THE RATIONS. The value of the manure made from the animals fed is a matter of prime importance, to all eastern farmers at least. And often the manure left on the farm represents a large part, if not the whole, of the profit made from feeding a lot of animals. For this reason we have calculated the manurial value of the rations fed the different lots, and have placed it along side the cost of the foods used. The basis of calculation has been that 80 per cent. of the manu- rial value of the food is recovered in the manure. With lambs so highly fed as these were, it is altogether likely that more than 80 per cent. of the manurial value of the foods was excreted. Nitrogen is reckoned at 17 cents per pound, phosphoric acid at 7, and potash at 4%. Cost of Manurial Cost of Ration less Ration. Value. Value of Manure. Wot —(Carbonaceous), s. 0 205 . P5-7Oc1. . «Sites 2s eee $2.58 Totilve—(Natrogenous) . . 2) 5.4: AVGOT BTS 3556 AA: Pee TO) Tot uve (intermediate, with roots), 478°". « . Gantio ge 2. ee 2.68 Eom “i Without roots); A/5E. <5... $5.07 200, Loe ae eon This little table is certainly worth careful consideration by those who are accustomed to buy commercial fertilizers at the prices given above. Since a large portion of the arable land in the State of New York is now cultivated at a positive loss or at a very small profit, and since the reason for this is largely want of plant food in the soil ; therefore, the value of the voidings of animals and the character of the plants raised on the farm, must necessarily receive our most careful consideration. Referring to the table above, it will be seen that while the first cost of the ration of the nitrogeneous fed sheep was larger than that of the carbonaceous, yet when the value of the manure is subtracted, the cost of the former is less than half of the latter. I. P. ROBERTS, HENRY H. WING. CO weet, UNEVERSITY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. BULEE TIN OF THE Aoricultural Experiment Station. HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. 1S SEPTEMBER, 1880. A Study of Windbreaks in their Relations to Fruit- Growing. “That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their sus- tenance, and two hundred millions of men expend their daily toil, must be the most important of all; the parent and precursor of all other arts. Iv every country, then, and at every period, the investigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds.’’—JAMES F, W. JOHNSTON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., 1889. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Aericultural Experiment Station. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. Pres’t C. K. ADAMS. HT ONIEA RDS WEED 0 2 Fe ee od wa) eto oe Trustee of the University. One /AMIESENVOOD se ly) =) ee eine Pres’t State Agricultural Society. TEE ROB RTS ie) ied cofersie totins 46) 1 dete Sei ye ESE M sl une Professor of Agriculture. (SACS (ON EID ADI CI Eas.» Gd wos Jo Need " eGo. soNFOU oma. B-toe Professor of Chemistry. APAUNIEES MIVA ete Wer eet cds, I een io Wer sw ete ts Professor of Veterinary Science. A NE PRR NIDISS 505s stsvais bap eae Mesa, cise ae eae Professor of Botany. ie Pel ACOMITOCK, 2h. ithaca et tay te eens) Seen oe eat ear Professor of Entomology. 1 Cl 30-4 0D) ne eee ee os Nocera crm ay Toe os. Professor of Horticulture. SWE SAD UID Wat ser ot came melts gicr igsimraten ane -, . Ass’t Prof. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. TREE ROBERTS 5) \s- er wanortoce tate keige Bene ae sy ase eae Director. PLENIR YA. WING yc 648. splined we oe Deputy Director and Secretary. IE SPI AWW EL LDACNES) ee svg; wel cy > Gsievniay maps eee ce NM ses Treasurer. ASSISTANTS. Noricultire:cs lg ae cae es NA ee te + >.» ED TARBERE: CHEMISERY. Cn ct bec anqum s meee ee WILLIAM P. CUTTER. Veterinary Science; 2 sc. cis eiarciiei cao nea ; SHEQIMOLO SI, pic ule a, Sree teria ae JOHN M. STEDMAN. Por tictilture ise eet ee Or tonearm eter W. M. Munson. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 18 A, Morrill Hall. Persons who desire this Bulletin will be supplied on addressing CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION, Ithaca, N. Y. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Fig. 1.—Windbreak consisting of two rows of hard maple backing up a close row of Norway spruce. Considered to be a model shelter belt. Planted 15 years. On the farm of T. G. Yeomans and Sons, Walworth, Wayne Co., New York. From a photograph. [Frontispiece. ] Fig. 2.—Windbreak of Norway spruce, set about 6 ft. apart, with black raspberries in the foreground. Planted 25 years. On the farm of T. G. Yeomansand Sons, Walworth, New York. From a photograph. Page 97. Fig. 3.—Windbreak of Lombardy poplars, protecting a peach orchard from heavy winds when laden with fruit and ice. Planted 11 years. Peach treesthe same age. On the fruit farm of Charles Gibson, South Haven, Van Buren Co., Michigan. From a photograph. Page 103, ) Alyy A STUDY OF WINDBREAKS IN THEIR RE- LATIONS TO FRUIT-GROWING. aun: I. INFLUENCES OF WINDBREAKS UPON FRUIT PLANTATIONS. LTHOUGH the best writers upon horticultural topics are nearly unanimous in recommending windbreaks for all fruit plantations, there is, nevertheless, wide difference in opinion and practice among good cultivators concerning them. Fruit-growers, as a rule, hold decided opinions concerning windbreaks. In fact, they usually hold extreme opinions, either wholly opposing shel- ter belts in all cases, or positively advocating them. All who are engaged in the growing of fruits or who attend fruit-growers’ gath- erings, have heard the most positive experiences cited in support of both opinions. There must be good reasons for these opposing views. No general studies of the subject appear to have been made, yet it is one of commanding importance in many directions. There appear to be no well-grounded maxims or precepts among growers themselves, and statements concerning the merits of shelter belts are commonly vague. Studies of temperatures as influenced by windbreaks are now being inaugurated at this station under ex- cellent opportunities. The present inquiry was undertaken about six months ago, and it is the outgrowth of previous experience and observation in the same direction. Many inquiries have been made and fruit farms have been visited. Three hundred circulars were addressed to leading fruit-growers in New York and Michigan, asking for defi- nite information in regard to windbreaks. Seventy-seven replies were odtained. nis is a large proportion, and the number may be assumed to include all the persons of the three hundred ad- dressed, who have had experience, or have made direct observa- tion. Forty-eight of these replies relate definite results. It is probable that nearly the whole range of experience with wind- “breaks in reference to fruit culture in the northeastern states is re- presented in these letters. ‘The present discussion is presented as follows : I. Influences of Windbreaks upon Fruit Plantations. II. Proper location of Windbreaks, and manner of making then. 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‘201n0yT *[ SD “Apues) yyy ‘uanvzey 'S ‘YS ‘uewmyoAq “Sg ‘y ‘[e19u03 Uy ‘[e19NNs UT ‘ureoy AelD ‘[B19UNS UT ‘T10S pue sH1S “D2ZIUILH) ‘puowmmeyy “Vv ‘2apung ‘AUITY “DM “DUlpayy ‘gnsog ‘q ‘APISQIAM {SAY ‘syoom ‘['O “UHAUASAO ‘“SUVHUFGNIM AOAVY HOLM SNOILLVAMHSAIQD ALINIAHd—'2 ‘pjo Sawant aay-(uan) ‘ C Y-Mguan, ‘yoaaAgpUuULy aInAgS AvmAoNT poos P—'e “OIA 3.—STATEMENTS FROM LEADING AUTHORS. It [the fruit garden] should be screened on the north and the east, either by high walls and fences, or, what is far better, either by hills or a deep and dense border of evergreen or other forest trees, intermixed with fruit trees and shrubs of ornament.—Kenrick, New American Orchardist, ix (1832). As our native forests become cleared away the climate is changed and be- comes more harsh; hence it is found desirable to construct some kind of protection from the point of most destructive harsh winds and storms. Belts of trees, either evergreen or diciduous, or both mixed, and surround- ing or placed so as to screen from the northeast, north, and northwest, are considered highly advantageous.—Downing, Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, 54. The atmospheric changes and conditions we cannot control, and we can modify them only in a very limited degree, by hedges, by timber belts, and by evergreen screens, the value of which begins to be appreciated.— War- der, American Pomology, 207. In localities exposed to the sweep of winter winds, belts of evergreen or deciduous trees will be found of great service. In all instances where the side of an orchard, exposed to the prevailing winds, is less successful and productive than the opposite side, proof is afforded that shelter would be beneficial; belts, especially if of deciduous trees, standing too near fruit trees, have, however, rather injured than benefitted them. The orchard should be beyond the reach of their shade and roots, and be well exposed to sun and air.—Z7homas, Fruit Culturist, new ed., 48. If possible, a situation should be chosen where some natural obstacle, as a hill, or a belt of woods, would break the force and influence of these de- structive winds. Where no such obstacle naturally exists, a belt or border of rapidly growing trees.* * * * should be planted simultaneously with the planting of the orchard. * * * Instances occur every year in our own sec- tion where sheltered orchards bear full crops, whilst those fully exposed to the winds fail entirely.— Barry, Fruit Garden, new ed., 176. Although having an orchard closely pent up by trees, etc., is injurious, nevertheless a screen of forest trees, at such distance from the fruit trees as that the latter will not be shaded by them, is of very great service in pro- tecting the trees in spring from severe cold winds.—Bridgeman, Gardener’s Assistant, by Todd, IT. 39. As the young wood and fruit buds [of the peach] often suffer from the piercing blasts of winter, a spot that is sheltered from these is much to be desired. And, as they usually come from the north and northwest, a site on the south or southeast of a wood or hill is, other things being equal, greatly to be preferred.—/lton, Peach Culture, 68. To shelter an orchard from the prevailing wind is often more important even than the aspect; for pear trees, especially when heavily laden with fruit and exposed to a wind storm, will suffer more injury from being shaken than from an ordinary late frost. * * * The evergreens should be planted in lines parallel with the pear rows, and they will more than pay for the ground they occupy in protecting the fruit trees from heavy gales.— Quinn, Pear Culture for Profit, 19. It is within the power of man greatly to modify the character of a situa- tion by the judicious planting of belts of evergreens, by a wise addition of elements and a proper culture of the soil, and by encouraging the shade of the vineyard itself wherever circumstances indicate its necessity.—Strong, Culture of the Grape, 101. In general, it will be found necessary to secure protection on the west, north, and northeast. * * * No defense is better than a good belt of Nor- way spruce, and if they form a crescent in which the vineyard is embowered, but little danger need be apprehended from violent winds.—/Ph72, Open Air Grape Culture, 40. If the land has no protection from the north and northwest, see what the facilities are for supplying one either by walls ora belt of trees. If trees are to be used, evergreens are best.—/udler, Grape Culturist, 89. The location [for the vineyard] should be sheltered from the cold winds from the north and northwest.—Husman, Culture of the Native Grape, 43. EPITOME OF BENEFITS DERIVED FROM A WINDBREAK, Stated somewhat in order of importance. 1. A windbreak may protect the plantation from cold. 2. Reduces evaporation from the surface of the soil, tending to mitigate drought in summer, and root injury in winter. 3. Lessens windfalls. 4. Lessens the breaking of trees which are laden with fruit or ice. : 5. Retains snow and leaves, thus tending to prevent deep freez- ing and excessive evaporation. 6. Facilitates labor in the fruit plantation. 7. Protects blossoms from severe winds. 8. Enables trees to grow straighter than if exposed. g. Reduces injury from the drying of small fruits on the plants. 10. Holds the sand in certain sections. Ir. Sometimes causes fruits to ripen earlier. 12. Encourages birds. 13. 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STEDMAN. 1S orga vhanigan nen ty SMG ood od bo G6 6 .G8a 0 W. M. Munson. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 A, Morrill Hall. Those desiring this Bulletin for friends, will send us the names of the parties. CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION, Ithaca, N. Y. 4 ee a ¥f aS es ie We Bee NOTES OF TOMATOES. Le CULTURE, Perhaps the most frequent and noteworthy observation made upon the culture of the tomato during several years of experimen- tation with the plant, is the great increase in vigor and productive- ness which comes from careful handling and good tillage. It often appears as if this vigor is not only characteristic of the immediate generation, but that it is hereditary for a timeto a profitable de- gree. ‘‘Handling’’ or transplanting of young plants, when fre- quently and properly done, is invaluable, and so far as the plant is concerned three or four transplantings are better than one. In our own work, in order to get the greatest results from tests, the plants are handled in pots—preferably rose pots—and are trans- planted several times. The handling is expeditious, and is not too expensive for the use of any one who grows tomatoes for home use. For market culture we find that two transplantings are usually profitable. Stocky plants, vigorous and growing rapidly, are better than simply early plants, however, and frequency of transplanting in these remarks must not be confounded with early sowing and consequent necessity for several shiftings. Tomato plants—or any plants, in fact—should not be shifted for the simple purpose of preventing crowding or ‘‘drawing.’’ ‘Transplanting serves the purpose of maintaining a steady and symmetrical growth, and it should occur before the plant becomes checked from neglect. A good tomato plant, at time of setting in field, is one which is stocky enough to hold the weight of the earth and pot when a number of plants are grasped in the hand by their tops aud are carried along the rows. They require no staking when set. A tall and weak plant with a blossom on the top we do not consider worth setting. It is a common mistake to set tomato plants in the field too early. Cold nights, even though several de- grees above frost, check the plants, sometimes seriously. How early the plants should be started for profit is a question which demands attention. A few writers have maintained of late that nothing is gained in earliness and productiveness by early starting under glass. This is undoubtedly true if the early plants are not well grown, but our experience is quite to the contrary with stocky and vigorous plants. But if this increase is worth what it costs is a question which must be answered by every grower for himself. The following figures show the increase in earliness aud productiveness due to early sowing, there having been in each instance, unless otherwise recorded, eleven plants under trial : VALUE OF EARLY SOWING. Date of Average VARIETY. SEEDSMAN, enc o! | first six | yield 1889. 8: ripe fruits. | per plant Acme, Thorburn. March 21. |Aug. 29. 14.3 lbs a= Livingston. April 15. \Sept. 9. AROn aes — Livingston. May 15. — I3. jteley O° (18 plants.) Optimus, Thorburn. March 21. |Aug. 24. lyf me (12 plants. ) Ferry. ‘April 10. wepts 2: 12S Paragon, Thorburn. March 21. |Aug. 21. FOr ass as Livingston. April 15. Sept. 13. 5s Onades Favorite, Thorburn. |March 21. (|Sept. 2. ce (12 plants.) = Livingston. April 15. Sept. 4. OS) Cincinnati Purple,!Ferry. April 10. Sept. 4. ye ae = — Ferry. May I5. Octx2: SOM mm (10 plants.) King of Earlies, Johnson & Stokes.) April 12. Ao 7e 27 Ae — —_ Johnson & Stokes.|May 15. Sept. Io So iat Tom Thumb, Rawson. April 10. Sept. 2. Asses — Rawson. May 15. — I0. Bo) (9 plants.) Perfection, Thorburn. March 21. |Sept. 2. ules}, I — Henderson. — 22. |Aug. 29; TOs3 ae — Livingston. April 15. Sept. 4. TO3 ae (13 plants.) Beauty, Thorburn. March 21. |Aug. 29. ToC mune — Livingston. April 15. Sept. 9. 12 Ae These figures indicate that in every instance the early sown plants gave earlier fruits than the others, and that in every case but one, in which the yields were practically the same, the total yield is much greater. The gain in earliness sometimes amounts to three or even four weeks. The disadvantage of very late plant- ing—middle of May—is particularly proncunced, especially in point of productiveness. This productiveness, however, is really a measure of earliness inasmuch as it simply records the weight of -fruit which had ripened up to October roth, when the tomato sea- son was closed by frost. Could the season have been sufficiently extended, no doubt the ultimate productiveness of the various plantings would have been the same. A part of the test is at fault from the fact that the variety in its different sowings was sometimes obtained from different sources, and there is possibility of variation in stock. Yet the varieties are such as are pretty clearly defined and therefore not liable to mixture, and there is substantial uniformity in results. Four of the varieties, however— two sowings of Acme, Cincinnati Purple, King of the Earlies, and Tom Thumb—were sown from the same packet. It is a common notion, to which the writer has heretofore sub- scribed, that soils containing little or no manure are preferable to well enriched soils for tomato growing. It is supposed that rich soils tend to make vine at the expense of fruit, causing lateness of maturity and consequent lessening of yield; and the supposition is prevalent that rich soils tend to make fruits * ceé rougher’’ or more irregular in shape. A careful test upon these points has been made during the present season. Three plats were set aside and treated as follows : I. 60x30 ft., good rich garden soil, to which 5,460 Ibs. of old and fine stable manure was added when the land was plowed in spring. The plat contained 78 plants of Ignotum. II. 55x30 ft., adjoining I, considerably poorer in character, some of the surface soil having been removed, upon which 8 lbs. of nitrate of soda was sown soon after the plants were set. 66 plants of Ignotum. III. 50x30 ft., poor soil, adjoining II, from which most of the rich surface soil had beeuremoved. It received no fertilizer of any kind. 60 plants of Ignotum. The three plats were planted and tilled alike. From the first there was great difference in appearance of the different areas. The plants on the heavily manured plat were uniformly most vig- orous and largest. The nitrate of soda plantation gave stocky plants of medium size with a very dark color of foliage. The un- fertilized plat gave smail plants with a light cast to the foliage. Fig. 1, plate II, illustrates admirably the difference in size and vigor between plats I and III. The first ripe fruits were found on plat III, but there were only two on the whole patch which ripened in advance of plat I, and the difference amounted to but a day. At the first picking, plat I produced by far the most fruits, and they were in every way supe- — 116 — rior to those from the other plats. During the whole season plat I continued to hold its superiority. In point of earliness plats IT and III were about the same. On October roth the average total yield per plant was as fol- lows : Plat I, heavily manured, 12.7 Ibs. II, nitrate of soda, 9.1 Ibs. III, no fertilizer, 6.8 Ibs. There was a marked difference between plats I and III in the shape of the fruits. The Ignotum is the ‘‘ smoothest,’’ most regu- lar, of our large tomatoes, yet on the unfertilized plat the fruits showed a decided tendency to become angled. Fig. 2, plate II, is a faithful representation of this tendency. The cut on the left shows representative fruits from plat III, while the other cut shows fruits from plat I. It will be interesting to determine if this variation shows any tendency to become hereditary. It is evident, from the foregoing facts, that heavy manuring for tomatoes may result in decided benefits ; vet it is possible that the character of the soil or season may have much to do with the be- havior of the plants under these conditions. The soil upon which this test was conducted is a high gravelly loam which had been well enriched fora number of years. ‘The season was very wet, yet the plats never suffered from too much water. Asa whole, the season has been a cold one. The manuring of plat I was excessive, nearly three tons of good manure having been applied to a space 60x30 ft., which was al- ready rich. It is important to determine if this excessive fertiliz- ing gives better results than ordinary treatment. An area adjoin- ing plat I, and similar to it in fertility, was also planted to Igno- tum. ‘This area, in common with the general tomato plantation, was given a good dressing of stable manure,—one fourth or less as copious as that given plat I. These plants were similar to those in plat I in earliness, and the average total yield per plant was 12.5 lbs., or only about three ounces less than in the very heavily maunured patch. The gain due tothe very heavy dressing is there- fore not sufficient to pay for the extra cost. But if excessive manur- ing does not greatly increase yield, neither does it always tend to an unprofitable production of vine at the expense of yield and ear- liness, as is commonly supposed. HI. VARIETIES. The tomato is one of the most variable and inconstant of kitchen garden plants. Asa rule, varieties differ but slightly from their allies, and a considerable plantation and a critical eye are needed to determine many of even the common sorts. It is certainly true that at least half of the varieties which have been offered in the last few years are practically the same as other varieties. Varieties of tomatoes are as a rule short lived. ‘Ten years may be considered the average profitable life of a variety, and many sorts break up and disappear in two or three years. This incon- stancy of type is largely due, no doubt, to the haste with which new sorts are put upon the market. A variety should be selected and carefully handled for some time before it is offered to the public. Almost any of the old sorts afford instances of the running out of varieties. The Tilden tomato, once popular, appears to be ex- tinct. Only two seedsman in the country advertised the variety last spring, and neither one, as shown by our tests, had the Til- den of fifteen years ago. One of the samples gave us a sinall round tomato, late in ripening, and much resembling small sorts of the Red Apple kind. The other gave usa somewhat larger an- gular tomato. In 1887 the writer made an effort to secure the Til- den, but only inferior fruits were obtained. The record of that test is as follows: ‘‘ This variety, once so popular, appears to have run out. As grown this year, the fruits are very small, irregular and worthless. Last year [1886] the fruits were somewhat larger, though smaller than Hathaway. When first introduced, now many years ago, it was a large tomato.’’* Mr. W. W. Tracy of Detroit, au expert in the seed trade, informs me that he has tried in vain for two or three years to secure true stock of the Tilden. The Trophy shows the same tendency to become inferior, and it is difficult to procure a good stock of it. In the test of 1887 this fact was noticed. ‘‘ The Trophy is evidently not so good as formerly. Our crop this year, from seeds of last year’s crop, showed a much greater per cent. of poor fruits than the crop of 1886.’’ | Paragon begins to show the samme weakness. * Bailey, Bull. 31, Mich. Agr: Coll. 22. {plbidheezre — 118 — The demand in tomatoes now calls for fruits which are regular in shape, solid, large, and plants which are productive. The old angular sorts are rapidly disappearing im commercial practice. There has been no gain in earliness, for the species, for many years if at all, and little, if any, need be expected. The cherry and plum sorts, with a few of the angular-fruited and wrinkled-leaved varieties, are still our earliest sorts. Yet comparative earliness be- tween commercial varieties is an important consideration. There is also no gain in capability to resist rot: the cherry, plum, and angu- lar sorts are still most exempt, the cherry and plum varieties en- tirely so. The scale of points for a perfect tomato will probably run about as follows : Vigor: of platit, 9) otro) oie SN ae we eae 5 Barliness, evi chen oust, ae ee eryeh eae eos 10 Coloropinwitves ... cp a ene See e Ryese eee es 5 Solidityroiinuses Spee acess tok ede oh eae cMneeceD Shaperotirnibante St eee wctose ete neice ic Woes ZO. Size Ob fruity me fers) role we Besa Lets eee 10 Blavotcs He don said: pes aim eee. sue me ate 5 Cookiae Gualites, . cya. sche ee Stara os IPEOCUCEVENEeSS. 402 ee ea fe Ie giee e es 220 100 To measure varieties of tomatoes by a scale of points is an ex- ceedingly difficult matter, however, from the fact that it is almost impossible to measure solidity, cooking qualities, and, to a less de- gree, flavor. Solidity is perhaps the most important point in mar- ket varieties, yet it cannot be definitely expressed either in figures or words. An attempt was made to find a measure for it, and at the same time to make a comparison in this respect of a few lead- ing varieties. For this test, five representative fruits of a variety were selected, weighed, and then placed in a graduated beaker filled with water. ‘The displacement which occurred, that is, the amount of water which flowed over the beaker when the tomato was inserted, gave an accurate measure of the volume of the fruit. By dividing the volume by the weight, a ratio is constructed. The following table is a record of such tests, and the third column of figures affords a means of comparison : q aie PLATE II. a. “$ 4 Pa pet Hn Hen ARC MBean (aNd Hy : | i Hl mE MY Wit \! if itt , oT cae eT Say Hai AL y Fig, 1.—Unfertilized and fertilized patches, Fig. 2.—F nits from unfertilized and fertilized patches. i - WEIGHT OF FRUITS. Volume. Ratio VARIETY. en Weights. Fluid of Volume Hee Ounces. to Weight. Ignotum . . . |Michigan Agr’l 9.5 Oz. 7.75 OZ. College. Or 6:5)455 14. ee 10 75 6e TOS Sie TOS ty Ss ce 6.5 ce -790 Optimus, .. . Ferry. ewe os ire eu 8. oe 6.75 ce 6. % 4.5 66 6. ‘ 4-5 “ce Gre te Ae -765 Optimus... 2: Thorburn. Sat ae eG wae ai Livi eS. 5-3) lee 4.75 © 6.5 4.25 © -714 (OSGi BS aes Henderson. Sate 6575. a 7-5 ce 6. “ce 8. oe 6.5 “ce 4. 2.75 ~ 5-25 § eae -793 Jeeta eo here Thorburn. Ans: SS Bet SS 9. ce 7s ce 8.5 ims 6.75 [a3 sac 2.75 | Aa rata -75 Wolunteeric 2 1: Burpee. Rar one exe 4-5 “6 3.25 66 6. ce 4. ce 4.5 “ce ae “cc Ae “ce 2.25 “cc 666 Favorite, . .-. Livingston. 6s 205 dilsis S i - 4. . 45 * 4-5 7 FC ile 3-5 4- 66 3.25 “c 823 avonte. | = Thorburn, 9250. ** SeAtee We oe 5.5 [a9 = 6.5 ac 5. ce Bile re 3-75 leery Boat ie -789 Paragon, =. : Thorburn. NORE olla as 727 8 TOSS a 4s 75 ‘6 6. “c GES re A135) ; i. 5 4. -833 Perfection ar. = Livingston. 5. Boe Us 8. Sei oan 8.5 Fe 9. 6. 9.5 7:5 == 20> VARIETY. Beauty, . Haines, . noes (No. 64.) Haines, . = © (No. 64.) *McCullum,. . (McCullum’s Hybrid. ) Jones’ XXX, . Alipay a: Prelude,.. . Conqueror, . General Grant, | Hathaway’s Excelsior, . SEEDSMAN. 1889. Thorburn. Vaughan. Northrup, Braslan & Goodwin Co. Vick. Cornish. Thorburn. Vaughan. Thorburn. Henderson. Henderson. Weights. n mn UMN = aAnnunn ee CA Lon ee) Ce CA EN EE SE OOM C2) | nin al On On ann on _ PO OARUIT DONN DARE PHYO MADD H Own nnn Volume. Fluid Ounces. nn NON On Nonwn ann n ~I on RI Ga SSC OS CHI GNIN) C9191 09) CUO OD Te ON Cats ON CSIC eit nn _— PP VEPMAIWAOY AAYY f nan nuns! On nun Nn Ratio of Volume to Weight. +75 -679 -769 -765 .694 .672 .840 -746 * The writer has modified various new names in conformity with the rules of nomenclat- ure adopted by the horticulturists of experiment stations. a BF) These figures express merely the ratio between weight and vol- ume ; or, in other words, they give an accurate measure of the ab- solute weight of different fruits. For purposes of comparison, this method presents some advantages over mere specific gravity. The lowest ratios are evidently the measures of greatest weight. The heaviest tomatoes, size for size, in the above test are, therefore, Jones’ XXX, Volunteer, Prelude, and Alpha, while the lightest are General Grant, Paragon, and Favorite. But the figures are nevertheless not a measure of solidity, for which they were made, inasmuch as solidity depends somewhat upon the strength of the fleshy portions of the fruit: two tomatoes, exactly alike in weight and volume, may differ in solidity. An experiment was undertaken to determine if keeping qualities are correlated with solidity. Representative samples of many va- rieties, taken so far as possible in the same stage of maturity, were placed together upon a forcing-house table and the fruits were re- moved as soon as they began to decay. It was found that some of the frailest varieties kept the longest. It appears, therefore, that solidity must be measured by a general judgment rather than by any definite expression. This conclusion is quite at variance with common opinion. Much has been said concerning the superiority of certain varie- ties for cooking purposes, aside from quality of fruit. ‘There is said to be characteristic differences between varieties in time of cooking and amount of shrinkage. A painstaking cooking test was made with a few varieties, but the results are so variable as to appear to be merely accidental or characteristic of individual fruits. The fruits were cut into thin slices and placed in boiling water. The shrinkages in weight and bulk do uot appear to be correlated. In some instances shrinkage was slight, while in oth- er varieties, equally as solid and good, it was great. The test in- dicates, so far as it goes, that judgments founded upon the man- ner in which varieties cook, are unreliable. 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(Guy ne elie pyar 22 ee eB Gl “PO aR | Ole Ve asea RON [ews 419A syn) ,, %z |'z0g yd 1} ,, HOI ,, 1 » A yy WEE got Plog ee Mey oo ge ed oneaaIp | alain Og IDIVCE SS | ‘20 %6 ‘sjd £,°z0 %6 ‘s}d | GRE Pn Eas as al AUe metal leeusty sy % » seq) or |* *snwydo — aba — fae HEI |'z0 z ‘q£|‘zo %S1 -q] €| ‘up €z| -mmipsy |*pe13zqsug| O1 [XXX souof, | ‘QUIN[OA ‘sooung pay, | ou 2 ‘YOOD 0} ‘SUTYOOD | ‘Suryooy ye . : WAstoM Ut yx SUTYOO) oy D FITZ) SUV NAY UL o5¥ — SULYOOD IyV iS a posarmber Joye sr10jaq SPOS ISU RSSIIN -YULIYyS | pure siojaog omnyjo, | P22 BRS Liat ast Mi ests tN oUuILY, IO[OD IOjOD JO'ON “ONIMOOD NI SLSHWL Four-fifths of the varieties of tomatoes now offered by dealers possess no points of superiority for general culture. It should be borne in mind that a variety which is simply good is not worth in- troducing. It must present some point of decided superiority over the best kinds at present known in order to possess merit. This fact appears to be commonly overlooked in all classes of vege- tables, and cvery year the grower is bewildered with the display of novelties. Nearly eighty varieties were grown this year, which is less than half the number grown last year ; yet from these num- bers, comprising in all some two hundred sorts, six could be se- lected which, for profit, would combine the merits of them all: Ig- notum, Beauty (or Acme), Mikado, Perfection, Favorite, Potato Leaf; or for very early, perhaps Advance,or Salzer,or Prelude may be added. IMPRESSIONS OF SOME OF THE NEWER VARIETIES. Unless otherwise stated, the measure of value in any variety is based upon its merit for market culture. A variety may be good in itself and yet possess no points of superiority over old sorts, and may be characterized as possessing no promise. Amber Gem. (Morehouse & Annis).—A small tomato closely resembling the old Large Yellow. Tends to become irregular. Of no promise. Atlantic. (Atlantic Prize. Johnson & Stokes).—A large tomato of good color, but too irregular, and late in the season it is inclined to crack. Med- ium in season, and productive. One of the earliest large sorts. Worthy of further trial. Bay State. (Bragg).—A large and good late variety, regular or becoming rough only late in the season, firm, very productive. It runs very even in size. One of the best recent introductions. Brandywine. (Johnson and Stokes).—Much like the last, but averaging smaller and inclined to be irregular, Worthy of trial. Dwarf Champion. (Henderson. Burpee. Thorburn).—A distinct type of tomato, very dwarf and compact in habit. It is evidently an offshoot of the French Upright, or is at least a variation towards it. It is handsome in fruit and very prolific. The fruits are small, however, and they ripen slowly, a characteristic of all the upright sorts. At the close of the season the vines are still headed with green and nearly full-grown fruits, to a greater extent than are the common varieties. As an amateur fruit it is an acquisition, but for market our experience indicates that it is not valuable. We shall force it during the winter. We had the same thing underthe name of 7yee Tomato of New Jersey. Golden Queen. (Thorburn), and Sunrise Yellow (Henderson) are indis- tinguishable. Fruits medium in size, regular and handsome, but the var- iety isless productive than /wdz/ee, although the fruit is more regularin shape. Flaines. (Haines’ No. 64. Vaughan. Northrup, Braslan and Goodwin Co.)—Fruits medium to iargs, firm, mid-season, but too irregular. Suggests the type of the old Large Red. Lgnotum., Plate I.—This variety, which originated with the writer, is a sport from Eiformige Dauer, a German variety. It appeared in a very large tomato test made in 1887. It was sent to several parties the following year, and a plantation of 500 plants was made by the writer. * Last year it showed some tendency to revert, but careful selection has been practiced and our plants this year, 422 in number, were all true to type, with the exception of the variation due to culture, as discussed on page 116 of this bulletin. The Ignotum is without question by far the finest market tomato which we have ever grown. Its particular points of superiority are large size, regularity of shape, solidity, productiveness, and uniformity throughout the season. It is the largest and heaviest of the per- fectly regular tomatoes, and the most solid of any of the market sorts. The pickings from our patches this year were usually fit for market as they came from the vines; and the last picking, October 1oth, after a long sea- son, was scarcely inferior to the best picking of the season. Plate I is made from a photograph of an average cluster which weighed 3% lbs. The following letters have been received from two well-known gardeners to whom Ignotum was sent for trial : From John G. Gardner, Jobstown, N. J.—‘‘I am very much pleased with the Ignotum so far as my experience has gone. I had eighteen plants, and planted them in a tomato house, andthey did remarkably well under the cir- cumstances. The season was geiting late to plant under glass and the soil had grown a crop of tomatoes before, and only a small amount of manure was added and forked up before the variety was planted. But under these unfavorable conditions we gathered some fine, good-sized and well-formed fruits, good in color, but a little soft, and when cut as good as any tomato I have seen, and flavor grand. ‘The softness I. think is due to the soil. I think enough of it, that I shall have young plants ready in ten days to plant a 50 ft. house for trial.’’ i From N. Hallock, Creedmoor, Long Island, who has made extensive to- mato tests this season.—'‘I am greatly pleased with the Ignotum, and the more I see of it the better I like it. I have twenty-three plants, and have picked ten crates and have more to come. It was the second to have ripe fruits (Station first), but at the end of ten days the quantity was greatly ahead of the Station. The quality is A 1; solidity, ditto. It has picked longer than almost any other variety. J have had no wrinkled ones.”’ Jones. (Jones Early Hybrid. Cornish).—This and Jones’ XXX, also from Cornish, appear to be the same. Fair size to rather large, regular, prolific. A good variety, but possessing no points of superiority over several old va- rieties. * For a fuller history of the variety, see American Garden, March, 1889, 84. Jubilee. (Childs’ Golden Jubilee. Childs).—Large, bright yellow, very prolific and perhaps the most regular of the American large yellow sorts, although it becomes irregular late in the season. It is very like, if not identical with the French J/auve grosse lisse (Large smooth yellow). A good sort. King of the Earlies. (Johnson & Stokes).—A cornered variety of medium size. A few fruits ripened very early, but the bulk of the crop came in with the mid-season varieties. Evidently the same as some of the old varieties of the Orangefield type. Lorillard. (John G. Gardner. Henderson).—Fruit medium in size, apple- like, very regular, or rarely a little corrugated about the stem, firm and handsome. It is productive, and the fruits are uniform. Aside from its great uniformity, it does notappear to possess superior merits for field market culture. It is introduced as a forcing variety, however, and in this capacity we are now growing it. Matchless. (Burpee).—Fruits large and firm, alittle inclined to be cornered or angled but never becoming rough. Much like fine strains of the old Trophy. Mid-season to late. A good variety. McCullom. (McCullom’s Hybrid. Vick.)—Fruits medium to under- sized, angled or even wrinkled, second early. Appears to possess no supe- riority for market. m Feach. (Yhorburn).—A distinct type of tomato, to be classed with the cherry sorts (Lycopersicum esculentum var. cerastforme). It has a peculiar roughness of skin, which, with the shape, size, and purple color, makes its resemblance to asmall early peach very close. It has a tendency to become many-celled. ‘The structure of the fruit recalls the oblong tomatoes, of which the Criterion is the type. The flavor is very mild or even almost sweet. The fruit is soft, yet in tests of keeping qualities it was found to re- main sound remarkably long. The foliage resembles that of the Cherry tomato except that it is lighter in color. The vine has an upright tendency of growth. An acquisition for amateur culture and as a curiosity. Prelude. (Vaughan).—Fruits small and handsome, uniform in size and shape, regular or somewhat cornered, purplish. It is ashort remove from the cherry tomatoes. In shape and size the fruit suggests the old Hatha- way. It is very early and very productive. May prove valuable for first crop. Salzer. (Salzer's Earliest of All. Salzer).—Fruits small, uniform, somewhat angular. One of the earliest varieties. ‘The fruits were practi- cally all ripe before frost. Very similar to various old sorts of the Hundred Day type. May prove valuable for first crop. Shah. (Henderson).—A distinct variety, being the first yellow tomato with foliage of the Mikado type. The fruits are too irregular to be valua- ble, however. Volunteer. (Hallock. Thorburn. Burpee).—Fruits medium in size, regular, uniform, and solid. It is a good and reliable variety, but possesses no points of superiority over other similar sorts. — 126 — SUMMARY. 1. Frequent transplanting of the young plant, and good tillage, are necessary to best results in tomato culture. 2. Plants started under glass about ten weeks before transplant- ing into field gave fruits from a week to ten days earlier than those started two or three weeks later, while there was a much greater difference when the plants wers started six weeks later. Productiveness was greatly increased by the early planting. 3. Liberal and even heavy manuring, during the present sea- son, gave great increase in yield over no fertilizing, although the common notion is quite to the contrary. Heavy manuring does not appear, therefore, to produce vine at the expense of fruit. 4. The tests indicate that poor soil may tend to render fruits more angular. 5. Varieties of tomatoes run out, and ten years may perhaps be considered the average life of a variety. 6. The particular points at presentin demand in tomatoes are thege ; regularity in shape, solidity, large size, productiveness of plant. ; 7, The ideal tomato would probably conform closely to the fol- lowing scale of points: Vigor of plant, 5; earliness, 10 ; color of fruit, 5; solidity of fruit, 20; shape of fruit, 20 ; size, 10; flavor, 5; cooking qualities, 5 ; productiveniess, 20. 8. Solidity of fruit cannot be accurately measured either by weight or keeping qualities. g. Cooking qualities appear to be largely individual rather than varietal characteristics. 10. The following varieties appear, from the season’s work, to be among the best market tomatoes: Ignotum, Beauty, Mikado, Perfection, Favorite, Potato Leaf. 11. The followimg recent introductions appear to possess merits for market : Bay State, Atlantic, Brandywine, Jubilee, Matchless, and perhaps Lorillard, Prelude and Salzer. 12. The following recent introductions are particularly valuable for amateur cultivation : Dwarf Champion, Lorillard, Peach, Pre- lude. SOR wee. (UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. OF THE Aoricultural Experiment Station. ENTOMOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. AG NOVEMBER, 1889. On a Saw-Fly Borer in Wheat. “That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their sus- tenance, and two hundred millions of men expend their daily toil, must be the most important of all; the parent and precursor of all otherarts. In every country, then, and at every period, the investigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds.’’—JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., 1889. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President C. K. ADAMS. FLOM PACD): WHET or 2) sh otters sholgt sl tiey tes Sic Trustee of the University. Hon. JAMES Woop, ...... . . President State Agricultural Society. TEBE ROBE RCS Wa pate diel isis: vol 6) ieih J... . » Professor of Agriculture: GUC VCORE DWIHLE fe, ire. so Tens 6) No. lye . |. . . » Professor :of Chemistry. APRESS BIVAW cect vie tont cuit, aie Soe wsetiyenes yeh ee Professor of Veterinary Science. IN MEIREN DISS ips. plan sy ferhas tlauened oh ialae iy te) aehnoys Professor of Botany. eelsd COMSTOCK Aci isl Gaene eete ee fee fa Byte teks Professor of Entomology. OAS dS (AS) SYN 0 Oring Dat gio ae err iene ON nur I . . . . Professor of Horticulture. WEP REDD UDEV eta ve SH eg ee Ass’t Prof. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. DPE ROBERTS: Mie) (cite bests cua, ein Ba Us ane, Senta ae Director. LR NIRSVel A VVIINIG, epee te evel s)0i Deputy Director and Secretary. AF Sele SVL AAAS fects ol zal ies oad doitas) OP URy tet eps ee . . Treasurer. ASSISTANTS. ANCTACHICHTE ma pecuiie rere be (eee uy ol. (ants AO Men ae ED TARBELL. CRemistry gy: ifes.G feeds mane aa eveey laese lav cc ceure WILLIAM P. CUTTER. VeElehinaty OClenCe iy hil is ews ones ns. sue ate cnnetEe ONLOMOlO RG ry tase ince wane BOLUS fet Sees JoHN M. STEDMAN. Horticultures cus cae relent one . . . ..W.M. Munson. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall. Those desiring this Bulletin for friends, will send us the names of the parties, CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION, Ithaca, N. Y. Bulletin of Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. XI.. 1889. Anna Deestord A SAW-FLY BORER IN WHEAT. Cephus pygmaeus. a, female beginning to oviposit; 6, female with ovipositor inserted in straw; c, insect with wings expanded ; d, straws cut by the larva ; ¢, larva in cell at base of straw. : bebe omsloch Del A SAW-FLY BORER IN WHEAT. CEPHUS PYGMAEUS. Order HYMENOPTERA; Family TENTHREDINIDAE. N insect destructive to wheat, but previously unknown in this country, has appeared in considerable numbers on the Cor- nell University Farm. I do not know of its occurrence anywhere else in this State; but as it isextremely abundant here, it is doubt- less spread over a considerable area. It was first observed in this locality two years ago, by one of our students, the late Mr. S. H. Crossman, while making an investigation of wheat insects. Mr. Crossinan’s studies, however, were sadly terminated before he had carried his investigations of this species very far; and it has fal- len to me to continue the work begun by him. On examining the stalks of wheat at harvest time by splitting them throughout their length, it was found that some of them had been tunnelled by an insect larva. This larva had eaten a pas- sage through each of the joints so that it could pass freely from one end of the cavity of the straw to the other. In addition to tunnelling the joints they had also fed more or less on the inner surface of the straw between the joints ; and, scattered throughout the entire length of the cavity of the straw, except the smaller part near the head, were to be seen yellowish particles, the excre- ment of the insect. If infested straws be examined a week or ten days before the ripening of the wheat, the cause of this injury can be found at work within them. It is at that time a yellowish, milky-white worm, varying in size from 4 inch (5 mm.) to 4 inch (12 mm.) in length. The smaller ones may not have bored through a single joint ; while the larger ones will have tunnelled all of them, ex- cept, perhaps, the one next to the ground.* As the grain becomes ripe the larva works its way toward the ground ; andat the time of the harvest the greater number of them have penetrated tothe root.f Here in the lowest part of the cavity *For a detailed description of this larva see note 2. For further details see note 4. ~ — 128 — of the straw they make preparations for passing the winter,and even for their escape from the straw the following year. ‘This last is done by cutting the straw circularly on the inside nearly severing ita short distance, varying from one half inch to one inch from the ground. Fig.1,c. If the wheat were growing wild, the winter winds would cause the stalk to break off at this point; and thus the insect after it had reached the adult stage in the following year could easily escape ; while but for this cut, it would be very liable to be imprisoned within the straw. But under ordinary circumstances the straw is cut by the reaper before it is broken off at this point, and consequently that breaking off does not occur. If, how- ever, there is a strong wind just before the harvest and after the straws have been cut in this manner by the insects, they are very liable to break off; the lodging of the grain may, therefore, be largely due to the in- Fae nes oran Gus Juries “of thiss insects. dione feldijustmaes fested straw. a@, cocoon; fore the harvest I observed a large number pee moa tan of isolated straws lying in a horizontal po- ings. sition, there was not the general breaking down of the grain characteristic of wind andrain ; but distributed through the grain that was standing there were a large number of isolated straws that were lodged. A careful examination showed that this breaking down of the grain, in 45 per cent of the cases, was directly due to the injuries of this insect. In many cases the straws had been broken off a considerable distance above the ground, and before the larva had made the characteristeric circu- lar cut near the root. An examination of these straws showed that the larva had eaten all or nearly all of the softer inner part of the straw for a short distance, thus making a weak place which was easily broken. As a rule, however, the larva obtains the greater part of its nourishment by tunnelling the joints of the straw and does not eat enough of the straw in any place to cause it to break until they make the circular cut near the ground described above. After the circular cut has been made, the larva fills the cavity of the straw just below it for a short distance with a plug of bor- ings. Fig. 1,b. Between this plug and the lower end of the cavity of the straw there isa place, measuring about one half inch in length (ro mm. to15 mm.) Plate,e. It is here that the insect passes the winter. Immediately after cutting the straw and mak- ing this plug the larva makes a cocoon by lining the walls of this space with a layerof silk. Fig. 1, a. This layer is thin but very firm and more or less parchment-like ; it can, however, be broken with slight difficulty, being somewhat brittle. Within this cocoon, which remains in the stubble after the grain is cut, the insect passes the winter, in the larvalstate. It changes to a pupa during March or April*; and sometime during the month of May the adult insect appears. The exact date of the appearance of the insect depends upon the nature of the weather. ‘This year from pupae collected on the 23d of April and brought into the Insectary, the adults emerged from the 8th to the roth of May ; while the ins-cts left in the fields were ten days later in emerging. The adult insect is a four-winged fly belonging to the order Hymenoptera, the order that includes the bees, wasps, and ants ; and itis a member of the family 7Vexthredinzdae of this order, a family comprising the insects commonly known as Saw-flies. This popular name refers to the fact that in this family the female insects are furnished with a more or less saw-like organ. This arises near the caudal end of the body, and is the ovipositor. By means of it the insects are able to make incisions in the tissues of plants for the reception of their eggs. The Saw-fly Borer of Wheat, is known to entomologists as Cephus pygmaeus. ‘The form and appearance of the adult are represented on the accompaning plate. In this stage it 1s of a shining black color, banded and spotted with yellow. The male measures one-third inch (8 mm.) in length ; the female two-fifths inch (10 mm. )t Soon after the adults emerge from the stubble, they pair and the females begin to oviposit. Thus in our breeding-cages, the adults which emerged from the 8th to the roth of May, began to pair on the roth and the females were ovipositing on the 13th. The appearance of the insects in large numbers in the field took place four or five days before the heads of wheat began to appear, Zz. €., before they began to project from the sheath formed by the *See note 5. {For a detailed description see note I. upper leaf. But it was not until the latter date that the flies had migrated to the wheat fields in considerable numbers. It will be noted that as the insect winters in the stubble of wheat, and that as in this region one crop of wheat rarely follows another, it is necessary for the adults, when they emerge, to migrate a greater or less distance in search of a wheat field, in which to oviposit. We found that the female migrated to the wheat fields first ; but they were soon followed by the males. The specimens which I reared in breeding-cages in which wheat was growing laid their eggs at various distances from the ground. Many observations, both in the Insectary and in the field, con- vinced me that these insects oviposit anywhere along the larger part of the straw where it is hollow ; but chiefly in the upper por- tion. (See Table 1.) In each case that I observed, the female stood with her head towards the ground in the position indicated in the Plate, ata and 4. The making of the slit through the straw, and the laying of the egg occupy about one minute of time. The slit made by the insect’s ovipositor is so small that it can be detected only with difficulty. By carefully marking the point on a straw, at which a female was seen to oviposit, and then examin- ing this point with a microscope, I was enabled to find the punc- ture. It is about one one-hnndreth inch (14mm.) in length, slightly enlarged at the upper end as shown in Fig. 2, a. The egg is pushed entirely through the wall of the straw and is left adhering loosely to the inside. It is of a milky white color, one twenty-fifth inch (1 mm.) in length, and one seventy-fifth inch (4 mm.) in width at its widest place. It is oblong, and slightly curved, as shown in Fig. 2, b. In our breeding-cages the females laid many eggs in the same stalk. This was to be expected, owing to the large number of insects confined with a small amount of grain; but I was surprised to frequently observe a female lay an egg and then move down the same stalk two or three inches and repeat the operation without an effort to seek a fresh stalk. Although many eggs were laid in some Fic. 2.—a, section of straw showing form of slits made by : : : the ovipositor; 6, egg, greatly of thestalksin our breeding cages, 11 no Se instance did more than one larva become fully grown ; and no trace of the other larvae could be found. I have found in the fields stalks containing two larvae, but these larvae were separated by a joint of the straw. In no instance, after ail the joints of a straw had been tunnelled, have I found more than a single larva. It is probable that where more than one egg is laid in a stalk, the stronger larva destroys the others. The eggs hatch soon after they are laid, and the larvae may de- velope quite rapidly. A larva which hatched from an egg laid on May 13th was on May 24th about one-quarter inch (6 mm.) in length, and had bored through the principal joint of the straw, and had also penetrated the upper solid part of the stalk. Four days later another larva, which also hatched from an egg laid May 13th, was found to have tunnelled the entire length of the stalk in which it was. * In no case did I find any external indication of the presence of a larvain a wheat stalk until the larva was nearly fully grown, and had tunnelled the stalk down to the first joint. At this time there is frequently a discoloration of the stalks just below the injured joiuts. This was observed during the first week in July. The wheat had then reached its full height and the grain was in the nulk. At this time there was observed scattered through the field heads of wheat which were yellow and contained no grain. These dead heads corresponded in appearance exactly with those described by Herpin in the extract quoted below. I carefully examined many of these stalks ; and found that in no case was the injury due to Cephus pygmaeus. In most cases the heads had been killed by a species of Thrips which sucks the juice from the stalk, in the tender portion, within the sheat of the upper leaf, just above the upper joint. This causes the stalk to shrivel at this point, and all above the injury to die. This disease of the wheat is similar to the com- mon one of grass ; but the Thrips which produces it is larger than that infesting grass and is further distinguished by having its antennae marked by dark rings. Although this saw-fly borer has not been previously observed in this country, itis a well known European species. It his been de- scribed by both English and Continental writers; and in France especially it has been considered a very serious pest. One writer t * See note 4. p ¢ J. Ch. Herpin, quoted by Curtis in Farm Insects, p. 253. says ‘‘If you traverse a field of wheat or rye a week or a fort- night before harvest you may observe a greater or less considera- , ble number of the stems the straight and whitened ears of which elevate themselves above the others, and appear to have attained their perfect maturity. They form a striking contrast with the neighboring plants which are still very green; and the heavy ears filled with grains are inflexed and bent towards the earth whilst the others are entirely empty, or contain only a very small num- ber of grains, which are for the most part shrunk and horny.’’ The same writer in referring to the circular cut made by the larva before spinning its cocoon states that: ‘‘In consequence of this section, the straw, having no more sustenance, breaks off at the foot and falls to the ground when the wind becomes a little strong ; the field then presents the same appearance as if it had been traversed in every direction by sportsmen or by animals.” In this country, according to my observations, the injury to the wheat by this insect produces results somewhat different from those just described. I found the same lodging of the wheat caused by the circular cut near the root ; but this lodging of the grain appears to be the chief injury here. I did not find that the presence of a larva in a stalk caused the complete destruction of the seed described by European writers. In fact, in most cases, the grain shelled from a certain number of infested heads weighed more than the grain shelled from the same number of non-infested heads taken from the same bundle in regu- lar order after the infested ones had been removed.* This was at first very puzzling. It seemed to point to the ab- surd conclusion that the presence of this borer within a stalk in- ereased the amount of grain produced by that stalk. It was noted, however, that the infested stalks were almost invariably large, healthy ones, with good well filled heads. When we re- call the fact that the laying of the eggs takes place while the wheat is stifl small, and that.a stalk must be large enough to con- tain a hollow of considerable size before it is suitable for the de- velopment of a larva, it will be seen that the stalks infested will naturally be those that are the largest early in the season ; while the stalks that are backward in their development, and conse- quently will produce smaller heads, will escape the attack of the insect. Therefore, a comparison of heads from infested stalks * See note 7. with heads from stalks of average size will not indicate the results of the presence of the insect. Still, as I have already said, it ap- pears that with us the chief injury caused by the insect is the lodging of the grain. Some observations were made to determine how abundant this insect is at Ithaca. It was found that the proportion of straws infested varied from ;', of one per cent to 11 per cent., with an average of 4,5; per cent.* It is stated by European writers that this Saw-fly infests both wheat and rye. I had no opportunity to study the last named grain, but made some observations to determine the range of food- plants of the insect here. There was a field of oats on the Uni- versity Farm adjoining a clover field that was in wheat last year. These oats were sowed very early so that at the time the Saw-flies were ovipositing the stalks were large enough to receive the eggs. I found Saw-flies on the plants; but a careful examination of a large number of oat straws made at harvest time, failed to reveal a single infested straw. i I confined fifty Saw-flies, thirty males, and twenty females, in a cage with growing orchard grass, which was large enough to re- ceive the eggs. In ashort time the females began to oviposit freely in the grass ; but although many eggs were laid in the grass, IE was unable later to find a single larva, or any indications of their having fed upon the interior of the stalk. Neither could larvae be found in orchard grass growing ina field where there was wheat last year. Curtis describes a parasite that infests this Saw-fly in England. It is the Ichneumon-fiy, Pachymerus calcitrator. But although I have bred many hundreds of the Saw-fly and have examined thousands of infested straws, in only two instances have I found any indications of parasites.} We must, therefore, depend on ar- tificial means for checking the increase of this species. The most obvious method of combating the insect is to attack it while it is in the stubble, that is tosay, sometime between the wheat harvest and the first of the following May. If the stubble can be burned in the autumn the larvae in it can be destroyed. The same thing could be accomplished by ploughing the stubble under, which would prevent the escape of the adult flies. Butas it is customary in this region tosow grass seed with wheat I fear * See note 6. +See note 8. that the ploughing under of infested stubble would rarely be prac- ticable ; and it is also questionable if the burning of the stubble could be thoroughly done without destroying the young grass. It seems probable, therefore, that if this insect becomes a very serious pest it will be necessary, in badly infested regions, either to sow grass seed with oats and burn or plough under all wheat stub- ble ; or to suspend the raising of wheat for one year, in order to destroy the insects by starvation. I purpose to continue my ex- periments in the direction of ascertaining in what plants, other than wheat, the insect can develope, as bearing on the starvation method of combating it. : JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK. NOTES. Under this head are included the more technical descriptions, and the details of certain observations that I desire to put on record, but which would not interest the general reader. Nore I. Description of the adult of Cephus pygmaeus.—The adult is of a shining black color, banded and spotted with yellow ; the male measures 8 mim. in length, the femaleromm. The body and appendages are clothed with numerous microscopic hairs. these are somewhat longer and denser, especially in the male, on the ventral aspect of the abdomen and at the caudal end of the body. ‘The head is large with prominent eyes. There are three ocelli, forming a triangle near the summit of the head. The antennae are inserted on the front nearly opposite the middle of the compound eyes. ‘They are about 5 mm. in length, slightly clavate, and are composed of nineteen or twenty segments. The two antennae of the same insect sometimes differ as to the number of segments. The first segment is ovate with a well marked bulb at the base, which appears like a distinct globular segment. The second seginent is short, being only about as long as broad. ‘The three succeeding segments are elongated ; after which the segments become successively shorter until the middle of the club is reached ; where their length is less than their width. Beyond this there is but slight variation in the length of the segments. The last, however, is somewhat longer than those immediately preceding it; or is divided, thus forming the supernumary segment. ‘The four wings are transparent and irridescent but somewhat smoky. The costal margin of the wing is yellow towards the base; the sub-costal vein, however, which is closely united to the costa is, like the other veins, dark, pitchy-brown. There is a more or less well marked smoky spot in the third discoidal cell extending from the origin of the posterior vein. The venation of the wings is represented in Fig. 3. In the male the yellow markings are much more extended than in the other sex, the following named parts being of that color : ‘The mouth patts; “except the tips of the maudables, which are dark- brown ; a spot on the clypeus ; a narrow margin between the compound eyes and the mouth FIG. 3.—Venation of wings of Cephus. parts; the ventral aspect of the thorax; the legs, excepting a dark band on the caudal aspect of the coxae and femora (the tibiae and tarsi are some- times brown or smoky instead of yellow); the membrane at the base of the abdomen ; on the ventral side of the abdomen the caudal margin of each segment; on the dorsal side of the abdo- men a more or less well marked spot on each side of the first and second abdominal segments; a broad band occupying the caudal three-fourths of the third and fifth segments ; a narrow band on the caudal margin of the sixth segment ; which may be more or less interrupted, forming spots on the back and sides ; and the latero-caudal angles of the seventh segment. In the female there is a yellow spot at the base of the mandi- bles ; the maxillary palpi, except the terminal portions, are yellow ; the tibiae and tarsi vary from light yellowish-brown to dark smoky-brown ; those of the hinder pair of legs usually being darker the markings of the abdomen are the same as in the male, except that the yellow spots and bands are usually smaller, and are sometimes entirely wanting on the ventral aspect. Note 2: Description of the Larva of Cephus pygmaeus.—The larva is of a yellowish milky-white color, with the head brownish, the tips of the mandibles and the eyes black. When fully grown it measures from g min. to 14 mm. in length; but in spinning the’ ae nee = cocoon the body becomes shortened, measuring after that opera- tion from 5 mm. tog mm. ‘The body is nearly cylindrical in out- line. ‘The head is of medium size, being much smaller than either of the thoracic segments. The thoracic segments are somewhat swollen ; andthe abdomen tapers gradually from the thorax to the caudalend. ‘The antennae are four jointed, and taper strongly. A short distance ventro-caudad of each antenna is a single black ocellus. The labrum is prominent and slightly emarginate. The mandibles are strongly toothed. The maxillary palpi are four jointed. The labium is slightly emarginate. The labial palpi are three jointed. There are ten pairs of spiracles, two thoracic and eight abdominal. ‘The prothoracic spiracles are much larger than the others and are greatly elongated. The second spiracles open in the fold between the mesothorax and metathorax. The remaining spiracles are borne by the abdominal segments one to eight. The thoracic legs are represented by very short tubercles. There is at the caudal end of the body on the middle line dorsad of the vent a prominent tubercle. This is terminated by a chiti- nous ferrule-like ring ; and is doubtless an organ of locomotion, aiding the insect in pushing itself up the cavity of the straw. On each side of the ventral lobe at the caudal end of the body there is also a stout spine... These spines probably have the saine function as the tubercle just described. The body is naked except the head and caudal extremity. There are a few slender scattered hairs upon the head, and a like quantity of stronger more spine-like hairs at the caudal end. Note 3: On the Position in which the Egg ts laid.—‘‘ This in- sect’’ says M. Dugaigneau “‘after pairing pierces the stalk of the rye, below the first knot, to deposit an egg in its interior, which hatches so much earlier, being warmed by the sun’s rays concen- trated close to the earth, amongst all the straw of the rye.’’ (Cur- tis Farm Insects, p. 252.) My observations do not confirm this statement. ‘The insect appears to oviposit anywhere along the larger part of the straw where it is hollow; if any preference is shown it is for the upper portion of the straw not for the lower. Table, I. will serve to illustrate this point. In this table the space between the horizontal lines represent the sections of a straw of wheat. The vertical lines represent the portion bored by the larvae of Cephus, in thirty straws taken from a single square yard on the 29th of June. Obviously in each case the egg was laid somewhere ed 137 —— Within the burrowed parts; in the majority of cases this must have been above the third joint ; it may have been so in all cases excepting Nos. 13, 18, and 20, counting from the left. NoTe 4: On the Development of the Larvae.—I made observa- tions to determine the rate of development of the larvae and the date of their maturing. Especial pains was taken to determine if any considerable proportion of the larvae failed to mature in time to descend to the ground before the grain was cut, as bearing on the artificial dissemination of the species. The data given on page 131 indicates a short duration of the egg state anda rapid development of the larvae. It should be borne in mind, however, that those observations were made in the Insectary upon specimens whose development had been accelerated by the heat of the greenhouse. In the field the corresponding changes took place much later. After the appearance of the adult flies in the Insectary, I made frequent observations in the field. The following are the more important results : Careful searching in the fields failed to reveal the presence of any adults till May 25th. ‘Then they were found to be quite com- mon in a field of young clover which was last year’s wheat field. The insects had passed the winter in the wheat stubble in this field and had not yet migrated from it. Although I took fifty specimens in twenty minutes by sweeping in this field I could not find a single specimen in the nearest wheat field. On May 29th the Saw-flies were found for the first time common in the wheat field. Both sexes were found, but the females were much more abundant. ‘The specimens were found especially in that part of the field nearest the clover field. At that time the heads of wheat were just beginning to project from the sheath formed by the upper leaf. This was true of probably 4 per cent. or 5 per cent. of the stalks. On June 29th the wheat was beginning to turn brown. On that date all of the wheat stalks were gathered from one square yard of the field and each stalk examined. ‘Thirty of the stalks were found to be infested. Careful notes were taken of the position of each larva and the extent it had bored. The results are repre- sented graphically in Table I. A study of this table shows that the greater part of the larvae were in the upper part of the stalks ; ‘pUNO} WAY AM BAIL[ dy} JO Uor}sOd ay} X SY} PUL ‘ BAIL] B JO Sa110g IY} JO JUI}XI IY} SI}BOIPUL IUT] [BOT}IVA YORS {SMPBI]S dq} JO SMOI]DIS OT} JUasaidait Saut] [e}UOZLIOY ay} UaaMjaq saovds ay, ‘“SSULIOg Itay} JO }Ud}X2 pue svarel so SuoIztsod ay} jo woryeyuasaidas jeoryderg ‘punoiy | likds ‘yuIof 4sI | ‘yurof pz | We LAE satu Cyy6 Ainf) [J wIavy, (‘yj6z ounf{) "] wiavy ‘yutof pe ATT ‘yurof 43h LTT yutof TAS INNNNGHH ‘peoH ie) = and most of them were boring towards the head of the stalks. Several larvae had just begun to tunnel the stalk and had not yet perforated a single joint. On the oth of July the wheat was ready to harvest. At this time the stalks from another square yard were examined ; and the results are shown in Table II. It will be seen that a very marked change had taken place in the ten days intervening be- tween this time and the previous examination. In each case every joint above the larva had been tunnelled ; with one excepticn the larvae had started downward ; and sixteen of the twenty-one lar- vae had penetrated the lower joint Had the wheat been cut with a reaper that day only five of the larvae would have been removed with the straw. The average length of the larvae was 11 mm. In only two cases had the larvae begun to make the circular cut near the ground. The wheat was left standing in a portion of the field and examinations were made on the 13th, 15th, 17th and roth of July. On the 13th, nineteen infested stalks were found in one square yard of the field. In these only one larva was above the second joint ; five were at the first joint; and thirteen were at the root. All were below the reach of the reaper, as the one above the sec- ond joint was only two inches from the ground; in fact it was making its cocoon at this point. Ten of the specimens had made the circular cut; and three, had spun their cocoons. The results of the observations of July 15th are indicated in Table III. ‘T'wenty-five of the thirty-three specimens had made the circular cut, and thirteen had spun their cocoons. One speci- men, the sixth from the left in the table, had made its cocoon above the second joint, eight inches from the ground. Another specimen was at the top of its burrow. ‘These two were all that were not below the reach of the reaper ; the only other specimen above the first joint being only one and one-half inches from the ground. The square yard of wheat examined July 17th contained fifteen infested straws. All but two of the larvae were at the surface of the ground; of these, one was five inches from the ground, above the first joint ; and the other, six inches from the ground, and above the second joint. F “PUNOJ Woy BATE] IY} JO Morpsod ay} X 94} PUL : BAILI B JO SaL10q dy} Jo }19}X9 94} Sd}OIpUT AUT [BOTVIOA Oa {sMmvIs 31} JO SMOT}OasS aq} yrasaidar sant [e}MozIOY ay} Uaamjaq saoeds ay, ‘sBap10q 4f9y} Jo }U9}Xa puv avai] Jo suorjisod oy} jo woneyueseidar [eoryderg ‘punotry es aS a a a a a ah: an a Aas TT _ oe & a & oe oe eee oP EO: LyX "yurof 4st LTE Ft ‘yuo pz TAA | | th | ‘yurof pt UATE TIANA) “yurof YW VLEET VIANA ‘yurof 43S Lilt LN ATT) 1 | ‘peoH (yy6r Aint) “Ay wavy Cut AD) tir fav Table IV. shows the results of the examination of July 19th. Highteen infested straws were found. All larvae had penetrated to the ground. All had made the circular cut and partition below it, and all but four had spun their cocoons. From these observations it is evident that a. small proportion of the insects are probably removed from the wheat fields in the straw ; and consequently there is danger of the spreading of the species in this way. It is probable that the species was introduced into this country in straw used as packing ; and it may be further distributed here in the same way. Note 5. On the Date of Pupation.—Owing to my absence from Ithaca during the winter, the date at which the larvae changed to pupae was not definitely ascertained. On the 23d of April I was able to find in the field only pupae; but larvae which had been kept cool in the hibernating-room of the Insectary had not yet changed to pupae. Note 6. On the Abundance of Cephus pygmaeus at Ithaca.—The following observation will serve to indicate the abundance of the species in this locality : In 1887 four examinations were made to determine the propor- tion of wheat straws infested with the following results : In a lot of I10 straws Io were infested. ae “ce 86 ce 6 ae “ec ce “ce 46 ae 6 “e “e “ae ae 34 ins 4 ims “e The following observations were made in 1889 : In one square yard containing 380 straws 30 were infested. ce “ce ce ce “oe ‘ 300 21 ae “ce “ce “oe So oe I ae oe ae ce ae ae ae ae Be “cc “e ec oe oe ce 360 ce 15 ae ae oe ae oe ce ae ins oe 365 18 bundle containing 2325 ‘ 99 “oe “e “ce cc 2376 ce 16 “ec “e 2573 i LS The three bundles were taken from widely different parts of the field. ‘The six square yards examined were all situated on the side of the field nearest the clover field from which the Saw-flies spread. They therefore, doubtless indicate an unusually large proportion of infested straws. At the time these six examina- tions were made I was unable to remove the grain from other parts of the field, on account of other experiments which were being conducted upon it. “ce “ce “ce “ec Note 7. On the Effect of the Boring of Cephus pygmaeus upon the Quantity of Grain Developed.—In 1887 only a single observa- tion was made. It was found that ten infested stalks produced 273 kernals which weighed 1o grams; while ten stalks not infest- ed produced 261 kernels which weighed a little more than 11 grams. ‘This indicates that the kernels from the infested stalks were not so well filled as those from the non-infested stalks ; for although there were a greater number of the former, they did not weigh as much as the latter. In fact the average weight of the kernals from the infested stalks was 13 per cent less than those from the other lot. In 1889, unfortunately, a comparison was not made in the weight of the kernels from infested and non-infested stalks. The importance of this was not appreciated till I undertook to digest the results of the experiments. Comparisons were made between the weight of the grain from the infested straws in each bundle, and the weight of the grain from three lots of non-infested straws from the same bundle. The following are the results obtained. A possible explanation of these results has been gee on page 132. In bundle No. The grain fo 99 infested heads weighed 85 grams. 99 non-infested heads weighed 70 grams. “cc “6 99 “cc Gil “ec ac 99 oe ‘ ‘ 67 “cr In bundle No. 2: The grain from 16 infested heads weighed 12.3 grams. of, 16 non-infested heads weighed 11.3 grams. “ “ 16 «6 cc 12: 6* ““c ce “ee 16 ee “e “eé re 9 ce In bundle No. 3: The grain from 173 infested heads weighed 165 grams. 173 non-infested heads weighed 140 grams. “ee ce 173 “e ee ‘ec 130 ce eé “ce 173 ac ce ae 120 “ae Note 8: Parasites of Cephus pygmaeus. —On the 23d of April a crippled Ichneumon-fly was found emerging from a cocoon of Cephus pygmaeus. Unfortunately, the specimen is in too poor a condition to admit of determining the species. On the 20th of July a parasitic larva was found in the cell of a Cephus larva at the base of a wheat stalk. The parasite was outside of the body of the Cephus. The latter was soon destroyed ; and the parasite spun a cocoon, from which it has not yet emerged. * This lot was composed of large, selected heads. SO wee UNV RSF Y, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. BULLETIN OF THE Aeoricultural Experiment Station. CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT. AIL. DECEMBER, 1889. A New Apparatus for Drying Substances in Hydrogen and for the Extraction of the Fat. This Bulletin is published in limited numbers for special distribution among Experiment Station Workers and Chemists. ‘That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their sus- tenance, and two hundred millions of men expend their daily toil, must be the most important of all; the parent and precursor of all otherarts. In every country, then, and at every period, the investigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds,’’—JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., 1889. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Agricultural Experiment Station. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President C. K. ADAMS. Hon: -AciD WHITE. ks. oc, Be ee a oes Trustee of the University. Hot. JAMES WOOD, 2: 4505 $s 7 President State Agricultural Society. pepe ICROES Moat, Patae Me tiara. oti ter May 4, Sen od tee me Professor of Agriculture. GACICAT DW ETT. fe) e) sol lrevtisi fe mace iee alien (ee cena olen aii Professor of Chemistry. NAMES ASW Uo) WTR YE eR i Professor of Veterinary Science. PAINE OP IRNDESS Hc ie) Oars 2 ed | ULAR coe wom aeERee cy Sree c Professor of Botany. els COMSTOCK. 10) 5.1 Cet thee a inch ear elated Professor of Entomology. Te ED BATT IG 5 te) celle). 1er ie See hstcie ase ise tar hein oto ne Professor of Horticulture. NVEGRE DUDE Ye om Metin tain ys he Bente Ass’t Prof. Cryptogamic Botany. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. LPs WROBERTS® 5 sowie tema el hc Ue welt keh eter co eee Memnts Director. HENRY Ho WING oes cae ioe Deputy Director and Secretary. Sy. WEELTA MS, fo cs Ae) ise ope) 1s engl ceed ee edad Be Treasurer. ASSISTANTS. Asricnltnre, 5 os finale es ce Ten eh ta. ee ae Aye dee ae ED TARBELL. CHeMiIstey bose igre ae dieu mena Bi ov Bare WILLIAM P. CUTTER. Veterinary; Solemee: j. {isha heim 1s hens oy aA eels ESNLOMGLOL Veen: fiz is japon eed aaa ere ae JoHN M. STEDMAN. Rrortionitures (2/81) See ces Ook eh ad fee, wale | W. M. Munson. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall. Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends, will please send us the names of the parties. CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION, Ithaca, N. Y. ar 4 ae ie he oe Fig. 1. A NEW APPARATUS FOR DRYING SUBSTANCES IN HYDROGEN AND FOR THE EXTRACTION OF THE FAT. T the last meeting of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, it was voted that in the analysis of cattle foods the substance should be dried, for the determination of moisture and ether-extract, in a current of dried hydrogen, at the temperature of boiling water, and that the glass containing the substance should not come in contact with the water. It seemed to me at first well nigh impossible to fulfill this last condition ; and it may be that this precaution is unnecessary ; but if it can in any way easily be observed, it is certainly well enough to do so. The form of drying bath and tube shown in the adjoining figures seems to meet the requirement fully, while at the same time it makes it also possible to carry the hydrogen directly through the substance instead of over it as usually done, thus securing more rapid drying, to weigh the substance before and after drying ina perfectly tight tube, and to use one and the same portion of the substance for the three determinations, moisture, ether-extract and fibre, without inconvenience, and without any danger of loss of substance in the single transfer from one vessel to another that is necessary. It is also easy to heat the hydrogen to the temperature of the boiling water before conducting it through the substance, a modi- fication that seemed desirable to some members of the Association. My own bath has a coil of about four feet of eighth-inch tin pipe in the bottom ; one free end of this passes up inside one end of the bath, and out, to connect with the hydrogen-drying apparatus ; the other end of the pipe passes up at the other end of the bath to near the top, where it is connected with a piece of quarter-inch pipe, running back as far as the other end of the bath, and from which arms of the smaller pipe pass out along the side, and then down to connect by rubber tube with the drying tubes. ‘This ad- dition was put in for the purpose of making a thorough test of the efficiency of previously heating the hydrogen, which test we have — 148 — not yet had time to make. I seriously doubt, however, whether encouraging results will be obtained. The construction of the copper bath is made plain by the figures 1 and 2; it is 24 cm. long, 15 high, and 8% broad ; it can be made at any respectable tin shop. This bath stands in a piece of sheet copper bent up at right angles aiong the sides, as shown in the end view, fig. 2; on one side, this vertical part need not be over I cm. high, just enough to project a little up the side of the bath which rests snugly against it, zof as shown in the figure ; along the other side it projects upward, at a little distance from the side of the bath, about 15 mm. and to about the height of 4 cm. ; opposite each of the tubes of the bath a slot is cut in this vertical part, which serves then as a shoulder against which the glass tube rests when in place, to keep it from slipping down and out of position. The tube, fig. 3, for containing the substance has at the zone a three small projections on the inner surface, which support a per- forated platinum disk of rather heavy platinum foil carrying the asbestos filter. ‘This tube is 13 cm. long and 23 mm. inner diam- eter, and weighs, with its close stoppers, about 30 gms. T’he filter is readily made in the same manner as the Gooch fil- ter, the tube being first fitted to a suction flask by an enlargement of one of the holes of the rubber cork, or, better still, by slipping a short piece of rubber tube over it, of such thickness that it will fit tightly in the mouth of one of the new suction flasks with lat- eral tube for connection with the suction. A very thin welt of as- bestos is sufficient ; if it is too thick the gas and ether will not flow through with suitable ease. About two gms. of the substance are put in this tube, previously weighed with the stoppers 6 and ¢, and the weight of the substance accurately determined by weighing tube and contents. The stop- pers are removed, a band of thin asbestos paper is wound around the end d of the tube, a little behind the slight shoulder at the rim, as many times as may be necessary to make a snug fit when this tube is slid down into the copper tube in the bath; thus the circulation of air between the glass and the copper tubes is pre- vented that would retard the heating of the former ; the stopper e is put in the lower end of the tube, for connection with the hydro- gen supply, and the stopper fin the upper end ; this latter stopper is connected by rubber tube with a glass tube slipping easily through one of the holes of a rubber cork closing a small flask, con- taining a little sulphuric acid, into which this tube just dips ; when as many tubes as are to be charged are thus arranged in place and the hydrogen is turned on, the even flow of the current through the whole number is secured by raising or lowering, a very little, the several tubes through which the outflow passes, so as to get a little more back pressure for one, or a little less for another, as may be found necessary. When the drying is supposed to be com- pleted, the tubes are weighed again with their close stoppers, and so on. Then, for the extraction of. the fat, the unstoppered tube with contents is put directly into a Soxhlet extractor, or into a continu- ous extractor, for the treatment with ether, in the usual manner. Fig. 4 is a representation of the form of a continuous extractor which has been used in my laboratory for many years with perfect success ; it was described in the second annual report of the Cor- nell University Experiment Station, 1882-3; as slightly modified, it is reproduced here simply in order to make the set of apparatus complete for the work in hand. ‘The bottom of the inner tube is perforated at / to allow the ether that has entered through the lat- eral openings & & and passed through the substance to flow back into -the flask connected with the tube g. By the bending to one side of this tube, the droplets of ether that may be projected up- wards in the boiling are less likely to come in contact with the cork, a matter of some little consequence when the liquid becomes pretty well saturated with fat. When the extraction is completed there seems to be no reason why the amount extracted cannot be determined by weighing the dried contents of the tube, as well as by weighing the substance extracted ; and the drying in hydrogen is much more easily man- aged in the former case than in the latter; but I have not yet had time to test this variation of the method. The ether-extract being estimated, it is evident that the contents of the tube, now in the proper condition for the determination of the fibre, can be transferred without any difficulty to the digestion flask, with the aid of a wash-bottle containing the required quan- tity of boiling sulphuric acid; that the platinum disk and small quantity of asbestos must accompany the substance of course does no harm. It now remains to be demonstrated that this apparatus serves its intended purpose. ‘The following observations made by the assist- ant chemist of the Station, Mr. W. P. Cutter, furnish this demon- stration, proving that the substance in the glass tube is heated to the temperature of the boiling water in the bath, although the tube itself is not in contact with the water, just as fully as when the vessel containing the substance zs in direct contact with the water. The same thermometer was used in all the experiments. 1. Temperature of water boiling in covered beaker, . . . .... .. . 100° 2. Temperature of water boiling in the drying apparatus, . . - | LOoy 3. Temperature of substance [bran] i in a test tube immersed in ‘boiling water, the bulb of the thermometer imbedded in the substance, . Io1° 4. ‘Temperature of the substance in the drying tube in the apparatus, taken in the same manner as in 3,. . 2 ror? 5. Temperature of the substance in the drying tube in the apparatus, with hydrogen circulating through instead of air, . — . 100° The observation made in test three, and confirmed in the next succeeding test, in both of which cases the air was not displaced by .hydrogen, is interesting as indicating oxidation of the sub- stance when heated under such conditions, and thus still further enforciug the necessity of using hydrogen. Aftef: these tests had been made, two samples of the bran sent out in 1887-8 were carried through the drying operation and the extraction by ether. A perfectly clear extract was obtained, yield- ing 4.61 and 4.63 per cent. of residue dried in hydrogen. The transfer to the flask for the treatment for fibre was then made without any difficulty. The cost of the apparatus, for six tubes, was as follows: The copper bath, . . SOT 2 ee Skee Each glass tube, with the four stoppers, Jomtien yak Cea ELT OO Each extractor (fig. 4), - sere Meee aks Bede ® is ur eer OO Bach’ platiman disk 21s 22505 nt 2 Sa ee De The tubes and extractors were made by E. Greiner, 76 Nassau St., New York, who has the full directions for them; the tubes were furnished under the name of ‘‘double-stoppered drying tubes.’’ Pror. G. C. CALDWELL. FOR Meee. UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. BULLETIN OF THE Agricultural Experiment Station. AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. 58 SGRARS DECEMBER, 1880. I. On the Deterioration of Farm Yard Manure by Leach- ing and Fermentation. II. On the Effect of a Grain Ration for Cows at Pasture. Bulletin XII was entirely devoted to the description of a new piece of chemical apparatus, and was not issued for gen¢ral dristribution. “That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their sus. tenance, and two hundred millions of men expend their daily toil, must be the most important of all; the parent and precursor of all otherarts. In every country, then, and at every period, the investigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds.’’—JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., 1889. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Agricultural Experiment Station. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. STATION COUNCIL. President C. K. ADAMS. Hon. A. D. WHITE, . . 2:4 fia». ss . Trustee of the Universite Hon. JAMES Woop, ..... . . . President State Agricultural Society. I; POROBERTS, 6 « cheoc.. 08. DA wy oe oe SeProfessor’of Deriewheam GC Cr CALDWELL. ay) se ka al eee . . . Professor of Chemistry. JAMES LAW, . soaca se % 2s 4 4 a. + Professor of. Veterinary Scieser: ACH INERERIONDISS) a: Bande Ses Kanyon ... . . Professor of Botany. Pet COMSTOCK a) ye ee ee ... . . . Professor of Entomology. | Chae) 8 BS BUNGE BD en a Ne Bea een ai 1... . ) } Professor of Hortienlture: W. Ro DUDEEY, . © 2). 0. ss 2S Ass’ t Prof. Cryptogamnie Botang, OFFICERS OF THE STATION. [PS OROBHRTS s. gaer Tea ea eee Sn tes 4a, JOUR XEON: HENRY H. WING,. .... . . . Deputy Director and Secretary. Ee) WILETAMS (2) et ME ee a eee neastinets ASSISTANTS. Moricultireyy. -as)\cog, foc kee Oe nk De Re Chemistry .°... Sse o2 Soy). Se We Cee Veterinary Science, . tT Re ARES Cee APACER he Hntomoloey, |. « sp.i- =) a tsee, ee ee JOHN IE Ore oMaane igreienlture ys 7. 134) pe ee eee . . . W. M. Munson. Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall. Those desiring this Bulletin for friends, will send us the names of the parties. CORNELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION, Ithaca, N. Y. (-ygvssojoyy v M047) ‘DYNNV JO SLS¥M SHL SS ———— aie . te \ NAN N { i Re ON THE DETERIORATION OF FARM YARD MANURE BY LEACHING AND FERMENTA- LON. During the past summer investigations have been made in this general subject in three main directions, viz : I. What loss does horse manure suffer when thrown out ina pile unsheltered from the weather ? II. What loss does mixed farm yard manure suffer when piled in aclose pile so that fermentation is very slow ; but without pro- tection from rainfall ? III. Is there an appreciable loss of valuable matter when ma- nure simply dries without fermentation ? - Losses of Horse Manure in a Loose Pile. For this experiment all the manure made in our horse stable for one day was used. The stables were cleaned out on Saturday night, March 3oth, at6 p.m. They were then littered with 38% pounds of straw, andon Sunday night, March 31st, the accumu- lated manure and straw were gathered together and weighed. There were in the stable during this time nine horses and the floors were tight so that nothing was lost. The total excretion was as follows : Total weight, manure and bedding. .......... 529.5 RVictoitompcldittg. so gst. lS ee Stas eae cst 3085 Total weight of excrement, solid andliquid. ...... 491. ASH, GGA! HSE IMO CS oSGEh A By oo 6 6 ee oe as 54.4 The manure so obtained was placed, without especial care to pack it down in a wooden box that was not water tight but from which water did not easily escape. This box was placed out of doors and surrounded with similar manure so that the whole pile- might heat up. The object being to place the box and its con- tents in the same conditions, as nearly as possible, that prevail when, horse manure is thrown out in a loose pile from the stable door. The box was allowed to remain in this position until Sept. 30th, when the contents were weighed, thoroughly mixed and duplicate samples sent to the chemist for analysis. In order to obtain a sample of manure for analysis to compare with that put in the wooden box, the horse manure for a day was collected in the same manner on the succeeding Sunday. ‘These trials were made on Sunday, because on that day the horses were in the stable all day, and the whole amount of excrement could be obtained. ‘The amount obtained in the second trial was as follows : Total weight, manure and bedding. . .......... . 496. Weight of beddings)" c-)= eter 2) oa we ere Bo nS red ROS Total weight of excrement, Sofie andeliqiidi= elvan Gas Oo: Av. excreted per horse perday...... Sor cthon Sah oe AS There were but eight horses this time, one being absent, the oth- ers were the same and were fed the same. It is fair to assume that the composition of the manure was the same, it being very nearly the same in quantity. The manure was run through a straw cutter to cut up the bedding and then thoroughly mixed and duplicate samples sent to the laboratory. Incidentally it is interesting to note the amount of solid and liquid excrement voided in twenty-four hours by a horse. The average for the two trials is a little less than fifty-six and one third pounds. T'wo of the horses were light driving horses, the re- mainder were grade Percheron farm horses of from 1200 to 1400 pounds weight and were fed liberally on oats and hay. The composition of the fresh manure and the manure after being exposed as described for six months is given below : [Analysis of Horse Analysis of Fresh Manure after hav- Horse Manure. jing been exposed Per cent. six months. Per cent. NV AtCRE ee on itt ahs seein een tom te 70.79 81.74 INSET NG Sn pb A 5 8 Go oo oS -51 -46 Phosphoric Acids, Geiss oe ee AAI 15 IPOEAS Hes Sesh aa ae ce eee ae | ae Bi! Total Weight of Manure. . . 529.5 272s The losses therefore were threefold ; first, a considerable loss in the total weight ; second, a gain in the percentage of water ; and third, a loss in the percentage of valuable fertilizing elements. Let us now compute these losses in dollars and cents. ) ° iS) as (e/a) as e ae August A BESS ee 1549" 4-37) |? LOsrd 13.53 Average 2d Period. . 18 79 4357 438 17-12 13.81 4.80 Week ending August 10) 15.29 | 13.59 | 4.09 16:29 | 137.98 [sir | | «« August 17| 18.07 We Speed 14.84 | 14.07 | 5.18 August 24) 17.54 13.43 | 4.48 14.00 ase |) Sai August 31) 18.05 | 13.59 | 4.61 14.64 Wawae) || SLE | Average 3d Period. .| 17.99 13.59 4.40 || 14.94 | 13.92 | oe ae ae ce 3-42 Week ending Sept. 7.| 18.96 | 13.61 | 4.47 || 13.66 13:82) (5277 2 SSC VS | eye || eee |) cesxoy di) agai! 13.30 | 4.28 ss SP Sepik. |) L716}. 13-12 31 421O 3h) 12.43 Loe | 4.61 Average 4th Period. .| 17.88 13.35 4.29 | 13-09 13.44 4.95) Study of the Results. It will at once be seen from the table that there was a steady and constant diminishing in the flow of milk of both lets but that lot II fell away in their milk yield much more rapidly that lot I. At the same time, if we except the last two weeks (of which mention will be made later) the milk of lot II showed a constant and consid- erable increase in percentage of fats, while that of lot I remained very nearly stationary. For this reason there was very little dif- ference in the total amount of fat produced by the two lots as will be seen by the following summary. TABLE II. | E Worms ae | Lor II Av. fat | Av. fat | Av. Milk | pro- || Av. Milk } pro- yield per, Average | duced || yield per | Average | duced day per | percent. |per day | day per | percent. |per day cow. |! fat. pen cow. | © ‘fat: per lbs. cow. Ibs. cow, lbs. Ibs. [At beginning, June 8.| 20.60 4.19 | .8@ || 20.55 4.18 | .86 \Ist Period, June g-July 6 19.55 4.03 | .7@ || 17.58 4.39 | 77 j2d Period, July 7-Aug. 3) 18.79 recto a ee - Ya 8 © 4.80 | .82 3d Period, Aug. 4-31-.| 17.99 | 4.40 | -7@ || 14.94 5-42 | 8x | | |4th Period, Sept. 1-21 .| 17.88 | 4.29 | .77 || 13.09 4.95 | .@5 | In this trial we certainly obtained no return in milk-or butter for the extra grain fed; but we should want to repeat the trial with other and larger numbers of cows, in other seasons and on other pastures before we should consider the matter as at all settled. At present all the other data we have on the question is found in the report of an experiment made at the Kansas Argicultural Ex- periment Station in the summer of 1888 * and the results so far as they go are in accordance with ours. In this experiment two lots of two cows each were fed alternate- ly on rations consisting of pasture alone, pasture and bran, past- ure and corn meal, and pasture and ground oats, for periods of seven days each. Professor Shelton from a most careful study of the milk and butter product obtained from these rations extending over a considerable period of time concludes : “The lesson taught plainly is, that the grain in the case, of corn meal, bran and oats, was fed at a considerable loss. The * First Annual Report of the Kansas Experiment Station for the year 1888, p. 69. 5 5) grain feed added materially to the milk yield, corn meal showing the greatest increase ; but this gain did not nearly pay expenses.’ It seemed tous that the weak point in these experiments was in the extreme shortness of the feeding periods, only one week, and for this reason we determined to make our period so long that the effect of continued grain feeding would be shown. Still our final results were scarcely so favorable to the grain ration as Professor Shelton’s. While we received no return in milk and butter for the extra grain fed, we should scarcely want to say that the grain was fed at a loss for two reasons, first, there must have been a considera- ble saving in pasture, in other words we would have been able to keep a larger number of cows in the same pasture. For we know that a cow of 1rooo pounds weight, and this was about the average weight of our cows, will consume when in full milk about twenty- four pounds of dry matter per day, the four pounds of bran and cotton-seed meal would furnish three and one haif pounds of this dry matter or fifteen per cent. That is if our pasture would have maintained eight cows without grain feed, nine could have been carried as well with the grain. Second the maunurial value of the grain at present prices of fodders and fertilizers, would go far toward balancing its cost. Reckoning that eighty per cent of the fertilizing value of the grain would be returned in the manure, and in this case there would be no danger of loss from leaching or fer- inentation, the fertilizing value of the two pounds of cotton-seed meal and the two pounds of bran would be 3.2 cents and the cost at 25 and 18 dollars per ton respectively would be 4.3 cents leav- ing I.1 cents per cow per day to be accounted for in saving of pas- ture or increase of product. Conclusion. While all the data that we have so far go to show that it did not pay us to give cows on good pasture a supplementary grain ration, yet we do not feel that we have as yet sufficient data to warrant us in recommending those who follow this practice to give it up. So far asour results in butter are concerned, they are so close as to be almost identical. It is quite possible that the milk yield may have been more influenced by the ‘‘ milking habit’’ of the cows than by the grain fed. By milking habit we mean the tendency that different cows have to milk for a longer or — 166 — shorter period after calving. All the cows used in the experiment had been in milk for a considerable period, four of them about five months and the other two considerably longer. It is not only possible but quite probable that these last two (the ones that were dropped at the end of the first four weeks) were more influenced by the individual tendency to ‘‘ run dry’’ than by the extra grain feed in the ration. We shall certainly repeat our investigations as soon as opportunity offers. Suppiementary Considerations. Several conditions arose during the course of the experiment entirely without our control, that may or may not have influenced our results ; and while in a certain sense they might be considered as foreign to the real discussion of the result, it seems worth while to mention them in this connection. 1. The rain fall at Ithaca in the growing season of 1889 was phenomenal, especially in the months of June and July, the amounts in inches being as follows: June, 6.74; July, 6.73; Aug. 3.32; Sept., 2.57, while the average for the past 11 years has been June, 3.52; July, 3.95; Aug., 3.02; Sept., 2.44, and dur- ing the time of the experiment June 8 to Sept. 21, rain fell on forty-nine days.* Our pastures remained green fresh and luxuri- ant throughout the whole season. ‘The grass, almost entirely blue grass, grew continuously ; but owing to the gravelly character of the soil the grass did not become soft and watery as often happens in soils that are naturally more moist. We cannot help thinking that had there been the usual midsummer drought with its accom- paniment of parched pastures the results from our supplementary grain ration would have been more marked. 2. A striking feature of the experiment is the large increase in the percentage of fat in the milk of lot II during the period from Aug. 4 to Sept. 7 inclusive and a similar slight increase in the milk of lot I for the same period. ‘This period coincided almost exactly with the period of least rainfall and highest temperature of the whole summer. From Aug. 5th to Sept. 5th inclusive, there was but one rain (Aug. 14) of any considerable amount, with some half dozen light showers on various intervening dates. * For these figures we are indebted to the Central Office of the New York -State Weather Service, located at Ithaca. S65 Thus in the only time during the whole course of the experiment in which the conditions approached those of an ordinary season, we seem to see the greatest effect from our grain.ration. 3. Another peculiarity that seems to be traced to climatic con- ditions is seen in the last two weeks of the experiment. Begin- ning on Sept. 6, more or less rain fell on every day but one till the close of the experiment on the 21st. During this period the weather was almost continually cloudy and what may be expres- sively termed ‘‘raw.’’ From Sept. 7th to 21st, the percentage of fat in the milk of lot I fell from 4.47 to 4.10,or nine per cent while the fat in the milk of Lot II in the same period, decreased from 5-77 to 4.61, or twenty per cent. 4. In view of the fact that a citizen of a neighboring state has been imprisoned for selling milk that was below the legal standard of twelve per cent of solids, it seems worth while to state that while when the average analysis for three days is taken into ac- count our milk was far above the required standard, (the average for both lots for the whole period was 13.56 per cent total solids and 4.58 per cent fats) yet there was one day when the milk from one lot fell below the legal requirement of 12% total solids, and several others on which the percentage of total solids came dan- gerously near the ‘‘dead line.’” Hadasample been taken on that day by the State authorities we should have been liable to convic- tion under the law and to a fine of not more than two hundred dol- lars and to imprisonment for not more than six months. It seems to us that no law can be just that fixes an arbitrary standard for the purity of milk which may depend upon the results of a single analysis. I. P. ROBERTS. HENRY H. WING. = *4 CH a Portis dy Cal 9), ER ity ae Ft Nb EL Ae FA VAS ; WaiMae TIEN : Ril aed 67! PaO vio nge Sari 2s Coe EN r