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The Annual Report of the Cornell University Agricultural
Experiment Station for 1892 is issued from the office of the State
Printer. All of that part of it which consists of the Bulletins of
the Experiment Station was printed from the printed copies of
these Bulletins issued by the station. No opportunity was given
to any of the officers of the Station to read or revise any of the
proofs, nor was the Station consulted in regard to the workman-
ship and material of the Report as a whole. Consequently the
Station considers itself entirely free from responsibility for errors,
typographical and otherwise.

I. P. ROBERTS,
Director.

1892.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

GARDEN.

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TRANS
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ALBANY :
JAMES B. LYON, STATE PRINTER.
1893.

MITTEDTOTHELEGISLATURE FEBRUARY 21, 1898.

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Cornell University — Agricultural Experiment Station.

FirtH ANNUAL Report

OF THE

Agricultural Experiment Station.

ITHACA, N, Y.,

org.2*

LIBRARY
i

‘ORK
TANIC AJ
GARDEN

TRANSMITTEDTOTHELEGISLATUREFEBRUARY 21, 1898.

ALBANY :
JAMES B. LYON, STATE PRINTER.
1893.

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4 ORGANIZATION.
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:

: BOARD OF CONTROL:

. THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.
BN STATION COUNCIL.

President, Jacos GouLp ScHURMAN.

Eiion, Beets VN MRT seh eS 2 6 Ds etallcgn’ a ac kG Trustee of the University.
mon). B. DuTcuER........... President State Agricultural Society.
MP VROBRETS: 6. cnc ke eek donk . Professor of Agriculture.

MO em WHLD hese, ts eine oa ves Professor of Chemistry.
| EN i Aalibk e Uik jah ays ie le vig) Sah = Professor of Veterinary Science.

PA, REET ISA! Lo ado ci, gh ort clepebe line wed Wi Professor of Botany.
MS COMSTOCK 0. oie iio oa cue ee lere's og ties oe Professor of Entomology
e Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry.
¢ Assistant Professor Cryptogamic Botany.
e OFFICERS OF THE STATION.

RN ES py i 2 ey coe UU UNI aid Mic une! Ss Oey Director.
Mmeunny H. Wine... 2... e eee Deputy Director and Secretary.
EMESIS TNC ETM ST ee av eg re Treasurer.
he ASSISTANTS

©”. BS TG HRT ATID 3 25-5 ee) ie NUR alas a, ibe elas oan a Entomology.
: EC TSRON Co eo eer Wak see all Agriculture.
GRITS Ts SST ENP RO Ee aes Me Gane Pea Horticulture.
Ng W. CavanauGH Ae oN MC Re CY SG A LSI Chemistry.
x Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.

BOTAWNI
GAPTY
oN Bi Or CON PEM TS.
if PAGE
SECU OL PCADSITPCAL isi), ah Ps daca sis bha akc os o's/o!Sinthe nose elvis ale, b clastioteie\alela.el « atols 7
ey (2 ELIS LPS rl 2) 6 A SPAT” Ste ge Re 9
PSO OCMOMmbNOL UECASTITOL y siercticcagel aie isocte usciti cule a dabei nie tier aniere ie lenin aleatae Sale 13
PRCA UO UNO. CHETTIBD ts jsccrain ojenshers ai ceo aetek vegeta tact ial wa hve ey etegel Susas ten ePeishafel tals 15
iteport of the Botanist and Arboriculturist <2... 00 6666. Jie. ck es eee eden 16
Report of the Cryptogomic Botanist and Plant Pathologist................ 17
REG CORAL OE MILOTIOLOP INE 5 0 !214 Lao hn sstoro nee lelebw asin pinielose np cane vats, 5 oltre ela 19
BRC COOL AP TICUIEULISE 125, lait, o's iaes aie) aiace deinen Wales wyareyhiate’ wie sles elejelaa alee 21
Report of the Horticulturist ...... 0.0.0... .ee.eeee praen eMREE 22
APPENDIX I.

Bulletin XXX VII[— The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.......... 27
pe PENG GER UAMMIS sae sli) irasaytahiie. a siseshel ex avebelijetsls 4 ave: a:c/seieCSia'al mye tareveharias aria raynts 31
II, The ASRETRTOH Fat ree cccpchntin cla Mesarciegete aisintyleie SMe, om w'arcra oft 4 Seem ibe Selanne 96
Bulletin XXXIX — Creaming and Aerating Milk.......... .........-.505 113
ee CO reamphaisin oy Dy LOM) heaec: vrelas su seo Sis ciel > ate es sesa area ois wpalleres 117
MA OMESCLELO A SCPALALOI A Yd cle airs simtere tales ote ters cies evas-et Stare abel Slee saranein sant Sie alee 129
ile Centmiucal:Separatlons...../ (iets chvchte ci disor Sisrh olele ogo wvelabe’ giaveleiote erste 132
a BNE CASK MOD ‘ANG AGTALOLS: cic, oie es ate gisiate dcherdinioh sain o's Riejejasdlalers ald eee 136
~ Bulletin XL— hemovine Tassels from /COrns. «oo. oss .c cc uiallebhieie s) puats'o teaieyslv'ape 143

Bulletin XLI— On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for
ETON OUSO LOR LEME Sil. 2. ges 5 ai duimiebatajele aig. so eae aea\nle/ oid ae atl ah coset 157
Ries ePIC ts Ab, COLMCM so ic dle vie wince water ee e046 Seb taehs ou» Sheree alae creer 164
Experiments C1ISewHere! gee c)ajeerois cials/aisiaiate oeeusinisle a slats Sucks sus. cepa tele 189
- Bulletin XLII— Second Report upon Electro Horticulture ............... 195
Bulletin XLIII — Some Troubles of Winter Tomatoes..................... 213
Bavicun WoLV — The Pear Tree Psylla. iio. i.e ee datace ce steels se cws 225
ree REY MD Wo LORIE LOE 5.6102) ohols on olo abstain aa bo teil’ lain ais wcasetectoaharmany Se ge 257
BapeeStaT eV L—— MAID ETTICS 5)2).0) 3). obs ae a elect wclele ag cle wieleldiaie ofata iu ge Salas 303
‘Bulletin XLVII— Feeding Lambs and Pigs.......... 0... .. cee eee eee cece 335
do Hecate bnelage to Lamps so os lari s seis strata navn 8 ela lalei eben era eens 339
II. Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous Rations for Lambs............... 341
Ill. Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous Rations for Pigs................. 346

IV. Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous Rations for Pigs, Second Generation, 351

ea MR icles

6 ConTeEnTs.
PAGE
Bulletin XLVIII—Spraying Apple Orchards in a Wet Season ............ 357
Bulletin XLIX—Sundry Investigations of the Year.................0-00 395
I. The Determination of Sugar in the Tomato..... ............0ee ees 399
II. Golden rod weeds...... ......... Se URC Coie ae 403
iy) A new Anthracnose of the Privet. ...).'. .siies sos bees ss ee 404
IV. Note on the Cercospora of Celery Blight ................. ..csee, 414
V. Corn— Detasseling Experiment ................. Sa es «os 418
Vi -Efiect of Fertilizersion Tobacto'. 0.0252. 65 chishs) pean s oe eee 422
VII. Residuary Effect of a Grain Ration for Cows at Pasture ......... 424
Wit, Binek reach Apis 0) cis cits Sodio Seckteys pop co v9 hea 427
IX. A New Maize and its Behavior under Cultivation.... .......... 434
X. Behavior of some Egg Plant Crosses.........2......4 seeeseeceees 441
mo verniuzers' sor Grape: Cuttings... cc sae accan hs > ons finan ee 450
Mit, Black Knotiof the Plum and Cherry...) 30.5). ».s 4.0500 ee 451
XIII. The Wild Potato of the Mexican Region ...... ..............0- 454
XIV. Do Fertilizers affect the Quality of Tomatoes?.................. 459
XV wehbe. etch:orLare asvan, Orchard) Plant..).(... jie. ose aes 458
XVI. Substitute for Glass in Greenhouse Roofs............... ....:- 459

APPENDIX II.

Detailed Statement of Receipts and Expenditures.............. ...... 463-483

STATE OF NEWYORK:

No. 62.

>

IN ASSEMBLY,

Frsruary 17, 1893.

PETE ANNO AE REPORT

OF THE

Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.

‘\

aD

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

To His Excellency, The Governor of the State of New York,

Albany, NV. ¥.

Sir—TI have the honor to transmit herewith the fifth annual

_ report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell Univer-
_ Sity, in accordance with the act of Congress of March 2, 188%,

establishing the station.

This document includes the reports of the director, treasurer,

_ chemist, botanist and arboriculturist, cryptogamic botanist and
_ plant histologist, entomologist and horticulturist, besides two
appendixes, the first of which contains the twelve bulletins pub-

eee

lished during the year, and the second, a detailed statement of
the receipts and expenditures.

While the investigations conducted at the station are all believed
to ‘be of great value, I may be permitted to call the attention of

Weta Nara Raa
8 AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

your Excellency to two or three of them, whose direct utility will
be immediately perceived. Bulletin No. 38, which treats of plums
and cherries, is the most complete publication of its kind ever
issued, and has been of great use to nurserymen and fruit growers.
Bulletin No. 44 traces the life history of the pear tree psylla,
which has threatened to annihilate pear culture in this and many
other localities, and discovers practical ,»and certain remedies by
which an end may be put to its devastations. The pecuniary
value of this bulletin to the farmers of our State is simply
incalculable.

I have the honor to be your obedient servant.

J. G. SCHURMAN,
President of Cornell Uniwersity.

Report of the Director.

To the President of the Cornell University:

Sir—TI have the honor to transmit herewith my fifth annual
report, together with those of the treasurer and of the chiefs of
the several divisions into which the experiment station is divided.

Another year of the experiment station closes with more satis-
factory results than any that have preceded, both as regards the
experiments that are carried on from year to year and also those
that have given practically conclusive results.

In all field experiments anything approaching the accuracy
which can be secured in the laboratory is impossible, and it has
been urged by some that but few valuable field experiments with
cereals and grasses could be conducted, but the long painstaking
efforts of Sir J. B. Lawes, of England, show conclusively that care
and skill long continued in field experiments result in the dis-

covery of valuable facts.

A large number of experiments have been conducted since the

_ organization of the station in 1888, which it has been thought

best to repeat in order to eliminate so far as possible by experi-

ments on a large number of plots, extending through many years

_the many variable conditions which are always present and which
are not constant from year to year. Many of the field experi-
ments already under way give indications that the facts they reveal
will be reliable and of use, although they have been conducted but
four or five years. The great mass of work which is necessary to
carry on these extended field experiments is fully justified by the
present outlook. The field experiments also reveal, year by year,
valuable lessons for both teacher and pupil in the College of

Agriculture.

Nothing is so convincing as seeing, so it gives me great pleasure
to say to you that the large number of field experiments and
investigations have given the finest possible opportunities for

2

<

aXe e's 4 are mg ei Rakran a he he es ee hae va
10 AgricutturaL Exprrment Sration, Iraaca, N. Y.

awakening thought and emphasizing principles. None of these —
experiments are yet given in our reports or to the public through
the press.

Twelve bulletins have been published during the year, and I am

certain that no previous year has been so fruitful of valuable
results.

The first bulletin of the year, No. 38, treats of plums and cher-
ries; it is the most complete publication of its kind and is prized
by nurserymen and fruit-growers, because heretofore little was
known in regard to the wild types of plums and cherries, many
of which form the foundation of improved varieties. What little
literature there was on the subject was widely scattered and
inaccessible. In bringing all available knowledge together and
arranging it logically a valuable work has been accomplished.

As you are well aware, the dairy industry of New York is a
great one. Bulletin No. 39 is an exhaustive and painstaking effort
to discover the value, if any, of a new cream separator, and to
also further investigate the subject of hastening cream raising
by dilution, and the effect of aeration of milk and the value of
aerators. The above-named subjects are always live ones and
of great interest to the dairy public.

Experiments in removing the tassels from corn have been ~

continued and expanded. This subject is of prime importance,
as it is now believed, from the experiments so far conducted at
this station and others, that under certain conditions the yield
of corn can be greatly increased by removing a large portion of
the tassels. In every case, so far as I know, where the work

al

has been properly done and the season has been at ali dry, ; :

a great increase in yield has been secured by detasseling.
Bulletin No. 41 contains the results secured by long and careful
investigations as to the most economical method of heating
green-houses. So expensive is the work of heating large areas
of covered surface in forcing-houses, that any light upon this
subject is of prime importance to all horticulturists.
Bulletin 42 is the second report on .electro-horticulture.
Whether this method of stimulating plants to make a larger
and an earlier growth can be made economically useful has not

7 Soe Se

x ea

St
i

Report oF THE DrreEcTor. 11

i yet been definitely settled. That is, whether clectro-horticulture

can in any way be made more profitable than the methods now
practiced.

Bulletin 43 is a continuation of the study of tomatoes which
was begun several years since; it is of prime importance because

of the extended culture of this plant under glass.

ore

}

Bulletin 44 contains the investigations on the pear tree psylla.
For the past two years this pest of the pear tree has threatened
to annihilate pear culture in this and many other localities. Its
life history has been traced and practical and certain remedies
found. This one investigation, it is believed, will save to the
fruit growers of this State many thousands of dollars.

The subject of tomato culture is also treated of in Bulletin 45.
It may be said that nowhere else can be found such extended
and valuable literature on this subject as has been issued from
the Cornell station.

Bulletin 46 is a short treatise on the mulberry and is of special
value, aS it exposes the worthlessness of the Russian mulberry
in America, and shows the kind sold for Downing is not that

_ variety.

s
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SS ae eee Oy he te Oy

te
4
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?

As food is the great factor in developing the growth of animals

and their products, the station has taken great pains to follow

the subject of feeding, and foods suitable for animals every year
since its organization. Everything that is well done in this
line is of prime importance. There is no subject in all our
investigations which gives promise of such rich results and none
which attract more largely the attention of the reading public.
“The marked variations which may be produced in a single genera.
tion by food are so great that the subjects connected with feed-

ing animals open wide fields for profitable investigation.

_ Bulletin 48 treats of spraying apple orchards. It may he
remembered that two years since the apple scab destroyed seven-

- eighths of the apples of the fruit districts in the western part
of the State, and threatened the extermination of certain varie.

ties of apples which were of tender foliage. I am pleased io
report that the experiments already had, lead us to believe that

_ this apple scourge can be measurably or entirely combatted.

Bes eye ORS ee Rhye | RB ae a yee
ra? ’ 2 + ey ve i
. .~ Ps > ney, ys eee
12 AgricutturaL Exprrment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

The last Bulletin of the year, No. 49, treats of miscellaneous —
subjects, of importance in themselves, but of not sufficient scope
to demand a separate publication for each of them.

The outlook for the future is encouraging. As the years yo
by the workers in the various divisions of the station become
more enthusiastic and efficient; harmony of effort prevails; as
the work grows upon us we feel more and more the inconvenience
of our cramped quarters. It is hoped the day is not far distant
when larger and more suitable quarters can be provided than
those now occupied.

Respectfully submitted.
I. P. ROBERTS,
Director.

Report of the Treasurer.

Tae AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF CoRNELL UNIVERSITY,
in account with Tan Unrrep Srates APPROPRIATION.
Dr.
1892. To receipts from treasurer of the United
States, as per appropriation for year end-
ing June 30, 1892, under act of Congress

approved: Mareh) 2.) $88 i. cctewdossesie s+): $15,000 00
Cr.

MM UA ESY SALATION «2 o)60 eh Wa ee eer eneleial'e sche Lruabat et. $9,741 65
MES ys ELTL CLUES | 53 Sra fee ctctiae tae ahs ahaven's af benthcakeeere 88 80
J 270 0 i ys 1) RP coy Sg eA lg ang Gb 2,450 72
ESV OflGe “OX PENSES fa fy. 6, ae. erste a bo whee 475 78
By equipment, labor and current expenses:

BO PICTON IEUNES, era ae) a ame b ans ipl gc lay a gs Tegh e 516 48
POE RCTERUIETO eee Re os ohaal wleng tetas 987 82
AIO UOLORY ah5 hele at loka ah ct ald in. s 3a ang. yk 443, 45
WS UAE TS Sects ofa, SC Aet Se Piehetieiat ahaa oh 20 09
CARAT YG ae io, oo se eiete''e oe a Sere 275 21
$15,000 00
Receipts for produce sold:

Balance from 1890-1891 ............ $35 26
Horticultural department ........... 187 54
Agricultural department ........... 211 29
$434 09

Ee yon ORTEGA ON)! 5a tenses Saale iaansrs ae $134 98
By balance to 1892-1893 ............ 299 Tt
$434 09

———ooaqaaqSSjQqQQQQ=

a Ui et > bet Li Le be LAAT Ae, kd eno
eat} ae % ye ‘ toes At si * ae ‘
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. : AF. Fe ioe S
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14 AgricutturaL Experiment Station, Iraaoa, N. Y.

We, the undersigned, duly appointed auditors for the corpora-
tion, do hereby certify that we have examined the books and
accounts of the experiment station of Cornell University for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1892; that we have found the same
well kept, and correctly classified as above, and that the receipts
from the Treasurer of the United States for the time named are
shown to have been $15,000 and the corresponding disbursements
$15,000, for all of-which proper vouchers are on file, and have
been by us examined and found correct.

(Signed.) H. B. LORD,

GEO. R. WILLIAMS,
Auditing Committee Board of Trustees.

I hereby certify that the foregoing statement of account to
which this is attached is a true copy from the books of account
of the institution named.

(Signed.) EMMONS L. WILLIAMS,
Treasurer.
STATE OF NEW YORK, A sone
County or T'oMPKINs. te

On this eighteenth day of January, 1893, appeared before me .
Emmons L. Williams, personally known to me to be the person
whose signature is attached to the above certificate, and
acknowledged that he executed the same.

HORACE MACK,
[1.8. | Notary Public.

PO OR me SA. ORS, ORAM ey Ee
‘ ; Aas. Te)

Report of the Chemist.

Nearly all of the work done in the chemical laboratory of the
station during the year 1892 has been for the agricultural and
horticultural departments, and the results appear in the bulletins
issued by those departments.

_ ‘~Mr. G. W. Cavanaugh has continued to occupy the position since
oF near the close of 1891, and has performed his duties in a very
satisfactory manner.

Following is a summary of the analyses made:

re : Samples.
MEM yer a a Mie A ey ra leiice Leia ales asia) ube Sale lei wate. erate! euate ae 6
ERR seats: MCE! Milango’ eons, Siete: Wa kakc'le «di eel aceneteiew are 6
RTE Sa el ARS OAR SR AG) i et EL DES ep 6
BPSPEMIZeTS ANG MAAMUTOS 21) 82 sib ere doa ee e's de isle oa ces 40
NR is a8 hs es Mk Sah tek TY AG Sal sierra 144
ES NLT Bale a'e) ate NCI atte tal ea a eh aetaleie, Gidlaléc Ries @ tua wate 1
CR oy cl Sins Wha Vise alee Slat Pad ecole: aleray a dele shies Gretelans dies tee 1
BRRM Mer Prana ch eel ly the tee Ae Blete ial d'ath euepate eae otwlateds oft Samak 1

G. C. CALDWELL,
Chemist.

Report of the Botanist and Arboriculturist. ES

}

te

The most important event in this division for the current year

to be mentioned in this report is the resignation of Prof. W. R.

Dudley from the chair of cryptogamic botany to accept the pro- |

fessorship in the Leland Sanford, Jxv., University, and the appoint-

ment of Prof. George F. Atkinson to fill the vacancy.

The nature of the work specially undertaken by this division
in the interest of the station has not been changed, but consists
as heretofore of studies, investigations and experiments concern-
ing the diseases of cultivated plants. This work has ‘been placed
in the hands of Prof. Atkinson, who entered upon the discharge of

‘his duties at the beginning of the collegiate year, September, 1892.
The nature of the work undertaken and the results thus far —

‘reached may be gathered from the report of Prof. Atkinson, here-
with inclosed.
No provision for special work in phanerogamic botany has been
made by the station, and none has been undertaken beyond the
answering of inquiries, the naming of plants and the carrying on
of a considerable correspondence relating to a variety of subjects.
A. N. PRENTISS.

Report of the Cryptogamic Botanist and
Plant Pathologist.

_ When entering upon the duties of cryptogamic botanist to the
station it seemed advisable in the study of plant pathology to
provide a small culture chamber where the handling of culture
medi and the manipulation of the cultures of bacteria and fungi
associated with plant diseases, could be carried on with little
danger of contamination from the numerous floating particles of
a general working-room. Accordingly, a small, tight-glass com-
_ partment was fitted up in one corner of the laboratory. This com-
partment is about ten feet high, and covers six to ten feet square
of the floor space, and a few coils of steam pipe were fitted to
supply the necessary general warmth in cold weather. The com-
partment is supplied with a table for the manipulations and for
_Inicroscopic use. The wall surface on one side is provided with
shelves for storing the cultures. Against the wall there is also
a Rohrbecks oval thermostat, No. 107, large size, fitted with Lan-
_ tenschlagers’ electric thermoregulator. All other bacteriological
apparatus, as steam sterilizer, dry oven, etc., is kept outside the
_ general laboratory. At the present time there are several hun-
dred cultures going on in this culture chamber, and it serves the
purpose admirably.
Of the investigations undertaken since September, 1892, there
_ have been prepared for the general bulletin, two articles, “A new
Anthracnose of the Privet” and a “Note on the Cercospora of
Celery Blight.” Another more extended study will soon be com-
pleted and ready for publications on a new tomato disease, and
good progress has been made upon a study of “ Winter Blight of
Tomatoes,” “Some New Carnation Diseases,” and “Damping Off.”
~ For some time past an organism has been under culture and study,
_ obtained from the tubercles of Vicia sativa, which promises to
3

pe a ee.
4

18 AgricunruRrAL he a STaTIon, ne N. ¥:

throw new light upon the morphology of the nitrogen eollesttal
organisms of Legiminous tubercles.

The experience here during the past three months has suggested ~
the desirability of several things. .
' A small sink and water connection in the culture chamber
would be of great service, since whenever fresh water is desired,
or waste to be discarded, the room must be opened and the water
carried from a sink at the farther end of the laboratory. Another
sink is also needed in the large table in the center of the laberatory,
the one in the corner being too small and the passage too crowded.

At present very much of my time is taken up with purely mech-
anical work, such as the preparation of culture media vessels,
transplanting of cultures, ete. A portion of this work is now done
by an assistant who devotes a small amount! of time in the labora-
tory. An efficient assistant who could devote more time to the
work would do it to better advantage than myself, and permit
the more satisfactory and successful carrying on of the more tech-
nical and difficult phases of the investigations. It frequently hap-
pens that good opportunities for taking in hand some important
study are lost because so much time is required for the mechanical
operations.

A well-fitted dark-room for photographic work, and an outfit for |
photographing large objects as well as for microscopic work is —
greatly needed for the complete prosecution of most of the
investigations.

Finally, there should be somewhere several small compartments
for growing plants under experiment where temperature and |
moisture conditions can be controlled without interference with
the plants in the botanical conservatory or in the forcing-houses,
and also where inoculations could be made with germs which
it is not desirable to introduce into any of the plant-houses now at —
the disposal of the station. Such compartments would be ©
immeasurably useful, and the more so as they are in close proximity —
to the cryptogamic laboratory, where the experiment could be
under close and continued observation.

Very respectfully submitted,
GEO) F. ATKINSON,
Oryptogamie Botanist.

_~

“a
‘

Report of the Entomologist.

To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station :

Sir— The work of the entomological division of the experi-

ment station during the past year has been carried forward on

the lines indicated in preceding reports. That is, although a
considerable number of insects have been studied, the greater

_ part of our attention has been devoted to making as exhaustive

an investigation as possible of the few more important ones.
This has been done in the belief that by making a few contribu-
tions to science of permanent value more good can be accom-

‘plished than by publishing a much larger number that are merely
of ephemeral interest.

The most important investigation of the year is that of the
pear psylla, an insect which has appeared in such numbers

recently that it has destroyed extensive orchards. The results

_of our investigations, as set forth in a bulletin already published,
show that this insect can be readily controlled.

The life history of the apple-bud moth (Tmetocera ocellana)
has been completely worked out; and a bulletin on this subject

will soon be ready for publication.

The insects of the genus Drasteria, which includes the most
common moths infesting meadows and pastures in our State,

have been carefully studied; and the complete life-history of our

two most common species (D. erechtea and D. crassiuscula) have
been traced. These two species, which differ in their early
stages and in the structure of the adults, have heretofore been

considered as one species.

(

The species occurring at Ithaca of the genus Crambus, another
group of moths infesting meadows and pastures, are being thor-
oughly studied by Mr. E. P. Felt, Fellow in Entomology. The

VW eae” dl « ot a Saw @
. wad, 4
Py a Ce nsry ‘Y “es
DAs rye .
‘ we! ‘ Ub

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20 Ag@riovLToRAL Mite nbaribennt Startoy, Terkol. NOY 2

life-history of nearly all of our spegies is being traced. The eG
results of this important investigation will be available for the — 4
use of this station, and the only expense to the station connected |
with it is the use of a desk in the insectary and of breeding — ‘
cages. ¢ y
Original investigations upon the habits of Bruchus obtectus — ij
and Bruchus quadrimaculatus, the two most common weevils
infesting peas, beans and other seeds have been ‘made during the y
year. The egg-laying habits of the former species were first |
observed here. :
About twenty other species of insects injurious to agriculture wig
have been studied, and much time has been devoted to answering "
inquiries regarding entomological matters. ee,
Although I have kept a careful oversight of the work of this og
division of the station, Mr. Slingerland has been able to relieve —
me by attending to the carrying out of the experiments and to
the preparation of matter for publication. And I have been, "
able to devote myself more fully than at any other time since i
the establishment of the station to the duties of my chair in the —
department of instruction of the university. I sincerely hope
that we shall be able to continue to employ an experienced and
responsible assistant who can devote his entire time to the work

of the station. The conditions which obliged us at first to depend
on inexperienced assistants are not likely to occur again. ss
Very respectfully submitted. Y

- “%

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK. _

er =
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ee IO a Pe

Report of the Asriculturist.

To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station :

Sir.— The work of the agricultural division has continued in
the same lines as in past years. The more especial problems
studied during the year have been, in relation to the amount
of food required to produce a given amount cf nulk and butter; |
in relation to the raising of winter lambs; various problems in
regard to creaming and churning; and the production and care
of farm manures. Work has also begun in the culture of tobacco
and in some new methods of constructing silos and preserving
ensilage. Three bulletins have been published during the year
and a fourth is ready for the press. Bulletins published are
Nos. 39, “Creaming and Aerating Milk,” 40, “Removing Tassels
from Corn,” and 47, “ Feeding Lambs and Pigs.” ‘There has been
no change in the working force of this division during the year
and the success of the work done is largely due to the fidclity

and earnestness of Messrs. Watson and Rice.

Respectfully submitted.
H. H. WING,

be vera
2 "4 \

PAA Ree ES GETS ER OOK Pa siti gr AEN
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3, at I-04) Pe RN + Nagel
3 % Wh haar

4

Keport of the Horticulturist.

To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station:

Sir.— The activities of the year in the horticultural division
have been expended chiefly in two directions—-in the study of
forcing structures and the growing of vegetables in them, and in
investigations of hardy fruits. The crops receiving special aiten-
tion under glass are tomatoes— upon which two bulletins have
already been issued —lettuce, radishes, forcing cucumbers and
cauliflowers. A variety of other crops have been grown inci-
dentally and some of them will be made special features in the
year to come. We now have unusual facilities for the study of
methods of green-house construction, as we have, in both the
experiment station and the university proper, ten glass-louses,
ali differing in construction and exposure. Some detailed reports
upon them will be made as soon as funds for the purpose can be
found. A test of the comparative merits of steam and hut water
for forcing-house heating was made during the winter of 18¥1-2,

' and was published as Bulletin 42. This investigation is continuing

the present winter. We are also continuing the experiments with
the use of the electric arc-light in the forcing of plants, a sabject
upon which we have already made two formal reports (Bulletins 30
and 42). Two lamps are running at the present time.

Our fruit investigations have fallen largely in two directions —
the study of plums and of the brambles. A large bulletin upon
the native plums and cherries (No. 38) was issued early in the
season, and one upon Japanese plums is now in course of preparar
tion. Upon the brambles, a bulletin was issued last year devoted
to dewberries (No. 34), and Mr. I’. W. Card, Fellow in Horticulture,
is giving an entire year to the investigation of raspberries, black-

berries and dewberries. Our general fruit plantations, which

A,

Report oF THE HorrTIcuLtuRist. 23

contain a good assortment of hardy fruits, are now reaching an
‘ age at which we can hope for useful experimental results. The
investigations of native plums are being continued. Experiments
in the practical spraying of orchards are in progress annually,
under the imediate direction of Mr. E. G. Lodeman.

Among vegetables, experiments with tomatoes have been our

chief concern for some years, and these will continue. Several

other vegetables have been given considerable attention, but
because of lack of funds nothing has been accomplished concern-
ing them. ;

Many investigations upon hybridity have been continued for
some years, but means have not been found to publish them.
This, therefore, is our greatest need—more money for publi-
cation.

Respectfully submitted.

L. H. BAILEY,
Horticulturist.

eee ae IN Le Pe A
BULLETINS PUBLISHED DURING THE YEAR.

XXXVI. —XLIX.

4

EN Ae DN aes
Math tana

Pans

Cornell University —Agricultural Experiment Station.

HORTICULTURAL: DIVISION.

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J, UNE) 1S So).

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The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.

By ki: He Batu.

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breil Ware hy) At ye wh Ph Php Emer ; ae AY ta 8
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TEE? Mah Ve
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ORGANIZATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

STATION COUNCIL.
President, C. K. Apams.

EMAL D. Witte. 2.0. rss eeck bs Trustee of the University.
Homi 5, POtrER «4 ). 40.2. President State Agricultural Society.
Pe MLOBEETS) (5)0( llc sic/bimielt p> ace ees a> oh Professor of Agriculture.
ere DOA OAV IELML ie) 2 1a Si 6 ghee wie yaiese 18 Fate, o'n ose Professor of Chemistry.
PENS MOMNNG op Sorta: ScieG’ eg v mle elaieh «16 © Professor of Veterinary Science.
Pe MeN ERS 1 dla’ ale: slab eig Sigh tisto.s 3!¥’> wave lole\es Professor of Botany.
Pe MC OMO TOOK 25 2) aia) ace ev elaierdid'e! «0 \6\elie, 0» Professor of Entomology.
PY ATEN si cae) ase evnla Weide clases Siecardie"s Professor of Horticulture.
Wes, DUDLEY «3.0.5. 3's) Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany.

OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
Re OBES eis Miric AXA ace kde kaw Dace “alee aoa W avo Director.
Bree EI WING /). 020.8 hae $o.0 ... Deputy Director and Secretary.
emma RPV CLEANS 2/575, oe) leh Sc) cl"oNa ior ae a. Sala oi ‘alas a 6) «aves la ¢ soo) bia o's Treasurer.
ASSISTANTS.
SME oR AGC GAME EAA ND oho al oi, Save. oh! 0: a) fo: (0) orem Seas aholtb a Entomology.
SOREN tA) TRC AIUELN 2h ya) rc LV COS cial ol pc) Wiel eis oa '00 a) cimidh preety Agriculture.
MCI ISINE Sek a's ale ha kde gs he, Me tale Wie ia» 4 ope en's we ere ore Horticulture.
Ne OG AT ATIGE 282 3) oil ai eos wie sip vie ote aes Ga kid ace dd Chemistry.

Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends, will please send us the
names of the parties.
BULLETINS OF 1892.

38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.

Pema Un te.
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The Cultivated Native Plums and Chetries.

I. THE PLUMS. ’

§ 1. Classification of the cultivated native plums.
The Americana group.
. The Wild Goose group.
The Miner group.
. The Chickasaw group.
. The Marianna group.
. The Beach plum.
. Prunus subcordata.
. Hybrids.
Unclassified varieties.
s 2. Cultivation of the native plums.

1. Impotent varieties. Planting.

2. Propagation.

3. Varieties.

4. Insects and diseases.

(AR ete oon Pp

Since the introduction of the Wild Goose plum some forty
years ago there has been a steadily growing interest in the amelio-
~ ration of our native plums. The native species possess certain
advantages over the common plums of the Prunus domestica
type,* and they are so widely distributed and are naturally so
variable that they have been easily brought into cultivation under
a great number of forms. Over 150 varieties have been named
and more or less disseminated, and the following pages record 140.
There has been no attempt, so far as I know, to make a compre-
hensive study of these fruits, and, as a consequence, our knowledge
of them is vague and confused. In fact, the native plums consti-

*The common plums and the prunes belong to the European species Prunes domestica. In
the following pages these fruits are often referred to as the domestica plums.

ee A ae © Pt se a Cre Bia UP Balt eth od oe I
Sy f ‘ a ae n ) 32 3p ‘yt *) ti fi Set

32 AgricutturAL Exprrment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

tute probably the hardest knot in American pomology. The
botanical status of the native plums is equally unsatisfactory, and
the group is one of the most inextricably confused of any one of
equal extent in our whole flora. There are few botanical features
which are reliable in the characterization of the species, and the
specimens which are preserved in the leading herbaria are few
and unsatisfactory. There is probably no group of American
plants in which the characters of growing trees and fresh fruits
are more essential in the distinguishing of species than in these
plums. Yet there are the most remarkable variations in habit of
tree, seasons of blooming and ripening, size, flavor and texture
of fruit, and characters of stone, even among varieties coming
presumably from the same species. Fully half of the varieties
now in cultivation were picked up in woods and copses and trans-
ferred to the orchard, and the variations between these varieties
are fully as great as between those of known or garden origin.
There is evidence that hybridity is responsible for some of the
variation of cultivated forms, but whether it takes place in nature
is wholly a matter of conjecture. It is an unsafe principle to
invoke the aid of hybridity, upon purely speculative grounds, to
explain doubtful points; and I have therefore referred doubtful
forms directly to the most closely allied species or type, so far as
possible, leaving speculations as to their true affinities to future
students. The native plums can be commended with confidence
to any one who desires to study contemporary evolution.

In the following study, which has now extended through six
years, I have had the co-operation of many botanists and horti-
culturists. I am under especial obligations to all those whose
names are mentioned in this paper, particularly to J. W. Kerr,
Denton, Maryland, and T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas. Tithout
the aid given by these last two persons the preparation of this
monograph would have been impossible. Mr. Kerr probably has
the largest growing collection of native plums in existence, and ¢
have had the advantage of a personal inspection of his orchards
in the fruit season. Ihave had access to the herbarium collections
at Harvard University, Columbia College, Department of Agri-

ete ae er, Women 74 hye 4 ga

Tae Cortivatep Nanve Prums anp CHErrirs. 33

culture, and the Engelmann Collection of the Missouri Botanical
Gardens. Several botanists have favored me with material,
especially Dr. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska; Dr. T. C.
Porter, Easton, Penn.; and H. N. Patterson, Oquawka, Dlinois.
And I have enjoyed the great advantage of naving had the advice
of Professor C. S. Sargent, who has critically examined some 200
or 300 of our specimens. In the following descriptions, those
varieties, marked ©, are in cultivation at Cornell.

Section 1.— Classification of the Cultivated Native Plums.

A. The American Group. (Prunus Americana, Marshall, Arbus-
trum Americanum. ITT [1785}.)

To this type belong the hardy, strong-growing varieties which

have come from the northwest, and which are characterized by a

firm, meaty, usually compressed, dull-colored late fruit, with

thick and usually very tough, glaucous skin, and large more or less
flattened stone which is often nearly or quite free, and by large,
obovate, thick, veiny, jagged, dull leaves. Prunus Americana
is generally distributed throughout the Northern States from
western New England to Kansas and Nebraska, and to the
mountains of Montana and Colorado, in the middle longitudes
reaching as far north as Manitoba and as far south as Texas
and even northern Mexico. Notwithstanding its wide range,
most of its cultivated varieties have come from its northwestern
limits, as northern Tlinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Kan-
sas. This fact is indication that the western plum may be a
distinct species from the eastern and southwestern types, and
I should not be surprised if we ultimately find this to be true.
I have looked in vain, however, for characters with which to
separate them. Professor Sargent is of the opinion that the
Prunus nigra of Aiton should be revived to designate those forms
which are characterized by very flat and smooth stones, very

broad leaves, glandular leaf-stalks and calyx. lobes, and large

flowers. To this species he would refer the Weaver, the stones

of which, as shown in Fig. 1, are very large, flat and smooth.

After the most careful study, however, I am unable to find any

constancy in these characters, especially in cultivated varieties.
5

®

34

Even in wild specimens, the flat stones of P. nigra is often
associated with the glandless leaf-stalks of P. Americana, and
vice versa; and there appears to be equal inconstancy in the
character of calyx lobes and sizes of flowers. In fact, the same
cultivated variety, when grown in different places, has been
referred to both species. I am obliged, therefore, for the pur-
poses of this paper, to unite Prunus nigra with P. Americana.
This I regret the more because it is undoubtedly true that there
are two well-marked, wild varieties — possibly species — passing
as P. Americana, and growing together in the east. One is a
twiggy, virgate grower, with large and mostly earlier flowers; the
other is a stout and stiff grower, with small flowers. So far as
I have been able to determine, the fruits and stones of these
two forms, save possibly in time of ripening, are not character-
istically distinct. These forms are certainly common in central
New York and in Michigan, where I have often observed them.
Dudley records them in Cayuga Flora.* Some of these differenves
are detailed in the following letter from Professor Charles A.
Davis, of Alma, Michigan, accompanying specimens of the trees
mentioned. The specimens were referred to Professor Sargent,
who places the first or large-flowered form with P. nigra and
the small-flowered form with P. Americana. “The large-flowered
form is the more common and blooms about a week or even ten
days before the other, and usually before the leaves begin 19
appear. The small-flowered form I have never found until this
spring, when I came upon a clump of it in full bloom, and
at once became interested in it because of its decided differences
from the other and common form. The trees were larger, more
spreading, and with a much rougher bark than the large-flowered
form; and a number of the trees bore flowers with a decidedly
yellowish tint, which was very noticeable from a short distance.
The fruit was late, maturing the middle of September, and
was reddish, almost purple in very ripe specimens, with a whitish
bloom, small and rather palatable.” It is easy to place too great
confidence in the seasons of blooming and ripening, for these
characters are variable. This is well illustrated in the case of

* The Cayuga Flora, Ithaca, N. Y. 1886, p. 27. See also Flora Chicago.

ay

Tue OCvoirivatep Native Piums AnD CHERRIES. 85

the late Rollingstone plum, which is a seedling from the Rolling-
stone —itself a widling— but which is three weeks later in
ripening than its parent.

The fruits of wild forms of Prunus Americana vary widely in
season, size, shape, flavor, and character of stone. Trees in the
same clump often vary two weeks in season of ripening of fruit,
which may vary from dull deep red to yellow. It should be
said, however, that there is no true clear yellow fruit in this
species. The yellow of P. Americana is always a more or less
ill-defined under color, over which are laid blotches of red. The
fruits are more or less flattened, as is well shown in Fig. 1,
usually oblong and truncate or somewhat flattened at the ends,
and are commonly marked with a distinct suture. ‘All the varie-
ties have a light purple bloom.

The Texan form of P. Americana, known locally as the Hog
plum, appears to differ somewhat from the northern forms, and
it may be a distinct species. It has the glands, both of calyx
and leaf-stalks, of the P. nigra form and the rounded stones of
true P. Americana. The plant is not in cultivation, however,
and need not be further discussed here.

Prunus Americana was founded over a century ago by Hum:
phrey Marshall. His description, particularly of the leaves, is
peculiarly characteristic of the wild plum of the north. It is as
follows:

“Prunus Americana. Large yellow sweet plumb. This gene-
rally rises to the height of twelve or fifteen feet, spreading into
many stiff branches. The leaves are oblong, oval, acute, pointed,
sharply sawed on their edges and much veined. The flowers
generally come out very thick round the branches, often upon
‘thick short spurs; and are succeeded by large oval fruit with a
sweet succulent pulp. We have a great variety of these, grow-
ing naturally in a good moist soil, with reddish and yellowish
fruit, but differing much in size, taste and consistence.”

West of the Mississippi there is a form of Prunus Americana
with conspicuously pubescent and often glaucous leaves and
shoots. This is the variety mollis, a plant which is commonly

i ee

of

+
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36 AgrioutruraL Experiment Srarion, Iruaca, N. Y. |

supposed to be confined to Texas and its northern borders. It |
certainly grows as far north as Iowa. ,The varieties known as_
Wolf and Van Buren belong here.

The following cultivated varieties belong to Prunus Americana:

1. American Eagle— Fruit and flowers unknown to me
Leaves rather large, the stalks glandular. Introduced in fall of —
1889 and spring of 1890 by Osceola Nursery Co., Osceola, Mis-
souri. C.

2. Beauty’s Choice.

Fruit large, round-oblong, red-purple or
red-blue, skin medium thick; flesh firm, of high quality; cling,
the stones broad, flat and smooth, like those of Weaver; flowers —
large, conspicuously stalked in large clusters, calyx lobes reflexed,
glandless, smooth or nearly so on the inside. Late. Originated
under cultivation in southern Texas by Lee Beaty. T. V. Mun:
son says that it appears to be a hybrid between Prunus Ameti-
cana and P. domestica. Ripens at Denison, Texas, from the first
to the middle of August.

3. Black Hawk— Known to me only from a record in Bull. 4,
Iowa Experiment Station, by R. P. Speer (Feb., 1889), in which :
“a nameless variety found in Black Hawk county, and a very
large and beautiful free-stone plum, which was furnished by Mr.
Slater of Story county,” was tested as to culinary qualities in —
comparison with Miner, Weaver, Bassett, Rollingstone, Moreman, _
Wolf, De Soto and Maquoketa. “The decision of all who tasted
the same was that the Maquoketa and Black Hawk plums were
equally good and much better than any of the other kinds except
the De Soto, which was marked good, but second in quality. The |
skins on the Maquoketa and Black Hawk plums were so thin that
they disappeared almost entirely while being cooked.” I do not
know that the variety has been introduced.” Presumably P.
Americana. E

4. Brainerd, in cultivation in Minnesota (O. M. Lord), probably
belongs to this species.

5. Cheney.— Fruit large to very large, round-oblong, scarcely
flattened, dull purplish red, skin thick; flesh firm and sweet, good
to very good; cling, the stone very flat and smooth with rather

RAL Me ae ae te
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Tur Coxutivatep Native Piums AnD CHERRIES. Bie

rounded ends; flowers not large, the calyx lobes glandular, smooth
inside; leaves medium, long-pointed, leaf-stalks glandular. Early
for the group, ripening even in Minnesota by the middle of
August. One of the best varieties. Found in Morman Ravine, a
few miles below La Crosse, Wisconsin, and introduced by E.
Markley, La Crosse. C..

6. Chippeway.— Fruit small to medium, deep red, the skin
medium thick; flesh firm and sweet; stone free, small; strongly
convex on the sides and pointed, roughish; leaves medium, rather
strongly pubescent beneath, leaf-stalks glandular. Has gained
no prominence so far as I know.

7. Cottrel.— Fruit large, round-oblong, red, skin thin; fiesh
rich and agreeable; cling; leaves large, comparatively thin and
smooth, leaf-stalks glandular. Medium season. Seedling raised
by R. L. Cottrell, Dover, Olmsted county, Minn., and introduced
in 1888 by O. M. Lord, of Minnesota City.

8. Deep Creek.— Medium size, round-oblong and prominently
flattened and bearing a conspicuous suture, dull purple-red, very

glaucous, skin thick; flesh firm, and very sweet and good; stone
free, sides convex, long pointed, roughish; flowers rather small,.
short-stalked, the calyx globes glandless and hairy inside; leaves
medium, nearly smooth, stalks glandular. Medium season. A
Kansas wild variety, introduced by Abner Allen. C.

9. De Soto.— Large to very large, round-oblong, purple-red

with moderate bloom, skin thick; flesh medium firm, good; stone
cling, rather large, somewhat convex, rounded at the ends, slightly
roughened; leaves medium, stalks glandular. Medium to late.
One of the most popular varieties. Found wild on the Mis-

_sissippi at De Soto, Wisconsin. Generally introduced by Elisha
Hale, Lansing, Iowa, 1863 or 1864. Figured by Professor 8. B.
Green in Bull. 5, Minn. Exp. Sta. See No. 3, above. C.

- 10. Forest Garden.— Large, round, orange overlaid with rose-
purple, skin medium thick to thin; flesh medium firm to soft, good;
stone cling, convex on the sides, rounded at the ends, slightly
roughened; leaves medium, rather smooth, glands none or reduced
to a single small one. Medium season, ripening in Minnesota the

‘

URC eau eee A ee ie ies oT 6 Re MY Ta eae ’
oe y , Se AT

38 AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, Irmaca, N. Y. .

middle of September. A good sort for home use, but does not
ship well unless picked before ripe. Tree grows forked and is apt
to split. Said not to succeed well east of Illinois. Taken from
the woods at Cedar Rapids, Iowa, by Thomas Hare, and introduced
by H. ©. Raymond, of the Forest Garden nurseries, Council Blufis,
about 1862. Figured in Bull. 5, Minn. Exp. Sta., by Prof. S. B.
Green.

11. Gaylord.— Fruit large, round-oblong and slightly flattened,
deeply mottled red over a ground of orange, skin rather thick; flesh
pulpy and sweet; stone moderate cling, broad and rather flat,
pointed, sharp-edged on the back, somewhat roughened; leaves
rather broad, somewhat pubescent below, glandular. Medium
season. Introduced recently by Edson Gaylord, Nora Springs,
Iowa.

12. Harrison’s Peach.:— Medium size, round-oblong, dull red
skin thick; stone free; leaves medium, rather thick and pubes-
cent, the glands large. Medium season. Not widely dissemi-
nated apparently. Minnesota, a wild variety. C.

13. Hawkeye.— Large to very large, round-oblong, purple-red,
_ Skin thick; flesh firm and good; stone cling; leaves medium firm,

very smooth for the species, stalks glandular. Medium season. —

Originated in Iowa under cultivation. Introduced by H. A.
Terry, Crescent City, lowa, 1878. Specimens from the Michigan
Agricultural College evidently belong to Prunas angustifolia, the
Chickasaw type. C.

14. Ida.—I know this only from a description submitted by D.
B. Wier, the originator: “Medium size, round, yellow nearly coy-
ered with dull red; flesh firm, salmon-color, very sweet; free-
stone; leaves very downy and leathery; tree thorny, exceedingly
sprawling. The fruit is acid when cooked, but dries sweet.” Said
by Mr. Wier to be pure P. Americana. Illinois.

15. Illinois Ironclad.— Fruit very large, oblong, dark red, thick
skin; flesh firm; cling; leaves medium, pubescent, glands small or
absent. Medium season. Said to be one of the best native plums.
Wild variety from M[linois, introduced in 1890 by Stark Bros.,
Louisiana, Mo. C.

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Tuer Ovxutivarep Native Pirums anp CHERRIES. 39

16. Iona.— Known to me only from description of the originator,

D. B. Wier: “ Fruit’ large, oblong, dull yellow with red cheek,

skin medium thick; flesh firm, yellow and sweet; stone free, long
and much flattened, with a sharp border on the back; leaves very
large; tree strong and upright, the growth smooth. Medium
season.” Said by Mr. Wier to be pure P. Americana, the seed com-
ing from a wild bush in southwestern Wisconsin.

17. Itaska.— Fruit medium, oblong, dull purple-red, skin thick;
flesh firm, of fair quality; cling; flowers small and sessile, pinkish,
the calyx lobes somewhat glandular, and smooth within; leaves
thick and broad, stalks either glandular or glandless; tree a very
short, stocky and thick grower, the short joints giving the pinkish
bloom a strikingly massed effect. Medium season. One of the

_ most distinct in habit: Minnesota. Introduced by P. M. Gideon,

i

Excelsior, Minn., and by W. F. Heikes.

18. Kickapoo.— Medium, round-oblong, blotched red, thick
skin; flesh firm; stone cling, convex on the sides, long, roughish;
flowers ‘small and sessile or nearly so, calyx lobes minutely glan-

dular and smooth or nearly so within; leaves rather small, nar-

_ row, long-pointed, very sharply toothed, pubescent below, gland-

less or occasionally a leaf with small glands; tree a straggling
grower, very prolific. Medium season. Appears to be much
attacked by shot-hole fungus.

19. Kopp, introduced by O. M. Lord, Minnesota, is probably P.
Americana.

20. Late Rollingstone— Very like Rollingstone (No. 55) of

which it is a seedling, but three weeks later, pulp not so firm, and

skin thicker. O. M. Lord, Minnesota.

21. Le Duc.— Medium, round and flattened, orange spotted with
red, skin thin; flesh pulpy and sweet; a moderate cling, the stone
rather broad with convex sides, rounded at the ends, slightly
roughened. Medium season. A wild variety from Hastings,
Minn., introduced by W. G. Le Duc. C. .

22. Little Seedling— A small red plum with small convex
roughish cherry-like stone, and narrow, rather finely serrate
leaves, and glands very small or none. Charles Luedloff, Carver,
Minn.

40 AgricutturAL Exprermment Sration, Irnaca, N. Y. 3

2%. Louisa.— Large to very large, round, deep red, skin thick;
flesh firm and good; semi-cling, the stone broad and convex and
smoother than is usual for this shape; leaves medium, long-
pointed, pubescent below, glands small or none. Medium season.
A wild plum found in Missouri and introduced by Samuel Miller,
Bluffton, Mo. “Very similar to Weaver.’—T. V. Munson.
Flowers upon Maryland specimens are small and nearly’ sessile,
with glandless calyx; from Texas they are large and stalked, with
calyx lobes reflexed and gladular, and hairy within.

24. Luedloff’s Green.— Medium to small, oblong and flattened,
deep mottled red, skin thick; flesh firm, sweet and good; nearly
free, ihe stone small, convex, pointed, rough; leaves rather small
and smooth, glands very small or none. Charles Luedloff,
Minnesota. é

25. Luedlor’s Red.— Much like the last, but lighter red, skin ~

thicker, pit freer, stone rather broader and leaves pubescent
beneath.

26. Maquoketa (Fig. 11)— Medium to nearly large, round-
oblong. red, skin thick; cling, the stone very convex, short-pointed,
rough; leaves medium, rajther smooth, glands none or small.
Medium to late. ~ Originated in Iowa under cultivation. See
No. 3.

27. Minnetonka.— Medium in size, round-oblong, dull red, skin
thick; cling; flowers medium, calyx lobes glandless, hairy inside;
leaves medium, pubescent, glandless or nearly so. Medium sea-
son. Introduced by P. M. Gideon, Minnesota.

28. Mussey.— Very large, round-oblong, yellow mottled with
red, skin medium thick; flesh firm and excellent; semi-cling;
leaves medium to large, pubescent, glands small or none. Very
late. Wild, from Kansas. Introduced by Abner Allen.

29. Newtown Egg.— Medium to rather large, oblong, red, skin
thick; flesh firm; free, the stone long and rather flat, scarcely
pointed, nearly or quite smooth; leaves medium, nearly smooth,
glands none or small. Medium season. Charles Luedloff,
Minnesota.

30. New Ulm.—“Very large, round-oblong, dark red, skin
medium; flesh firm and of best quality; cling. Medium to early.

Tar Coutivatep Native Pitums AND CHERRIES. 41

A Minnesota seedling introduced by C. W. Heideman, New Ulm,
Minn.” — Professor S. B. Green, Minn. Exp. Sta. Presumably P.

Americana.

31. Ocheeda.— “ Large, round, yellow and red, skin thin; flesh

firm and of best quality; semi-cling. Medium season. Wild vari-
ety from Minnesota. Introduced by’H. J. Ludlow, Worthington,
_ Minn.” — Professor 8S. B. Green, Minn. Exp. Sta. Presumably P.
Americana.

i i

32. Peffer’s Premium.— Medium to nearly large, round, red,

skin thick; flesh firm and good; cling, the stone nearly circular

and flat, rather smooth; leaves medium with rather obtuse ser-
_ratures, nearly smvoth, stalks glandular. Medium season. Wis-
4 consin, seedling. Introduced by George P. Peffer, Pewaukee,
- Wisconsin.

33. Purple Yosemite— Very large, round, red-purple, skin

| thick; flesh firm; cling, stone large and flat, blunt at the ends and

et ea ee

on the margins, nearly or quite smooth; flowers medium, short-
stalked, the calyx lobes, glandless and hairy within; leaves
medium, comparatively smooth, stalks glandless or glands small.

Medium season. An excellent plum in many places. C. M. Stark
writes me that it has no value in Missouri. C.

84. Quaker.— Very large (one and one-half inches long), round-

oblong, and somewhat flattened, purple-red inclining to orange-
red on side opposite the sun, very glaucous-blue, skin very thick

and acerb; flesh very firm, sweet and juicy; moderate cling, the

9 stone large and flat, prominently ridged and winged on the back,
ends rather blunt, slightly pitted; flowers rather large, stalked,

the calyx lobes large and becoming reflexed, hairy inside, but

4

scarcely if at all glandular; leaves rather large and iirm, pubes-

cent; the glands small or sometimes wanting. Medium season.

: One of the best varieties. Must have the best cuitivation and
not be allowed to overbear. Discovered wild by Joseph Bundy,

of Springville, Linn county, Iowa. Disseminated about 1862, by

‘

compliment to Mr. Bundy, who is a Quaker. C.

+

H. C. Raymond, Council Bluffs, and by him named Quaker, in

My

- diameter), round, flattened and truncate at the ends, mottled

h
4 35. Rollingstone.— Very large (often one and a half inches each

ge

0

Pay

>
}

42 AgriouttuRAL Exprrment Sration, Irgaca, N. Y.

and spotted pink-purple; skin very thick; ‘lesh firm, sweet and
excellent; semi-cling; stone nearly circular, rather flat, sharp on
the back edge, nearly smooth; flowers large, long-stalked; the
calyx lobes large and rarely somewhat glandular, hairy on the
inside; leaves large and firm, comparatively smooth; stalks either
glandular or glandless. Medium season, coming in just before
De Soto. One of the leading varieties. Found over thirty years
ago on the bank of the Rollingstone creek, Winona county, Minn.,
by O. M. Lord, and by him introduced some ten years ago. Pro-
fessor L. H. Pammel, of the lowa Agricultural College, writes

me that this variety is reported as the common plum along creeks

at Dysart, Iowa. C.
Mr. Lord has raised many pure seedlings of the Rollingstone,
of which the Late Rollingstone (see No. 20) is one. “Scveral

years ago,” he writes, “I cut out of my grounds ull varieties of
native plums, except the Rollingstone. The object was to per —

petuate the tree by seeds true to name by preventing all crossing.
Some of the seedlings can not be distinguished by their folage
or flowers, but none of them bear as good fruit as the parent.

Some are later and some earlier.’ The variety is figured by

Professor 8. B. Green in Bull. 10, Minn Exp. Sta.

36. Speer— Medium, oblong, mottled orange and red, skin
medium; fiesh firm and sweet; semi-cling, stone broad, convex,
ends blunt, slightly roughened; leaves medium, nearly sinooth,
stalks glandular. Iowa seedling, by J. A. Speer.

37. Van Buren (Prunus Americana var. mollis).-— Large, ronnd-
oblong, purple-red, skin thick; free; leaves mediuin, densely white -

pubescent beneath and on the stalks, as well as the young
growth; stalks glandular. Medium season. ‘The pubescent is
most marked on young shoots. An Iowa wild variety, intro-
duced by J. Thacher.

38. Wazata.— Medium or even small, round, dull red, thiek

skin; cling; leaves medium, pubescent beneath; the vlands smail

or none: Medium to late. C. M. Stark writes that it has no
value in Missouri. Wild Minnesota variety, introduced by Peter

M. Gideon and W. F. Heikes.

a arti)
why, My)

f; Vij
H Hy : elf! f
, BEN Oy 4A
a 4 Gi", i? fy)
| «Oe
i a) hen
| ues eh
e, My) Hf, MILT etl 4}
: iN K

ke

2!
7

ad
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i

Figure 1.—Weaver. Foliage and flowers one-half natural size. Fruits and stones full size.

PENNY

Lae atin

’

g a |
Be. _ Tue Curtivatep Native Piums anp CHERRIES. 45

39. Weaver (Fig. 1)— Large, round-oblong and flatiened, suture

- prominent, orange densely overlaid with mottled red, skin thick;
flesh firm, sweet and good; semi-cling; the stone large and flat,
obscurely pointed, the wing or margin conspicuous, smooth; flowers
large and prominently stalked, the calyx lobes usually con-
spicuously glandular and obscurely hairy inside; leaves large and
firm, deeply toothed, slightly pubescent beneath, the glands rarely
prominent and frequently entirely wanting; tree a strong free

_ grower and prolific. Medium to late, ripening in Minnesota the
last of September. A well-marked variety, and one of the best.
A wild variety, found near Palo, Iowa, by Mr. Weaver; intro-
duced by Ennis & Patten, in 1875. Ripens ia northern Texas
from the first to middle of August. O. M. Lord writes me that

Figure 2.— Wolf.

“the Weaver is wild in profusion on the St. Peter or Minnesota
river.” Figured by Professor 8. B. Green, in Bull. 5, Minn.
“ Hxp. Sta. C.
40. Wier’s Large Red.— “A round plum as large as Wild Gocse
and better in quality, excellent for cooking; ripening last half
of September.”— B. O. Curtis, Paris, Il. Leaves medium, firm,
smooth or very nearly so, the stalk glandular. 1). Lb. Wier, fllinois.
41. Wild Rose.— “Large, round, yellow-blush, skiu medium;
flesh firm; cling. Early. A Minnesota wild variety, not propa-
gated for sale, but deserving to be.”—Sias. Introduced in 1880,
by A. W. Sias. Presumably P. Americana.
_ 42. Wolf (Prunus Americana var. mollis). Fig. 2.— Large,
round, yellow blotched, with red, skin thick; fiesh firm, meaty

Dg MAMA tN at le
; : Pit aM OR

46 AgricutturAL Experiment Srarion, Iruaoa, N. Y.

and good; perfectly free, the stone circular in outline, with a
tendency to taper towards the apex, rather flat, the wing or
border pronounced, smooth; flowers medium, short-stalked, the
calyx lobes glandular and hairy inside; leaves broad and thick,
the blades and stalks, as well as the young shoots, prominently
pubescent and often glaucous, especially on the young growth,
the leaf stalks bearing no glands, or only smail ones; trce a stout,
good grower, prolific. Medium season. One of the best, both
for home use and the market. The illustration shows a medium
sized specimen. Often known as Wolf Free. Originated on
the farm of D. B. Wolf, Wapello county, Iowa, nearly forty years
ago, from pits said to have been taken from wild trees in the
woods. ©.

43. Wyant.— Large, round-oblong, purple-red, skin thick; flesh
firm; free; leaves medium, slightly pubescent, the glands small.
Found wild in northern Iowa by Mr. Wyant; introduced by Pro-
fessor J. L. Budd. C.

44. Yellow Sweet.
color orange mottled and splashed with pink-purple; skin thin;
free, the stone nearly circular, rather flat and somewhat sharp on

Medium, round-oblong and flattened, ground

the back, rough. Minnesota? C.

45. Yellow Yosemite—I am not acquainted with the fruit of
this variety, but I am told by reliable growers that it is identical
with Purple Yosemite.

The American group succeeds best, on the whole, in the
northern States of the Mississippi valley, and it is the only one
which is able to withstand the climates of the northernmost limits
of the native plum belt, as Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa. 'There
are some varieties, however, which succeed so far south as Texas.
In the Atlantic States the varieties are not grown far south. At
Mr. Kerr’s place, on the Chesapeake peninsula, the varieties are
likely to be unproductive, or short lived, and are much injured
by a mysterious blight; yet there are some kinds which grow well
with him, among which I recall Wolf, Purple Yosemite and Kicka-
poo. The great profitable range of the group, however, is con-
fined somewhat closely to the two or three northernmost tiers of

.

Tue Ovrtivatep Native Piums anp CHERRIES. 47

{ ‘States. The varieties which are most highly prized are Cheney,
- Deep Creek, De Soto, Forest Garden, Itaska, Louisa, Purple, Yosem-
ite, Quaker, Rollingstone, Weaver and Wolf.

q B. The Wild Goose Group.—(Prunus hortulana, L. H.
- Bailey, Garden and Forest, v. 90 [1892]). This, perhaps the most
ij important group of native plums, includes varieties characterized
‘ by strong widespread growth and mostly smooth twigs, a
‘ firm, juicy, bright-colored, thin-skinned fruit which is never
flattened, a clinging turgid comparatively small rough stone which
is sometimes prolonged at the ends but is never conspicuously

_wing-margined, and by comparatively thin and firm shining,
Be coth, flat, more or less peach-like, ovate-lanceolate or ovate
long: -pointed leaves which are mostly closely and obtusely glandu-
-lar-serrate and the stalks of which are usually glandular. Prunus
. hor tulana in the wild state appears to follow the Mississippi river

from northern Dlinois to Arkansas, in its middle region ranging
so far east as eastern Kentucky and Tennessee and possibly to
‘ aig and in the southwest spreading over Texas.

This species does not appear to have been recognized by writers
"upon the genus, although pomologists have long regarded the
: varieties of it as distinct from P. Americana. As it has come
‘ _ into prominent notice through the labors of horticulturists, I take

_ pleasure in recording the fact in the name hortulana. The varie-
‘ _ ties are intermediate between the Americana and Chickasaw
( - groups, whilé the Miner group, which I refer provisionally to this

:

, species, is anomalous in its characters. The fruits lack entirely
% Lhe dull-colored, compressed, thick-skinned and meaty characters
a of the Americanas; and approach very closely to the Chickasaws.
° They are usually covered with a thin bloom and are more or less
4 marked by small spots. They are variable in period of ripening,
‘ there being a difference of no less than two months between the
* seasons of some of the cultivated varieties. In color they range
_ from the most vivid crimson to pure golden yellow. The botani-
_ cal features of the species are not yet well determined, and it is
F not impossible that more than one species is confounded in it.
Some of the gross features of the species are well illustrated in

| ‘Fig. 3.

48 AgricutturaL Expermenr Srarion, Iraaca, N. Y.

In this group B, as I have here constituted it, there are two
more or less clearly marked types, but which Iam not yet able to
separate by positive botanical characters. One type is q@haracter-
ized by thin and very smooth peach-like leaves which are very
finely and evenly serrate. It comprises Cumberland, Indian
Chief, Roulette and Wild Goose. The other form or type is
characterized by thicker, duller and more veiny leaves, which are
more coarsely and more or less irregularly serrate. This includes
olden Beauty, Kanawha, Moreman, Reed, Sucker State, World
Beater and Wayland. It forms a transition to the Miner group
(C).

46. Clark— A variety which I know only from the growing
tree. Leaves elliptic-ovate, rounded at the base and compara-
tixely short pointed, finely serrate, the stalks two-glandular, —
Recently introduced and said to have been found wild in Anne’
Arundel county, Maryland. If it is really indigenous there, it
greatly extends the range of the species. C.

47. Cumberland.— Fruit medium, oblong, yellow, skin thin;
stone rather short, rounded at the base but somewhat pointed at
the apex; flowers medium, short-stalked, the calyx lobes glandu-
lar; leaves ovate, rounded at the base, long-pointed, finely ser-
rate, the stalks bearing two to several glands. Medium to late.
Said to have originated in Georgia, under cultivation. Introduced
by Philip Schley. C.

48. Garfield— Fruit medium, round-oblong, dark red, skin
thick; stone slender (twice as long as broad), prolonged at both
ends; flowers medium, stalked, the calyx lobes conspicuously
glandular; leaves large to very large, ovate-lanceolate, rounded
at the base, rather finely serrate, the stalks usually furnished —
with a string of glands; tree a strong spreading grower. Late.
C. M. Stark writes that it is unproductive in Missouri. Said to
have been found wild in Ohio. Introduced in 1887 by the late
Ivo Welz Washington, O. C.

49, Golden Beauty (Fig. 12; also illustration on page 27).—
Fruit medium, round-ovate, deep clear yellow, skin medium
thick; flesh very firm and of excellent quality; semi-cling, the

i

4 point very short; flowers large, prominently stalked, the calyx

Tue Curtrivatep Native Prums AND CHERRIES. © 49

stone small and broad (only one-fourth larger than broad), the

lobes glandular; leaves narrowly ovate-lanceolate and very peach-
like, rather tapering at the base, thick and dull and somewhat
pubescent below, coarsely serrate, the stalk with very small
glands. Late; blooms very late. One of the best. A wild south

Texan variety, introduced by George Onderdonk in 1874.

Honey Drop.— See Missouri Apricot, below.

50. Indian Chief.— Large, round, dull red, skin medium thick;
flesh firm; cling, the stone very broad and scarcely prolonged into
a point, very rough; flowers medium, short-stalked, the calyx
lobes glandulajr; leaves short, broadly elliptic-ovaite, compara-
tively short-pointed, finely serrate, the short stalks glandular.
Early. Recalls the Chickasaws. Origin uncertain; said by Mun-
son to have originated in southern Texas, and by Onderdonk
to have come from Georgia; others say that it came from
Arkansas. C.

51. Kanawha.— Fruit medium to large, round, red, skin medium
thick; cling; leaves large and broad with long points, rather thick
and dull, the edges irregular with rounded teeth and notches, with

several glands on the stalks. Late. Georgia? “Similar to Way-

land.”— Munson. “Almost like Reed. Excellent for spicing.

An enormous bearer.” — Berckmans. C.

J

52. Missouri Apricot (Honey Drop).— Medium to rather large,
round, deep yellow, skin medium; semi-cling, the stone rather
short and turgid, produced abruptly into short points; flowers

medium, short-stalked; leaves medium in size with conspicuous

points and with rather large serrations, light-colored, the whitish

_ stalks bearing very small glands or sometimes even glandless.
_ Late. Perhaps the best yellow plum. Quality high. Found

wild in Missouri and introduced by Stark Bros. in 1886. “Every

_ way an improvement on Golden Beauty.” —C. M. Stark. C.

‘
Z

53. Moreman.— Medium in size, round, dark red, skin medium

thick; cling, the stone small and nearly circular, the points very

short; leaves medium, long-pointed, rather coarsely serrate, rather

7

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iy : 4 ae om cage SU aN hy iy8 | Nye
. barns Ve. ¥
ft at

‘ Bi ena , 1
50 AgricuLruRAL Exprerment Station, Ivnaca, N. Y. ©

dull in texture, the stalks nearly or quite glandless. Late. A
strong spreading grower, producing abundantly of handsome and
high quality fruit. It suggests the Miner group and may belong to
it. Originated in Kentucky. Introduced by W. F. Heikes in 1881.
“Cooks well. As good as a Damson when spiced.” — Kerr. OC.

54. Poole (Poole’s Pride)— Large, round-oblong, red, skin
medium thick; cling; leaves rather small and narrow, very finely
serrate, the short stalks glandless or nearly so. Early to medium,
of high quality. Succeeds Wild Goose. A wild variety from
Ulinois, introduced in 1888 by Stark Bros. I am no: well
acqvainted with this variety. It looks much like a Chickasaw.

55. Reed— Medium, round, dark red, skin medium; cling, the
stone short and turgid, pitted, the point abrupt and short; flowers —
medium, short-stalked; leaves very broad (elliptic-ovate or even
nearly round-ovate) and large, firm, the point abrupt and con-
spicuous, unevenly serrate, the stalks bearing few small glands.
' Late. A very strong, spreading grower. Much like Moreman in
fruit. Said to have been introduced by the late Mr. Reed, Heights-
town, N. J. OC.

56. Roulette-—— Medium to rather large, round or round-oblong,
red and coloring completely before dropping from the tree, skin
thin; cling, stone (like Wild Goose) oblong-obovate and rather
slender, scarcely pointed above; flowers medium on rather conspic-
uous stalks; leaves the shape and size of peach leaves and like
those of Wild Goose, the serratures small and even, the stalks
glandular. Early to medium. Texan? The Mexican Roulette
is evidently the same. C.

57. Sucker State— Large, round, dull red, skin thick; cling;
flowers large, stalked; leaves medium to large, long taper-pointed,
irregularly and obtusely but rather finely (for the size of the leaf)
toothed, stalks glandular. Medium to late. Illinois? C.

5& Texas Bell (or Belle ?)— Fruit medium to large, nearly
spherical, red; stone short and turgid, obtuse below and very
short-pointed above; leaves medium, elliptic-oblong and _ short-
pointed, finely and evenly serrate, the stalks glandular. Ripens
last of June in Texas. Originated by Stephen H. Turner, Texas,

\

Tar Cuitivatep Native Pitums AnD CHERRIES. 51

and introduced by J. 'Ts Whitaker, Tyler, Texas. Perhaps a
Chickasaw.

59. Wayland.— Fruit large, round-oblong, shining pink-red, skin
medium; semi-cling, the stone rather small for the size of the
fruit, turgid and slightly pitted, very short-pointed at both ends;
flowers large and long-stalked, very late; leaves medium to large,
rather thick and heavy, long-pointed, the edges irregularly ser-
rate and notched, the stalks usually glandular. Very late. One
of the best native plums, but too late for the northern States.
Introduced by Downer & Bro., Fairview, Ky. First propagated
in 1876. It came up in a small plum thicket in a corner of the
garden of Professor H. B. Wayland, Cadiz, Ky. C.

60. Whitaker.— Very large, red; leaves medium, oblong-ovate,
points rather short, very finely and evenly serrate, the stalks with
small glands or. none. Originated under cultivation in eastern
Texas by J. T. Whitaker. Seedling of Wild Goose. C.

61. Wild Goose (Fig. 3).— Large, round-oblong, light red, skin
thin; cling, stone long and narrow, prolonged above into a sharp
point and below into a narrow base, finely pitted; flowers medium
to large stalked; leaves, oblong-lanceolate, peach-like, not promi-
nently pointed, the margins finely and evenly serrate, and the
stalks usually bearing two to four small glands. Early. Quality
poor, but on account of its productiveness, earliness, beauty, good
shipping qualities, and its early introduction, it is the most popu-

lar of the native plums. The Wild Goose was first brought to

notice by James Harvey of Columbia, Tenn. Some time before
1850 a man shot a wild goose near Columbia, and on the spot
where the carcass was thrown this plum came up the following

spring. It was introduced about 1850 by the late J. S. Downer,

of Fairview, Ky. This is the first native plum introduced to gen-
eral cultivation, although the Miner was first known and named.
C.

The Wild Goose is either very variable or there are two
varieties passing under that name. Im the orchards of Mr.

_ Kerr, in Maryland, and Mr. Munson, in Texas, the flowers appear

before the leaves in crowded lateral clusters, but in the planta-

4
52 AgricuLtuRAL Exprrment Sration, Ir#aca, N ye

tions at the Michigan Agricultural College and at Cornell, they
appear with the leaves in diffuse cherry-like clusters, and the
pedicels are longer. These latter specimens are so anomalous as
to lead good observers to wonder if they are not hybrids with
some cherry. I have not been able to observe any constant dif-
ferences between these two types in foliage or fruit. I. am dis-
posed to regard these peculiarities as variations of one variety
due to climate or some other local cause, for I find the same dif-
ferences in other varieties grown here and in the south, as in
Newman, Robinson and Marianna (Nos. 83, 86 and 92). I have
examined a number of seedlings of Wild Goose at Mr. Kert’s, and
while they differ from the parent in flavor und shape of fruit,
they are much like it in general texture and character of fruit,

the stones are singularly alike and the habits of the trees are

similar; but in some of them the leaves tend to be irregularly
toothed at the margins after the manner of the Wayland class.
It should be said that the tree from which these seedlings were
grown stood beside a tree of German Prune, bnt it is not known
if these plants will hybridize.

The range of adaptability of the Wild Goose is ereat. It is
hardy in central New York, and southern Michigan, and it suc-

ceeds well in Georgia and Texas. The tree resembles a peach
tree.

62. World Beater— Large, round-oblong, dark red, skin medium;
cling; leaves medium and long-pointed, rather dull, somewhat
irregularly serrate, the stalks usually glandular. Very late.
Of good quality. Found wild in Tennessee. Introduced by Stark
Bros., in 1889.

The Wild Goose type or group of plums, as a whole, appears
to be best suited to the middle latitudes, being grown with sitis:
faction from Tlinois and Indiana, and the southern part of Michi-
gan and New York to Maryland, Virginia and Tennessee, and jn
the southwest to Texas. The varieties which are most highly
prized are Golden Beauty, Indian Chief, Missouri Apricot, More-
man, Wayland and Wild Goose.

MLO Is
y
DON Sp

Wats \
s\ Ns co

\’

<EPn

*

ew Shy tL eet

4

Tue Corrivatep Native Prums anp CHERRIES. 55

C. The Miner Group.— (Prunus hortulana var. Mineri). This
| _group includes a few anomalous varieties which appear to be
intermediate between Prunus hortulana and P. Americana. ‘They
may be an off-shoot of P. hortulana, or it is possible that they
constitute a distinct species. The Miner is particularly well
marked, but there are others which it is somewhat difficult to
separate from P. hortulana. The group differs from the species
by the dull and comparatively thick leaves which are conspicu-
_ ously veiny below and irregularly coarsely toothed and more or
4 less obovate in outline, by a late, very firm fruit and by a iore
| or less smooth and Americana-like stone. Fig. 4 is an excellent
illustration of the under surface of aleaf of this group, and Fig. 5
shows the general habit. I am not able to designate the range
ia of the wild plant, but it appears to occur in Lilinois (and perhaps
: | Indiana), Missouri, Tennessee, and perhaps in Arkansas.
; 63. Clinton (Fig. 4)— Fruit large, round, lull red, skin medium
thick; cling; the stone short and broad and scarcely pointed,

Te Ie

5 47 Ea ot 7

Figure 4.— Leaf of Clinton, full size.

nearly smooth; flowers medium; leaves (see cut) elliptic to elliptic-
obovate, rather prominently pointed; the stalks glandular. Mid-
season, ripening several days before Miner. Thought by some tw
be the same as Miner, but the leaves, at least, appear to be
different.
64. Forest Rose Large to very large, zound, dull red, skin
medium thick ; Stone cling, broad and comparatively flat, sharp

56 AGRICULTURAL Expsriment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

on the front edge, scarcely pointed, smooth, Americana-like;
flowers medium to large; leaves elliptic to elliptic-obovate, promi-
nently pointed; the stalks ordinarily bearing two small glauds.
Medium to late, of good quality. A Missouri wild variety, intro-
duced by William Stark, in 1878. C.

65. Idol— Medium to rather large, round, bright light crimson
splashed with magenta, skin thin; stone small, cling; leaves obo-
vate; the stalks glandular. Medium season. Said by D. B.
Wier, the originator, to be very large, weighing as much as the
average Lombard, but b. O. Curtis, Paris, LUlinois, who now
handles some of Wier’s varieties, says that with him it is rather
small and ripens the last of September and first of October. Said
by Mx. Wier to be a cross between Miner and Wild Goose.
Illinois.

66. Indiana Red.— Large, round, red; cling; flowers medium;
leaves elliptic-ovate, prominently pointed, coarsely toothed, the
stalks mostly prominently glandular. Medium to late. Said to
have been an Indiana wild variety and to have been introduced
by Dr. I. Cramer. By some thought to be the same as Miner. ©.

67. Iris— A medium red plum, with rather small and ciurgid
stones, which are scarcely pointed, and smooth or nearly so;
flowers medium; leaves elliptic or elliptic-obovate, long-pointed,
the stalks glandular. Illinois. D. B. Wier, originator and intro-
ducer. C.

68. Langsdon (Fig. 5)— Medium, round or round-oblong, lizht
red; stone cling, small and nearly smooth, turgid, very short-
pointed; leaves obovate or elliptic-obovate, moderately pointed,
the glands small. Medium to late. Much like Miner.

69. Leptune.— Medium, round, dark red, skin thick; cling, stone
rather small and turgid, nearly smooth, short pointed; leaves
elliptic-ovate to elliptic-obovate, very long pointed and coarsely
serrate, stalks either glandless or glandular. Late. Said to have
been introduced by J. D. Morrow & Sons, Arkansas.

70. Miner.
thick; stone cling, short and broad, smooth or very nearly 89,

Large, round or roundish-oblong, dull red, skin

very short-pointed, rather sharp on the front edge, Americanna,

vy, qr Me RNA
Ge AN ea
FR RR es UC) ts i Wales ee
eae NA) Sede R M

inclined to be obovate, rather long-pointed, the stalks glandular.
Medium to late. Said by Downing* to have originated with Mr
Miner, Lancaster county, Penn., but this is a mistake. The seed
iS which produced the Miner plum was planted in 1814, in Knox
- ¢ounty, Tennessee, by William Dodd, an otficer under General

Se ee

== —-. ee ee

=

= oi

Ss i <a

>

Se a eae
“ wi " = 7 a *
ieee

~ Z
»

Sie ies Me

v

i ‘. eg Figure 5.— Langsdon. Three-quarter full PEE (Fruits immature )

_ Jackson. Dodd appears to have had two batches of seed, one |

Sere Fe

which he gathered the year before upon Talaposa creek, and the

a

other given him by an Indian chief. It is not clear from which
lot this plum sprung. The plum gained some notice when it came
into bearing, and was known as Old Hickory and General Jackson.
In 1823 or 1824 Dodd moved to Illinois and settled near Springfield,

j
ey
:

* Fruits and Fruit Trees, 2d ed., 931.

8

PEAT OS Peete Sih ENS Ue AMM TA rel a a en
‘ : “i a OMA Se
jo 7 CEP:
F . | eal

\ \

58 AgriouLttuRAL Experiment Sration, Irmaoa, N. Y.

taking some sprouts of his plum with him. The plums soon
attracted attention among Dodd’s neighbors, and the variety was
called in its new home William Dodd and Chickasaw Chief. The
year following William Dodd’s removal to Illinois, his brother
moved to Galena, Dlinois, and took some of the plums. About
Galena the plum became known as the Hinckley. I do not know
how the name Miner came to be applied to it, but Downing’s
reference to Mr. Miner of Pennsylvania — who probably grew and
disseminated it— undoubtedly explains it. It is said by D. B.
Wier that the late Hon. James G. Soulard, of Galena, intro-
duced this plum to general cultivation, and I repeated
this statement last year in a discussion of the Soulard crab.*
(For a fuller history of the Miner, see A. Giddings in Iowa Agr.
Rep. 1871, 332.) Downing gives Hinckley, Isabel, Gillett, Town-
send and Robinson as synonyms of Miner. The Robinson now
known is a very different fruit. (See No. 86.) The Miner is one of
the best and most popular of the native plums, and is probably
grown farther north with success than any other variety of this
species (Groups B and C). In Central New York it ripens in
October. Colored plate in Agriculture of Pennsylvania, 1881. C.

Parsons.— Supposed to be identical with Miner, which see. C.

71. Prairie Flower.— A variety introduced by Stark Bros., Mis-
souri; probably belongs in this group.

72. Rachel. Medium, round-oblong, dull red, thick skin; stone
cling, short and broad, thin-margined on the front edge, scarcely
pointed, smooth, Americana-like; leaves long, elliptic-obovate,
moderately pointed, stalks glandular. Medium to late C. !

The Miner group appears to be a strong and hardy race which
is particularly adapted to the northern limits of the cultivation of
the Hortulana family. The varieties are much alike. The Miner
is the most popular member of the group, and it succeeds even in
northern Llinois. In New York the varieties ripen from late
September even to late October.

D. The Chickasaw Group.— (Prunus angustifolia, Marshall,
Arbustrum Americanum, II. [1785]. [Prunus Chickasa, Michx. —

* Amer, Garden XXII, 473.

Tar Couutivatep Native Pioums anp CHERRIES. 59

Flor. Bor-Am. i. 284.]). This group of plums differs from the
Wild Goose group (B) by a more slender, spreading and zig-
zag growth, usually smaller size of tree, red twigs, by smaller,
lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate very closely serrate shining leaves
which are conduplicate or trough-like in habit, by early small
flowers which, upon old wood, are densely clustered on the spurs,
and by an early red (rarely yellow) and more or less spotted
translucent fruit, the flesh of which is soft, juicy, and more or
less stringy and very tightly adherent to the small, broad, rough-
ish stone. It is difficult to separate some of the cultivated forms of
this species from small-leaved and weak-growing varieties of
Prunus hortulana, but the two species are easily separated in a
wild state. The zigzag young twigs and wough-like leaves of
the Chickasaws are characteristic, and are shown in lig. 6. The
- leaves are often very small, scarcely exceeding an inch in length,
_ but upon the more vigorous cultivated varieties, as the Newnan,
the leaf-blades are often three inches long and nearly ilat. In
herbarium specimens the species is usually vecognized by the two
halves of the leaves being pressed together so that the upper
surface is hidden. In a wild state the trees or bushes are thorny,
and the thorns persist in some of the cultivated varieties. It
grows wild, often in dense thickets, from southern Delaware to
Florida, and westward to Kansas and Texas. Lt is vomnwnly
_ stated in the books that the Chickasaw plum is not native to the
Atlantic States, and some suppose that it was introduced into
the United States from countries to the south of us. I have been
unable to find sufficient reasons for these opinions, and I believe
that the species is native to the southeastern States. In Mary-
land, as I have seen it, it behaves like an indigenions plant, and
the people regard it as a true native. The small sccrb fruit of
the thorny and scraggly wild bushes is known in Maryland as
“Mountain Cherry.”

This species, like Prunus Americana, was founded by Hhun-
phrey Marshall in 1785. His description is as follows: “ Prunus
_ angustifolia. Chicasaw plumb. This is scarcely of so large a
growth as the former [P. Americana], but rising with a stiff,

¥

- . 4 o ‘. -. Ste, ewe TP a, i we | i.
f ; , : i ¥ vo site i
' a , oy. Ma JUNO eg
¥ yr ans |
ie

60 AGRICULTURAL Experiment Strarion, Irnaca, N. Y.. aN

shrubby stalk, dividing into many branches, which are garnished
with smooth lance-shaped leaves, much smalier and narrower
than the first kind [P. Americana]; a little waved on their edyes,
marked with very fine, slight, colored serratures, and of an equal,
shining green color, on both sides. The blossoms generally come ~
out very thick, and are succeeded by oval, or often somewhat |
egg-shaped fruit, with a very thin skin, and soft, sweet pulp.
There are varieties of this with yellow and rimson colored frnit.
These being natives of the southern States are somewhat
impatient of much cold.”

73. African.— Medium to rather large, round-oblong, dark red;
leaves small, short-oblong-lanceolate. Early to medium. Origi- —
nated under cultivation by G. Onderdonk, 8. Texas, and intro-
duced by him in 1870. C.

74, Arkansas Lombard.— Medium, round or round-oblong, red;_
leaves medium, ovate-oblong. Early to medium, ripening just
before Newman. Arkansas. Said to have been introduced by
J. D. Morrow & Sons.

75. Caddo Chief.
medium in size, short, ovate-oblong. Very early, ripening with
Early Richmond cherry. Wid from Caddo Parish, Louisiana.
Introduced by G. W. Stoner. Blooms and ripens very early. In

Medium or rather small, round, red; leayes

northern Texas the fruit is ripe the middle of May. C.

76. Coletta.— Medium to large, round-oblong, light red; leaves
small, oblong-lanceolate. Tree somewhat thorny. Early or very
early. Originated under cultivation in southern Texas by G.
Onderdonk, who introduced it in 1874. Ripens with Caddo
Chief. C.

77. Early Red.— Medium, round, red; leaves medium, oblong-
lanceolate. Early or very early. Origin southern Texas under
cultivation by G. Onderdonk; introduced by him in 1872. There is
a Russian plum (Prunus domestica), introduced by Professor Budd,
known as Early Red. C.

78. El Paso.— Medium, round, red; leaves medium, ovate-oblong.
Ripens during July and August in southern Texas. Originated and
introduced by Lee Beaty, Texas.

A AY

\

a

SS
ZEA

Sprays half size. Leaf and stones full size.

Figure 6.— Newman,

ita Wigs

y
“f

ESD aR TA Ee OREN esr aiG RA Mra SOUT aaa el gy A MAR Caer Cy Yea ye Wipe LALLA rie ed ay Ae Re
Ne ME TOT , er. ne * fi ne, ae y -
; NS ol ( FV iy RP pe iy

‘a:
Tue Cuntivatep NativE Pirums anp CHERRIES. 63

79. Emerson’s Early.— Rather large, round, purple-red, skin
very thin; cling. Said to be a good market sort. Very early.
Wild variety from northern Texas. Introduced by Mr. Bruce.
Similar to Lone Star, but a better grower.

80. Hoffman.— Medium to rather large, round, purple-red; leaves
medium, oblong-lanceolate. Mid-season to late. A wild variety
from southwestern Missouri. “ Very sure and prolific [in Texas].”—
Munson. Ripe in northern Texas the middle of July, later than
the Wild Goose.

81. Jennie Lucas.— Medium to rather large, round yellow; leaves
short, ovate-oblong. Early. Originated under cultivation and
introduced, in 1875, by G. Onderdonk, southern Texas... C.

82. Lone Star.— Rather large, round-oblong, red, skin very thin;
leaves rather small, oblong-lanceolate. Early. Originated in
Texas by E. W. Kilpatrick, grown from wild seed from eastern
Texas. C.

83. Newman (Figs. 6 and 7). Rather large, nearly globular
or round-oblong, pink-red with prominent light spots near the

NAA

SS \ -
SS << AUT TT
ARR SERRE AY
\ WN RAW AN ‘' \W \ \\ ( Hf] a EE, ee
\h
\

\
ee i Ny

hp fe ope
nana ey,
y

Figure 7.— Newman Plums. Natural size.

apex, yellowish opposite the sun; leaves rather large, oblons-
lanceolate.: Medium to late. Ripens in New York in October.
Introduced from Kentucky by W. F. Heikes. One of the best
known of the Chickasaws. In our plantation the Newman is
hardy, but the flowers, instead of appearing before the leaves as

.

see A. 7 f ) » ‘ OL FP a ‘Hee Fost a Tee § ek i
ay tee aie 7 y
\ \ as

64 AgricuttuRAL Experiment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

in the central and southern States, appear with the leaves in
loose umbel-like clusters. This is the same kind of variation -
which occurs in the Wild Goose (see No. 61). In some of the
New York trees the leaves are unusually large and often nearly
plane. The Chickasaw method of growth is fairly well retained,
however. Warren is thought to be identical with Newman C.

84. Ogeechee.— Small to medium, round-oblong, red; leaves short, —
ovate-oblong. Very early. Similar to Caddo Chief. Wild from
Georgia; introduced by G. Bourquin.

85. Pottawattamie.— Rather large, round, red; leaves rather
small, narrowly oblong-lanceolate to ovate-oblong. Early to
medium. Tennessee; it was taken to Iowa in a lot of Miners,
and came under the notice of J. B. Rice, Council Bluffs, in 1875,
who introduced it. Various stories are told about its origin, but
the above is correct. It appears to have received its name from
Mr. Rice. Like the Newman, the leaves appear to be larger in
the north. “Enormous bearer.”— Berckmans. C.

86. Robinson.— Medium, round, blotched red; leaves medium
or small, ovate-oblong or oblong-lanceolate. Mid-season. “ This
is a seedling grown by a Mr. Pickett, of Putnam county, Indiana,
from a seedling brought with him from North Carolina, nearly
fiftv years ago, and has, almost every season (since large enough),
borne abundant crops, but was neglected, and never brought to
the notice of the public till 1879, when Dr. J. H. Robinson (of
the same township) read a paper before the Indiana Horticultural
Society, on Chickasaw plums, and gave a very flattering descrip-
tion of this plum, which he had been watching since 1872, and
of which he had two good crops on his own trees, which bore
two bushels to the tree five years after planting, and has borne
good crops annually, except once, when killed by late frosts. It
was named by the Putnam County Horticultural Society in honor
of Dr. Robinson.” — Albertson '& Hobbs, Bridgeport, Indiana
(1885), who introduced the variety in the fall of 1884 and spring
of 1885. Like Wild Goose and Newman, in New York the flowers
appear with the leaves. C.

-

idl oaiat kde Ao PRS of x mi Fo My 7% va Ae Ts i Te
by bad r ' , ,

Tae Cortivatep Native Pirums AND CHERRIES. 65

87. Schley (Schley’s Large Red).— Rather large, round, red;
_ leaves medium, ovate or lance-ovate. Early to medium. Said to
have been introduced from Georgia by W. K. Nelson. Much like

_ Roulette except in foliage. Possibly Prunus hortulana. <A very
spreading and straggling grower. C.

88. Strawberry.— We are growing but have not fruited a plum

under this name, which appears to have been recently introduced.
_ I know nothing of its history. C.

Warren.— See Newman.
85. Wooten.— Large, round-oblong, yellow with red markings;
leaves medium, oblong-lanceolate. Medium to late. Found wild

_ in central Texas (Colorado river), and introduced by A. M. Ramsey.

“Very sure and prolific.’ Munson. Ripe from early to middle
July in northern Texas. Possibly P. hortulana.
90. Yellow Transparent.— Rather large, oblong, lemon yellow;

~ leaves rather small, oblong-lanceolate. Early. , Originated in

northern Texas by J. L. Freeman. Selected from thousands of
varieties grown from wild seed.

I have plants from Kansas under the name of “ Kansas Dwarf
Cherry” which are evidently a bush-like form of this species.

They have not yet borne.

The “Sand Plum,” which is occasionally grown in Nebraska,
is Prunus angustifolia, if I may judge from leaves sent me by Dr.
C. E. Bessey, of the University of Nebraska... Dr. Bessey writes
as follows of this plum:* “Occasionally I hear of a ‘Sand Plum,’
said to grow in the southwestern and western parts of the State.

No authentic specimens have been seen, although I have in my

collection some twigs and leaves from plants cultivated under this
name, and thought, by the growers, to have been taken up from
wild patches in the State.” It is not improbable that this Sand

- Plum is the same as the Kansas Dwarf Cherry mentioned above.

The Chickasaw group is particularly adapted to the southern
‘States, and it succeeds as far north as Maryland and Kentucky,
while some of the varieties are hardy in central New York. The

* Second Report upon Native Trees and Shrubs of Nebraska, 18.

9

66 AgricutturaL Exprrment Sration, Iruaca, N. Y.

leading varieties are Caddo Chief, Jennie Lucas, Lone Star, New-_ 4

man, Pottawattamie, Robinson and Yellow Transparent.

E. The Marianna Group— The Marianna and De Caradeuc
plums—and probably, also, the Hattie— constitute a distinct
class from any of the foregoing, differing in habit of tree, very
early flowering, elliptic-ovate rather small and finely serrate dull
leaves, glandless leaf-stalks, and soft spherical, very juicy plums
of a “sugar and water” character, and broad ovate stones which
are scarcely pointed and are prominently furrowed on the front
edge. The botanical position of these plums has been a subject of
speculation, to which I have added my full share of confusion.* I
have devoted more study to these plums than to any others, and I
am now convinced that the De Caradeuc is myrobalan. and
that the Marianna is either the same species or a hybrid between
it and some American plum, possibly the Wild Goose. This, I
am aware, is a startling conclusion, particularly as the Marianna
has come to be so extensively used as a stock to replace the myro-
balan, which appears to be growing in disfavor. Before enter-
ing into detail concerning the origins of these plums, it will be
useful to our inquiry to clear up some of the history of the myro-
balan plum.

The word myrobalan (or myrobolan), as a noun, is used to desig-
nate various small tropical fruits which are used in the arts,
chiefly for tanning purposes. It is now commonly applied to the
fruits of the species of Terminalia, of the family Combretaceae,
which are imported from India, The word was early applied to
a small plum grown in Europe, probably because of some resem-
blance in size or other characteristics to the myrobalans of com-
merce. This plum has had a curious history. The first

undoubted reference to it which I know is in Clusius’ Rariorum

Plantarum Historia, 1601. Clusius gives a good figure of it, but
Says that it was not generally known. Some peuple thought that
it came originally from Constantinople, and others that it came
from Gaul. Clusius leans toward the latter view. He calls it

* In my Nursery-book (p. 252) I referred them to Pyrunus umbrellata, Ell.

Tue Cuntivatep Native PLums AND CHERRIES. 67

_ the myrobalan plum, but does not know the origin of the name.
_ For nearly 200 years after Clusius wrote, the fruit is described

by various authors in different parts of Europe, under the names

of myrobalan or cherry plum, during which time doubts were cast

upon its European origin. Thus Tournefort, in 1700, said that it

came from North America. In 1789, Ehrhart* described it as a
distinct species under the name Prunus cerasifera or “ cherry-
bearing plum,” and said distinctly that it is a native of North
America. Some thirty years before this time, Linnaeus had
described it as Prunus domestica var. myrobalan, and gave it a
European origin. In 1812, Loiseleur Deslonchamps § described
it as Prunus myrobalana, saying that it was supposed to be of

‘American origin. From that time until now the nativity of the

myrobalan plum has been uncertain, but European writers have
usually avoided the difficulty by referring it to America; and
American botanists have for the most part ignored it because it
is a cultivated plant. So it happens that thts pretty fruit has
fallen between two countries and is homeless. Sereno Watson,
in his index to North American botany, published in 1878, refers
Ehrhart’s Prunus cerasifera to the common peach plum (Prunus
maritima) of the Atlantic coast. But the myrobalan is wholly
different in every character from the beach plum, and it has been
long cultivated upon walls in Europe, a treatment which no one
would be likely to give to the little beach plum. Torrey and Gray
in 1838, in the Flora of North America, do not mention the myto-
balan plum. After all the exploration of the North American
flora, no plant has been found which could have been the original
of this plum; while its early cultivation in Europe, together with

_ the testimony of Clusius and other early herbalists, is strong

presumption that it is native to the Old World. This presump-
tion is increased by the doubt which exists in the minds of the
leading botanists, from Linnaeus down, as to its systematic
position, for if there is difficulty in separating it from Prunus
domestica, the original of the common plum and which is itself

* Beitrage zur Naturkunde, iv. 17.
§ Nouveau Duhamel Traité des Arbres et Arbustes, v. 184, t. 57, fig. 1.

7 ae a QR PE ei AEE OP Nee at, ee Nee OU ne OY ¥
i + ; " A tS Khe wedi i Pin rhs : ; Wt we f seen "i Pty

ass
ef

68 AgricutturaL Experiment Srarton, Irgaoa, N. Y.

\

a native of the Old World and immensely variable, there is strong

reason for suspecting that it is only an offshoot of that species;
and this presumption finds strong support in other directions.

But one need not study far into the European plums until he

convinces himself that the essential features of the myrobalan
plum are present in several of the wild or half wild forms of
southern and southeastern Europe, no matter what the ultimate
origin of the fruit may be. Plums from Turkestan (presumably
wild) now growing upon the grounds of Ellwanger & Barry, at
Rochester, N. Y., are certainly myrobalan; and it may be said that
the so-called Prunus Pissardi, which has been recently introduced
from Persia, is but a purple-leaved myrobalan plum.* I have
no doubt, therefore, but that the myrobalan plum is native to
Europe or Asia; and it is full time that an American origin be
no longer ascribed to it.§

The myrobalan plum has long been used ‘n this country as a
stock for various plums. Except upon the Pacific coast, it appears
to be falling into disuse, however, as it dwarfs the cion and is
not suited to all varieties. The endeavor to find some stock which
2an take the place of the myrobalan has resulted in the popular-
izing of the Marianna, but which, if not pure myrobalan, certainly
partakes very largely of it. The myrobalan is generally dis-
tributed over the country as a stock, and bearing trees of it are
occasionally seen. The Golden Cherry plum of Downing** is
undoubtedly this species, and the fruit now grown as Youngken’s
Golden Cherry is certainly myrobalan, and it is probably identi-
cal with the variety described by Downing. The fruits may be
either yellow or red in various shades. They are round and
cherry-like, with a depression at the base, on slender stems,

ranging in size from that of a large cherry to an inch and a half |

in diameter. The myrobalan is very variable, a fact which finds
record in the various shapes and sizes of the commercial imported
stones.

* Mr. Kerr has grown a purple-leaved plum from seed of De Caradeuc.
+See also Garden and Forest, i, 178
** Fruits and Fruit Trees, 916.

ee eS

Details full size.

Sprays half size.

Figure 8.— Marianna.

any
re

Tue Contivatep Native PLtums anp CHERRIES. 71

91. De Caradeuc.— Rather large (one to one and a quarter in
diameter), globular, deep dull purple-red when ripe, with a promi-
nently colored suture, but yellowish green splashed with red, when
it first becomes edible; flesh thin, very juicy and sweet; cling; the
stone round-ovate, rather turgid, scarcely pointed ind cvenly pitted;
leaves rather firm, ovate-oblong. Early. In central New York
it ripens from the first to the middle of August. ‘Tree an erect
grower. ‘Lhis plum appears to agree with the myrobalan in all
lunportant botanical characters, even to the broad and strongly
reflexed calyx lobes and stalked flowers. About a year ago, lL
became convinced that De Caradeuc is Prunus cerasifera, and
I was glad to have my opinion confirmed by so good a nurseryman
as P. J. Berckmans, of Georgia, who named the variety; and the
origin ot the plum, which | have since learned, corroborates my
conclusion. it originated with A. De Caradeuc upon his former
farm, near Aiken, South Carolina, about the years 185U to 1854.

Mr. De Caradeuc imported some Hrench plums, from the seed
of which this variety came. ‘here were several Chickasaw
plums in the vicinity of the French trees and Mr. De Caradeuc
thinks that the variety under consideration is a hybrid, but lL
am unable to discover any evidence of hybridity. The original
tree of the variety “ outgrew the parent, and reached a diameter
of head of fifteen teet, was entirely free from thorms and suckers, )
and bore a remarkably rich and beautiful foliage.” The variety
blooms very early, some days ahead of the Marianna, and the
-tiowers, as in all varieties of P. cerasifera, are somewhat scav-
tered and less abundant than in the native species. C.

92. Marianna (Fig. 8).— Large, round-oblong, short-stemmed, as
compared with the De Caradeue, bright red and finely speckled,
and covered with a thin bloom; flesh soft and sweet, juicy; semi-
cling; the stone like that of De Caradeuc (see Fig. 3); tlowers
small, sessile or short-stalked, in dense lateral clusters like the
native varieties, the calyx lobes narrow and erect; leaves much
as in De Caradeuc, but thinner. A little later than De Caradeuc,
but ripens before the Wild Goose. Tree a very spreading
grower. C.

72 AgGriouLtuRAL Experment Starion, Irgaca, N. Y.

From the above description it will be seen that the Marianna is
in several respects intermediate between Prunus cerasifera, as
represented in De Caradeuc, and the native American plums,
particularly in the short-stemmed fruit, small nearly sessile: and
clustered later flowers and erect narrow calyx lobes, and spreading
habit. It is, therefore, little surprise to learn that the originator
considers it a seedling of Wild Goose. It originated as a seedling
in a mixed orchard, at Marianna, i’olk county, Texas, the prop-
erty of Charles G. Fitze. So far as I can learn, the seed was not
hand-sown, and there is a chance for error in the history. The
variety was introduced in 1884, by Charles N. Eley, Smith Point,
Texas.

The Marianna grows readily from cuttings, and this, in connec-
tion with the hardiness and vigor of the variety and the readiness
with which it unites in graftage with several species of prunus,
has made it very popular as a stock. The myrobalan itself grows
from cuttings, but in most cases not to a profitable extent. I
have recently made a small experiment upon the rooting of cut-
tings of myrobalan, De Caradeuc and Marianna, in identical
conditions, under heat. Of myrobalan cuttings, less than ten
per cent grew; of De Caradeuc, less than twenty per cent; of
Marianna, about seventy per cent. I do not know where the
Marianna could have obtained this peculiarity to grow readily
from cuttings; but it is idle to attribute it to hybridity until
we have determined if all varieties of myrobalans grow with
equal difficulty from cuttings. The question will at once arise
if the Marianna is reliable as a stock, seeing that it is probably
partly of myrobalan origin; and in reply I can only say that
experience alone can determine the value of a stock. Thus far
the Marianna has given good results. I apprehend that some
of the dissatisfaction with myrobalan stocks should be laid to
the indiscriminate use of variable seedlings; in order to obtain
uniform results a particular variety or strain of myrobalan should
be used. In this connection I may observe that the flowers oi
Marianna appear with the leaves in New York, while they appear
before the leaves — as shown in Fig. 8—in the middle and south-

ie
ae

| 5 ih
We to A

Jag

ae ee, eee ae

AY
* y)

Wy 4

a 2
Tot? fae

Wen Wie
‘ee ‘i

Z /

Wy

: i /| 7g \\

as INN Vi ANIM

Hifi Pip NW: A |

yi Maa WV , Ui} Wh
WL i AN aad
4, &

wi" Za Nae A

+]

Ce Poe sae ee

—
—S
_———

\

Figure 9.— Beach Plum (Prunus maritina). Sprays half size. Details full size.
10

MSL pE nes Hoke ee ERE §
Ebi Ao Noieak iol tart I tale Cail bold pee

4

Tue Coxutivarep Native PLumMs anp CHERRIES. 15

ern States; and this peculiarity I have observed in myrobalan,
and also, as previously recorded, in Wild Goose, Newman and
Robinson.

93. Hattie— Medium, round-oblong, red; cling, the stone
much like that of Marianna in shape, but rather more pointed
and nearly smooth; ilowers small and clustered, the calyx lobes
sinali and erect; leaves small, short-oblong, or ovate-oblong, some-

What conduplicate, dull and tirm, finely serrate, the stalks glaad-

less; branches stiff and colspicuously rough or warty. arly,
below medium in quality. ‘Lhe history of this plum 1 am unable
to trace. tn some respects it closely resembles the Clickasaws,

- but 1 can hot escape the conviction that it is partly myrobaian. 1

have seen the Same rough shoots 1 the yrobalan plum. WU.

i’, ‘the Beach Vium.— (Prunus maritima, Wangenbeim [1738i)}).
big. ¥.— ‘ihe beach pium is a straggling more or less decumbent
bus, reaching tiiee Lo SLX Or evel tWelve Leet in height, growing
lm the salius oi the sSea-coast trom New brulswick to Virginia,
and perbups extendilg iarther towards the soutiwest.* ‘Lhe
uowers are rather large lor the size of the plant, ald are borne
OL pruliileht Stalks im Clusters. Lhe irull, mm the best foriuis,
IS abuul a hail lich im diameter (see big. ¥), ald Is deep, duil
purpie When Lipe, abu covered Wilh a dellse Dlovulm; the esd 1s
briitie, sweet alld Juicy, entively tree Irom the stone; the skin
is thick and tough, ald usualy leaves al acrid taste im the mouth
When the iruit is eaten. Upon the Jersey coast the irult is ripe
the middie of August. Prunus maritima is in cultivation s
an orlbamental plant, it being very showy when in bloom and inter-

esting in fruit. It succeeds well under cultivation in the interior

States. As a fruit plant it has given rise to but one variety:
94. Bassett’s American (Fig. 10)— Small (about three-fourths
of an inch in diameter), round or slightly round-oblate, dull red;
skin medium thick; free-stone, the stone nearly circular in out-
line with a very short point or even pointless, thin upon the
front edge, slightly rough; leaves a fourth or third larger than

* Prunus maritima has been found recently near the head of Lake Michigan. It is supposed
to have been introduced.

76 AgricutturaAL Experiment Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.

those of the wild beach plum. Medium to late, ripening in late
August in eastern Maryland. Quality poor. Introduced about
twenty years ago, by Wm. F. Bassett, Hammonton, N. J., who
bought the original tree of a man who found it in the neighbor-
hood. It works well upon the Wild Goose, and Mr. Bassett writes
me that he has a tree on such roots which is fifteen feet high.
It was largely brought to notice through the efforts of the Rumson
nurseries, where it was worked upon the myrobalan plum and

Figure 10,— Bassett’s American. Full size.

the peach. I have seen a vigorous, large tree at Mr. Kerr’s
grafted upon the Richland, which is Prunus domestica. Mr. Kerr
also finds that it grows upon the Chickasaws. The variety appears
to differ from the wild beach plum only in size.

G. Prunus subcordata, the wild plum of the Pacific coast,
was introduced to cultivation in 1889, by T. V. Munson (see Annals
Hort. 1889, 104; 1891, 235). It is a straggling, much branched
shrub growing from three to ten feet high. It has subcordate
roundish or round-ovate tomentose leaves and large pedicelled
flowers which appear with the leaves. The red fruit reaches
three-fourths inch long. It is eaten by Indians and whites. Its
value in cultivation is yet to be determined.

H. Hybrids.—It is not known, to what extent the native
species of plums hybridize with each other or with foreign species,
and nearly all the definite attempts at crossing are so recent that

Tue Coutivatep Native Piums aAnp CHERRIES. ya

results have not been obtained. The only apparently authentic
hybrids have come from the union of the Wild Goose and the
peach. Mr. Kerr has what appears to be an undoubted hybrid.
The tree, as I recall it, is large, spreading and peach-like. The
leaves are long and peach-like, although rather broad and short-
pointed, but the flower buds, although they form in profusion,
never open, so that the tree is barren. This is a hybrid between
the Wild Goose and Troth’s Early peach. Twenty-five flowers
of Wild Goose were emasculated in the bud and covered with
paper sacks. When in full bloom, peach pollen was applied, but
the flowers were not again covered. Twenty-one of the flowers
set fruit, and twenty-one trees were obtained from the seeds.
Twenty of the trees were indistinguishable from peach, but the
remaining one, as indicated above, gives every evidence of being
a hybrid. One other apparent hybrid is the

95. Blackman.— Nearly thirty years ago Mrs. Charity Clark
procured from an orchard in Rutherford county, Tenn., which con-
tained Wild Goose and Washington plums, seeds of plums and
gave them to Dr. Blackman, of Nashville. One tree among
the resulting seedlings bore good fruit and it was called the
Blackman, and was disseminated by a local nurseryman. <A
competing nursery, in endeavoring to procure cions from this tree,
inadvertently cut them from an adjacent tree —itself one of the
batch of seedlings — and sold the trees which it grew as Black-
man. Now this second tree makes fruit buds in abundance but
they never open; and from the resemblance of the leaves to those
of the peach the plant is generally thought to be a hybrid between.
the Wild Goose and the peach. This assumption finds partial
confirmation in the experiments of Mr. Kerr, recorded above, for
this spurious Blackman is very much like his hybrid although
the leaves are more pointed and still more peach-like. Curiously
enough, the genuine Blackman has never been widely dissem-
inated, but the spurious and worthless substitute has been sold
in large quantities. In order to -avoid confusion, the original
Blackman has been rechristened Charity Clark. There are there-
fore, two Blackman plums, one of which is practically unknown

Sy ot Phy aa
78 AgrtoutruraL Exprrment Station, Irnaoca, N. Y.

to cultivation, but which has been renamed, and the other is bar-
ren and will soon pass from sight.* C.

L. Unclassified varieties— The following varieties IT know only
from printed references or from information afforded by corres-
pondents, and I can not, therefore, refer them to their proper
species:

96. Allen’s Yellow.— Medium, round, yellow and red, skin thick;
cling. Kansas.

97. Berry.

98. Champion.— Very large, oblong, dark red, thick skin; flesh
firm; cling. Late. H. A. Terry, 1890. Originated under
cultivation.

99. Charles Downing.— Large, round-oblong, red, skin thin;
flesh firm; cling. Medium to late. Should be worked on peach.
H. A. Terry, Iowa, 1885. Originated under cultivation.

100. Cherokee— A medium size plum, round-oblong, blotched
her, thick skin; cling. Said to have been found wild in Kansas.

101. Col. Wilder.— Large round-oblong, red, thin skin; flesh
firm and of best quality; cling. Medium to late. H. A. Terry,
Towa, 1888. Originated under cultivation.

302. Cook’s Choice— Medium, round, red, thin skin; flesh of
best culinary quality; cling. Medium to late. H. A. Terry, 1885. |
Originated under cultivation. |

103. Couler— From Wm. Couler, Chickasaw county, Iowa.
“The Couler is a large plum of fair quality, ripening a little before
Miner, but sometimes cracks open badly before ripe.’—O. H.
Kenyon McGregor, Iowa Hort. Rept. X VII, 235.

104. Crescent City.— Rather large, oblong, dark red, skin thick;
cling. Late. H. A. Terry, Iowa, 1885. Originated under
cultivation.

105. Diamond.— Seedling from wild Nebraska seed grown by
John A. Hogg. “Grows fully as large as most of the tame varie-
ties. Ripens last of September, and when fully ripe gets bright
red on one side.” — John A. Hogg, Nebr. Hort. Rept., 1890, 121.

*For a fuller account of the Blackman plums, see VanDemann in Rept. Dept. Agric, 1887
636. The Blackman has been recommended as a stock for peaches upon the supposition that it
enjoys immunity from yellows. See Cal. Orchard and Farm, iv, 3.

—s

Tue Cuitrvatep Native Piums anp CHERRIES. 19

106. Dr. Dennis.— Large, round-oblong, red, thin skin; flesh
firm and good; cling. H. A. Terry, Iowa, 1890. Originated under
cultivation.

107. Dunlap.— Large, round, yellow, thin skin; flesh firm and of
high quality; cling. Medium season. Nebraska seedling, intro-
duced by J. P. Dunlap.

108. Early Honey.— An early variety, evidently a Chickasaw,

which originated in Grayson county, Texas.

109. Ellis— Rather large, round, red, skin .very thin; semi-
cling. Ranks high for market or for home use. Late. Said to
be a cross between Wild Goose and Golden Beauty. N. Texas.
Introduced by T. L. Ellis.

110. Esther.— Rather large, round-oblong, dark red, skin thick;
cling. Medium to late. H. A. Terry, Iowa, 1885. Originated
under cultivation.

111. Excelsior.

112. Hammer.— Large, oblong, light red, skin thin; of extra
quality; cling. Medium to late. H. A. Terry, Iowa, 1888. Origi-
nated under cultivation. Said to be a seedling of Wild Goose.

113. Houston County.

114. Hughes.— A large, round, red plum, said to have come
from northern. Mississippi.

115. Iola— Very large, oblong, dark yellow and red, skin
medium thick; flesh firm; free. Late. D. B. Wier, Llinois.

116. Irene.— Very large, round, bright red, thick skin; flesh
firm; cling. Late. D. B. Wier, Llinois.

117. Ithaca. Said to have come from Peter M. Gideon,
Minnesota.

118. James Vick.

119. Jewell.

120. Jones.— Large, oblong, red, skin thick; flesh firm, good;

cling. Late. H. Jones, Iowa, 1882. Originated under cultivation.

121. Miles.— Said to have originated in [linois from seed taken
from North Carolina.

122. Milton Rather large, round-oblong, dark red, skin thin;
flesh firm; cling. Early. H. A. Terry, 1885. Said to be a seed-
ling of Wild Goose.

OMNIA mm FR Bl
80 AcrioutturaL Experiment Srarion, Ivmaca, N. Y.

123. Mrs. Clifford— Very large, pear-shaped, red, skin very
thin; semi-cling. Fine for market or home use. Possesses a pecu-
liar and agreeable pineapple flavor. Medium early. Originated
in northern Texas under cultivation, and introduced by E. C. Clif-
ford. Said to be a seedling of Wild Goose, and a great improve-
ment upon that variety.

124. Muncy.

125. Munson.— Rather large, oblong, red; skin thin; cling,
Late. Originated under cultivation in Texas. Introduced in
1888, by G. Onderdonk.

126. New American.

127. Okaw. (Annals Hort. 1890, 175).

128. Piram.— Large, round, yellow; skin thin; cling. Medium
early. A very productive variety. Originated under cultivation
in Texas, and introduced by G. Onderdonk.

129. Rare Ripe—A dark red plum, a little smaller than
De Soto; cling. Quality better than De Soto, but inferior to
Harrison’s Peach. Hardy—cC. A. Keffer, Buil. 26, S. Dak.
Exp. Sta.

130. Raymond.

131. Rockford Good size, round, purple, thin skin; of best
quality; cling. Medium to late. Wild Iowa variety; introduced
by C. G. Patten, Charles City, Iowa, 1889. C.

132. Rocky Mountain Seedling.

133. Round.— From Iowa.

134. Silas Wilson.— Large, round-oblong, light red; skin thin;
of best quality; cling. Medium to late. H. .A. Terry, Towa, 1899.
Originated under cultivation.

135. Smiley.— Very large, dark red. Alabama?

136. Tenneha.

187. Tomlingson.

138. Van Deman.— Large, round, light red; skin thin; of best
quality; cling. Medium to late. H. A. Terry, Iowa, 1890. Origi-
nated under cultivation.

139. Wady’s Early.
poor grower and the fruit is rather small.

Early and very good, but the tree is a

Tar Ouitrvatep Native Prums AnD CHERRIES. 81

- 140. Winnebago.— Fruit above medium in size, orange-scarlet,
excellent for culinary purposes. Minnesota. Probably P. Ameri-

—

cana.
§ 2. Cultivation of the Native Plum.
a Impotent varieties.— Planting.—It is not strange that diffi-
* culties should beset the cultivation of fruits which are yet scarcely
rescued from a wild state. The chief difficulty in the growing of
the native plums is the fact that some varieties do not fertilize
themselves. This peculiarity appears to be due not to any imper-
fection in the flowers, but to the comparative impotency of pollen
‘upon flowers of the same variety. Imperfect flowers are occa-
sionally observed, but they are apparently peculiarities of indi-
vidual trees or particular seasons. Thus, in our Newmans this
year, only about every twelfth flower has a perfect pistil. “7
have observed a similar defect in wild plums. I know a wild
‘tree of Prunus Americana which bears flowers without pistils.
The impotency of pollen appears to be characteristic of certain |
Bs varieties, as, for example, Wild Goose, Miner, Wazata, Minne-

Re Rae

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pl . s . s eye
_ tonka, Itaska. Other varieties of the same species are fertile with
it themselves, as Moreman, Newman, Wayland, Golden Beauty,
-. Marianna, Deep Creek, Purple Yosemite. In order to insure

fertilization, mixed planting is practiced when the impotent
_ varieties are grown; and it is an important study to determine
what varieties are the best pollinizers for a given kind. Evidently,
the two varieties in any case must bloom at the same time and
‘the pollinizer must produce an abundance of pollen. Thus, the
- Newman is a good pollinizer for the Wild Gcose, but it blooms
too early for the Americana varieties. In some of the western
States, Forest Garden is considered to be a good .pollinizer for
i Miner. It is a common opinion among good plum growers that
- the common or Domestica plums, the peach and even the cherries
a will fertilize the Wild Goose. There is certainly much general
evidence in support of this opinion, but it remains to be proved.
A ease within my own experience lends color to this opinion. A
half dozen large trees of Wild Goose were barren until trees
of plums and cherries about them bloomed profusely, when the
_ Wild Goose bore a heavy crop.

my it 11

Ee — 2% +=

Sag oR

, > “Ss : - | 8 ‘ w Th. , yy are ae

82 AGRICULTURAL Expernrint Sration, Irnaca, Nivre

There is much difference of opinion concerning the methods of |
planting in order to secure fertilization. Many growers advise
planting in thick hedge-like rows, the trees standing not more
than four or eight feet apart in the row, every fourth or fifth tree,
or every alternate row, being a self-fertile and very polliniferous
variety. Others practice setting the trees from nine to twelve feet
apart each way, with the impotent varieties in alternate rows. In
this way, for example, Forest Garden is made to fertilize both Miner
and Wild Goose. This treatment is commonly known as “close
planting,” and it has many able advocates. It is said, also, that
this close planting shades the ground so completely as to make it
too cool for the rapid development of the curculio. Such plant-
ings, unless the trees are heroically trimmed, soon result in an
unmanageable tangle. I have seen a Wild Goose tree thirty-six
feet across and still growing and bearing, and Miner,
Leptune and Langsdon scarcely less. Mr. Kerr, who is a very suc-
cessful grower, sets his trees from twenty to thirty feet apart, and
others have good success with equally thin planting. It is prob-
able that different varieties or combinations demand different
treatment in this respect; but it is plain that while the majority
of native plums appear to be self-fertile, some of the most ‘import-
ant varieties are impotent.

2. Propagation.— Another important difficulty is that relating
to the selection of stocks. The native species work well upon
each other, but the permanency and strength of the different
unions are still moot points. The varieties also unite readily with

‘

the Marianna; and Domestica plum stocks, myrobalan and peach
are also used. In general, it may be said that a variety prefers a ~
stock of its own species, although the true Chickasaws sprout or
sucker so badly as to make them undesirable. In the northern
States, especially in the prairie region, the Prunus Americana
stocks are most reliable because of their hardiness; amd as the
Americana varieties are the ones chiefly grown in this region, the
problem is a comparatively simple one. Wild Goose is grown
largely upon the peach in the warmer latitudes and some growers |
prefer this stock even in the north. All the Chickasaws grow ~

if well upon the peach, as do also Miner, Forest Rose, and perhaps
ud all the Hortulana type. Recently the Marianua has come to be
a popular stock upon which to work all varieties; and as far
as known it is one of the best, although I fear that its indiserimi-
“nate use may result in some disappointment. Mr. G. Onderdonk,
a well-known nurseryman and fruit grower of Texas, is certain
_ that the Marianna is preferable to the peach as a stock for the
southern native plums. His reasons for this opinion are as
: follows :* )

_ © First. ‘Ihe peach sometimes sprouts from the roots. The Mari-
anna never does this.
¥ “Second. The peach has more eyes or buds near the surface of
My the soil, both above and below, than the Marianna. These eyes
cause at least two or three times more pruning in the case of
4 peach stocks than in Marianna.
“Third. The peach requires better drainage than the plum stock.
I raise good healthy plum trees on Marianna stocks in places
_where it would be useless to plant anything on peach stocks.

“FWourth. The peach stock is subject, under certain conditions,
to root-rot. I have never seen a case of root-rot among Mariannas.

“Fifth. While the Marianna is subject to root-knot as well as
_ the peach, yet it very seldom fails to have the knot at the bottom,
so that it can be cut away without injury to tree. In case of
3 peach stocks the tree is usually lost when infested with root-knot.
i “Sixth. In extreme southern Texas peach seeds fail to germi-
: nate either totally or partially after a mild winter. Im the spring
of 1890, not a single peach seed germinated in this section. We
have much annoyance from this source. On the contrary we have
a never failed of securing a good stand of Marianna plants from
_ cuttings, when they have been properly treated. Therefore the
- Marianna makes us a sure supply of stocks for propagation of
_ plum trees, which the peach does not do in southern Texas. Far-
_ ther north these conditions may be less worthy of consideration.
_ “Seventh. As each peach seedling is a distinct variety from
He every other one, and the different varieties vary materially in vigor

* Fruit Growers, Journal,

Tue Coxtivatep Native PLtums AND CHERRIES. 83°"

an ”

» Tate FOUN E a Po OR EF ae oe,
a ‘ é be hia a
Bre Lew ‘ : ee ee we

84 AgrioutturaL Experiment Srarion, Iraaca, N. Y.

and often in other habits, it follows that the stocks necessarily —

vary in capacity to develop trees. On the other hand a reasonable
amount of care in selecting cuttings of the Marianna enables us

to produce stocks of nearly uniform capacity, and therefore to pro- —

duce trees of a more nearly uniform strength and value.”

These comparisons will hold, Mr.-Onderdonk thinks, in refer-
ence to stocks for apricots, but for peaches the Marianna is a
failure with him.

Sprouts from own-rooted trees are often employed for increasing
native plums, of such varieties as sprout readily, as Miner, Wild

Goose, Forest Garden, De Soto and various Chickasaws. But

this practice is not in general favor.

2. Varieties The question of the best varieties for certain
purposes and regions is a disputed one, as should be expected
from the large number of varieties in cultivation and the newness
of the native plum industry. Undoubtedly the most popular
variety is the Wild Goose, but its popularity is due less to the
quality of its fruit than to the hardiness and productiveness of
the tree and the early fruit. The Miner is perhaps the hardiest
well-known variety of the Hortulana type. It succeeds in maty

places in northern Ilinois. In Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska and

regions to the north of them, only the Americana class is hardy,
as a rule. The Chickasaws are best adapted to the middle and
southern States. None of the native plums have been tried to any

extent in New York and New England, from the fact that the —

common or Domestica plums succeeds so well there. The incur-
sions of the septoria or shot-hole fungus — which causes prema-
ture dropping of the leaves —are calling attention to the native
plums, and it is not too much to expect that they will gain in
favor as they become better known. And the growing taste for
a greater variety of fruits must tend to popularize some of the
native plums in the east.

In order to determine the values of the leading varieties in
different parts of the country, I have obtained the opinions of
various representative growers, and these estimates are tabu-
lated below. Two estimates have been asked for each variety,

=

one upon its market value, as judged by productiveness and

RAWHUT Titia k iayh Vrain Narn, ve uh

Tue CourttivatEep Nativzt Proms anp CHERRIES. 85

vigor of tree and size, beauty and firmness of fruit, and one upon
its home value as a culinary or dessert fruit. The estimates
are expressed in figures, ten being taken to represent the highest
excellence. The figures in the first double column were com-

piled by myself and were sent to all the correspondents, who

_ marked their disagreements from my estimate. In general, there-

fore, it may be said that when a correspondent gives no estimate
he agrees with my own; although there are some varieties in each

‘case with which the correspondent was not acquainted, and he
_ should not be held to a strict account for the unreported varieties.

i Finally, I wish to say that my own estimates are made very

largely upon the judgments of Mr. Kerr, of the Chesapeake penin-
sula (Maryland), and that all my figures will apply to that region.

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Tue Cuntivatep Native Piums anp CHERRIES.

89

I am indebted to Mr. Kerr, of Maryland, for some very accurate
and interesting observations concerning the seasons of leading

contain this information:

73
74
75
76
47
91

8

9
77
10

64

48
49
93

66
50

17
81
18
69
82
23
92
70
27

52

— «6B

-

Chesapeake Peninsula (Kerr).

Peer Maia fc. Loti wids a A vayerde av) 4', From July 20— Aug.
arkansas Lombard... ..65...0... From July 380— Aug.
Wiadiior Olah, Whee cist) ae eo ecese ore fie e sok From July 6—July
USS ED a RS, OS i ae ee From July 20— Aug.
MMM DEHIANG EN 5 tists ed eke oo nee Ss From Aug. 1— Aug.
MYR ATAACUG [4 4.4774 ce eb i oreye, oes 8e« From July 15— Aug.
EB ORCOG fui « o-cie piace avian Sale wos From July 20— Aug. 1
[8S PI ea ER From July 25— Aug.
ES TEINSG0 1 2 UREN SS Si a From July 6—July
MG CEALOOTE fio a. oir a Sajal, aletsi e's From July 25— Aug.
BL UR EROS SO Ks) shcte oa ola afeierereis From July 20— Aug.
Bee PION Pe crete ithe oie Sic ye ps dig ress ars From Sept. 1— Oct.
SCE SCAU UY ibe ws, «a, acer Sk From Aug. 20 — Sept.
EMIS Sep. oS Vili cveieeure Dalai out orale From July 25 — Aug.
Marets stich CECE oo so 2 oh 2, She woe as eet From July 25— Aug. :
Rape REED UCU IVC AT 5 do ohn ev aldy. wy ue @ From July 20— Aug.
[LST EE is ae OS Nias age Ue a From Aug. 1— Aug.
JECTS] Ice a From July 12—July
WE ReNRVOO) apes ele scape le. « 00 ica lare!ad onde From July 25— Aug.
Be PENTA cre yaad oo olay eleab a's eGo 5 From Aug. 25 — Sept.
RRR ATU gcse 23 af vIn a vat letiar Shera hes’ « From July 8—July
MPSA Appr tees Sopa ie ws laiaas tlie ae 5 e's o 3 From July 25— Aug. :
[JS SENT LO i gn ee ave ea From July 8—Aug.
TEESE ee a3 eC i es ne From July 25— Aug.
BUEN C LOM eases cio ie lettin be se From Aug. 1— Aug. :
IBAA AGIIGOL )) <0, 5566 es wee ee From Sept. 1— Sept.
MPU AH Rte TG ale: tia 9 ots «wo id Sle. os oe From Aug. 25 — Sept.
NWA S: Wiha Msi dig es ola S « @ 6 e+ 6 she's From July 30— Aug.
Pottawattamie 4050.5 .0. sss. cee From July 30— Aug.

ative plums and the dates of blooming. Tables IJ, III and IV

Table III.— Actual Dates of Ripening of Native Plums on the

LPR RMEY Wed 6) SS Cel BR eet

ye

90 AerioutruraL Exprrment Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.

—7y
33 Purple Yosemite ............-... From July 25— Aug. 20
Be Gdaker. . 2... 20ee hs. .& Meee From July 25— Aug. 20
BRHELCO .. o> ..5 Suueplelonsis » «, shy MeN es From Aug. 25 — Sept. 30
Boe ts DIDSON: zictg arate =.0 o> = Sa RRMONC a ple From July 30— Aug. 2
Bp a OllingstOne 0 F22\. 5 :s'schn ps ols From July 25— Aug. 20
PI EVOULLELUG “201. hive oc. 5. « seas eet o's From Aug. 1— Aug. 20
BURSCINOY *.\1, Sissi ale asic nies Ste ARM Ua A + From Aug. 5— Aug. 25
TBA Eade ns pee kept Umea Ge 5) CN From Sept. 1— Oct.
Eber WV cum GL” CL pees Ebon sso eo teks taaie els 4 a0 From Aug. 1— Aug. 20
ENV CAVED. 7c. woke mele CMI EY & 5 5 From July 25— Aug. 25
Sih) Wild ‘Goose: 132). 1) ideas eis From July 10—July 30
or sometimes to Aug. 1)
BE NVOLL cs ceattniGe fo uch waht eee mee From July 25— Aug. 25

Mr. Kerr has made a careful record of the periods of flowering
of the native plums for this year — which was unusually late —
and it is given below:

Table IV.— Flowering Periods of Native Plums on the Chesa-
peake Peninsula for 1892 (Kerr).

First flowers Half the flowers.

open open All open.

ey AT IACATLN ic ey alsa? wie chat ete niele April 19 April 25 April 27
1 American Eagle ........ April 29 ~ April 30 May 1

74 Arkansas Lombard ..... April 23 April 26 April 28
94 Bassett’s American .... April 30 May 1 May 2
40 Caddo Chibt: .). if aces April 14 April 16 April 20
ew OLISLEOUD vhs Shenoy «aia tetas April 27 April 29 May-.” a
Way MOORE GLA -. sisicterzre's: a) cgint be April 15 April 19 April 23
£7 Ounmiberland *.).,. 3).\.°0). sie April 23 April 26 +. April 28
aL ee Caradeae \ 4°) snares April 5 April 9 April 14
a Deep ‘Creek *.'0 s,s sel April 23 April 24 April 26

DAES LAL ane iia sg stk tah et April 25 April 28 April 30

Crary bed 2) 2 leche April 14 April 16 April 20
10 Forest Garden ......... April 27 April 28 April 30
64 Forest Rose ............ April 27 April 29 April 30
AS Gaeneld iis itis ok ey April 26 April 28 April 30

49 Golden Beauty ......... April 28

May 1

May 3

r~

ge Pet OE et ed LON ol OR a

— Tue Coxrivaren Native Proms anp CaxErrizs.

Heat flowers

12 Harrison’s Peach ....... April 27

Seer PILL EGAG: 5.402) 0 mereka slew lgce, « » April 15

13 Hawkeye atiaeierseicdd dole a April 27

Sovindiana Red). 0e3 02.4. April 27

50 Indian Chief ........... April 25

“ALE Ra EO ge April 26

LL LG TS) 0 Rs oie a April 14

81 Jennie Lucas .......... April 14
PeSICIA OO). ./) ais 4 nee nes. 0 « April 23

SRNR ERG 20 Sa ecole oie b 66.35: « April 27

ee 93] 000172 ren a A April 27

REPU AMINE ICAI He faa) suse a/a.cp, sls 6's April 20

AWA LLESEL vy oie", Seca oe alae Sele 6) April 25

SO MALTANT ED .!. wo'e Sore ee 3: April 7

APU OT 0 oe i'n asc se sobs, sho. te April 25

SPeMIDMCTONMEA, 2-40-05 bee's cies April 23

52 Missouri Apricot ....... April 27

Dy eMOPEMAM —f'... i. c5 6s eee a April 26

3) SN Sy it 1 April 20.

OP eA SOUR 8 60sec ad ase wae es 6 April 25
85. Pottawattamie ......... April 26

35 Purple Yesemite ....... April 27

“DNC CS a April 26

5 ALS) 112 pag a Oe April 28

PaPECOEM Mr sctri is cui c, e xs st, stes April 26

ee OMMUEISOT i cseiet oo 26 0d 3, 3 April 20

V6 fant ee April 27
35 Rollingstone .......... April 23

5) VEL CU CUS ee April 25

VES OLS ad Ge Bee April 23

SMP SCCT kn he ASI I5 3) js oles April 23

57 Sucker State .......... April 25

ieev a: FUROR ei .:t Sie... 2 April 27

ROR NN AVECIN Sys incheld a5 ++ <'s0:s April 16
STAY <AVICLIIGL =o deels Siay's a e's. 2's April 26

Half the flowers.
open.

April 28
April 17
April 29
April 29
April 27
April 29
April 16
April 22
April
April
April
April
April
April
April
April
April
April
April
April 27
April 29
April
April
April
April
April
April 29
April
April
April
April
April
April 29
April 21
April 28

27
25
27

91

All open.
April 29
April 19

aa) a ee Me ey a | , . ame a eae Wy

' Reh ge “Anes y ve SR Raat Ape y

92 AgricutruraL Experiment Station, Iraaca, N.Y. 2°
hat a wee oper aes All open.
BOLVVEZALa © sa, Sedans. baie April 17 April 19 April 20
ey YVIERUVOD strove, | ons saa April 25 April 27 April 28
SUNY Dian Pe Fee aa bis so April 27 April 28 April 30
SVE (GOORE cles av nt o's ade April 20 April 24 April 27
BIAVVONT ccs cr cobieietettre a eke abn April 27 April 29 April 30
Bese WeUdLO ©; ole" ete vie vcte spice cots April 27 April 29 May 1
90 Yellow Transparent .... April 21 April 25 April 28.

4. Insects and diseases.— Numerous insects and fungi attack the
native plums. Much has been written concerning the supposed
iminvnity of the fruit from the attacks of the curculio, and while
it may be said that there is no curculio-proof plum, it is also true
that the native varieties, as a rule, are less injured than the com-
mon or Domestica varieties.*

The fungi which do serious injury to the native plums are indi-
cated for this paper by Dr. E. F. Smith, of the division of vege-
table pathology of the National Department of Agriculture, as
follows:

“1. The American varieties suffer little from septoria, or the
shot-hole fungus of the leaves. (See Arthur, fifth and sixth
reports N. Y. Exp. Sta., with which my observations coincide).

“2. Black-knot occurs on Prunus Americana in Michigan thick-
ets, but I have never seen it upon the Chickasaws. °

“The brown fruit-rot (Monilia fructigena) of the stone fruits
attacks the native varieties, but they are more exempt, I think,
than the varieties of Prunus domestica. As in the peach, the
fungus attacks the twigs as well as the fruits. é

“4. The leaf-rust (Puccinia pruni-spinosae) is said to do injury
in the southwestern States, but while I have seen it on peaches in
many parts of the country, I have not found it upon the native
plums.

“5. Plum-pockets or bladders (Taphrina pruni) is a frequent dis-
ease upon the native plums. It attacks the Americana and Chick-

/
*** The curculio prefers the domesticated to the native varieties of plums.”—C. P. Gillette, if
Bull. 9, Ia. Exp. Sta., 388 (1890.) Other observers confirm this opinion. Professor Gillette finds
that in central Iowa the plum gouger (Coccoturus prunicida) is very injurious, and it attacks
the native more than the domestic varieties.

se aahss Vad te itt I De Oa nb A I Ni, rae nore A re” (te O ee ira
Ai jai lon aah ee eR 22 Rey
w ae ‘ 3 ‘

/

* Tar Curtivatep Native PLtums anp CHERRIES. 93

asaw varieties and the Wild Goose. In Michigan I have seen it
only on the fruit, which it changes into conspicuous bladders. In
Maryland and Georgia it is common on shoots of wild Chickasaws
and on cultivated Wild Goose, and it rarely attacks the fruit. It

does considerable injury every spring.*

aa thes a tae |

Peo Sa."

“6. An obscure blight often attacks native plums—as Wild
Goose, Robinson, Marianna and others — causing the branches to
die back during the growing season. The leaves and large
branches and sometimes the whole tree wilt and become brown
without apparent cause, and sometimes the tree dies. The roots
do not appear to be involved, for they often send up healthy
shoots after the entire top has.died. This blight has been known
in middle Georgia for several years and does more injury to plums
than all other troubles combined.§ ‘ ®

“7. The peach-rosette also attacks the native plums and per-
haps is destined to make more trouble than any other disease in
the south and west. (See Jour. Mycology IV, 143; same VI, No.
4; also bulletin of Div. Veg. Pathology on ‘ Additional Evidence
of the Communicability of Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette.’)”

The fruit-scab (Fig. 11), which injures many varieties, is dis-
cussed for me by Professor L. H. Pammel, of the Iowa Agricul-
tural College:

Figure 11.—Fruit-scab. Natural size.

“Cladosporium carpophilum: So far, I have found this fungus
only on the fruit, but in case of the peach Mr. Galloway records it
upon the leaves as well. When plums are ripe, or just turning in

* See Smith, Jour. Mycology, iv. No. 3. § Ibid.

\

v ) AS Pl y ot “hy | Fay hae ee ed ¥ YO Pl, ere Ben cy, y= i
1 Pty POme ae! Oe ee pe eines i ea U
7 ’ . J ert ‘a mh

eo

94 AaricutruraAL Exprrment Srarion, Iraaca, N. Y. ~

color, small round patches not larger than a pin-head make their
appearance. These spots are pale greenish or greyish in color
and increase in size till in some cases they are half an inch across.
They are mostly round, with a somewhat paler border. In older
specimens the patches are frequently confluent and of darker
brown color. In very old specimens, especially in those where the

fruit has undergone decomposition, the patches become black and —

uneyen.

“ A microscopic examination of the small greyish spots shows a
nearly colorless mycelium creeping over the surface. In the darker
portions of the large patches are septate hyphae or threads. In
some cases these come through cracks in the cuticle. The hyphae
are irregular in outline and frequently bent. As the material
begomes older a dense stroma of short brownish hyphae appears.
This stroma lies between the cuticle and the cellulose layers of the
-cell-wall. Under favorable conditions it keeps on producing the
erect septate hyphae which bears the slightest colored spores at
the end. The spores are oval in shape, pointed at the end, and
usually two-celled. On placing the spores in water they germi-
nate in a short time, producing a colorless tube from one of the
cells.

“The disease does not impair the quality of the fruit, as the
injury extends little beyond the spot, and affects only three or four
layers of underlying cells. These cells take on a brown color,
and have a slightly bitter taste. The greatest injury arises
through the cracks which are frequently found in the older
patches, which allow other fungi, like the fruit-rot, to work their
way in. So it frequently happens that the rot accompanies the
scab. The cladosporium or scab fungus causes the fruit to shrivel,
in severe attacks.

“Here in central Iowa I have observed this scab upon the fol-
lowing varieties: Speer, Chippeway, Cheney, De Soto, Rolling-
stone, Maquoketa (Fig. 11), Pottawattamie and Miner. It appears
to be more or less local here as well as elsewhere in the United
States. A correspondent has sent me specimens of the fungus on
Prunus Americana grown in Virginia. The disease has also
appeared in Canada, but principally on P. Americana, though in

)
~~ “

; |
\ _ Tae Ovrtivatep Native Pioums anp CuErRriss. 95

one case Professor Craig received specimens on the Blue Orleans
(P. domestica) from Toronto. It is destructive, as he informs me,
on Manitoba yellow plum, Cheney, Rollingstone, De Soto and
Speer. The disease did not appear, according to Mr. Craig, in

‘Oanada on the Central experimental grounds last year. Here at

Ames it has not appeared on Prunus domestica, but in addition
to the above, it is found on P. spinosa. It has become a. very
destructive fungus on sour cherry (Prunus Cerasus), damage
amounting from two to twenty-five per cent. The disease is
undoubtedly on the increase.”

A. fruit-spot (Fig. 12) has been sent me by T. V. Munson, Deni-
son, Texas, on the Golden Beauty. The disease is said to be seri-
ous in some years. It does not injure the fruit greatly except to

he
Nl

Figure 12 — ¥ruit-spot. Natural size.

disfigure it and to render it unmarketable. I submitted the speci-
mens to Professor J. EK. Humphrey, of the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural College, who found the disease to be a phoma, but the exact
species could not be determined. It is, no doubt, somewhat allied
to the black-rot of the grape, and the treatment used for grapes
should be tried upon the plum; and a similar treatment is advised
for the fruit-scab shown in Fig. 11.

There are no data for determining the extent of the native plum

industry, but it is safe to say that it is much more important than

any one, except those immediately concerned, has known. There are
large areas of the country in which the common or Domestica
plums do not succeed, either because of too great cold, too great
heat or the serious ravages of the shot-hole fungus. In nearly

/

Z

be

: i
96 AGRICULTURAL peek sovidag ena N. Aer |

s . * . ‘ i ;
all of these areas there are native varieties which succeed. The —
natives are inferior in size and flavor to the common plums, but

it must be remembered that the native plum industry is in its

infancy, and that great results should not yet be expected. It is
rather a matter of wonder that the present results have been’

attained with the expenditure of so little effort. The great varia-
tion in almost every direction in the existing varieties, and the
fact that they spring from three or four distinct species, augur

well for the future; while the facts that they find ready sale in |

the markets* and that many people make their cultivation profit-
able, are encouragements to present effort.

Il. THE CHERRIES.

1. The Sand or Dwarf Cherries.— (Figs. 13 and 14).— The dwarf _

sand oar ae often attracted attention as a meritorious fruit.
In 1867, A. S. Fuller* published an important account of it and

Figure 13.— Sand Cherry (Prunus pumila). Natural size.
recommended its cultivation for fruit. In 1889, Professor C. K.
Bessey called the attention of the American Pomological Society

* ‘And as for the Wild Goose plum, it is the best we have here. There have been shipped

from here as many as 600 boxes of this variety in a single day, and havesoldinChicagomarkets

at the enormous price of two dollars per one-third bushel box, or six dollars per bushel.”— J. R.
Logan, Duquoin, Ill., in Green’s Fruit Grower, July, 1891. Mr. Kerr sold Wild Goose readily in
1889 for sixty-five to eighty cents for ten-pound baskets; and in 1891 for forty to fifty cents,

+ Small Fruit Culturist, 1st ed., 183.

aa

s

Tue CurtivateD Native Prums Anp CHERRIES. oF

to it as “a promising new fruit from the plains” of Nebraska.§
It is only within the last two or three years, however, that the
sand cherry has come into actual cultivation for its fruit, although
as an ornamental plant it has been sold many years. Professor
_C. A. Keffer described it last July in a bulletin of the South
Dakota Experiment Station,** and a little later Professor Green,
of Minnesota, did the same.$§. Both men have grown it, and have
found it to be variable and promising. In South Dakota plants
set three years bore heavily the second and third years. The
“fruit begins to ripen the first week in August. The cherries on
most of the bushes were ripe by August twentieth, and some
few last into September, showing a season of from four to six
weeks in a seedling plantation. Classifying roughly according
to the fruit, we find yellow and black fruited sorts. The yellow-
fruited sorts, as a class, are earlier than the blacks, and of rather
better flavor. They are greenish yellow when fully ripe, and
vary in size, the largest being about the size of a medium Early
Richmond cherry.” The fruits vary greatly in flavor, some being
entirely worthless, while others were acceptable for some culinary
purposes. “While of little value when the quality of the fruit
is considered, it would seem that these dwarf cherries should give
rise to a race especially adapted to the northwest. They have
withstood all the dry weather of the past three years without
injury, and they have been covered with bloom for two seasons,
though unprotected during the winter.” Professor Green, in
Minnesota, has “fruit varying in color from quite light red to
almost black, and in form from round-oblate to oval. The largest
_ fruit we have is oval with three-fourths inch and five-eighths
inch diameter, while one other is round and eleven-sixteenths of
an inch in diameter; this is nearly as large as the Early Richmond
cherry. The quality varies greatly, some being a mild, not dis-
agreeable, subacid, others insipid, and still others very astringent.
* * * When cooked it makes a nice sauce. The period of
ripening varies from July twenty-fourth to August fifteenth. A
peculiarity of the plant is that all the fruit on any plant is ripe:

§ Amer. Pom, Soc. Trans. 1889, 160. ** Bull. 26, S. Dak. Exp. Sta., 10. §§ Bull, 18, Minn.
Exp. Sta., 127.

13

nS Wee oe Ver, VS NAS ee Oe ae abe

98 AgricuLtuRAL Exprrmen?r Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

at nearly the same time and can all be gathered at one picking.
* * * T consider this cherry not only of prospective value
for its fruit, but of immediate value as a hardy shrub.” I hay»
been familiar with the sand cherry for many years, both wild

and when transferred to the garden. It is very abundant on the’

sand dunes of Lake Michigan, where it makes a shrub from five
to ten feet high and bears very profusely of variable fruits. Some
of these natural varieties are large, sweet and palatable and at
once suggest an effort to ameliorate them. Professor Budd and

Figure‘14,— Prunus cuneata. Natural size.

others suggest its use as a dwarf stock for cherries,* while it
is found to grow well, for a time, at least, upon the peach.§
Finally, Charles E. Pennock, of Bellvue, Colorado, is introducing
the Improved Dwarf Rocky Mountain cherry, a description and
history of which follow. Iam particularly gratified to reperi this
fruit because I remember with great distinctness that a “Rocky
Mountain cherry” grew in my father’s yard from my earliest
boyhood. Pits were brought by a friend from Pike's Peak in an
early day. As the western botanies do not mention any dwarf

* Bull. 10, Ia. Exp. Sta., 425. Bull 18 Minn. Exp. Sta., 128. Bailey, Nursery-book,159.
§ Bailey, Country Gent., li., 676 (Sept. 9, 1886).

.

a MTU toarae guru emer
WOH RAS ey, ~

Tae Cortivaten Native Prums anp CHErrizs. 99

cherry, I have always been puzzled over this friend of my earlier
years.** Mr. Pennock describes his cherry as follows:$§

“T have never seen a bush more than four feet high. They
should be planted about eight feet apart, as they grow on the
ground. The first I ever saw or heard of was in 1878. I was

_ making and floating railroad ties down the Cache la Poudre river,
in the mountains, About eight miles from my present farm. I
thought at that time they were the most valuable fruit I ever
saw growing wild. I got a start of these cherries, and have been
improving them by planting seed (pits) of the best fruit. They
vary somewhat in size, flavor and season of ripening, and are

_ capable of great improvement. I have known only one bush that

was not good in my experience with it. We have nearly all kinds
of fruit, but we like the cherry to eat out of hand when fully ripe
better than any of its season. It ripens a month later than Morello—
in fact, I picked them off the bushes and exhibited at our county
fair, September twenty-third, twenty-fourth and twenty-eighth,
where they attracted a great deal of attention. I have learned
since I have had these cherries that other residents of the county
had them in their gardens more than twenty years. ago, and have

them yet, so I do_not claim to be the discoverer cf them, but I

believe I am the first to improve them and make their value known

to the public. They are very scarce in their wild state here.

_ There are two kinds of them, one that grows outside the mountains
in the foot-hills, and is in every way inferior to the one that
grows near the bank of the Cache la Poudre river. ‘There are
not 2,000 of these cherries of mine in existence. I could self
wagon loads of these cherries at ten cents per quart. I have
kept 200 of the young trees, which I intend to send to responsible
parties who desire them for testing. The young trees [ have are
one year from seed. I have had them loaded down at 2 years

of age from seed. They have never failed to bear fruit every
year; late frosts never affect them; they are entirely hardy, having
endured forty degrees below zero without injury; ripens when
all others are gone; would grace any lawn when in blossom, are
easier pitted than other cherries.”

ak

** Coulter’s Manual of Rocky Mt. Botany contains no dwarf cherry.
§§ Am. Farm and Hort, Apr., 1892, 14.

ies i By a eae eee

100 AgricutturAL Exprrment Srarion, Irgaca, N. Y. |

Thus far, all appears to be simple enough; but if we begin to
inquire into the species of these cherries we find great difficulty,
for it is plain that two and perhaps even three species are passing
as Prunus pumila. Propagators have long recognized two well
marked types of sand or dwarf cherry. The commonest species is
the one shown, natural size, in Fig. 18. It grows along rivers and
sandy or rocky coasts, from northern Maine (and probably from
Newfoundland) to Washington, and perhaps even farther south,
and ranges westward to the great lakes and Manitoba. I do not_
{now if it grows on the seashore, but aside from a specimen from
Aroostook county, Maine, I have not seen it from New England.
It is a prostrate or decumbent shrub, the roughish dark branches
ascending in a straggling manner three or four feet, or sometimes
twice that height. The flowers are rather small, with narrow
petals. The leaves are long and pointed (nearly linear at flower-
ing time), varying from oblanceolate to nearly obovate-lanceo-
late, or sometimes lanceolate, rather thick and firm and promi-
nently veined, especially beneath, terminating usually in a sharp
point and bearing on the upper half short but sharp teeth which,
however, are usually smaller than shown in Fig. 13. This
species is very variable. The form upon Lake Michigan is char- -
acterized by very long and willow-like leaves, and broad-leaved
forms occur in other places. Nurserymen take advantage of its
straggling habit by grafting it upon standard stocks for the pur-’
pose of making a weeping tree. It is sometimes sold as Cerasus
pumila. A variety variegata of this weeping tree is catalogued,
but I have not seen it. The sand cherry is the plant which
Linnaeus meant to designate by his Prunus pumila.* It is the

* Linnzeus founded the sp°cies upon a figure by Miller (t. 89, f. 2) and upona
plant cultivated in the Upsala gardens. Miller’s figure, so far as it goes, and
Linnzeus’ characterization, shows that Linnzeus meant to describe the prostrate
and long-leaved plant which I have above indicated as P. pumila. Linnzeus’
herbarium affords no aid, according to the following notes upon it, which were
recently made by Dr. N. L. Britton, and which he has kindly placed at my
disposal. The herbarium contains.

‘1, A sheet of the eastern plant [pumila], marked by him pumila.

**2. Another sheet also marked pumila, but of some other species which I
did not recognize.

‘*¢ 3. Another sheet also so marked, but of some still different thing.

Tue Courtivatep Native Pitums anp CHERRIES. 101

plant, apparently, which the experiment stations of South Dakota

and Minnesota have described, and it is the one which has been
advised as a dwarf stock for cherries.

Another and much rarer cherry is the one shown in Fig. 14,
and for which I have used Rafinesque’s name, Prunus cuneata.
It grows near lakes and about bogs, mostly in wet or stiff soil, and
is often found on hills and low mountains. I have seen it from
New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York
(Ithaca), New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Wisconsin,
and Minnesota. It is an erect or even strict shrub with smooth
light-colored branches, growing from two to four feet high. The
floners are large with broad petals, and usually stand out
squarely upon somewhat curved stems. The leaves are short
and usually blunt, obovate, spatulate or when full grown some-
times elliptic-ovate’and becoming more or less pointed, thin and
inconspicuously veined, the teeth few and the points appressed.

“4, A fourth sheet from Kalm, which is P. Americana, as noted thereon by
Dr. Gray.”

The synonymy of the two species is briefly as follows:

Prunus pumila, Linn. Mantissa, 75.

*¢14. Prunus foliis angusto-lanceolatis serrulatis.

‘*Cerasus foliis lanceolatis: glabris integerrimis, subtus caesis, ramis patulis.
Mill. ic. t. 89, f. 2.

‘‘Cerasus canadensis pumila, oblongo-angustoque folio, fructu parvo.”

Hamel. arb. 149, n. 17.

“ Habitat in Canada.

“‘Frutex statura Amygdali nanae. Pedunculi proprii, uniflora, terni e
gemmis lateralibus. H. U.”

P. Susquhanz, Willdenow, Enum. 419.

*“P, pedunculis subsolitariis, foliis obovato-oblongis, subtus glaucis, serratis,
basi integerrimis.

“*Prunus Susquhane. MHortulan.

** Habitat in America boreali.

“Flores imperfectos tantum vidi.”

In his Berlinische Baumzucht, 2d. ed. 306, Wildenow revises his character as
follows:

‘“*Prunus Susquehanz floribus umbellatis, foliis obovato-oblongis obtuse
serratis, basi integerrimis, subtus glaucis.

' “Prunus Susquehanze pedunculis subsolitariis, foliis obovato oblongis subtus

glaucis, serratis, basi integerrimis. Willd. enum. 519.”

The German text which follows affords still stronger proof that Willdenow
meant to designate the plant under consideration.

P. depressa, Pursh, Fl. 32.

.

This cherry is in cultivation as an ornamental plant under the ©
name of Prunus pumila. I do not know that it has been sug-
gested as a fruit plant.

Professor Porter, of Easton, Pennsylvania, one of the most criti-

cal observers of our eastern flora, writes as follows concerning
these dwarf cherries: “We have two forms of dwarf cherry very

diverse in habit. One [P. pumila] grows on the islands and flats
of the Delaware, which are composed of gravel and cobblestone —

drift washed bare by the floods, and are treeless. Here it grows,
sending out on all sides strong prostrate branches, often as thick
as a man’s arm, which form flat patches six feet or more in diame-
ter. The branches are so close together that they hold the fine
sand and mud and create low mounds or hillocks, and in the proper
season the spaces between them are black with the fruit. The
other [P. cuneata] occurs in southeastern Pennsylvania on the
borders of swamps and remote from river bottoms. It is strictly

‘‘Umbels sessile aggregated, few flowered, calyx obtuse: branches angled
depressed-prostrate ; leaves cuneate-lanceolate; rarely serrate, glabrous above,
glaucous beneath ; fruit ovate.

** On sandy shores of rivers and lakes: Canada to Virginia, v. v. This low
shrub which spreads its branches very much, and does not rise above one foot
from the ground, is known by the name of Sandcherries. The fruit is black,
small and agreeably tasted.”

P incana, Schweinitz in Long’s Exped.2, Append. 113. Bailey, Annals Hort.
1891, 2384.

Through the kindness of Mr. J. H. Redfield of the Philadelphia Academy of
Sciences, I have had the privilege of examining Schweinitz’s specimens (coll.
at Lake of the Woods) and they are unmistakably P. pumila.

In all these descriptions, the long leaves, prostrate habit and the habitat,
apply only to the plant under discussion.

Prunus cuneata, Rafinesque, Ann. Nat. 11 (1820),

‘© 83. Prunus cuneata. Shrubby, branches straight, round, biangular, leaves
cuneate, obtuse, crenate, base entire, glaucous beneath; umbels sessile, com-
monly qnadriflore, calix serrulate, rugose transversally.— On the mountains of
Pennsylvania, probably a cherry shrub, it rises two feet, branches dark purple
leaves and flowers small, peduncles short, three to five flowers together, white;
it blossoms in May.”

The absence of any allusion to long leaves and depressed habit, the obtuse
leaves and the mountain habitat, lead me to venture to use this name for the
upright dwarf cherry. The leaves of this plant, to be sure, are often acute
when mature, but at flowering time they are conspicuously obtuse, and
Rafinesque appears to have had them at that stage.

4

}

Tue Cortivatep Native Pirums anp CHERRIES. 1038

erect and attains the height of four feet. It is so unlike the type
that I have been inclined to regard it as a new species.” On the
dunes along Lake Michigan Prunus pumila grows more erect than
those described by Professor Porter, but they always have a pros-
trate base over which the sand drifts. P. cuneata grows at Ithaca
in a dryish hill swamp, and it wholly lacks the habit and appear-
ance of the common species.

The third dwarf cherry is the Rocky Mountain plant to which
I have already referred, and evidently the same as the one which
Professor Bessey has described from the plains of Nebraska. This
plant is not mentioned in the Rocky Mountain botanies, although
there can be no doubt that it is wild in Colorado and Utah. Dr.
C. C. Parry collected it in eastern Colorado in 1867, and apparently
the same was found somewhere in the Rocky Mountains, presuma-
bly in Colorado, in 1888, by 8S. M. Tracy. A. 8S. Fuller also men-
tions it in the article to which I have already referred. He

- obtained the seed from Utah. As compared with Prunus pumila,

he found this Utah cherry to be “more erect, none of the branches
trailing as in the species.” Gipson* speaks of the native wild

. Colorado dwarf cherry as bearing a fruit “especially valuable for

pies and preserves, and is often pleasant to eat from the hand.
It is wonderfully productive, and will survive all changes and
vicissitudes of the most exacting climate.” It is interesting to
find that this plant was collected so long ago as 1339, by Geyer,
in Nicollet’s famous expedition, being found on “arid, sandy hill-
sides of the upper Missouri.”

The affinity of this western plant is with Prunus pumila, but
it differs from that species, and I am inclined to regard it as a
distinct botanical variety, if not, indeed, a distinct species. It is
a low, straggling more or less prostrate plant, the tops rising
only a foot or two in the plains form, the flowers small, the leaves
much like those of P. pumuila, except that they are much shorter
(one to two inches long) and spatulate or elliptic when fully grown,
the fruit large upon short stems. This plant is so tittle known
that I do not venture to give ita name. Growing in our garden,
it has more the aspect and light color of P. cuneata, but its thick

' * Horticulture by Irrigation, 62.

104

and pointed leaves appear to distinguish it from that species.
It lacks entirely the wand-like and willowy character of Prunus
pumila; but this species is so variable and so little understood
that it would be unsafe to separate the western plant from it
upon our present evidence. We are growing this western cherry,
as also Prunus pumila and P. cuneata, from various sources and
shall probably soon be able to determine its botanical position.

The sand or'dwarf cherries, therefore, are “lree, all of which
are in cultivation; Prunus pumila, the true sand cherry grown
for fruit and ornament; Prunus cuneata, grown for ornament;
the sand cherry of the plains and the Rocky Mountains, grown
locally in Nebraska and now introduced from Colorado as ihe
Improved Dwarf Rocky Mountain cherry. finalty, it may te
said that the sand plum is a form of the Chickasaw plum as we
have already found. (See p. 29.)

2. “Utah Hybrid Cherry.”— Under this name there has come
into cultivation an anomalous fruit, the history and botanical
characters of which I am unable to trace. it is usually referred
by the nurserymen to Prunus pumila, but the specimeus which
I have seen do not belong to that species. Im fact, as grown
by Mr. Kerr, it is a plum, with a stone very like that of the
Marianna, and the catalogue cut of the fruit shows a short-
stemmed and sutured plum. There are two varieties in cultiva-
tion, the black and red. These are described as follows by the
Heikes nurseries, of Dayton, Ohio, which was one of the first to
grow them:

“Utah Hybrid Cherry, black This is an improved variety of
the Dwarf or Mountain Cherry, of Utah. The fruit is about one
inch in diameter, nearly round; color dark purple, with a delicate
bloom, juicy, pleasant and sweet; slightly astringent if the skin
is pressed too closely. The bush is very dwarfish, but vigoron-
and prolific. This fruit has the merit of being something entirely
distinct from anything cultivated in the way of fruits heretofore.
The fruit is exceedingly beautiful; the tree is hardy enough to
withstand the severest winters, and begins to bear the first year
after planting.

y

Tae Curtivatep Native Piums anp CHERRIES. 105

“Utah Hybrid Cherry, red.— This is a dwarf variety, evidently
belonging to the Chickasaw class, and while it has some ‘m=rit
as a novelty, it is not nearly equal to the above.”

Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo., informs me that he obtained
the Utah Hybrid cherry over ten years ago from Nebraska. The
Phoenix Nursery Company, of Bloomington, IIL, “have been
propagating it for many years” to supply the spontaneous demand
for it, but the company writes me that it “can not recommend
it,’ and that “the fruit is rather small, of dark purplish red
color, and is merely a skin drawn over a pit.” The plant sold by
the Phoenix company is a slender under-shrub, with elliptic-lance-
olate prominently nerved and pointed leaves, which are sharply
Serrate throughout, and which can not be referred to any forin
of Prunus pumila with which I am acquainted. The tree grown
by Mr. Kerr has the half-weeping habit of a Morello cherry, and
_ the leaves are also very like those of the Morello. The flowers sre
borne in short-stalked umbels upon wand-like twigs, and they
Suggest, as do also the leaves, an approach to Prunus maritima,
the beach plum. The original Utah Hybrid, which Mr. Kerr
planted, he tells me, had fruit about the size of Bassett’s Ameri-
can (see No. 94, part D, but which ripened earlier than that plum.
_ The present tree, described above, is a seedling of it, but this seed-
lng has larger fruit—as big as a large Napoleon cherry —
which is later than the Bassett, and the tree is less dwarf. He
considers the Utah Hybrid an inferior fruit.

3. Prunus serotina, the Wild Black or Rum Cherry.— This
well-known cherry, the wood of which is often used for cabinet
work and house finishings, is planted for forestry purposes, as an
ornamental tree and sparingly for fruit. Infusions of the bark
are used for medicinal purposes and the fruit is often used in the
manufacture of cherry brandy or as a flavor to rum. Occasional
trees bear fruit of unusual size and attractiveness. As an orna-
inental plant the Wild Black Cherry possesses decided merits in
its attractive habit, clean, shining foliage, striking white racemes
and handsome fruit. There are several cultivated varieties;
pendula, a weeping form, worked standard high; variegata, with
the leaves more or less discolored with yellow; Golden-leaf,

14

, feeb iN, BAN 8p ie Ae SMe ts A RI AT high a rd fe ‘
¥ 5 F : M4 Lae

v2 il

106 AgricuttuRAL Exprerment Station, Iraaca, N. Y.

found wild by Jackson Dawson, of the Arnold Arboretum, and
somewhat disseminated, and probably essentially the same as
variegata; carthagena, with small short-elliptic or ovate-elliptic
leaves. Prunus serotina ranges through the eastern and southern
States as far west as Kansas.

4, Prunus Pennsylvanica, the Bird, Wild Red, Pigeon or Pin
Cherry, is occasionally cultivated for ornament, although it is
not so well known as its merits deserve. It sprouts badly, a fea-
ture which no doubt discourages its dissemination. The species
has been lately recommended as a stock for the common orchard
cherries.* Professor Budd says that “when top-worked or crown-
grafted with vigorous growing sorts it does not appear to have

any reserve material to waste in sprouts. We have trees of the -

. Early Richmond and Dyehouse in the State which have not shown
a sprout on this stock for twelve years.” The union with the orch-
ard cherries, both sweet and sour, appears to be good as a rule, and
the species certainly possesses promise as a cheap and hardy
stock. The fruit is sometimes used in the preparation of cough
mixtures. It is generally distributed throughout the northern
half of the Union from the Atlantic to Colorado.

5. Prunus Virginiana, the Choke Cherry, is cultivated for
ornament. It is scarcely inferior for that purpose to its Old

World congener, the true Bird Cherry (Prunus Padus), although

its flowers are somewhat smaller than in that species, and they are
also a few days earlier. If grown as a lawn tree where a symmet-
rical development can be secured, the Choke Cherry, both in
bloom and in fruit, is an attractive object. Although rarely more
than a large tree-like bush, the Choke Cherry is often confounded
with the Wild Black Cherry, but it is readily distinguished by the
very sharp small teeth of the leaves. The fruit of the Choke
Cherry is commonly red, but amber-fruited plants are occasionally

found. This-cherry has been mentioned as worthy of attention

as a fruit plant, but the fact that none of the racemose cherries”

(those bearing their flowers in long clusters) have given marked

results in this direction, indicates that efforts towards amelioration

* Budd, Bull. 10, la. Exp. Sta., 425. Bailey, Nursery-book, 159.

a
a

‘

Tue Coitivatep Native Piums aAnp CHERRIES. 107

of the fruit are likely to meet with discouragement. The Choke
Cherry is generally distributed east of the Rocky Mountains.

6. Prunus demissa, the Western Choke Cherry, was introduced
in 1881 as an ornamental plant by Edward Gillett, Southwick,
Mass. Its merits as a cultivated plant are not yet well known.
It is much like the Choke Cherry, but more variable in stature and
apparently in botanical characters. It occurs from Nebraska to
the Pacific coast, extending the length of California and Oregon.

7. Prunus ilicifolia, the “Islay ” of southern California and west-
ern Arizona, was introduced to cultivation last year by C. R.
Orcutt, of San Diego, California. It is a pleasing ornamental
plant with holly-like evergreen leaves (whence the name ilicifolia),
and a small astringent reddish fruit. In its wild state it reaches
a height of ten or fifteen feet. Its merits for cultivation in eastern
lawns are yet to be determined.

8. Prunus Caroliniana, the Cherry Laurel, Wild Orange, Mock
Orange, or Wild Peach of the southern States, is in cultivation in
the south as a small ornamental tree and as a hedge plant. The
leaves are long, thick and glossy, and are evergreen. The white
flowers are borne in small racemes which are shorter than the
leaves. The small black fruit soon becomes dry and is not edible.
The species grows wild along rivers from North Carolina to Florida
and Texas.

REVIEW.
I. Plums.

1. The native plum industry dates from the dissemination of the
Wild Goose some forty years ago. It is only within the last
decade, however, that this industry has assumed great importance.

2. Five species and one botanical variety of native plums are
now in cultivation for their fruits. One hundred and forty named
varieties are described in the preceding pages, very many of which
are wild varieties transferred to cultivation. /

3. Nearly all the commercial varieties belong to three species -—
Prunus Americania, P. hortulana and P. angustifolia. These
species grow wild in regions east of the Rocky Mountains.

is ia Bt Pe 7. = “", mig v7 ea aes bir) *
a : eRe Ra {0 ri

oa

108 AGRICULTURAL Expertment Sration, ItHaca, N. Y.

4, Prunus Americania grows the farthest north of any of the
' native plums, and its varieties are the hardiest of any. The

species also grows as far south as northern Mexico. The range of

adaptability of its varieties may, therefore, be assumed to be
very great. The species is naturally variable, and is, therefore,
attractive to the horticulturist.

5. The fruit of Prunus Americania is firm and meaty, usually
somewhat compressed or flattened, often marked by a distinct
suture, dull in color which ranges through different shades of red
and purple to an ill-defined and blotched orange. The skin is
thick and tough, often acerb, and covered with a pruinose bloom.
The stone is large and more or less flattened and winged, and
is sometimes nearly or quite free, and the surface is either slightly
pitted or perfectly smooth.

6. Forty-five varieties are referred to Prunus Americania in the
preceding lists. The most popular of these are Cheney, Deep
Creek, De Soto, Forest Garden, Itaska, Louisa, Purple, Yosemite,
Quaker, Rollingstone, Weaver, Wolf. The American varieties
succeed best, on the whole, in the northern States of the Missis-
sippi valley, as in Wisconsin, lowa and Minnesota. Some of them,
however, are successfully grown in Texas, and on the Atlantic
slope so far south as thirty-seven degrees or thirty-eight
degrees.

7. Prunus hortulana grows wild in the Mississippi valley
from northern Llinois to Arkansas, extending eastward into
Kentucky and Tennessee and possibly farther, and in the south-
west spreading over a large area of Texas. It is naturally variable
and has given many important cultivated varieties. It has never
been recognized asa distinct species until this year. There are two
or three distinct types represented in the species, one of which —
the Miner group—appears to possess some radical points of
difference from the typical representatives of the species.

8. The fruit of Prunus hortulana is firm and juicy, spherical or
spherical-oblong, never flattened, and in color ranges through
several shades of bright red to clear pure yellow. Theskinis thin,
often marked with small dots, and is usually covered with a thin
bloom. The stone always clings; it is comparatively small, rough,

4
Sh ae a

AA Y fe a5; ws > tt 2 f be N
Poh See, : iE

Tue Curtivatep Navive Prums anp CHERRIES. 109

turgid, sometimes prolonged at the ends, but is never prominently
wing-margined.

9. The Wild Goose is the best known of the native plums,
although its quality is not high. This popularity is due to its pro-
ductiveness, earliness, beauty, good shipping qualities and to the
circumstance that it was early introduced to cultivation. This
variety is grown from Iowa, Michigan and New York to Georgia
and Texas.

10. The Wild Goose group of plums, as a whole, is well suited
to the middle latitudes. The most prominent members of the
group are Golden Beauty, Indian Chief, Missouri Apricot, More-
man, Wayland and Wild Goose.

11. The Miner group differs from the Wild Goose or true
Hortulana group by dull and comparatively thick leaves which
are conspiciously veiny below and irregularly coarsely toothed
and more or less obovate in outline, and by a rather late and very
firm fruit and a flat and’ nearly or quite smooth stone. The varie-
ties are all much alike. In a wild state, this form of native plum
probably grows from Illinois to Tennessee and Arkansas.

12. Ten varieties are referred to the Miner group, of which the
most prominent is the Miner. This variety was the first native
plum to receive a name from horticulturists. Its history runs
back to 1814. Seventy years ago it was known as Old Hickory
and General Jackson. Next to the Wild Goose, the Miner is the
best known of the native plums. It is hardy in northern Ulinois
and is popular in the central and some of the southern States.

13. The Chickasaw plums are characterized by slender, spread-
ing and zigzag growth, comparatively small lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate conduplicate (or trough-like) leaves which are shining
and closely and finely serrate, and by an early red or ycllow soft,
stringy-fleshed fruit, which is more or less dotted, and a clinging
broad roughish stone. In a wild state, the Chickasaw plum is
usually thorny and the thorns persist in a few cultivated varieties.
The species grow wild from southern Delaware to Florida and
westward to Kansas and Texas.

14. The most important varieties of Chickasaw plums are Caddo
Chief, Jennie Lucas, Lone Star, Newman, Pottawattamie, Robin-

t > ie) h TO, yee ly fot we Doe OPS LA a
110 AGRICULTURAL Exprrtment Station, Irg#aca, N. Y. ~-

son and Yellow Transparent. The Newman is the most generally
known and this is hardy in central New York. The Chickasaws
are best adapted to the central and southern States. Many of
them are not hardy in Michigan and New York.

15. The Marianna and De Caradeue constitute a distinct class
or group of plums, and the Hattie is evidently allied to them.
They are to be associated with the myrobalan plum. De Cara-
deue is probably myrobalan, and Marianna appears to be a
hybrid. The history of the myrobalan is obscure, but it is clearly
of Old World origin. It is largely used as a stock, and there are
varieties grown for fruit.

16. The Marianna has assumed great importance because of its
use as a stock for many plums and allied fruits. Its merits are
the ease with which it grows from cuttings, and the facility with
which it unites with other species.

17. The beach plum or Prunus maritima, of the Atlantic coast,
is in cultivation both for ornament and for fruit. As a fruit
plant it is represented only in Bassett’s American, a fruit of
little value.

18. The Pacific wild plum, Prunus subcordata, was iniroduced
to cultivation in 1889, as a possible fruit plant, but its merits are
not yet determined.

19. Hybrids appear to occur between the Wild Goose xnd the
peach. J. W. Kerr, of Maryland, has produced such a hybrid,
and the so-called Blackman plum appears to be another.

20. Some varieties of native plums, notably Wild Goose and
Miner, are not fertile with themselves, and this fact has wndoubt-
edly retarded the progress of native plum culture. This infertility
is due to comparative impotency of pollen upon flowers of the
same variety rather than to any structural imperfection in the
flowers themselves.

21. This infertility is avoided by mixed planting, by means of
which foreign pollen is supplied to the impotent varieties. Care
should be taken to associate varieties which bloom at the same
time, and with this precaution the ordinary imixed or alternate
planting, at usual distances, appears to be successful.

22. The best stocks for native plums are prohably seedling of the
same species, although they grow well, as a ruie, upon related

Tue Coxntivatep Native Piums anp CHERRIES. tid

species and even upon the peach in some instances. Perhaps the

most popular stock at present is the Marianna, because of its

habit of growing readily from cuttings, and s9 far it apycars to
have given satisfaction. The Chickasaw ind Hortulann types
succeed well upon the peach. Chickasaw stocks sprout so badly
that they are in disfavor. In the north, Americana stocks are
popular for all the varieties which succeed there.

23. As to the best varieties, there is great difference of opinion.
In the northernmost States the Americana class is most reliable,
although some of the Hortulanas succeed. For the south the
Chickasaws are numerous and popular. The Hortulanas occupy
an intermediate position. The merits of particular varieties must
be gleaned from the tables on page 48 and succeeding pages.

24, The native plums are in most regions comparatively f:ve
from insect abuses. Although there are no eurculio-proof pluins,
the curculio does less damage to the native varieties than to the
common or Domestica types.

25. Among diseases, a mysterious blight and the peach-resette
are prominent in the south. A fruit-scab and fruit-spot also oceur.
The septoria or shot-hole fungus— which causes the serious .
shedding of leaves in the Domestica plums — does little damege
upon the natives. The black-knot, brown fruit-roc and plum-

pockets ave other diseases which the grower will be likely to

meet.

26. As a whole, the native plum industry has made astonishing
progress and it has already assumed large proportions. It is
certain to occupy a large place in future American horticulture.

2. Cherries.

27. Eight and perhaps ten species of native cherries are in
cultivation. Of these, three are grown for fruit, and all but one
or two are cultivated for ornament. None of the species have
gained much prominence under cultivation, however. Most of
them are of comparatively recent introduction.

28. The so-called dwarf or sand cherries are much confused,
and two, perhaps three species, are passing as Prunus pumila:
(a) The true P. pumila, or sand cherry, is a low straggling shrub,

112 AcrRiouLTuRAL Experiment Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y. ot

growing along rivers and coasts from Maine to Pennsylvania and
Manitoba. It has long thick leaves, and produces cherries of .
variable size, color and quality. Some of these varieties give
great promise as garden fruits, and they are already under test
at experiment stations. The plant is also being tested as a stock
for dwarf cherries. (b) P. cuneta is.a slender upright shrub with
larger flowers and shorter obtuse spatulate or obovate thin leaves
growing in cooler lands from New England to North Carolina
and Minnesota. It is in cultivation as an ornamental plant under
the name of Prunus pumila. (c) The representative of P. pumila
upon the plains of Nebraska and in the Rocky Mountains is a
very low plant with short thick leaves and large short-stemmed
fruit, the ‘botanical position of which is yet unknown. It is now
in cultivation as the Improved Dwarf Rocky Mountain Cherry.

29. The Utah Hybrid Cherry is a fruit of uncertain value and
doubtful affinity. Two varieties, the black and red, are in cultiva-
tion. It probably comes from some part of the western plains or
the Rocky Mountain region, ‘but its wild prototype is not known.

30. Other native cherries in cultivation are: Prunus serotina,
_ the Wild Black Cherry; P. Pennsylvanica; the Bird, Pin or Wild
Red Cherry; P. Virginiana, the Choke Cherry; P. demissa, the
Western Choke Cherry; P. ilicifolia, the Islay of the Pacific
slope; P. Carolinana, Cherry-Laurel or Mock Orange of the
southern States. :

L. H. BAILEY.

‘ AGRICULTURAL DIVISION. ERG

Peto LIN XOX TX:

WAU Ye yO Dh. |
REAMING AND AERATING MILK.

By Henry H. Wina.

15 t

a. BOARD OF CONTROL.
a THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

Be STATION COUNCIL.
President, JAcos GouLp ScHURMAN.

Bes PAY WO WHITE os co. Soe ee oko ‘Trustee of the University
eonO.B. Porrer.) 2... 3S. .. President State Agricultural Society.
AUST SERS a ge a eS ea Professor of Agriculture.
® i iM MIO W BEB PS. 0 is Pines ale bee y aie Professor of Chemistry.
Br tsisy tae hoe ore. Mts Professor of Veterinary Science.
(2 VET G EWC Ta I OS aE a Professor of Botany.
PEO MSTOOI 2 ii iors ol, Mytwes wwe vat es Professor of Entomology.
REP ESA TLIY, 5507's s o/s pate NaN a aE 2, Oa Professor of Horticulture.

=
\

ae OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
RMR INERT MP4) oA> uit cs ce nels er dapicn se ad Vie hatogers Director.
> Henry H. Wine....... SI pea Deputy Director and Secretary.

E. PVVITE TIRANA oc 2Veis Wah tia eis eatp aa Weelor costa tl ate tess Treasurer.

Be,

a ASSISTANTS. |
M. PE SREN GEE AND Shee soca Pais Te tette cc Sicsele lal Masel Entomology.
PEC UW ATSON #35 oe <s fins slo Le ease ... Agriculture.

y i, MRED EIB EIN Sag Mn Pe Doe ad cyl sb abalb eels Horticulture.

a C. W. CavaNauGH......... BS) 5d area Act cea be Chemistry.

if BULLETINS OF 1892.
38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.

|
i~

¥ ‘
Dy,

Cream Kaising by Dilution.

It is well known that where cream is separated from milk by
the deep setting gravity process, the best results are obtained
where the temperature of the milk is quickly brought down to
and maintained at about forty degrees for twelve hours. The win-
ter of 1889-1890 was so warm and open that many dairymen failed
to secure a supply of ice and in the ensuing summer began to
suffer loss because they were not able to sufficiently lower the
temperature of the water surrounding the cans in their creamers.
To obviate this difficulty it was recommended that water should
be added to the milk to facilitate the creaming. Two different
systems were mainly recommended: One, that twenty-five to
thirty-three per cent of hot water (185 degrees F.) be added to the
milk in order to raise the temperature of the whole mass to at
least 100 degrees, so that in cooling down as low as possible —
usually to about sixty degrees I’. — there would be approximately
the same range of fall as there would be in cooling down to forty
degrees with ice. The other recommendation, was that an equal
bulk of cold water (sixty degrees) be added to the fresh milk before
setting. This was based on the idea that the increased fluidity
thus given to the milk would render the creaming process as com-
plete as though the milk were cooled down to forty degrees with
ice.

Since that time, experiments to test the value of these recom-
mendations have been conducted at several of the experiment
stations and the results are found in the following publications:

University of Illinois Experiment Station Bulletin No. 12, page
376, and Bulletin No. 18, page 30. Cornell University Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, Bulletins Nos. 20 and 29. Vermont
Agricultural Experiment Station, Newspaper Bulletin No. 3, and
Fourth Annual Report, pages 100-107.

The results of these various experiments have not been entirely
concordant; although in the main they have not been favorable

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118 =AgriounrvraL Exprriment Srarion,

to the practice of dilution. It was to settle some of these points
that the experiments reported in the following pages were
conducted.

The whole question of dilution has resolved itself into several
phases, the more important of which are the following:

First. Dilution with one-fourth to one-third of hot water, 135
degrees F., and setting in deep cans at a temperature as low as—
can be obtained without the use of ice, not below fifty-five
degrees. |

Second. Dilution with one-hajf to equal quantities of cold —
water and setting under the same conditions as above.

Both of these being intended as substitutes for the use of ice in
cold deep setting in the summer time.

Third. Dilution with one-fourth to one-third of hot water (135
degrees) setting in deep cans in ice water. (Forty F.) |

This last intended to overcome the difficulty of complete cream-
ing often found in the fall and early winter with the milk of cows
far advanced in the period of lactation.

Of the experiments referred to above those conducted by the
Ilinois station were laboratory experiments, in which only small
quantities of milk— one quart or less — were used, and are there-
fore not considered in the following discussions. The experiments
at this station and those conducted by the Vermont station were
all made with ordinary-sized deep setting cans under the condi-
tions that prevail on the farm.

In none of the experiments, either at the Vermont siation or
at his station, has there been any benefit from the dilution where
cold water was used as the diluent and where the cans were set

either in cold water (forty degrees), in warm water (sixty degrees)

or in air, and at neither station has there been any advantage —
from. the dilution where hot water was used as the diluent and the
cans subsequently set in cold water (forty degrees).

In regard to dilution with hot water and the subsequent setting
of the cans in warm water (sixty degrees) the Vermont station |
found (Fourth Annual Report, page 102) in eighteen tests with —
four different sets of cows, the following average percentages of
fat in the skim-milk:

Diluted set at 60 (6 trials), 52 per cent of fat in skim-milk.

“A

Cream Raisine sy Ditvti0n. 119

i Undiluted set at 60 (5 trials), .82 per cent of fat in skim-milk.
; Undiluted set at 40 (7 trials), .44 per cent of fat in skim-milk.
de On the other hand, we have found (Bulletin No. 20, pages
62-65), in twenty-three trials with mixed herd-milk, the following
average percentages of fat in the skim-milk:
i Diluted set at 60 (10 trials), 1.11 per cent of fat in the skim-milk.
Undiluted set at 60 ( 2 trials), .89 per cent of fat in the skim-milk.
an Undiluted set at 40 (11 trials), .23 per cent of fat in the skim-milk.
‘i It will thus be seen that the results at the Vermont station
from diluting and then setting at sixty were much better than
where the milk was not diluted and set at the same temperature,
and nearly as good as where the undiluted milk was set at forty,
while at this station the results from diluting and setting at
sixty were not as good as from the undiluted milk set at the
same temperature and much poorer than from the undiluted milk
set at forty. This, then, was the chief point of difference ia the
results obtained at the two stations and it was to this point par-
ticularly that the experiments following were directed.
In all cases the milk was set for twenty-four hours before skin.
Bs: . ming. The analysis of the fat in the skim-milk was made by Mr.
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist of the station, by the Bab-
cock Asbestots Gravimetric method. The details of setting,
skimming and sampling, and the determining of the fat in the
__whole milk by the Babcock method were all done by the writer.
: Cooley cans were used in all cases, and in skimming great care
was taken that there should uniformly be left one whole space
of skim-milk under the cream line; that is to say, the cream was
| drawn down to the last mark but one of the scale. By far the
larger number of the tests were made with the mixcd evening
milk of the University herd, consisting of grade Holstein and
rf grade Jersey cows, which had been in milk from three to six
: months. A few tests were made with milk from the Jersey cows
that were freshest and from the Holstein cows that were longest
in milk; these will be noticed in detail further on. In all cases
: a full can twenty inches deep was used for each test, and in all
cases a diluted and undiluted can were set from the samc milking.
4 In every instance where milk was diluted the percentage of fat
in the skim-milk is corrected for the amount of water added.

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Cream Raisina sy Drzution. 121

Table I gives the details of the trials where the temperature of
the creamer was kept as near as might be at sixty degrees and
where the mixed herd milk was used. In this and the following
tables: the figures included between the spaces refer to dilated
and undiluted portions of the same samples of milk.

It will be seen that in the above fifteen tests covering a period
of about six weeks, that there was a considerable benefit in the
creaming resulting from the dilution. The average percentage of
fat in the diluted samples being .76 per cent and in the undiluted
samples 1.05 per cent, or .29 per cent in favor of the dilution.

Moreover, this advantage is nearly constaut, there being only

two cases (March thirteenth and twenty-seventh) in which the

—

undiluted samples showed less fat in the skim-milk than the
diluted.

Six trials were also made with the milk of the four Jersey cows
of the herd that were freshest in milk. These trials were made
- between the fourteenth and thirty-first of March, and are shown
in detail in Table II below. The dates of calving of the various
cows were as follows: No. 1, January fifteenth; No. 2, Jannary
sixteenth; No. 3, February eight; No. 4, March fifth:

16

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tion. In fact, the difference was somewhat greater than with
the mixed herd milk.

‘Further, two trials were made on April second snd fourth, with
he milk of the five Holstein cows that had been longest in milk.
he results of these trials are given in Table ILI. The dates
of calving of the cows are as follows: No. 1, December 27, 1890;
No. 2, September 21, 1891; No. 3, September twenty-ninth; No. 4,

_ October second; No. 5, October twenty-eighth:

be seen that with this milk, as with the mixed herd silk, |

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Cream Ratsina spy Dinurion. 125

The Holstein milk also showed an advantage resulting from
the dilution, but not so great as either the Jersey or the mised
herd milk.

While in all of the milk set at sixty degrees there was a dis-
tinct advantage arising from the dilution, still this diluted milk
set at sixty was not so perfectly skimmed as the undiluted milk
when set at forty degrees. Eight trials were made where both
diluted and undiluted milk were set at forty degrees, or, in other
words, in ice water, and are shown in detail in Table IV. 'The
tests covered the same period as those made at sixty, and were
made with milk of the same character. The first five were made
_ from mixed herd milk; the next two from milk from ihe same
Jersey cows as those detailed in Table II, and the last one from
the same Holstein cows as those detailed in Table II.

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Cream Raisinea py Divovtion. 127

Tt will be seen from a study of this table that the creaming,
both of the diluted and undiluted milk, was much more perfect
than where the milk was set at sixty; and, moreover, it will be
seen that, as between the diluted and undiluted milk, there was
no difference whatever in the efficiency of the creaming when
both were set at forty degrees.

A further disadvantage of diluting with warm water arises
from the decreased value of the skim milk for feeding purposes
because of its dilution. Milk diluted with warm water and set
at sixty also has a tendency to quickly become sour. In many
of the trials the milk and cream was sour and thick at the end
of twenty-four hours. The increased tank room, necessary where
dilution is practiced, is also a disadvantage of the system.

During the same period that these other tests were going on,
occasionally a can of diluted milk was set in the open air in the
dairy-room. The results of these tests are shown in Table V,
and it will be seen that while the temperature of the room was, in
most cases, nearly as low as the temperature of the creamer, the
percentage of fat in the skim milk was in general considerably
larger than where the milk was set in water:

>

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AGRICULTURAL Exprertment Station,

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Cream Rarsinc py Diturion. 129

SUMMARY.

Bringing together the results of all the trials cetaled in this
bulletin, we have the following averages:

Set at sixty:
Diluted. Notdiluted.

Moxed herd ) milk, fifteen. trials.).3. 00208. ea. k 76 1.05

BR UIUC SING CETUS os o's liog cre on, ale a oheiehe oe ag'h g 69 1.13

EMO SEMI ELIILI, SUR ETIALG abe dss e's ce leceletelsl ah Melee .63 82

Average of all, twenty-three trials............... .69 1.05
Set at forty:

Mixed herd, Jersey and Holstein milk, eight trials, .23 23
Set at thirty-eight-forty in air:

Mixed: herd) milk, eight trials. 2.60.56) 565 5 GO 2 ae

Combining these results with the former cesults at this station
and the results at the Vermont station, we have the following
average percentages of fat in the skim milk under the different
systems:

Diluted set at 60 (89 trials), .77 per cent.

_ Undiluted set at 60 (80 trials), 1.00 per cent.

Undiluted set at 40 (26 trials), .29 per cent.

It would seem, therefore, that while when the milk is set at
sixty degrees, or thereabouts, there is considerable advantage, so
far as the efficiency of creaming is concerned, in diluting it with
twenty-five per cent of warm water; this dilution can nut be
regarded as a substitute for setting without dilution in ice water,
and it has the further disadvantage of requiring increased tank
capacity and producing a rapidly souring cream.

BERRIGAN SEPARATOR.

At the solicitation of the Berrigan Separator Company, Avon,
N. Y., who furnished a machine for the purpose, we have made
a somewhat careful test of the merits of this system of separating
cream from milk.

The Berrigan separator, so called, is not a separator in the
accepted sense of the term; that is, it does not separate the cream
from the milk continuously as the milk passes through the machine.
The milk simply undergoes a treatment in the machine, by virlue

LC

nes

or Ee oe oO a ee ig

130 AgricuLturaAL Exprrment Srarion, Iraaca, N. Y.

of which it is supposed that the cream afterward more readily
separates from the milk by gravity process.

The apparatus and treatment is comparatively simple. The
machine itself consists simply of a cylindrical chamber, capable —
of being closed air-tight. An air-pump it attached to one side
connected with the chamber by means of suitable valves and
fittings, so that the air within the chamber can be compressed to
any desired degree. The method of operation is simply to fill
the chamber nearly full of milk, to which twenty per cent of
water has been added, close the opening and apply as quickly
as possible, an air pressure of thirty pounds per square inch. The
milk is allowed to remain under this pressure for two minutes
when it is drawn off and set in any ordinary vessel. It is claimed
by the manufacturers that the temperature of the milk ai the
time of applying the pressure, the temperature of the water
added and the temperature of the air in which the milk is after-
wards set, are all immaterial, and that by means of this process,
the cream will all rise inside of twelve hours as completely as
with any of the ordinary gravity systems of setting, as may be
seen from the following extracts from their circular:

“The best and quickest results will be secured when the milk
to be treated is rich in cream, from a new milch cow, and treated
while the milk is warm, immediately after the milking. In such
a case the cream will probably be up in one hour.

“The poorest result will be found when the cow has been long
in milk, when the milk is poor in cream and has stood for some
time and become chilled. In such cases two hours may be
required to raise the cream.

“Tf the milk is allowed to stand in the raising vat about seven
hours, the fat will rise to within two-fifths of one per cent, and
if allowed to stand twenty-four hours, the fat will practically all
rise. Much closer results will be obtained right along in practice
than by any other known system.”

The machine arrived at the station on March fifteenth and a-
member of the company set it up and gave instructions in regard
to its workings. From that time until the first of April thirteen
tests were made with it, on as many different days. Care was
taken to follow the directions of the company closely, particularly

Cream Ratstne sy Dirurton. 131

in regard to applying the pressure quickly (from six to eight
seconds were usually required to raise the pressure to thirty
pounds per square inch) to apply the proper amount of pressure
(thirty pounds) and to allow the pressure to remain on the speci:
fied time (two minutes). The milk was diluted with one-fourth iis
weight of cold water and was set in the can provided by the
company, in the open dairy-room, except in a few instances when
Cooley cans were used. At the time each test was made, another
sample of the same portion of milk that received no treatment
whatever was set by the side of the treated portion of milk in a
Cooley can. The can accompanying the Berrigan separator was
only a little more than half as deep as an ordinary Cooley can
which is twenty inches. In all cases the mixed milk of the
University herd was used, and the details of the experiment are
shown in the table below: |

TasLE VI — Berrican SEPARATOR.

° Oo
Fy ce) BERRIGAN

eal é ee eta UNTREATED.

° 8 2 ate Bite
eleie|.8 1 « |fg)4-|84.) 4/88

. oO [o} Lo} rey! ce LE - PEGS 7 a

pale gieie|2| ® | § |83|\84\ sed! a4 [ses
Fi/e\sle) 4 Shirt gs ll iaa bo aoe Ny ao A a

SPAN ged hay il t= ~" |8 | 89/858] Bg | ese

Sig de eR Wg 8 ea! SS) ec lsaae

. o 2 — rey

ay lve |B: | 8 E Fi by ee Me OR a Oe =:

SIPleleal| a a Vetay. Gaye | Fee & ey

IV ORIL DU .\0 5/5 \0)si01s 2.02 30 10 | 60 | 54] 26.5 13.5 3.4 43 .28 at ata/ o/h | mate sitet
UAB Bao Gone 28 7 | 60 | 53 27. 8. 4.2 35 BOK abd are oltihi [tae raeetaes
Oe ctete ol evenatalare 36 afeo PASE Wisselays|||= De 6.5 saisicht| Weielaun| aa nels 96 .79
i dtota dain stalvtolets 36 9 | 69 | 54 31.5 13.5 3.6 -66 CCB BP au WA ance
Di fate dajas or siete nie 36 AeA] Peis ibaa ae se ONE ie ae 1.12 92
iain: aictototste siaie he 28 7 | 69 | 54 5 é a afi OO) |) sin seat ieterdaia eta
UO Bee 36 lene Pein te teo ae 6.5 Bese Aan aaietetae 1.12 92
Desa laletotiaialaie's.¢ 32 8 | 81 | 62 |\30. 10. 73 BEN ie cteics vibe omtatapars
PA Pate ora ister sia] o18 32 8 | 7 63 | 28. 12. 3.7 .60 4D) as a Ae raters
Aieitaitelas sx \a7ave 36 AAS ots al eel 4! Bay 6.5 AA bea omescc .88 72
OR ees slruwte tote 28 7 | 74 | 63 29.5 5.5 3.7 85 WRAN clélelajeiet | celelatetets
2 AAP peOne 36 Pea TNOe sl ewsle|! 0.0 6.5 Patak liaeh orale 88 t2
DLLaie aes e ce 28 %| 70 | 54 30. 5. 3.8 .69 BQ tate eieal lop netelae
PBS Spandar: Ba Ie eee bes] 29. 6.5 ais tagiten lh) 37a abwin'a 1.08 88
Witarcdette ve dec ot 28 7 | 76 | 60 | 22.25 12.75 | 4.1 68 AG: |} hippies fae eeniale
2 Be Dee Oat 36 ...-| 88 30.5 5.5 Msletoty ||) Ad stern 1.22 1.04
PI AD OS ARTIS 32 8} 7 54 | 26.25 13.75 4.5 63 410\| fc emael \degonee
Bev ans es aehee 36 |....| 90 29.75 | 6.25 To OG 97 80
26 .. 32 8 | 72 | 55 | 25.5 14.5 4 -46 PN SC SEA och),
PNAr a ner lctale’s 36 8B! }52/..|" 29. {6 Boal a Achtrac 1.34 1.08
Paste avelai sis lots aire 32 8 | 74 | 56.) 25.5 14.5 4.4 .38 AA iote ante ee
ibeaicle et eta ds 36 Meg ns el: ease 6.5 Malane) URL eer 1.16 95
Peerage aL 32 8 | 77 | 56 25.5 14.5 50 OBR N veces f elsembatae
BHO fait Aa tite obo 36 hace 29. he PA dieleaea ie Aa bere 95 ALi
ESTES Age iba) | Bios call |e ied Api iedl IGAIta CROTON |e ODI | .59 43 1.06 | 87

It will be seen that while better results were obtained by the
Berrigan treatment than in the untreated milk set alongside, yet
the results obtained (.59 of one per cent of fat in the skim milk)

Free EAM Rae en en
“4 i

-

132 AgrioutturaAL Experiment Station, Irgaca, N. Y.

would not be called satisfactory creaming. That is, we should
expect, by the use of a deep setting gravity system in ice or with
any of the forms of centrifugals, to get a skim milk much poorer
in butter-fat than was this.

To see if the Berrigan treatment would have any effect when
the milk was afterwards set in deep cans in ice water, two trials
were made. In each case, a Cooley can full of milk that had
been through the Berrigan treatment, and another from the same
sample of milk not treated, were set in the Cooley creamer with
the water at a temperature of forty to forty-five. The results are

shown below:
TasieE VIL.

A 2
° BERRIGAN
& | & a TREATMENT, | UNTREATED
7a ees EA E
be (8 us|. a Mey eee doe ed ee
a ye ee Se ea tl ee eke ee
Mea o/8,/8/S4|@ | 8 | €2 |Sa/sec| S28 | be3
5 18(/2/921 4/2 | 2" |28|S28] 28 | Sas
8 | & | = ts Be | eds] fg | ese
a | | o g g 8 34 oa” oS og@
Si ln i= 25,5] of | S5l>
od el aes [ = E S 2] plo a ee
Fr ia] g BR 5 © gg 5 3 a8
S iFiala nl o | & a | a cs
MIAO 19), cisisieles siecle 28 7 | 81 43 | 27. ee MS eo 43 4B a yeaa lhe eee
diac ctalelaieceaietale BUCS Hawa COS. teen aah eee OER) ates SEO Fepeintee 37 28
PASTA Oirlelebic cies veers 36 Aaoal ered 46 | 27.5 8.5 4.4 18 pF ie) aA foe pst ci
SD inivvieeinicthisies 36 Soitat het UM aa 2. Ohl A ataate wditlechle teres -28 21
FAV ORAL cjpicis eisis'sipih e's eel sll nals e'[t.eists|| usin ulpys ise lli! ays mlonilllu Misselpiete 31 31 33 25

It will be seen that in the two tests made, practically the same
results were obtained from the untreated milk and the milk that
had gone through the Berrigan machine. In one case the treated
milk was diluted, and in the other not diluted.

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION.

During the time in which the preceding tests were made, occa-
sional milkings were creamed with a centrifugal machine. This
was done in part to test the work done by the machine and in
part to check the results that were being obtained in. the other
methods. The largest number of the tests were made with a hori-
zontal De Laval separator. Toward the end of the series of tests
several separations were made with the Baby No. 2 machine,
sent on for the purpose by the De Laval Separator Company.
The details of the work of these machines ave shown in Tables
VIII and IX:

133

4 098 anemeaenectlEre 6 tro teers aye Sueue- seussene eceneceees Ss PES ae aie ae OD RADE
i ee een =e te ae eg Ee sa are = Siar
5 Ore er" ae oP CSL CSL 09 Se 3 judy
4 OLg ST’ IZ" 9°@ e' Cy c*eg 66 a A lady
Q 098 ine IZ" LF CLT @°8) rary, sete e eect e ree seeeeer judy
A rs oge tteeeeee | gg: 6°e oF fess ete | sent e ee [enter eee eter eee e ee eer judy
= O8e SI° 13° 9°@ ‘QT “OLL "Fel UNe eto: obelete ares enwte le: ees0>6 I judy
Fone a a Bee See eee, EnHOt Dieses ee eeeeeeeeeeerTe — qorepy
One ae ae Pe OF | 26:48 ene tee eee eeeeeeeeeerg? qoueyy
pe ce SL’ aaa (20506 6: 8 2 8 e°o¢ C°6IZ "OLS PN a SREP a BEER A Toleyl
068 ore 02° 6°& “he G°SLT C° 60% PES Ong eae ps Soames oY A Areniqayq
B ‘spun>g spunog ‘spunog ‘spunog “‘spunog
= &
2 5 SEs sospanod oor | unys ar qez | ofoua uy 483 “UIBad) “yTUL WATS “TL ‘ALVG
5 Yoeo Ul 4SOT IBq| Jo yUeD z9g JO queo 19g

"IVOOAIVINGD IVINOZIXOF] —TITA WIAVL

AgRIouLTURAL Experiment Srarion, Iraaca, N. Y.

086
GLE
086
OGE
OLE
G96

‘spunog

‘moy 10d
poyersdeg

134

*“yy[IUd eyo M
jo spunod got

Go aes: =68 Gc’ 691 G° 106
eee ca -9¢ eg] “102
Soe ae ee GELS GZ GOL C681
Cer G16 CL°GS G°G9

‘spunog ‘spunog ‘spunog
Brita
ejoyM ul 4By “UIBAID “IFUL TEAS ATL
jo yu90 10g

YOO Ul 4SO] 18,7

Birra

Uys Ul yey

jo yueo Jeg

‘6 ‘ON TVDNMIAINAD ATV — XI ATAVIL

‘GLVa

wsVIOAW

eee SL Avy
oes: G Avy
og ACT

** 6r Tudy
“9 [udy

Cream Ratstina By Dr.vtion. 135

It will be seen that the Centrifugal separator, and more par-
_ ticularly the Baby No. 2, offers the most effectual means of remoy-
Bs ing the cream from the milk, only nine-hundredths of one per
4 cent of fat remaining in the skim milk from the Baby separator.
This hardly needs comment as it has been shown before in numer-
i; use instances, under widely varying circumstances, that so far as
~ _ efficiency of creaming is concerned, we have no means so effectual
as the Centrifugal separator.

SUMMARY.

Below is brought together the average percentage of fat in the
skim milk under the various systems. These averages are inde
from a sufficiently large number of tests to fairly indicate the
results that will be likely to be obtained under the best consid-

erations.

; Per cent of
i fat in
ey skim milk,
See eniritugal,, Baby) NO! 2 si. ise enero Sothys sn oles : 09
Ree ering al HOrizontal so (cod one ele sole, odie hie be ei ye eas 19
mer Cooley, set at forty-not diluted....i....5....0. 0s.06.. 29

Pere SPRY SEPARA LOEY, Seni chui.e), ta; via, eps aft s) «ois vel< tie en0''sa iepwye Bi 09
Sma SEL Aly (REX LY)! CULULEMs: 2 ha gets arene alo shale dielees leuge ii

Barley, Seu at srmby MOG GUUteds 0 of.) wetsece lee sola iane ote 1.00
Average percentage of fat in whole milk............. 4.24

The above summary is shown graphically below and serves to
teach the eye more readily the relative losses of fat under the
different systems. In the horizontal lines, each inch represents
‘one-quarter of one per cent of fat. If the fat in the whole milk
had been platted in the same way it would have reached four and

‘one-quarter times across the page:

Centrifugal, Baby No. 2. ae
Centrifugal, horizontal. carwano
Cooley, set at forty degrees not diluted. —_———--— —
: Berrigan separator.
Cooley, set at sixty degrees diluted.

Cooley, set at sixty degrees not diluted.

Got fea ae FY Rig oe SP TA ET Ty oS AT) “-
ee We Ae of Ale > eT Se
- d ‘i Riven

Led

136 AgricuLturAL Exrrrment Station, Itgaca, N. Y.

AERATION AND AERATORS.

The matter of aeration and proper cooling of milk is one
of prime importance to dairymen, and particularly to milk ship-
pers. Attention has been called to this factor in the keeping of
milk only comparatively recently and during the past year there
have been sent to us several forms of aerators and coolers with the
request that a test be made of their comparative merits and advan-

er
Te
-— 4

tages. Accordingly tests of the following werators have been »

made: They were respectively the “Star Milk and Cream Covler,”
manufactured by Evans & Heulings, Haddontieid, N. J. Two
corrugated sheets of tin are placed near together and so arranged
that a stream of water flows coustantly between them on the
inside; at the same time the milk to be cooled drips slowly
over the outside of the corrugated tins. This machine requires a
connection with running water, or if running water is not at
hand, water must be supplied by means of a tank suitably ele-
vated to give sufficient pressure. Second, the “Champion Miik
Cooler,” manufactured by the Champion Milk Cooler Company,
Cortland, N. Y. ‘This cooler consists of a conical tin vessel
arranged to hold ice water. Upon this vessel is fixed a receiving
tank, from which the milk drops in a fine stream and passes
down the sides of the main tank and is collected at the bottom.
Third, the “Powell” aerator, manufactured by J. D. Powell,
Golden’s Bridge, N. Y. This instrument is intended to aerate with-
out cooling and acts upon the principle of forcing air through
milk contained in an ordinary can. It is very simple, consisting
merely of a hollow tin plunger with small perforations un the
upper side, this instrument being plunged into the milk carries
with it air which, escaping from the perforations, bubbles up
through the milk and so aerates it.

The following tests show the capacity of the “Star” aerator.
It was connected with the University water-works through a
half-inch pipe and the water was allowed to tiow through con-
stantly at full head.

137

166 CF 88 9¢ 961 cL SES ES CS Ne eee ee ee AOE
GEG 6F 98 98 901 68 RTC RE ee mo itera nee aI Cs PR oar oe

ole oF 66 9¢ 102 SL Se DR IG) CaCO Gn DaCORC Oa0 Obig eC a Os AO OAG re Tudyw
Z0e ep 98 9¢@ 6° e9T ¢°¢9 Deen en Cee e eee e eee eee ee eeeeess 62 GOIRTT
09 ep $8 ge G' OFZ eB" 8), reece eee t acess seeeeeececeeceess OF TOIT
reese eeeeel pe 68 9¢ 6° O6T 038 Sx oD OeOw cD NG Cao Ore ee ee YOU
cle ep 99 9¢ G°OLT PL Be Pris Pa ORL OURO RE se Me Your
069 Ig 68 9& qoreyy
seeeeeeeeel Og 98 9¢@ ZOT 59 Frac reaceovseo rates boieenecedereueneveceisaeueits joie ene csl = YOU
CLF oF $8 9¢ SII CS" 6L Sea renemaipire, Gea ea pansn nase hae eoRs a toe We (areas oe eS yoreyy

Bd
o>
i=)
ie)
i)
ie.8)
A o.r= 19 ©

Cream Raisina sy Ditotion.

: *spunog ‘yeyucmqeg | “gloquorqeg | “poquomyey “spunog *spunog
=a . *3u1j}8.108 * 313.108 :
gad poyeroy | 2UB ATA | exoseq aM | amyerodtuoy, | “POST Jovem si ‘ELV

emyeidmey | omj}e10duay,

‘aOLVUEY AVIS — X ATAVL

18

138

In the first three trials the milk was allowed to run from the
receiving tank at full head. With the water at thirty-six degrees —
F. and using about thirty per cent more water than milk, the
cooler reduced the milk to fifty degrees F. ai the rate of 550
pounds per hour. In the last five trials the cock of the receiving
tank was partially shut off so that the milk ran slower, the
water running the same as before. Under these conditions with
water of the same temperature and using three times as much
water as milk, we were able to cool the milk to forty-chree degrees
at the rate of 300 pounds per hour. We think this machine is
capable of bringing the milk very near to the temperature of the
water at the rate of from 250 to 300 pounds per hour.

The tests of the Champion aerator were made by filling the
cooling tank with water and ice. This was done in all cases some
little time before the aerator was used in crder that the whole
machine might be cooled down to the temperature of melting ice.
A quantity of milk was then weighed and the time noted which
it required to pass through the aerator; the tcinperature of the
milk being taken, both before and after the aeration. The detuils
of the tests are shown below:

139

O&Z B) ene) 6 (ewey e) SESe)|(eeemecte te serts 8) 6 Z9 16 Pai BAS AS AN eS Age hah eo | AES Ap

“spunog “spunog “qe UeIy BT *qIoTUOIq ey

z
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B 0% G IZ £9 6 pict ORNATE Cenc Le a PROTEC 9 Lew
y fa O8&Z 9 eG 09 16 BPRS ENE Tit Bla Eisele BRT Dobe Pg Ee ge ce De GN 5 Av
> 066 9 63 Z9 16 plese 8) a gf Ohte, Ww, aver etal dag 2 Sesh a ag Up Ch Sa S| eI
: ra (Wad 9 Var £9 £6 a. Seale: 80's eh ete! vii 0 ala <, 6 bb tee SE ROY et ie SX: BRR EE en a Av
Ss ob O&8G G 61 99 66 BO Ge SATA Ba ales Pe URN ME RLS CCS OR URES Avy
*§ ot L6L ys eG 19 98 eA SA AR OR eh On OTE ele eee BeOS (YEG (0 op
= 5 COL 9 GOT LG AG e385) 0 Ale) ese celle 616 Ree on aes cee ee el tigen ae ee STUER We
= ae O6T 8 C° ez eg 6 A PERSE NL (oad ee Ra eal SU Ey DoCS URI ye
= . GLE G eZ 19 Z6 aR ee eT RS See BONO SOR Oa alee oe eee ee RICE

<q

sl

f

iS)

*moy
aed poyei0y

; : ‘1aJe yy =| ‘oaoyoq yprur :
re eg UAT TW emyeiadmey, | o1njyereduioy, aLvya

‘AOLVALY NOIUKVHD —TX WIDViL

\ :
140 AGRICULTURAL Exprrmentr Sration, IrHaca, N. Y.

This aerator, when kept filled with water, will cool from 225
to 250 pounds per hour down to the neighborhood of sixty degrees.
The differences pointed out by the above figures seem to us to
very fairly indicate the relative merits of the two machines; both |
are very nearly alike so far as ease of keeping clean is concerned.
Where running water is not at hand we should prefer the Cham-
pion; with running water, the Star.

The Powell aerator is intended to aerate without cooling. We
have found that air may be kept constantly bubbling through a
forty-quart can of milk as it is drawn from the cow for five
minutes without cooling it more than two to four degrees.

Several tests of the keeping quality of milk that had been
aerated by the several aerators and that which had not been
aerated at all were made. From the milk as it came to the
dairy-house a half-pint bottle was filled. Different portions were
then passed through the aerators and half-pint bottles filled
from them. These bottles uncorked were left exposed to the air
in the work-room of the dairy-house. Three times a day they
were shaken and tested with litmus paper and by tasting until
they were found to be perceptibly acid.

141

OF Grete e OF ere xeve 1¢ eeee 0g Octo wap eeee Lee AS Shee ee tS OGIO:

2 6& 16 6& G8 6&8 €g¢ 6S €9 §9 Soe Se Sd tana 2 ee

S 9 66 G6 06 6E gg 6E *9 PO ee re ee

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3 6g 16 6g 68 tF rae) +P 09 rere) Pee Ae eNO beat)

ra 6e 16 ge 63 PP 0¢ PP 9 19 Pete eee certs eeereee & sey

3 IZ FG IZ 56 9% 9¢ 96 9 ra Dette ners ener eee ee g ce

foc] 68 Z6 6& 06 6e I¢ 4 09 ee) SSO WO ak al) IO OG HOLY Avy
. So €9 98 €9 68 €9 9g. €9 19 09 Re nee Cee E eS Ee SOG judy
3 = e9 Z6 eg 88 eg ZG eg 1g ae Fete e ee eee eee eens a7 pady

a £9 26 £9 06 ZL GP GL e9 GG ey paddy

4 69 66 69 88 GL, 0S 69 19 Lg Steg et Ser te ste

. “sanoy] “eA *samoy “qe *sanoy] Ie *smoyyT “ayeT “BT

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“CHLVUHY LON TTTMOT ‘UVLG ‘NOIdWVHO

“LST, ONIATAY — NOWVaRy — IX HAV J,

Li ¢ yes we he
‘ ah
142 AgericutturaL Experiment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

It will be seen that the milk aerated with the Powell aerator
kept no longer than that which had not been aerated. That
which was aerated by the Champion and Star aerators kept for a
constant but not very long time longer than that which was not
aerated. This difference in favor of the aeration is considerably
less than we had expected to obtain; but there were several
conditions that are likely to have made this difference less than
it would be under ordinary circumstances. In the first place the
air in which the milk was set was comparatively uniform in tem-
perature and free from contaminating odors; in the second place
only a short time elapsed after milking and aeration, so there
was little chance for contamination in the stable. Then again
all the surroundings of the cattle were kept as neat and clean
as could well be done. We believe that under the conditions
that affect most dairies the good effects of aeration would be
more pronounced than those we obtained. But we are inclined
to regard as extravagant the statement recently made, in a lead-
ing agricultural paper, that “aerated milk will keep at least
three times as long as non-aerated.”

The question is often raised whether milk that is intended for
butter-making may be aerated and the cream afterwards success-
_ fully separated by the gravity process. Four trials were made
in which the milk that had been aerated was set in Cooley cans
at forty degrees side by side with milk of the same lot that had
not been aerated. In all cases the temperature of the creamer
was 40-40, and the milk set twenty-four hours. The results
were as follows:

Aerated, average per cent of fat in skim milk .......... .53
Not aerated, average per cent of fat in skim milk ....... 31
*

It will be seen that while there was some loss in the efficiency
of the creaming of the aerated milk, it was not very great. What
is remarkable is that the aerated milk suffered no fall of tem-
perature after it was placed in the creamer, and was more effi-
ciently creamed than the diluted milk set at sixty degrees
(table I), where the fall of temperature was 30-35 degrees. This
seems to be in direct contradiction to the theory which supposes
that the fallof temperature after the milk isset isoneof the chief
factors in complete creaming by the deep-setting gravity process.

HENRY H. WING.

C rel] University —Agricultural Experiment Station.

AGRICULTURAL »DIVISION: | 4

B eck Eee IN OX ube

NEW YoRK
eh Levent So) 55. BOTANICAL

: d GARDEN |

By Grorer OC. Warson.

~ ee IS ae
aaa!

i
Bet

a Na

ORGANIZATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

STATION COUNCIL.
President, C. K. Anas.

Seo EOL), WITH i, lou. oes alk Sana Trustee of the University.
Bie) BD POTTERS ob. 35 4). 6s President State Agricultural Society.
Pet EUGR BTN. 20 oie ic ih at opie vt tyora since ete Professor of Agriculture.
Ree CATO WEED 3/0 go oh RAE AAS hae Professor of Chemistry.
BPRPE SOA 2c sie sid tga) Wo be are ele axe Professor of Veterinary Science.
MUR PRC REN TISS foc cous c <Pia s Liew gG, wal. cleagin oS 6 « Professor of Botany.
PERM OMSTOOR a is bee cat Be eat ee ys Professor of Entomology.
2 IGT ES Oe Ga I a are Professor of Horticulture.
te OUDLEY 2. 0:56. Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
ROPER EMTS FN if Uaioe s ai ehatole Yd Wee ghei o eetimuclecd solo tidal Director,
PPM V EL. WING he be i865 oun,.s ... Deputy Director and Secretary.
SER INMDLTNSES 9.0 area Safad tin ake ho te lew wraps aie ils ates alecdi cia Mets Treasurer.
ASSISTANTS.
Bley A OUIN GHEE ANT f(t 225 KUN ss ole Sle ke age Qin Slee Entomology.
MUMS VV ATHON, NM" 90 00 21 leit y Sloe cle cha dusters winches Agriculture.
MOMS CELEIEISES, 0 teh oecla te Lars weavha'a Saletacd w/b gu’ Soviets Horticulture.
ares CAVANAUGH! Gta cis. ssiiens ss eVect ou deiceae els oe Chemistry.

Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends, will please send us the
names of the parties.
BULLETINS OF 1892.

38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.
_ 36. Creaming and Aerating Milk.
40. Removing Tassels from Corn.

19

Removing Tassels from Corn.

“gid e
fy

Since the publication of the results of an experiment made at
this station in 1890, in removing the tassels from corn to increase
the yield, the experiment has been repeated and similar experi-
ments have been made at experiment stations, in at last four
other States, with varying results.

The numerous inquiries and correspondence received concerning
these experiments seem to demand a more full explanation of the
work done in this direction.

In one of the corn fields on the university farm two adjoining

F plots were selected. Plot I consisted of twenty-five rows of
; seventy--two hills each; from each alternate row the tassels were
removed soon after they appeared; in many cases the tassels were
yet quite well inclosed within the folds of the leaves at the time
of removal, yet occasionally one would become well expanded and |
slightly polliniferous during the four days between pickings.
The tassels were removed by hand, as in the previous experi-
: ment, by giving an upward pull to the tassel, causing the stalk to
: break some distance below and yet without removing any
j leaves. -
Plot If contained twenty-one rows of seventy-two hills each.
In this plot the tassels were removed from three-fourths of the
rows; that is, the tassels were left. on the first row and removed
from the second, third and fourth; left on the fifth and removed
: from the next three, and so on, the last row of Plot I forming the
first row of Plot II.
”q The variety of corn was Sibley’s Pride of the North. It was
planted the last week in April in fertile, dry, gravelly soil, in hills
three and one-half feet apart in the row, and rows three feet

CER OT eo

148 AcriocuLttuRAL Experiment Stratton, Irmaca, N. Y.

eight inches apart. The first tassels were removed July 24, 1891, a

and on each of the following dates all tassels were removed that
had made their appearance since the previous picking: July
twenty-eighth, August first, August seventh and August fifteenth.

The corn was allowed to stand until fully ripe, as shown by the
total absence of any soft corn, when it was cut, husked, weighed
and counted, with the results shown in detail in the following
tables:

149

0°961 0°&% 0'°POL 18 661 20% LG sere eee eee eeee sferars orarelsieleioleicisinie's Biv eisis cieiticle ove 88ers KOUIOT STASSU1I03 RIOAY,
A 0°66 0°2% 0°901 Gc) AST OPL act Sisfels ose = x folele,sfererWie:s)aisiolniwicxareteareitie/sis{aisiaivinlsisfoisla’e uielesecs ease TOR TOTS TORN UT Oat GAOAGY;
¢° 606 S’6r O° LIT TL brea TAT 166 ee e*""T10 9J9] S[OSSB} “CZ MOY
0°S8T $96 gh 06 96T BIG $96 * POAOUIA! S[ESSB} “FE MOY
sO 0°96T C1 0° FOr 08 661 691 98% ** "TO 4J9] STOSSB} “EZ MOY
ya ee oted ME Td ¢°SOr c8 £08 GEG 686 “*** PSAOUIOI STOSSBY BE MOY
Gg 28T 01S ¢° 601 69 1l@ iP 086 ***" "TO JOT S[OSSB1 "1Z MOW
's) g° 108 oes 0°90T 08 86 BrS Cla "*** DAAOMUIAL STASSB} ‘NZ MOW
g°c6r om S*60T 08 P06 APT £66 “*** "TO 4J9T S[OSSB} “GT MOY
! o*sst 0°S3 0°SOT 88 206 286 688 ** POAOUIAL STOSSP} ‘QT ALOT
eS Co’ S6r o°Se g°Sor #8 £06 est 286 “*"* "TO JJOT Mossey “YT MOW
oe] 0°68T 0°26 0°66 68 96. 96T P86 ** P9AoUIad S[AssBy ‘ol MOY
& Gg’ cst 0° ts Gg’ Por 64 F6T GPT 18% seers’ TO IJ9] SJOSSey GT MOW
: G’ PST 0°86 ¢°86 68 881 C6L 163 **** paaouied STAsse} ‘Pl MOY
4 G'64T (a 0°SOL dds 861 4g BLS ** "TO JJ9T STOSSBy ‘el MO
BR 0° 6LT 0°%6 ¢’00r 98 eb 261 T2e PoAotM.. S}OSSB} “Zl “OW
m S°96T ost 0°60T 89 cgT 281 £08 ***0O Je] Spessey ‘{T MOY
n G Par 01% ¢ 00r PS F6I Ti 19% **** pagaourled sjessey ‘OT MOY
ml 0°68T o's 0°66 08 P61 vas 896 "8" *"TO 9JOT STOSSBY “6 MOY
ca o° 806 GL 0° LOT 48 006 961 626 *** PeAOUIEL STASSBy ‘Qg MOY
G661 c’6r 0°20r 99 G6 EL 6216 “f 88999110 4JayT STOSSEY ‘2 MOY
iS 0° 106 G16 g° LOT GL P06 806 B16 Peavtmes Sfessey “g MOY
qo 0°83 0°sE G36 06 89T cet &86 rape” U0 4JeT SpOssey “G MOI
> 0° FIG 0'9L O'rLE 09 806 89T £96 27ers POAOUIOA S[ASSBI “Pp MOU
° O' FIG 0°8T O° OTL GL 208 AIT Tse ee aS "8" "" "TO 9JOT STASSB] “Gg MOY
=| 0° 286 0°06 S°60T 82 H@ €9L 7X **-F* NIAOUIA STASSBY ‘Z MOY
: ne 0° 12% G PL 0 SIT 9g 906 92-1 89% reeess sO QJOT STOSsBy ‘T = MOW
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O°SLT 06 0°SOL rad 80 tera 282 Serre eee eee eee ee ee eee ee * paaoaiad sfasse} OSBIOAV
0°06 0°91 0' FOL P9 98 OLT A ee OCCT NC PIIC ON LORIE HPL I IO TS EHO OCMC AH 7 Cole bey Alycia pee RIA
o°6S1 $91 0°00 19 Pant G91 fies ep WY ie hago EL ae eae OY ge a Tah Ee ‘Te MOY
ray 60% o"60I oy) 02% ce 06% DOO GRID TUS I Sith Aa IOUS Sy TCH Rag UI Bs =) Loyere nd yess ‘Og MOY

: CULL O'S 0 PIL 99 C2 Cle GZ Ricisyy SiyP wieLe ©. bre 'b Io ese/e erelsiesnznieleiein@icigne sis 2 ses «se 558485 SO AOUION STOSR EE OT MOW
| ¢°691 0's 0 OIL @9 9IZ FSB 6!2 eerieieseneiieieneeiieieieieerenenensrersrererses Boaottad S[2888) ‘BI MOY
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oe) Ole O°FOL cL Ol ChE BBS EReeleis:SIVe is Oise Srel rains s eels asain Sp /aiAn|s 0 siete a Male NN 2.08.9 58s TOA OUIOT IOS OT MOV
0°S89L O'LT C'CBL 29 Zlz 99% 02 arisis biereiesb Soin gic wit ale GAs SLsie a SNA KANO EDC I-08 ¥.9,008 esses NOAG UIT BIOORG) ALL MOY
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O'RPL O'6L C'F6 OL O61 80% 89% ee ee ry Pie so cp breraivaid seer Bove’ Cases? DSAOUIOL SIONS HT. UD MOY
¢'ScL C'0% 0°16 GL E61 9%e rd whee ee peaowmial STessey ‘OT MOYW

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0'I0L 9) 90% G9% [efor weer | *** PSAOTIAL STASSBy ‘g MOY
g° 7 62 261 Wad PAS eee viieieececutitsicenesciteseeseicicisesssreretees DgAOUOd SfO8804 |L MOP
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150

Rae.

Removine Tassets rrom Corn. 151

The results of this experiment show that there wis no marked
gain from removing the tassels and no uniformity in gain or loss
in yield with respect to the treated and the untreated rows,
as many treated rows show a greater yield than untreated rows
on either side and in many instances the reverse is irne. This
variation would probably have occurred had individual rows
been selected at random from almost any part of the field. There
is, however, quite a marked increase in abortive ears in the rows
where the tassels were removed, over the rows where ihe tassels
were left on, the increase being over forty per cent and about
the same per cent of increase is noticed in each plot.

All “sets” that produced silk, and that did not produce grain,
were counted as dbortive ears; wherever a set produced grain,
if only a few kernels, the set was counted as 29 ear.

The corn was cut, husked and weighed September twenty-ninth
to October fourth.

The synopsis of the results of this experiment are given in the
following table with those of the experiment of the previous year:

S

CoMPARATIVE YIELD 1891. | COMPARATIVE YIELD 1890.

Tassels left | Tassels re- | Tassels leit| Tassels re-

on. moved. on. moved.
Number good ears............ 100 + 109 10u 151
Wumber poor-ears. 2.0.0... 00... 100 110 100 141
Number abortive ears......... 100 142 100 37
a otal mumber ears). ..': 03). 64). 100 121 100 88
Weight good ears, lbs......... 100 99 100 152
Weight poor ears, lbs........ 100 110 100 144
Momiber stalke'.): 3.5. 223.355. 100 L 98 100 101

On page 69, of Bulletin 20, of the Illinois Experiment Station, is
given the following on the “ Effect of Removing Tassels:” ‘The
tassels on alternate rows on four-tenths of 2n acre of Burt's
white corn, were removed as soon as they appeared; each of the
thirty rows was husked and weighed separately. The total dif-
ference between those having the tassels removed and those not
removed was but one pound, thus showing no effect from remov-

«

vor MPR Aer aR A te Sal Cis (s)
152 AgriovuttuRAL Exprrmment Station, Irmaca, N. Y. ;
ing tassels. In similar trials with sweet corn the yield was
somewhat reduced when the tassels were removed.”

The results of an experiment at Maryland Experiment Station
in removing corn tassels, as published on page 359, of the fourth
annual report of that station, gives the total average in pounds
of corn from nine undisturbed rows as 247, and the total average
in pounds of corm from eighteen rows with tassels removed as
223. And in an explanatory note concerning this experiment
it is stated that “The greatest yield was at the rate of fifty-seven
bushels of corn per acre and was from an undisturbed row.
* * * It is found that in nine comparisons uf rows side by
side, only two of the rows with tassels removed exceeded in
yield the undisturbed rows next to them. In seven cases the
result was decidedly the other way. In this trial the result of
removing tassels was unfavorable to the production of grain.”

The following table, showing the yield’ of corn in a detasseling
experiments made at the Nebraska Experiment Station, is a part
of the printed results on page 6 of the second appendix of Farm;
Notes in the fifth annual report of that station:

YIELD PER ACRE.

NAME OF VARIETY. Color.

Tassels cut off. |Tassels normal,
SAGA? oe eel oe ER Ree in Vellowi2 ict 66.0 88.7
Mumaikee thks a's Sethe RISD Vellowsijor 51.1 76.4
St. Charles Dent..... eles: stoi WV bites ea 63.3 78.7
MM ariinOti. vos oo AMR eee NV inite hace 55.7 72.0
Mammoth Cuban. ..i.0...'54 Vellow 32... 52.3 71.5
Centennial “White... <... 3.5... Winite™: 7o 538 81.6 ono (Pal!

An experiment in removing the tassels from corn at the Kansas
State Experiment Station gave in brief the following results:

Total weight of ears from rows with tassels removed.. 1,133.5
Total number of ears from rows with tassels removed, 1,782

. Average weight per ear from rows with tassels removed, . 636
Total weight of ears from rows with tassels remaining, 663

|

Total number of ears from rows with tassels remain-

Removine Tassets From Corn. 153

METS TMB Ie neg he Aer GW ose eaten war dc ialse i, SCRA RN pabetiel while todo dane 1,108
Average weight per ear from rows with tassels

TIO A RERUL ES Tera NaS ie re coma aac aia! cil o'lg A Chama AMAR a aC Ulls! gilela hs .995,
Yield in bushels from 2-20 0f an acre, tassels removed, 16.19
BPE CTV ACNE) Oe ok cd bee eins BARC Uli tac An Be 107.9
Yield in bushels from 2- - of an acre, tassels remaining, 9.47
eee NM CUCL gsi Salar. 2 ls tale Glas (Sein «4 0G chk Aa Pelabavel one da « 94.7
In favor of removing tassels ............ 2c cee eee 13.2

“The corn was weighed in the field at the time of husking and
not quite dry, which will account for the heavy yields as then
indicated by the weight. But in any event it is here plainly
shown throughout all the details, that there was a decided gain
in the yield of corn by removing the tassels. It shows, also,
that the individual ears on tasseled rows were heavier than on
the rows where the tassels remained, and this in spite of the
fact that the proportion of nubbins is somewhat the largest in
EPC AMOCIOR Vii hee

“The tassels were removed from day to day as soon as they
appeared.

“There is nothing absurd in the idea that the removal of the
tassel should increase the crop, provided tassels enough remain
to fertize all the ears. It is a well-known fact that the develop-
ment of the floral organs is a great strain upon the plant and the
strength which is saved by this process may very naturally be
directed toward the development of ears.”

The results of the experiment at the Llinois station and the
one made here last year, practically show no gain or loss in corn
production. The ones made at the Maryland and Nebraska sta-
tions show a loss, while the Kansas experiment and our of 1890
show a marked increase.

Wherever an increase in yield 1 has been secured by removing
the tassels, it seems to have been secured by removing them daily,
or as soon as they make their first appearance, that the object of
removing the tassels is not accomplished whenever they are
allowed to shed pollen or even expand. ‘The failure to secure an

20

t nye BAL Ras PO a nna
sie ra Anat Pen

ats

154 AqricuLtoraAL Exprertment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

increased corn production last year may be partially due to the

long intervals between the dates of removing the tassels, although —
a greater tendency to corn production is shown by the marked

increase in the number of sets in each of the good, poor and

abortive ears, the total increase being above twenty per cent.

As the condition of the weather during the period of removing
the tassels in the two years, and the amount of rainfall during the
period of growth of the corn varied as greatly as did the results
of the experiments, it is more than possible that these conditioas
influenced to a great extent the results. Im 1890, during the
months of July and August, the amount of rainfall, as shown by
the records of the New York State Meteorological Bureau, was
5.53 inches with .42 inches during the period of removing the
tassels (July 21, August 4) while in 1891, during July and August,
the rainfall was 7.69 inches with 5.80 inches during the period
of detasseling.

During the former experiment, the corn apparently suffered on
account of insufficient moisture, which continued for some time
after the tassels were removed, while last year, during the same
period, there was abundant moisture.

To get some idea, if possible, of the amount of plant food lost
to the plant, and given off in the form of anthers and pollen, the
following test was made in the University corn-field last year on
the same variety of corn and under similar conditions as was the
detasseling experiment.

Large paper bags were tied over the tassels before they had
become expanded, the bags being of suflicient size to allow the
tassel to expand, and were securely tied about the stalk to pre-
vent the escape of any pollen. These bags were tied on the stalks
July thirtieth to August third and taken to the station chemist,
Mr. Harry Snyder, August thirteenth, who reported that an aver- ;
age of six stalks gave of anthers 7.02 grams and of pollen 3.49
grams. An analysis of the anthers and pollen gave the following |
composition:

Anthers.

Removine Tassets From Corn. 155

(nD FETE at A Ti nd aM ae ha OS 14.49

LEV DISTT RENT) ApoE Ee ane Ng Sty Np Ae 14.27

earponydrates (N.free-extract): . 0) ee es eee 39.88

100.00

Pollen.

Ear ye Netter Volaraial «5 3 s's lc a aba ae a OId tho, edad 27.27

TD Say Tate ens) oe ld elm ocd 3, wel dione @alince dies nein ae 2.13

RY a CE ROM LPACL) One. Fo it, siuii 5) ts, Lye vee ean otele de ome 94

PEE SEU IEOMESEEE fet eae, ls cis Ma la wins oy a gsichc/siale a otieleia ees VESEL

Bearuonydrates..(N. free: extraeét). 2.020.228 keke de. 52 .d5
100.00

Allowing the corn to be planted in hills three feet six inches
apart each way, and three stalks to the hill, the amount and com-
position of pollen per stalk will give of nitrogen 2.25 pounds per
_ acre, and the anthers will give 3.76 pounds per acre, or 6.01 pounds
in all, which makes the loss of nitrogen to the plant very consid-
erable, equal to a very liberal application of nitrogen in the form
of commercial fertilizers. As the percentage of ash in both the
anthers and pollen was inconsiderable, an ash analysis was. not
made, but the amount of phosphoric acid and potash could not
have ‘been very great.

GEORGE C. WATSON.

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Cornell University —Agricultural Experiment Station.

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.

PGi Baek lunes Xb
AUGUST, 1892°

On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot
Water for Greenhouse Heating.

By Frep W. Carp, wits Inrropuction sy L. H. Bairey.

Whi ae! TAN? ie aay hak ey gi
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ORGANIZATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

STATION COUNCIL.

President, JAcop GouLp ScHURMAN.

aero ea ED: VTE IPO os. oc clea legs wu, 0's Trustee of the University.
Poe. ©). D. POTrer.'. 2.5: . .... President State Agricultural Society.
RPL COB ICR TSC nj. 0 e alaiatp 50) cosBiard'n ia < siete Professor of Agriculture.
eM RO MUD WECLE iss Sica tdhe on! (ss'a he's tino se os m= Professor of Chemistry.
EMO UT AW i iP ns, Sea Sieh ar eicla-t se gis Professor of Veterinary Science.
ame DE RTA TSG rs (3. she's lane w/e, alee, c aN eyoh-t ss cpl nigt «oa Professor of Botany.
Pied Oe GMT OOK esha 0 a tov Dw vheiw! SYegeh ease oboe Professor of Entomology
EPO CENADEE 2 os sc eae vie dele eco vie hares Professor of Horticulture.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
BP area E TOTS fo moe, ay ins Boia) leita earache, adie 2 ese aS ate Mies Director.
Rm TVOEL. WVIENG 300. Soe 2k plea tie Deputy Director and Secretary.
PON EISLANES cecar Jk oe Edits Urals Able telale ow Whore alsite a a avail ale ‘Treasurer.
ASSISTANTS.
Rem eT EPIL, AN FO bias doa alla caret odie) wld Sie) siecle Entomology.
SCALA TSON aL 4G tie clei eee Went Seek ek So aie ‘.. Agriculture.
STO FEAT ES ies ot vas ce Seat «sofas yal ino shal urd o\ahayu's eye eds Horticulture.
BN Sram AGH ot hare duueed) J.) seakots”. Chemistry.

Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin serit to friends will please send us the
names of the parties.
BULLETINS OF 1892.

38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.

39. Creaming and Aerating Milk.

40. Removing Tassels from Corn.

41. On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for Green-
~ house Heating.

Lin es ERIS

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INTRODUCTION.

The following discussion of some of the comparative merits of
steam and hot water for greenhouse heating is adapted from a
thesis prepared for a bachelor’s degree by Fred W. Card, who is
at present a Fellow in Horticulture. The inspiration of the thesis
lay in the facts that the subject itself is now much discussed by
ereenhouse men, and that the few experiments which have been
made seem to consider chiefly but one item — the coal consump-
tion —in the merits of the two systems. [f we are to arrive at
definite results concerning the relative merits of steam and hot
water for warming glass-houses, we must consider not only the
consumption of coal, but the original cost of the systems, their
adaptations to particular purposes, and comparative ease with
which they can be managed. At the outset of our investigation
we asked ourselves the question, “ Where is the heat expended in
the two systems?” It is evident that two heating plants which

make the same amount of heat and carry it throughout houses of

equal size may distribute this heat differently, and therefore vary
widely in usefulness. We have endeavored to ascertain how much
heat left the heater and how much returned to it, how much was

expended near the heater and how much was carried to the farther

end of the runs, how much escaped from the risers as top heat and
how much from the returns as bottom heat. ‘These questions, and
many others, can not be studied by taking the air temperatures of
the houses. In fact, air temperatures taken at stated intervals
seldom afford a ‘satisfactory measure of the actual conditions of
the houses, for they do not show the incidental variations, and
they often overlook the temperature at the most critical periods;
this fact is well illustrated in the air records of ou~ houses in the
following pages, which give the highest average for the hot water
21

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ereay rs Baaidig i395,

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162 AgricutTuRAL Experiment Srarron, Iraaca, N. Y.

house, although it was actually the coldest. It is apparent that
air temperatures are influenced by sun, ventilation, watering and
general management, and they-are discontinuous; «nd they can
not, therefore, be accepted as accurate measures of the heating
capacity of any apparatus. It follows that the performances of
two systems can be studied nearly as well in houses of diferent
construction as in similar ones, for the house is, toa certain extent, —
eliminated from the problem and the actual work of the apparatus

is considered. The heat must be measured in and on the pipes;
after it leaves them it is largely beyond our control. And the
dissimilar houses present the actual conditions of commercial
establishments better than the others.

All our experience emphasizes the greater valu2 of steam, but
it must be understood that we do not condemn hot water. Steam
is certainly better for our conditions, and we believe that it is
superior for very large houses where the fail is slight, for most
forcing-houses, and for all establishments whicn are Jikely ro be
often modified and extended. For conservatory purposes, for
straight runs and small houses, it is perhaps equaled — possibly
surpassed in some instances —by hot water. Sveam overcomes |
obstacles, as elbows and angles and obstructions, better than hot.
water. It travels faster and farther. Crooked runs with litile
fall are great difficulties in hot-water heating. Steam can be .
varied more quickly than hot water. On the cther hand, steam ~
is as steady as hot water under proper management, »nd it requires”
no more attention. In our own experience, the same treat-
ment is given both heaters. Plants thrive as well under steam
heat as under hot-water heat. The opinion that steam heat is
a “dry heat” is erroneous.

Hot-water heating demands from a third to a half inore piping
than steam heating, and the original cost is, therefore, creater.
This additional piping has a certain advantage, however, inas-
much as each pipe is less hot than in steam systems and is less
likely to injure plants which stand close to it. This «dvantaze is ,
not great, however, especially in forcing establishinents where no

INTRODUOTION. 163

injury need ever come from hot steam pipes. In this cennection
it may be said that hot water for forcing establishments is most

_ satisfactory when conducted in wrought-iron or gas pipes, in

essentially the same manner as steam. It remains to be said that
in all our houses, comprising over 6,000 square feet and described
in the sequel, we shall in the future use steam heat from a hori-
zontal tubular boiler.

L. H. BAILEY.

On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for
Greenhouse Heating.

I. EXPERIMENTS AT CORNELL.

The question of the comparative merits of steam and hot water
for heating horticultural buildings has received much attention
from practical men. Experiments have also been made by Pro-
fessor Maynard, of Massachusetts, and Professor Taft, of Michi-
gan, in comparing the coal consumed and the temperature obtained
in houses of similar construction, with all the conditions as nearly
alike as possible. The object of the present observations was
to learn, if possible, something more concerning the workings
of the,two systems, which should have a practical bearing on
the subject.

1. Methods; general records.— These experiments were made
in the University forcing-houses, a ground plan of which is shown ~
in the diagram, Fig. 1. A, B is a low house twenty by sixty
feet, with three-fourths span, the north walk and benches being
higher than those on the south side. It is a cool house, used
mainly for lettuce and radishes, and is divided into two apart-
ments by a board partition. It has a roof pitch of about twenty- |
two degrees on the south side, and twenty-six and a half degrees
on the north side. In the second series, which has the same
ground area, house C has a steep roof with a gable eleven feet
above the walk. The south slope of this house C is at an angle
of some forty degrees, and the north slope about forty-two degrees.
The roof of house D has an angle of-nearly thirty-one degrees on
the south, and thirty-nine degrees on the north side. A cross-
section of this house is shown in Fig. 2, page 177. Both houses
have a three-fourths span with lower benches on the south side.
© is used principally for tomatoes, D for cucumbers and beans.
House E is an ornamental or conservatory attachment, with glass

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Srgam anp Hot Water For GREENHOUSE Heratine. 167

sides and high roof. F is a laboratory-house sixteen by sixty feet,
about nine feet high at the gable, having an even span with a roof
slope of about thirty-eight and a half degrees. G. is a continua-
tion of the same structure, but has a lean-to hip roof. It is
sixteen by twenty-four feet. It is without benches, separated from
F by a glass partition, and is now covered with cloth, being used

‘as a cool propagating house.

The boilers are located near each other in the cellar, under the
room marked Laboratory, in the plan. The steam heater is a No.
6 Furman, made by the Herendeen Manufacturing Company of
Geneva, N. Y., a low pressure boiler which, according to the
manufacturers’ estimate, contains 175 square feet of heating sur-
face. The hot-water heater is one made by the Lansing Engine
and Iron Works and contain 175 square feet of heating surface.

The water is forced through the pipes by the pressure of an

expansion tank standing fourteen feet above the heater. The
steam boiler heats the north and middle series (A B, C D), and the

- mushroom pit. Pipes also run into the photograph laboratory and

to a small radiator in a living room over the laboratory. Two two-
inch overhead risers carry the steam from the heater, one riser
supplying the series A B, and the other the series C D. The
return from each riser is carried by seven one and one-half-inch

pipes, there being two under each side bench and three under the

center bench. Fig. 2 shows the method of piping. The riser will
be seen near the peak and the seven returns under the benches.
The hot-water plant heats the house E, containing some 350
square feet, the lower house F, and the cloth house G. A coil also

runs into the workroom at the rear, but practically very little

heat gets into this. Four two-inch risers carry the hot water, two
overhead risers supplying the long house F, one the house E, and one
the cloth house G. Observations on the hot-water plant were taken

_ only in one run in the long house F. The returns in this case

a

¥

comprise a vertical coil of six one and one-quarter-inch pipes con-
nected at the extremities by manifold tees, and passing under the
bench. At the boiler end this coil is condensed into two one and
one-quarter-inch pipes, one taken from the top of the manifold

tee and one from the bottom. It is interesting to know that the

. eae i’ Vie katy,

‘ y Loe we a gi Rk
thy <5

-

168 AGRICULTURAL Exprrmernt Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.—

average temperature is eleven degrees higher in the upper one of
these pipes, showing that the return water preferred that pipe.
The riser for house G passes under the benches of house F. Com-
mon wrought-iron pipes are used throughout the establishment.

The various character of these houses necessitates many elbows
and fittings in the piping and the fall is slight; these are con-
ditions to which water is not adapted. But as these are the con-
ditions which are usually present in commercial establishments,
our results must have an intensely practical bearing. Steam over-
comes difficulties much more readily than hot water. Our hot-
water system is put in after the most approved fashion, and the
following tests concern the actual merits of the two systems under
practical conditions. In perfectly straight and simple runs, the’
results might be very ‘different.

The observations were made by inserting thermometers near the
boiler inside the riser and return of each series of houses, and
placing others on the outside of the risers at the extreme ends of
each series. Table I shows the temperatures at all these points,
morning and night, from January 18 to February 29, 1892,
together with the steam pressure, if any, the outdoor temperature,
and the temperature of each of the houses. It should be borne in
mind that houses A and B are purposely kept cool, for growing
plants requiring a low temperature. The ventilators were often
open, as noted by the letter V in the table, while the doors
between the cool workroom and both steam series were generally
open. These conditions would lower the average temperature

eS

shown by these steam-houses. The thermometers used for the —

inside temperatures were let into the interior of the steam pipes
through a fourth-inch tap or hole, and were made tight by a filling
of putty; they remained permanently in this position during the
whole experiment. These were glass thermometers of very deli-
cate make. Those used on the outside of the pipes were placed so

that the bulb rested on the pipe, the bulb being imbedded in a ~

ball of putty to offset the effect of air temperatures as far as pos-
sible. These were placed on the risers at opposite ends of the
houses, and are the ones corresponding to letters A, B, C, D, E, F,

in the following table. These thermometers stood in the houses 3

ty

Stream anp Hor Water ror GreenHousE Heratine. 169

indicated by their letters: A, B, C; D, in houses A, B, C, D, respect-

ively, or the steam houses; E. F, in the hot-water house F, E being
at the west or boiler end and F at the farther end. The thermom-
eters inserted inside the pipes are designated by small letters, to
correspond with the respective series of houses. Part of these
latter are in the risers and part in the returns, as indicated in the
table. These inside riser thermometers were inserted near the
heater, before the riser entered the house; and the return ther-
mometers were inserted near them or after the pipes had left the
house.

Return thermometer a b is inserted in the pipe which takes
the return from the middle and upper benches of house A and
Bb; those from the lower bench passing back, by a separate pipe
to the general steam return. Return thermometer ¢ d is in the
pipe which carries the return from all the runs of house C and D.
The mercury in this thermometer was occasionally found to fluctu-
ate back and forth with a comparatively uniform and rapid
motion. Whenever this was the case, the figures are given which
show the extent of the range. This thermometer being in the
return near the boiler, there was probably a backward pressure
at times, forcing some of the heat into the return, which at this
point is below the water level in the boiler, and nearly horizontal.
A slight tendency to a similar action was noted in the other series
once or twice (return a b), but that thermometer is in an upright
portion of the return, nearly as high as the top of the boiler,
where such an effect was not to be expected.

It will be seen by the table that on the mornings of February
twenty-third, twenty-fourth, twenty-fifth, twenty-sixth and twenty-
ninth, there was practically no circulation in the pipes of houses
C and D. These were warm mornings and the fires were low,
hence in computing the averages of the thermometers on this
run more reliable figures are obtained by disregarding these
observations, and such modified figures are.used in comparison
in the summary of Table i, although the actual averages obtained
by including these are also given in parentheses. This is of
little importance in the return, where the temperature is change-
able, for it there modifies the average but slightly.

22

AgricutturaL Exprrtment Station, Iraaca, N. Y.

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i oe
Steam anp Hot WarTer ror GREENHOUSE Heatine. 173

Steam:
_ Riser a b, average for the whole time, 211 degrees.

Riser A, average for the whole time, 193 degrees.

Riser B, average for the whole time, 183 degrees, plus.

Return ab, average for the whole time, 160 degrees.

Riser c d, average for the whole time (208) 212 degrees.

Riser C, average for the whole time (191) 196 degrees, plus.

Riser D, average for the whole time (185) 192 degrees.

Return c d, average for the whole time (131), 130 degrees.

Hot water:

Riser f, average for the whole time, 155 degrees, plus.

Riser E, average for the whole time, 187 degrees.

Riser F, average for the whole time, 124 degrees.

Upper return f, average for the whole time, 122 degrees.

Lower return f, average for the whole time, 111 degrees.

These figures show that the average temperature of the steam
pipes, during six weeks of midwinter, was much higher than that
of hot-water pipes. We must now endeavor to ascertain how
much of this greater heat was efficient in heating the houses,
how it was related to the practical care and management of the
establishment, and how much it cost.

2. Radiation from the pipes——It is necessary at the outset to
find out how much of the interior heat in the pipes — in both sys-
tems — passes into the atmosphere of the houses as warmth. This
is done by a study of outside and inside pipe temperatures, after
the method already explained. The methods of obtaining the
outside pipe temperatures are necessarily somewhat questionable.
If the thermometer bulbs were simply placed against the pipes
without being covered, the readings would be very much subject
to fluctuation from the effect of air temperatures, and they are
doubtless somewhat so by the present method. It is probable,
however, that on the whole they give a reasonably fair measure
of the heat given off at those points. In order to determine as
nearly as possible the relation between the inside temperatures
and those obtained on the outside, a thermometer was placed on
the outside, at the point where the riser themometer c d was
inserted in the pipe, and two on the hot water riser near the point

174 AgricuttuRAL Exprrment Srarion, Irmaoa, N. Y.

where riser thermometer f was inserted. All the steam risers are
painted, while those carrying hot water are not; in order to
obtain uniform results, a portion of the hot-water pipe here was
painted two coats, and one thermometer was placed on this, the
other on the unpainted surface.

The average difference between inside and outside temperatures
in the steam riser at times when there wasa free circulation was
about 22 degrees, with an inside temperature of about 214 degrees.
The average difference in the hot water pipe where painted was

59-14 degrees, unpainted 41-2 degrees, with an inside tempera; .

ture in each case of nearly 122. This indicates that painted pipes
radiate slightly less heat than unpainted ones. The great differ-
ence between the steam and hot water pipes is probably due to
the higher temperature and more rapid motion of the steam
Consecutive observations on the steam riser made at a time
when the steam was going down gave the following comparisons:

Inside temperature, 147 degrees, 130 degrees, 120 degrees, 110)
degrees, 100 degrees, 90 degrees.

Outside temperature, 137 degrees, 122 degrees, 114 degrees, 106
degrees, 98 degrees, 89 degrees.

These figures show that the greater the pressure — or the inside

temperature — the greater is the proportionate difference between |

outside and inside temperatures. The outside temperature may.
be taken as the radiating or warming power of the pipe, and
whatever difference there may be between the outside and the
inside, represents the amount of heat which is carried further
on. This greater difference under increasing pressure is due,
apparently, to the more rapid circulation of the steam at such
pressure by which proportionally less is given off at any one
point, it being distributed over a greater length of pipe. This
rapid movement is, therefore, an important advantage which
steam possesses over hot water for heating long houses.

The very few other observations obtained on the steam riser at
low temperature indicates that this relation between outside and
inside temperatures is reasonably uniform. The range of inside
temperatures from which comparisons were obtained in the hot

Pre a ae 5 Gs a
At 2) GAAS te os
Apt Wie

Stram AND Hor Wartsr ror GREENHOUSE Heatine. 175

water pipes was much more limited, but there does not seem to
be such a uniform difference between outside and inside readings
with increase of temperature as with the steam. The results in
Table I plainly show a considerable variation at different points
between the outside and inside temperatures, but how much of
this is due to differences in painting, radiating powers of the
' pipes, etc., and how much to the crudeness of the method, it is
impossible to say. Thermometer riser A shows a temperature
differing not more than 18 degrees, on the average, from that of
the inside of the pipe; that on riser C shows 16 degrees variation
from the inside temperature, but as there was a difference of
some twenty feet between this and its twin inside thermometer
_¢ d, the real difference is probably not more than 15 degrees.

It is evident from this study of radiation, that the higher the
inside temperature the less is the proportionate warming power
of the pipe at a given point; and as a higher temperature and more
rapid flow are ordinarily carried with steam than with hot water,
steam has the advantage in carrying long runs. It is said, how-
ever, that much of the fierce heat of rapidly moving steam is
returned to the heater and is lost as a direct warming agent; but
this depends entirely upon the length of the run. It is to be
expected that the relative merits of steam and hot water for
green-house heating depend very much upon the sizes and shapes
of the houses, and it is surprising that these conditions are so
little considered. The distribution of heat in our two systems
should now be discussed, for it will throw much light upon the
whole question.

3. Distribution of heat in the pipes— We will now compare
the temperatures at extreme ends of the different systems, both
in risers and returns, in order to determine where the heat is
transferred to the athmosphere of the houses. Table II, shows
the average temperatures, during the whole time, inside the risers
and returns, and on the outside of the risers, at opposite ends of
the houses. The inside thermometers in all the risers, and in
the returns from the steam houses, were about twelve feet from
the heater; those in the hot water returns were some twenty or
twenty-five feet from the heater.

a : ‘ " , X . ‘
176 AgricutturaL Experiment Srarion, Iraaca, N.

TABLE II — Averaae Pree TEMPERATURES.

Riser, a ‘b, average inside temperature, 211 degrees.
Riser, A, average outside temperature, 193 degrees.
Riser B, average outside temperature, 183 degrees, plus.
Return a b, average inside temperature, 160 degrees, plus.
Riser c d, average inside temperature, 212 degrees.
Riser C, average outside temperature, 196 degrees, plus. »
Riser D, average outside temperature, 192 degrees, minus.
Return ¢ d, average inside temperature, 131 degrees.
Riser f, average inside temperature, 155 degrees, plus.
Riser E, average outside temperature, 187 degrees.

Riser F, average outside temperature, 124 degrees, plus.
Upper return f, average inside temperature, 122 degrees.
Lower return f, average inside temperature, 111 degrees.

By a comparison of these averages it is seen that the loss of
heat in passing the whole length—some sixty feet—of the
steam series A B averages ten degrees, and owing to the fact
that the thermometer at the farther end showed an error, the
difference is probably even less than this. Frequently when there
was steam pressure of three or four pounds the entire circuit of
about 150 feet was made with a loss of only ten or eleven degrees.

The average loss between the opposite ends of series C and D—-

which is a warmer run

was only slightly more than four degrees.
Allowing fifteen to eighteen degrees for the difference between
outside and inside measurements at the last end, it is seen that in
the returns there is an average loss of about forty degrees between

the farther extremity of the house and the heater, although this’ a

difference is not at all uniform.

In the tomato and cucumber houses, C and D, heated by steam,
the figures used as before stated, are those obtained by disregard.
ing the observations on the mornings of February twenty-third,
twenty-fourth, twenty-fifth, twenty-sixth and twenty-ninth, when
there was practically no circulation in this run of pipes. Here
the average difference between .the registering of the ther-
mometers inserted in the riser, and the first one outside, is only

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Steam anp Hot Water Fok GREENHOUSE Hating. 179

16 degrees, although a distance of some twenty feet, or more is
passed over between them. The average loss shown in the riser
in passing the length of the two houses is only a trifle over 4
degrees, while in the return to the heater it averages some 75

degrees. This loss is much greater in proportion to the number

of square feet of radiating surface in the returns than in the

__ risers, yet it can hardly be said that the returns are more efficient

in radiating heat. The greater loss in the returns of C and D
than in those of A and B is approximately proportional to the
number of square feet of radiating surface in the returns of C
and D, as those of A and B condense into a single pipe, into which

the thermometer was placed. This may indicate that the heat
lost in the returns is radiated from the pipes in proportion to the

surface, although it is impossible to say that this is the fact.
In the hot-water house, we find that the water leaves the heater
at an average temperature of 155 degrees and comes back at a

_ temperature of 122 degrees by the upper return and 111 degrees
by the lower return. There is an average loss of 13 degrees in

passing the length of the house. If we assume that 5 degrees is a
fair average for the difference of outside and inside temperatures

at the west end and four degrees at the east end, it indicates

a loss of 18 degrees from heater to the first end of the house—

nearly twenty feet—13 degrees in passing the length of the house,

sixty feet, six in the upper and seventeen in the lower return.
Tt is seen that in the steam plant the heat is nearly uniform

throughout the whole length of the riser, being carried to the
_ farther extremity of the houses with a loss of 4 to 10 degrees,

;
a
:
4

while the hot water riser loses about 25 degrees in passing to the
farther end, although on account of its location this point is
some twenty feet farther from the heater than the end of the steam
house, C and D. In the hot-water plant the variation in tempera-

; ture between the point of leaving and the return to the heater
is much less than with steam, but! Table I shows far more irregu-
larity in the comparative temperatures at different points, while as

a tule more is lost in the riser than in the return. This shows

-plainly the superiority of steam for long distance heating and for
purposes of bottom heat. The heat can be forced the whole length

Vo YG Sig pear Ne i
180 AgriovtruraL Exrrrmenr Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y.

of the riser with comparatively little loss and be distributed
throughout the returns to be given off where it is most needed;
and the steam gives us a greater uniformity of temperature
throughout the houses, as is well shown in Table ITI.

The following table shows the extreme variations in the differ-

ence of temperature at the opposite ends of the houses at any

one time, disregarding the mornings before mentioned; also the ;

extreme fluctuation at each point, during the whole time:

TABLE JI — Fuvorvation.

Fluctuation in difference between thermometers riser E and F.
Twelve less to 22 more, or 34 degrees (average difference 13
degrees).

Fluctuation in difference between risers C and D, 1 to 10, or $
degrees (average difference, 4 degrees).

Fluctuation between risers A and B, 2 to 15, or 13 degrees (aver- —

age difference 10 degrees).

Fluctuation in riser A, during test 189 to 203,or 14 degrees.

- Fluctuation in riser without pressure 189 to 195, or 6 degrees.
Fluctuation in riser B, during test 180 to 192, or 12 degrees.
Fluctuation in riser C, during test 180 to 205, or 25 degrees.
Fluctuation in riser D, during test 179 to 202, or 23 degrees.

Fluctuation in riser E, during test 105 to 180, or 75 degrees.

Fluctuation in riser F, during test 79 to 164, or 85 degrees.

Tt is seen that while the riser at the west end of the hot water

house, E, averaged 13 degrees higher than the one at the east end —

F, it was in one case 12 degrees lower and the extreme difference

in the opposite direction was 22 degrees, or a fluctuation of 34 —

degrees, while that between opposite ends of the steam-houses is
much less, being only 4 degrees in the warm-houses, C and D,

Another surprising point is the great variation in temperature at a

given point in the hot-water riser, averaging over four times as
great as that of steam. Of course, the steam temperatures, if
taken in the middle of sunny days, or at any time when there was

little or no circulation, would show a greater diversity than this, —
but it is to be borne in mind that these are just the times when the ~

te ae

Steam anpD Hor Water ror GreEnHousE Heatine. 181

houses are warm enough and no heat is needed from the pipes.

The general observations show that the times when temperatures

were lowest in the hot-water pipes were not warm mornings when

the fires were low, but cold ones when the steam-pipes showed

high temperatures and all the heat was needed. In all points,
therefore, steam surpassed hot water.
4, Coal consumption.— January twentieth, at 1 o’clock p. m.,

_ both heaters were shaken down as usual leaving only a thin bed of

fire in the box. All the coal used during the next two weeks was
weighed. Table IV shows the outdoor temperature and that of

the different houses, together with the averages during that time:

AGRICULTURAL ExprrmmEnt Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.

182

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184 AgricuLtuRAL Exrrerment Strarrion, Iraaca, N. Y.

The steam boiler consumed during this time 6,691 pounds of
coal, and the hot water boiler 5,251 pounds. The steam boiler
heats about 2,500 square feet of surface. The hot water boiler
heats about 1,700 square feet. The following comparisons are
therefore obtained:

In surface heated,
Hot water: Steam:: 1: 147—

In coal used,
Hot water: Steam:: 1: 1.27—

This shows a consumption of about fifteen per cent more coal
per 100 square feet of surface heated by the hot water heater than.
by the steam heater. The average temperature is slightly higher
in the hot-water house than in the steam-houses, but it was also
more variable. In the colder parts of the night it went much
lower, for twice during the winter plants were chilled in this
house, while nothing of the kind occurred in the steam-houses. As
a matter of fact it has been difficult to-maintain a suitable tem-
perature in the hot-water house whenever the weather was cold.
These fluctuations in greenhouses are seldom indicated by obser-
vations taken at two or three stated intervals during the day. The
space heated by the hot water causes considerable bending in the
pipes, while the fall is rather slight, conditions which are unfavor-
able to water heating; for every curve and angle interferes
greatly with the movement of water. The results indicate that
while hot water may equal steam in simple and straight runs, it
is not so well adapted to use under varying and unfavorable cir-
cumstances and in long houses. No definfte conclusion as to the
relative merits of the two systems as to coal consumption can be
made from these observations, tor the conditions are not such as
to give a genuine comparison. But they are an indication that
steam is more economical under the conditions here present; and
our conditions are similar to those of most commercial forcing
establishments.

It is impossible to determine whether this saving of coal in our
steam plant is due to greater economy of steam as compared with

Pais

Stream anp Hor Warrr ror GREENHOUSE Heratine. 185

hot water, or to mechanical differences in the two heaters. Fowler*
considers steam cheaper than hot water in coal consumption,
chiefly because excess of heat is shut of in the steam pipes, and
steam heaters are commonly provided with automatic regulators.
Our steam heater has an automatic regulator, while the hot water
has not.

5. Influence of pressure upon the temperature of steam pipes.—
While it is true that the greater the pressure indicated by the
steam gauge, the more readily is the steam carried through long
runs and past obstacles, the influence of this pressure upon the
temperature of the pipes is not so obvious. Table V shows the
influence of pressure upon the temperature of risers and returns:

* Hints on the Heating of Greenhouses, 31

24

AqricutruRAL Exprermment Sratioy, Irnaca, N. Y.

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187

Srram AND Hor WATER FOR GREENHOUSE HxaTING.

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188 AgricuLtuRAL Exprerment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

A corresponding rise in temperature with increased pressure in
shown, but it is not altogether uniform. Jt appears that ‘be same |
temperature does not necessarily follow from the same pressure.
The following figures, deduced from the results, furnish a rough
estimate of the influence of pressure on the temperature inside
the risers at this distance, about twelve feet from the boiler:

One pound of pressure increases the temperature one-third
degree.

Two pounds of pressure increases the temperature three-fourths
degree.

Three pounds of pressure increases the temperature five-eighths
degree. ' ;

Five pounds of pressure increases the temperature twelve-four-
teenths degree.

It is to be noted that in general, pressure increases the tempera-
ture of the returns much more than of the risers. The return
from A and B in nearly every case of pressure shows a tempera-
ture higher than its general average at that point, while the
exceptions are but few in the return from C and D. The return
from A and B is direct, uniting but two of the runs of these
houses, while that from houses C and D is from a slightly longer
circuit, and unites all the runs, so that doubtless more of the
steam is condensed in this latter case before reaching the point
where the thermometer is inserted. Its lower general average
indicates this.

These figures give conclusive evidence of the utility of pressure
in forcing circulation through long circuits. They also suggest
a question as to the economy of maintaining such a pressure as 10
keep up a rapid circulation. It is evident that the condensation
of the steam in the returns liberates its latent heat where it must
be available in warming the houses. Whether this makes a
better use of the heat than to return the steam to the boiler uncon-
densed, allowing it to be again sent into the circuit without the
expenditure of fuel necessary to the production of this latent
heat, may be a question. The general observations show that
there is usually a higher house temperature with steam pressure,
when the outdoor temperature is above the same. It does not

Steam anp Hor Warrr ror GREENHOUSE Heatine. 189

appear at all uniform, however, and the observations are not
such as to give any satisfactory indications toward an answer to
the question.

EXPERIMENTS ELSEWHERE.

It appears from the literature readily available, that the use of
steam inclosed circuits was invented by Mr. Hague, in England,
about 1820,* although certain methods in which ihe steam passed
off at the further end of the house, had been previously in use.
At this time the construction of apparatus was such as to require
almost constant attention to fires, in order to maintain the tem-
perature. Frequent repairs were “needed and explosions were
common. The first trials with hot water were made by Anthony
Bacon and Mr. Atkinson in 1822.6 These men worked independ-
ently, and both secured successful results.

The laws governing the circulation of hot water are carefully
treated by Thomas Tredgold in a paper before the London Horti-
cultural Society in 1828.§§ In 1840, John Rogers wrote: “On
the whole there appears no doubt that the circulation of hot
water in iron pipes is the best means hitherto devised for heating
horticultural buildings.”** This quotation probably represents
about the consensus of opinion on the subject in England to the
present day. One of the earlier promoters of this system was
Charles Hood, author of “A Practical Treatise on Warming
Buildings by Hot Water, and an Inquiry into the Laws of Radient
and Conducted Heat.”

The use of steam for heating purposes began to receive marked
attention in this country some fifteen years ago. In the diseus-
sions of the Society of American Florists in 1885, the average
from. estimates in answer to circulars by nearly fifty florists
showed that one ton of coal with hot water heated 108 square feet
_ of glass to a temperature of fifty-three and one-third degrees, while
with steam the same amount heated 149 square feet to a tem-
perature of sixty and three-fourths degrees. The proceedings of

* Trans. [.on. Hort. Soc.. iv. p. 434. § Trans. Lon. Hort. Soc., vii. 204. §§ Trans. Lon.
Hort. Soc., vii. 568. ** Trans. Lon. Hort. Soc., 2d series, ii. 364.

190 AgricutturaL Expiriment Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y.

the society for 1886 contain two articles setting forth the advant-
ages of steam and hot wa'tter respectively. The statements are
‘based on individual opinion rather than on any comparative
results. In the proceedings of the society for 1888 (Vol. IV, 118),
James D. Raynolds gives a good comparison of the two methods
from theoretical standpoints, his opinion being that steam is
preferable.

So far as can be learned, the first really comparative test was
made by Peter Henderson about 1885 or 1886.$§ The trial was
made with two houses of similar dimensions and construction, the
one fitted with hot water boilers, the other with steam boilers of the
same size. The coal was weighed and it was found that there
was a saving of twenty-five per cent in the house heated by steam,
while the plants did equally well. A. B. Fowler, in a recent
pamphlet on greenhouse heating, concludes that steam is prefera-
ble to hot water.

In the summer of 1888 two houses were constructed at the
Massachusetts Experiment Station as nearly alike, as possible,
with boilers of the same make and pattern, one fitted for steam,
the other for hot water. The following winter careful observa-
tions were made of temperatures and the amount of coal cor
suned. The results showed a saving of nearly twenty per cent ot
coal in fayor of the hot water heating, while the average temper-
ature of the house was slightly higher. The temperature was
also more uniform in the house heated by hot water. The test
was repeated the following winter and showed a still greater
advantage in favor of the hot water, there beimg a saving of over
thirty per cent in the coal consumed.

In the winter of 1889-1890 a similar test was made at the Mich-
igan Experiment Station with two houses of the same size and
construction, and two boilers of the same make, having the same
amount of grate and heating surface, and all other conditions as
nearly alike as possible. The results agree with those in Massa-

chusetts, showing a consumption of a little over twenty per cent

li
more coal by the steam boiler and a slightly higher temperature

§§ Proc. Soc. Am. Florists, vol. ii. 107.

Srram AnD Hor Water ror GreenHouse Heating. 191

in the hot water house. These results are probably due to the
simple and straight runs in these specially constructed houses.
The following is a list of references to the more important litera-
ture which bears on this subject. In general it includes only
matter which deals with a comparison of the merits of the two
- methods:
1. Upon the Application of Hot Water in Heating Hot-houses.—
Thomas Tredgold, 1828. Trans. Lon. Hort. Soc., vii, 568.
_ 2. Steam or Hot Water.— James D. Raynolds. Amer. Florist,
i, 46.
3. Steam v. Hot Water.— Alfred E. Whittle. Amer. Florist,
£0:
4, Heating Greenhouses.— Jos. H. Woodford. Amer. Florist,
i, 235.
5. Hot Water Circulation. James D. Raynolds, Amer. Florist,
iii, 62.
6. Steam Heating — W. H. Elliott. Amer. Florist, iii, 400.
7. The Heating of Greenhouses.— E. 8S. Titus. Amer. Florist,
iv. 223.
8. Steam Versus Hot Water for Heating.—John Burton. Amer.
Florist, v. 139.
9. Steam Versus Hot Water for Heating Greenhouses.— John
Thorpe. Proc. Soc. Amer. Florists, i. 56.
10. The Advantages of Hot Water over Steam for Heating
Purposes.—J. D. Carmody. Proc. Soc. Amer. Florists, ii. 107.
11. The Advantages of Steam over Hot Water.—J. H. Taylor.
Proc. Soc. Am. Florists, ii. 110.
12. Modes of Heating: Their Relative Cost of Constraction
James D. Raynolds. Proce. Soc. of Am. Florists,

and Operation.
iv. 118.

13. Bau und Einrichtung der ‘Gerwachshauser.— Carl David
Bouche and Julius Bouche, p. 304.

14. Greenhouse Building and Heating—-L. R. Taft. Dulletiu
63, Michigan Experiment Station.

15. Hot Water vs. Steam.— Samuel T. Maynard. Massachusetts
Hatch Experiment Station, Bulletins 4, 6 and 8.

16. Hints on the Heating of Greenhouses. Hot Water Heating.
Low Pressure Steam Heating— A. B. Fowler. (Recent; no date.)

Pa Nee lia Da
ee

192 AcricutrurAL Exprrmenr Sration, Irmaca, N. Y.

CONCLUSIONS.

The results obtained lead to the following conclusions which
are true under these conditions, although some of them may not
be true universally:

1. The temperatures of steam pipes averaged higher than those
of hot water pipes, throughout the entire circuit for the entire
period of test. Pi

2. The higher the inside temperature in steam pipes the less is
the proportionate warming power of the pipes at a given point.
The heat is distributed over a greater length of pipe, and as
steam is ordinarily carried at a higher temperature than hot
water, it has a distinct advantage for heating long runs.

3. When no pressure is indicated by the steam gauge, the «dif-
ference between the temperatures of the riser and the return, is
greater with steam than with hot water.

4. Under pressure, the difference is less with steam than with
hot water. .

5. There is less loss of heat in the steam risers than in the
hot-water risers, and this means that more heat, in the steam
ssytem, is carried to the farther end of the house and more is
spent in the returns as bottom heat.

6. This relation is more uniform in the steam risers than in
the hot-water risers, giving much more even results with steam
than with hot water. ates

7. When the fires are operative, the fluctuation in the tempera-
ture of the risers at any given point is much greater with hot
water than with steam.

8. An increase in steam pressure raises the temperature of
the entire circuit, but the temperature does not rise uniformly
with the pressure.

9. The first application of the pressure increases the tempera-
ture of the returns much more than that of the risers:

10. Steam is better than hot water for long and crooked circuits.

11. Pressure is of great utility in increasing the rapidly of
circulation of steam, and in forcing it through long circuits and
over obstacles.

~ 4

Srmam AND Hot Water FoR GREENHOUSE Hratine. 193

12. Unfavorable conditions can be more readily overcome with
steam than with hot water.

13. Hot water consumed more coal than steam, and was at the
same time less efficient. This result would probably be modified
in a shorter and straighter circuit, with greater fall.

14. Under the conditions here present, steam is more economical
than hot water and more satisfactory in every way; and this
result is not modified to any extent by the style of heaters used.

FRED. W. CARD.

25

aA wile t
ele

Cornell University —Agricultural Experiment Station.

HORTICULTURAL > DIVISION.

Bolt ve hsb iN 3 Lie
SEPTEMBER, 1892.

SE G@OND R-E PORT

UPON

Peel PRO-HORDICUL Tinie

By Li so Barry.

ORGAN I ZF LON:

BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

STATION COUNCIL.
President, C. K. Anams,

PEP EN ACN VEEN, eal oa. oy era Bagh oneyer Trustee of the University.
GletoO..B. POTTER oin'sis's% ska President State Agricultural Society.
Beir VOR EURES Mupaig us start aie atie Stafans auetere) 5 apaiers Professor of Agriculture.
eee COATID WHIM DN cata Siataire ee /sc oA Wale nre:ait Professor of Chemistry.
IPANEMA De sushi < tate ha kane x » Professor of Veterinary Science.
BA Ny Ee EINTISS «2 Loti ote! « atlas ely Wisin ajerstonels Sela ate Professor of Botany.
ACC OMS OC! mone ales \aele gato aed ws dneles © Professor of Entomology.
MESS MANY x ALTAR oD ay Ar ata ils Ahi ec Wf hub esi vows local gy Professor of Horticulture.
Vie) Ete DUDLEY 0). 4! sess, « Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
PEPE ORO RERGS 2 Eis Jot eles wayiimenta Sr aieiicaars 2 ett lela els tae rand ae Director.
ABtcpenyapi ys A WING 3°75 Je. o90:/ete. «/ohe. > ... Deputy Director and Secretary.
BBW WV AUALRANUG ore cis ccs whapeig d's (age, Shels e's 2,00 4/8) « esoe a) «eat ooo Rade
ASSISTANTS.
PEN ESE INC ERLIACNDD «cialis ts oleate eluie's, cole ure) iter atea a tre! ate «9 Entomology.
RAO SON ATSOIG 3). Wty txureYace e8 idinialns @ Siadid sie" wis 6 i atari ate Agriculture.
Ee COREE T Wyss ecole ays Wiad anit Rel oiScohae' 9h « sie ehe allscr gicbale Horticulture.

rey Ree AV AN RUG tN re Me Seba ee able eel Chemistry.

Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends, will please send us the
names ot the parties.
BULLETINS OF 1892.

38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.

39. Creaming and Aerating Milk.

40. Removing Tassels from Corn.

41. On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for Green-
house Heating.

42. Second Report upon Electro-Horticulture.

i

Second Report Upon Electro-Horticulture.

Beginning with the opening of the year 1890, a series of experi-
ments was inaugurated upon some of the relations of electric
lighting to plants grown in glass-houses, and the results of the
experiments for two winters were published a year ago (Bulletin

_ 30). It was found that the electric light profoundly affects many

plants, some injuriously and a few beneficially. Lettuce appeared
to be greatly assisted by the light, and some ornamental plants
produced earlier and brighter flowers under its influence. The
experiments were all made with an arc lamp which hung inside
the house, and it was found that better results were obtained,
when the arc was screened by an opal globe or even by a pane
of window glass. ‘The question at once arose if this screen could
not be afforded with equal advantage by the glass roof itself
if the light were hung above it; and if this were true, it must
then be determined how far the beneficial effects of the light
would extend, or, in other words, how much glass one light can)
cover. It is this particular point which the following paper
considers. It may be said, in passing, that several other impor-

_ tant investigations are in progress, but we are not yet ready to

report upon them. Perhaps the most important of these investi-
gations is one in which the light is passed through colored
screens of known value, in order to determine what parts of the
spectrum produce the singular results which we have observed.
We shall now consider, therefore, what are the effects upon a
few common plants of an electric street-lamp suspended above a
green-house. The arrangement of the experiment will be under
stood at a glance from the cross-section of the houses under
discussion. It will be _ noticed that there are two
parallel houses; each is divided in the middle into two compart-
ments. These houses are sixty by twenty feet. In the valley

Nard AN 1 AE Ten OE ae
aul a o Pe 5 2
}

200 Ag@RICULTURAL Experiment Srarion, Iraaca, N. Y.

between these houses the lamp was hung, and the arc was six
feet above the nearest glass. The lamp was hung in front of a
large, blackened sheet-iron screen, which, in connection with the
partition in the house and a series of curtains, completely excluded
the light from the compartment behind the lamp. by moving
the screen to the other side of the lamp and rearranging the
curtains, we were able to throw all the light into the other con-
partment; this change was made during the experiment. The
lamp is the same pattern as that used the previous winter —a
ten ampere forty-five volt 2,000 nominal candle-power, Westing-
house alternating current lamp. The lamp was attached to an
ordinary street lighting system, and it seldom burned after 11
o'clock, while it often ran but an hour or two, and on moonlight
nights not at all. The lighted house was exposed to sunlight
during the day, and in addition received this small and varying
amount of electric light. ‘The other or so-called dark house was
lighted by sun during the day and received no light at night. The -
lap carried a clear giass globe, so that the light passed through
two panes of glass—the globe and the roof— before reaching
the plants.

The upper house — comprising the compartments A and B—
is what we term a cool-house, and it was used for lettuce, endive,
radishes, beets, spinage, cauliilower, violets and daisies. ‘This is
the house in which the experiments were mostly conducted, from
the fact that the two compartments of the other houses have
unlike roofs and are therefore not comparable. ‘These houses, A,
b, are the ones which were used in the experiments reported last
year. Lettuce was grown on benches 1, 5 and 4; radishes upon
the same, mostly between lettuce plants; beets upon 2; cauli-
flowers upon 3; and the other plants upon 2 bench No. 1
is not shown in the illustration. The lower houses, C D, were
used tor tomatoes, cucumbers and beans; and as I shall not refer
to those houses again, it may here be said that 1 was unable to
detect any influence whatever of the light upon these three plants.

Lettuce.— Our main crop was lettuce, for in previous experi-
ments we had found a decidedly beneficial influence of the light
upon it. This benefit was fully as apparent this year. There

PAY. 7
yd Fe
\ ;

’

SreconpD Report Upon Exectrro-HorticuLturn. 201

can no longer be any doubt as to the advantage of the electric

light in the forcing of lettuce. The light was started October
19, 1891. At that time, Boston market lettuce four weeks old
was set on bench 4, and seedling plants of Landreth Forcing were
just showing on bench 3. ‘The transplanted plants (bench 4) m
the light compartment soon began to excel those in the dark
compartment, and as early as October twenty-seventh, or a week
after ihe starting of the light, they were perceptibly ahead of the
others. in this time forty hours of electric light had been
expended upon the plants. The plants directly under the light,
from seven to ten feet from the arc, were the first to improve.
November first the lighted plants were a fourth larger than the
others, and they showed a marked tendency to turn towards the
light. ‘ihe plants, even to the farther extremity of the light com-
parunent gained steadily throughout the experiment, and they
were ready for market from a week to ten days earlier than in
the dark house. In quality and all other characters, this lettuce
was indistinguishable from that grown under normal conditions.

The lettuce on bench 83—which had been sown there—
behaved differently. ior the first week or ten days, the plants
under the light were stunted, notwithstanding the fact that they
were farther from the lamp than those on bench 4, which did so
well from the first. After some days of lingering, when the
plants began to acquire three or four leaves, these seedlings began
rapidly to recuperate and they finally overtook their companions
in the dark-house; but these plants never showed the superiority
which the transplanted ones on bench 4 exhibited. We were
prepared for this behavior, for we had observed it before, and
Deherain has reported similar results with other plants in his
experiments in Paris. The reason for this injury to very young
plants I shall not now attempt to discuss; it is sufficient for our
present purpose to say that it appears to be better to sow lettuce
under common conditions, and when the plants are well established
to transplant them under the light.

Lettuce was also transplanted into the upper bench, No. 1, in
order to determine how far the influence of the light extends.

20

202

The extremity of the light compartment was forty feet distant ,
from the lamp, and the roof is so low that much of the light was
reflected, yet at this distance, where there was only diffused light,
the plants at a month after the light started were much better
than in the dark house.

The experiment was repeated with second and third crops of
lettuce with similar results, and with several varieties. Febru-
ary ninth, Simpson lettuce was transplanted upon bench 4, and
the customary increase under the light took place. March twenty-
second, when the lettuce was nearly large enough for market, the
light was transferred to house B, and thereafter the poorer plants
received the light. These poorer plants soon showed the effect
of the new conditions, and the time between the maturity of the
two crops was considerably lessened.

Perhaps the best illustration which we found of the influence
of the light upon lettuce was atiorded by a crop upon bench 1,
into which radishes were also planted. ‘The interception of the
light by the radish leaves had a most marked effect upon the let-
tuce plants which stood behind them, the adjacent plants which
chanced to be exposed to the full light being much larger. The
bench therefore presented a very uneven appearance when the
radishes were removed, and the shadows from the radish leaves
could be traced in the lettuce. Similar results were observed
where the dense shade of a rafter lay across the plants.

In this connection, I wish to call attention to the fact that W.
W. Rawson, at Arlington, near Boston, now uses the electric light.
in the commercial forcing of lettuce. Some of his methods are
described by the present writer in the August number of American
Gardening. ‘The house shown in the cut is 33x 370 feet, covering
nearly one-third of an acre. Along the north side of this house
are three 2,000-candle power lamps which are run all night. Mr.
Rawson calculates that he receives a gain of five days in a crop
of lettuce by the use df these lamps, and as he grows three crops
during the winter the total gain is over two weeks’ of time. The
gain from one crop is estimated to pay the cost of running the
lights all winter. The effect of the light is said to be marked at
the distance of 100 feet.

Szconp Report Uron Exxorro-Horticu.ture. 2038

Endive — Plants of endive were transplanted into bench 2,
November eleventh, at the age of five weeks. The plants in the two
compartments were much alike throughout the experiment, and
_ it is impossible to say if the light exercised any beneficial influence,
but it is certain that there was no injurious influence. In the
1890 test, under the naked light, inside the house, endive was
injured, but other plants, which are known to be benefited by a
modified light, also suffered under those conditions.

Radishes.— Radishes of various kinds were grown upon benches
1, 3, and 4, between young lettuce plants. The first crop— which
alone is considered here—was sown a week before the light
started, so that the plants were well up when the test began. Har-
‘vest was made December third, and in the meantime, 229 1-2 hours
of electric light had been expended upon the plants, or an average
of 5.1 hours per night. The following table gives the results of
the radish. test:

AgcricotruraL Expsrment Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.—

204

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eae sieee for eer a eee ay certs
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Srconp Report Uron Exectro-Horticutture. 905

Tt will be seen from the averages in the first part of the table
that the plants in the light house were ahead in every feature.
Tt will also be noticed that the proportion of tops (column 2) to
‘the entire plant (column 1) is greater in the light than in the
dark house, the difference being that between fifty-five per cent
and forty-nine per cent. All these results are interesting when
compared with our former experience, for they show how much
the simple interposition of plain glass may modify the influence
of the light. In 1890, under the naked light, radishes were uni-
formly injured, the loss ranging from forty-five to sixty-five per
cent; the same year under a light protected by an opal globe, the
injury was still apparent, but the loss in tubers was only from
one to five per cent of the crop, but at the same time the weight
of leaves was increased; now, this year, under light strained

- through a globe and a glass roof, there was an increase in both
tubers and tops.

It may now be asked at what distance from the lamp the best
results were obtained, for our radishes this year were grown on
three parallel benches covering a distance of twenty feet. Unfor-
tunately, I can not answer this question, for different varieties
were grown on the different benches and the benches are, there-

fore, not comparable. The averages for the different benches
are given in the second part of the table, however, but the
figures are so contradictory that little can be learned from them.
_As a rule, the best results, as shown by the figures, were obtained
on the bench farthest from the light, but this may be due to
variety. More reliable figures can be obtained from different
parts of a bed under the light, one sash being chosen from directly
under the light, and one from thirteen to fifteen feet away and
_ where only diffused light reached the plants. These figures are
as follows, all pertaining to the same variety, the Scarlet Globe:

Average Average Average | Per cent of
SAMPLE. weightof | weight of | weight of | marketable
entire plant. top. tuber. tubers.
Directly under lamp .......... 70°er. | 30 gr. | 40 gr. 71

Thirteen to fifteenfeet fromlamp| 66"gr. | 32 gr. | 34 gr. 65

i "15h Th
206 AaqricutturAL Experiment Srarion, Iraaca, N. Y.

Decidedly better results were obtained from the sash directly
under the light, for not only were the tubers more and larger, but
the tops were less.

In no case, however, have radishes been sufficiently benefited
to pay the cost of the light; but our results seem to show that a
well-protected light is some assistance to them.

Beets.— Four days before the light started, October fifteenth,
seeds of Early Egyptian beet were sown in both compartments, on
bench 2. A month later, after 160 hours of light had been
expended upon them, the beets in the light compartment were at
least one-third larger than those in the dark house. Five months
after sowing, the beets were removed, when it was found that
fifty-seven per cent of the plants in the light house gave market-
able tubers, against only thirty-three per cent of those in the
dark house; and the total average weight of the plants in the
light was about half an ounce greater than in the dark house.
It must be said, however, that the test with beets was hardly a
fair one from the fact that the plants in the dark-house received
more bottom heat than the others; but as the results corroborate —
those obtained from radishes, the figures may possess value.

Spinage-—— When the light was started, spinage was trans
planted into bench 2 in both compartments. This spinage was
Round Dutch but it came from three different sources, in which
the reader will be interested; and I hope that I may be pardoned
for a short digression to discuss a matter concerning the varia- |
tion of plants. It will be remembered that in our earlier experi-
ments under the naked light spinage ran directly to seed, while
plants in the dark house made good edible leaves. This differ-
ence is shown admirably in the accompanying figures, which are
taken from our Bulletin 30. The slender plant was grown under
the light in 1890 and it ran at once to seed; seeds from this identi-
cal plant were saved, and they were sown in plot No. 1 below,
The low plant was grown in the dark house at the same time, and
the seeds from it were sown in plot No. 2. Will the characters
which these plants assumed under our former experiments be
perpetuated in the offspring? We shall see; and for comparison
we shall use commercial seeds in plot No. 3. BN

ere x atte h “ 0
Srconp Rrrort Upon Execrro-Horticvuture. 207

Now, in the light house, the best of these three plots was No.
2, the seeds which came from the low plant figured above; and
the second best plot was No. 3, the commercial seed. In the
dark house, however, the best plot was No. 1, or that coming
from the poor plant shown above; the second best was plot No. 2.
Thus it will be seen that commercial seed was always second cr
third; while No. 1 was once best and once third, and No. 2 was
once best and once second. But it should be said that it was very
difficult to distinguish between 1 and 2, while commercial seeds
gave obviously poorer results. Two lessons are apparent from
this test: 1. The characters of the parent plants were not
hereditary. 2. Our own seed gave better results than commercial
seed, and this was no doubt due to the fact that our seed, coming

_ from single plants, had a less mixed or variable parentage than
the other.

We shall now return to the influence of the light upon the
spinage. A month after the light started, there having been an
average of about five hours per night of electric light, all the
spinage in the light house was from ten to fifteen per cent larger
than in the dark house and there was no greater disposition to
run to seed; and this advantage was maintained, if not augmented,
throughout the experiment. This result was unexpected, for in
our first experiment spinage was very much injured by the light;
but in that experiment the light was naked and was inside the
house and the results are therefore not comparable with the
present ones. |

Cauliflower—On January 8, 1892, two dozen good cauli-
flower plants four inches high and bearing four or five leaves,
were placed in six-inch pots and divided between the two houses,
on bench No. 2. The plants in the light house were ten feet
from the lamp, and almost under it, so that they received the
full glare of light. A month later, ninety three hours of light
having been expended, the plants in the dark house were notice-
ably stouter and more stocky than those in the light house, and
two of the plants were forming heads, while those in the other
house showed no sign of heading. A week later, four good heads
were growing in the dark house, one of them reaching a diameter

‘ Pa f

Mieke Ni f, REED RRR Les fy ny ee ee ee
~ . j ‘ 5 > ¥ ‘ , 4 s¥ ,

‘J

208 AcriovtturaL Exprrimernt Sration, Itasca, N. Y. |

of three and one-half inches, while none were visible in the light
house. It was a week later that heads began to appear in the
light house, or two weeks after they had been observed in the
other plants; and at this time it was plain that the lighted plants
were running to length, while the others were stocky. When the
plants were cut, February twenty-ninth, the measurements were
as follows:

Average
Average Average Average
SAMPLES. total height a sep aoe diameter of weight of
of plant. leavad heads formed. eads.
Wark NOUse id oes le 18.4 in. 6.2 in. 5.4 in. 5.8. OZ,
Laight shouses 2.2.2.5. 19.5 in. (a re ee ae 5.2 02.

These figures show that decidedly better results were obtained —

in the dark house; and it should also be said that more heads
were obtained in that house. These results are unequivocal, but
the plants under experiment were so few that general conclusions
cap. not be drawn. It is expected that this experiment will he
repeated upon a much larger scale the coming winter.

Flowers.— Violets and daisies were grown upon bench 2. ‘In
both instances, strong plants were set in the beds a few days
before the light started. The violets (Marie Louise) were all set in,
the light house near the partition — twelve to sixteen feet from
the lamp — and they received the full benefit of the light. Half
of the bed of 100 plants was covered each night with a black
enamel-cloth box, provision being made for ventilation, and the
other half received the light. Three weeks after the light started
the exposed plants began to bloom, while no buds could be found
in the darkened portion. It was not until five weeks after the
starting of the light that a flower appeared in the darkened plants,
while the others had continued to bloom. At this point the
obscure violet blight appeared and the experiment with the light
ceased.

Fifty strong plants of the low daisy (Bellis perennis) were
divided between the two houses. Those in the light compartment

: , |

Sxconp Rerorr Upon Exxctro-Horrtcunrore. 209
were from fifteen to eighteen feet from the lamp, in rather weak
light. The first bloom appeared just four weeks after the starting
of the light, and it was in the light house. For a month or six
weeks thereafter the lighted plants bloomed more profusely; but
at that time the dark-house plants began to surpass the others,
both in numbers and'size of flowers and vigor of plants. In other
words, the lighted plants bloomed earlier and never made such
stocky plants, and they soon exhausted themselves. It is possible
. that they would have endured longer if they had been established
in the beds for a longer period before the light was put upon them.

When do the plants grow ?—It is thought that plants grow
mostly at night, using the materials which they have manufac-
tured during the hours of sunlight. The question then arises
when the lighted plants grew. Did they grow more rapidly than
the others during their fewer hours of darkness, or did they grow
when the electric light was burning ? We have made many tests
with auxanometers — instruments which measure and record the
perodical growth of the plants. The most important fact which
these readings have shown is that lettuce plants, under normal
conditions, grow about as much in daylight as in darkness; and
the periodicity of growth was very irregular. Lettuce leaves were
found to grow more rapidly in the light house for the first week or
so, at which time growth became greater in the dark house. That
is, the leaves matured more quickly under the light. The accom-
panying records show this. These are the records of the growth
of a single leaf upon a well established plant in each house during
four consecutive days, the leaf in each case being an inch and a
half long when the test was begun. The measurements are here
recorded in sixty-fourths of an inch, only the numerators being
used: thus four means four-sixty-fourth inch. The four hours dur-
ing which the light ran are shown by asterisks in the third column,
and whatever gain the lighted plants made over the others is
shown by asterisks in the following column; it is therefore appar-
ent at a glance what relation such increase bears to the hours of
the artificial lighting.
27

a! on Ab: on

210

2 Co DERE pe Ser
if ay esas
SOUAANL(S in «5 his Seat
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GR RG Si
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BEM te gs te
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Beattie a a
Ui eak wees
<0) Et Ue Peso an ors
Berea he < xi tatiaen
Bama Siok oF ee
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Rare Sf: 8..060. fo 4 Youars
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PRLS ys erie AUS
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TORT ORR Hes

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REAM AA thc Eeas Toots fvid & =
lhe a ne
Cn Cet RS
a Seer
ce 9
She Sie
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Ty ANG ES eee ale
BREA TG ats ve Sina fe 98
BERMAN Peiits a i<'a sila 0 0
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s : Besta va ayere.'s “ate =
NE
4 pS ee
oe eR eee

AgriouttoraL Experiment Sration, Irmaca, N. Y.

GrowTH oF LETTUCE.

* Asterisks show when light ran.

eee eee eee

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SL ‘ele ya! 6 6)! &y.0)'6

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+ Asterisks show gain under light.

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83

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Sreconp Report Uron Exxctrro-HorticuLtuRe. 911

GrowtH oF Letrrucr — (Concluded).

ee eee eee eo ee ee eee te we

eee eee ee ee ee ee eee ee ew

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Hopwwr Pw WO PR RO TO

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+ Light. Gain.

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+ Asterisks show when light ran,

* Details of record too slight for accurate measurement.
+ Asterisks show gain under light.

212 AgricutturAL Exprertment Sration, Irgaca, N. Y.

The figures plainly show: 1. That the electric light did not
determine the periodicity of growth. 2. That increase under the
light occurred only during the first days. 3. That growth in
both houses took place in daylight as well as in darkness. The
conclusions suggested by this short record, I believe to be generally
true of lettuce, when grown under the conditions here present.

SUMMARY.

1. The influence of the electric are light upon greenhouse plants
is greatly modified by the use of a clear glass globe or the interpo-
sition of a glass roof. Plants which are much injured by a naked
light, may be benefited by a protected light.

2. As a rule, plants are earlier under the electric light than
when grown in ordinary conditions.

3. The light can be suspended above the house with good effect.

4, Lettuce is greatly benefited by the electric light. An aver-
age of five hours of light per night hastened maturity from a week
to ten days, at the distance of ten and twelve feet. Even at forty
feet, in only diffused light, the effect was marked. The light
appeared to injure young newly transplanted plants.

5. Radishes were also benefited by the light, but not to a great
extent. When the light was hung in the house, however, whether
naked or protected by a globe, radishes were injured.

6. Beets and spinage appeared to be slightly benefited by the
light.

7. Cauliflowers under the light tended to grow taller than in
ordinary conditions, and to make fewer and smaller heads.

8. Violets and daisies bloomed earlier in the light house. This
corroborates results obtained with other flowers in our earlier
experiment. 4

9. The electric light does not appear to determine or modify the
hours of growth of lettuce and some other plants which have
been studied in this particular. Plants which are benefited,
simply grow more rapidly during the customary periods.

10. I am convinced that the electric light can be used to advan-
tage in the forcing of some plants.

L. H. BAILEY.

*
Te.

Cornell University —Agricultural Experiment Station.

MOR TICULEFURAL, DIVISION.

ene, NS Xe ee:
SEPTEMBER, 1892.

NEW YOR
BOTANIC
GARDE

Sy Ce obey Ai in A) iia EBs

OF

PaINTER TOMA TTLTORS

Bx Le) Ee) BariEy:

‘i

»

ROS, “ne |
A ae ee A 7
Ree Mate
k ee oe ?
' : * Lit or ys

sige ;
ORGANIZATION.
BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.
STATION COUNCIL.
President, C. K. Apams.
“ako, ANA BS Ys 90 2a a Trustee of the University.
Bon ©))B. Pon.) i) ec eee. President State Agricultural Society.
Le ESD IRONS IR 2 AP Ce Professor of Agriculture.
Serer AT Days Tathen wet oma loo teiace)/ si Nae ieee. were & Professor of Chemistry.
Bipmwreris AAW ee Sitar wid ks da! aierel iss 8 Professor of Veterinary Science.
AMON a Ae HON ETS ls td Sha ldo) 2c at 9 aye Cebguaieun, thes teh cas Professor of Botany.
Bee) COMSTOCK ciate si5/3 ote el oS aes els aoa, snes 120 Professor of Entomology.
Met ERAULL TOY Bic acehe 9 ote ial Pe save inne ohevend te Professor of Horticulture.
Mis DUDLEY 5...) 0.5)... Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
MePEreEROBERTS -.05 cell -eni > eineiele el sieie be diy staa min} “Asien a sew anys Director
PeMpea ELY VY ONG -\2)). 4 8b eee wa ... Deputy Director and Secretary.
Sea VE TUAMS 50 Sat X., Mies hae i aPere Sal aie, aveiialays Wbela'el Sr ala elets Treasurer.
ASSISTANTS.
DUNN crSiK WON FURRTUAINGD 9/005 baile “ai<) «, dlrs vwhdnie esmiayjelfore eases lsyala. shs)s Entomology.
Pee NVERTSON 3 2.0. te aetaze lolalbyoial oy oiei'eislsiahtie' ed eleus’ alniajiat die Agriculture.
MO OIE HIND A cary tet. avec 2%, caaiwia'y any ie iMtiro lad pail cictp’ oP Horticulture.
Ere NO ANN ANT ANU GENS c/a. sk tino tyes ijale eceialadd eeseils pee} o/0: 9/4 lel oye Chemistry.

Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends, will please send us the
names of the parties.
BULLETINS OF 1892.
38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.
39. Creaming and Aerating Milk.
40. Removing Tassels from Corn.
41. On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for Green-
house Heating.
42. Second Report upon Electro-Horticulture.
43. Some Troubles of Winter Tomatoes.

Some Troubles of Winter Tomatoes.

Nearly all forced plants are subject to many diseases and
annoyances, arising from the fact that the enemies, as well as the
hosts are protected by the congenial and equable conditions of
the glass-house. As the cultivation of a given plant becomes
more common and widespread, new enemies are likely to find it.
The tomato is rapidly becoming an important winter crop, and
its enemies are, therefore, coming into prominence. Two of
these troubles — the winter blight and root-gall— are so obscure
in their methods that growers often fail to recognize them until
the crop is ruined; and they already appear to be widespread in
the north, it has been thought best to call attention to them.

1. Winter blight.— The most serious disease of forced tomatoes
which I have yet encountered is what, for lack of a better name,
I propose to call the winter blight, and which is the chief concern
of this paper. ‘This disease, so far as I know, has not been
described except in a short communication from this station in~
Garden and Forest last April.* It has not yet been carefully
studied in the laboratory, but various attempts have been made to
check it and as it is likely to prove a serious disease, the attention
of both growers and experimenters should be called to it. The
object of the present report is to record the disease and draw
attention to it, rather than to present any full analysis of it. The
_ disease first appeared in our house in the winter of 1890--91, when
about a dozen plants were somewhat affected. At this time the
trouble was not regarded as specific; the plants were old and had
borne one crop, and it was thought that they were simply worn
out. In some of our experiments it became necessary to
carry about a dozen plants over the summer, and these were
introduced into the house when the forcing season opened last

* A New Disease of the Tomato, by E. G. Lodeman, Garden and Forest, v. 175.

28

eT ae DEEN Cari, Ae a

218 AGRIouULTURAL Exrrertment Srarion, Irmaoa, N.Y.

October. From this stock, the trouble again spread and in six
or eight weeks it had become serious and there was no longer any
doubt that we were contending with a specific disease.

This blight attacks the leaves. The first indication of the
trouble is a dwarfing and slight fading of the leaves, and the
appearance of more or less ill-defined yellowish spots or splashes.
These spots soon become dark or almost black, and the leaf curls
and becomes stiff, the edges drawing downward and giving the
plant a wilted appearance. This condition of the leaf is well
shownin Fig.1. The spots grow larger, until they often become ar
eighth of an inch across, or even more, and they are finally more
or less translucent. This injury to the foliage causes the plant
to dwindle, and the stems become small and hard. Fruit pro-
duction is lessened, or if the disease appears before flowers are
formed, no fruit whatever may set. In two or three instances, in
which young plants were attacked, the disease killed the plant out-
right, but a diseased plant ordinarily lives throughout the winter,
a constant disappointment to its owner, but always inspiring the
vain hope that greater age or better care may overcome tie
difficulty. Fig. 2 is a graphic illustration of the appearance of
the disease. The box contains four plants, one of which is healthy,
and three diseased. The small plant in the rear died ‘before it
reached full stature. It is not known that this disease attacks the
fruit. Fruit-rot appeared on some of the plants, but it was appar-
ently the same as that which attacks out-door plantations.

‘Tt soon appeared probable that the disease is bacterial in origin
and it was at first thought that it is identical with the bacterial
potato blight and that our plants had originally contracted the
disease from soil taken from an infested potato field; and this
view was supported by the testimony of others who had een
troubled with it and who had taken soil from potato plantations.*
Specimens were submitted, however, to Dr. T. J. Burrill, of the
University of Llinois, who replies that the trouble is probably
not the same as the potato disease. A diseased tomato cion wag

* In Horticulvurists’ Rule-book, 2d ed. (p. 59), which was going through the press at this time
the statement is made that ‘‘the bacterial potato-blight or rot also attacks tomatoes.” Ido
not know if this statement is true.

ce

“,

cil ce aS
Some Trovsitzes or Winter Tomarors. 219

grafted into a potato plant, and the stock for some inches below
the union became diseased and finally died; and this potato stock.
abounded in germs to all appearances like those infesting the con,
but innoculations from pure cultures were not made and itis not
safe to say that the tomato disease can be transferred to the
potato. Potatoes were planted in 'boxes containing diseased
tomatoes and they did not contract the disease; and a crop of
potatoes was also grown on one of the benches in the tomato
house, separated from the diseased tomatoes only by a three-foot
walk, and it remained healthy. Tomato plants at this distance
from affected plants invariably took the disease. It was then
thought that the disease might be identical with the southern
tomato blight, described by Dr. D. 6. Halsted, in Bulletin 15 of
-the Mississippi Iixperiment Station. Specimens were sent bin,
when it was found that the two are distinct both in external
appearance and in the character of the organism, the germ of the
southern blight being a bacterium, while this is a micrococcus.

All that is known further concerning the probable cause of the
disease will appear in the following report from Professor W. KR.
Dudley, who has made some preliminary examinations of the
diseased plants:

“T find a species of micrococcus present in limited numbers in
the cells of the tomato leaves, both in those which were blaached,
indicating the earlier stages of this disease, and in those blackened
by its later development, and also in the diseased fruits. More
over, the external aspect of this disease—the blackening or
blighting of portions of the plants—in such as characterizes
diseases occasioned by bacteria in other plants. Nevertheless,
the preliminary cultures made did not give any results supporting
this theory. Sterilized nutrient agar-agar* was infected with sap
from the diseased tomato leaves and fruits with no result what-
ever; while similar infection from the stem of a potato infested
with apparently a bacterial disease,$ gave a cloudy-white growth
along the track of the infecting wire and on the surface of the
agar-agar which microscopical examination showed to be due to a

. * Agar-agar is a gelatinous vegetable substance used for making cultures of bacteria.
§ This potato-stem had been grafted with a diseased tomato cion.

- — st 3a
220 AGRICULTURAL Exprrmment Srarion, IrHaca, N. Y.

minute micrococcus. Experiments necessary to the determination
of this as a specific organism producing this particular tomato
disease have not been made. Nor were other nutrient solutions
used, which might have been more acceptable food for the microc-
cus in a pure culture.

“T can not feel sure that this disease was caused primarily by
bacteria, which were centainly not present in great abundance.
From microscopic examination of a considerable number of leaves
from various sources, and observations in relation to this disease,
on winter-grown tomatoes elsewhere, I think that no injurious
effects of bacteria will appear, if houses are kept clean, properly
heated and ventilated, so that the vitality of the plants will not
be impaired, and also if the houses are renovated at intervals.”

We are carrying diseased plants over the summer, and a criti-
cal study of the disease will probably be made the coming winter.
We shall also be glad of any experience which others may have
had with the trouble, and specimens of affected plants are desired.

Various treatments have been tried upon this disease. Our
first attempt was thorough spraying with ammoniacal carbonate
of copper, and this in the one which first suggests itself to grow-
ers. Our efforts, although carefully made at intervals, were

wholly unsuccessful. It was then thought that treatment of the
soil in which new plants were set might prove effective, and as

our crop was grown in boxes —as shown in Fig. 2— the experi-
ment was easily tried. ;

Boxes in which diseased plants had grown were emptied and
the insides were thoroughly washed with various substances, as
follows: Three with dilute solution of ammoniacal carbonate of
copper; two with lime whitewash; one with Bordeaux mixture;
two with lye. Fresh soil was placed in these boxes and healthy
young plants were set in them. The boxes were then placed in
the tomato house, near both healthy and diseased plants. For
three or four weeks the plants appeared to be healthy, but after
that time the disease attacked them all without respect to treat-
ment. The same result followed thorough watering of the soil
with ammoniacal carbonate of copper, nitrate of soda and lye.
Fig. 2 shows a box which was treated once with ammoniacal car-

Some Trousires or WintER TomATors. 221

bonate of copper applied to the soil. The plants were somewhat
diseased when the treatment was given. The disease progressed
without check. One plant died, and a healthy plant was set in
its place. This plant — which is conspicuous in the foreground of
the illustration — was remarkably strong and vigorous for a period
of three weeks, when it contracted the disease. In the meantime
another plant — shown in the background — died from the disease.
Late in the winter the remaining plants were removed from the
box, the soil was again treated with ammoniacal carbonate of
copper and fresh seedlings were set in it; but these plants also
contracted the disease. Just before this last treatment was given
a ten-inch pot was filled from the soil in the box, and a seedling
from the same lot as those placed in the box was planted in it.
The pot was set in the tomato house. This plant showed the
disease in less-than three weeks. The question at once arises if
the disease was not communicated through the air from infected
plants, rather than through the soil. This I can not answer, but
it is certain that the disease travels from plant to plant which
stand in separate boxes, and whose tops do not touch. Through
what distance this transfer can take place I do not know. We
observed it to have occurred through a distance of two or three
feet, but a plant which stood fifteen feet from diseased plants, but
separated from them by a glass partition in which two doors stood
open, did not take the blight. It is still possible that we may
find a successful treatment for diseased soil, if all affected plants
can first be removed from the house.

All our experiments, therefore, simply lead us to the conclu-
sion that the best treatment for this winter blight is to remove all
diseased plants at once, and if it becomes serious to remove all
the plants and soil in the house and start anew. They empha-
size the importance of starting with new plants and fresh soil
every fall. And all our experience has shown that the disease is
fatal to success in tomato forcing, for we lost our crop in an
endeavor to treat it.

2. Common Blight (Cladosporium fulvum).— The blight which
is oftenest associated with the forcing of tomatoes appears as
cinnamon brown spots on the under surfaces of the leaves, as

RebeNa Daa a UR aU Sas Pe Ug

222 AcricuLturaL Experment Srarion, Tea HL ath fh

indicated by the dot-shaded portions of the leaflet in Fig. 3. For-
tunately, this fungus is rarely serious. For ourselves, we have

=-
. *

had no experience with it, but I see it occasionally in tomato —

houses. It is apt to appear in late winter or early spring, often
not until the winter crop is nearly harvested. In such cases, the
burning of the old plants as soon as the last fruit is off will be the
best treatment. If it appears earlier, however, spraying with
ammoniacal carbonate of copper is to be recommended.

3. Root-Gall— Nematode injuries of roots have received much —
study of late and the attention of growers has been called to —

them in bulletins and in the press. But there are still very few
horticulturists who are aware of the extent to which they infest
our greenhouses. Many common plants, as geraniums, begonias
and coleus, are subject to their attacks, and the diseased plant —
or the soil in which it erew —is often dumped into the dirt-bin,
where it propagates the trouble. In the southern States the
nematodes are serious enemies to many plants in the field, even
to trees, but in the north they confine their attention mostly to
indoor plants. This indicates that severe frost is fatal to them,
and suggests a remedy in the freezing of houses) which are seri-
ously attacked, when this can be done to advantage, as between
the crops of winter tomatoes. Nematodes are very minute animals
belonging to the true worms, and allied to the trichinae. These
nematodes are a serious menace to tomato growing under glass.
They attack the roots, causing the formation of galls.
Sometimes the whole root is swollen into one ragged
shapeless mass, strongly reminding one of the club-root of
cabbage. The trouble is likely to be worst in those plants which
are carried over from the preceding winter. In general appearance
plants injured by root-galls are very like those attacked by the
winter-blight already described, save that the leaves do not show
a spotted discoloration. The plants become weak, stop growing,
the leaves curl and become yellow and dry, much as if the plant
were suffering for water.

MOS Pee BETES TER Retr eARrAe Re ose haar rae bake
tf yet SOP, os : b ne
JO an cee ET ae Fe ant: iad ;

Somr Trousies or Winter ToMATOES. 223

The treatment for this disease is to remove the plants and soil,
thoroughly wash the benches or boxes with lye, and begin anew.
But it would be a great saving of time and expense if the soil
could be treated, between the crops, with some material which
would destroy the nematodes. This was tried in a small way.
Five boxes, each containing four diseased plants, were selected for
treatment, December 11, 1891. The plants were removed, ‘and the
soil was treated as follows: '

1. One-third pound of concentrated commercial lye dissolved
in a pail of water.

2. Two pounds of salt in a pail of water.

3. One pound of quick-lime in a pail of water.

4. Four tablespoonfuls of bisulphide of carbon poured into
holes which were quickly closed.
5. The box removed out of doors and allowed to freeze solid.

These boxes are eighteen inches square and contain ten inches
of soil. Clean young plants were set in them after the lapse of
four or five days, and the boxes were set side by side in the
tomato house. One or two of the plants died in the soil treated
with lye, and the places were refilled, while three settings had to
be made in No. 2, because of the great amount of salt in the soil.
Between each setting the salt was washed out by heavy watering.
When the plants were removed six months afterwards it was
found that all contained galls except those in boxes 2 and 5 —
those salted and frozen — but upon these no galls whatever could
be found. The results were definite and satisfactory, but the
experiment was too limited to warrant any general conclusions.
They inspire the hope that soils can be treated between the crops
for nematodes.

Review.

This bulletin calls attention to three diseases which attack
forced tomatoes, at least two of which are serious. One is an
obscure blight which appears to be caused ‘by a bacterium, but
for which no remedy is known. Removal of diseased plants, and
thorough renovation of the house if the disease is serious, are

recommended. One is the common blight or baAceconiins whic h

9 is to be treated with a spray of ammoniacal carbonate of cop e a
f The third is the nematode root-gall, the exact indications of
3 which do not appear above ground. The prescribed treatment for
*f _ this injury is the removal of plants and soil, and the washing of
i the beds or boxes with lye; but there are indications that freezing zs
‘ the soil or treating it heavily ba salt may destroy the nematodes. —
4 L. H. BAILEY. —
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Cornell University —Agricultural Experiment Station.
ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION.

Diet BT LN. Xv:
OCTOBER. 1S:9 29

Pole PEAR TREE Poy Lie

By Marx V. SLINGERLAND.

29

,
ys

vit hs eae Pi th PS Yaive ck, "ret Clee ine Wha ae by —_
TAN Ro AN et Ua ee peg

Cay -

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ORGANIZATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

STATION COUNCIL.
President, Jacop Goutp ScHuRMAN.

emreneneN I). VN ELTISEE i! igs sts a's eR ke sie Trustee of the University.
mia Oy 1B. POTTER e226 President State Agricultural Society.
PR ISRCOVEIEETS oy ih tie va Oe 4 sie aoe eas Professor of Agriculture.
Bee ROALD WELL, ie oot 2 ea parce « Professor of Chemistry.
TERUG GAs DO Re a EO Professor of Veterinary Science.
MMR ESHONTISS 40 dyin! soley plod whetoisiel dle. eSd wie agiine Professor of Botany.
BS OMATOONG «S02 thee gee shal dis «aap helae wis Professor of Entomology
MPMEE MES ATITIN yon ce er iets kids tia, kore asco tw Professor of Horticulture.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
MEE Ss ac yoh tala ts ssa oitule 2d ving pease iw used 0) oh ota INC Director.
Rbean LL WING 2 oto a. «a2 diasie Sas Deputy Director and Secretary.
MY ALTPA MESA te oe iced geval e oiate cai etetc! elu tera, Othe Gare ‘l'reasurer.
ASSISTANTS.
DE SEENGCHRE ANT A© o'r aa cicsle s apwie'ecicldlws ces e Qeeues Entomology.
col ts! GU TUNTAST CS: ened BE an ao Agriculture.
EE MEM fate gl j4 Sean aA tales « phe vais Cotas Horticulture.
IGS So 2 tsa ae ee a Chemistry.

Offices of the’ Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.

Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send us the
names of the parties.
BULLETINS OF 1892.

38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.
39. Creaming and Aerating Milk.
40, Removing Tassels from Corn.
41, On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for Green-
house Heating.
42, Second Report upon Electro-Horticulture.
43. Some Troubles of Winter Tomatoes.
_ 44, The Pear-Tree Psylla.

The Pear Tree Psylla.

Psylla pyricola.— Oxvex Hemirrera; Famiry Psyiiipaz.

The pear tree has heretofore suifered less from the attacks
of insects than other extensively grown fruits like the apple,
plum and others. Recently, however, a minute insect known as
the pear-tree psylla, Pyslla pyricola, has inflicted such severe
losses upon pear growers that it threatened to seriously interfere
with the successful cultivation of this fruit.

During 1891, pear growers, in restricted localities in quite
widely separated portions of this and of neighboring States, lost
thousands of dollars worth of fruit and many valuable trees —
through the ravages of this pest which suddenly appeared in
enormous numbers early in the season. The pear orchard of Dr.
Jabez Fisher, Fitchburg, Mass., was seriously injured; and Coe
Brothers, Meriden, Conn., had two orchards devastated by the
pest. In New York State, orchards in the eastern, central and
western portions suffered. On West Hill, near Ithaca, Tompkins

- county, several orchards were severely attacked, some of the trees

ultimately dying; Mr. H. S. Wright’s orchard promised 600 bushels
of fruit, but less than fifty bushels matured, and but few trees
made any growth. A severe attack prevailed at Menands, Albany
county. Mr. G. T. Powell, an extensive fruit grower in Ghent,
Columbia county, states that the insects reduced his pear crop
from an estimated yield of 1,200 barrels to an actual yield vi
less than 100 barrels of marketable fruit; the trees made but
littie growth and several were killed; his trees have been notice-
ably losing vitality for two or three years due, no doubt, to the
unsuspected attacks of this pest. These facts must convinse

_ the pear growers, of New York State especially, where the insect

seems to have obtained the strongest foothold, that they have to |
fear a very serious pest. Although very insignificant individually,

. 7 , ny Se HG be 53-9", ob ons ‘ine ty Vane tbe. A
~ ae ng. y z /

230 AgriouLttorAL Exprriment Sration, Irmaca, N. Y.

this enemy becomes formidable and very destructive when the
conditions are favorable for the reproduction in countless
numbers.

The Past History of This Pest.

The pest is an old offender; and its recorded history in this
country shows that it has been present for many years in or near
most of the localities above noticed. The insect was probably
first introduced into this country upon young pear trees imported
from Europe in 1832, by Dr. Ovid Plumb, of Salisbury, Conn. Dr.
Plumb first noticed the insect in 18338; and during the next five
years he lost several hundred trees from its ravages. By 1848,
when the pest was first brought to the notice of an entomologist,
Dr. Harris, it had spread into Massachusetts and into Dutchess
and Columbia counties, in New York. In 1879, W. 8S. Barnard
observed the pest in destructive numbers at Ithaca and at Sara-
toga, N. Y.

The earliest record we have of its appearance further west is
in 1871, when Dr. LeBaron recorded a severe attack upon young
pear trees in Tlinois. Mr. E. A. Schwartz has found the insect
in Michigan. Professor J. B. Smith, of New Jersey, has been
unable to find it in that State, and we have no record of its
occurrence further south.

It is thus seen that the pest is quite widely distributed over
the northeastern portion of the United States and has reached the
Mississippi valley in its westward progress. The severe outbreak
of 1891 indicates that the insect has been increasing in numbers.
It has apparently reached a point, in New York State, at least,
where it only awaits favorable opportunities, in meteorological
conditions possibly, to repeat its ravages of last year in unex-
pected localities. Pear growers should be watchful and prepared
to fight it early in the season.

Its Classification.

This pear pest is one of the true bugs belonging to the sub-
order Homoptera, family Psyllidae, commonly known as jumping
plant-lice, from the leaping habit of the adult. Their general
name, Psylla, is the Greek word, meaning a flea. The Psyilid

Tue Prar Tree Psywa. 931

fauna of Europe comprises more than 150 described species and
has been thoroughly studied. Dr. Franz Low, of Vienna, added
much to our knowledge of the classification of this group, and
he has described the life history and habits of several species.*

Dr. E. Witlaczil,; of Vienna, has written exhaustively on the

anatomy of the family.§

In the United States but little attention has been paid to the
Psyllidae, and less than twenty species have thus far been recog-
nized.

Three species of Psylla infest the pear-tree in Europe — pyri-
suga, pyricola and pyri; pyrisuga does the most damage, and,
pyri is comparatively rare. We have, as yet, no native species
of Psylla feeding on the pear tree. Our pest, Pyslla pyricola,
although it was observed in this country in 1833, received its
name in Europe fifteen years later, or about the time Dr. Harris’
attention was called to it here. Previous to 1848, European
writers had referred to the species as Psylla pyri, not distin- —
guishing it from that species; and nearly all of our entomologists
have written of it under this name. Psylla pyricola sometimes
attacks the apple-tree in Europe, but it seems to confine its
attacks to the pear in this country.

Indications of its Presence.

Among the first indications that pear growers, who suffered,
from this pest in 1891, had of its presence was the noticeably les-
sened vitality of their trees early in the season. Old trees,
especially, put forth but little new growth. Where new growth

_started, in many cases, the shoots began to droop and wither in

May as if from a loss of sap. A little later, whole trees put on a
sickly appearance; the leaves turned yellow and the fruit grew
but little. By midsummer nearly all the leaves and half-formed
fruit fell from many trees; this fact suggested the design on the
title page of this bulletin.

Another peculiar phase of the attack was the immense quan-
tities of a sweet water-like fluid called honey-dew which covered

*In Verh. der K. K. Zool. — Bot. Ges. in Wien, 1862-1886.
§ Zeit. fur Wissensch Zool. XLII, 569 (1885).

232 AgricutturaAL Experiment Srarion, Iraaca, N. Y.

the twigs, branches and trunks of the trees. In some instances
it appeared in such quantities that it literally rained from the
trees upon the vegetation beneath; in cultivating the orchard the
back of the horse and the harness often became covered with the
sticky substance dropping from the trees; in gathering what little
fruit matured the hands and clothing would become smeared
with the sticky fluid. The honey-dew appears on the trees soon
after the leaves expand and is found throughout the season. It

attracts thousands of ants, bees and wasps which feed upon it.

If copious showers fall during the early part of the season much’
of this honey-dew is washed off, making it less noticeable.

At first the honey-dew is clear like water, but soon a black
substance appears and, spreading rapidly all through it, gives it
a disgusting blackish appearance as if the trees were covered
with smoke from a factory. This black growth is a fungus,
Fumago salicina,* which grows luxuriantly within the honey-
. dew, but does not attack the tree. It forms, however, with the
‘honey-dew, a coating which must close many of the breathing
pores of the tree and thus materially affect its healthy growth.
Many trees appeared as though treated with a thin coat of black
paint.
The attention of the entomological department of this station
was first called to the pest by Mr. H. S. Wright, Ithaca, N. Y.,
in the latter part of November, 1891; or not until the insect
had done its damage for the season. A visit to his orchard a
few days later revealed a most deplorable state of affairs. The
whole orchard appeared as though a fire had swept quickly
through it and scorched the trees, blackening the trunks, large
branches and the smallest twigs; both young and old trees of
dwarf and standard varieties had been attacked, the Bartlett
and Dutchess varieties suffered the most; most of the trees had

made little or no new growth during the season, and many buds ©

were then dead. Neighboring orchards were similarly affected;and

Mr. G. T. Powell reported that his orchard at Ghent, N. Y.,
presented a similar appearance. Several trees in some orchards
died before spring.

*W.S. Farlow, Bull. Bussey Inst., Mar. 1876, p. 404.

Nee

BB REY oR fe: Ne eat
Vb te ie i (Se : ANG 5 r ARG
1 | 5

;

Tue Pear Tree Psyca. 933

Although the indications of the presence of some enemy is
thus so conspicious, the depredator is an insect so small as to be
easily overlooked.

The Appearance of the Insect.

The immature insect. Figs. 1 and 2.— These curious minute,
oval, immature forms are called nymphs. When first hatched
they are of a translucent yellow color, and hardly visible to the
unaided eye; eighty of them placed end to end would scarcely
measure an inch. They increase in size quite rapidly and undergo
gradual changes in color and form until they measure .055 of an
inch in length and .045 of an inch in diameter; the natural size
is indicated by the hair line at the right of the figures. These

Figure 2.— Full grown nymph, ventral view; a, anus; b, beak.

full grown nymphs are oval in shape, and of a general blackish
color often tinged with red; the eyes are of a bright crimson
color. A very conspicious feature is the large black wing pads
on each side of the body. The whole body is very much flattened,
‘being only one-fifth as thick as long.

The adult insect. Fig 3— From the full-grown nymph, the
change is to the adult insect. In this form the pest strikingly
resembles a Cicada or Dog-day-Harvest-fly in minature. It would
take nine or ten of them placed end to end and about forty placed
side by side to measure an inch; the hair line beside the figure
indicates the natural size of an adult. From the wide blunt
head, the body tapers considerably to the sexual organs at the

30

234 AgricuLtturaAL Exprrtment Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y.

caudal end. When the insect is at rest, its two pairs of large
nearly transparent wings slope roof-like over the sides of the
body. The general color is crimson with broad black bands
across the abdomen. The legs have thickened femurs to aid the
insect in leaping. The sects are easily distinguished; in the male
(Fig. 5) the abdomen terminates in a large trough-shaped seg-
ment from which project upward three narrow organs used in
copulation; the end of the abdomen of a female (Fig. 6) resembles
a bird’s beak, and upper and a lower pointed plate coming
together and enclosing the egg-sheath between them.

The Life History of the Insect.

The life history and habits of every insect which becomes of
econoniic importance should be accurately determined in order to
ascertain, if possible, the stage when it can be most successfully
combated. Observations upon the habits of the two worst ene-
mies to fruit growers, the Plum Curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar
and the Codlin Moth, Carpocapsa pomonella, revealed peculiar
habits which made it practicable to combat them with the cheap-
est and most easily applied of the insecticides — the arsenites.
The adult Plum Curculio’s habit of feeding upon the fruit and foli-
age left it open to attack by the arsenical spray. The eggs of the
Codlin Moth were found in the apex of the forming fruit soon
after the blossoms had fallen; the fruit then being in an upright
position the arsenite lodges in the apex and is eaten by the newly
hatched larva when it attempts to enter the fruit. A knowledge
of the habits of injurious insects will also often enable the farmer
to so manage his land and crops that the insects are placed under
very unfavorable and often destructive conditions. Wheat sown
as late as is safe to do so is usually secure from the attacks of the
fall brood of the Hessian fly, Cecidomyia destructor. By harvest-
ing the first crop of clover for hay early in June, the bulk of the
first brood of the Clover-seed midge, Cecidomyia leguminicola, will
be destroyed and the second crop of seed be thus saved. Fall
plowing destroys many cut-worms and the tender pupae and
adults of wireworms which are hibernating. Many similar
instances might be given where a knowledge of the habits of inju-

taki A eat

‘Tur Pear Tres Psyxra. 235
rious insects have been of incalculable value to the fruit growers
and farmers. In fact, were it not for such observations upon the
life histories of insects, fruit growers and farmers would not now
be so successfully fighting many of their insect foes.

Of the life history of the Pear Psylla but little has been recorded
either in Europe or in this country, although the insect has been
known here as a pest for nearly sixty years. As the attention of
this department of the station was first called to this pest at the
beginning of winter, our study of its life history naturally ‘began
with the stage in which the insect was then hibernating.

Hibernation.— Observers have differed in their statements in
regard to the stage in which this insect passes the winter. Dr.
Franz Low, speaking of the three Pear Psyllids (Verh. der Zool.
Bot-Ges. in Wien, 1886, p. 154) sums up the general European
opinion on this point in saying that the adults hibernate and lay
their eggs in the spring; not in the fall and spring as translated in
Insect Life, IV, 127. Barnard, Thomas and Ashmead (see bibliog-
raphy for references) in this country have doubted that the adults
of Psylla pyricola wait until spring to lay their eggs. Dr. Lintner
(Country Gentleman, August 6, 1891) says the winter is passed
in the egg state. Some species of Psylla, as P. mali, appear to
pass the winter in the egg state according to the observations of
Schmidberger (Kollar’s Treatise, p. 278) and English observers
(Miss Ormerod’s fourteenth report, p. 4, 1891).

An examination of Mr. H. S. Wright’s orchard in December,
1891, revealed a hibernating brood of adults. Notwithstanding
the great numbers in which the insect had appeared during the
summer, comparatively few of these adults could be found. Most
of them were hidden in the crevices under the loosened bark on
the trunk and large limbs of the tree; a favorite hiding place on
some trees was in the cavity formed by the bark growing about
the scar of a severed limb; on account of its being quite warm at
the time, some adults were crawling about on the branches. The
adults were not easily seen as they were so minute and their color
so closely imitated the bark of the tree. Both sexes were found in
about equal numbers, and an examination of the females in
December showed no mature eggs. The trees were examined sey-

eral times during the winter; the adults remained in their niding *
places, and none were seen in copulation, nor were any eggs seen.
before April 7, 1892. It was thus evident that Psylla pyricola 2
does not pass the winter in the egg state, but that there isa hiber-
nating brood of adults whose eggs are not laid until spring. ae
Oviposition of the winter brood— A few days of warm spring
weather occurred about April 7, 1892, and many of the hibernating
adults were seen in copulation, and a few eggs were also laid.
Spring then opened, and by April eighteenth a majority of the ey
eges had been deposited. The eggs were placed in the creases
of the bark, or in old leaf scars, about the base of the terminal
buds of the preceding year’s growth; some were seen about the
side buds near the terminal ones. They were usually laid singly |
but rows of eight or ten were sometimes found. The eggs (Fig. 4)
are scarcely visible to the unaided eye; it would take eighty of

J
e
-

*
Pre

te Jone. tee
>

ahs pe

“

Figure 4.— Egg.

ans
~

"ae Senne tees

them placed end to end to measure an inch. They are elongate
pyriform in shape, smooth and shining, and of a light orange yel-_
low color when first laid, becoming darker before hatching. A
short stalk on the larger end attaches the egg to the bark, anda
long thread-like process projects from the smaller end. f

The temperature conditions in the spring influence not only
the time of oviposition of the winter brood, but also the dura; — i
tion of the egg stage. Eggs brought into the warm insectary on ¥
April seventh hatched in eleven days. Other branches containing a
eges were tied to trees near by, the end of the cut branch being .
kept in a vial of damp sand; these eggs hatched in seventeen days. ‘ah
The weather remaining cool, the eggs upon the trees under natural
conditions did not hatch before May tenth, or more than a month
after oviposition began. By May eighteenth, most of the eggs had.
hatched; and the hibernating adults had disappeared. a

Habits of the nymph.— Immediately after emerging from the 2
egy, the minute nymph seeks a suitable feeding place and is 4
soon at work sucking the sap with its short beak which appears 4

e

ones

1 Bony A Rg WER a eS Cea a ay te .3)
iy vy Age ‘ "4 be + ‘ : . 5 5
\

Tue Pear Trem Psyiva. 237

to arise from between the front legs. The favorite feeding places
of the nymph, and to which their much flattened bodies are
well adapted, are in the axils of the leaf petioles and stems of
the forming fruit. A few nymphs emerged in the spring before
the leaves had expanded; these nymphs crawled into the buds out
of sight. When the axils of the fruit stems and leaves become
full, the nymphs gather in closely packed clusters about the base
of the petioles and stems; if very numerous they gather on the
under sides of the leaves. along the mid-rib and often on the
petioles of the leaf. The nymphs move about but very little,
sometimes becoming covered with their own honey-dew; if dis-
turbed they crawl about quite rapidly. The only times when the
nymphs seem to stop feeding is during the casting off of their
old skin which has become too small, and which gives place te
a new and elastic skin formed just beneath the old one. At
the last moulting of the skin, which occurs about one month after
the nymph’s emergence from the egg, the adult insect appears.

Habits of the adult.— The adult insect has quite different habits
from what it had when a nymph. The strong legs and wings
of the adult enable it to spring up and fly away with surprising
quickness upon the slightest unnatural jar or the near approach
of the hand to its resting place. The hibernating forms, how-
ever, are quite sluggish in their movements and are readily
captured when found. The summer forms fly readily from tree to
tree and could easily be borne by winds for long distances, and
thus infect neighboring orchards. The adults are provided with
a beak with which they feed upon the tissues of the leaves and

tender twigs of the tree. They seem to have no favorite feeding
place.

Oviposition of summer broods.—Three or four days after their
transformation from the nymph stage, the adults of the spring
and summer broods copulate and egg-laying begins for another
brood. These eggs are usually laid singly, sometimes several in
a row or group, not on the twigs, but on the under side of the
tenderest leaves among the hairs near the mid-rib, or on tke
petiole near the leaf; sometimes the female very adroitly places
an egg or two in each notch of the toothed edge of the leaf.

SCE Cd ee ety ee a

238 AgriouLtuRAL Exprrtm™ment Startron, Irnaca, N. Y.

The eggs of the summer broods do not differ from those laid by

the hibernating adult. The summer eggs, however, hatch in
from eight to ten days under the warmer and more even tem-
perature conditions.

Detailed account of a single generation.— A detailed study was
made of the second generation of the pest to ascertain any pecu-
liarities of any of its stages which might be of interest, or of
aid in combating the insect. The breeding was done in the
Insectary and field observations were made to verify the results
as far as possible. The cages used consisted simply of a common
lamp chimney set on the surface of the soil in a small flower pot;
the top of the chimney was covered with Swiss muslin and a vial
of water sunken into the soil kept the pear branch fresh for
_ several days. These cheap and simple cages have been found
very convenient and useful in breeding such small insects, or
in getting the number of moults of larvae isolated in: them.

The females of the spring brood began to appear about June
10, 1892, and many were laying eggs by the twentieth. On the
twenty-first, several females were placed in cages on uninfested
pear leaves. Eggs were laid the following day. An egg is
described and figured on page 236. When first laid they were
tender and easily crushed; but in a few hours the shell became
hard and the egg could be dislodged and quite roughly handled
without injuring it. The shell was found to be impervious to
several oils and weak alkalies. The acids and strong alkalies
penetrated the shell and killed the embryo. The eggs hatched
in from eight to ten days; a day or two before hatching the
crimson eyes of the embryo could be plainly seen through the
shell near the larger end of the egg.

The nymphs which emerged were oval in form and of a pale
translucent yellow color with the abdomen more opaque and
darker. The crimson eyes were large and distinct. The curious
creatures were scarcely visible to the unaided eye, measuring
only .013 of an inch in length. A slight constriction of the body
marked the beginning of the abdomen which ia fringed with eight
or nine long and several short hairs. The wing-pads were not
yet distinguishable. The antennae had but three points, two

.

Tue Pear Tree Psy. — 239

short basal and a long terminal joint tipped with two long
bristles. . The short, stout legs terminated by minute claws enabled
the nymphs to soon find a suitable feeding place. Several
nymphs were immediately transferred to dther cages, only one
being placed in each cage. The next day the location of the
nymph was often readily determined by a globule of honey-dew
several times larger than the little creature which had secreted
it. After feeding thus for six or seven days the nymphs became
too large for their skin which burst open along the middle of the
head and back and the insect crawled forth clothed in a new and
elastic skin that had formed beneath the odld one. After thus
moulting the nymph usually sought a new feeding place, leaving
its shriveled skin attached to the globule of honey-dew it had
secreted.

In their second stage the nymphs increased about one-third in
size, but were of the same general color, except the tips of the
antennae, which were black. There were four joints in the
antennae, a division of the third taking place at the moult. ‘The
segments of the abdomen were more distinct and the -wing-pads
were developing. The nymphs remained in this stage about four
days, when the second moult occurred.

At the third stage the nymphs measured .027 of an inch in
length. The wing-pads were larger and blackish; and the other
black markings which distinguish the full-grown nymphs were
faintly outlined. Six or seven joints were now distinguishable
in the antennae, the last three being black.

About three days later, the third moult occurred. The nymphs
differed from those of the third stage in having eight antennal
joints; the wing-pads were larger; the nymphs were .J38 of an
inch in length; and the eyes had become « dark crimson hue.
In some cases the nymphs in this stage were very distinctly
marked, differing from the full-grown nymphs only in having
fewer and larger black spots on the thorax. The duration of
this stage was about four days.

At the fourth moult, the markings which had been faintly
visible since the second moult now came out very distinct. This
proved to be the last nymph stage. The general appearance of

TGi- eb ehy eee Oe bee few aras } or
e ,

240 AGRIouLTURAL Exprriment Station, Irmaoa, N. Y.

the full-grown nymph is described on page 233. The black mark-
ings are represented in Figs. 1 and 2.

After feeding five or six days, the nymphs moult for the last
time; at this moult the adult insect crawls from the nymph’s
skin. European observers have recorded but four moults for the
nymphs of several species of Psyllidae. The observations at the
insectary were made upon several individuals isolated in small
cages which were under daily observation from the emergence of
the nymph from the egg to the appearance »f the adult insect.

In each stage the nymphs secreted globules of honey-dew sey-
eral times larger than themselves; sometimes the globules com-
pletely enveloped a nymph. After each moult the nymphs usu-
ally sought a new feeding place, leaving the old skin attached to
the drop of honey-dew. The old moulted skins, of th» Jast
moult especially, often retained their form almost perfectly. So
life-like did some of them appear, with the legs and antennae
naturally placed, that it often required close examination with a
lens to determine whether the object was a live nymph or only
the cast-off garment of one.

The whole life cycle of the generation studied, from the laying
of the egg to the appearance of the adult insect, was about one
month. The adults upon emerging are of a delicate greenish
color; the blackish markings soon appear, however, and in two
or three days the green changes to the normal reddisk brown
color. Although the adults are so distinct sexually, there seems
to be nothing but the full-grown nymphs which would indicate
the sex of the adult soon to emerge from the nymph’s skin.

The adults begin feeding at once after emerging but do not
increase visibly in size. They appear to secrete no honey dew
but void considerable quantities of a whitish excrement. Adults
of the summer broods lived for several days in cages in the
insectary; how long they live under natural conditions has not
been ascertained, probably less than a month. The adults which
hibernate, however, remain alive for at least six months.

About a week after the summer broods of adults emerge,
copulation takes place and the deposition of eggs soon begins.
The winter brood, as has been said, do not, however, cupulate and

Tur Pear Trem Psywua. 941

oviposit until spring. Several of the adults were observed with
a lens while in copulation. The operation was of particular
interest; for a glance at Figs.5 and 6 of the sexuil characters and
abdomen wil! show that the male organs (Fig. 5, a, f, 1, p, u)
are so peculiarly situated as to seemingly render the grasping of
the female organ (Fig. 6, a, e, 1, u) no easy matter. It was found,

Figure 5.— Abdomen and genital organs of the male, side view; a, anus; f, forceps; 1, lower
genital plate; p, penis; u, upper genital plate.

however, that the caudal segments of the abdomen of the male
were flexible and enabled the trough or lower male genital plate
(Fig. 5, 1) to be curved upward, thus bringing the forceps (Fig. 5,
f) in a position to grasp the upper genital plate (Fig. 6, u) of the
female; this allowed the penis (Fig. 5. p) to enter between (at e,
Fig. 6) the valves of the female organ, and the upper male genital
plate (Fig. 5, u) to simply, lie along the venter of the lower genital
plate (Fig. 6, 1) of the female. A further slight side twist of the
abdomen brought the male beside or in some cases upon the
female; the wings of both remained in a resting position. The

* Figure 6.— Abdomen and genital of the female, side view; a, anus; e, egg-sheath; 1, lower
genital plate; u, upper genital plate.

hair lines beneath Figs. 5 and 6 represent the natural length of the
abdomen including the genital organs. Copulation lasts for sev-
eral minutes, and one male may copulate with more than one
female.
The number of broods— The pest may be said to be many
brooded, the number varying with the conditions of the season.
ol

4 ag nae oe Me 9 alle te CA eee Rg Choe ate *

* “

242 AgricutrurAL Exprrment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

The weather at the opening of spring greatly influences the time

of appearance of the hibernating brood, and the date of the lay-

ing and hatching of the eggs. An overlapping of the broods
occurs, so that after June first all stages of the insect, eggs,
nymphs, and adults may be seen on the trees at the same time,
This is due to the facts that the eggs of any female are not all
laid the same day, and thus do not hatch at the same time; and the

duration of the stages of the nymphs vary slightly, thus varying

the time of the appearance of the adults.

Observations at the insectary and in the field have shown that
during the present year, 1892, there has been at least four broods
of the pest. The hibernating adults oviposited in April, and
adults of this spring brood appeared about June fifteenth. The
adults of the summer broods were the most numerous on or about
the following dates: July twentieth, August twentieth, and Sep-
tember twenty-fifth; or a brood appeared about once a month.
All stages of the insect were found on the trees as late as Septem-

ber twentieth; evidently winter must overtake some of them before —

they reach the adult state. The adults emerging in September
and later were found to be all of the hibernating form.
Peculiarities of the winter brood.— The hibernating adults found
in December, 1891, were so different from the descriptions of
Psylla pyricola that they were believed to belong to another spe-
cies, perhaps new.* When the summer adults appeared, however,
they were readily recognized as the old offender Psylla pyricola.
The hibernating adults differ from the summer adults in size, being

nearly one-third larger; in their much darker coloring, the erim-

son becoming a dark reddish brown; and especially in the color-
ation of the front wings. The summer forms or typical pyricola,

have the veins, even in darker specimens, of a light yellowish _

brown color, and the whole front wing has a slight yellowish
tinge. The yeins of the wings of the hibernating adult are

* Well marked specimens were submitted to Dr. C. V. Riley, the recognized authority upon
American Psyllids. In his reply he says: ‘‘ Your Pear-tree Psylla is aspecies which I have never
seen before and which is not in my collection. Its general appearance is not that of our native
species Psylla, and it has, no doubt, been introduced from Europe. It is unquestionably different
from P. pyricola which I have from Ithaca, ‘. Y., Connecticut and Massachusetts. Owing to

the difference in the genital apparatus of the male it can not be identical with P. pyrisuga and ~

pyri, but agrees perfectly with the description of P. simulans.”

ead A RU aR) Wt e eh

ais . Tur Pear Trem Psyiua. 943

invariably of a dark brown or black color; the front wings are
quite transparent with more or less blackish shades in the cells
and a blackish shade in the basal cell along the whole suture
of the clavus. The male genitalia differ slightly in size in the
two forms. Fig. 3 represents an adult of the summer form; and
the wings shown in Fig. 8 are also from a summer adult.

The hibernating adults were studied at the imsectary in con-
nection with the descriptions of Psylla simulans and Dr. Low’s
remarks§ upon the difference between the Pear Psyllids. This
etudy left but little doubt that Psylla simulans was described from
specimens of the winter form of Psylla pyricola.

This difference between the summer and the winter adults is
common among the Psyllidae, and has before led to their being
described as different species. It seems not to have been sus-
pected that these insects were truly dimorphic or appeared in two
distinct forms during the year. The general impression seems
to have been that the adults appearing in the fall were at first the
same as the summer form; and that as winter approached, these
adults gradually assumed the characteristics of the hibernating
form. However, frequent observations upon Psylla pyricola in the
field during August and September, 1892, have shown that from
eggs laid about August twentieth by typical summer adults, there
hatched nymphs which showed no variations from the typical
summer nymphs and from these nymphs there emerged about Sep-
tember twenty-fifth the distinct hibernating form simulans. The
hibernating forms feed until the leaves fall and then seek their
hiding places in which to pass the winter. None have been seen
to copulate in the fall. But very few summer forms were seen
after September twentieth. Thus in our Pear-tree Psylla we

§ Verh. Zool. Bot Ges. in Wien, 1886, p. 154. A translation of most of Dr. Low’s article occurs
in Insect Life, iv. 127. Dr. Low gives a tabular statement of the differences between Pyrisuga
pyri and pyricola, and briefly points out how simulans differs from pyri and pyricola. A serious
error occurs in the translation in connection with simulans. The sentence preceding the last in
the translation should be divided into two, the period occurring after the phrase, ‘Along the
whole fold of the clavus.”» The remainder of the sentence is not only incorrectly translated,
but it should form a distinct sentence. Dr. Low says; ‘‘The tip of the clavus is larger with more
black and in the hind basal cell there is a brownish or blackish stripe along the whole suture of
the clavus. The forceps of the mule are as in Psylla pyricola only a little wider.”

\

ite re 2 -. “ _ mA” F es Ves sti ee ss
an & Oe etd * A ee ee ee
. - : . ty as ahs” Fy ry a,
;
; Mic)
‘<z
se ~~

244 AcricurrurAL Experiment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

have a case of true dimorphism. The summer form is the typical
Psylla pyricola, and may be designated when necessary to refer to

this form alone as Psylla pyricola pyricola; while the hibernating - _

form should be known as Psylla pyricola simulans.

Honey-dew and excremenit.— Many have supposed that the
honey-dew, so conspicuous a feature in severe attacks of this
pest, is the sap of the tree which exudes through the punctures
made by the insects. As the honey-dew occurs in such immense
quantities it does seem almost impossible that it is wholly the
secretion of the little creatures. All of this fluid does, however,
first pass through the body of the insect. The amount which a
single individual will secrete during its lifetime is small, but
when many thousands of the insects occur on a tree, the aggregate
becomes large. A single nymph isolated in a cage, secreted at least
four drops (i. e. four minims) of the fluid before it became an
adult. Thus fifteen nymphs would secrete one drachm.

The food of the insect consists entirely of the sap of the tree.
The feeding apparatus, both in the nymph (Fig. 2 b, p. 223) and
the adult stage consists of a short, pointed beak which appar-
ently rises from between the front legs. The sucking organs
are three long thread-like setae which move along grooves in the
beak; in many cases, when the nymphs are quickly killed, the
setae are found extruded as shown in Fig. 2, page 233. im
sucking, the point of the beak is placed against the tissue and
the setae are forced into the sap cells. The sap’ is then drawn
up through the beak into the body. In the case of the nymphs
most of the food is elaborated into honey-dew; some is assimi-
lated, and the waste matter voided as excrement. The adults,
however, seem to secrete no honey-dew, all the food being assimi-
lated. Consequently, the adults void considerable quantities of
excrement, much more than do the nymphs.

The honey-dew and excrement are very different substances, ”
but the fact does not seem to have been before observed. The
honey-dew is a clear watterlike liquid and forms into globules

when secreted. The excrement, however, is a whitish semi-solid _

substance which is voided in long cylindrical strings, or minute
whitish balls which roll from the anus like quicksilver globules.

My,

Je eae ee

Toe Pear TREE Psyiua. Q45

In the adult, the anus is situated upon the dorsal surface. In
the female it is just at the base of the upper genital plate (Wig. 6,
a, page 241); in the male, the anus opens upon the tip of the
upper plate (Fig. 5, a, page 241). In voiding the excrement, the
male twists the abdomen downward so that none of \the whitish
substances adheres to the anus. The females, however, can not
thus twist the body and some of the excrement: frequently adheres
as whitish flakes ; or not dropping freely, it sometimes forms into a
string often reaching one-half an inch in length. In the nymphs the
anus is situated on the venter near the caudal end (Fig. 2, a,
page 233) of the abdomen. It is surrounded by a ring of large
wax-cells; a similar ring also surrounds the anus of the adult
female. The excrement of the nymphs is usually voided in a
string. It has often been seen in the midst of a globule of honey-
dew secreted by the same nymph; thus clearly demonstrating that
the two secretions are distinct.

Many observations were made to discover, if possible, the man-
ner in which the honey-dew was secreted by the nymphs. It has
been supposed that the secretion came, either from the long so
called wax-hairs around the edge of the abdomen, or from excre-
tory pores on the dorsum of the abdomen. Globules of honey-
dew were, however, seen attached to the nymphs in such a position
that it seemed very improbable that it came from either of the
above sources; it seemed that it must have been secreted from
the anus of the nymph. A German observer now asserts that
the honey-dew secreted by the common plant-lice or Aphids
comes from the anus, and not from the honey-tubes as commonly
supposed.* Honey-dew thus seems to be what might rightly be
called the fiuid excrement of the insect.

Methods,of Preventing the, Ravages of this Pest.

All of the attempts to prevent the ravages of this pest during
1891 were ineffectual. This was due, in large part, to a lack of
knowledge of the life history and habits of the pest. No severe
outbreak had occurred within recent years which would call the
attention of the fruit growers to the pest. The result was that

* M. Busgen Jenaische Zeitschrift XXV, 339-428 (1891).

VW

246 AgricutruraAL Experiment Srarson, Irmaoa, N. Y.

when the insect appeared in enormous numbers early in the
spring of 1891, fruit growers were at a loss what to do and how
to do it; and entomologists could only suggest. methods which
seemed practicable. In most cases the attempts to combat the
pest were begun too late; most of the damage had been done, the
fruit and new growth being severely blighted; the nymphs had
covered themselves with honey-dew, and the very active sunnier
. adults had appeared. After several unsuccessful attempts with
various substances such as kerosene emulsion, solutions of whale-
oil soap, fir-tree oil, and carbolic acid, and London purple and
Paris green, the afflicted fruit growers gave up in despair.
Nothing seemed to check the pest. They saw the leaves and
most of the fruit fall before midsummer; and some of their trees
_ were left in a dying condition, while others presented a blighted,
blackish, desolate appearance. Eruit growers reported two causes
which rendered their efforts ineffectual. These were peculiar
places in the habits of the insect. First, the nymphs were
so completely enveloped in honey-dew that none of the insecti-
cides reached them. Second, the activity of the summer adults
rendered it impossible to reach them with a spray; as soon as
the first spray struck a tree, the adults arose instantly and flew
to some distance, remaining away till the spraying ceased.

During 1892, the pest has done no perceptible damage in
orchards which it devastated last year. Fruit growers noticed
that the pest considerably decreased in uumbers later in the
season last year. This decrease and the scarcity of the imsect
this year was probably due principally to the fact that the insect.
feeds almost exclusively upon the tenderest leaves and branches
of the trees. As hardly any new growth was formed and as most
the leaves fell off early in the season, the insect was thus
deprived of its favorite food and consequently its inercase
checked. So great was the decrease that but very few of the
hibernating adults appeared. On this account we tried no
experiments to destroy the adults in their winter hiding places,
It seems practicable, however, that a thorough washing of the
trunks and larger branches of the trees in winter with kerosene
emulsion (at least five per cent kerosene) or a strong soap solution,
would destroy many of the adults.

4

’

rf Tur Prar Tree Psy. 247

As soon as the eggs of the hibernating form were found,
experiments were begun with a view to the destruction. of the
insect in this stage. As the eggs were so freely exposed on the bare
twigs to the action of any fiuid, it was confidently expected that

the pest could easily be checked here. Both field and laboratory
experiments were conducted. The branches containing the eggs
were dipped into the solution in each case, thus making sure that
the treatment was thorough. The results obtained were very
surprising. Eggs dipped in the following substances hatched a
few days afterward:

Kerosene emulsion (Hubbard-Riley formula) used full strength;
and diluted with three parts of water heated to 130 degrees F.

Kerosene undiluted.

Turpentine emulsion diluted with three parts of water.

Turpentine undiluted.

Crude carbolic acid emulsion diluted with ten parts of water.

Resin wash used triple strength, and heated to 150 degrees F.

Whale-oil soap and sulphide of potash wash used double
strength. These last two washes are successfully used in com-
bating all stages of scale insects.

Concentrated potash, one pound to one gallon of water.

Benzine undiluted.*

Most of the above substances injured the buds; concentrated
potash and carbolic acid when used in less dilutions killed the
buds. These results made it evident that it was impracticable to
fight the pest with insecticides while in the egg state.

However, if the pear growers could wait until about April fif-
teenth before pruning their trees, they could destroy many eggs.
Most of the eggs are laid by that date near the tips of the last

* * Similar results were obtained by E. S. Goff of Wisconsin while experiment-
) ing upon the eggs of Aphids. He found the shell extremely resistant, scarcely
_ yielding to the strongest acids and alkalies. (Insect Life, iv, p. 327.)

There seems to be no other records of any careful experiments with the differ-
ent insecticides upon the eggs of Aphids or of the allied Psyllids. Kerosene
emulsion is often recommended, and the eggs of some species of Aphids may,

f possibly, be thus destroyed. There is need, however, of more observations upon
_ the penetrating and killing power of insecticides upon the eggs, not only of
Aphids but of other insects. ;

248 AgricutturAL ExprrmeEnt Station, Irmaoa, N. Y.

year’s growth; so it is only necessary to cut back these shoots,
as Many growers do, and burn them, to destroy large numbers of
eges.

After the unsuccessful efforts to destroy the eggs with insecti-
cides, we could do nothing more until the nymphs appeared. Some
of the nymphs appeared before the buds had opened much; these
nymphs immediately crawled into the buds out of the reach of the
insecticides. It was feared that all the young and tender nymphs
would thus get out of reach. But a majority of the eggs did not
hatch this year until many of the leaves had expanded, thus leay-
ing the nymphs exposed. During a warm early spring the eggs
might hatch early, but many of the leaves expand in a few days
and thus the nymphs would be exposed before they had become
more than one-third grown.

Our experiments against the young nymphs were first carried

on in the insectary upon infested branches brought in from the
field. It was soon found that the young nymphs were very ten-
der and very susceptible to kerosene. A kerosene emulsion was
prepared according to the Hubbard-Riley formula.* The nymphs
were dipped in the emulsion diluted with different quantities of

*The formula is one-half pound hard or softsoap, one gallon water, two gallons

kerosene.

First, thoroughly dissolve the soap in boiling water. While this solution is
still very hot add the kerosene; if the whole is then left over the fire for a few
moments to raise the temperature of the kerosene slightly, it will facilitate the
emulsifying process. Remove from the fire and quickly begin to agitate the
whole mass through a syringe or force pump of some kind; draw the liquid into
the pump and force it back into the dish. Continue this operation for five
minutes or until the whole mass assumes a creamy color and consistency which
will adhere to the sides of the vessel, and not glide off like oil. If desired for
use immediately, it may now be readily diluted with cold water, preferably
with rain water. Or the whole mass may be allowed to cool when it has a
semi-solid form, not unlike loppered milk. This stock if covered and placed
in a cool dark place will keep for a long time. In making a dilution from this
cold stock emulsion, it is necessary to measure out the amount of the emulsion
required and first dissolve it in three or four parts of boiling water; if cold
water be used a large quantity of a white flocculent mass rises to the surface
and does not dissolve. After the stock emulsion is dissolved, cold water may
be added in the required quantities. If all the utensils are clean, and the direc-
tions followed closely, no free oil will rise to the surface of the dilution.

oc Sea eee

: me : Ag *
Tue Pear Tree Psy ua. 249

water. It was found that every nymph was killed by the emul-
sion even when diluted with twenty-five parts of water, and thus
containing less than three per cent of kerosene. The nymphs died
almost inmediately after the liquid touched them. These labora-
tory results were thus very encouraging.

Field experiments were soon begun to test the practicability of
the emulsion. No trees could be found that were very badly
infested. But by carefully examining the trees before and soon
after spraying it was estimated that from seventy-five to ninety
per cent of the nymphs were killed by one spraying with
kerosene emulsion diluted with twenty-five parts of water. Some
of the nymphs had by this time become nearly full grown, but
these were as quickly and effectually destroyed as were the young
ones. The habit of the nymphs of feeding in the leaf axils made
it easier for the spray to reach them; the liquid would naturally
run dow the leaf petioles and twigs and gather in the axils, and
thus become very effective. It was found that two quarts of the
dilution was suflicient for a large dwarf tree; and thirteen such
trees could easily be sprayed in half an hour with a knapsack
sprayer. It would, of course, take more time and material to spray
the large standard trees, but the whole cost for each tree would
not 'be more than one cent a tree for time and material. The
experiments with the kerosene emulsion against the nymphs were
so successful that no other insecticides were tried. The emul-
sion is the cheapest effective insecticide now known for sucking
insects; and our experiments have shown that it will prove a
very practical and efficient means for checking the ravages of the
Pear-tree Psylla if it be used thoroughly and in time.

The honey-dew did not interfere with the action of the insec-
ticide this year, 1892. This was probably due to the fact that

- many hard showers fell during the early part of the season. The

rain washed off much of the secretion. This fact should be taken

advantage of ‘by fruit growers in spraying for the pest. Spray

soon after a heavy rainstorm, if possible; a shower soon after

spraying will not lessen the destructiveness of the emulsion as

the nymphs are killed almost instantly. There is not the least
32

Mee a ea ee eae aes
250 AaqricutturaL Exprrment Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.

danger of injury to the trees from the diluted emulsion. All
dwarfs and young trees of all kinds may be sprayed with a knap-
sack sprayer.

The best time to spray is early in the spring just after the leaves
have expanded. In 1892, about May fifteenth, was the best time.
Then the first brood of nymphs had all emerged and were exposed
in the axils. It was this first brood which did the most damage
in 1891. Therefore, it is very important that the insect should
be checked early in the season. Fruit-growers should examine
their orchards when the leaves are expanding in the spring, and
if the nymphs are numerous no time should be lost in spraying
the trees with emulsion. A second or even a third spraying could
be profitably applied if the attack were serious, and especially if
but little rain had fallen to wash off the honey-dew. The destruc-
tion of the nymphs is practicable during a period of two weeks
about May fifteenth. If the spraying is thoroughly done at this
time, the pest will be so completely checked ‘as to necessitate but
little, if any, further attention during the season. Most of the
damage is usually done before June fifteenth, but spraying after
this date will decrease the number from which the hibernating
forms are produced; and thus the orchard may be saved from a
severe attack the following year.

The summer adults were not numerous enough this year to
thoroughly test the effect of spraying upon them. It seems from
the experiments made last year by fruit-growers that it is hardly
practicable to kill the adults by spraying. A few may be
destroyed by coming in contact with the emulsion when they
return to the tree. ;
Technical Descriptions.

Full grown nymph.— Length, 1.4 min.; width, 115 mm. Oval
in outline, and much flattened, being only about one-fifth as thick
as long. General color light yellowish brown 6ften tinged with
crimson, and distinctly marked with blackish. The distal end of
the antennae, of the beak, and of the tarsi are black. The large
wing pads, the whole dorsal aspect of the head except a large
mesal stripe, and the caudal half of the abdomen both on the dor-

a,

,
‘

Tue Pear Tree Psy. oi Oey

sum and venter are blackish or brownish black. The dorsum of
the thorax and the cephalic half of the abdomen are marked on
each side the light meson by sixteen blackish spots; the twenty-
six on the thorax are of varying sizes and shapes; the six on the
abdomen are narrow elongate. On the venter of the abdomen,
eight and sometimes ten similar spots occur, two large oval ones
on each side near the lateral edge, and two or three elongate ones
farther cephalad on each side near ‘the meson. The eyes are large
and of a crimson color. The legs are slightly darker than the body.
Oftentimes the light body color between the black is strongly
suffused with crimson. Stout hair or bristles project from the
following situations: Four from the front of the head; the basal
and terminal joints of the antennae each bear two; each leg has
several; three project from the costal margin of each front wing
pad, and two from the outer margin of each hind wing-pad; and
the caudal half of the abdomen is fringed with eight large and
fourteen smaller bristles. The encircling row of wax-cells about
the ‘anus has a definite form which may be of specific importance.

Figures 1 and 2, page 233, drawn with a camera lucida, show
the position of the anus with its encircling ring (Fig. 2, a); also the
situation, relative size, and form of the bristles and blackish mark-
ings of the nymph.

Summer form of adult, Psylla pyricola pyricola: Length
of, body 2.25 mm.; the wings extend a little beyond the
end of the abdomen. In general form they strikingly resem-
ble a Cicada in minature, the head is broad and held nearly
vertical; the thorax is strongly built, and the pronotum, all foun
sclerites of the mesothorax, and the scutum and scutellum of the
metathorax are distinct on the dorsum; the abdomen is cyclind-
rical ovate, largest near the fourth segment and tapering to the
genital organs. The general color varies from a light scarlet to
crimson with black markings. Head (Fig. 7, a) broadly triangu-
lar, slightly concave caudad; the hair line just above the head
in the figure represents the natural width, including the eyes;
the clypeus projects ventrad in the form of two separate diverg;
ing hairy cones (Fig. 7, c) with white tips and brownish red
bases; the mesal suture of the epicranium is black with a lightey

VE a Oke” eee fee uk 3%.
252 AGRICULTURAL Exprertment Station, Irpaca, N. Y.

border, and a black spot occurs in a slight depression each side
of the suture near the caudal border. The eyes are large and
prominent, and of nearly the same color as the body except about
the ventral aspect which is black; three minute ocella are situated
as shown in Fig. 7 at c. The antennae are about one and one-
half times as long as the width of the head and tipped with two
large bristles; the first joint is reddish, the tenth, ninth, and
distal half of the eight joints are black, and the remainder of the

Figure 7.— A, head of adult, front view; c, cones of clypeus; 0, ocelli; b, antenna of adult
greatly enlarged.

joints are light brown darker at their distal ends; the first and
second joints are together equal in length to the fourth, the »
third is one and one-half times longer than the fourth, and the
others are of nearly equal length; joints four, six, eight and nine
are each furnished with a large sensoria near their distal ends.
Fig. 7, b, represents an antenna highly magnified to bring out
the details of its structure; the hair line above the figure repre-
sents the natural growth. The three-jointed beak is black, and
passes through a deep groove just cephalad of the front coxae.
The pronotum is quite narrow; color, reddish black mesally with
a whitish spot each side, and another similarly slightly raised
spot near the lateral edge within a slightly depressed elongate
black spot. The praescutum of the mesothorax is large, convex,
triangular in outline broadest caudad; color of cephalic half,
except a narrow mesal stripe, black which merges into the
crimson of the caudal portion; the lateral angles and a small
tooth each side of the meson on the caudal border are whitish.
The scutum of the mesothorax which bears the front pair of
Wings is large, convex and quadrangular in outline; color, a
broad crimson mesal stripe wider at the ends with a blackish
center; each side of this a fusiform black stripe which is sepa-
rated from a wider lateral black stripe by a narrow crimson

Tue Pear Tree Psyua. 253

stripe. The scutellum of the mesothorax is broadest cephalad
and slightly smaller than the praescutum; color, crimson with a
whitish curved tooth projecting cephalad from the lateral angles.
The postscutellum of the mesothorax is barely visible on the
meson but is quite distinct each side the scutellum; color, brownish
red. The scutum of the metathorax which bears the hind wings
is narrow meseally but nearly as wide as the scutum of the meso-
thorax laterally; color crimson mesally merging into black at
the sides. The scutellum of the metathorax is nearly round,
slightly raised, and light crimson in color. Beneath, the thorax
is marked with large irregular black spots. The legs are of a
light yellowish brown color, except the thickened femurs which
are black; all of the legs are thickly set with short hairs and the
tibiae and first tarsal joints of the hind legs are armed at their
distal ends with densely black short spurs, five upon each tibia,
three being set very close together on the under side, and two on
each tarsal joint; the hind coxae are the largest and have a long

Figure 8. — Venation of wings; s, stigma: c, clavus; e, s, claval suture.

spur projecting caudad against the abdomen and which aids the
insect in leaping. The relative size and shape, and the venation
of the wings are shown in Fig. 8; the hair line beneath the front
wing represents the natural size of the wing. The front wings
have a slight yellowish cast which partially obscures their
transparency; in some specimens there are also yellowish shades
in the cells. The hind wings are transparent and more delicate
than the thicker, firmer front ones. The very strong veins of
the front wings are always of a light yellowish brown color and
are provided with short hairs on each side throughout their
length; the stigma (Fig. 8, s) is usually but a little lighter in
color than the veins; the tip of the clavus (Fig. 8, c) is brownish

” ee Nea ey ay bey is
,

4 tS
4

254 Ag@riouttuRAL Exprertment Sration, Iruaoa, N. Y.

black in color, and a spot of about the same size and a little
lighter in color occurs in the basal cell along the claval suture
(Fig. 8, c. s) opposite the blackish tip of the clavus. The veins
and boundary of the basal third of the hind wings are yellowish
and nearly as large as those in the front wings; the remainder
of the veins are very indistinct: along the hind margin, the clavus
is slightly thickened and is brownish in color especially at the
tip and near the basal angle. The first abdominal segment is
closely joined to the thorax and has a slightly raised nearly
square black spot on the dorsum. The second segment, separated
from the first by a distinct suture and slight cons¥riction, has a
small black mesal spot on the dorsum and a large irregular
black spot on the sides. The following five segments each
have a broad black band passing over the dorsum near the
cephalic margin of the segments. Along each side on
the lateral fold occurs a row of eight irregular black
spots, seven of which contain each a spiracle. The second,
third, fourth, fifth and sixth segments each have on the
venter a broad black band similar to those on the dorsum. In the
female the eighth and tenth segments constitute the lower and
upper plates respectively of the genital apparatus; these are black,
and on the dorsum at the base of the upper plate is situated the
brownish anus. The ninth segment constituting the sheath
between the genital plates is brownish. Fig. 6, page 241, shows
the position of the anus (a); the appearance of the genital appaira-
tus (uj) upper genital plate; (1) lower genital plate; (e) egg-sheath;
and the wsnber, arrangement and relative size of the black spots
on the abdomen of the female as seen from the side; only that
portion of the first segment which bears the spiracle is repre-
sented. The abdomen of the male (Fig. 5, page 241) differs from
that of the female in being slightly smaller and longer; the eighth
segment is distinct from the genital apparatus and has a broad
black band on its venter in which the seventh spiracle occurs; the
trough-shaped ninth segment is black and constitutes the lower
plate (Fig. 5, 1) of the genital apparatus; the upper plate (Fig. 5,
u) or tenth segment is narrow and arises vertically at the base of
the lower plate; this upper plate is blackish in color, lighter about
the tips where the anus (Fig. 5, a) is situated; the forceps (Fig. 5,

i

i

Tae Prar Trem Psyiwa. 955

f) or claspers are a pair of narrow blunt black prongs arising from
out the caudal end of the lower plate; these clapers curve slightly
laterad before meeting at their tips and thus form an cyal opening
between them as seen from behind; the penis (Fig. 5, p) is also a
paired organ arising as two narrow knobbed rods from near the
middle of the trough. Fig. 5, page 241, shows the arrangement of
the markings on the abdomen, and the relative size and shape of
the parts of the genital apparatus of the male when viewed from
the side. Fig. 3 represents an adult female. of the summer form
with the wings at rest.

Winter form of the adult, Psylla pyricola simulans.— This form
differs from the summer form only in size and coloration. It is
nearly one-third larger and the predominating color is black, due
to the intensely black markings and the general dark reddish
brown color of the body. On,the head, the borders of the epicra-
nium, about the base of the antennae, and a spot near each eye
are often whitish; about the base of the beak it is black and the
cones of the clypeus are blackish with sometimes a whitish tip;
the antennae have their brown portions of a little darker color
and the basal joint is often black. The tergum of the thorax
varies from being only slightly darker in color than the typical
summer form to nearly all black, there remaining only a narrow
whitish caudal border on the praescutum of the mesothorax, the
reddish mesal stripe on the scutum of the mesothorax appears as
two narrow stripes so distinct is its black center, and the curved
whitish teeth of the scutellum of the mesothorox. The coxae and
tarsi are often blackish with the remainder of the legs of a darker
brown. The front wings do not have the yellowizh tinge and are
thus more transparent; the veins are always of a dark brown or
black color and more or less distinct black shades occur in the
cells; in dark specimens these shades are very distinct; the stigma
is slightly lighter than the veins; the tip of the clavus is distinctly
black and a blackish spot occupying nearly one-half of the basal
cell extends along nearly the entire length of the claval suture;
another blackish spot occurs on the clavus along the claval suture
near its base.

256 AgricutturaL Experiment Station, Iruaca, N. Y.

Bibliography and Synonomy.

Psylla pyricola Forster, Psyll. p. 77 (1848), original description;
Low, Verh. der Zool. Bot. Ges. in Wien, XXXII, 247 (1882),
synonomy; ibid, XXXIV, 148 (1884), bibliography; ibid, XXXVI,
154 (1886), table of species (translation in Insect Life, IV, 127);
Riley, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. II, 67 (1883), synonomy; Scott, Ent.
M. Mag., XTX, 205 (1883), nymph described; Lintner, Country Gent.
(1891), Ent. Club A. A. A. S., in Can, Ent. XXIII, 230 (1891), life
history; Schwarz, ibid. in Michigan. Slingerland, Assoc. Economie
Entomologists, Aug. 16, 1892, life history, preventive methods.

Psylla apiophila Forster, Psyll. p. 78 (1848), description; Low.
Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. in Wien, X XVII, 187 (1877), synonym; ibid.
XXXII, 232 (1882) synonym.

Psylla notata Flor. K. d. Rhyn. p. 365 (1861), original descrip-
tion; Low, Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. in Wien, XXXII, 244 (1882)
synonym.

Psylla pyrisuga Forster. Barnard, Proc. A. A. A. S§., XX VIIL
473 (1879), life history.

Psyla pyri Lin. Curtis, Gard. Chron. p. 156 (1842), stages
described; Harris, Inj. Ins. p. 201 (1852), early history in U. S.;
Fitch, Third Rept, p. 252 (1856), brief; Uhler, Agr. Rept. p. 314
(1850), brief; Glover, Rept. (1864), p. 560; ibid (1876), p. 33, brief;
Packard’s Guide, p. 531 (1869), brief; Le Baron, Second Rept. p.
154 (1872), stages described, brief; Thomas, Third Rept. p. 16
(1879), stages described, brief; Ashmead, Can. Ent. XIII, 220
(1881), brief; Cooke, Inj. Ins. p. 117 (1883), stages described, brief;
Saunders, Inj. Ins. p. 145 (1889), stages described, brief; Fisher,
Bull. 17, Hatch Expt. Sta. Mass., p. 24 (1892), experiments against;
Lintner, Science, XTX, 343 (1892), habits, brief.

Psylia simulans Forster, Psyll. p. 80 (1848), original description;
Scott, Trans. Ent. Soc. London, p. 536 (1876), described as P. pyri.

Slingerland Assoc. Economic Entomologists, Aug. 16, 1892,
synonym.

Psylla argyrostigma. Forster, Psyll. p. 97 (1848), description.

Psylla sp. Lodeman, Garden and Forest, June 15, 1892, life his-
tory, brief.

MARK VERNON SLINGERLAND.

Cornell University —Agricultural Experiment Station.

,

HORTIGUETURAL “DIVISION,

Bish be iN CoS E Vv. '
OCTOBER, 1892° ¥

Tomatoes.

By L. H. Batrzy anp L. C. Corbett.

33

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EPRI: SATCU EN Pd

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Mi Es i
7 te
NC OREM te NU Eee *

‘3

JUNOT RO? Ge (cee aee LE

ORGANIZATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

STATION COUNCIL.
President, Jacos GouLp ScHURMAN.

Sesame eRe os NY ELIAS sts 6a sa die wielia sia Trustee of the University.
Pipa Oe ., POTTER. 60/6 ecee0's 5 President State Agricultural Society.
MEA LOBHR TS aii icisce lca 'eldie ely etal elnpe coed a Professor of Agriculture.
RE PCTAE DW HUD caeek ccsicisiele v/s) 3/4 cuayasvelyyere ete + Professor of Chemistry.
PRESEN TAC Se SE) ay aah ape lubed cose saat Professor of Veterinary Science.
Em RON TISH tie viata ss) ds sve/als a's evels a1 wie» # a ane Professor of Botany.
I UNOOMETOCK A Nake eile ob) vabalde ae via as Professor of Entomology
ENE S ATTSENY 206 a: als oy'a)c, sogAain) sipwi¥ie. ave as ete ites Professor of Horticulture.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
emmrae bre CEL UEUIG way (Se, alien Walia bo) cei aiat laa nas Wy Sia) ah debe alata ds Director.
Meme Vos de VUNG cS 1907. cms snare «he! alates) Deputy Director and Secretary.
rng Ny PURE TARE e552 sc ay nate ate clas, 3) 6794s weds vetie t/ere”e twa) Sue ein Treasurer.
ASSISTANTS.
Pe STUNG IER TAND 014 7. cictoiktaus as iale/e: dlommnataie aaltatelaree ds Entomology.
eee, 8h VVC ALE OIN A's). ho iahs erga datas MEA SAT Nw alg Agriculture.
RE OLN OND 2 PC Ni yaa! PLA alae sn giele ol eharerarela eal ERE Horticulture.
NI ACSRIN'A TIGL sp dvah sata eh ay ins ah eyahale aha Staiataial ayeta soe ae @ Chemistry.

Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send us the
names of the parties.
BULLETINS OF 1892.
- 38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.
39. Oreaming and Aerating Milk.
40. Removing Tassels from Corn.
41. On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for Green-
house Heating.
42, Second Report upon Electro-Horticulture.
43, Some Troubles of Winter Tomatoes.
44, The Pear-Tree Psylla.
45. Tomatoes.

Oe WP th
$198, Ait ONE

Tomato Notes for 1892.

1. Quick and slew fertilizers.— The influence of heavy manur-
ing upon tomatoes has engaged our attention for a number of years.
It is a common belief that the tomato, unlike most plants, is not
benefited by rich soil or heavy fertilizing. “The plants run to
vine,” the gardeners say. There must be some truth in this belief,
else it could not have become so widespread and be held so tena-
ciously. Productiveness in the tomato in the northern States is
largely, if not chiefly, a question of early bearing; the plant wil
outlive any northern season, and its life is therefore determined
by contingencies of frost rather than by any inherent limit of
duration. The plant never matures here, and it would probably
continue ‘to bear for some months if not destroyed. We have car-
ried plants in bearing condition through two winters. It is appar-
ent, therefore, that any fertilizer which is not at once available
to the plant but which gives up its materials comparatively late in
the season, will maintain a vigorous growth and probably delay
fruitfulness. Coarse stable manures belong to this class. It is
some time before they become thoroughly decomposed and incorpor-
ated with the soil, and if applied heavily it is probable that they wiil
give unsatisfactory results. If the season were long enough to allow
the plant to live out its natural lifetime it is conceivable that the
materials would be gradually used and that the total productive-
ness of the plant would be as great, if, in fact, not greater, than
it would have been under a treatment which caused it to bear
heavily at an earlier period. Thoroughly decomposed manures
ought to give quicker and therefore more satisfactory results than
coarse ones, and proper concentrated fertilizers might give better
results than either. Ib would be interesting to know if stable
manure applied in the fall— and which, therefore, becomes thor-

Pas i ath MR NEI | Hc i nec Gh
} % ‘ $ We » ‘ 5 is

Pe dnt &
ae”

262 AgricuLttuRAL Exprrmentr Srarion, Irmaca, N. Y.

oughly incorporated with the soil before spring — will give earlier |
fruitage than similar manure applied in the spring. We tried
this experiment the past season, but the soil in the plots proved
to be so heterogeneous in character that we have no confidence in
the results. We made a very suggestive test in this direction last
year with nitrate of soda. Upon a certain area the material was
applied all at once early in the season (June twenty-fifth), and
upon another equal area the same amount of nitrate of soda was
applied in four applications from June twenty-fifth to August
‘ twenty-eighth. Up to about the first of October, the yield from
the first or single treatment area was twenty per cent greater than
from the other; but when the last picking (October fifth) was added,
the single treatment area fell some eight per cent behind. “ This
means,” as the bulletin states, “that the intermittent application
of fertilizer in lot 2 was beginning to be felt late in the season,
while the single early application of the same amount of fertilizer
gave quicker results. Frost held off until the second week in Octo-
ber, so that it happened that the intermittent fertilizing gave us the
better result, but had frost come the last of September, as it fre-
quently does at Ithaca, it would have given us the poorer result.”
This year the frost did come early (October first), and the inter-
mittent fertilizing gave us the poorer result. The figures which fol-
low afford a most striking confirmation of the foregoing remarks,
and they will bear careful study. Four plots, containing fifteen
plants each, were under experiment. In the first plot, three pounds
of nitrate of soda was applied at one time early in the season (June
twentieth); in ‘the second, the same amount was applied in four
applications from June twentieth to July twenty-seventh; in the
third, this amount was applied at four different times from June
twentieth to August twenty-sixth, thereby extending the growing
season very greatly; the fourth plot had no fertilizer. The plants
were set in the field June first, and they were all Ignotum. Table I
gives the yields until frost (October first). Table II gives the
total yield found by adding to Table I all the fruits which
remained on the plants after they had been killed by the
first frost.

BER Mak Baccu er Sethe ar eR te
a ve bata
Las Tomato Nores ror 1892. 263
TABLE I.
SrineLE v. IntTeRMITTENT FEeRtTILIzZINGs, TO FRost.
| " eee mA eet Eons?
ight ight
PLOTS — FIFTEEN PLANTS EACH. Pega per had on raicidial
plant. plant. fruits.
} f ) Pounds. Ounces.
1. Single application. Three pounds
ENT ALO SOC Bue UTE” DO alice cited O24 24.2 10.0 6.6
2. Four applications. Twelve ounces each, is
_ June 20, June 28, July 11, July 27..) 20.0 8.7 6.9
3. Four applications. Twelve ounces each,
June 20, July 21, August 8, August 26.) 15.2 6.6 6.9
2h OS 1300 RRS eS Oe ot RL 15.8 5.8 5.9
TABLE IL.
Smuvete v. IntrermMiTrent Fertizizines, Toran Crop.
pe acte skater a Averaee!
r i t i
PLOTS WIFIHEN PLANTS EACH. | Yumberot | wosghlot | alght of
plant. plant. fruits.
i ; : Pounds Ounces.
1. Single application of three pounds
nitrate soda, June 20... 6.006. ewe ae 53.3 17.8 5.3
2. Four applications of twelve ounces
nitrate of soda, June 20, June 28, July
11 TE RON dia eae EE 51.6 16.6 5.1
3. Four applications of twelve ounces
of nitrate of soda, June 20, July 21,
AMusust 8, August 26.50.00 1 olan 44.2 14.4 5.2
EIB CNS Lise sea WIN er ele eels Lieu palayt ovat Slat | 9.8 5.9
The second column of figures gives the total yields. It will be

» noticed that the best yields, in each table, are given by the single

fertilizing, and that between the intermittent fertilizings the one

which was completed first (No. 2) gives the better result.

This

was true in both the yield before frost and in the total yield, but
it must be observed that in the total yield the differences between

the intermittent fertilizings and the single fertilizings are not so

great as in the yield to frost; that is, the intermittent fertilizings

were catching up, and would probably have surpassed the other

RN Paes berth a8 A tte Dae igs id nit

264 AgriouLturAL Exprriment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

had the season been a month longer. Thus, in the first table, the
first intermittent plot (No. 2) is thirteen per cent less in yield
than the single treatment plot, but in the second table it is only
6.7 per cent less; the second intermittent plot (No. 3),is thirty-four
per cent less in the first instance and only nineteen per cent less
in the second instance. It will be noticed, also, that the number
of fruits—in the first column of figures—follows the same
course. All this is proof that productiveness in the tomato is
largely a question of early bearing and that the best tomato
fertilizers are those which give up their food materials quickly.

It must not be understood, however, that this early produc-
tiveness necessarily implies earlier individual fruits; that is, the
idea refers rather to the production of many fruits — heavy pick-
ings — early in the season rather than to the actual few first ripe
fruits. A detailed account of the pickings from the plots illus-
trates this:

9

265

Tomato Notss ror 1892.

OT 6&

6 66

8T YP

61 0g

T G

HOE 0€

4 LT

6 8

P é1

V 61
“‘spunog
“Buryord *poyord

©) syMaiy

FISIOM JoquinN

*HOHHO —p LOT

06 SF 1G Og
GI LG 8ST 96
86 v9 96 6g
&6G 6G LG 09
9 WE GI 66
& 8 ¢ FL
5 ome 6 6&
I P I 9
“‘spunog ‘spunog
“Burgard “peyord sarod *pexoid
jo symy jo symuz
JUSIO MM JoquamN JUZ1OM JequinN,
‘9g LSADAY OL ‘1 AIOL OL

‘0% UNO ‘SONIZITILUET

INGDLLINUALN] —g LOT

0@ HNOG ‘SONIZITICUE,T
INGLLINUALIN] —Z LOT

62 SOT ss oue a SteLeLeae. ocs ee uieneue=eMenare
FI Ge Siesta vitecenese eet eta tenesereneee: seen
0% GP Bue [aWive el are omeieheneSapwach ovevekente
te LL zener ens ya le sive le Wereievacezstarer ers
LI GF Snel vey) a eres new 0 Wi" 0 660 3 6
FL FS oeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
6 era FEO Oe eO- Oe aOR ata ROE
‘spunog
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) S}IMIy
FUSIOM JoqumnN
“ALVa
“ONIZITILUG,T

WIONIG—[ LOT

“pLooat 2UDI0qT

“ONIZITILAA INEALLINGHINT 2 2TONIQ—]][ #1aAvV

"gg arequieydag
"1g aequiaydag
“pT aaquieydag
"**8 saqureydag
"*'9 saquiaydag
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ry ysnSny
"""°"¢e Jsndny
"0g qsnony
. 5 qsnony

eeecee LG Ajne

34

266 AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, IrHaca, N. Y.

It appears that all the fertilizer plots were about equally early
in first fruits, but after the first two pickings the single treatment
plot gave the heaviest returns, and this advantage was main-
tained throughout the picking season. As between the two inter-
mittent treatment plots (Nos. 2 and 3), it will be observed that
heavy pickings were much more early in No. 2, in which the fer
tilizing was completed late in July. The habit of the variety as
to the season of its bearing was not greatly affected by the differ
ent treatments, but the amount of fruit borne at stated intervals
was greatly influenced. It is probable that the plant had deter-
mined the date of its first fruiting, so to speak, before the fertil- _
izer became available to it, for the plants were beginning to flower
when the first application was made; but as soon as the fertilizer
came into use, the habit of the plant was influenced, and the late
fertilizing, delayed, in a measure, the productiveness. At all events, £
I can offer no other explanation of the factsat the present time.

But these tests afford a means of comparing nitrate of soda
with no fertilizing, for the check plot (No. 4) received no treat-
ment. In each case, the check plot gives the poorest results;
showing that nitrate of soda has a distinct value as a fertilizer,
The differences in the appearance of the two plots (Nos. 1 and 4)
is well shown in the accompanying engraving (page 267), in which
the check plot occupies the left-hand portion. This appears like a
contradiction of some of our former experiments in which we
found no benefit to arise from the use of this material. But in
former tests, the soil was very poor and there was very little
potash or phosphorous to mate the nitrogen ‘in the nitrate of soda;
but in this test the soil was fairly good. If we repeat our state-
ments of a year ago, it will be seen that our present results are a
confirmation of former trials rather than a contradiction of them:
“Tt should be borne in mind that this substance [nitrate of soda!
is an incomplete fertilizer and that unless the soil contains potash
and phosphorous in sufficient amount the nitrate is nearly value-
less. It is simply a convenient and useful form in which to apply
nitrogen alone.” So that, while nitrate of soda is a good tomato
fertilizer when applied early upon fairly good soils, we can not
recommend that anyone should rely upon it exclusively year after
year. Potash and phosphoric acid must also be applied at intervals.

The effect of Nitrate of Soda, The Nitrate was applied to theright hand portion. Notice the bare spots in the no-treatment portion on the left.

rah »
4 ges Nae +

Tomato Norxs ror 1899. 4 269

2. General fertilizer tests— We shall pursue this study of
nitrate of soda still further in the following tests of the influences
of nitrogen, potash, and phosphorus applied separately and in
combination. Eight plots of six plants each, upon fairly good
gravelly soil which had been sparingly enriched in previous years,
were treated as follows, June twentieth, the yield being given in
the second column of figures:

TABLE IV — Ferriuizer Txst, To FRoszt.

Average Average Average

PLOTS. pole Be et)
Gre Plants Race.) sober en | cee ero a a
Pounds. Ounces.
1 | Nitrate of soda, one pound .. 30.0 9.5 5.07
2! Bone black, two pounds..... 19.6 5.8 4.8
3 | Muriate of potash, one pound. 24.2 (Pu 5.1
SJ Nitrate of soda, one pound...
’ | Bone black, two pounds ..... 20:0 12 5.7
Nitrate of soda, one pound... A
{ Muriate of potash, two pounds. f ge ths ag
Bone black, two pounds.....
e Muriate of potash, one pound. eae Bty hee
Nitrate of soda, one pound...
7 | 4 Bone black, two pounds ..... 19.8 7.3 5.9
Muriate of potash, one pound.
8 MOOG A ey rg eo che MeO 93.4 8.9 6.1
TABLE V — Ferriuizer Test, Toran Crop.
Average Average Average
PLOTS. 6
(Srx Puanrs Eacu.) Mer plant. |" per plant. > | vidual ?ralta,
4 Pounds. Ounces.
1 | Nitrate of soda, one pound... 50.6 14.5 4.5
2 | Bone black, two pounds..... 25.4 7.2 4.5
3 | Mauriate of potash, one pound. 34.6 9.6 4.4
Nitrate of soda, one pound...
¢ Bone black, two pounds ..... Hee sia a
5 Nitrate of soda, one pound... { 36.0
Muriate of potash, two pounds. ;
6 Bone black, two pounds ..... 99.5
Muriate of potash, one pound. |
Nitrate of soda, one pound...
7 |< Bone black, two pounds..... 48.2
Muriate of potash, one pound.

8 LOL Pe 0G) capa ene Na te i 40.2

eA TE Bn fs ee PS SY ee Seas .

270 AgrioutturaAL Exprrtment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

The first of these tables show that the nitrate of soda gave the
heaviest yield before frost, and it was the only treatment which
gave as good results as the check plot, which had no fertilizer.
It is to be observed, also, that while bone black and muriate of
potash gave the poorest results as single fertilizers, they gave the
best results of any of the combinations. If we turn to Table V,
however, and study the total yield of the season, we notice that
the nitrate of soda plot has perceptibly gained in proportional
yield, and that the best combination is No. 7, which contains
nitrate of soda; but the combination plot gives a trifle poorer
results than the nitrate alone. These two instances are also the
only ones which equal or exceed the yield of the no-treatment
plot. These tests are a repetition of a series made in 1891, when
one-fortieth acre plots were used. Last year, however, the trial
was made upon very poor and intractable soil and nitrate of soda
gave the smallest yields of the single treatments, and the best
yield was obtained from a combination of all three materials, but
even then the crop averaged to frost only 3.3 pounds per plant,
against 9.5 pounds in the best yield this year, in a shorter
season. ‘The experiments of 1891, seem to show, therefore, that on
very poor land nitrate of soda alone gives very little result, all the
three elements being needed to produce even a small yield; the
experiments of 1892 seem to show that upon tolerably good soil
nitrate of soda alone may give profitable results, and this conclu-
sion is strengthened by the other evidence which has been pre-
sented in this paper.

3. Relation of variety to fertilizing— Last year we raised the
question as to whether there is any difference between varieties in
the readiness with which they respond to fertilizers. Are some
types of varieties more likely to give good results from manuring
than others? The small test made upon this point last season
showed a decidedly greater tendency on the part of improved or
highly developed varieties, like the Ignotum, to produce more
fruits to the plant, but the total weight of crop did not appear to
follow this course. This year, five varieties were submitted to

Bar

Tomato Norrs ror 1892. 271

this test, Iznotum representing the more improved types, Ithaca
and Peach, the intermediate types, and Yellow Plum and Red
Cherry the least improved ones. On June twentieth, nearly three
weeks after the plants were set in field, each plot, containing six
plants, received a liberal dressing of equal parts of nitrate of soda,
muriate of potash, bone black and _ Bradley’s vegetable
fertilizer. The yields to frost are displayed in the follow-
ing table:

#

be an) Uy

4

ei

a

iS)
aa
Sh es]
Per; a
Be
antes H
oo <4
oem, >
fa,
ae oH
a4 Zz
eo
pss Oy
— bal
s ea
* 2
: 'S)
a

re)

= =)
©

=

=}

&

<q

-

272

‘SSO'T x
$e 9z'0 6Z"0 0° Sx QF 6°F EET C812 9°69 sot etesesse tases Cry pay
6°83 GF 0 S70 8°9§ €°6 8°9 C6 €°¢s 6° G3 ee ee 8 ee OO ae
8°0 IT ry geo <5 oe eens Mande yieg [ttttttteetteecssee eS yowag
oo ees ae 1g Le Ree eee er one sige [rttittettteseeee sees goeqay
9°64 8°9 Z°9 9°GE 6°6 er) 1°82 C° es 0'6I aie er cijeiiei a0) sieve, 0) «.¢) misters wha winjousy
jus dog | PONT | PzneUA| Nosy ted | ‘PeZMIEG [Pznaezan) SSE | -poamsea | P.zmseyaN -

*SLINU
TIVAGIAIGNT JO LHDIAAA AOVURAY

“INVId Wid dou) AO LHOIG A, ADVUBAY | “INV Ig Ud SLINUY UAANON ZOVUAAV

CSINVIg XIS)
“ALHTUVA

“MHZITILUD, dO HONANIANT OL AIMIUVA AO NOWVIEY —TA WIAVL

Tomato Notrs For 1892. 273

These results agree with those of 1891 in the fact that the
least improved variety — Red Cherry, in this instance — gave the
least increase in number of fruits, but beyond this there appears
to be no uniformity in the outcomes. It is remarkable that in
the Red Cherry there was somewhat less total yield in the ferti-_
lized plot than in the other; yet the Yellow Plum, which is very
little superior to it in degree of amelioration, gives a greater
increase, both in number of fruits and in total weight of crop, than
the Ignotum. Last year, the Ithaca gave the most remarkable
response to the fertilizer, but this year it gave comparatively little
response. It should be said, however, that the experiments of
last year were made upon, very poor soil, and the effect of the fer-
tilizers was therefore undisguised; but this year the plots were
upon good soil, somewhat variable in character, upon which the
fertilizers produced comparatively small effect. We shall attempt
to repeat this study upon a uniform poor soil.

4. Early and late setting— Three lots of Ignotum, each con-
taining twelve plants, were set in the field at different times, for

_ the purpose of determining if the date of planting, within, ordi- °

nary limits, greatly influenced earliness and yield. The plants
were all grown from seed sown January nineteenth, and they were
vigorous and stocky when set in field. The first lot, which may
be designated No. 1, was set May seventh. That night there was a
frost and the tips of the plants were killed. Another lot was
therefore set May ninth. For some days the weather was cold and
raw, although no frosts occurred, and for three weeks it was
very wet. The third lot was set at the general planting, June

first.
TABLE VII.— Earty anv Late Sertine, Totat Crop.

2 ye) Se) ee
fo | gee |e" | ge
a 2,
PLOT. 63 goa | 28s a a
25 B83 | Bye | Bue
3 rma r-OR >Ow
A eI 4 4
No. 1.— Set in field May 7....... August 22 | 23.8 | 8.5 5.8
No. 2.— Set in field May 9....... July PEARLS 0 10 O05 5.7
No. 3.— Set in field Junel...... July 27 | 26.2 | 8.8 5.4

35

The results are decidedly in favor of the second planting, BA ‘
May ninth. Even the frosted lot nearly equalled the main plant- ue
ing, but the plants were so checked that the first ripe fruits were —
three weeks later than in the other lots. It will be noticed, how- "
ever, that lot No. 2 was no earlier, so far as first fruits are con-
cerned, than the late planting, but the first pickings were heavier —
in lot 2. ‘In both lots, the flower buds had already appeared when :
the plants were set, so that the first fruits were already deter-
mined; in the earliest lot, these buds had been killed by frost. The
following is a detailed account of the behavior of the plants to
frost: Ps

275

Tomato Nores ror 1892.

peyord sqinaz
Jaquinu sfou A.

GIL 1a OOT 986 osee eee ee eee ee ee eee eee eee eee ee ee

CSO Cav g

eee ween 86 laquiaydag
04 eile 6.6) (ete IZ raquiaydeg
Ce, 8)te ene <oe al taquiaydag
ewwavevcne g aaquieydag

61 7£G IZ Tihs Sid. Cvike) Vase, emepinerty ¢owcere stern) were ‘one, 6 is) ool vy wie ne), eben re: ene Z taquiaydag

“spunog “spunog

“aLVa

peyord symaz
Jaquinu 8foy MA

pexord symaz
Ioquinu efOuTM

‘| ENO Lag ‘¢

‘6 AVI LHS ‘Z ‘) AVI Lag T

“CHOORY TWVLACG ‘ONILLEG HLV]T GNV ATAVY —TITA HIAV.L

eR eae qysnony

ecener eehecwhe ewe qsnsnyw

a Peitwu ec SER qsnony

ve 8 eee we eevee 1e Aine

eh eT as? 7 . 7: ee : Pa ORR et web, = Agu :

276 AgricutturAL Exprrtment Sration, Irnaca, N.Y.

It will be noticed that the lessened productiveness of lot 1—
the earliest setting —as compared with the main setting in lot 3,
was due to the delay of fruiting caused by the injuries of the
frost, for the pickings, when they once began, averaged heavier
than in the latest setting. The great advantage maintained by
the second setting —lot 2—was not due to absolute earliness,
but to early productiveness; and this supports the conclusions
which we have already drawn from our studies of fertilizers, that
productiveness in the tomato is chiefly a question of early prolific
bearing. These remarks may also throw: some discredit upon
the common method of determining comparative earliness of vari-
eties by recording the date of the first ripe fruit; profitable
earliness is determined by the ability of the variety to maintain{
heavy early pickings rather than by the date at which the few
first fruits ripen.

This is the third year that we have made this test upon early
and late settings, and our results have been substantially alike
throughout — that tomato plants are not injured by the cold raw:
weather of late spring, and that a slight frost may not greatly!
retard them. This conviction has been an unwilling one on the
part of the writer, for he entertained the belief that the inclement
weather of early May in the northern States is very prejudicial
to the tomato. “In our tomato bulletin for 1889 this statement
was made: “It is a common mistake to set tomato plants in the
field too early. Cold nights, even though several degrees above
frost, check the plants, sometimes seriously.” This statement
now seems to be much too strong, and we are gradually adapt-
ing our general practice to our new belief. In 1889, our toma-
toes were set in field June tenth to twelfth; in 1890, they were
set June twelfth; in 1891, June nineteenth; in 1892, June first;
and next year we shall set our plants in May.

5. Early and late seed-sowing.— In 1889 we made some tests
to determine if it pays to start tomato plants under glass with
artificial heat, rather than to wait until they can be started under
cold frames. Sowings were made March twenty-one and twenty-
two, April ten, twelve and fifteen, and May fifteen. “In every,
instance the early sown plants gave earlier fruits than the others.”

Tomato Notes ror 1892. 277

“The gain in earliness sometimes amounts to three or even four

weeks.” We were satisfied that in this climate it pays to start;
tomatoes as early as the middle of March. Farther south, where
the seasons are longer, this may not be true. The question now
arises if it pays to start tomatoes earlier than March, for this
State. Four lots of Ignotums, twelve plants in each, were grown.
for a test. The first lot was sown January nineteen, and the.
plants were transplanted February one, March three, and May
seventeen. The second lot was sown February twelve and trans-
planted March four, April four and May two. The third lot
was sown February twenty-four and transplanted March twenty-
second and May second. The fourth lot was sown March four-
teen and transplanted April fourteen and May nine. The plants
were all set in field June one, and all were thrifty and stock
plants. The outcome to frost was as follows:

TABLE IX — Earty anp Late SEED Sowina.

may Average Average
DATE OF SOWING. number fruits | weight of crop | weight of indi-
per plant. per plant, vidual fruits.
SURO NO oo ais)s esd hw diatvie oie os 20.6 8.5 6.5
EURO LSS ciate eh i shes olds ah 20.6 8.4 6.5
RIENCE AS: 05) aie tree 3 v6 0 voice Me 21.0 9.1 70
MMMM VAS 3), aie a she wits acca aie 26.0 11.0 7.4

The result, as read in the second column of figures, is decid-
edly in favor of the latest sowing, the second best yield being in,
the second last sowing. The earliest two sowings give practi-
cally the same results. The detailed behavior of the plants dur;
ing the bearing season is recorded below:

AgriouLtturAL Exprrment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

278

—

a!

GE OOT 61 Le 9Z ol 4 Wi ee es eee So Re AOS
Il 93 9 SI FL 98 al ge . IE ie age ARPES Se SST AOU
GE 69 JAN IP FI Ze 0B OF See te ance ea es ae eee TOTO
GS 6F 8B Ig 9I Le 6I Le Ui) ciple Va ere, oie ples ol are chl le. @iee Pte laquieydag
eL 1g 9G 19 mi Le ol 9% Se eer aap Ne Shane US TEA cph ens SA Ache uel eie raquiaydag
S 8 OL GZ p rae $ IL EES 208. YA eNRs NR SRR ES ape gene Ta qsnony
w c e 6 e SL I c ee Me ceeds gg Saar Re a qsnony
I $ g 6 z ia apameney ele isabel (ele, e =e! [hae yee i.) (e189 sess ace Lewnt e-.6,0e)-p- Li 16> isa g qsnony
sine ene sezehe ee aheysletale oie sje ee I e Z 8 aoe 64 SCE ran pote seg Ae
“spunog ‘spunog spunog ‘spunog

Sa. yo phe sce Bele i! es aurora Shee Borprd | gta toq

qusiem |-amu ofoqm| 9° 747!PM [oma ojo! 7° 749!°MN |-conu ofoyy| 2° F417 M |-coma Ole ‘TLV

“pl HOUV] NMOS ‘F ‘pl AUVOUAH,] NMOS ‘g ‘g[ AUVOUGHY NMOS “% ‘6. AUVONVE NMOS ‘T

‘duOOUY TWVLA “ONIMOG aaag ALW] GNV ATIVE —X WIGWVL

5 gi eee
:

Tomato Norrs ror 1892. 979

The figures show that the earliest fruits were got from the

’ earliest sowings, but at the end of August the third sowing (Feb-

ruary twenty-fourth) had exceeded the earlier ones in yield. It
was not until the middle and late September pickings that the

fourth lot began to gain over the others, and by the last of the

month it had surpassed them all in yield. Our experiments of
four years ago show that it is profitable to start tomato seeds in
this climate as early as the middle of March; our experiments
this year show that it is not profitable to start them earlier than
the middle or first of March. But inasmuch as earlier fruits
can be got by earlier sowings, it may be worth while to start a
small part of the crop in the middle or first of February if an

_ early market is to be supplied; but the cost of this extra care and

handling must be reckoned. The main crop, it appears, should
be started in March.
But it must be said that much depends upon the manner in

_ which the plants are handled. Early plants must be transplanted

to keep them growing, and they must have congenial surround-
ings. We tried to determine the effect of ill-treatment. A lot of
vigorous seedlings, in pots, were placed in a cold and leaky house.
The pots were packed in moss and set upon a cold, damp earth
floor. Several times the mercury fell nearly to the freezing point.
The plants became yellow and weak, and were finally unable to
support themselves readily. In this condition the plants were
taken into the tomato-house and given the most careful nursing.
They never outgrew the disaster. Yet plants little better than
these are often set in the field to shift for themselves!

6. Few and several transplantings.— The vigor and stockiness
of plants, as we have said in the last paragraph, are important
features, and these are greatly influenced by the frequency of
transplanting. Two dozen uniform Ignotum plants were selected
from a sowing made in flats March fourteenth. One dozen were
transplanted once, May eighteenth, into four-inch pots; the others
were transplanted three times, April fourteenth, May ninth and
seventeenth, into a flat, three-inch and four-inch pots, respect-
ively. All were again transplanted into the field June first.

~~ oe ee my ergy ve BORA ,.
"| t -, . Cir tele

x os

280 AgricutturaL Exprrment Station, IrHaca, N. Y.

TABLE XI— Few anv SEvERAL TRANSPLANTINGS, TO Frost.

——

Average Average Average
Date of first | number of | weightof | weight of
PLOT. picking. fruits per crop per | individual
plant. plant. fruits.
Pounds. Ounces.
No. 1, transplanted once...... Aug. 22 17.3 8.5 7.8
No. 2, transplanted three times.| Aug. 3 22.2 8.3 5.9

There was very little difference in the yields of the two lots, but
the three transplantings gave the earlier fruits, and in this respect
the results agree with those obtained last year. In 1891, in a
comparison of one, two and three transplantings, all lots being
duplicated, the two transplantings gave decidedly the heaviest
yields.

7. Flat-grown v. Pot-grown Plants.—It is a question whether
young tomato plants thrive better in “ flats ” — or shallow tray-like
boxes in common use among gardeners — or in pots. From each
of two sowings of Ignotum, made February twelfth and March
fourteenth, in flats, two dozen uniform plants were selected.
One dozen, in each instance, were transplanted into flats, and one
dozen into pots, on the same days. The transplantings were
made as follows:

Series I (sown February twelfth), March fourth, April fourth,
May fifth.

Series II (sown March fourteenth), April fourth, May ninth.

The flat-grown plants in each instance were set so far apart in
the flats that the plants could not interfere with each other, and
at the final transplanting they stood from three to four inches
apart each way. The pot-grown plants in the first series were
transplanted into thumb pots and then into three-inch and four-
inch pots. In the second series, they were placed in three-inch
and four-inch pots. The records are these:

Tomato Norss ror 1892. 281

Tasie XII.— Fiat-Grown v. Pot-GRown PLANTS.

AVERAGE NUMBER |AVERAGE WEIGHT |AVERAGE WEIGHT
FRUITS PER| OF CROP PER| OF INDIVIDUAL
PLANT. PLANT. FRUITS.

SAMPLES.
Fiat. Pot. Flat. Pot. Flat. Pot.
Series I:
Mearon, 24: Ui ewer 30.4 | 26.0" Io 6 air 7.0
Series II:
Bebruary 12s Usp. 2... 20:5 (831500) V8L6 {METS p06 og 5.9

The yields, in the second double column of figures, are decidedly
in favor of pot-grown plants, especially in the later sowing. And
it may also be said, although the table does not show it, that the
pot-grown plants gave earlier fruits. )

8. Seedlings v. Cuttings.— In 1890, seedling tomato plants gave
twice as heavy yields as cuttings of equal age. In 1891, seedlings
gave earlier fruits, and with one variety — Lorillard — the yield
was also much greater from seedlings, while in the Ithaca it was
less. Secondary cuttings, that is, cuttings taken from the cutting
plants, gave much larger yields than their parents, but the crop
was much later. These experiments were repeated this year. The
stock from which all the lots of this year came was one fine seed-
ling plant of unknown parentage, of the Peach type, which came
up in our forcing-houses. Late in winter, strong cuttings were
taken from the axillary shoots of this plant and were set out regu-
larly in our tomato house. In March, therefore, we had the one
old or parent plant, still in full vigor, which we shall call A, and
a small brood of cutting plants which we shall call collectively, B.

March twenty-nine, twelve cuttings were taken from A. These
cuttings were three to four inches long, and comprised the entire
length of vigorous axillary shoots. At the same time, seeds were
sown from fruits on the same plant. The two lots were there-
after treated as nearly alike as possible. They were set side by
side in the field June first. Their behavior was as follows:

36

‘i rs : FN TR Te gene a a et ae
c? we ' » dee ue?

282 AaqricutruRAL Exprrment Station, Iraaca, N. Y.

TasLe XIII.— Srepiines v. Curtres, To Frost,

Average num- |Average weight| Average weigh
SAMPLES (MARCH 29.) First picking. | berfruitsper| fruit per| individua
plant. plant. fruits.

BGCUUINGS oo... oa al Sept. 2... 23.6 | 3.0 Ibs. 2.0 oz.

PE TAMS 9 Yucca ichGte Ts Ausai os 43. 4.8 Ibs. 1.8 oz.

Here, then, the cuttings were both much earlier and more pro-

ductive than the seedlings. This is opposed to most of our earlier
results.
_ May third, another batch of cuttings was taken from the old
plant A. These were three or four inches long and were made
from the tips of axillary shoots which had reached a foot or more
in length. Seedlings were started from the same plant at the
same time, and the two lots were placed side by side in the field.
The results are like those above, only less pronounced:

Taste XIV.— Srxepiines v. Currines, To Frost.

Average num- |Average weight| Average weight

SAMPLES, (MAY 3.) First picking. | berfruitsper| fruit per) individual
plant. plant. fruits.

seedlings... 20.4. Sept. 2... 12 2.1 lbs. 2.9 oz.

PAUMIEIOIS: 5 x aides ye. Aug. 22.. 15.3 | 2.3 Ibs. 2.3 OZ.

Now, at the same time that this last lot was started, May third,
a dozen good cuttings were taken from the plants B, which were
themselves cuttings. These cuttings of cuttings were given the
same treatment as the cuttings specified in the above table, and
were set.alongside them in the field. They gave their first pick-
ing August twenty-second, the same date as the one-generation
cuttings, but they gave over twice the yield of either cuttings
or seedlings — 5.4 pounds per plant, which is a fair yield for plants
started in May. This, in general, tallies with our experience
last year. We can not account for it. Another strange thing about

*S3UI}]NO UOJ SI JOT O[Pprur oy ‘ AJoatyoodsea symuaj Aj.180
pu oy¥] JO sjonpoid Moys sojduvs puey4yysi1 pus puvy-yjol euL ~“Suryoid pesoued ysuy ong 4v ‘sSuN49NO pue sys Oey pus ALBA JO sqonpoig

Tomato Nortss ror 1892. 285

these cuttings of cuttings is the fact that they did not reproduce the
parent type, A, but of this we do not feel competent to speak more
fully at present.

9. Products of early and late fruits——A house plant of the Cur-
rant-Ithaca hybrid described last year (Bulletin 32, p. 165) gave
its first ripe fruit December 3, 1891. Seeds were saved from this,
and also from another fruit upon the same plant which matured
March 18, 1892. These seeds were sown at the same time, and at
the same time, also, cuttings were taken from the plant. The three
lots made the following record:

TABLE XV.— Propucts or Eariy anv Larter Fruits, To FRosv.

Average
i Average A Average
SAMPLES. Date of first | number fruits} PCight of | weight of indi-
1 ot per plant. Pp vidual fruits.
plant.

5 f ‘ | Pounds. | Ounces.
1. First ripe fruit..... July 27 76.4 san! 0.22
2. Late ripe fruit..... July 27 Dy Sa 2.1 0.29
BRO VGGINOS fs «si nies June 20 120.3 | 1.8 0.25

The poorest results were got from the seeds of the earliest
fruit. The earliest picking was obtained from the cuttings, but the
heaviest yield came from seedlings of the late fruit. The light
yields are due to the variety, it being a cherry-like tomato. The
table also affords a comparison of seedlings and cuttings, as
discussed in section 8, the cuttings being earliest, and producing
more than one lot of seedlings and less than another. The accom-
panying picture shows the status of these three lots at the picking
of July twenty-seventh. The left-hand sample comprises all the
fruits picked from the dozen plants of No. 2— products of late
fruit; the middle one, those picked from No. 3 — the cuttings, and
the right-hand samples is the picking of No. 1—the product of
first ripe fruit. It may seem strange that early fruits should give
less yield than late ones, but the result is not novel. We found
the same thing to be true last year in a number of varieties, and

similar results have been obtained elsewhere. In our experiments
~ last year there were no constant differences between the sets in

ee ae oe ee
iw ‘We ates Ae

286 AgriouLturAL Exprrtment Sratron, Irmaca, N. Y.

point of earliness. This illustrates the law that any fruit repro-
duces its parent rather than itself; that is, the character of the
plant as a whole is more important than the character of any indi-
vidual fruit upon it. We should, therefore, expect better results in
earliness by selecting fruits from an early plant rather than by
selecting early fruits from an ordinary plant.

10. Products of mature and immature fruits—In March, a
fully ripe fruit, and one which was full grown and was about to
begin to color, were selected from a house-grown plant of the
Brick tomato —a large regular, red variety. Plants were grown
from each lot of seeds.

TABLE XVI— Propucrs .* Marurr axp Immature FRuits.

Average Average Average

ioki number of | weight of | weight of
SAMPLES. Date of first picking. fruits fruit in day idual
per plant. | per plant. fruits.
Pounds. Ounces.
MPP AGUITC, oi )0. 15 65) 0 She fap 2 ABUSE «Bosh 5 26.0 12.0 :
Poymatures 221.5 32 ees 4. August 22...... 24.7 ph oe 6.9

The mature-fruit lot gave the better results, both in earliness
and yield.

11. “Leggy” plants— Plants which have grown tall and
spindling are known among gardeners as “leggy” plants, in dis-
tinction to those which are “stocky,” or short and stout. Leggy
plants usually give very poor results in the field when set in the
ordinary manner; but some growers obtain good returns from
them by laying the stem upon the ground or in a little trench,
when setting, and covering it with earth, allowing only a few
inches of the tip to protrude. This treatment prevents the break-
ing of the plant by the wind, and roots will form along the buried
portion which may aid in the production of a crop of fruit. This
system was tried last year, ‘but the layered leggy plants gave less
results than normal plants set in the ordinary fashion, but they
gave better results than leggy plants not layered. Our leggy
plants last year were very poor, however; they were so badly

‘

Tomato Norrs ror 1892. 287

drawn that they could scarcely stand alone. This year the effort
was repeated, but the drawn or leggy plants, while tall and slen-
der, were still able to support themselves, and they were vigorous.
The lots for this year’s test came from Ignotum seeds sown Feb-
ruary twelfth. All the plants were transplanted at the same
times, March fourth, April fourth, May second, and were set in
field June first. Lot No 1 was transplanted into pots at the first
shifting. At the date of setting in the field they were in four-inch
pots, and were short, stocky plants of ordinary dimensions. Lot 2
was also grown in pots of the same sizes, but the plants stood
amongst a general collection of other plants, and because of lack
of room and light, ran up eighteen or twenty inches high. Lot 3
was grown entirely in flats, being giving more room at each shift-
ing, but the plants were allowed to grow eighteen or twenty inches
tall from crowding. Lot 1 was set in the field in the ordinary
manner. Lots 2 and 3 were trimmed of their lower leaves, the
root was set at the ordinary depth — three to four inches — and
half the length of the slender stem was laid down and covered in
a trench of the same depth, the free portion lying nearly parallel
with the surface of the ground. The following figures. show how
all these lots behaved:

TABLE XVII —“ Leaey,” on Daawn PLants.

Average Average Average

eat piel ber of ight of ight of
Los Firat picking. | Aopberot | weent ot | olene cE
per plant. | per plant. fruit.
Pounds. Ounces.
1. Check, normal setting ..| August 8 12.0 4.3 5.8
2. Leggy, pot-grown...... August 8 19.5 is 6.0
3. Leggy, flat-grown...... August 12 12.2 4.4 5.8

These figures show plainly enough that the layered leggy pot-
grown plants gave decidedly best results, and that even the flat-
grown leggy plants gave slightly heavier yield to frost than normal
plants, although they came into bearing later. If these figures
are to be relied upon, there is some advantage in growing tall and
slender plants and then laying them down in setting; but the test

288 AgrioutturAL Experiment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

needs to be repeated, and it should also be said that the plants,
while leggy, were still vigorous.

12. Shearing young plants.—It is a frequent practice to shear
the tops off young tomato plants to make them stocky, in place of
a transplanting. Two dozen Ignotum plants, for which seeds were
sown January nineteenth, were distributed into two lots. One
lot, which we may call No. 1, was transplanted on February first,
March third, April fourteenth, and May seventeenth; the second
lot was treated the same way except that in place of the last
transplanting, May seventeenth, the plants were sheared. At
this time tthe plants were some fifteen inches high, and about three
inches of the top was cut off.

TABLE XVIII.—SuHEraringc Youne PLAnts.

Average Average Average
LOTS. First picking. | number fruits | weight fruit | weight indi-
per plant. per plant. vidual fruits.
Pounds Ounces.
MR INOTIDAL. 5:55. 2b: si oyets, 3 July 27 26.2 : 5.4
ASheareds .)o'5 ee. Aug. 29 23.6 9.6 6.5

There was considerable loss in earliness in the sheared lot, but
a gain in weight of crop before frost. This gain was not great,
and too much dependence should not be placed upon it.

15. Hilling— Two plots of twenty-eight good Ignotum plants
each were set aside for a test of the value of hilling tomatoes, half
of each plot being hilled July second, the remaining halves receiv-
ing common, level cultivation. The soil was drawn up around the
base of the plant to a height of six inches, as potatoes are hilled.

H Go bo

Tomato Norrs ror 1892. | 289.
TABLE XIX.— Hit1ine Tomarozs.
A. Yield to frost.

Average Average Average
PLOT. number fruits | weight fruit weight indi-
per plant. per plant. vidual fruits.

Pounds. Ounces.
1 1 Not hs Wegener he ay sls taligs a) 24.6 11.0 7.2
Miofrimled wine roy te vo! 24.6 9.8 6.4
9 1 Not hi BP eS Ye! C13 pea eR ee 20.5 8.5 6.6
JSNGURE TEND G27 Ciara ee A 25.0 TOs 6.4

B. Total for season.

l 1 Not us BE OTE cue AST 56.4 17.9 5.2
Mertrinwle dhs er aes o cic didlo sees 86.2 27.1 5.0
9 fete Samat PISA ae i ear 72.6 22.2 4.8
T4005 FROST Shotts 61.0 16.7 4.9

The results are conflicting, although on the whole the normal
or check plants gave rather the better results. In earliness there
was no appreciable difference. This hilling experiment was first
made last year, it having been urged upon us by a gardener who
thinks that hilling gives greatly increased yields. But in both
years we have found no advantage in it. |

14. Trimming.— It is sometimes said that trimming or head-
ing-in tomato plants in the field is an advantage, giving earlier
and heavier crops. We have tried it three years. This year, four
plots of a dozen plants each of Ignotum were selected for treat-
ment, three of the plots being trimmed, and the remaining one
having only common treatment. The trimming consisted in head-
ing-in the main shoots to the first fruit which had attained the
size of a marble. From four to eight inches of the shoot was there-
fore removed. The trimming was done at different times, as
recorded below:

°

TABLE XX.— Trimmep PLuants.

Average Average Average
PLOT. number fruits | weight of crop | weight of indi-
per plant. per plant. vidual fruits.

Pounds. Ounces,
. Trimmed July 28, Aug. 8 and 30. 20.2 A hey 5.7
. Trimmed August 8 and 30..... 20.4 Tas 6.0
. Trimmed August 30.......... 24.6 9.3 5.9
OUTSET UREA Yc 2 24.2 9.1 6.1

t S a" Oe one ay!
) AY Wit ay Ps

P Ce eee i) rCalA Yel les.
' 5) - ha

290 Ag@rioutturAL Exprrment Station, Irmaca, N. Ts

The early trimmed plants gave considerably less yield than the
late trimming or the check. There was no constant difference in
earliness. The figures, as they stand, seem to teach that the
plants had better not have been trimmed, for although there is a
trifle gain in the late-trimmed lot (No. 3), the increase is not
enough to make one feel sure that it is due to the treatment. In.
1890, however, trimming on July twenty-eighth and August
twenty-fifth gave considerably increased productiveness and earli-
ness. In 1891, the trimmings were made August third, August
twenty-fourth and September eighteenth, and the results were
indifferent; it was then thought that the unsatisfactory yields
were due to the lateness of the trimming, but the first trimming
this year was made on the same date as in 1890, but with oppo-
site results. So we are still in doubt as to whether trimming
promises any benefit; but it is evident that it does not yield
decided results.

15. Single-stem training— A good number of Ignotum plants
were set a foot apart, in rows, and each plant was tied up to a
perpendicular cord, but one stem or stalk being allowed to grow
in each case. The first tying of the stem to the wire was made
July twentieth, the plants having been set June first. Probably
earlier attention should have been given to this. Thereafter the
plants were tied every week or two, as occasion required, but this
attention was not arduous. Other plants of same age and variety
were set alongside, four by four feet apart, for comparison.

TABLE XXI— SineuE-stem TRAINING.

Crop Previous To Ava. 31. CROP FOR THE SEASON.
clas HE revs PEI PD (oie
SAMPLES. Average | Average | Average, Average| Average | Average
. number | weight | weight | number] weight weight
fruits | of crop | of indi- | fruits | of prep of indi-
ea er vidual pet per vidual
plant. plant. fruits. plant. plant. fruit,

1. Single-stem training ...| 2.9 | 1.08 | 5.9| 10.7] 4.0 6.0
2. Ordinary planting or
Heke Bels2s 2; eile 2.8 | 1.04 5.8 | 24.2 9.1 6.1

Tomato Notes ror 1892. 291

The second column, in each instance, shows the total yield.
The trained plants gave earliest results, averaging 1.08 pounds
to the plant up to the last of August, against 1.04 pounds from
the check lot; and this difference is important because the trained
plants have much less bearing surface than the others. The
total product for the season is nearly half as much to the plant
_ (four pounds as to nine pounds), but the trained plants occupy five
times, and more, less ground than the others, so that the yield
per acre or per square yard is two or three times greater from
the trained plants. These results match those obtained last year.
This is the method pursued in forcing tomatoes for winter fruit
where the greatest possible yield must be produced. Both last
year and this we found less fruit-rot upon the trained plots than
upon others. We feel safe in recommending single-stem training
for home cultivation of the tomato, and we believe that it can
be made profitable for the early crop in market plantations. The
plants can be tied to stakes, to cords stretched up and down
between two horizontal wires, or to any support which the grower
may fancy. The important points are to let but one stalk grow,
and to keep it securely tied to its support.

16.-Fruit-rot— It is well known that the rot of the fruit is
influenced to a considerable extent by the method of growing and
training the tomato. Single-stem training, as discussed above,
usually lessens the rot, and so does any system of training which
keeps the plant open and dry. Last year we found that weak
plants — those which had been poorly handled before setting in
the field, and which had no fertilizer — gave more diseased fruits
than those which were strong and vigorous and had been well
fed. The plants set very early in the field also gave more rot
than those set in June. It is impossible to say, however, if these
variations were due to the treatments, or if they were merely
incidental. Accurate observations were made this year in all
our tomatoes, and the most important of them are tabulated below.

Table XXII.— Fruit-Rot Under Various Treatments.

Per cent rot.
1. Land heavily manured in spring with stable manure.. 8.2
2. Land heavily manured in fall with stable manure.... 14.0
3. Land fairly rich, no manure nor fertilizer.......... 6.2

292

, a ant mica CONTIN BONE ar TIP Nala ret peal

AgricuLturAL Exprrment Srarron, Irnaca, N. Y.

Per cent rot.

. Land same as 8, one application nitrate soda (1, Table D,
. Land same as 3, four applications nitrate of soda

Ws TAG aids,’ dwar acm ote Ae 4 sais MUpale BY ita Sn SoCo AR ie a ee

. Land same as 3, four application nitrate of soda

1G) WaisLee GBD) sele Fons co 2c caih RUMI 4 niet tena ae

. Land fair, with nitrate of soda (1, Table IV)..........
. Land fair, with bone-black (2, Table IV).............
. Land fair, with muriate of ptoash (8, Table IV)......
. Land fair, with nitrate and bone-black (4, Table IV)..
. Land fair, with nitrate and muriate potash (5, Table IV),
. Land fair, with muriate and bone-black (6, Table IV). .
. Land fair, with all three above (7, Table IV)..........
“and fair) no 'treatment' (8, Table DY)... 0.5 De eet
. Land good, earliest setting, May seventh (1, Table VID,
. Land good, second setting, May ninth (2, Table VII)..
. Land good, general setting, June first (8, Table VIT)..
. Land good, earliest sowing, January nineteenth (1,

Me ER eG eee ORC eat a nee ere ae

. Land good, second sowing, February twelfth (2,

SPANOS STI) Vora s tA ovale vaya eterette glacier d SOF st aps fers De tee ates

. Land good, third sowing, February twenty-fourth (3,

STANTS) 14.5158 2 aye bbc ie ahafelnsstee eS ih slapniede iat Waa

. Land good, late sowing, March fourteenth (4, Table TX),
. Land good, once transplanted (1, Table XI)........
. Land good, three times transplanted (2, Table XT)...
. Land good, flat-grown, late (1, Table XII)..........
. Land good, pot-grown, late (I, Table XII)............
. Land good, flat-grown, early (II, Table XID).........
. Land good, pot-grown, early (II, Table XIT)..........
. Land good, normal plants (1, Table XVIT)...........
. Land good, leggy plants, pot-grown (2, Table XVII)..
. Land good, leggy plants, flat-grown (8, Table XVII)..
. Land fair, single-stem training (1, Table XXJ)........
- and: fair, | check! (2,! Table XOQD i 2). esi each ee ale

a.
fon)
Om nNQwn we oO ©

coon)
’

Ww oo

WNwDnDnwWrA KAN
NQorrwrnwaowoan

LD
SS mw

Tomaro Norss ror 1892. 293

There are no constant variations in these figures, and apparently
nothing to show that the cultivation exerted any influence upon —
rot. If these various treatments determine to any extent the
prevalence of rot, the results were probably obscured this year
because rot was everywhere very slight in our plantations.

Following is a record of the amount of fruit-rot in different varie-
ties grown this year.

Table XXIII.—Fruit-Rot in Varieties,

Per cent
rot.

PMCS MUMED May cel ayn ataijaks aiid da: dia fapenitaterahsl oi ah Shavete co Walaa alata elses 7.0
BPC OCO PEE eraiata in aja! so. 3 4.5 aie'erermdieisuejaiers ws lealei Garg W a iaiene spend Ct
MERINO Eh PEI LACe cool GNe ia et dhangia wrehauatalwhal avaelall ec ay ogi age! a acay asia ce d.2
PUT OM ENE Wi Hh Pie aban sah aie 3) Nia sayin 's weasiierel <a) apttabtanssaVclarel che alata a tiere.g ete ble 7.0
SEN UME yee nee Uae SLUM hag die hom erate Metcta aot tes wis Maen ave Sou
Peta Res CL PNLN Mele Pick ale paRW ch yar a arta) gba 1s, neler ya tre e014 hale i) 9 alae erage 16.90
1 LAOS TE a Ror Cade eB AT el lao a aha A onan aE 10.0
AMT EMC actos) wie tte atel al ar9)'cl a) cdl vp aha ialiet ana ighes nieve ole c'atayn state aisle sr 9.5
BPITat ENE yEROCIR. ee Pe Mele Se ile hee NINE US CIN Gre ok aE eb
aL cy NIST ge a POR Aap ue amen MeO A Cte pate

The amount of rot is not great except perhaps in Telegraph
and Belmont, and it is probably not chargeable to the pecularities
of the given varieties, except in the instance of the Yellow Plum.
In Table XXII, above, all the entries are Ignotum, and it will be
seen that the figures run from 3.7 to 16.6 per cent.

Altogether, therefore, we are able to draw no definite conclu-
sions from this year’s studies of fruit-rot, largely, perhaps, because
the disease was not sufficiently severe to emphasize itself in par-
ticular treatments.

17. Southern or Field Blight— The accompanying illustration
shows a trouble which was serious upon some of our tomatoes this
year. The leaves become dull or slightly yellowish and curled
as if suffering from drouth, and the ends or individual leaflets
shrivel and droop and finally become dry and black. The upper-
most leaf in the engraving shows the shrivelled, dead and spindling
extremity in a characteristic manner; and the lowest leaf shows

F Kode NY 3 “i Ue ee UT eR AR an Da ae, hy ea ae et ee

294 AcriouLturAL Experiment Station, Irmaoa, N. Y.

the injured portion in an early stage of the disease. The middle
leaf has not reached its normal size, and looks as if it were suifer-
ing from lack of water. This trouble is probably the disease
described as the southern blight by Professor B. D. Halsted, in
Bulletin 19, of the Mississippi Experiment Station. Specimens
were submitted to Professor Halsted, who thinks that the disease
is probably identical with the southern one. ‘This is not the first
record of the occurrence of the disease in the north. In a recent
issue of Garden and Forest,* Professor Halsted reports it from
Syracuse, N. Y., where it had invaded three tomato fields. Appar-
ently the same disease has been reported to me from three
localities in this State during the last two seasons, and in two
cases it had practically ruined the crop. This disease is probably
due to a microbe, and it is therefore doubtful if spraying will be
effective. Professor Halsted thinks that the same disease is one
of the blights of the potato. Infected vines should be gathered
and burned in the fall, and as a precautionary measure tomatoes
or potatoes should not be grown upon the same land for two on
three years.

18. Impressions of varieties— The Ignotum is still our best
main-crop tomato.

Among the new kinds, a variety called Nichol No. 5, sent us
by A. M. Nichol, Granville, Ohio, was the best. It is scarcely
distinguishable from Mikado in foliage and fruit, except that the
fruit is more regular and uniform in size.

Plentiful (Perry & Co.). A good red tomato, from medium to
large in size, but inclined to crack about the stem. Appears to
possess few superlative merits. An English variety.

Telegraph (Salzer, 1891). A medium to small tomato, irregu-
lar, not uniform in size and shape; cracks very badly. A weak
grower. Worthless with us.

Picture Rock (Childs). A good, dark red, regular tomato, much
like the Volunteer, but apparently no improvement upon that
variety. There is a slight tendency upon some fruits to assume
yellow markings, in bars, about the stem.

* Garden and Forest, v. 379 (Aug. 10, 1892).

‘
b 4

Southern or Field Blight of the Tomato.

Tomato Norrs ror 1892. 297

Royal Red (Livingston). A good red tomato, showing a tend-
ency to angular fruits, like those in cultivation some years ago.
It reminds one of the Valencia Cluster, which was popular six
and ten years ago.

Belmont (Breck). A promising, regular, red tomato, uniform,
early and productive.

The following table shows the earliness and yields of these

varieties:
Table XXIV.— Varieties.
Average no. Average
ruits crop

Variety. First picking. per plant. per plant,
Pounds,
Re AOUE G5 08s afasate ar area cis! ere: avereys August 1.... 24.1 T.4
PTO WOR ING. (ie Ce aoe st ate statapae August 8.... 24.4 9.4
PVOTCCIL UL. sc Raleeioere aa ace.g eek August 22.... 15 5.2
Pele CTADH Laie aia ah </e'e 62 eve o's August 22.... | 32.7 6.7
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We tried no introductions this year which give promise of
unusual merits. In order to determine the character of the
varieties now prized in Germany, we sent to a leading seed firm
there for the best six market varieties of tomatoes. The varie-
ties received were Paragon, King Humbert, Yellow Plum, Earliest
Dwarf, Monstrous Giant and French Upright. Of these, only
the Paragon would be considered of any value in America for
market cultivation. The Earliest Dwarf and Monstrous Giant,
which are second best, represent the old angular sorts which
we have long since outgrown. A singular German variety is
that shown in the accompanying engraving, and which may be
called the German Striped. It comes to us under the name of
Niedriche Gestreifte, or “Low Striped.” It belongs to the old
angular type of tomatoes. The ground color is a deep clear red,
and this is overlaid with splashes and bands of bright orange,
Sometimes the orange is the prevailing color and the red takes
the position of stripes. The fruit is very striking and its quality,
is also good. In general productiveness and merit it will prob-

38

ni ME BRS GN. SY RTL RAE Ee kee
7 Pa! >
2,

ie

298 AgRiIcuLtuRAL Exprrment Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y.

ably rank fully as good as General Grant, which was popular a

few years ago. We first grew this German striped tomato in _

1887. Striped or variously marked tomatoes occasionally appear
in plantations, but this is the only one which we have ever known
to be permanent, or to “come true to seed” for any length of
time. A striped tomato appeared in an Ithaca garden three or
four years ago, but it ran out in one or two generations.

The Current-Ithaca hybrid which was described and figured
last year, was grown again this year from seeds and cuttings

German Striped Tomato.

from one of the original plants. Among thirty-six plants, there
were no reversions to either parent, although about one-third of
them gave larger fruits than the others. All the plants were very
productive and vigorous, and the fruit is very handsome.

SUMMARY.

1. Quick and slow fertilizers—— This year’s experiments con-
firm those of last year in showing that tomatoes need a fertilizer
which is quickly available early in the season. Fertilizers applied

late or which give up their substance late in the season, give -

poor results because they delay fruitfulness and the plant is over-
taken by frost before it yields a satisfactory crop. This fact is no

Tomato Norss ror 1892. 299

doubt the origin of the wide spread opinion, that the tomato crop
is injured by heavy manuring. Nitrate of soda applied at once
early in the season gave a much heavier yield than the same
amount applied at intervals. (Page 261.)

2. Value of nitrate of soda.— Upon fairly good soil, which con-
tains some vegetable matter, nitrate of soda gives good results as
a tomato fertilizer. We have formerly found that upon very poor
soils it gives little or no benefit. It must be remembered, how-
ever, that nitrate of soda is an incomplete fertilizer and that it
should not be relied upon for a permanent treatment of land. It
is simply a source of nitrogen. (Pages 267, 270.)

3. Relation of variety to fertilizing— In 1891 our test seemed
to indicate that the highly improved varieties give the greatest
response to fertilizing in the number of fruits produced, although
the little improved sorts gave greater proportionate increase in
total weight of crop. In 1892 these results were not verified, save
that the little improved sorts gave least increase in number of
fruits. But in the experiments of 1892 the test was made upon
good soil, in which the resuls of fertilizing were obscured. Page
270.)

4. Comparative values of early and late settings— Experi-
ments this year confirm those of 1890 and 1891 in showing that
very early planting in the field is advisable. Even those plants
which were slightly injured by frost nearly equalled in productive
ness those set at the general planting June first. The late plant-
ing gave better results at the first pickings, however. Our earli-
est satisfactory setting this year was made May ninth. (Page 273.)

5. Early and late seed sowing.— Tomato seeds were sown from
January nineteenth to March fourteenth. The earliest sowings
gave the earliest fruits, but the largest yield came from the latest
sowing, March fourteenth, the difference in favor of this late sow-
ing being very marked. In 1889 our tests showed that seeds sown
in April and May gave poorer results than those started in March.
It seems to be true, therefore, that the best time to sow tomato
seeds in this latitude for the main crop, if one has a forcing-house
or a good hot-bed, is about the middle of March. (Page 277.)

Weer Ate eae ON leh ae

300 AcricuLTuRAL Exprrment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

6. Few and several transplantings— Earlier fruits were
obtained from plants which had been three times transplanted in
the house than from those transplanted only once. In 1891,
greater yields were obtained from two transplantings than from
either one or three. Much, no doubt, depends upon the vigor and
age of the plants, but it is certainly safe to say that in all ordinary
cases plants which are started in March should be transplanted
at least twice. (Page 279.)

7. Flat-grown vy. pot-grown plants.— Plants grown in pots, one
lot transplanted twice and one lot thrice, gave earlier and heavier
yields than plants similarly transplanted into “ flats,’ or shallow
gardener’s boxes. (Page 280.)

8. Seedlings vy. cuttings— This year cuttings gave earlier and
heavier yields than seedling plants. In 1890 the cuttings gave the
poorer yields, while in 1891 the results were mixed. These varia-
tions in results no doubt depend upon some condition of the plants
or some factor in our handling which we have not yet discovered.
Cuttings of cuttings gave better yields than one-generation cut-
tings, both last year and this. (Page 281.)

9. Products of early and late fruits— Plants grown from seeds
from the first ripe fruit upon a given plant gave poorer yields and
no earlier fruits than other plants grown from a fruit from the
same parent which ripened three and a half months later. Simi-
lar results have been obtained before by ourselves and others, and

it is probably safe to say that no gain is secured by selecting seeds

from early or first ripe fruits without giving any attention to the
character or habit of the plant as a whole. (Pave 285.)

10. Products of mature and immature fruits— Plants grown
from seeds from a fully ripe fruit gave earlier and better yields
than other plants raised from a fully, grown but unripe fruit from
the same parent. (Page 286.) :

11. Treatment of “leggy” plants—“Leggy” or “drawn”
plants were set at the ordinary depth and half the stem was laid
and covered in a shallow trench. These gave much larger yields
than normal or stocky plants started and planted at the same time.
Last year opposite results were obtained; but at that time the

a |

Tomato Notsrs For 1892. 301

plants were so badly drawn that they were unable to stand alone.
This year the leggy plants were about twenty inches high, but
while slender they were still stiff and vigorous when put in the
field. It is safe to conclude that if one has leggy plants he should
layer them when planting. (Page 286.)

12. Shearing young plants.— Plants which were. sheared to
make them stocky, in the place of one transplanting, were later
than others which were transplanted at the date of this shearing.
The yields were slightly in favor of the sheared plants, but this
may have been an incidental variation. (Page 288.)

13. Hilling tomatoes.—Hilling tomato plants, during two
year, has given no favorable results. (Page 288.)

14. Trimming tomato plants.— Trimming the plants after they
have made a good growth in the field gave no advantage this year,
and it is doubtful if it is advisable. (Page 289.)

15. Single-stém training—This year, as last, single-stem
training in ‘the field gave decidedly heavier yields to the square
foot of land, and the crop was earlier. (Page 290.)

16. Fruit-rot.— Rot was not serious this year, and it did not
appear to be influenced by methods of cultivation or varieties.
(Page 291.) .

17. Southern or field blight— A new tomato disease appeared
in our plantation this year. It is probably a bacterial trouble
which may become serious. No remedy is known, but rotation
of crop will probably check it. It is characterized by a yellowing,
curling and drying of the leaves, which finally become black and
dead. (Page 293.)

18. Varieties Few varieties were tested in 1892, and while
they possess merit, none of them appear to be destined to supplant
' varieties already in existence. (Page 294.)

L. H. BAILEY,

L. G. CORBETT.

Cornell University —Agricultural Experiment Station. -

HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.

Pee iege ee eNe XV .
NOVEMBER, 1892.

Mulberries.

By L. H. Batrey.

{cee haan Be Oats Pu
ORGANIZATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

STATION COUNCIL.
President, C. K. Apams.

bea regpew, OL). VW ERED 8 oe cts) ale pie nd eae Trustee of the University.
Elona), B. PornmR.!. oo. key: President State Agricultural Society.
PRO EMRE RR ae 2 ci. a heute Dear ea Professor of Agriculture.
RPO CAL D WHELs ile woe ously siya alg Tes Professor of Chemistry.
Petri ATW SN ais: oo Ses etn Professor of Veterinary Science.
RP MES EE EEN DIGS ure Yigal 00 210) ¢ a: caver cs Midna Me eseeeeontaters 4 Professor of Botany.
Bed, © OMSTO CK 5 a tise (sth, o: 4a. 08 iiaterdnereay ones Professor of Entomology.
BOWES ATT WYG 25 1. g iar dss wieevhGl s\n) iS al a anal als Professor of Horticulture.
DEE DUDLEY. 4's) & sie Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
MME ROHS US's ates TOR aos fa ila «cle aed lal cre pannerseav A eiahs ere aearat Director,
mens EU. WW ING.) 052 see lot os Se S86 Deputy Director and Secretary.
EMU TET ARES We ete ae My shh acSMyh) a wt eit ies tle So Meals Weld Goal Treasurer.
ASSISTANTS.
PIPER OUEN CORTUA ND 22 coc! iy plete o°erd a Gaia t ohavw/ebca sian ys Entomology.
eC CUNY EATSONT S Yc is asi auttind old au, teava's wine Raed heacemb pans fas Agriculture.
MMI VTRETO TU 3 ale afaid ada ats, fits s pee Micah tne cichatecd Aaa Bhat. Horticulture.
IP Ve SVIENCA IGE A ora's rn ele’ s opstele dogs sierra nine aoa ei cins ae Chemistry.

Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends, will please send us the

names of the parties.
BULLETINS OF 1892.

38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.

39. Creaming and Aerating Milk.

40. Removing Tassels from Corn.

41. On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for Green-
house Heating.

42, Second Report upon Electro-Horticulture.

43, Some Troubles of Winter Tomatoes.

44, The Pear Tree Psylla.

45. Tomatoes.

46. Mulberries.
39

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Mulberries.

The mulberry is a neglected ‘tree. It possesses decided value
in ornamental planting, and some of the varieties are useful for
hedges, shelter-belts and small timber. The fruit has merit for
the dessert, and it is easily grown and is produced more or less
continuously throughout a period of two to four months of every
year. It is this value of the mulberry as a fruit-bearing tree
which I particularly wish to discuss in this paper. Perhaps there
is no immediate prospect that the mulberry can be grown with
profit for the market because there is no demand for it, but it is
capable of adding so much to the charm of the home garden and
orchard that I desire to urge it upon the attention of every land
owner. The botanical relationships of the various forms are also
perplexed and they demand attention before any intelligent dis-
cussion can be made of their horticultural merits but this sub-
ject is so difficult that I enter upon it with caution. No group
of cultivated plants has bothered me more, and three years of
study and collection of materials appears to have augmented
the perplexities. Of all fruits cultivated in America, I think
that none have so meager a literature as the mulberries. There
is an abundant record of the early attempts towards silk culture
in this country and the mulberries which were grown for feeding
the worms, but with the failure of these attempts the mulberry
nearly passed from sight. There are men still living who remem-
ber the “multicaulis craze” of the thirties. Perrottet had intro-
duced a new mulberry into France from the Phillipines in 1824,
the large leaves and rapid growth of which at once attracted the
attention of all silkgrowers. It turned out that this tree had
come originally from China and was tthe source of the famous
Chinese silk. Perrottet called it Morus multicaulis from its habit
of branching or sprouting from the surface of the ground, This

Ft, at eee OF hn Oh aT Mr Oey
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308 AgricuLtturAL Experiment Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y.

tree reached America in 1829 or 1830, by way of the nurseries of
Messrs. Prince, on Long Island, and in 1830 or 1831 it was intro-
duced into Massachusetts by William Kenrick, author of the
“New American Orchardist.” The fame of the tree spread rapidly,
and there arose a fever of speculation such as has never been
known in any other horticultural venture in America. The records
of the next ten years read like fiction. Many nurserymen gave
up all other business that they might grow the mulberry, and
they realized several hundred per cent profit. The secret of the
Chinese silk had been discovered and every available acre from
New England to the Gulf must be covered with the marvelous
herbage of this mulberry, and men must train ‘their hands to
the breeding of the worms and spinning the silken threads! One
nurserymen, who is still living, went to the West Indies that he
might! grow hundreds of thousands of trees during the winter
season, so great was the haste for plants. From the thinly-settled
portions of the west the planters came eager for trees at almost
any price, and even in Maine the demand was great. Then came
the reaction. The market was supplied and soon overstocked.
A disease appeared. The winters of New England were too
severe. One man near Hartford lost nearly 10,000 trees
from cold. Men lost their fortunes; and in 1839 the bubble
burst. One man near Philadelphia sold 250,000 trees at one
auction in the fall of that year. He realized thirty-one cents cach
with a discount of seven and one-half per cent for cash. His buyers
were mostly from the west. The eastern men had grown cautious
before this. Other dealers sold for much less, and many had thou-
sands of trees left upon their hands. “The trees were sold, in some
instances, for a few cents each, and thousands, if not millions, were
never replanted after they had been taken out of the ground in
the fall of 1839.” So Morus multicaulis passed from sight and
the present generation knows nothing of it. No nurseryman
grows it. The last specimen in the east, so far as any one knows
was cut down nearly ten years ago. It stood on the old battle
ground at Germantown. Only one tangible result of this great
contagion remains to us. Charles Downing, whose name will
long remain a household word among those who love gardens and

Clete ole , an ay
' rf age Cs J

MovLBeErRIiEs. 309

fruits, planted seeds of this mulberry and raised the Downing
mulberry, which is now grown for its fruit.

This was not the beginning of American mulberry cultivation,
although it was far the most important contribution to it. Before
this time various forms of mulberries had been introduced, but
mostly for the purpose of feeding silk worms. Benjamin Frank-
lin had demonstrated that good silk can be grown in this country.
McMahon, 1806, had urged the cultivation of the mulberry for
fruit and for hedges as well as for silk. In 1806, too, Frederick
Pursh, a botanical traveler, found mulberries cultivated in
orchards near Cayuga lake, N. Y., “may be for the raising of silk-
worms, as the trees were low and planted in regular close rows.”
William Prince, in 1828, regarded the Black Persian and the
wild native red mulberry as the best for fruit, and he enumerates
several kinds for silk. Among other sorts which were intro-
duced in the early days was Morus Tatarica, which has lately,
reappeared as the Russian mulberry. So far, there appear to
have been no varieties of any species of American origin. It is
a Significant fact that the first named variety originating in this
country is an offspring of our own wild Morus rubra. This is the
Johnson. The first mention of it, so far as I know, is in the first
edition of Downing’s “Fruits and Fruit Trees” in 1845.

I have said that the botany of the mulberries is perplexing.
This is notoriously the case in every country where they are cul-
tivated. There appears to be three well marked general types in
cultivation, the white, black and red— Morus alba, M. nigra, M.
rubra. I must warn my readers that these names do not desig-
nate the color of the fruits of the respective species, although
they were no doubt meant to distinguish them. Our native
Morus rubra bears somewhat redder fruits than the others;
fruits of the black mulberry are black, but so are those of the
white mulberry in many cases. Perhaps we can apply the
terms white and black in a general way to the color of the foliage,
as that of M. alba is much lighter than that of M. nigra. The
white mulberry is the species most used for silk. It has

. been cultivated in many countries for many centuries, and, as a

ON Soe ae

310 AgrioutturRAL Exprriment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

consequence, it is wonderfully variable. Bureau, in his mono-
graph of the genus in 1873, refers thirty-one described species
to M. alba and recognizes twenty-seven botanical varieties or
types of it. But it is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish{
between M. alba and M. nigra, and if we are to follow Bureau’s
classification I do not see how the two can be kept apart, for
some of the plants which he refers to M. alba seem to be as distinct
from its type as M. nigra is. In this paper I have kept apart
two species which are commonly referred to Morus alba. I do
not know if they are distinct species, but they are more easily
understood if they stand by themselves; and as species at best
are only judgments of the particular author who describes themi
and not entities in nature, I may be allowed the present arrange-
ment.

The later American mulberry culture for fruit, scant as it is,
has developed along independent lines. The black mulberry,
Morus nigra, is the fruit-bearing mulberry of history, and nearly
all writers declare that the white mulberry possesses little or no
value for fruit. Yet in America the black mulberry is almost
unknown, except sparingly in the south and in California, and
some of our common varieties are offspring of the white mulberry.
And to these must be added varieties which I am satisfied belong
to our native red mulberry.

The American mulberries, so far as I know them, may be
grouped under the following species, omitting the kinds which,
were early cultivated for silk and are now practically unknown
in the country:

1. The White Mulberry group.— Morus alba.

(a). Russian Mulberry.— Var. Tatarica.

(b). Nervosa mulberry.— Var. venosa.

. The Multicaulis group.— Morus latifolia.

The Japanese group.— Morus Japonica.

The Black Mulberry group.— Morus nigra.

The Red or Native Mulberry group.— Morus rubra.
(a). Lampasas mulberry.— Var. tomentosa.

1. The White Mulberry group.—(Morus alba, Linn.) Leaves
light green, rather small, smooth or very nearly so above and

Seer te SRST

vu

+

~

MUuLBerrizs. 311

often shining, the veins prominent beneath and whitish, var
iously lobed or divided, the basal lobes unequal, the teeth large
and for the most part rounded or nearly obtuse, the branches
gray or grayish-yellow. The white mulberry is supposed to!
be a native of China. It has been cultivated from the earliest
times, chiefly for feeding the silk worm. It is a frequent tree
along roadsides and in the old yards in the eastern States, where
the trunk sometimes attains a diameter of two feet. This half-
wild form usually has rather small rounded shining leaves with
very large rounded teeth, and bears little whitish or violet fruits
which are very sweet. Sometimes the fruits are an inch long, but
they are oftener only half that length, and I sometimes find trees
upon which the fruits are barely a quarter of an inch in length.
Now and then a tree bears fruits nearly or quite black. Birds,
poultry and hogs are fond of these mulberries. The trees are
usually very thick-topped and bushy growers, but occasionally one
is seen which, when young, has branches as straight and trim as a
Northern Spy apple. These half-wild trees are seedlings, and
this accounts for their variability. If the best ones were selected
and grafted onto others, we might find trees worthy of orchard
culture. This, evidently, has been done in some cases, for the
_three following named varieties differ from these half-wild mul-
berries chiefly in their straighter growth, and larger and blacker
fruit.

New. American.— This variety was brought to notice by N. H.
Lindley, Bridgeport, Conn., about 1854. No one knows its parent-
age. It is now widely cultivated, and it is the best mulberry
yet known for the northern States. It isa strong, hardy tree, very
productive, and bears continuously from late June until Septem-
ber. Large trees will produce ten bushels of fruit in a season.
The fruit ranges from an inch to over two inches long, and it is
glossy black when ripe. The accompanying picture shows a spray
a little over half size. (The fruit in this specimen is small.
Notice the rounded teeth on the leaves, which are usually charac-
teristic of these forms of Morus alba. The Downing has a greater
reputation than, any other variety, and this New American is often

312 AgricuttuRAL Exprrment Station, Irmaoa, N. Y.

sold for it. In fact, the true Downing is now rare in cultivation.
But this-point will be discussed under the Downing, further on.
Trowbridge and Thorburn.—I do not know the origin of these
mulberries. They are very like the New American, with a ten-
dency, perhaps, towards a sharper toothing of the leaves. Some
good judges declare that all three are alike, but I think that they
are distinct. At least, I believe that the last two are distinct

New American Mulberry.

from the New American. And there is some reason for supposing
that Trowbridge and Thorburn are distinct. A party of botanists,
to whom both varieties were new, were asked to pick and eat fruit
from the two kinds last summer. They agreed that Trowbridge
is slightly more acid than Thorburn and has more pronounced
flavor. But so far as I know, these two varieties possess no merits
above the New American and they are little known.

Wie) RN BBS (cl Md Tp aR To ea A OE, De aetna Nae tie ey ed WW
Die ere, pA Paps P 4 “Ae PN AF

MoLeerriszs. 313

I. (a) The Russian Mulberry Sub-group. — Morus alba var.
Tatarica, Loudon. (Morus Tatarica of Linnzus).

This is a hardy type of Morus alba which was introduced into
our western States during 1875-1876-1877 by the Russian Men-
nonites. It scarcely differs from the type of Morus alba in
botanical characters, and perhaps should not be kept distinct, even
as a botanical variety. As commonly seen, it is a low-growing
very bushy-topped, small tree with small and much lobed leaves.

Russian Mulberry.

The fruit is usually very small and insipid, and varies from creamy
white to violet, deep red and almost black. The accompanying
picture of the Russian Mulberry appeared in the American Garden
some two years ago. It was made from a specimen taken early
in the season from the Cornell garden. The Russian Mulberry
is commonly propagatied from seeds and is therefore very variable.
A large-fruited or distinct growing form often appears, and three,
at least, of these have been named. They are described below.
40

4 4 ir ee eee ee aie Vee ee Lote ea th ea ey Rae gn ee
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314 AGRIcuLTURAL Exprrm™ent Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

The irritation which the Russian mulberry has produced
reminds one of the multicaulis fever of sixty years ago, but it is
far less serious and widespread than that disease. This Russian
Mulberry has suffered from indiscriminate and exaggerated praise.
Save an occasional sport, it has no merit for fruit, unless it
serves to attract birds from cherries and other fruits, but even
this is a problematical advantage. In the east, at least, it has no
merits for timber, as it is too small and grows too slowly. In the
prairie soils of the west it often grows into respectable post
timber in a short time. Mr. I. Horner, of Emporia, Kansas,
writes as follows, concerning it:

“It has been said that this tree is only a bushy shrub. I here
exhibit to you a section of a Russian mulberry tree five years old,
and which has been grown in a shelter ‘belt and overshadowed
with cottonwood trees. It is five inches in diameter, and, as you
see, a nice, straight and smooth trunk eight or nine feet long.
Another year’s growth would make it suitable for posts. I
measured one tree which gave a circumferance of thirty-seven
and one-half inches at a point two and a half feet above the
ground, and which was only eight years old. * * * It is one
of the very best trees for shelter belts and fence posts. From a
hedge-row fifteen rods long, I saw 200 nice fence posts cut. The
wood is very durable. * * * It isa tree for fuel, shelter and
posts for the western prairies.” “There is a vast difference in
character of growth and quality of fruit. Most trees sold by
nurserymen have been grown from seed gathered from mulberry
hedges and trees, with no regard to quality of tree, and which
naturally generates a large per cent of inferior stock. These may
be known by a disposition to branch freely close to the ground, and
a drooping inclination of their growth. They bear small notched
leaves, and very small insipid fruit.” “Shelter belts should be
constructed in rows twelve to sixteen feet apart, and the trees
from two to four feet in the row. When three years old, cut all
level with the ground. From their roots will spring up a strong
and rapid growth of shoots. Remove all but the strongest to
each tree. After two years, thin out as may be desired.”

2}

ks

ta

A Russian Mulberry Hedge at McCook, Nebraska.

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MULBERRIES. 317

The Russian mulberry has been allowed by some land offices as
a timber tree under the timber claim law.

But the chief merit of the Russian mulberry appears to be its
value as a hedge plant in cold regions. Mr. Rosenberger of
Nebraska makes the following note of it in a recent issue of
American Gardening: “The Russian mulberry does not make a
serviceable hedge to turn stock, but for an ornamental hedge there
is nothing that I know of equal ‘to it, at least for the west and
northwest. It endures the extremes of climate better than any
other plamt or tree suitable for hedge purposes.” This note is
accompanied by an engraving, which is borrowed for this occa- ,
sion, of a Russian mulberry hedge in Nebraska. Mr. G. J. Car-
penter, secretary of the Nebraska State Horticultural Society and
a prominent nurseryman, write me as follows upon. this point:
“Russian mulberry hedges are found in nearly every town in
Nebraska. It makes one of the finest ornamental hedges. The
Mennonites, when they came to this country, planted a great
many of them and used them to spread their clothing on to dry,
and some of these hedges are twelve and fifteen years
old and in good condition yet. There are some very fine hedges in
the western part of the State, west of the 100 meridian, thait have
been out for over eight years, and they are as perfect as any
hedge can possibly be.

I think ‘that the Russian mulberry possesses considerable merit
as a small ornamental tree and for the purpose of making low
sereens or shelter belts in the east. It is now largely used as a
stock upon which to graft the named varieties of mulberry.

The named varieties or seedlings of the Russian type, are three:

Victoria.— Originated in 1883, from seed of the Russian mul-
berry, by G. Onderdonk, of southern Texas. It is a tall and upright
erower, bearing large sweet black fruit, which is in season for
several weeks.

Mr. Onderdonk writes me as follows, concerning it: “TI named
the Victoria after our county. It is proving itself of excellent
quality, and is enormously productive. The more I see of it the
more I am convinced that its dissemination is not a mistake. It

yee OL, tad OS oe a
318 Ag@RiouLtuRAL Exprrment Sratson, IrHaoa, N. Y.

has become very popular all over Texas, and as the Russian race
of mulberries is hardy against every extreme of climate, I can see
no reason why it should not spread over every part of the United
States where the mulberry can exist. Whatever may be the mer-
its of other varieties in other sections, the Victoria is their supe-
rior in this part of southern Texas.”

Ramsey’s White—A white-fruited mulberry which came in a
lot of Russian mulberry stock from Nebraska, purchased by Ram-
sey & Son, Mahomet, Texas, some ten years ago. Mr. Ramsey
writes me that he has “concluded that it does not equal Hicks
and two other varieties which we have.” It is catalogued by
Mr. Onderdonk, who says: “ A good white mulberry, bears young;
requires some pruning to make a good shaped tree. A desirable
new sort.”

Teas’ Weeping Mulberry.— This, the most pronounced weeper
among our ornamental trees, is a chance seedling of the Russian
mulberry, having come up in a nursery row nine years ago in the
plantation of John C. Teas, Carthage, Missouri. The original
seedling tree is still only three feet high, although vigorous. In
the nursery row this seedling trailed on the ground, while all
the others made the ordinary upright growth. Grafted head high
upon vigorous Russian stocks, it makes a most striking lawn tree.
The branches curve outwards for a foot or two and then fall
straight downward to the ground.

I (b.) The Nervosa Sub-group.— Morus alba var. venosa, Delile.
(Mf. nervoso of Bon Jardinier and horticulturists.)

The Nervosa mulberry, a spray of which is shown half size in
the engraving, is a strange monstrosity of the white mulberry.
Its leaves are contracted and jagged, and are very strongly
marked with many white veins. It bears a fruit a half inch long.
Among the horticultural curiosities, this tree should find a place,
and it is to be regretted that it is not grown by our nurserymen.
Its ornamental value is considerable, especially when striking
effects are desired. This tree is rare in America, and I do not
know what are its adaptations to our climates, but there is
apparently no reason to doubt its success if given a fair trial.

ae SS yaa

=

eS

Sa

ee
War <3
Wt

Nervosa Mulberry.

i

Nae!

New American and Downing Leaves.

2

i /

HAT tak aa Tedaragy foe EE fee
‘ pars ie Re a sal ik:

“ons dking 9 Sad ais AREY A RS ae a wei Nas idea }
PAD tes ace st ’ i Vib )
MULBERRIES. 323

_ A large specimen stands in the grounds of the Department of
Agriculture at Washington. I do not know the history of the
Nervosa mulberry, nor is it important for our present purpose.
Delile describes it in a French periodical so long ago as 1826.

2. The’ Multicaulis Group.— Morus latifolia, Poiret. (IM. multi
caulis of Perrottet. I. alba var. multicaulis of Loudon.)

A strong growing small tree or giant shrub, with dull, roughish
and very large long-pointed leaves which are seldom or never
prominently lobed, and which are often convex above, bearing
black sweet fruit. I have already given a sketch of Morus multi-
caulis in America. Its most prominent offspring is the

Downing (Downing’s Everbearing)— This originated at New-
burgh, on the Hudson, from seeds sown about 1846. It was
noticed by the late C. M. Hovey, in his Magazine of Horticulture,
in March, 1858, as “a new seedling raised by C. Downing, of
Newburgh, N. Y., from the Morus multicaulis.” The Downing
often looks very different from the old multicaulis, and I some-
times doubt if its history is correct; but there is probably no
doubt as to its origin. For many years the Downing was the
leading fruit-bearing mulberry, but it proved to be short-lived and
was often injured by the winters in the northern States; and even
as far south as Texas it frequently suffers from the cold. In
Florida it is said to be still popular. The Downing now sold by
most nurserymen is the New American, as I have already said.
Only the older nurseries still grow the true Downing, so far as I
have. observed in the eastern States. Most planters and perhaps
some nurserymen are not aware of this substitution. Some nur-
serymen habitually substitute the New American for the Down-
ing, using the latter name, saying that they are disseminating a
better variety. It is true that the New American is the better of
the two, at least for the north, but it is unfortunate that this sub-
stitution should have occurred. Many nurserymen suppose that
the two varieties are the same, but they not only differ in hardi-
ness but also in foliage and fruit. The accompanying outline shows
some of the difference in foliage. The top leaf is the New American
and the under one Downing. The Downing leaf is much the larger

324 AGRICULTURAL Exp ¥riment Station, IrHaca, N. Y.

and longer, longer-pointed, with smaller teeth. It is usually propor- ,
tionately larger than shown in the engraving. It is also a duller
and usually a thinner leaf than that of the New American. By

referring to the first illustration in this paper, it will be seen that

the fruit of the New American is made up of closely compacted

parts or drupelets, while in the Downing, as seen in the cut in the

margin, the drupelets are more or less detached. This picture of

the Downing fruit shows a small specimen. The fruit is black,

of excellent quality, possessing a slight acidity, which is apt to be

lacking in the varieties of Morus alba. The fruit ripens from

June until September.

Downing.

Spalding.— I am indebted to T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas,
for a knowledge of this variety. It is said to be a seedling of the
Downing, and the leaves and habit confirm this origin. Mr. Mun-
son says that it is as tender as the Downing. It originated with
the late E. H. Spalding, who thought it the finest variety in cul-
tivation. I do not know its fruit.

Rives.— This mulberry, which is sent me by G. Onderdonk, of —
Nursery, Texas, was found upon the premises of James Rives, of
Mission Valley, Victoria county, Texas. Its origin is unknown.
Mr. Onderdonk thinks it is a form of Morus Japonica, but it seems
to me to belong to the multicaulis group, although it may be the
native Morus rubra. I have not had an opportunity to study it
thoroughly. “The fruit, while being ood, has not special merit,”
Mr, Onderdonk says. It is recommended chiefly for shade, the —

MULBERRIES. 325

growth being very rapid and the leaves large. It is also said to be
valuable for silk. In Texas it blooms so early that the fruit is
often lost.

Two mulberries have recently been sent me from the University
of California under the name of Lhoo — originally. spelled Lhou —
and Nagasaki. These, I think, belong with the multicaulis group,
although they suggest Morus Japonica. Bureau refers some of the
Chinese Lhou mulberry to Morus alba var. macrophylla (Morus
Moretti), and some of it to this multicaulis group. At the Univer-
sity of California the climate is said to be too cold to allow these
mulberries to fruit. These oriental varieties are grown. chiefly for
feeding silk worms.

3. The Japanese Group. — Morus Japonica, Audibert.—(M.
alba var. stylosa of Bureau). .

Leaves usually large, dull, rather thin, long-pointed, the rounded
teeth very large and deep, or the margin even almost jagged, the
leaves upon the young growth usually deeply lobed. This species
has been introduced very lately and it has not yet fruited in this
country, so far as I know. It is tender in the north when young.
The fruit is described as short-oblong and red.

4. The Black Mulberry Group. — Morus nigra, Linn.

Leaves dark dull green, rather large, tapering into a prominent
point, commonly very rough above, usually not lobed, the base
equal or very nearly so upon both sides, the teeth rather small
and close, the branches brown. The black mulberry is a native
of Asia, probably of Persia and adjacent regions. It is the species
which is cultivated in the Old World for its fruit. In America
it is very little grown. It is not hardy, except in protected
places, in New England and New York. The Black Persian
mulberry of the south and of California is undoubtedly this species.
This variety, with others, was inserted in the fruit catalogue
of the American Pomological Society for 1875. It was dropped
from the catalogue in 18838, and has not been inserted since. It
is named in Wickson’s “California Fruits,” 1889, without par-

326 AgricutturAL Experiment Station, Iraaoa, N. Y.

ticular comment. The same volume also mentions the Black
mulberry of Spain, as having been fruited by Felix Gillet, of
Neveda City, California. This I take to be Morus nigra. There
must be large regions in this country which are congenial to the
true black mulberry, and it is strange that it is so little known.
The fruit of this species is much larger than that of any other,
and it possesses an agreeable sub-acid flavor. The fruits of
Morus alba, however, are often too sweet for most tastes when!
fully ripe, and in such case they should be picked before they
have fully matured.

5. The Red or Native Mulberry Group.—WMorus rubra, Linn.

Leaves usually large, very various, those on the young shoots
deeply lobed with very oblique and rounded sinuses in the base
of which there are no teeth, the upper surface rough and the
lower one soft or variously pubescent, the teeth medium or com-
paratively: small and either rounded or bluntish. The native
mulberry is generally distributed from western New England to
Nebraska and southward to the gulf, being much more abundant
and attaining a larger size in the south. The fruit is deep red,
or when fully ripe, almost black, variable in size, often very
good, nearly always having an agreable slight acidity. Thig
native mulberry has been tried for the feeding of silk-worms, but
with indifferent success. I am satisfied that at least three of the
named fruit-bearing mulberries belong to it, and a yellow leaved,
mulberry, which is somewhat grown for ornament, also appears
to be of this species. The curious lobing of the leaves on the
young growth is shown in the middle spray in the accompanying
engraving (page 327). This lobing is distinct from that in any
other mulberry which I have seen, and it has been one of the
chief characters in influencing me to refer the Hicks and Stubbs
mulberries to Morus rubra. The nearest approach to this lobing
which I have seen in any other mulberry is in the Japanese
(Morus Japonica) and this affords another of those interesting
parallelisms which exist between the Japanese and eastern Ameri-
can floras. The red mulberry is the largest tree of the genus.

r ity,

{TP
bee

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NU, Us

Wild Red Mulberry—Morus rubra. Half size

MULBERRIES. 329

It often attains a height of seventy feet in the south,
The timber is much used for posts, fencing and light woodwork.
The two accompanying pictures are made from wild specimens col-
lected in Michigan.

Johnson.— I have already said that this appears to have been.
the first named variety of mulberry, of any species, originating
upon American soil. The first record of it, so far as I know, is in
the first edition of A. J. Downing’s “Fruits and Fruit
Trees,” 1845, in which it is said that the variety has
been “lately received from Professor Kirtland of Cleveland,
one of the most intelligent horticulturists in the country;”
and it is distinctly stated that it is a form of our
native species. Oharles Downing reaffirms this latter state-

Wild red mulberry. Fullsize

ment in Purdy’s Fruit Recorder, in 1872, and in comparing the
fruit with that of the wild Morus rubra says it is “of about
the same quality, but of larger size.” In the second edition
of “Fruits and Fruit Trees,” 1872, by Charles Downing, it is
described as follows: “A seedling from Ohio. Fruit very large,
oblong cylindric; blackish color, sub-acid and of mild agreeable
flavor. Growth of the wood strong and irregular. Leaves uncom-
monly large.” The Johnson is very little known at the present
time and will probably soon pass from sight. Mr. Berckmans, of
Georgia, writes that the “fruit is large, very good, but too little of
it,” and that he has “long since discarded it.” “The fruit is fully
two inches long by three-fourths inch in diameter, very black and
of a rich vinous flavor.”
49

330 AqgricuLTuRAL Exprertmment Sration, Iruaca, N. Y.

Hicks (Hicks’ everbearing).—This is a Georgian variety, as near
as I can learn, although Downing, in 1872, credits it to Kentucky.
It was brought to notice about 1850, or before, by Simri Rose, of
Macon, Georgia, who is said to have obtained it from Thomas
Elkins, of Effingham county, Georgia. Mr. Elkins “ planted «it
in avenues, on his lanes, in his fence corners, and many other
favorite places on his plantation, for his hogs, and it is said that
he always had pork or bacon to sell.” At ‘the present time it is
much used in parts of the south as a food for swine. Mr. Berck-
mans says that “the value of mulberries as an economic food for
hogs is beginning to be appreciated by many farmers, who have
planted large orchards of the Hicks for that purpose.” It is also
one of the very best varieties for poultry. It is a most profuse
bearer, producing a continuous and bountiful crop for three and
four months. The fruit is medium to large, very sweet and rather
insipid.

Stubbs.— The original Stubbs mulberry tree was found growing
in a wood near Dublin, Laurens county, Georgia. Col. John M.
Stubbs, of that place, gave cions to Mr. Berckmans some fifteen
years ago, and Mr. Berckmans introduced it to the public. It is
probably the most productive of all mulberries, even exceeding
the wonderful prolificacy of the Hicks. The fruit is deep black,
with a very rich sub-acid vinous flavor. It is fully two inches
long and over a quarter as thick in well developed specimens.

5. (a) The Lampasas Sup-Group. — Morus rubra var. tomentosa
Bureau. (Jf. tomentosa of Rafinesque.)

Leaves very soft-pubescent and whitish beneath, often glossy
but rough above.

Lampasas.— This variety was found in the woods in Lampasas
county, Texas, by F. M. Ramsay, and was introduced in 1889 by
T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas. It has a somewhat spreading
and shrub-like habit. Mr. Munson writes as follows concerning
it: “The Lampasas mulberry, although a native of the region only
200 miles southwest of here, is so tender here as to winter kill. I
have ceased to propagate it on that account. I have never been
able to fruit it.”

RAL RO LN es eT os ee
Welly) Wiese. hee r F

ih Oe i at r

Lys

Me

MULBERRIES. 3831

There are three varieties of fruit-bearing mulberries which I have
not seen, and I do not know to what species they should be
referred. One is Bigert (Bigert’s everbearing), which I know
only from the following note in the first volume of Gardener’s
Monthly, 1859: “A friend sends us some specimens under the
above name, which he says continues in bearing from June iil

frost. It is very much in size and appearance like Downing’s

everbearing, but the leaves are very different.”

Another variety is the Paine, which, I think, has not been
mentioned in print. All I know about it is the following descrip-
tion sent me by the venerable Isaac Hicks, of Westbury, Long
Island: “Fruit about the size of Downing, not so large as New
American. A very excellent variety, bearing a long time.
Found on the lot where Thomas Paine, the religious reformer,
was buried. Two very fine trees, which are great bearers, are on
the place of the late Wm. 8. Carpenter, at Marmaroneck, West-
chester county, N. Y.”

The third variety is the Black American, which I know only
from the following entry in the catalogue of the Bloomington
(Illinois) Nursery: “Native, hardy, productive, valuable.”

The cultivation of the mulberry is very simple. It thrives
upon any ordinary well-drained soil. At full maturity, the trees
are as large as an apple tree. The fruit falls as soon as it is ripe,
and it is readily shaken off before it reaches its full maturity. If
a soft sod is allowed under the tree, the fruit can be shaken off
and picked from the ground. This is the best way of harvesting
the mulberry. In Europe, cress is sometimes sown under the
trees in late spring to afford a temporary carpet to catch the
fruit.

The mulberries can be propagated by cuttings of the ripe wood
or of roots. Cuttings start best under glass. Some nurserymen
propagate by short cuttings indoors, starting them in February
or March. The cheap Russian muiberry stocks from the west

have supplanted cutting-propagation very largely. ©The named

sorts are grafted upon these Russian roots in winter, with fair
success, in the same manner in which apple trees are root-grafted,

332 AGRICULTURAL Exprrment Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y.

or they are sometimes crown-grafted, the stocks for this purpose
being grown in pots or boxes. Ordinary fall budding in the field
is not successful with mulberries, but spring budding gives good
results. Spring budding has been employed and recommended
certainly for thirty years, but it does not yet appear to be a
common practice. S. D. Willard, Geneva, N. Y., who grows
quantities of mulberries, has several times shown me his stock,
which is propagated by spring cion-budding. This is periormed
just before the foliage is out, or as soon as the bark slips freely.
The illustration in the margin explains the operation. The
incision in the stock is the same as for the ordinary fail budding.

Cion budding for the mulberry.

The cion carries one or two buds, and is cut upon one side only.
This prepared side is inserted next the wood in the stock, and
is held in place by string, as for fall budding.

REVIEW.

1. The mulberry is grown for fruit, ornament, hedges and
small timber, as’ well as for silk. It merits more general atten-
tion, especially as a fruit-bearing tree.

2. The fruit of some varieties is excellent for dessert, and it
may be used for making jellies and preserves. It is also good
food for poultry and for swine.

3. Sixteen varieties are mentioned in this paper as fruit-bearing
kinds: New American, Trowbridge, Thorburn, Victoria, Ramsey's
White, Downing, Spalding, Black Persian, Black Spanish, John-

MULBERRIES. 333

son, Hicks, Stubbs, Lampasas, Bigert, Paine and Black American.
Of these, the most prominent are New American, Downing, Black
Persian, Hicks, Stubbs.

4. The New American is recommended for the northern States.
Downing is almost out of cultivation in the north, but the New
American commonly passes under this name. Black Persian is
occasionally grown in the south and on the Pacific coast, but it
seems to be ill-adapted to our conditions. Hicks is a heavy
bearer, of indifferent quality, but valuable for poultry and for
swine, especially in the south where it has been most thoroughly
tested. Stubbs is perhaps the most profuse bearer of all, and
the fruit is large and excellent in quality.

5. The other varieties and types are grown for shade, orna-
ment and timber. The most unique of these varieties are the
Nervosa and Teas’ Weeping. The Russian type is valuable for
ornamental hedges, especially in the prairie States, for planting
sparingly as single specimens or in groups as ornamental trees,
and for small timber on the prairies. The fruit is usually worth-
less. This type has already given three named varieties of more
or less merit — Victoria, Ramsey’s White, and Teas’ Weeping.

6. The mulberries here enumerated belong to five more or less
distinct general types or species — Mora alba, M. latifolia, M.
Japonica, M. nigra, and M. rubra. The first and the last are the
most important in this country for the purposes here discussed.

7. American varieties of fruit-bearing mulberries have devel-
oped along independent lines, having come chiefly from Morus
alba and M. rubra, while the fruit mulberry of history is M. nigra.

8. The native mulberry, Morus rubra, has given us some of
the most important varieties, and as it is naturally variable and
adapted to our various climates, it is the probable progenitor of
the American mulberries of the future.

9. The mulberry is easily grown upon ordinary soils. It is
often tender in the north during the first two or three years.

10. The mulberry is propagated by cuttings of the mature
wood or the roots, by root and crown-grafting, and by budding

with dormant buds in the spring.
L..H. BAILEY.

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Cornell University —Agricultural Experiment Station.

AGRICULTURAL DIVISION.

Peet ot EIN OE TTS
DECEMBER, 1892.

er
Deroy

Toga ate eS a EA BB

Feeding Lambs and Pigs.

By I. P. Rogerrs anp Gro. C. Watson.

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ORGANIZATION.
BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.
STATION COUNCIL.
President, JAcosp GouLp ScuuRMAN,
Meare VW HTM Rak ee eaee a's a 5 Trustee of the University.
POO ay PORTER MS 2 os 5). ed ois President State Agricultural Society.
PUREE RTS oo hie cals «<b ancl pate wom hu sel Professor of Agriculture,
arte OUT WEL TMi Patty ie ayale os “aisha oh signe a, aad atiele Professor of Chemistry.
| iC 170) ES aR ga a Professor of Veterinary Science.
Pee ees SON RIBS ae Eko Phelt sade Btaee ade sald the Professor of Botany.
SMM OMS TOC are 25 ay o-a0 e «oc, Neeser 5, DANS Professor of Entomology
“h/ B Mo Qa Se PR gO DP gl Professor of Horticulture.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
UIE SEOETS ctr eee ela gies aoe cieia atatalbia Weta e Svat acca tlt Director.
Pee Rl VV ING oats stack sh ves aleile adel eh oe Deputy Director and Secretary.
PONY CLE TAWANGS SVC on Ne ily aa) 6a euel maleate) eval ierale, oe ,cia) og awhere Treasurer.
ASSISTANTS.
MeUPEN SeL BENG MBE AND). 5 dea, iy Nell Sea a clastic oe eee eee eee eee Entomology.
Pebiee POV VERTROND: eieish Salta a'c 4 wale ele ig ork aha MOL CatS Me ea, Agriculture.
Ba OR NTS spay oy 0 deere arene a4. \anet Halla aint y) syarerotaye aleyette) sata s Horticulture.
Rees AVA NAT GE 000 Soja sw cyeceg diaie 4 Be aM ORO ng Chemistry.

_ Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send us the
names of the parties.
BULLETINS OF 1892.
38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.
39. Creaming and Aerating Milk.
40, Removing Tassels from Corn.
41. On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for Green-
house Heating. .
42, Second Report upon Electro-Horticulture.
43. Some Troubles of Winter Tomatoes.
44, The Pear-Tree Psylla.
45. Tomatoes.
46. Mulberries.
47. Feeding Lambs and Pigs.
43

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Feeding Ensilage to Lambs.

A flock of ten grade Shropshire lambs, about 8 months old, was
_ selected for this experiment and divided into two lots of five each.
These lambs were thrifty, quite uniform in size and general
appearance, and when divided each lot was of nearly the same
total weight, and contained three wethers and two ewes.

To lot I, was given ensilage, hay and a grain ration, con-
sisting of one part of linseed meal, two parts cotton-seed meal,
and four parts wheat bran by weight. To lot I, was given hay,
and the same grain ration as to lot I The hay was mixed,
mostly clover; the ensilage was made from Pride of the North
corn grown in check rows and carrying a good crop of ears.

At the beginning of the experiment, December eighth, grain,
was fed only in the morning, but on and after December thirty-
first grain was fed both morning and evening.

The following tables show the weights and gain of each indi-
vidual lamb during the experiment, and also the totals for the
whole experiment.

TABLE I— Lot I— Ensivacs.
Weight in pounds.

Ear Mark NuMBER.
DATE.

Total.
169. 174, 176. 177. 178.

December 8........... 62.575) 57.5.) 605) |) 6125 5 585 295.5

SNANUATY (B42) .2°= <n- als a) : ‘ f : 312
February 11 346.5
Efe) 0?) a Sra : 409.5

BAGEME AG 2 y's, Ss ialaraths : : : : 428
LOE TILT aay Amaia ANE i 132.5

ae ie CUNT CAE it SOR aca se TOME, 2) on.

340 AgcricuLttuRAL Exprrment Station, Irmaoa, N. Y.

TABLE II— Lor II—Dry Foon.
Weight in pounds.

EAR MARK NUMBER.

DATE. Total.
170 171 172 173. 175
December 8........... 52.5 | 62 66 58 61 299.5
Pammary (5... susan) be 56 65 67 62 65 B15
Webruary 11...)..:.:..,. 62.5 271 73.5 | 68.5 | 70 345.5
LTC RR ae 72 85.5 | 88 79.5 | 79 404
TUT a ae 71 90 93.5 | 79 90) 423.5
PLY Frei bate A Ta 18.5 | 28 27.5 | 21 29 124
Av Grape gain per head .')'.! >... cs. seus ele e eee, bot te 24.8

The following tables show the number of pounds of food con-
sumed, the amount of water drank, and the total water consumed

by each lot.
Table III.—Lot I—Ensilage.

Dry matter. Water.

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
RIAL SIDPATE? 5,5 12, «3 /citis es he ese sake eden 382.6 335.3 47.3
SATUPOU-SECOCU TOAD 27s 4 ars'e.e Si) wees 191.3 175.4 15.9
MAURO L SINC, GEA vo tie sc oalts 2 alse teins 95.6 86.8 8.8
MIRE, oe Shere 3, ahepateiets qtaeetotla: cee yiores 606 525.3 80.7
ETL LEY ARR OES NCS AH ee ae Ws 1,166 246.5 919.5
BET TAIN 5.5 yok 0 cid cGy ace ie ce fy abe Bea eee 2,117 45
Total pounds consumed ....... 2,441.5 1,869.3 3,189.95

Table IV.—Lot II—Dry Food.

Dry matier. Water

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds
PN MAR AE OVA TN 6.5, love: o cuore Shee! Sad os 387 .4 339.5 47.9
Cotton-seed meal ............. 193.7 LEC30 16.24
PATBCSM MEAL 6. hie: cia’e, | wid siis else 96.9 88 8.9
BRIVR ate oS sido bie Ps bie eee ee 905 .25 784.6 120.65
SV UAT ALTUA TONS |, , fais Sete ars bo foresters Ts MOIR ae wo We aC 2,672.00

Total pounds consumed .... 1,593.25 1,889.8 2,865.55

-Freping Ensitracre to Lamps. 341

It will be observed from Tables I and IJ that the gain of these
two lots of lambs was very uniform, and that the total gain was
practically the same, so that any deductions we may draw from
the experiment will come from comparing the cost of food con-
sumed by the two lots, rather than any marked difference in
growth or weight.

By referring to Tables HI and IV it is seen that the total
amount of dry matter consumed by the two lots was practically
the same, while the amount of water drank or consumed varies
considerably. The lot fed wholly on dry food drank 555 pounds
more water during the experiment, than did the lot fed ensilage,
while the total water consumed in food and drink by ithe ensilage
fed lot was 324 pounds more than that consumed by the lot fed
wholly on dry food. By the water consumed is meant not only
the water drank but the water contained in the food as well. This
is found in the third column of Tables HI and IV.

As the grain ration fed these two lots as well as their grain was
practically the same, it may be seen from Tables III and IV that
the ensilage seemed to take the place of a part of the hay. Lot I
ate 1,166 pounds of ensilage and 606 pounds of hay, Lot IU ate no
ensilage and 906 pounds of hay, therefore, the 1,166 pounds of
ensilage took the place of 300 pounds of hay or about four pounds
of ensilage to one of hay. As a matter of economy the ensilage
was a cheaper food than the hay in this experiment; since the
cost of 1,166 pounds of ensilage is much less than the cost of 300
pounds of hay. To carry the comparison still further, assuming
as a basis a yield of two tons of hay per acre, would require as an
equivalent a yield of less than eight tons of ensilage per acre. As
a matter of fact our land that produces two tons of hay yields
from twelve to sixteen tons of ensilage per acre. Or the com-
parison may be made in still another way, if hay costs ten dollars
per ton the ensilage in this experiment had a feeding value of
more than two and one-half dollars per ton.

Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous Rations for Lambs.

From a flock of twenty-seven grade Shropshire lambs, about

eight months old, eighteen were selected for experimental feeding
and divided into two lots of nine each. Although quite thin in

342 AaricuLtuRAL Experiment Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.

flesh at the time of commencing the experiment, these lambs were
thrifty and remained hearty and vigorous throughout the winter.
They were sheared at the beginning of the experiment and placed
in warm comfortable quarters in the University barn where the
temperature seldom fell below the freezing point, even during the
most severe winter weather.

The experiment was begun November fifteenth, and continued
to February twenty-sixth. To lot I was fed hay, turnips and a
grain ration of corn, seven parts, and oats, one part. To lot II
was fed hay, turnips and a grain ration of linseed meal, three
parts, and wheat bran, two parts, for the morning feed; and for
the evening feed cotton-seed meal, three parts, and wheat bran,
two parts.

The following tables will show the weights of the individuals
at the beginning and at different periods during the experiment;
also the gain for each individual and the total for the lot at the
end of the experiment.

343

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344

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Freping Ensinace to Lamps. 345

Tables VII and VIII show the food consumed and the water
drank for each lot during 103 days, the time of the experiment.

Table VII.—Lot I—Carbonaceous.

Food consumed. Pounds. Reon
PDO ote eee ain w/a 201.5 iets) al ewig a's per dle) os 982. 851.
OS TITLLNISS e tea ae HB 0 eo geA, U 831. 742.
Nahe eis ov aiel a etetao) n(6°s oY als, d's gi) i'n aia opel ehaRel 119. 106.
eee) ee Cee he ee 1,012. 80).
Re Aed ATTE oa: oh a0, avin a) Shape ase ot ee ryesetens 1,020.25

The above foods gave of digestible constituents a nutritive ratio

of 1 to 8.4.*
Table VIII.—Lot II—Nitrogenous.

Dry matter.

Food consumed. Pounds. Pounds.
Pee te SAS yiio jet al is) oa) choc s etn ie ia L330. 1,152.
“SAS SEL) CON sk ON RB ae PE a ee 447. 391.
PSS TIORDN Pe ai ein eee cris hed Aitecne ah Lg L y 335. 305.
MOtheOn Seea? Meg 2. a Se be Geel 336. 308.
LTS gs AR ea eee a EA IP 1,292. 102.

This ration gave of digestible constituents a nutrative ratio of
1 to 3.5.

It may be seen from Tables VII and VIII that the lot fed the
nitrogenous or narrower ration consumed 348 pounds, or about
thirty-five per cent, more of hay and 168 pounds, or about seven-
teen per cent, more of grain. As each lot received all the hay and
grain they would readily consume, it is apparent that the greater
consumption of food and the greater increase in live weight of lot
If was due to the difference in, the ration, for at the beginning the
total live weight of each lot was very nearly the same, and the two
lots were of the same apparent vigor and healthfulness. Not only
did lot II consume about twenty-seven per cent more dry sub-
stance, but the quantity of water drank was more than twice as
much as that drank by lot I.

* The nutritive ratio is obtained by adding the carbohydrates, or Sp free-extract and
fiber, to 244 times the fat and dividing by the albuminoids or protein.

44

346 AcricutturAL Exprrtment Station, Irgaoa, N. Y.

The gain in live weight of lot II over lot I was about twenty-
one per cent, and this very nearly represents the amount of dry
substance consumed over that consumed by lot L

It will be observed from Tables V and VI that the gain of the
individuals of lot If were much more uniform than the gain of
the individuals of lot I. This condition has frequently been
observed in experimental feeding at this station, that where nitro-
genous and carbonaceous rations have been compared, the gain of .
individuals of the nitrogenous lots have been more uniform; this
may be only a coincidence and not a law, but the results of experi-
ments already made will warrant a closer observation concerning
this point in future investigations. Although the results of this
experiment give no marked difference in gain of one lot over the
other, the results obtained may be of value to the feeder to give
some definite figures concerning the gain from the food consumed.
Table IX gives a summary of foods consumed and gain in live

weight obtained.
Taste IX.

Lor I. Lor II.

Total Dry Total Dry
weight. substance. weight. substance.

EISEN Ee nO SNe Ree GEE 950. 848. |1,118. 1,004.
irae aN ceurine wih ses eee 982. 851. 11,330.21 1 bae
PRMOES A eAC NG fits u's a's ahoerelewate 1,022. 80.15/1,292. 102.
Pieties. eh lan cK ee 2,044. {1,788.91)3,740. | 2,258.
Lu ViE?'| aka he Nae PA 202. ively 245050) A come
Pounds of grain to one pound of
BN nisiehs cick bis see Gee BONS iekacs aide 420 Aes eee
Pounds of hay to one pound of
Sao So DA Rr ane tie aE CAS Ga ease) Ae 4.65) Copa
Pounds of dry substance to one
ORGAO DIN . cos os crn ce eae BiB ils catatote 9.2

Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous Rations for Pigs.
December twenty-third, four Poland China pigs were selected
from the University herd and divided into two lots of two each
for experimental feeding, to make a test of the difference between

Frrepinc Enstnacre to Lamps. 347

a comparatively wide or carbonaceous ration and a narrow or
nitrogenous one.

The pigs at the beginning of the experiment were quite uniform
in size and individual appearance, and by referring to Table XIT
it may be seen that the difference in weights of the two lots was
less than five pounds. The pigs of these two lots were all barrows
from the same breeding, and had received the same care and food
until the time they were selected for this experiment.

During the entire experiment, of 125 days, 837 pounds of corn
meal and sixty pounds of skim milk was fed to lot I.

Five hundred and eighty pounds of corn meal, 300 pounds of meat
serap and 540 pounds of skim milk was fed to lot IT.

Tables X and XI give the digestible constituents of the two
rations, and also the nutritive ratio.

Taste X.— Lor I— Carpsonacgous Ration.

DIGESTIBLE.
Pounds :
Ponstnet-j}) Brotaid. 41g) Oke al oinber: Fat.
Com- meal... sess. 2: 837 72.21 507.55 12.19 | 57.19
Sarg a7) er 60 2.58 WAS INA i eo .30

Nutritive ratio, 1 to 8.9.

TasLE XI.— Lor IJ — Nirrucenous Ration.

DIGESTIBLE.
Pounds :
equapned: | “Protein, [stk ORE" 5 |) Biber. Fat.
ornenieale so cote 580 50.04 95 Lia 8.99 | 39.63
CAS SELAD 21's oie,e'ss0's ZOO ABA SAS lrete Rieti cr hers wires 51.19
Shetty ots. ohne 545 93.44 DO SO cy hare acs Die

Nutritive ratio, 1 to 2.8.

P del my a, ra a ia

ey

348 AgrioutTuraAL Exprrmenr Station, Irmaoa, N. Y.

During the whole time of feeding there was no time when any
animal did not readily consume its ration, and the gain in weight
was rapid and uniform. Table XII gives the total weights of the
two lots at different periods during the experiment; also the
total gain and the gain per day for each lot.

Table XII.
Lot 1 Lot 2.

Pounds. Pounds.
December twenty-third’... ..00...00. 020 cease vb 123 118.5
Puluary: Twenty-Arst o.oo. es GS Lek es Oe 176.5 168
Barch) seventh 6°.) Ui) a aay 281 257
eral Be VETERE 1's 8 POLIT SL Sh Eee Ee ae 377 359
April twenty-seventhh!..) 2)... SSO 429 438
aba amy SLU Oe Oa eels bac kins Bts 306 319.5
Gain-per head per day 2. ...4 .00 a uhibahot wis 1.22 L237,

Since these two lots, fed on widely differing rations, had made
so good a growth, about one and one-fourth pounds per day, per
animal, during the entire experiment, and were so nearly alike in
total weight and general appearance, it was thought best to ascer-
tain if there was any marked difference in the composition of
meat from the animals of the two lots. Accordingly a section
was taken from the carcass of each hog between the eleventh and
thirteenth ribs. These sections were skinned, the bone removed,
and then run through a sausage cutter, thoroughly mixed and
samples taken to the chemist for analysis.

Table XIII gives the results of the analysis for each sample:

TaBLE XIII.

Lot 1. Lot 2.
Ear mark number ....;......- 125 126 121 122
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
WV ERIONS «Ps! do, tctat rai Sache Bea NeTS 23.47 22.63 26.17 22.91
Protein (lean meat)........... 7.62 8.00 8.37 8.00
Es oa os sic tected etek, Chine ae Gold 67.44 63.438 66.63

OMe et) sto wd A me oe ee 1.76 172 2.03 2.16

Fig. 1.—Lot I — Carbonaceous.

> Ms
ue Seer

=a

Lot Il—Nitrogenous.

eens EnsILacE To Lames. 351

It will be observed from Table XIII that the difference in protein
of the two lots is no greater than that in individuals of the
same lot, so that in this case the wide difference in the rations
of the two lots did not produce a marked difference in growth of the
animals or of chemical composition of the meat.

Figure 1 shows a reproduction from photographs taken from
a cross-section between the eleventh and twelfth ribs of one indi-
vidual of each lot. These sections also show that there was no
marked difference in the amount or distribution of lean and fat
meat of the two animals.

Table XIV gives the weight of each animal at the close of thé
experiment and also the dressed weight and weight of internal
organs.

TasLe XIV.
Lor 1. | Lot 2.
Ear mark number... 125 | 126 | 121 122
f 3 Lbs. Oz Lbs. Oz Lbs. Oz Lbs. Oz.

Live weight........ VA ei ieee LIN J Le se DU ek. 33): D4 Nate
Weightafter bleeding] 212 |..... BOM Pit 4 DOSE Wey Pa BP se:
Weight of blood.... Galina Ce eee Giereantes Ty etenciens
Weight of heart ..../..... Sahel se Bo Tibco alte 8
Weight of lungs. .. 1 3 NES Ts rats LAi56 1
Weight of liver .... 2 14 2 {13.5 4 |13 4 5
Weight of spleen ...|..... Brel ian Sr Oe eats Ate Naas 5
Weight of caul fat.. 1 teres Be Sys Weir sok TO.0.7 bel eget sea egepaaea
Weight of viscera ..| 15 RE ie tase ceifhe net alta airs cca cateilta tela ford 22 5

Dressed weight..... BAe pe ate yh bore ayia leet cha a pee | 180 |e i2e

Tt will be seen that the only marked difference in the internal
organs is that the livers of the nitrogenous lot were nearly twice
as heavy as those of the carbonaceous lot.
The pigs fed in this experiment were of the same lot and breed
ing as the dams of the pigs of the succeeding experiment.

Nitrogenous and Carbonaceous Rations for Pigs—Second
Generation.
Four Poland China pigs about three months old were divided
into two lots of two each, November second, for experimental feed-
ing to compare nitrogenous and carbonaceous rations.

ale ee a |

.

352

AqrioutturAL Exerertment Sration, Irmaca, N. Y.

In this experiment the animals of lot I were pigs of a sow fed
a carbonaceous diet until the birth of the pigs; and the animals

of lot If were pigs of a sow fed a nitrogenous ration.

These sows

were of the same breeding and received the same rations respec-

tively at lots I and II of the previous experiment.

Some experiments of this nature have shown that a ration of

clear corn meal and water did not give the desired results <

S ¢

carbonaceous ration, because the animal would refuse to eat a

sufficient quantity of the clear meal to give the desired gain.
avoid this difficulty a little animal nitrogen in the form of meat

To

scrap was added to the ration of lot I or the carbonaceous lot.

This animal nitrogen was offset by adding scrap beef tallow to

the ration.

The ration of lot I consisted of corm meal, twenty-seven parts;

beef tallow, two parts, and meat scrap, one part.
The ration of lot II consisted of corn meal, two parts; meat

scrap, one part; and skim milk.

The amount of skim milk fed to

lot IT varied somewhat from day to day, as the supply varied, so

considerable water was drank by this lot during the experiment.

Fresh water was constantly kept in water boxes accessible to each

lot during the entire experiment.

Tables XV and X:VI give the amount of food consumed by
each lot, with the pounds of digestible constituents and the nutri-

tive ratio for each lot.

Taste XV.— Lor I— Carnonacrous.

Pounds

con-
sumed.

SOM AGA A 5s i32e stew wre 3 870
NIGAUBOEAD. J fei p6 oi 0' by moe 32
crap tallow. <<). 2) s:.005.6 64
SUERTE Sg al nae Sie Cr 966

DIGESTIBLE.
Protean, Fat. Nitrogen | Hiber
pounds. pounds |f oes bis pounds,
67.29 26.51%! 585.99 6.30
16.49 4.39 0" ek Shee
.96 57.60) 3 oe
84.74 88.50 | 585.99 6.30

Nutritive ratio, 1 to 9.

Freping Ensitage to LAmss. 353
Taste XVI.— Lor II. NirrocEnovus. —
DIGESTIBLE.
Pounds
saree Nitrogen
Protein, Fat, Fiber,
Brande! sae piacere tak aaa
Moose! 3 Nee sien. 614 47.49 USST LD eT Sa 4.45
MCAT HSCEAD.”. 4. s:.u's J. «.. 308s (ESS LOU PAZ OS 8s tee mais
“SLT nav Oa Oe ee 1,758 45.59 5) a 13.0 84 e
LOUGH (On ah Res ee a 2,679 | 281.27 | 64.32 | 452.11 | 4.45

Nutritive ratio, 1 to 2.2

Table XVII gives the weights of the individuals of each lot at
different periods during the experiment.

TasLe XVII.

Lor 1 Lor 2.
CARBONACEOUS. NITROGENOUS.
Harmark number: 3. 67...) 3 4 1 g
WEIGHT. Pounds Pounds. Pounds Pounds.
METS DIOT, 222 bi crcvaed edie aw Seater 29 5 30.5 43.5 35
PeVeEMINRE, Gis oc ska ae ule ee 45 38 55 43
Mrceemdiber: FU sos). Sas dade sees 4 62 52 104 65
5 [OTT TEN a lege GP ee 87 79 139 110.5
LET ON aml Je a RB Se ae 106.5 94.5 | 163.5 130 |
April TED: Se) Ss aN RAL Sot a BIA) 160 219 198
ET aia peor ae 167 129.5 175.5 163
REANIM POEPGAY 200.00 o's dectsletetaw >< tts 1 OF 1.45 1.35
Gain periday per lot .......... 2.20 2.80

- CN eT FP PNT et” tan A OW, Wee ee ae nr a
: fo hey ae ee ar
, eee lik Ud *

354 AgricutturaL Experiment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

Table XVIII gives the live weight at the time of killing; the
dressed weight, and the weight of internal organs.

Taste XVIII.

Lor 1. Lor 2
CARBONACEOUS. NITROGENOUS.

Ear mark number....... 3 4 1 )

WEIGHT. Lbs. | zs. Lbs. | Ozs. Lbs. | Ozs. Lbs Ozs.
WA Sie eae hie eare a's LOR S| EONS 919° | -¥ | 996 Taker
After bleeding. .'......... DGS y| 2S) SUS Rea 2 Deere sree 8
ODlGOG ness coos oe yee alae Sy aiksae fe Via 5 8
OPPHOATG rey seas cee Rye sehe Ny leaner By Oe odes VOY eke 9.
DLE Vs a aac Pe mS DAG ie Rea ri hae 1 7
OLE. ST iene oe RRR Ee RAD 27 Lad ie 7) 13
Ste NeONI No Ae cNereitne audit sna hie yb hale ht Mae stat Cea 4
Of stomach and intestines. 915 NOW he e1A bealics 7 11 ro
Dressed weight ......... 144 137 J|..5 321860] <78 a yao

The weight of the hogs dressed was taken the next morning
after killing.

It will be observed from Table XVII that the nitrogenous lot
made a much greater growth than did the carbonaceous fed lot.
The general appearance of the hogs differed even more than their
difference in weight as may be seen from figure 2, which is repro-
duced from a photograph taken of the hogs after dressing while
they were yet on the shambles. It will be noticed that the pigs
of the nitrogenous fed lot were larger, longer, and showed a
less tendency to lay on fat as seen in jowls of Nos. 3 and 4. There
was also a considerable difference in the proportion of lean and fat
meat of the two lots as may be seen by the illustration on the
title page.

The illustration marked 3 on the title page represents a cross
section of pig No. 3 of lot I taken through the loin, and when
compared with the illustration marked 1 taken from a simi-
lar section of pig 1 of lot Il, the relative proportion of lean
and fat meat is seen to be marked. In the animal fed on
carbonaceous food the amount of fat meat is not only greater but —

Frereping Ensinace to Lamps. 355

the amount of lean meat is much less than in the animal fed on
u@ pilregenous ration.

In this experiment the addition of the small amount of meat
scrap and scrap tallow to the ration of lot I seemed to have the
desired effect of increasing the consumption of grain of that lot,
for on one or two occasions when the animals of this lot were fed

= ‘apes
Fig. 2.—Nos. 1 and 2 Nitrogenous; Nos. 3 and 4 Carbonaceous.

their usual amount of corn meal without the meat scrap and
scrap tallow the meal was not all consumed, but when the same
quantity of corn meal was fed with the meat scrap and scrap.
tallow the food was greedily consumed.

The painstaking work of Clinton D. Smith and James E. Rice
contributed largely to the success of these experiments.

SUMMARY.

1. Ensilage fed with hay to lambs’ gave equally as good results
as where all hay had been fed, and the ensilage had the advan;
tage of being the cheaper food. Four pounds of ensilage being
equivalent to one pound of hay.

356 AgrioutruraL Exprrmentr Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y.

2. Lambs fed on ensilage drank less water than lambs fed,
wholly on dry food, but the lambs fed ensilage consumed more
water in the food and the water drank than those fed dry food.

3. Where nitrogenous and carbonaceous rations were compared
as food for lambs, the individuals of the lot of lambs receiving
the nitrogenous ration made a more uniform gain in live weight
than the lot fed a carbonaceous ration.

4. Results have not been uniform as regards the growth of pigs
where carbonaceous and nitrogenous rations have been compared.
In one experiment there was no marked difference in gain in
live weight and no marked difference in the chemical composition
of the meat. The results from another experiment showed a
marked difference in the gain in live weight and also a great
difference in the relative proportion of fat and lean meat.

I. P. ROBERTS.
G. C. WATSON.

DMD SPR NTR MAT iG EMG Merny A eas UROL Lan PAL RA 4 ANY SNe Wala
Sie, irk a 5 4g) eae Wy Be oa ra Aad
RPT ae Om) ewe ae 4 ‘
: : " ’

Cornell University —Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.

Reet, FIN oe ENCE,
DECEMBER, 1892.

Spraying Apple Orchards in a Wet Season.

By E. G. Lopreman.

ORGANIZATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

STATION COUNCIL.
President, JAcos Goutp ScHURMAN.
A022 A RO 0s Trustee of the University.

Hign. Os By POTTER! 0. bods ats President State Agricultural Society.
pp AELOB ETS! Watelaie sec aledacte's aw Saye, ood! a deve e Professor of Agriculture.
<2 UCOSS, QU Da 08 0 AR RP a Professor of Chemistry.
RRO AU WD une la Nal cla Waals, auara lS. whe Professor of Veterinary Science.
DARUI e EREUNT ISS epee sao cars oa j510/s) sNetinta,slebn, shela ee e's Professor of Botany.
BEPC EMS OO Pi 8485 ' Sig ha Wit wio'a 0a Professor of Entomology.
rape Mey ATOR Y: foie suet cce od a Siete en imse, ahaa Professor of Horticulture.
Wiiskv. DUDLEY . 0 4/000. Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
1c, LOVES OE Ten 2 1 a AS A a SL Pa Director
Elan vitae WING 20 oc. eel here, os ... Deputy Director and Secretary.
eee OV EIGTAMS:0 6 ars: 4'v cr2i 2, afavbie pirsie wlaha’ oialissa)a sei Metals a's 5 net Treasurer.
ASSISTANTS.
Lee ie EEN CAUIAT AND) 56,0 coon 4) <ho\n: aie''ss cha ejiidintejn wig tie w/e a wil Entomology.
BOG ASESONIY 4 oa viai'itcs hele ter oof lovebc whey oapsiatiesane sre nu0i oc Agriculture.
Ae He TTAB EE Nias aac 5) a seylslcual eh uyabe a ails! acevale Sahai s «teks Horticulture.
Pe RC AVA MUG OF Peni biaraiaiwaole ataaen dn al ciao eietisl tga) ede) aisle G+ Chemistry.

Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends, will please send us the
names of the parties.

BULLETINS OF 1892.

38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.

39. Creaming and Aerating Milk.

40. Removing Tassels from Corn.

41. On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for Green-
house Heating.

42. Second Report upon Electro-Horticulture.

43. Some Troubles of Winter Tomatoes.

44, The Pear Tree Psylla.

45. Tomatoes.

46. Mulberries.

47. Feeding Lambs and Pigs.

48. Spraying Apple Orchards in a Wet Season.

Spraying Apple Orchards in a Wet Season.

Experiments in spraying for apple-scab and apple-worm were
made this year in the orchard of John McGowan, a fruit grower
living near the University farm. The orchard consists principally
of King and Baldwin apples. Several other varieties are grown
and other experiments than those here recorded were made, but
owing to the limited number of trees and the lightness of the
crop the results obtained from these were unsatisfactory. But
definite results were obtained from the Kings and Baldwins. AI]
notes were taken with the assistance of L. C. Corbett, assistant
in the experiment station, in order that any personal bias of the
writer might be corrected.

The summer’s work is particularly interesting from the fact
that the season was very wet, the rainfall from June first to July
first, being as follows:

Rainfall

inches.

ULC O98 TY SEAR ONL SS Go a a AU AE 9.8
PUREBRED Ne Pgh ep acaba ttt wot we Bo a) uyhile ia lad cLeriaios & 59! WY asi pl & Suaterer tow bene Alpe a
CT TIS 7 2° 9 ON Bg RRR AT RCS ORES DIR PE EL A Renal SEAT MB Dt . 16
PRUE se anna he at ha ola, SN oats sor akdl she gE Ska ete Gale aye lacreiers ay
PURI MTOR rac clare rap ol Se OMe ds fone ated Sao, cots, pn forte lay ie wraaeyeic oe ae .08
PEEMUROON SSA cl dere og tN ANE che ia aR Ar es Dials c' ale! gin dieieloke ecetiarmiede EeeG
STE TPCAE BANE 1) Sail c, Meal reeU RET Sel oha crete, odie «We. 5 daar e aectera Seat & .02
CLSTALEES 0 SPR ie BE Se Rl ge iC Le 07
TTL Se BEE 2 A Oe ROO Se eR A A -16
PRSRESE ENN ore tifa! SU etm ol Sc 2 dei elave!ig' ssa, aitapave tal Bs/e alate Seal ony ater .02
SUED 95 a et ONE is ALS wid’ d ols Yolaia, Wi Mindella sa ath Geeta) Aare ate .23
EU SYTMe loa ft ta SEMEN TS! © 0. 2 sya rehoice) acevo jel ef aia ww) ew ghelatie alert aeitece .25
BRE de Bs rc iive 5 AMOR Ss oo'n, bo's sa cuh olin A'aifas Qrasasane a Seylal eer ae tava Say ot .01
EUAN Ls ay PENS ce Cato cad withalin Said ars a arcpalaiaeehjads .64
SULTANS ct Rake ose TS tse ons “os « 1s Soe te heeeeee ed, of Sl walamarancteata a al .29
RR OHUSED eo cate 8 0, L'a fies aia (Se elisa! ehabeitede ca Pel a» = 5.20

ET a ge BOE Bie ice ee NON Oc Oa ae
362 AGRICULTURAL Exprrment Station, Irmaoa, N. Y.

The total rainfall is 1.31 inches above the average for the month.
Most of the days during which no rain fell were cloudy and
warm, and the atmosphere was moist. The first week in July was
also rather wet, but later the rainfall was considerably less. Such
conditions are generally supposed to favor the development of the
apple-scab (Fusicladium denidriticum) and perhaps also other
fungi which work upon ithe trees. The rains also wash off the
materials which are applied to the trees. Professor Atkinson has
examined diseased fruit taken from the orchard in which the
experiments were made and has found that a large part, if not all
of the injury done to the apples by fungi was primarily caused by
the apple-scab fungus. The leaves were also more or less injured
but this was due partly to the action of other fungi as well as the
fusicladium. However, the latter may be considered as the worst
pest and any treatment which will. effectually check it will
undoubtedly render the others harmless also.

The life history of the fungus has not been well determined.
Mr. Fairchild, of the Division of Pathology at Washington, writes
me ‘that the infections take place earlier in the season thian was
supposed; in fact that it is probable that the disease often obtains
a foothold even before the petals fall from the trees. The experi-
ments made here the past season tend to confirm the statement.
The application of some fungicide before the buds of the apple
open will probably be as valuable as any later treatments which
may be given. When the fungus has once penetrated the plant
tissues, there can be no efficient remedies for it. The fungicide
should be upon the tree before the spors of the fungus germinate;
and those of the apple-seab occasionally seem to be growing even
before the opening of the first leaf buds. The apple-scab first
appears upon the fruit in the form of grayish, slightly sunken
spots. These generally are circular at first but when several grow
together their outline is irregular. As the spot enlarges the cen-
ter becomes quite dark, even black. At the edges may be seen
the epidermis or skin of the apple; it is loosened by the disease,
and forms a light colored line which plainly divides the diseased
from the healthy tissues.

Spraying APPLE OrcHARDS IN A Wert SmASON. 363

The codlin-moth lays its eggs early in the spring in the blossom
end of the apple, before the fruit has turned down. The larvae,
or worms, which develop from these eggs, make the apples
wormy. The time for fighting this pest is fortunately the
same as that for the apple-scab, and in this fact lies the value of
a combination of insecticides and fungicides. As soon as the
apples hang down, the arsenite may be omitted, the use of the
fungicide may still be advisable.

The pruning and the spraying of fruit trees are two subjects
which are closely related. This is especially true in the case
of the apple. Moisture is favorable to the development of the
apple-scab fungus. When the tops of the trees consist of a

_ tangled mass of large and small branches, they are much longer

in drying out than when they are open. Not only is a shelter
given to fungi, but their growth is encouraged, and cach tree
becomes the distributing center of some disease. The mischief is
also aggravated by the fact that it is as difficult for any remedies
to gain an entrance as it is for the light and air. It is impossibie
to spray such trees to advantage, even granting that the fruit
borne by them would warrant the expense. The head of the
tree should be open so that all parts may be reached easily with
the spray.

The actual expense of spraying is also largely increased when
the tops of the trees are not well pruned. A well-sprayed apple
tree has its leaves and fruit covered with a thin layer of the
material applied, so that the poison will be present wherever a
spore may fall or an insect feed. If the work is not done in this
manner the tree remains more or less unprotected. It naturally
follows that a tree bearing many unnecessary branches will require
more material to protect it. But much material is also wasted in
trying to spray through these branches, or past thei, in order to
reach more important parts of the tree. Again, this extra work
requires time. During the spring of the year there is generally
plenty of work to be done, and extra help is expensive. It is no
small task to spray an orchard, as those who have tried it well
know, and everything that will make the work easier is worthy
of attention.

SONAR Ps Neg Stet ae
A ; ¥ PRL *
Adi

?

364 AGricuLTuRAL Exprrment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

PART I. EXPERIMENTS OF THE SEASON.

Until recently, insecticides and fungicides have been applied
separately. The following experiments were made to determine
the value and practicability of spraying apple orchards with a
combination of insecticides and fungicides. From the good results
which have commonly followed the use of Paris green, it was
thought possible that it may have some value ss a funyivide
when used alone. Applications were made to test this point.

The combinations applied were Paris green and the Bordeaux
mixture, and London .purple and the Bordeaux mixture. Paris
green was also used alone. The arsenites were used at the rate
of two and one-half ounces to forty gallons of liquid, which is the
equivalent of one pound to about 250 gallons. The Bordeanx
mixture was made according to the formula:

Sulphate of copper (crystals), six pounds.

Lime (unslaked), four pounds.

Water, forty gallons.

The sulphate of copper dissolves very slowly in cold water. It
is better to buy it in the form of a powder, or to use boiling water,
which dissolves it more quickly. Four or five gallons of hot water
should readily dissolve enough of the copper sulphate to make
forty gallons of the mixture. It is better to use quick lime, but
that which has been air-slaked will also answer the purpose if
about one-fourth more is used. (See Part IL)

The arsenites were added to the mixture just before the appli-
cations were made to the trees. The mixtures were carried in
the orchard in a barrel holding forty gallons, and lying horizontally
upon a wagon. The pump used was No. 549, of the Deming
Company, Salem, Ohio. It was secured to the top of the barrel
as shown in the cover illustration. A hose, which discharges
into the barrel for the purpose of keeping the mixture stirred,
may be attached to the pump, but this was aot used. ‘he liquids
were stirred by means of a stick which was inserted into the bar-
rel through the hole used in filling. A thorough stirring was
given before spraying each tree. It was found that two persons
working together could do the work most satisfactorily; one drove

MERE ERR AEN RH FO EN CCC ee NNN (foe Gree mes Pon MRE YP 3 Te Ray SHuh) Des ae GAH as ake ARR i 2

Ain a Ra ,

Spraying APPLE OrcHuarps IN A Wet SEason. 365

and directed the spray while the other pumped. The nozzle used
was one invented by the owner of the orchard. It throws a fine
spray with much force, which makes it well adapted for orchard
work.

The amount of liquid applied to each tree averaged about four
and one-half gallons per application. The trees are about twenty
years old. They are thrifty and in excellent condition. The
retail price of the sulphate of copper is about eight cents per
pound, and Paris green is sold for about thirty-five cents. Adding
the cost of the lime at thirty cents per bushel, this makes the
actual outlay per tree for material about five cents for each applica-
tion of the combination of Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. If
London purple were used it would reduce the cost a little for this
poison should sell for about twenty cents a pound retail. If Paris
green is used alone the cost of each application is less than one
cent per tree. Two men should spray from 100 to 125 trees per
day and do the work well. Counting the cost of applying at two
cents per tree, this makes the total cost of each application of the —
combined insecticides and fungicides seven cents per tree, or about
twenty-five cents for four applications, this number being perhips
sufficient in even very wet seasons.

Most of the petals fell from the trees June sixth and seventh.
The first application was made June thirteenth, the weather in
the meantime being warm and damp. This application was with-
out doubt delayed too long, for at the time of the second appiica-
tion, June twenty-second, diseased. spots could be found both upon
the young fruits and upon the leaves in some of the places which
were thickly covered with the Bordeaux mixture, thus showing
that the work of the fungus began very early in the season. The
first application should be made at the latest, immediately after
the blossoms fall, and it is probable that good results will follow one
made earlier.

The orchard was sprayed a third time July first, and again July
twenty-second, the mixture in each case being prepared as for the
first application.

The apples were harvested early in October and at that time
they were carefully examined with regard to the amount of scab

*

ay Pa Cy OP a a ae | id> ee OS lh) ae Lee Wa vA eee
’ et Cris ee : NT = Noun Sa gel Mes
Pees , kn A a

: oi

366 AgricutturaL Exprerment Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y.

and number of worms present. The yield from two to four trees
of each lot sprayed was counted and graded: In most cases all
the apples borne by the tree were examined, but occasionally only
a portion sufficiently large to give a fair estimate of the
character of the yield. The apples were divided into four grades
as follows: First, those entirely free from scab; second, ranking as
first-class, or those whose market value had not been affected by
insects or fungi, although attacked; third, ranking as second-
class, or evaporating apples, tihose whose market value had
been more or less reduced by insect or fungous injuries, the apples
as a rule being smaller than the above, but not seriously misshapen;
fourth, cider apples, or all those remaining after the preceding
grades had been removed. The apples of each grade were
counted, as was also the number of wormy ones borne by each
tree. The following table shows the result. The numbers

represent the average of the results obtained from the different

trees:
= = : eee es a = = <a = = % =
| Average sh or \verage | Average
Variety. TREATMENT. pas pee diee sate periceit | per cent
apples. compared wormy. | gain.
with check.
Kine >. ..', Checks Hist e aeoe, S12 Rk | GP wl D5 |' ea
Rings. s Bordeaux and Paris
TENN so Bae 2iuta ay ote 55 34.7 1 24
Hing. 33':. Bordeaux and London
PREPS: ein leek Wwe, 59 30.7 3 "22
tS PATS OTORRY ene ns. wt. 72 Be gS | 2 23
Ravel OO AIE rj MONE CK i. 4! actbeithey Wieden Ct a aa 38) 1 Jnlgee
Baldwin ..| Bordeaux and Paris
preens ys ahem ers 52 22 9 27
Baldwin ..| Bordeaux and London
POPS sis pile oes cat 67 7 15 23
Baldwin ..| Paris green........... 58 16 - 4 34

It will readily be seen from the large proportion of poor fruit
shown by the table that the season, was one which would put to a
severe test any application that might be made. Nearly nine-
tenths of the King and three-fourths of the Baldwin apples on
the unsprayed trees had but little market value, and from twenty-

SPRAYING APPLE OrcHARDS IN A Wet Smason. 367

five to thirty-eight per cent of them were wormy. Fig. 2 is a
photograph of an average lot of untreated King apples. These
untreated apples are smaller than, the treated ones, although this
fact may not be noticed at first glance in the much reduced illus:
trations. But the gain in size and uniformity in Figs. 3 and 4 is
considerable.

The combination of Bordeaux mixture and Paris green reduced
the per cent of scab in. both Kings and Baldwins to a trifle more
than fifty per cent.

The combination containing the London purple was not so
effective, for fifty-nine per cent of the Kings and sixty-seven per
cent of the Baldwins were badly injured. Fig. 3 is a fair represen-
tation of apples treated’ with this combination.

’ The action of the Paris green is particularly interesting. When
used alone it reduced the injury from scab upon the King apples
17.7 per cent, upon the Baldwins seven per cent, This unequal
gain may probably be explained to a certain extent by the fact
that the Baldwins were not so severely attacked. When used
with the Bordeaux mixture upon the Kings a gain of four per cent
stands in favor of the Paris green when compared with the Lon-
dou purple, while in the case of the Baldwins the gain. is fifteen per
cent. This would go to show that Paris green possesses marked
fungicidal properties, but it is not so valuable in this respect as
the Bordeaux mixture. (Fig. 4.)

3v comparing Figs. 2, 3 and 4, it will be seen that the sprayed
apples are decidedly larger than those not treated. This may pos-
sibly be but the natural variation in the size of the fruit borne by
different trees, but since the unsprayed trees bear uniformly
smaller fruit it is scarcely probable that the applications were not
in some way connected with the increase in size. And this agrees
with results obtained in Ohio during 1891 by W. J. Green.* He
found that “ Aside from inferior appearance of scabby fruit, the
effect of the scab is to retard the growth of both foliage and fruit;
hence, scabby apples are smaller than those free from scab. The
difference in size between apples that are affected with scab, and

« *See Bull. Ohio Ex. Sta., Dec., 1891.

ey

Pai Ki, Seay IE Ree he Se pean 1 SUM Beale On ed
| | mi
368 AgricutruraL Experiment Sraryon, Irsaca, N. Y.

those that are free from it is not the same with all varieties, nor
with any given variety in different localities. That the differ-
ence may often be considerable is shown by some comparisons
that were made scabby Newtown. Pippins and those that were free
from the disease. One bushel of that variety that was free from
scab was found to contain 202 apples, while the same quantity of
scabby apples contained 317 apples. The average weight per
apple was four and two and one-half ounces respectively. This
comparison was between extremes, but those of the second class:
were, in size, far below those that were free from scab. It is no
doubt true that scab may cause a diminution in size of fifty per
cent, but in most cases the loss is below that figure. In all cases
seab hinders development, but not always in proportion to the
amount found upon the fruit. Wherever scab is present at all,
either upon fruit or leaves, the effect must be considerable in
arresting the development of the fruit.” .

The effect of the applications upon the larvae of the codlin-noth
was very marked. When the Paris green was applied alone it
reduced the injury from twenty-five per cent to two per cent in
the case of the King apples. The Baldwins show a marked differ-
ence also, the reduction being from thirty-eight per cent of wormy
apples to only four per cent. When. applied with the Bordeaux
mixture upon the King apples, the per cent of wormy fruit was
even less than when the Paris green, was applied alone; but the
reverse is true in the Baldwins. The experiment indicates that the
beneficial action of Paris green as an insecticide is not materially
affected by the Bordeaux mixture when the two are applied
together.

The results obtained when London. purple or Paris green was
added to the Bordeaux mixture indicate the comparative value of
such combinations. In the King the number of wormy apples
was reduced to one per cent by the Paris green and to three per
cent by the London purple. The Baldwins show a reduction, to
nine per cent by the Paris green and to only fifteen per cent by
the London purple. In each case the result is in favor of Paris
green.

Spraying ApptE OrcHarps IN A Wert SEAson. 369

The foliage of the trees was uninjured, except in the case of the
Paris green applied alone. Some trees, and parts of trees, to
which this had been applied, looked thinner than the rest of the
orchard during the latter part of the season. The leaves were
undoubtedly somewhat injured by the Paris green but not suffi-
ciently to weaken the trees to any extent. The cause of the
injury is undoubtedly due to the amount of arsenic which entered
into solution. This was found by analysis to be about one-half of
one per cent (.63) of the total amount. The addition of a little
lime would have destroyed all caustic action, for no injury could
be seen where the Bordeaux combinations were used. A sample
of London purple has been analyzed by the station chemist. It
was found that about fifty per cent of the arsenic was soluble and
it is this dissolved arsenic which injures foliage.* On account of
its caustic properties the London purple was used only in connec-
tion with the Bordeaux mixture.

PART II. THE PREVALENCE OF APPLE SCAB.

Early in October a circular was sent from this station asking
for information regarding the degree in which the varieties of
apples were attacked by the scab fungus. The varieties were to
be divided into three classes: | First, those whose market value
is practically ruined every year, as the Fameuse, or Snow apples}
second, those whose market value is not seriously affected, as the)
Baldwins; and third, those which are entirely free from scab.
The division was to be based upon the amount of scab found upon
the fruit. Many growers responded. Although the data are not
so complete as might be desired, still the resistant powers of
many varieties are shown in the tables given below. The matter is
a difficult one to study and it is hoped that apple growers, in
whose interest this work is being done, will watch the disease
next summer and report any results that may be of interest in
time for publication in a succeeding bulletin. The newer varie-
ties should receive particular attention, for among them there are

* See Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin No. 18, July, 1890.

47

370 AqricutruraL Exprrtment Srarion, Irmaca, N. Y.

undoubtedly some that withstand the attacks of the scab much
more than others; it will be interesting to know whether they
will remain so. Some parts of the trees also appear to be more
injured than others; in some varieties the fruit suffers more than
the leaves, and in others the reverse is true. Location also influ-
ences the amount of scab present in an orchard. It is the com-
mon opinion that the disease is worse in low, wet places; but all
growers do not agree with this statement. The character of the
soil is another important factor to be considered. Is the disease
as serious upon well-drained land as upon that which is not
drained? Are there any neglected trees or orchards in the
neighborhood which might explain the presence of the scab
fungus in an orchard or certain parts of an orchard? To what

extent do the amount and the time of rainfall affect the pre-

valence of the disease? These and many similar questions still
demand the attention of apple-growers, and any notes that may
throw light upon the subject will receive attention if reported
to this station.

OBSERVERS.
Maine.
E. W. Dunbar, Damariscotta: ;
Remarks.— “We have but very little scab about here; none
worth mentioning.”
Chas. H. George, South Paris:
Remarks.— “ Apples in this section free from scab, except
Fameuse and Fall Pippin.”
C. 8. Pope, Manchester:
Habitually badly affected.— Baldwin, Pomme Royal, Hoyt Sweet,
Red Canada, Mexico, A. S. Pearmain, Rolfe, Fameuse, McIn-
tosh Red.

Not seriously affected— Y. Bellefleur, R. I. Greening, Jewett

Red, Deane.

Free.— Fallawater, Garden Royal, Nonesuch, Mother, Peck
Pleasant, Starkey, Talman Sweet, Williams Favorite,
Ontario, Rox. Russet, Gravenstein, King, N. Spy, Pumpkin
Sweet, Paradise Sweet.

Spraying AppLE Orcoarps In A Wet SEASON. Si

Remarks.— “Our Baldwins are seriously affected, particularly
on the high dry land. Other Baldwin orchards are almost
entirely free from scab. We have never put out Fameuse or
McIntosh Red as they are liable to scab.”

Massachusetts.
O. B. Hadwen, Worcester: |
Remarks.— “The apple scab has not injured my apples suffi-
ciently to injure their sale in market.”

Rhode Island.
O. H. J. Perry, Jr., Lincoln:

Habitually badly affected— R. I. Greening, Pearmain, Gilliflower,
Yorkshire Greening, Wine, Early Harvest, Early Burden,
Spice, N. Spy.

Not seriously affected— Gilliflower, Tift Sweet, Ladies Sweet,
Red Canada, Early Williams, Bellefleur, Leicester Sweet.

_ Free.— Nonesuch, Baldwin, Peck Pleasant, Seek-no-further, Tal-
man Sweet, Rox. Russet, Porter, Gravenstein, Astrachan,
Sapson, Oldenburg, Hurlbert, King.

Remarks.— “The disease is worse in wet locations.”

New York.
George T. Powell, Ghent:

Habitually badly affected— Fameuse, Cranberry (Pippin), Spitzen-
burg, Vandervere, Y. Bellefieur.

Not seriously affected.— N. Spy, Baldwin, R. I. Greening, Jonathan,
Pound Sweet, Twenty Ounce, Nonesuch, Porter.

Free.— Lady Winter Sweet, Red Winter Sweet, King, Seek-no-
further, Golden Russet, Rox. Russet, Ben Davis, Fall Pippin,
Gravestein.

Remarks.— “The apple scab is worse in wet locations.”

J. J. Thomas, Union Springs:

Remarks.— “Can make no definite statements as the severity of

the disease varies so much with the seasons.”
T. B. Wilson, Seneca:

Habitually badly affected— Fameuse, Canada Red, Fall Pippin,

Douce.

372 AcrioutturaL Experiment Station, Iraaca, N. Y.

Not seriously affected.— Baldwin, R. I. Greening, King, Nonesuch,
Fallawater.

Free.— Gilliflower, Seek-no-further.

Remarks.— “The disease is worse in wet locations.”

C. A. Green, Rochester:
Habitually badly affected.— Fameuse, N. Spy (very).
John McGowan, Forest Home:

Habitually badly affected.— Fall Pippin.

Not seriously affected— King, Baldwin, Fallawater, Winesap,
Astrachan, Magnolia, Maiden Blush, Seek-no-further.

Free.— None. :

Remarks.—‘I am inclined to think that the disease is worse in
low localities, especially where the soil is retentive of
moisture.”

North Carolina.
J. A. May, Canton:

Free.— Spy, Newtown Pippin, Y. Bellefleur, Fall Pippin, Spitzen-
burg, Baldwin, King.

Remarks.— “There is no such disease as ‘scab’ in this moun-
tainous section of North Carolina.”

G. L. Anthony, Vandalia:

Habitually badly affected. Vandevere, Red Limber Twig, Faust
Winter, Astrachan, Golden Russet, W. W. Pearmain.

Not seriously affected— Winesap, Rawle Janet, Sum. Pearmain,
Yellow Horse, Va. Beauty, Edwards Winter, Romanite,
Maiden Blush, Mountaineer, Carolina Beauty.

Free.— Schockley, Royal Limber Twig, Summer Rose, Red June,
Early Harvest, Early Ripe, Early Joe, Clark Pearmain,
Magnum Bonum, Hall Seedling, Y. Transparent, Kernodle,
Buckingham, Grimes Golden. :

Ohio.
T. S. Johnson, Gypsum:
Habitually badly affected.— Belmont, Yellow Harvest, Fall Pippin,
White Pippin, N. Spy, Y. Bellefleur.
Not seriously affected.— Baldwin, R. I. Greening, Ben Davis, King,
Rambo, Fallawater, Peck Pleasant, Bailey Sweet, Nonesuch.

BS yd aly a Sale 7. =
afta a x

Spraying AppLeE OrcHARDS IN A Wet SEASON 373

Remarks.— “TI think the disease is worse in vet places.”
Frank Ford, Ravenna:

Habitually badly affected— Baltimore, Canada Red, Fall Pippin,
Early Harvest, Belmont, Bellefleur, Dominie Swarr, Astra-
chan, Peck Pleasant, Pound Sweet, Rambo, Seek-no-further,
Smith Cider.

Not seriously affected.— Baldwin, N. Spy, R. I. Greening, Tetofsiy,
Sops of Wine, Stark, Rawle Janet, Golden Sweet, Fallawater,
Twenty-ounce, Ben Davis, Wagener.

Free.— Grimes Golden, Rox. Russet, Sweet Russet, King, Maiden
Blush, Colton, Detroit Black, English Russet, Talman Sweet,
Green Sweeting.

U. T. Cox, Ensee:

Habitually badly affected— Rome Beauty, Karly Strawberry,
Pound Royal, N. Spy, Pippins.

Not seriously affected— Ben Davis, Rawle Janet, Early Chandler,
Astrachan, Maiden Blush, Grimes Golden.

Remarks.— “The diseases is worse in low and damp places.”

Ontario.
John A. Croile, Aultsville:
Habitually badly affected.— Fameuse, McIntosh Red.
Free.— G. Russet, Talman Sweet.
S. P. Morse, Milton:
_ Habitually badly affected.— Early Harvest, Fameuse, Y. Belle-
fleur, Dominie, Fall Pippin, Holland, Pippins.

Not seriously affected.— Colvert, Grimes Golden, N. Spy, Wine-
sap, E. Spitzenburg, Swaar, R. I. Greening, Red Canada.

Free.—[Astrachan, Oldenburg, Twenty-ounce, Baldwin, Eng.
Russet, Talman Sweet, Wagener, Seek-no-further, King,
Ribston (Pippin), Cat-head.]

Remarks.— “ No variety has in all seasons proved absolutely free,
yet, practically so. Apple scab is worse in wet location, and
in parts of the trees least. exposed to the sun; also on the
apex of the apple when it hangs down and so retains moisture
and continues shaded.”

374 AgriouLturaL Exprerment Sration, Irnaoa, N. Y.

Michigan.
L. D. Watkins, Manchester:

Habitually badly affected— Y. Bellefleur, Early Harvest, Marly :
Joe, E. Spitzenburg, Fameuse, Rambo, Seek-no-further,
Newtown Pippin.

Not seriously affected— Baldwin, Newtown Pippin, Limbertwig, '
Maiden Blush, Red Canada, R. I. Greening, N. Spy, Wealihy,

Free.— Ben Davis, Golden Russet.

Remarks.— “The disease is worse in wet places, and this year
all standard fungicides failed entirely.”

A. T. Linderman, Whitehall:

Habitually badly affected— Newtown Pippin, Y. Bellefleur,
Fameuse, Maiden’s Blush, Astrachan, Jersey Sweet.

Not seriously affected.— Red Canada, Sweet Bough, R. I. Greening,
Rox. Russet, N. Spy, Early Strawberry.

Free.— Baldwin, Talman Sweet, King, Oldenburg, N. Spy (in
some places).

Remarks.— “ The disease is worse in dry locations.”

Indiana.
W. H. Ragan, Greencastle:

Habitually badly affected— Ortley, W. W. Pearmain, Red June,
Y. Bellefleur, Newtown Pippin, Fameuse, McAfee.

Not seriously affected— Rome Beauty, Winesap, Ben Davis, Clay-
ton, Belmont, Rawle Janet, Trenton Early, R. I. Greening,
E. Spitzenburg, Jonathan.

Free.— Baldwin, Benoni, Grimes Golden, Vandevere.

Remarks.— “ First saw the disease twenty-five or thirty years
ago in rather moist valleys, but now I meet with it in all
locations.”

J. A. Burton, Mitchell:

Habitually badly affected— Early Harvest, Red June.

Not seriously affected—Astrachan, Benoni, Chenango, Maiden
Blush, White Pippin, Rambo, Cheese, Stark, N. Spy,
Smith Cider, Rawle Janet, Limber Twig, Rome Beauty,
Ben Davis, Winesap, American Pippin, Black.

Free.— Golden Sweet, Trenton Early, Pennock Grimes Golden.

Pa IR “i Wa aes My Wie = ye Set a y' Bei f oli ih y axl , | t Lm A
. \
Spraying Appre OrcHARDS IN A Wet SEASON. 3t5

Illinois.

A. C. Hammond, Warsaw:

Habitually badly affected— Red June, Early Harvest, Ortley,
Fameuse, Newark (Pippin), Winesap. |

Not seriously affected.— Astrachan, Wealthy, Ben Davis, Baldwin,
Pennock, Prior Red, Oldenberg.

Remarks.— “The thick-leaved Russians were more exempt than
any other varieties. The disease is worse in wet locations.”

Benj. Buckman, Farmingdale:

Habitually badly affected— Carolina Jane, Rawle Janet, Winesap, -
May (Rhenish), Early Harvest, W. W. Pearmain, American
Summer, N. Spy, Hewes Crab, Whitney.

Not seriously affected [usually not seriously affected].— Rock Pip-
pin, Fanney, Marian, Jonathan, Wythe, Ben Davis, Stark,
Astrachan, Roman Stem, Autumn Strawberry, : Chenango,
Golden Sweet, Trenton Early, Wagener, Str. Sweet Pippin,
Y. Bellefieur, Melon, Minister, Salome, Cogswell.

Free [nearly free]— Oldenburg, Charlamoff, Y. Transparent,
Wealthy, Thaler, English Russett, Pomme Gris and Russets
generally with many of the Russians, Grimes Golden and
most of Gideon’s apples and crabs.

Remarks.‘ The disease is worst in wet locations.”

S. G. Winkler, Oswego: |

Habitually badly affected.— Fameuse, Baldwin?

Not seriously affected.— Jonathan, Willow Twig, E. G. Russet, Y.
Bellefleur, N. Spy, Dominie.

Free.— Ben Davis, Winkler, Lowell, Oldenberg, Astrachan, None-
such, Twenty-ounce, Codlin.

Remarks.—* Last year all our apples were fair, even to the Fame-
use, but this year there are no apples at all. The Baldwin can
not be grown here.”

Kansas.
G. C. Brackett, Lawrence.

Habitually badly affected [often seriously affected]— W. W. Pear-
main, Carolina June, McAfee, Early Harvest, Rome Beauty,
Rambo, W. W. Pearmain, Fall Wine, A. G. Russett, Ortley, Y.
Bellefleur.

\e wis ies “eye Tee 1 AA Se
: haar ¥ bu

376 AGRICULTURAL Exprrtment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

Not seriously affected [least susceptible]— Astrachan, Oldenberg,
Jefferis, McClelland, Wagener, Jonathan, Mother, Benoni,
Ben Davis, Gano, Willow Twig, Maiden Blush, Hunt
of Warder, Winkler, Gilpin, American Summer, Rawle Janet,
Detroit Reed, King, Hightopsweet, Indiana Red Streak.

Free.— None.

Remarks.—< I have never found a variety exempt from this disease
in all years and on the other hand, I have never found a
variety that was attacked every year in this climate. The
disease is worse in wet places, but its prevalence is mainly
affected by the season.”

D. G. Watt, Lawrence:

Habitually badly affected.— Carolina June.

Not seriously affected.— Smith Cider.

Free.— Ben Davis, Willow Twig, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, King,
Rambo.

Thos. Buckman, Topeka:

Habitually badly affected—W. W. Pearmain, Fameuse, N. ©.
June, Pa. Red Streak.

Not seriously affected— Mo. Pippin, Winesap, Roman Stem,
Smith’s Cider, Little Romanite, Early Harvest, Rome Beauty,
Dominie, Baldwin. >

Free.— Ben Davis, Jonathan, York Imperial, Grimes Golden,
White Pippin, Stark, Oldenburg, Wealthy, Rareripe, Maiden’s
Blush.

E. J. Holman, Leavenworth:

Habitually badly affected— Red June, Early Pennock, Early Har-
vest, Cooper E. White, Sweet Bellefleur, Milam, W. W. Pear-
main, Fameuse, Fulton, Winesap, Ridge Pippin, Lowell, Ort-
ley, Jersey Sweet, Binny Sweet, Talman Sweet, Harrison,

- Rome Beauty.

Not seriously affected.— Astrachan, Primate, Horse, Maiden Blush,
Bachelor, Sops of Wine, Golden Sweet, Nonesuch, Vandevere,
Mother, Orange Pippin, Fall Orange, Jonathan, Baldwin, W.
S. Paradise, Smith Cider, Rawle Janet, Ben Davis, Willow
Twig, Mo. Pippin, Fallawater, Cream, Y. Bellefleur, Codlin,
Gravenstein, W. W. Pippin, A. G. Russet, E. G. Russet, Peck

Spraying AppreE OrcHarps In A Wet SmAson. 3877

Pleasant, Jefferis, Sweet Bough, Sum. Queen, Sum. Pearmain,
Dominie, Gilpin. |
Free.— Oldenburg, Trenton Early, Porter.
C. W. Hayden, Thayer:

Habitually badly affected— Mo. Pippin, Fameuse, Fall Wine,
Gilpin, Wine Sap, Milam.

Not seriously affected—Ben Davis, Jonathan, Roman Stem, Rawle
Janet, Maiden Blush, Willow Twig, Rome Beauty.

Remarks.— “ No varieties are free from scab in my orchard.”

Dr. A. Newman, Lawrence:

Habitually badly affected— W. W. Pearmain, Mo. Pippin, Wine-
sap, Early Harvest. )
Not seriously affected—N. Spy, Fameuse, Astrachan, Rawle

Janet.

Free.— Fall Orange, Lowell, Sweet Bough, Nonesuch, Willow
Twig.

Missouri.
A. H. Giekeson, Warrensburg:

Habitually badly affected— Rome Beauty, Huntsman, W. Belle:
fleur.

Not seriously affected—— Grimes Golden, R. I. Greening, Lansing-
burg, Roman Stem, Winesap, Lady, Rambo, Early Harvest,
Astrachan. .

Free.— Ben Davis, Striped Pippin, Baldwin, Rawle Janet, Little
Romanite, Willow Twig, Jonathan, Fallawater, Talman
Sweet, Lady Sweeting, Missouri Pippin, N. Spy, Winesap.

Remarks.— “The disease is worse in wet locations and during
wet seasons.”

L. A. Goodwin, Westport:

Habitually badly affected— Huntsman, W. W. Pearmain, Early
Harvest, Red June.

Not seriously affected— Ben Davis, Clayton, Willow Twig,
Winkler.

Henry Speer, Butler:

Habitually badly affected— Fameuse, Early Harvest, Red June,
W. W. Pearmain, Fall Wine, Winesap, Ortley, R. I. Greening,
Rambo, Fulton, Smith Cider, Red Romanite.

48

OR EAS

;
378 AGricuLtuRAL Exprrment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

Not seriously affected— Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Ben Davis,
Willow Twig, Y. Bellefleur, Winkler, N. Spy, Maiden Blush,
Sops of Wine, Benoni.

Free [comparatively free].— Baldwin, Lowell, Oldenburg.

Remarks.— “ The disease is worse in wet locations.”

N. F. Murray, Oregon:

Habitually badly affected.— White Peneenee, Fameuse, Cooper
E. White, Winesap.

Not seriously affected— Winesap, Baldwin, Rambo, Rome Beauty,
Roman Stem, Barly Harvest, Oldenburg, Astrachan, Willow
Twig.

Free.— Ben Davis, Smith’s Cider, Missouri Pippin, Maiden Blush,
Jonathan, Russets.

Remarks.— “The disease is worse in wet places.”

Fred Lionberger, Hugo:

Habitually badly affected— Red June, Early Harvest, Rome
Beauty, Mo. Pippin, Lawver, Huntsman, Pa. Red Streak,
Winesap (if neglected), Rawle Janet, Sweet June.

Not seriously affected.— Ben Davis, Jonathan, N. Pippin, N. Spy,
Baldwin, Wagener, Mellinger, Prior Red, Vandevere, Smily,
Oldenburg, Benoni, Y. Transparent, Grimes Golden, Rambo,
Clayton, Maiden Blush, Chenango, Smith Cider, Lucy Pew,
M. H. Pippin.

Free [usually free]— Willow Twig, Stark, Wythe, Astrachan,
Fallawater.

Remarks.— “The varieties named in this first column are always
scabby in my orchard. Most of them have been grubbed out
and destroyed. I am sure that the disease is worse in wet
and low locations.”

G. W. Hopkins, Springfield:

Habitually badly affected.— Fameuse, Wine Sap, W. W. Pearmain,
Early Harvest, White Bellefleur, Newtown (Pippin), Red June.

Not seriously affected— Huntsman, Jonathan, Willow Twig,
Rome Beauty, Smith Cider, White Pippin, Gilpin.

Free.— Ben Davis, Grime Golden, Porter, Astrachan, Sops of
Wine.

Remarks.— “ The disease is worse it wet locations.”

Spraying ApptE Oronarps IN A Wet Sxason. 379

The following table has been prepared in order to compare so
far as possible the extent to which each variety is subject to
the apple-scab or other injurious fungi. It is scarcely probable
that all the injury to the apples is due to the applescab fungus.
The varieties named in the last table in the column marked
“Free” are first considered. Many of the were also men-
tioned in the other columns. Next are considered those varieties
found in the column marked “Not seriously affected,” and
finally those found in the column “ Habitually badly affected.”
The figures in the columns refer to the number of times the vari-
ety was mentioned in the given categories by the respondents: |

Habitually Not
badly seriously
Variety. affected. affected. Free.

MeMEMMCEY UP RUOV SED theif ole clas rnc iedhetalewebsie: teu tle
7 TELTB NG SEDER 912 Or eal Ro aera
PUMP RINR RSs re ae RVs ch cl ared wca iets aha® alicte lalbol-ogfal eaters
mempkim Sweet... 000.2... vente eet nee
OU OS OS) 2 2 I ee ce
Se RCI Ne erchchm! oof ease what os) ay 248 baleen ie ans
MPR DIE ER aes aa, hes ohn: ches Bhat Goel wie afavdhare «4
Pathy VATE SWE cS ec sje sth. eidlatees «oie © es
Bret VVIILET PS WEEE os scien Sect < co's f «Be eie wlehe
STORM TVNY ORME Mol ssa fiacaye leave ate «ice te) & epale, einer
Sr COTTA Ts sh ols Sane Be tora: cop ayes, © ete reseed
RA Tg OTINDIAN > Schur ane seh dists joo as anedouctera's. <A
PPE CCE C LIARS OU eie oro te cue Alcharea toto fa, ota ates ee
GITTO CEN hs sb Sa ttaare & Sorcha ahaha wie la diay & oes
US UO ANNE WA e ater. cake se 4 ohn tape aha 88
MEMES 8 ara has) ah dies SieNatMtep tien 5 a relah: ana d Si eaia ats 8 eos
EPCOT ONS WOOGIE, 18a araidie cia rials d's aye’ miele aed
SYMP ee ON Ta PE CLEA cot ay ester =, wes sa 90g) of alia ions ke or a
TC ERLE CE ER TROT, Ps 2. SERS SRR AS Irie Pt ae
Me ey COUN A ettetaver ecole aca 2 2's e)a = statarece eis) o's
AVE RTI cia tel a gaa o tts lo, «|, oe ase: Wie fa ln hehe pba ee @ ie
“SQA EL 1S [F100 Dae ae/ le Gt a i eR Zola eR
Ba hee Sis Siete eI. ko DE at 3 er
Rox. Russetti 2.2.2.0... Via isi es ohare’ elds lols Wiafale' as) nig ae 2

OW OH Pe HB ee ee eee ee Be ee Be ee pe

‘

380 AericutturaL Exprrment Srarion, Irnaoa, N. Y.

Habitually Not

badly seriously

Variety. affected. affected Free.
armies. Golden: ws. a> 20 bs cee ee os UE pe 6 7
aR LOL, a bin te meena Oaeateyel bic] 2 RRS bie 5 6
Sv eel SHRHORCL 6s ass as akg ae. vk a Se i 2
PRCROOTE J OLBCK sais ds bbe ais oe ARIE he Ne OES i Vag 1
RRRMA TEDL S Bic ravg Salo -8 3's psn acs oi iss RIGOR 3 Tela ae ets SR 1 1

Fall POCAAUE A Sine a's Gato cre aay Saeed ss terete i ys
RS TAAANIL (RADA Ui. 5'5 350s wiaiaty'e sw ibook See ath, a 2 2
[MES ULC i a aD Soe SRR RRR PRN. 4 4
GACY. Sei was: Patten din CMM Eset 3 2
eye, Datnb er. MIR yest say eae o 3a sce de elec die 2 rh
Siete A TUSTOAUOTT He) Mee SE. cn n)e os a Gea hate einige Die esi
IRTP Telr e bgt) cS iE aeate gtaamunarhis 2 1
BERSRIAR CEN TY. 5 ac e's eek ghracuee otc aie shen Oi ae ee 2 1
DRI PTL aks hiss ect; Sacto ase le ete ye Tn Se re 2 J
eR RUMIETT tho al Hale dte a Sard dea ae wee bate eee Ea 2 sf
PPP ERO TINATIT EE siti okt Rp o\'s Soo ie wire cleus Weeveunea 2 1
TN VES 2 Ip ests ain Sasa Re ok fniee 2 1
ETL, DE AR le Re Ae NS ie tg SIE Pac St ce 13 8
BASSE UMIRIOL: ofits 2 a's x cro eieyaie 8 2) ale aia elma ea eRe Seite + 2
OOP Ec) So ERISA ae AOE SUIN ARS SCAT A a Fa Mh fe OLR AC sere 3 2
PRPRAPAUELAAIAT S120 %) young Sache ee. + sess areie coe torah Saeed ee 10 4
AMAETES WOOLY Sct sa' ols iace s elcketoosn vs 8 vied a ttae sie RS 3 2
Biden pure: =. '. "52s Wetec ¥Ric So\atse vena. aie, ana Setter Maite 7 3
OCT, Ge ge ek RAN oe ae ede tf oeioe See. 8) 4 1
ACL ee la Ecler an tee ate RRM a eK po 8 3
OPE yo Ne ee a oD Ga Vee ON RRR ANA, 2c A 5 2
MEUM VV AIMS Pc'.'oiain « 5 x 2 otecs apts ete) ein! Fa edy pl Pet ae 3 :
RY NOUMCE <n ora sae oe sls nuteheen as A tie eis 4 1
PRRMIATIS SWORD \5.5.4- slate seco pete ates oalge A 1 1 5
PERE, ERUBBEL oh sts tie ss eae ee ss cede ek h 1 4
EIR of sg a's. S41. alaic ncaa ee he i! 1 1
SANA TUOONMIT 9° 0. "5 occa a: katy areal itity. FOtas, OMRME TES si iD 1 1
J) a AS SRR IS RTS Mae PRET BR ER Seek St 3 Sa | 1 2
OMELIMEND CA P)PVALL. «0,2: satu pk area oreo Cheney ioe 1 1
EEE 9. @OD iey Soc ewe hal sadly ss ae aden hl iene nT Te bik cI 2a} 1
PC MCUBAING “is '6'e lets wiki ok Wie steiethinisteisieln' clei i 2 2

Sv $ 3

Spraying APPLE OrcHARDS IN A Wet Srason. 381

Habitually Not
3 badly seriously
Variety. affected. affected. Free.

Bee ke-LUPUMer yc Cle ie a ol bo un bin e's ose ee eee 2 2 3
EE SMMC TIES: oceIes > wv >ietape'e's's o's & ohms sls s 2 2 il
OIA MN LIES Co). oe cube ena iw bin Swit Bice 2
re EEN PUINY em Cickfials So's + vciwtca neh de wlan es 5
NAOT, HES UUESID A Eee os o's ws bb sale © be, Uaioe A eye al 10
4
3

nw

SMEMUT RIN and 'e WISTS vols Ns Ve SALE BOSS Ub Cala A
MS OVE Tenet ers, oS 2S hc 6 cig Gin eb ne eis elaine bo bite

6
ROM EER ha ee eS tars li's coi ring ote pel die 4 AiG, baste ees 7
SBE ag LAT V CR ivrdiic x ale Ace's’ o:8''elninis rae wiecebls olelevete 13 3
PEM UT eae aio ooo shah vie oxen isola aera a ais 5
SAW EADWVEL: (CEAIIIOEUN) Fa: 'she ievs's'o is sie slels alevajehs «46's ,8 2
LEE ed 24,10) 1011, en
REP reMGREIES 1 cial a Syeedh ahead al cl ew havea de ela ele: set shere

a a oe CC

aon on

MO Ca ors ars as a2, Sp haa aha weahesid oldie, tyes ouaiere sue -Ure
PIT COL Aelita mata Siete s smunislard sa bie ose, tadee ay
PIICR TS WELD oy a aere\th a) leis sieslbla paiain: bai ge Sie oo ae
PALAU HALTAINS 55, ig is: bdaliecaan sv) c'm Bide cate dee ie che
BE UCESTICT: WEEN ole olcos ea tnct dt isle ele se nisswiw spans o/e,'3
os) SICTOUTL 2 Vagina a eae gas Car a EME Lh he Pm
ET ESE UNGY: 953 82s, deh behe vw iaiayeiwlene. <ofdcde’ ernie ate
ELV IEAV VL EILEEN cece tates ais. ake jeg osniareiahe 6's) arabe
RNG AETOOT: fro Mo ete ahs, aa cieteandss odin eka vt area
ALITY EWCEETELY, 0a eval <'s)'s.'c oan Sieh oahu eh ere ace are
EUAN WOEG 62) cia! Stakes 0's: ore. Sin, afye''s\2, steed gecwes
TSS SI ES eR i 1 a aC
Bein 2 Fea 8! oa epane/ojovehshelegnbeneye
PV CMSEINN a iy, ot tbe ah aoe heptane “alle pyo; «ss'gaus)dyaqsvemyayaiiase's
BION Faye ai) aNvieted 5) ove ek elgeh pape ahs 41019 Seis joie loielenegela eye

er OO CC GO Oo

bet itetinias Saw cA

~
\

382 AgriouLTuRAL Experment Station, Iraaoa, N. Y.

Habitually Not
badlk seriously
Variety. affected. affected. Free.

BUBANTLY Hage. o's a craletcls 5 /n'afer aise BM ete/a & viele SERIA sm, & bee i
pea ertciaainre ss... he was psn etauecetattheh rer aia’ e ate MeeeN Reo 1a

MCD Bio, Ns cS yaie' a ate ty" eh bre aiciale uk hn) ee is

MMMBRVCUE fe, Uae 29: u,cis.a o's ss SIR a WVe.9).0' piace oi ae

BERR RUMPE Tess aio in) vice ra rateLacal Bate eaterere wk, so oe Cee ee

EAP OTOP WCET sibiitine vals vin ola obfae Qiaeaie eava's/as
UCT aN Sys 27 1 he eA ee Bo Nos, eps et
[TU OVS Too A aM aS Ae RAT CLITA VI bet Rea

SRPRSTETIT RT Rai yt tN c's ‘sSatwhetiets: ch chal ceaken erate eae nee ee
MIRTH? CVI BOTS 3.) os bin! inka ata Beate oe ieleyelens artis
UEP E ITO tafchs cults! Senet cts napein ahh ate ahah oie
DADO, Sly She a eS AS te AS i OUR PE

TRON RPS Ha Shs etica to 3g Te oe Sag hf go lois er eudhel Geek pE Ra Cio OR
STARS WPL GENT) 12 esi 5 Sons at shan’ tsb iene id & acy GR Na a oe ac

ECR EAA PAPONED 5 Aona eS cahateiel aieegeee y © ake haste wddx bots

CCS a, a oe CS

w

SREIWAMDIAL YN ise, sate oka ite ah dee sce toge oF ovale ae Oe

TARNEO i ooh a cases Ste dbo os Diet DRE te DAE Se
REVERS IC 00s as fo inn lata bia hy't So, adeeb eS dIs “s lo MG

wow bw bw bv

“CHLLC EAN) Uy eRe eee Ras ey! |e iges 178

A Wei peer po yy
Py od ony OS

4 ie

t

Spraying AppLe OrcHARDS IN A Wut SrAson. 383

Habitually Not
ba seriously
Variety. affected. affected. Free,

DEAL Gr Geer a So ub SESE a A oP 3 4
MOS FeO ALEC YW Fis sohttoptes tii @ #1 6) «/nhs)c dO <se A ae none hed
EROHEUEMRPES 7 15181) eB MAAS oc oh oo ooh a of dust Vl he AO. Seale
BOLE a PUAN eee oo, xe) shee: dar st ahovrd a oh ch evshim wr ee
AV ites fal 07 11 ng ae ee Se IP Pe
Be. UNSC Ma aettecls os Soleo fora eo oaefaada ao
BPP Tee FNP ITAE cyetar afore «i 6 1.6) Sic 4 Lonel'®, m5, oe eames »
Pe AUTO IOT AM Ages. o, 3 6 ho sam aye a 0 ies nhelee

SM PeL Ears). cg ee meaty fac) se, a ee aaah eek ota ete wr arey a eee s
Mate WW DCH Eee cloves akilals ween wlsva'e! sea. 6 elem
Rea TN ciel, -PUMU os cass ee. elec aalsinrs bere arse
Rema OA PUPILU erate inlene c Je ol a chitne aber ciekeie oe lane als
Strawberry Sweet Pippin ..................
PENN STAMEE EL LIOPMIELI Sa ev evata Sees Salahn a atae as os cosa
MSIE Faas iS ens s Bs wie alate Dard @ shake

rg

iS)

=|

8

au

op)

;

ch
CE a
a ee ee ee a ee

-]

[REVAL ETTIS ER rae of DOYS e Ce HR CS I ot eee NT uf

PROVES WOU nie sie sc ochalole ole id, farehera’wintg ¢ o'acalaiesaye
WORN ACNE oe Ala adose at Ns. «Goat bedi ata chia a hie! oleate © aa suche
eR CA TTINA NI oe S00 Shares ares aa ol Pale lecavareitte! ene
PINE TH. ain Seabank chao w Eee ye Dine ibis wae ary ate
Re eAR UAT x cislaes others aeehedes er etAre eieiche lm cahasetaiss's (ahead ee
Ripe PETIT TNE fsa eres, «12 2h ha hays arava lal aed so) <i ai'as
PEP Wate CATAROTE 2000) ac! cuca) olan aha, cyaieia' wid sieves ysis 8 ys
STG RA HERP GME, Obie te ci PRECISE eet

IBVENIE CC Bole td eo ee oon MMe hes 6. ana Tek eric tees chenerete ee

SME MIRVONISGS 5 <airals a fae ay A Oas 6 enka) Wie she gr aeacle sels
EO LOVAL «20. cle pisdley o's 6 cle tak « au sicinialayere
PPE OE UNVEVEUD 2 cee eNaMta. a! a) «> a) 0's aaah een Sele iaye
Oe Ypa (EMIRETETSIE (0.5 aa Sactiatetannls:s''Y oss « n\/o ole aletdin«
ERE WER ee ook sew e's Aas slatale: oso 08)0 ale Bue ose ie

ee

Seok feck na ak esto feed ea ie

CEE Sie Sar a
, ; / » el a
384 Agrioutrurat Exrrrment Srarion, Iraaca, N. Y.

res.
t

Habitually Not
badly seriously
Variety. affected. affected Free.

WU BUGRCH Sok selene pele piers sierrlae ms bles r,° 4 1
1
1

ROTA TATE CL. valeinic ac iessvecsivisheue yeie (ous paris e fee eeaeks
WOMEN UULITI'S; (2), Ses cceic ioverectungepoye tn '0+¢ ca senevo papery agate
WECM Lice nal alc. ojcue.e 2¥e ia vuiose tote lois te feroiac cote fora fopsys (ale
ESRC cP MITEG 1s“. cy sieve fa fare ¥e (ute pe seta to /2 © josntelopepol=t=inbeee
1672/7 1S Priel goss Wind L'a | eee eC RR hea en
HaPer ee Pe A OER a 77%, csatcts foo pals =o felp cn (s,f0.\aaebe tetetoso lets tele
ES OUROMOTIT 2%, sic oheschote'o'o/ els wleielols (orapelatapeimiates s cade
AU CLETE P= | Aa SRO ap Je Cee RC ee gE) Pod oR
Breen) ELAN VERE, ea ecci.afele ccs’ on o-0le 0m eiphoial ee late
Jersey Sweet 2.0.0... ce cece cece eee c ee eeee
Wena ae Un ae conse of ae Wi eameLovscavalonae a) nypisveaase ays
Mewarke (PIPPIN) ie) oi oio. oils eaves ogee) gn snek> = Hie
Cooper Early White ...........- eee eeeeee
25 CS pada ft RAPER ATE DER ARERR Ne Bit ESAT

Ol i Ne pO bbe" to Ne DE DN Ee ee eS Se SE eee

ROMINA UM oy che 1 Seg 8 u'he’ohe! pa altel ate, | eso. etal v] m nym ayo
SO HP OATTIUAIT 3. Sao ell vik borat ols RR EE oe oes 10

——_—= ——— | —————

It is difficult to draw conclusions from the above table. Many
of the varieties are mentioned only once and this is not sufficient
evidence to show their power of resisting the attacks of fungi.
The system of tabulation does not show accurately the compara-
tive value of the different varieties, even those which have been
reported by several growers. Taken as a whole, however, the
table shows a gradually increasing susceptibility to injury as the
list is followed from the first to the last.

Sprayrina ApptE OrcHarps IN A Wer S#Ason. 385

Twenty-one varieties have been reported in the “Free” columns
only; but of these not one was reported more than once, so it is
obviously unfair to say that they are varieties which are not sub-
ject to the attacks of fungi. In going down the list it is seen
that as soon as more than one observer mentions a variety it also
falls into another column, showing that one observation is insuffi-
cient. Many varieties are found in the three column, but here
fairly accurate conclusions may be drawn by a comparison
of the figures. It may be assumed that the Baldwin, Seek-
no-further, Astrachan and some others are comparatively
free from scab, while the Wine Sap, Early Harvest, Red
‘June and others are much injured. Many varieties are placed
high on the list because some observer reported them free in a
certain locality, and still the large majority of reports place them
in one of the two remaining columns.

Following the above is a long list of varieties which were men-
tionel only in the column marked “Not seriously affected.” No
conclusion can be drawn from this list. Where more observa-
tions have been made the following varieties may be said to be
fairly free: Lucy Pew, Roman Stem, Rhode Island Greening and
Rawle Janet, although the last two are also reported in the first
column, those “Habitually badly affected.” Likewise Belmont;
Huntsman and Fameuse may be said to be considerably injured.
The next varieties which may be mentioned are Wine, Carolina
June, Ortley, and White Winter Pearmain, these being the last
four on the list. Although they stand so low, it may be doubted
if they are really more susceptible than the Fameuse, for instance,
although the latter is much higher in the scale.

PART It. THE CHEMISTRY OF THE PREPARATIONS.

Some attention has already been given to the chemical action
of insecticides and fungicides in bulletins issued by this station.*
Several important questions regarding the Bordeaux mixture

*See Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin No, 18, July, 1890. Ibid, No, 35,

December, 1891.
49

386 AgriouttuRAL Exprrment Station, Irmaoa, N. Y.

required further investigation, for example, the reactions which
take place in its preparation, the active principle of the mixture,
and the best method of preparation. These questions have also
attracted the attention of European investigators. Especially
interesting are the experiments carried on by Livio Sostegni,§
Professor of Chemistry in the Royal School of Viticulture and
Viniculture, at Avellino, Italy. The following is an abstract of the
more important parts of his results: :

“In the preparation of the Bordeaux mixtwre the sulphate of
lime helps to hold in solution a certain amount of the basic sul-
phate of copper in the form of a double salt which is a little more
soluble than the basic sulphate of copper. Such being the case,
how much copper can remain in solution when the mixture is
made according to the various methods proposed?

“Mo solve this and allied questions, I have made several series
of experiments in which the Bordeaux mixture was made in
quantities varying from one to five liters [or quarts]. The follow-
ing table shows the various methods employed in the preparation
of the mixture. The lime was obtained from kilns, either freshly
burned, or partially slaked. The slaked lime contained eighty-
nine per cent of the hydrate of calcium or spent lime, while ninety- |
six per cent of that freshly burned was in the form of the oxide
of calcium, or quick-lime:

“J, EXPERIMENTS WITH SLAKED LIME.

“Preparation of the mixture—Sulphate of copper crystals,
twenty grams; slaked lime, 6.8 grams. The lime was added
directly, little by little. The quantity was exactly that necessary
to render the liquid alkaline. The liquid was filtered after one-
half hour.

“Metallic copper per litre of the solution, 0.017.

“Copper sulphate crystals per titre, 0.0666.

“}yeparation of the mixture—Sulphate of copper, twenty gras;
slaked lime, 13.21 grams. The lime was added as in the pre-

§ Le Stazioni Sperimentali Agrarie Italiane, August, 1890,

ri Wet Sf Ose eel) “Ae tee AT a er) le Bo, whee, Cea Ce AP ik Md ay (a
n ay Na Tonga ye: MG ie ia i nal Na Cy gy } ry ad , 7
AN Eek fia tie CL oe sn ; - aN Me Vai io ray : r
a us Y a ‘ ants

me - Sprayina Appre Orcuarps in a Wer Sxason. 387

ei ceding. The quantity corresponds to about ten grams of freshly
- burned lime. The liquid was filtered after one-half hour.

“Metallic copper per litre of the solution, 0.0105.

“Copper sulphate crystals per litre, 0.0412.

“ Preparation of the mixture.—Sulphate of copper, twenty grains:
slaked lime, thirty grams. Prepared as above. The liquid was
filtered after one-half hour. .

“Metallic copper per litre of the solution, 9.0095.

* Copper sulphate crystals per litre, 9.0372.

“Preparation of the mixture-——Sulphate of copper, twenty grams;
quick-lime, ten grams. The lime was added after having been
completely slaked in water. Liquid filtered after one-half hour.

“Metallic copper per litre of the solution, 0.005.

“Copper sulphate crystals per litre, 0.0196.

“ Preparation of the mixture—Sulphate of copper, twenty grains;
quick-lime, ten grams. Sufficient water was used to give the
mixture the consistency of thick milk. Liquid filtered after one-
half hour.

“Metallic copper per litre of the solution, 0.0038.

“Copper sulphate crystals per litre, 0.0149.

“Tl. BORDEAUX MIXTURE MADE WITH CAUSTIC LIME.

“Preparation of the mixture.—Sulphate of copper, twenty grams;

caustic lime in lumps (pietra), ten grams. The lime was in water
_ two hours and was then added to the copper solution. Liquid
filtered after one hour.

“Metallic copper per litre of the solution, 0.011.

“Sulphate of copper crystals, 0.0431.

“Preparation of the mixture.——Sulphate of copper, twenty
grams; caustic lime as above, ten grams. The lime was in water
seventen hours and then the copper solution was added to it.
Liquid filtered after one hour.

“Metallic copper per litre of the solution, 0.0275.

“Sulphate of copper crystals per litre, 0.1058.

“Preparation of mixture Sulphate of copper, twenty grams;
caustic lime as above, ten grams. The lime was pulverized and

fie ari ea akc Pe days

388 AgRiouLtuRAL Exprriment Srarion, Irmaoa, N. Y.

slaked for about one-half hour only. Liquid filtered after one
hour.

“Metallic copper per litre of the solution, 0.1022.

“Sulphate of copper crystals per litre, 0.4007.

“Remarks.— The filtered liquid alkaline and greenish.

“Preparation of mixture.—— Sulphate of copper, twenty grams;
caustic lime as above, ten grams. The lime was pulverized and
added directly, little by little, to the copper sulphate solution.
Liquid filtered after one hour.

“Metallic copper per litre of the solution, 0.147.

“Sulphate of copper crystals per litre, 0.5725.

“Remarks.— Filtered liquid alkaline and greenish.

“Preparation of mixture.— Sulphate of copper, twenty grams;
caustic lime, ten grams. The lime was added immediately after
having been calcined in a platinum foil over a spirit lamp.
Liquid filtered after one hour.

“Metallic copper per litre of the solution, 0.2345.

“Sulphate of copper crystals per litre, 0.9192.

“Remarks.— The temperature of the liquid after adding the
lime did not rise more than three degrees C. The filtered liquid
was alkaline and greenish. In the course of twelve hours
crystals, etc., were deposited.

“The quantity of copper remaining in solution diminishes
rapidly as the liquid is allowed to stand. The liquids which con-
tained the larger amounts of copper formed at the end of six,
twelve and twenty-four hours a greenish white deposit sometimes
mixed with bluish-green crystals. The following amounts of
metallic copper were determined in a filtered solution:

“After one hour, 0.1012 grams; after twelve hours, 0.0452
grams; after twenty-four hours, 0.005 grams.

“Similar results were also obtained when the mixture was made
on a large scale.

“The action of heat is favorable to the decomposition of the
copper compounds remaining in solution. When these are so
abundant that the liquid has a greenish color, the application of
heat will immediately cause a copious precipitation of the sul-

Spraymnc ApptE OrcHArps IN A Wet SmASON. 389

phate of lime and the basic sulphate of copper; these precipitates
do not again enter into solution. The presence of a particular com-
_ pound which keeps a part of the copper in solution is thus proved.

“The following preparation was made in order to determine
the compounds which are formed in the mixture: One hundred
and sixty-six c. c. lime water freshly made and quickly filtered;
to this was added enough distilled water to make half a litre; one
gram of copper sulphate was dissolved in 100 c¢. c. of water and
this was added quickly to the dilute lime water whereupon the
mixture was immediately poured into a flask and hermetically
sealed. Thus I had 600 ec. ec. of liquid, a quantity more than suffi
cient to hold in solution all the sulphate of lime which should
form in the double decomposition. Five hundred c. ¢. of the
above mixture, were filtered and analyzed. The table shows the
results obtained: {

“Composition of the mixture (a).— SO2 0.32148 grams sulphuric
acid in one gram of the crystals of copper sulphate.

“Found in the solution after completion of reactions (b), 0.2539.

“Difference between a and b, 0.0675.

“Per cent of the difference, 21.0.

“Composition of the mixture (a)—CaO. 0.2372 grams lime
contained in the 166 c. c. of lime water used.

“Found in the solution after completion of reactions (b), 0.2272.

“ Difference between a and b, 0.0456.

“Per cent of the difference, 16.74.

“Composition of the mixture (a).— CuO. 0.3186 grams oxide of
copper in the copper sulphate.

“ Found in the solution after completion of reactions (b), 0.0006,

“ Difference between a and b, 0.3180.

“Per cent of the difference, 99.84.

“From this analysis, it will be seen that the amount of SO3
(0.0675) combined in the precipitate is much larger than that
corresponding to the basic sulphate of copper, which could not
exceed 0.023 grams. This proves that a large part of the sul-
phuric acid combined with the lime, and that the quantity of
liquid was sufficient to dissolve all the sulphate of calcium formed.

390 AgricutturAL Exprrment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

“The precipitate was washed and treated on the filter with a
concentrated solution of the chloride of ammonia. This reagent
has the power of completely dissolving the basic sulphate of copper
compounds even if they are found combined with the sulphate
of lime in the form of a double salt. It does not act upon the
_hydratte. Such a reagent, which to my knowledge has never been
applied in similar cases, allows of the complete separation of
those two classes of copper compounds which are produced when-
ever an alkaline hydrate acts upon a solution of a salt of copper.
Analysis showed:

Grams.
PAM aise Ges is-y ite ota Looby aitte tii Bln afpid oles ajwatrete ee MS Re ele 0.0528 |
RAD tra PL Sut ats Sie teid LW he's leltolp be yete hs sak o Meera Te wie kase’ stale PE 0.0676
CC GL SA SS OY 60) EO BEM EEE Bea MEME e RPA 0.0200

“Calculating from the above data, it will be seen that 21.21 per
cent of the copper in the precipitate is in the form of a basic
sulphate, while 78.78 per cent occurs as a hydrate. It must,
however, be remarked that in this copper mixture as prepared by
Cavazza, 600 grams sulphate of copper and a hectolitre of lime
water, the proportions are found to vary, though only within
narrow limits:

“From the above experiments the following conclusions may
be drawn:

“1. In the Bordeaux mixture prepared with quick lime a small
quantity of copper always remains in solution. This amount often
escapes notice, but it may be determined with the aid of electricity.
The quantity of lime used affects the amount of copper in solution
and when an excess of lime is used only small traces of copper
can be recovered.

“2. The quantity of copper which can remain in solution is
considerably larger when slaked, or somewhat carbonated lime
is used, and when it is added directly into the solution of the
sulphate of copper. When insufficiently slaked lime is used
the amount of copper which can remain in solution is some-
times considerable, although the liquid is decidedly alkaline.

“3. The copper is precipitated in the Bordeaux mixture in
the form of the hydrate, basic sulphate, and the double basic

Spraymina ApPpLE ORoHARDS IN A WeET SEASON. 391

sulphate of copper and calcium. It seems that a small amount of
copper is held in solution in this last form, one rich in the sulphate
of copper.

“A number of experiments have also been made to determine
which of the copper salts found in the Bordeaux mixture can be
dissolved by atmospheric agents.

“The hydrate of copper was separated as already described,
and thoroughly washed. It was then put into a small amount of
distilled water. Through this mixture a stream of dried carbonic
acid gas was passed for a few minutes and the liquid was again
filtered. The filtrate, when tested for copper, revealed consider-
able quantities of the metal. After a short time the solution
became turbid and soon deposited almost all the dissolved copper,
undoubtedly because of the rapid decomposition of the bicarbonate
which had formed at first.

“Similar experiments were made with the basic sulphate, after
it had been entirely freed from the sulphate of calcium and thor-
oughly washed. It was then treated with a solution of the
hydrate of potash. Carbonic acid gas was again applied, and in
this case it caused the solution of much greater amounts of the
copper. The filtrate in addition showed also a remarkable quan-
tity of sulphuric acid. The liquid again became turbid, but much
larger quantities of copper remained in solution. It seems to
me that this circumstance can be explained by admitting that
the carbonic acid gas acted upon the basic sulphate causing the
formation of the carbonate of copper, which in part remained
insoluble, and in part passed into solution on account of the pres-
ence of the gas, and the sulphate of copper.

“Copper in the form of the sulphate should be more efficacious
than when it is precipitated as a hydrate, but the conditions
which would cause a larger amount of it to be formed must still
receive careful study.”

SUMMARY.

1. The apple-scab fungus, Fusicladium dendriticum, attacks
apple trees very early in the season, even before the petals fall to
the ground. (Pages 362, 365.)

ee Ope ee ae ae es Se
Wa ; ee

392 AGRICULTURAL Exprriment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.

2. The first application of a fungicide should be made early, no
later than immediately after the petals fall; an application made
just before the buds open would probably be of value. (Page 365.)

3. The time for combating the apple-worm is immediately after
the petals fall, and the treatment should be repeated once or twice
until the apples begin to hang down. (Page 363.)

4, Apple-trees should be pruned so that all paris may easily
be reached by a spray; well pruned trees allow free access of light
and air among their branches, which prevents fungi from obtain-
ing so strong a foothold. (Page 363.)

5. The injury done by the apple-scab fungus was decidedly
reduced where the Bordeaux mixture was used. (Page 367.)

6. When Paris green was added to the Bordeaux mixture the
fungicidal action of the combination was more marked than when
London purple was used in place of Paris green. (Page 367.)

7. Paris green has a certain fungicidal value, but in this respect
it does not nearly equal the Bordeaux mixture. (Page 367.)

8. The value of Paris green as an insecticide does not appear
to be materially affected whether it is applied alone or in combina-
tion with the Bordeaux mixture. (Page 368.)

9. The insecticide value of Paris green when used with the
Bordeaux mixture was greater than, that of London purple when
similarly applied. (Page 367.) ,

10. More applications are required during a wet season than
during a dry one; during wet weather they should be repeated
every seven to ten days. (Page 365.)

11. The results obtained this season from the application of a
combination of the Bordeaux mixture and Paris green or London
purple show that the use of such a combination is valuable and
practicable for the treatment of the apple-scab fungus and the
apple-worm, even in a wet season.

12. The apple scab is found in all regions in, the United States
from which reports have been obtained.

13. It is probable that none of our commonly cultivated apples
are in all seasons free from scab.

14. Some varieties are much more subject to the disease than
others.

Spraying APPLE OrcHARDS IN A WET SEASON. 393

15. In the preparation. of the Bordeaux mixture 13.21 parts of
slaked lime of the composition given on page 292 are equivalent to
ten parts of quick lime. (Page 386.)

16. More copper appears to remain in solution when slaked lime
is used than when the lime is fresh. (Page 387.)

17. The quantity of copper remaining in solution diminishes
rapidly as the liquid is allowed to stand. (Page 388.)

18. The action of heat is favorable to the decomposition of cop-
per compounds remaining in solution in the Bordeaux mixture.
(Page 388.)

19. The copper is precipitated in the Bordeaux mixture in the
form of hydrate, basic sulphate and the double basic sulphate of
copper and calcium. (Page 390.)

20. It is probable that the precipitated copper compounds are
affected by the carbonic acid gas of the atmosphere. The solvent
action is particularly strong when the copper is in the form of the
basic sulphate. (Page 391.)

E. G. LODEMAN,
Assistant in Horticulture.

50

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Cornell University —Agricultural Experiment Station.

MEL DEV CS TONS.

Poor Bor Nix hb xs
DECEMBER, 1892.

SUNDRY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE YEAR.

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ORGANIZATION.

BOARD OF CONTROL.
THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY.

STATION COUNCIL.
President, JAcon GouLD ScHURMAN.

eects UN NV UG ons oye vide gle cea P ae att Trustee of the University.
ian. Obs POTTER... 0205.40. President State Agricultural Society.
MEE EROS: ees io ea aiales bn) 5 lB wa fale nies Professor of Agriculture.
Be OED WHIM ages acls.c, /a/s'e «als labia ej ace» Professor of Chemistry.
MEES TUAAY LE wl lenin fe « enim e 8 Professor of Veterinary Science.
5 Shee LEAT. Gg (ES RC Re Professor of Botany.
PEE NST OCR ata cio ce lole, si chef eccters tin ot. dow = Professor of Entomology
PM Pera RTE IGY) chek! 6 0s, Sa. ata wd hn! vA eral b ic sec clas Professor of Horticulture.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
Piet CUCLESOTET Sis 2) esta lslare ovhe lz ae chaivhn te 0 3 a/slayeie & aselain setevalaees Director.
BPICMeEEVIVEN IOV ENG?s <0 )s) sin nga eiciebe: «no! tye Deputy Director and Secretary.
Soe PUA TLUAIMEGS cata ca, Kar ade & ela Milanced rbas ts fates se 6) oie SS ioshele o's Treasurer,
ASSISTANTS.
Ee SUUNGMB TANT). Vie)s 4 ieee alates ai Gin, eae esis ala ee Entomology.
REO ATONE. jocss, oie catia doe as Sagas einecefore we Spike «aA Agriculture.
A pO ORERES EOTDE itoy chet ig fa AE Nickey Dosalokame wisi cte ofertva'siave: cus! ataye Horticulture.
SY ot Aap AW AO GET C0 fo, Devas eS akarel eal Sialawete ots, alk hime Hide Ss Chemistry.

Offices of the Director and Deputy Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send us the
- names of the parties.

BULLETINS OF 1892.

38. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.

39. Creaming and Aerating Milk.

40. Removing Tassels from Corn.

41. On the Comparative Merits of Steam and Hot Water for Green-
house Heating.

42. Second Report upon Electro-Horticulture.

43. Some Troubles of Winter Tomatoes.

44, The Pear-Tree Psylla.

45. ‘Tomatoes.

46. Mulberries.

47, Feeding Lambs and Pigs.

48. Spraying Apple Orchards in a Wet Season.

49, Sundry Investigations of the Year.

Chemical Division.

The Determination of Sugar in the Tomato.

This determination requires some special precautions; the possi-
ble action of the organic acids present on polarized light, precludes
the use of the polariscope, and the possible action of other redue-
ing substances than sugar on the Fehling solution, is liable to
render the results by this method too high.

These possibilities may perhaps account for the different results
obtained by different analysts on the sugar in this fruit, although
it is true that there may be wide variations in the actual propor-
tion of sugar in different varieties.

In the report of the Maryland Experiment Station for 1889, page
67, are the results of the determinations of sugar in sixty-five
varieties, the percentage ranging from 1.76 to 3.52; one variety
gave 7.00 per cent. The determinations were made in the aque-
ous extract directly, with Fehling’s solution, used according to
the volumetric method. In the report of this station for 1891,
from 3.89 to 5.12 per cent of sugar is reported, as obtained by H.
Snyder on eight samples; in these determinations the extract was
examined by the polariscope. Two analyses by Italian chemists
gave, respectively, 1.74 and 3.7 per cent.

In the case of nearly half of the analyses made at the Mary-
land Experiment Station the sum of the percentages of ash, sugar
and malic acid exceeds the total per cent of dry substance; it is
thus indicated that some of these determinations of the constitu-
ents of the dry substance are too high; and as other substances
besides these three are in all probability present in this dry sub-
stance, the error is even greater than thus indicated.

Some study has been devoted to the method of determining
sugar in this fruit, and the matter is still under investigation. The
following is given as a preliminary report only.

¥ An ‘ons 4 i« ae Ss
a me

400 AgqrioutrurAL Experiment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.
It was hoped that the fermentation method could be applied;
but as results even on samples of pure glucose were unsatisfactory,
its use was given up. For all the determinations reported below,
the fruit was dried at 100 degrees, the dry residue was powdered,
and then extracted for the sugar by boiling water when this was
the extracting agent used, or by ninety per cent alcohol in the
apparatus used in this laboratory for continuous extraction of fat
by ether. The aqueous extract was so dark colored that a volu-
metric determination by the Fehling solution could not be made;
the alcoholic extract was much less highly colored. This solvent
was used in the hope that it might extract less of other reducing
substances than sugar, than water would take up. The gravi-
metric method, in which the copper reduced from the cuprous
oxide by hydrogen was weighed, gave very satisfactory results.
The results obtained are given in the following table:

Dry Sugar. Sugar. | :
NUMBER OF SAMPLE. aubatanee. hf ais ae Gravee Acid.
1 2a OT Se a OR MES OU Ree Rs 5.58 SSihilia farcetedese 33
Qi SU CRIN AO OCR CAC LER ACen 6.56 PCY Meee oe +4
eS enebele esate lic arabel agar eer etdiey steve iomahien aie 5 fi Aa lhis Gietetels 44
AMEE TEEPE REG era Mahe mw hletatene te Sie ee 6.49 xO Oa Teena eye 35
POW Chak ccehoasisveintahese: clon dk ne by ele collie Sas 6.04 Frijola| Wie oe 72
ROMEO S. avedaire eiscsersvei koe snis a slic vee 6 ley: eta BO Gk ON oth .69 1.73
CHSCs EU hihi piss at SNe EE FeO MMe sree tele . 96 58
CasreTete Vous) «| ste offaisilos eC oviewetePonrenssuicy ths Ey ACT Mee ete .93 57
Lh as SES ED FEELIN Rehr ROM Baie Oy LOGIE: 2 terri 1.01 36
MOVERS ete hte iabeie ee eaten Shee wie ee ele OP LOG Seca 1.13 34
WU SDS Tas eST ac oko sa veys, cWeragee vos ue aah Grid Mets heb hie 1.09 .60
METRY athe ion: ols. \ecb-ip! a niles Wester wien sie bake Gil OVA see .89 45
pha AS RE eR et SR EE SSR AD Sa DOL eget LeO7 54

a —S

The acidity was determined by means of a standard solution of
potassium hydroxide, and calculated as malic acid.

It seems certain that the volumetric results‘were too low. The
gravimetric results were obtained with the alcoholic extract;
duplicate results on the same extract agreed closely. It will be
noticed that one very low result on sugar in sample 6, was accom-

panied by a very high per cent of acid.
G. C. CALDWELL.

Botanical Division.

Golden Rod Weeds.

Complaints having been made in certain quarters in regard to
the tendency of some of the golden rods to become more or less
troublesome weeds, this note upon the subject has been prepared.

The golden rods constitute the genus Solidago of the botanist,
one of the largest and most important genera of the sunflower
family. They are all late summer or autumnal blooming plants,
bearing clusters of small flowers, usually of a yellow or golden
color. The roots are perennial, but the stems, for the most part
slender or wand-like in form, are annual and herbaceous, or
somewhat woody in mature plants.

About eighty species of golden rod are known. These vary
in height from six inches or less in the Alpine variety of Solidago
virgaurea, to eight feet or more in the large variety of Solidago
serotina. They also differ more or less in the habit and general
appearance of the plants, in the form and size of the flower clusters,
in the size and texture of the leaves, and in other ways.

Nearly all the golden rods are attractive plants, chiefly on
account of the rich, warm, golden color of the flowers. The high
esteem in which they are generally held has led to a wide-spread
proposal that the golden rod should be adopted as a national
flower. Whether some particular species should be chosen, or
whether any one of the eighty species might be regarded as
answering all the requirements of the case, is a phase of the
subject which thus far received but little consideration.

The golden rods are nearly all natives of eastern North America.
Only a single species, Solidago virgaurea, is native to Britain and
continental Europe. The number of species known to be native
to the State of New York was placed at twenty-two by Dr. Torrey,
in 1843. Professor Dudley admits in the Cayuga Flora sixteen

51

‘

As aa SC hed rr ney tatyee ay tare aves mye ga
brim Samrat ati ute i ti Tee ae Oh hai Lies
‘ * bell a iu

: ns

402 AGRICULTURAL ExprrtmeEnt Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

species as growing wild in the basin of Cayuga lake. These ure
all found in the vicinity of Cornell University. Within 100 miles
of the city of New York twenty-five species have been recorded
by the Torrey Botanical Club. In the State of New Jersey there
are twenty-four species, and in the State of California only seven.
In the whole of North America north of Mexico, Dr. Gray includes
seventy-eight species. These figures give a general notion of the
natural distribution of the golden rods and the relative frequency
of their occurrence in different sections.

But little attention has been given to the cultivation of the
golden rods in this country, largely owing, no doubt, to their
abundance as wild plants. In the old world, on the other hand,
where, as stated, only a single species is known, a considerable
number are cultivated for ornamental purposes. In Nicholson’s
Dictionary of Gardening, fifteen species are named as cultivated
plants in England; but it is stated that as “they are of a course
habit they are mostly confined to shrubberies and borders.” In
the botanical garden of the University all the golden rods native
in the Cayuga Flora are cultivated by the Botanical Department
for scientific purposes; and it is of interest to note that nearly
all show a marked tendency to respond to the influence of cultiva-
tion in the direction of amelioration and improvement.

There is no tendency of the golden rods, as a whole, to become
weeds, but a few species are regarded as intrusive and troubl2-
some in some sections. In Halsted’s check list of American
Weeds ten species are included; in Darlington’s American Weeds
only a single species is specially named. ™ the State of New
York, especially in the central counties and in the dairy regions,
about. four species have attracted attention on account of their
habits as weeds. These may be named and described as follows:

1. Solidago nemoralis.— Usually about a foot in height, the
foliage of a grayish-green color. The flowers begin to appear in
August — the earliest of the golden rods. This perhaps more
than any other species has assumed a pronounced weed-like
character, in certain soils and exposures over a wide extent of
territory. As a weed it is common in upland pastures, especially
in cold and sterile soils. In such situations it drives out grasses

weber NY
i

Ue OR. ee POON ERT eR eo Pg Seer ator
/ 4 ¥

BotrantcaL Drvision. 403

and other desirable forage plants almost completely. It may be
banished by subjecting the soil to hoed crops for a year or more,
and by the proper use of fertilizers. In very poor soils, where
this golden rod has secured a firm foothold, it is probable that
the cost of eradication would exceed the value of the land for
farming purposes. The intrusion of this weed into fields not
already invaded should be carefully guarded against.

2. Solidago rugosa.— Usually a larger plant than the last, but
quite variable as to size. The stem is very leafy, and both stem
and leaves are rough with short and stiff hairs. Like No. 1 it is
capable of invading fields and pastures and driving out all
desirable forms of vegetation. It is, perhaps, less likely to be
found on very poor soil.

3. Solidago canadensis.— One of the largest of the golden rods,
the rough hairy stems often six feet in height. Old plants, after
the flowers have faded, are very weed-like in aspect, but in its
prime is a stately and beautiful species. Common on the borders

of field and pastures, which it sometimes invades more or less ,
abundantly. Less likely than either of the first two to over-
run the soil completely, but is very persistent when once
established.

4, Solidago lanceolata.— Smaller than No. 3, the stems being
usually two to three feet in height. Common especially along
the banks of streams, and in moist soils, and is more or less
troublesome along the borders of meadows. It also invades cul-
tivated fields and is more likely than any other golden rod to
become a troublesome weed in such situations, largely owing to
the fact that its power of propagation by underground stems is
greater than in other species.

So far as is known, the different species above mentioned have
nowhere received distinguishing popular names, but all are
included under the general name of Golden Rod.

! A. N. PRENTISS.

Cryptogamic Botany and Plant Pathology.

A New Anthracnose of the Privet,

A few twigs of the privet (Ligustrum vulgare) received from
Penn Yan having the appearance of blight were communicated to
me by Professor Bailey. From twelve to eighteen inches or more
of the terminal portion of some of the twigs was dead, the point
where the dead portion joined the healthy presenting the depressed
line observable on twigs of pear and apple affected with the bligut.

The resemblance to blight, however, was only superficial and con-
fined to twigs in the final stage of the disease. Other twigs pre-
senting an apparently healthy terminal portion were found to be
diseased at a point about twelve to eighteen inches from the end
where a depressed area of diseased tissue was observed, oblong in
outline, the longer diameter being parallel with the longitudinal
axis of the stem. A comparison of the different specimens showed

Cryprogamic Borany anp Prant Patrsocoey. 405

that this diseased area, quite small primarily, and seated only
upon éne side of the twig, gradually increased in size until eventu-
ally it extended entirely around the twig completely girdling it.
The supply of nutriment thus being cut off from the terminal
portion of the twig, death of that portion followed.

Seated in the original diseased areas, whether extending partly
or entirely around the stem, are minute black elevated points
which can be seen with the unaided eye. Figure 1 a and b repre-
sent portions of twigs, a with the diseased area extending partly
around the stem, while b is girdled. In the diseased areas are
shown these small black elevations. The disease is produced by

a fungus which grows within the stem. These black elevated
points are centers where pustules of the fungus are developed con-
taining its reproductive bodies, or spores.

Fig. 2 represents a very thin. section, across one of these pustules,
magnified to show the structure of the pustule and the form of the
pores. The growth of the pustule has ruptured the epidermis of
the stem. In the opening between the broken parts of the epider-
mis are shown some of the spores. Beneath these are numerous
parallel short fruiting threads, or basidia of the fungus, at the end
of which the spores are developed. The basidia can be seen to
arise from the blackened stroma of the fungus which consists of

406 AgrioutruraL Experiment Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y.

quite a compact association of irregular cells. The black color of
the pustules comes from the stroma. i

Following the analogy of other anthracnoses these spores falling
upon other stems would spread the disease. The practical ques-
tion is, of course, how to prevent the spread of the fungus, or the
starting of the disease another year. The suggestion might be
made to trim the hedge with the shears below the affected parts
of twigs and burn the trimmings. It might also be well in the
spring just before the buds swell to thoroughly spray the hedge
with the Bordeaux mixture to kill any spores which may have
remained during the winter.

Method of separation of the fungus.— To study the development
of the fungus it was necessary to separate it from other common
forms of fungi as well as bacteria which always find a lodgment
in and upon dead plant tissue. Since all these forms are micro-
scopic the separation involves a method of procedure familiar only
to specialists, and as such beautiful results were reached in the
separation of this fungus it suggested a graphic presentation of the
method in connection with the study. The method used was
the same as that which Koch developed so admirably for the sepa-
ration of bacteria, and consists in the dilution, of the organisms
in several quantities of a warm liquid substance which, when
spread out in a thin layer and cooled, solidifies and holds each
germ firmly fixed at one point in the dilution. This substance is
usually some gelatinous base,.as gelatine, or agar-agar, containing
beef broth and peptone to furnish food for the organisms. In a
few days after cooling the dilutions in the thin layer each germ,
by growth has produced a colony which can be seen with the
unaided eye.

Three glass tubes containing a small quantity of liquid nutrient
agar-agar were placed in a water bath at 48 degrees centigrade.
This temperature is sufficient to keep the agar liquid, while
it is not hot enough to kill the organisms. Now several thin
shavings through the fungus pustules on the stem of the privet
were transferred to tube No. 1. This was shaken gently to dis-
tribute the germs evenly through the liquid. Now a small quan-
tity of the liquid in No. 1 containing the germs was transferred

a ‘esoudBITJAV jo uoyeredes Surmoys ‘aimj[no oye[q [| O1eTT ,

CryptogamMic Borany AND Pruanr Parnonoey. 409

to tube No. 2, making the second dilution, and from No. 2 to
No. 3, making the third dilution. Experience enables one to
judge quite accurately in making the dilutions so that we esti-
mate the dilution sufficient to cause each germ to lie separately
at different points in the liquid agar, at least in dilution No. 3.
Each of. these dilutions was then poured into a Petrie dish,*
and allowed to cool in a thin layer over the bottom. No germs
could then be seen in the agar, since they are microscopic and
lie singly. The dishes were piled away for a few days. During

this time each germ grew and produced a colony which was

visible to the unaided eye. The plates or dish cultures were
now photographed natural size and the result is reproduced in
Plate I, In No.3 it will be seen that nearly allof the colonies are
separate. The snowflake-like colonies are those of the desired
fungus. The small, compact, circular ones are those of bacteria.
One large compact colony is that of a common fungus.

In Nos. 2 and 1 the fungus colonies are crowded, and have not
made such good growth. The colonies of bacteria are more
numerous also, and it would be very difficult to obtain a pure
culture of the fungus in either of those dilutions. If the dilu-
tions were not numbered it would be an easy thing to determine
their number from the size and number of the colonies. The
very large compact colony in No. 2 is that of a motile bacterium.

Pure cultures of the anthracnose.— Pure culture of the fungus
could now be started by transplanting with a flamed platinum
needle portions of the fungus colonies from No. 3 into a culture
tube of nutrient agar. The photograph was taken after these
transplantings were made which accounts for the broken appear-
ance of some of the colonies.

From the point of inoculation in the culture tube, where the
transplanting was made, the fungus threads grow out through
the upper surface of the agar radiating in all directions. In a
few days minute black bodies appear seated here and there upon

*A Petrie dish is composed of two shallow glass vessels, one about three
inches in diameter which serves as the bottom, the other of a little greater
diameter, which is inverted over the first one for a cover.

52

410 AgariocutturaAL Exprrment Sration, Irmaca, N. Y.

the mycelium. These resemble the stroma at the base of the
pustules on the stem, but in the artificial cultures do not seem to.
be especially concerned in the production of basidia and spores,
since but a few are developed in conncetion with them.

Numerous basidia and spores are produced, however, all along
the threads and a mass of them at the point of inoculation. In
a few days more many fungus threads arise above the agar and
produce a fluffy white growth upon the surface, nearly obscuring
the black points.

No pigment was noticeable in these cultures. New cultures
were then started by transplanting portions of agar the size of a
small pea with a mat of mycelium and spores to fresh culture
tubes. In the fresh agar the growth took place in the same man-
ner as in the first tubes, but upon the surface of the transplanted
portions a faint pink pigment appeared, similar to that developed
in some species of Gloeosporium and Colletorichum.

Cell cultures were made in order to observe with the microscope
the different phases in germination of the spores and growth of
the fungus. Liquid agar containing a dilution of spores from one
of the culture tubes was poured upon a sterilized cover glass
which was then inverted on the ring of the cell. Fig. 3, a,
represents some of the spores in the cell culture. They are oblong,
usually pointed at one end, nearly cylindrical, and either straight
or slightly curved. The appearance of the contents of the spores
varies. Sometimes the protoplasm is nearly homogeneous
with one or more vacuoles, or it may be finely granular, with
no vacuoles, or quite coarse granules may be irregularly distri-
buted in the homogeneous protoplasm. The latter condition is
a very common one before germination, and the behavior of
these granules has suggested that possibly they may be stored
products to be used during the process of germination and the
arly growth of the mycelium. It does not seem there could be
any need of such stored products for spores in artificial cultures
where the spores lies in a rich nutrient media. But they might
serve the spores a good purpose in natural conditions where the
spore lies open upon the surface of the plant and must often

te hs aaa ti
yon

Cryprogamic Botany AND Pruant PatHonoay. 411

produce considerable growth of mycelium before the thread
reaches nutritive tissues. /

In germination one or more germ tubes arise from the spore
usually at one side of the ends. Figures 3, b and ¢ represents dif-
ferent stages in germination. The coarse granules are quite
numerous, and in some of them have moved out into the forming
mycelium. Figure 3, e represents a farther development: of myce-
linm and also a farther distribution of the granules in the threads.

Figure 4, a, b, and ¢ are three camera lucida sketches if the
growth from a spore which was sown December fourteenth at

12.35 p. m. a represents the growth which had taken place in
exactly twenty-four hours, being sketched at 12.35 p. m.,-December
fifteenth. b was sketched from the same object at 3.15 p.m. on the
same day, and ¢ at 11.45 a. m., December sixteenth. The spores
are therefore developed with great rapidity under favorable cireum-
stances. In the same culture were other spores which developed
a much greater extent of mycelium and number of spores. This
group was chosen because of its limited extent, being thus more
convenient to sketich.

During the growth and production of spores the coarse granules
gradually digsppeas. As the culture ages the mass of spores

412 AgricuttuRAL Exprrment Sration, I'rnaca, N. Y.

becomes greater at the center of each group of mycelium. In a
few days spore production seems to cease and then long, sterile
mycelial threads grow out to a considerable distance.

At the same time there are usually developed buds or gemmae,
at the ends of certain threads. These are colorless at first and
may be detected by their irregularly oval outline, and greater

diameter than the parent thread. They soon acquire a dark-brown
color, sometimes become septate, or bud into rudimentary scler-
otia. One of these developed quite early in the culture is shown
at x, Fig. 3.

Spores were also sown on sterilized bean stems. The fungus
grew readily and produced numerous spores during a few days
when the threads assumed a dark-brown color and grew in great

Crrrprogamic Borany anp Prant Parnowuoey. 413

profusion over the surface of the stems. Frequently the threads
associated themselves into strands, or compact wefts of parallel
thread several layers deep. Within these wefts and strands were
developed numerous bodies suggesting pycnidia or perithecia,
rotund in form, the interior cells hyaline and with rich proto-
plasmic contents, the peripheral cells dark-brown in color.

In some cases these measured eighty to 100,* and frequently the
depth of the weft of dark mycelium in which they were seated
exceeded this measurement.

Late upon the surface of this growth free threads ‘arose in a
procumbent, assurgent, or nearly erect position. All of this
development on the bean stems took place in ten days. This cul-
ture Is very suggestive of the probable development cycle of this
Gloeosporium and related forms. It probably presages the devel-
opment of an ascigerous stage; whether or not that ever actually
takes place is yet to be determined. The blackening of the
stroma in the pustule on the stems of the privet is probably
analagous to the dark weft of mycelium developed over the bean
stems in the culture. In this respect the fungus resembles the
Gloeosporium of ripe rot of apples.§ .

In the report of the Mycologist, Department Agriculture, 1887,
page 348, there is noted what seemed to be an immature pycnidial
stage of Gloeosporium fructigenum. On apples, affected with
Gloeosporium fructigenum, which were kept until mid-winter,
Miss Southworth notes one conceptacle in connection with the
stroma containing two asci and undeveloped spores, but the cul-
ture was so badly contaminated with other forms that it was
thrown away.** The culture being contaminated there might
be some doubt of its genetic connection with the Gloeosporium,
but all this strengthens the possibility that several anthracnoses
in the future will be known as conidial stages of some more highly
organized form.

*These measurements are in terms of the micromillimeter.

§ Miss Southworth. Ripe rot of grapes and apples. Journal Mycology, Vol,
vi, No. 4.

** Journ. Mycology, vol. vi, No. 4.

“Abe: s ye ave PARTS Al OF Oa ee nee
vi by 4 me ry

414 AGRICULTURAL ExprrmeEnt Sration, IrHaca, N. Y.

The result of these cultures is to impress one with the close rela-
tionship of this Gloeosporium on the privet to the Gloeosporium
fructigenum on apples. If it were the same species the cultivation |
of the privet would then bear a new and important relation, per-
haps, to the spread and propagation of the ripe rot of apples.
There are points of difference, however, so far as the two species
are at present known, sufficient to characterize it as a hitherto
undescribed species, and I propose for it the name Gloeosporium
cingulatum, or the girdling anthracnose.

Gloeosporium cingulatum ns. p. Affected areas light brown,
either oblong and on one side of the stem or later completely gird-
ling it. Acervuli 100 to 150 in diameter, rupturing the epidermus,
in age black from the dark stroma lying in the base or extending
irregularly up the sides frequently forming a pseudo-pycnidium.
sasidia numerous, crowded, simple, hyaline or when very old
perhaps faintly fuliginous. Spores oblong, or elliptical straight
or little curved, usually pointed at the base. From pustules on
the stem the measure 10—20x5

t; im. artificial
cultures they are frequently much larger, but when crowded in
the media, or when the nutrient substances are nearly exhausted,
they may be considerably smaller—on stems of Ligustrum
vulgare.

This is quite distinct from Gloeqsporiu mligustrinum Sace.*

NOTE ON THE CERCOSPORA OF CELERY BLIGHT.

Late in September, specimens of celery affected by “ celery
blight,” sent by H. C. Townsend of Wappinger’s Falls, Dutchess
county, were communicated to me by Mr. Turner of the New York
Weather Service. The disease was determined as due to the
fungus Cercospora Apii Fres. A short note on the disease was
then published in the Crop Bulletin of the New York Weather
Service, for the week ending September 24, 1892. It has long been
known in Europe and has been recorded several times in various
parts of the United States during the past several years. It some-

* Sylioge Fungorum, vol. iii, p. 704.

iy sk ahaa as ey 7 a) 7 My i Yes iar i eh
CryptogAmic Borany anp PiLant PatHoLoey. 415

times occasions quite serious injury to the celery crop, in some
cases materially lessening the product and also rendering the
diseased plants less desirable for market.

Halstead of the New Jersey Experiment Station shows that the
disease can be held in check by the use of the standard carbonate
of copper and ammonia mixture applied with a knapsack
sprayer.§

The object of this note is chiefly to call attention to some con-
fusion which exists concerning certain morphological characters
of the fungus. Like all Cercosporae the vegetive threads of the
fungus usually grow largely in the interior of the leaf and when
the nutriment at the affected spot is nearly exhausted, clusters of
fruiting threads arise from the vegetive ones, and issuing from a
stoma of the leaf bear elongated spores at their ends. Two clus-

* Twelfth Annual Report, N. J. Agr. Expt. Station, 1891.

.

416 Agricutturan EXrERmMent Srarion, Irmaca, N. Y.

ters of the fruiting threads of Cercospora Apii are shown at a and
b in Fig. 5, while ¢ represents a single fruiting thread with a spore
still attached, and free spores are shown at d and e.

The fungus was first described by Fresenius.* The description
given by Saccardo§ represents the form developed under normal
conditions, the hyphae measuring 40—60x4—5 and the spores, or
conidia, 50—S80x4. The form of the conidia is given as obclavate,
i. e., the base or end at the point of attachment with the hyphae
is greater in diameter than the distal extremity. The conidium in
situ at the end of the h ypha, Fig. 5, c, shows ‘this character well.
It was also observed in numerous other cases. Furthermore the
free or abjointed conidia nearly always present a well defined scar
at the larger end as shown in d and e, Fig. 5. This scar indicates
the place of attachment to the hypha, the corresponding scar on
the hypha being at the end or at one of the geniculations as shown
in a and b, Fig. 5. The explanation of several scars appearing on
a single hypha is that after a conidium is abjointed from the end,
the hypha then grows out at one side of the scar and bears another
conidium at the end, and so on. These scars at the base of the
conidia enable one to determine their form even when they are
not attached to their parent hyphae. -

In the report of the mycological section** for 1886 is a short
note on the distribution of this fungus in the United States. The
form of the conidia is not given in the text, but they seem to be
inverted in the illustration where they are shown to be attached
by their small ends to the hyphae. Figuring them thus is equiva-
lent to calling them clavate with reference to their relation to the
hyphae which is contrary to the original descriptions and also to
fact.

In the report of the New Jersey station for 1891 (1. ¢.) the
conidia are described as club-shaped. No figure is given and we
infer that the writer used the term “ club-shaped” without any
reference to their relation to the hyphae.

* Beitrage zur Mykologie, Frankfurt, 1850-1860.
§ Sylloge Fungorum, Vol. iv, p. 442.
** Report, Department of Agriculture,

or

Cryprogamio Borany anp Pranr Parsoroey. 417

Under normal conditions the fungus is confined to well defined
spots on the leaf with an irregular, slightly raised border. Dur-
ing excessively wet weather, as the leaf tissue is dying, it may
spread to portions of the leaf where the spots are not so well

defined. Such conditions also induce a much longer growth of the ©

tufts of hyphae and their conidia. Fig. 5 a and d represent such
forms in comparison with b:and e developed under normal con-
ditions. The measurements, including such variations, are as
follows: Hyphae, 50 — 150x4—5; conidia, 50 — 280x4—5. The
figures are all drawn to the same scale, using compensation ocular
No. 6 and objective 4mm, Zeiss, with aid of camera lucida. The
micrometer scale of this combination is also projected by the side
of the figure.
GEO. F. ATKINSON.

All the figures where the scale is shown are drawn with the same combina-
tion, the object being magnified thirty times more than the scale.

53

PU AAR AT Ty LOS AT Ong a
: Pre See, ‘er

Agricultural Division.

Corn — Distasseling Experiment.

July 20, 1892, a portion of the University corn field was selected
for an experiment in testing the effect of corn production, of
removing the tassels as soon as they appeared. This portion cou-
sisted of forty-four rows of corn with twenty-seven hills in each
row. This plot was surrounded on all sides by corn of the general
corn field, was of the same variety of corn, Pride of the North,
and received the same cultivation as the rest of the field.

The tassels were removed on alternate rows for the first twenty
rows and on three-fourths of the rows of the remaining twenty-
four rows. That is, the tassels were removed from three rows
and left on the fourth; removed from the next three and left
on the fourth, and so on throughout the twenty-four rows. ‘The
tassels were removed as soon as they could be seen, and before
they had expanded. The operation was performed by hand by
giving the tassels an upward pull which caused the stalk to hreak
off above the upper joint without injuring the leaves at ull.

From the three experiments made at this station in detasseling
corn it has been observed that it is of the utmost importance to
have the tassels removed at the earliest time possible, certainly
before they have become expanded, and still better if inclosed
within the folds of the leaf. These tassels may be readily
removed by pulling as described above when inclosed in the leaf,
if only the very tip of the tassel be exposed to view. And further,
it is essential that the tassels be removed in such a manner that
the leaves are not in any way injured, which would be the case
were they removed at the proper time by a corn knife.

The following tables give the number of stalks, the abortive,
good and poor ears, the weight of stalks, and the weight of good
and poor ears for each row.

*queo sad gg ‘sava sood Jo 44 310M ur ures {4u00 sod gy ‘sree poo Jo 74 S10M ul UIeH

eo él FS 8F L9 6& GéI rressessss sess HZAOUIAL STOSSL] OSVIOAW
84 6 O& &F Lg 6& 66L To rreressseses es UO Ba] S[OSS¥} OSBIOAY
* C' OL OL 96 LP OF 0 LOL Seva Mss Corny oe eee s 28 ONT TOTS] OsReTOOe
OL &T G° 66 6F 09 GG Fale SS ES SY POAOmek: sasyee se
: G°6L Gry; os LS 8g GE FIT eh ra 2 om Oe Ss +S eT Sass OIE eT
‘ ye OL G°6L 8& 6F LL 66 SéI elk = ee 2 ee PO MOUIDE Ss ARSEg 7p
: eg c 6k LZ CL 6Z LEI ES ee a LO Opes OOReT “OT
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: S LL II G° ae tr @9 6G OZL teas Se eM eMe RIA Sch WIC) holst a
= C*OL 8 98 Fe Lg 6g BSI LORS Ne Se Oe spossuy ‘er
ra PPL 6 Be, OF PAS ce 9Tl Were Anois ethene es At s EOS Tea OmenE aT
G9h Fes om Le 6& SL 1g O0GT cee eg PR Ses PowOUler S[SeseI= 1p
4 ZS I | 6°9z 2¢ mere 6Z Okt oe rete eee She RG ATG PORRE OT
+z 3 99 G’°§T1 G°08s Og 09 g MA poe ere" DOA MOL, S| SS86} =6
5 9) TT G°RZ LF GG Ba Okt eee ces ene "sess" 920 47eT sjessey ‘3
S 94 |e < ET Gg OG OL | LP 661 Eh pk ete ice # POAORMOTASTOSS Bash
i Grad, OT G° OS OF 69 | <2 ISL et Oe ee oo TORTS EATON Se EG
tao) G) eT ae ge ZO L 6ZI CiCrUk iia, muerte OR eet Tin BO ** poaoutod STOssBy ‘g
ee oi ae He SR a a ae rete ee oo
G°9L Sie G° Ss ¥¢ 69 LY SéI MRS NS fen SS PANO UO: RTOS) a6
08 6 og et 09 PP SEI MBA Sopeea ten te Gage teint oi:
OL | It G°GE €¢ OL OF 861 eae se pesOMlal: SOssEN. peswkO UT
“100g "poor; "100g *pooy “OATZIOGV
‘SyTeIS Jo ‘SH]TBIS JO
QU SIEM Se ee JoquInNy
‘SUV WO LHOID AA “SUVO, WO UAAWiAN

T WIaVii

420 AgricutturaAL Exprrtment Sration, Irgaca, N. Y.

It will be observed that these results show a gain in numbers
of good and poor ears, also in their weight. An average increase
of fifteen per cent of good ears and twenty-six per cent of poor
ears by weight.

In this experiment all short and poorly formed ears were
counted as poor ears, although the corn was practically all seund.
All sets producing silk without grain were counted as abortive
ears.

As the experiment of removing tassels from corn has been
made at several experiment stations with varying results a gen-
eral summary of the results to date may be of value in drawing
conclusions on the effect of the practice. The results of the
various experiments made at different experiment stations may be
summed up as follows:

BMP Coals
4,F ie el

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c G89 6 LG ie ge ee OST See Sa ee: eS ee ee Se Ok TOON PONRET ate
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G°99 raat Ge 1G 69 Ge OLL Me eee oe oe amt) DONOULSHT BOseet ‘Fe
Ss G° 19 al LG gg ZG ee SIL Osher sce thier Oe Ae to tee? BA OUR TOBE] “Ge
fa @* G9 6 C0 oF 09 Ze | 621 iar ctataeln ees yeusoer ace cts eSeee. OTTO eT RTISSET “eG
S G° 19 CLI Ze QF 19 : ge Ill Mes *8ie, sata eet ee eS DO AO TION STONE] “pe
“ ~ GL e1 e'se eG ZO $F OZI sake sie hgh ese es sata taste HAOUIAL BTOSEEI Se
a OL CG’ eT Te 9¢ @9 6G 9Z1 Soa eet ersiate Sere Sees a Sn POAT STORSE Tate
é as) 8 Goal 9G o¢ o¢ 9g ee] aS OEE SAS coy eee tee ec Fo Ss Onna ae
rd) ll 9e 9% 89 ae eI Pitt eeeeeeeserererses++ pgaoutad spassey (12
G*TL C6 G'9e OF ra} aa LEI niet Mage Wes ha sii eee cot he? HOA OMEGA SPORSE: UE
SL haa ge Te oL FS OLT a wil'e slleue (ene) 60 a 0, ee eis sa ‘ere! @ * poaAoUlal sassy ‘CZ
6) 6 Ze GF Z9 98 IZ1 aoe 9 Cine Rea a OP ee TORN TOT STORREN BG
COL Ol e' ae Il? bl og 91T siatieae.s veg sions eee (2 HOAOUIAT S]OSSE} “EF
FL at G'Ze Or $9 rae COT Paar see ae te ke ee set HOAOTUSL SORNU RG
G°L) G'FI ce LF OL oF CZI | sss 4 O9 eid a tas ne ee + <8 8 DGAOUIOL. STON) (EG aos
“syyeis “100d *pooy “100g “pooy *9ATQ10QV “sy]e18
FOSS. 3 == eae reer mea eae era jo zequnn
"SUV JO LHSITAM “SUVA JO UAANWAN

Tl Gd ViL

422 Ag@riouLtturRAL Exprriment Starion, Irnaca, N. Y.

Nebraska.— Two experiments; tassels removed by a corn knif¢;
results, decidedly unfavorable.

Kansas.— A gain in favor of removing the tassels.

Maryland.— Slightly decreased yield.

Of three experiments at this station, two give an increase in
yield of fifty per cent and seventeen per cent, respectively, while
the third shows no change in yield.

- It will be noticed that of the total number of experiments,

about one-half have received a marked increase in the yield of

corn and about one-half report a decrease, but from the experi-
ments made in removing the tassels as soon as they could be
seen and without injuring the leaves, the .esults show, as an
average, a marked increase in the yield of grain.

The varying results of these experiments tend to show that
there are some conditions not well understood, that have a marked
influence on the result of this practice, and that it is wurthy of

more extended investigation.
GEORGE C. WATSON.

EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON TOBACCO.

In the spring of 1892, four plots were selected to make a test
of different kinds of fertilizers on tobacco. ‘This vest was made
as a preliminary trial to future experiments and intended only as
a guide for investigations in testing different kinds and qualities
of fertilizers when applied to the tobacco crop. As these results
were quite marked, the publication of a brief account of the
experiment seemed to be warranted from the data obtained.

Of the available land for this experiment four adjoining piots
of one-fortieth acre each were selected. The soil was a heavy
clay loam quite poor in plant food, and not very uniform. -\lthough
the plots were only four rods long, the soil varied considerably
from one end of the plots to the other. These plots were situated
on a western slope; the east or upper ends of each plot was more

clayey and the west or lower ends more loamy. ‘This variation in —

the soil was quite uniform throughout all the plots; that is, the

soil in one plot varied about as much as it did in another.
April fifteenth, a load of 2,355 pounds of barn manure was

spread on plot one. April eighteenth, all plots were plowed.

AGRICULTURAL DrvisIon. 493

June twenty-first, plots 1, 2 and 3 were set to Zimmer Spanish
tobacco, setting five rows to each plot and forty plants +o the row.

June twenty-fourth, plot 4 was set to Spanish Zimmer tobacco,
with plants like those set on the other plots.

A commercial fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid
and potash was applied to plots 2 and 3 on the following dates:

July first, July fourteenth, August sixth.

The potash applied to plot 4 was in the form of a high grade
sulphate (ninty per cent pure), while the potash applied to plot 3
was in the form of a chloride (muriate) eighty per cent pure.

Four and eight-tenths pounds of potash, 3.16 pounds nitrogen,
and 3.20 pounds of phosphoric acid was applied to each of plots
2 and 3. The nitrogen was in the form of nitrate of soda, guaran-
teen ninety-six per cent pure. The phosphoric acid was in the
form of available fine rock phosphate.

The fertilizers were sprinkled around the plants and hoed in.
Plot 4 received no fertilizer whatever, but received the same cul-
tivation as plots 1, 2 and 3. September seventeenth the tobacco
on all plots was cut and weighed, the weighing being done imme-
diately after cutting. .

The following plan of the plots will show the amount of ferti-

lizer applied to each plot and the weight of tobacco at the time
of eu tting. This plan shows the relative location and size of the
plots, with the kind and amount of fertilizer applied, and also the
yield of tobacco:

Plot 1— Barn manure, 2,355 pounds; weight of tobacco, 517
pounds.

Plot 2.— Sulphate of potash, ten pounds; nitrate of soda, twenty
pounds; plain super phosphate, twenty pounds; weight of tobacco,
457 pounds.

Plot 3.— Chloride of potash, ten pounds; nitrate of soda, twenty
pounds; plain super phosphate, twenty pounds; weight of tobacco,
442 pounds.

Plot 4— No fertilizer; weight of tobacco, 236 pounds.

From the foregoing plan of the plots it will be observed that
the barn manure plot produced the most tobacco, but if the cost
of the fertilizers of all the plots are taken into account it will be

ah Og “! . of iat
424 AgericutturaAL Exprriment Sration, Irmaca, N. Y.

seen that the commercial fertilizer may be favorably compared to
the barn manure, and that the commercial fertilizer produced
about twice the weight of tobacco as did the adjoining plot which
received no fertilizer.

Although the plots receiving the commercial fertilizer received
the same number of pounds each of plant food, the slight differ-
ence in yield in tobacco can not safely be attributed to the differ-
ence in the quality of the potash applied without being corrobor-
ated by other trials.

While the yield of tobacco from the plot treated with barn
manure was somewhat greater than the yield from the plots
treated with commercial fertilizers, it is not at all certain that
more tobacco was grown for the plant food supplied on the
' manured plot, than on the plots treated with commercial fertilizer.
GEORGE C. WATSON.

RESIDUARY EFFECT OF A GRAIN RATION FOR COWS AT
PASTURE.

During the summer of 1891, an experiment was made in feed- _
ing grain to ‘a herd of milch cows at pasture. In selecting this
herd the aim had been to secure a herd where the practice had
not been to feed grain while at pasture, and where the conditions
as regards the pasture and the care of the animals would fairly
represent a large proportion of the farm dairies of the State,
Such a herd was found at McGrawville, the property of C. M.
and W. L. Bean, and placed at the disposal of the officers of this
station in conducting this experiment, which lasted from May
twenty-second to October twenty-third.

The results of this experiment were published in detail in Bulle-
tin 36, December, 1891, and may be briefly stated as follows.

A herd of sixteen cows, thoroughbred and grade Jerseys, was
divided into two lots of eight each. Lot I received:

Pounds
Coen SIAL os spouse e's Pee ot ole ease baie 6 ee ee 2,600
Gopton-seed Meal eo. PEE aM Re RS SM, Seman 1,300
PORGAR Si Paice os Cecile ate ld ok ete i iahtia tele Manes ot 6 bg Vea Pht Oe aa mee 1,300

Toil pounds oe piradh' hse. sky ee ae “5,200

ING BY eee Ree in BRAND et Waar he
- t nN rit A * () sp ay!

AGRICULTURAL DrtvIsion. 495

Lot II received no grain.

Lot I gave 22,628.5 pounds of milk.

Lot II gave 17,697.75 pounds of milk.

Or 4,930.75 pounds of milk more for the grain-fed lot, a gain of
about three and one-half pounds per cow per day. ‘The
cows of this herd were quite thin in flesh, but made a good sain
“in live weight during the experiment. The grain-fed lot gained 166
pounds per cow, and the lot receiving no grain gained 113 pounds
or a gain of fifty-three pounds per cow in favor of the grain-fed lot.
Since the grain-fed lot had given about) 27 per cent more milk and
had gained fifty-three pounds in live weight per cow more than the
lot receiving no grain, the question then arose whether this
increased milk-flow and the gain in live weight of lot I over lot I
would have any influence on the flow of milk the following year.
Accordingly the weight of milk produced by each cow that still
- remained in the herd was recorded for six months, beginning April
1, 1892.

The following table shows the weight of milk per cow, per
month, for each lot, and the difference in favor of the grain-fed
lot of the cows still remaining, or six cows in each lot.

Lot 1. Lot2. Difference.

PEMD Sy hss) a) Sm Meitvale ¢ uate role Datkere ht ee Ae 473.8 354.8 119.
‘EA NRE Seta IRAE By EN AE ere Se AE ae 619.7 » 540;2°.70Re
BUEN RWN procs 5 P54 a wo sata tana eh asin CSL ek aes SHG 750.8 646.3 104.5
BRUNER htt. cuts Sais Tpaetoe Siceaa ig tota hens wie ye 683.5 570.1 118.4
MeeUIaR MS cate seeds dhe s Niaaiayc eetaias kan wialSie 535.7 499.9 35.8

NC ENEEP INGE sia Sank ee wig Be fialdy a hone 376.4 348.4 28.
homianare paheanire Sata ae 480.2

A gain of 16.2 per cent in yield of milk.

From this table it may be seen that for six rigs beginning
with April of the season following that which the grain was fed,
- the lot which received the grain gave 480.2 pounds of milk per cow
54

ie sd é “hk See de SP Pen eiey
-

426 AgriouLTURAL Exprrment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

more than did the lot receiving no grain. This gain represents
an increase of a trifle more than-16 per cent in favor of the grain-
fed lot. It seems reasonable to assume that this increased produc-
tion was due to the grain fed the preceding year, especially in the
case of the younger animals. Indeed it was plainly evident that
the grain fed two-year olds and three-year olds developed into bet-
ter animals than their stable mates having no grain.

I. P. ROBERTS.

Entomological Division.

The Black Peach Aphis.— Ap/is persicw-niger. Order Hemip
tera; family, Aphidide.

_ A small brownish black plant-louse often appearing in great

numbers upon the leaves, twigs and roots of young peach trees,

frequently dwarfing and often causing the death of the tree.

The object of this article is to call the attention of peach grow-
ers to the fact that a very serious insect pest is being introduced
into our State upon nursery stock purchased in other States.
A correspondent in Niagara county has introduced the pest into
his orchard of twenty acres by filling in the places where trees
had died with infested trees received last spring from a nursery
in Delaware. A few infested trees which were left over were
trenched near some pits just planted; the pest soon found its way
to the young seedlings, and by midsummer nearly every seedling
had succumbed to the attacks of the aphids. So far as we know
this is the first instance of the occurrence of this insect in our
State, but probably other growers have suffered previously more
or less in other localities without knowing the cause.

The insect is very common throughout the whole of the great
peach growing districts of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and
Virginia. Growers there say it is more to be dreaded than the
borer (Sannina exitiosa), and in destructiveness it ranks next to
the fearful mysterious disease of Peach Yellows. Trees less than
three years old suffer the most. In 1890, nearly 100,000 in a
single nursery in one of these States were killed in two or three
weeks’ time, while many other large nurseries were either entirely
destroyed or very badly affected, and many orchardists were com-
pelled to replant hundreds of trees. Nurserymen, and those who
are starting peach orchards, can thus see what fearful havoc may
result if this pest is once introduced among their trees.

Indications of the presence of the pest.— As the pest often con-
fines its attacks almost entirely to the roots of the trees, its deadly

| WT As SEES ES Ses es
, : id i
‘

428 AgricutturaL Exprrment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

work frequently appears when there is nothing to indicate the
existence of an insect as its cause. A stunting or dwarfing of the
young trees is one of the most marked symptoms of the presence
of the pest. Sometimes three or four-year old trees are but little
larger than when first set. The foliage of such trees presents a
yellowish-green sickly appearance. Rarely a tree after languish-
ing a year or two recovers and makes a good tree. Under favor-
able conditions the insect may appear in great numbers on the
tree above ground and its growth be nipped while yet in the bud;
the growing shoots dry up and the young tree soon dies.

Its past history.— This insect has been known to the peach
growers of the Atlantic States for more than a quarter of a cen-
tury. From 1860 to 1875 it was particularly destructive to Mary-
land. In 1874 it is first recorded as appearing above ground in
destructive numbers. While investigating the Peach Yellows in
1887, Mr. E. F. Smith came across the insects upon the roots of the
trees ; and as the Yellows had by some been attributed to this
aphis, Mr. Smith made many observations on the pest from which
we get most of our knowledge of its life history and habits. The
severe outbreak of 1890 has already been noted. Two or three
years ago the pest was carried into the Michigan peach district
on nursery stock from the east. It seems not to have gained a
foothold among the California orchards as yet; the Board of Hor-
ticulture of that State is fully alive to the importance of the pest,
and it is on the alert to prevent its introduction.

Its classification.— This insect is one of the true bugs belonging
to the same family — the Aphididae— as the Grape Phylloxera,
the Grain Aphis, the Hop Louse, and many. other well known
plant-lice pests. Scientifically the insect is known as Aphis per-
sicae niger — the Latinized form of the common name, Black Peach
Aphis. This name was given it in 1890, by Mr. E. F. Smith, who
after comparing it with descriptions of ‘allied known species
became convinced that the species was new and so described it.
Mr. Smith ‘believes that the insect is a native species, as he found
it common on the roots and branches of the wild plum, Prunus
chicasa, thus indicating that this may be its original food plant.

i EntomoLoagicaL Drtvision. 499

The appearance of the insect.— The pest appears in two forms,
the more common form without wings (Fig. 1), and a form occr-
ring in limited numbers provided four ample wings (Fig. 2). The
adult wingless insect is a little less than one-tenth of an inch
in length and of a dark shining brownish-black color with por-
tions of the legs yellowish. Figure 1 shows the shape and gencral

Figure 1.— Wingless viviparous female.

appearance of the wingless form; the hair line at the right
represents the natural length of the body. Two very short
tubercules called honey-tubes project from the caudal end of the
abdomen. The beak lies along the breast of the insect when at
rest, but when feeding it is placed against the leaf at right angles
to the body, and four fine bristles moving in a groove of the beak

Figure 2.— Winged viviparous female. (After J. B. Smith.)

are forced into the tissues and the sap is pumpe through this
apparatus into the body. .

The adult winged forms have the long transparent wings carried
roof-like over the sides of the body when at rest. These forms
also differ from the wingless ones in being slightly longer ond
more slender, and in having longer antennae and honey-tubes, as

¥ ~ Fes

430 Ag@ricutruraL Exprrment Sraryon, Irnaoa, N. Y.

is shown in Fig. 2; the lines beneath the figure represent the
natural size of this form.

In its younger stages the insect resembles the adult, but is
lighter in color. All the forms thus far observed are females;
often plant-lice breed freely for many generations or even years
without the appearance of males, nothing but the agamic females
being produced.

The life history of the insect.— Plant-lice present more varied,
peculiar and interesting phases in their life histories than do most
other insects. The mother is often viviparous; that is, she brings
forth her young alive; the little louse may be seen kicking 1o free
itself from the mother who is perhaps calmly walking about or
feeding. Many generations of these agamic females may be pro-
duced in succession, and it requires only eight or ten days for @
generation. And further, as one mother may give birth to 300
young at the rate of four or five a day it is easy to see with
what astonishing rapidity these insects mav often multiply.

The Black Peach Aphis breeds thus agumically all the year
round, and no eggs nor males have been found. Only the wing-
less forms occur upon the roots where they breed freely and are
to be found at all seasons of the year, often a foot or more beneath
the surface even in stiff clay soils; sandy soils are, however, pre
ferred by the pest.

Early in spring, as soon as the buds begin to swell, some of
these root forms make their way to the surface and to the
branches. Here the winged form develops and flying to new
quarters founds others colonies, thus spreading the pest. These
branch forms are the most numerous from April to July. About
mid-summer most of these make their way to the ground and to
the roots. Usually a few specimens remain on the leaves through-
out the summer and autumn and even through the winter. Our
correspondent in Niagara county wrote us, November tweuty-
fourth, that, although it had frozen hard twice, the aphids were
as lively as ever on the branches. These individuals which thus
hibernate upon the branches with those which come from the
ground form the nucleus for the early spring broods.

This pest is often accompanied by a small yellow ant which
has been seen transporting the aphids to places of safety. It is

=
z

Enromo.oaicAL Division. 431

believed that the distribution of the root forms is thus facilitated
by the ants, and they may also aid in getting the aphids to the
surface in the spring. The aphids repay the ants for their asgsist-
ance by secreting a sweet liquid called honey-dew, upon which
the ants feed.

The root forms mostly congregate on the tenderest routs, but
some are to be found on all parts of the root system. Many of
them still cling to the roots when the trees are dug up, ind they
are thus often transported great distances on nursery stock.
The pest then readily acclimates itself to its new home and soon
spreads throughout whole nurseries or orchards.

Above ground the insects attack the swelling buds in the
spring, and later their increase in numbers crowd them onto the
twigs and leaves. As each little aphis begins to suck the sap as
soon as it leaves the body of the mother, the result of so many
hundreds of these little pumps working almost continuously upon
both roots and branches must be a speedy check to the growth of
the tree.

Methods of preventing the ravages and spread of this pest.— If
this pest once gets a good foothold in a nursery or young orchard
it will prove a difficult insect to fight. Those individuals that
infest the branches are easily reached and have been found to suc-
cum) readily to either kerosene emulsion or a strong decoction of
tobacco.* The emulsion should be diluted with nine or ten parts

*To make the emulsion, thoroughly dissolve one-half pound hard or soft soap
in one gallon boiling water. While this solution is still very hot, add two gallons
kerosene and quickly begin to agitate the whole mass through asyringe or force
pump, drawing the liquid into the pump, and forcing it back into the dish.
Continue this for five minutes or until the whole mass assumes a creamy color
and consistency which will adhere to the sides of the vessel, and not glide off
like oil. It may now be readily diluted with cold rain water, or the whole
mass be allowed to cool when it has asemi-solid form, not unlike loppered milk.
This stock, if covered and placed in a cool dark place will keep for a long time.
In making a dilution from this cold emulsion, it is necessary to dissolve the
amount required in three or four parts of boiling water, after which cold rain
water may be added in the required quantities.

The tobacco decoction is made by steeping five pounds of tobacco stems in three
gallons of water for three hours; then strain and dilute with enough water to
make seven gallons. The decoction is now ready for spraying without further
dilution.

WOM bE ee ON Lian Wee Pe aN Re a a
bi) APNE RAR | Dane Ae ae
uate

'

432 AGRIOULTURAL EXPERIMENT

of rain water, the three gallons of the formula thus making about ,
thirty gallons to be used in spraying. This diluted emulsion will
probably prove the most effective, although the tobacco has been’
used with equal success in some instances. Care should be taken
in the preparation of either insecticide; many of the reported
poor results from the use of insecticides is due to their not being
properly prepared and used.

As it is the young trees which usually suffer, either insecticide
can. be easily applied with a knapsack sprayer or small force pump.
Apply in as fine a spray as possible and drench the trees. In rare —
_ cases a second application a few days later may be necessary.
The best time to spray is in April or May when. the branch forms
are the most numerous.

The root forms will not be reached by this method, hence the
relief obtained in this way is only partial. There is on record no
experiments in the destruction of this form and we have had no —
opportunity to make any, but we suggest the use of very liberal
quantities of the diluted kerosene emulsion on the surface of the
soil over the roots just before or during a rain. This suggestion is
based on the results of experiments with a species of White Grub,
the larva of Allorhina nitida, an insect closely related to the com-
mon May Beetles of the genus Lachnosterna. The lawns about
the capitol at Washington being badly infested by these White
Grubs in 1888, afforded an opportunity to try the effects of a
dilute kerosene emulsion applied upon the surface. After apply-
ing the emulsion the lawns were thoroughly drenched with water
to help carry the oil into the soil. The result was very satisfae-
tory; after a few days the grubs appeared sick, and a month later
no live ones could be found. .

If the aphids on the roots of the trees can not be reached by an
application of the emulsion as described above, the trees should
be removed at once, burned, and the ground left unoccupied for |
several months or used for other purposes. The insect could thus
be starved out as it is not known, to feed upon any other cultivated |
plants except rarely the plum.

In the discussion thus far of preventive measures it has been
supposed that the pest has already gained a foothold in the nur- ~
sery or orchard. However, to many peach growers in the State —

Entomo.ogicaL Drviston. 433

the pest is as yet unknown, and they will desire to know how

they can prevent its gaining a foothold among their trees. Grow-

ers who raise all their own trees from pits will not be troubled

with the pest unless careless neighbors introduce it on stocks pur-
‘chased in infested regions.

If it seems necessary td purchase nursery stock elsewhere, and
especially in regions known to be infested, it should be quaran-
tined and very thoroughly treated with an insecticide immediately
upon its arrival. Dip each tree in either the diluted kerosene
emuision or the tobacco decoction made as described above for
use against the branch forms. As the insecticide acts very quickly
the tree need remain in it but two or three minutes. This method itis
believed will effectually destroy all aphids that may be on the trees.

Another method which would doubtless be equally effective is
the one used largely in California where the law requires that all
trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, seeds, pits, or scions coming
into the State shall be disinfected upon arrival. The disinfection
is done by fumigating the trees, etc., with hydrocyanic acid gas,
a deadly poison. In fumigating, the trees, etc., are placed in an
air-tight tent or box, and for each 100 cubic feet of space in the
box or tent one ounce of fused cyanide of potassium (fifty-eight
per cent), one fluid ounce of sulphuric acid, and two fluid ounces
of water are used. The cyanide of potassium is placed in an
earthenware vessel, the water poured over it, the sulphuric acid
then added, and the box or tent closed tightly immediately and
kept closed for at least forty minutes.

Every peach grower should take sufficient interest in the wel-
fare of his own orchard and that of his neighbor to treat in one
of the above ways all peach stocks purchased in localities where

the pest is known to be present, as in New Jersey, Delaware,
Maryland or Virginia. If this be thoroughly done our peach
orchards will have one less serious insect foe to fear. And the
erowing nursery industry of New York State, which now has
nearly 500 acres devoted to peaches, constituting nearly fifteen
per cent of all the peach stocks grown in the United States, will
not suffer as it would were it known that this pest is liable to
accompany the trees sent out.

MARK VERNON SLINGERLAND.
55

ae: es Oe a ee
th ees. ANS

Horticultural Division.

A New Maize and its Behavior Under Cultivation.

In 1888, the late Sereno Watson, of Harvard University, received
from Professor A. Duges, of Guanajuato, Mexico, some stalks and
kernels of a wild corn which was found at Moro Leon about four
Mexican leagues north of Lake Cuitzco, near the southern boundary
of the State of Guanajuato, in southern Mexico. The corn was
wholly unknown to cultivation, and the natives of the district
believe it to be the original source of the cultivated varieties of
maize. This opinion is of great interest because the original form
of Indian corn is wholly unknown. It is known among the natives
as mais de coyote, from the resemblance of the little kernels to
dog’s teeth. About a half dozen ears, in a cluster, were with the
specimens sent to Harvard, each ear about two inches long and
bearing a few rows of very small pointed white kernels. The ears
and kernels were peculiar in themselves, but the fact that they
were borne in clusters attracted close attention. Mr. Watson gave
me two or three kernels of this corn, which I planted in a forcing-
house in the spring of 1889. One seed germinated, and the plant
grew well until it reached a height of three feet, when it) was
destroyed by an accident. This was probably the first attempt
to cultivate this corn. In 1890, it was grown in the Botanic
Gardens, at Cambridge, having been started under glass. “The
season was a long one,” Mr. Watson writes, “and there was no
heavy frost in Cambridge until near the end of October. The corn,
however, was at that time still very green, and the stalks were
finally cut and stored under shelter in the hope that the ears would
ripen in the stack but upon very few did any of the kernels mature.”
The tallest stalks were over ten feet high, with a diameter of
nearly two inches. But the most striking peculiarity of the plants
was the abundance of lusty suckers which “ grew as rapidly as the

The New Maize (Zea canina).

Detail of a portion of an ear, full size,

HortiouLturau Division. 437

main stalk, so that the plants, which had fortunately been placed
some feet apart, had the appearance of two ‘hills,’ one of the two
having nine and the other twelve stalks ascending from a common

_ base.” The central stalk also branched higher up on its trunk,

and these side branches, as also those from the base of the plants,
had a tassel upon the end and bore several ears along their length!

The tassel was very large, with drooping branches. Mr. Wat-
son showed me these plants late in the summer of 1890, with
much enthusiasm; and it was easy to see that in the robust habit
and multiple ears of the plant there were possibilities for the
breeding of a new type of corn.

Mr. Watson concluded that this corn is a new and distinct
species, rather than the original of the common corn, and he there-
fore published it* as Zea canina, or dog-tooth corn, thus adding a

‘second species to the genus Zea.

In 1891, I grew the corm again from the original Mexican
samples—which Mr. Watson divided with me—starting in late
under glass (May twenty-second), and setting it out of doors June
twelfth, in a heavy clay loam, when about half a foot high. The
plants grew vigorously, and ears began to form late in summer,
being borne upon strong lateral branches as before. The illustra-
tion on page 485 shows a typical plant. It will be seen that six
arms or branches spring from the main stalk. A dozen or fifteen
ears set upon these arms. The detail drawing in the upper corner
shows nearly half of an. average ear, full size. These plants appeared
to differ from those which I saw at the Harvard Botanic Garden
the year before only in smaller size and earliness. The smailer
size may have been due to the soil, which was poorer than at
Harvard, but I thought I saw a decided tendency towards accli-

~matization in the plants, and this is now apparently warranted

by the results of this year’s experiment. Some of the plants did not
make lateral arms, but simply sent up a straight almost earless
stalk. Perhaps this was due to the fact that the plants were
crowded. Some of the plants matured several good ears.
Experiments must now be tried with hybridizations. A cross
with the common field corn or sweet corn would perhaps be too

*Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., xxv., 158.

438 AGRICULTURAL Exprrmment Srartion, Irwaoa, N. Y.

violent. On September 17, 1891, cross-pollinations were made
from sweet corn, however, the variety sold as Extra Early Mar-
blehead sugar. But some less violent cross must be attempted,
and another male parent was chosen from the Japanese Striped
corn, which is a type grown for ornament and in which the ears
and kernels are small. This corn is known in the trade as “ Zea
Japonica.” The leaves are striped lengthwise with broad lines
of white. The kernels are rounded and yellowish, and the ears
are four or five inches long. On September twenty-one pollen
from this Japanese corn was applied to the Zea canina, and
seventeen seeds resulted from this union. From the pollination
with the Marblehead sugar, however, only three kernals were
procured, and all were small and weak, and it was doubtful if
they would grow.

These seeds were saved with the greatest care and curiosity.
They were all sown under glass April 14, 1892. From the seven-
teen Canina x Japanese seeds, fourteen good plants grew, while
from the three Canina X Marblehead seeds, only one grew. All
the plants were set near each other in June in heavy clay loam.
A few plants of pure Zea canina were also set near by. All ©
three lots grew well, but Canina x Japanese was much the
Marblehead plant x tallest and most vigorous. The one Canina
grew scarcely more than four feet tall. Two suckers sprung
from the base of the plant, but there were no branches higher
up, and all the ears were small and single! The kernels, which
had been pollinated from the tassels on the same plant, were
indistinguishable from those of true Canina. The only effect of
this hybridization with the sweet corn, therefore, was what might
have been expected from so violent a cross—a general weaken-
ing of the characters of the plant.

The fourteen Canina x Japanese grew with great vigor, reach-
ing a height of eight and nine feet, and nearly all the stalks pro-
duced the branches of multiple ears. But the remarkable
feature of these plants was the shortening up of these side
branches from the length of two and three feet, attained in true
Canina. as shown on page 435, to a cluster or brace of four to
six ears, as shown on the next page. One plant which produced

aie aa iets 0 TaN 3 eae Se iy
Horticutturan Drviston. 439

three stalks from the base, bore four sets on one stalk, five on
another, and twenty-five on the main stalk, making a total of
thirty-four ears from one seed. <A portion of the main stalk of
this plant is shown in the illustration. Some plants among these

/

Hybrid Corn.—Canina x Japanese.

hybrids, however, produced single ears, but the greatest number
of them made from a dozen to twenty sets, and perhaps half the
ears matured. The kernels in these remarkable hybrids are both
yellow and white, although yellow is far the most prominent, and
they are rounded like the Japanese, but bear a minute point or

440 AgricutturAL Exprrmenr Sration, Irgaca, N. Y.

mucro in memory of their Canina parentage. The ears are twice
larger than those of the Canina, from which they came. Two
plants of the fourteen had distinctly striped foliage, like the
Japanese corn.

The plants of true Canina which grew near by were less
branched than the Canina xX Japanese, and while most of the
ears were multiple, some were single. This corn was also
attacked by smut. The behavior of these plants indicate either
that Canina is variable or that it tends to lose it characters under
cultivation. I am inclined to adopt the latter explanation, espe-
cially as another lot of Canina grown in the field alongside a
plantation of sweet corn showed similar degeneration to single
ears. This latter plantation stood beside the Cory sweet corn.
Among this Canina only one plant matured, and that bore shert
ear-clusters, much like those shown on page 489, and the kernels
were large and rounded, showing that it had been crossed with
something the year before, probably an accidenial mixture with
Japanese, next which some of our Canina grew in 1891. The
remaining Canina plants were still growing vigorously when frost
came October first, and some of them made the long arm-lke
branches, but several of them produced few and nearly simple
ears. All these Canina plants were from seeds put into tie
ground June fifteenth, for the purpose of testing their ability
to ripen in one ordinary season. Now, the Cory corn alongside
this Canina and which was grown from pure seed, seemed to
show the effects of the Canina. There were many “rogue”
kernels on the ears, being smooth and whitish and suggestive
ci Canina influence. It is known that maize often shows an
immediate effect of pollen. No other corn grew within eighty
rods of this plantation. .

Our observations seem to show that Zea canina is losing some
of its characteristic features under domestication, and that hybrid-
ization with the Japanese corn promises inceresting and valuable
results. Hybridization with sweet corn so far promises little
in the origination of profitable varieties. It is by no meaus
certain that we can preserve the wonderful prolifica:y of the
Canica by Japanese hybrid, but the experiments will be continued.

HorticutturaL Drvision. 441

In order to keep the stock straight until we determine if results
of a somewhat permanent nature can be obtained, we propose to
hold there corns entirely in our own hands for the present.

It may be worth while to inquire if this Canina corn still
retains a specific identity, if it really is a distinct species from
the common corn, Zea Mays. For myself, I am strongly of the
opinion that it is not a distinct species. I ata rather inclined
to think, with the native Mexicans and Professor Duges, that
it is the original form of Zea Mays, or at least very near it. It
explains many points in the evolution of indian corn. Some
varieties of sweet corn occasionally produce vudimentary multiple
ears, and this Canina seems to tend to lose them under cultivation.
The tendency of cultivation in all plants is to develop some fruits
or some organs, rather than all fruits or all vrgans. The sucker-
ing habit has been discouraged in the selection of corns. The
tendency to sucker, the tendency to produce tassels on the ends
of ears, the profuse drooping tassels of many little improved
varieties, the predominence of flint corns northward and of dent
or pointed corns southward, the occurrence of jnany curious and
aboriginal corns in the Aztec region — all these become intelligibie
if Zea canina is the original of Indian corn.

Fagire }

THE BEHAVIOR OF SOME EGG-PLANT CROSSES,

In 1889, three crosses were made among egg-plants, one cross
being between Round White and Black Pekin, one between Giant
Round Purple and White Chinese, and the other between Long
White and Black Pekin. In every case, the parents were very
unlike, both in shape and color of fruit, and in color of plant.
A number of plants were grown from these seeds in 1890, and the
characters of the resulting offspring were fully explained and
figured in Bulletin 26, March, 1891. The present report deals
with the second generation, grown in 1891.

The cross, which we called A, was made between Round White
and Black Pekin. The Round White is a small green plant
which bears small, oblong, clear white, hard fruits. The Black
Pekin is a large, dark purple plant which produces very large,

56

442 Ag@riouLtTrurAL Experiment Srarion, Irnaoa, N. Y.

nearly globular and very dark purple fruits. One fruit was
obtained in 1889, as a result of crossing these two varieties. The
seeds of this fruit gave in 1890 a series of plants which were
almost exactly intermediate between the pavents in size and
other characters. The young shoots were much like the pis*ilate
parent — Round White—but as they became older, the upper
surface of the stems, the petioles and the veins of the ieaves
assumed the purple tinge of the male parent. In form and size,
the larger part of the fruits seemed to vary in the direction of the
pistillate parent, many of them being decidedly ovoid in form and
very small. A few were larger, and had somewhat the form of

Extent of variation in the *‘ A” crosses. (1890.)

the staminate parent. Frequently the same plant wonld produce
mature fruits two inches and others five inches in diameter. In
color the fruits were purple while young — first month or so —
usually dark purple with lighter apex. In some instances this
color was retained till time of edible maturity; but, as a rule, the
dark purple changed to a dull greenish hue, and the light apex
became metallic gray with a faint tinge of purple, and streaks
of grayish purple extended towards the base. The accompanying
figure shows the extent of variation in 1890, or a fruit of every
type obtained.

From the first brood of this cross, 1890, eight fruits were
selected or again crossed, as parents for succeeding crops. These

=e ONS Se ee
Nia

Horticuttura, Drviston. 443

fruits were essentially alike in color and shape, as shown in the
above illustration. These eight fruits, which were the parents of
the plants discussed below, were as follows:

A1. Pollinated with another flower on the same plant.

A2. Pollinated by Round White (original pistillate parent).

A3. Pollinated by Black Pekin (original staminate parent).

A4, Same as A3.

A5. Pollinated with another flower on same plant, as in Al.

A6. Same as A5.

A7. Pollinated ‘by Round White, as in A2.

A&. Selection, not artifically pollinated.

A Mongrel Egg-fruit. 1891.)

From these eight fruits, 1,405 plants were grown at Cornell in
1891.* The behavior of these plants is indicated by the table
which closes this article. It is interesting to note the influence
of Black Pekin in A838 and A4, into which this variety has twice
entered as a staminate parent. All the plants, 203 in number,
were purple in foliage and like Black Pekin in habit; and most of
the fruits were solid purple, although 1a few striped fruits still
showed. the influence of the Round White two generations back.
The ones into which the Round White entered twice— A2 and

* Duplicates of all these egg-plants have been grown in Maine by Prof. W.
M. Munson, who will soon report upon them.

444 AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station, Irgaca, N. Y.

A7—do not show so strongly the marks of the double infusion
of blood. In A2, there were a few more plants with green than
with purple herbage and the green ones were more productive than
the others; these are marks of the Round White, and it may also
be said that even the purple plants were of a light cast and that
nearly all showed the influence of the dwarf habit of Round White.
AT, the other Round White cross, produced a lot of small plants,
but they were unproductive, and much over half of them had pur-
ple herbage.

Three of these lots — Al, A5, A6— were from fruits pollinated
by a flower on the same plant. These, then, according to popular
notions, should produce uniform plants; but with that sublime
contrariness which is so characteristic of most of our results of
crossing, these lots gave as variable progeny as those which had
‘better right to such possessions. In fact, the lot Al was prob-
ably the most hopelessly mixed of any in the entire list. The
fruits ranged from pure white to green with white stripes, purple
striped, light solid purple and very dark purple; and the mature
fruits varied from the size of an egg to that of Black Pekin.
About equal numbers of the 175 plants were green and purple.
A5 was nearly as badly mixed, and some plants appeared which
had the peculiar spreading habit of Early Dwarf Purple, a variety
which had never entered into any of the crosses. A6 showed
wide variations also. A8, which was simply a selection and had
not been artificially pollinated, was about as variable as the rest.

Some of the fruits of these crosses were exceedingly handsome,
especially one which appeared in Al and another in A2. The
engraving on last page shows one of them, but no black and
white print can do justice to it. White and purple bands were
laid on the fruit in alternate waves, which seemed to run off
the fleshy calyx lobes and to flow down the fruit. Efforts have
been made to perpetuate these remarkable types, but they are now
lost. Every new attempt at crossing reminds me that the chief
value of the operation is the infusing of new vigor into offspring
rather than the origination of new types.

As a whole, 543 of the 1,405 plants produced perfectly green
‘foliage, showing the effect of the Round White. Most of the

Reith i AAR ae

HorticutturAL Drviston. 445

fruits produced by these eight samples were of an indifferent and
ill-defined color, and were utterly worthless for market. In pro-
ductiveness, the purple-herbage plants were ahead of the green
ones, although the green parent — Round White —is more pro-

ductive than the Black Pekin. Of the 729 plants which gave siz-

able fruits before frost, 454 were purple and 275 green. In habit,
the A crosses were also very various. The Round White seemed
to exert a great influence upon the stature of the plants, but the

purple color of Black Pekin appeared to be more potent than the

green of the other.
Series B came from a cross of Giant Round Purple and White
Chinese. The former has purple herbage and a very large purple

Extent of variation in ‘‘B” crosses. (1890.)

fruit, while the latter has green herbage and a long club-shaped
white fruit. So far as beauty of form and color is concerned,
this series was by far the most promising of the three crosses.
The plants in this series, as in the former, were as a rule inter-
mediate between the parents. Much of the vigor of the pistillate
parent was transmitted to the offspring, but the leaves were
smaller and less distinctly lobed.

In form the fruits, as a rule, resembled the staminate parent —
White Chinese, but they were of greater diameter. The color
at edible maturity was rich dark purple, with lighter apex. When
fully mature — that is, when left for the seed to ripen — the light

446 AgricutturaAL Experiment Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.

purple apex became gray, then yellowish like the staminate parent,
while the dark purple body of the fruit became dull green. The
full extent of variation in this series is shown in the illustration.
‘Eight of these fruits grown in 1890 were selected or again crossed
for planting in 1891. These B lots originated as follows:

Bl. Pollinated by Giant Purple (original pistillate parent).

B2. Pollinated with another flower on the same plant.

B3. Pollinated by Giant Purple, as in B1.

B4. Pollinated with another flower on same plant, as B2.

B5. Pollinated by Giant Purple, as in B1 and B38.

B6. Selections, not artificially pollinated. These were attract-
ive fruits of a purple color and lighter apex, tending to be striped.

B7. Selections, not artificially pollinated. These were attract-
ive fruits of a purple color and lighter apex, tending to be striped.

B8. Selections, not artificially pollinated. These were attract-
ive fruits of a purple color and lighter apex, tending to be striped.

The offspring of these fruits — 479 plants — showed a wide vari-
ation in color of herbage, many of them being green, although the
greater part of them were purple. As a whole, however, these
plants were comparatively uniform in size and habit, and should be
distinguished from the A and C series at a considerable distance.
The plants were low and bushy, but erect, mostly with a gravish-
purple tinge when seen in mass. B2, which was pollinated from
another flower on the same plant, gave as various fruits as the
others. Of eighteen large fruits of it, one was very black-pury Je,
six were light purple, and one was purpie-siriped, nine were green-
and white striped, one was pure white. [t is strange, too, that
one of the plants of this lot had the peculiar habit of Early Dwarf
Purple, a variation also found in one of the A series (A5) which
had been similarly pollinated. The lots into which the original
pistillate parent, Giant Purple, was again impressed — B1, B3,
Ba — showed very variable offspring, althongh there were targe
numbers of purple and purple-striped fruits in the progeny. B38
and BS were very much alike in habit, color and fiuit. There
was comparatively little variation in any of the B lots.
_ Series C originated from a cross of Long White by Black Pekin.
This series, then, is much like A in parentage, except that tke

wy \, - we i. ma ome. Wy Ask” *
a ny

Horticutturat Division. 447

pistillate parent has longer fruit. The effect of the staminate
parent in giving color to the foliage was more marked than in
series A. In no case was there an absence of the purplish tinge
of Black Pekin, and frequently the color was nearly as deep as
in the parent. The fruit was of intermediace color, but with the
purple predominating. In form, a few of the fruits resembled the
staminate parent; and many resembled the pistillate patent,
while others were wholly distinct.

Four fruits were again crossed or selected in 1890 from this
series:

Cl. Pollinated by another flower from same plant.

Extent of variation in the “‘C” crosses. (1890.)

C3. Pollinated by Black Pekin (original staminate parent).

C4. Selection, not artificially pollinated. Seen at the extreme
left in the illustration. It was very angular at the ends, purple
with a metallic-gray apex.

In these lots, the fruit pollinated from the same plant, C1, gave
a variable and very unproductive offspring. C3, into which
Black Pekin has gone twice, gave only purple fruits. C4 was
the one which we particularly desired to tix, for the original
fruit had strong points of merit. This fruit gav2 us 169 plants.
none of which, however, were like the parent, and none se»med
to possess superior merits. Only thirty-one of the plants from
it produced fruits before the frost, and of these five had green

te. mY eT Co te ae ah
Ais ay y" oe

»y

448 AgricuLttuRAL Exprrment Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.—

herbage and twenty-six purple herbage. All the © plants were
very tall in 1891, mostly dark in foliage, and late.

The result of all this experiment with secondary crosses and
the second generation of primary crosses, numbering 2,J26 plants,
shows that they were exceedingly variable, that pollination from
the same plant did not fix the types, that very few novel and
promising types appeared, that the white and purple colors tend
to unite to produce striped fruits, and that the greater part of
the crop was unsalable because of the nondescript colors of the
fruits. And all this only emphasizes the fact which we nave
learned with many other plants, that crossing for the purpose of
producing marked novelties for propagation by seed is at least
unsatisfactory.

The following table showing the numerical measures of this
variation may interest those who are curious concerning plant
variability:

Horricutturat Drviston.

‘qoodse Ul 9g OX''T

“OF OMIT SPURT

*‘JO[[SWUs Je MoTUOS syuvid ynq ‘eg OFT

LES eee eee LOM
‘osury ojdand 4ys1y WIM ‘10yoo ut YstAeay

‘oousivodde puv ozis Ul MIAOsJIuM ApqeyIvwMa.l S}Ue [qT
ejdaing JieMqg

Ajreq Jo yqey yy goed ouo ynq ‘eq Asoy

‘old.ing Suo7T oyxly ‘suoy sym

‘OAT|ONpoOAdunN puv {T[eUs syUv[_q

SONA AIOA SIUVL_T
“quoIOUIp 91B S}IMAz sz gnq ‘eydang

Java Apre_ ex] esnyip puv Moy cae sjuvid oulog
‘suimaz podta4s-use813

OUIOS OIG 9107} YSnoyile ‘ued Hovlg yl, TWonTW
‘TV UL SB yaep Os sjzuBld ofdand oT Jo

euod foJIT AA PUNY 079 JaoAr 07 AOUDPUS} B SMOG

‘a[qeiaea AIBA 9NQ JOT poos B AT}SOTW

*SyIBUIOY

nm

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symaj jo .equny

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eitirt oO S28 SO) 60)

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syinay jo 1oqmny

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‘esequioy ojd.imd
Wy 19q CIN Wy

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jo sequinu jou MA

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He teeeeenesees ger
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‘SHSSOUD, LNVId-D97] NI NOLLVIGV A

450 Ag@rioutrorAL Experiment Station, Irnaoa, N. Y.

FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPE CUTTINGS.

It is often a very serious question with nurserymen what fer-
tilizers they shall use to produce the largest and best grape-vines,
especially in the dryer seasons when growth is small. Two years
ago we undertook an experiment in this direction, and T. §.
Hubbard, of Fredonia, N. Y., a well-known nurseryman, gave us
10,000 cuttings of Concord with which to make the test. These
cuttings were divided into ten equal lots and each lot was set in
the spring of 1891 upon a plot ten by twenty-five feet. The
cuttings stood three by twelve inches apart. The plots were
arranged in two rows, and they received treatment as follows in
1891 and 1892:

1. Check (no fertilizer). 2. Cotton-seed hull ashes (four pounds
a year). 3. Muriate of potash (two pounds a year). 4. Nitrate
of soda (two pounds a year). 5. Sulphate of ammonia (two pounds
a year). 6. Cotton-seed meal (four pounds a year). 7%. Bone flour
(four pounds a year). 8. Stable manure (forty pounds a year).
9. Bradley’s superphosphates (four pounds a year). 10. Check (ro
fertilizer).

These fertilizers were applied May 14, 1891, and June 23, 1892.
They were sown upon the ground and found their way under the
surface at the regular hoeings. The soil upon which these cut-
tings were grown was a poor and very hard gravel. This soil
was selected because it had received no fertilizers in recent years
and because the results of the different materials would be undis-
guised by the heavy growth which would be given by a good soil.
The early season of 1891 was very dry and many of the cuttings
did not start. Later in the season, the remaining plants made a
fair growth but no difference could be seen in the plots. It was
evident that the fertilizers had not yet reached the roots of the —
plants. But in 1892 the effect began to be marked early in
summer, and it was evident that plot No. 4—nitrate of soda —
would distance all the rest. Final observations were made Octo-
ber nineteenth, when it was found that plot No. 4 was best and
No. 5 second. These plots gave easily fifty per cent more growth
than any of the remaining eight. No. 2—cotton-seed hull

Pens fk RAN pe meee. Sete tN os ADT PB a!
BAAS RST es nL, aye aA RY KAY «oan Pana i
‘ prin ‘ " oe | ‘ ey
A > 4 ‘ Ot | . b dy !

HorrioutturAL Drvtsion. 451

ashes — was the best of the remaining plots although its advan-
tage was slight. Between the other seven there was no obvious
differences.

Plot 4— nitrate of soda— was conspiciously darker in foliage
than any other throughout the season. The vines matured well,
although the yellow leaves still hung to the plants in the middle
of October. Plot No. 5—sulphate of ammonia — was perhaps
ten per cent below No. 4 in amount of growth, and the wood was
not so well ripened as in the other.

’

THE BLACK--KNOT OF THE PLUM AND CHERRY.
The New York Law.

The black-knot is a serious disease, attacking the branches and
twigs of the plum, sour cherries, and sometimes sweet cherries.
It is also common upon wild choke-cherries, from whence it spreads
to the orchards. The most prolific source of the disease, however,
are the neglected hedge-rows of plums and Morello cherries along
road-sides and about old buildings. Sometimes black-knot will
be noticed sparingly in a community for several years before it
seriously attacks cultivated trees, and this fact has caused people
to become indifferent to it; but sooner or later it will spread and
become a most pernicious evil. Plum growing is abandoned in
some parts of the Hudson river valley because of the incursions of
- black-knot, and a similar fate is likely to overtake any community
which neglects it. It is the duty of every citizen to exert himself
towards the extirpation of this pest, and New York and Michigan
now have laws to compel its removal.

Black-knot is a fungous disease, and the only reliable treatment
yet known is to cut off the knot and burn them. This operation
should be done just as soon as the leaves fall, at the latest. Good
plum growers inspect the trees once or twice during the summer
if black-knot is feared. Always burn the knots; if they are not
destroyed the spores of the fungus will still develop, even after the
knot is cut from the tree. The old knot often contains worms,

\

~

452 Ag@rRiouLTtuRAL Exprrment Station Irnaoa, N. Y.

but these only burrow in the spongy tissues; they do not cause the
disease.

The following is the New York law. Every citizen should
support it.

Section 1. It shall be unlawful for any person knowingly or
willfully to keep any plum, cherry or other trees infected with the
contagious disease or fungus known as the black-knot; that every
tree so infected is hereby declared to be a public nuisance, and no
damages shall be awarded in any court in this state for entering
upon premises and cutting away or severing the diseased part or
parts of any tree so infected and destroying the same, or cutting
down or removing such infected tree altogether and destroying the
same, if done in accordance with the provisions of this act.

§ 2. In any town or city in this state in which such contagious
disease exists, or where there is good reason to believe it exists
or danger may be justly apprehended of its introduction, it shall
be the duty of the supervisor or mayor of any town or city upon
the application made in writing and signed by at least three free-
holders, who are residents of said town or city to appoint forth-
with three competent freeholders, who shall be fruit growers, of
said town or city as commissioners, who shall hold office during
the pleasure of said supervisor or mayor, and such order of appoint-
ment and of revocation shall be entered at large on the town or
city records.

§ 3. It shall be the duty of said commissioners, within ten days
after appointment as aforesaid, to file their acceptances of the
same with the clerk of said town or city, and said clerk shall be
ex-officio clerk of said board of commissioners, and he shall keep
a correct record of the proceedings of said board in a book to be
provided for the purpose, and shall file and preserve all papers per-
taining to the duties and actions of said commissioners, or either
of them, which shall be a part of the records of said town or city. -

§ 4. It shall be the duty of the commissioners, or any one of
them, upon or without complaint, whenever it comes to their
notice that the disease known as the black knot exists, or is sup-
posed to exist, within the limits of their town or city, to proceed

HorticutturaAt Drvision. 453

witliout delay to examine the trees supposed to be infected, and
if the disease is found to exist a distinguishing mark or marks
shall be placed upon that part or those parts of every tree so
infected, which in the judgment of the commissioner or commis-
sioners should be removed and destroyed, or if in the judgment
of such commissioner, or commissioners any tree so infected
should be entirely removed and destroyed, then the trunk of such
trees shall be thoroughly girdled, and a written notice given to
the owner personally, or by leaving the same at his usual place
of residence, or if the owner be a non-resident by leaving such
notice with the person in charge of such trees. The notice shall
contain a simple statement of the facts as found to exist, with an
order to effectually remove and destroy by fire the part or parts
of every tree so marked and designated, or every such tree entire
which shall be so girdled, as the case may be, within ten days
from the date of the notice above required. Such notice and
order to be signed by the three commissioners, or any two of them.

§ 5. Whenever any person shall refuse or neglect ‘to comply
with the order mentioned in the last section, it shall become the
duty of the commissioners to carry out the directions of said
‘order, and forthwith to remove and destroy by fire every tree, or
part of a tree, so girdled, or marked, as aforesaid, employing all
necessary aid for that purpose; the expenses for such removal
and destruction to be a charge against the town or city; and for
the purpose of such removal and destruction, the said com-
missioners, their agents and employes, shall have the right and
authority to enter upon any and all premises within their town or
city. ;

§ 6. In any owner, of if such owner be a non-resident, then
if any person in charge of such trees, neglects to remove and
destroy by fire every tree, or part of a tree, so found to be infected,
and marked, or girdled, as aforesaid, after notification, and within
the time hereinbefore prescribed, such person shall be guilty of a
misdemeanor and punished by a fine not exceeding twenty-five
dollars or by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding ten
days, or both, in the discretion of the court; and any justice of

Foe eed ? i‘ 4 cere 7 Rie oer et ode yin Vke rds dy
" 4 i p F wy ihe }

dae Dt

454 AgricuLtuRAL Exprerment Station, Irnaca, N. Y.

the peace of any town or city, in which said offense shall be com-
mitted, shall have jurisdiction thereof; and all such fines so
collected shall be turned over to the supervisor of said town, or
other proper officer, to be placed by him in the contingent fund
of said town or city.

§ 7. The commissioners shall be allowed for service under this
act two dollars each for each full day and one dollar each for each
half day, and their other reasonable charges and disbursements
hereunder to be audited, as well as any other charges and dis-
bursements under this act, by the board of town auditors or
proper city officers, to be paid to such commissioners as other
town or city accounts are paid. Such fees and all reasonable
charges and disbursements of said commissioners, in each case
may be recovered by the town in the name of the supervisor,
and in cities in the name of the city, from the owner of the dis-
eased trees, on account of which such fees, charges and disburse-
ments become payable or were incurred.

§ 8. This act shall take effect immediately.

Approved by the Governor, May 12, 1892.

i

THE WILD POTATO OF THE MEXICAN REGION.

About 1878 Dr. W. J. Beal, of the Michigan Agricultural
College, received from the Harvard Botanic Gardens a few
tubers—the largest about) an inch in diameter—of a wild potato
from Mexico. This potato has been grown since that time at the
Michigan college, and we have grown it here two or three yeai's,
from the Michigan seed. The tubers are gradually improving,
and in 1887, when I made a report upon this potato,* the best
tubers measured three inches in length. The largest tubers now
reach over four inches in length, and the number of small pota-
toes in the hills seems ‘to be lessening. The illustration shows an
average sample of this potato as dug in our gardens this year.
The tubers are brown, with deep eyes, and tend to be flattened.

* Bull, 31, Mich. Expt. Sta., 87.

| HorticutturRAL Drviston. 455

They keep well. The flesh is very yellow. When cooked, the
flavor is rich and possesses a slight aroma which is not present in
the common potatoes. The plants usually produce balls freely.

This potato is, probably, the Solanum tuberosum var. boreale
of Gray, although it has the interposed small leaflets which that
plant is supposed to lack. It occurs in a wild state from the
Montezuma valley, Colorado, to New Mexico, southwards in the
mountains in Mexico. This wild potato of the north appears to
have been first brought to notice in 1856 by Dr. A. J. Myers, of
the United States army, who found it in western Texas. He

Mexican Wild Potato.

sent specimens to Asa Gray, who named it Solanum Fendleri, in
honor of Augustus Fendler, an early botanical explorer of the
southwest. Dr. Gray afterwards considered it to be only a
geographical variety of the potato and renamed it Solanum
tuberosum var. boreale. The account of the plant as seen by
Dr. Myers, contains the following reference to the tubers: “The
tubers, though small, being rarely as large as a hickory-nut, have
been gathered, cooked and eaten by officers and soldiers, and
they proved both palatable and innocent.” This plant was grown
in 1888 by the Colorado Experiment Station from wild Colorado
tubers. The tubers under cultivation were “quite large relat-

yd SE TR SO ee Ot ee
arn ad

456 AgricutturaL Exprriment Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.

ively to the other forms [samples of Solanum Jamesii], oblong
in shape, and of a dark brown color.”* Several crosses were

made in Colorado upon this wild potato from pollen of common
potatoes, but I am not aware that any subsequent report has been
made upon them. The Wild Mexican potato has been grown by
several experimenters for a number of years. Their reports
would be interesting.

DO FERTILIZERS AFFECT THE QUALITY OF TOMATOES?

There is much discussion concerning the supposed effects of
different fertilizers upon the quality —solids, sugar, acids — of
tomatoes. Samples of tomato fruits were taken September six
from various fertilizer plots for chemical examination.§ In the
following table each entry or sample means a single fruit. The —
fruits selected were well colored and of medium size and ripe
enough for dessert use. All the samples are Ignotum. ;

The fertilizer plots from which these fruits were taken are of
two series. The samples 1 to 8 are from a general test to
determine the values of nitrogen, potash and phosphorus, alone
and in combinatton. Six plants constituted a plot, and the fer-
tilizers were sown on the surface June twenty. The yields of
these plots are shown in Table IV, page 269 of our tomato
bulletin (No. 45). ,

Samples 9 to 11 are from a series of plots designed to determine
the relative merits of single and intermittent applications of
nitrate of soda (Tables I, Il, I, Bulletin 45). These plots con-
tain fifteen plants each. Samples 9 to 9¢ are from a plot which
received a single application of nitrate of soda of three pounds
June twenty; No. 11 received the same total amount in four
applications.

Samples 12 and 12a are from a plot to which a liberal dressing
of good, fine stable manure was applied.

The soil in all these plots is a fairly good, dry and high grav-
elly loam.

* Bull. 4, Colo. Expt. Sta., 14.
§ The method of chemical analysis is discussed upon page 899 of this bulletin, ~

2

457

Horticutturat Division.

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58

458 AGrRicuLTuRAL Exprriment Station, Irnaoa, N. Y.

It is plain from these figures that there was no uniform varia-
tion in the quality of the tomatoes. The differences are as wide
between different fruits of the same plot as between the different
plots. The variations in sugar in the samples from the same plot
are well shown in 5, 5a and 5b, in which the readings run from
.69 to 1.22. We hope to repeat the experiment the coming
season.

THE VETCH OR TARE AS AN ORCHARD PLANT.

Orchard lands are nearly always benefited by some cover or
mulch during a part of the year, especially during fall and winter.
One of the values of sod lies in the protection to the soil, but a
sod can not be obtained in a single season. If orchards can be
cultivated in spring and early summer and then protected with
some growth which will shade the soil and keep it moist during
the remainder of the warm weather and afford some protection
from frost during winter, the best results will undoubtedly be
obtained, as a rule. This cover crop should also afford fertilizing
materials to the soil when turned under, and greatly improve the
mechanical character of the soil as well.

The leguminous plants — those belonging to the clover family -—
at once suggest themselves because they are rich in nitrogen, and
may, therefore, serve both as cover and fertilizer. We have tried
mixed beans and field peas, but there are objections to beth,
although either one is probably better than weeds or bare ground.
This year we have tried the European vetch or tare (Vicia sativa),
seed of which we obtained of J. M. Thornburn & Co., New York.
This plant is grown for forage in England. A half bushel of
seed was sown June sixteenth upon five-eighths of an acre of heavy
clay loam. It was sown broadcast upon a freshly prepared sur-
face, and well dragged in. The seed could have been sown later
with equally as good effect, no doubt, and the cultivation of the
orchard could have been continued for ten days or two weeks
longer. The young trees of pear, plum and apricot have made
an excellent growth this year among the vetch. The vetch started
somewhat slowly and the seeding seemed to have been too thin; —

LP ae
i

HortiovuttuRAL Drvision. 459

but by the middle of September the ground was covered thickly.
Frost came October first, but the vetch was not injured and it
continued to grow until the middle of the month, and remained
green still longer. It made a remarkable cover, growing khuee-
high in a dense mat and everywhere completely covering the
ground. It began to flower in September, but no seeds ripened
except upon a few poor spots. Upon light soils, seeds would
probably form freely, but the plant is an annual and is not likely
to become a weed. The roots do not extend deep. With the
approach of hard, freezing weather, the stalks fell upon the
ground, where they now lie like a thin even covering of old hay.
The stems are soft and can be easily plowed under in spring and
will soon decompose; and they will not keep the soil wet too late
in spring, which is an important point upon clay soils. On the
whole, we are much pleased with the vetch as an orchard plant,
and shall use it again.

Samples of this vetch, including four to six inches of the roots,
gave the following fertilizer analysis:

Nitrogen, original substance, .65 per cent; dry substance,
3.10 per cent.

Phosphoric acid (P2 O05), original substance, .146 per cent;
dry substance, .70 per cent.

Potash (K2 0), original substance, .475 per cent; dry substance,
2.28 per cent. :

Water, original substance, 79.15 per cent.

Compared with clover, the fertilizer value is high. The follow-
ing ‘are summaries of several analyses of red clover:

Nitrogen, dry substance, 2.05 per cent.

Phosphoric acid, dry substance, .66 per cent.

Potash, dry substance, 2.24 per cent.

SUBSTITUTES FOR GLASS IN GREENHOUSE ROOFS.

There is much inquiry for some cheap substitute for glass for
ereenhouses, and various preservative preparations are recom-
mended for the treatment of cloth and paper to be used in roofing.
We have tried paper one season and cloth two seasons, and find

460 AariovtturRAL Exprrimentr Station, Iraaca, N. Y.

both to be entirely unsatisfactory for a winter roof in this climate.
They are cold, dark and not durable. For summer or lute spring
use, oiled muslin is fairly satisfactory. Plants which require a
heavy shade in summer can be grown to advantage under such a
roof. In the summer of 1891 we found a cloth-roofed house to
be an excellent place for flowering the tuberous begonias. Cloth
roofs, with ordinary oil treatment, last less than a year, and paper
is so easily torn and punctured by drifting twigs that we consider
it nearly useless for roofs. It will also tear after a short time by
a heavy wind from the inside if a door or ventilater chances to
be open. The cost of a few annual roofs of this character will
pay for a glass roof. Even if the cloth were to last for two or
three years, it would soon become very dark from a collection of
dirt and the growth of mildew.

Our first experience with these covers was the use of paper in
the fall of 1890. The paper used was a thin white, stiff, archi-
tect’s drafting paper known in the trade as “Economy.” This
was laid over the sash-bars and was held down by the caps used
for holding butted glass. It was then thoroughly saturated with
raw linseed oil. It had been in place but a short time when an
ambitious cat attempted to walk over it, and made a hole at about
every other step. After a few weeks of vexation, ihe paper was
removed, and a medium quality of unbleacaed muslin «loth was
substituted, being laid on in the same way. This muslin was
oiled twice with raw linseed oil. This was in December. The
cloth lasted until late spring, but became very black and dirty
towards the last. In the fall of 1891, another covering of the
same muslin was laid, and this received three coats of raw oil.
This lasted until the next summer.

This roof is now covered with glass.
L. 1. BAILEY.

ria a

. Fa ad
' 3
Add

APPENDIX Ii. om

DE RACED “STATEMENT

OF THE

Receipts and Expenditures of the Cornell University
Agricultural Experiment Station, for the
Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1892.

RECEIPTS.

From Agricultural Division.
1891.
July, 7. Two Dorset lambs ............. 54.0. $25 00
9. Thimee lamba!) oss sae siaie Waa Qed 5 3 Ce ale 15 00
1892.
ate ea se: MMGHOI SOL). 2 Lee cies vj PN Waves in aerate 10 00
Pee eau” UOT. DLT Sis5 ai stele cients eos 5's pie aks, oe ota arate 29 57
Mayes. HOUR Spring LANDS: V2". heise, 3 efe'bs sje shee. nln 23 17
Mayra, Pork and lamily Golds 5 :.1si ase. ec oid salts o's 108 55
Total from agricultural division ............. $211 29
From Horticultural Division.
1891.
Sept. 17. Sundry vegetables sold ................ $62 50
Novia oO. ELamling GOAL... <i... 6\4 5 sis she eee e eee eeee 7 59
1892.
Jan.) 2. Sundry vegetables Sold... i.:.'. 0.6 5 wele ones 01s 14 95
Rrra og SUA ULTRA 3. lo) icc os a xeral aed “acer s, sls eioiale tetevegee ' 60 53
SERIE VES Aretias, S EN ANT LL TRS UCOIAL 73h 0, wt op! one eta! oNs! i nlty sla) atatera 23 47
May 28. Sundry vegetables sold.........:...... 19 00

Total from horticultural division ....... bao ara $187 54

464 AgqricutturAL Exprrment Srarion, Irgaca, N. Y.

EXPENDITURES.
For Salaries.
1891.
July 31. I. P. Roberts, director, one month ...... $125
H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month. . 166
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month... 166 6
W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one
TINNY) Oe, -"'nsaelo ed ead ise she Pena eees 83
Harry Snyder, assistant chemist, one
MUTE. a ira CEAD wr a, oe estore asta ree. 83
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
TLC TRIO ste sie ca a te os. a xs, ote ametonnve eee eine 62
E. G. Lodeman, assistant horticulturist,
OMIA ATANDENETD Puc Shoat ee ere pon olen Late ae ee 62
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
TELE. CLN OAM PRDSEEE TS eh bn cia ema! Oy ram 83
Aug. 31. I. P. Roberts, director, one month....... 125
H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month, 166 66
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month.. 166
W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one
PROVEN GIA BUS Sia Go's a: 5 aetna eee aaa cPaeere pede 83
Harry Snyder, assistant chemist, one
REOTIGE; PE hte y ges beeen, Racer ae eee se 83
M.'V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
APRN SOACING hin <cho.'o/ave = obo tx ers o> ce aa ae’ e ake one 62
E. G. Lodeman, assistant horticulturist,
CER SHIM TT EY5 ss Shits, a a! oth lel ech = Seles gh 62
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
pre) tL RRO an RE ga Ia RO A 83
Sept. 30. I. P. Roberts, director, one month...... 125
H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month, 166
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month. . 166

W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one

mnths? oct oS aie pee ie eee a oreo ee 83 33

Harry Snyder, assistant chemist, one

MMOH, co ote 5 aitasie’ sae teuciaee,- + o/s Sieve 83 33

Ue Distal Meh Sani rine
mp ba AVDA ma

1891.

Reorrets AND EXPENDITURES.

Sept. 30. M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomolovist,

STNG MUM MPTMEL 2 206. sicoksa 0c pinnate Sierouek Jikan 2

K. G. Lodeman, assistant horticulturist,

OHGMRENFEIED oo ice se ee ee ei. Mee

115 | | 1 eh rar eA be Raa Me Ss «Sha, RCM RG Dee ko)

Oct. 31. I. P. Roberts, director, one month......

H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month. .
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month...
W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one

Harry Snyder, assistant chemist, one
MEUMMENN rte ces ome Sakae soothes haley bee gees lancer eles

CLE TTL RNA oka iow claeiees eo ard ah ah yen ed
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturalist,
GOERS THONG 1S Nee rag. sgh lane rah aia kchene seta ap
L. C. Corbett, assistant horticulturist,
CULTS TIVO pane in Se IK lid tO

Noy. 30.:I. P. Roberts, director, one month......

H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month,
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month..
W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one
MUTGVINAREN > Sepia) cae ceeds oe erst Mens pate in oe hae ages
Harry Snyder, assistant chemist, one
PEDRO 11910 Might Steg to Ad Ae) Rt Oe ga
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
COTM CTO stds a sei a wide shePon sale ob
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist,
INE AGTH SO Re eens he Nay tire Se 1 hh aw aes
L. C. Corbett, assistant horticulturist,
cniguitieenciy’< . aetery sate 2 Cee

Dec. 30. I. P. Roberts, director, one month......

H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month,
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month. .
59

465

$62 59

125 00
166 66
166 66

‘ou ." “4 ee |

Rc Aad

466 AcricutrurAL Exprrmenrt Sratyon, Iruaca, N. Y.

1891.

Dec. 30. W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one

14102 71: a SN oes seh lor Gr ROB ne aot: ||
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
one month...) y Sev ss > AP eee tie Ce tee
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist,
Oe Sma” » ee ea ale i aie
L. C. Corbett, assistant horticulturist,
I OMT: i,k aie she veces Wilke ds Metco ak ae
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one

TUUCHTNE A! os, ahs Besar accel etade ls a pPen uahay Coates

1892. |

Jan. 30. I. P. Roberts, director, one month.......
H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month,
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month. .
W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one

MOM Tae) ts ee ee hea ee
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
ODS | TOME 6s Sk. ies eee ebay deers
G. C. Watson, assistamt agriculturist,
One OME. 6 Ae es ee
L. C. Corbett, assistant horticulturist,
nr / MONG 8 CP (St alos eee a
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one

AYPOMTAURY: £0; \ordsn a a.) « sucdebag of ie Clone anak eT
Feb. 29. I. P. Roberts, director, one month.......

H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month,
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month. .
W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one

BOOTIE 5th a GR Rte AS kia SOWy Ot i's cote am
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,

One TONED! ks Misses eter ete ee thal
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist,

one -momibh, — hee a eae
L. ©. Corbett, assistant horticulturist,
One / THOT: |; gy Ve ames. CU ine eee

it

Recerets AND EXPENDITURES.

1892. 2]

Feb. 29. G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one
INOUE oi 2 Pee Hoje Se cold ls eo wlan aw

Mar. 31. TI. P. Roberts, director, one month.......
H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month,

L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month. .

W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one

THOTT 2 ab fe sens etalon 3 eaten ore sla ate te

M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
GQHEVMOMERNI YS BS ATS ahs Oloaee cients

G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist,

GME TEMIEN EEL SS sete cette ie: Sie ono chat ep a eres is

L. C. Corbett, assistant horticulturist,

DTIC T ER 0 EOL RE eles Bef RAEN Beate Oe Ba

G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one

IGAEGHTN AEN Boe a. ta NMS e kh Uitidhe adele ala he ae

April 30. I. P. Roberts, director, one shih saree evel
H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month,

L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month ...

W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one

month ...... Tein eet tia a veisien'> amines

OTICIONUN SSN se ea retire PETE She aye
ATUOMNPED Mar args) hee) tioirat eine atel were [are oi tatetes Aimar
PINOLE eet ad ONAN as ran Pend ches erat taunt tate
AVLGNUALIER eter epatcice ehete tal <2 de yates ac eietal otig'm ahem oy =
H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month,
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month ...
W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one
TITUS cg Getta lata Gite eed atelalats

M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
“<OWEC TPORNMI ss 5 20 452d Se Siena Lei ates

468

1892.
May

nbs

31. G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one

MONE vais dae ee ithe es, Seek Re

THOTT} cok. oes ee AG ceca eeatiae CADE: Lae

MOM Sess ais os Giemsa ee ha eee eee

June 27. I. P. Roberts, director, one month........

H. H. Wing, deputy director, one month. .
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month. .
W. R. Dudley, cryptogamic botanist, one
117.01 11 ee ME RN Ch a See En CE 9 he a SN
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
COT TTT sic a vais ie oo ns sieed wear

WPRCHTNE RAs See os seem We aed a ea ad Se
TAGI TH ecto Ses crc. Roker

MOTE is eects oc ateasne SNe eno eh oe eae

For Building's.
|

31. Jas. Seamon, painting .................
13. Driscoll Bros., stone and lime .........

Lt. Win. Pritchama Nabor rig ope. chesis tier arte
14; Treman King & Co., hardware ..........

opal for buildings: 30 (wane ee ea ee

1891.

For Printing.

June 27. W. F. Humphrey, Bulletin 28..........

July

2. c. G. Hanee, carting). ji fink date) vo fleas
3. Isabella Nichols, drawings ............

AgricutturAL Exprrmenr Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.

$83

1

00

4 00

1891.
June 27. Lehigh Valley railroad, freight...

July 10. Adams Express Co., expressage
I. P. Roberts, paid freight .....0.........
Lehigh Valley railroad, freight ........
Geo. R. Chamberlain, drawings.........
H. S..Gutsell, drawings 03035. 00.05..055.
. Isabelle Nichols, drawings ..............
. Isabelle Nichols, drawings..............
. W. F. Humphrey, printing Bulletin 29 ...
. National Express Co., expressage ........
. Lehigh Valley railroad, freight ..........
. Rural Publishing Co., cuts ..............
. Isabelle Nichols, drawings .............
. Isabelle Nichols, drawings .............
. Geo. A. King, drawings: 2. 0...050.0.0.0.
. Lehigh Valley railroad, freight ........
. Hheral Pablishine, Com cats 2000... 5 Se
. Lewis’ Engraving) ©o.,"euts. 2.000. . :
. W. F. Humphrey, printing Bulletin 31..
. United States Express Co., express ....
. ural: Publishing Cos cuts oy) i543 e58
. Rural Publishing Co., cuts ......65......
. United States Express Co., expressage. .
. Rural Publishing Co., engravings ......
. Rural Publishing Co., engravings aus
2 Gren. Anemia. drawn Wie ls sale. esa
» Phe oveoyaOosrewes: Fe. sie (sae wei ees
. Lehigh Valley railroad, freight ........
. W. F. Humphrey, printing Bulletin 32..
sural’ Pobhshine Go: “eaten ise ais were
. United States Express Co., expressage ..
? dpuralsPabbishine Co; ewe! 20,2. 0 wa
DHE EOVEIOY, CO, GUER N85 aru i
. United States Express Co., expressage ..
., Rural Pubbshing ‘Co., ‘cats i655. 05.1. fir
. United States Express Co., expressage. .

June
Aug.

Sept.

Aug.
Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

15.

27.

29.
29.

Bi ag A De ae
y it ie,

-3

ReEcripts AND EXPENDITURES.

470 Ag@rioutrurAL Exprermenr Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y. ie
1891.
Nov. 21. National Express Co., expressage........ $0 25
30. United States Express Co., expressage. . 25
28. Rural Publishing Co., engraving ....... 6 58
24. Rural Publishing Co., engraving ....... 13 67
Dee. 2. United States Express Co., expressage.. 25
3. United States Express Co., expressage. . 35
Nov. 24. Lehigh Valley railroad, freight ........ 2, aa
24, Rural Publishing :Co., ‘cuts «.......5.220: 2 50
24, Rural Publishing Co., engraving ....... 3 00
23. Rural Publishing Co., engraving ....... 1 83
Oct. 16. Western Union Telegraph Co., telegram, 43
Dec A, Rural “Publishime 'Co,,. cuts 3.4.24 23 92
7. Adams Express Co., expressage ........ 25
14. Anna B. Comstock, drawings .......... 15 00
19. Lehigh Valley railroad, freight ........ | 2 18
Oct 26. Geo. Ay King, ‘drawings. 20050 agains - 10 00
Dec. 16. Adams Express Co., expressage ....... 25
17. Adams Express Co., expressage ........ 25
23. W. F. Humphrey, printing Bulletin 33... 413 28
31. Lehigh Valley railroad, freight ........ 4 95
19. Adams Express Co., expressage ........ 2
30. W. F. Humphrey, printing Bulletin 34.. 201 60
1892.
Jan. 18. Lehigh Valley railroad, freight ........ 2 47
18. Adams Express Co., expressage ........ 50
25. United States Express Co., expressage.. 40
18. W. EF. Humphrey, printing Bulletins 35
BU 6) 25. Sa rete ete em teas rete gee 211 68
20. Ao PS Willis; dina wimpy ..3is)o% fens nal. sl vite 10 00
22. Rural Publishing Co., engravings ...... 25 10
27. United States Express Co., expressage. . 25
1. New York and Pennsylvania Teiegrapn
COs, MOBBARE: sv. v5 acolo st vera ae tie ont eae 30
Feb. 8. Adams Express Co., expressage.......... 55
1. Rural Publishing Co., electrotypes....... 2 55-

He
+]
co

8. Lehigh Valley railroad, freight..........

Say eed , en) he

REoEIPts AND EXPENDITURES.

1892.
Dec. 23. United States Express Co., expressage....
Feb. 22. Lehigh Valley railroad, freight..........
23. W. F. Humphrey, printing Bulleivin 37...
Wate: 9 22: Geo. Au, King, drawings: <3. ee ode eek
Mar. 1. National Express Co., expressage........
16. W. F. Humphrey, printing annual report.
April 1. United States Express Co., expressage. .
Mar. 31. American Garden, half tones...........
April 12. National Express Co., expressage.......
May 5. United States Express Co., expressage..
April 30. Rural Publishing Co., engraving....... i
May 14. Rural New Yorker, half tones..........
June 15. Rural Publishing Co., engravings........
22. Adams Express Co., expressage.........
28. Rural Publishing Co., engravings........
ete al- Loreen CAD oye ho!) ait ake oc ia lere tis «fa she ea ahs
For Office Expenses.
1892.
Aug. 3. Andrus & Church, envelopes...........;
25. Andrus & Church, note slips.........
12. I. P. Roberts, traveling expenses........
peor. 10..desse Pawling; labor... si). 66 e- 6 Se
MOPS A LOrralice, LAQOR cnt cid «ibe s) «ie! « Ji
4. “Postmaster, STaIps (2). fo 612 6 o's so oem oleis
7. Adams Express Co., expressage.........
Zoey. Ly TRO DERES, DOE ®.!.: <:chersi> salou > stateaye te
29. Andrus & Church, stationery ..........
Oct. Bae We Ge EL amCey, GALTALE! Wie Saisie ce elddu2 ,
6. Andrus & Church, stationery ...........
8. Postmaster, stamps -..).2. 6.0 6. eas
SW OA Wy Clkosir, | OL) CbG 2) Sh aia ashe sales
10. Andrus & Church, sundries.............
Nov. 3. Andrus & Church, stationery............

3. Andrus & Church, stationery .......-...

nw re

2,585 70

63

ai)

90
63
00

ee) Teeth Lt eS ye ae! pases

ee
‘Se ~ ‘

472 AgricutturaL Exprrment Sration, Irnaca, N. Y.

1892.

Oct. 16. Andrus & Church, tags ............... $0 30

12. Luther Tucker & Son, advertising...... W 80

Dee. 1, Andrus & Church, pencils .............. 4()

1. Enz, & Millers 5 64 etek tok eee vor 2: 26

8, E. E. Robinson, stamps, )! .2)..63G4...04% LO 90

11. Andrus & Church, envelopes............ 22 80

29.. Dora, EL Marll, labor.2 .sicente wk eerewe 5 8&5

29. Andrus & Church, stationery......... Zt 12 50

29. Andrus & Church, envelopes .......... . 52 44

31. J. Z. Kelley, twenty-seven days’ labor... 33 75

24, (A. Bo. Dick Co., stationery \.. 3/5) .0 36.) 8 10

Miah a. , E balland 100) ELI ps. 2. ¢.e-ate one 5 00

12 A Ballarde TOO Klip oc ais ete one erate 5 00

PS, ROG Janey Caring ibs 4 i eeere nh one 1 25

19. Andrus & Church, blanks ............. 2 50

Dec. 21. Jamieson & McKinney, tubing ........ 2 40

Jan. 13. National Express Co., expressage ...... 50

Za. uD). Norton & Son, stamp 3.25) 2) .65. 20

Dondas N, Reid da bor yy...5\o2 5 oe tee aaa 45

6. Western Union Telegraph, telegrams ... 1 00
Peers. Andrus Church, paper... is). eens s 1. 3b: ma

15; Postmaster, Stam pei. kc somite eee 4 00

Pamineib. W. O..Wyckofi, note-books, 2. shee. 1 50

15. Andrus & Church, sundries ........... 5 63

17. Andrus & Church, sundries ........... 1 50

25.) ATOMS <8 Our eh 2 PATS) 14/3.08. it dani oat 20

25. Andrus & Church, paper ......:....:.. 1 75

vai 8. Postmaster; stamps G05 2 rik dws see os 10 00

5. Andrus’ & Chureh, paper. 22.5.0... ius. 7 88

8) Andrus, & Church: ink pb -coeies. ox Sane 60

9. Western Union Telegraph, telegram ... 25

9. As B,. Dich og Mie Wes yesh ees) oie sigs 4 40

17. Adams Express Co., expressage ........ 50

17. Andrus. & Ohurch, pencils cys 2%. nee 40

17. National Express Co., expressage ..... 25

ol. Jilia .Z.. Kelley, labor: i 2cciiale.,..<'..)cip 33 75

Reorrpts AND EXPENDITURES.

April 11. Postmaster, stamps ...................

May
June

14, Andrus & Church, stationery ..........
21, A. A. Agr. Col. and Exp. Sta., member-

PAL Paes Sea ia ste SS tha ied ie ote wns oto
21 W. CO. Wiyckotl, ribbon t/a by). ¥3 6.) «tee oh
16. Andrus, & Chureh, ecards) jx). bi21.5 cis! t os
DS Postmaster, (Stampa ts. wip ais arth fadeieeh weiss 7a
4, Andrus & Church, sundries ...........
3. Andrus & Church, sundries ............
21. Postmaster, stamps ys. si. i6/i.2 seta salar)
an. Julia Zn usebley! Tabor). 2 io a ehlseeial sakes

Potal for OMice AX Pemsen. eG itn icntis 43) wi Rien) Seve fos

For Agricultural Division.

1892.

July 1, Treman, King & Co., hardware ........
Mar. 16. I. P. Roberts, poultry and feed..........
June 25. Treman, King & Co., hardware ........
July 8. Andrus & Church, stationery .........
9. Bowker Fertilizer Co., meat scraps ....

28. National Express Co., expressage ......

Aug. 1. National Express Co., expressage .......
4. National Express Co., expressage ......

15. National Express Co., expressage.......

10. National Express Co., expressage.......

10. National Express Co., expressage.......

Sept. 3. James E. Rice, expenses to McGrawyville,
12. i. A. Smith; seed wheat j-5-2. 2%. seicces

3. National Express Co., expressage.......

June ~ 8. C. J. Rumsey, hardware ...............
Sept. 12. National Express Co., expressage.......
STURT os Abs) Cease PISO, otk sees easy aid, «| shes

July 14.E.C. & N. RB. BR, freight..............
Sept. National Express Co., expressage.......
24. National Express Co., expressage.......

60

Ee RE Oo Om

474 AgricutturAL Exprrmenr Srarion, Irnaca, N. Y.

1892.
Oct. 1. Alfred Nuttall, poultry ................. $4 55
3. Joseph Kraskoff, labor ................ 2 85
3. B. PREIS CO ob: ctetdiens aes at skew oats 3 00
2. National Express Co., expressage....... 85
6. Jesse Pawling, labor .................. 3 45
3. Delaware, Lackawanna and Western rail-
e poadey Treieh p's och i. ele are eee hae 25
2. American Carbonate Co., gaS........... 3 00
9. National Express Co., expressage....... 1 65
13. Delaware, Lackawanna and Western rail-
TORMS (TPCIONG Yl o)2). Vd ob cg whl Rate 25
16. National Express Co., expressage....... 60
10. Adams Express Co., expressage......... 1 30
24. National Express Co., expressage...... s 95
24. Andrus & Church, stationery........... 3 50
23. Eimer & Amend, thermometers........ 3 50
2p. O.. MC & Wi. Beam, feeds iets . . stein use 61 23
28. National Express Co., expressage....... 60
Noy, °'b.) White & Burdick, drugs. .623...'5..7-%.- 118
Sept. 4. I. P. Roberts, traveling expenses....... 3 33
iene. ie Ge NTR. Ts Sete,» is the cnn tenes 2 50
9. Kelloggs & Miller, oil meal............. 30 00 —
30; Henry Nuttall; labore... i. 0. epee oe 33 65
a0. William, Prtchard,” labor i. eon eta aie 16 50
BU. Mined. Niabtall, dabor i. 5 dz cshsee 5: dierate epee is 7 20
Dec. 1. White & Burdick, cover glasses ........ 50
8. Treman, King & Go., hardware ......... 2 92
22. Adams Express Co., expressage........ 30
Jan. 5. Treman, King & Co., hardware.......... 1 00
July 24. James E. Rice, traveling expenses...... 1 55
Nov. 12. Treman, King & Co., hardware......... 90
Jan. 4. M. A. Cooper, recording sheep.......... 1 50
Dec. 31. Jamieson & McKinney, plumbing ...... 4 11
8. National Express Co., expressage....... "aes
28, O. Soa. JR, ieee» w/anahs eines a 63 ©

30. Andrus & Church, stationery .......... 2 25

Receipts AND EXPENDITURES.

1892.
Dec. 19. Bowker Fertilizer Co ..................
SLE PCC INIEREUIL TADOR ) 62 eet este ete omuhote oar
31. Michael Conway, labor ................
Die BG oraeN. bys Pes oP IOTOMI SSG Sve EMS
gan. 27. Edward ,G. Allen, periodicals........00..
Feb. 9..Treman, King & Co, hardware.........
Matas eke Foe Ie LAIONN vars ios vkcssk ed patieg ceeds se: bh
2h. Cao womeey, DALANGE 8853. 8 eae ek as
Jan. 29%. Treman, King & Co., hardware.........
Feb. 26. Treman, King & Co., hardware..........
April 11. Vermont Farm Machine Co., tee........
20. Adams Express Co., expressage ........
16. Andrus & Church, stationery ...........
19. Peter Henderson & Co., seed ...........
14, Amer. Carb. Co., carbonate ............
21. H. J. Baker & Co., fertilizers ...........
el Wao Nor: Rea Tenth. 2.4952) 4 0) cdi diate
May 3. H. J. Baker & Bro., fertilizers..........
: April 30. National Express Co., expressage.......
June 1. L. S. Wortman, tallow ...1............
22. Treman, King & Co., hardware.........
ot. 2 P.Roberts, Gravelang ya Oe sew. toe
BOM NV SP ILS SPOCK AM. BLS Re a Mian sides
1. Cornell University, labor ..............
Total for agricultural division ...............

For Horticultural Division.

1892.
aune. 413. C. T.. Stephens, ‘seeds |. 2 .j.5 66). se eileen oe
9.1L. HH. Batley; typewritifig 002 1a. eal.
PADtH 00, iu Brandt ‘sundries’. 00.00 3.0. 608 2 RD
280 eb ELA Anion ye Cy.) GLa Las
July 8. Andrus & Church, stationery ..........
May 13. Burns Bros., blacksmithing ............
Aprilo24. H. Gr& Nok RR, freight Yeo. aa

mw em le

35

a> Pe

ht

476 AGRICULTURAL Exprrment Station, IrHaca, N. Y.
1892.

June 1. Treman, King & Co., hardware...... ..

Jay 4. E. G: Lodeman; planta’ Witla) ..)\..¢ sae

June 28 Adams Express Co., expressage ........

July 3. Adams Express Co., expressage ........

9. Adams Express Co., expressage ........
6. United States Express Co., expressage....
11. United States Express Co., expressage ...
1. Win.” Westcott labor iy) on Si seal bitrate sa
28. National Express Co., expressage ......
31. National Express Co., expressage ......
Aug. 3. National Express Co., expressage ......
July 25. Adams Express Co., expressage ........

Aug. 1. Adams Express Co., expressage ........
7. Adams Express Co., expressage ........
amy Ad. Carbuttt,. platesitisieiin.'.pcilete uments
May: 25. Hh) & H. T. Anthony & Co. oo. je
oy? 20; Ballard. Rubber ors!) . #9. 2 aes
Aug. 20. Adams Express Co., trees ..............-.
15. L. H. Bailey, traveling expenses ........
18. United States Express Co., expressage....
21. United States Express Co., expressage...
Sept. ~~ Win. Westeott,; labor is. sin w.'s Serie eat

1
1 FUP. ‘Strong, labor)’ hess sh cae see
Page fe Wie Bi eT ae) 0) ag 8 PY a ee
i. Be As Porrance: Labor icc. to's hae ae ae Oke
7. United States Express Co., expressage ..
3. National Express Co., expressage .......
9. National Express Co., expressage .......
11. United States Express Co., expressage ..
16. National Express Co., expressage ......
July 31. Burns Bros., blacksmithing ............
Sept. 18. J. M. Thorburn & Co., sundries.........
24; 7, D: Martin: labor oe sd ties +) anette
Say ds) P.O, omen) damon. ¢ iis heh aay le be cee seg
Sep. 20 Ti. Davies; labor 4 oss eee sy 18 eas
5. Adams Express Co., expressage .........

=

90)

92

65

00

ST

‘ om 7 2 ' OY
we bd! aie)

mine Nv

Recerprs AND EXPENDITURES. 477

1892.
Sept. 18. United States Express Co., expressage .. $0 35
26. Wm. Westcott, labor .................. 25 00
Oct. 3. Andrus & Church, sundries ............ 9 75
5.0. See Anthony '& Gos.) jajstsis oUt 2 24
mae.) Men nnobnin & Coley e seaasar ct. 2... (eet 6 80
5. Ithaca Gas Light Co., gas ............... 19
bie WAT SV CSCO LEONI oe ak IP ERA, silar oc ethane 10 00
6. United States Express Co., expressage ... 95
Sept. 17. Sarah A. Beach, typewriting ........... 1 52
rene FA. 3.5 Cr GIPSON WATS: Hos atid ke ledie ks 3 3 00
16. National Express Co., expressage . .... 1 05
19. United States Express Co., expressage ... 30
16. Adams Express Co., expressage ......... 3 10
14. H./W. Eames & ©o., glass... 0... ee. $5
15. Hammond D. Willard, plants .......... 6 75
15. Dennison Manufacturing Co., tags ....... 1 94
ol. Wine Westcott, Tnbor.... 80. ce. Ss 36 20
27. G. W. Tailby, clipping horses ........... 3 00
23. Jas. M. Thorburn & Co., seed............ 15
iy. Ba oc) Ee*'T Ahoy ae Cos. 00) 8 AA 1 42
Bi We SAN CCT OAUN FREY nis ate a a\nle ts alles @ 54 50
Nov. 4. United States Express Co., expressage .. 30
. 2. National Express Co., expressage ........ 2 45
May. 28. G. KE. Stechert, books) io. j72 0.5 ae. 26 50
Nov. 11. Ithaca Gas Light Co., gas .............. 57
Nov. 14. United States Express Co., expressage.... 50
28. National Express Co., expressage ........ 2 15
11. National Express Co., expressage ........ 30
Dec. dc! Win Westcotb, (labor ete s siya 33 65
i; Ithaes: Gas, Taent,-Co., fas es sail a 76
Nov. 25. Adams Express Co., expressage........ 70
Dec. 8. United States Express Co., expressage.. 70
19. United States Express Co., expressage. . 40
14. J. M. Thorburn & Co., expressage...... 60
19: Ane Rolkercd:; Son, Oil .5.)55 celta o/s lefats 2 00
30. National Express Co., expressage....... 5 30

478 AgriounruraL Exprrment Station, Irmaca, N. Y.
1892.
Nov. 16. Teed & French, harnesses .............. $16
Dec.:...18. Barr: Bros, hardware. 37 eo vires: 1. ve cee Z
29. Jas. M. Thorburn & Co., seed...........
24, Dixon .& Robinson; tooley;.74 /h5\y. bee pe
Jan. 1. Ithaca.Gas daght- Co.) vas. we a
1; EM, Gillyary; platens i i.ith-ebue stone ae 1:
April 11. Andrus & Church, stationery........... 4
Dec. 238. H. A. Hoothoff tobacco stems.......... 3
Jan. 12. National Express Co., expressage....... 2
' §. United States Express Co., expressage. .
Feb. 3. United States Express Co., expressage. . 2
8. Ithaca Gas Light Co.) gases coe ion
6. United States Express Co., expressage. .
6. National Express Co., expressage....... 1
14, red:“W., Kelsey,; books iy ed eso. 5 eee 1
9. Samuel Wilson, catalogues .............
4. W. W. Rawson & Co., catalogues.....
19. United States Express Co., expressace. .
Jan. 9.. Vilmoren, Andrieux & Co.......6....... 3
Feb. 20. Jas. M. Thorburn & Co., seeds.......... 2
Nov. 28. Joseph Fowler, water lime.............. 3
Oct 17. Driscoll |BrossundBes oi oi ke ees ba 7
Dec. 15. Jamieson & McKinney, plumbing..... 4
pan.) 27, KHdw.’G. Allen,| periodicals.!, .4.). 522 9. 3s 9
Mar iL Win: Westcott, dabor 2.707. 25g5.) eee. oe 35
29. National Express Co., expressage....: .. 2
4... G Lodemam stampa sic. ssf ct. .eoseuee 3
6. Ithaca Gas nent Coes erat aad
Feb. 29. J. M. Thorburn & Co., seeds............. 3
Mer): 42. J. Ws Berne cians: 1 esac Ly espe te eee 2
23. National Express Co., expressage..... - 1 &
mori. “1. Wm. Westcott; labore sc ieee vo is : 56
Mar. 21. Delaware, Lackawanna and Western rail-
POA, APEIR TT Ue Fel es mete eto ae t
April 6. Ithaca Gas Light Co., gas..............
Mar. 30. D. B. Stewart & Co., kerosene oil...... 4

a c= :J ee ig 0 eae” & Seay
\¥ , : a : 4.

Reorrts AND EXPENDITURES.

18922)":
Mar. 7. James W. Queen & Co., glass ...........
Femi 20.Ulsico:Horple; sundries...) Sek
April 11. United States Express Co., expressaye. .
Mar. 13. James M. Thorburn & Co., seeds ......
Jan. 8. Andrus & Church,*sundries ...........
Mar 7. Treman, King & Co., hardware ...:....
Pep... 5: W.:O: Wyckofi,.sundries 88).
Morieed0. TT yon! plantas. oe ed OS
Sener U Gis PAGERS. Lo desea ck oe Boe oe
14. James Vick, plants ..... Sear eee
Mo, Dd aMGN Wick, YPANTS) Sajs cp. Foie ce So eens
Lowa Seed: Col. plana ye eb Sl ea
Hep, 622. Samuel, Wilson; plants. 0.02 cles eit a os
April 16. Delaware, Lackawanna and Western
BaTIPOAGs renee, 2s Ay oie sits. calele-2
lew emaawel, VVGISOU fiat 2 ...') Ss clek Oe a o/s
20. National Express Co., expressage .....
27. United States Express Co., expressage ..
ae. Wine Westcott; labore oy. ee
May 30. National Express Co., expressage .......
6. Delaware, Lackawanna and Western
CAMO MCETAIIE 85010 Shute the bess Da /ekal
12. United States Express Co., expressage ..
GC. macs Gas: saoht Con eas ors Baws «6 «'s
20. E: G. Lodeman, stamps’ .i5/.66 2. 66. ass
2S. wVVan: +15. eCMUtse SURAW (sooo ae ss sigue bs
April 21. Samuel Wilson, merchandise ..........
Mar. 12. Geo. Rankin & Son, crockery ..........
April 25. Reynolds & Lang, plow ...............
May 5.4 rane: Plants 0) he ATI aie
Mar. 16. Jamieson & McKinney, sundries ......
May 5. Sipfle, Dopffel & Co., flower pots ......
26. James M. Thorburn & Co., tools .......
wanes. 1. Wm. Weateott, labor... 2250.80. eek
10. United States Express Co., expressage. .
May 3. Andrus & Church, envelopes ..........

Oe pw Ww

nowwo oan

480
1892.
April 10. Peter Henderson & Co., seeds .......... $0 60
Feb. 22. Schuyler Grant, drugs" ieee. ss. i. see 1 99
April 15. Sipfle, Dopffel & Co., flower pots ....... 4 90
May. ? 11. Richards &(@e.5 drage: ook iano. ae 6 11
mane ’.16. Fo W. Bane: Taber cist. ces aeaies sce 4 20
An 5. 3.0. Lovett :@ Co. plants 40) .t5aeo. osha 2 80
May 24. White & Burdick, dings... finger 7 20
28. White:& Burdick, drugs... o.oo vei a is 11 22
Mar. 24. A. J. Calkins, harness repair .......... 2 70
RIG <2 eb. <TD. Es OE WVALE DOO CIO Ee. My ie ce ied eae ania 4 47.
8. James M. Thorburn & Co., plants ...... 1 35
Nay. 19) bonl. (GO,, SUEnIGOTe. uss! rahe en 23 17
Mar; 26. Bool \Coe Tarnitune | visto. hace <i. wists a a hs 51
June 9. National Express Co., expressage ...... 2 25
iat eG. Lodeman:) labor. ..AcRere. Sees 18 50
27 tle: H Bailey,-Stampe v.-.'..'., sie seen 500
BU Vm.) Westcott, daor . 0: uceave ois «meet 35 00
21. Andrus & Church, printing ............ 3 75
Se. Cay POET: IA DOR 4... ics ielotnt ro yeutte he ote 1 75
Bao), SCOoTbutts. PlAbes. s. .(./.'. .dleee sepa 9 45
April 16. Gustav E. Stechert & Co., books........ 26 50
Mat». 20:d,..M..Thorpum & Co. rafiia,): 3: fam. tae 1 00
Total for horticultural division .............. $987 82
For Entomological Division.

1892.
dune 29. Kelsey Press Co., type ..............00- $1 50
May 28. Gauntlett & Brooks, sundries .......... 15 41

4. Treman, King & Co., sundries ......... 2 80a
19. Treman, King & Co., sundries .......... 3 09 9
Aug. 5. Andrus & Church, stationery ........... 500
11. Andrus & Church, Shannon file ......... 3 05 :
sane. 29. Puillip Harris, pins) si. 24) veconclns oe 85 =
Aug. 20. National Express Co., expressage ...... 40
14. White & Burdick, glass ............... 175
22, Andrus & Church, stationery ........... 200 —

TTS Saye Se ON Le ees
Pe 4 ee . ne re
ey , ee
— /

AgrioutturaAL Exprrment Srarion, Irnaoa, N. Y.

vate a

. Recsrers AnD EXPENDITURES.
1892.

mee) ol. SAR. Medel keys io) 0. oiled Joo Poe
1 EO LARS VEN MRS SIRE) 0 Si Fh a
C. J. Rumsey & Co., hardware ..........
17. Shephard & Dudley, repairs ...........
Sept. 24. National Express Co., expressage ......
9. Treman, King & Co., repairs ...........
Oct. LVN rb VReINGI Ls: IANIOT! 00. LE aoa ae vax du an
8. Andrus & Church, cards. ..5.4'0 ). 600.4
8. Sadler Pub. Co., postal guide ...........
. 18. H. H. Carter & Co., book covers.........
Sept. 1. Adams Express Co., expressage ........
Oct. 31. Effie E. Slingerland, labor .............
Mov 2) 2. W. J. MeNeil, labor o.oo... oe ES
gan) oO... B. Stewart & Co., oil)... kad
Oct. © 22. Ni Y. & Pa: Tel.'Go., rental, one: ..:.....
ii. Oy bearkin Ven ries 3.5.52) ke Os
Nov.. 6. Andrus & Church, cards ...............
emi eV a Rvs ual EEOTOINE Ur tar oi. Sa ee eset emacs
24, Andrus & Church, blanks ..............
17. W. T. Falconer Mfg. Co., boxes.........
R 16. National Express Co., expressage .......
Dec. 1. Effie E. Slingerland, labor...............
1. Andrus & Church, stationery ..........
PWV sda” MCNEGIU. Tabor 5g Sse waacee yas ee
Bene 30. H.. M. Hall, furniture) ol eres bie ee.
Oct. 26. White & Burdick, drugs ..............
Dec. SAm: Fant, See; ROOK wo hy.4 3a feed 25. pase
ame, 50. bool:'Co.: furniture: x)....2 ker... 88
Dec. 17. J. D. Eagles, photograph supplies......
30. ES EY Slineerland) labors!) e832) S845
Jan. De NV oo MONGLL LRDOT yi ihciecea'sh ieee hee
Nov. 2 3. Hawkins & Todd, cloth ........-. 50...
mec .-ol. James Leamon, labor...) 26a. .0 5 cise
BOERS tony ae: We dc) MECINCRES TADION 2 2)5.0/-eisy abe «i nls leave aie bray
mjan. | 30. Eftie BE. Warllilabor.. 52.0... 0e aes ewe eee

61

wy ME ya Vito Sn ER

|

\ \

oe

Oe ae a eee

an

\ ne
482 AgricuLtuRAL Experiment Sration, Iraaca, N. Y.

1892.
Dec. ' «8. C, Uy Farm, lator’, seam tests yi. oaceeeee ae
Mar. 1. E. E. Slingerland, labor ................
1, W.'d. MeNeil, laiboralevn gant dou> klik Shee
31. E..E. Slingerland, labor ..2......:..0.4.
24) Tai Ve Main; ioibyec Glin aCe tte tie
26. ‘Andrus’ & Chorehscinkgin .2o5 MeA cies Ae
mei’ 1. SW. Jd. MoNeil, labor) 74), iste ee ee
30. E.. E. Slingerland, labor)... 5.05 0... oie
May 2. We Rumsey, lator fait so eth so onde
5. Andrus & Church, sundries .............
10. Andrus & Church, sundries .............
Aor 25. J..) Wagles) Mlatee yo. ice Aeneid aco
June 21. D. B. Stewart, kerosene oil ..............
2 Woods Ramey, labors 15) 0.5.82 swe talaresameyerene
8. Hawkins & Ford, cloth .................
8. E. M. McGillivray, plates ..............
Boys Wis 1. RUMBCY, LATION 1 se aise se arsed in ate Wises
Total for entomological division ..............

For Botanical Division.

1892.
July 2. F. J. Batchelder, typewriting ..........
Feb. 10. Geo. Rankin & Son, crockery ...........
Sept. 26. Gustav E. Stechert, book .............%
Jan. 25. Gustav E. Stechert, book..........:....
April 9. Gustav E. Stechert, book ..............
May 16. Gustav E. Stechert, book ..............
June 2. Gustav E. Stechert, book .......... or
Total for botanical division .................

For Chemical Division.

1892.

Jan. 1. C. U. Chemical Department, chemicals ..

1, Bush .& Dean, Cree .jeic en's: <'s\s a stare n/ele
July 10. Andrus & Church, sundries ............

2 40
1 67

Aa ae

‘ UP
RecErPts AND EXPENDITURES. 483
1892.
Sept. 3. Theodore Schuchardt, sundries ......... $1l :
Aug. 8. Richard Kny & Co., chemicals .......... 15
Sept. 11. Richard Kny & Co., sundries ........... ya
Oct. 29. Harry Snyder, sundries ............... a
ayy i loos Wondwetda 1a DOr ce idle a wie we ER eR A 1
Feb. 27. Treman, King & Co., copper bath ......., 4
27. R. A. Heggie & Bro.; discs ..........600. 3
29. Jak) Seamon, labor)! pcibie od seate es. oe ee 4
_Mar. 8. Ennt Gremer, fat extractor ............. 2
PIED 20. ibe) Ess, OMG, LAO os (5 (jase diese. ee: a! at elele 34
28. National Express Co., expressage .......
June 21. Chemical department, gas .............. 50
Sept. 25. Whitall, Tatum & Co., bottles .......... 9

Total for chemical division .................. $275

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