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State of New York — Department of Agriculture

EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF TdE
BOARD OF CONTROL

OF THE NEW y

Pe WV. vy CORK

Agricultural Experiment Station

The Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, for 1899, consists of

three volumes, as follows:

Volume I. Seventh Annual Report of the regular work of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, as required by section 5 of chapter 338 of the Laws
of 1893. _ f

Volume II. Twelfth Annual Report of the Cornell University Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, made to the Commissioner of Agriculture in
compliance with the provisions of section 87 of chapter 338 of the Laws

of 1893.

Volume III. Eighteenth Annual Report of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station, made to the Commissioner of Agriculture in accord-

ance with the provisions of section 85 of chapter 338 of the Laws of 1893.

James B, Lyon, STATE PRINTER,
1900,

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State of New York — Department of Agriculture

EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF TdE

BOARD OF CONTROL

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BO TA NICA i

GARDEN

OF THE

NEW YORK

Agricultural Experiment Station

(GENEVA, ONTARIO COUNTY),
FOR THE YEAR 1899,

WITH REPORTS OF DIRECTOR AND OTHER OFFICERS.
TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE FEBRUARY 21, 1900,

ALBANY:
James B, Lyon, STATE PRINTER,
1900,

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SEATE ODUN-EW" VORK:

No. 83.

IN ASSEMBLY,

Frprvuary 21, 1900.

EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

Board of Control of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station.

STATE OF NEW YORK:
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Ausany, Feb. 21, 1900.

To the Assembly of the State of New York:

I have the honor to herewith submit the Eighteenth Annual
Report of the Director and Board of Managers of the New York
Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva, N. Y., in pursuance
of the provisions of the Agricultural Law.

I am, respectfully yours,
CHARLES A. WIETING,

Commissioner of Agriculture,

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1899.
ORGANIZATION ..OF THE STATION.

BOARD OF ‘CONTROL.

GoveRNoR THEODORE ROOSEVELT, Albany.
Witii1am C. Barry, Rochester.

STEPHEN H. HAmmonp, Geneva.

Martin V. B. Ives, Potsdam.

AUSTIN C, CHASE, Syracuse.

FRANK O. CHAMBERLAIN, Canandaigua.
Freperick C. ScHRAUB, Lowville.
NICHOLAS HALLOCK, Queens.

LymMAN P. HAvinAnp, Camden.

G. Howarp Davison, Millbrook:

OFFICERS OF THE BOARD.

Martin V. B. Ives, Witiram O’HaANton,
President. Secretary and Treasurer.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

SrePHEN H. HAMMOND, FRANK O. CHAMBERLAIN, LYMAN P. HAVILAND,
WILLiAM C. Barry, FREDERICK C. SCHRAUR, G. Howarp Davison.

STATION STAFF.
WuirmMANn H. Jorpan, Sc. D., Director.

GroRGE W. CHURCHILL, Harry A. Harpine, M. S.,
Agriculturisi and Superintendent Dairy Bacteriologist.
of Labor. Lore A. Rocers, B. S.,
WILLIAM P. WHEELER, Student Assistant in Bacteriology.
First Assistant (Animal In- Gro. A, SMITH,
dustry). Dairy Expert.
FREDERICK C. STEWART, M. &., FRANK H. Hatt, B. S.,
Botanist. Editor and Librarian.
FREDERICK H. BLODGETT, Victor H. Lowe, M. &.,
Assistant Botanist and Ento- 7F. Arwoop Srerine, M. S&.,
mologist. Entomologists. :
Frep M. Rotrs, B. S., Spencer A. BeAcH, M. &.,
Student Assistant in Botany. Horticulturist.
Luctus L. VAN SLYKE, Pu. D., WENDELL PAppOcK, B. S.,
Chemist. ¢CHaRLES P. Crosz, M. &.,
CHRISTIAN G. JENTER, Pu. C., Assistant Horticulturists.
*WittiAM H. ANnbDREWS, B. S., Frank E. NEWTON,
J. ArTHUR LE CuER¢, B. &., JENNIE TERWILLIGER,
*Amasa D. Coox,Pu. C., Olerks and Stenographers.
FREDERICK D. FULLER, B. S., Apin H. Horton,
*Epwin B. Hart, B. §., Computer.

CHARLES W. Mupaz, B. §.,
; Assistant Chemists,

Address all correspondence, not to individual members of the staff, but to
the New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, GENEVA, N. Y.

The Bulletins published by the Station will be sent free to any farmer ap-
plying for them.

* Connected with Fertilizer Control.
+ Connected with Second Judicial Department Branch Station,
¢ Resigned September 19, 1899.

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LIBRARY

NEW YORK

BOTANICAL
GARDEN

EABDLE Of CON BEN TS:

PAGE

PRETO UsS me C1) OM UMom MP Mak «hohe ciel chickens) slleretace oe cle colatacate)orekehegat cee svekeneltaney ie) ov 1

IDNEPRCUOIMEF THEO Gb, oS hood oom OR HET O ad HOO Be Ob 0 ono bito Oucitincho cdo coo 6
Report of the Department of Animal Husbandry:

Conimercialfeedine istutisameiNew, York: Sta. smetas ciclo sate cvelsiay 35

Animaletood: don* poultry: Ss aris se cece es sree sto o.cis co wlehaa = ctaetasiveter 75

Report of the Bacteriological Department:
The efficiency of a continuous pasteurizer at different temperatures.. 127
Report of the Botanical Department:

Leaf scorch of the sugar beet, cherry, cauliflower, and maple........ 153

Mones One varaGus plant, GISCASES mw c..0 3.5 aaleles nrern ieee siaheelclaatalalelapeieks 168

A fruit-disease survey of the Hudsom Valley ..................0s: 184
Report of the Chemical Department:

Analyses of commercial fertilizers for the spring of 1889.......... 221

Analyses of commercial fertilizers for the fall of 1899............. 231

Analyses of Paris, green and: other ansecticides 5 « 26.0 <rara.s/facns v8 237
Report of the Department of Entomology:

Combating the striped beetle on cucumbers .........-.....:..+-.s- 251

Pe ROPE Sty LONG. CA LOT MUL ATA 0c tates athonay van ted wp iatar onaglas Miaretore water ere 289
Report of the Horticultural Department:

Mnenimente 10m SOOseberny, miulldl ew; wem aie seat) siiceastieesr cronies oieraene 321

hhesNewnVorkvapple-tree) Canker se vsescre aya eiaie ctrl relarietaietra cierto 331

er izINe SElt-SuCEILe: CTADES: he, :c cxcstagh'eie%s, slo owe wionatagayei nt ote «la oa. eceveie 361
Common diseases and insects injurious to fruit ................... 398
Meterolopica ls GECOrm : TOT. LOO” cas bs ier ates ale o(aeiabe mina Gre x sia Zitysntaphas rw 467
MTR fei g «POY aie) excite alist niig Waa apa VGiaMi Att oye auarepeila,siareyine tacts oa acca Sere 479

EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

Board of Control of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station.

TREASURER’S REPORT.

Geneva, N. Y., October 1, 1899.
To the Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Expert-
ment Station:

As Treasurer of the Board of Control, I respectfully submit
the following report for the fiscal year ending September 30,
1899.

MaInTENANCE ACCOUNT.

Receipts.
1898.
Oct. lh @ Balance om hand. 2p a.<..0s «rs s ¥ $591 77
To amount received for produce sold . 2,105 20

To amount received from Comptroller, 60,000 00

$62,696 97

Expenditures.
By building and repairs ............ $1,359 97
By chemical supplies, «:......< 4414+ <2. 892 27
By contingent expenses ............ 649 11
By dacding etutls, oo. ook ay tee res 945 72

Py Tru BOtA es tosses s Karate ae 26 08

Report OF THE TREASURER OF THE

By freight and express . ..........+ $494
By furniture and fixtures . 3. s..055 Liry
By heat, light and water ........... 2,554
By. tAO8 To. oss ce ods cee ee eee 12,695
By brary. 0. gece 16) ee oe 676
By live. shock c tic. 3's enon pee 434
By postage and stationery .......... 1,170
By publigations-: 1.12.0 672 rseiees 32 - oi 2,640
By salaries. 2s: sxc. v.cteomrpe cers eee 21,232
By scientific apparatuss. ..-. 5 22a eens 961
By seeds, plants and sundry supplies, 1,974
By tools, implements and machinery. . 739
By traveling expenses ............ 1,232
Dy Palance ot 3c. ss ao 6 ener een 10,839

$62,696

21
46
06
54
54
00
30
81
88
05
69
63
88
Ts

97

ExrENsE oF BULLETINS AND Enrorcine Provisions or CHAPTER

1898.
Oct.

955, Laws or 1896.

Receipts.
1; Vo balance ton Mando: «22st sek ee $1,954
To amount received from Comptroller, 10,000
$11,954
Expenditures.

By. chemical supplies ........2.¢0ee $940
By contingent expenses ....:..:.-.. 4
Ry freight and express .......500ee 36
By furniture and fixtures .......... 1
By heat, light and’ water’. 0... o<or 522
By postage and stationery .......... 13
By publications’... 02... ...cee eee 2,459

By walariés <4 (02200). 5 ee 5,629

99
00

99

28
30
89
40
98
71
47
18

Seconp JupiciraL Department, Cuaprer 675, Laws 1894.

New Yorx AqricutturaL ExprrimMENtT STATION.

By seeds, plants and sundry supplies. . $3
By traveling expenses .............. 1,023
Dy balance, - < WaNayh dno onc, Saye 1,320

$11,954

Recerpts.
1898.
Oct. to palates: On Wand...) ook set 2 dake $46
To amount received from Comptroller, 7,466
$7,513
Expenditures.

By; chemsical, supplies) joss). feyseieyee $10
By contingent expenses ............ 15
by fertilizers. 2j.c1k) owe: Aah Bde ce 216
Dy freight and express «2.01 4 42 qu'sis 4 119

By furniture and fixtures ... 0.222%.
By heat, light. and water ........... 34
iby tlabdr 210. eevusnlh: wil wad 815
By Lbeary sas sac sews Sones tek 5
By postage and stationery. ......... 8
By: publicationsiro: b liaviqwscaw wns - 565
Dy Salaries. po y0 serene eel ee 2,872
By scientific apparatus. ........... 74.
By seeds, plants and sundry supplies. . 482
By tools, implements and machinery. . 101
By traveling expenses. ............ 852
By -rent (land): 202523275 Oe aor
By Pataiees Coen se ee 46

12

99

34
80

14

09
13
80
04
95
52
13
85
33
90
08
25
82
92
99
00
o4

14

4 Report OF THE TREASURER OF THE

SpectAL ApprRopriaTION FOR BioLoGgicaL AND Datry BurLpine,

CuapTer 315, Laws 1897.

Recetpts.
1898.

Oct. 1. To amount received from Comptroller, $8,994,37

Hxpenditures.
Byuconstructionaty whet soon aes $6,186
By equipment, 2.0. <.4 atone 2,808

SpectAL APPROPRIATION FOR BurLpINas AND REPAIRS.

Recetpts.
1898.
Oct. 1. To amount received from Comptroller, $885
Expenditures.
By buildings and repairs ......:.. $885
Paris GREEN Law, Cuaprter 113, Laws 1898.
Receipts.
1898.
Oct. 1. To amount received from Comptroller, $123
Expenditures.
By contingent expenses . ..........- $0
By freight and express j.,..,....+)3 « «ieee 2
By postage and stationery. .........
By. salaries 3. -.ox., See eee 45
By seeds, plants and sundry supplies. . 4
By traveling expenses ..........+.-- 72

09

09

90

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 5

I have remitted to the State Treasurer $235.21 for produce
sold.

All expenditures are supported by vouchers approved by the
auditing committee of the Board of Control, and have been fur-
nished the Comptroller of the State of New York.

Unitep States Appropriation Unper Act or Coneress, Ap-
PROVED Marcu 2, 1887.

To receipts from the Treasurer of
United States for fiscal year ending
Arana 30: PEO ge noe als eh ae $1,500 00

‘Expenditures.
iy SalaIGd ek fs sre Peete nis ree et tee $1,500 00

Witur1am O’Hanton,
Treasurer.

DIRECTOR'S REPORT.*

To the Honorable Board of Control of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station:

Gentlemen.—I have the honor to present herewith the re-
port of the progress and work of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station for the year 1899.

The year 1898 was characterized by large and important addi-
tions to the building and apparatus equipment, but the past year
has been occupied chiefly with the quiet study of certain impor-
tant problems.

It is a pleasure to report to you that without exception the
members of the various departments of the Station are giving to
their work a very gratifying measure of diligence and efficiency.
The pursuit of knowledge with the attendant vicissitudes of orig-
inal observation and research requires enthusiasm and courage,
especially when the long delay of results may cause pubtic
criticism; and he who keeps on his way in a spirit of loyalty to
truth and with a proper sense of responsibility for his utterance
is deserving of his full meed of praise. I believe the members of
your Station staff recognize the high standard to which they
should attain and are striving to reach it.

THE STATION STAFF.

After more than three years of efficient service at the Station
as Assistant Horticulturist, Mr. C. P. Close resigned his position
in September last to accept the chair of Botany and Horticulture
in the Utah Agricultural College. A successor to Mr. Close has
not yet been selected.

* Reprint of Bulletin No, 168,

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. f

Mr. Lowe was granted a six months’ leave of absence and is
now pursuing special zoological studies at the University of
Chicago.

STUDENT ASSISTANTS.

So far in the history of American experiment stations the
number of well trained young men available from which to choose
investigators has been altogether too limited, especially in biolog-
ical lines. Graduates of our colleges when fresh from laboratory
instruction seldom have much facility in making a logical attack
upon a difficult problem affecting practice until after they have
been for a time in the atmosphere of real research. It was felt
that it would be possible to associate with our work young men
having taste for investigation in experiment station lines, in such
a way as to derive mutual benefit. In view of this conclusion
and in accordance with authority granted me by you, a circular
letter containing the following statements was addressed to a
‘large number of the land grant colleges:

“ By authority of the Board of Control of this Station, we are prepared
to admit to our laboratories three student assistants; one in each of the de-
partments of botany (plant pathology), bacteriology (dairy), and entomology.
In order to be eligible to these positions, candidates must be graduates of a
four years’ course in science, preferably at a land grant college where the
sciences are taught with especial reference to their bearing upon the art of
agriculture. It is essential, moreover, that such candidates shall have pursued
studies specially fitting them to undertake work in one of these departments
and that they shall have shown such proficiency and enthusiasm in special
directions as will warrant their choosing one of these lines of study and in-
vestigation for a life work.

“As their main work, it is proposed, under the guidance of the heads of
departments, to associate these assistants with one or more important sub-
jects of investigation, with the understanding that they shall devote a minor
proportion of each day, perhaps two hours, to the care of the laboratories,
preparation of materials and other routine duties. They must be prepared
to enter immediately, under proper direction, upon a study of one or more
problems, without spending a considerable period of time in acquiring the nec-
essary preparatory knowledge and skill of a fundamental character. For in-
stance, the student assistant in bacteriology should be familiar in a practical
way with the technics of making culture.

“Full credit will be given in our publications for work accomplished,

8 Drrector’s Report oF THE

“Tt is hoped that the observation and experience gained by such close as-
sociation with the actual research work of an experiment station will con-
stitute a valuable training for those who are ambitious to connect themselves
with experiment stations as investigators.

“The selection of these assistants will properly and necessarily be based
upon their records as students and upon such knowledge of their personality
as may be gained in various ways. i

“It is expected that they will remain at the Station not less than one year.
Board, rooms and laboratory materials will be furnished free of charge, no
other compensation being offered.”

From the applicants for these positions, two were selected, Mr.
L. A. Rogers, as student assistant in Bacteriology, and Mr. E. D.
Merrill, as student assistant in Botany. Both men graduated
from the University of Maine and had received some post-gradu-
ate training. Mr. Rogers had spent a year at the University of
Wisconsin, giving special attention to dairy bacteriology, and Mr.
Merrill had had a year’s experience as instructor in the depart-
ment of natural history at his alma mater. The former entered
upon his work in June, but the latter, on the day in which he
reported to us for duty, received an offer of a position in the U.
S. Department of Agriculture which he felt that it was for his
interest to accept. Since that time Mr. F. M. Rolfs, a graduate
of the Iowa Agricultural College, and a teacher of considerable
experience, became an applicant for the position of student assist-
ant in Botany, received the appointment and entered upon his
duties on December 21st.

As there was no application for the position in Entomology, it
remains unfilled.

NEEDED CHANGES AND ADDITIONS.

The time has come when it is necessary to provide larger and
more efficient accommodations for the various administrative
offices and the library. These are now mostly located in a
building the upper floors of which are occupied by the Director
as a home, an arrangement which is unsatisfactory in every
respect. There is at present only one general office in which are

the desks of the Director and two clerks, a combination which

New York AGrRIcuLTURAL ExpERIMENT STATION. 9

results in great inconvenience. The mailing department. is tem-
porarily located on the second floor of the Chemical Laboratory,
rendering it necessary to carry up and down stairs many tons of
mailing matter yearly. All of the administration work of the
Station and the library should be newly installed under one roof,
for reasons of space as well as economy of labor.

Two general ways of accomplishing this have been considered:
One proposition is to erect a new administration and library
building and convert the house where the offices now are wholly
to domestic purposes; the alternative is to build a new director’s
house and turn over the mansion house wholly to office and library
uses. The arguments in favor of the former course are that
the administration and library building should correspond in
dignity and attractiveness to the other structures on the Sta-
tion grounds, and besides new construction would give an oppor-
tunity to make the offices models of convenience and efficiency,
without being hampered by the limitations of an existing struc-
ture. This is the more costly plan, involving an outlay of not
far from $32,000. On the other hand a new house would place
the director on a more comfortable and economical living basis
than would be the case if the somewhat overlarge house in which
he now lives were given over wholly to his occupancy, while
this building is probably large enough for the administrative
offices and library, though if reconstructed for these purposes it
would fail, as has been stated, of the dignity and convenience of
a new building. The probable cost of the second proposed plan
would be somewhere from $16,000 to $19,000. The argument of
less cost is with the second proposition.

It seems proper to state in this connection that the water sup-
ply of the Station is in some respects very unsatisfactory. It is
furnished by the city at an annual cost of $501, and if the pres-
sure on the hydrants was such as to insure protection against
fire, and at the same time provide a constant and uniform flow of
water in the laboratories, there might be no good reason for con-

10 Drrectror’s Report OF THE

sidering a change. The conditions which prevail are the reverse
of these, however, especially during the summer. Whenever
hydrant pressure is available it averages less than twenty pounds,
and at times it is a minus quantity, a condition which often
causes great inconvenience in laboratory work and especially in
running the refrigerating machine, besides being practically use-
less for fire purposes. It seems desirable for your board to con-
sider whether any improvement in our water supply is possible.

INSPECTION OF FERTILIZERS AND FEEDING STUFFS.

The Legislature of 1899 made two enactments which both
modified and enlarged the inspection work of the Station.

The Fertilizer Law was so amended as to require the payment
of a license fee of $20 on each brand of commercial fertilizers
sold or offered for sale in the State, thus bringing New York into
line with the other twenty-eight states in which fertilizer laws
exist. The money received from such fees is to be devoted to
paying the expenses of inspection, which renders unnecessary
the appropriation heretofore made by the state for this purpose.
In 1898 the number of brands of fertilizers registered at the Sta-
tion by manufacturers was 2,226, and it now seems probable that
in 1899 it will fall to less than 500. This decrease is not caused
wholly by the imposition of license fees, but without question is
due in part to the formation of a fertilizer combination or trust.
Some have thought that the advance in prices is also the result
of the exaction of license fees, but this surely cannot be so, be-
cause the total annual expense of such fees to the fertilizer in-
dustry will not exceed an average of six cents per ton on the
quantity of goods sold.

Other conditions are responsible for the increased cost to the
farmer of his commercial plant food.

A new law, quite similar in its provisions and operation to the
amended fertilizer law, the author of which is the Hon. D. P.
Witter, was also enacted for the control and inspection of con-

New Yorx Acricutturat Experiment Station. 11

centrated commercial feeding stuffs. As with fertilizers, manu-
facturers of feeding stuffs must register at the Station a guaran-
teed composition and pay the annual license fee on each brand
sold or offered for sale, the proceeds thus derived to be used °
the yearly collection and analysis of samples by the Station and
the printing of results. It now seems that the brands registered
will not exceed one hundred, so that the revenue produced by
this law will not be large. Attention is called to the fact that in
the case of both laws, the license fees are paid into the state
treasury and the amounts of money thus received by the state
only become available for their legitimate uses after appropria-
tion by the legislature.

THE MAILING LIST.

The present status of the mailing list is as follows:

Popular Bulletin Inst.

TET AIEEE a FEA Eh 0 et ee a Pe 30,337
Seti EOLNOE StAGCS, 5. 1s 5 cos whan nual stele SY et 992
LV ETF T7219 ae ee ei ne ee area de 744
Experiment Stations and their staffs ............... 778
ERECTING ccc oad che ate oS a aa ee eh 131
1 TS TA a ak rea AT a ENO a 5 IO he 32,982

Complete Bulletin List.

Experiment Stations and their staffs................ 778
WAGRATICR SCIGHLISIS, CbCi is. i's 5s: be las Jienh da de Dae 257
COM GIPSTS 7) Sap eet 2GA Pee RA MINT AE Pee SNR - 55
LUTON 170 a aeelle SP ae aa aP LIT ee oP ls Bee eer ol! Ps 902
ARREST COS espe 20a a bit ae pba Aoi oe ae 131

Dotaleriac tae staaiaue «Pa eles See ee ers On aoe 2,123

The above figures show a small increase in the popular bulletin
list for residents of New York. During the past year this list

13 Dirroror’s Report oF THE.

has been revised, resulting in taking off the names (not less than
2,000) of those who had died or changed their place of residence.
There has been a steady registering of new names, however.
This growth is normal and not forced, coming as it does almost
wholly from individuals who personally ask to receive the bulle-
tins of the station.

THE STATION LIBRARY.

A good library is a most necessary part of an experiment sta-
tion equipment. Research can neither be entered upon safely
nor its results discussed intelligently unless the investigator has
access to the records of what has been learned previously con-
cerning the subjects under consideration. Access to current lit-
erature and particularly to the journals which are the organs of
research, is especially important in this connection.

The library of this Station has developed rapidly during the
past two years, but it is still small and in some respects quite
insufficient for our needs. A fairly large number of journals is
received, but complete sets of them should be obtained as rapidly
as possible. The present number of bound volumes and pam-
phlets in the library is approximately five thousand.

A list of the papers and journals obtained by subscription and
donated to us by exchange or otherwise is appended to this re-
port.

THE STATION PUBLICATIONS.

The public is not unnaturally inclined to measure the useful-
ness of an experiment station by the quantity of literature which
it publishes. If this standard is applied to the New York State
Station, the year 1899 will appear to be less profitable than
some which have preceded. As a matter of fact, however,
there probably has not been a period in the history of the Station
when so much hard study has been applied to so large a number
of problems as has been the case during the past twelve months.

The number of pages of printed matter which a station issues
has no necessary relation to the actual magnitude of the effort of

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. #5

investigation. A bulletin of one hundred pages, which is merely
a compilation of existing knowledge, may be begun and finished
within the limits of a few weeks, whereas the data derived from
one or more years of laborious observation may be summarized
for public use on ten pages.

Two facts are likely to restrict the literature emanating from
this Station to a less quantity than may seem to some to be con-
sistent with its equipment.

(1) It is deemed to be a proper policy on the part of the Sta-
tion to issue comparatively few bulletins of compilation of a
purely informational character. More or less discussion of ex-
isting knowledge is necessary in order to give to the results of
research a proper setting and illumination, but it is certainly
not the function of the Station, now that its existence and pur-
poses are well understood, to engage in the work of popular in-
struction. To do this would be to encroach upon the province
of the school and of current literature. It might seem justifiable
for this Station to digest and summarize for the use of New York
farmers the knowledge gained by the stations in other states,
were it not for the fact that the U. S. Department of Agricul
ture is doing this admirably through the Office of Experiment
Stations. It is conceded that when emergencies arise or when an
entirely new situation faces the agricultural public, like the sud-
den inroad of devastating insects or the establishment of the
sugar beet industry, farmers are justified in looking to the Sta-
tion for information of a general character. This is a different
matter, however, from writing general treatises on a great vari-
ety of subjects. This institution, in my judgment, will do well
‘to restrict its efforts quite closely to the work of experimental
research.

(2) It has become imperative that this Station attack some of
the more difficult scientific problems relating to agriculture.
Many of the “ easy questions ” have been asked and answered and
for this reason, and also because the “ hard answers” are the

14 Drrector’s Report OF THE

ones we most need to know, we should begin to probe more
deeply and laboriously beneath the surface of things. There is,
moreover, a pronounced tendency now evident in many quarters
to withhold the publication of conclusions until they are abun-
dantly justified by data, a most healthy and encouraging symptom
in experiment station activity. The members of this Station
believe in trying to enter upon the policy thus outlined and it is
to be hoped that in so doing they will have the sympathy and
loyal support of New York farmers.

It should be remembered that this policy means the publica-
tion of fewer bulletins than might otherwise be issued if the

practice of compilation and profuse writing were adopted.

THE WORK OF THE STATION DURING 1899.

On subsequent pages there may be found summaries of the
work carried on during the year 1899 by the various departments
of the Station. These include a brief review of facts and con-
clusions contained in the year’s bulletins as well as a statement
of the nature and bearing of experiments and investigations, the
data from which are not yet sufficiently complete and concern-
ing which nothing has yet been published. It so happens that
just now the unfinished work is large. It embraces several in-
vestigations in plant nutrition, animal nutrition, cheese curing,
horticulture, bacteriology and plant pathology:

The availability of certain insoluble phosphates to several va-
rieties of plants.

The relative importance of potash and soda in plant nutrition.

The effect of fineness upon the availability of crude phosphates.

The plant food needs of fruits and the effect of certain plant
food elements upon their quality.

Relative economy of different systems of feeding crops.

A study of apple cider and vinegar.

The source of milk fat and observation on the use of food by
milch cows.

New York AGRIcuLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 15

The chemistry and bacteriology of cheese curing.

Study of cheese curing troubles such as rust, and sweet and
bitter flavors.

Conditions of cheese curing.

The prevention of onion smut.

The prevention of asparagus rust.

A study of black knot.

The irrigation of small fruits.

Chestnut growing.

CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT.

(1) Fertilizer inspection.—The fertilizer trade has continued to
present during 1899 its usual grotesque features. One hundred
- and ninety manufacturers, sixty-seven of whom are located out-
side of New York, registered at the Station 2,268 different
brands. For various reasons the number of brands sold in the
State is much short of registration. This burdensome and unsatis-
factory state of affairs will doubtless end with 1899, as the num-
ber of brands registered is likely to drop to 500 or less, for
reasons already explained.

(2) Paris green and insecticide supervision.— Twenty-five sam-
ples of Paris green were secured and analyzed. Twenty different
manufacturers represented. Arsenious oxide found in Paris
green varied from 55.34 to 60.16 per et., indicating a good de-
gree of commercial purity.

(3) Plant nutrition.— Work is being continued in investiga-
tion relating to the plant-food needs of fruits and the effect of
certain plant-food elements upon the quality of fruits. Results
are being held for additional data before publication.

(4) Composition of cider and vinegar.— This work has been
continued two years and valuable results are being secured, but
another year’s data are desired before publishing the results of
investigation.

(5) Cheese work.— Data for publication will probably be ob-

16 Drrecror’s Report or THE

tained in addition to those on hand during the coming year.
Chemical work has been directed in two lines:

(a) Studying the influence of moisture and temperature upon
the composition of cheese, working with the temperatures 55°,
60°, 65° and 70° F.

(b) Studying the chemical compounds formed in cheese by

the breaking down of milk casein.

HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

The fertilization of self-sterile grapes.— It has been shown in
Bulletin 157 and other prior publications of this Station, that
certain kinds of American grapes are either self-sterile or very
imperfectly self-fertile. When self-pollinated the former bear
no fruit and the latter produce very imperfectly formed clusters
or usually none at all. In considering the practical bearing of
these discoveries upon the selection of varieties for planting and
the advantageous arrangement of them in vineyards for securing
well filled fruit clusters, the question arose whether any other
variety which blooms at the same time with the one which is to
be fertilized will perform the necessary cross fertilizing success-
fully or whether some kinds of grapes are better fertilizers than
others. Scarcely any definite information on this subject could
be found. The matter being one of obvious practical importance
to viticulturists, some investigations concerning it were begun in
1899. Very marked results have already been secured, indicat-
ing that a variety which is more or less incapable of fertilizing
itself generally fails in the fertilizing of other self-sterile varie-
ties, while on the other hand the self-fertile varieties have usu-
ally been successful in fertilizing the self-sterile sorts upon which
they have been tried. Further investigation is necessary to de-
termine whether any grape may be more successful in fertilizing
some varieties than others. Various other tests need to be made
before a final report is given stating definitely the conclusions
which may be drawn concerning the question under investiga-
tion.

New York AaricutturaL ExprrRIMENT STATION. 17

The treatment of diseases and insects is of perennial interest to
fruit growers. A bulletin has been prepared on this subject by
the collaboration of the Horticulturist, the Botanist and the En-
tomologist for the purpose of presenting up-to-date directions
for fighting these enemies of the fruit grower and showing the
particular instances in which various diseases and insects"may be
combated with one general treatment. The préparation of spray
mixtures and the apparatus for applying them are treated in
Bulletin 121, prepared by Mr. Paddock. This has been supple-
mented by publishing an appendix which treats of recently im-
proved apparatus and gives formulae for the preparation of

various spraying mixtures.

Thinning apples.— Experiments have been in progress for four
years for the purpose of gaining definite information concerning
the effect which thinning the fruit of apple trees may have on
the remaining crop and whether the practice if followed system-
atically year after year tends to secure greater regularity in
bearing or increased yield in succeeding seasons.

The results show that with certain varieties the size and color
of the fruit are generally improved where thorough and timely
thinning is done and the percentage of the higher grades of fruit
is increased, although the total yield of marketable fruit is often
lessened. It appears that under certain circumstances, and es-
pecially with certain varieties, the thinning of apples in commer-
cial orchards would be profitable.

With mature trees which have come into full bearing and
which are properly fertilized, pruned, sprayed and generally well
eared for, it is doubtful whether thinning the fruit in any one
season will materially increase the yield in succeeding seasons.
It should be borne in mind that young trees which have. not
come into full bearing may be seriously impaired in vigor and
in subsequent fruit production by being allowed to mature too
heavy crops.

It appears that, with the exception noted, the principal source
2

18 Drreotor’s Report oF THE

of profit from thinning fruit in orchards which are well cared for
is to be looked for chiefly in preventing the breaking of over-
loaded limbs and in the increased market value of the fruit of the
current season.

Thinning, to be most effective, should be done early in the
season — at the time Baldwins and Greenings are from three-
fourths of an inch:to an inch in diameter. In New York State it
should be completed in June.

Thinning stone fruits—— Experiments in thinning apricots,
plums and peaches have been in progress three seasons. With these
fruits as with apples the effect of thinning is not always as pro-
nounced the following year as had been expected. In some cases
there appeared to be real permanent advantage and an increased
yield in succeeding seasons, and again the effect, if any, on the
crop of the following year, was in some cases obscured by causes
not understood and no advantage from the previous year’s thin-
ning of the fruit could be seen. In some cases trees which were
heavily loaded and not thinned gave even greater yields the fol-
lowing season than were obtained from corresponding trees on
which the fruit had been severely thinned.

Early and severe thinning in general increased the percentage
of the higher grades of fruit. Where the fruit grower can obtain
correspondingly better prices for fancy fruit the thinning may
doubtless be made profitable with selected varieties of peaches
and apricots and in some cases with plums also.

Chemical analyses of fruits which were picked at different
stages were made in the chemical department which showed that
the amount of potash in the fruit of one variety of peach in-
creased 493 per ct. from June 24 to July 21. The nitrogen in-
creased 240 per ct. and the phosphoric acid 327 per ct. in the
same period. The amount of potash in the fruit of a certain
variety of plum increased in the same period 296 per ct., the
nitrogen 222 per et. and the phosphoric acid 156 per ct. This
indicates how rapidly the fruits take up plant food in the very

New Yorx AcricunturRAL ExpPERIMENT STATION. 19

early stages of their growth and emphasizes the importance of
doing the thinning very early in the season.

Fertilizers for forcing lettuce-— Complete commercial fertil-
izers which differ from each other only in material from which
the supply of nitrogen is secured are being tried both alone and in
combination with varying proportions of stable manure, on soils
for forcing lettuce. Each formula is tried with head lettuce and
with loose lettuce, both on medium heavy clay loam and on very
light sandy loam. The object of this work is to throw some light
on the question as to whether, in the forcing of lettuce, com-
mercial fertilizers may be profitably substituted either wholly or
in part for stable manure. It is desirable that the results which
have been thus far obtained should receive further confirmation
before being published.

Treatment for gooseberry mildew.— Because of the destructive
character of gooseberry mildew and the economic importance of
this disease in all parts of America where gooseberries are culti-
vated, experiments have been conducted for the purpose of treat-
in the disease on a commercial scale. Potassium sulphide has
been compared with other fungicides for this purpose and very
early treatments have been compared with later treatments so as
to learn if possible just when to spray and what to spray with in
order to hold the mildew in check most successfully. This par-
ticular line of investigation has been in progress since 1897. The
results, as set forth in Bulletin 161, show that the use of potas-
sium sulphide has been followed with better success than the use
of Bordeaux mixture, lysol or formalin. Bordeaux mixture
proved comparatively useless; formalin was somewhat more ef-
fective and lysol gave promising results, ranking next to the
potassium sulphide. Very early spraying generally gave better
results than when the first treatment was made medium early or
late. Winter treatment was tested only one season. It did not
give sufficient advantage to justify the expense of making it.

Apple canker.— A disease of apple tree limbs has done and is

20 Drrector’s Report oF THE

doing an immense amount of damage to the orchards of New
York as well as in many other states. The disease is not new
but the injuries resulting from its attack have been thought to
be due entirely to the sun-scald, so it has escaped the notice of
workers in this line.

The investigation of this disease was undertaken in the spring
of 1898 and was continued through the present season. It has
been proven that the cankers are produced by the attack of a
fungus known as Sphaeropsis malorum Pk., the same that pro-
duces the black rot of apples, pears and quinces. The experi-
ments also indicate that the fungus occurs on a number of other
plants.

Experiments in treating the disease are not yet complete, but it
is known that in a majority of instances orchards that have been
well sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for a number of years and
otherwise well taken care of are much freer from canker than or-
chards that have not received such treatment.

As a preventive measure we feel warranted in recommending
that the orchards be put in the best growing condition and then
as a further preventive that they be sprayed thoroughly with
Bordeaux mixture, spraying the limbs as well as the foliage and
fruit; the spraying to. be made at the time the trees are ordinarily
sprayed for apple scab, supplemented by an earlier one given

about the time the leaf buds begin to unfold.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY.

Leaf-scorch of sugar beet, cherry, cauliflower and maple.— A
peculiar disease of sugar beets occurring to a destructive extent
in some fields in Yates and Ontario counties has been determined
to have been caused by weather conditions. In early August
the foliage was suddenly scorched by excessively dry, hot weather.
Cherries and hard maples in the vicinity of Geneva and cauli-
flower on Long Island have suffered from the same cause.

Fruit-disease survey of the Hudson Valley.— A thorough sur-
vey has been made of the fruit diseases occurring in the Hudson

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. al

Valley. On account of the unusually dry season fruits generally
have suffered less from disease than for several years past. Peach
leaf-curl, so destructive in 1898, has been almost wholly absent.
Such common destructive diseases as apple scab, pear scab, pear
leaf-spot and plum leaf-spot have been injuriously abundant only
in a few localities. The black rot of grapes and the fruit-rot of
plums and cherries have been much less destructive than usual.
The most important fact brought out by this survey is the dis-
covery that there exists throughout the entire Hudson Valley
below Albany a destructive cane blight of currants caused by a
sterile fungus about which but little is known.

Miscellaneous studies on plant diseases.— In 1898, a serious rot
of onions occurred in Orange county. It has been determined
that this rot was caused by bacteria working in the presence of
water. The prompt removal of surface water from the onion
fields is probably the best that can be done to prevent the rot.

Dodder has been found on greenhouse cucumbers and a pow-
dery mildew on field cucumbers.

The brown sunken spots on Baldwin apples have been shown
to be of non-parasitic origin.

A new fungus leaf-spot disease of carnations has been dis-
covered.

Unfinished work.— Considerable work has been done upon the
stem-rot diseases of the carnation, and an investigation of the

black knot disease of plums and cherries commenced.

DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY.

Pasteurization for butter making.— A fundamental investiga-
tion of this problem has been begun in connection with the Dairy
Department, the first step being a study of the effect of the vari-
ous temperatures to which milk can be exposed in the “ continu-

ous ”

machines. A momentary exposure at 158° F. was not
found satisfactory; 176° F. is much better and in many cases

185° F. is desirable. When the most acceptable temperature is

99 Drrectror’s Report or THE

decided upon the subject of pasteurized vs. unpasteurized butter
will be taken up.

Cheese faults— Rusty spot in Cheddar has received consider-
able attention. A germ has been isolated which on being added
to a vat of milk produced rusty spots in the resulting cheese.
Work will be continued with a hope of finding the way in which
the trouble gains entrance to the factory as well as the best
method of removing it.

Work has also been done on sweet or fruity flavor but owing to
the obscure nature of the trouble little headway has been made.
Bitter flavor in Neufchatel has been reported and the trouble
found due to the presence of certain acid forming bacteria. This
investigation is still in progress.

Cheese ripening.— Several experiments have been carried out,
alone, and in conjunction with the Department of Chemistry.
The attempt has been made to exclude the action of germs in
order that the activity of the enzyme naturally present in the
milk and cheese might be more carefully studied.

Black rot of cabbage and cauliflower.— In collaboration with the
Department of Botany field experiments on the treatment of the
black rot of cabbage and cauliflower have been conducted at
Phelps and on Long Island; but owing to the unusually dry sea-
son the disease was not prevalent and consequently few results
were obtained. These experiments will be repeated next season.

ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

Animal food in poultry feeding.— It was found in a number of
feeding experiments with chicks, ducklings and laying hens that
rations containing animal food gave almost invariably better re-
sults than did those consisting entirely or very largely of veg-
etable food. For convenience “animal meal” was made the
principal animal food. Many grain foods were used; but when
rations were so arranged that the proportion of protein was alike
for two rations the one with the animal food contained generally
more fat and always a much larger percentage of mineral matter.

New York AGricuLTURAL ExPpERIMENT STATION. 93

The first series of experiments did not definitely indicate the
cause for the superiority of the one ration. It appeared that the
more favorable results when animal food was fed might be due
either to the more efficient forms of the nitrogen compounds or
with the rapidly growing young birds and the laying hens to the
much larger proportion of ash consisting largely of phosphates.

Subsequent experiments have shown that while ducklings re-
quire a certain amount of animal food, hens and chicks are able
to do well on wholly vegetable food, supplemented by ash rich
in phosphates. In these experiments, rations of vegetable food,
to which bone ash was added to make up the assumed deficiency
of ash, in growing chicks gave identical results with those from
rations containing animal food. With laying hens the rations
were equally efficient for most of the time but good results were
not sustained quite so long by the vegetable food ration. The
addition of bone ash did not, however, enable ducklings to make
as good use of a ration wholly of vegetable foods; such a ration

being decidedly less efficient than one containing animal food.

BULLETINS PUBLISHED IN 1899.

No. 158 — May.— Combating the striped beetle on cucum-
bers. F. A. Sirrine. Pages 32, plates
2.

No. 159 — October.— The forest tent caterpillar. V. H. Lowe.
Pages 30, plates 6.

No. 160 — October— Report of analyses of commercial fertil-

izers for the spring of 1899. L. L.
Van Slyke. Pages 90.
No. 161 — November.— Treatment for gooseberry mildew. C.
P. Close. Pages 12, plates 2, diag. 1.
No. 162 — November.— Leaf scorch of the sugar beet, cherry,
cauliflower and maple. F. C. Stewart.
Pages 14, plates 6.

24

No.

No.

No.

No.

Direcror’s Report oF THE

163 — December.— The New York apple-tree canker. Wen-
dell Paddock. Pages 28, plates 6.

164 — December.— Notes on various plant diseasés. (A
bacterial rot of onions; powdery mil-
dew on field-grown cucumbers ; dodder
on cucumbers under glass; Baldwin
fruit-spot; a Musarium leaf-spot of
carnations; Chaetomium contortum
on barley seedlings.) F. C. Stewart.
Pages 15, plates 4.

. 165 — December.— Report of analyses of Paris green and

other insecticides. L. L. Van Slyke.
Pages 10.

166 — December.— Commercial feeding stuffs in New York.
W. H. Jordan and C. G. Jenter.
Pages 42.

. 167 — December.— A fruit disease survey of the Hudson

Valley in 1899. F. C. Stewart and F.
H. Blodgett. Pages 34, plates 3,
map 1.

. 168 — December.— Director’s report for 1899. W. H. Jor-

dan. Pages 22.

. 169 — December.— Fertilizing self sterile grapes. S. A.

Beach. Pages 41, plates 2.

. 170 — December.— Diseases and insects injurious to fruits.

S. A. Beach, V. H. Lowe and F. C.
Stewart. Pages 65.

. 171 — December.— Animal food for poultry. W. P.

Wheeler. Pages 46, plate 1.

172 — December.— The efficiency of a continuous Pasteur-
izer at different temperatures. H. A.
Harding and L. A. Rogers. Pages
24, figs. 2.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 25

No. 178 — December.— Report of analyses of commercial fertil-
izers for the fall of 1899. L. L. Van
Slyke. Pages 22.

W. H. Jorpan, Director.

New York Agricultural Experiment Station,
Geneva, N. Y., Dec. 30, 1899.

_ APPENDIX.
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American Entomological Society, Transactions, Subscription.

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28 Drirector’s Report oF THE

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REPORT

OF THE

Department of Animal Husbandry.

W. H. Jorpan, Director.
Witiuruam P. Wueetrer, First Assistant.

C. G. Jenter, Assistant Chemist.

TasLe OF ConrtTENTS.

I. Commercial feeding stuffs in New York.

II. Animal food for poultry.
3

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hy J
ary 7

REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.

COMMERCIAL FEEDING STUFFS IN NEW
AnQink*

W. H. Jorpan anp C. G. JENTER.

SUMMARY.

In buying feeding~stuffs the farmer should understand both
the general character of the material, and the source and general
nature of the substances composing it. It is often as important
to know that the desired ingredients are not furnished by oat
hulls or other indigestible wastes as it is to know the amount of
these ingredients.

The terms nitrogenous and carbohydrate are too general to be
used without modification in classifying feeding stuffs and the
following four classes give a better grouping:

Class I. Contain 30 per ct. to 45 per ct. protein and 50 per ct.
to 60 per ct. carbohydrates: Cotton-seed meal, linseed meal and
gluten meal.

Class II. Contain 20 per ct. to 30 per ct. protein and 60 per ct.
to 70 per ct. carbohydrates: Gluten feeds, Atlas meal,. dried
brewer’s grains, malt sprouts, buckwheat middlings and peas and
beans.

“Reprint of Bulletin No. 166.

36 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

Class III. Contain 14 per ct. to 20 per et. protein and 70
per ct. to 75 per ct. carbohydrates: Brans and middlings from
wheat and rye and some proprietary mixed feeds.

Class LV. Contain 8 per ct. to 14 per ct. protein and 75 per ct.
to 85 per ct. carbohydrates: Cereal grains, cerealine, hominy
and oat feeds, corn and oat chops, corn bran, corn germ feed and
chop feed in general. Hays and fodders belong here more nearly
than elsewhere.

Samples of feed have been collected during the past two winters
and analyzed chemically, physically and often microscopically.

Cotton-seed meal should be light yellow, a dark color usually
indicating inferiority. Protem may range from 42 per ct. to
46 per ct. or more in good samples. Of 16 samples only two
showed evidence of adulteration, but the price did not follow
percentage of protein.

Old, or pressure, process linseed meal and new, or naphtha ex-
traction, process meal differ mainly in fat, the former containing
three or four pounds more per hundred. Protein of new process
meal is perhaps less digestible because of cooking. Nineteen
samples were examined and all were good. One was somewhat
low in protein with no sign of adulteration.

Gluten meals consist mainly of hard or flinty portions of corn
after bran, germ and part of the starch have been removed. They
should contain at least 80 per et. of protein to be classed as meals
and may go to 40 per ct. Two samples analyzed were good but
the less nitrogenous sold for the higher price.

The gluten feeds are a mixture of the meal with the bran and
germs and are less rich in protein than the meals, ranging from
18.8 per ct. to 28.1 per ct. This marked difference seems to be
quite constant between the brands, samples of Joliet and Diamond
brands running low. .

Malt sprouts are the dried shoots from germinated barley. But
few samples were analyzed and these were found normal in com-
position, with from 24.66 per ct. to 30.87 per ct. of protein.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. aT

Brewer’s grains are the barley grains from which the starch has
been removed by growth and fermentation. In fresh state they
contain too much water to justify paying a very large price.
Dried they furnish about as much protein as the malt sprouts.

Buckwheat middlings and other buckwheat products were
found of good quality, but varied widely in protein content, the
iniddlings and feed running from 24.8 per ct. to 33.7 per ct.,
while the single sample of “ ships” showed 33.75 per ct. protein,
9.2 per ct. fat. 3

Wheat brans were found pure, but not constant in composition,
the protein ranging from 13.4 per ct. to 17.1 per ct., and the
starch from 17.5 per ct. to 30.6 per ct.

The mixed wheat feeds are combinations of the offals of wheat
milling and showed only the natural variations.

Wheat middlings, with one exception, proved normal in com-
position showing only variations similar to bran and due to same
cause, difference in milling processes. Middlings contain more
protein, more starch, a little more fat and less fiber than bran and
are more digestible. It would seem that preference should not
be given the bran as a feed.

Hominy feed or hominy chop consists of the hull, germ and
part of the starch of corn grains; and contains less starch, about
the same amount of protein and more fiber and fat than corn meal.
The samples analyzed appeared quite uniform in composition,
except Hudnut’s which contained seven per ct. more protein than
the average. The average was about 10.5 per ct. protein, 46
per ct. starch and sugar and 7.75 per ct. fat. The prices were
much less uniform than the percentages.

In mixed feeds seems to lie the greatest danger from adultera-
tion, a danger which is not entirely guarded against by chemical
determination of protein and fat. Oat hulls are extensively used
as adulterants in foods of this class. Prices were often equal to
what would have bought whole corn and oats. In 26 cases out of
35 examined, the fiber content is larger than the average for whole

38 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

oats and much larger than could be given by any straight corn
and oats mixture. Some of the feed must have contained at least
50 lbs. of oat hulls per hundred lbs. One oat feed was less
digestible by nearly 12 lbs. than whole oats and by nearly 31 lbs.
than maize, due largely to the indigestible character of the hulls.
The introduction of oat hulls into any mixed feed therefore, in-
creases the amount of indigestible — useless— matter. The
material coming from whole grains is also of better quality, being
made up more largely of protein and the easily digestible car-
bohydrates.

Reasons why the source and character of the carbohydrates
should be carefully considered in classifying feeding stuffs, are
given in full in the bulletin. 2

Patent foods made up of some simple feed stuff like middlings,
corn bran, linseed meal, etc., with a small quantity of charcoal,
sulphur, fenugreek, gentian, salt, iron compounds, pepper and
other cheap drugs and condiments were found on sale in great
numbers and at exorbitant prices, varying from $100 to $500 a
ton. This is from $70 to $470 a ton more than the best of them
are worth as feeds. Their value as medicines is problematical ; if
anything, the same effect can be much more cheaply secured by
buying the drugs and mixing with the feeds ordinarily used in
the stable.

INTRODUCTION. i

Commercial cattle foods are an important factor in the animal
husbandry of this State. Few farmers, especially dairy farmers,
produce all the grain they feed to their stock, for the winter ration
generally includes one or more of the by-product feeding stuffs,
usually of a more highly nitrogenous character than the home
raised grains. Doubtless these purchased materials are often
used with profit, while on the other hand, the opinion is freely
expressed that it would be economy for many farms to be more
fully self-supporting in the matter of the supply of cattle foods.
However this may be, it is entirely probable that commercial

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 39

feeding stuffs, more particularly those of the highly nitrogenous
kinds, will continue to hold their place in the ration, and for
this reason it is desirable, even essential, that the purchasers of
these commodities shall have an intelligent understanding of
their character and value.

It is not surprising that the feeding stuff market is an object
of perplexity, as it appears to be, to the majority of would-be
buyers. The whole grains as such and as mixed with certain
waste products, oil meals, the gluten feeds and meals, breakfast
food wastes, brewer’s wastes and the so-called patent foods, besides
the combination of a variety of materials, good and poor, under
the name of “ mixed feeds,” are all urged upon the attention of
the agricultural public. Such a variety of appearance, composi-
tion and price must be considered that even the wisest may well
hesitate before deciding what articles can be chosen most suitably
and economically for a particular use.

In view of the situation as thus outlined, and in order to pre-
sent certain facts which have been gathered relative to the feed-
ing stuff market in New York, besides paving the way for the
largest benefit which may accrue from the new feeding stuff law,
it is deemed wise to issue this bulletin. Many of the facts stated
are by no means new, and some of the analyses are but a repeti-
tion of previous results, yet it is felt that the situation justifies
the statement of what is to some extent already familiar knowl-
edge.

INFORMATION WHICH THE BUYER SHOULD POSSESS.

The farmer who wishes to buy a feeding stuff to supplement
his home supply of grains should, first of all, understand the
general character of any material to which his attention is called,
7. e., he should know whether it belongs to the carbohydrate or
nitrogenous class of feeding-stuffs.

To the man who is well informed, the trade name is generally
indicative of composition. It is true, however, that new materials

are constantly appearing in the market and trade names are some-

40 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

times deceptive, so that it will be a distinct gain when commercial
cattle foods are branded with their real percentages of protein
and fat, as presumably will be the case in New York under the
operation of the new feeding stuff law.

Moreover, buyers should understand something of the source
and general nature of the waste products which make up a large
proportion of our commercial feeding stuffs. The fact that any
material is an offal from a manufacturing process may or may not
mean that it is of inferior nutritive value. As an illustration,
certain parts of the maize kernel which appear in the gluten meals
and hominy wastes are from the parts of the grain in no way
inferior, whereas oat hulls are the least valuable part of the seed.
These facts establish an important distinction between the by-
products from starch and glucose manufacture and those from the
manufacture of breakfast foods from oats. For this and similar
reasons, the ingredients of the various mixed feeding stuffs should
be clearly stated for the buyer’s benefit, and the provision of our
new feeding stuff law which, among other things, makes illegal
the abominable practice of adulterating corn meal with oat hulls,
without the knowledge of the purchaser, to be sold to him as
mixed feed from corn and oats, is a step in the direction of en-
forced honesty in the cattle food trade.

CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDING STUFFS.

Cattle foods are often classified in a popular way as “ carbohy-
drate” and “nitrogenous.” Such a division into two classes,
based upon the proportions of carbohydrates and protein, is not
rational. The fact is, there is a quite uniform gradation in the
percentage of protein in feeding stuffs from cotton-seed meal to
wheat straw and there seems to be no natural point of separation
into two groups. It is absurd to place wheat bran with 16 per
ct. of protein in the same group with cotton-seed meal with 45
per et. of protein.

New Yorx AcricutturaL Experiment SraTIon. 41

As a matter of convenience and a nearer approximation to
accuracy, it seems advisable to classify feeding stuffs into at least
four groups and even with this arrangement the range of com-
position within any one group is quite wide.

The following are the classes suggested, with some of their
principal members:

Class I. 30 to 45 per ct. protein and 50 to 60 per ct. carbohy-
drates, including cotton-seed meal, linseed meal and the gluten
meals, such as the Chicago, King, Cream and Hammond.

Class II. 20 to 80 per ct. protein and 60 to 70 per ct. of car-
bohydrates, including gluten feeds, such as the Buffalo, Golden,
Diamond, Davenport, Climax and Standard, as now made, Atlas
meal, dried brewer’s grains, malt sprouts, buckwheat middlings
and peas and beans.

Class IIT. 14 to 20 per ct. of protein and 70 to 75 per ct. of
carbohydrates, including brans and middlings from wheat and
rye, certain so-called mixed feeds of a proprietary character,
these being in part oat feeds fortified with some more highly
nitrogenous material. .

Class IV. 8 to 14 per et. of protein and 75 to 85 per ct. of
carbohydrates, including barley, corn, oats, rye, wheat, cerealine,
hominy and oat feeds, corn and oat chop, corn bran, corn germ
feed and chop feed in general.

The hays and other fodders belong in Class IV more nearly
than in any other.

ANALYSES AND COMMENTS.

THE SAMPLES AND THEIR EXAMINATION.

The samples, the analyses of which appear in this bulletin,
were mostly selected in this State during the past two winters by
authorized representatives of this Station. In a majority of cases
the selling prices are given, these being the ton prices stated to
our agent by the dealers where the sample was procured. It is

42 Revort or Tre DEPARTMENT or ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

to be noted that the names of manufacturers are not given in
connection with various samples. As many of the goods were
not branded by the name of the maker or importer, it was thought
best, in order to avoid possible error, to consider the samples
wholly from the standpoint of what inspection has shown them
to be.

These samples were submitted to more than the usual chemi-
cal analysis,— they were carefully examined as to the nature of
their constituents, special attention being. given to the feeds of a
mixed character and to those coming under the head of proprie-
tary or condimental foods.

Moreover, the chemical analysis has been made to include even
more than usual. In the case of the mixed and chop feeds the
amount of fiber present is often suggestive as to the origin of
their constituents and besides it is interesting and useful to know
to what extent, especially in the corn and oat offals, the starch
and other equally valuable carbohydrates have been removed.

COTTON-SEED MEAL.

This feeding stuff is a by-product of the manufacture of cotton-
seed oil. The seed of cotton, after the long fibers are removed
by ginning, consists of a kernel enclosed by a thick hull.
This hull, after removal, constitutes a low grade feeding
stuff which is known in the market as cotton-seed hulls.
The hulled kernels are crushed and after they are cooked the oil
is removed by pressure, leaving a cake residue, nearly 800 pounds
from a ton of seed, which after grinding we know as cotton-seed
meal. The color of this meal should be light yellow and it
should have a clean nutty flavor. The percentage of protein in
the best product generally ranges between 42 per ct. and 46 per
ct. Among the causes of inferiority are the presence of hulls
and injury due to fermentations, but these conditions are indi-
cated by the color and flavor. Dark colored cotton-seed meal
should be regarded with suspicion.

New Yorx AaricutturaAL Experiment Srarion. 43

SAMPLES OF CoTrron-SEED MEAL COLLECTED IN NEw YorK Durina 1898 AND

1899.

Station Sample: Where Ton selling | Station Sample: Where Ton selling
number. collected. price number collected. price.
21315) 9) ALD HOU h et: yee eel S25 ROOM DS 2 Aeon dae or oe eee $22 00
FEES Ol eaMEU LEAD ee os) ays) at Saeed cds 2400) GOGis HSlGNe yes yy. yeaa a. eae 18 00
BD UIPALO I 3.o >. ese 28, OONKG60F eo Delhin: +e ot oa oars s 23 00
ASGr Syracuse! air gs o.F eee ZSAOOGii2e eblobarty yy. 28). he aves 23 00
Bae: o MeyTaAcude... 6.0... 59 24: 2500) KGa» weLlobarte 2 oy. wie ate ete 22 00
gue... "Oswegor eco. b re: 23) 00) 6927. "Middlebury Sioa) 52.2 essen.
1S tie ell UR GE Nie oh eh eRe ae De UIU ASA UG)S, So eee) Me Geran AIS Maite eae Coan G
PE Aear GO ETCO WM bcrhercrcn ssh sn erene CODE rs tee cateoae es Ghatak SR eter Pela tenenen
UP LOR IC ata shes ecco 11 00

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF COTTON-SEED MEAL.

5 z 28

§ : = =O

ae, Pe £ A ke a

2a ® ® oy os att

3 a 4 S a. go) SB Shas
a e < ay & a ee ee
Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perect. Per et
438. Cotton-seed meal........ SelOGy5l VAGa bee bee Mian ce coniomelon To
439. Cotton-seed meal........ 1242 “8°15: BOr25" 95529) 24e7 S440 sats
465. Cotton-seed meal........ 7.05 6.00 42.25 5.20 20.1 29.62 9.88
487. Cotton-seed meal........ G3) 6286 46.00 “Gol0v 1473 25.99) 8710
490. Cotton-seed meal........ 7.18 6.54 43.56 7.30 15.4 27.86 7.56
500. Cotton-seed meal........ QoL G69 S402 68) 16282 eae Zone Selle oe
518. Cotton-seed meal........ 7.05 6.02 48.81 4.68 16.4 24.59 .8.85
545. Cotton-seed meal........ 040) 5.98) 46556" "5408 13ar 2b aileron
552. Cotton-seed feed ........ W23U 3363 lOs(5 Soran = Ontos 2-050 en4i
553. Cotton-seed meal........ 6:24). '590 50.69) 2592) Ws 23782) LORS
656. Cotton-seed meal........ GUOA G00) AS apie roll ene ee oe ae eG
660. Cotton-seed meal........ edit (e854 52504 4s Pica 2G LOBOS
672. Cotton-seed meal........ (eo 2s 506949206) a4 OSa ese ea on nos
673. Cotton-seed meal........ TAOLSHS92N4A49S8) “Heb OR see eos SoG
692. Cotton-seed meal........ TAA OORAS R48 Fi .24 23.50) Ves
705. Cotton-seed meal........ 7.45 5.39 28.68 16.57 34.62 7.29
706. Cotton-seed mealies 6.19 6.50 46.56 5.38 24.49 10.88
Average all but 439, 552
and “105 eeSOOH 6°84 9G oie the Gln si Adee nO Otel Ones
Average starch and

SUPA, Cle hf SAMPLES. so, bebe de corricis icine! eee WC aie aa oo CO

In all but two cases the samples of cotton-seed meal have been
found to have a satisfactory composition. Two samples, Nos. 439
and 705, showed so low a protein content as to justify the con-
clusion that they were from adulterated stock. They were dark
colored. There is no question that adulterated meal is in the
market, as is clearly proven in Bulletin No. 56 from the Massa-
chusetts Experiment Station, where the analyses are given of

44 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

eighteen samples of inferior goods found in the market of that
State.

This adulteration is probably brought about by grinding in
hulls. These meals were sold in part under the name Sea Island
Cotton-seed and probably were in all cases a mixture of the yellow
meal and finely ground hulls. Farmers should avoid such goods.

The sample of cotton-seed feed No. 552, the analysis of which
appears in the above table as a means of contrasting it with
cotton-seed meal, consists of cotton-seed hulls and is very inferior
in value.

LINSEED MEAL.

Linseed meal is a by-product from the manufacture of linseed
oil. It is often called oil meal. “ Old process” oil meal is that
from which the oil is obtained by pressure and “ new process ”
meal is the residue afer treating the crushed seed with a light
naphtha. The former contains the more fat although owing to a
change in the process the “old process” meal contains less fat
than was formerly the case.

By the older methods about 35 lbs. of oil was obtained from
100 lbs. of seed, but now the output is larger.

The relative value of “old process” and “ new process” meal
is much discussed. Certainly there is no appreciable difference
in palatableness and healthfulness, and no large difference in
nutritive qualities. The protein of the latter appears to be some-
what less digestible, due doubtless to the increased cooking to
which the new process product is subjected.

SAMPLES OF LINSEED MEAL COLLECTED IN NEW YorRK Durine 1898 AnD 1899.

Station Sample: Where Ton selling | Station Sample: Where Ton selling
number. collected. price. number. collected. price.

498... Union Sprivgs’. seys 2 ogee 498.. Fulton . ...:. ose $25 00
435... Mayebteviller nt .2. sc. mete ert 5OL:.. ‘Oswego f 2st) cheer 25 00
ASG2 . sMIIMUPAt =f. ccetee oe $28 00|.514...Watertowm ~.--. 62). 25 00
AAG so CHIMES, oes oats ee cine 30 004 517. “Utica! ce sone 28 00
443. Corning, 4 35,.,.-4 taestsiy- 30 00/529.. Binghamton ........ 28 00
455. Homelisyille< serecjac 30°:00:| 670)...- Oba oer ees 30 00
AGI SBiutialoe. es eee Ae 30. 00 |:694.-. ‘Cobleskill .232:'... . . :..; eee
ALD IW AEETIOO Jase: fetes poe 23700698) Ober Otero 30 00
ROU + 4) Geneva 255. a Lee 27 00 | 699... Otego Vee eek i an 30 00

AOU SV TACUBC fer onto kee an crac 30 00

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 45

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF LINSEED MEAL.

: re a
2 C Beh pee
| : ~ a As
3 3s 4 io en ae Siete, Me
a E < a ew = eos = oh
Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Per ct.

428. Linseed meal, old process. 8.87 5.51 37.25 7.29 10.1 34.64 6.
435. Linseed meal, old process. 6.84 5.35 37.25 7.43 -4 36.21 6.92
436. Linseed meal, old process. 8.68 5.45 38.06 7.38 9.4 34.31 6.12
440. Linseed meal, old process. 8.34 5.39 35.00 8.55 15.0 35.40 7.32
443. Linseed meal, old process. 8.53 5.14 36.31 7.60 12.2 36.48 5.94
455. Linseed meal, old process, ;

EN ae a 8.03 5.35 36.69 6.94 11.6 35.53 7.46
464. Linseed meal, old process. 8.97 4.85 35.81 7.10 10.4 35.76 7.51
471. Linseed meal, old process. 8.10 4.86 36.06 6.82 11.4 35.67 8.49
481. Linseed meal, old process,

INGERIOWAL: 6-0 c10 52 « crss'e ¢ 7.75 5.82 35.81 7.54 7.5 36.17 6.91
491. Linseed meal, old process. 7.37 5.29 36.94 7.43 11.4 36.04 6.93
501. Linseed meal, old process. 9.43 5.51 28.69 8.59 22.7 40.15 7.63
517. Linseed meal, old process. 8.45 5.31 36.19 7.03 13.9 34.16 8.86
529. Linseed meal, old process,

WNGBITO: occ ges. = + Sats 6.89 5.22 38.19 7.11 14.8 36.87 5.72
699. Linseed meal, old process. 9.76 5.37 32.13 8.16 .... 36.12 8.46

DY ig a ee 8.29 5.32 35.74 7.50 12.1 35.96 7.19
498. Linseed meal, new process, .

Cleveland ........... 10.53 5.01 36.63 8.69 18.4 36.23 2.91
514. Linseed meal, new process. 10.08 4.95 37.56 7.22 19.1 37.04 3.15
670. Linseed meal, new process. 10.25 5.33 35.81 8.57 .... 35.99 4.05
694. Linseed meal, new process,

Cleveland ses. s1e<s/6s 5 9:87 ¥5!36 135.19. 8.48........36.31 4.79
698. Linseed meal, new process. 9.34 5.50 35.50 9.08 37.62 2.96

DENCEROO ooo 23 oie om ia sss 10.01 5.23 36.14 8.41 18.7 36.64 3.57

The linseed meal found in New York seems to be quite uni-
formly good. This appears to be the case in all States. Adul-
teration of this feeding stuff is evidently not much practiced.
Sample No. 501 contains less protein than it should, but no expla-
nation of this fact was discovered. Linseed meal is certainly one
of our most valuable and reliable commercial feeding stuffs, though
it is evidently expensive as compared with some other articles.

GLUTEN MEALS.

As found in the market the principal gluten products are corn
bran, consisting mostly of the hulls and germ of the maize kernel,

the gluten meals which come principally from the hard or flinty

46 Revort oF THE DepartTMENT oF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

portions of this seed and the gluten feeds which are a mixture of
the corn bran and gluten meal. Of these the gluten meals are
the most valuable. They contain between 30 and 40.per et. of pro-

tein and are practically as digestible as corn meal.

SAMPLES oF GLUTEN MerAL CoLLecTED IN New York Durine 1898 AND 1899.

Station Ton selling
number. Sample: Where collected. price.
404 oe! BYTOCURGs ¢.. cus As. Fete fists GE BoE <hae 9," ncauaaes eye chads a at $18 00
658)... Sydney. Center, .i5.< pirareye esol aye. s pryeieales ¥ lake niggers hea 20 00
ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF GLUTEN MEAL.
= $$$ ———
E z gs
3 cles
a 5 u | a g ee: ;
2a 3 2 ‘2 Py oD im Lo 4
2 s 4 ea ee
a = < Ay > a eet
Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct Perct. Perct. Per ct.
BOA Cliten ol ota cesccsee 6.51 1.65 39.08 1.50 35.7 46.56 4.7
658. Chicago gluten meal.... 10.0 .84 36.25 1.92° ...) 48700 eee

ms EE

The above samples of gluten meal are fully up to the standard,
No. 494 being especially rich in protein.

GLUTEN FEEDS.

As previously stated, gluten feeds are a mixture of all the by-
products which are left after removing a portion of the starch
from the maize kernel. They contain less protein than the
gluten meals and much more than the corn brans.

SAMPLES OF GLUTEN FEEDS COLLECTED IN New York Durine 1898 AnD 1899.

Station Sample: Where Ton selling | Station Sample: Where Ton selling
number. collected. price. number. collected price.
422. anion Springs. fo... | ee pes = 536.. Whitney's Point .. oes
HDA PSs SADT AVON See SSE GS k $16 (00) ||418.. Geneva... 5 2. 3222 aerate
OM) NOR WACHINE kamu siemiaiie 17 (00) 479... (Geneya, .222 25 see $16 50 .
Gas ISNGllinyM ass omega mes oc 17 00495... Syracuse). ---- eer 16 00.
FPA Sae Stile Ans Naina cals orc 17-450) |\424.. Dryden: jes. etreene 13 00
G88..0° AUBAMY (esto isin 6 gets ae eer 533.. Binghampton ........ 18 00
496: Gyratiae , 7. aoe 15 00|531.. Binghampton ........ 17 75
543. - Middletowm .... 052205 aya ous 743... Sywacuse .-002-. 0.0. eee
EIR oem LOUUG ahi selele ote akeierere 17.00 150824) Pulaslcipeceen grec sts 18 00

AGT isee dD hoainey eye oooee 14 00|535.. Whitney’s Point ..... 18 00

eee eee

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 47

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF GLUTEN FEEDS.

ion
number.

| Stat:

437.
536.

418.
479.

495.
424.
533.

531.
743.
508.
535.

Average of all analyses. 8.00

gga 3
F SoHE. ae
i = gw dis

A} suduienson nly chat Sen acs

E 4 «4 Ep — eee et
Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Per ct.
. Buffalo gluten feed ..... 866).7:3..53, Qi 9) Gh T2219 50109) Saes2
. Buffalo gluten feed ..... 8.5 4510 27.563 “6218. Qie2* 49-97 2467
. Buffalo gluten feed ..... 9.14 3.02 27.06 7.00 21.5 50.40 3.38
. Buffalo gluten feed ..... 7.66 3.01 26.06 2.46 26.5 57.43 3.38
. Buffalo gluten feed ..... 8.62 0.84 21.31 6.24 34.0 59.46 3.53
. Buffalo gluten feed ..... 6.87. 2.70 27.38 6.76 .. 52.81 3.48
Cs doi: ee eee Ne RE 8218.42.87 “ZERO 589) 25) Ole bere aera il
. Climax gluten feed...... €.95 0.94 24.56 1:31 26.5 60.43 4581
. Davenport gluten feed... 7.56 1.11 23.56 6.83 26.2 55.46 5.48
. Davenport corn feed..... 8.07 1.23 22.94 6.33 28.8 56.75 4.68
Avernee, S25 222)0.e hs.» 1.82) Li7. 23525" 6.58 27.5 56.10) 5.08
Diamond gluten feed.... 7.74 7.90 20.56 6.06 28.8 54.34 3.40
Diamond gluten feed.... 8.17 0.83 20.60 6.51 29.4 59.28 5.21
INVGIEIRS Maen lo ae ae oar 7.96 4.36 20.28 6.29 29.1 56.81 4.30
Joliet gluten feed ...... 8.82 0.92 18.80 6.58 32.2 60.39 4.49
Joliet gluten feed ...... 7.80 0.87 19.56 6.43 30.2 60.66 4.68
AVera ge) 2 ssc sie) ot ei 8.31 .90 19.18 6.50 31.2 60.52 4.59
i eo luben: Teede 2 ot .. 66 7.68 1.13 .28.13.-4.50 36.3, 54.88 68
Peoria gluten feed ..... 8.38 0.97 20.69 5.87 27.7 57.05 7.04
Peoria gluten feed ..... 8.65 2.04 26.00 7.10 25.1 52.41 3.80
Averace Nive aie fs .40: 8.51 1.50 23.34 6.98 26.4 54.73 5.42
Empire gluten feed...... 8.01 1.11 24.43 7.21 16.7 53.85 5.39
Waukegan gluten-feed... 6.19 1.03 24.31 7.48 56.34 4.65
Gihitentefeede .. wre.s-se ere 7.58 93 21.50 5.66 26.9 57.55 6.78
Gluten feed.) 2's.) eee. 8.26 .91 23.37 6.05 31 56.81 4.60

48 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

The abcve named materials, all of which pass under the name
of “gluten feeds,” show a range of protein content from 18.8
per ct. to 28.1 per ct. These differences appear to pertain more
largely to brands than to samples, the Joliet and Diamond brands
falling considerably below the others in protein content. How-
ever this may be, the facts as given are a good illustration of the
need of branding commercial feeding stuffs with a statement of
their composition, for unless this is done a gluten feed passes for
such without the buyer having a definite knowledge of what it
really is, and besides, this class of materials is often confounded
with gluten meals which are of superior value, both as to com-
position and digestibility.

BREWERS AND DISTILLERY RESIDUES.

The so-called brewer’s residues are those resulting from the
operations of malting and brewing.

In malting, the barley grains are allowed to sprout, and before
the malted grains are crushed for brewing purposes these sprouts
are removed, which in an air dry condition are known in the
market as malt sprouts.

From the malted grains is extracted the sugar that has formed
from the starch during the germination which has occurred, and
these extracted grains after drying appear in the market as dried
brewer’s grains. They are much poorer in starch and richer in
protein than the entire barley grain and are properly regarded as

a nitrogenous feeding stuff.

SAMPLES OF BREWER’S RESIDUES COLLECTED IN NEw YorK Durine 1898 AND

1899.
Station Sample: Where Ton selling Station Sample: ® here Ton selling
number. collected. price. number. collected. price.
AS 9) eV EACUSC Maeva on ati eet $10 00 | 1258.. Syracuse. 20h:.4 & i. 1a one
DOL e OSWEP OT: trace iste 12 00 | 1259:..:; Syracuse<. (22252... eee

poores GENCVad <a Acs eee 12 00! 724.. Waterloo

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 49

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF BREWER’S RESIDUES.

i a. 28
E ¢ AS
as Z = : 1 to a5
ga g qo). ee PE ta ee:
s = ° = a sos 3
2 Stee he ee ee aie
Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Ferct. Perct.
489. Malt sprouts ......... 6.00 5.73 24.66 13.29 22.3 47.32 3.00
504. Malt sprouts ......... 3.26 7.62 30.37 9.14 21.4 47.17 2.44
Sap. Malt sprouts. ......... 5.88 5.86 27.69 10.34 21.9 46.72 3.51
Averages: iii. Lit 5.05 6.40 27.58 10.93 .... 47.06 2.98
Average starch and
BUCA Ris aa ee Waits SMA Tans hes Soe 2 ZHOT Ean Re
1258. Brewer’s grains, lager,
Sc. a ee (TO 0.66) 6.9952. 90. +... LOL | <a
Brewer’s grains, lager,
SEY Siem inievin oy 6.95 2.69 28.31 11.75 .... 44.46 5.84
1259. Brewer’s grains, ale,
2 Se oe ee 18.8, 0.68~ -5.45. 3.19 >.<. 10.45 (iS
Brewer’s grains, ale,
Ore eae ire caIaIa 6.34 3.02. 24.13) 14.14 ©... 45:95. Graz
724. Distillery waste,fresh. 91.3 0.32 2.98 0.84 .... 3.45 1.11
Distillery waste, air
on Se a 6:46). 32399:32.0 9.03 7... sa%:20% 10.92

— = = —=—

Not many samples of brewer’s wastes were obtained, and those
which were analyzed were not unusual in composition.

But few analyses have been made in this country of distillery
waste. No. 724 was obtained from a distillery at Waterloo and
in the fresh condition is somewhat used by farmers in the
immediate vicinity. It is to be noted that the proportion of dry
matter in the fresh material is very small, only 8.7 per ct. or
one-tenth as much as in the ordinary grains in an air dry condi-
tion. The cost should be only one-tenth also. This observation
applies in a general way to the fresh brewer’s grains which proved

to be nearly three-quarters water.

BUCKWHEAT MIDDLINGS.

There are several offals from the milling of buckwheat, includ-
ing the hulls, the bran and middlings. The latter contain a
generous proportion of protein, usually not less than twenty-five,
and they are properly classed among our nitrogenous feeding
stuffs. Oftentimes the bran and middlings are mixed together
when the percentage of protein is, reduced in proportion to the

4

50 Report or tHe DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HusBanpry OF THE

amount of bran present. ‘The bran contains from 10 per ct. to

12 per ct. of protein and the hulls from 3 per et. to 5 per ct.

SAMPLES OF BUCKWHEAT MIDDLINGS COLLECTED IN NEw YorkK Durina 1898

AND 1899.

Station Sample: Where Ton selling | Station Sample: Where Ton selling
number. collected. price. number. collected. price.
AZGiey SLALGNDOLO x. eyese-c ore tere SES .00) | 659: Delba <a: a pie eee $16 00
433". Hlornellsvalle y.22.,.52 14.00 | 728:. dLawyersville® ...j.0yhee eee
HOOK SEMICON. vosks tues acini ts 14 001696... Oneonta. 1.45: heen 13 00
BL. Watertown . ciek ce caec 14 00|510.. Watertown .......... 14 00
530.. Binghamton ......... 14 00

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF BUCKWHEAT MIDDLINGS.

3 3 eee
Ee) $ u = ®
ag L FI a & E
=o £ : 2 3 Ea) Te ;
3 3 a ) 2 ¢° pee #
Py Be gS eee oe
Per ct..Perct. Perct. Perct. Per ct. Peret. Peret.
426. Buckwheat middlings... 10.39 4.24 27.25 5.73 21.9 45.06 7.33
453. Buckwheat middlings... 11.14 5.01 27.38 5.55 30.3 43.29 7.63
499. Buckwheat middlings... 9.90 5.14 30.31 7.68 17.4 38.96 8.01
511. Buckwheat middlings... 12.77 4.29 26.44 2.75 24.2 46.87 6.88
530. Buckwheat middlings... 11.30 4.50 24.81 4.29 35.8 48.55 6.55
728. Buckwheat middlings... 13.40 4.65 25.31 9.42 .... 41.05 6.17
696. Buckwheat, “‘feed”....° 11.50 4.85 26.38 12.91 .. 3.76 6.60
510. Buckwheat, “ships” ... 12.19 5.78 83.75 4.78 15.6 34.30 9.20
AVGR AGES): heist sicnens 11.56 4.81. 27.70 6.64 .... 40. O0R72ae
Average starch and

sugan, 6 samples: fae. AS EN PRE Te oh 5. 2 2A 2 weitere. sees

No one of the lots of buckwheat middlings sampled seems to
have been of inferior quality. There is seen to be a wide varia-
tion in the protein content, however, as it ranges from 24.8 per
ct. to 33.75 per ct. in the various samples.

MILLING OFFALS FROM WHEAT.

The offals from milling wheat are probably the oldest, best
known and most popular by-product feeding stuffs found in the
market. These consist of the brans, middlings and low grade
flours.

The prominent differences between these products and the
original wheat kernels, and especially between these and the fine

New Yorx AGricuLTurRAL ExprerIMENT STATION. 51

flour designed for human consumption, are the larger proportions
in them of mineral matter and protein. This is due to the fact
that these by-products consist of the outer portions of the wheat
kernel which are relatively rich in mineral and nitrogen com-
pounds.

SAMPLES OF WHEAT BRAN COLLECTED IN New York IN 1898 AND 1899.

Station Sample: Where Ton selling | Station Sample: Where Ton selling
number. collected. price. number. collected. price.
Pee NICLOR SS Rete ee et mon aise Geneva lee $16 00
A OLY AEM. a stottajes he ord S13.50\4842. “Auburn 5..5) ans oer 15 00
G2) SED CMTE Ee een ag 5 lace ee tt aad Maid Bees HOM. WGI ea - epee. arttee fenas a tare 15 00
AAD COTMINE =) SAS so be OOt|( 549i Hlorida ieee ee 15 50
nado... Elornellsyille. 2... L4.00:) 551), Ploridass2e4 233.56 16 00
aAtiey. AROCMeALET, ea. Hairs <3 V4 5OUG825c | Newia kalbziee aces ae 16 00

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF WHEAT BRAN.

3 ee:
E : : 3 Ag
as i & ae as
me g Alo .. bete ab it gece er as
z oe RE aE a LE Sl
a = < a & n ic
Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Per ct.
429. Wheat bran, spring..... 9.15 6.18 16.37 10.20 18.2 52.99 11
ASOeeyiheab branes. see. 8.96 5.81 16.37 10.32 18.5 53.45 5.09
434. Wheat bran... 2.222... 8.66 4.63 13.37 13.64 22.9 56.30 3.40
AA2= Wheat; pram. 2s. sl: 2) 8.63 4.45 16.00 10.11 17.5 55.22 5.59
449. Wheat bran, western.... 9.02 6.84 17.13 9.32 20.1 52.05 5.64
AGS WHERE DIAM... cscs so. 9.27 6.43 15.94 9.37 19.7 53.99 5.00
Piso Wheat brane pecs ss. sea 7.81 5.15 15.25 7.13 30.6 60.28 4.38
S64. Wheat bran ©. 20.6050: 2. 10.67 4.82 14.94 7.52 26.8 56.58 5.47
519. Wheat bran, spring..... 10.71 6.52 16.06 8.86 20.0 52.62 5.23
540 Wheat brany hs. seiiscvare, 9.29 6.84 13.75 9.35 19.4 55.87 4.90
682<- Wheat bram.....-... 2 Moone o45) Clomipme Orn 62.19 3.59
Average of 12 samples
wheat bran ....... 9.49 5.47°-15.36 8.94 .... 55.95 4.79
Average starch and
sugar, 11 ‘samples..° =. .2. Sa sett bo eae EWN i DONG T avers

As a rule the wheat brans which have been sampled have been
found to be a pure wheat offal. They are seen to vary somewhat
in composition, the protein in 12 cases ranging from 13.4 per ct.
to 17.1 per ct. The starch content is also far from constant, the
extreme percentages being 17.5 per ct. and 30.6 per ct. These
variations are doubtless due to differences in the composition of
the wheat and to unlike conditions of milling. On the whole,

52 Report or THE DeparTMENT oF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

however, wheat bran is one of our most reliable commercial
feeding stuffs.

SAMPLES OF MIXED WHEAT OFFALS COLLECTED IN New YORK IN 1898 AND 1899.

Station Sample: Where Ton selling | Station Sample: Where Ton selling
number, collected. price. number. collected. price.

SblenesWlorida. “ncsrerroewe $1:6::00:|: 6850 Weldonn2.ecceen renee $16 00
£3ke Dryden 5.22606 + yes santa = 14).50}|/ 6535.4 SIGNCY a1 Ui. - eros 18 00
LOO MOTELO — aeRO. 20105 1800.) 6765." Kingston -.J2i40s0.cm 18 00

GOD nA SIOMEY thn lob ssic hopes cause ousle oantaneks G8 (esc seu poicncre ier tee gee 18 00

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF MIXED WHEAT OFFALS.

s z. 88
| eS 3 ar
8 $ (Roy Ee ae
2 oe 2.2 8" 9 oeneae
a E S cy 8 6D Ae oe
Per ct. Perct. Perct. Per ct. Perct. Perct. Per ct.
GAINS eS) cles VUiEee om oe Oeoey Creecre 10.34 4.50 15.31 5. 37.4 59.99 4.12
431. Royal wheat feed ...... 8.88 5.04 17.94 7.73 29.3 55.17 5.24
700. Royal wheat feed ...... 10.57 4.95 16.56 9.28 .... 53°64 5200
655. Buckeye wheat feed.... 10.77 5.13 15.38 7.62 .... 55.98 5.12
685. King winter wheat feed. 10.18 6.27 16.63 7.40 .... 54.77 4.75
653. New Eng. mixed feed... 9.88 5.04 15.69 8.13 ....) 66.67 9ocgD
GiG2 Mixed | feed'ye sian eee VOR(6 525 abe 7.26. .... 56.0608 2i8
+

68;(' 2 Mirxed: sfeedis sg Aan ee 10.94

.89 16.13 8.09 ..... 54,;90moa705

Many millers are not separating the various wheat offals, but
are running them together and are selling the mixture under the
term ‘mixed feed” or some proprietary name. The above fig-
ures show a composition such as we would expect these mixtures to
have.

SAMPLES OF WHEAT MippLInes CoLLECTED IN NEw YorkK Durine 1898 AND

1899.

Station Samples: Where Ton selling | Station Samples: Where Ton selling
number. collected. price. number. collected. price.

421,; Union Springs 227. '.ion .eeo 6 67ili.;..- Hobart. 2. te: eee $19 00
4O3 KecDryden sweet. ters tiapt $14 50|675.. Kingston ........... 18 00
AAV 2 COLDING = aeieg s-cetee es 16 00!) 6782. Kingston 7 2: sara 18 00
452.. Hornellsville ........ 14 00 |\680; .Kinoston! >. .’..2. eae 19 00
AGOe aehochester 270 ee ee, (i IED S OC FOTO! matic < -
ATT OR CROV GA “ele e kook en 16/00 | 684... New Paltzisancoead. eee
ASS ae ANIOUET: 5.0.2 oun <lopiiete 16',00,|'689'.... “Albany, jicce amici 20 00
515%... Watertown:* 2... 2 <e0 UG* 00%| :693)..2 "Cobleskall@. = eee oe 19 00

HIIGRe NV AbELUOMT: \<cae iden ons 1800)14,201;.. Uninns =e fee or 19 00

New Yorx AericutruraL Experiment Station. 53
ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF WHEAT MIDDLINGS.

g Habe Uni aos
af : | Se, 3
25 Si $e ES eee aer Se
E ee ta Borg ee ee ee
a 5 < A & a Ee a ed

Per ct. Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct Perct. Per ct.
AN IDG Gt gee ea ae a i 78 18.75 6.07 32.5 55.54 6.09
423. Middlings, Pillsbury’s
DROWN H SIS les ote 8.62 5.10 17.43 10.05 21.2 53.12 5.68
BEE VIO G INES! 6 rts hess) 5 10.69 3.47 17.06 3.45 42.9 60.58 4.75
452. Middlings, Minn. hard ,
PR dtd eitan cate Oa nd 9.97 5.00 18.13 7.58 22.5 53.19 6.13
469. Middlings, winter wheat. 8.56 4.88 19.50 5.71 29.0 54.29 7.06
477. Middlings, western .... 9.66 3.23 15.94 3.95 44.9 62.00 5.23
483. Middlings, winter wheat. 11.41 2.52 14.81 2.60 53.2 64.76 3.90
515. Middlings, western ..... 10.08 4.51 16.06 5.59 33.3 59.18 4.58
516. Middlings, red dog..... 9.44 3.60 20.68 2.45 35.7 58.53 5.30
671. Middlings, red dog..... 9.62) 210 DOTS Ly A 2 sens, O41 9 See
Gfo 9 Middlingsy -....) fi... sits 10.39 4.86 17.63 7.20 54.55 5.37
678. Middlings, daisy b...... 10.78 4.86 18.25 7.44 53.23 5.44
680. Middlings, Adrian ..... 10.612 745 20106 2) 17 59.19 5.23
PST Or IL 10.10 4.08 17.19 . 6.34 56.22 6.07
Mee. MaOGlIngs wo. ost. ce es 9.94 4.48 19.81 5.92 53.63 6.22
BSo.-Nddlings 6.5 bi. a0s su, 10.14 4.10 18.00 5.66 56.50 5.60
693. Middlings, shorts ...... 17297 T3883 55d 59.43 5.44
Gel? WMiddlimgsy since) oye. 9.63 2.39 15.31 2.64 66.25 3.78
VAN ENA DESI LY, craleiay cha ae 10.00 3.85 17.41 5.15 58.01 5.58
Average starch and .
SURAT a ST Ples oS recat (a alc hy Se aes eae wre Eee US ease

With the exception of sample No. 671, the composition of the
middlings does not exhibit any unusual variations. The explana-
tion of the variations which occur in bran apply equally to mid-
dlings. The latter appear to be fully the equal of the former in
uniformity and reliability. The middlings as found in New York
seem to differ from the brans in containing on the average mate-
rially more protein, and as is to be expected, more starch, the
proportion of fiber being less. Digestion experiments, so far
conducted, leave no doubt as to the greater digestibility of the
middlings, a conclusion which is entirely consistent with related
facts. Why, then, bran should be an apparently more popular
dairy feeding stuff than middlings is not clear. There are sub-
stantial reasons for believing that the popular judgment is in error,
a statement which is worthy the attention of dairymen.

It is recognized, of course, that so-called middlings are some-
times a catch-all for inferior refuse materials, and if this condition

of affairs is found to be prevalent in New York it may be necessary

54 Report or tur DerparrMent or ANIMAL HuSBANDRY OF THE

to bring these goods under the provisions of the feeding stuff
law, in order that they may be inspected.

HOMINY FEED OR CHOP.

The hominy which is manufactured for human consumption
consists of the hard part of the maize kernel. The hull and
germ together with more or less of the starchy portions of the
kernel make up the waste of hominy manufacture, and are known
as hominy feed or chop.

This material differs somewhat from corn meal in composition,
the starch being less, the fiber and fat somewhat more, and the
protein about the same, yet nutritively speaking, corn meal and
hominy feed are not greatly unlike.

Moreover, hominy feed appears to be quite uniform in compo-
sition, as is shown by the analyses which are given in this con-
nection.

SAMPLES OF Hominy FEEDS CoLLECTED IN NEw YorK During 1898 AND 1899.

S ation Samples: * Where Ton selling | Station Samples: Where Ton selling
number. collected. * price. number. collected. price.

Doi) AN OLWwiCharaate.c cs aareteets $16 00) | 546... Middletown -. 32.7 ssn
GVA Sirs Meh Cb it atcanetie meee cea o GIS Loa D oe 550 sioo Ploridaig tres, quece eens $14 50
DOS my SOMONE cakcsshs iuetleyegensie( 15100) (6525 ‘Sidney: jac eee 19 00
534.. Whitney’s Point ..... U6GS5O01(GG9o. (Deliver ae eee 18 00
BS faxes es GOD OV An fa .icvauetenysce eke 14500) | 6747) Hobart. vac eee 20 00

g B. £8
E 5 Fg
ga Bs. Be. Boute oaeeeee
E Sg ©) BY) el Se
a E < .¥ fe a BP
Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Per ct.
Hoi. LlOmimy) feed! + )- > Sayeed -13 3.11 10.94 4.59 41.7 66.31 8.92
5264 Hominy, feed) 22... 2). 7.76 3.03 10.75 4.42 42.9 64.63 9.41
528 "Hominy feed ny. 6.60 2.44 10.38 3.44 52.9 70.47 6.67
534. Hominy feed .......... 9.70 2.32, 10.25, 3.63, 50.8, 67.27 6288
53/.) Hominy feed 7. -.>.%... 10.56 2.26 10.37 4.35 45.8 65.88 6.58
546. sHominyrieed i205. 26 8.71 2.48 10.63 3.85 45.1 66.90 7.43
550: Hlominy,-meal 2.02: + 8.28 2.77 10.81 4.43 42.9 65.27 8.44
652. Hominy feed .......... 10.19 2.47 10.69 3.80 .... 64.52 8:33
669. Hominy, Hudnut’s ..... 10.28 3.37 J7.69 4.83... 5 goonOOe sani
674.« Hominy feed. 2 =. 2.2 2. 10.14 2.88 10.56 4.64 .... 62.85 8.93

Averages, excluding No.
GEO. 2 LHe. Si eas 8.83 2.71 10.60 4.20 .... 65.22 7.73
Average starch and ‘
Bugar, 7 Bamples. 5) ls. i4' aad) AES ote 7 LAG OU ORS

New Yorx AGricutturaAL ExprERIMENT STATION.

2
Or

MIXED FEEDS.

There has appeared in the feeding stuff trade during recent
years a class of materials which, as a rule, are mixtures either of
some cereal grain with certain manufacturers’ by-products or of
two or more by-products. To these are applied a variety of
names, often of a proprietary character, some of which give no
hint of the nature of the mixture, and others, if taken for their
face value, indicate the sources of the ingredients. If these
mixtures were always made up wholly of high grade materials,
they would need less attention than they now really demand.
As a matter of fact, many of them are found to contain a con-
stituent of very inferior value, viz.: oat hulls, a by-product from
the manufacture of breakfast foods. Not only have large manu-
facturing establishments used these hulls in compounding
mixtures, but some local millers in the State of New York have
bought them to grind with corn and sometimes with mill wastes,

“mixed feed,” “corn and oat

the mixed product being sold as
feed,” “chop feed,” and so on. To quite an extent, at least,
farmers have been ignorant of the real nature of these feeds, and
as this Station has abundant evidence, have paid for them prices
equal to the cost of whole corn and oats. If our millers have been
aware of the inferiority of oat hull mixtures, and have sold such
goods to consumers who were ignorant of what they were buying,
it is charitable to say no more than that the rules of an honorable
business policy have been severely violated.

In order that there may be no misapprehension as to the real
character of oat hulls, attention is called to their composition and
their relation to the kernel.

It was found at the Ohio Experiment Station that with 69
varieties of oats the hull constituted from 24.6 per ct. to 35.2 per
ct. of the weight of the grain, the average being 30 per ct. From
other sources we learn what is the composition of the dry matter of
the whole grain, the hulls and the hull-less kernels.

56 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

ANALYSES OF OATS, OAT HuLLS AND OAT KERNELS.

Nitrogen-
Ash. Protein. Fiber. free Fat.

extract.
Whole grain, 30 samples ........... 3.4'. 13/2" ‘10585 6758 5.6
Flulls, '3-SRIQples. 6. ssc since es os «cuca oe 7.3 3.4 37.2 650.8 1.3
Hulled kernels, 179 samples ........ 2.3. As: LB Tee 8.7

The lesson to be drawn from these figures is clear, which is
They have
but little protein and a large proportion of woody fiber, nearly as

that oat hulls are the inferior portion of the grain.
much as oat straw. The kernels are the easily digestible and
nutritious portion of the oat grains and are surrounded by the
tough, woody hulls, which in whatever light we regard them can
hardly have a greater value for feeding purposes than straws.
Below can be seen the prices and composition of a considerable
number of these mixed feeds, not all of which, however, contain

oat offals.

SAMPLES OF VARIOUS Oat FEEDS AND MIXED FEEDS, PROPRIETARY AND OTHER-
WISE, COLLECTED IN New York Durine 1898 Anp 1899.

Station Sample: Where Selling | Station Sample: Where Selling
number. collected. price. | number. coll: cted. price.
COA Seapieiuerle senna ney tees pes ol 4bc AT2.-7..\GOnevay = \s.2.2) eet-pe ee $20 00
649.. Binghamton .... $20 00'| 480. Geneva: 2:2... o-peae 15 00
43a> Pe SMUtHbDOTOl. 254-8 ise gerd. ie 482. Auburn:...4}.'ssieieae 19 00
COS S05 th ain 20 00) 492.. Syracuse. -:- 32. eee 16 00
266...) Buttalo: © 2c. 5-.. co ncweks 16°00) 497 2-Fulton 22 eo-<ieeee 25 00
“OO GEE toh Mic aa Aer Fo ONC OIFOHEE. 6. EOTO 548.) (Syracuse o. a ye eee 15 00
EPAAT MES MIAN RUS otic nee eae ae ase 15 00°)'677.. Kangsten' 2) 325" eee 17 50
419. >) IMON POPLIN OS. re pete te ails 695)... Oneontar ca. eee 18 00
ET St MG ONCV A re cys c s,01 3 sip et 15 °00'|/ 697-5 Oneonta, (sce ce: creme 18 00
BOT 22 Palast oo. 52 bhes 15 .00:| 703... Owege «sic 5.00). +): sea 19 00
GSU wNiew Paltz 2 7 .5.s20 ee 1600)) 704.3055 s60 o.c% wccters © =jeiey= « 2g0e nr
5O3 5 Oswego. item: Te 15.00 | 542: ‘Middletown =. ..3- fie epee
G54 eBid neyiuet soe. ie ots ese 20 00/648.. Binghamton ......... 20 00
G6Se> Welhif:t2. ABE SEG. 16 00)|'554.. 0; Vlorida=..3- 2-26 eee 12 00
AD OM VN ACKOT coe mays s/3a0- rs 0 eels 657.. Sidney Center ....... 19 00
pat. Middletown © ici. o<.stiuts see 420.. Union Springs ...... ..----
AAA ® COFNING 92 fat Sas yokes 16 00|650.. Binghamton ......... 16 00
Zt ESI 8c 0 en ie rage 15 00

$$ nS ee

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 57

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF VARIOUS OAT FEEDS, AND MIxep FEEDS, PROPRIE-
TARY AND OTHERWISE.

Water.
h
Protein,
Fiber
Starch
Total nitro-
gen-free ex-
tract.
t

: Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct.
425. H. O. stand. dairy food. 8.41 3.14 17.50 10.43 31.7 55.31 5.21
649. H. O. stand. dairy food. 7.92 3.49 16.31 12.59 .... 55.40 4.29

PAWERE RGA Sesion tr 5 otek $8.17 3.31. 16.90 11.51... 22 55.36) 4.75

Ne

——

433. H. O. stand. horse food. 8.64 3.37 11.69 10.26 36.7 62.35 3.69
679. H. O. stand. horse food. 9.27 3.29 10.69 11.00 .... 61.49 4.26

MEERDE oa sca ee = = 3.00. 3-00 LV.19''10-63- 2.02 6EL92 3.97

SS —

Gate H. 0. feeds... oc. 5.20 « 9. : 5 :
iy OR 2 OS 8 eee 9.28 3.41 9.19 10.23 39.0 63.54 4.35
Pera Oi fCOG: «65.0. 5 53 ctevers ei 8 3

9

ee ——=——

419. Quaker oat feed ....... 8.10 5.17 11.31 16.33 26:5 55.40 3.69
473. Quaker oat feed ....... 6:20 -5.33 10.69 17.29 25.6 57.08 3.41
507. Quaker oat feed ....... 7.96 4°85 9.31 16.66. 20.5 58.23" 2599
681. Quaker oat feed ....... 132Sr 5 30 LIE SORA DEAT eas 6. Oe aS

PRMOREUGE sce orceiee omnis 7.37 5.16 10.70 16.39 27.2 56.82 3.56

aaa OOO SSS SSO

bOSe Victor seed es 8). Os 9.49 3.43 8.56 10.78 38.9 63.63 4.11
654. Victor corn and oats.... 9 livvoctay (9-25. ED 56) 2... 104-05 oo’
668. Victor corn and oats.... S294 3760 46 Gon, 12 20) e 64.60 3.03

RETA MO Sas orcpehcin «ators. OE ZO asa Odes ls oN 64.09 3.56
432. Corn and oat feed ..... 8.18 3.35 9.37 9.84 42.1 64.93 4.33
544.° Corn and oat feed ..... 9.91 3:08 (7.56. 1Lai1 35-2. 64.28 . 3.46

2 ee 9.04 3.22 8.46 10.78 38.6 64.61 3.89
ee SED FOO) n'a 28 of 20 5,5 2 9.92 2.73 8.44 6.56 44.1 68.25 4.10
PRO, SORE ne cae eo owe 9.14 ° 3°57" $50 “10.97 138.9" 63.92 3290
OAR, 03; 07 ie <5 a ere LI03).42 365, 14519. 762d Getsl Oy Gls lonso. 02

58 Report orf THE DepaARTMENT oF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES — Continued.

5 3. gs
5 4 8
a fo. 2 § 32 gee
é s $) @ 2°93 32
Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct.
ARDS AChOD: SOCG 3. naka ares 13:04.2.17 11.38 4.72 42.5 65730eenes
4025 Chop steed (2. hk. thie a8 10.99 2.06 10.44 5.57 40.6 66.56 4.38
402-3 Chopiteed >... seteistt<- ele 9.11 2.938 7.81 8.84 43.7 67.92 3.39
407... Chop feed j4).)essan ee 11.30 1.92 9.81 5.51 51.2 66.90 4.56
G48 > Choprieed soi. 3d. air 8.97 2.85 8.63 8.13 42.8 68.07 3.35
Gti Ohop-feed-ass\sacaa ei 11:38 3.32 6.56 12.82 ..... G&Baeoae
605... Chop feed -2)..5.. 5...0.0:¢0\ 9.92 3.59 7.19 14.16 62.46 2.68
Gor. Chop feed. ovis nace ate « 9.07 3.57 8.63 12.18 62.80 3.75
TS COROT) TORO) 5 sexes axes apne 10514) Dao. Salis» Tae -- 61.98 5.12
TOE, NGHOP TRCN me. aoa seriea gn me 8.60 3.07 8.56 9.71 ....- GO; Gauaee
542. Chop feed oats ........ 5.34 6.43 4.56 29.74 8.7 52.26 1.67
Average of chop feed,
excluding last analy-
BIS ce btaieta a oe 10.06 2.81 9.23 9.27 42.7 64.84 3.79
648% 1.0. defi. feed i278 §.54 3.91 8.50 14.78 .... GI2aeaaee
Bpas ea secede. Prose. sss) 6.72 6.15 6.31 24.31 15.0 54.02 2.49
657. Schumaker’s stock food,
corn, oats and barley.. 8.83 3.41 12.69 7.53 .... 62.48 5.06
420. Corn, oat and _ barley
Ree 23h. oy bre 9.09 1.47 11.19 9.93 36.7 63.95 4.37
G50° Wiieat feed. ic 3. 2/0. 9.22 4.04 11.00 16.56 .... 56.09) 3:09

It is important to properly interpret the facts displayed in the
above tables in their practical relations to the stockman. It is to
be noted in the first place that the prices of these various mixed
feeds are in many cases fully equal to what a mixture of whole
corn and oats would have cost at the time the samples were taken.
This being so, it is fair to inquire whether the by-product com-
binations of the class we are discussing are equal in value to the
entire cereal grains. The principal fact to be considered in this
connection is that nearly all of the feeds mentioned above contain
a generous proportion of oat. offals, largely hulls. This is shown
in two ways, viz.: by the high proportion of woody fiber and by
the low protein content. Oats contain more fiber than any other

New York AGricuntuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 59

cereal grain except buckwheat, the average percentage in thirty
samples of American oats being 9.5 per ct.

In 26 cases out of 34 the fiber content of- these mixtures, as
shown above, is larger than that in average oats and in 16 in-
stances it ranges between 11.0 and 29.7 per ct. Moreover, a
majority of these feeds contain quite a proportion of corn, or
perhaps hominy waste, material, which has a very low fiber con-
tent, averaging not over 2 per ct. It is clear that a mixture of
the entire grains of corn and oats which does not carry less fiber
than the oats, is impossible, and inversely it is equally plain that
combinations of corn and of oat offals with as large and generally
much larger, percentage of fiber than is found in pure oats must
contain more oat hulls than belong with the oat kernels present,
That this is true of many of these feeding stuff mixtures is shown
by a mere mechanical examination without resorting to a chem-
ical analysis. Some of them must contain not less than 50 Ibs.
of oat hulls per hundred pounds. The low proportion of protein
is also evidence of a convincing character. In 20 out of the 34
samples, the protein content is below what would ever be the case
with a mixture of whole corn and oats, a condition which is
brought about by the small proportion of protein in the oat hulls
present.

In certain brands an amount of some highly nitrogenous feeding
stuff like cotton-seed meal or gluten meal is found, the object of
its use being to bring up the protein content to the standard of
wheat bran. This certainly improves the feed, but at the same
time the presence of high quality ingredients adds nothing to the
value of the inferior constituents. Grinding corn with oat hulls,
for instance, may not injure the corn but it does not improve the
hulls. They are still hulls and retain all their characteristics as
a feeding stuff.

In order te ascertain the effect upon digestibility of introducing
oat feed into a feeding stuff mixture, an experiment has been con-
ducted at this Station with sheep, using as the experimental feed-

60 Report or THE DerparTMENT or ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

ing stuff an oat feed sold in the State of New York. The results

were as follows:

DIGESTION EXPERIMENT WITH OAT FEED.

DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS.

ese 3
ANIMALS. gs g as
~ . toe
P98 8 gi eee
i) ° ve) -~ © »
aye So a i
Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Pere
Bieop Nee SD tidak «ceeds a awe Saee 59 60 81 37 61 92
re AE Ge eo Pay iw eee 57 59 84 31 60 92
Average for oat feed ........... 58 59.5 82.5 33 60.5 92
Average for whole oats, German |
PAB, ics 36 ha 2) - Pattyn Bit dos Aleta es Ses fa sleds iS 25.6 76.8 83.5
Average for maize kernels ...... a Caer f 58 93.3 85.5

The organic matter represents the total amount (ash excepted)
of nutritive compounds which are utilized by an animal in main-
taining and building the body and it appears that the whole oats
furnish about 12 lbs. and maize 31 lbs. more of this per hundred
than the oat feed. Besides, the material coming from the entire
grains is of better quality, being made up more largely of protein
and the easily digestible carbohydrates.

THE CARBOHYDRATES OF MIXED FEEDS AND OTHER FEEDING STUFFS.

The superiority of the dry matter of the cereal grains over
that of the coarse fodders is generally recognized. This fact is due
to two causes, viz: (1) The greater extent and (2) the greater ease
of digestion of the grains as compared with the fodders. In this
connection the carbohydrates are of first importance, in point of
quantity at least. These compounds differ among themselves in
their digestibility to a marked extent. The sugars and starches,
under normal conditions are promptly and completely digested,
while the gums, fiber and other less well known substances are

New Yorx AGricutturaL Experiment Station. 61

only partially dissolved in the digestive juices. It follows, then,
other things being equal, that the larger the proportion of starch
and sugar in the nitrogen-free extract of a feeding stuff the more
completely is it digested.

It also follows that when any manufacturing or other process
reduces the proportion of sugars and starch in any grain or other
material, the digestibility, and consequently the nutritive value
of its non-nitrogenous part, is diminished. We have good rea-
son for believing too, that the net value of that which is digested
is less than would be the case if the proportion of starch and
sugar had not been reduced.

While the digestion products of fiber and gums are undoubtedly
oxidized quite fully and perhaps furnish to the animal their full
calorimetric value (except a small proportion of expiratory methan
supposed to come from the fiber) the elaborate researches of Zuntz
leave little doubt that their net value is less than digested sugars
and starch. This is because the work of mastication and digestion
of the former is greater.

As a matter of illustration we may refer to the great superiority
of corn meal over timothy hay in point of digestibility, the ex-
planation of which is in accordance with the facts just stated.
The nitrogen-free extract of maize is mostly starch, the accom-
panying fiber being insignificant in amount whereas in timothy
hay there is found a small proportion of sugars and starch, while
gums, fiber and other less digestible compounds are abundant.

Moreover, because of the more resistant qualities of the hay to
mastication and propulsion along the alimentary canal, it costs
more to digest it than is the case with maize and other grains.
Practice recognizes these facts in its estimate of the grains as

against the fodders.

62 Report or Tur DerpartMENT oF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

The point of this discussion will be seen when we come to con-
sider the figures in the following table.

CARBOHYDRATE RELATIONS IN Dry MATTER OF SEVERAL FEEDING STUFFS.

a. a ee
a Ag ays «6S aS
be fof uscx mmeos
5 & ae) Zure Aches
The Oil Meals: Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct
Cotton- seed meal Wises! vets ele le 16 27.9 57.4 50
Timeecdmmes| Os see ye alhe are etsias Bin 39.2 33.7 78
TAMSCCM MCA MING Pn aiicrs hes cleus sarees 20.8 40.8 51 84
The Gluten Products: ’
Gehubeneem Call inci Nepesousl ee recsistosaevere eke 38.2 49.8 76.7 93
Buffalo gluten feed ..../..0.2...% 27 3 58.3 46.8 84
Davenport gluten feed ............ 29.8 60.9 48.9 aa
Diamond gluten feed ............. 31.6 61.6 51.3 x
Joliet selutens Teed ye way )o eres 34 66 51.5 56
Peoria piuten feed: 24. sa hG er 28.9 59.8 48.3 90
Mania SO ROUMES). evops cictn <:Sopsveoisicbtiecs ale 23. 1 49.6 46.6 69
iBuckowiteat muddlings S252. sacs ete ee 27.3 48.3 56.5 se
WHOA GED RAR wsfehant' ty acters ihe, Pahet esl aes 23.6 60.5 39 69
Wyiteat emg dns vivelonstacs tate creiee 38.8 64.2 60.4 85
Honiuniys feeds “oii xp bisinists Aa -taedeis ie 50.1 G2 68.9 Or
EON dairy steed. jas ose ecieaeetgsayor 34.6 60.4 57.3 St
Oataieed Rio Sihe sche a eee antic bts oak ae 29.4 61.5 47.8 60
Victorvleed oi cwia ont. an eak cen 43 70.3 61.2 EA:
Whopeteeds cist: cher. Site Noses teen 47.5 73.5 64.6
SLEW OET Br elera Wee eae otee Meera fara at a iene, hc 16.1 57.9 27.8
Wheat, entire grain, Stone ......... 57.9 CUS 74.6
Wheat, entire grain, Wiley ......... 72.5 78.5 92.4 we
Maize, entire grain, Stone .......... 66 78 84.6 93
Oats, entire grain, Wiley ........... 50-9 66.3 76.8 83
Mixture, maize and oats, equal parts.. 58.4 (ees 81 ;

Many of the materials mentioned above when compared with
the grains from which they are derived show a depletion of sugars
and starch and a corresponding relative increase in the nitrogen-
free extract of the less valuable compounds. ‘This is especially
true of the wheat offals, the gluten feeds and the oat feed mixtures.
In the case of the one sample of gluten meal examined the starch
still constituted a large proportion of the nitrogen-free extract.
The chop feeds and other similar combinations contain as a rule
quite a proportion of corn, that furnishes nearly all the starch which
is found in these mixtures. Such materials as the X Oat Feed and

New York AqricuLtturRAL Experiment STarTion. 63

oat chop No. 542 have in them but little starch, these being nearly
pure oat offals.

These facts are in harmony with the outcome of digestion ex-
periments, from which we learn that the nitrogen-free extract
of the whole grains is much more digestible than that of most of
the manufacturing wastes which come from them, as can be seen
by the figures in the right hand column of the above table.

Some “mixed feeds” apparently are compounded and
advertised on the assumption that feeding stuffs are to be compared
in value solely on the basis of their percentage of protein and fat.
This is a false basis. The quality of the accompanying carbo-
hydrates must always be considered. For instance it would not
be difficult to simulate the composition of corn meal or of wheat
middlings by mixing oat hulls with some of the old style linseed
meal, adding a little crushed linseed to make up the deficiency of
fat. But would the mixture equal corn meal in value? By no
means. In one case the protein and fat would be associated with
woody fiber in large proportion, and in the other case with little
else than starch. The net value of the corn meal would be much
above that of the mixture as measured by the extent and labor
of digestion.

It is quite clear to the writer that those teachers who publish
tables or estimates of feeding stuff comparative values based wholly
upon the protein content are misleading the agricultural public
and furnishing to manufacturers a justification for false claims.

The relation of oat offals to one class of feeding stuffs has been
discussed somewhat at length, because it is proper for farmers to
understand its significance. They have a right to know the
nature and value of what they are buying, a statement to which
no legitimate trade interest will take exception.

MISCELLANEOUS FEEDING STUFES.

The succeeding table gives the analyses of a number of materials

of some interest.

64 Report or tur Department or ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

MISCELLANEOUS FEEDING STUFFs.

Station Sample: Where Tonselling | Station Sample; Where Ton selling
number. collected. price. number. collected. price.
558... Fayetteville): ii. is feb cn 512.. Watertown ...... $18 00
ASBe ) AS VTACUSC ciate a oles $12 00 |520.. Norwich ......... 24 00
BOSC nOs wees: Aah el) 12 00) 560... Owego «isd, bee 10 20
532.. Binghamton ......... 15 00/506.. Oswego ...:..5.5.. .10 bu:
oat 5 Rochester: <42)°t)o2 HP. 12 50| 547.. Fair Haven ....:. 4 00
GOL. s FSeg fe the natu hep 18 00) 725.. Gouverneur 5.5%)... eee
691.. Central Bridge ...... 17 00|726.. Jordon... 5.52.0 oe
ANALYSES OF MISCELLANEOUS FEEDING STUFFS.
aa wie 3
PI 42
Z oo
§5 oy 2 Q Pa} £%
Be =. es 3. 3 S)) pee
cS os =
a E 4 a Oo B & i
Per ct. Per ct poner Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct
OSs MO NEAL tiewcicc. eens 10.71 S45 22-61-1356 48.51 1.16
488. Malt skimmings ....... 6.16 3.49 ane 7.93 44.2 64.10 2.82
505. Malt skimmings ....... 7.24 3.43 13.19 8.41 44.6 65.01 2572
AVETAEE 25 Seles cne ss 6.70 3.46 14.35 8.17 44.4 64.55 2.77
bo2s Rye feedic: in caste sate is 11.68 4.39 15.00 4.99 28.2 60.38 3.56
Halt! Rye feed et 1902 Peo. 12.65 2.69 14.13 2.93 39.5 64.66 2.94
Gols Rye feed: sis cst cece cece 10.28 4.038 15.19; 5.62 232. GIRO meaeee
GOT? ‘Rye ‘teed ss te. feee toe oe 12.22 3.76 15.56 4.63 60.50 3.33
AVETAQE: © .\s%c)s'ein'efes c's 11.70 3.72 14.97 4.54 33.8 61.82 3.25
512. Scorched wheat ........ 10.08: .1.79,.12.138 2.17 55:4 JAggs see
520. Scorched wheat ........ 10.12 1.80 11.94 2.07 59.1 72528 Sve
720. Sugar corn feed ....... 9.96 0.93 11.25 11.91 .... 60.83 5.12
506. Starch feed, wet........ 65.7 0.23 4.25 -2.57 11.6 2373e eee
Starch feed, air dry..... 3.57 0.67 12.37 7.50 33.8 66.07 9.82
547. “Gluten” feed, wet.. 58.2 0.31 4.99 4.13 11.9 Zi G24 ie
“Gluten” feed, air dry... 1.98 0.75 11.94 9.89 26.8 64.08 11.36
725. Clover meal for poultry. 6.49 6.13 9.63 28.31 .... 46.21 3.23
726. Clover meal for poultry. 8.90 6.23 10.38 28.49 .... 43.18 2.82

Several points connected with the above analyses are worthy of

attention.

The malt skimmings are seen to be quite unlike other brewer's
residues, in having a low protein content.

Rye feed, about which questions are frequently asked, corre-
sponds quite closely in composition to wheat offals.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 65

Attention is called to the low protein content of certain feeds
which are refuses from starch manufacture. These are not unlike
corn meal in the proportion of their constituents and should not
be confounded with gluten meals and feeds.

The composition of clover hay is not modified by erinding. So

long as cut clover hay is fed successfully to poultry the advantage
of paying from $20 to $30 or more per ton for having it ground is

not clear.
|

CONDIMENTAL FOODS.

There is found very prevalent in our markets a class of sub-
stances bearing the term “food” that are noted chiefly for being
sold in small packages at remarkable prices, on the strength of
claims which are sometimes startling even in this time of daily
miracles as set forth in the advertising columns of our newspapers.
These proprietary wonders are usually marvelous both in their
nutritive and their healing effects, for if one may believe the
statements concerning some of them, they are remarkably loaded
with nutritive energy and the diseases they will not cure would
be highly interesting to the veterinarian as pathological novel-
ties. It is most surprising to find after being told that the effect
of these “foods” is to enrich milk, produce bovine obesity with
remarkable rapidity and banish disease, that so far no one of them
has been examined that is not made up largely of some common
grain product mixed with more or less of the commonest of
drugs and other substances having little curative value, nearly
all of which of any merit whatever may be found on the pantry
‘shelf or in the horse stable of many farms. It is strange, too, that
farmers have not long ago discovered for themselves, if it is true,
that when bran or some other common feeding stuff is com-
pounded with the equally common charcoal, salt, sulphur, salt-
petre, fenugreek, etc., the nutritive power of the food is greatly
enhanced and the drug takes on unheard of curative properties.
Nevertheless we are asked to believe that such is the case. No

5

66 Report or rut DerartMent or ANIMAL HusBanpry OF THE

evidence of the accuracy of these unusual properties is furnished,
save the usual list of testimonials, the reliability of which may be
judged in the light of the fact that some of the most absurd im-
positions ever perpetrated on the public have been abundantly
approved by similar evidence. Years ago, Lawes & Gilbert con-
demned patent foods at the prices for which they are sold, and
important experiments conducted in recent years have not fur-
nished the least justification of their purchase by stockmen,
Farmers may accept with perfect confidence this statement, viz.:
that there are no nutritive properties, compounds or influences yet
discovered which are not possessed by the common feeding stuffs,
neither is it possible to increase for well animals the nutritive
effect of protein and carbohydrates by associating with them any
compounds or drugs whatever.

As to the medicinal value of condimental foods, it may be safely
asserted that well animals, properly fed, need no medicine, and
sick animals should receive treatment specifically adapted to their
ailments. Universal preventives and curealls of diseases are un-
known and are believed in only by those who are ignorantly cred-
ulous. More than this, many of the constituents of condimental
foods have no recognized curative value.

But notwithstanding all that has been said again and again to
the farming public concerning condimental foods, they still find a
sale. Not less than fifteen brands have been examined at this
Station during the past two years, all of which were found in the
New York markets. Their analyses from a food standpoint follow.

SAMPLES OF PATENT Foops COLLECTED IN NEw YorK DuRING 1898 AND 1899,

Station Sample: Where Price per | Station Sample: Where Price per
number. collected. pound. / number. co lected. pound
AAS S) UORDING: |, ia, Gilder (eee 459... “Dansville... s.mcne $0 131-3
4467, Corning =...) ..566h $0 20 4605. ° Mts (Morrisit s. oe 06 1-4
448.. Hornellsville ...... 05 46). Mts; Morris:.g. ee 10
450.. Hornellsville ...... 25 462i. Butlalove® .jee eee 50
45>. Hornellsville,.:..:.. OF 223) 4850. sce. So Acres t ee teeeenemtiat ene aa eee
456... Canisted .< . «ons v~ 25 BOD: ies, a es eee ma ee 15
AST. . Dansville $f 126-0 18 De Dies Sus) nc erates heen ee é

458), Dansville: <1. 6s. .0 10 1-2

New York AGricutTuRAL ExprRIMENT STATION. 67

ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF PATENT Foops.

. } . Lo} .
Pa a 5 a 23)
Q a. 2 pe S
ae 3 & G 2 =e
= he ow
eA 2 ; haa Ss asi tT ee
$ =) a r=] = op 0 ae
8 I bi = 3 +
io) e < 2) 1S) 1) <2)

Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Per ct.
445. Flower city horse and cattle food. 9.27 11.29 14.37 9.70 21.0 5.12

446. International stock food ....... 8:13. (9:92. 13:88)" 15.68 Zion 7-9
448. Blatchford’s calf meal ......... TAZ Varia (265181 14523 *22spera56
Eee INMIIETITOLOMEC 2, 6) cite veis, 4 cleue deste severe, « 6:90" ZO 2221 9n v4 GA 2S here hes
ane eratts cattle “food's... 02.6122 4.25 "6536" 14.56 9 '5278" 35:4- °° 7:58

456. Rochester horse and cattle food. 8.00 8.19 18.44 10.59 21.5 3.61
457. Anglo-American food for stock.. 7.20 13.28 15.50 7.86 25.8 4.85

Ao apCmiina OOM Ten 26 oh Woe te 124. 21 09)) 9:94) PAA G72 Oo 5S*
459. Colonial stock food ............ (2a ole OS le sie Oe OS) Seo
460. Royal stock food .............. 5.56 44.07. 11.25 9.73 13.7 3.52
461. Baums’ horse and stock food.... 8.05 10.87 27.81 13.00 9.2 7.75
462. Chas. Marvin stock food ....... 8.26 5.97 30.94 10.63 18.2 4.28
Aspe ebriplex. stocks food) =.. 2). ders avere iLO 12055 U5ts) 6:31 28:8) 75166
502. Champion horse and cattle food. 8.99 14.40 10.69 4.74 41.2 4.68
Aon Viki burs seed: meal’). sped srs sees 7:13, 12:16; 20:00 \ 8:18)520:9 V5.63

Tn these mixtures were found’as the principal constituent some
common feeding stuff like bran or other wheat offals, corn offals,
linseed meal, and so on. The special ingredients added ostensibly
for medicinal effect, were found to include charcoal, fenugreek,
gentian, sulphur, salt, saltpeter, sodium sulphate, iron compounds
and pepper.

Particular attention is called to the prices at which these
“foods” are sold. The range is from $100 te $590 per ton, which
is at least from $70 to $470 per ton more than the materials
are worth for food purposes. It may be claimed, as some of the
manufacturers urge, that these mixtures should be regarded as
medicines. Even if this is true the farmer who wishes to ad-
minister any of these common substances to his animals can do so
at a small fraction of their cost in condimental foods by purchasing
them as drugs and then mixing them with the grain ration as he
wishes. For the promoters of these mixtures to claim that they
have any knowledge of compounds and compeunding not common
to veterinary medicine is charlatanism in its most offensive form.

Blatchford’s calf meal is advertised as a food of great value.

* Mostly sulphur.

68 Report oF THE DeparTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

Director Woods of the Maine Station gave this product a careful
examination and his report concerning it includes the following
statements.

“These goods were sent to an expert on food mixtures and
adulterations at the Connecticut Experiment Station who reports
as follows: ‘I have examined Blatchford’s calf meal under the
microscope and find it contains linseed meal, some product from
the wheat kernel, some product from the bean kernel and a little
fenugreek. The linseed meal appears to be the chief constituent.
The wheat product is bran, middlings or some similar product con-
sisting of starchy matter mixed with more or Jess of the seed coats.
Bean bran was present in considerable amount and more or less of
the starchy matter.’

“Tn a letter just at hand from Mr. J. Barwell, the proprietor of
these goods, he says: ‘ Regarding the ingredients, I cannot give
you the exact constituents of it, but I may say that it is composed
mostly of locust bean meal with leguminous seeds such as lentils,
etc., and oleaginous seeds such as flax-seed, fenugreek and anise
seed, all cleaned, hulled and ground together and thoroughly
well cooked. There is no cheap mill food and no low grade feed
enters into this composition. I am prepared to go into any court
in the United States and make an affidavit that there is no farmer
in the United States that can compound Blatchford’s calf meal
for less than $3.50 per hundred.’

“Locust bean meal which Mr. Barwell claims to be the chief
constituent of Blatchford’s calf meal is practically not used in this
country as a cattle feed. The average of ten English and Ger-
man analyses show it to carry: Water, 14.96 per ct.; ash, 2.53
per ct.; protein, 5.86 per ct.; crude fiber, 6.39 per ct.; nitrogen-
free-extract, 68.98 per ct.; fat, 1.28 per ct.

“It is evident from the chemical analyses that locust bean meal
ean not be the chief constituent of Blatchford’s calf meal, but that
the microscopist is correct that linseed meal is the chief constituent.
Locust. bean meal has only six per cent of protein and in order to
make a mixture carrying from twenty-six to thirty-three per ct.

New Yorx AcricunrtTuRAL Experiment Sration. 69

of protein it would be necessary to add large quantities of goods
like linseed meal rich in protein. As seen from the analyses
Blatchford’s calf meal has a feeding value somewhat inferior to
old process linseed meal. Whatever it may cost to manufacture,
no man who has sufficient intelligence to mix feeds can afford to
buy it at anything like the price asked.”

In the light of this information the farmers of New York must
decide whether they can afford to pay at the rate of $100 per ton
for materials no more valuable than those which are generally
offered in our markets at ordinary prices. Special mention is made
of this feed because it is sold for distinctively food purposes and
because, prices considered, it perhaps does the farmer’s pocket-
book as little harm as any other food mentioned in the above
list, and less than all excepting No. 462. At the same time it
typifies all those efforts here discussed of mixing common ma-
terials and selling them under extraordinary names at extraordinary

prices.

CONCENTRATED FEEDING STUFFS LAW.

Laws or New York, Cuap. 510.

AN ACT to amend the agricultural law, regulating the sale and

analysis of concentrated feeding stuffs. .

Became a law May 3, 1899, with the approval of the Governor.
Passed, three-fifths being present.

The People of the State of New York, represented mn Senate and
Assembly, do enact as follows:
Section 1. Chapter three hundred and thirty-eight of the laws
of eighteen hundred and ninety-three, entitled, ‘ An act in rela-
tion to agriculture, constituting articles one, two, three, four and

five of chapter thirty-three of the general laws,” is hereby amended
by adding at the end thereof a new article to be known as article

nine, and to read as follows:

70 Report or THE DEPARTMENT oF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

Artiotr IX,

SALE AND ANALYSIS OF CONCENTRATED COMMERCIAL FEEDING
STUFES.

Section 120. Term “ concentrated commercial feeding stuffs” de-
fined.
121. Statements to be attached to packages; contents;
analysis.
122. Statements to be filed with director of agricultural
experiment station; to be accompanied by sample.

123. License fee.

124. Analysis to be made by director of experiment sta-
tion; samples to be taken for analysis.

125. Penalty for violation of article.

126. Sale of adulterated meal or ground grains; penalty.

127. Violation to be reported to the commissioner of agri-
culture.

§ 120. Term “ concentrated commercial feeding stuff” defined.
— The term “ concentrated commercial feeding stuffs” as used in
this article shall include linseed meals, cottonseed meals, pea-meals,
cocoanut meals, gluten meals, gluten feeds, maize feeds, starch
feeds, sugar feeds, dried brewer’s grains, malt sprouts, hominy
feeds, cerealine feeds, rice meals, oat feeds, corn and oat chops,
ground beef or fish scraps, mixed feeds, and all other material of
similar nature; but shall not include hays and straws, the whole
seeds nor the unmixed meals made directly from the entire grains
of wheat, rye, barley, oats, Indian corn, buckwheat, and broom
corn. Neither shall it include wheat, rye and buckwheat brans or
middlings, not mixed with other substances, but sold separately, as
distinct articles of commerce, nor pure grains ground together.

§ 121. Statements to be attached to packages; contents; analysis.
— Every manufacturer, company or person who shall sell, offer
or expose for sale or for distribution in this state any concentrated

New Yorx AcricutturRaAL ExprerrmMent StTarron. et

commercial feeding stuff, used for feeding farm live stock, shall
furnish with each car or other amount shipped in bulk and shall
affix to every package of such feeding stuff in a conspicuous place
on the outside thereof, a plainly printed statement clearly and
truly certifying the number of net pounds in the package sold or
offered for sale, the name or trade mark under which the article is
sold, the name of the manufacturer or shipper, the place of manu-
facture, the place of business and a chemieal analysis stating the
percentages it contains of crude protein, allowing one per centum
of nitrogen to equal six and one-fourth per centum of protein,
and of crude fat, both constitutents to be determined by the
methods prescribed by the director of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station. Whenever any feeding stuff is sold at retail
in bulk or in packages belonging to the purchaser, the agent or
dealer, upon request of the purchaser, shall furnish to him the
certified statement named in this section.

§ 122. Statements to be filed with director of agricultural experi-
ment station; to be accompanied by sample.— Before any manu-
facturer, company or person shall sell, offer or expose for sale in
this state any concentrated commercial feeding stuffs, he or they
shall for each and every feeding stuff bearing a distinguishing
name or trade mark, file annually during the month of December
with the director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion a certified copy of the statement specified in the preceding
section, said certified copy to be accompanied, when the director
shall so request, by a sealed glass jar or bottle containing at least
one pound of the feeding stuff to be sold or offered for sale, and
the company or person furnishing said sample shall thereupon
make affidavit that said sample corresponds within reasonable limits
to the feeding stuff which it represents, in the percentage of pro-
tein and fat which it contains.

§ 123. License fee— Each manufacturer, importer, agent or
seller of any concentrated commercial feeding stuffs, shall pay
annually during the month of December to the treasurer of the
New York Agricultural Experiment Station a license fee of twenty-

72 Rerort oF tHE DEPARTMENT oF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

five dollars. Whenever a manufacturer, importer, agent or seller
of concentrated commercial feeding stuffs desires at any time to sell
such material and has not paid the license fee therefor in the pre-
ceding month of December, as required by this section, he shall pay
the license fee prescribed herein before making any such sale. The
amount of license fees received by such treasurer pursuant to the
provisions of this section shall be paid by him to the treasurer of
the state of New York. The treasurer of the state of New York
shall pay from such amount when duly appropriated the moneys
required for the expense incurred in making such inspection re-
quired by this section and enforcing the provisions thereof. The
board of control of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station
shall report annually to the legislature the amount received pur-
suant to this article, and the expense incurred for salaries,
laboratory expenses, chemical supplies, traveling expenses, printing
and other necessary matters. | Whenever the manufacturer, im-
porter or shipper of concentrated commercial feeding stuffs shall
have filed the statement required by section one hundred and
twenty-one of this article and paid the license fee as prescribed in
this section, no agent or seller of such manufacturer, importer or
shipper shall be required to file such statement or pay such fee.

§ 124. Analysis to be made by director of experiment station;
samples to be taken for analysis.— The director of the New York
Experiment Station shall annually analyze, or cause to be analyzed,
at least one sample to be taken in the manner hereinafter pre-
scribed, of every concentrated commercial feeding stuff sold or
offered for sale under the provisions of this act. Said director shall
cause a sample to be taken, not exceeding two pounds in weight,
for said analysis, from any lot or package of such commercial feed-
ing stuff which may be in the possession of any manufacturer, im-
porter, agent or dealer in this state; but said samples shall be
drawn in the presence of the parties in interest, or their represen-
tatives and taken from a parcel or a number of packages, which
shall not be less than ten per centum of the whole lot sampled,
and shall be thoroughly mixed, and then divided into equal samples,

New Yorx AgricuntturaL ExperrmmEentT STATIon. f(a3

and placed in glass vessels, and carefully sealed and a label placed
on each, stating the name of the party from. whose stock the sample
was drawn and the time and place of drawing, and said label shall
also be signed by the person taking the sample, and by the party or
parties in interest or their representative at the drawing and sealing
of said samples; one of said duplicate samples shall be retained by
the director and the other by the party whose stock was sampled;
and the sample or samples retained by the director shall be for
comparison with the certified statement named in section one hun-
dred and twenty-two of this article. The result of the analysis of
the sample or samples so procured, together with such additional
information as circumstances advise, shall be published in reports
or bulletins from time to time.

§ 125. Penalty for violation of article— Any manufacturer,
importer, or person who shall sell, offer or expose for sale or for
distribution in this State any concentrated commercial feeding
stuff, without complying with the requirements of this article, or
any feeding stuff which contains substantially a smaller percentage
of constituents than are certified to be contained, shall, on con-
viction in a court of competent jurisdiction, be fined not more than
one hundred dollars for the first offense, and not more than two
hundred dollars for each subsequent offense.

§ 126. Adulterated meal or ground grain; penalty.— Any per-
gon who shall adulterate any kind of meal or ground grain with .
milling or manufacturing offals, or other substance whatever, for
the purpose of sale, unless the true composition, mixture or adultera-
tion thereof is plainly marked or indicated upon the package con-
taining the same or in which it is offered for sale; or any person
who knowingly sells, or offers for sale any meal or ground grain
which has been so adulterated unless the true composition, mixture
or adulteration is plainly marked or indicated upon the package
containing the same, or in which it is offered for sale, shall be fined
not less than twenty-five or more than one hundred dollars for each
offense.

74 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HusBANDRY OF THE

§ 127. Violation to be reported to the commissioner of agriculture.
—Whenever the director becomes cognizant of the violation of any
of the provisions of this article, he shall report such violation to
the commissioner of agriculture, and said commissioner of agricul-
ture shall prosecute the party or parties thus reported; but it shall
_ be the duty of said commissioner upon thus ascertaining any viola-
tion of this article, to forthwith notify the manufacturer, importer
or dealer in writing and give him not less than thirty days there-
after in which to comply with the requirements of this article,
but there shall be no prosecution in relation to the quality of any
concentrated commercial feeding stuff if the same shall be found
substantially equivalent to the certified statement named in section
one hundred and twenty-two of this article.

§ 2. This act shall take effect December first, eighteen hundred

and ninety-nine.

ANIMAL FOOD FOR POULTRY.

W. P. WHEELER.

SUMMARY.

Of two rations which contained practically the same proportions
of the ordinarily considered groups of constituents, but different
amounts of mineral matter, one wholly of vegetable origin proved
much inferior for growing chicks to the other ration, higher in
ash content, containing animal food.

When the deficiency of mineral matter was made good by the
addition of bone ash, the vegetable food ration for chicks equalled
or somewhat surpassed in efficiency the corresponding ration in
which three-eighths of the protein was derived from animal food.

For laying hens the rations containing animal food proved
superior to others in which all the organic matter was derived from
vegetable sources. The vegetable-food ration supplemented by
bone ash proved equally efficient for limited periods.

Rations containing animal food proved very much superior for
ducklings to rations of vegetable origin which had, according to
the ordinary methods of estimation, practically the same nutritive
value. A ration of vegetable food supplemented by bone ash
proved much inferior to another ration of similar ‘“ composition ”
in which three-eighths of the protein came from animal food.

INTRODUCTION.

Information about foods is one of the first essentials in poultry
keeping. A very important part of this information concerns the
necessity or economy of using animal food. The need for data

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 171.

76 Report or tHe Department or ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

upon this subject has led to a number of feeding experiments at
this station.

Aside from the usual increase in cost of food no results have
discredited the moderate use of animal food from healthful sources.
In general, rations entirely of vegetable origin have proved much
Jess efficient than corresponding rations which contained animal
foods. But it appears that the inferiority is due in some instances
more to the lack of sufficient mineral matter than to the less
efficient forms of .the other food constituents.

The data from some of the preliminary feeding trials were pub-
lished in Bulletin 149. The rations then fed contained equal
amounts of protein; but in part of the ration from two-fifths to
one-half of the protein was from animal food, while in contrasted
rations it was derived mostly from vegetable sources, although
some came from milk curd. Subsequent experiments have cor-
roborated the results then obtained and added to their significance
by furnishing supplementary and more extended information. In
one series rations in which about 19 per ct. of the dry matter
and 37 per ct. of the protein came from animal food proved
superior to rations containing an equal amount of protein derived
entirely from vegetable food. The rations were similar in nutri-
tive ratio but the one in which animal food was used contained
more than twice as much mineral matter and somewhat more fat.
Tn another series the deficiency of mineral matter in the one ration
was made good by the addition of bone ash, so that the propor-
tions of protein, ash and fat were alike in the contrasted rations.
With this addition a ration of vegetable food was as efficient during
certain periods for chicks and hens as a ration containing animal
food. For ducklings the vegetable-food ration was thus improved
but still did not approach in efficiency the animal food ration.

FIRST SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS.

Tn this series of experiments ten lots of chicks were fed for ten
or twelve weeks and four combined lots afterward for either four

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. i

or ten weeks, two lots of laying hens were fed for six and one- half
months and two lots for seven and one-half months, and two lots
of ducklings for ten weeks. Experimental feeding commenced
with the chicks and ducklings when they were one week old and
continued until they were ten and twelve weeks old. They were
all hatched in incubators and reared in brooders. A small out-
door run on bare ground was allowed each lot. Occasionally a
chick escaped through the fence into outside flocks where it
could not be identified and was dropped from the lot. In a few
lots (Lot VII especially) there was considerable loss at one time
from sunstroke caused by accidental exposure. Allowance was
made for any loss caused by accident, obviously uninfluenced by
feeding. The weight of any that died was accounted in the rec-
ord as loss in live weight when estimating the food cost per

pound gain.
RATIONS.

One ration for chicks and hens consisted of wheat, cracked
corn, barley, oats and a mixture (No. 1) composed of 14 parts by
weight corn meal, 11 parts animal meal, 2 parts each of ground
oats, wheat bran and pea meal, and one part each of wheat mid-
dlings, O. P. linseed meal, malt sprouts, brewer’s grains and glu-
ten meal. The contrasted ration consisted of wheat, barley, oats
and a grain mixture (No. 2) composed of 7 parts each of pea
meal and wheat bran, 6 parts of O. P. linseed meal, 4 parts of
gluten meal, 3 parts each of corn meal and ground oats and 2
parts each of malt sprouts, brewer’s grains and wheat middlings.
One pound of salt was added to every 360 pounds of each mix-
ture. Each ration for ducklings contained, with one of these
mixtures, wheat bran, corn meal and ground oats.

The animal food used in these experiments was the dried and
ground animal meal. Dried blood, fresh bone, beef scraps and
pork scraps have often been fed at this Station, but owing to the

78 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HusSBANDRY OF THE

inferior palatability of some grades of dried blood and the poor
keeping qualities or continual variations in composition of differ-
ent lots of the other foods, they were not so suitable for use in
these experiments. .

Green alfalfa was fed to all lots. Oyster shells and grit were
fed to the hens and sand and coarse grit to the chicks and duck-
lings.

VALUATION OF FOODS.

+ In estimating the cost of the foods the same valuations have
been assumed, for convenience of comparison, that had been
used in the preliminary series of experiments, although they are
most of them lower than the present market prices and those that
existed during part of the last series of experiments. Wheat
bran, wheat middlings, corn meal, malt sprouts and brewer’s
grains were rated at $13 per ton, pea meal at $13.50, buckwheat
middlings at $14.40, ground oats at $16, linseed meal at $20,
gluten meal at $23, ground flaxseed, bone ash and animal meal
at $40 per ton. Corn was rated at 40 cents per bushel, barley
at 39 cents, oats at 26 cents, and wheat at 80 cents. Alfalfa hay
was rated at $10 and green alfalfa at $2 per ton.

In these experiments the cost of the ration could only be a
secondary consideration; but only ordinary foods were used and
the relations between valuations is a natural one, similar to what
would generally exist between rations of vegetable and mixed
origin. The data in regard to the food cost of growth are there-
fore important.

The food used in the first series of experiments had the aver-
age composition’ shown in the accompanying table.

1 Most of the analyses of foods used in these experiments were made by Mr.
J. A. Le Clere. Some ash analyses were made by Mr. W. H. Andrews. Very
much of the credit is due to Mr. P. F. O’Neill; for the successful control of
the experiments has been dependent on his careful and skillful management.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 79

TABLE I.— CoMPOSITION oF Foops USED IN First SERIES OF PoULTRY FEEDING

EXPERIMENTS.

= = an
FOOD. G4 son Uae eee,
Cay enn ia ge, tan

3s 7 ° 2 = aod

E < A < Cee
: Per ct. Per ct. Peret. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct.
Uyiextumegleere S05 eee ee tee DI Swiels om hoe Litas Be 45.4 5.7
MUKGUPO Zo swe a ees co noe 1S Oars) MeO Oe Se Ghat OF bl D2. Omons
PATINA IMNOCA Mp ee ciclolord ae o oe Tao Ooe SOU Sin 26° Fe elt wee elas
Cornymicall ache eee ok Sek 14.8 Te NS CS. a TG Ome moe:
WUReTGHDraM o shoo! Sos hisete oe 14.7 Gran aloe phat 9.1 49.4 4.8
CTOUNGROMUS cates katie 52 O CANS Vee GO R24 Sb) aan ore 4a:
CLOVET 5c) Aen BAERS ee a 15.1 Peay Oh a. C94 eal aa GS Oro ni
\WWARGEN gt: | ARPA atin Gil Rae ace dt, IG Si Se AlORG Ne ON a2 3s eG ie Omer len ts
OSCAR I ee iis ee ee Loe Soll 2 2D eee ROP eee yaa) 4.6
Barley See era eis te vast tahoe ance euete te 14.1 26) LOLS LOR: 4.6 65.9 240
PEEP ECED \a.c) ara a sara. moro 0.00 TS oLo hike Oy 91442 Heth Oa AS
PeeLIeEN AL WELAY «Sells (oor cs). cases o wre. 4:2 16.0 sik alts} DEV} BPAlh. B.3}

EXPERIMENT WITH CHICKS.

In two lots of this series of experiments the chicks were two
weeks old when the experiment began, in all the others one week
old. Lots I, III, V, VII and IX were fed the ration containing
animal meal and Lots II, IV, VI, VIII and X were fed the con-
trasted ration. At the start Lot I was similar in every way to
Lot IJ. The same was true of Lots III and IV, V and VI, VII,
and VIII, and IX and X. After the first four lots had been fed
for eight weeks the cockerels were removed and a number of
pullets from Lots I and III were fed for ten weeks in comparison
with an equal number from Lots II and IV. Later, chicks from
Lots V and VII after removal of many of the cockerels were fed
together in comparison with others from Lots VI and VIII.

The chicks in Lots I and II were Leghorns, those in III and
IV mostly Leghorns with a few Wyandottes. Half of those in
Lots V, VI, VII and VIII were Leghorns and half Wyandottes
and crosses. In Lots IX and X somewhat more than half the
chicks were Wyandottes and crosses and the remainder Leghorns.

The records of feeding and statements of the results follow in
tabulated form, the averages in most cases being for 14-day

periods.

80 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

"Qq510oM |

am st = ©
ur ure3 punod yovo | © .- $ 4
Joy pooy uy aoqqear Auq | =“ w OO FF
‘qquajea upuyeSjeupunoa | gg "= © %& |
yous JoJ pooy Jo ys0g| HA H+ 7 Ww |
|
|
*pey IysiomM gil = “60 fons So
eal] punod yove 103 ABp im eS : F
con pooy uy soyeur Aiq| ON SA “ A |
| 1
i3 i | 5 io | ce lor) or)
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if *£ep 3
a pooy jo ysog!| O

04
07

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= pooy ul zoqqeut Auq| 6 eit
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os 5 | Aep aod pooj [v}0, | oO at) pace
- |
3 & a +
= | "O1yed BAT} Sa eye eps
Bee Tajnu ejyeuisoiddy | ™
a <= ; | a ll al re |
= | |
S = |
e.g aes
ah jie. ‘pooyursyeq | 8 mie’ Grou
= = = ' ie} eo [ml |
i 8 |
H © e; |
*pooj Ul ys N : !
Git 5 pooj ul ysy & = ee
Ass S |
i = oH
sd ~ = | | |
eS z Waves cee Gf wociue J
« n * . t
a S | & 4 poo} UF UI9}0.1d | & La are East
of || 3
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‘ey By[e used 4 Z :
oO = 2 F.B3L 5 | 5 eye cs
| ee Ms
Ke © 210). & 1°
Hel | ok One
a 8
3 *e | a 9). O 4) 6
= | *Agpaeg oO an a
> |
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& | “yeoTT MM § aa ‘
ease CO eo ea
| *UdOO | = Aine SO ull
; |
| “ ei fo a) rei
‘Teangxin| S22 o a Pr |!
ie |
ae -
*syorgo Jo lequinNn SH Tete bt
PEs gi Alia
“posed Jo pus 38 | = elt
SYOIO JO JYSIOM OSvIIAV a4
a
‘potted Jo Zuluuiseq Ol it cn 00
ye SYOIO JO 934 VSBIGAV S
*potaed ul sfep Jo zaquinn eh ae

New York AcGricutturaL Experiment Station.

Lor II.

Taste III.— Cnicks Frep VrcerasLe Foon.

A Ration of Vegetable Food Only.

“qYysIom
Ul wies punod yovea
IOJ poojy ul azeqQeur AIG

“qq 310M Ul UIes you punod
yova J0J pooy jo 4sog

“pas sIoM
dall punod ove z0j3 Aep
Jed pooy ul Joj,;em Aig

‘polled Sutinp yoryo 13d
4USIOM Ul UlVS VSVIZAYV
|
|
{
|
|
|

if “ep
| Jed pooy jo 4so9

| ‘vp asd
pooj ul 103};vur Aq

*Avp isd pooy [e40J,

“OBI OAT
-lqynt o}eaixo1ddy

“poof Ul sjey

*porsed Jo pue 4e
SHO JO JY SIOM VSBIDAV

cI
&
5
io
% *“poog ut ysy
B4
Me *poos ul wlejy01g
|
| 2|
oY)
= "B[V UseI4)
S
<|
} | *Ss]vO
| ‘Ag IV_
| i
| | “yVou.
ee
| | *m10p
ie
lL *g QAINJENL
“syoryo Jo Jequinn
}

*potied jo Saiuaiseq
ye SHOIQO JO o3¥ VavI9AV

j Potied ulsAep Jo Joquinyy

6

1

CC OOO OC ee

Lbs.

@zs= Cts: Ozs. Ozs. Cts.
2

Ozs.

Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Qzs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs.

Ozs.

Weeks. Lbs.

3.1

3.2

3

.03

1:4.3

1.2

4.4

42

al

14

lcs)
oD

l~

2.2

3.5

.06

1:4.4

TO sO. gine 22.8

3.0

8.3

4]

14

a. TB Sai eat

a2 208

1.6

lies

3.3

2.4

ale?

12.1

14

(4

09: 2.5 16 78

1.4

1.8

1:4.3

3.7

3.1

1.5

f=7)
a

Oe 41

8

14

81

82 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

“g[a1ayooo JO [VAOUWIAI Aa}ye “TTT pur |T spoT Wor szol[Nd ,

i
{

Lok 6°8 SLT Isl os OF OF SET Soro Ler Le 2 Fl ra ORE eel Pte chan ob ce
¥'9 Get baE> 636 ORS See Se: aor - 838-99. '9 6OLL (O72. Ost 2655" <6. Gi S. oP Cre ComsmGendec lances
og 8°¢ a Sia JOnGe See Gare Ole Lo: 8°9 G°8 SiS One Se ae Brea ee Sie SO tle
| 6°S 3 6°¢ Ch. lea tia oC rah OA LS 9°¢ G's GG" Cie. FES Per ecOnOGr cae cer io -SRE
0°9 6°9 &éoe TP Gia- oieT oe SRL alk 9S GP G16 Gol: SIkG “See sine Tole ecerGe james 2 |
673 9°€ OSs 69 e0% Qt “Pil 6 BT @: JEN 0'€ Lal Sol, Wikis PaGs “Since SOM eaar com Ss PI
o's L$ 9 T= 826 SOe 49: i trap 9: 6 9°T 9° 9° oe Cre “Gale (GnGr canst i
‘sqT ‘S10 ‘820 ‘SZO ‘S10. «= 'SZQO.—s *8ZO ‘SzQO.'SZO "SZ" *8ZO "820 “820. “820. °*8ZO. *820, ‘sqT. ‘STOO

Q a ooh ae oy 4 > ot Pp oo -ae Se ee a oe ae
eae: | ae | ae a a: fog mb fr oe oe a bse. ae eee
A Sa eA a Some Son: a A ee ee S a ae a
Poe ce BEE EF Se GE «Pes f = Ee @ be, g0 Sb ges Bae oe
“3 © ie. Lh Fy nm & <8 ) $ 5 iy - on B42 tie. 6
SCO cm Plo 99 a a) =) a oe = ms Bog ee
57 m9 as" ee ie ee S oc : : ° S o oF me ro
=} Awe) at £5 5 Ral. ® Lo ro) & or rf =)
Py Ee Se Be Biv 2M Seo oye POR Bi 6 we RAG
so ee dy SF g f G § BER ye 5
Se eee catveenaetes ie in og = ae Pe ee eae eS Pale time attire Sater Ose mT: PG 8c §
<3 ee 23 a *poiiad 107 [MoJ Jed osB10A Vy Fe : & a

‘III LOT

‘d00,f IVNINY Gay SMOIHNO —AT WIV,
. - kbs

Lor IV.

Taste V.— Curcxs Frep VreGrraBLe Foop.

New Yorx AGricuLtTuRAL ExpERIMENT STATION.

A Ration of Vegetable Food Only.

“ZU SIOM
Ul ules punod yove
IO} pooy ul 10}9e0r AIG

44.310 UI UIes Jou punod
yove so0jJ pooy jo 4s0p

“pay qysIom
eal] punod qove 103 Avp
ied pooy ul 10198u AIG

‘potied Zulinp yxorgo 10d
4QsloM Ul UIVS VSBIOAV

if
*fep
| soa pooy jo 4s0p

“£ep 19d
pooj ut 10}9vu1 Aq

| ‘Aep red pooj [¥j0 1,

“o1IyeI 8AT}
-lijnu ejyeutxoiddy

*pooj ut s}Bq

3

}

B

7)

ry

be *pooj ul ysy

°

|

Bi

& *pooj ul ulejoIg

e|

Lv

roy

2 |

S | "B[eJ[e WeeIH

Fs

<|
| *Sq@O
| ‘sop 1Veg
| “yooTM
| *u10Q
*G OANA

*SyOIGO jo 1equInN

“posed jo pus 38
SHOMO JO JUSIOM OSRVIOAY

*polied jo Zuraurseq
YB SYOIGO JO 058 VSVIBDAV

“potied ur sAep Jo sequinn

Lbs,

Cts.

Ozs.

Ozs.

Ozs.

Ozs.

2.6

1:4.4

el 2, 8k~ BT

4.8

.06

b:4.2

2.4

PAA) = th lle:

3.3

8.4

23

14

gS eae a tess) 4.4 4.4

15 09

1.8

1:4.5

4.0

4.1

a00 20) Ub.o

5

14

Oi

fed Ue TALS St “epal

1:4.4

nN

OS meen eno

5.9

Ue S25 4s

7

14

9.0

10.1

Lesa ao 928 220F =e 1s

al

1

ee!

Bes a

8.5

4.0

6.6

Lak oon le 0

“VA >S10).'5

oO
~

©

X~

a

SLY 6:6

8

]

A NS tee ete t

1.9

0) 33.8

10.2

1.7 338 33.8

12.5

*28

sll

a

.18

Waa eo Sued. O

3.2 3.0

15.1

17.0

Males) ooh

18.6

2.3 83 62:2

1625

*28

* Pullets from Lots II and IV, after removal of cockerels.

83

84 Report oF THE DeparTMENT or ANIMAL HusBANDRY OF THE

‘qqsen | 22 OC wm ©
ur ures punod yove Hoa ‘ ; ‘
oy pooy ur aeqygvur AIG mh ECOL Ae ee

J 3 Ul
“qu S19\ ul ules you punod B°8 Rost
yowo soy pooy jo ys0op| OP oOo Hw me w |
|
“poy WYUSIOM PROC ni bel Raid peal so
Sal, punod yowe 10J ARP Nigq : : : es
sod pooj ut saqyem Aig) © GU RBGRE Tests Cit
. ia) (=,
‘poised Satanp yoryo zed Ro. is
qqsiem ul ured esvioay| ON NA HW tH S&S
f ‘ABD wi aS ive] io a) — wD
ws | tad pooy jo 4sop 5 SL 1S rae
S ||
& || *Avp 10d eCS Pee mS igen
a Ei ul Jo}yeut AIG fo) b
3S [ el
~
en als Oat ata
: < || Sep ted pooy [vjoy,| Oo nurses eine
ee |
2 7 A power oO
2 a “O1}BI 0A <H ; : :
As -laynu oyeurxoiddy eee peel > lege
re
& Ss | Lael I — Lal
~ |)
S| |
4 » oD
iS | ‘pooy ur sqegq| 8 ee a ee
By Seen red S
-a~ fe)
ey ‘eB
~ 2] @ | mt) ies Wie wigs mes
: : < : :
a 2 b pooj ul ysy (e) =e =H
BS | ol
aig iS 1 ‘pooj Ul uleyo1g z ee, ee
3 A a | . . ro) re nN oO H foe)
H & | &
a 2 | ‘eyey[e use0d go ae eet. ae
heat. 2 | —_ i 6 4a a ww Oo
Hy: || &
~
- 8 < | g5' (ven Tet. <i
a § | "S380 | 0 ao
Sk
a & | jw 2a S| ROR S ear
2 | ‘Aqueg| § a ete eos
Dy
Sl al |
= | LO GOP iret i
= "yOUM | OO aH a 8
=| |
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"mI0Q | 0 4H a 8 ©
| |
‘Tamixm| Sw ~ So wm w
l | ce ec ie
|
: | + oo 1D (1D
SYOIYO JO ToQuINy | ah <2 os
*‘porsad yo pue 18 |} ao ~ Oo ©
SYOIYO JO JYSIOM OSVIBAY | YQ ‘ait ae
n
‘polied Jo Surmurseq Ze OO 1p (Os OS
4B SYD Jo eSB oseIOAW ®
=
: ~~ ot os —
poised ur sAep jo zaquiny | it ease MEd =

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT

Lot VI.

TABLE VII.— Cuicks Frep VEGETABLE Foon.

A Ration of Vegetable Food Only.

] “yYSIOM
ur uivs punod yore
| roy pooy Ul 104}eUL Aq

"QU 310M Ul ules Jou punod
yove 10} pooz jo 4sop

‘poy JUSIOM
@ATT punod yore 103 Avp
aad pooj ul 1093vur AId

‘poled Sutinp yorgo 10d
JYUSIOM Ul UIVS OSBIOAYV

f “sep
god pooy jo 4so0p

“ep sed
pooj ur ee Aig

“£ep 10d pooj [840],

"OBI GATY
-laynu ayeulxoiddy

*pooj Ul syeq

*pooj ur 4sy

————

*“pooj Ul U194JO1g

“eyleyye use.

Average per fowl for period.

a 1@)

* sop 1Veg

“qeouM

‘109

*g OINXIW

a SOF

*syo]qo Jo Jequinyy

*potized jo pus 4v
SHON JO JYSIOM OSBIOAV

eee jo Suruaurseq
}B SHO JO 93 osvVieaAV

*poriod ur shep jo 1aquinN

4

n
2
a)

Cts.

Ozs.
2

Ozs. ‘Cts. Ozse

Ozs.

Ozs. Ozs. Oz3.

Ozs.

Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs.

Ozs.

Weeks. Lbs.

Vo)
ios

Pal

al

2.3

.03

ao

egal

1.0

1.3

4.1

43

14

5.6 = 4,9

73)

2

2.3

05

1:4.3

2.1

1.6

1.6

2.4

1.6

14

Zea) 2940. 2 O30

1.4

06

1:4.4

Ql (2b

Mesa

1)

229

8.6

40

14

3.3 3.3

1.8

4.9

07

lars

Cdl

14

STATION. 85

6.7

en)

Wer

mG ew 55774

is if

fo]
fo

1:4.4

Gro, ele el

8.4

5.4

8.0

21.9

40

dea

86 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

‘ITA pue ‘A ‘TIT ‘T 8307 Wosry syor[ng +
*s[o1ayo09 YSISIL] OY} JO [VAOWIAL 1azJV “TTA PU A S}OT PourqmUOH ,

645); OLOr "Oats (8.9 ie” 6's O°f SET CF FS Tel 0 OT- 09-00 Teal 0a 8-72-08 1-o— Aer
Ses 625 O4> 82h, “Glace Sc SFL Te CS" Olt 2 oe ee ee ere les Ly eee
Sie Gar -S 41. 6e8 Cle 8a SVG Gays Ose 6G led L°8). O'8 ~8'S 92) SESS Sete GC ae

b'¢ G°9 Gee Ges Rie Sa SOnG: se ostak tel oeo 0 sr 6s Pole Les i6eG GeGu le hla aceon ise
S'? Es O26" Ses 80 Gab Sel C7p Sl 16 LSE aL 6°3 Gl WAL Pe 6.6: Ost GS a cS ML
GP 9° OR Gre LnG 90 8 (ee te iPadh 8) Ll alee O'S San eG Noi /h Al Gel, ize Se See lal!
O's 9°€ GEG) Sas 0 a 9° Wrst Gv. fi tae! &'1 G g 6 6 LSU TW oS Time VE
“SsqT *s}0 "SZQ -*SZO "51 3SZ@) “E20 8ZO “SZO “8zO $ZO SZQO ‘SZQ ‘8ZO SZzO *SZO “SQ'T ‘“SHOOM
~
ae a ee Ss oe. ne eee De Se ie ee SS
9 9 > Q ef fs > ty > ty Q (2) w B| Q = Ze oe ee
=x BO 5 3 re) ° © 4 © =| re) = 4 4
gent 2c ones See eB os 4 eg a re ee ee Oe er eee ee a ene es tee eke
Rip OF RB FF a of = ame) = 5 e B j = i 5 oe . Sue. ce
bp 2 }° BoD =i re oe ° <i th 2 Q @ 3 Oo co i}
ire ect ch iG. a chase a) Me) © ae ° re = st at b= Ba o
Se oe rho oD oe & 20 m. ae 2 2 5 » . m aa BoQ a
Sf fe Op5 Bo So Sa Ces a = = = O 6& “Ro a
gy m0 a5 =e co Jw. ® ap : : 2 ~ Sele @
pay JO Se AB a ae =| 5 ° ° : = r oOo «
a5 Fe BoE a 5 A. i cheat ime
Sy 24 5B So & I= ay Gio Loe) —_
moe pS oO Esaaaus me 5 5 sco eat eaitO ES ema
SS 48 Go %q 5 Biase cs Dicrds (areas
Peg neg en ee ee ee ee eee
e Be & ES on, ‘porsed 10j [Moy sed oSv190A Vy i “. 2
ct ad <2 oe ace z :

“poo jump worl uorwy ay, wr wraz04g OY Jo "ZO sod wrs-fipWy.],

‘IIA LOY ‘“dOOg IVWINY daq SHOIND —TITA Wavy,

Lot VIII.

Taste 1X.— Cnicks FED VEGETABLE FOop.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

A Ration of Vegetable Food Only.

“4310 M
ul ues punod yovo
IOJ pooj ul 109}9eur AIq

“9U,.S19M Ul UIVS you punod
yova 10} pooy jo ysop

“poy WSIoM
e@aT[ punod yove 10; AVp
ded poojy ul 190}98ur Aid

~porsed Sutinp yorgo 10d
qUSIOM UL UIVS VSVIDAV

f “Kup
| tad pooy jo 4sop

“Aep aod
poojz ‘ur 1099RU1 AId

| “ep iad pooj [ej0L,
“O1INB1 OATY
-l1jnu oyeuxoi1ddy

"poog ul ye

“pooy ul YsV

*pooj Ul UIEI01g

“eypejye weeds

Average per fowl] for period.
Se

aaU:1@)

*Aopaeg

“7eOuLAN

“g OANgXIN

a

“‘SHOIYO JO toquINN

*potiod Jo pus 48
SYOIYO JO IYSIOM VSVIOAV

‘potied jo Suruurseq
4B SYOIMO JO o3B Sales y

*potsed ul skep Jo 10quinn

Ozs. @ts: Ozs. Oz Cts Lbs.
2.4 252

Ozs.

Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs Ozs. Ozs. Ozs.

Ozs.

Lbs.

Weeks.

2.5

2.6

6

1:4.3

1

1.3

co

4.0 1.4

44

14

co
oD

lt

129

2.6

1.2 1.9 1.8 1:4.3 .04

2.1

6.5

44

14

4.1 4.0

1.6

3.1

.05

1:4.4

2.3

Pret

(=)

io)

2.7

8.0

42

14

aj
a)

t~

1G

2.7

V2 OK

1.6

1:4.3

4.3 3.2

1.2

Be)

14

4A lO Sina. Reet

.09

TED

AE Pali) © (Bt) SOF Ze 2 ia

a6

20.1

21

4.3

S12 5 lead 4d

ular

lo

a

a) diga) » Ete) OAs Seo) Ses

9.5

33.3

5.0

5.0

11.4

.13

eas

Wast( — feball AERP Ghats) IK S ey nae Pho

38.9

a

j—

* Combined Lots VI and VIII, after removal of the largest cockerels,

} Pullets from Lots II, IV, VI, and VIII.

87

88 Report of THE DerpaARTMENT oF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

*TYFIOM

3 d 2 1D ©. © wits = © |
| ar ule pano qova = < 5 . : |
IOJ pooy ur 10}}var AI sO: (SO 88, Ee oe eee )
‘qqS10M ul ures you punod om & A wo 8 @ 6 |
\yova 10y pooy Jo 4sop Pe.aih) att eee, hoe a ae
| ‘poy gy siem 00, 92 be the 9D, OUrige
eaTT punod yous 10s ABp = ; : Pa, :
aod pooj at az0j}8ur Aig 2 aa TF toate
“pursed Sutmp yorqo 138d g Ady Ee To oe
9q310eM Ul ales osRIIAV Olmos ee) tp eis st
| ei re
| ;
|
“up mn oO ie) ~ Q ie | [oe] oO
| sad poog Jo. S809 Oo “=> Pagar coun “
7a | |
3 |
Ss | “ep sed B10 yy OO Oe Se en
& pooj ut 19,9801 Aq | O a oa oO 3
3 |
= | d iS. OR GS co co rm |i
ei ie : . . th) &
bd s Avp ted pooj [¥}oJ, 5 Jia itt Corps n a
=
- | 3
-
S = a VM Hm NN AN iy}
7 8 ‘OIWBI OAT <i . Sk i We
i = -laynu eyeuurxo1ddy a ae = | g
© co ol ec tl ee re ea
. } ao
aS | =
os ; oD id: = GQ B& 0 oO Bie
& 3s i *pOoj UL S}BT g ° : . Oe
fe 3 oe) oo 06H °
|| © =
4 g & re
as roy ‘DAOT ULHSVd Ges tae! oe ae 5
(oS 5 fe) qo Oo me & tog
al = i 2
= > 4
. Qu Us" 1S) be OO ace
B'S | g j SPOKE UOT) Bos ee eee eee 5
Fy 2 a ©) i | pet
aw Q 7 1 ae
© o neo (oa) v=) on) ~~ ~ ~ B
So 8 || & : wi a ae ae
aS s BBS WAI | Om aA N OO FF FS =
Ca) 42 foal co co)
On| n
| : “a | A oH o (Jos) ol ~ 2
~ a lor) =) —,
j *s}@ N : 5 z
xs PEON ia as o |B
28) | z
Boe. | Pe gt 2 2 oe 2) Se
4 5 \ o[Ieg fo) nN wD o
S i} t
a | ra O © GC jor = i some
= | | FEOUM (o) Sle mt 8) sta
S || . a a“
=> |
~~
B | ga 0 @ G3. “on Open
| Ie eS Se mn So
| Sig rs Cl Hi 100 00 5 Oka
‘TONMXIN| 64 wow eo a Yt @ a |
\ a AN SH Oa
*SYOIWO Jo Jequin SRO. SHE es FE es
rae y ie Get aS st eth Ces
*potszad jo pua 4e co) ot a wt A 4
|| SHOMO Jo FYSIOM osvIVAV | See eae mers
*porsed Jo Suraur3eq ec ania lene Oke Gel
|| JB SHOIMO Jo o8B osVIsAV a i ra
| =
\|+ + oH 4H co
potied ut sfep jo 1aquny SHH eels” WSU Shs boas a a |

Lot X.

TABLE XI.— Cuicks Frep VEGETABLE Foop.

New Yorx AGricutturaL Experiment

A Ration of Vegetable Food Only.

“40510M
UI ures punod yovo
Joy} pooy ur 1993eu1 AIG

‘44310M Ul ules you punod

yove 10J pooz jo 4so09

“poy Iqs1oM
9AlT punod yove 103 Avp
Jed pooy ur 10j3vur Arq

*polied Sutinp yxorqo 10d
ZUSIOM Ul ules odvi0AVy

(
“sep
dad pooy jo 4sop

‘ABp 19d
poojy url 1093vUI Aig

‘AYp rad pooj [eyo 7

|
|
| ‘OBI OAT}
paws oyeurxo1ddy
|

3 *pooj ut sze,q

e

oO

a

6 “poog ur Ysy

Ll

=

o4

re *pooj ul Ulojorg

a

Oo

Dp

He “BJ[VJ[V Wo9IpH,

4

<
| “syeo
| *Aolreg
| “PEO M
| *S OANJXIW
l

*SyOIYyO Jo Jaquny

*potied Jo pus 48
SYOIO JO JY SIOM VSBVIDAY

‘potted jo Suraurseq
qe SHOIYO JO o8eB osvIOAW

‘poised ul sAep Jo 1aquiny

Ozsy Cts: Ozs. Ozs. Cts. Lbs.

Ozs.

Ozs. Ozs. Ozs.

Ozs.

Ozs. Ozs. Ozs,.

Lbs.

Weeks.

Ozs.

5.8

6.5

Shall

Wert

.03

ie?

1.3

eu

4.6 1.3

50

14

8.7

1:4.5

SG

eas

2.2 1.5

5.0

46

14

4.5

4.5

Bill

2.3

05

1.0

1:4.3

2.0

2.7

~

1.6

2.0

(hel

41

14

ke
~

Loe Owe 06 te = aa eat

1:4.4

8.4 3.2 20) len O 4.2 2.5

40

~~

14

8.0

10.6

2.9

es 07

1.6

8.2 4.5 1:4.2

24D

3.6

16.0

21

STATION.

oOo AN
o w
i
Oo WwW
mw 1
NQ re
Ww oH
es 6
at re
Co ©
met BL an |
~~ SD
nN WwW

14.3 3.0. 2.8 §1:4.8

WE sede sale

15.8

51.0

18

228

1:4.6

2.9

14.3

15.6

Bical e.A8

18'S 43.7

2.4

*28

* Pullets only, after removal of the cockerels.

90 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF THE RATIONS FOR CHICKS.

More food was eaten by the chicks having the ration contain-
ing animal meal. Calculated on the basis of dry matter the food
consumption for Lot I was 12 per ct. greater than for Lot II and
the gain in weight 37 per ct. greater. Lot I gained one pound
for every 3.6 pounds of dry matter in the food and Lot IT gained
one pound for every 4.3 pounds of dry matter.

Lot III consumed 24 per ct. more food than Lot IV and made
22 per ct. greater gain in weight. The dry matter in the food
consumed for each pound gain in weight was about 4.3 pounds
for Lot III and 4.4 pounds for Lot IV.

During the following ten weeks when pullets from Lots I and
III were fed in comparison with those from Lots II and IV the
consumption of food under the animal meal ration was 26 per ct.
greater and the gain made was 538 per ct. greater. The dry mat-
ter in the food for each pound gain was 6.6 pounds for Lots I
and III and 8.1 pounds for Lots II and IV.

The food consumption of Lot V was 26 per ct. greater than
that of Lot VI and the gain in weight 45 per ct. greater. The
dry matter in the food for each pound gain in weight was 4.3
pounds for Lot V and 5.0 pounds for Lot VI.

The food consumption of Lot VII was 24 per ct. greater than
that of Lot VIII and the gain in weight was 45 per ct. greater.
The dry matter in the food for each pound gain in weight was
4.3 pounds for Lot VII and 5.0 pounds for Lot VIII.

During the four weeks that pullets from Lots V and VII were
fed in comparison with those from Lots VI and VIII, 37 per et.
more food was consumed under the animal food ration than un-
der the other, and the gain in weight was 54 per ct. greater. The
dry matter in the food for each pound gain in weight was 3.5
pounds for the former lots and 4.3 pounds for the latter.

The food consumption of Lot IX was 34 per ct. greater than
that of Lot X and the gain in weight more than twice as great.
The dry matter in the food for each pound gain in weight was

New York AGRICULTURAL ExPERIMENT STATION. 91

4.4 pounds for Lot 1X and 6.8 pounds for Lot X. During four
weeks after the cockerels were removed Lot X consumed about
5 per ct. more food than Lot IX but the latter made 24 per ct.
greater gain in weight. The dry matter in the food for each
pound gain in weight was 5.1 pounds for Lot IX and 6.5 pounds
for Lot X. During the following four weeks about 14 per ct.
more food was eaten by Lot IX and only about 4 per ct. greater
gain made. The dry matter in the food for each pound gain
was about 5.6 pounds for Lot IX and 5.2 pounds for Lot X.

RELATIVE ECONOMY OF THE RATIONS FOR CHICKS.

The cost of food per pound gain in weight for Lot I was-4.1
cents and for Lot II 4.4 cents. For Lot III it was 5.1 cents and
for Lot IV 4.5 cents. For the ten weeks with the pullets of the
combined lots the cost was 7.7 cents for Lots I and III and 8.3
cents for Lots II and IV.

The food cost of the growth made during the first eleven
weeks by Lot V was 4.9 cents and of that made by Lot VI was
5.0 cents. The cost of that made during this time by Lot VII
was 5.1 cents and of that made by Lot VIII 5.4 cents. When
the pullets from the combined lots were fed for four weeks longer
the cost of the gain made by the birds from Lots V and VII was
3.9 cents and of that made by Lots VI and VIII 4.3 cents. After
adding to these lots some more matured pullets from the earlier
lots, the one combined lot of older birds, from I, III, V and VII,
made for a month a slow and costly gain while the others, from
II, IV, VI and VIII, whose growth had been slower, still made
good gains at moderate cost. The food cost of the gain made by
Lot IX was 5.5 cents and of that made by Lot X 8.0 cents per
pound.

Owing to the large proportion of Leghorns among the chicks,
heavy average weights were never reached, but average weights
of one, two and three pounds were always attained much sooner
by the chicks having the animal food ration. The first four lots
reached the average weight of one-half pound at about the same

92 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

time. Lots V and VII averaged one-half pound in weight over
a week sooner than Lots VI and VIII and Lot IX over two
weeks sooner than Lot X. The average weight of one pound
was reached by Lots I and III about a week sooner than by Lots
II and IV, the average weight of 1.5 pounds three and one-
half weeks sooner, and the average weight of 2 pounds four and
four-fifths weeks sooner. The average weight of one pound was
reached by Lots V and VII two weeks sooner than by Lots VI
and VIII, the average weight of 1.5 pounds over three weeks
sooner, the average weight of 2 pounds three and three-fifths
weeks sooner, the average weight of 2.5 pounds over four weeks
sooner. The average weight of one pound was reached by Lot
IX three weeks sooner than by Lot X, the average weight of 1.5
pounds three and four-fifths weeks sooner and the average weight

of 2 pounds three weeks sooner.
EXPERIMENT WITH DUCKLINGS.

In the experiment with ducklings the birds in the two lots
were all Pekins. Lot A had the rations mentioned on page 77
containing animal food and Lot B the ration of vegetable food.
These rations were fed unchanged during the first month. It
was then evident that the one ration was very deficient in some
respect, for before the end of the fourth week one-half of all the
birds in Lot B had died. Animal meal was then added to the
ration, otherwise unchanged, for three weeks and then for two
weeks longer the original ration was fed. Only one bird died
after the first change in the ration. None died in Lot A. After
the ten weeks Lot B was fed for five weeks on the ration which
had been fed to Lot A, and Lot A was also fed the same ration
for three weeks longer. The tabulated data follow:

Lor ty). ”

Taste XII.— Duckiines Fep ANIMAL Foon.

from Animal Food.

von

the Rat

in in

Thirty-seven per ct. of the Prote

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

“qq SIoM
Ul ules punod yovo
IO} pooy ur 103}3vUL Aq

‘43190 Ul UIeS Jou punod
yovo JI0J pooy jo 4sop

"poy ISOM
e@AlT punod yore 103 Avp
ded pooj ul z9\3eur Aig

‘poised Sutimp [Moy Jed
ZYSIOM Ul UIVS OSBVIOAV

f
| ‘£ep red pooj Jo 4sop

‘ep 10d
poojy ul 19039¥vu LIq

| *Aep iad pooj [e40J,
| “O11 GATY
-l1jnu oyeurxoiddy

“pooy ur syeq

"poo; ut ysy

*pooj Ul ulej01g

“BIIPILV

Average per fowl for period.
~—

creo

*s}8O punory

“Wei VEO AM

*TBoul W109

*[ O1N4XI

*S[MOJ JO 1oquInN

*potaed Jo pus 4e sult
-yonp jo 44s10mM o2B10AV

polsed Jo Surmai3eq 4v
SdUl[{ONp jo ase esvicay

‘poised ursfep jo 19quiny

a
2
=|

Ozs; ‘Cts. Ozs. Ozs. Cts.

Ozs.

Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs.

Ozs.

Lbs.

Weeks.

WW

TOF 107

1.2

1:;3.9

1.3

NA
aN

|

6

.08

1.3

ea

1:4.3

2.0 ie ao eal 8 okt

5.0

26

Oman

3.6

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3.0

15.7 3.8 Pee ole Oo ao 25d oe = eo

26

Wel!

4.2

4.2

ih3}

2.3

4.2

4.3

3.4

3.5

4.7

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of

|

.29 (OF 32a

4.5

4.0 4.3 6.0 34) 18 ss 4-0

3.8

5.8

21.4

2.1

26) GO 2O= uno 9

4.1

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]

at)

4.1 OREO AG Olde eek

5.8

3.8

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8.6

.30

14,1

3.4

6.1 Ce ee ec

20.4

™

4.8

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ites)

9.4

10.8

652

6.4

9.3

26

fo. |

bo
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=)

11

47

1

954 2D

9.6

10.8

atl

26 33.2 9.9 5.8

4.9

7.4

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t~

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20 SOMO omeOnOsocOmae sd ao. ond v0. bed ol

5.9

10

21

93

94 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

“qu 3IOM

m I HOO OH XH OO SH co
ul ules punod yove HNgonrweeanmoea ‘
IO} pooy ul aeqyeur AIG ph ae)
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pay ipso 7OrtNonoaod =
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aed pooj wi aaigvur Aig OHMMMMMOMANA :
v 4 nl=19 + -MDROQM is
‘powted Sutinp [MOy} Ja Sig Se Os Bee ee
qyZiemM ul ules oseieay | SO SO Ad o> SHON is |
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5 & | AANMOH OD S
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ne *s}vo punoly eo) Fel ei he teat ee a
em |
st os || ENMMDASCCOND cj
| . . . . . . . . . .
= UBIQ WOUM) OSC AgdHataos Ps
| | e st
| ZH Hin 02 2910 San oH _
‘jpould OD; O Pe | “
1D
i
| | gisacmacaowtoaura . o ft |
“2 QIN) XI © vi os S16 S116 aie co ee Ses
( é XT et el cee |
ei
rm 19 Jj US op OO 09 OD OD aA
*S[MOJ JO oq mnN ANN Saas ty |
a
Qld st Ht aro 1a
‘porsad Jo pus 1% sSuly tear A Cae eee oe :
| -yonp jo 143,0M o3BI0OAV aan 1
n
‘polsed Jo But u1Z9q 48 BAA tH iDOr DA o |
SSUI[YONP JO vsv esBVIBAYV 2 tal |
<7
‘powied ulsfep oO -oquiny SSS (Ses 2 |

DuckLincs oF Lot 5B NINE WEEKS OLD. -
AVERAGE Wt. =2 PounDS . VEGETABLE FOOD ONLY FOR PART
OF THE TIME . HALF OF THE NUMBER DIED BEFORE OTHER FOOD WAS

SUPPLIED

Duckiincs of Lot A — NINE WEEKS OLD

AVERAGE WY]. ~4-.2 POUNDS. THE RATION CONTAINED -ANIMAL Foop.

No Loss

PLATE I.

a
ates 5
ec-~

=
‘

DS

f

i. ;
=

“

5°

.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 95

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF THE RATIONS FOR DUCKLINGS.

The ration containing the animal meal was more freely eaten.
Calculated on the basis of dry matter the food consumed by Lot
A during the first four weeks was more than twice as much as
that by Lot B and the net gain in weight more than ten times as
great. For each pound gain in weight there were 2.6 pounds of
dry matter in the food for Lot A and 6 pounds for Lot B.

During the following five weeks 40 per ct. more food was con-
sumed by Lot A than by Lot B and the gain in weight made by
Lot A was more than twice that made by Lot b. The amount
of dry matter in the food for each pound gain was 3.6 pounds for
Lot A and 4.8 pounds for Lot B. For the nine weeks over 50
per ct. more food was consumed by Lot A and the total net gain
in weight was 2.7 times more than that of Lot B. There were
3.3 pounds of dry matter in the food for Lot A for each pound
gain in weight and 5 pounds for Lot B.

When the birds remaining in Lot B were finally changed to
the ration that had been fed to Lot A a rapid growth was made
and while the gains were not so good as had been previously
made by Lot A they were better than those made at this time by
the more nearly mature birds in Lot A during three weeks
feeding on the same ration. For the five weeks there were 5.1
pounds of dry matter in the food for Lot B for each pound gain
in weight and for the three weeks for Lot A 7.4 pounds for each
pound gain in weight. It was therefore apparent that while
the vegetable food ration greatly retarded the growth up to ten
weeks of age and was the cause of ereat mortality, it did not pre-
vent a rapid and profitable growth by the surviving birds under
the better ration. The effect of the first few weeks under the
inferior ration could not be entirely overcome however, and the
birds from Lot B never reached as satisfactory development as

did the others.

RELATIVE ECONOMY OF THE RATIONS FOR DUCKLINGS.

The cost of the food for each pound gain in weight during the
first four weeks of the experiment was for Lot A 2.7 cents and

96 Reporr oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HusSBANDRY OF THB

for Lot B 10.1 cents. During the next five weeks the cost was
3.7 cents for Lot A and 5.3 cents for Lot B. For the whole time
up to ten weeks of age the food cost per pound gain was 3.4 cents
for Lot A and 5.9 cents for Lot B. After Lot B was finally
changed to the animal food ration the food cost per pound gain
for the five weeks was 5.6 cents. The food cost per pound gain
in weight made at this time by Lot A for three weeks after they
had reached the average weight of five pounds was 7.6 cents.

At ten weeks of age the ducklings in Lot A averaged 4.9
pounds in weight and those in Lot B 2 pounds. At seven weeks
of age those in Lot A averaged 3 pounds in weight and those in
Lot B 1.1 pounds. The ducklings in Lot B at five weeks of age,
up to which time they had been restricted to the unmodified veg-
etable food ration averaged but 0.4 pound in weight while those
in Lot A averaged four times as heavy. Even with the addition
of other food to the vegetable food ration, followed later by a
total change, the ducklings in Lot A reached the average weight
of one pound three weeks sooner than those in Lot B. The av-
erage weight of 2 pounds was reached more than three weeks
sooner, the average weight of 3 pounds four and one-half weeks
sooner, the average weight of 4 pounds and the average weight
of 5 pounds each a month sooner. The average weight of 5
pounds was attained by Lot A when Lot B averaged but little
over 2 pounds in weight.

Besides avoiding the serious loss that occurred under the ra-
tion entirely of vegetable food, the chief advantage of the animal
food ration was in the much more rapid growth and earlier ma-
turity and not so much in the ultimate attainment of greater
size.

FEEDING EXPERIMENT WITH HENS.

Of the four lots of laying hens used in this series of experi-
ments, Lots XVII and XVIII were fed the contrasted rations
for about seven and one-half months and Lots XIX and XX for
about six and one-half months. This included the principal

New Yorx AcricutturaL Experiment STatTIon. 97

part of the laying season. Lots XIX and XX were alike at the
start, containing equal numbers of two-year-old Wyandotte hens.
Lots XVII and XVIII contained equal numbers of Leghorn pul-
lets. The pullets in Lot XVII had been fed from the day they
were hatched a ration which contained a large proportion of an-
imal food, while those in Lot X VIII had been grown on a ration
of vegetable food supplemented by some skim milk curd. Some
of the pullets in both lots had been laying for some time before
this experiment began but those in Lot XVII had commenced
laying several weeks younger than those in Lot XVIII. The
hens in the other two lots had been treated alike until used in
this experiment. Lots XVII and XIX were fed the ration con-
taining animal meal described on page 77 and Lots XVIII and
XX were fed the contrasted ration.

The accompanying tables give the data averaged for periods
generally of four weeks.

f

98 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HuUSBANDRY OF THE

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poried ur shep jo Jequinyy ee ae peas

New York Acricurturat Experiment STATION. 99

See ene BROON Ono
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IoJ pooj UI 109¥3eUI AIG ead ane PA Ft
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100 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HvusBANDRY OF THE

*peonpoid aon AM AO

an
s#39 jo punod youve Some 3 03 HH
OJ pooy ul 10}}3BuI AIG
*peonp , ODO Ome
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New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 101

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Bie zeqcany Aan Anan

102 Report or roe DeparrmMent or ANrMAL HusBANDRY OF THE

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMY OF THE RATIONS FOR HENS.

About 13 per ct. more food was eaten and 31 per ct. more eggs
were laid by Lot XVII having the ration containing animal meal
than by Lot XVIII. During the thirty-two weeks the average
ege production per hen was 110.1 eggs for Lot XVII and 84
eggs for Lot XVIII. Eggs from both lots averaged about the
same in weight. The amount of dry matter in the food for each
pound of eggs produced was 3.7 pounds for Lot XVII and 4.3
pounds for Lot XVIII. The cost of food for each pound of eggs
produced was the same for both lots, 4.1 cents, and the food cost
per dozen eggs was 5.9 cents.

Lot XIX ate nearly 15 per ct. more food than Lot XX and
laid over 36 per ct. more eggs. During the twenty-eight weeks
the average egg production per hen was 72.7 for Lot XIX and
53.3 for Lot XX. The eggs from Lot XIX averaged somewhat
larger. The amount of dry matter in the food for each pound
of eggs produced was 4.3 pounds for Lot XIX and 5.5 pounds
for Lot XX. The cost of food for each pound of eggs produced
was 4.8 cents for Lot XIX and 5.2 cents for Lot XX. The food
cost per dozen eggs was 7.8 cents for Lot XIX and 7.9 cents for
Lot XX. With these two lots of older hens which had not been
under the effect of similar rations before the experiment began
there was no difference in the laying noticeable during the first
twelve weeks, but after the cumulative effect of the rations be-
gan to be felt the superiority of the one ration for sustained egg
production became more evident. A study of the tabulated data
will show this.

With the two lots of younger birds, which had been since
hatching under the influence of somewhat similarily contrasted
rations, the difference in egg production was apparent from the
start. This difference was even more noticeable after several
months although the lot having the animal food had been laying
longer under the influence of the preliminary rations before this
experiment began. For short periods during part of the laying

New York AqricutturaL Experiment Srarion. 103

season the vegetable food ration was used as efficiently as the
other, but the subsequent decline in egg production was more
rapid than under the other ration. It will be noticed by refer-
ring to the tabulated data that the birds in Lot XVII were dur-
ing every period somewhat heavier than those in Lot XVIII.
This was due to the actual difference in size and not to accum-
ulation of fat. This difference between the lots had been much
more noticeable before they reached maturity. No particular
differences were noticed in regard to broodiness or molting.

ORSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO THE EGGS.

During the first few months a cockerel was kept with each of
the two Lots XIX and XX. These birds were alternated be-
tween the two lots so that any difference in the general fertility
of the eggs might not be attributable to any difference in male
birds. The eggs from Lot XIX showed a somewhat greater per-
centage of fertility than those from Lot XX but there was little
difference in the vitality of the germs.

During about four months one cockerel was kept alternately
with Lots XVII and XVIII. Eggs were examined several times
during the season both when they were probably at their best
and later when they were poor. On the average there was a
large percentage of fertile eggs, there were fewer of the very
weak germs, and the proportion of chicks hatched from the tested
eggs was greater for Lot XVII.

Two lots, ten in each, of two year old hens were also fed
these contrasted rations for a few months, although full data
were not collected. One male bird was kept alternately with the
two lots. Eggs from the two lots showed the same percentage
of fertility, but there were fewer weak germs in the eggs from
the lot having the animal food ration and more chicks were
hatched from the tested eggs.

Eggs from all the lots were sometimes kept for a long time
before use, but contrasted lots were treated alike. Eggs from

104 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

none of these lots were so good for hatching as eggs from some
hens having practically free run, nor as eggs from some other
matings of birds kept confined. No general differences were
apparent in the average weights attained by the chicks hatched
from eggs from the several contrasted lots, nor in the vigor of
the chicks while growing.

There was some difference generally in the size of the eggs in
favor of the lots having the animal food. But little difference in
the nutritive value of the eggs was found by chemical analysis.
Such differences as were found will be later considered in con-
nection with other work. The shells were generally heavier o
eggs from those birds having the animal food ration. Twenty
tests of the table qualities of the eggs were made by ten different
families. Preferences did not all coincide. Eggs from Lots
XVII and XVIII were on the average about equally preferred,
while a nearly unanimous opinion favored eggs from Lot XIX
over those from Lot XX. Opinion seemed to be influenced fa-
vorably by the generally darker colored yolks and firmer consis-
teney of the eggs from hens having the animal food. When a
preference in regard to flavor was expressed it was nearly always

in favor of the eggs produced under the vegetable food ration.

SECOND SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS.

In another series of experiments two lots of chicks were fed
for nine weeks and four lots for eleven weeks. Two lots of
ducklings were fed for nine weeks and two lots of laying hens
for seven months. The contrasted feeding, as in the former
experiments, began with the chicks and ducklings when they
were one week old and continued until they were ten or twelve
weeks old. The same conditions existed in regard to manage-

ment and accommodations.

RATIONS IN THE SECOND SERIES.
One ration for chicks and hens consisted of wheat, corn and a
mixture, No. 3, composed of 27 parts by weight of corn meal,

NEw York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 105

25 parts of animal meal, 5 parts each of wheat bran and malt
sprouts, 3 parts each of wheat middlings and Buffalo gluten meal.
and 2 parts each of buckwheat middlings and pea meal. The
contrasted ration consisted of wheat, corn and a mixture, No. 4,
composed of 12 parts of wheat bran, 11 parts of King gluten
meal, 9 parts each of malt sprouts, buckwheat middlings and
bone ash, 6 parts of O. P. linseed meal, 5 parts of pea meal, 4
parts of corn meal, 3 parts each of brewer’s grains and ground
flaxseed, and 2 parts of wheat middlings. To every 360 pounds
of each mixture one pound of salt was added. The ducklings
had wheat bran and corn meal with each of the contrasted mix-
tures. Green alfalfa was fed to every lot. Sand and coarse
grit were liberally supplied to the chicks and ducklings and grit
and oyster shells to the hens.

The valuations assumed for the foods have been mentioned on
page 78. The average composition of each food used in these
experiments is shown in the following table. Special analyses
of the green alfalfa and alfalfa hay were not made but the aver-
age of many analyses showing the composition of numerous sam-
ples fed in previous experiments were used in the calculation of

rations. See page 79.

TABLE XVIII.— Composition or Foops USED IN THE SECOND SERIES OF
PouLtry FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.

—— ——

‘ Piet fa

. 3 S) o
Food. K ; & == 3 29% <s
z 3 eo} gfe SB £88 1 23

= < iv < Z =
Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Per ct.
Maxsbureusite:: takki. LOR UPA Zour 22t it Jae 42.8 5.9
0% Lb 1 BC: Sig nl ie 10.4 13.4 22.36 20.7 ae: 41.2 6.6
Wheat: yt 0 te eee 13.4 1.9 Wa} ESO, 20) 69.5 1.9
Cracked corn 55.5... .. 30) Vs3 9.3 8.8 ere 70.9 4.2
Wiest Dray «ascites or 12.8 6.5 14.1 12.5 10.8 50.9 4.9
Cornimealyn.si5 ek (3 11.5 1.4 10.3 9.6 1.4 71.0 4.4

‘
106 Report or tHE DeparrMEeNtT or ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

EXPERIMENT WITH CHICKS, SECOND SERIES.

The lots of chicks, XI, XIII and XV were fed the ration con-
taining the animal meal and Lots XII, XIV and XVI were fed
the contrasted ration of vegetable foods supplemented by bone
ash. Two-thirds of the chicks in Lots XI, XIJ, XIII and XIV
were W. Wyandotte-W. Leghorn crosses and the remainder
Leghorns and Wyandottes. The other two lots contained about
the same proportion of the cross-bred chicks, the remainder being
mostly Wyandottes with a few Plymouth Rocks.

After the chicks in Lots XI and XII were ten weeks old the
largest cockerels were removed and the remainder fed for two
weeks longer on the same rations. The other four lots were fed
until the chicks were twelve weeks old without separating the
cockerels. The different lots were fed freely — all the food they
would readily eat. The nutritive ratios of the rations were .
nearly alike, the ratio for the vegetable-food ration being how-
ever slightly wider as in the preceding experiments. ‘The con-
trasted rations in this series were more nearly alike in regard to
the relations of the protein, ash and fats to the total dry matter.
The vegetable-food ration contained a slightly less proportion
of protein and a slightly larger proportion of ash and of fats, but
these differences were very small.

The data secured in feeding the six lots of chicks are given in
the accompanying tables.

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMY OF THE RATIONS FOR CHICKS.

The ration containing the animal meal was eaten somewhat
more freely. The gains made by the contrasted lots were, how-
ever, very nearly equal. Lot XI ate nearly 12 per ct. more food
calculated on the basis of dry matter than did Lot XII, Lot XIII
ate nearly 16 per ct. more than Lot XIV and Lot XV over 9
per ct. more than Lot XVI. The gain in weight made by Lot
XII was less than 4 per ct. greater than that made by Lot XI,
the gain made by Lot XIII was nearly 10 per ct. greater than

New Yorx AacricuuTuRAL ExprRIMENT StTaTIon. 107

that made by Lot XIV and the gain made by Lot XVI was
about 7 per ct. greater than that made by Lot XV. The amount
of dry matter in the food consumed for each pound gain in
weight was 4.4 pounds for Lot XI and 3.8 pounds for Lot XIT;
the amount was 4.7 pounds for Lot XIII and 4.5 pounds for
Lot XIV. It was 5.8 pounds for Lot XV and 5.0 pounds for
Lot XVI. The figures show that while the rapidity of growth
was about the same under both rations, the vegetable-food ration
was used more efficiently by the growing chicks. A smaller
amount of food was required to produce results equal to those
produced by a much larger amount under the ration containing
animal food.

The difference in the cost of food was due not so much to the
somewhat greater consumption under the one ration, but more
to the difference in cost of the two mixtures which constituted
half the food in the respective rations. The difference in the
food cost of the gain made is therefore due not alone to the some-
what greater efficiency of the one ration but more to the valua-
tion of the different foods necessarily used.

The food cost of each pound gain in weight made by Lot XI
was 5.3 cents and of that made by Lot XII 4.2 cents. For Lot
XIII the cost was 5.6 cents and for Lot XIV 4.9 cents. For
Lot XV the cost was 7.0 cents per pound and for Lot XVI 5.4
cents per pound. In rapidity of growth there was little practi-
cal difference, equal weights being reached by contrasted lots at
the same age. While at ten weeks of age equal weights had
been attained by contrasted lots, at twelve weeks the average for
Lot XIII was slightly heavier than that of Lot XIV. The
weights of other lots at twelve weeks still bore the same relation.

EXPERIMENT WITH DUCKLINGS, SECOND SERIES.

Of the two lots of Pekin ducklings, Lot C was fed the ration
containing animal food and Lot D the vegetable food ration with
the bone ash. In the accompanying tables the data in regard to
the feeding are given up to the age of ten weeks. After ten

108 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

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|| 9B SyOIgo Jo osv oSBIOAV e
‘porsed uy s£vp jo Joquinn o ey = pas pa =

Lot XII.

All Organic Matter in the Ration from Vegetable Food. Bone Ash Added.

TABLE XX.— CHICKS FED VEGETABLE Foop.

New York AGRIcuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT

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ul ules punod yovo
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‘443/90 UlUIes Jou punod
yors I0J pooy jo 4sog

* pez JUSIOM
all punod qovo «03 Aep
ted poojy ul 1093eum AIg

‘potted Zulinp yorgo zed
qyUsIOM Ul UBS VSvIvAV

if

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pooj ul 1093vu AIG

| ‘£ep ied pooj [v40J,

“O}JBI OATZ
-lagnu eyeurx0i1ddy

*pooj ul Sze

‘poog ul ysy

*pooj Ul Ule}JOIg

Average per fowl for period.
cxremamnnemmemnh 0

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*m109

"7807

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cereororr—— or

*syoryo Jo oquinyy

*polsed jo pus 48
SHOIGO JO JYSIOM OSBIIAY

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4 SYO]Go Jo o2B osvisAy

‘popred uy sAvp Jo requiniy

Ozs. Cts. Ozs. Ozs. Cts: Lbs.

Ozs.

Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs.

Ozs.

Ozs.

Lbs.

Weeks.

Nn
tH

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4.5

3.0

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1.8

1.8

6.2

97

14

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au

2.5 4.5

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1.0

3.6

1

1.5

2.9

1.8

2.3

2.3

10.4

14

5.2

wl ee ain ~ ey: .09

1

2.0

13.7 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.9

93

14

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5.4

4.6 4.4

UV IY (

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STATION.

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8.9

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22.9 Bite Oat birawowr Os tf tmet Cement heed LG Tieeeeteits jemeneh-Aee3)

75

n Fay

14

* After removal of largest cockerels.

109

110 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

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New

Lot XIV.

TaBtE XXII.— Cuicks FED VEGETABLE Foon.

Bone Ash Added.

All Organic Matter in the Ration from Vegetable Food.

YorK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTION.

“4310 M
ul ured punod yore
IOJ pooy ul sz093vUL AIG

"4319 Ul ures Jou punod
yove I0J pooy jo 4sog

“pez WUSTIOM
9Al[ punod youe 103 Avp
| led pooy ul 109}eUL AIq

‘polied Zutmp yoryo 130d
JYSIOM Ul uled oSvIIAV

( Aep rod poog jo ysop

‘Aep 19d
pooj ut 1093vuUr A1q

| ‘Aep Jad pooj (eo,
|

"O1VBI OATY
-lijnu oyeuixo1ddy

"poo Ul SzBT
*pooy ur ysy

*pooj Ul Ule}JOIg

Average per fowl for period.
——

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*mI09

“qvat A

"p O1NIXTM

“syoIyo Jo Jaquinyy

*porsied jo pus 4v
SHOLO JO JYSIOM VSVIOAV

‘poised jo Zuruuiseq
qe SYOIO JO 3B osBIIAV

|"potsed ut skep_jo 1oquinyy

Cts. Ozs. Ozs.

Ozs.

Ozs.

Qzs., sOzs; Ozs. Ozs. ‘Ozs; Ozs.

Ozs.

Weeks. Lbs.

5.4

Dn

.03

1.9

1

7

~
oO

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oo

vo)

Nn

.04

E37

5.4 1.4 1.4 oe eG

86

14

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2.3

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86

14

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or)

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5

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1.2

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2.6

3.3

2.3

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85

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14

3.3

3.5

5.9

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3.4

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14

10.2

19

2.4 .16 3.7

3.0

2.0

Ae al ee tin,

6.2

LO... v4. 83 24.5

14

lil

112 Report or THE DEPARTMENT oF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

“4ysIom

Lor XV.

Thirty-five per ct. of the Protein in the Ration from Animal Food.

wD [o>) N Vo) nN
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2
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qe SYOIYO JO 03¥B OSBIOAY é 4

14
14
14
14
14

‘potted ut sAup Jo zequitin Py

New

Lor XVI.

TABLE XXIV.— Cuicks FED VEGETABLE Foon.

Bone Ash Added.

All Organic Matter in the Ration from Vegetable Food.

York AGRICULTURAL

“4ystom
ul ures punod yovo
IOJ} pooy url s9jyyvu AIG

‘7310 M Ul UIVs Jou punod
yovs 10} pooy jo 4sop

“poy qystom
eal] punod yore 103 Avp
tad pooy ur a0jyeu Aig

‘potied Sutimp yoryo zed
qYSIOM Ul UleSs OSBIOAY

“ep 10d pooj jo ysog

*£ep z9d
pooj ul JoyQeur Arq

‘Aep rod pooj [eyo

*O1YBI OATY
-l1ynu 9yeurxo1ddy

*pooy UL seq

“poos ul ysy

*pooj Ul U1e}01g

—_——— ee KK —_— OS 7

Average per fowl for period.

“BITBITV

*ul0pD

"BOTAN

“py CANJET

—_—-

“sory jo 1oquInN

*poried jo pus 4e
SYOIYO JO JUSIOM OSBIOAY

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8

Lbs.
5.6

Ozs. Cts. Ozs. Ozs. Cts.

Ozs.

Ozs.

Ozs. Qzs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs.

Ozs.

Weeks.

EXPERIMENT STATION.

5.9

2.7

03

MOB aif

3.6

.04

23.6

1

eae 3 Ney aah g

5.5

60

14

(2 1

Uo

1,9

.06

hate,

1.4

2.7

2.8 3.2

2.0

9.1

57

14

4.8

.07

Weil

3.8

2.8 Sr One 340) 1e5

2.7

10.0

14

7.6

129 = 14 .09 25D) 2.0 8.1

iss. 4

1.2

2.2

a8) ache

2.5- 2.6

15.0

14

4.2 3.9

1.8

Woe lil 6.1

2.2

133.9

1.4

10, 55 «15.4 4.9 4.9 6.1 .4.8 2.3

14

113

114 Report oF THE DEPARTMENT OF AntmMaL HusBaNnpDRY OF THE

weeks the growth was much slower although made at a profitable
rate for a fortnight or more.

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMY OF THE RATIONS FOR DUCK-
LINGS.

There seemed to be no difference in the palatability of the ra-
tions. The birds appeared in equally good health under both,
and there was no loss in either lot. The ducklings in Lot C
grew much faster and ate much more food during all periods of
the experiment. As much or more food was eaten at all times
by the birds in Lot D in proportion to their size. The consump-
tion of food was 26 per ct. greater for Lot C and the gain in
weight 65 per ct. greater.

The dry matter in the food for each pound gain in weight was
3.3 pounds for Lot C and 4.3 pounds for Lot D. The cost of
food per pound gain in weight up to ten weeks of age was 8.5
cents for Lot C and 4.1 cents for Lot D. At five weeks of age
the average weight of the ducklings in Lot C was 2.5 pounds
and in Lot D 1.4 pounds. At eight weeks of age the average
weights were 4.5 pounds for Lot C and 2.9 pounds for Lot D.
At ten weeks of age the weights were 5.75 pounds for Lot C and
3.7 pounds for Lot D, and at twelve weeks the average weights
were 6.4 pounds and 4.7 pounds respectively. The average
weight of two pounds was attained by Lot C 1.8 weeks sooner
than by Lot D, the average weight of three pounds 2.3 weeks
sooner, the average weight of four pounds 3.3 weeks sooner and
the average weight of five pounds about a month sooner. The
birds in Lot C reached the average weight of six pounds at 10.4
weeks of age. Those in Lot D did not reach this weight while
feeding records were kept, but birds from this lot attained later
in the season practically the same size as those more quickly grown.
Under the vegetable food ration with bone ash the ducklings
were able to make a moderate and regular growth and remain
in continual good health. This, other lots of ducklings had be-

Lor ee (Os

TABLE XXV.— Duckuines Fep ANIMAL Foon.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

“4ysIoM
Ul ulsZ punod yoveo
IOJ pooy ur s1099euL AIG

“743190 Ul ules Jou punod
yove I0J pooy jo 4sop

“pos Iysiom
eal] punod yove 103 Aep
ded poojy ur 1033801 Aq

*pojiod Zulinp [oj 10d
QUSIOM Ul UIVs OsBIOAV

f
“Aep
ded pooy jo 4s0p

*kep sed
pooj ul 10998ur Aig

*ABp ied pooj [vjoL

O1YBI OAT}
-Jajnu oyeurxoiddy

"pooy ul seq

eS

*pooj ur ysy

*pooj Ul uleq{O1g

Average per fowl for period

“BITBITV

*[BoUl UIOD

Thirty-sia per ct. of the Protein in the Ration from Animal Food.

| “UBIg FBO AA
| *g OINg xT

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SZUIT{ONp Jo o3B esBIOAY

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Cts. Ozs. Ozs. Cts. Lbs |

Ozs.

Ozs.

Ozs. Ozs. Ozs. Ozs.

Ozs.

Ozs.
1.5

Ozs.

Lbs.

Weeks.

Ne)
Nn

~
ies

3.5

4.4

ail

a6

1.2

2.5

3.1

7.9

30

1.2

oO
N

18) Sealine melts ot aD Pel) 6.8 3.1 eid

3.9

5.0

2.4

330i L2ea

1.0

2.2

Set) 14(0) 2.8 2.4

3.9

23.4

ede eS Ol 228

4.0

1.8 30 618.7

3.2

2.6 30 22.6 4.9 Del,” B.8s Ted, 034 2208 Iedst .8.6° 2.8 31 13.5

4.2

~~

i)
st

nN

5.8 08 1052

fe

3.3

4.2; P24,

9.1

4.7
4.7

30 8628.3 5.3 10.7
7.5

3.3

5.2

rfl 1.6 4.3 4.1

of

3:0 “22de e355 Gero G8

8.7
9.3

26.1 6.3 12.0

30

3.9

6.2

~~

5.8 .39 14.0 1.4 3.1 2.9

7.3

1h33}53)

2.5

28.9 4.5 10.5

30

4.7

7.2

1.3 7.0 (0), 1

Chet) me Eels) walla iaciies etels onal der .43 7.0

7.5 10.4

5.2 30 )=— 331.5 1 (Sama! i

8.2

eo
oO

nN

5.2 poe a= that

12325) 627

mone

3.6

8.0

tab

30 §=—.23.5 glo wel

5.9

9.2

115

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yore

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QUS1IOM UL UlBS BZBIOAY

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116 Report or THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

“peppVW Ysy au0g “poog 21Qnj0604 woul UoYnY ey? Wr 4077D]T 9UMb10 TLV

«<A> LOT ‘dOOg ATAVIGDAA AIT SONIIMOAG —TAXX WAV

New York AgricutturaL ExperIMENT STaTion. 117

fore been unable to do on rations wholly of vegetable food or on
such rations supplemented by a liberal amount of skimmilk curd.
The bone ash appeared therefore to partly supply a deficiency
which had existed in some other rations, but it did not bring
the ration anywhere near to the efficiency of the ration contain-
ing animal meal. The contrasted rations were nearly alike in
chemical composition so far as the groups of constituents are
ordinarily considered in feeding.

EXPERIMENT WITH LAYING HENS, SECOND SERIES.

The two lots of laying hens which were fed the contrasted
rations were Leghorns and had been laying well for two or three
months before the experiment began. ‘The two lots were alike
at the start. The ration containing animal food was fed to Lot
XXI and the vegetable food ration to Lot XXII. The hens
were liberally fed but not more than was promptly and readily
eaten. Chopped alfalfa hay was fed during the first period and
green alfalfa during two others. For about three months the
hens were allowed to get their green food from grass runs and
the amount eaten was estimated from the amount of green forage
eaten at other times when it was freely fed. An interrogation
point accompanies the statement of amount of green fodder for
the periods when it was estimated. The records of feeding and
the results obtained are stated in condensed form in the accom-
panying tables.

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMY OF THE RATIONS FOR HENS.

The difference in food consumption under the two rations was
practically nothing. For the thirty weeks there was only about
one-half per ct. difference in the total dry matter of the food. Up
to the beginning of the last period the total consumption was
exactly the same. The rations were intended to correspond very
closely in regard to the proportions of constituents, and this they
proved to do, although there were slight differences. The animal

L118 Report or toe DepartTMENT oF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

“poonp Dig af pa! Ss) eo ace
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119

New Yorx AGricuLttTuraL EXprERIMENT STATION.

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‘IIXX LOT ‘adOOq AIGVLUDATA AAT SNIP] —IITAXX FAVE

120 Reporr OF THE DrPparTMENT Or ANIMAL Huspanpry OF THE

food ration supplied on the average a little more protein and a
little less of ash and fats than the contrasted ration.

During nearly six months there was very little difference in
egg production, the difference being less than three per ct. in favor
of Lot XXI. After this the falling off was more rapid for Lot
XXII so that the egg yield for the whole time was about six
per ct. greater for Lot XXI. The average number of eggs laid
per hen during the thirty weeks was 119.4 for Lot XXI and
112.7 for Lot XXII. For every pound of eggs produced there
were 3 pounds of dry matter in the food for Lot XXI and 3.2
pounds for Lot XXII. For nearly six months the proportion
of dry matter in the food for each pound of eggs produced was
2.8 pounds for Lot XXI and 2.9 pounds for Lot XXII. Al-
though the cost of food was somewhat more under the animal
food ration, the egg yield was enough larger to make the food
cost of eggs about alike for both lots. For the whole time the
average cost for each pound of eggs was 3.2 cents for each lot.
For all but the last period the average was 3.1 cents for Lot
XXI and 3.0 cents for Lot XXII. The average food cost per
dozen eggs was, for the thirty weeks, 4.7 cents for Lot X XI and
4.6 cents for Lot XXII.

No general difference was noticed in regard to molting.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE EGGS.

Two cockerels were kept, one with each lot, during the first
three and one-half months. The birds were alternated between
the two lots so that average and general differences in the eggs
would appear justly credited to the hens. The eggs from Lot
XXI proved better from the breeders’ standpoint than those from
Lot XXII. Eggs from both lots were sometimes kept several
weeks. Five hundred eggs from each lot were examined and in-
cubated. Eighty-six per ct. of those from Lot XXI were fertile,
19 per ct. of the fertile eggs had very weak germs and 77 per
ct. of the tested eggs hatched strong chicks. Of those from Lot
XXTI, 78 per ct. were fertile, 34 per ct. of the fertile eggs had

New Yorx AaricuLtturRAL ExprrimMent Station. 121

very weak germs and 64 per ct. of the tested eggs hatched strong
chicks. arly in the season some of the eggs from both lots were
much better than these average results show and later some were
much inferior. The cockerels used were undoubtedly responsible
for many fluctuations in fertility of the eggs, for there were pro-
nounced differences consistently following changes of the male
birds.

A circumstance was noticed in the later hatches which seems
worthy of record for it suggests a difference in the prepotency of
the hens in the two lots. The hens used were thoroughbred S.
Combed W. Leghorns and the cockerels were pure W. Wyandottes.
From Lot XXI almost exactly one-half of the number of chicks
hatched (52 per ct.) had the single comb characteristic of the
female parent, while all the chicks from Lot XXII had the rose
comb characteristic of the male parent. Unfortunately these ob-
servations were limited and apply only to about eighty chicks of the
later hatches as the opportunity was lost for observing the chicks
of the earlier hatches.

No difference in the vigor of the chicks from the two lots while

growing was observed.

SUMMARIZED DATA.

With every lot of chicks in the first series (Lots I, IV, VI,
VIII and X) having a ration wholly of vegetable origin more
food was required to produce a pound gain than by the contrasted
lot (Lots I, III, V, VII, TX). On the average for the ten lots
about 23 per ct. more food was required.

The two lots of laying hens, XVIII and XX, required on the
average about 23 per ct. more food for each pound of eggs pro-
duced than did Lots XVII and XIX having animal food.

Lot B of ducklings required about 2.3 times as much food for
each pound gain in weight as did Lot A having the unchanged
ration containing animal food.

Every lot of chicks in the second series (Lots XI, XIII and
XV) having a ration containing animal food required more food

122 Reporr or true DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OF THE

for each pound gain than did the contrasted lot (Lots XII, XIV
and XVI) having vegetable food supplemented by bone ash. On
the average about 13 per ct. more food was required.

Less than 7 per ct. more food was required by Lot XXII of
laying hens for each pound of eggs produced than was required
by Lot XXI.

Lot D of ducklings required over 30 per ct. more food for each
pound of gain in weight than did Lot C having animal food.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

In some feeding experiments conclusive results can be obtained
in a direct manner from a few animals. In other feeding experi-
fents, however, where mixed foods must necessarily be used longer
than for a short time, many conditions exist which cannot be
subjected to particular control, and the nature of the evidence is
so largely circumstantial that conclusions can only be satisfactory
when they are based upon data from several feeding trials and a
larger number of animals. In these experiments relating to the
use of animal food, including the preliminary trials reported in
Bulletin 149, 1,000 chicks and 170 ducklings were grown to mar-
ketable size; 90 hens and 40 cockerels were used. The results,
therefore, not any of which are of conflicting nature, seem to
justify certain conclusions.

In general, rations containing animal food appear more palat-
able than rations of somewhat similar chemical composition con-
sisting wholly of vegetable food. ations in which the lack of
palatability was overcome by using an unusual variety of grain
foods were inferior for growing chicks and laying hens and de-
cidedly inferior for ducklings to rations in which nearly one-fifth
of the dry matter was supplied by animal food. After the period
of most rapid growth had passed and the young birds approached
maturity the difference in the efficiency between such rations rap-

idly disappeared.

New Yorx AGrRIcuULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTIon. 123

Although it was found possible, when using a large number of
foods in contrasted rations of these kinds, to have the ordinary
groups of organic compounds in approximately equal proportions
there was always a much larger amount of mineral matter in the
one ration owing to the bone of the animal meal. So there was
sometimes nearly three times as much phosphorous in the one ra-
tion as in the other. Calculating all the phosphorous as phos-
phoric acid, there was in the animal meal ration fed to chicks and .
hens generally about 3.9 per ct. of phosphoric acid, while in the
ration of vegetable origin there was about 1.4 per ct. In the con-
trasted rations for ducklings there were 4.0 per ct. and 1.9 per ct.
of phosphoric acid, respectively.

By using bone ash in another series of experiments, the amount
of phosphorus was made to equal and sometimes slightly exceed
that in the animal food ration, although all the organic matter
was still derived from vegetable food. There was in the animal
food ration fed to chicks, phosphorus equivalent to about 3.9 per
et. of phosphoric acid and in the contrasted ration to about 4.0
per ct. The animal food ration for ducklings contained about
3.6 of phosphoric acid and the vegetable food ration about 4.0
per ct. Both rations for laying hens contained about 3.6 per ct.
of phosphoric acid. Practically the same relative amounts of
protein, fats and carbohydrates existed in the contrasted rations.
The vegetable food ration, thus supplemented by the mineral mat-
ter of bone ash, when fed to chicks, proved fully equal to the
ration containing animal meal, so far as rapidity of growth was
concerned. In economy it was even somewhat superior, for con-
siderable less food was required for equal results. For laying hens
the rations were equal in efficiency for some months, but the ration
containing animal food proved somewhat more enduring in its
effects. With ducklings the ash-supplemented ration of vegetable
food proved decidedly inferior to the corresponding ration con-
taining animal food.

From these results it appears that rations containing a neces-
sary amount of protein and having the relation of the ordinarily

124 Revorr or ror Department or ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.

considered constituents satisfactory may be inferior because of a
lack of mineral matter, probably phosphates.

Not enough data are now available to show to just what ex-
tent the deficiency of lime in the food for the younger chicks may
have been responsible for inferior results. With laying hens, lack
of lime could not have affected the results considered; for oyster
shells were freely supplied, and it has been shown (see Bulletin
No. 38) that such material can make good the frequent deficiency
of lime.

It appears also that, while a cheaper vegetable food ration can
sometimes be made to equal or surpass in efficiency a ration con-
taining animal food by supplementing it with suitable mineral
matter, there are plain limitations to its economical use. For lay-
ing hens some animal food appears necessary for continued good
results. Ducklings without an abundant supply of animal protein
in the ration, together with a liberal proportion of mineral matter,
seem unable to make any approximation to their normally rapid
and most profitable growth.

Although bone ash was used to make good an assumed defi-
ciency in one ration and proved an efficient addition for the pur-
pose, it should not be inferred that its purchase for feeding is to
be generally recommended. It was necessarily used to obtain in-
formation. Bone ash in the market is expensive. The same
amount of mineral matter can be obtained much cheaper in fresh
bone or animal meal, of which foods it constitutes an important
part. In some instances, of course, dry bones, where no facili-
ties exist for grinding, or green bones in questionable condition,
can be safely and economically used when charred or reduced to
ash. The very desirable organic matter associated with fresh or

cooked bones should not be wasted.

REPORT

OF THE

Department of Bacteriology

H. A. Harpine, Bacteriologist.
L. A. Rogers, Student Assistant.

Taste or Contents.

I. The efficiency of a continuous pasteurizer at different tempera-

tures.

’

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REPORT OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST.

THE EFFICIENCY OF A CONTINUOUS PAS-
TEURIZER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERA-
TU RES.*

H. A. Harpine anp L. A. Rogers.

SUMMARY.

These tests were made by passing mixed whole milk through a
Danish continuous pasteurizer. At 70°C. (158°F.) the efficiency
of the continuous pasteurizer varies greatly from day to day.
Tests upon 14 different days gave an average of 15,288 living
germs per cubic centimeter left in the pasteurized milk, with a
maximum of 62,790 and a minimum of 120 germs.

At 80° C. (176° F.) the reduction in germ content is both very
uniform and very great. Tests upon 25 different days gave an
average of only 117 living germs per cubic centimeter in the
pasteurized milk, with a maximum of 297 and a minimum of 20
germs.

At 85° ©. (185° F.) the average reduction is not more marked
than at 80° C. but the range of variation is less. This temperature
has the added advantage, according to Dr. Bang, of removing the
danger from germs of tuberculosis in the milk.

Even when the whole milk was heated to 85°C. the butter did
not have a permanent cooked flavor.

INTRODUCTION.

An inquiry into the laws which underlie any of the complex
commercial processes will progress slowly if each step is deter-

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 172.

128 REPORT OF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

mined with a thoroughness that allows of safe generalization from
the data obtained.

In order that the reader may see the relation of this piece of
work to the problem that is being studied, let the following facts

be borne in mind.

THE DANISH SITUATION.

Dairying is one of the principal industries of Denmark and
during the past two decades the government has fostered it both
by the equipment of experts to study its problems and by pro-
tective legislation.

In 1890 Dr. Storch announced that, by changing the kind of
bacteria that grow in ripening cream, he was able to change the
flavor of the butter.

Dr. Bang, after studying the conditions under which tubereu-
losis was distributed among cattle, perfected a system of separating
the diseased animals from the healthy ones and gradually replac-
ing the former. In carrying out his plan, the feeding of calves
upon the skim milk brought from the creamery was found to be
a source of danger, but this could be removed by heating the milk
momentarily to 85°C. (185°F.).

As the result of these and other investigations, there has spread
over Denmark a peculiar method of making butter —a method
so successful that, to-day, Danish butter is a standard of excellence
wherever it is known.

Cleanliness in all details and an intelligent appreciation of the
relation of bacteria to butter-making are widespread, but the key-
note of their system is preparation of the starter itself and the
cream to receive the starter.

By a starter they rarely mean the mixture of bacteria, desirable
and undesirable, which commonly receives that title in New York.
They mean a mixture of known kinds, each of which has been
found desirable in itself. This united action of several species
gives a better flavor to the butter than could be obtained from
any single species.

a

New York AaricuLTuRAL ExprerRIMENT Station. 129

This mixture of germs, when received from a laboratory, is
introduced into milk that has been first heated to near the boiling
point for 2 hours to kill other bacteria and then cooled below blood
heat. This starter is propagated from day to day with so much
care that at the end of four to six weeks, when it is finally rejected
for a new one, the usual fault with it is merely a too sharp flavor
of acid.

The preparation of the cream begins with cleanliness in the
barn. Either the whole milk or the cream after separation is
heated to free it of objectionable forms before receiving the
starter. This heating is only momentary and various temperatures
are advocated — those from 70° C. (158° F.) to 95° C. (203° F.)
having been used. After heating, the cream is quickly and thor-
oughly cooled. Formerly cream was heated after separation, both
for economy and because of less opportunity for after-contami-
nation. ,

A knowledge of the inercase in feeding value produced by pro-
longing the period of sweetness, and, later, a desire to prevent
the spread of tuberculosis among their calves, caused the skim
milk to be heated above 85° ©. (185° F.). Since it has been
found that the capacity of the separator is increased by skimming
at high temperatures and that whole milk can be heated to 90° C.
(194° F.) without injury to the flavor of the butter, there is a
tendency toward a single heating of the whole milk.

The points of excellence claimed for the Danish product are
uniformly good quality and the property of holding its flavor for
long periods.

TIIE AMERICAN SITUATION.

Butter is now selling at from 14 to 28 cents per pound, with
less than 15 per ct. of the product bringing the latter price. The
quality of the best butter is above reproach, but the lamentable
thing is the lack of quantity of such butter. So great is this lack

9

130 Report oF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

that during at least a portion of the year it is impossible to buy
first-class butter in many of the moderate-sized cities in this, the
greatest dairy State in the Union.

These facts show that there is abundant room for improvement,
and anything that will raise the average quality of the product
will be gladly welcomed, both by the dairyman and the consumer.

After the Danish success became an established fact, Ameri-
cans attempted to copy their methods, but thus far the results”
have not been up to their expectations. Tests carried on by the
Agricultural Experiment Stations of Wisconsin and Pennsylvania,
as well as by the Department of Agriculture at Washington, failed
to show that there is any financial gain to be derived from the
process when practiced as usually recommended.

Believing that the above failures are due to some of the modi-
fications that the system has undergone in being brought from
Denmark to America, this Station has undertaken to follow the
process step by step, hoping to find the proper American condi-
tions under which we can not only make a more uniform product,
but one that will be sufficiently improved to justify the additional
expense in preparation.

The solution of this problem calls for the co-operation of a
number of the departments of the Station and will require con-
siderable time; hence, it is proposed to issue the results in a series
of bulletins, of which this is the first. While the Bacteriological
Department assumes the responsibility for the statements contained
in this bulletin, much credit is due our Dairy Expert, Mr. Geo. A.
Smith, whose wide experience in dairy matters has materially con-
tributed to the success of the practical side of the work.

WHAT IS MEANT BY PASTEURIZATION.

As long ago as 1782, a Swedish chemist, Scheele, found that ~
after immersing bottles of vinegar in boiling water for a-time, the

1 Hansen, Emil. Chr. Practical Studies in Fermentation, p. 158.

Nzw Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 131

vinegar would not become turbid or spoiled as long as it was kept
carefully closed.

Early in the nineteenth century Appert” applied this idea of
heating inclosed fluids to prevent fermentative changes to the
preservation of fruits, vegetables, soups, milk, fruit juices, wine
and beer. :

A half century later Pasteur turned this knowledge of the
effect of heat in delaying fermentation to practical account in
combating scme of the undesirable fermentations of wine and
beer, with such success that the process has been called pasteuriza-
tion in his honor. Our present methods of canning fruit and
vegetables are probably the result of the early discoveries. The
application of heat in this way had become such a household
matter by the time the process received this special title that the
name was not carried over to the ordinary househould heating
would to-day be quite

and a ean labeled “ Pasteurized Peaches ”

a puzzle, although from its manner of preparation it can justly
claim that title.

Pasteurization, then, is simply the application of heat to check
the activity of fermentation. The temperature used depends
upon the substance treated and the end to be attained. The
effect upon germ life will vary both with the degree of heat and
the length of exposure. The same results can be secured in
the killing of Bacillus tuberculosis when the milk is heated at
60° C. (140° F.) for 30 minutes or at 85° C. (185° BF.) for a

very short time.

PASTEURIZATION CONFUSED WITH STERILIZATION.

Sterilization is a good word that has been debased by popular
usage. In its true sense it means the total destruction of life.
It is often used to mean anything from a simple warming to a
thorough boiling. Such words are best used in their true sense

2 Loc. cit., p. 159.

132 Report or THE BAcTERIOLOGIST OF THE

or not used at all. It should be remembered that some of the
organisms which are often found in milk will successfully with-
stand boiling for some hours and the sterilization, in the true
sense, of any commercial quantity of milk at a single heating is
a practical impossibility unless temperatures above that of boil-
ing water are used.

THE TWOFOLD APPLICATION OF PASTEURIZATION
TO MILK.

The subject of the pasteurization of milk has been presented
to the American public with reference to two distinct problems
— the sanitary milk supply of cities and the production of uni-
formly good butter.

While heat is applied in both cases the methods of application
which have been found most successful in each are radically
different and an attempt to accomplish either object by the other
process has not yet been shown to be practical. The first method
is too slow and expensive to be adapted to butter making and the
second plan when carried on at a temperature sufficiently high
to kill the tubercle bacillus gives an objectionable flavor to the

milk. Fortunately this flavor does not remain in the butter.

THE DISCONTINUOUS OR HOUSEHOLD SYSTEM.

About ten years ago when the use of tuberculin was bringing
home the alarming prevalence of tuberculosis among our dairy
cows and the danger of transmission of the disease to invalids
and children through milk seemed self-evident, pasteurization
was brought forward as a safeguard from this danger. In this
method the milk was heated at a definite temperature for a defi-
nite length of time.

At first 67.3°C. (155°F.) for 20 minutes was advocated, but
owing to the change brought about in the viscosity of the milk and

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StTaTIon. 133

cream by exposure to this temperature, heating to 60°C. (140°F.)
for 30 minutes is now coming more into favor. According to the
researches of Dr. Theobald Smith,? 15-20 minutes at 60°C.
(140°F.) is sufficient to kill the tubercle bacillus provided the milk
is kept stirred so as to prevent the formation of a pellicle at the
surface. Higher temperatures and a shorter time would give the
same result, but when the temperature of 70°C. (158°F.) is
passed the milk takes on a disagreeable, cooked taste. This is
largely due to an oxidation of some of the components of the hot
milk and it is possible that in the future a way may be found of
avoiding this flavor. |

The main feature in the discontinuous process is the removal
of the danger from disease and. this applies not only to tubercu-
losis but to all other germ troubles which are liable to gain access
to the milk before it is heated. The keeping quality of the milk
is much improved, especially if proper attention is given to keep-
ing it cool after treatment and the effect of the carelessness and
lack of cleanliness which are often prevalent at the barn is in a
measure removed. A very commendable practice exists of pass-
ing the milk through a separator and remixing the milk and
cream before pasteurization. This removes a large part of the
hair, excrement, etc., which is so common in the ordinary milk
supply of cities.

This method of handling milk for immediate consumption is in
successful operation in a number of cities on a large scale. It
has much to commend it and when done in a large way it does not
increase the cost of production more than a small fraction of a
cent a quart.

THE CONTINUOUS OR DANISH SYSTEM.

When the Danish system of butter making was introduced into
America pasteurization came as a necessary part of it, but in this
case the principal object was the fitting of the cream to receive

3 Journal of Experimental Medicine, 4: 217-233 (1899).

134 Report oF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

the starter of selected bacteria so that the desired flavor might
be always obtained.

The problem that presents itself is not different from that which
confronts every farmer who attempts to grow a field of oats. If
he sows his seed upon land already filled with rapidly growin
clover, Canada thistles and ragweed his chances of a good oat
crop are poor. If he first fits his land and kills off the other
plants the oats will have a better chance. To make a success of
this it is not necessary to kill off every weed in the field for if
the oats are much in the majority and get the start of the others
they will control the situation and suppress the weeds.

The bacteria are plants of more simple form than those in the
above illustration, but they obey the same laws of competition in
growth. If conditions are so arranged that the starter when
added to the cream finds the same filled with rapidly growing
enemies, the effect of the starter will be largely or wholly lost;
while if it is added to cream from which all or nearly all of its
competitors have been removed, the starter will assume control
of the situation and suppress its enemies.

In the Danish machine the milk is introduced at one end of a
cylinder surrounded by steam and flows continuously from the
other end having been momentarily heated to the temperature
desired.

The temperatures used have had an upward tendency and sine
Dr. Bang announced that when working with tuberculous cows
furnishing the diseased germs in their milk the milk was ren-
dered harmless when passed through one of these machines -
85° C. (185° F.), this has been taken as the Danish minimum
legal temperature for heating all the by-products that are to be
returned to the farm for feeding purposes.

In a country where the most determined effort is being made
to stop the spread of tuberculosis among cattle the value of this
protection to a dairyman who has succeeded in freeing his own
- herd from the contagion, but yet is compelled to raise his calves

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 135

upon mixed milk brought from the creamery, should not be over-
looked.

In this as in their other acts regarding the suppression of tuber-
culosis the Danes have shown a laudable moderation and consid-
eration of the rights of all concerned. The legal enactment as to
the temperature to be used was not made until the pasteurizing
process had been voluntarily adopted and the necessary machinery
installed in practically every creamery in the country.

The American promoters of the Danish method, knowing from
their previous experiences with the other form of pasteurization
that a heating above 70° C. (158° F.) produces a disagreeable
flavor in the milk, were either not willing to trust the practical
experience of the Danes or hopelessly confused the two problems
and recommended 67.3° C. (155° F.) to the American experi-
menters when the Danish practice is to employ a temperature at
least 12.7° C. (25° F.) higher.

The points in which their reasoning went astray were two:
First, the cooked taste in milk, at least for the most part, is not
a matter of absolute temperature at which the milk is heated, but
rather the result of an exposure of hot milk to oxygen. Milk
that has been highly heated in a Danish pasteurizer and imme-
diately and thoroughly cooled as is their practice has surpris-
ingly little of the cooked taste. Second, the cooked flavor does
not attach itself tenaciously to the fat of which the butter is
almost exclusively prepared and butter made from highly heated
milk that may have a slightly cooked taste immeditely after
churning losses this objectionable flavor in a very short time.

Believing that a failure to properly heat the milk might be a
factor in the lack of success of past American experiments our
investigations began with this point.

THE PROBLEM STUDIED.

The objective point was to determine the effect upon the germ-
life when milk was passed through a continuous pasteurizer at

136 Report oF THE BAcTERIOLOGIST OF THE

different temperatures. So far as data were at hand this had
been done but twice in America. Both of these tests had been
carried out at about 70° C. (158° F.) and the trials were too few
in number and the results too contradictory to form a safe basis
for generalization.

At the Wisconsin Station* it was found that, while there was
considerable variation in the effect of a heating of 67.3°-74° C.
(155°-165° F.), in some cases as many as 40 per ct. of the
bacteria survived and in the tests published this number remain-
ing amounted to over 2,000,000 germs per cubic centimeter.

A different kind of continuous machine was used at the Penn-
sylvania Station® and no numerical results were given, but it was
stated that “ Heating to this temperature 67.3°-70° C. (155°- |
158° F.), for this length of time, as was found by culture plates,
destroyed few, if any, of the bacteria present in the milk.”

Since 70° C. (158° F.) is the lowest temperature which is gen-
erally recommended for continuous pasteurizing this was taken
as a starting point in our work and when the effect of this tem-
perature had been observed higher degrees were used.

MACHINE USED.

We are indebted to D. H. Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y.,
for the loan of a continuous pasteurizer made by Konstantin
Hansen & Schroder, Kolding, Denmark. This has a rated capac-
ity of 2,500 pounds of milk per hour heated to 70° C. (158° F.)

The accompanying drawing of a cross section (Plate IT) ex-
plains the essential parts of the machine. The milk enters at the
bottom into a central milk chamber. Here it is set in motion by
the stirrer revolving 300 times per minute, which spreads the
milk out in a thin layer against the wall and finally expels it at
the tangential milk outlet above. This outlet has a lateral open-

4 Pasteurization as Applied to Butter Making, Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 69.
5 Heated Milk for Butter Making, Penn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 45.

DRIVING
PULLEY

BEVEL GEAR

LOOSE
PULLEY

MILK OUTLET—

CHAMBER

|

STEAM_INLET

YIBNVHD DNILVINSNI

STEAM OUTLET

PLATE II.—VERTICAL SECTION OF CONTINUOUS PASTEURIZER.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 137

ing for receiving the thermometer. As the milk is spread out in
this thin layer it quickly takes up the heat from the steam
chamber surrounding it.

The temperature of the milk is controlled by changing either
the valve admitting the steam or the valve regulating the milk
flow. A slight change in either of these valves produces a quick
response in the mercury column of the thermometer. Usually
the milk valve was set to admit about all the milk that could be
heated to the desired degree and the slight variations in tempera-
ture were controlled by changing the steam valve.

METHOD OF WORK.

In the manipulation of the machine at the different tempera-
tures the effort was always made to give it a fair chance to show
what could be expected of it when handled in the average cream-
ery at that temperature. Our ability to give it a fair trial in-
creased as we became familiar with the machine and its manipula-
tion.

The first requisite was a method of regulating the flow of milk
and steam so that the temperature might be held constant. When
received, the machine was provided with a float intended to con-
trol the flow of milk automatically. After testing it in a variety
of ways for some weeks it was condemned as too clumsy for our
purpose and was removed.

As finally arranged a supply tank placed sufficiently high to
give a good fall was connected directly with the base of the
pasteurizer and the flow regulated by a hand valve. This brought
the milk and the steam valves near together where one man
could reach both and still watch the thermometer. The maxi-
mum variation, which rarely exceeded 10° C., usually occurred
at the beginning of the process before the valves were properly
adjusted. This having been accomplished the desired tempera-
ture could be maintained with very little variation.

138 Report or THE BAcTERIOLOGIST OF THE

In order to make the control of the temperature as well as the
collection of the desired data more accurate the milk was thor-
oughly mixed in a tempering vat before starting the machine.
The arrangement of the apparatus will be better understood by
referring to Plate III.

DATA COLLECTED.

In the Dairy the interest centered upon the temperature used
and in the Laboratory upon the numerical content of germs in
the milk before and after heating. A large amount of data was
collected in both places bearing upon a number of points. Notes
were taken upon the age, weight, initial temperature and acidity
of the milk, the steam pressure in the boiler, the rate of the
pasteurization and the maximum, minimum and _ pasteurizing
temperature employed.

Age.— With age there is an increased growth of bacteria and
a larger number of spores present. This is what makes the suc-
cessful pasteurization of milk over 24 hours old so difficult.
During a large part of the time the mixted milk was made up of
portions 4, 12, 24 and 36 hours old.

Weight.— This varied considerably but averaged 350 lbs. As
the machine while in operation contained only about five pounds
of milk and all that was really necessary was to hold the tempera-
ture at the desired point at the time of taking the sample this
was quite enough for our purpose.

* Initial temperature.— The termperature of the mixed milk was
noted in the tempering vat. For the most part our milk was
brought to about 26° C. (78.8° F.) as being a high average tem-
perature for summer conditions. As received ordinarily in cream-
eries in this State milk varies from near the freezing point in
winter to 35° C. (95° F.) in rare cases in summer.

The temperature of the milk as it enters the pasteurizer exerts
an influence upon the amount that the machine can heat to a
desired degree.

|
!
|

f 2: Ree

Sa eLPRIT mi

a

i! ince

Jd

Ean NI mr
‘ly nT i

id “rina |

UTC) }
TT

PLATE III.—ARRANGEMENT OF MILK RECEIVER AND PASTEURIZER.

Bae <

-

aah

=i

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL ExprERIMENT StTaTIon. 1389

Acidity As the result of experience in the pasteurization of
milk by the discontinuous method it has been found impractical
to attempt to pasteurize milk intended for immediate consump-
tion when the acidity is over 0.2 per ct. calculated as lactic acid.
During a considerable portion of the time our mixed milk has
had an acidity above this figure.

The custom of expressing acidity in milk by percentages of
lactic acid has little to recommend it other than that it is com-
mon practice. It is a well-known fact that a part of the reaction
called acidity is due to the union of the alkali with the casein
and that lactic acid is only one of a number of acids found in
milk.

The fact always determined is the neutralization as indicated
by phenolphthalien of a certain amount of normal solution of
alkali. In our results this observed fact is expressed by the num-
ber of cubic centimeters of normal alkali neutralized by a litre
of milk (n/t). For convenience of comparison the per ct. of
lactic acid erroneously assumed from this data is given in paren-
thesis.

The acidity of our mixed milk ranged from 18.9 n/t (0.17 per
ct.) to 40 n/t (0.36 per ct.) and during a considerable portion of
the time it was above 22.2 n/t (0.2 per ct.). Thus the conditions
of acidity under which the pasteurizing was done were not what
would be considered ideal, but rather those which would be found
in an average creamery. As the acidity of the mixed milk ap-
proached 40 n/t (0.36 per ct.) a considerable layer burned fast
to the sides of the milk chamber in the pasteurizer and the accu-
mulation in the separator bowl was increased.

On Feb. 7 the milk with an acidity of 35.5 n/t (0.32 per ct.)
was pasteurized at 85° ©. (185° F.) very successfully; but the
next attempt with whole milk having an acidity of 40 n/t (0.36
per ct.) quickly accumulated a layer on the walls of the pasteur-
izer and clogged the separator bowl after passing only about 80
pounds of milk.

140 Rerort oF THE BacTERIOLOGIST OF THE

Steam pressure.— The pasteurizer was connected by a #-inch
pipe directly to the high-pressure steam pipe. As will be noticed
in the diagram Plate II, the steam had a free outlet at a point
nearly opposite to the inlet, so that there was at no time any ap-
preciable pressure on the pasteurizer itself. On the contrary, the
steam was nearly all condensed and there was rarely any waste,
even when the steam valve was opened to its full capacity.

The steam pressure given in the tables is that in the 30 horse
power boiler and was noted as one of the possible factors in the
great variation in rate of operation on different days.

Rate.— The amount of milk which a pasteurizer will heat to a
given temperature in a given time is important from the practical
standpoint.

In order to minimize the variation in temperature to which the
milk was exposed and to determine the rate more accurately, it
was our custom to add water to the supply tank and when every-
thing was running at full speed and the last of the water was leay-
ing the tank to add the milk and note the time. After all of
the milk had been added and just as the last was leaving the tank
the time was again noted. The interval was taken as the time
required to handle the milk. Since the amount of milk at any
one time between the milk valve and the milk outlet was only
about 5 pounds, the error was not great.

As one would expect, the rate varies with the pasteurizing tem-
perature. The machine was expected to handle 2,500 pounds an
hour at 70° C. (158° F.), and would do even more under favorable
conditions. In our experience, it did not much exceed 2,100 at
80° C. (176° F.), and handled less at 85° C. (185° F.). It will
be noticed that the rate at 80° C. ranged from as low as 900 to a
little over 2,100 pounds per hour. This extreme variation is due
to a number of factors, among which are variations in steam
pressure and initial temperature and the cooking of the milk on to
the walls of the pasteurizer. This layer of cooked material not

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 141

only acted as an insulator between the milk and the source of heat,
but also encroached upon the interval between the revolving stirrer
paddles and the wall, forming a rough surface along which the
milk must pass. The fact that the machine was not permanently
placed and lacked in rigidity was also a contributing factor to the
above variations.

Pasteurizing temperature.— As soon as the milk enters the bot-
tom of the machine it takes up heat from the steam jacket and
its temperature rises to the highest point just as it reaches the
milk outlet. The temperature at this point is measured by a
thermometer inserted in the outlet and constitutes the so-called
“ Pasteurizing Temperature,” although the milk really attained
this degree only momentarily. As soon as the milk passes from
the machine the temperature falls with a rapidity depending upon
the surroundings.

TAKING SAMPLES.

The samples of unpasteurized milk were taken from the tem-
pering vat after the milk had been thoroughly mixed. The only
exception to this was during the earlier part of the work, when
they were taken from the supply tank just before taking the
samples of pasteurized milk from the machine.

The samples of pasteurized milk were taken from the milk
outlet after sufficient had passed to remove the effect of the bac-
teria contained in the water used in starting the machine and in
the machine itself. Care was taken to secure samples while the
machine was running steadily at the desired temperature.

The samples of about 15 cubie centimeters each in sterile
flasks were set into a room at 1.5° to 4.5° C. (35°-40° F.) until
the pasteurization was ended, when they were taken to the labora-

tory on the floor above and the quantitative analyses made.

BACTERIOLOGICAL TESTS.

Method of dilution.— One c. ¢. of the unheated milk was added
to 9 c. ¢. of sterile water and the two thoroughly mixed. This

142 Report or THE BAcTERIOLOGIST OF THE

process was repeated and a small fraction of a c. ce. from the second
dilution was added to the culture medium.

Cultures were made in Petri dishes having an internal diameter

of 91-92 mm. For the sake of convenience in counting and to
prevent the inhibiting effect of closely-crowded colonies, the aim
was to so arrange the dilution that the growth would be about
500 colonies to the plate. In the case of the pasteurized milk,
no dilution was necessary, but a measured fraction of a cubic
centimeter was added directly to the nutrient media.
' Media used.— The tabulated results given below were all
obtained upon lactose agar made neutral to phenolphthalein with
sodium hydroxide and containing 2 per et. lactose and 1.7 per
et. agar. Agar was chosen in preference to gelatin, because in
some previous work of a similar nature at the Wisconsin Station
it was found that agar at 28° C. (81.5° F.) gave higher numerical
results than gelatin at room temperature. Among the substances
now available, there seems to be none that will call out all the
individual germs when left at any one temperature.

It is not maintained by the authors that the numbers given
below represent the exact number of organisms present either in
the pasteurized or unpasteurized milk. All that is hoped for is
that they are a close approximation and that having been taken
under similar conditions may be found to be directly comparable.

Incubating temperature.— The plates were placed in an incuba-
tor at 80° C. (83° F.) and counted at the end of 48 hours. This
temperature was believed to be near the optimum for the growth
of most of the germs present and the time was thought to give
maximum returns with a minimum amount of error. An expos-
ure at higher temperature caused a rapid drying of the plates and
one for a longer time did not usually give higher results, while
the rapid spreading of superficial colonies made the counting un-
certain.

Growth at room temperature required so much longer time as
to complicate the work and the rapid multiplication of certain
proteus forms made an accurate count very difficult.

New Yorx AcricutturaL Experiment Station. 143

When plates that had been kept 48 hours at 30° CO. were left
3-5 days at 21° C. (70° F.) there was a small average increase on
the second count. This indicates that some of the organisms
present in the milk did not thrive at the higher temperature.

The above results obtained from tests upon 14 days at 70° C.
(158° EF.) illustrate the uncertainty of the pasteurizing action at
that temperature and in this particular quite agree with the re-
sults on 1) previous days when preliminary trials were being made.
They also show what misleading conclusions might be drawn when
generalizations are made after one or two observations.

It should be remembered that in any heating of the milk the
most desirable class of acid formers will be among the first to be
killed and the residue is composed of germs not likely to improve
the flavor of the butter. Just how many of this class of bacteria
may be left in the milk without impairing the quality of the prod-
uct, like the problem of how many weeds can be left in the field
without detriment to the crop, is not clearly understood and a
conservative disposition would favor their reduction to the lowest
practical limits.

A most important fact shown is that 70° C. (158° F.) lies near
the lower limit of the killing effect of heat applied in this way.
When operating a pasteurizer in a practical way, temporary re-
ductions of temperature are almost certain to occur, and if this
reduction goes much below 70° C. the killing effect upon bacteria
will be very slight.

The results of pasteurizing at 80° C. (176° F.) show a surpris-
ing reduction in the germ life and this reduction was accomplished
with very slight variation on each of the 25 days tested. These
25 tests gave an average of only 117, with a maximum of 297
and a minimum of 20 living germs per c. ¢. in the pasteurized
milk. }

Comparing this average of 25 determinations made after con-
tinuous pasteurization with 6,140, the average number of germs

Report oF THE BacTERIOLOGIST OF THE

144

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148 Report oF THE BACTERIOLOGIST OF THE

per cu. em. found by Dr. H. L. Russell’ in 50 samples of milk
pasteurized by the discontinuous method for direct consumption,
the surprising thoroughness of this continuous pasteurization at
80° C. will be understood.

Were it not for the fact that in the present state of our knowl-
edge it is believed that a heating of milk to 85° C. (185° F.) na
continuous pasteurizer is necessary to remove all danger of tuber-
culosis, the use of 80° C. in pasteurization for butter-making, at
least in this special machine, would leave little to be desired.

Confining our attention to the number of germs found in the
pasteurized milk, the results of the above tests show that there
is practically no increase in efficiency in passing from 80° C. to
85° C. If we can be allowed to generalize on so narrow a basis
as seven determinations the gain comes in an increased regularity
in the reduction of the number of germs present. ‘There is also
a practical advantage in working at a temperature well above that
at which an active germ-killing effect begins.

The strongest argument in favor of 85° C. (185° F.) lies in the
fact that it is the lowest one that we can use and feel assured that
we have removed the danger of returning germs of tuberculosis
along with the mixed skim milk from the factory. Leaving out
of account all relation of this disease to the human family, its effect
upon our calves and pigs is one that we cannot afford to ignore.

While it does not come within the province of this bulletin to
discuss the effect of heating upon the butter, it will not be out
of place to state that, even with cream from milk which had been
heated to 85° C., butter was made in which no cooked flavor could
be detected when coming from the churn. While our efforts were
not universally so successful, still, in the cases where such a flavor
was noticeable at churning, this disappeared after a few hours
standing. The experience of this Station, so far as it goes, is quite
in accord with that of Dr. Storch, who states that whole milk can
be heated to 90° C. without any permanent injury to the flavor

of the butter.

6 Ann. Rept. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1895, p. 159,

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REPORT

OF THE

Department of Botany.

F. C. Stewart, Botanist.
F. H. Buopeert, Assistant Botanist and Entomologist.
F. M. Roxrs, Student Assistant.

TasLe oF ContrENTS.

I. Leaf scorch of the sugar beet, cherry, cauliflower, and maple.
IT. Notes on various plant diseases.
IIT. A fruit-disease survey of the Hudson Valley in 1899.

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST.

Peek SCORCH OF TERRE SUGAR BENT.
PE Y,.CA.U GLE LO W EE een D MEA PLB

F. C. Stewart.

SUMMARY.

In central New York the foliage of sugar beets, cherries, Nor-
way maples and sugar maples has been scorched by excessive
transpiration. On Long Island cauliflower has been similarly af-
fected. Plants standing in dry, sandy soil have suffered most.

With the sugar beet, the leaves blacken and die. In severe
cases the plant is killed outright, but generally the affected plants
revive and make a second growth. The affected roots are small,
frequently discolored, and poor in sugar.

With the cherry, part of the foliage, often as much as three-
fourths, becomes brown and dead. ‘The variety Montmorency
Ordinaire is the one most commonly affected. This trouble has
been common in the vicinity of Geneva the present season and is
said to have occurred in one orchard quite severely in 1898, with-
out, however, affecting the crop of 1899.

With the cauliflower, the tips of young leaves turn brown, as
if frosted. This occurred quite commonly in eastern Long Island
during August, but did little damage.

The foliage of Norway and sugar maples is much subject to
injury from excessive transpiration. The leaves become light
brown or reddish brown. Nursery trees and those recently trans-
planted suffer most, but large shade trees are not exempt. Little
permanent injury is done except to newly-set trees.

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 162.

154 ReEportT oF THE BOTANIST OF THE

With all of these plants the trouble is not due to a gradual
drying, but to a sudden scorching by the transpiration of more
water from the leaves than the roots are able to supply.

INTRODUCTION.

It is not an uncommon thing for the foliage of various plants
to be injured by excessive transpiration. Such injury may be
brought about in either of two ways: (1) By a process of gradual
drying, such as occurs in plants suffering from drought, and (2)
By sudden scorching, as when a fire is built under a tree. With
the first kind of injury every one is familiar and those living in
the arid and semi-arid portions of our country have frequently
observed the latter kind. In Kansas, for example, dry, hot south-
west winds often ruin promising crops of corn in two or three days.

But here in the East, the sudden scorching of foliage by hot
wind and sun is of such rare occurrence that it attracts attention
and is generally misunderstood by farmers and fruit growers. It
is frequently mistaken for infectious disease. The object of this
bulletin is to place upon record some observations on the sudden
scorching of the foliage of sugar beet, cherry, cauliflower and
maple, due to excessive transpiration.

LEAF SCORCH OF SUGAR BEET.

About the middle of August, 1899, some farmers in Yates and
Ontario counties wrote to the Station that their sugar beets were
blighting. On August 29, the writer visited several of the af-—
fected fields and found the so-called blight to be characterized
as follows: On slightly affected plants the only indication of dis-
ease was to be seen in the brown or black, dead leaf margins. In
more severe cases the young leaves at the center of the crown
were black and dead, as were also the blades of most of the leaves.
Many plants showed nothing green but the petioles of the larger

1 For the illustrations used in this bulletin, the author is indebted to Mr.
I. H. Blodgett, Assistant Botanist and Entomologist.

PLATE IV.—SUGAR BEET KILLED BY LEAF SCORCH. EARL: oTAGE.

PLATE V.—-SUGAR BEET KILLED BY LEAF SCORCH. MIDDLE STAGE.

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New York AGricuLTURAL ExpERIMENT Station. 155

leaves. In the petioles of the dead leaves the fibro-vascular bun-
dles were not blackened except, perhaps, for a short distance below
the blackened blade. In the majority of cases the roots appeared
normal, but the plants most severely attacked often showed a brown
discoloration of the root. This discoloration extended from the
outside toward the center for a distance of from one-fourth to one- ~
half an inch. The discolored tissue showed no indication of rot
and was separated from the healthy tissue by an indefinite and
somewhat irregular line. (See Plate VIII.) The fibro-vascular
bundles colored somewhat more deeply than the parenchyma, giv-
ing a zonate appearance to the affected tissue. The location of
the affected tissue could generally be determined before the root
was cut open, by the darker color and pronounced elevation of the
bark. (See Plates IV and V.) In some cases when an affected
root was cut cross-wise just below the crown the fibro-vascular
bundles were found to be much blackened, but this character was
by no means a constant one.

For a time the writer was puzzled to account for this condition
of the beets. The first hint of the true nature of the trouble was
obtained from observations made on a field of beets owned by Mr.
Clark Crozier, near Halls. This field was level and the soil a
sandy loam, with the exception of a small knoll which rose abruptly
near the center of the field and consisted of very light, sandy soil.
The beets on this sandy knoll were diseased, while those on all
the rest of the field were in perfect health. This indicated that
lack of water was the cause of the trouble. A severe drought was
prevailing at the time and naturally the plants first affected would
be those standing in dry, sandy soil. Further observations showed
that the beet blight occurred chiefly upon light, sandy soil; but a
field near Stanley furnished an exception to the rule. This field,
which contained about eight acres, consisted principally of sandy
loam, which might be expected to resist drought better than many
other fields in the vicinity. As a matter of fact, it was consid-
erably blighted, not uniformly, but over irregular areas, although

156 Report oF THE BorTanisT OF THE

the soil appeared to be absolutely uniform. However, it should
be stated that the blight was most severe along one margin of the
field where the ground began to rise a little. The owner of this
field stated that early in the season there came heavy rains, which
prevented cultivation for a few days. In the meantime the plants
~ became so large that it was decided not to cultivate them any more.
The drought then began. The soil became hard and cracked and
consequently parted with its moisture more rapidly that it would
if it had been cultivated after the rains as were other fields in the
neighborhood. The loss of water was still further accelerated by
the unusually luxuriant growth of leaves, which was the result of a
high state of fertility of the soil.

At the time of our first visit to this field, August 29, it was
observed that many of the affected plants had thrown out new
leaves at the center of the crown. We thought this to be the
result of a light shower® which fell August 27, and predicted that
growth would very soon be checked unless more rain fell.
We were accordingly surprised to find upon our second visit,
September 12, that the blight had made no progress. On the
contrary, most of the affected plants were putting out young
leaves at the crown. (See Plate VII.) On many plants an
entirely new crops of foliage had appeared during the previous
two weeks. Plants which were apparently dead two weeks
before were now green with a crown of new leaves; and this in
spite of the fact that there had been no rain worth mentioning*
since our former visit. All other affected fields showed similar
improvement. A few of the worst affected plants were dead, but
the majority were making a second growth. It now became evi-
dent that this beet blight was not a gradual drying of the foliage

2 At Penn Yan, .36 inch; at Geneva, .26 inch.

3 The actual precipitation was as follows:

At Penn Yan. Sept. 1, 1.07 in.; Sept. 3, trace; Sept. 5, trace; Sept. 8, .23
in.; Sept. 11, .09 in.

At Geneva. Sept. 1, .10 in.; Sept. 2, trace; Sept. 5, trace; Sept. 8, .07 im.;
Sept. 11, .04 in.

a

PLATE VI.—SUGAR BEET KILLED By LEAF SCORCH. ADVANCED STAGE.

BEET FOLIAGE.

ECOND GROWTH OF SUGAR

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PATH, Vill

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New Yorr Acricvutturat Exprerrment Station. 157

due to a gradual decrease in the supply of water in the soil, but
that it had been brought about suddenly. Some time during the
first two weeks in August, probably about August 9, the weather
conditions (temperature, humidity and wind) had been such that
the quantity of water transpired by the leaves was greater than
the roots were able to supply. As a result the leaves were scorched.
Then, with the passing of the conditions which induced excessive
transpiration, the roots were again able to meet the demands for
moisture thereby enabling the plants to resume growth, although
the soil was drier than at the time the injury occurred.

Tt has already been stated that some of the plants were killed
outright. Upon a third visit to the affected field at Stanley,
made October 24, it was observed that these dead roots were still
sound except for brown, mostly V-shaped, scab-like areas upon
the upper portion of the root. These brown areas represent the
later stage of the raised, discolored areas observed on August 29.
The tissue was decayed to a depth of from one-eighth to one-
quarter of an inch and had been quite generally eaten away hy
millipedes, leaving cavities where in the earlier stage of the di-
sease there had been elevations. (See Plate VI.) Underneath
the affected areas the sound tissne showed the same light brown
discoloration as on August 29. It seemed to have progressed, but
little, if any. Sometimes the browning occurred in the central
portion of the root, but usually it was found only around the
circumference and almost always in the form of concentric rings.
In the field at Stanley the dead roots quite generally showed the
light brown discoloration of sound tissue, but.in an affected field
at Bellona it was a common thing to find bad eases of the disease
in which there was little or no internal browning.

The plants which survived made a considerable growth of new
foliage. The roots of such plants did not commonly show any
discoloration or decav, but, strange to say, they averaged consid-
erably smaller than the roots of plants which had been killed
outright. This indicates that the plants which were the largest

158 Report oF THE BoraNnistT OF THE

and thriftiest at the time of the injury were the ones most severely
affected; and, further, that during two months of second growth
the surviving plants increased the size of their roots but little.

That the discoloration of the root is a physiological effect (the
result of the death of the foliage) rather than the work of any
parasitic organism is shown by the results of the following inocula-
tion experiment: After the dirt around five healthy sugar beets
had been removed there was cut from each a pyramidal cavity
one-fourth inch square at the surface and one-half inch deep.
These cavities were then filled with similarly shaped plugs of
the discolored beet root, the whole covered with grafting wax
and the dirt replaced. Five check beets were treated in the same
manner except that the cavities were filled with plugs of healthy
beet. This was done August 30. On October 18 the beets were
pulled and cut open. The inoculated beets showed no discolora-
tion of tissue except a slight blackening around the wounds,
which was no greater than in the check roots.

Some farmers thought that the beet disease was much worse
on land where cabbages were affected by black rot in the season
of 1898, but our own observations show that there is not good
foundation for such belief. It can be stated positively that there
is no connection between the leaf scorch of beets and the black
rot of cabbage.

The amount of damage done to the beets was considerable.
Although the majority of the plants recovered, the roots were
smaller than they otherwise would have been and their sugar con-
tent was lower. Analyses made by Mr. J. A. LeClerc, Assistant
Chemist, gave the following results: (1) Roots of plants killed
outright analyzed 5.9 per ct. of sugar (in the juice) with a
coefficient of purity of 61.6; (2) Roots of plants which had
made a second growth after having all their foliage killed
analyzed 10.7 per ct. of sugar, coefficient of purity, 73.6; (3)
Roots of uninjured plants growing within a few feet of the di-
seased plants analyzed 15.2 per ct. of sugar, coefficient of purity,
80.3.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 159

The only other beet leaf disease with which leaf scorch is likely
to be confused is a fungus disease known as leaf spot.* This is
a common and destructive disease of beets in New York State
and is more prevalent in wet seasons than in dry. It forms cir-
cular, brown or gray dead spots on the leaves. If the spots are
numerous a part or the whole of the leaf may die and turn black
in a manner closely resembling leaf scorch, but in such cases the
‘outlines of the spots are plainly visible until the leaf is fully
decayed.

In the advanced stage, the effects of leaf scorch on the beet
root might easily be mistaken for scab. Im general, it may be
distinguished from scab by the light brown discoloration of the
sound tissue but when the brown discoloration is absent the
diagnosis must be based chiefly upon the shape and location of
the affected areas. In leaf scorch the affected areas occur prin-
cipally upon the upper portion of the root and are usually more
or less V-shaped with the opening toward the crown; whereas,
in scab the spots occur on any part of the root and are more
often irregular or circular than V-shaped.

Concerning treatment it is needless to say that proper irrigation
is a sure preventive; but where irrigation can not be practiced
avoid planting on light, sandy soil and in dry weather conserve
the moisture by stirring the soil frequently and especially after
every shower.

LEAF SCORCH OF CHERRY.

Late in September of the present year a Geneva fruit grower
ealled our attention to a scorching of cherry foliage which he
feared might be an infectious disease like the fire blight of the
pear and apple. On trees of all ages more or less of the foliage
was brown, crisp and dead. The dead leaves remained attached
to the twigs which were neither blackened nor shriveled. A

4 For an account of beet leaf spot and scab and their treatment, see Cornell
Exp. Sta. Bul. 163. Three Important Diseases of the Sugar Beet.

160 Report or tue Boranist or TUE

brief study of this disease convinced us that we had here to do
with a trouble similar to the leaf scorch of beets. Like the beet
disease it was most severe on trees standing in dry soil. Upon
inquiry among fruit growers it was found to be of common occur-
rence this year.

The worst case of the disease which has come under our obser-
vation occurred in an orchard belonging to Maxwell Bros. near
Geneva. This orchard contained 715 Montmorency cherry trees
about eleven years of age, the trunks having a diameter of from
four to five inches. The trees were set fifteen feet apart each way.
Over the whole orchard the soil was uniform and had been
thoroughly cultivated. It consisted of a light clay underlaid
with slate at a depth of from eighteen inches to two feet. The
orchard was located on a gentle eastern slope and was closely
surrounded upon all sides by other fruit trees.

On October 4 each tree in the orchard was examined and an
estimate made of the amount of foliage affected. The result was

as follows:

1 tree, 100 per cent. of the foliage affected.
637 trees, 75 to 85 per cent. of the foliage affected.
57 trees, 50 per cent. of the foliage affected.
13 trees, 25 per cent. of the foliage affected.
5 trees, 5 per cent. of the foliage affected.
2 trees, not affected.

715

It is an interesting fact that although six-sevenths of all the
trees in the orchard showed 75 per ct. or more of the foliage
affected there was but a single tree upon which all of the foliage
was killed. The trees were affected with remarkable uniformity.
The worst affected trees stood in no particular part of the orchard
but were scattered all through it. Although it frequently hap-
pened that one side of a tree would be severely attacked while
the other half was entirely exempt, there was no uniformity
as to the side attacked ; it was quite as often the north side as any

PLATE VIII.—CROss SECTIONS OF SUGAR BEETS KILLED By LEAF SCORCH.

A. LEAF OF SUGAR MAPLE. LIVING PORTION AT CENTER.

B. LEAF OF NORWAY MAPLE. DEAD PORTION AT CENTER.
PLATE IX.—MAPLE LEAVES INJURED BY LEAF SCORCH.

New Yorx AGricutturaAL Experiment Station. 161

other. Usually, the affected branches were scattered all through
the top. Lateral branches were more apt to be affected than main
or leading branches, but there were some exceptions even to this
rule. If any part of a leaf was affected the whole of it was af-
fected, with very few exceptions. The majority of the affected
leaves were still hanging upon the twigs on October 4, but they
showed a tendency to fall somewhat earlier than the healthy
leaves. The twigs were plump and outwardly normal. The cortex
was green and apparently normal, but the sapwood was slightly
discolored. ‘This discoloration was most pronounced on twigs of
the present season’s growth, but was noticeable all along the
branch.

The foreman in charge of the orchard states that the disease
appeared rather suddenly, although not quite all at once and that
it occurred about August 20. The orchard was affected in a
similar manner in 1898, but not so severely. In 1898 the scorch-
ing appeared in July before picking was all done and it was
feared that the following crop would be considerably lighter
because of it. However, such was not the case. The crop of
1899 was a heavy one and there were no visible effects of the
scorching of the foliage the previous summer. This orchard was
also slightly affected in 1897.

It appears that cherries are much more liable to this sort of
injury than are pears, plums or apples. Scattered through the
affected cherry orchard there were a few small pear trees which
had been planted to replace dead cherry trees. None of these
pears showed any sign of leaf scorch; neither did the pears lo-
cated at A (see Plan) on the same kind of soil. Plum trees
at C and F immediately adjoining the diseased cherries were in
perfect health. The several different varieties of apples at E
were also unaffected. The English Morello cherries at B were
considerably affected but not so severely as the Montmorencies.
The Montmorency orchard at D was composed of young trees

and situated upon moister and deeper soil. However, a good
aa

162 Report or THE BoranistT OF THE

many trees were slightly affected, especially those standing in
the corner of the orchard near the old Montmorency orchard.

i

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CHERRIES ENGLISH MORELLO- |
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1 AND : CHERRIES ;
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PLuMs
PLUMS
MONTMORENCY CHERRIES
11 Years OLD
MoNTMORENCY
CHERRIES

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; APPLES
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Plan of Maawell’s Cherry Orchard affected with Leaf Scorch.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 163

In no other orchard examined have the trees been so uniformly
affected as in this one; perhaps because in no other case have
the soil and conditions been so uniform. In general, trees af-
fected in varying degrees up to one-half of the foliage have been
found freely intermingled with perfectly healthy trees; but when
an orchard was situated partly on dry and partly on moister
soil, the disease was invariably worst on the trees standing in the
dry soil.

In one orchard of large trees of Montmorency the disease was
confined chiefly to the lower branches. A cherry grower at
Hector states that in his orchard the trees were generally affected
upon the south side, but in the orchards about Geneva we have
not observed that the south side of the tree is more often affected
than any other side. Trees standing in exposed situations have
been no more affected than sheltered trees.

As to the time the injury occurred there is a difference of
opinion among fruit growers. Some believe that the injury came
on gradually, but the majority are of the opinion that it occurred
within a comparatively short space of time. Some say it occurred
early in August, others about the middle of August and one is
certain that his orchard was not affected until the first week in
September. It is not improbable that there were two periods
when the weather conditions were favorable to the scorching of
foliage. One occurred some time during the first half of August
and the other on Sunday, September 3. On the latter date
the temperature was high, the air dry and a strong wind blow-
ing. The writer expected much injury to result from this, but
observed none whatever. Nevertheless, cherries in some situa~
tions may have been injured.

Some have attributed leaf scorch to over-bearing, but there is
no evidence to support this theory. In many cases trees which
have never borne fruit have been severely affected. It is possible
that fruit-bearing tends to increase the liability to the disease,
but even that remains to be proven.

164 Report oF THE BorTanist OF THE

Accurate information is lacking as to the susceptibility of dif-
ferent varieties. Montmorency® has been more commonly af-
fected than any other variety, but English Morello and some
other varieties have shown it to a considerable extent.

From the experience of Maxwell Bros., it would appear that
little harm is likely to result from this scorching of the foliage,
but it seems incredible that a cherry tree can lose a large part of
its foliage in July or August without affecting its productiveness.
The effect must be the same as if the leaves were removed at this
time. We shall watch the Maxwell orchard with interest the

coming season.

LEAF SCORCH, OR TIP BURN, OF CAULIFLOWER.

On September 1 Mr. F. A. Sirrine, Entomologist at our Branch
Office on Long Island, sent to the Station some cauliflower leaves
the margins of which were blackened and shriveled. The di-
seased leaves were accompanied by a letter saying that throughout
eastern Long Island the partly unfolded leaves of cauliflower
were quite generally affected in this manner. On September 7,
in company with Mr. Sirrine, the writer visited some of the af-
fected cauliflower fields in the vicinity of Mattituck. At this
time the affected leaves were growing and appeared normal ex-
cept for their crisp, brown or black margins. The newest leaves
were entirely free from the trouble showing that the cause of
the blackening was not then active. It was quite plainly another
case of leaf scorch.

Large plants were more severely injured than small ones. The
worst affected field observed was one in which the plants were
very large and thrifty and had commenced to form heads.®

As with the beet and cherry, the exact time the injury occurred
is unknown. It occurred some time during the last ten days of
August. Although the rainfall for August in this section was

5 The Montmorency grown at Geneva is Montmorency Ordinaire.
6 Cauliflower was not generally heading at this date, September 7.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 165

very light (.75 inch at Cutchogue) there was considerable fog.
Mr. Sirrine states that there was continuous fog from August 18
to 20, inclusive, and some each day for a week following this
period, but no rain fell between August 13 and 31. It is our
opinion that the injury was caused by the hot sun falling upon
young leaves which were unusually tender because of having grown
in foggy weather.

Tip burn should not be confused with the bacterial disease
ealled black rot’ of cauliflower, cabbage and related plants.
Both diseases may occur in the same plant, but many plants
affected with tip burn show no blackening of the fibro-vascular
bundles —the most reliable diagnostic character of the black rot.
Tip burn affects the margins of the young leaves, while black rot
attacks chiefly the old leaves and when it does occur on young
leaves shows itself throughout the whole leaf rather than at the
margin. ;

The amount of damage done by tip burn of cauliflower has
been small.

LEAF SCORCH OF NORWAY AND SUGAR MAPLES.

The Norway maple, Acer platanoides, is much subject to injury
from excessive transpiration. In New York more or less of it occurs
nearly every season. It is most common on recently transplanted
trees, but very frequently occurs on rapidly growing nursery stock
and in very dry seasons may be observed also upon large shade
trees. During the past season this maple leaf scorch has been
been unusually common. Besides attacking the Norway maple it
has been common on the sugar maple, Acer saccharinum. In the
course of a half day’s drive in Central New York during last Au-
gust or September one might see along the roadside, perhaps, a
hundred or more sugar and Norway maples on which more than
half of the foliage was brown Many slightly affected trees would
also be seen.

7 Pseudomonas campestris (Pammel) Smith.

166 Reprort or THE Boranist OF THE

If the injury is severe and occurs before the leaves are fully
grown, the injured leaves fall and new ones appear, but if the
injury occurs after the leaves are full grown they remain attached
to the twigs until late in autumn. In the latter case some of the
leaves will be found wholly dead, but the majority of them will
show a dead, brown portion and a living, green portion. As a
rule, especially on the sugar maple, the dead portion is located
around the margin of the leaf (see Plate IX, fig. A), but it may
occur in the form of circular or irregular blotches; or the margin
of the leaf may be occupied by living, green tissue surrounding a
dead area at the center (see Plate IX, fig. B). Im all cases the
living tissue is separated from the dead by a sharply defined line.
The color of the dead tissue is either light brown or reddish brown.
The injured leaves for the most part remain expanded.

As with the beet, cherry and cauliflower, this injury to maple
foliage occurs in a comparatively short space of time. It happens
whenever the quantity of water transpired by the leaves is greater
than that which the roots are able to supply; and this condition of
things may be brought about in several ways. Some of the
factors which enter into the problem are: Area of leaf surface
exposed, quantity of water in the soil, activity of the roots, and
location of the tree as regards exposure to wind. Having in mind
these several factors, it is easy to understand how one tree may
be seriously injured while another tree standing close beside it
may not be affected at all. This is of common occurrence.

In nurseries the disease often escapes notice until the dead
leaves have become overgrown with various saprophytic fungi
which are likely to be mistaken for the cause of the trouble.

Trees recently transplanted may die from the effects of leaf
scorch, but established trees rarely show any permanent injury.

8 Observations upon the scorching of immature maple foliage have been re-
ported by Stone, G. E., and Smith, R. E. Wilt of Maple Leaves. Ninth Ann.
Rept. Hatch Exp. Sta., of Mass. Agr. Coll.: 81-82; also by Stewart, F. C.
Norway Maples Injured by Dry Winds. Fifteenth Ann. Rept. of this Station:
453-454.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 167

There is a fungous disease of the Norway maple which might
be mistaken for leaf scorch by one unfamiliar with the latter
trouble. This is an anthracnose®, Gloeosporium apocryptum EK. &
E., which attacks the leaves and young shoots. It is most severe
on small trees, especially nursery trees, occurring but rarely on
large shade trees. It attacks chiefly the terminal shoots, often
transforming them into much branched “heads.” The leaves are
dwarfed and have a yellowish green color, with the margins curled
downward and blackened as if slightly frosted. ‘This disease is
prevalent in Long Island nurseries and lias been observed at
Geneva the present season on nursery trees and small shade trees.

9See Fourteenth Ann. Rept. N. Y. Exp. Sta., 1895: 531-532.

NOTES ON VARIOUS PLANT DISEASES.*
F. C. Stewart.

SUMMARY.

I. During the season of 1898 a bacterial rot caused heavy
losses to the onion growers in Orange Co., N. Y. The onions
were found to be affected at harvest time. One or more layers
of the onion would be soft rotten while the adjacent layers were
sound. Sometimes the rotten layers were on the interior, in which
case the affected bulbs might be difficult of detection; or the rot
might be confined to the outermost fleshy layer, producing the
so-called slippery onions. Although this rot is quite certainly due
to bacteria, it is not readily produced by inoculation with diseased
tissue except in the presence of water. This shows that water is
an important factor in the rot and that the unusually large amount
of rot in 1898 was due to the excessively. wet weather which oc-
curred in July and August of that year. Thorough drainage and
clean cultivation are recommended as preventive measures.

II. Leaves of field cucumbers affected with a powdery mildew
have been received from Athens, Pa. This is believed to be the
first record of the occurrence of powdery mildew on field-grown
cucumbers in America. In greenhouses it isnot uncommon. The -
identity of the fungus is uncertain, but it is probably different
from the powdery mildew occurring on squashes and pumpkins.

III. A dodder, Cuscuta gronovia Willd., has occurred on green-
house cucumbers at the Station. Plants affected with this parasite
should be immediately destroyed to prevent it from spreading.
It is very aggressive.

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 164.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 169

IV. The disease of Baldwin applies, known in New York as
the Baldwin fruit-spot, is characterized by small brown sunken
spots which occur on the fruit about the time it is gathered. Un- |
derneath the spots the tissue is ight brown and spongy. ‘The
diseased tissue contains no fungus hyphe. In moist chamber the
spots do not enlarge and no fungus appears on them. On various
culture media the affected tissue produces no growth. The con-
clusion is that the disease is not caused by fungi or bacteria. How-
ever, the work of other investigators indicates that similar spots
on the Baldwin and other varieties may be due to parasitic organ-
isms and hence the desirability of greater care in the writing of
descriptions.

V. A species of Fusariwm has been found producing a serious
leaf spot disease of carnations at Syracuse. It occurred upon
plants so situated that the direct sunlight could not reach them.
The fungus gains entrance through breaks in the epidermis made
by rust sori. It is not improbable that it may be identical with
the carnation stem-rot Fusarium.

VI. Chaetomium contortum Pk., a rare fungus hitherto found
only on lily bulbs on Long Island, has occurred at Geneva under
circumstances which aroused the suspicion that it is parasitic on
barley seedlings; but an inoculation experiment showed that it is
not parastic.

I. A BACTERIAL ROT OF ONIONS:

In the autumn of 1898 the report came to the Experiment
Station that the onions in Orange Oo., N. Y., were rotting badly.
Upon investigation it was found that in nearly all of the fields in
this great onion growing district there was a considerable amount
of rot. In many cases from one-third to one-half of the crop had
to be rejected on account of it, and the remainder was not readily
salable because news of the rot had reached New York city pro-

1 This paper was read at the Columbus meeting of the Society for the Pro-
motion of Agricultural Science, August 22, 1899, and will subsequently be
published in the Proceedings of that Society.

170 Report oF THE BoTANIST OF THE

duce dealers who were accordingly suspicious of all onions coming
from Orange Co. The same rot was also common in the onion
fields of Madison Co., but the losses from it there were not nearly
so great as in Orange Co.

The rot was of two kinds: (1) One which starts at the bottom
of the onion, and (2) One which starts at the top or “ neck.”
The latter kind of rot was much the more common, constituting
perhaps eighty per ct. of the total amount of rot. Where the rot
had started at the top the bulbs were frequently sound in ap-
pearance, but rotten within. Oftentimes it was difficult to deter-
mine, before cutting, whether or not a bulb was rotten. In sort-
ing, the customary test for soundness was to press down with the
thumbs close about the “neck” of the onion. If it was hard the
bulb was sound, but if soft it was usually rotten inside. Onion
growers speak of such onions as being “ weak in the neck.” Upon
cutting open the affected bulbs it was generally found that two or
three of the outer scales were perfectly sound while the remainder
of the bulb was a rotten mass. Frequently a single scale would
be entirely rotten from top to bottom and clear around the bulb,
while the remaining scales upon both sides of it, were perfectly
sound. Such specimens cut crosswise showed the rotten part in
the form of a ring. (See Plate X.) Again, a perfectly sound
scale would be found between two rotten ones. (See Plate XI.)
The rot appears never to spread from one scale to another later-
ally, and this peculiarity furnishes the most reliable means for the
identification of this rot. The organism causing it is unable to
pass through the uninjured epidermis of the scale. The passage
from one fleshy layer to another is effected at the base of the bulb
where they unite. Upon reaching the base of the scale in which
it is working the rot commonly stops, and this accounts for the
large number of cases in which one or two scales are rotten while
the remainder of the bulb continues sound. Under certain con-
ditions the rot does not stop at the base, but works its way into the
bases of other scales which it then follows upward destroying the
whole bulb.

‘LOY IVIUDALOVAG HLIM AALOAAAY SNOINO—'

yi

‘SHTVOS NELLOY NAAMLAG #1NG NOINO HO S#IvoOg GNNOS—TX dLvig ;

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 171

When the rot is confined to the outermost fleshy scale, as is
frequently the case, the atfected bulbs are called “slippery onions.”
Some of these are to be found in any season, but they are rarely
so abundant as to cause material loss.

Microscopie examination of the rotten tissue shows entire ab-
sence of fungi, but there are swarms of a medium-sized motile
bacillus which is without doubt the immediate cause of the rot.

When the rot commences at the bottom of the bulb the whole
lower part is soft and eventually the entire onion becomes in-
volved. The rot spreads upward through all of the scales simul-
taneously. Bulbs so affected show a profuse growth of Fusarium
about the base and the rotten tissue is filled with the Fusarium
hyphe mingled with the previously mentioned bacillus. Although
the presence of the bacillus is sufficient to account for this base
rot it seems probable that the Fusariwm aids materially and in
some cases it may be the primary cause.

By inquiry among onion growers it was learned that there is in
nearly every season a small amount of loss from rot which usually
appears in the form of “ slippery onions,” although both the center
rot and the base rot have long have been known. The note
worthy fact in connection with the rot in 1898 is the unusually
large amount of center rot. |

The rot was noticed by farmers when the crop was harvested in
August, but the full extent of the trouble was not realized until a
month later when the crop was sorted for market. At first it was
attributed to injury from hail which fell on July 30; but later the
hail theory was rendered untenable by the discovery that there
was considerable rot in fields which had not been struck by the
hail. Probably, the wind accompanying the hailstorm was a much
more important factor in the rot. In nearly all of the onion fields
the tops were much broken by the wind.

Among stored onions kept reasonably dry the rot progresses very

slowly, but wet onions rot rapidly, especially if the temperature
is high.

172 Rerort or Tue Boranist OF THE

All of the evidence obtainable goes to show that this bacterial
rot is not new, but that it is an old enemy which found unusually
favorable conditions for its development in some peculiarity of the
weather during the season of 1898. As yet, no attempt has been
made to determine the identity of the organism causing it. It
may be the same as the one causing the rot of onions and other
plants observed by Halsted? in New Jersey.

The weather records published by the New York State Weather
Bureau show that the rainfall in Orange Co. was excessive and the
temperature high from the middle of July to the close of August,
1898. At Middletown, which is on the edge of the onion district,
the dates upon which rain fell* during this period were as follows:

RAINFALL AT MIDDLETOWN, N. Y., JuLy 18 To AuaustT 26, 1898.

Date. Inches. Date. Inches.
UST R pals APE Gan om Ar orbits mir 31, August 11)... 2.435.5pen 80
EV, Cho Concent shaeiore nis sate ool August: 120.5 vce see -08
shulhAUe ai eserbegecosaarsc (90 August, 16. 20. ps:j.20- ae .28
SID git [nese Sv ne Pt oe 1.85 August) 17-2! 2.0 js ere 1.31
PUL 2G, ets hls’ <ttiers boone! 1.04 vwAugusts19 9. (ned. Ae 41
SUE BANS wy) paper ens c at ienneteta stabs 09 August 23°. .! 0255-35 eee 3.08
Stily 30) bs... ciieteyate eer 1.09 August 24.00). 0ere. eee 42
PADIS 4, ns eer arsFoaiacels eieterss 1.48 August 26). 3 osc). 52
PAUIGMISUNA So etsmas ta - Acta er bela ait 1.15 ~

ODA Sesiiee So ois neielaiee ds sas Sivee we ©. 4 sites eeu ape 15.42

In forty days 15.42 inches of rain fell and it was so evenly dis-
tributed over the period that the ground was almost constantly
wet. The onion fields, being on a low level, were frequently
inundated. In some cases whole fields were covered by the water
for a period of from 12 to 36 hours. It is not strange that the
onions rotted.

The important role which water plays in this rot is shown by
the behavior of laboratory cultures. Sound onions were cut open,

2Halsted, B. D. The Root Rot of Salsify. Gard. and Forest. 3: 576. N.

1890: Also, Eleventh Ann. Rept. N. J. State Ag. Exp. Sta., 1890: 352.
3 Rept. N. Y. State Weather Bureau, vol. X, No. 7, p. 11, and No. 8, p. 11.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaATIon. 173

placed in a moist chamber and inoculated upon the cut surface
with bits of rotten onion. At the end of a week there was only a
teace of rot at the points of inoculation. Similar inoculations
with pure cultures of the /usarvwm likewise gave negative results.
Sound onions, in moist chamber, were bored to the center with an
awl and bits of rotten onion introduced into the wounds. At the
end of a week there were no signs of rot. This experiment was
repeated several times and always with the same result — the onions
refused to rot. During these experiments the temperature of the
room varied from 21° to 26° C. (70° to 79° Fahr.).

Finally, sound onions inoculated externally with bits of rotten
tissue were immersed in sterilized water and placed in an incu-
bator kept at a temperature of 36° C. (97° Fahr.). Other sound
onions were treated in the same way, except that they were not
inoculated. Still others were inoculated by boring to the center
and introducing rotten tissue. These latter were then put into
the incubator with the others, but not immersed in water. At the
end of six days all of the onions immersed in water were rotten,
including checks; while those which had been inoculated, but kept:
dry, were still perfectly sound.

These experiments indicate that one important point in the pre-
vention of this rot is to keep the onions dry. In practice this is
to be accomplished by protecting stored onions from rain and by
draining the fields so that water will not stand upon them for any
length of time.*

4 Since the above was written, some observations have been made upon the
crop of 1899. The season of 1899 was unusually dry in Orange county, and
yet there were a good many “slippery” onions in some fields. In looking
over the onion fields, it was observed that some were almost entirely free from
weeds, while others were thickly overgrown with them. It was in the latter
kind of fields that the “slippery” onions occurred. The explanation of this
appears to be that the weeds kept the onions wet by retaining the dew and
some light showers which fell just before harvest time, thereby furnishing
favorable conditions for the rot. Clean cultivation will have a tendency to
reduce the amount of rot.

174 Rerort or tur Boranist or THE

II. POWDERY MILDEW ON FIELD-GROWN
CUCUMBERS.

In July, 1891, Humphrey’ announced the occurrence of a pow-
dery mildew on cucumbers in America. In his annual report® for
that year he gave an extended account of the disease and stated
that it had been found on hot house cucumbers at Fitchburg,
Mass., and Ithaca, N. Y. His next annual report’ contained
drawings of the fungus and a brief recapitulation of the matter
contained in the previous report. In Cornell Experiment Station
Bulletin 31, page 31, Bailey has given a brief account of some
experiments on the treatment of cucumber powdery mildew in the
greenhouse.

So far as known to the writer, the above mentioned articles
constitute the whole of the literature of powdery mildew on
cucumbers in America. In the Ninth Massachusetts Report®
Humphrey states that in America it is not known to him to
attack cucumbers grown in the open air. It is therefore worthy
of mention that in September, 1899, we received from F. L. Esta-
~ brook, of Athens, Pa., several leaves of field grown cucumbers
which were thickly covered with a powdery mildew. Mr. Esta-
brook states that the mildew made its appearance some time in
August and by September 22 was to be found upon every vine in
the field and upon all parts of each vine excepting the younger
leaves. In almost every case the older leaves near the root were
the most severely attacked while the newer leaves toward the tip
of the vine were generally free from it. The fungus was con-
spicuous and occurred chiefly upon the upper surface of the leaves
but occasional spots of it were to be found upon the under surface.

The fruits were exceedingly bitter and many were misshapen, but

5 Humphrey, J. E. The Powdery Mildew of the Cucumber. Mass. State
Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 40: 3.

6 Ninth Ann. Rept. Mass. State Agr. Exp. Sta., 1891: 222-226.

7 Tenth Ann. Rept. Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1892: 225-226.

8]. ¢., p. 222.

PLATE XII.—DODDER ON CUCUMBERS.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 175

this may not have been wholly due to the powdery mildew. The
plans were affected to a considerable extent also by downy mildew,
Plasmopara cubensis (B. & C.) Humph.

Since no perithecia were found the identity of the fungus is a
matter of conjecture. On his mildewed greenhouse cucumbers
Humphrey found the perithecia of Hrysiphe cichoracearum D. C.
According to Frank’ Sphaerotheca castagnei Lev. occurs on
cucumbers in Europe, but the most common powdery mildew of
cucumbers and other cucurbits in Europe is known only in the
conidial form which passes under the name of Ozdiwm erysiphoides
Fr. Sturgis’? assumes that the powdery mildew of the cucumber
is identical with the one occurring on squash, but to us this appears
extremely doubtful for the following reasons: The powdery mil-
dew is common in this country on squash but on cucumber it is
rare. During the past two seasons it has been abundant on both
squashes and pumpkins in the vicinity of Geneva, but in no case
have we observed it upon cucumbers, although cucumber vines
have frequently been seen growing among mildewed squashes and
pumpkins. Vuce versa, on Mr. Estabrook’s farm at Athens, Pa.,
a squash vine running among the mildewed cucumbers was entirely
free from mildew.

Cucumber growers need not be alarmed at the appearance of
this new parasite. It is not likely to become epidemic and in case
it should do so it will probably not be found difficult to control.

III. DODDER ON CUCUMBERS UNDER GLASS.

The numerous species of dodder, Cuscuta, may be expected to
occur on a great variety of plants in the open air, but it is unusual
for them to attack greenhouse plants. An interesting case of dod-
der occurred in the Station cucumber-house last spring. In May,
the writer observed a slender, yellow dodder thread twining about

9Frank, A. B. Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen. 2: 260. Eduard Trewendt,
Breslau, 1896.

10 Sturgis, W. C. Twenty-First Ann. Rept. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1897: 214.

176 Report or THe Boranist OF THE

a cucumber plant. For a time it was permitted to grow unmolested
in order to see what it would do; but it thrived so well and be-
came so aggressive that the man in charge of the greenhouse
found it necessary to take precautions to prevent it from spread-
ing to the other plants. Four times during the spring the yellow
threads were carefully removed. In spite of this rough treatment
it flourished and fruited profusely and succeeded in thoroughly
establishing itself upon four of the neighboring plants. The
original host plant was greatly enfeebled by it, but not killed.
This dodder, which we have determined as Cuscuta gronovw
Willd., may become troublesome unless dealt with vigorously.

We advise the immediate destruction of affected plants.

IV. IS THE BALDWIN FRUIT SPOT CAUSED BY FUNGI
OR BACTERIA?

There is a widely distributed and well known disease of the
apple in which spots of brown, spongy tissue appear underneath
the skin of the ripe fruit. On the surface of the fruit these spots
are generally indicated by brown, more or less circular depressions
having a diameter of from one-sixteenth to one-fourth of an inch.
By different authors it has been given.different names; e. g., spot,
brown spot,” dry rot,’ bitter pit,!* stippen,” ete.

This disease is of uncertain origin. Wortmann”™ thinks it due
primarily to insufficient water in the affected parts. Most investi-
gators have failed to find fungus hyphe in the diseased tissue,
but Jones’® has attributed it to a fungus which Ellis determined
as Dothidea pomigena Schw. Lamson™ reports experiments in

11 Lamson, H. H. N.H. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 65: 106. Illus.

12 Craig, John. Canada Exp. Farms Rept. for 1896: 171-172. Illus.

13 Cobb, N. A. Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 9 (1898): 683. Illus.

14 Wortman, Jul. Ueber die sogenannten “Stippen” der Aepfel. Landw.
Jahrb., 21 (1892): 663-675.

15 Loe. cit.

16 Jones, L. R. A Spot Disease of the Baldwin Apple. Fifth Ann. Rept.
Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1891: 133-134.

17N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul., 45: 46-47: Bul. 65: 106.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 177

which the amount of the disease was considerably reduced by
spraying with Bordeaux mixture. This, also, indicates a parasitic
origin. On the other hand Craig’* says that spraying does not
seem to prevent it, and this coincides with our own limited obser-
vations.

The descriptions given by the several authors whose work is
mentioned above agree quite closely, and yet it is highly probable
that they have been dealing with two or more distinct diseases.
We have here an illustration of the desirability of more complete
descriptions of the gross characters of plant diseases.

During the past season the writer has made an investigation
into the cause of one of these fruit-spot diseases of the apple. It
is a disease of the Baldwin and is generally known throughout
New York State as the “ Baldwin spot” or “ Baldwin fruit spot.”
Although it undoubtedly originated somewhat earlier, it was not
observed until the fruit was gathered, about October 7. The
owner of the orchard estimated that a trifle less than two per ct.
of the fruits were affected; however, on individual trees the per-
centage was much higher than this. The orchard had been
thoroughly sprayed four times — twice before and twice after blos-
soming. It was well cultivated and is in all respects one of the
best managed orchards in the vicinity of Geneva. ,

On the surface of the fruit the spots were very conspicuous.
They varied in color from light brown to dark brown. Their
general shape was circular, but very few were perfect circles.
Sometimes they were quite irregular, but always with the corners
well rounded and sharply delimited from the healthy tissue. The
spots were slightly sunken, with the epidermis smooth, shiny and
unbroken. In size they varied from a mere speck to one-fourth
inch in diameter, the majority having a diameter of about one-
eighth of an inch. The smallest spots might show no brown
color at all, but be indicated merely by a deeper red color of the
skin if situated upon the colored part of the fruit, or by a green

18 Loe. cit.

12

178 Report or THe Boranist OF THE

color if situated upon the lighter portion. The number of spots
on individual fruits varied from two or three up to as many
as seventy-five, distributed irregularly over the calyx half
of the fruit. It is an interesting fact, and one which may throw
‘ some light on the cause of the trouble, that the stem half of the
fruit is almost invariably free from spots even when they are
numerous on the calyx half.

Underneath the surface spots the tissue is light brown, dry and
spongy for a distance of one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch.
This spongy tissue is not bitter to the taste” or at least but slightly
so. At the time the fruits were gathered the spongy tissue was
found only underneath the surface spots, but after they had lain
some three weeks in the laboratory many brown spots were found
distributed irregularly through the flesh of the calyx half of the
fruit, but not in the stem half. These spots were irregular in
shape, indefinite in outline and in many cases entirely surrounded
by healthy tissue.

Several other varieties of apples of this State are affected with
spots similar to those on the Baldwin, but the following study was
confined to the Baldwin spot here described, and the conclusions
apply to this one form only.

Microscopic examination of the affected tissue revealed no
fungus hyphz and no bacteria which could be definitely demon-
strated as such. Commencing October 7, two of the affected
Baldwins were kept for 21 days in a moist chamber at a temper-
ature of 65° to 74° Fahr. During this time the spots did not
enlarge (externally, at least), no fungus appeared upon them and
they did not increase in number upon the surface although they
did increase in number within the fruit.2? When these apples

19 This is a point on which the spot disease under consideration differs from
the descriptions of Jones and Cobb.

20 The reason for believing that the spots increased in number within the
fruit, is as follows: When the apples were taken from the trees, many of
them were cut open, and in no case were the spots found, except immediately
under the epidermis; but after affected apples from the same lot had been off
the trees for about three weeks, they universally showed brown spots scat-
tered through the flesh quite to the core.

New York AGricuLTURAL ExpERIMENT Station. 179

finally rotted the rot started on the stem half instead of the spot-
affected calyx half. At another time, two affected apples were
kept in a moist chamber for 18 days with the same results.

Next, an experiment was made to determine if the diseased
tissue would produce any growth when placed in culture media.
Four Petri dishes” containing potato agar slightly acidified with
lactic acid were each inoculated at three different points with
small pieces of the brown spongy tissue. This gave twelve points
of inoculation with material from twelve different spots. The
cultures were kept at the room temperature, about 70° Fahr.
At the end of eight days one point of inoculation was overrun by
a fungus which had gained admission to the culture by accident.
The other eleven points of inoculation were entirely free from
growth of any kind.

On November 1 six tubes of neutral beef-peptone agar were
inoculated with small pieces of the brown, spongy tissue taken
from six different spots, and then poured into Petri dishes. At
the end of eight days the only growth in the six dishes consisted
of one fungus and two yeast colonies which were evidently
intruders. We now tried cultures in an atmosphere devoid of
oxygen. Six tubes were used — two of potato agar, two of beef-
peptone agar and two of beef-peptone agar containing two per ct.
of lactose. One tube of each kind was slightly acidified with malic
acid and the other left neutral. The six tubes were inoculated
with bits of spongy tissue from six different spots, thoroughly
shaken and placed in a large bottle from which the oxygen was
then removed by means of pyrogallic acid and potassium hydrox-
ide solution. These cultures were kept at a temperature of about
80° Fahr. for one week but they produced no growth whatever.

Finally, at the suggestion of Mr. H. A. Harding, Station

Bacteriologist, we tried apple peptone agar™ as a culture medium.

21 Two dishes acidified at the rate of one drop of 50 per cent. lactic acid ta
10 ¢. ec. agar, and the other two dishes at double this rate.

22 Baldwin apple, 400 germs. Witte’s peptonum siccum, 10 germs. Agar,
15 germs. Water, 1 liter.

180 Reprort or THE Boranist or THE

Three tubes of this medium carefully neutralized with sodium
hydroxide, and three tubes unneutralized were inoculated with the
spongy tissue and kept 24 days in air at a temperature of about
80° Fahr. Six other tubes of the same medium, three neutralized
and three unneutralized, were inoculated and kept for the same
length of time at a temperature of about 80° Fahr. in an atmos-
phere devoid of oxygen. No growth appeared in any of the
twelve tubes.

From the result of this study we conclude that the form of
apple fruit-spot described above is not caused by fungi or bacteria,
but what the real cause may be we are not prepared to state.

Wortmann™ observed that starch is present, often in considera-
ble quantity, in the brown, spongy tissue, while the surrounding
healthy tissue is almost, if not wholly, destitute of starch. We
find that the spongy spots lying just beneath the epidermis gen-
erally contain considerable starch, but the deeper-lying spots
(which, as has been stated, are formed after the fruit is gathered)
rarely contain more than traces. This difference in starch con-
tent is brought out very strikingly when a section of apple show-
ing both kinds of spots is smeared with a solution of iodine and
potassium iodide. The sub-epidermal spots become black, showing
the presence of starch, while the interior spots are not altered in
color.

When an apple is bruised without breaking the epidermis the
tissue becomes brown and spongy and resembles somewhat the
brown, spongy, spots under discussion. We have found this
bruised tissue loaded with starch, while the surrounding unin-
jured tissue contained no starch. Green apples contain starch
which is changed into sugar as the fruit ripens. It, therefore,
seems probable that the bruises which responded to the test for
starch were made before the fruit was ripe. Upon the death of
the cells their activities ceased and the transformation of starch
into sugar was arrested. This theory accounts for the absence of
starch from late formed spots.

23 Loc. cit., p. 663.

Fic, 2.—CARNATION LEAVES AFFECTED WITH Fusarium LEAF-SPOT.

PLATE XIII.

New York AcricuLttuRAL Experiment Station. 181

An experiment was made to determine if bruises made after
the fruit was ripe would cause the appearance of starch in the
bruised tissue. On December 6, apples of the variety Pride of
Texas were bruised without breaking the epidermis, and then
kept at a temperature of 60°F. At the end of three weeks the
bruised tissue contained a little starch, but the quantity was very
small as compared with that found in old bruises on the same
variety.

V. A FUSARIUM LEAF-SPOT OF CARNATIONS.

A very unusual case of Fusariwm attacking carnation foliage
was observed in a greenhouse at Syracuse last November. A
bench of carnations of the variety Emily Pierson was quite
seriously affected with a peculiar leaf-spot. The spots varied in
length from one-eighth of an inch to one inch. The smaller ones,
were elliptical, but the larger ones occupied the entire width of
the leaf and were irregular at the ends. They were covered with
a pinkish gray mold and irregularly dotted at the center with the
light yellow spore masses of a species of Fusarium. Many of the
worst affected leaves were dying. The Fusarium was evidently
parasitic on the leaves, but a careful examination revealed the
fact that in every case the spots originated in a rust™ sorus. It
appeared that the Fusarvwm was unable to attack the uninjured
leaf, but when the epidermis was broken by rust it was able to
enter and bring about decay of the leaf tissue. It is improbable
that the Fusarium is parasitic upon the rust.”

The writer has occasionally observed Fusarium attacking
injured leaves and stems of carnations and the spore masses of a
similar /usarvwm are common on the stems of carnations affected

24 Uromyces caryophyllinus (Schrank) Schroet.

25 In this connection it may be mentioned that Mr. F. H. Blodgett, Assistant
Botanist and Entomologist, observed at Mattituck, N. Y., last August, a
Fusarium growing abundantly on the uredo sori of Puccinia asparagi, D. C.
However, in this case, the Fusarium was not confined so strictly to the rust
sori, but occurred also upon the so-called leopard spots and sometimes even
upon the uninjured asparagus stems.

182 Report or THE Boranist OF THE

with that form of stem-rot commonly known as dry rot or die
back ;*° but we have never before known Fusarium to produce a
genuine leaf-spot of carnations. Inoculation experiments may
show that this Pusariwm is identical with the one causing earna-
tion stem-rot.

The plants were grown under conditions exceptionally favorable
to the attack of fungi. They were so situated that direct sunlight
never reached them. However, they were doing fairly well and
were free from disease with the exception of the Fusarium leaf-
spot and a moderate attack of rust.

VI. CHAHTOMIUM CONTORTUM ON BARLEY SEED
LINGS.

In March, 1895, the writer found a new species of Chaetomium
on some lily bulbs in a greenhouse on Long Island. The fungus
was sent to Dr. C. H. Peck, State Botanist, who named it Chae-
tomium contortum.*" For nearly four years after this nothing was
heard of it; then it was again found in one of the Station green-
houses. In December, 1898, some barley seedlings used in an
experiment on plant nutrition began to languish without appar-
ent cause. Upon making an examination of the diseased plants
it was found that several perithecia of Chaetomium contortum were
seated on the seed pericarps which still remained attached to the
young plants. So far as known none of the species of Chaelomium
are parasitic, but this case was so suspicious that it was decided
to test the matter by experiment. Fifty seeds of barley were
planted in each of two boxes in sterilized soil. One of the boxes

wasinoculatedatthree points with pure cultures of the Chaetomiwm

26 For an account of the Fusarium stem-rot of carnations, see: Sturgis,
Wm. ©. Preliminary Investigations on a Disease of Carnations. Twenty-
First Ann. Rept. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1897: 175-181. Also, Stewart, F. C.
The Stem-Rot Diseases of the Carnation. Bot. Gaz., 27: 129-130.

27 Forty-Ninth Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Museum. Report of State Botanist,
p. 24.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 183

and the other used as a check. When they had reached a height
of six to eight inches the plants were all in perfect health. Never-
theless, upon pulling them up it was found that a majority in both
boxes had perithecia of Chaetomium contortum on their pericarps.
This proved that the Chaetomiuwm was not parastic. The spores
must have become attached to the barley seeds before they were
planted.

A FRUIT-DISEASE SURVEY OF THE HUD-
SON VALLEY LN 1899,*

F. C. Srewart anp F. H. Buopeert.

SUMMARY.

This bulletin contains an account of the fruit diseases occurring
in the Hudson Valley in 1899. The various diseases are con-
sidered individually with reference chiefly to their distribution
and the amount of damage done; but descriptions and additional
notes have been given wherever it has been thought that they
would be of interest either to the fruit-grower or the vegetable
pathologist.

The data have been obtained by two methods: (1) From replies
to letters of inquiry sent to fruit-growers, and (2) From personal
observations made by the authors.

The season has been an unusually dry one and as a consequence
fruit of all kinds has been remarkably free from disease. Some
of the diseases usually very common and destructive have, this
season, done little or no damage.

Apples have suffered from no disease —not even from scab.
Rust has been the worst disease of blackberries. It has a tendency
to reduce the number of prickles. Cherries have suffered most
from fruit-rot which has been severe in a few localities. In the
Hudson Valley black knot is common on the cultivated cherries but
does not occur on the wild black cherry. Cane blight has been
the worst disease of currants. In the Hudson Valley it is not

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 167.

New Yorx AGRicuLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 185

caused by Nectria but by a sterile fungus. It is wide spread and
destructive. The four-lined leaf-bug causes a currant leaf-spot
which is confused with that due to fungi. An obscure dewberry
disease was observed. Gooseberry powdery mildew has been
troublesome in Ulster and Columbia counties. A gooseberry root
rot has been found at Marlboro. Grape black rot has done serious
damage in a few instances. Grape root rot due to Dematophora
and grape black knot occurred in Orange Co. Winter injury to
fruit-buds caused heavy losses to peach growers. Peach leaf curl
has been conspicuous by its absence, but the yellows is common.
Pears have suffered from no disease. In former years black knot
ruined the plum orchards, but it has probably not spread much in
1899. Plum fruit-rot has been destructive. Quinces have been
affected considerably with fruit-spot and leaf-bight. The worst
disease affecting the raspberry this season is an obscure one which
may be caused by Phoma. Raspberry anthracnose was rare on
new canes, but abundant on fruiting canes. Strawberry leaf-
blight has been severe on some varieties. None of the above dis-
eases were so destructive as in 1898.

INTRODUCTION.

Since its organization, in 1897, the Eastern New York Horti-
cultural Society has had a standing committee on plant diseases.
The membership of this committee is a follows: F. C. Stewart,
Geneva; F. A. Taber, Poughkeepsie; E. W. Barns, Middle
Hope; P. W. King, Athens; and L. E. Covert, Clintondale.

The two published reports’ of the Committee are brief for two
reasons; namely, lack of data and lack of space for publication.
During the past season the committee has endeavored to do more
thorough work. A considerable amount of data has been gath-
ered, and to present it in as much detail as seems desirable would

1 Fifty-Seventh Ann. Rept. of the N. Y. Agr. Soc., 1897: 735-738.

186 Report oF THE BoranistT OF THE

make a longer paper than the Society would be willing to publish
in its Proceedings. Moreover, much of the matter is of more
than local interest, making it desirable to publish it where it will
have a wider circulation than has the Proceedings of the Society.
Hence the publication of this bulletin.

THE SURVEY: METHODS AND GENERAL RESULTS.
TERRITORY COVERED BY THE SURVEY.

The territory covered by the survey includes only the counties
bordering upon the Hudson River between Albany and New
York City; namely, Albany, Rensselaer, Greene, Columbia, Ulster,
Dutchess, Putnam, Orange, Rockland, and Westchester counties.
In order that the region investigated might be as nearly as possible
a natural plant region, and yet cover the greater part of the terri-
tory included in the membership of the Society, Long Island and
Staten Island were excluded. ‘The usual climatic conditions pre-
vailing there are markedly different from those which obtain in
the Hudson Valley. The district under consideration is about 160
miles in length and 45 to 50 miles in width with the Hudson River
running through the middle. (See Plate XIV.)

WEATHER CONDITIONS.

It is well known that weather conditions, especially rainfall
and temperature, exert a powerful influence upon the growth of
fungi. Fungous diseases of plants are much more destructive
in wet seasons than in dry ones. In the Hudson Valley, the
spring and summer of 1899 were unusually dry and the tempera-
ture somewhat higher than normal, offering a marked contrast to
the season of 1898, which was very wet. The monthly precipita-
tion for the season of 1899 is shown in the accompanying table:

\ —o—= roel |r
r =
o~, Vous
Dae \ 25 5
) a, >
a Te a= mare Soo
eat f RENSSELAER

Nigar

PLATE XIV.—TERRITORY INCLUDED IN SURVEY,

New Yorx AGRicULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 187

PRECIPITATION IN THE Hupson VALLEY.— APRIL TO SEPTEMBER, 1899.2

Total for
Station. Ap*il. May. June July. Aug. Sept six mos.
In. In. In. In. In. In. In.

JUSS 7S ae 1.03 Vr nad LAC 2.69 Wee 6.23 15.56
Garalcl ee Os ee 2.26 220, V4 3209 2°21 6.49 Prego
oaphecepsie... .... 0.20 1,27 1.74. 5.56 (10683 4.99. Th.44
Wrest Poimty 2225.0. 1.70 2.31 4.85 5.78 1.90 6.39 22.93
adler Ree aa ae ee Presta | Zisa0. 1) 4 he 6.65 0.89 5.03 PAV AED T/

METHODS OF OBTAINING DATA.

It is a favorite method with plant disease committees to send
out circulars of inquiry to fruit growers asking for information
concerning fruit diseases which have appeared during the season.
We have done this and gotten considerable valuable information;
but this method is applicable only to a few of the most common
and best known diseases. In the first place the majority of fruit
growers will pay no attention to such a cireular. Out of a total
of 250 circular letters enclosing self addressed envelopes for the
reply we have jhad returned to us only 59. Secondly, the replies
are often misleading. They are usually based not upon care-
ful observations properly recorded, but upon loose general impres-
sions. Furthermore, the laity are able to identify accurately only
a very few diseases. Frequently, two or more distinct diseases
pass under one common name. Blight, leaf-spot, rust, fruit-rot and
root-rot are examples of this. What is commonly called pear leaf-
spot is caused by two quite different fungi, but there are very few
persons not experts who know the difference between them. We
have in New York, three fungous diseases and an insect trouble
which are covered by the one common name, currant leaf-spot.
Even so well known a disease as peach leaf curl is sometimes con-
fused with the distortions caused by plant lice.

2The records for April, May, and June, are taken from the U. S. Monthly
Weather Review; those for July, August, and September, from the N. Y. Cli-
mate and Crop Service monthly reports.

8 The August record for Poughkeepsie is lacking; the figures here given are
for Wappinger’s Falls, the nearest record station.

188 Report or THE Boranist OF THE

Appreciating the limitations and inaccuracies of the circular-
letter method, the committee planned to supplement the data ob-
tained in that way with data obtained from observations made by
experts. or this purpose the Chairman associated with himself
Mr. F. H. Blodgett, Assistant Botanist and Entomologist, who
made three two-day and three three-day trips to different localities
in the southern half of the district for the purpose of inspecting
fruit plantations, taking notes on fruit diseases and collecting speci-
mens. The Chairman made six similar trips of inspection to locali-
ties in the northern half of the district.

This combination of circular-letter method and expert inspection
is a good one. The two methods supplement each other admirably.

The following is a copy of the circular letter sent to fruit
growers, the spaces for answers being omitted:

CrrcuLar LETTER oF INQUIRY SENT TO FRUIT GROWERS.
GENEVA, N. Y., Nov. 15, 1899.

Dear Str.— The undersigned, a Committee on Plant Diseases, appointed by
the Eastern New York Horticultural Society, wish to get together information
in regard to the most troublesome diseases prevalent the pa&t season among
orchards, vineyards and nurseries in the Hudson River Valley. They issue
the following circular in the hope that prompt replies may enable them to
prepare a valuable report for the next meeting of the Society. Will you kindly
fill out the blanks below and return at once? Please answer only those ques-
tions concerning which you can give positive information. Address your reply
to the chairman, F. C. Stewart, Geneva, N. Y.

1. Which of the following plant diseases have caused serious injury in your
locality during the past season—

ORCHARD DISEASES.

Apple. Plum.
Pear blight (Fire blight). Black knot.
Scab. Fruit rot.
Leaf spot. Leaf blight.
Pear. Peach.
Leaf blight. Fruit rot.
Pear blight (Fire blight). Leaf curl.
Scab. Yellows.
Little peach.
Quince. an Cherry.
Fruit spot and leaf blight. Fruit rot.

Pear blight (Fire blight). at Leaf blight.

New Yorx AGricutturRAL Exprrrment Station. 189

NURSERY DISEASES.

Apple.
Powdery mildew.

Pear.
Leaf blight.

Pear blight (Fire blight).

Cherry.
Leaf blight.
Powdery mildew.

VINEYARD DISEASES.

Black rot.
Downy mildew (brown rot or
gray rot).
SMALL FRUITS.
Raspberry.
Anthracnose.

Strawberry.
Leaf blight.

Plum.
Leaf blight.

Quince.
Leaf blight.

Peach.
Root knot.
Powdery mildew.

Powdery mildew.
Anthracnose.
Rattling or shelling.

Currant.
Leaf blight.
Cane blight.
Gooseberry.
Mildew.

2. Of the diseases mentioned, please name the worst three.

3. In each of the above cases, give, if possible, the percentage of the crop
injured, stating the basis upon which you make your estimate.

4. What remedies, if any, have been used for plant diseases in your locality?

5. With what success have these been used?

6. Have any new or unusual diseases appeared; if so, give description,
amount of damage done, and any other items concerning them.

F, C. STEWART,

F. A. TABER,

E. W. BARNES,

P. W. KING,

L. E. COVERT,
Committee.

MAGNITUDE OF THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.

Fruit growing is one of the leading industries throughout the
whole district. In several localities it is practiced to the exclusion
of all other branches of agriculture. The most prominent of these
special fruit growing localities is in the southeastern part of Ulster
County around Marlboro, Milton and Highland.

The fruits grown extensively are apples, cherries, currants,
grapes, peaches, pears, raspberries and strawberries. There are
several commercial plantations of gooseberries, blackberries and

190 Report or THE Boranist of THE

quinces. Plums are grown to a considerable extent, but not so
much as formerly. Apricots and dewberries are rare.

There are but few nurseries in the district.

GENERAL STATEMENT OF RESULTS.

Fruits generally have been remarkably free from diseases of
all sorts. Nearly all fruit growers with whom we have talked
upon the subject say that all fruits have been freer from disease the
past season than for many years. There has not been an epidemic
of any disease and some of the common destructive diseases have
been almost entirely absent. Fruit diseases have been conspic-
uous by their scarcity. Consequently, quite as much is said in
this bulletin about what has not been found as what has been
found.

It is to be regretted that a thorough survey of fruit diseases in
the Hudson Valley was not made in 1898. The season of 1898 was
very wet and fruit diseases generally were unusually destructive.
A comparison of the two seasons would be instructive.

The replies to questions two and six of the circular letter were
so few and so unsatisfactory that they have not been considered.
The replies to questions four and five indicate that Bordeaux mix-
ture, although used to a considerable extent, is not in as general
use as it should be.

APPLE DISEASES.

In quantity, the apple crop of 1899 was, perhaps, no more than
an average one; but the fruit was remarkably fair, being un-
usually free from blemishes of all sorts. Nevertheless, apples
have not kept well. This is due partly to the warm autumn? and
partly to the fact that the fruit ripened prematurely. Certain
winter varieties, for example Baldwins and Greenings, have in
some cases behaved more like late fall varieties.

4 This statement does not apply to insect injuries.

5 It is believed by some that the very heavy frost on October 3 (25° at Honey-
mead Brook, 27° at Wappinger’s Falls), seriously injured the keeping qual-
ities of apples.

New Yorx AaricutturaL Exprertment Sration. 191

SCAB.

(Venturia maequalis (Cke.) Adeh. Syn. Fusicladium dendriticum
(Wallr.) Fcekl.)

This arch enemy of the apple has done very little damage. It
has been reported as occurring to a slight extent in all the counties
in the district except Albany, Ulster and Putuam, but only one
correspondent (Old Chatham, Columbia Co.) reports it trouble-
some. On June 20 we sought in vain for a single specimen of
scab in an 80-acre apple orchard at Poughkeepsie. In 1898 this
orchard suffered severely from scab. At Washingtonville scab
spots were common on the twigs of the Lady apple, which is
a variety very susceptible to this form of attack.

LEAF SPOT.
(Phyllosticta spp.)

What a correspondent thought to be leaf spot occurred injuri-
ously at Schodack Landing, Rensselaer Co. In some orchards
25 per ct. of the foliage was affected. Upon investigation it was
found that the so called leaf spot was the work of an insect,® the
resplendent shield-bearer (Aspidisca splendoriferella).

The true fungus leaf spot has been much less common than
scab, but traces of it have occurred at various points in the district.
No attempt was made to distinguish between the two species.

TWIG BLIGHT.
(Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) DeToni.)

Rare. A few affected twigs were observed in Albany Co.; and
three correspondents, one each in Orange, Ulster and Rensselaer

counties, report its occurrence in small quantity.

6 On the authority of Mr. F. A. Sirrine, who examined some of the affected
leaves.

192 Report oF THE BorTanist OF THE

CANKER."
(Sphaeropsis malorum Pk.)

This disease has killed a good many Spitzenberg trees in the
vicinity of Voorheesville and New Scotland in Albany Co. It
occurs destructively at Pomona and Blauvelt in Rockland Co.
At Blauvelt it is especially troublesome on the variety Sour Bough.
It has also been observed at Yorktown and Poughkeepsie.

SOOTY BLOTCH.
(Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sace.)

Rare. A little found on apples received from Newburgh and
Yorktown.

RUSSETING OF FRUIT.

Russeted apples are reported to have been common in the
vicinity of Hudson. We have seen the disease on Baldwins and
Ben Davis at Poughkeepsie. The affected fruits were frequently
misshapen and showed irregular areas on which the skin was rough
and light brown in color. This appearance is sometimes due to
spraying and sometimes to weather conditions alone.® It is often

incorrectly called rust.
RUST.
(Gymnosporangium spp. Syn. Roestelia spp.)

This is a fungous disease in which circular yellow spots appear
on the leaves in June. It may attack the fruit also. The red
cedar, the host of the teleuto stage of the fungus, grows spontane-
ously throughout the entire district and “cedar apples” were
found quite commonly upon it during early May in Ulster and
Rockland counties; but the ecidial stage upon the apple has been
entirely absent.

7 For an account of Apple Canker, see Bulletin 163 of this station.
8 See Bulletin 84 of this station, pp. 29-33.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 193

SUN-CRACK.

On June 2 some apple-tree trunks were observed at Ghent on
which the bark was loose and dead over areas from two to four
inches in width and from one to four feet in length. These in-
juries were on the southwest side of the trunks and usually, but
not always, extended quite to the ground. It first appeared in the
spring of the present year. ‘The trees were unusually thrifty,
about seven years old and of the variety Willow Twig. They
‘stood in well drained soil. We are of the opinion that it was caused
by the sun’s rays heating the bark intensely in early spring while
the soil about the roots was still deeply frozen. That is to say,
this is a case of what Hartig® calls sun-crack (Sonnenriss).

A sun-erack or perhaps sun-scald of apple tree trunks locally
known as “southwest blight” is of common occurrence in the
vicinity of Washingtonville.

BROWN, SUNKEN SPOTS ON THE FRUIT.”

A disease of this description has been reported as occurring on
Greenings and Baldwins at Clintondale.

APRICOT DISEASES.

Apricots are not cultivated to any extent within the district.
The only disease with which we met was one occurring at Ghent.
Some trees which have been planted for several years have been
dying off mysteriously one at a time for a few years past. A tree
may die either in part or wholly at any time during the growing
season. Some died in the spring of 1899. Just above the surface
of the ground the bark is dead, often for considerable distance up
the trunk; but the wood is not laid bare. Sometimes the bark shrinks

9 Hartig, R. Text-Book of the Diseases of Trees (p. 296). Translated and
revised by Somerville and Ward. The Macmillan Co.: New York, 1894. Dr.
Hartig informs us that Fig. 159, which purports to illustrate sun-crack, is
misnamed. The injury was caused by lightning.

10 A description of this disease and an account of an investigation into its
causes are given in Bulletin 164 of this station.

135

194 Rerort or true Boranist oF THE

tightly to the wood. Between the bark and the wood there may
be much fungus mycelium, probably the mycelium of Irpea lacteus
Fr. since pilei of that fungus were found on one of the dying
trunks. One of the diseased trees was dug up for the purpose of
examining the roots, which were seemingly healthy and free from
fungus. ‘There was no sharp line of demarcaticn between the dis-
eased and healthy wood at the point where the scion joined the
stock. The trees were thrifty, having been well cultivated and
eared for. The cause of this disease is unknown to us. It occurs
in other parts of the state, sometimes causing heavy losses.

BLACKBERRY DISEASES.
ORANGE RUST.
(Puccinia peckiana Howe. Syn. Caeoma nitens Schw.)

Orange rust, although less distructive than usual, was abundant
and undoubtedly the worst blackberry disease. For several years
W. D. Barns & Son of Middle Hope have persistently fought the
disease by digging out and burning the affected plants. It is
probable that this treatment has materially lessened the ravages of
the disease, but in spite of their efforts it continues to cause con-
siderable damage every season. To get the best results from such
treatment the diseased plants should be removed promptly upon
the first appearance of the disease to prevent the spores from
ripening.

At Mr. Barns’ place our attention was called to an interesting
effect which rust has upon the canes of raspberries and blackberries,
Canes affected with rust were much freer from prickles” than were
healthy canes.

These observations were made on May 8, at which time the
rusty canes of the preceding season’s growth were easily recognized
although the ecidiospores were not yet mature. Among’ black-

11 The stock was peach.
12No reference to this phenomenon has been found in the literature at

hand. Mr. W. Paddock informs us that he has observed it at Oaks Corners,

Ontario county.

HEALTHY. RUSTED.

PLATE XV.—A HEALTHY AND A RUSTED BLACKBERRY CANE FROM THE SAMB HI.

4

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL ExpEeRIMENT Sration. 195

berries of the variety Wilson Jr., the rust-affected canes were
almost or even wholly destitute of prickles. It is not an uncom-
mon thing to find healthy canes and rusted canes of blackberry in

1.48 Such cases offered an opportunity for close com-

the same hil
parison and it was found that the difference in the number of
prickles on the two sorts of canes in the same hill was very marked.
(See Plate XV.) The difference is so great that Mr. E. W. Barns
says he can pick out the diseased canes in winter by their freedom
from prickles. On affected raspberry canes the reduction of
prickles was very evident but not so marked as with the black-
berry.

After these observations at Middle Hope, we examined, during
the season, many rusty blackberries, raspberries and wild dew-
berries (Rubus canadensis L.) in various localities. With all of
these plants we found that rust in some cases caused a great re-
duction of prickles; in other cases, partial reduction; and in still
others, no reduction at all. At Yorktown badly rusted blackberries
of the variety Minnewaska were observed which showed no ap-
parent reduction of prickles.

4
LEAF SPOT.

(Septoria rubi Westd. )
Rare. Observed only at Poughkeepsie.

CHERRY DISEASES.
FRUIT ROT.
(Monilia fructigena P.)

As usual, fruit rot has been the worst cherry disease, but was not
nearly so destructive as in 1898. From Westchester Co. it is
reported “ bad on some varieties.” In Rockland Co. it destroyed

13 This has also been observed by Clinton; Orange Rust of Raspberry and
Blackberry. Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 29: 276. D. 1893. It occurs less com-
monly with the raspberry, probably on account of the more compact habit of
growth at the crown.

196 Report oF THE BovranisT OF THE

about 25 per ct. of the latest sweet cherries. Orange Co. cor-
respondents report but little damage from it. At Kinderhook,
Columbia Co., it was “ unusually developed.” In the vicinity of
Delmar, Albany Co., it is reported to have destroyed about 10
per ct. of the crop; and in one orchard about 50 per et. A cor-
respondent at Highland, Ulster Co., reports the loss of one-half his
crop; but from personal observations we would say that, in gen-

eral, cherries suffered but little from rot in that locality.

LEAF SPOT.
(Cylindrosporium padi Karst.)

This disease has occurred in small amount over the whole dis-
trict, but no case has been reported in which it has done serious

damage.

BLACK KNOT.
(Plowrightia morbosa Sace.)

Throughout the Hudson Valley black knot is common on eulti-
vated cherries of some varieties. English Morello probably suf-
fers most. Trees of this variety are frequently ruined by it. At
Middle Hope, Orange Co., Montmorency and Early Richmond
cherries are said to knot considerably. At Coxsackie, Greene Co.,
we found knots on English Morello cherries producing summer
spores as early as June 1. Black knot is exceedingly common on
plums over the whole district. In former years it has been a
veritable scourge. With these facts before us it is an interesting
observation that, although the wild black cherry, Prunus serotina
Ehrh., is very common and we have searched carefully, not a sin-

‘ ple specimen of black knot has been found upon it.
The wild red cherry, Prunus pennslyvanica L. f., is common in

Albany Co., but we have failed to find any affected by black

14 Peck, also, has noted the absence of black knot from Prunus serotina in
Eastern New York. See Forty-Second Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist..
3888: 125. On Long Island, black knot is abundant on this species.

‘

New York AGricuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 197

knot. In the central part of Rensselaer Co. we have examined
the choke cherry, Prunus virginiana L., which grows wild there,
but found no knots upon it. However, at Washingtonville, Orange
Co., the latter species is said to be much affected.

What has been said applies only to old knots. The observa-
tions furnish no information as to the number of knots produced
by infections occurring in 1899, for the new knots do not appear
until late in autumn, after the time when the survey was finished.

WITCHES BROOMS.
(Exoascus cerast (Fckl.) Sadeb.)

Knowing that this disease is not uncommon in some other parts
of the State’ we expected to find it in the Hudson Valley, but
failed to find a single specimen.

POWDERY MILDEW.
(Podosphaera oxyacanthae (D. C.) De By.)
On July 20, a single bearing cherry tree affected with powdery

mildew was observed at Delmar, Albany Co. <A few leaves at
the ends of the twigs were affected.

FUNGUS ON DEAD TRUNKS.
(Irpex lacteus Fr.)

On a fruit farm at Middle Hope we observed many dead cherry
trees bearing numerous pilei of Irpex lacteus Fr.*° The trunks
were from three to five inches in diameter and in many cases were
thickly covered with the fungus to a height of from three to five
feet. The owner explained that the trees were of the variety
Elkhorn, which is not hardy. Most of the trees had died during
the past three or four years, apparently from winter injury.

15 See Fourteenth Ann. Rept. of this station, 1895: 532-533; also, Fifteenth
Rept., 1896: 459. In May, 1899, we found a single large specimen on an ox-
heart cherry (Prunus avium), at Sodus Center, in Wayne county, about five
miles from the shore of Lake Ontario.

16 Identified by Dr. C. H. Peck.

198 Report oF THE BorTanistT OF THE

The fungus probably had nothing to do with the death of the
trees. It is mentioned here because it is a conspicuous thing
which might be mistaken for a parasite.

WINTER INJURY.
At Athens, Greene Co., three cherry trees 15 years old died
mysteriously. They had been very thrifty, but last spring when
the leaves were partly grown the trees suddenly died. They grew
in a slight depression where water stands in wet seasons. It is
likely that the trees’ went into the unusually severe winter of
1898-9 with ‘“‘ wet feet” and were winter killed. This theory is
supported by the fact that another tree of the same age and
variety standing only about 16 feet away but outside of the depres-
sion was not affected. Some pear trees standing within the depres-
sion and close beside the dead cherry trees were not killed.
Another case of what we consider to be winter injury occurred
at Monsey in Rockland Co. Some cherry trees which had been
planted in the spring of 1898 and made a vigorous growth that
season were found badly injured in the spring of 1899. A few of
the trees were killed outright, but with a majority of them only
the branches were killed back for a distance of from 12 to 24
inches from the tips. The affected portions did not put out leaves.
Trees standing in exposed situations suffered most. ‘The owner
thought that the injury might have been caused by bands of
tarred paper which had been placed about the bases of the trunks
to protect them from mice; but this theory is made untenable by
the observation that the bark under the tarred paper bands was
perfectly healthy.
Some other cases of the unaccountable dying of branches in

cherry trees may also be due to winter injury.

A BRANCH PARASITE.
(Polyporus sulphureus (Bull.) Fr.)

On a cherry tree in Greene Co., five pilei of this fungus were
found on the uninjured bark of a large limb which was rapidly

dying. The fungus was apparently parasitic.

New Yorx AcricuttTuraAL ExpeErRIMENT STATION. 199

CURRANT DISEASES.
LEAF SPOT.

The fungi which cause leaf spot of currants in the Hudson
Valley are Septoria ribis Desm., Cercospora angulata Wint., and
Gloeosporium ribis (Lib.) Mont. & Desm. During the season of
1899 none of these did any damage worth mentioning. Only
traces of fungous leaf spot were found in a few localities. Experi-
ments by Pammel,’ Goff,’* and others have shown that at least
the first two and most common of these fungous leaf spot diseases
ean be controlled by spraying’ with Bordeaux mixture. How-
ever, at various times complaints have been received that spraying
does not prevent currant leaf spot.

The observations in the Hudson Valley throw some light on the
cause of these failures. One of the best informed fruit growers in
Columbia County called our attention to a bad case of currant
leaf spot which he had tried in vain to prevent by spraying with
Bordeaux mixture. Several thousand currant cuttings had been
sprayed with Bordeaux during the first week in May and again
about two weeks later. In spite of this treatment the plants
were severely attacked during the last week in May by a dis-
ease which the owner did not doubt was the fungous leaf spot
said to be amenable to treatment. An examination of the
affected plants revealed the fact that the trouble was entirely the
work of the four-lined leaf-bug,”® Poecilocapsus lineatus. The
leaves were thickly covered with small, reddish-brown, angular
spots. In the early stage the spots were black and water soaked
in appearance, but they soon became brown, dry and transparent.
(See Plate XVI, fig. 1.) The epidermis, on both sides of the leaf,
was depressed, but no gnawing of the tissue was evident. The

insect thrusts its beak into the leaf and sucks out the juices.

17 Pammel, L. H. Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 13: 45-46; Bul. 17: 419-421;
Bul. 20: 716-718; Bul. 30: 289-291.

18 Goff, E.S. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 72: 30.

19 For an account of the habits, life history, etc., of this insect, see Cornell
Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 58. O. 1893.

200 Report oF THE BorTanistT OF THE

Later, the work of the same insect was found sparingly at
Kinderhook, Highland and Clintondale and very abundantly at
Tarrytown; but in all these cases on bearing bushes.

It seems probable that the injuries of the four-lined leaf-bug
are often mistaken for fungous leaf spot. Currant growers should
learn to distinguish between.these two kinds of leaf spot. The
insects, being small and very active, are not much in evidence.
The spots which they produce differ from fungous spots in being
transparent. ‘They attack chiefly the leaves near the tips of the
canes.

CANE BLIGHT.

The most destructive disease of currants in the Hudson Valley
the past season was a cane blight. The leaves on one or more
canes in a hill suddenly wilt and soon thereafter the canes die
and become dry. The disease may be confined to a single short
branch or it may affect several large canes. The entire hill may
eventually succumb, but this rarely happens during the first sea-
son of attack. It commenced early in May and continued through-
out the whole season, being most active while the fruit was
ripening.

We first became acquainted with this cane blight in June, 1896,
when specimens of it were sent to us from Marlboro. From these
specimens it appeared that the trouble was due to a sterile fungus
working in the pith and under the bark. Through the kindness
of Mr. S. A. Beach it was learned that Mr. D. G. Fairchild had
made a brief study of the same disease in 1891 and had given a talk
upon it before the Botanical Club of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science at its meeting in Washington in
August, 1891. He attributed it to a sterile fungus. A short
account of this talk was published in the Botanical Gazette for
September, 1891, page 262.

Before having an opportunity to study the disease in the field
we learned that Dr. E. J. Durand, of Cornell University, was

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 201

investigating a currant cane blight having the same symptoms, in
Western New York. Upon the appearance of his bulletin” in
which it was stated that Nectria cinnabarina Tode was the cause
of the disease, we concluded that the sterile fungus observed by
Fairchild and by us was probably only a saprophyte; but our
observations during the past season have convinced us that it is
really an active parasite. The disease occurs to a greater or less
extent throughout the entire Hudson Valley. In many planta-
tions it is very destructive. We have cut open and examined
several hundred, perhaps as many as a thousand, of the affected
canes, and almost invariably found the sterile fungus in the pith
and under the bark. Its presence can generally be determined
with the unaided eye and nearly always with the aid of a good
hand lens. In a very few cases, perhaps half a dozen, we have
found borers; but in no ease have we found Nectria cinnabarina
either in its perithecial or conidial stage. The currant cane blight
occurring in the Hudson Valley is not caused by Nectria cinna-
barina but by a sterile fungus.”

When a cane of the previous season’s growth first shows wilting
of the leaves it appears normal externally. But on splitting an
affected stem there will usually be found a place near the base of
the affected portion, where the bark is dead and the wood and
pith dead and discolored for an inch or more. The presence of
the fungus is manifested by delicate cobwebby patches of hyphee
in the pith. This is the seat of the trouble, and from it as a center
the fungus spreads both ways; upward, so as to frequently
occupy the whole wilted branch, and downward so as to kill suc-
cessively the lower branches of the cane. The disease seems to
strangle the canes near the point of infection, killing the portion
beyond by cutting off the supply of sap.

In canes of the present season’s growth the fungus spreads

20 A Disease of Current Canes. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 125. F. 1897.

21 Exact proof by inoculation experiments is lacking. But the large number
of cases in which the sterile fungus has been found associated with the dis-
ease is considered sufficient proof for this statement.

202 Report or tue. Boranist OF THE

upward so rapidly that the whole cane is discolored and perme-
ated by the fungus hyphex throughout its entire length soon after
the leaves are wilted. In the pith of such specimens the hyphee
are especially conspicuous.

In the currant cane the hyphe are white or dirty white, but on
bean stem cultures they soon become smoke colored or even
black. No spores or other indications of fructification have been
observed and nothing is known of the manner in which the
fungus is disseminated. It occurs upon both red and white
currants, Ribes rubrum, and has also been observed in one case
upon the black currant, R. nigrum.

The diseased canes should be cut out and burned. In doing
this care should be taken to cut well below the lowest point of
the disease; otherwise the labor is wasted. Also, the pruning
knife should be frequently dipped into some disinfecting solution;
for example, a 5 per ct. solution of carbolic acid. If this is not
done pruning may serve to spread the disease instead of check-
ing it.

It is hoped that a thorough study of this disease may be made
in the near future.

DEWBERRY DISEASES.

There are probably other commercial plantations of dewberries
in the Hudson Valley, but we have made observations upon one
only, which was located at Highland in Ulster County. The
plants were of the variety Lucretia. They were trained up to
stakes, several canes to each stake. During the previous winter
they had been allowed to lie upon the ground. In the spring
they put out leaves normally, but later a good many of them
died. Some were just commencing to wilt at the time of our
observations (June 21). It was rare to find all of the canes in
a hill dead. Usually, from one to four of the canes were dead
and the rest apparently healthy. As a rule the affected canes
were green and healthy for a few inches above the soil; then there
came a blackened (but not constricted) portion a few inches long,
which seemed to be the seat of the trouble. No fungus was

New Yorx AcGricuLtturaL Experiment Station. 203

visible upon any of the dead parts and no fungus hyphe were
found in the bark or pith. It is not likely that this was winter
injury or the effect of drought. We cannot account for it.

A small amount of leaf spot (Septoria rubi Westd.) occurred in
this plantation.

GOOSEBERRY DISEASES.
POWDERY MILDEW.”
(Sphaerotheca mors-wvae (Schw.) B. & C.)

This is the most destructive gooseberry disease. It is reported
to have been very bad in Ulster and Columbia counties. One
correspondent reports that his Downing gooseberries sprayed four
times with Bordeaux mixture were almost free from mildew, while
with the variety Industry, given the same treatment, one-half of
the crop was ruined. The disease occurred also in Dutchess
county.

ROOT ROT.

During the past five years a destructive root rot disease has
existed in a gooseberry plantation at Marlboro. It started at one
corner of the plantation and gradually spread, killing every
plant as far as the disease extended. At the present time the
affected area measures about 40 by 50 feet. The plants die grad-
ually, living from one to four years after the appearance of the
first symptoms of disease. Dead canes and living ones occur in
the same hill, but the leaves on the living canes are more or less
dwarfed. Early in May we had the privilege of examining about
a dozen of the affected plants which had recently been dug up.
Upon the roots of all of them there was a conspicuous white
mycelium. It was at once concluded that this fungus was the
cause of the trouble, and from the nature of the rhizomorphs
referred it provisionally to the form-genus Dematophora.

In November the Horticulturist had occasion to remove a lot of
seedling gooseberries which had been growing between the rows

22 For experiments on the treatment of this disease, see Bulletin 161 of this
Station.

204 Report or tue Boranist or THE

in one of the Station vineyards for six seasons. Although but
few of these plants had been grown thriftily, none of them had
shown pronounced symptoms of disease. Accordingly, we were
surprised to find the roots of many of them covered with the same
fungus which had been found on the diseased gooseberries at Marl-
boro. The fact that it occurred on apparently healthy plants
caused us to doubt the correctness of our former conclusions.

Pieces of the fungus-infested roots were stuck in moist steril-
ized sand in a Mason fruit jar previously made sterile by a solu-
tion of corrosive sublimate. In about six weeks they began to
show conidial fructification like that of Dematophora.

From diseased grape roots placed in the Mason jar sand eul-
tures we had previously obtained the conidial fructification of a
Dematophora. (See Grape Root Rot.) The rhizomorphs of the
gooseberry fungus were strikingly like those of the grape Dema-
tophora except that the hyphz composing them were slightly |
smaller. Accordingly, we expected to get the same sort of
conidial fructification; but the spores of the gooseberry fungus
were larger and the branching of the sporophores different.
We believe the gooseberry fungus to be a species of Dematophora,
but there is some doubt about it being an active parasite.

During the past season the gooseberry disease at Marlboro
spread but little owing probably to the dry season. In the wet
season of 1898 it made rapid progress. The owner of the dis-
eased gooseberries believes that the plants have died through some
evil influence of a large black walnut tree™ which stands at the
corner of the plantation where the disease started; but it is scarcely
possible that this can have been the direct cause.

DWARFED FOLIAGE.

In another gooseberry plantation we saw a few plants which
appeared healthy, except that all of the leaves were abnormally

23 For another case of supposed injury by black walnut tree, see Grape Root
Rot on pages 297-298.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 205

small. The owner states that in 1898 there had been many plants
so affected. The affected plants were intermingled with healthy
ones.
GRAPE DISEASES.
BLACK ROT.
(Laestadia bidwellw (Ell.) Viala & Ravaz.)

Black rot has been, as usual, the worst grape disease, but was
mot nearly so destructive as in 1898. The worst case we have
seen or heard of this year occurred at West Nyack, Rockland
County, where 75 per ct. of the crop was ruined by it. In some
vineyards in Westchester County, it is reported to have caused a
loss of 50 per ct. From various other localities it is reported
destructive in unsprayed vineyards.

Bordeaux mixture, properly applied, is an almost certain pre-
ventive of this disease. It should be more generally used in the
Hudson Valley.

DOWNY MILDEW.

(Plasmopara viticola (B. & C.) Beri. & De Toni.)
This disease appears to have been scarce except in the southern
part of the district where it was destructive in a few vineyards.

At West Nyack it was severe on several varieties, but showed a
decided preference for the variety Delaware.

ROOT ROT.
(Dematophora necatrix (?) Hartig.)

While on a visit to Middle Hope we were informed that in a
vineyard near that place grape vines had been killed by a black
walnut tree. We visited the vineyard and found that the tree,
which was of enormous size, stood about 40 feet from the edge
of the vineyard. Opposite the tree all of the vines over a small
semi-circular area had died. The owner stated that peach trees
had been planted in the vacant area but they, too, had died.
We dug up some of the dead vines and found the roots covered

206 Report or THE Boranist OF THE

with a white mycelium. Pieces of the fungus covered roots were
stuck into wet sand in a sterilized Mason fruit jar. In this culture
the white mycelium was gradually replaced by numerous light
brown rhizomorphs and after three months the roots became
thickly covered with the conidial fructification of Dematophora.
The sporophores measured from one to one and one-half millimeters
in height. To the unaided eye they appeared to be short, brown
stalks with colorless or purple ovoid knobs on their ends. Under
the microscope the brown stalks proved to be compound sporo-
phores, composed of brown, septate hyphz; and the colorless,
ovoid knobs were composed of small, colorless, ovoid spores borne
on the branched free ends of these hyphe. The fungus agreed
closely with Hartig’s description™ of Dematophora necatrix except
that the hyphz composing the rhizomorphs were destitue of pyri-
form swellings at the septa.

The Dematophora, and not the walnut tree, was probably the
cause of the death of the vines. Some of the dead vines were
certainly beyond the reach of the roots and shade of the tree.
The soil was a sandy loam and well drained. See Gooseberry
Root Rot, page 203.

CHLOROSIS OR YELLOW FOLIAGE,

In an old but well cared for vineyard at Coxsackie we found
many plants showing yellow foliage by June 1. The yellow
leaves were much dwarfed. Sometimes the whole vine was af-
fected, but it often happened that a part of a vine would be di-
seased and a part healthy. According to the owner, affected canes
die the following winter. When all of the canes are affected and
die, new canes come up from the root. The affected plants
were scattered irregularly over the vineyard.

Chlorosis may be due to several causes. Not having had oppor-

24 Hartig, R. Dematophora necatrix, n. sp. Untersuchungen aus d. forst-
botan. Institut zu Miinchen. III, ‘1883.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 207

tunity to study this case thoroughly no statement is made as

to its cause.

BLACK KNOT.

A considerable number of specimens of this disease were found
in an old vineyard at Middle Hope. At a distance of from six
inches to two feet above the ground the stems showed warty
excrescences of spongy texture. (See Plate XVII.) No knots
were found on the roots or at the crown. These excrescences
bear a striking resemblance to the black knots on plums and
cherries caused by the fungus Plowrightia morbosa (Schw.) Sacc.,
but they have an entirely different origin. Kuropean investigators
hold that they are due to the action of frost.”

The disease appears to be rare in the Hudson Valley, but in
Central and Western New York it is met with frequently. It is
also reported from Pennsylvania,”* California®” and Canada.”
From American writers on plant diseases it has received very
little attention, although it has a considerable literature in French,

German and Italian.

PEACH DISEASES.

WINTER INJURY.

The Hudson Valley peach crop of 1899 was almost a complete
failure owing to the hard freeze in February which killed nearly
all of the fruit buds. There were very few orchards that bore
any fruit. In many orchards the twigs also were much injured
and in some the trees were killed outright. The severe attack
of leaf curl in 1898 probably made the trees unusually suscep-
tible to winter injury.

25 See Frank, A. B. Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen, 1: 209-210. Breslau,
1895.

26 Galloway, B. T. Botanical Div. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 8: 63.

27 Woodworth, C. W. Cal. Exp. Sta. Bul. 99: 2. This, however, may be
a different disease.

28 Fletcher, Jas. Canada Experimental Farms Rept. for 1889: 87.

208 Reprort or tHe Boranist or THE

LEAF CURL.
(Hxoascus deformans (Berk.) Fckl.)

Leaf curl has given very little trouble. Over the greater part
of the district it is reported as occurring only to a slight extent.
Correspondents at Stockport, Columbia Co., and Annandale,
Ulster Co., report it severe; but it is possible that in these cases
the fungous leaf curl may have been confused with the work of
plant lice.”

It appears that the weather conditions in early spring exert a
a marked influence upon leaf curl. In 1898 it was very destrue-
tive.

YELLOWS.
' This disease is common throughout the Hudson Valley and in
some localities very destructive. From year to year it fluctuates
somewhat in virulence, but may be depended upon to appear to a
considerable extent every season. It is one of the most trouble-
some peach diseases in this section.

FRUIT ROT.

(Monilia fructigena P.)

Usually this disease is common, but in 1899 it was scarce
because there was little fruit to rot. It has been reported from
Tarrytown, Milton, Ghent, Middle Hope and Washingtonville.

LEAF TIP-BURN.

In a small orchard of young trees at Monsey, Rockland Co.,
a leaf trouble was observed which may be called tip-burn. The
tips and margins of the leaves on the new wood appeared water-
soaked® and transparent. Upon drying, the diseased portions
became yellowish white. The trees were of the variety Red Cheek

29 Some fruit growers know the Hxoascus disease by the name “ red blister,”
and the work of aphides by the name “ leaf curl.” This tends to confusion.

30 The water-soaked condition may not be a character of the disease, but.
due to a rain which occurred a short time before the observations were made.

Fic. 1.—CURRANT LEAF INJURED By FouR-LINED LEAF Bua.

Fic. 2.—STRAWBERRY LEAFLET AFFECTED BY SUN-SCALD.

PLATE XVI.

‘Advupy FHL AO LONYM MOWIG—'IIAX aALV Id

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 209

and had suffered severely from leaf curl the previous season. The
observations were made on May 24, at which time the tip-burned
leaves were abundant. The cause of it is unknown to us, but it

is probably not of fungous origin.

POWDERY MILDEW AND SCAB.

Neither powdery mildew nor scab, Cladosporium carpophilum
Thum, is known to have occurred anywhere in the Hudson Valley
during the past season.

PEAR DISEASES.
SCAB.
(Venturia pirina Aderh. Syn. Fusicladium pirinum (Lib.)
Fckl.)

Pears have been remarkably free from scab. Many of our cor-
respondents report none of it; several report “a little;” and a
few report its occurrence in considerable quantity. Judging from
these reports it appears to have been worst in Columbia Co., but

in no case was it so bad as last season.

LEAF BLIGHT AND LEAF Spot.
(Entomosportum maculatum Ley. and Septoria piricola Desm.)

Only eight correspondents report the occurrence of pear leaf
blight, and none of these report it destructive. Not having suc-
ceeded in taking a single specimen ourselves we do not know
which of the two diseases was the more common.

FIRE BLIGHT.
(Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) De Toni.)

Although more common than either scab or leaf blight, the fire
blight has been destructive in only a few localities.

s
“ BODY BLIGHT ” OR ROUGH BARK.

There is a disease of the trunks and larger branches of pear
trees commonly known as “ body blight.” Over areas which are
14

210 Report or THE BoTanist OF THE

at first small and more or less circular, but later coalesce into
Jarge patches of various shapes, the bark is dead and dry and
clings tightly to the wood. By the shrinkage of the bark in dry-
ing the affected areas become slightly depressed and bounded by a
crack which separates themsharply from the adjacent healthy bark.
This gives the affected trunks and branches a rough, cracked, un-
healthy appearance. The trees are seldom killed outright, but
their growth is checked, often to such an extent as to hope-
lessly stunt them. |

“ Body blight” has generally been considered to be a form of
the fire blight caused by the microorganism Bacillus amylovorus ;
but according to Paddock* it may be caused by the apple canker
and black rot fungus, Sphaeropsis malorum Pk. It is not our
purpose to discuss here the nature of the disease, but to report
its common occurrence in the Hudson Valley. In all of the
counties within the district excepting Rockland, Putnam and
Westchester it was found in great abundance. In a severely at-
tacked orchard in Greene County, portions of several trees ap-
peared to have been killed by it. The branches were thickly
covered with the pyenidia of Sphaeropsis malorum. <A few trees
after struggling along in a half dead condition for several years
finally died, apparently from Sphaeropsis.

WINTER INJURY (2)

In each of several orchards in the vicinity of Athens, Greene
County, a few pear trees died mysteriously. They seemed to
have died from some cause which killed the bark just below the
surface of the soil. The parts above ground appeared normal.
To the unaided eye no fungus was present on the roots or on the
dead bark of the subterranean portions of the trunk. There were
no signs of insects. In all cases the dead trees stood in a heavy
clay soil and were scattered irregularly through the orchard among
healthy trees.

31 Paddock, Wendell. The New York Apple-Tree Canker. Bul. 163 of this
station, p. 203.

New Yorx AGricutTuRAL ExprERIMENT Station. 211

PLUM DISEASES.
BLACK KNOT.
(Plowrightia morbosa (Schw.) Sacc.)

About 20 years ago plum growing was an important industry
in the Hudson Valley, particularly in Greene Co. About 1884
there was an epidemic of black knot which ruined most of the
plum orchards and so discouraged fruit growers that few have
had the courage to replant on a large scale. Another, but less
destructive epidemic occurred in 1891. At the present time the
Japanese plums are being planted quite largely. They are not
affected to an injurious extent by the black knot. On the
European varieties it is still very troublesome and an epidemic
may be expected whenever a favorable season occurs. It has prob-
ably spread but little during the past season.

FRUIT ROT.
(Monilia fructigena P.)

The Hudson Valley plum grower has another serious enemy in
the brown rot of the fruit. In spite of the very dry season this
disease has been quite bad in some localities. At Millbrook,
Dutchess Co., it is reported to have destroyed two-thirds of the
crop; at Old Chatham, Columbia Co., 50 per ct. of the crop; at
Annandale, Ulster Co., Newburgh, Orange Co., and at Blauvelt,
Rockland Co., 25 per ct. It was also abundant in Westchester
Co., and occurred to a considerable extent in Greene and Rensse-
laer counties.

‘ ?

LEAF BLIGHT OR “SHOT HOLE” DISEASE.

This disease is commonly caused by the fungus Cylindrosporwum
padi Karst., but Duggar*” has recently shown that it may be
produced by Bordeaux mixture, especially if improperly pre-
pared; by other chemicals and even by certain weather conditions.

32 Duggar, B. M. Peach Leaf-Curl and Notes on the Shot Hole Effect of
Peaches and Plums. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 164, F. 1899.

212 Report or THE BoranistT OF THE

Leaf blight has been reported from a few localities, but does not
appear to have been serious except in a few cases where it was
evidently caused by spraying. At Yorktown, Japan plums were
observed which were severely“ shot holed” by spraying with care-
fully made dilute Bordeaux mixture.

A correspondent from Stockport, Columbia Co., writes: “ The
plums, both sprayed and unsprayed, looked well until after the first
heavy rain, when, on the trees that had been sprayed, the leaves
spotted, turned red and fell off. JI think this must have been due
to the spray, as the unsprayed trees were not affected.” We think

that this opinion is correct.

LEAF CURL.
(Exoascus mirabilis Atk.)

A few shoots of Wild Goose plum affected with this fungus
were observed at Tallman, Rockland Co.

* QUINCE DISEASES.
FRUIT SPOT AND LEAF BLIGHT.
(Entomosporium maculatum Lev.)

Fruit spot and leaf blight are caused by the same fungus. It
is reported to have been abundant in Columbia, Westchester and
Orange counties. A correspondent at Ghent dug out all of his
bushes because of it. This was quite unnecessary because Bor-
deaux mixture would have prevented the disease at a very small
cost.

FIRE BLIGHT.

(Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) De Toni.)

The fire blight on quince is the same as that occurring on pear
and apple. It was reported by three correspondents to have oc-

curred in small quantity.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 213

RASPBERRY DISEASES.
ANTHRACNOSE.
(Gloeosporium venetum Speg. )

The replies to our circular letter of inquiry indicate that rasp-
berry anthracnose has been common. Although not so stated,
these replies probably relate to anthracnose on last year’s canes.
Judging from our own observations we believe that canes of the
present season’s growth have been but slightly affected.

RUST.
(Puccinia peckiana Howe. Syn. Caeoma nitens Schw.)
Rust has occurred in several plantations, but not to a destruc-
tive extent except in a very few cases. Under some conditions
rust has a tendency to reduce the number of prickles. For a more
detailed discussion of this subject, see Blackberry Rust, page 194.

ROOT GALLS.

We know of but one occurrence of this disease in the Hudson
Valley. Others probably exist, however. In April a fruit grower
at Madalin, Dutchess County, sent us a red raspberry root bear-
ing several rough, spongy, roundish knots or galls varying from
the size of a pea to that of a walnut. The sender wrote that in
the spring of 1898 he had purchased 30 Loudon raspberry plants
from a Rochester nurseryman. A year later half of them had
died from the root galls.

The cause of such root galls is not known. There is some
evidence that the disease is communicable from one plant to
another, and also from raspberries to peaches and vice versa.
Plants showing root galls should not be planted, not even after
the galls have been removed. |

WINTER INJURY.

Red raspberries not laid down were injured by the severe win-
ter. At Poughkeepsie, red raspberries of the variety Marlboro
winter-killed nearly to the ground, while Miller’s Red in the

214 Report or THE Bovranist OF THE

same field and under parallel conditions suffered but slightly. In
a plantation of red raspberries at Marlboro, canes which passed
the winter tied up to stakes were killed back from six to eighteen
inches. The injury was worse on low ground.

CANE BLIGHT.
( ? Phoma:)

In various localities in the northern part of the district there
is a common disease of raspberries, which may be called cane
blight for want of a better name. On June 1 it was observed at
Coxsackie on black raspberries. Its attacks were confined almost
exclusively to old canes. The owner states that it rarely attacks
young canes, but did so to some extent last season. Some canes
were dead, others nearly dead, and still others showing the first
symptoms. The affected canes showed a brownish black discolora-
tion of the bark which was dead. Usually the discoloration ex-
tended the whole length of the cane on one side only, the bark
on the other side remaining alive and green. Numerous pycni-
dia of at least four different species of fungi were found on the
dead bark. The predominating form was a species of Phoma
having small, round or slightly ellipsoidal spores with a brownish
tinge.

At Poughkeepsie on June 20, we found what appeared to be
the same disease killing the canes of black raspberries. It was
destructive. Canes here and there were dying and their abundant
fruit, which was nearly ripe, was drying up. The owner thought
it the effect of drought. Here, as at Coxsackie, only the fruiting
canes were affected. The affected plantation was an old one.
An adjacent plantation of young plants of the same variety was
not affected. The tendency of the canes to die on one side was
not so pronounced as at Coxsackie, but pyenidia of the same
Phoma were abundant and occurred so close to the healthy bark
as to indicate that the fungus was parasitic.

On July 19 the same disease on black raspberries was: found at
Voorheesville. Here it had ruined one-third of the crop. It was

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 215

in a plantation five years old. The owner states that it occurs
chiefly in old plantations, those two and three years old usually
being exempt. It is worst on high ground and occurs in wet
seasons as well as dry ones. The canes commenced to die about
the time the fruit began to ripen. Often the entire cane was
affected, but frequently only a part of it. Healthy and diseased
branches occurred on the same cane. Sometimes a cane would
be dead upon one side and in a semi-living condition upon the
other. The pycnidia of the Phoma were to be found on almost
every affected cane, and where one was killed back only part way
the pycnidia would be clustered just above the boundary between
the living and the dead tissue.

At Voorheesville the disease was noticed attacking also red
raspberries of the variety Cuthbert. Berries, leaves and wood
suddenly dried up while the fruit was ripening. Usually, but not
always, the whole cane was affected. At some point on the cane
there were numerous pycnidia of the same Phoma found on black
raspberries. When only a portion of a cane was affected the
pycnidia were commonly clustered (as on black raspberries) just
above the boundary between the diseased and healthy bark. On
the red raspberry the pycnidia appear to the unaided eye some-
what different from those on the black raspberry.

A disease having the same symptoms attacks the Marlboro, a
red variety extensively planted in the Hudson Valley. On this
variety it is especially destructive and is everywhere known as
“the Marlboro raspberry disease.” A bad case of this was observed
at Delmar, but the examination was so hasty that little can be said
concerning it. It is certain, however, that the Phoma was not
so abundant as in the previously mentioned cases. At this place
the yellow variety, Golden Queen, was also attacked by it.

At West Sand Lake it was destructive on the variety Shaffer,
being worse in the older portions of the plantation. Correspond-
ents report it from various other localities. It is a widespread and
destructive disease.

216 Report or tHe Boranist OF THE

It seems probable that the disease of red raspberries is the same
of that of the black varieties. It may, perhaps, be aggravated
by drought, but the evidence in hand is opposed to the theory that
drought is the sole, or even the principal, cause. In the first
place the symptoms are not those of drought. On raspberry canes
suffering from drought the foliage becomes yellowish, the berries
are abnormally small and the whole plant gradually dries up. All
of the fruiting canes in a hill are about equally affected; in fact
the whole plantation, if on fairly uniform soil, will be uniformly
affected. Whereas, in the disease under discussion, canes die
here and there with diseased canes and healthy canes occurring
even in the small hill.

We are not prepared to say positively that the Phoma found on
the affected canes is the cause of the disease because no inocula-
tions with it have been made; but it is certainly to be regarded
with suspicion. This disease is a worthy subject of investiga-
tion.**

LEAF SPOT.

(Septoria rubt Westd.)
Rare. Observed only at Poughkeepsie.

STRAWBERRY DISEASES.
DROUGHT.
Strawberries were damaged more by drought than by all di-

seases combined. The few persons so situated that they could
irrigate their strawberries reaped a harvest of profit.

LEAF BLIGHT OR LEAF SPOT.
(Sphaerella fragariae (Tul.) Sace.)

The situation with regard to this disease may be summed up in a
phrase used by several of our correspondents; namely: “ Severe
on some varieties.” It has not been nearly so virulent as in

33 The supposedly bacterial disease of Turner and Marlboro rasperries de-
scribed by Freda Detmers, in Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 6, p. 128, seems to be
different.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 217

1898, but the more susceptible varieties have suffered considerably.
It is well known that varieties differ greatly in their susceptibility
to leaf blight. At Poughkeepsie the variety Gandy was severely
attacked, while the variety Clyde growing in adjacent rows under
parallel conditions was almost entirely exempt.

At Ghent we had an opportunity to observe the disastrous effect
of leaf blight upon the crop of the following year. A row of Hunn
stood beside a row of Parker Earle. In 1898 the Hunn blighted
very severely while the Parker Earle was but slightly affected.
On June ?, 1899, the Hunn promised a very trifling yield. Many
of the plants did not even start in the spring. In marked con-
trast to the condition of the Hunn, the Parker Earle was making
the best showing for a berry crop that we have ever seen.

It may be that some of our correspondents have confused the
leaf spot caused by Sphaerella fragariae with that caused by Asco-
chyta fragariae Sace. The two diseases resemble each other
considerably, but the Ascochyta spots are redder and show minute
black pimples at the center. On May 31 we collected fruiting
specimens of the Ascochyta at Athens, Greene Co., but we do
not believe that it was anywhere as abundant as the Sphaerella.

SUN-SCALD ( ?)

On June 2 we observed at Ghent a peculiar disease on the
Hunn strawberry. The leaflets showed dead, brown V-shaped
areas at their tips (see Plate XVI, fig. 2). These dead areas often
extended half way down the midrib. They were generally situated
at the tip of the leaflet, but occasionally occurred at the side.
The disease occurred only on the Hunn, on which it was com-
mon but not destructive. It did not appear to be due to fungi
and certainly not to insects. We are at a loss to account for it

unless it may possibly have been a case of sun-scald.

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REPORT

OF THE

Chemical Department.

i, L. Van Sryvzu, Pu. D:, Chemist.

Assistant Chemists.

OC. G: Jenter, Pu. C.
W. H. Anprews,* B. S.
J. A. Lz Currc, 8. 8.
Aa): Coom* Pau.
MDa Putin Be:
Ki. Bo Hant,* Bes:
Cuas. W. Moupeg, B. S.

(_LABLE On, CCONTENTS.

I. Report of analyses of commercial fertilizers for the spring
of 1899.
II. Report of analyses of commercial fertilizers for the fall of
1899.
III. Report of analyses of Paris green and other insecticides.

* Connected with Fertilizer-Control.

ii

toa j j

cfitjent. Lopyraitaios

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST.

I. REPORT OF ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL
FERTILIZERS FOR SPRING OF 1899.*

L. L. Van SLyKe.

SUMMARY.

(1) Samples Collected. During the spring of 1899, the Sta-
tion collected 866 samples of commercial fertilizers, representing
646 different brands. Of these different brands, 482 were com-
plete fertilizers; of the others, 70 contained phosphoric acid and 7
potash without nitrogen; 36 contained nitrogen and phosphoric
acid without potash; 7 contained nitrogen only; 37 contained
phosphoric acid alone; and 14 contained potash salts only.

(2) Nitrogen. The 482 brands of complete fertilizers con-
tained nitrogen, varying in amount from 0,37 to 8.50 per ct., and
averaging 2.04 per ct. The average amount of nitrogen found
by the Station analysis exceeded the average guaranteed amount
by 0.15 per ct., the guaranteed average being 1.89 per ct. and the
average found being 2.04 per ct.

In 371 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of nitrogen
found was equal to or above the guaranteed amount, the excess
varying from 0.01 to 2.27 per ct., and averaging 0.28 per ct.

In 111 brands the nitrogen was below the guaranteed amount,
the deficiency varying from 0.01 to 1.78 per ct., and averaging
0.19 per ct. In 103 cases, the deficiency was less than 0.5 per ct.

The amount of water-soluble nitrogen varied from 0 to 4.43

per ct. and averaged 0.80 per ct.

* Partial reprint of Bulletin No. 160.

222 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

(3) Available Phosphoric Acid. The 482 brands of complete
fertilizers contained available phosphoric acid varying in amount
from 1.20 to 15.12 per ct. and averaging 8.76 per ct. The aver-
age amount of available phosphoric acid found by the Station
analysis exceeded the average guaranteed amount by 0.98 per ct.,
the guaranteed average being 7.78 per ct. and the average found
being 8.76 per ct. |

In 418 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of available
phosphoric acid found was equal to or above the amount guaran-
teed, the excess varying from 0.03 to 6.32 per ct. and averaging
1.23 per ct.

In 64 brands, the available phosphoric acid was below the guar-
anteed amount, the deficiency varying from 0.02 to 3.68 per ct.
and averaging 0.46 per ct. In 44 cases the deficiency was below
0.5 per ct.

The amount of water-soluble phosphoric acid varied from 0 to
10.28 per ct. and averaged 5.40 per ct.

(4) Potash. The complete fertilizers contained potash varying
in amount from 0.43 to 12.95 per ct. and averaging 4.86 per ct.
The average amount of potash found by the Station analysis ex-
ceeded the average guaranteed amount by 0.30 per ct., the guar-
anteed average being 4.56 per ct. and the average found being
4.86 per ct.

In 331 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of potash
found was equal to or above the guaranteed amount, the excess
varying from 0.01 to 3.07 per ct. and averaging 0.59 per ct.

In 151 brands, the potash was below the guaranteed amount,
the deficiency varying from 0.01 to 4.386 per ct. and averaging
0.50 per ct. In 105 of these cases, the deficiency was less than
0.5 per ct.

In 85 cases among the 482 brands of complete fertilizers the
potash was contained in the form of sulphate free from an excess
of chlorides.

(5) The retail selling price of the complete fertilizers varied
“som $17 to $45 a ton and averaged $26.66. The retail cost of

New YorxK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 223

the separate ingredients, unmixed, averaged $18.28, or $8.38 less
than the selling price.

INTRODUCTION.

NUMBER AND KINDS OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.
During the spring of 1899, the Station’s collecting agents vis-
ited 165 towns between March 28 and June 29, obtaining 866
samples of commercial fertilizers. These samples represent 646
different brands, the product of 114 different manufacturers, each
manufacturer being represented by from 1 fo 39 brands.
The subjoined tabulated statement indicates the different classes

included in the collection:

CLASSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

Brands i
Brandsicor containing Brands con-
Brands con- pie . nitrogen taining phos- Brands of
taining « nly erin ier a Ns ea Bate and phos- phorie acid compiete
nitrogen. Pp aid SOHNE * phoric acid and potash with- fertilizers.
' without out nitrogea.
potash
7 37 14 36 70 482

COMPOSITION OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

The following tabulated statement shows the average composi-
tion of the complete fertilizers collected during the spring, to-
gether with a comparison of the guaranteed composition and that

found by analysis:

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COMPLETE FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

so
Per cent guaranteed. Per cent found. Pat.
a = — —--— o2 o
— ——* — ; = ae ®
a 43 ® be ae © © 4
é ce aaa Ban Wie; (debe s
= i : 4 ee 0
INR DET 3 ey Bee eae Coe ee OTS S20) ol89) Oss7 | S505 2804 sOnIs
Available phosphoric acid .... 1.93 14.00 7.78 1.20 15.12 8.76 0.98
Insoluble phosphoric acid ..... .... ..... sujet, 1 OcdS o 10-80, p20aa ees:
Potash, aierrbes «Ser. 3 8hce = piss tas 0.75 15.00 4.56 0.43 12.95 4.86 0.30
Water-soluble nitrogen. ...... seusted neice serch OP O00. 14.42 OMSOsTs :

5.40

Water-soluble phosphoric acid .. .... ..... wees O200) 7h0eZo

224 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

TRADE VALUES OF PLANT-FOOD ELEMENTS IN RAW MATERIALS

AND CHEMICALS.

The trade values in the following schedule have been agreed
upon by the Experiment Stations of Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and Vermont, as a result of
study of the prices actually prevailing in the large markets of
these states.

These trade values represent, as nearly as can be estimated, the
average prices at which, during the six months preceding March,
the respective ingredients, in the form of unmixed raw materials,
could be bought at retail for cash in our large markets. These
prices also correspond (except in case of available phosphoric acid)
to the average wholesale prices for the six months preceding March
plus about 20 per ct. in case of goods for which there are whole-

sale quotations.

TRADE VALUES OF PLANT-Foop ELEMENTS IN RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS.

1899.
Cts. per
pound
Nitrogen in ammonia salts ...........20.cceescescerncecesd couse 15
Nitrogen in Nitrates: . i022 jis a nsle a dvee sade: ) Ese yee ee 5S 12%
Organic nitrogen in dry and fine-ground fish, meat and blood, and
MIKE MOECUAZELS sc,» cy crema ais elele le <fotelspotelsiele cieliele Sle clehs!s ohelaipaerantenemm 14
Organic nitrogen in cotton-seed meal and castor-pomace............ 12
Organic nitrogen in fine-ground bone and tankage ..............-. 14
Organic nitrogen in coarse bone and tankage .............++20+8- 10
Phosphoric acid, water-soluble 15 5.. /ys c'sie:iieyots « «lew eye etl ee 4%
Phosphoric acid, citrate-soluble . 2.4.0 05.5.6 250 sie « amielantgee 4
Phosphoric acid in fine-ground fish, bone and tankage ............- 4
Phosphoric acid in coarse fish, bone and tankage ...............-. 2
Phosphoric acid in cotton-seed meal, castor-pomace and wood ashes.. 4
Phosphoric acid in mixed fertilizers, insoluble in ammonium citrate
AME WATE wicis- 5's Suche ie NG 5) egos sere ois) 6 wleie shalel/eye! ola seeietene ke tele aaa 2
Potash as high-grade sulphate, in forms free from muriates (chlor-
ides), dnvashes, ebes) 095 ..4:/% kr 3s Bes oe ois o Seolane: oie) oj slave oie alee eee eee 5
Potash*imo-miriater so iayee 2 oye cts ees eee eke ove ous eete tenet tee aie tet aan 4,

COMPARISON OF SELLING PRICE AND COMMERCIAL VALUATION.

Giving to the different constituents the values assigned in the
schedule for mixed fertilizers, 14 eents a pound for nitrogen, 44

New Yorx AcricutturaL Exrrertment Sration. 225

cents a pound for water-soluble phosphoric acid, 4 cents a pound
for citrate-soluble phosphoric acid, 2 cents a pound for insoluble
phosphoric acid, and 44 cents a pound for potash, we can caleu-
late the commercial valuation, or the price at which the separate
unmixed materials contained in one ton of fertilizer, having the
composition indicated in the preceding table, could be purchased
for cash at retail at the seaboard. JXnowing the retail prices at
which these goods were offered for sale, we can also readily esti-
mate the difference between the actual selling price of the mixed
goods and the retail cash cost of the unmixed materials; the differ-
ence covers the cost of mixing, freight, profits, etc. We present
these data in the following tables:

CoMMERCIAL VALUATION AND SELLING PRICE OF COMPLETE FERTILIZERS.

Commercial valuation of Selling price of one ton of com ik: :
me SE veraged increased cost
complete fertilizers. plete fertilizer. ai hinivade 'sintexials
a 24a over unmixed mate-
rials for one ton.

mood —— + —— — - ——— a

—

Average. Lowest. Highest. Average.

$18 .28 $17 $45 $26.66 $8 . 38

COST OF ONE POUND OF PLANT FOOD IN FERTILIZERS AS PUR-
CHASED BY CONSUMERS.

In the table below we present figures showing the average cost
to the purchaser of one pound of plant-food in different forms in

mixed fertilizers:

AVERAGE Cost or ONE PouND oF PLANT-Foop To CoNSUMERS IN MIXED FER-

TILIZERS.
WIE YG = ¢ ie ke bie ick in a a ao 20.4 cents.
Phosphoricsacid. (available), 2. .\crreuecteterietsbuslesectoislslegeaeierelstehae 6.2 cents.
bese Novaye do oleperae case: apeuss.+, 41s outta ceeneregetercner entero eke Ssliniotrcbeouse ess 6.2 cents.

NEW FERTILIZER LAW.
The last State legislature amended the fertilizer law and atten-
tion is called to the principal changes that affect manufacturers

and dealers.
15

226 Report or THE CHEMIST OF THE

(1) All fertilizers selling for five dollars or more per ton will
come under the law, the limit previously having been confined to
fertilizers selling for ten dollars or more per ton.

(2) Every manufacturer, importer, dealer or agent must pay
a license fee amounting to twenty dollars a year for each separate
brand or kind of fertilizer or fertilizing material.

(3) Statements of guarantee analysis, etc., are to be filed and
license fees paid during December each year, covering the goods
to be sold during the year following.

LAWS OF NEW YORK.

Cnapter 955, Laws or 1896, as AMenpED By CHApTER 687,
Laws or 1899. .

[Law is given as amended — changes in italics.]

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate
and Assembly, do enact as follows:

Statement of amount, brand name, manufacturer’s name and address,
and chemical composition required on each package.

Section 1. Every person who shall sell, offer or expose for sale
in this State any commercial fertilizer or any material to be used
as a fertilizer, the selling price of which exceeds five dollars per
ton, shall stamp on or affix to each package of such fertilizer, in a
conspicuous place on the outside thereof, a plainly printed state-
ment which shall certify as follows:

1. The number of net pounds of fertilizer in the package sold
or offered for sale;
2. The name, brand or trade-mark under which the fertilizer

is sold;
3. The name and address of the manufacturer of the fertilizer;

4. The chemical composition of the fertilizer expressed in the
following terms:

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTion. 227

(a) Per centum of nitrogen;

(b) Per centum of available phosphoric acid, or in case of un-
dissolved bone, the per centum of total phosphoric acid;

(ec) Per centum of potash soluble in distilled water.

If any such fertilizer be sold, offered or exposed for sale in bulk,
such printed statement shall accompany every part and parcel so
sold, offered or exposed for sale.

Falsity in statement and deficiency in percentage composition violate
provisions of act.

§ 2. It shall be a violation of the provision of this act if the
statement required by section one of this act shall be false in re-
gard.to the number of net pounds of fertilizer in the package sold,
offered or exposed for sale, or in the name, brand or trade-mark
under which the fertilizer is sold, or in the name and address of
the manufacturer of the fertilizer. It shall also be a violation
of the provisions of this act if any commercial fertilizer or material
to be used as a fertilizer shall contain a smaller percentage of
nitrogen, phosphoric acid or potash than is certified in said state-
ment to be contained therein, when such deficiency shall be greater
than one-third of one per centum of nitrogen, or one-half of one
per centum of available phosphoric acid (or one per centum of
total phosphoric acid in the case of undissolved bone), or one-half
of one per centum of potash soluble in distilled water.

Filing of statement required; license fee of twenty dollars per brand
required; certificate given; fees go to treasurer of State; report of
expenditures for analytical work required.

§ 8. Before any commercial fertilizer or any material to be used
as a fertilizer is sold, offered or exposed for sale in this state, the
manufacturer, importer or person who causes the same to be sold,
offered or exposed for sale shall file with the New York Agricul-
tural Experiment Station at Geneva, a certified copy of the state-
ment prescribed in section one of this act, and, in addition, such

228 Report oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

statement shall be filed thereafter annually during the month of
December. Each manufacturer, importer or person, before selling,
offering or exposing for sale in this state any brand of commercial
fertilizer, shall annually, during the month of December, pay to
the treasurer of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station
a license fee of twenty dollars for each and every brand of fer-
tilizer, bearing a distinctive name, brand or trade mark, which
said manufacturer, importer or person is to sell, offer or expose
for sale in this state during the calendar year next succeeding
said payment, provided, always, that the placing of any new brand
upon the market at any time during said calendar year shall be
preceded by such payment. Hach manufacturer, importer or per-
son who has complied with the provisions of this act relative to
filing the aforesaid certified statement and to the payment of the
aforesaid license fee shall be entitled to recewe a certificate from
the director of said station setting forth said facts. Said treasurer
shall pay all money received as aforesaid to the treasurer of the
state of New York, which treasurer when said money is so appro-
priated, upon the audit of the board of control of said station and
the order of the comptroller of the state of New York, shall pay
the money so received, or so much of vt as may be necessary, in
maintaining the expenses of enforcing the provision of this act.
Said board of control shall report annually the expenditures so
incurred for salaries, laboratory expenses, chemical supplies, trav-

eling expenses and printing.

Presence of inert nitrogenous matter to be stated.

§ 4. No person shall sell, offer or expose for sale in this state
leather or its products or other inert nitrogenous material in any
form, as a fertilizer or as an ingredient of any fertilizer, unless an
explicit printed statement of the fact shall be conspicuously affixed
to every package of such fertilizer, and shall accompany every

parcel or lot of the same.

New Yorx Agricutturat Exprertment Station. 229

Penalty for violation.

§ 5. Every person violating any of the provisions of this act
shall forfeit and pay to the people of the state of New York the
sum of one hundred dollars for every such violation.

Evidence, official.

§ 6. Every certificate duly signed and acknowledged of a chem-
ist or other expert employed by the director of the New York Agri-
cultural Experiment Station at Geneva relating to the analysis
of any commercial fertilizer, or material to be used as a fertilizer,
shall be presumptive evidence of the facts therein stated.

Prima facie evidence.

§ 7. The doing of anything prohibited by this act shall be evi-
dence of the violation of the provisions of this act relating to the
things so prohibited and the omission to do anything directed to
be done shall be evidence of a violation of the provisions of this
act relative to the things so directed to be done.

Director responsible for enforcement of provisions of act; prosecutions
to be brought by attorney-general.

§ 8. The director of the New York Agricultural Experiment
Station at Geneva is charged with the enforcement of the pro-
visions of this act, and for this purpose, may employ agents, chem-
ists and experts, and whenever he shall know or have reason to
believe that any penalty has been incurred by any person for the
violation of any of the provisions of this act, or that any sum has
been forfeited by reason of any such violation, he shall report the
said violation with a statement of the facts to the attorney-general,
who pursuant to the provisions of chapter eight hundred and
twenty-one of the laws of eighteen hundred and ninety-five may
cause an action or proceeding to be brought in the name of the
people for the recovery of the same.

230 Report or THE CHEMIST.

Previous law repealed.

§ 9. Chapter four hundred and thirty-seven of the laws of eigh-
teen hundred and ninety and chapter six hundred and one of the
laws of eighteen hundred and ninety-four are hereby repealed.

Act‘in operation.

§ 10. This act shall take effect immediately.

[The detailed analyses of the samples collected are not reprinted in this re-
port, as they cease to have value before the report is printed and distributed.
— Director.]

REPORT OF ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL
FERTILIZERS FOR THE FALL OF 1899-*

i Gb. VAN SLYKE:

SUMMARY.

(1) Samples Collected.— During the fall of 1899, the Station
collected 188 samples of commercial fertilizers, representing 130
different brands. Of these different brands 101 were complete
fertilizers; of the others, 15 contained phosphoric acid and potash
without nitrogen; 3 contained nitrogen and phosphoric acid with-
out potash; and 10 contained phosphoric acid alone.

(2) Nitrogen.— The 101 brands of complete fertilizers con-
tained nitrogen varying in amount from 0.59 to 4.91 per ct. and
averaging 1.65 per ct. The average amount of nitrogen found
by the Station analysis exceeded the average guaranteed amount
by 0.13 per ct., the guaranteed average being 1.52 per ct. and the
average found being 1.65 per ct.

In 79 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of nitrogen
found was equal to or above the guaranteed amount, the excess
varying from 0.01 to 1.35 per ct. and averaging 0.23 per ct.

In 22 brands, the nitrogen was below the guaranteed amount,
the deficiency varying from 0.03 to 0.62 per ct. and averaging
0.21 per ct. In 18 cases, the deficiency was less than 0.5 per ct.

The amount of water-soluble nitrogen varied from 0.03 to 4.79
per ct. and averaged 0.62 per ct.

* Partial reprint of Bulletin No. 173.

232 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

(3) Available Phosphoric Acid.—The 101 brands of com-
plete fertilizers contained available phosphoric acid varying in
amount from 3.44 to 13.08 per ct. and averaging 9.04 per ct.
The average amount of available phosphoric acid found by the
Station analysis exceeded the average guaranteed amount by 0.74
per ct., the guaranteed average being 8.30 per ct. and the average
found being 9.04 per ct.

In 87 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of available
phosphoric acid found was above the amount guaranteed, the ex-
cess varying from 0.03 to 3.28 per ct. and averaging 0.93 per ct.

In 14 brands, the available phosphoric acid was below the guar-
anteed amount, the deficiency varying from 0.04 to 2.64 per ct.
and averaging 0.49 per ct. In 10 cases the deficiency was below
0.05 per ct.

The amount of water-soluble phosphoric acid varied from 0.40
to 10.80 per ct. and averaged 6.07 per ct.

(4) Potash.— The complete fertilizers contained potash vary-
ing in amount from 0.48 to 10.75 per ct. and averaging 4.30 per
ct. The average amount of potash found by the Station analysis
exceeded the average guaranteed amount by 0.22 per ct., the guar-
anteed average being 4.08 per ct. and the average found being
4.30 per ct.

In 74 brands of complete fertilizers, the amount of potash found
was above the guaranteed amount, the excess varying from 0.01
to 2.75 per ct. and averaging 0.54 per ct.

In 27 brands, the potash was below the guaranteed amount, the
deficiency varying from 0.01 to 3.72 per ct. and averaging 0.65
per ct. In 15 of these cases the deficiency was less than 0.5 per ct.

In 15 cases among the 101 brands of complete fertilizers the
potash was contained in the form of sulphate free from an excess
of chlorides.

(5) The retail selling prices of the complete fertilizers varied
from $16.50 to $35.00 a ton and averaged $23.25. The retail

New Yorx AgrictutruraL Experiment Station. 233

cost of the separate ingredients unmixed averaged $17.00, or $6.25
less than the selling price.

INTRODUCTION.

NUMBER AND KINDS OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

During the spring and fall of 1899, the Station’s collecting
agents visited 210 towns, obtaining 1004 samples of commercial
fertilizers. These samples represent 776 different brands, the
product of 132 different manufacturers, each manufacturer being
represented by from one to 39 brands.

The subjoined tabulated statement indicates the different classes

included in the collection.

CLASSES OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN 1899.

|

> = = 20 ad 5
[mel -_ [ul io n=

FI q | BH. go re)

° = ° asa 53 5°

a Q = 0)
tn to. be eS 2.
Sr heed’ cet} ne pesteenRe ai
ei AS)|OU 8 Egan fom 26
= 33 2 =A, Sid EN
1899 Ss Diy Pas $s wed =

N-«

a. BE 5 AsO £69 Sas
og o5 S Sas 8a ud
og oa Co [gs Sens ow
do S, a Bn See =
NS ne nn n n 9 nes
Os S36 SoS Bod Bod use
as ag a Ags ats AD
as a aS a@f2 2&8 ak
pa) S58 Sh Sue SaEe SS
a) faa) a) aa) Q <o=|
Spray CONEENON 28s poo ed. bE 7 37 14 36 70 482
Halls COMCCHOUIE tat a sec Stotcoreroeeateetons 0 10 1 3 is 101
otal for Vear®.: o: 2's +. ..caree ees 7 47 15 39 85 583

COMPOSITION OF FERTILIZERS COLLECTED IN 1899.

The tabulated statement below shows the average composition
of the complete fertilizers collected during the year, together
with a comparison of the guaranteed composition and that found

by analysis.

234 Rerort oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COMPLETE FERTILIZERS COLLECTED.

Per ct. guaranteed. Per ct, found. E
SS SS ——— rs ay & Y
-
1899 o8
os
at
We — o re vey ov Lo
2 g 2 % % ee
6 2 fe 2 ee
a x < =) 8) <4 <4
Spring: 1.4]
NIGFORER pete cen ces nf ana. 0.39 8.25 1.89 0.37 8.50 2.04 0.15
Available phosphoric acid .... 1.93 14.00 7.78 1.20 15.12 8.76 0.98
Insoluble phosphoric acid’. - 2) Bereciies .. 2). 0413) 10:80 482722 ree
WAGUBEY Seige te ae pte meno era 0.75 15.00 4.56 0.43 12.95 4.86 0.30
Water-soluble phosphoric
UCU (odin ots ctor a ic vatelere eaters Soma! jocen: 0.00 4.43 5.40
Water-soluble nitrogen... ..5.( 2. 26) Teen 0.00 10.28 0.80
Fall:
Nitrogen ... ... S884. 73.08"%4 0.41 4.95 1.52 0.59 4.91 1.65 0.138
Available phosphoric acid... 3.55 11.00 8.30 3.44 13.08 9.04 0.74
insoluble phiosphoric’acid 3.3 =p... sl ser ..--, 0.163) 95649 202 eee
POUR M e « setae oe cere sf phere 1.00 10.00 4.08 0.48 10.75 4.30 0.22
Water-soluble phosphoric
1G) OR eS ee SMa Se Be cates Pe arr 0.40 10.80 6.07
Wiater-soluble nitrogen! Seays.c4) caw) mete ete 0.03 4.79 0.62
Average for year:
INIEROPOM 6M ses dec ees Sete cie SEO a8 ao Ws aden aoe. 1.97 0.14
Available phosphoric acid... .... ..... 1.81. sere eee 8.80 0.93
Insoluble phosphorie acid)... .... ..... BNE ae oti ce 2 20 ue
POGHENe Ee co. Ss ee eee rs eae ACA oc. oe eee 4.76 0.28
Water-soluble phosphoric
C0 ey ae ie nes Omi ae A 5.55
Water-soluble nitrogen .csij. ce uae lesen cease 0.75

TRADE-VALUES OF PLANT-FOOD ELEMENTS IN RAW MATERIALS

AND CHEMICALS.

The trade-values in the following schedule have been agreed
upon by the Experiment Stations of Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and Vermont, as a result of
study of the prices actually prevailing in the large markets of
these states.

These trade-values represent, as nearly as can be estimated, the
average prices at which, during the six months preceding March,
the respective ingredients, in the form of unmixed raw materials,

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 235

eould be bought at retail for cash in our large markets. These
prices also correspond (except in case of available phosphoric
acid) to the average wholesale prices for the six months pre-
ceding March plus about 20 per ct. in case of goods for which

there are wholesale quotations.

TRADE VALUES oF PLANT-Foop ELEMENTS IN RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS.

1899.
Cents per
pound.
Nitrogen in ammonia saltS .........-..see eect e eee e teens 15
DA GrOPeN 1 NIGTALES oo os ee sie se see nee re ane 12%
Organic nitrogen in dry and fine-ground fish, meat and blood, and
AMEE OTEMAZ OTS. Sei cols ieh = Bere Peieeie xs @ » Kos OE «Easiest SR 14
Organic nitrogen in cotton-seed meal and castor-pomace........... 12
Organic nitrogen in fine-ground bone and tankage .............---- 14
Organic nitrogen in coarse bone and tankage ........-....+++-+-- 10
Phosphoric acid, water-soluble .........-. 2.2: seee eee eee eee eeeeee 41%
Phosphoric acid, citrate-soluble .......-.--. esses eeeeeeeee Rese ec 4
Phosphoric acid in fine-ground fish, bone and tankage ............. +
Phosphoric acid in coarse fish, bone and tankage .............+-++- 2
Phosphoric acid in cotton-seed meal, castor-pomace and wood ashes. . 4
Phosphoric acid in mixed fertilizers, insoluble in ammonium citrate
PNG Wid LOTS hams s ox otehe alt sion SURGES Ahh nS cere ge Creer cated Side 2
Potash as high-grade sulphate, in forms free from muriates (chlor-
AGES) Ale ASNES MET IAINE « Sieve citnettoie te «, Sipet Ate eet ou eretate eta acter ero nerene tartans 5
Roteten Un Manabe... re 284 - bins dheb A brem a Als ete eee erates 4%

COMPARISON OF SELLING PRICE AND COMMERCIAL VALUATION.

Giving to the different constituents the values assigned in the
schedule for mixed fertilizers, 14 cents a pound for nitrogen, 43
cents a pound for water-soluble phosphoric acid, 4 cents a pound
for citrate-soluble phosphoric acid, 2 cents a pound for insoluble
phosphoric acid, and 44 cents a pound for potash, we can cal-
culate the commercial valuation, or the price at which the sep-
arate unmixed materials contained in one ton of fertilizer, hav-
ing the composition indicated in the preceding table, could be
purchased for cash at retail at the seaboard. Knowing the retail
prices at which these goods were offered for sale, we can also
readily estimate the difference between the actual selling price of

236 Report OF THE CHEMIST.

the mixed goods and the retail cash cost of the unmixed mate-
rials; the difference covers the cost of mixing, freight, profits, ete.

We present these data in the following tables:

COMMERCIAL VALUATION AND SELLING PRICE OF COMPLETE FERTILIZERS.

aeoo. Saeae

ee ale

SEAR Selling priceofonetonof S3.us
gSes complete fertilizer. BKoES
1899. BSOR SHOS
ro) ros o% nies ©
———— = Ea M4 2
Dp be
Average. Lowest. Highest. Average 5 ofES

: : .&

Ppa assis ost so Md See $18.28 $17.00 $45.00 $26.66 $8.38
FE. 2 e862. 0.5 cinscice eS EU REE TPS ee 17.00 16.50 35.00 23.25 6.25
Averape for Year... 2.226: v2 rt $18.06 $16.50 $45.00 $26.07 $8.01

COST OF ONE POUND OF PLANT FOOD IN FERTILIZERS AS PUR-
CHASED BY CONSUMERS.

In the table below we present figures showing the average cost
to the purchaser of one pound of plant-food in different forms
in mixed fertilizers.

AVERAGE Cost oF PLANT Foop In MIxeD FERTILIZERS AS PURCHASED By CON-
SUMERS.

One pound of
One pound of . One pound of
1899. available phos- potash

nitrogen. phorice acid. f

Sree oo sas Sore ee aes 20.4 6.2 6.2
BEAL 37. GIO. Fe ebloee oainto eae 19.2 5.8 5.8
MVELaAge IDY’ Year s/s. tee se ee 20.2 6.1 6.1

[The detailed analyses of the samples collected are not reprinted in this
report, as they cease to have value before the report is printed and distributed.
— Director.]

REPORT OF ANALYSES OF PARIS GREEN
AND OTHER INSECTICIDES.*

L. L. Van SiyKkKe.

SUMMARY.

In accordance with the provisions of a law designed to pro-
tect purchasers of Paris green, samples were secured during 1899
and the results are published in this bulletin.

Paris green contains as its chief constituent a compound called
copper aceto-arsenite, which, when chemically pure, contains

Neséiieds Oxide i) .0)..25 QE 99, Ba, 58.64 per ct.
Copper oxides. tiusl. 20 sree |s3 Bi 2303 taikf
Arete tact. .burerjacn. ae2ts SNex Us LO. OGsti sn f

In the 24 samples of Paris green examined, the arsenious
oxide varied from 55.34 to 60.16 per ct. and averaged 56.48 per
et. The copper oxide varied from 27.70 to 30.90 per ct., and
averaged 29.97 per ct. The amount of arsenious oxide for each
pound of copper oxide varied from 1.82 to 2.17 and averaged
1.88 pounds. The only adulterant that could be.found was white
arsenic and this was excessive in only one sample. The general
result of the examination is to show a good quality of Paris green
in the market at the time the samples were taken.

Partial analyses are given of the following materials: Para-
grene, Black Death, Slug Shot, London Purple, Laurel Green,
Smith’s Electric Vermin Exterminator, Bug Death.

INTRODUCTION.

During the past ten years the use of Paris green has very rap-
idly increased, owing to its efficiency as an insecticide. There

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 165.

238 Report OF THE CHEMIST OF THE

have been frequent complaints on the part of farmers that Paris
green has proved inefficient in so many instances as to lead to
serious suspicions in regard to its purity. As a result of such
complaints, the State legislature, in March, 1898, passed a law
intended to prevent fraud in the sale of Paris green; but no ap-
propriation was made for the enforcement of the provisions of
the Jaw and no work was done until 1899.

During 1899 samples of Paris green were collected and the
results of analysis of these samples are presented in this bulle-
tin. Some materials were collected which were found in the
market as insecticides, but which contained little or no Paris
green. A general statement of the composition of these will also
be given, as information of this kind is often desired.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PARIS GREEN.

There is more or less confusion as to the exact chemical com-
pound that goes under the name of Paris green. Many chemical
writers include two different arsenic compounds under this name,
but the compound most frequently met in commerce contains
copper, arsenic and acetic acid, and is chemically known as copper
aceto-arsenite ; in the trade this compound, in a form not chemi-
cally pure, is known as Paris green, Schweinfurt green, Imperial
green, French green, Emerald green, ete.

Paris green, or copper aceto-arsenite, when chemically pure,
contains the following amounts of the different elements indi-
cated :

PRTBOMUIC Fo pce bik jones abuses te eee 44.44 per ct.
CODD ER caer sas atu nthe icky ae ee ae 24.99... 9%
DRONE cad inns ME» wens Sop A Tie ee reget 25.c Donua ree
Carbon: 64.0 watt onGs aio tee 418.9
Hydrogen’ t.05 ot oc noise ee Opps.

Paris green may be regarded as approximately consisting of —

Copper arsenite... 72050) cee. oan 82 per ct.
Copper acetate .

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 239

However, it is customary, in speaking of the amount of arsenic
contained in Paris green, to refer to it as arsenious oxide; and,
using this form of expression, we would give the composition of
pure copper aceto-arsenite as follows:

PREG CAAYEUIE COAUOU! =: 4/00, durke 2. 91a oue!D aya Pee 58.64 per ct.
Manper Oxide fas. 5 secs Soe Regt 31.30 x
CDS REIE Sots Peat ne. © eis totes ole AS IO

Paris green, as found in commerce, rarely, if ever, consists of
pure copper aceto-arsenite, but contains this compound as its chief
constituent with varying proportions of other substances.

In the compound copper aceto-arsenite, there are, for each pound
of copper oxide, 1.87 pounds of arsenious oxide.

Report oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

240

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242 Report or THE CHEMIST OF THE

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OF ANALYSIS.

1. In the 24 samples of Paris green examined, the amount of
arsenious oxide varied from 55.34 to 60.16 per ct. and averaged
56.48 per ct. This average is only about 2 per ct. below the
arsenious oxide contained in pure copper aceto-arsenite and indi-
cates a good quality of Paris green, so far as the arsenic content
is concerned. Excepting one or two samples that run high in
arsenic, the variation is surprisingly small. The legal require-
ment is 50 per ct. arsenious oxide.

2. The amount of copper oxide varies from 27.70 to 30.90 per
ct. and averages 29.97 per ct., which is one and one-third per ct.
below that in pure copper aceto-arsenite. The copper content
therefore indicates a good quality of Paris green.

3. In pure copper aceto-arsenite there are 1.87 pounds of ar-
senious oxide for one pound of copper oxide. Now, this relation
is of value in showing whether Paris green contains more arseni-
ous oxide than it ought. The chief adulterant used in Paris
green is arsenious oxide, commercially known as white arsenic.
This is used because it is cheaper than Paris green and also be-
cause it can be safely added without any danger of reducing the
amount of arsenious oxide. In fact, a very poor quality of Paris
green can be brought up to the legal requirements by addition of
arsenious oxide. However, arsenious oxide cannot be added to
Paris green without increasing the ratio of arsenious oxide to
copper oxide above 1.87. In the samples examined, the ratio of
arsenious oxide to copper oxide varies from 1.82 to 2.17 and aver- ©
ages 1.88. In sample No. 14, the arsenious oxide exceeds 60
per ct. and the copper is less than 28 per ct.; hence, the arsenious
oxide is present in amounts more than twice exceeding the cop-
per oxide. In other words, there is too much arsenious oxide for
the copper oxide present and the only possible inference is that
white arsenic has either been added purposely or is present as the
result of carelessness in manufacture,

New Yorx AgricutturaL ExprerIMENT Station. 243

4. The solubility of Paris green in strong ammonia is a fair test
of purity, so far as concerns the addition of white arsenic and
insoluble adulterants, like barium sulphate, calcium sulphate, ete.
In the table above we have indicated those samples that dissolved
easily and completely in strong ammonia, making a perfectly clear
solution without sediment. These samples were free from white
arsenic. Fifteen samples dissolved satisfactorily, while nine sam-
ples did not dissolve completely at once, but only on standing for
a considerable time, and even then traces remained undissolved.

5. In general, it may be said that the results of our work in-
dicate a very satisfactory condition as to the purity of the Paris
green in the market. They do not justify the widespread belief
that Paris green is extensively and seriously adulterated. In every
instance the arsenious oxide considerably exceeds the legal require-
ments. The only material that we have found used as an adulter-
ant is white arsenic and this in only one or two cases. In not a
single case have we found such materials as sulphates of barium,
calcium, etc.

6. The color of Paris green is changed to such an extent by
addition of white arsenic or other similar materials that one can
usually detect an adulterated article by its appearance. Paris
green of good quality is intensely bright green and uniform.
When adulterated, the green loses something of its intensity and
is grayish green and is not always uniform.

EXAMINATION OF MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDES.

PARAGRENE.

Two samples of this material were secured, one at Jamestown
and one at Geneva. One sample contained 43.34 per ct. arseni-
ous oxide and 18.08 per ct. copper oxide; and the other 52.30
per ct. arsenious oxide and 21.64 per ct. copper oxide. The ar-
senic is present in combination with calcium as calcium arsenite
to some extent. The material is a proprietary article and is not
put on the market as a Paris green. From the results obtained

944 Report oF THE OHEMIST OF THE

with the two samples examined, it appears to be very variable in
composition. Paragrene is manufactured by Fred L. Lavanburg,
165 William St., N. Y. City.

BLACK DEATH.

This material is made by the Oatka Chemical Co., Mumford,
N. Y. The sample examined was obtained at Canandaigua. It
consists largely of sulphate of lime or gypsum. It contains a very

small amount of arsenic and some organic matter not determined.

SLUG SHOT.
This is manufactured by Benjamin Hammond, Fishkill-on-Hud-
son, N. Y. The sample examined was secured at Cuba. The
material is largely sulphate of lime and silica, with small amounts

of copper and arsenic compounds.

LONDON PURPLE.

London purple is a by-product in manufacture of dyes. It is

very variable in composition. The arsenic is present chiefly as a

calcium arsenite. The sample examined was found at East Au-

rora, and came from Hemmingway’s London Purple Co., London
and New York. It contained 32.88 per ct. arsenious oxide.

LAUREL GREEN.
This is made by the Nichols Chemical Co., New York, and
the sample examined was found at East Aurora. It was found
to contain 3.83 per ct. arsenious oxide and 11.50 per ct. copper
oxide with large amounts of calcium carbonate and calcium hy-
doxide (slaked lime).

SMITH’S ELECTRIC VERMIN EXTERMINATOR.

This is made by Fernando B. Smith, Canton, O. The sample
was taken at Jamestown. It appears to be mainly a mixture of
calcium carbonate and calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) with a very
small amount of organic matter.

New York AcricutturaL Experiment Station. 245

BUG DEATH.

This is put on the market by the Danforth Chemical Co., Leo-
minster, Mass. The sample examined was taken at Medina. It
consists largely of the oxides of zinc, lead and iron. It contains
some phosphorus.

PRESENT LAW DEFECTIVE.

The law in its present condition is seriously defective, as it fails
totally to protect purchasers from adulteration of Paris green with
reference to the only material that we have found commonly used
as an adulterant, and that is white arsenic. As the law now stands,
there is nothing to prevent the addition of any amount of white
arsenic to Paris green. ‘The law also fails to define Paris green.
In order to make the law really efficient, Paris green should be
legally defined and the amount of copper should be taken into
consideration as well as the amount of arsenious oxide. It is a
matter of congratulation and surprise that with so loosely con-
structed a law there should be found such a satisfactory condition
in the Paris green samples found in the market.

LAW TO PREVENT FRAUD IN THE SALE OF PARIS
GREEN.

Laws or New Yorx.— Cuap. 113.
AN ACT to amend the agricultural law, to prevent fraud in the
sale of Paris green.

Became a law March 23, 1898, with the approval of the Governor. Passed,
three-fifths being present.

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate
and Assembly, do enact as follows:

Section 1. Chapter three hundred and thirty-eight of the laws
of eighteen hundred and ninety-three, entitled “An act in rela-
tion to agriculture, constituting articles one, two, three, four and
five, of chapter thirty-three of the general laws,” is hereby

246 Rerort oF THE CHEMIST OF THE

amended by adding a new article to be known as article eight and

to read as follows:

Articir VIII.

Section 110. State manufacturer and the dealer in original pack-
ages to file certificate with commissioner of agri-
culture.

111. Certificate to be given by commissioner of agricul-
ture to state manufacturer and dealer in original
packages.

112. Composition of Paris green.

113. Paris green to be analyzed at experiment station.

114. Penalty for violations.

Section 110. State manufacturer and the dealer in original pack-
ages to file certificate with commissioner of agriculture— After
the passage of this act it shall be the duty of each and every
manufacturer of Paris green within this state, and of every dealer
in original packages of Paris green manufactured outside of this
state, before the said Paris green is offered or exposed for sale or
sold within this state, to submit to the commissioner of agriculture
a written or printed statement setting forth: first, the brands of
Paris green to be sold, the number of pounds contained in each
package in which it is put upon the market for sale, the name or
names of the manufacturers and the place of manufacturing the
same; second, the statement shall set forth the amount of arsenic
which the said Paris green contains, and the statement so furnished
shall be considered as constituting a guarantee to the purchaser
that every package of such Paris green contains not less than the
amount of arsenic set forth in the statement.

§ 111. Certificate to be given by the commissioner of agricul-
ture to state manufacturer and dealer in original packages.—
Every purchaser of Paris green in original packages, which is
manufactured outside of this state, who intends to sell or expose
the same for sale, and every manufacturer of Paris green within
this state shall, after filing the statement above provided for, with

New Yorx Acricutturat Exprrrment Station. 247

the commissioner of agriculture, receive from the said commis-
sioner of agriculture, a certificate stating that he has complied with
the foregoing statement, which certificate shall be furnished with-
out any charge therefor; said certificate when furnished shall au-
thorize the party receiving the same to deal in this state in Paris
green. Any person who fails to file the statement aforesaid shall
not be entitled to such certificate and shall not be entitled to deal
in Paris green within this state; nothing in this section shall be
construed as applying to retail dealers.

§ 112. Composition of Paris green or analogous products.—
Paris green, or any product analogous to it, when sold, offered or
exposed for sale, as such, in this state, shall contain at least fifty
per centum of arsenious oxide.

§ 113. Paris green to be analyzed at experiment station.— The
director of the New York state agricultural experiment station,
at Geneva, shall, under the direction of the commissioner of agri-
culture, examine, or cause to be examined, the different brands
of Paris green, sold, offered or exposed for sale, within the state,
and cause samples of the same to be analyzed, and shall report the
result of the analysis forthwith to the commissioner of agriculture.

§ 114. Penalty for violations—— Any person or persons, firm,
association, company or corporation violating any of the provis-
ions of this act, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be
fined not less than fifty dollars nor more than two hundred dol-
lars; and in addition thereto shall forfeit and pay unto the people
of the state of New York the sum of one hundred dollars, together
with the costs of the suit in an action caused to be brought by
the commissioner of agriculture in the name of the people of the
state of New York, as provided by section eight of the agricul-
tural law.

§ 2. This act shall take effect immediately.

List or Parties WHo Have RECEIVED PARIS GREEN CERTIFICATES.

No. 1. June 21, 1898, F. W. Devoe & C. T. Reynolds Co., cor. Fulton and
William streets, N. Y. city.

248 Report or THE CHEMIST.

No. 2. June 21, 1898, Fred. L. Lavanburg, No. 165 William street, N. Y.

No. 3. June 21. 1898, Adler Color and Chemical Works, No. 96 and 98
Maiden Lane, N. Y.

No. 4. June 21, 1898, Lewis Berger & Sons, Ltd., No. 248 Front street, N. Y.

No. 5. July 5, 1898, Morris Hermann & Co., No. 255 Pearl street, N. Y.

No. 6. July 5, 1898, I. Pfeiffer, No. 174 Fulton street, N. Y.

No. 7. July 7, 1898, Highlands Chemical Co., Eugene Waugh, Treas., No.
100 William street, N. Y.

No. 8. July 7, 1898, A. B. Ansbacher & Co., No. 4 Murray street, N. Y.

No. 9. July 7, 1898, Leggett & Brother, No. 301 Pearl street, N. Y.

No. 10. July 9, 1898, Rogers & Pyatt, No. 78-80 Maiden Lane, N. Y.

No. 11. July 11, 1898, Eckstein Brothers, No. 259 Pearl street, N. Y.

No. 12. July 13, 1898, James H. Blanchard, No. 125 Broad street, N. Y.

No. 13. July 13, 1898, Commercial Chemical Co. of the U. S., No. 253
Broadway, N. Y.

No. 14. July 20, 1898, John Lucas, No. 89 Maiden Lane, N. Y.

No. 15. February 16, 1899, Chas. M. Childs & Co., No. 225 Pearl street,
Nox.

No. 16. March 8, 1899, The Bulman-Warner Paint Co., 76 to 84 Ninth street,
Brooklyn, N. Y.

No. 18. May 16, 1899, I. Pfeiffer, No. 174 Fulton street, N. Y.

No. 19. May 16, 1899, Fred. L. Lavanburg, No. 165 William street, N. Y.

No. 20. May 16, 1899, James A. Blanchard, No. 125 Broad street, N. Y.

No. 21. May 16, 1899, Lewis Berger & Sons, No. 248 Front street, N. Y.

No. 22. May 18, 1899, Adler Color & Chemical Works, No. 100 William
street, N. Y.

No. 23. May 18, 1899, John Lucas & Co., No. 89 Maiden Lane, N. Y.

REPORT

OF THE

Department of Entomology.

V. H. Lower, Entomologist.
F. A. Strrrine, Hntomologist.*

TasBLeE oF ConrtTENTS.’

I. Combating the striped beetle on cucumbers.
II. The forest tent-caterpillar.

* At Second Judicial Department Branch Station, Jamaica, Long Island.

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REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS.

COMBATING THE STRIPED BEETLE ON
CUCUMBERS.*

F. A. Srerine.

SUMMARY.

The striped cucumber beetle’ in one form or another is injurious
to cucumber, melon, and squash vines, from the time the vines
start in the spring until the plants are killed by frost.

Only one brood of the beetles occurs during a year on Long
Island, but the adults of this brood are injurious at two periods
of their lives; in the fall and again, after hibernating in the
ground below frost line, in early summer of the next season. The
larvee require moist earth to live in. They feed upon the stems
and fruits wherever these come in contact with moist soil.

The striped cucumber beetle cannot be controlled by any one
remedy or preventive measure. No remedies can be used to
hinder the work of the beetle on the flowers, nor can the work of
the larve on and within the stems and fruits be prevented. The
following combination of remedies and preventive measures is
recommended for large fields: First, planting squashes on the

margins of the field previous to planting the cucumbers or melons;

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 158.

1This pest is wrongly called the “striped bug.” It is not a bug, but a
beetle, having hard wing-covers. Long Island farmers call it the “ cuck
beetle,’ which is more appropriate than “striped bug,” or even “ cucumber
bug.”

952 Report OF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

second, dusting part of the squashes with green arsenite (copper
arsenite), combined with spraying the cucumbers or melons with
Bordeaux mixture, 1-to-11 formula. For garden patches are
recommended: First, planting squashes on the margins of the
patch previous to planting the cucumbers or melons; second, dust-
ing part of the squashes with green arsenite, combined with the
use of covers over the plants. For fall treatment, either squashes
or beans should be planted on the cucumber or melon fields during
September, and as soon as the beetles are found feeding upon them,
dust the plants with green arsenite.

INTRODUCTION.

Although the striped cucumber beetle has been described and
figured, and some remedies for it have been given by Mr. Lowe
in Bulletin No. 75 of this Station, results obtained from attempts
to control the pest on a large scale in the pickle-growing sections
of Long Island, during the past two years, warrant the publica-
tion of a separate bulletin. Furthermore, the economic import-
ance of this pest, not only in the market garden sections but
throughout the whole State, makes it advisable that farmers
should be kept posted as to the best up-to-date methods of con-
trolling its ravages, so that even frequent repetition of old meas-
ures is pardonable. In addition, some new facts regarding the
life, history and habits have been obtained, which progressive
farmers can use to advantage and thus avoid applying remedies at
random.

THE STRIPED CUCUMBER BEETLE.
Diabrotica vittata Fab.
Order Cotznortrrers; family CurysoMELIDAE.
HISTORY.

The striped cucumber beetle is distinctively a native American
pest. It occurs in all parts of the country east of the Rocky
Mountains and is always on hand to feed upon squashes, melons

New York AGricutturRAL Experiment Station. 253

and cucumbers over this whole region, whether planted in small
gardens or in large fields.

The earliest record we have of the injuries of this pest was
published in 1843 by William Gaylord.?

As early as 1864, Dr. Fitch® tells us that he has had to use
some means for protecting his cucumber vines from the “ cucum-
ber bug” for more than twenty years. In 1852, Dr. Harris* de-
scribes the work of the “striped bug,” giving a long list of rem-
edies and stating that a Mr. Levi Bartlett of Warner, N. H.,
has presented a method of making frames to be covered with
millinet for placing over the vines

INJURY.

Usually farmers complain only of the work of the striped beetle
on cucumber, melon, and squash vines at the time the vines are
coming out of the ground. Probably the harm done at this time
causes the largest amount of loss, but nearly as much damage is
produced later by the beetles gnawing the stems of the vines and
by their feeding on the flowers; the former weakening the vines
and the latter preventing the setting of fruit. Some damage is
caused bythe larvee, or grubs, feeding on and within the stems of the
vines, but probably no more harm is done to the vine itself by the
larvee, than is done to the fruit, especially of the muskmelon and
squash. The larvee feed upon the rind of the fruits, mining into
them, making them rough and warty and producing conditions
which afford an excellent foothold for various rots and bacterial
diseases. The amount of real wilting of vines, due to the work of
the larve alone, is slight, but the mining of the stems at or near
the roots weakens the vines and aids the work of diseases.

At the time of the appearance of the new brood of beetles,
there is little chance for them to injure the old, tough vines, but

2 Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc., 1843: 127-174.
3 Tenth Report on the Noxious and Other Insects of the State of New York.
4 Insects Injurious to Vegetation: 124-126. (Flint’s ed., 1852.)

954 Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

they do cause considerable damage to the fruit itself. They will
enaw away the rind from immature fruits, while on mature canta-
loupes they eat holes through the rind and then devour the flesh.
This injury to the fruit of muskmelons is very noticeable in mar-
ket garden sections, especially where there are but few wild flow-
ers, such as golden rod and aster, for the insects to feed upon. The
injury they do in the fall is not confined to the fruits of the melon ;
they often attack late planted beans, devouring not only the leaves,
but also the tender pods.

Thus it is seen that this little pest is busy devouring our crops
from late spring until driven into winter quarters by freezing
weather. In ages past, before they had cultivated crops to eat,
they fed upon a few wild species of the gourd family and upon the
pollen and flowers of many other plants. They still have this
habit of feeding upon the pollen and flowers of plants, but we
have no means of estimating the amount of damage done in this
way nor have we means of preventing it.

FOOD PLANTS.

It is well known that the striped beetle feeds not only on cu-
cumber, muskmelon, and squash vines, but also on all related
Cucurbitaceae. In early spring I have found them feeding on
the flowers of wild cranesbill (Geraniwm maculatum). In the
fall of the year they have been found feeding on the flowers
of golden rod and sunflowers. They are also known to feed on
beans, peas, and the tassels, silk and kernels of corn. They are
said to feed on the flowers of the apple, chokeberry, Juneberry,
cherry and related plants, also on the wild balsam apple
(EHchinocystis lobata).

HABITS AND LIFE HISTORY.

Beetle-— On Long Island the adult beetles issue from their
winter quarters in the ground at various times between the middle
of April and the first of June. During 1897 no beetles were taken

New Yorx AcgricutruraAL Experiment Sration. 255

until May 18, while in 1898 none were found until May 30, and
during both 1897 and 1898 the adult beetles did not appear in
injurious numbers until about June 10. The solitary specimens
seen during the latter part of April and even during May appear
to be stragglers looking for something to devour. ‘The chances
are that these early beetles are so fortunate as to find winter
quarters in buildings and under rubbish where they do not have
to go so deep into the soil to be beyond the reach of frost as do
those that hibernate in the open fields. For this reason we fre-
quently find them during warm days in April and May.

Both males and females feed ravenously for five or ten days
(June 5 to 15) after which they commence to mate. Previous to
pairing and especially during the first three or four days of their
feeding period they eat tender and tough, clean and dirty, and
even poisoned leaves and stems. If food is scarce, they will eat
cucumber, squash, and melon plants off down to the roots, and
dig after those that are not yet out of ground. During this period
they also show a decided preference for the squash. ven where
the squashes are planted in the same hill with cucumbers or musk-
melons the beetles will devour the squashes first.

After their first ravenous appetite is satisfied and they have
commenced pairing, they do less feeding and are more particular
as to what they eat; feeding then only on the more tender parts
of the vines, especially the flowers. At this time they absolutely
refuse to feed on any part of the vine that may bear foreign
substance on its surface. This habit makes it impossible to kill
them with a poison after pairing commences. They will not al-
ways leave the treated vines, but do their feeding on the grow-
ing tips of the vine and on the flowers. All poisons should, there-
fore, be applied before pairing commences.

Pairing continues until the middle of August, even though egg
laying may have ceased a month before. The tendency to pair
is so strong in the males that I have even found them attached to
the females of the twelve-spotted beetle.

Egg.—According to observations made in the field during 1898,

256 Report or Tue EnroMOLOGIsts OF THE

ege-laying begins about July 20, but dissections show that the
deposition of eggs could begin the latter part of June and that it
ceases entirely by the last of July. Hence, the egg-laying period
of the beetles, in this section, extends over about one month. It
is not known for how long a period an individual beetle continues
to deposit eggs, but this period surely varies in different individ-
uals. Specimens in confinement and excited, deposited a large
number of eggs in a few hours; many of which were in clusters.
In all field observations the eggs have been found deposited singly.

Some writers have stated that the eggs are deposited in the soil
and on the stems near the roots. In only one instance have I
been able to find an egg near the roots; this was found in a cavity
in the stem where the beetle had been feeding. I have frequently
found the eggs caught in the hairs of the leaves at the growing
tips of the vines. This, together with the fact that very few
larvee compared with the number of beetles which appear in the
fall, are found in the stems, especially of muskmelons; and con-
sidering that the larvee have been found feeding on the rind of the
fruits of muskmelons, indicates that the eggs are usually dropped
wherever the beetle happens to be feeding. Hence, they are just
as liable to be dropped on the ground as on the surface of a leaf.
Probably the eggs are laid during the middle of the day, and, as
the beetles go to the underside of the leaves and even crawl under
the vines to find shade, the eggs are generally deposited in these
places.

In 1864, Dr. Fitch’ stated that the eggs are dropped on the
ground. A number of other writers state that the eggs are prob-
ably deposited below the surface of the ground on the roots of
the vines. If these writers are correct in their assumption, the
beetles vary considerably in their habits of depositing eggs. The
length of time required for the egg to hatch is not known.

Larvae.—<According to Dr. Henry Shimer,® the larva or grub

5 Tenth Report on Noxious and Other Insects: 439.
6 Prairie Farmer, August 12, 1865.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL ExprerRIMENT StTarion. 257

requires a month from the time it hatches to obtain its full size.
In general, persons who have written anything regarding the
striped beetle, since Dr. Shimer’s observations were made, have
given the same period for the development of the larva. As shown
by the author’s dissection of female beetles, the egg-laying period
can extend from June 20 until the last of July. I have collected
half-grown larve as early as July 10 and found larvee still at work
as late as September 17; hence, if the eggs are all deposited by
the last of July, some of the larvee must require two months to
complete their growth. Probably the length of the larval period
depends on the food supply.

F. H. Chittenden’ says: ‘“ The larval period is passed in the
earth, at the base of the stalks, and larvee are often found within
the stems above ground.”

I have very rarely found the larve within the stems of musk-
melon, which is apparently too woody for them to penetrate.
They are frequently found in the stems of cucumber and squash,
but I have not found them in such numbers in these places as
upon the rind of the muskmelon fruit where the latter comes in
contact with the moist earth. I have also found them working
on squash and ripe cucumbers in the same places. In a few in-
stances I have been seen them working on the lower surface of
squash vines where the latter come in contact with moist earth.
Close examination will reveal the fact that cucumber, squash, and
melon vines appear to be eroded at other points besides where they
are attached to the root and frequently the fruits will have the
same appearance. This is all caused, probably, by the larve of
the striped cucumber beetle and of the twelve-spotted beetle,
where both occur. It surely is their work at the base of the
plants and on the fruits of the muskmelon. Hence the statement
that the larval period is passed in the earth at the base of the
stalks is partially correct, but all facts would be covered better by

7U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul. No. 10, n. ser.: 28.
17

258 Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

stating that the larvee of the striped cucumber beetle require moist
earth to live in and that they feed upon the vines and fruit of the
squash, melon and cucumber wherever the latter come in contact
with the moist earth. Possibly they feed upon the roots proper,
but we have no direct proof of this.

Pupa.— Mr. Chittenden has proven that the pupal or resting
stage can be passed in seven days. A number of writers have
stated that the pupal stage lasts two weeks. The larva forms an
earthen cell in which it changes to a pupa, but does not form a
cocoon as stated by some.

Hibernation.—According to Dr. Shimer* and Mr. Saunders®
the striped cucumber beetle passes the winter in the pupal state.
This is a mistake, as more recent investigations show that they
pass the winter as adult beetles as does the potato beetle. Like
the latter they go below the frost line to hibernate.

Number of broods.— Most of the writers to whose work I have
access, state that there are several broods of the beetles each year.
It is true that the beetles occur in large numbers in the spring and
again in the fall, and if the statement that they hibernate as pup
is correct, then the statement that there are at least two broods
each year would be correct also. My field notes show that the
beetles begin to decrease in numbers toward the end of July, but
do not all disappear until September, and sometimes not until the —
new brood of beetles appears. Thus beetles can be found
throughout the entire summer and fall. In fact, during July,
August and September of 1898 I was able to collect beetles every
week. The dissections indicate that the beetles collected during
August and the first half of September were mostly males and
diseased or imperfect females. The dissections of the females of
the new brood show also that the reproductive organs are not
developed and do not develop even as late as the middle of October.
Furthermore, by the dissections it was shown that a large amount
of fatty tissue is formed preparatory to hibernation. It addition

8 Prairie Farmer. August 12, 1865.
9Insects Injurious to Fruits: 363.

New York AGrRicuLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 259

to the above facts, observation in the field showed that there was
no tendency to mate during the fall. Hence it is evident that the
statement that there is more than one brood each year is wrong.
The numerous beetles seen in the spring are the same beetles
that were seen in the fall, which have hibernated.

Summary.—At the present time, the known facts regarding
the life history and habits of the striped cucumber beetle, com-
bined with what is known of closely related species of beetles,
indicate the following cycle: The adult beetles hibernate in the
ground below the frost line. In the latitude of Long Island they
issue from the ground during May and the first of June, depend-
| ing somewhat on the weather conditions. They feed ravenously
for a few days before they commence to pair. Wherever they
chance to be feeding during the latter part of June and during
July, there they drop their eggs. The larve or grubs require
moist earth in which to live; they feed upon the vines and fruit
wherever these come in contact with the moist earth. About one
month is required by the larvee to feed and develop, after which
they form a small cavity or cell in the ground, and change within
this to the pupal or resting stage. The pupal stage lasts from one
to two weeks, when the adult beetles emerge. The new brood
of beetles commences to appear about the middle of September.
At this time but few of the old beetles are left. This new brood
feeds greedily until driven into hibernating quarters by frosts.

DESCRIPTION.

The adult striped cucumber beetle, or “striped bug,” as it is
wrongly called, is too well known to need any description.

As the eggs have never been described, and as the larval and
pupal stages are not so well known, they are given.

Egg.°— To the unaided eye the egg, when first deposited,
appears to be very light yellow in color; nearly round and but

10 Shortly after the above description was ready for the printer, I received
U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul. 19, n. ser., in which F, H. Chittenden de-
scribes the egg, hence his description has priority.

260 Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

little larger than the point of an ordinary pin. As seen by the
aid of a microscope or good hand lens, it is found to vary in
shape from a perfect ellipse to an oval, and is not as pointed as
the egg of the corn root worm( Diabrotica longicornis), as shown
by illustration of the latter as given by Dr. Forbes." They have
the same pentagonal markings as have the eggs of the D. longi-
cornis. The eggs average 0.69 mm. long and 0.48 mm. wide.

Larva.— The larva, or “ grub,”’ would be described by a farmer
as a small white wire-worm with a dark brown head and tail; it
being hard to tell which end is head and which is tail. In shape,
they are nearly cylindrical, about one-thirty-second of an inch
wide and varying from one-fourth to five-eighths of an inch in
length. With the exception of the head, first segment back of
the head and the anal plate, which are dark brown, the body is
pure white. ‘The head-end can be distinguished by the fact that
the head is only about one-half as wide as the body. The anal_
plate is as wide as the body, darker colored than the head, in fact,
nearly black at the margin. The above are the only characters
to be seen without the aid of a hand lens. With the latter, the
anal plate will be found to have two minute, upturned teeth on
its posterior margin. A few scattering hairs can also be seen.
Six small thoracic legs will be found near the head, and one pro-
tractile proleg will be found on the ventral side of the anal plate.

Pupa.—During part of the pupal or resting stage, the striped
beetle is nearly pure white in color. The peculiar shaped wing
pads and folded legs are the most conspicuous part of its body.
A few scattering hairs can be seen by the aid of a lens.

PARASITES.

Dipterous.— The dissections show that old beetles, taken during
the latter part of July and during August and September, were
frequently parasitized with the maggot of a tachinid fly. The eggs

11 Twelfth Report of State Ent. Ill., 1882: 18.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StaTIon. 261

of this fly are laid on the body of the beetles. After hatching
from its egg, the maggot eats its way into the body of the beetle
where it proceeds to devour its host from within. The parasites
undoubtedly cause the retarded development found in many of
the beetles when dissected.

Entomologists who have bred these parasites have always ob-
tained but one species of fly; hence I assume that the maggot
found by dissections was that of a fly called Celatoria diabroticae
Shimer.

Worms.— I am unable to find in any of the entomological
writings, mention of the fact that a species of nematode, “ Kel-

)

worm,” occurs as a parasite within the body of the striped beetle.
Several beetles were found to have vast numbers of these parasites
within their bodies. | Whether this worm found by dissection
within the bodies of the beetles is closely related to the trichina

“measly pork” or is related to the

that infests swine and causes
anguillule that infests plants, remains to be proven. As all the
material was preserved simply for the dissection of the beetle,
none of the worms were obtained in the best condition for micro-
scopic study.

REMEDIES.

Although certain classes of agricultural paper writers have an-
nually, for nearly fifty years, recommended various foul-smelling
remedies which are warranted to keep the striped beetle away
from cucumbers, squashes and melons, this pest continues to be as
injurious as ever and seems to be constantly increasing in numbers.
If the remedies which are warranted to keep the beetles away
from the vines would do so, even though the beetles are not killed,
there ought to be a decrease in their number; since, so far as is
known, the beetles breed on no plants except the squash, melon,
cucumber and plants closely related to them.

POISONS.

As shown under “ Habits,” there are only two short periods
during which the striped cucumber beetle can be actually killed

262 Report or THE EnromMoLoaists OF THE

by poisoning: First, just previous to the time when the beetles
commence to pair, and second, during a short period in September
and October. Poisoning during the latter period is effective only
on areas where fall-flowering weeds are scarce.

Spraying cucumber and melon vines with Paris green and water
has often been recommended. Tests during the past two years
show that very few beetles are killed by this method and that the
risk of killing the vines is too great to allow the measure to be
recommended for general use. Instead, I would recommend the
use of the poisoned bait which is given under “Trap crops.”

PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
COVERINGS.

One of the oldest methods of keeping the beetles from the small
plants is the use of covers. As near as I can determine, this
method was first used by Dr. Fitch,’? who in 1865 claims to have
used the method for twenty years previous to the time it was
published. According to Dr. Harris’ the use of covers was
published in the New England Farmer previous to 1852. The
cover recommended by Dr. Fitch was, apparently, a crude affair,
while that reeommended by Mr. Levi Bartlett in the New England
Farmer, as quoted by Dr. Harris, was apparently just as handy
and simple as those recommended in 1889, forty years later, by
Professor Weed.

The styles cf covers recommended vary from an ordinary box
open at top and bottom, the top being covered with cheese cloth
or with miilinet, to patented wire covers which are costly. The
least expensive forms are the box just mentioned; wire or staves
bent in a half circle, the ends stuck into the ground over the vines
and then covered with cloth, which is held in place by placing dirt
along on the edges; and lastly, a box made from two short boards
six inches wide and a rectangular cloth. The two ends of the

12 Tenth Report on Noxious and Other Insects of the State of N. Y.: 440.
13 Insects Injurious to Vegetation: 125. Flint’s ed., 1852.) mn
14 Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 13: 146-147.

New Yorx AGricutTturAL ExprrRIMEentT Station. 263

cloth are tacked to the edges of the boards; short cleats nailed to
the boards are inserted into the ground and hold the boards on
edge and the free edges of the cloth are covered with dirt.

During 1898, Mr. John O’Donnell, a market gardener of the
Borough of Queens, tried the six-inch wire plate-covers on a large
scale as shown in Plate XVIII. These cost two cents apiece when
bought by the thousand; the cost per acre for first year being a
trifle over $40.00. These covers are provided with a tin margin
which is very convenient for forcing them into the soil, thus keep-
ing the beetles from working under them. ‘This style of cover
answered very nicely until the plants were up but, like all covers
they have the disadvantage of protecting the vines only while
coming through the ground. If left over the vines too long, the
latter are liable to become drawn and weak. At best there is
danger when the covers are removed that a heavy wind will in-
jure the vines to such an extent that they will never recover. Be-
sides, all covers have the disadvantage when used alone, of not
only giving the beetles a feeding place, but a breeding place when
removed. |

TIME OF PLANTING.

Growers who raise cucumbers for pickling purposes practice
late planting; planting for this purpose during the last week in
June and the first week in July and thus avoiding the ravages of
the beetles during their spring feeding period. During the past
few years, the ravages of the cucumber mildew on the late crop has
made it desirable, on the part of pickle growers, to plant earlier.
Furthermore, in preparing a grade of pickles known as “ dills ”
an early pickle is preferred. Mr. Chittenden” states than in some
sections planting in frames and hot houses, and transplanting to
the field is advisable. By planting in the field as early as pos-
sible, and following the directions given under the head of “ Trap-

crops,” the use of covers for melons and cucumbers can usually be
avoided.

15U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Cire. No. 31, 2d ser.

264 Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

TRAP CROPS.

(1) Beans.— The bean has often been recommended as a food
plant to be used to keep the beetles from cucumbers. In sections
of the country where golden rod is not plentiful during the fall,
the planting of beans in and along the margins of cucumber and
melon fields about September 1 ought to make a good crop upon
which to poison the new brood of beetles. As soon as the beetles
are noticed feeding upon the bean vines, the latter should be
thoroughly dusted with green arsenite (copper arsenite’®) or even
Paris green. Although not tested, I doubt if beans would be a
good trap crop to use in the spring unless they were younger and
more tender than the vines of the crops being protected. If the
beetles cared more for beans than for cucumbers they would be
found in the bean fields instead of in the cucumber fields during
the spring. Possibly beans could be used in small gardens as a
spring trap-crop in connection with covers.

(2) Squashes.—In 1898, a series of tests on the use of squashes
as a trap-crop the details of which are given under the head of
“ Field notes,” were carried out on an extensive scale in the pickle
section of Long Island. The results show that, by planting
squashes around the margin of the field where cucumbers or
melons are to be planted, the beetles will not disturb the cucum-
bers, and, if several plantings of the squashes are made and al-
lowed to remain on the field, the beetles will disturb the cucum-
ber vines but little during the whole season. We do not recom-
mend the planting of squashes simply to feed and grow the beetles
upon, on condition that they will not disturb the cucumbers, but
do recommend their use with other measures as followed in the
field tests. Squashes, if used rightly, answer the purpose for
which covers are used. The beetles feed on them and thus allow
the cucumber and melon vines to make their early growth undis-
turbed so that they can better withstand later attacks. Further-

16 Lead arsenite is also colored and sold under the incorrect name, green
arsenite.

"96. ‘Qt eung¢ poydvis0j0qd
‘'SLNVId DNAOK LOMLOUgd OL SUMAOD-ALVId JO ASN—IIAX ALVId

86. ‘6. 9UNL poydeis0j}04g
‘umgaduog NO SHHSVNOS HLIM GITCIQA UWANNONO—XIX DLvWiId

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 265

more, there are a few days during which the beetles can be poisoned
on the squashes; hence they are a valuable adjunct even where
covers are used.

None of the measures recommended thus far are as valuable
when used alone as when several are combined together as was
done in the field tests. Possibly the use of Bordeaux mixture and
squashes would not be as economical in small gardens as would
the use of covers and squashes. For growers of pickles and those
who grow cucumbers for market, I would recommend the use of
Bordeaux mixture on the cucumber vines and the use of squashes
both as a poisoned bait and as a lure. Several rows of squashes
should be planted around the margins of the field about four days
previous to planting the field with cucumbers or melons, as the
case may be. If desired, the squashes can be put in drills a few
feet apart, or even sown broadcast. At time of planting the
cucumbers, make a second planting of squashes on the margins
of the field. If the beetles are very thick, a third planting of
squashes had better be made. As soon as the first beetles are
seen around the squashes, about one-half of the latter, especially
the outside rows, should be thoroughly dusted with green arsenite
or any other form of arsenic that can be most easily obtained.
Part of the squash plants should be left untreated, for the reason
that a rain or heavy dew may follow the application of the poison
and kill the treated plants before many beetles are killed. When
the cucumbers are fairly up, they should be sprayed with Bordeaux
mixture, using four pounds of copper sulphate and four pounds
of quick lime to forty-four gallons of water, or what is usually
designated as the 1-to-11 formula, for making the mixture. This
mixture can be applied most cheaply, while the vines are small,
with a knapsack spraying machine. At the time the cucumbers
are sprayed, more of the squashes can be dusted with the copper
arsenite. If possible, the arsenite should be blown onto all parts
of the squash plant, the object being to allow the beetles not a
particle of food that is not poisoned. After the beetles commence
to pair, the squashes can be cultivated out, although it is well to

266 Report or THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

leave a few of the plants for the beetles to work upon, especially
during the period while the first fruit is setting on the cucumbers ;
the reason for this being that the beetles prefer the flowers of the
squash to those of the cucumber.

Although not absolutely necessary, I would recommend that the
cucumbers be sprayed at least three times with Bordeaux mixture;
the first spraying being made as soon as the seed leaves are ex-
posed, the second, when the third true leaf is exhibited and the
last, just before the plants commence to vine. Each grower must
use his own judgment as to the time of these applications. If the
vines have an early start, and the beetles appear on the field late
in the season, the spraying will have to be carried along later.
The cost of three applications of the Bordeaux mixture will not
exceed $2.00 per acre; whereas the cost of wire covers would be
$40.00 per acre and probably they will not last over three years.
The treatment with Bordeaux mixture not only makes the vines
distasteful to the striped cucumber beetle and to the flea beetle,
but also protects the vines from anthracnose and various other
diseases to which they are subject. Finally, I would recommend
the use of Bordeaux mixture in small gardens after the covers are
removed.

Those who cannot afford spraying outfits can use air-slaked lime
in connection with covers and squashes, as this will make the eu-
cumber vines unpalatable to the beetles, but it must be remem-
bered that lime is liable to stunt the plants.

In conclusion, it must be borne in mind, that neither Bordeaux
mixture nor air-slaked lime will give absolute protection to the
vines if the beetles can find no other food plants which they prefer
to feed upon.

REPELLANTS AND DRIVERS.
Other remedies in large number have been recommended.
Some of them give partial relief, but in most cases their success

depends upon the habit of the beetles of being easily frightened
away from the plants, especially after they have commenced to

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL ExpERIMENT Station. 267

paid. A few of the remedies are distasteful to the beetles, but the
difficulty of applying them to all parts of the plants, makes their
use only a partial success. When the beetles are frightened from
the plants they usually return in a short time. They may not
appear to be as numerous, but they will be found scattered over
the entire field and hidden in the loose dirt, gnawing off the stems
below the surface of the ground. Even the best of these rem-
edies, applied when the beetles first make their appearance, will
be found nearly worthless if tested alone; in fact, there are times,
except where a trap-crop is used, when nothing but a good wire
cover will prevent their damaging the vines. I have even seen
them gnaw holes in cloth covers to get at the plants. At such
times they should have all the poisoned squash plants they will
eat.

(1) Bordeaux mixture."“— One of the best remedies for mak-
ing the vines distasteful to the cucumber beetle is Bordeaux mix-

17 During the past few years entomologists and mycologists have been recom-
mending the use of Paris green with Bordeaux mixture for various insect,
for the following reasons: There is less danger of injury to the foliage from
the Paris green; the Bordeaux mixture helps to retain the poison on the foliage
longer than Paris green alone would adhere; and, lastly, the application of a
fungicide and an insecticide at one and the same time is a saving worth look-
ing after.

Observations and tests on potato and cucumber beetles convince me that if
we desire to kill these pests, the Paris green must be used alone, before the
Bordeaux mixture is applied.

In 1896, several tests were made on the Colorado potato beetles, to determine
effects of Bordeaux mixture as an insecticide. To be sure in each case that
every part of the potato plant was thoroughly covered, they were dipped in
the Bordeaux mixture, after which they were placed in a breeding cage and a
large number of young potato beetles placed on them. Although the plants
were kept fresh, not one of the beetles would feed upon them, and all finally
starved to death. This test was repeated three times with the same result in
each case. The question arises, why not use the Bordeaux mixture as an in-
secticide? The difficulty is that in the field it is impossible to get the mixture
onto all parts of the plants, the result being that potato and cueumber beetles
can find places to feed without touching the Bordeaux mixture. Hence, it is
seen that when Paris green is used with Bordeaux mixture to kill the above
leaf-eating beetles, the value of the Paris green is destroyed. If we wish to
kill these pests,:the Paris green must be applied alone.

268 Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

ture. This not only makes the vines offensive, but the applica-
tion of it drives the beetles away from them. Its use gave just as
good results as air-slaked lime; besides it had the advantage,
when employed at the rate of four pounds of copper sulphate to
forty-four gallons of water, of not injurying or stunting the vines
in the least. Furthermore, it can be more uniformly applied to
all parts of the vines and it adheres better than air-slaked lime. .

(2) Air-slaked lime.— Dusting the plants with air-slaked lime
has long been recommended and often proves quite successful for
driving the beetles from the vines as well as being distasteful to
them. But, in order to prove successful, the beetles must not
occur in large numbers; must have passed their first feeding period
and commenced to pair, or other food plants must be plentiful.
Tests during two years convince me that generally the use of air-
slaked lime, without a bait crop, causes the beetles to work down
next to the root and gnaw at the stems below the surface. It is
also liable to be too caustic and stunt the vines. Some have
recommended the use of Paris green with air-slaked lime. Tests
of this have resulted the same as in the use of Paris green with
Bordeaux mixture, viz.: no beetles could be induced to feed upon
the parts of the plants protected with the lime and Paris green.

(3) Other remedies.— The following mixtures and remedies
have been tested along with air-slaked lime: Kerosene mixed with
air-slaked lime, turpentine mixed with air-slaked lime, kerosene
mixed with land plaster, turpentine mixed with land plaster, rags
and corn cobs dipped in kerosene and placed near the plants, and
tobacco dust.

The first four gave no better results than air-slaked lime used
alone. Land plaster had the advantage of not stunting the vines.
Kerosene used on rags and corn cobs, which is said to smell so
bad that the beetles will not stay in the same field, was of no value
whatever. Tobacco dusted on the leaves and placed around the
base of the plants to the depth of one-fourth inch was of no value

New York AGricutrurRAL ExperiMENT Station. 269

in keeping the beetles away. When plants were examined, the
day following the treatment, the beetles were found feeding on the
plants, and when disturbed, they hid themselves in the tobacco
dust at the base of the plants. (These were Long Island “ cuck”
beetles.) Possibly a good quality of snuff would be more effec-
tive than tobacco dust, but it would be an expensive remedy.

Road-dust, ashes, soot, charcoal, salpetre, cow-manure, hen-
manure, burdock infusion, slug shot and “bug death” are a few
of the numerous measures often recommended which have no
value except to frighten the beetles away from the plants at the
time they are applied.

CONCLUSION.

From what has been given regarding the habits of the striped
beetle, and the results of tests of different remedies, it will be
seen that no one measure will give absolute protection to the
vines of cucumber and melon. Furthermore, it will be seen that
if Paris green, green arsenite or in fact any of the arsenites are
used with Bordeaux mixture or with air-slaked lime, with the ex-
pectation of killing the beetles, they will be failures. Hence, I
recommend the use of squashes as a lure and as a poisoned bait,
combined with the use of Bordeaux mixture on the cucumber vines,
and in some cases, also combined with the use of covers. I also
recommend the planting of squashes or beans in September for
the purpose of poisoning as many of the beetles as possible during
the fall. Green arsenite and Paris green can be, and frequently
are, used with water for poisoning the squashes and beans, but as
the object of the latter is to kill as many of the beetles, in as short
a time as possible, it is better to use the arsenites dry, for the
simple reason that they can be applied stronger and not kill the
vines as quickly as when used with water.

270 REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

FIELD TESTS AND NOTES.
work oF 1897.

Plan of test— The field work of 1897 was carried out on a
small garden patch of cucumbers and muskmelons at Floral Park.
The vines were planted in drills and thinned after commencing to
run. Seven rows of cucumbers were treated as follows, each row
being divided into four equal parts:

271

New York AGRICULTURAL ExpreRIMENT STATION.

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272 Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

The same number of rows of muskmelon were treated in same
manner. These measures were started May 25, that is, we did
not wait for the beetles to appear before making the first treat-
ment. With the exception of the covers the treatments were
repeated as follows: June 1, 11, 14, 23, and July 6. Where
Paris green was used in water or dry, the vines were replanted
whenever killed.

A summary of the notes shows that none of the above measures
except the covers kept all the beetles away and in a few cases the
beetles worked through and under the covers. As soon as a cover
was removed, the beetles would attack the plants, and where the
covers were left over until the vines were ready to run, the plants
were twisted and injured by the wind after the covers were re-
moved, so that the plants were worthless.

During the first ten days a few dead beetles were found around
the plants treated with dry Paris green.

In all other places where Paris green was used, also in all cases
where the laurel green was employed, no dead beetles were found.

In every case where air-slaked lime was used, the plants were
stunted.

Of all mixtures and combinations of mixtures the Bordeaux
mixture gave the best results. The resin-lime mixture answered
as well as the Bordeaux mixture simply because it contained lime.

Kerosene and turpentine used with air-slaked lime or with
land plaster gave no better results than air-slaked lime used alone.

Where all the above substances were used, the beetles worked
on the under side of the leaves and gnawed the stems below the
surface of the ground or wherever they could find a spot not
covered with an unpalatable substance. Rags and cobs soaked in
kerosene were absolutely worthless; none of the vines were saved
by these substances. The same was true of tobacco dust. In
fact, the beetles would feed on the leaves that were dusted with
tobacco and if disturbed would hide in it, where piled around
the base of the vines.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 273

WORK oF 1898.

The tests of 1898 consisted: First, in the use of Bordeaux
mixture on the vines we wished to protect; and second, the use
of green arsenite dusted on a trap crop of squashes for poisoning
the beetles. The tests were made in three distinct localities.
One field, consisting of one-third acre of muskmelons, was located
at Floral Park, N. Y., on the grounds of John Lewis Childs. An-
other field, containing two acres of cucumbers, was located at
Hicksville, N. Y., on the grounds adjoining the factory of the
H. J. Heinz Co., under the management of Mr. Merritt Horner.
The third field, containing one acre of cucumbers, was located at
Smithtown Branch on the farm of Geo. W. Hallock and Son.

In addition to the above, a test of six-inch wire plate-covers was
made on the farm of Mr. John O’Donnell at Jamaica, N. Y. This
was an individual test and not under the direction of the Station.
We were allowed to note results, but no record of yield was kept.

Plan of tests—— The original plan was to have single rows of
squashes planted on the margins of each field before the cucumbers
and melons were planted. In addition, arrangements were made
for making later plantings between the rows of cucumbers and
melons, the distance between being varied. In some cases, cross
rows of squashes were planted between every third and fourth row
of cucumbers, between every sixth and seventh row, between every
ninth and tenth row, between every twelfth and thirteenth row,
between every eighteenth and nineteenth row, and between every
twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth row.

Preparation.— The first planting of squashes was made as fol-
lows: At Floral Park, N. Y., May 18; at Smithtown Branch,
N. Y., May 24; and at Hicksville, N. Y., on June 1.

The muskmelons were planted on May 31 and the first cross-
rows of squashes planted on same date. The cucumbers were
planted at Smithtown Branch on May 31; and the first cross rows
of squashes on same date. At Hicksville, N. Y., one acre of cu-

18

274 Report or THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

cumbers was planted on June 6, while the second acre of cucum-
bers was not planted until June 7, and the second planting of
squashes was made at same date.

The third planting of squashes was made as follows: At Floral
Park, June 14; at Smithtown Branch, June 14; and at Hicks-
ville, N. Y., on June 15.

Treatment.— Cucumbers at Hicksville, N. Y., were sprayed
with Bordeaux mixture as follows: June 13, 20 and 29. As
there was a bare possibility of killing an occasional beetle, green
arsenite was added to the Bordeaux mixture at the first spraying.

June 11, marginal squashes at south end of field where beetles
had commenced work were dusted with green arsenite.

June 13, the remaining marginal squashes were treated as fol-
lows: One-fourth dusted with green arsenite, one-fourth dusted
with lead arsenite, one fourth sprayed with green arsenite in water,
one-fourth sprayed with lead arsenite in water. June 24 the first
cross rows dusted with green arsenite and lead arsenite; June 29
last planting of cross rows dusted with green arsenite and lead
arsenite.

At Floral Park the muskmelons were sprayed with Bordeaux
mixture on June 14 and 21 and July 1, green arsenite being used
with the mixture at the first spraying.

June 14, the marginal squashes were treated as follows: One-
fourth dusted with green arsenite, one-fourth dusted with lead ar-
senite, one-fourth sprayed with green arsenite and water, one-
fourth sprayed with lead arsenite and water; June 21, dusted first
cross rows of squashes with green arsenite and lead arsenite.

At Smithtown Branch the field of cucumber vines was sprayed
with Bordeaux mixture on June 29 and July 20 and 28. Very
few beetles occurred on this field, hence no other treatments were
made,

Summary of notes and results—— Melon vines at Floral Park
sprayed with Bordeaux mixture (1-to-8 formula) were injured
not only the first time when green arsenite was added, but also at
the second spraying when the latter was not used.

New Yorx AGricutturaAL ExprerrmMent Station. 275

Green arsenite and lead arsenite, used in water, at the rate of
one-half pound to 48 gallons, killed the squash vines sooner than
where applied dry. Very few dead beetles were found around the
plants sprayed with arsenites in water, while plenty were found
dead around plants dusted with green arsenite. Lead arsenite,
used dry, did not kill the vines as soon as did the dry green ar-
senite, but no dead beetles were found where the former was used.

The cucumber beetles did not find the vines at Floral Park
until June 14. Though they were quite numerous after this date,
not a solitary hill of muskmelons was lost by their work. Enough
squashes were kept growing on the margins of the field to furnish
them with all the food they required. Plate XIX shows one side
of this field taken July 19, with squash plants on margin.

In no case could I find the larvee working at the base of any of
the melon plants, but by the middle of August they were quite
plentiful on the underside of the fruits.

By the middle of October the beetles were so numerous that
they destroyed all the late set fruits.

The cucumbers at Hicksville were injured by Bordeaux mix-
ture used (1-to-8 formula). Later sprayings (1-to-10 and 1-to-11
formulas) did no harm.

Large numbers of the striped beetles were killed where the first
application of green arsenite was made June 11. A few dead
beetles were found around squashes dusted with green arsenite
June 16, but none were to be found around plants which were
dusted with lead arsenite, or even where both arsenites were used
in water. Squash plants sprayed with copper and lead arsenites,
at the rate of one-fourth pound to 48 gallons of water, were only
slightly injured, while in cases where both substances were used
dry, the plants were killed.

I never saw such myriads of the striped cucumber beetle as
occurred on this field. On the acre of cucumbers planted June 3
nearly every hill was saved, while on that planted June 7 about
one-half of the acre had to be replanted three times in order to
get a stand. Two factors combined to produce the failure to get

276 Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

a stand on this late planted acre. First, we had planted only
about one-tenth as many marginal squashes at the first planting
as was necessary to supply the large number of beetles with food;
and, second, at time of first spraying with Bordeaux mixture
the late planted cucumbers were just coming up. The result was
they could not be thoroughly sprayed, and, as soon as the beetles
had devoured the marginal squashes, they went after the cucum-
bers, even before they were up. It was interesting to note the
instinct shown by the beetles in finding the cross rows of squashes
as soon as they came up.

Picking on this field was commenced July 30 and continued
until September 10. In all 143,455 marketable pickles were ob-
tained from the two acres. These sold for $183.68. The yield
per acre was 71,727 pickles and the value per acre $91.84.

At Smithtown Branch but few beetles appeared on the field.
These came late in June and fed entirely upon the marginal
squashes. The result was a perfect stand of cucumbers. The
vines were injured slightly by the first spraying, the 1-to-8 formula
being used.

Picking on this acre was commenced July 19 and continued
until September 3. A yield of 90,536 marketable pickles, valued
at $113.16, was obtained. In addition, 400 ripe cucumbers were
sold; about 1,000 ripe cucumbers and 7,000 nubs, actual count,
were left or the field; making a total yield of 98,936.

Conclusion.— The results of these tests show three things:
First, that if the 1-to-8 formula for Bordeaux mixture is used
young cucumber and muskmelon vines will be injured; that it
will make the plants unpalatable and drive the beetles as well as
any other substance recommended for the latter purpose; and that
it is much cheaper than covers. Second, that if green arsenite
is used dry on squash vines before the beetles commence to mate,
many of the beetles will be killed; also that neither the green
arsenite nor the lead arsenite are very valuable if used in water.
Third, that a combination of measures must be used, and, that

New Yorx Acricutturat Exprertment Station. 277
the beetles must be attacked at the proper season in order to be
successful in combating them.

On the supposition that two fields, which were equally well
eared for and from which pickles were picked approximately the
same number of days, would produce approximately the same num-
ber of pickles, some idea of the damage this pest can do to a crop
ean be obtained by comparing the yield at Smithtown Branch,
90,536 per acre, where, comparatively speaking no beetles oc-
eurred, with the yield at Hicksville, 71,727 per acre, where it
was a struggle to save the vines. The difference in yield per acre
in the two places was 18,809. At least one-half of this difference
should be credited to the work of the beetles. If no effort had been
made to prevent their work at the latter place, the late planted
acre would have been a total failure.

SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CUCUMBER
BEETLE.

The data given in the following tables are taken from micro-
scopic dissections of material collected during 1898.

Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

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286

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New Yorx AcricutturaL Experiment Station. 287

XV. Collected at Floral Park, N. Y., October 3. Three females and five males

dissected.
Females. Abdomen. Ovaries. Ovules. Eggs. Copulatory pouch.
No. 1. Shrunken Brera s te RE ee MOTT EMEC (aaa) Ete oh oerer etait oraisiolel shel svaussscore
Nawe.« Shrunken: Yj. covery cased sare ay. chad Ertietie ute: ailehe loled cf citasevoFe, oeiehe
mona. Small... . Not developed... ..--.. | =,%.4- A straight pouch.

Notr.— None of the organs distinguishable in Nos. 1 and 2. Possibly had
been parasitized. Three of the males very much shrunken and organs not
recognizable.

XVI. Collected at Floral Park, N. Y., October 14. Fourteen females and
twenty males dissected.

Females. Abdomen. Ovaries. Ovules. Eggs. Copulatory pouch.

No. 1. Medium size.. Notdeveloped. ...... ...... A straight tube.

No. 2. Medium size.. Notdeveloped. ...... ...... A straight tube.

Gee MNase re 2 Not developed. \.s.07 = sate Very small.

No. 4. Medium size.. Not developed. ...... ...... Very small.

No. 5. Medium size.. Not developed. ...... ...... A straight tube or
pouch

MUNG RS IRENUORY: 1c 0 Tae a voievnc sm etn ial Ge ake ancl oben pa iaiote Small.

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Mee ere Seek 2. 2 Not developed. o'inc sco. bis teas A straight tube.

ioe DS Sy) DSR ane Notideveloped triacs a i-tacri cc A straight tube.

OO. MALLS 52 505,6 Not‘developed, 2525.5.) ".ac.<0 A straight tube.

Ge Phe OIA 55.0 lain Not developed: iic/2c23 Wee ce A straight tube.

Hote. emall 23 sess Not ‘developed... ....:, «2s: A straight tube.

Movls.. Small ys - cs 0 Not developed. 2.0022) (ote A straight tube.

No. 1a Small #14 2.. Not developed... 2.0.47 Sica. A straight tube.

Nores.— Nos. 3 and 4 parasitized with maggot of a tachinid; no parasite
found in No. 6. The remaining females contained more or less fat or adipose
tissue, depending on size.
amount of adipose tissue.

Ten of the males were large and contained a large
The remainder al! contained some adipose tissue.

NOTES ON DISSECTION.

In the preceding table the term ovule is used for the eggs until
the latter is developed far enough to have a shell or covering
formed, after which it is called an egg.

The term copulatory pouch is used for receptaculum seminis.

288 Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS.

All material was preserved in 2 per ct. formaldehyde. In col-
lecting the beetles for preservation no effort was made to capture
more males than females. Those collected during June and July
were taken wherever the beetles were congregated on leaves to
feed and pair; with the exception of those taken Oct. 3 and 14,
those taken after July were collected in flowers of squashes; those
taken on Oct. 3 and 14 were collected on the fruits of the musk-
melon.

Indirectly the dissections show the excess of males over the
females at each period of collecting, but this does not prove that
the males exceed the females in number, as there is a possibility
that the females secrete themselves while depositing their eggs.

In all about three hundred dissections were made in which the
males exceeded the females in the proportion of 3:2.

THE FOREST TENT-CATERPILLAR.*
VE Lowe:

SUMMARY.

The forest tent-caterpillar has been unusually destructive dur-
ing the past season, its ravages extending over a wide area. The
caterpillars feed upon the foliage of a large variety of forest,
shade, and fruit trees, but during the past season have been espe-

cially destructive to sugar maples.

The life history of the insect is similar to that of the apple
tree tent-caterpillar, discussed in Bulletin 152 of this Station, ex-
cept that the forest tent-caterpillars do not build conspicuous nests.

The insect may be successfully combated in all of its stages,
but under most circumstances, is especially susceptible in the cater-
pillar stage.

INTRODUCTION.

Probably the most important cntomological event in this State
during the past season was the unusual outbreak of forest tent-
caterpillars in Central, Eastern and Northern New York.
While this insect is not a newcomer in the forests and orchards
of this State, there are no records indicating that it has ever
before occurred in such great numbers over so wide an area. Al-
though the caterpillars were unusually numerous in certain sec-
tions of the State, the distribution of the species within our
borders is not limited to these sections. On the contrary it is
found over almost the entire State and in sufficient numbers to
make it of much economic importance.

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 159.
19

290 * Report or THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

The forest tent-caterpillar differs from most species usually dis-
cussed in our bulletins in that it is of importance not to the far-
mer alone, whose fruit and forest trees it readily defoliates, but
to the people of the villages and cities as well, when, as during
the past season, the hordes of caterpillars defoliate and render
unsightly the maple and other shade trees of many village and
city streets.

This extensive destruction has created a general interest in the
species so that there is a demand from all classes of people for
information on the subject. The writer has had the species under
observation during most of the past two seasons and has prepared
this bulletin with the hope of aiding in disseminating the desired
information.

THE FOREST TENT-CATERPILLAR.
Clisiocampa disstria Hubn.

Order LrepiporTERA. Family LastocAMPIDAE.

CLASSIFICATION AND NAME.

Classification—As indicated by its scientific name the forest
tent-caterpillar belongs to the same genus, and hence to the same
order and family as the apple-tree tent-caterpillar discussed .in
Bulletin 152 of this Station. The two species are closely related
and have many similar habits.

Scientific name.— The species was originally described by
Hubner,’ probably in 1822, as Malacosoma disstria, but was later
referred to the genus Clisiocampa established by Curtis in 1828.

Popular name.—The popular name “ Forest Tent-Caterpillar ”
or as occasionally given “ The Tent-Caterpillar of the Forest” is
in reality a misnomer for the caterpillars seldom spin a true tent,
although they have the habit of leaving a thread of silk wherever
they go. It has also been referred to by some writers as the
“ Forest Caterpillar.”

1 Verzeichniss bekannter Schmetterlinge, p. 122,

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 291

HISTORICAL ACCOUNT.

The forest tent-caterpillar is considered a native of Kastern
“North America. We do not know how long it has been depre-
dating the forests, but its ravages have been noted for more than
a hundred years. One of the first authentic references” to it was
in 1797 with which account probably the first figures of the cater-
pillar and cocoon are given. That the insect was then known to
be a very destructive one is indicated by the statement of Mr.
Abbott that it “is sometimes so plentiful in Virginia as to strip
the oak trees bare.” As a natural result of the settlement of the
country, the clearing of the land and the planting of orchards, the
depredations of the caterpillars gradually became more noticeable.
lt is not probable, however, that it was considered a very serious
pest in the orchard until 1841, when Harris* mentioned it briefly.
Jn 1844 the same writer discussed* it more at length, referring
to it as ‘‘ a new depredator of the orchard” as if he considered the
habit of feeding upon the foliage of fruit trees a newly acquired
one. Like most other insects this species undoubtedly had its
periods of abundance and decline, but of this there is little positive
evidence in the early references to it. Harris’ again mentioned
it in 1052 as an apple pest, as did Fitch’ in 1856 and 1858. There
appears to be no further indication of extensive injury until
1566 and 1867, when the caterpillars again became very abun-
dant, especially in western New York. Since then there have
been frequent accounts of their ravages all along the Atlantic
States, tle outbreaks usually being confined to quite limited
areas. Some of the most important of these were in Maine in
1863, 1867, 1874, 1875 and in 1889; also in South Carolina in
1891 when the caterpillars appeared upon the forest trees in
almost incredible numbers. During the past three or four years

2Smith and Abbott. Insects of Georgia, p. 117.

8 Harris. Insects Injurious to Vegetation. Ist ed., p. 271.

4 New England Farmer, 5: 412.

5 Harris. Insects Injurious to Vegetation. 2d ed., p- 291.

6 Fitch, Second and Fifth Reports on the Insects of New York.

s

292 Report OF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

there has been a notable increase in the number of caterpillars
in New York and throughout the New England States.

But little was written about the history of this insect in the
west previous to 1870, when Dr. C. V. Riley’ mentions its ravages
during the previous two years in Arkansas, and also states that
“in many parts of Missouri it has been very destructive during
the past two summers.” rom the statements of Riley, Bruner,
Murtfeldt and Lugger it appears that the caterpillars have caused
a similar and probably equal injury from time to time in the
middle states. The extent of its distribution in the west is not
definitely known, but it probably occurs sparingly as far west as
California.

History in’New York State——Among the first to write about
the ravages of the forest tent-caterpillar in this State was Dr. Asa
Fitch, our first State Entomologist. There are no indications in
his writings that the insect was considered of especial economic
importance in this State during the first half of the present cen-
tury. He refers to it but twice in his fourteen reports. ‘The first
reference® was in 1856 in which he states that “ here at the north
this insect is far less common than the other species” (the apple-
tree tent-caterpillar, C. americana). In this report and later® he
considers it a serious pest to the oak, but otherwise of no especial
economic importance.

One of the earliest outbreaks in the State of which there is a
record was in Western New York in 1866 and 1867 when the
caterpillars occurred in great numbers upon the foliage of both
forest and fruit trees. In 1886 Dr. J. A. Lintner,” second State
Entomologist of this State, referred to their serious depredations
in apple orchards in some sections of the State. During the past
ten years this insect has attracted much more attention than at any

7 American Entomologist and Botanist, 2: 245; 261-266.

8 Fitch. Second Report on the Insects of New York. 1856, pp. 128, 199,

9 Fitch. Fifth Report on the Insects of New York. 18598, pp. 820, 822.

10 Lintner, J. A. Third Report, pp. 91, 93; New England Homestead, 20;
229,

New Yorx Acricutturat Exrrertment Station. 293

time previous. Dr. Lintner’ recorded the appearance of the cater-
pillars in great numbers in Washington Co., in 1889-90. They
were especially destructive to maple trees. Again in 1893 he
referred to their ravages in the apple orchards in certain sections
of the State. During 1896 and 1897 the caterpillars were abun-
dant throughout the Central and Northeastern part of the State
and during the two following years there were several important
outbreaks in some of the timbered sections.

THE RECENT OUTBREAK IN THIS STATE.

Its extent.—Although as previously indicated the forest tent-
caterpillar is far from being a newcomer in the State we are
unable to find any records which indicate that it has ever before
occurred in such great numbers over so wide an area within our
borders. To ascertain approximately the extent of the outbreak,
letters of inquiry were sent to correspondents in nearly every
county in the State. From the data thus secured, together with
personal observations in some of the most seriously infested sec-
tions of the State, the accompanying map has been prepared
(Plate XX). This map is intended to show only approximtaely
the area that was most seriously infested. It is not improbable,
however, that the caterpillars occurred scatteringly throughout
the entire State as they were seen in more or less abundance
from Long Island to Buffalo and along the most Northern
boundaries of the State. The outbreak was most severe along
the Western, Northern and Eastern slopes of the Adirondacks,
the valley of the upper Hudson, the Mohawk valley, the Catskill
region, in the southern part of Onondaga and Madison, and
throughout Cortland, Chenango and Otsego counties, and in the
Upper Genesee valley.

Special reports from infested localities— During the season
reports were received from correspondents in localities where the
caterpillars were abundant. These reports together with similar
facts gained by personal observation are of value principally

11 Lintner, J. A. Sixth Report, p. 106.

294 Report or THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

because they furnish information as to the exact distribution of
the species. The following are the localities, the name of the
nearest postoffice being given: Clinton County — Ellenburg Depot,
and five miles southeast and the adjoining town west; West Chazy
and locally throughout the Southern and Western part of the
County; Peru and vicinity. Warren County — Putnam, Salem
and Glens Falls. Washington County — Our correspondent states
that the caterpillars were found throughout the county and names
the following postoffices: Cambridge, Greenwich, Granville, Salem,
Argyle and Whitehall. Saratoga County — Saratoga Springs,
Clifton Park, Elnora Station, Fort Edward and throughout the
Southern and Eastern part of the County. Schenectady County
— Schenectady, Duanesburg and throughout the county. Albany
County —Albany and throughout the County. Rensselaer
County — Castleton, Nassau, Brainard, Schodack Depot, East
Schodack, East Greenbush and West Sand Lake. Green County
— South Cairo, Pine Hill and Prattsville. Dutchess County —
Fishkill, comparatively few. Delaware County — Cannonsville

and Andes. Rockland County — Suffern, not abundant. Orange
County —- Pine Bush, not abundant. Schoharie County —
Cobleshill, Hyndsville, Seward, Sharon, Central Bridge, Scho-
harie, Middleburg, along the Cherry Valley railroad and through-
out the County. Montgomery County — Fultonville and Fort
Plain. Fulton County — Johnstown and vicinity. Franklin
County — Malone and vicinity. St. Lawrence County — Ham-
mond, Chipman, Gouverneur, Constableville, along the valley of
the Black River, Russell, Palmerville, DeGrasse, North Russell,
Canton, South Canton, Pierrepont and quite generally over the
County. Herkimer County — Little Falls, Herkimer, Ilion,
West Schuyler, Frankfort and throughout the County. Warren
County — Salem, Glens Falls and Cambridge. Oneida County—
Utica, Rome, Waterville Caseville and throughout the County.
Otsego County — Unadilla and Worcester. Chenango County —
Union Valley, Pitcher Springs and vicinity. Cortland County—
Cortland, Cincinnatus and Taylor. Steuben County — Hornells-

New York AGRiIcuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 295

ville, Howard, Allen, Alfred, Belmont, Belfast, Belvedere, Birds-
all, Canaseraga, West Almond, Almond, Wellsville, Independence,
Scio, Bath, ‘Fremont and surrounding towns, Cuba and Olean.
Monroe County — Rochester, Brighton and vicinity in limited

numbers. Wayne County — Lake Side, not abundant. Ontario
County — Geneva and in limited numbers throughout the County.
Seneca County — Waterloo. Although few definite reports were
received from the extreme Western counties, it is not improbable
that the caterpillars were to be found scatteringly at least through-
out the western part of the State, as the conditions would be very
similar to those in the western New York counties where they were
observed.

FOOD PLANTS.

The early references to the food-plants of this insect indicate
that it was most destructive to maples, oaks and elms. Later
observers have recorded a large number of species of trees, shrubs
and vines. The most complete list of food-plants is given by
Weed.” These represent sixteen families as follows: Rosaceae,
apple, plum, hawthorn, mountain ash, cherry; Hamamelidaceae,
sweet gum; Lberberidaceae, barberry; Cupuliferae, beech, birch,
oak; Oleaceae, ash, fringe tree; Tiliaceae, linden; Salicaceae.
poplar, willow; Sapindaceae, maple, horsechestnut; Cornaceae,
sour gum; Juglandaceae, hickory, walnut; Sawifragaceae, cur-
rant; Caprifoliaceae, diervilla, honeysuckle; Urticaceae, elm;
Leguminosae, pea, locust; Mlagnoliaceae, magnolia; Vitaceae,
woodbine.

During the past season the caterpillars have been especially
destructive to sugar maples. Next to the maples they seemed to
prefer basswood and elm, but in some localities were especially
destructive to poplar and oak. At Little Falls, N. Y., the writer
observed them feeding upon ironwood (Ostryia), family Cupuli-
ferae, making a food-plant additional to the above list.

12N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 64, pp. 86-87.

296 Report OF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

DESCRIPTIONS AND LIFE HISTORY.

The egg.— The eggs are laid close together forming bands
which encircle the twigs. These bands or masses are abruptly
cut off on the edges and in this the egg-masses of this species
differ from those of the apple-tree tent-caterpillar.which are more
distinctly oval in outline. The frothy covering also differs
in color, being a dull gray instead of brown. As referred to
on a subsequent page there is a noticeable variation in their size
this year. Plate XXI, fig. 1, is from a photograph of two egg-
masses which differ greatly in size. The upper one has the more
typical shape.

The eggs are placed on end side by side with somewhat more
regularity than those of the apple-tree tent-caterpillar. According
to Riley’ the female while depositing her eggs “ stations herself,
for this purpose, in a transverse position across the twig.” The
egg-laying habits of three females kept by the writer in the labora-
tory were carefully noted. The actions of these females indicate
that there may be exceptions to the habits observed by Dr. Riley;
for none of them placed themselves in a transverse position across
the twig, but stood lengthwise of it or nearly so, and moved
sidewise while depositing the eggs. When one row was finished
the next was immediately commenced. The eggs were placed
very close together. With each egg an abundance of frothy
glue was discharged, completely covering it and hardening almost
immediately. The females died within a few hours after complet-
ing oviposition.

When first laid the eggs are nearly white but soon became a
dull gray. They measure on the average 1.2 mm. in length and
.75 mm. in diameter at the upper end, tapering slightly to the
lower end. They squarely cut off at the upper end but rounded
at the lower. The upper end is also distinctly margined with
white, the central area being darker and somewhat depressed. At
first this depression is very slight but gradually more pronounced
as the embryo caterpillar becomes fully formed.

13 Amer, Ent. and Bot., 2: 261.

i>

New Yorx AcricutturaAL ExpertmMent Station. 297

Small size of the egg-masses this year.—The egg-masses are said
to contain from 800 to 400 eggs. Riley states“ that he found the
number in five masses ranging from 380-416. Compared with
these figures the ege masses this year are very small as indicated
by the examination of a large number taken in the vicinity of
xeneva and from various sections of the State. They average only
half this size, containing, as a rule, but about 200 eggs. Many
were much smaller than this. As each female moth probably de-
posits all of her eggs in one mass this indicates an unusual falling
off in the number of eggs deposited.

Time of egg laying and period of incubation.— In the latitude
of New York the eggs are laid during the last week in June and
first week in July. :

The young caterpillars are fully developed within the eggs
before the summer is over, but do not escape until the following
spring. On August 29, an examination of eggs showed fully
developed caterpillars. Unlike the apple-tree tent-caterpillars
which were found bent backward in the eggs examined, all of
the caterpillars in about 100.eggs opened by the writer were bent
forward nearly double so that the head and posterior part of
the body came nearly together.

The larva or caterpillar— The earliest caterpillars probably
appear with the first warm days of spring. This season they
were found about Geneva during the last week in March. The
period of hatching, however, extends over a month or more, as
young caterpillars that had not yet passed their first molt were
found at Geneva as late as May 26, and colonies of newly hatched
caterpillars were found at various times between, while by May 22
large numbers of caterpillars had reached nearly full size.

Growth.— Under normal conditions the caterpillars are full-
grown within about six weeks, but in case they hatch before the
leaf buds of their food plants have burst, their development is re-

tarded by lack of food. Cold or inclement weather soon after the

1
14 Amer. Ent. and Bot., 2: 261.

298 Report or tur ENroMOLOGISTS OF THE

young caterpillars have hatched also delays their growth. Dr.
tiley” states that the newly hatched caterpillars are able to fast
fully three weeks and “ to withstand any amount of inclement
weather.”

Feeding habits.—During the first three or four weeks the cater-
pillars are gregarious, but as they approach full size, and espe-
cially after the last molt they scatter about the tree. During the
earlier stages only a portion of the leaf is consumed, but later
nearly the entire leaf may be devoured. Weed states’ that “ the
caterpillars commonly eat through the leaf in such a way that the
outer end drops to the ground,” thus causing the insect to be rela-
tively more destructive than if devouring the entire leaf. They
feed chiefly during the night, and to a limited extent during the
cool of the day. While not feeding they were often seen last sea-
son testing in small groups upon the leaves, as shown in. Plate
XXI, fig. 2, which is from a snap-shot taken on a very warm day
at 11:15 a.m. The nature of the injury to the leaves is also shown
in this picture.

Silk spinning habit— From the first the young caterpillars
spin a thread of silk wherever they go, but seldom if ever make a
true nest. Sometimes a few leaves that the caterpillars have
passed over will become covered with silk and attached to adjoin-
ing leaves, thus giving the whole the appearance of a rude nest
or tent. If disturbed the young caterpillars will drop quickly
to the ground. In the bulletin just referred to Dr. Weed reports
an observation by Mr. W. F. Fiske to the effect that the young
caterpillars when suddenly disturbed while feeding will drop ~
to the ground without attaching a thread. This is also true of the
older caterpillars. When congregated upon a twig the young cat-
erpillars are more apt to attach a thread which, however, is quite
likely to be broken before the ground is reached. This habit of
dropping to the ground when disturbed, as they undoubtedly often
are by birds or by the branches swaying in the wind, probably, as

15 Amer. Ent. and Bot., 2: 262.
16N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 64, pp. 83-84.

New Yorx Acricutturat ExprerrmMent Station. 299

Weed has stated, accounts in part, at least, for the large numbers
of caterpillars that are seen crawling up the trunks of infested
trees. Observations upon caterpillars in confinement showed that
much less silk is spun after the last molt while crawling about
than during the earlier stages.

Sharing a nest with the apple-tree tent-caterpillar—What is
probably a very unusual occurrence is shown at Plate X XII, fig. 1.
This nest was made by a colony of apple-tree tent-caterpillars.
It will be observed that most of the caterpillars in sight are not
the rightful owners of the nest, but are forest tent-caterpillars.
The two species can be easily distinguished as the apple-tree tent-
caterpillars have a conspicuous white line extending the whole
length of the back, while the forest tent-caterpillars have the line
replaced by a row of white spots. This nest was on an apple
tree near the Station grounds. At the time this picture was
taken, about 10:30 a. m., the caterpillars had collected on the
sunny side of the nest. There were none on the opposite side.
The writer watched this nest for several days and it was observed
that the “guests” went out regularly with the other species
to feed and returned with them. Upon no occasion, however, were
the forest tent-caterpillars seen to enter the nest. Upon the
fourth day the nest was cut open and although it was well filled
with apple-tree tent-caterpillars none of the forest tent-cater-
pillars could be found. A few days after these observations were
made Mr. G. G. Atwood reported finding a similar case in an
apple orchard a few miles distant. Although it is not uncom-
mon to find two or three stray forest tent-caterpillars upon one
of the nests of their near relatives, such cases as the above appear
to be quite unusual.

Congregating habit—A very noticeable habit is that of con-
gregating in large numbers on the trunks and branches of the
infested trees. There appear to be two principal occasions for
this, first, when resting during the heat of the day and, second,
when about to molt. As an indication of the former, the writer

300 Report or THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

has observed the caterpillars disperse toward evening after having
remained together during the greater part of the day. When
about to molt their usual places for congregating are upon the
branches and trunks of the infested trees. The young ecaterpil-
Jars are more often found upon the former and those that are near-
ing fully growth upon the latter or on the large limbs of the larger
trees. Pilates XXIII is from a photograph of a group of caterpil-
lars, most of which were not more than half grown, upon a limb of
a young basswood tree. This photograph was taken at 11:30 a. M.
In the sections of the State where the caterpillars were very
abundant they were frequently found together, when preparing to
molt, in such large numbers as to completely cover one side of
the trunk of a full-grown sugar maple tree to the distance of three
or four feet. Plate XXIV is from a photograph taken at 3:15
p. M., of a comparatively small group of caterpillars about two-
thirds grown upon a small plum tree in an orchard near Geneva.

Restlessness of the full-grown caterpillars.—After the last molt
the caterpillars become very restless, wandering up and down the
trunks, along fences, etc., until finally the cocoons are spun. It
has been observed that they feed but little during this period.
This was also indicated by the colonies kept in our breeding
cages. After the last molt they ate but very little, wandering about
for three or four days and finally spinning their cocoons in all -
parts of the cages.

Number of molts and descriptions.— The number of molts is
usually four. <A fifth molt occurs soon after the cocoon is spun.
The molting periods, with the exception of the first, which was
not observed, of a large number of caterpillars confined in breed-
ing cages last spring were as follows: The first molt was about
May 8, the second May 16, the third May 31. About ten days
later part of them molted a fourth time and within three days
spun their cocoons. A small proportion of those that molted but
three times spun cocoons. The remainder died. This lack of
normal development was probably due to insufficient food as they
were accidentally deprived of fresh food for nearly two days be-

New York AGRICULTURAL ExprRIMENT Sration. 3801

tween the third and fourth molts. The periods of molting and the
markings were observed and recorded by C. V. Riley” in 1870.
The following descriptions do not differ essentially from those
given by him. The caterpillars just after leaving the eggs meas-
ure on the average 2 mm. in length. They are dull black in color
with long grayish-white hairs arising from numerous minute
tubercles. In a few days there is a slight change in color. The
middle of the body becomes lighter, taking on a brownish tinge,
while the extremities remain darker. The tubercles also become
more distinct and a dark interrupted line conspicuous along each
side. These markings become more prominent as the time for the
first molt approaches.

The first molt.— The first molt occurs from ten days to three
weeks after the caterpillars emerge from the eggs, the variation
in time probably depending upon the abundance of the food sup-
ply. Immediately after the first molt they measure about one-
half inch in length. There are two pale yellowish sub-dorsal lines
bordering the dark lines above referred to. These lines become
more conspicuous as the time for the second molt approaches; the
dorsal spots are also indistinctly seen.

The second molt.— This molt occurs from a week to ten days
after the first when the length is about three-fourths of an inch.
A row of eleven cream-white somewhat diamond shaped or club-
shaped spots extends the full length of the back. Also as Dr.
Riley states in the reference above given: “ The upper pale line
becomes yellow, the lower one white, and the space between them
bluish.”

The third molt.— The third molt occurs about a week to ten
days after the second. The caterpillars measure about one inch
in length. There is little change in the markings except that they
become more distinct.

The fourth molt.— Between the third and fourth molts is the
most rapid-growing period of the larval life. After the fourth

17 Amer. Ent. and Bot., 2: 262.

302 Report or THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

molt they measure from one and one-half to two inches in length.
Last spring caterpillars that measured two inches were quite com-
mon and a few were found that measured two inches and a
quarter.

The following technical description is by Dr. Asa Fitch.”

“The caterpillar, after it has forsaken its nest and is wandering about, is
an inch and a half long and 0.20 thick. It is cylindrical and of a pale blue
color, tinged low down on each side with greenish-gray, and is everywhere
sprinkled over with black points and dots. Along its back is a row of ten or
eleven oval or diamond-shaped white spots, which are similarly sprinkled with
black points and dots, and are placed one on the fore part of each segment.
Behind each of these spots is a much smaller white spot occupying the
middle of each segment. The intervening space is black, which color also
forms a border surrounding each of these spots, and on each side is an ele-
vated black dot, from which arise usually four long, black hairs. The hind
part of each segment is occupied by three crinkled and more or less inter-
rupied pale orange-yellow lines, which are edged with black. And on each
side is a continuous and somewhat broader stripe of the same yellow color,
similarly edged on each of its sides with black. Lower down on each side is
a paler yellow, or cream-colored stripe, the edges of which are more jagged
and irregular than those of the one above it, and this stripe also is bordered
with black, broadly and unevenly on its upper side and very narrowly on its
lower side. The back is clothed with numerous fine fox-colored hairs, and
low down on each side are numerous coarser whitish ones. On the under side
is a large, oval, black spot on each segment, except the anterior ones. The
legs and pro-legs are black and clothed with short whitish hairs. The head is
of a dark bluish color, flecked with numerous black dots and clothed with
short blackish and fox-colored hairs. The second segment, or neck, is edged
anteriorly with cream white, which color is more broad upon the sides. The
third and fourth segments have each a large black spot on each side. The

instant it is immersed in spirits, the blue color of caterpillar vanishes and
becomes black.”

By referring to Plate XXII, fig. 2, the difference in the dorsal
markings of the two common species of tent-caterpillars will be
plainly seen. The caterpillar on the left is an apple tree tent-
caterpillar, the other two are forest tent-caterpillars, the one on
the right being a lateral view. All are nearly full-grown and
are natural size.

The cocoon.— The cocoons are made of coarse white silk which
soon becomes discolored by the weather. In size and shape they

18 Fitch. Fifth Report on the Insects of New York, p. 821.

New Yorx AGRIcuULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 303

closely resemble those of the apple tree tent-caterpillar described
on pages 286-287 of Bulletin 152 of this Station, but are some-
what move loosely woven and have less of the yellowish powder.
In the vicinity of Geneva the spinning of the cocoons began last
season about the last week in May and continued until the middle
of July.

Although it has been considered one of the characteristics of
this species to utilize a leaf in making the cocoon there were many
exceptions last season, for they were found in great numbers upon
the fences and out-buildings and even upon the ground, where no
leaves were to be had to aid in their construction. This may
have been in part due to a scarcity of foliage in the woodlands
where the trees had been entirely stripped. In sections where the
caterpillars were less common, most of the cocoons were formed in
the leaves, the leaf or leaves being brought around the cocoon as
shown at Plate X XJ, fig. 3. This picture shows a cocoon partly
enclosed by two elm leaves held in place by the numerous threads
of silk attached to them. Some of the forest tent-caterpillars kept
in the breeding cages showed a tendency to forsake this habit; for
out of about 150 over half spun their cocoons upon the sides of the
cages, the remainder utilizing the leaves that were there in abun-
dance. Most of these caterpillars spun their cocoons during the
night, but a few kept in a darkened room began during the latter
part of the afternoon. These were observed to require between
five and six hours to complete the work. After completing the
cocoon the imprisoned caterpillar molts once and then passes to
the pupa stage.

The pupa.— Both male and female pupe are reddish-brown in
color. The former measures about five-eighths of an inch in length
and the latter three-fourths.

Moths: time of appearance ; habits.—Last spring in the vicinity
of Geneva the moths were occasionally seen by June 20. A
large number of the cocoons gathered from various parts of the
State where the caterpillars were very abundant furnish interest-

304 Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

ing data as to the length of time during which the moths are
issuing, the percentage of males and females and the percentage
parasitized. As will be observed the moths issued from these
cocoons from June 26 to July 8. The data in the following table

was obtained from 2,500 of the cocoons.”

EMERGENCE OF Morus FrRoM Cocoons or Forest Trent-CATERPILLA’.

Dates. Males Females
SDUIMOIZ GH cee a tac ete « Eee oitecs GRE n SPREE: rae Sie es 3 14
SUARINCE: OT cay, Soh ehe. 2 ey ae tr ee) rte Pee ea) Seeyone se pee BIEN ce te 10 10
iv be (ct VAs A RN oR Ae A Ble ey Rite a rerts Dats Canis REA Ie 10 2,
tit) 2 ee eee mee Renn ame Me Bios pron oot e 42 11
initt2e3 | Opell iepe irene: an eiabdin sntatots SiN, Shy Sai chathue! Bis 7 31 5
UVR et okt etabiak eh ot sree ce CEN. anne See eee 73 67
Vi uC eae atte ota Mean DERE nao rman. d wr, 5.81 or 342 284
DUS vari. Sabha Es eS BU ec ails Cenee ee ghee ees 75 84
WON aris So Go ces ey eth oe er eg 132 132
SULA NS SR deere thes thet cieraieheele eee e sneer eeerets 64 98
PT Gg a Ree a RA a OM AL wee ha cre ne tS ee 12 25
794 672
Total: males ‘and females=..5... 27. 6 cele eg ee eee 1,466
Number, Ob ‘cocoons= parasitized. .o-ette = eet sei ee erennee 312

Number ‘cococnstunhatched av... sc ees eee cienete eee 422

These figures show that a little over 40 per ct. of the 2,500
cocoons failed to produce moths. Also that less than 47 per ct.
of those that hatched were females and that the greatest number
of moths escaped during the first five days of July. A little over
123 per ct. were parasitized and more than 28 per ct. produced
neither moths nor parasites.

The moths are active, restless insects. They fly only at dusk
and during the night. The females are ready to lay eggs soon

19 Cocoons to the number of 3,757 were sent in from various sections of the
State. Nearly 1,000 of them had hatched before being gathered, leaving about
2,700 unhatched. For most of these cocoons the writer is indebted to Mr. A.
R. Eastman, Waterville N. Y., Mr. D. H. Burrell, Jr., Little Falls, N. Y., Mr.
J. B. Tuckerman, Cassville, N. Y., and Mr. J. M. Budlong, West Schuyler,
ING Ye

New Yorx AcricvuLturRAL ExprertmMent Station. 305

after leaving the cocoons, but probably live but a short time after
the eggs have been deposited. Some female moths kept in the
breeding cages laid their eggs within two days after escaping from
the cocoon and died before the end of the third day.

Descriptions.— In general the moths resemble those of the
apple-tree tent-caterpillar except that the oblique lines across the
fore-wings are dark instead of light in color. The general color
of typical specimens is buff with a brownish tinge. An exami-
nation of a large number of moths showed a wide variation from
this even in the individuals that do not approach the varieties,
referred to on a subsequent page. Both wings and body are sub-
ject to decided shadings of either a yellow or brownish cast. A
male moth of average size spreads about one inch, but in the
moths reared last spring a few were found that spread but $ inch
and a few that spread 14 inches. There is less variation in the
markings of the females but an equal or greater variation in size.
A female of average size was found to spread 12 inches, the
smallest 14 inches and the largest 1% inches. The two upper
rows of moths on Plate XXV show the variation in size. The
upper row are males and the second row females.

The following detailed descriptions of the male and female
moths are by Dr. Asa Fitch.”

“The male moth usually measures 1.20 inches across its spread wings. Its
thorax is densely coated with soft hairs of a nankin-yellow color. Its ab-
domen is covered with shorter hairs, which are light umber or cinnamon brown
on the back and tip and paler or nankin-yellow on the sides. The antenne
are gray, freckled with brown scales and their branches are very dark brown.
The face is brown, with tips of the feelers pale gray. The fore-wings are gray,
varied more or less with nankin-yellow, and they are divided into three nearly
equal portions by two straight dark brown lines, which cross them obliquely,
parallel with each other and with the hind margin:.%.* *\ The tringeiise
of the same dark brown color, with the oblique lines, with two whitish alter-
nations towards its outer end. But some times it is of the same color with
the wings, and edged along its tip with whitish. The hind wings are of a
uniform pale umber or cinnamon brown, sometimes broadly grayish on the
outer margin and across their middle a faint darker brown band is usually

20 Fitch, Asa. Fifth Report, p. 822.
20

306 Report or THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

perceptible, its edges on each side indefinite.- The fringe is of the same color
with the wings, or slightly darker, and is tipped with whitish. The under side
is paler umber brown, the hind wings often gray, and both pairs are often
crossed by a narrow, dark brown band, which, on the hind wings, are curved
outside the middle. All back of this band, on both wings, is often paler, and
more so near the band.”

“The female is 1.75 inches wide, and in addition to the shortness of the
branches of her antenn, differs from the male in her fore-wings, which are
proportionally narrower and longer, with their hind margin cut off more ob-
liquely, and slightly wavy along its edge. Hence, also the dark brown lines
cross the wings more obliquely, the hind one in particular forming a much
more acute angle with the outer margin. And all the wing back of this line
is sometimes paler or of a brownish, ashy color. And the fringe of these wings
has not the two whitish alternations which are often so conspicuous in the
male. The head and fore part of the thorax is cinnamon brown. The abdomen
is black, clothed with brown hairs, though very thinly so on the anterior part
of each segment, where these Jines are intermingled with silvery gray scales.”

Varieties.— Two varieties of this species have been described.
Numerous specimens of both were reared from the cocoons above
referred to. They are as follows:

Variety sylvatica Harr. has the space between the lines filled
in forming a broad brown band across each anterior wing. Plate
XXV, third row; the two on the left are males and the third a
female.

Variety thoracicoides Neumoegen and Dyar, has the bands
wanting or very obscure. Plate XXV, fourth row; all males.

Among the specimens reared in the laboratory there was
an interesting series showing a gradual gradation from the light
typical form with the two well marked bands, to the variety
sylvatica having the space between filled in with brown forming
the broad bands as above described. Plate XXV, fifth row.

SUMMARY OF LIFE-HISTORY.

In the latitude of New York State the eggs are usually laid
during the last week of June and until about the second week of

July. They are placed in bands extending around the twig and ~
are covered with a shining frothy glue. The caterpillars are fully

formed in the eggs before the summer is over, but do not escape
until early the following spring. They feed upon the foliage of a

New York AGRricuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT Station. 3807

large variety of trees and shrubs. They spin a thread of silk
wherever they go, but do not build nests. When not feeding or
when about to molt they gather often in large numbers upon
the limbs or trunks of the infested trees. Pupation takes place
during the latter part of May or early in June, the cocoons being
placed either upon the leaves or in almost any locality near the
ground. The moths appear during the latter part of June and

early July. The eggs are at once laid. There is but one annual
brood.

NATURAL CHECKS.

The same natural agencies mentioned in Bulletin 152, page 289,
as operating against the apple-tree tent-caterpillar probably have
an equal influence upon this species. In addition to unfavorable
climatic ecnditions, birds, insects and diseases have a marked
effect upon this species. According to Kirkland™! the common
garden toad also feeds upon the caterpillars.

Birds.—A careful study of the birds in the sections of the State
which were infested with the caterpillars last spring would
undoubtedly have revealed many species not recorded here feed-
ing upon this insect in its various stages. Reports from careful
observers together with limited observations by the writer indicate
that the following birds feed upon this insect in some of its
stages: The black-capped chickadee feeds upon the eggs proba-
bly chiefly during the winter when other animal food is not
abundant. The writer has taken the eggs from the stomachs of
chickadees shot during the winter in localities where the cater-
pillars were not especially abundant. The yellow-billed cuckoo,
Baltimore oriole, American red start, cat bird and robin feed upon
the caterpillars. In addition Weed* reporting the observations
of Miss Soule records chipping sparrows, red and white-eyed
vireos, cedar bird, and nut-hatches feeding upon the caterpillars;
chickadees upon the cocoons; and robins, chipping sparrows, yel-

21 Mass. (Hatch) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 46, pp. 22 and 25.
22 Bul. 64, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta., pp. 91-92.

308 Report oF THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

low birds and English sparrows feeding upon the moths. Un-
doubtedly many more of our smaller birds feed upon the young
caterpillars.

Predaceous imsects.— The predaceous insect enemies herein
recorded may be divided into two groups: The coleopterous
(beetles) and the hemipterous (bugs). The caterpillars fall an
easy prey to these enemies when crawling about upon or near the
ground. The following are included in the first group: Calosoma
scrutator Fab., and Calosoma calidum Fab., two of our largest
species of predaceous ground-beetles, which have frequently been
observed attacking caterpillars of various species. Dr. C. V.
Riley* and Mr. Wm. Saunders” were probably the first to record
them feeding upon the caterpillars of this species.

According to Felt,” Burgess states that Calosoma wilcoxi LeC.
fed readily in confinement upon the caterpillars. Included in the
second group are the two predaceous bugs, Podisus placidus Uhler
and Podisus seriventris Uhler, which Kirkland*® has recorded
feeding upon the caterpillars. Saunders records” a species of
Trombidium feeding upon the eggs.

Parasitic insects.— The parasitic insect enemies may also be
divided into two groups: The dipterous parasites and the hymenop-
terous parasites. Of the former group Coquillett™ records the
following as parasites of the caterpillars: Huphoracera claripennis
Macq., bred by C. H. Fernald, Amherst, Mass., Frontinia frenchu
Will., previously recorded by Harvey® and Tachina mella Walk.
also previously recorded by Harvey. During the past season
the writer has also bred the last named species together with
Calliphora erythrocephala Meigen, which Coquillett states is

23 Amer. Ent. and Bot., 2: 265.

24 Insects Injurious to Fruits, p. 57.

25 Bul. N. Y. State Museum, No. 23, p. 196.

26 Mass. (Hatch) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 46, p. 25.

27 Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., 1878, p. 28-30.

28 Bul. No. 7, U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Tech. Series, pp. 11, 16, 21, 24.
29 Psyche, May, 1891, p. 85.

New York AaricuLtTuRAL ExprErRIMENT Station. 309

evidently a scavenger. Both species were kindly identified by |
Mr. D. W. Coquillett.

The second group, the hymenopterous parasites, are probably
more effectual in keeping the forest tent-caterpillar and other
insects in check, because they are usually much more abundant.
The following species have been recorded as preying upon the
caterpillars: Limneria fugitiva Say, recorded* by Riley, and Pim-
pla pedalis Ores., by Wm. Saunders.** From the 2,500 cocoons kept
by the writer in the laboratory 287 individuals of the species
Pimpla conquisitor were reared, of which 218 were females, leav-
ing 69 males; Pimpla pedalis, two females and one male; T’heronia
fulvescens, one male. The following species kindly identified by
Mr. Wm. H. Ashmead, assistant curator of the U. S. National
Museum, were also reared from these cocoons: Diuglochis
(Phromalus) omnivorous Walk.; Muiotiopis clisicampae Ashm.
As shown on page 304 but 312 or only about 123 per ct. of the
2,500 cocoons were parasitized.

Disease.—A disease, evidently bacterial, attacked many of the
caterpillars last season materially reducing their numbers. This
appears to be the same disease that attacks the apple-tree tent-
caterpillar mentioned in Bulletin 152, page 291. |

COMBATING THE INSECT.

Owing principally to the fact that the caterpillars attack a large
variety of trees, this subject is a somewhat complicated one. In
badly infested localities, however, it has three distinct phases.
First, combating the insect in the forest; second, combating the
insect when attacking shade trees; and third, combating the
insect in the orchard. We will discuss the subject under each of
the three heads, reversing the order given above.

Combating the insect in the orchard; destroying the eggs.—
After the leaves have dropped the egg masses are somewhat con-

spicuous. When pruning the trees they should be carefully

30 Insect Life, 3: 157.
31 Insects Injurious to Fruits, p. 57.

310 Report or THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

looked for and destroyed. If the orchard has been badly infested
it will pay to make a special search for them. _

Destroying the caterpillars— Many methods have been sug-
gested for destroying the caterpillars but there are three especially
feasible ones, which, if carefully carried out, will usually prove
effectual.

First, spraying with an arsenical compound.—Any good arseni-
eal will answer the purpose if applied before the caterpillars are
half-grown. Some of the principal arsenical insecticides are
Paris green, green arsenite and arsenite of lime. For a discussion
of green arsenite and arsenite of lime see Bulletins 143 and 152
of this Station. A third arsenical, arsenate of lead, has been found
by the Gypsy Moth Commission of Massachusetts to be especially
effectual against the gypsy moth and to be almost harmless to
foliage. The formula is as follows: 11 ounces acetate of lead, 4
ounces arsenate of soda, 150 gallons of water. The directions for
making arsenate of lead as given by Professor C. H. Fernald” are
as follows: “Arsenate of lead is easily prepared by putting 11
ounces acetate of lead in 4 quarts of water, in a wooden (not
metal) pail, and 4 ounces of arsenate of soda (50 per ct.) in 2
quarts of water in another wooden pail, and when entirely dis-
solved mixing them in a hogshead containing 150 gallons of water,
when a chemical reaction will take place forming arsenate of lead
in a fine white powder in suspension of water. If cold water be
used in the wooden pails, the solution of the acetate of lead will
require a little time, but, however, if the water be hot, it will dis-
solve very quickly. It is customary to add from 2 to 4 quarts of
glucose to the above amount of water. If it is desired to use larger
proportions of the arsenate of lead, it is only necessary to use more
acetate of lead and arsenate of soda, but always in the proportions

given above.”

To ensure success in spraying two points should be
kept in mind, namely, promptness and thoroughness. The poison’

will be much more effective if applied before the caterpillars are

32 Ann. Rept. Mass. Bd. Agr. 1897.

New Yorx AGricuttuRAL EXPERIMENT Station. 311

one-fourth grown and of but little avail if the application is de-
layed until after they are half grown.

Second, destroying the caterpillars when they have assembled
upon the trunks or large branches.— This may be done in any con-
venient way. A very easy way is to crush them with an old broom
which, to insure the death of all the caterpillars it touches, has
been dipped in kerosene oil. The kerosene oil is fatal to them,
and if preferred may be sprayed directly upon them.

Third, jarring and banding.— Jarring is seldom practical ex-
cept with small trees. The tree should be given a few quick, sharp
raps with a padded mallet. The caterpillars will drop at once
and may be collected and destroyed in cureulio carts or upon
sheets spread upon the ground.

Banding is for the purpose of preventing those caterpillars that
have been jarred off by the wind, or by birds, or have left the tree
during the restless period just previous to pupating, from again
ascending the trunk; also to protect the trees from invading
caterpillars, especially when the orchard is situated near infested
shade or forest trees. The bands may be made of cotton wool in
which the caterpillars will become entangled, or better by some
sticky substance such as tar mixed with two parts of raw oil, or
with raupenleim. Either of these substances should be smeared
upon bands of paper at least a foot wide which can be tied around
the trunks of the trees. By using the paper there is no danger of
injury to the bark. Sticky fly paper is sometimes successfully
used in the same way. ‘The caterpillars will be caught upon
these bands and soon die. Where the caterpillars are very
abundant so many will be caught upon the bands that other cater-
pillars can crawl safely over them. In such an event new bands
will have to be applied or the originals made wider. Of these
sticky substances raupenleim is one of the best. It can be obtained
of William Meuzel & Co., 64 Broad St., New York, and the Bow-
ker Fertilizer Co., Boston. It should never be applied directly
to the bark.

312 Report or THE Enromo.oaisis or THE

Collecting the cocoons.—Many of the cocoons are spun in places
where they can be easily reached. In collecting and destroying
them many useful parasites would be destroyed but in case of a
serious outbreak the thorough collecting of the cocoons would
accomplish more immediate good than the parasites. It would,
however, be but little trouble to place the cocoons under a coarse
netting and leave them until the parasites had escaped. The
netting should be too fine to allow the moths to pass but coarse
enough to allow the parasites to escape.

Capturing the moths.—As previously stated the moths fly at
dusk or later. They are attracted by a bright light, and may be
captured by placing a lighted lantern over a tub of water, over
which enough kerosene oil has been poured to make a thin film.
The moths flying about the light will fall into the water. While
this method may be of some value it is doubtful if many female
moths will fly to the light before having deposited their eggs,
after which of course, it makes no difference whether they are
attracted to the light or not.

Combating the insect when attacking shade trees.—All of the
methods just described can be used to check the insect when
attacking small shade trees. Ifor large trees banding is of much
value. In some of the villages in which the caterpillars were
abundant last spring, they were dislodged from the large trees by
streams of hydrant water and prevented from going back up the
trunks by the sticky bands. For spraying the large trees special
apparatus is required. Steam power is usually used. A suitable
outfit can be purchased for from about $200 up. The increase of
shade tree insect pests and diseases make it almost necessary for
a village to own a spraying apparatus to ensure the preservation of
its shade trees. .

A method of combating the insects which has been tried with
success is to encourage the school children to collect the egg masses
by paying them a reasonable price per hundred. This may be
done by the private individual or by the village or city authori-

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 313

ties. In either case the expense would be trifling in comparison
with the good accomplished.

Combating the insect when attacking forest trees——When the
caterpillars occur in such great numbers over such wide areas of
woodland as they did last spring it is difficult to devise a method
of destroying the caterpillars that would be practical for individual
farmers to undertake. Banding the trees will be of much value.
Also with comparatively little work many of the caterpillars
which have assembled on the trunks can be destroyed. What-
ever is done a united effort will be necessary to give the best

results.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST.

1797. Abbott and Smith. Lepidopterous Insects of Georgia, p. 117. Col-
ored figure of caterpillar. (G. neustria.)

1822.? Huebner, Jacob. Verzeichniss bekannter Schmetterlinge, p. 122.
Original description.

1841. Harris, T. W. Ins. Inj. to Veg. Ist ed., p. 271. Brief reference.

1844. Harris, T. W. New England Farmer, 5: 412. Refers to the forest
tent-caterpillar as “a new depredator of the orchard.”

1852. Harris, T. W. Treatise on Insects (2d ed.), pp. 291-292. Brief
descriptions of larva and adults; life-history (C. sylvatica).

1854. Emmons. Nat. Hist. N. Y., 5: 240. Brief reference. (G. neustria.)

1856. Fitch, Asa. Insects of New York. Second Report, pp. 198-199. (N.
Y. State Agr. Soc. Trans., 1855-1856, p. 430.) Brief reference.

1859. Fitch, Asa. Noxious and other Insects of New York. Fifth Report,
p- 820. Brief account of life-history; detailed descriptions of full-grown cater-
pillar and male and female moths.

1862. Harris, T. W. Ins. Inj. to Veg. Flint’s ed., p. 375. Brief reference.

Morris. Synop. N. Am. Lep., p. 236.

1864. Jaegar. Life N. Am. Ins., p. 173.

1866. Brackett, G. E. Maine Farmer, July 12. Notes on C. disstria.

1867. Walsh, B. D. Practical Entomologist, 2: 72. Mentioned. 112-113.
Brief account of life-history. 121. Mentioned. (C. sylvatica.)

Ferris, Peter. Ibid., 112-113. Brief account of outbreak in Western
New York.

1869. Walsh and Riley. American Entomologist, 1: 208. Brief account

of life-history. 210. Mentioned. 227. Ravages in Missouri. (C. sylvatica.)
Harris, T. W. Entomological correspondence, p. 292. Brief ref-
erence.

1870. Moody, H. L. Canadian Entomologist, 2: 176-177. Tenacity of
life in larva. (C. sylvatica.)

Riley, C. V. Insects of Missouri. Second Report, pp. 7 and 37.
Briefly mentioned. Am. Ent. and Bot., 2: 245. Mentions ravages in Arkansas,
261-266. General account. (C. sylvatica.)

314 Report or THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

1871. Riley, C. V. Ins. of Mo. Third Report, pp. 121-129. Life-history,
description, natural enemies and remedies, egg masses, 380 to 416 eggs,
Bethune, C. J. S. Rept. Fruit Growers’ Assn., Ont. Life-history
and injuries. (C. disstria.)
Le Baron, Wm. Prairie Farmer, 5: 42. Ravages and methods of
combating. (C. sylvatica.)

1872. Riley, C. V. Ins. Mo. Fourth Report, p. 41. Limneria fugitiva.
Say parasitizing. (C. sylvatica.)

Saunders, W. Can. Ent., 4: 134. Unusually scarce during the past
season. 5: 4. Life-history, methods of combating. (C. sylvatica.)

Bell, J. T. Can, Ent., 4: 199. Unusual abundance, injury to oak
trees. (C. sylvatica.)

Dimmock, G. New Eng. Homestead, June 29. Brief discussion. (C.
disstria. )

1874. Bessey, C. E. Iowa State Agr. Soc. Report, 1873-1874. Brief men-
tion. (C. sylvatica.)

Lyman, H. H. Can. Ent., 6: 158. Unusual abundance. (C. syl-
vatica.)
Wood, J. G. Insects abroad, p. 680. :

1875. Saunders, W. Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., 30-31. Brief descriptions.
Serious injury to orchard and forest trees in Western Ontario a few years
previous; natural enemies. (C. sylvatica.)

1876. Fernald, C. H. Agriculture of Maine, 1875-1876, pp. 19-21. (Third
Ann. Rept. Maine State Pom. Soc., pp. 19-21.) Observations upon life-history. |
Serious ravages in Maine during past two years; also in 1863, near Monmouth,
and 1867, near Belfast. (C. sylvatica.)

1877. Saunders, W. Can. Ent., 5: 158-159. Abundance; habits and food
plants. (C. sylvatica.)

Thomas, Cyrus. Ins. Ill. Sixth Report, p. 89. Caterpillars de-
stroyed by Calosoma scrutator (C. sylvatica).

Gott, B. Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., 1877, p. 41. Brief reference of
injury to apple orchards in the vicinity of infested forests.

Kridelbaugh, S. H. Iowa State Hort. Soc. Rept., 1876-1877, p.
329, mention. (C. sylvatica.)

1878. Riley, C. V. Ins. Mo. Eighth Rept., p. 23. Ravages in the South;
stopping trains. (C. sylvatica.)

Saunders, W. Can. Ent., Feb. Observations upon the eggs, larve
mature within eggs early in the fall. Acari destructive to the eggs. Ibid, 5:
Habits and injuries of C. sylvatica. Am. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont. 4. Brief men-
tion. 28-30. Abundance in Western Ontario. Life-history, descriptions of
all stages, natural enemies, with special reference to a species of Trombidium
attacking the eggs.

Perkins, G. H. Fifth Ann. Rept. Vt. Bd. Agr., pp. 257-259. Brief
descriptions, life-history, remedies.

French, G. H. Ins. Ill. Seventh Rept., p. 198. Brief mention. KC
sylvatica. )

Williams, Joseph. Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., 1878, p. 41. Mentions
Calosoma scrutator as an enemy of the caterpillars. (C. sylvatica.)

New Yorx AcricutturaL Experrment Station. 315

enx ~~ eo — ‘Sw = Se LS OS oe ye

1879. Saunders, W. Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., 1879, 7-8. Brief reference
to fungus disease attacking caterpillars. Ibid, p. 22. Brief reference.

Hay, P. R. Wis. State Hort. Soc. Trans., 1879, pp. 276-278. Brief
account. (C. sylvatica.)

Cutting, H. N. H. Bd. Agr., p. 20. Brief reference.

1880. Saunders, W.: Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., 1880, p. 9. Brief refer-
ence. Notes marked decrease in numbers of the caterpillars. (Same Can.
Ent., 12.)

French. Sixth Rept. Il]. Norm. Univ., p. 44. Brief reference.

1881. Marten, John. Ins. of Ill, Tenth Rept., pp. 123-124. Brief refer-
ence. (C. sylvatica.)

Stretch, R. H. Popilis, 1: 68-69. Synonymic notes.

1883. Riley, C. V. U.S. Ent. Com. Third Rept., pp. 89, 101. Brief refer-
ence. Mistaken for army worm. (C. sylvatica.)

Saunders, W. Insects Injurious to Fruits, pp. 52-57. Descriptions,
life-history and remedies. (C. sylvatica.)

Claypole, E. W. Can. Ent., 15: 38. Mentioned. (Ent. Soc. Ont.
Rept., 1883-1884, p. 34. Same.)

Caske, Matthew. Inj. Ins. of the Orchard and Vineyard, pp. 85-86.
Brief account. (C. sylvatica.)

1884. Forbes, S. A. Ins. of Ill. Thirteenth Rept., p. 10. Ravages in south-
ern Illinois. (C. sylvatica.)

1885. Fletcher, James. Ann. Rept. Central Exp. Farm, Can., p. 48. Men-
tioned.

Dimmock, A. K. Psyche, 4: 275. Feeding on birch. (C. sylvatica.)

1885. Lintner, J. A.. Third Report, pp. 91-93. Account of injury to apple

trees. New England Homestead, 5: 229. Descriptions, habits and remedies.
(C. sylvatica. )

Forbes, S. A. Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. “ Studies on the Con-
tagious Diseases of Insects.’ An epidemic of Muscardine in C. sylvatica (diss-
tria). Ibid., Ins. of Ill. Seventeenth Report, p. 13. Mentioned.

1887. Fletcher, James. Ann. Rept. Central Exp. Farm., Can., 1887, pp.
24-25. Brief general account. P. 29. Brief reference. (C. disstria.)

1888. Lintner, J. A. Fourth Report, p. 178. Brief reference to Dr. Forbes’
experiment with Muscardine.

Riley, C. V. Ann. Rept. N. J. State Bd. Agr., pp. 498-499. Brief
reference. (C. sylvatica.)

McMillan, Conway. Neb. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 2. Life-history, food
plants, natural enemies and remedies. (C. sylvatica.)

Harvey, F. L. Ann. Rept. Maine Agr. Exp. Sta., pp. 128-130. Life-
history, descriptions of all stages and remedies.

Bethune, C. J. S. Ann Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., p. 73. Brief reference,
remedies. (C. sylvatica.)

1889. Riley and Howard. Insect Life, 5: 58-59. Brief reference to abun-
dance in Maine, where train was reported stopped by the caterpillars.

Fletcher, James. Can. Ent., 21: 75-76. Brief reference.

Edward, Henry. Bul. U. S. Nat. Museum, No. 35, p. 78. Bib-
liography.

316 Report or THE ENTOMOLOGISTS OF THE

1890. Bruner, Lawrence. Neb. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 14, pp. 33-38. Life-
history, descriptions, food plants, natural enemies and remedies. (C. syl-
vatica. )

Packard, A. S. Fifth Report U. S. Ent. Com., pp. 117-118. Life-
history, technical descriptions of all stages. (C. sylvatica.)

Lintner, J. A. Sixth Report, p. 106. Brief reference to recent out-
break in Washington county, N. Y. Especially destructive to sugar maples.
(C. sylvatica.)

Caulfield, F. B. Ann. Rept. Ent. Soe. Ont., p. 64. On Ash. (C.
sylvatica.)

Hargitt, C. W. Insect Life, 3: 8. Mention. (C. sylvatica.)

Smith, J. B. Cat. Ins. of N. J., p. 304. Listed.

Harvey, F. L. Ann. Rept. Me. Agr. Sta., pp. 105-140.

1891. Riley and Howard. Insect Life, 5: pp. 477-478. Caterpillars stopped
train in South Carolina. Food plants.

Tbid., 3: 157. Parasitized by Limneria fugitiva, Say.

Murtfeldt, M. E. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul., pp. 26, 40-41.
Reports outbreak in vicinity of Minneapolis in 1891. (C. disstria.)

Fernald, C. H. Hatch. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 12, pp. 24-26. Brief de-
scriptions of all stages; life-history, remedies,

Townsend, C. H. T. Psyche, 6: 83-85. Parasites. (C. sylvatica.)

Dyar, H.G. Psyche, 6: 29. Listed.

Harvey, F. L. Psyche, May, 1891, p. 85. Records Euphoracera clari-
pennis. Macq. and Frontinia frenchii, Will, parasitizing forest tent-cater-

pillar.
1892. Perkins, G. H. Fifth Ann. Report Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta., pp. 144-159.
Kirby, W. F. Synonymie Cat. of Lepidoptera Heteroptera I. 840.
Synonymy.
Dyar, H. G. Psyche, 6: 326 and 364. Mentioned.

1893. Lintner, J. A. Trans. Albany Institute, Aug. 1893, p. 227. Brief
reference.

Smith, J. B. Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., 1893, pp. 20 and 36.

1894. Dyar, H. G. Journal N. Y. Ent. Soc., 2: 154. Synonymy.

Bruner, Lawrence. Ann. Rept. Neb. State Hort. Soc., 1894, p. 156.
Listed.

1895. Comstock, J. H. & A. B. Manual for the Study of Insects, p. 362.

Brief reference.
Dyar, H. G. Psyche, 7: 189. Range.

1897. Kirkland, A. H. Mass. (Hatch) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 46, pp. 22 and
25. Eaten by garden toad, Mass. State Bd. Agr. Report on Gypsy Moth,
Appendix, p. 56. Podisus placidus attacking the caterpillars.

Burgess, A. F. Mass. State Bd. Agr. Report on Gypsy Moth, Jan.
1897. Appendix, p. 68. Mentioned.

Coquillett, D. W. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Tech. Series, Bul. 7,
pp- 11, 16, 21, 24. Dipterous parasite.

Comstock, J. H, Insect Life, 172. Mentioned.

New York AGricuLTURAL ‘EXPERIMENT Station. 317

1898. Kirkland, A. H. Mass. State Bd. Agr. Report on Gypsy Moth, Jan.,
1898. Appendix, pp. 118 and 131. Podisus placidus and Podisus serriventris
preying on the caterpillars.

Burgess, A. F. Ibid., pp. 107 and 108. Colosoma scrutator and Calo-
soma wilcoxi preying upon the caterpillars.

Fletcher, James. Ottawa Naturalist, April, 1898, pp. 12-13. Rav-
ages along Ottawa river.

Felt, E. P. Fourteenth Report of the State Entomologist, 191-201.
Extent of ravages, descriptions, natural enemies and remedies. Country Gen-
tleman, 63: 450, 551, 567 and 690. Ravages in New York State.

1899. Weed, H. E. N. H. Coll. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 64, pp. 77-98. Ex-
tended account, including life-history, food-plants, natural enemies and rem-
edies.

Slingerland, M. V. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. Bul. 170, pp. 559-564.
Account of life-history and remedies. Rural New Yorker, 58: 74. Brief ref-
erence, 449. Frief reference, 624. Brief reference.

Slingerland, M. V.(?) Rural New Yorker, 58: 463. Review of
Bulletin 170, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.

Munson, W. M. Rural New Yorker, 58: 421. Recommends lead and
sulphur, equal parts, put on paper and tied around trunks to prevent cater-
pillars ascending.

8 Report or THE EnTOMOLOGISTS.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate XX.— Area over which the caterpillars were most de-
structive in New York State during 1899.

Plate XXI.— 1. Egg mases, natural size. 2. Caterpillars at
rest during the heat of the day. 3. Cocoon between two elm leaves,
natural size. (Original.)

Plate XXII.— 1. Nest of apple-tree tent-caterpillars contamiung
both species. 2. Showing principal difference in markings be-
tween the two species. The one on the left is the apple-tree tent-
caterpillar, all about two-thirds grown. Natural size. (Orig-
anal. )

Plate XXIII.— Young caterpillars congregated upon a small
basswood branch. (Original.)

Plate XXIV.— Caterpillars congregated upon trunk of plum
tree preparing for last molt. (Original.)

Plate XX V.— First two rows male and female moths of Clisio-
campa, disstria Hubn, showing markings and variation m size.
Third row, C. disstria var. sylvatica Harr; the two on the left are
males and the third a female. Fourth row, C. disstria var. thoraci-
coides, Neumoegen and Dyar; all males. Fifth row shows grada-
tion from light form with two narrow dark lines across each fore
wing to dark form with dark band across the wings; all males.
All natural size. (Original.)

hi
Hy] Y/,
Uj - ,

PLATE XX.

“

XI.

ATE X

PL

PLATE XXII.

PAE XOX.

PLATE XXIV.

, a
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PLATE XXV.

a=

«

REPORT

OF THE

Horticultural Department.

S. A. Beacon, Horticulturist.
WENDELL Pappock, Assistant.
C. P. Cross, Assistant.

dante.” or CONTENTS.

I. Treatment for gooseberry mildew.

It. The New York apple-tree canker.
Ill. Fertilizing self-sterile grapes.
IV. Common diseases and insects injurious to fruits,

‘ +
‘ell Dole eae

basi
tia oe ot

gig

allied: a so Fotis ipa
wens

i

rh

Ji

REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURIST.

TREATMENT FOR GOOSEBERRY MILDEW.*

G2 P. Cioss.

SUMMARY.

For three seasons, Bordeaux mixture, lysol and formalin have
been compared with potassium sulphide, the latter giving the best
results in all three series.

The Bordeaux mixture proved comparatively valueless, as in
but one series of tests did treated bushes show less mildew than
check bushes; formalin in the strongest solution, 1 oz. to 1 gal.
water, gave fair results, but weaker solutions ranked with the
Bordeaux mixture; lysol gave promising results, coming next to
the potassium sulphide in reduction of mildew injury.

With one exception, Bordeaux mixture, very early spraying
gave better results than medium early or late treatments.

Winter treatment was tested during one season, but did not
give sufficiently favorable results to justify recommendation.

INTRODUCTION.

The gooseberry mildew generally makes its appearance during
the last half of May or first half of June. It is first noticed as
glistening, frost-like spots on the fruit on the lower part of the
bush where there is usually dense shade. As the disease progresses
the spots enlarge, turn dark brown and form a felt like covering
over a part, or all, of the berry. In a slight attack the disease

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 161.
21

322 Report oF THE HorTICcULTURIST OF THE

may not injure the fruit at all, or only slightly deform it. In a bad
attack the fruit has a repulsive appearance, is stunted in develop-
ment, and may be more or less decayed.

Two or three weeks after the mildew attacks the fruit it appears
on the young, tender twigs, especially on their tips. If the attack
is severe the new growth will be destroyed and the older growth
will be considerably injured. In case of a very severe attack the
fruit will be rendered worthless, and the foliage will be nearly, or
entirely, killed during July. As a result no fruit buds are set
for the next year’s crop, and the bushes are so badly weakened
that they may suffer from winter injury. In a few commercial
plantations where little or no spraying has been done the writer
has seen the crop of fruit destroyed and the bushes practically
ruined by this disease. In other plantations where spraying was
carefully done the greater part of the crop was saved, the foliage
remained in good condition and fruit buds were set for a succeed-
ing crop. The extent to which mildew can be prevented by
spraying depends upon weather conditions and location. In a
wet season like that of 1898 it flourishes abundantly and is difficult
to control. The disease, as already stated, usually obtains a foot-
hold on the lower parts of the bushes where the shade is dense.
These parts are very difficult to reach thoroughly with spray
solutions, and in a year when the other conditions favor the spread
of the fungus, are liable to harbor more or less of the disease
unless the greatest care and thoroughness are used in spraying.
In a dry season like the present one mildew ean be almost entirely
prevented by thorough use of fungicides. On uneven ground
the higher parts of a plantation seem to be less subject to the
disease than the lower parts. The best location seems to be one
well elevated, with a gradual slope affording good air drainage.

In view of the destructive character of gooseberry mildew and
its economic importance in all parts of America where gooseber-
ries are grown, either for home use or for market, it was decided
to undertake experiments in treating the disease on a commercial
scale. The object of the experiments was to compare the potas-
sium sulphide treatment with treatments with other fungicides

Explanation of
Diagram.

a ee
No coor
CE XXXXXXXXXN % Formalin loz.torfgalswate t.

:
|
Bl

x Xx x x x x x oo be x x Lysol lozto Haals. water.

(on ene, Ga, Sie ae, ne Se ay a Cem

=a
a | °° <1 252s waler
Seeman
CE POX XXXXX] >2 La ysod Voz.to Igal water.
WAI DDL LID SLL ALTA GERI:
(TT UIT OFT Yotassium Sulphide loz.to 2gals. waler.
Notasstum Sulphide. tort 3qalswater
Baers = P j
> mz

— E> ——— S Bordeaux mixture.
x

Hann OTT) tore Ueneiieae
RRM KN KR KM NM RS
REESE Gn
a KKK)

PGA LIA ALLL LEAD IA
(LU cotton «= coo
Re SM CE oe oe
HB ROK KK. KN NK ON

RSET
[KX
WIT LIIST IIT LIL IIIA
CO) Goa oe

Series J.

New York AcricutturaAL Experiment Station. 323

and at the same time to compare very early treatments with later
treatments and thus learn at what periods spraying should be
done to accomplish the best results.

These investigations were begun in 1897 and have been con-
tinued for three seasons. Two commercial plantations have been
under experiment. One belonging to Kg & Robinson is located
at Trumansburg on the slopes just west of Cayuga Lake. This
was treated three seasons. The other belonging to the Van
Dusen Nursery Co., Geneva, and located on the upland about
two miles west of Seneca Lake, was treated in 1899 only. A
preliminary report giving the results of the work in 1897 may
be found in Bulletin 133. A complete report of the investiga-
.ons for the entire period from 1897 to 1899 is now presented
for the first time.

TRUMANSBURG EXPERIMENTS.
PLAN.

The plantation at Trumansburg consists of 32 rows with 11
plants to the row. As shown in the diagram opposite it was
divided into six plats. Each treatment was given to two plats
located in different parts of the plantation. This arrangement
wes “or the purpose of equalizing for each remedy the differences
in soil and location which might exist in different parts of the
plantation.

For convenience in comparing the effects of very early with
medium and late spraying, three series of treatments were made.
Series I was begun very early just as the buds were breaking
and successive applications were made at intervals of about ten
days until seven had been given. Series II was begun when the
second spraying of Series I was made. Series IIT was begun
when Series I received its third spraying and Series IT its second
sprayin~ During the remainder of the season the dates of treat-
ment were the same for all three series. An untreated row was
left as a check for each series.

324 Report oF THE HorvTicuLTuRIST OF THE

FUNGICIDES USED.

Bordeaux mixture (ordinary), 1 to 11 formula, was used until
the last two or three sprayings when potassium sulphide, 1 oz. to
2 gallons water, was substituted for it. This substitution was
made so that the fruit would not be spotted with Bordeaux mix-
ture at the time it was picked for market.

Lysol and formalin were each used in three strengths, 1 oz. to
1 gal. water, 1 oz. to 2 gals. and 1 oz to 4 gals.; and potassium sul-
phide in two strengths, 1 oz. to 2 gals. and 1 oz. to 3 gals. water.

Applications of these materials were made with a bucket force
pump fitted with a Bordeaux nozzle. No injury was done to
the foliage by any of the solutions.

OBSERVATIONS AND DATES OF TREATMENTS.

Tests in 1897.— The first spraying was made April 12 just as
the buds were bursting. This was followed by applications April
23, May 5, 17, 26, June 7 and 21. The bushes made a good
growth and had a good setting of fruit. Mildew was found in
small amounts on the fruit May 26. This developed rapidly on
the fruit and by June 7 had spread to the new growth. A careful
examination revealed less mildew on the bushes treated with
potassium sulphide than on the other treated or untreated bushes.

As it was desired to market the fruit green, the last spraying
was made June 21 and the fruit was picked early in July.

Tests in 1898.— Owing to the very mild weather early in
March the buds began to open and by the middle of the month
were in condition for the first spraying. They were not sprayed,
however, because it seemed that cold weather must come and
check the premature growth, hence it would be useless to spray
until continuous growth might be expected. Contrary to expecta-
tion the latter part of March was not unfavorable to a slow growth
and by April 1 when the first spraying was made the growth was
about ten days in advance of what is desirable at the time of first
application. Later applications were made April 14, 26, May 9,
21, June 1 and June 13. There was an abundance of moisture

AW,

T7E NN

PLATE XXVI.—CROWN BOB GOOSEBERRY AFFECTED BY MILDEW. A PPRFBDCT
BERRY IN LOWER RIGHT HAND CORNER.

PLATE XXVII.—STAGES AT WHICH SPRAYING SHOULD BE GIv

EN FOR MILDEW.

Ly

D noel a

.
i
“
>.
*
.
¢
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i mj P
.
.
4
.
? as
‘
iis
—
*y
« »
rip i) oe
J

New York AgricuLturaL ExpPpERIMENT Station. 325

during the season which seemed to favor a rapid growth of mil-
dew. The disease was first noticed May 25. It was quite gen-
erally distributed throughout the plantation but was most abun-
dant on the untreated rows. The fruit was marketed green the
latter part of June.

Tests in 1899.— The weather was unfavorable to early growth
so the first spraying was not made until April 15. Later spray-
ings were made April 25, May 5, 15, 25, June 6 and 12.

The season was dry and the attack of mildew was compara-
tively light, although the bushes made an excellent growth and
set a fair crop of fruit. Mildew appeared early in June and was
especially noticeable on the check rows and on the under side of
bushes sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. The young growth was
exempt from the disease. The fruit was picked the last of June.

RESULTS.

Table I shows the different strengths of the various fungicides
used and the percentage of mildew for the three years in each

series and each treatment in the series.

TABLE I.— PERCENTAGE OF MILDEWED FRUIT FoR THREE SEASONS.

Series I. Series IT. Series III.
Spraying begun Spraying begun Epraying begun
Fungicide. very early. medium early. late.
Seven applica- Six applica- Five applica-
tions. tions. tions.

tole See ie See See SS eS SS SS SSS
197. 1898, 1898. 1897. 1898. 1699. 1897. 1898. 1899.

*Bordeaux mixture:
Tite Hivformula «3. .....:: 37.4 66.7 60.6 29.1 80.9 53.2 58. 90.5 63.
Potassium sulphide:

Om tO, 2eals wabers.— 6:6)° 29:3) Vbib- 123 4257 993.5" V5 37.9) V5

1 oz. to 3 gals. water.. 5. 50.9 6.6 15.1 69.5 7.5 13. 66.3. 6.6
Formalin:

1 oz. to 1 gal. water... 48.8 59.9 89 78.3 80.9 112 56. 634 88

I oz. to 2 gals. water.. 59.1 84. 15. 847 91.9 14.9 71.4 96.8 37.5

1 oz. to 4 gals. water.. 52.6 95.1 16.1 65. 86.7 16.2 70.4 89.1 41.9
Res So ele See: 57:7 80.8 22.6 78.7 98. 28.5 78.7 95.7 30.6
Lysol:

loz. to I pal. water... 24.5 742 6.6
1 oz. to 2 gals. water.. 56.8 81.6 8.2
1 oz. to 4 gals. water.. 37.1 65.1 10.9

* Last three treatments in each series in 1897, and last two treatments in
each series in 1898 and 1899, potassium sulphide, 1 ounce to 2 gallons water.

3826 Report oF THE HorTICULTURIST OF THE

Table IL shows the average percentage of mildew for each series
and treatment for three seasons.

TABLE II.— AVERAGE PERCENTAGES OF MILDEWED FRUIT FoR THREE SEASONS.

Fungicide. Series I. Series II. Series III.

Borndes ime 4 oho cl xt es eee ee 54.9 54.4 70.5
Potassium sulphide:

Bites, aye be a TS! Cree eon, See Be as 13.8 19.5 21.5

gC Se rece ea mere Dem ay Nee ak Ee 20.8 30.7 28.6
Formalin:

re eo aint. ar ee ER 39.2 56.8 42.7

Dh haiti orate sArcanantemairesicss Gaye 52.7 63.8 68.6

4 ES ey AT 9 fl ea aN AS Cale 54.6 55.9 67.1
Cheeks) yay. ca7 eh ss OS PER. ee ba. 68.4 68.3
Lysol

BIS POSE. Ce SE eee, 35.1

Di Pek eno et crs ste suas 5 ee eer 48.9

4 Oe A Rese ee Gs Se eee ae Olt

A comparison of the averages in Table II shows that potas-
sium sulphide treatment, 1 oz. to 2 gals. water, gave the best
results in all three series, the best result being in Series I where
spraying was begun very early. This shows 40 per ct. less mildew
than the check rows do. A weaker solution of the same material
gave the next best results and here again the very early treatment
of Series I is most favorable, being 28 per ct. better than un-
treated.

The results with lysol are promising, the strongest solution,
1 oz. to 1 gal. water, reducing the amount of mildew 18 per ct.
With formalin, the treatment in Series I, using 1 oz. to 1 gal.
water, was much the best, reducing the amount of mildew 14 per
ct. In most other cases the tests with formalin rank with the
results obtained from the use of Bordeaux mixture, which in
Series II only is better than the untreated rows. In Series I
and Series III the tests with Bordeaux mixture actually show a
larger percentage of mildew than do the check rows. With the
exception of Bordeaux mixture in Series II the very early treat-
ments of Series I gave the best results with all tests.

The cost of the material for the remedy giving the best results,
potassium sulphide, 1 oz. to 2 gals. water, is about three tenths
of 1 cent per bush for seven applications per season.

New York AGricuLturaAL Experiment Station. 3827

GENEVA EXPERIMENTS.
PLAN.

The tests were carried on in the Industry plantation of the
Van Dusen Nursery Co., near Geneva. During the past few sea-
sons the attacks of mildew here were so severe that the crops were
destroyed and many bushes had been either killed outright or so
badly weakened that they were winter killed. The part of the
plantation used for this work contained 28 rows, 20 bushes to
the row.

The general plan of the work in this plantation was much like
that for the work done at Trumansburg. The principal new
feature was “winter spraying” with several fungicides. This
was for the purpose of determining whether or not it would prove
practical to spray with strong solutions while the bushes are
dormant. The object was to compare the results obtained from
bushes given the winter treatment and sprayed throughout the
season, with results from bushes where spraying was begun early,
medium early and late; also to compare soda-Bordeaux and cop-
per carbonate solutions with potassium sulphide as a preventive
of the disease.

WINTER TREATMENT.

The severe weather of winter and early spring prevented the
application of this treatment until April 5, but as the buds re-
mained perfectly dormant all that time this date was satisfactory
for the test. Each one of the following solutions was applied to
a separate row of bushes:

Copper sulphate, 1 oz. to 1 gal. water.

Potassium sulphide, 1 oz. to 1 gal. water.

Tron sulphate, saturated solution, 5 pounds to 1 gal. water,
plus 1 per cent of sulphuric acid.

1Soda-Bordeaux mixture.— 1pound copper sulphate, 1-3 pound
lye, to 5 gals. water.

1A modification of Dr. Halsted’s formula, as given in Nineteenth Report
New Jersey Exp’t Station, p. 336.

328 Report or THE HorvricuLTuRIsTt OF THE

Copper carbonate 1 oz., ammonia to dissolve it, 5 gals. water.

Copper carbonate 3.2 oz., sodium carbonate 1.6 0oz., ammonia
to dissolve them, 5 gals. water.

For the remainder of the season these rows were all sprayed
with potassium sulphide 1 oz. to 2 gals. water, six applications
being given.

SUMMER TREATMENT.

This part of the work was divided into three series as was the
work at Trumansburg. In Series I the work was begun very
early, April 18; in Series II medium early, April 28; and in
Series ITI late, May 9. Later applications were made May 23,
June 5 and 15.

The various solutions used were:

Pottassium sulphide, 1 oz. to 2 gals. water.

?Soda-Bordeaux,— *soda (lye) 1 pound.

Copper sulphate 3 pounds.
lime 5 oz.
Water 30 gals.

‘Copper carbonate 1 pound, sodium carbonate (sal soda) 4
pound, enough strong ammonia to dissolve the copper carbonate,
50 gals. water.

Ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate,— copper carbonate
5 oz., ammonia 8 pints, water 50 gals.

Each of these solutions was applied to a separate row in Series
1-11. and: TT.

The season was not favorable for the growth of mildew, a small
amount appearing on the fruit, but none on the new growth. A
very little of the disease was noticed June 15. The bushes made

2 Halsted, B. D. Nineteenth Report New Jersey Experiment Station, p. 336.

3“ Babbitt’s Potash or Lye” was used.

4 This remedy was recommended by Mr. David Allerton and Mr, J. A. Hep-
worth, of Marlboro, N. Y., who have used it successfully against mildew on
American varieties, principally Houghton. There seems to be no reason from
a chemical standpoint why sodium carbonate should be used.

New Yorx AGricutturaAL ExrpreriMENT STATION. 329

a good growth considering the weakened condition they were in
in the spring owing to previous serious attacks of the disease.

In all tests a check row was left for comparison. In Series I
there was one row of each treatment and one check row set aside
for the purpose of clipping off the mildewed tips as they appeared.
The object was to determine whether or not it would pay to do
this extra labor in a commercial plantation. It was necessary
to drop this part of the experiment because no mildew appeared
on the tips. A fair crop of fruit was marketed green the latter
part of June.

RESULTS.

Table III shows the percentages of mildew from the various
tests. Series IV is the part which received winter treatment.

Tarte IIJ.— PERCENTAGE OF MILDEWED FRUIT IN GENEVA EXPERIMENT.

ce eaee eee ees
> al ee S35 As +
Dak. asd eae Bea Ne
“i Bon a sate 58 ate
Fungicides. © 6 wess ob Sasa s
wee gdh ehh ewetts
SMHS Sus wok SEeBae
Ease Ease bees Eeteas
m mM nN BoD)
Soda Bordeaux — 1 to 10 formula.... 1.3 9 2.2
Ammoniacal solution of copper car-
[TIS ty Ge Sten aeeeo ee Aaa nina cee 2.3 1.2 3.2
Strong ammoniacal solution of cop-
per carbonate plus sodium-carbonate. 1.3 1.5 1.8
Potassium sulphide, 1 oz. to 2 gals.
WEG ie HOR an ace OOOO Ome ne 3.5 1.8 3
CLOSES: 2 SS eRe ae Sees ae be 7.8 3.4 -5.9 Ai
Copper sulphate, 1 oz. to 1 gal....... or Joc 3.9
Tron sulphate, saturated solution, plus
1 per cent. sulphuric acid ......... Ries an Aph 2.3
Soda Bordeaux —1 to 5 formula . 5G a ae, 2.6
Ammoniacal solution of copper car-
bonate, 1 oz. to 5 gals. water ...... are ee Sone 1.4
Ammoniacal solution of copper car-
bonate, 1 pound to 25 gals. water,
plus sodium carbonate, 4% pound... os ere Sei 2.
Potassium sulphide, 1 oz. to 1 gal.
Re ia oS che nis od 3 \nsps sinle s ane ces Soe 2.9
Copper sulphate, 1 oz. to 1 gal.—check
row with winter treatment only... jae ee Saas 9.3

Bech 5s a RE ore he, win ied v8 be Sho a ain! _— 16.5

330 Report or tue Horricuirourist.

In nearly every test this table shows very small percentages of
mildew. With the winter treatment the ammoniacal solution of
copper carbonate gave the best results, 1.4 per ct. of mildewed
fruit where the check row had 16.5 per ct. The other winter
treatments ranged from 2 per ct. to 4 per ct. The row which
received the winter treatment only, 1 oz. copper sulphate to
1 gal. water, had 9.3 per ct. of mildewed fruit. This was 7.2
per ct. less mildewed fruit than its untreated row yielded, but
was considerably higher than the percentages of the other check
rows. |

The percentages of the tests in the first three series are particu-
larly low, varying from .9 per ct. to 3.5 per ct. and the checks
from 3.4 per ct. to 7.8 per ct. The very best was soda-Bordeaux
in Series II, .9 per ct., the next lowest was ammoniacal solution
of copper carbonate in Series II with 1.2 per ct. The tests with
potassium sulphide gave the highest percentages in Series I and
II and second highest in Series III. The results with strong am-
moniacal solution of copper carbonate were very favorable, being
from 1.3 per ct. to 1.8 per ct.

In the results for this one year there was no gain derived from
the winter treatment. The soda-Bordeaux and copper carbonate
solutions gave slightly better results than potassium sulphide did,
but these differences are not great enough to be of any significance.

RECOMMENDATION.

In Bulletin 133 potassium sulphide, 1 oz. to 2 or 3 gals. water,
was recommended as the best remedy. The results of three years
show that it is still the best fungicide the Station has thoroughly
tested. Spraying should be begun very early just as the buds
are breaking and continued at intervals of about ten days.

Further testing will be necessary to determine the relative
merits of soda-Bordeaux mixture and the copper carbonate solu-
tions in comparison with potassium sulphide solutions for check-

ing gooseberry mildew.

THE NEW YORK APPLE-TREE CANKER.*

WENDELL Pappock.

SUMMARY.

Attention has but recently been called to this canker of apple
trees, probably because the injuries were thought to be due en-
tirely to sun scald.

Experiments extending through two seasons prove that this
canker.is caused by attacks of Sphaeropsis malorum Pk. (see p.
355), the fungus that causes the black rot of apple, pear, and
quince fruits. The experiments also indicate that this fungus
occurs on a number of other plants.

This disease is widely distributed in the orchards of the State
as well as in those of adjacent States. In many instances it has
been very destructive.

By way of treatment it is recommended: That the trees be
kept in the best growing condition; that cankered limbs be re-
moved where practicable; that the trees be sprayed with Bordeaux
mixture as recommended on page 343; and that in some instances
the trunks and larger limbs be scraped and washed as recom-
mended on page 343.

CANKER.— WHAT IS IT?

The term canker, as applied to plant diseases, has been in use
in Europe for a long time, where it is commonly used to desig-
nate the injury done to trees by species of Nectria. (See Plate

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 163.

332 Report or tHE Horricutturist oF THE

XXXITI, fig. 2.) In fact the Nectrias have been associated with
such injuries so long that in some instances the word canker has
come to be regarded as a specific rather than a general term, but
other species of fungi may cause a cankered condition of trees and
plants. According to Hartig such wounds may be produced by
the action of frost, when they are called frost cankers. In general,
then, it may be said that any injury of trees, whereby a portion
of the bark is destroyed and the wood laid bare may be classified
under the general term, canker.

That the term canker, as applied to plant diseases, is new to
many of our fruit growers may be due to the fact that the Nectrias
are of but little economic importance in the United States.

THE NEW YORK APPLE-TREE CANKER.’ — HISTORY.

Orchardists have been familiar with this diseased condition of
the limbs of the apple tree for years. This is especially true
with the Esopus Spitzenberg, where the injury to the limbs, com-
monly thought to be due entirely to sun-scald, has been associated
with the apparent running out of this favorite apple. Atten-
tion was first called to the probability of this injury being caused
by a plant disease by M. B. Waite, of the U. 8S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., in an article’ that was
read at the meeting of the Western New York Horticultural
Society in 1898 and which appeared a few days later in the Rural
New Yorker. Mr. Waite suggested the fungus Schizophyllum
commune Fr. as the probable cause of the disease. This article,

1 The name of New York Apple-Tree Canker is proposed for this disease for
the purpose of distinguishing the canker produced by the attacks of the fungus
Spheropsis malorum, Pk. (see page 355) from cankers that are due to the
action of other fungi, as the Pacific Coast Apple-Tree Canker and the Euro-
pean Canker.

2Waite. Proceedings Western N. Y. Hort. Soc., 1898, pp. 9, 10. A brief
article, included in the report of the committee on botany and plant diseases,
notes prevalence of an apple-tree canker in orchards of Western New York.

3 Waite. Rural New Yorker, Feb. 5, 1898, p. 82.

New Yorx AqricuLtturaAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 333

together with notes* and a paper’ by the writer, and a poster
bulletin,® is the extent of the bibliography on the subject.

INVESTIGATIONS IN 1898.

In the spring of 1898 the Chapin Brothers, of East Bloomfield,
N. Y., requested the Experiment Station authorities to investigate
the cause of the dying of trees in their orchard. Prof. Beach
visited the orchard and saw at once that a canker was the cause of
the trouble, the serious nature of which was plainly evident in the
numerous dead and dying trees. The writer was detailed to work
on the subject, and the history of the investigations, extending
through two seasons, is herewith presented.

The orchard in question originally consisted of one hundred
and twenty-five acres. The trees on thirty of the eighty acres in
one part were ruined by the canker and have been taken out, and
the trees on one-half of the remaining fifty acres are now of little
value. In the other part of the orchard originally consisting of
forty-five acres, only about ten acres are left that are of much
value. The owners have noticed the disease for the past six or
eight years, but it has increased very rapidly in the last three or
four years. They have also found that it shows a decided prefer-
ence for certain varieties, the Twenty Ounce being the most sus-
ceptible; then the Baldwin, Wagener, Greening and King follow
in the order named. The Tallman Sweet appears to be practi-
cally free from the disease. Trees growing in low land or in any

situation where the ground was at all wet, were found to suffer

4 Paddock. Science, 8: 596. An Apple Canker. Brief account of investiga-
tions, and concludes that the disease is probably caused by the fungus
Spheropsis malorum, Pk.

P. 836. Additional Notes on an Apple Canker. Notes the occurrence
of a Spheropsis on pear and quince trees, and as causing a twig blight of
apple trees.

5 Paddock. Proceedings of the Western N. Y. Hort. Soc., 1899, pp. 58-64.
An Apple Canker. Popular account of investigations with the disease.

6 Vermont Special Bulletin, April, 1899, gives illustrations of cankered
apple-tree limbs.

.-

334 Report oF THE HorTICULTURIST OF THE

most, while the trees in the outside rows were noticeably freer
from the canker than those in less exposed situations.

It has been argued by some persons that the trees, now forty
years old, have reached the limit of their usefulness and are dying
of old age. However, those trees that are free from canker are in
a very vigorous condition, and the fact that cankered limbs oceur
on much younger trees in widely separated localities and in the
best orchards, tends to disprove this theory. Neither can the
trouble in this case be attributed to neglect, unless it be in the
matter of spraying, since the orchard has received from the begin-
ning practically the same culture that is advocated by our best
authorities of to-day. Sixteen years ago the orchard was thinned
by taking out each alternate diagonal row of trees. The elder
Mr. Chapin was one of the first to spray with insecticides, but the
all important point, as it now appears, spraying with Bordeaux
mixture, has been neglected. An apparent contradiction to this
statement is found in an old orchard not a quarter of a mile dis-
tant, that has never been sprayed and has been in sod for years,
yet there are very few cankered limbs in any of the trees. It may
be mentioned, however, that this orchard is located on a different
slope of land and on poorer soil. The soil of the Chapin orchard
is for the most part deep and rich and has produced a vigorous
growth so that now the trees are very large.

Severe and unintelligent pruning has also been given as the
cause of the presence of canker in this as well as other
orchards. While it is admitted that misuse of any kind may favor
the development of the canker fungus indirectly, yet the answer
to the specific statement is found in the fact that unpruned seed-
ling apple trees are found in wood pastures that are badly attacked
by the canker fungus.

In the preliminary studies of the canker certain large, dark
colored spores were found, which were at the time supposed to
come from some saprophyte; however, cultures were made from
them. Agar plate cultures were also made from the diseased

New Yorx AgricunturaL ExrrerrMent Station. 335

bark, by taking small particles from the inner bark with sterile
instruments. Two forms of fungi appeared in these cultures
more or less constantly, which led to their being separated and
transferred to sterilized bean stems in test tubes. Here they
grew luxuriantly and soon produced fruit, the one form produc-
ing the familiar dark colored spores which were not at that time
identified, while in the other the sporophores of Schizophyllum
commune Fr. were formed.

Inoculations were made with the cultures on June 22 on seed-
ing apple trees in the nursery row as follows: Three trees were
inoculated with material from cultures of the dark spored fungus,
three trees with material from cultures of Schizophyllum com-
mune, and three trees were punctured but not inoculated to serve
as checks. The inoculations were made by cutting a small open-
ing in the bark with a sterilized knife and inserting a small
amount of the material from the bean stem cultures between the
bark and wood. All of the punctures were covered with filter
paper which was kept moist for about thirty-six hours. On the
same date two inoculations with each of the two cultures, together
with check wounds, were made in the larger limbs of a mature
apple tree. These inoculations were not moistened or protected
in any way. In two weeks’ time there was an area of discolored
bark around each place of inoculation where the unknown fungus
had been inserted. The other inoculations as well as the checks
showed no signs of growth and the wounds soon healed.

As soon as it was known that the one fungus could penetrate
living bark under certain conditions more inoculations were made.
July 6, six young seedling apple trees in the nursery row and
three limbs of a large apple tree were inoculated with the dark
spored fungus, six seedling nursery trees and three limbs of
a larger tree with Schizophyllum commune, while three seedling
nursery trees and three limbs of a large tree were punctured but
not inoculated to serve as checks. The inoculations made in the
seedling trees were all protected with filter paper as before, but

336 Report or THE Horricuntrurist oF THE

those made in the larger tree were unprotected. The dark spored
fungus grew at all points of inoculation, while all of the other
wounds soon healed.

On July 11 an effort was made to imitate the scars that are
found in the outer bark that are mentioned on page 339. Small
pieces of the outer bark were cut from two small areas on sepa-
rate. limbs of a large tree which were inoculated with the dark
spored fungus, making twenty-eight inoculations in all. Two
similar areas were inoculated with Schizophyllum commune and
two areas were prepared but not inoculated to serve as checks.

Ten inoculations with the dark spored fungus, two with Schizo-
phyllum commune and two check wounds were made by cutting
through to the wood as before. All inoculations and check wounds
were kept moist with damp filter paper. The dark spored fungus
grew at all points of inoculation producing deep wounds or cankers
where the incisions were made through to the wood as is shown
in Plate XXX, fig. 8. Fig. 1 of the same. plate shows the effect
of the inoculations where small pieces of the outer bark were
removed. The fungus was unable to penetrate to the cambium
and made only small surface wounds, as may be seen in the illus-
tration. The pieces of bark have been removed on one side leay-
ing scars which resemble those that occur on cankered limbs as
in Plate XXX, fig. 2.

On the same date, July 11, four inoculations were made with
each of the two cultures in the larger limbs of a pear tree and
four of each in the larger limbs of a quince tree. The inocula-
tions, together with check wounds, were kept moist with damp
filter paper az before. The dark spored fungus grew at all points
of inoculation on the pear tree, but did not grow on the quince.
All of the inoculations with Schizophyllum commune together with
check wounds soon healed.

These experiments showed conclusively that the dark spored fun-
gus can penetrate living apple-tree bark under certain conditions
and produce a cankered condition of apple-tree limbs and also
indicated that it may produce a diseased condition of pear-tree bark.

New York AqricuLturaL Experiment Station. 337

On the other hand it is evident that Schizophyllum commune Fr.
cannot penetrate living apple-tree bark and it is quite probable
that the same is true of pear-tree bark. The result of the inocu-
lations on the quince cannot be regarded as conclusive because
of the small number of inoculations made; but numerous inocu-
lations made in the spring of 1899 showed that the dark spored
fungus can produce a cankered condition of quince limbs when
inserted under the bark.

The stress of other duties during the growing season prevented
any study into the nature of the canker fungus and nothing further
was done until fall when cultures of the fungus were shown to
Mr. F. ©. Stewart, the Station Botanist. He at once noted a
strong resemblance of the dark spores to those of the black rot of
the apple, Sphaeropsis malorum Pk., and suggested that it might
be that disease. | Mature apples were at once inoculated with
material from the test tube cultures that had been obtained from
cankered apple-tree limbs. In twenty-four hours decay had be-
gun around the points of inoculation and in sixteen days pyc-
nidia and mature spores of Sphaeropsis were found on all inocu-
lated apples. The check apples which were punctured but not
inoculated and kept under the same conditions remained sound.
This experiment was repeated many times and the results were
always the same.

Now that it was known what to look for an examination of
eankered limbs in the orchard revealed the presence of an abun-
dance of small, dark, fungus pustules or pyenidia on the brown
and shrunken areas of dead bark. Fig. 3 of Plate XXVIII is a
larger view of the smaller canker shown in Fig 1 at 6. An ex-
amination of the bark on the older portion of the cankered area
reveals the presence of numerous pycnidia in which the dark col-
ored spores, that have been frequently mentioned, are borne.
They are shown natural size in Fig. 4, which is a small section of
the dead bark from the same canker. It will be seen that the
pycnidia are abundant and large enough to be easily found.

22

338 Report or tHe HorvricutTurist OF THE

Pyenidia containing mature spores were also found to be abun-
dant on the dead bark surrounding the points of inoculation that
were made from the cultures of Sphaeropsis. Plate XXX, fig. 3,
is from a photograph of one of the limbs of an apple tree as it
appeared at the close of the present season, that was inoculated
in the spring of 1898 with cultures made from a cankered limb.
Pyenidia are numerous on the surface of the bark and on the
decorticated wood as well.

The result of over fifty inoculations made from cultures that
were obtained from cankered appletree limbs prove that the
apple-tree canker of New York apple orchards is caused by a
fungus of the genus Sphaeropsis. In every instance where the
incisions were made through to the wood, typical cankers were
produced and mature fruit of the Sphaeropsis formed on the de-
- eaying bark and in some instances on the decorticated wood also.
The inoculation experiments were repeated many times during the
season of 1899 and the results have been the same.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

A personal examination of a great many orchards during the
past two seasons reveals the fact that this canker of apple trees
is widely distributed in the orchards of New York. In fact an
orchard is rarely seen that is entirely free from the disease. As
is to be expected, however, it is more abundant in some localities
than in others, and as has been previously mentioned, some varie-
ties are more subject to the disease than others. It is specially
injurious in many of the apple growing sections of western New
York.

Responses to a circular letter sent to the authorities of the vari-
ous experiment stations, together with personal examinations,
bring out the positive information that this canker occurs in Con-
necticut, Indiana, Maryland, Michigan, Pennsylvania and Ver-
mont, and that it probably occurs in Illinois, Maine, Massachu-
setts, Minnesota, New Jersey, West Virginia and portions of
Canada. It seems probable that when the disease becomes more

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 339

generally known it will be found in many of the apple growing
sections of the northern, central, and New England states.

APPEARANCE OF CANKERED LIMBS.

When one approaches a diseased tree his attention will be
attracted to the dark and enlarged sections of the larger limbs.
A closer examination shows that the bark is much roughened as
well as thickened, and in many instances a portion of the wood is
laid bare. The decaying bark and wood offer a convenient lodg-
ing place for borers and fungi which aggravate the injury and add
to its unsightly appearance. The dead bark on many of the
diseased limbs clings tenaciously to the decaying wood, which
is a feature that distinguishes this canker from sun scald, since
with the latter trouble usually the first symptom to be noticed is
the peeling of the bark from the injured surface. The area of
bare wood is often small as compared to the extent of swollen
bark; limbs are frequently seen that for six feet or more of their
length are covered with rough bark. The progress of the disease
on such limbs may be marked by numerous pits or scars, show-
ing where the fungus was able to live until perchance it gained
entrance to the cambium through some injury, when a serious
wound was the result. These scars are usually circular in form
and may be outlined by two or more concentric lines. An exam-
ple of this form of the disease is shown in Fig. 1 of Plate X XIX,
where for more than six feet of its length the limb is covered with
the rough bark or the scars where the bark has become detached.
The fungus has only reached the cambium and formed a canker
at a. Fig. 2 of Plate XXX is a larger view of a section of the
same limb showing the scars more in detail.

Other instances occur, where, though the bark is much swollen
and roughened, the fungus has not been able to penetrate to the
cambium, but has died after a time leaving the scars of its attack,
aside from which the limb has regained its normal condition.

The fungus shows a preference for the larger limbs of mature
trees. Small limbs and young trees are much less frequently

340 Report or tHe Horricutrurist oF THE

attacked, though the trunks and branches of the latter are some-
times badly injured, and twigs of the current season’s growth may
suffer serious injury from attacks of the fungus. Twenty Ounce
apple trees are apparently the exception, since in some localities
the trunks of this variety are badly injured. The fungus extends
down from diseased branches or from canker spots at the forks of
the tree till in aggravated cases large areas of bark are destroyed
exposing the wood in ugly wounds. These patches of black, de-
caying wood are conspicuous from a distance. Old age and neg-
lect, or a lack of vigor from any cause evidently favor the disease
though apparently thrifty trees are frequently ruined by its attack.

The effect of a canker on a limb depends on the amount of bark
that is injured or destroyed. In severe cases the disease may
extend entirely around a limb, thus effectually girdling it. Thus
it occasionally happens that the leaves on some part of a tree
shrivel and die without apparent cause, but a close examination
shows the presence of rough, dead bark somewhere on the limb,
indicating the presence of the canker fungus which has extended
around the limb and cut off the flow of sap.

Plates XXVIII and XXIX are reproduced from photographs of
typical cankered limbs. In Fig. 1 of Plate XXVIII the character-
istic rough bark is shown and at a the wood is exposed, the white
fruiting bodies of the fungus, Schizophyllum commune Fr., being
conspicuous on the dead bark. At 6b is a canker spot of compara-
tively recent formation. Fig. 2 shows the same limb from which
the dead bark has been removed; only a narrow strip of live bark
remained that kept the limb alive. Fig. 3 is an enlarged view of
the more recent canker shown in Fig. 1 at 6. This canker is
evidently of three seasons’ growth as is indicated by the three
series of concentric lines, now rather indistinct, that at one time
separated the dead from the living bark. The extent of the cur-
rent season’s growth can be readily distinguished by the smoother
appearance, while a distinct line separates the dead from the living

bark. . He toate :

New York AGricuLtturaL Experiment Station. 341

In some instances cankers occur quite uniformly on the south-
west side of the trees, thus indicating that they had their origin in
injuries produced by sun scald. The work of the fungus may be
recognized by the thick rough bark, while the fruiting pustules
reveal its presence where it is still or has recently been in an
active condition.

EXTENT OF INJURY.

The extent of the injury done to the orchards of the State can
scarcely be estimated, but it is safe to say that this canker is one
of the worst diseases with which the orchardist will have to con-
tend since it attacks the tree directly instead of the foliage and
fruit as is the case with the majority of our orchard diseases.
The appearance of the cankers is such that their injurious nature
may not be apparent to the casual observer until his attention is
attracted by the shrivelling of the leaves; thus the tree may be
ruined before it is realized that anything serious is the matter.
In one instance the loss of a large acreage of orchard was due to
the attacks of the canker fungus (see page 333) and in a great
many orchards it has done serious damage.

TIME AND MANNER OF INFECTION.

Infection takes place in the spring of the year as is shown by
the growth that the fungus makes in the bark. The presence of
the fungus in a newly infected limb is first indicated by a small
area of discolored bark. This area extends slowly as the fungus
grows outward in all directions till mid-summer, when a definite
boundary forms between the dead and living bark, thus showing
that growth for the season has stopped. This season’s growth had
stopped by the first of August, and in some instances pycnidia
containing mature spores were found/at that time on bark where
infection had taken place in the spring.

Many of the spores remain in the pycnidia till the following
spring, or longer, when they are given off and disseminated. The
mycelium is unable to penetrate to the cambium through living

3492 Report or THe HorricuLrurIst OF THE

bark, but those spores that chance to fall and germinate in a
wound, produce the cankers. Other spores are deposited on limbs
that have an abundance of dead and decaying outer bark where
they find conditions suitable for growth. In such instances no
direct injury is done to the tree, but spores are produced and dis-
seminated so that a constant source of infection is maintained.
The spores possess great vitality since some of them germinate
after having been kept a year in the laboratory.

In some instances the mycelium apparently lives over winter
and continues its growth the following spring. The formation of
the largest cankers can scarcely be explained in any other way.
However, in all of the inoculations made in the spring of 1898, in
only one instance did the resulting canker enlarge any during
the present season. See Plate XXX, fig. 3.

DOES THE MYCELIUM PENETRATE THE woop 4

This qnestion is suggested by the presence of two or more
cankers on the same limb, the external appearance of the more
recent ones suggesting the possibility of the fungus having passed
from the old canker through the wood and appearing on the sur-
face of the limb at favorable points where the newer cankers
were formed. An examination of a number of specimens and the
occurrence of pycnidia on decorticated wood shows that while the
mycelium does penetrate the wood to some extent, the fact is of
little economic importance. One limb was examined that had
five small cankers on it at intervals of about a foot. On split-
ting the limb it was found that the mycelium had penetrated the
wood at but one point and that for only a short distance.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES.

Although experiments in treating this disease are under way uo
results have yet been reached and from the nature of the fungus
it will be seen that a number of years must elapse before data

New York AGricutturaL ExXprERIMENT STATION. 343

can be secured from which definite conclusions may be drawn.
However it is a matter of common observation that in the major-
ity of instances the disease is not nearly as prevalent in orchards
that have been well sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for several
years past as it is in those that have not been sprayed. Judging
from the success with which many other plant diseases are com-
bated it is reasonable to expect beneficial results to follow sys-
tematic spraying with Bordeaux mixture as a preventive of the
canker.

In localities where canker is abundant special attention should
be paid to the sanitary condition of the trees. Perhaps one of
the most important considerations is to see that the trees are not
crowded and that they are pruned so as to admit sunshine and a
free circulation of air. The old bark is not shed as freely from
the limbs and trunks of trees that are densely shaded and the
moisture collecting in this bark is not easily dried out; thus
faculative parasites like the canker fungus as well as saprophytic
fungi find congenial surroundings.

The practice of scraping and whitewashing the trunks and
branches of fruit trees has largely fallen into disfavor, but it is
certainly a commendable practice and should be adopted in loeali-
ties where canker is severe. However, washes that are less con-
spicuous and equally, if not more effective, than whitewash are
now recommended ; the following formula has been satisfactory to

some orchardists:
WASH For TreE TRUNKS.

REESE OMIPAOAD: -'5.. See co's < San pM ale man Dea mdaaee os 1 pint.

Bem AIO 2 aed 2S as. osc nie ae ee hs Bate 3 pints.

MNLORT > {Sereda oRatersxglegsis cr -nm)) - doepivireercasaa ea etd oes brah 8 '.. 4 gallons.

RCNA BANE Oe acs 3 attvee & nile «+ o> «ps Sate ee eee Cae aie To thicken as desired.

Dissolve the soap in hot water, then stir in the lime. When
the ingredients have been reduced to a smooth state by stirring
dilute with water to four gallons, then stir in wood ashes till the
wash is of the desired consistency.

Other formule equally as good as the one given are in use, but

344 Rerort or tHe Horricutturist oF THE

the important ingredients in most of them are the same as in the
one given above.

These washes probably have the effect of softening and loosen-
ing the old bark so that it is more readily shed, thus relieving the
bark bound condition and inducing a vigorous growth. Bordeaux
mixture is beneficial in this respect as a smooth, shiny appear-
ance of the bark is a characteristic of well sprayed trees.

A discussion of the necessity of thorough cultivation and fer-
tilization of orchards need not be entered into here, but it may be
said that any treatment that tends to promote the vigor of the
trees indirectly gives them greater power to resist disease. This
fact was strikingly illustrated in the inoculation experiments with
nursery stock where it was found that the trees that were making
a feeble growth were far more susceptible to the action of the
fungus than those which were making a vigorous growth.

Usually but little attention is given to slight wounds that are
made here and there on the trees, but it should be remembered
that a majority of cankers start from some mechanical injury.
Too much care cannot be exercised not to wound or bruise the limbs
when trimming the trees or picking the fruit. Wounds are fre-_
quently made by the chafing of ladders against the limbs or by
the workman’s boot when climbing through the trees. Serious
wounds are also frequently made by propping the limbs when
they are cverloaded with fruit. The props should be padded or
have the corners rounded where they come in contact with the
limbs; they should be put in place carefully and not be driven
under the limbs as is sometimes done. All wounds, whether ac-
cidental or made in trimming, should be protected with thick
paint or grafting wax.

Cankered limbs should be cut out wherever practicable, or in
some cases it may pay to cut off the diseased bark and cover the
wounds as recommended above. Then as a preventive measure
we feel warranted in recommending thorough spraying with Bor-
deaux mixture, giving the first treatment before the leaf-buds

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 345

open in the spring, followed by the three sprayings that are usu-
ally given the trees for apple scab. Great pains should be taken
to see that the limbs are thoroughly protected with the mixture as
well as the foliage and fruit. The approximate dates of spraying
may be given as follows: 1. About the time the leaf-buds begin
to open. 2. About a week before the blossom-buds open. 3. As
soon as all of the blossoms have fallen. 4. Ten days or two weeks
after No. 3.

INVESTIGATIONS IN 1899.

It was originally planned that this season’s work should be a
verification of the previous year’s results, namely, the identifica-
tion of the canker fungus and the determination of its relation to
what was thought to be the same species that occurs on pear and
quince trees and on the fruit of all three species of trees. But the
work broadened as Sphaeropses were found on a variety of hosts
representing seven orders of plants.

Since a knowledge of the host plants of any plant disease is of
great. practical value in order that it may be successfully com-
bated, an attempt was made to determine the relation of the
species of Sphaeropsis, represented by the different hosts, to the
canker fungus.

In the spring of 1898 specimens of blighted apple-tree twigs
were received from Odessa, N. Y. It was not determined at the
time what was the cause of the blight, but a subsequent examina-
tion revealed the presence of numerous pycnidia containing
mature spores of a Sphaeropsis. On visiting the orchard late in
the fall, it was found that the twig blight had been quite notice-
able in 1897, but there was none to be found on the current sea-
son’s growth. In all cases noticed, when once attacked, the entire
growth of the season had been killed and in a few instances the
disease had extended into the previous season’s growth. There
were a few miniature canker spots on the smaller limbs but none
were noticed on the larger branches and the trees were in fairly
vigorous condition.

346 Report oF THE HorTICcULTURIST OF THE

Some pear trees growing in a door-yard about twenty-five rods
distant from the orchard were pointed out as being in a dying
condition, the top of one tree having been entirely destroyed while
the other trees were half or two-thirds dead. The pyenidia of a
Sphaeropsis were found to be very abundant on the dead bark,
while a few black, shriveled pears that were still attached to the
branches were attacked by the black rot fungus, Sphaeropsis
malorum Pk.

A Sphaeropsis was also found on the twigs of a quince tree that.
grew by the side of the pear tree.

At a later date a canker was found on a quince tree in the Sta-
tion orchards. The appearance of the cankers and their effect on
the limbs was much the same as the canker of apple tree limbs,
the swollen sections of limbs and the roughened bark at once
attracting attention. The pycnidia of a Sphaeropsis were abun-
dant on the dead bark where the fungus had recently been in an
active condition. This fungus was also found to be abundant in
the large quince orchard of Maxwell Brothers, near Geneva.
There were but few typical cankers on these trees, but in many in-
stances there was a well defined longitudinal strip of dead bark on
the limbs on which pyenidia of a Sphaeropsis were abundant. It
seems probable, however, that in such instances, as well as with
the pear trees mentioned above, the fungus was following, but
ageravating, former injuries.

Dilution plate cultures were made of the Sphaeropses from the
twigs of the three different host plants and after the fungus had
fruited, fruits of the apple, pear and quince were inoculated
with pure cultures of the fungus from each of the three hosts.
The fruits were kept in closed glass jars, the check fruits punc-
tured but not inoculated occupying jars by themselves. Black
rot, Sphaecropsis malorum Pk., was produced in each inoculated
fruit while the checks remained sound. Usually there would be
an area of decayed tissue around the points of inoculation in
twenty-four hours, depending on the degree of ripeness of the

New York AGrRicuLTURAL ExpERIMENT Station. 347

fruit. The decay progresses rapidly in the ripe fruit; in some
instances the greater portion of the surface became brown, and
mature spores of the fungus were formed in six days.

In the spring of 1899 a Sphaeropsis was found on dead and
dying Japanese plum trees at Riverhead, N. Y. Cultures were
made of the fungus, and apple, pear, and quince fruits were
inoculated. Black rot was again produced in the inoculated fruit
while the check fruits remained sound.

These results led to an investigation of the local distribution of
the genus Sphaeropsis, when it was found to be widely distributed ;
as the list of host plants given in Tables I and II will show.
Cultures were made of the Sphaeropses from each host and apple,
pear, and quince fruits were inoculated with cultures from each so
far as the supply of fruit would permit. Three fruits at least, and
in a majority of instances six, were inoculated with cultures from
each host. Black rot was readily produced in the fruits, there
being apparently no difference in the effect of the Sphaeropses as
obtained from the different hosts. The inoculated fruits as well
as the checks were kept in closed glass pars, as before.

During the progress of the work it was noticed that in most
eases there was but little difference in the average size of the
spores as they occurred on the different hosts. It was also found
that when apple, pear, or quince fruits were inoculated with
cultures of Sphaeropsis from these hosts the resulting spores were
larger and of the size of those found on fruits attacked by black
rot. The series of spore measurements given in the table below
was made to show the relation of the average size of the spores
to the host on which they are grown. Since spores of Sphaeropsis
as they occur on any host vary greatly in size, even in the same
pycnidium, an average of fifty measurements was taken in each
instance.

Table I gives: (1) A list of hosts from which cultures of
Sphaeropsis were made; (2) average length of 50 spores as they
occur on the hosts; (3) average length of 50 spores as they occur

348 Report oF THE Horticulturist OF THE

on apple, pear, and quince fruits when inoculated with cultures of

Sphaeropsis from the different hosts.

TABLE I.— Spore MEASUREMENTS OF SPHA2ROPSES FROM DiIrreRENT SOURCES
AND ON DIFFERENT Hosts.

23 88238 S823g Sesag
“Ss wygOBh HyoBH Hoaote
A = oD S D
5 She 882g S8ez8
om a3 as Ssags as fs
ts; SS" > woe"? Hes2"F
Hosts from which cultures of Sphezropsis B*n aSscdo 88sho 8854 7S
Were obtained. Ago 26645 Aeeeg Sates
= one ae 7) na an
Hog 82a ou WO Sng gw 2 oe
fl ches ZSa225a fS526a Fos 26m
o a a =)
Ons Seesas SHoshg Peassg
<q < < <
Rear tree ytwies) .f. ras! o.oo 22 30 29 26
Games tree wimps! ..c.cs cee eee 23 29 29 QT
Apple sree limbs: oc). scene ees 26 29 30 28
Japanese plum, Prunus triflora, Roxb. 28 30 30 30
Hawthorn, Crategus oxyacantha, L.. 21 28 Z
Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana, L.. 21 28 *
Wild crab, Pyrus coronaria, L....... 21 28
Sumach, Rhus: typhing. Lin, 2. asso6 2 23 29
Bitter sweet, Celastrus scandens, L.. 22
Apricot, Prunus armeniaca, L....... 22 30 :
Choke cherry, Prunus virginiana, L.. 7A 29 ee
Hop horn beam, Ostrya virginica,
Willd., decorticated wood ......... 22 28

Mulberry, Morus alba, L. ..........

bo
par)

European plum, Prunus domestica, L. 21 25
Elder, Sambucus canadensis, L....... 21 29 :
Wear Seaves fii 5 usb) sia sis we ls P aetateroterohe 24 30 a

The table is of interest in that it shows that the average size of
spores of Sphaeropsis varies according to the host on which they
are grown. For instance the pycnidia and spores as they grow
on pear wood are somewhat smaller than those that are found on
apple wood, yet the spores produced on apple fruits inoculated
with cultures from either host, are of the same size and character ;
similarly, though not shown in the table, when pear trees
are inoculated with cultures of Sphaeropsis taken from apple trees
the resulting pycnidia and spores are of the average size of those ~
found in nature on pear tree bark.

The spore measurements also show that in most cases there is
but little difference in the average size of the spores of Sphaeropses

New Yorx AaricuLtturaAL Experiment Station. 349

as they occur on the hosts under consideration. Those on apple
and Japanese plum trees are the only ones where the average
length is noticeably greater than the rest in the list. Cultures of
Sphaeropsis from either apple or Japanese plum trees when inocu-
lated into apple, pear, or quince fruits produce black rot and as is
shown in Table II these cultures grow interchangeably on at least
four species of trees. In each instance the fruiting bodies result-
ing from the cross inoculations have the same characters as those
that occur on the trees naturally.

Since cultures of "Sphaeropses from the different hosts produce
black rot of fruit, one apparently as readily as another, it was to
be expected that the different cultures would make similar growths
when cross inoculations were made in the trees. Accordingly,
apple, pear, plum, cherry, and quince nursery trees were planted
in a plat on the Station grounds for inoculation experiments.

Dilution plate cultures were made of the Sphaeropses from the
different hosts and after spores formed, transfers were made to
sterilized bean stems in test tubes. The inoculations were made
by making a small incision in the bark with a flamed knife and
inserting some of the pure cultures of the fungus from the test
tubes between the bark and wood; then the wounds were covered
with grafting wax. The work was done the last of May and first
of June.

Table II gives the plan of the experiment together with the
results; and shows: (1) Kind and number of trees inoculated
and number of inoculations made in each tree; (2) source of cul-
tures with which inoculations were made; (8) growth of fungus
where inoculated.

Report oF THE HorvricuLTuRIST OF THE

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TABLE II — Concluded.

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Hosts from which cultures of Spheeropsis
were obtained.

Report or THE HorricuLTurisT OF THE

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Mulberry, Morus alba, L. ........

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4 Very good...

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New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 353

The extent of growth of the Sphaeropses where inoculated has
been expressed in the relative terms, slight, fair, good and very
good. Figures 1, 2 and 3 of Plate XX XI are reproduced from a
photograph of inoculated nursery trees of apple, pear and Jap-
anese plum respectively, and show what has been termed a very
good growth. Figure 4 of Plate XX XI shows a slight growth on
an apple tree, while Fig. 5 is a check apple tree. The other two
degrees of growth range between the two shown in the illustration.

Where the fungus made a very good growth it spread rapidly
till the different inoculations coalesced and formed continuous
eankers as is shown in the illustration. In some instances
pycnidia formed by the tenth of July and by the first of August
growth had stopped as could be seen by the formation of a defi-
nite boundary between the dead and living bark. Pyenidia were
now abundant on the dead bark and occasionally on the decorti-
cated wood under the grafting wax as well as elsewhere on the
dead surface. In some instances where the fungus made a less
vigorous growth the area of dead bark was entirely covered with
the wax.

A number of the different cultures were inoculated into all four
kinds of trees, all but three into both apple and pear trees, while
all were inoculated into apple trees. Twenty-five sweet and
twenty-five sour cherry trees, and twenty-five European plum trees
were also used in the experiment, but none of the inoculations on
these trees were effective. In all of the other inoculations there
were but two entire failures. But the inoculations made with cul-
tures of Sphaeropsis from cankered apple tree limbs made a
greater growth than most of the others. Those made with cul-
tures obtained from Japanese plum were the only ones which made
a comparable growth.

The results of the inoculations on the pear trees are interesting

from the fact that the cultures obtained from cankered apple tree
23

354 Report or THE HorricuLrurist OF THE

limbs made a greater growth when inoculated into pear trees than
the cultures did that were made from diseased pear trees.

Various other inoculations were made that are not given in the
table, the details of which need not be entered into here; it may
be said, however, that of something over 1,000 inoculations made
in 1899 very few gave negative results. Fig. 1 of Plate V
shows an apple tree whose top is dead, the result of imoculations
made with cultures of Sphaeropsis obtained from sumach. It
should be pointed out, however, that this particular branch was
making a feeble growth, and that inoculations made in two of the
side branches failed to grow. In several other instances where
inoculations were made in weak trees the fungus made a much
greater growth than it did in adjacent vigorous trees. This point
is of great practical importance and confirms what has been said
on this subject on a former page. Fig. 2 of Plate XX XIT shows a
twig blight of pear and apple trees respectively, the result of in-
oculations made with cultures of Sphaeropsis from cankered apple
tree limbs in twigs of the current season’s growth.

The results of the inoculation experiments tend to show that
the number of species of Sphaeropsis can be materially reduced.
In some instances it appears that a new host has served as a basis
for making a species, and since many of the hosts given in the
table represent different species it would seem that this plan had
been followed when some of these species were made. So far
as the writer can determine there is but slight difference in the
morphological characters of the species that are represented in the
tables by the different hosts, such as might occur with any fungus
when grown on different media or when transferred from one.
plant to another. Neither do the published descriptions of these
species suggest any material differences.

A set of the Sphaeropses on the different hosts was submitted to
Mr. J. B. Ellis, Newfield, N. J., for identification with the pub-
lished descriptions. His determination of the species so far as

he was able from the specimens sent are given in Table ITI.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StTaTiIon. 355

Tape LII.— PRESENT CLASSIFICATION OF SpHzRoPSIS FOUND ON DIFFERENT

Hosts.
eset PENCE ys WEES Laie ojos) s, teicjetetacct: ove! «leks Sphxropsis sp. Apparently same as
on plum.
Ghiimceytrees mms! 22543). Honk. ete « Spheropsis cydonie, C. and E.
Black rot of apple, pear, and quince
HEE 96 cr 0c 1 GO RRO IDS 0.0.0 > Big esciomtc Spheropsis malorum, Pk.
Penile Gree, Dawe... 5:< 20.3) stam ee, ode eee Spheropsis mali (West.), Sace.
Apple tree, decorticated wood ....... Spheropsis cinerea (C. and E.), Sace.
Japanese plum, Prunus triflora ..... Spheeropsis sp.

Hawthorn, Crategus oxyacantha, L. Spheropsis demersa (Bon.), Sace.
Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana, L. Spheropsis sp.

Wild crab, Pyrus coronaria, L....... Spheropsis — New sp?

Sumach, Rhus typhina, L. .......... Spheropsis sumachi (Schw.), C. and
E.

Bitter sweet, Celastrus scandens, L... Spheropsis celastrina, Pk.

Apricot, Prunus armenica, L........ Apparently same as on plum.

Choke cherry, Prunus virginiana L.. Spheropsis cerasina, Pk.
Hop hornbeam, Ostrya_ virginica,

Willd. (decorticated wood)........ Spheropsis sp.
Mulberry, Morus alba, L. .......... Spheropsis mori, Berlese.
European plum, Prunus domestica, L. Same as on Japanese plum.
Elder, Sambucus canadensis, L....... Spheropsis sambuci, Pk.
EEE, hear eta EN Meals) a's 9. ayes Spheropsis mali, West., foliicolous
form.

A diseussion of the relation of these species will be out of
place at this time. However it may be pointed out that the inocn-
lation experiments prove that the species occurring on apple-tree
bark, S. mali, and on decorticated apple-tree wood, 8. cinerea, are
the same; also that these species are identical with the black rot
fungus, S. malorum. Thus it will be seen that some interesting
questions in nomenclature are involved. Which of these names
should stand, if either, or whether they will all prove to be
synonyms can only be determined after a careful study of the
entire genus is made.

In former papers by the writer referred to on page 333 mention
was made of the fungus, Sphaeropsis malorum Pk., as being the
probable cause of the New York apple-tree canker. It is there-
fore suggested that this name be retained for the present in order

that still further confusion in nomenclature may be avoided.

BODY BLIGHT OF PEAR TREES.

In the spring of 1898 when the preliminary studies ‘with apple

canker were begun a few inoculations were made in the larger

356 Report oF THE HorvTicuLTuRISsT OF THE

limbs of a pear tree with cultures of Sphaeropsis obtained from
eankered apple-tree limbs. The details of the experiment are
given on page 3386. The fungus grew readily at all points of in-
oculation and though the culture material was inserted between the
bark and wood it did not attack the cambium layer, but made
its growth in the outer bark. Here dead sunken areas were pro-
duced similar to those that are so common on the trunks and ©
larger limbs of pear trees. These definitely outlined and sunken
areas of dead bark commonly known as body blight, have long
been thought to be due to the action of the pear blight bacillus;
however, there seems to be no definite reason for such belief.

But little attention was given the matter at the time since it was
not then known that Sphaeropsis occurred on these blighted areas.
In the spring of the present year, however, a Sphaeropsis was
found to be comparatively abundant on the diseased bark of pear
trees in the Station orchards. Since that time a large number of
pear trees from many localities affected with body blight have
been examined and in nearly every instance a Sphaeropsis was
present though not in sufficient quantity to account for many of
the blighted areas. Macrophoma malorum (Berk.) Berl. et Vogl.
is commonly present in large quantities on the dead bark and
since Sphaeropsis is able to produce body blight may not this
closely related fungus be an important factor in producing the
diseased condition ?

Fifty successful inoculations made this spring with cultures of .
Sphaeropsis in mature pear trees confirm last year’s results. An
attempt was also made to grow the Macrophoma artificially, but it
made an indifferent growth on all of the media that were tried
and produced no fruit, consequently inoculation experiments with
this fungus could not be undertaken at that time.

THE PACIFIC COAST APPLE-TREE CANKER.

After the publication of the paper, An Apple Canker, the writer
received inquiries concerning the canker from the secretaries of

PLATE XXVIII.

+

Led OV GO! D,ea°G bre

New York AGricuLtTurRAL ExprErRIMENT STATION. 357

horticulture respectively of Oregon, Washington and British
Columbia. These gentlemen sent specimens of diseased limbs
which upon examination were found to be attacked by an entirely
different fungus from the one that causes the New York canker,
the spores were small, curved and hyaline while the spores of
Sphaeropsis are large, oval and dark brown in color. A liberal
number of specimens were received from each of the three sec-
tions and the fungus was the same in each case and so much in
evidence that there can be little doubt but that it is the cause of
the Pacific coast canker. Some of the specimens were submitted
to Prof. C. H. Peck, State botanist, who pronounced the fungus to
be a new species of Macrophoma. This disease because of its
destructive nature has attracted a great deal of attention for a
number of years in the Pacific Coast States, but no satisfactory
method of combating it has yet been found. Since entirely dif-
ferent climatic conditions obtain in that part of the country it is
not likely that the line of treatment recommended for combating
the New York apple canker will be effective against this disease
as it occurs on the Pacific coast.

Fig. 1 of Plate XX XIII is from a photograph of an apple-tree
limb showing a typical specimen of the Pacific coast apple-tree

canker.
THE EUROPEAN CANKER.

Fig. 2 of Plate XX XIII shows a canker on a quince tree limb
which was produced by the fungus, Nectria cinnabarina (Tode.)
Fr. This shows what is known as the tubercularial or conidial
stage of the fungus; what appear as small white bodies in the
picture scattered over the surface of the dead bark, are brilliant
red or cinnabar colored stromata which bear the conidia or fruit-
ing bodies of one stage in the life history of the fungus. It will
be seen that the comparatively large size and brilliant color of the
stromata render the fungus conspicuous so that it is not easily
mistaken.

3858 Report or THE HorricuLruristT OF THE

Another species, N. ditissima, is the common canker-producing
fungus of the orchard trees in many parts of Europe. Neither of
the species is sufficiently abundant in the orchards of the United -
States to be regarded as a pest.

The illustration in Plate XX XIII, fig. 2, is from a photograph
of one of a few quince tree limbs attacked by NV. cinnabarina that
were found in the quince orchard of T. C. Maxwell and Brothers,
Geneva, N. Y.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. —

It is with pleasure that I acknowledge my indebtedness to
Prof. Beach, at whose earnest request this work was undertaken,
and to whose kind consideration its completion was made pos-
sible. To Dr. Thaxter I am indebted for advice on the question
of nomenclature and to Mr. Ellis for the determination of species.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES. .

Puate XXVIII. Fig. 1—A cankered apple tree limb, wood
exposed at a and white fruiting bodies
of Schizophyllum commune fr. are con-
spicuous on the dead bark. A canker of
more recent formation is shown at b.

Fig. 2.—The same limb as in Fig. 1 with the
dead bark removed.

Fig. 3.—A larger view of the small canker
shown at b. The surface is thickly dotted
with pycnidia.

Fig. 4.—Small section of dead bark from

canker in Fig. 3 showing pycnidia natural
SUze.

Prats XXIX.—Different forms of cankers. Fig. 1 shows limb

that for more than sia feet is covered with

rough bark, or scars where bark has become

detached; fungus has reached cambium at a.

PLATE XXX.

—-
.

~-)

PLATE XXXII.

.
j
te
o
* 1
ps ro)
—
> e

New York AGricuLTurRAL ExperrmMEentT Station. 359

Pruate XXX. Fig. 1.—Apple tree bark wmoculated with cul-
tures of Spheropsis from cankered apple
limbs. Inoculations were made in the outer
bark; the fungus was unable to reach cam-
bium but made small wounds m the outer
bark. Where the bark has been removed the
scars resemble those shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.—Section of limb shown in Plate XXIX,
Fig. 1, enlarged to show scars more wm detail.

Fig. 3.—Limb of a large apple-tree moculated °
im spring of 1898 with culture of Spheropsis
from cankered apple tree limb. Photographed
fall of 1899. The canker enlarged materially
during the present season. Pycnidia of
Spheropsis are abundant on dead bark and
decorticated wood.

Prats XX XI.—I/noculation experiments with nursery stock.

Fig. 1.—Apple tree inoculated with cultures of
Spheeropsis from cankered apple-tree limbs,
showing what was designated “a very good”
growth of the fungus.

Fig. 2.— Pear tree moculated with cultures of
Spheropsis from cankered apple tree limbs,
showing very good growth of the fungus.

Fig. 3.

cultures of Spheeropsis from decorticated wood

Japanese plum tree tmoculated with

of hop hornbean. Very good growth of the
fungus.

Fig. 4.—Apple tree inoculated with cultures of
Spheropsis from pear twigs, showing slight
growth of the fungus.

Fig. 5.—Check apple tree; punctured but not
imoculated.

360 Report or THE HorticuLrurist.

Pratt XXXII.— Fig. 1.— Young apple tree, top branch killed
by inoculating with cultures of Spheeropsis
from sumach.

Fig. 2.—T'wig blight of pear and apple re-
spectively caused by inoculating with cul-
tures of Sphropsis from cankered apple
tree limbs.

Fig. 3.—Quince inoculated with cultures of
Spheropsis from cankered apple tree limbs.

| Prare XXXIII.— Fig. 1.— Apple tree limb showing Pacific

coast apple tree canker.
Fig. 2.—Quince tree limb showing canker
caused by attack of Nectria cinnabarina.
$ (Tode.) Fr.

PLATE XXXII.

PLATE XXXIII.

FERTILIZING SELF-STERILE GRAPES.*

e S. A. Brac.

SUMMARY.

In Bulletin 157 were recorded the results of several seasons’
work in testing the self-fertility of the grape. Lists were given of
grapes which were perfectly self-fertile, partially self-fertile or
self-sterile and completely self-sterile. Many of our cultivated
American grapes belong in the last two classes and require cross
pollination for formation of perfect bunches. The work of 1899
has been devoted to a study of the question whether some grapes
are better than others for fertilizing the self-sterile kinds.

Prevention of accidental cross-pollination was secured by en-
closing in paper bags the selected bud clusters of both the variety
to be pollinated and that furnishing the pollen. Cross-pollina-
tion was effected by removing the pollinating cluster, when in
blossom, from the parent vine and enclosing it with the cluster to
be fertilized. The clusters were sometimes brushed together be-
fore enclosing, sometimes simply enclosed in the paper sacks and
shaken, to distribute the pollen. ‘

Twelve nearly or quite self-sterile varieties were treated with
pollen from one or more of twenty-four varieties ranging from
perfectly self-fertile to self-sterile. The results are given in the
body of the bulletin, both in detail and summarized. The use of
self-sterile varieties as pollinizers for other self-sterile varieties
resulted in failure. Self-sterile varieties fertilized with varieties
not strongly self-fertile produced clusters varying in compactness
about as did the bunches of the pollinating variety. Self-fertile
sorts, with rare exceptions, gave good results when used as fertil-

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 169.

362 REPORT OF THE HorricuLTURIST OF THE

izers for either partially self-sterile or completely self-sterile
varieties. From study of the effect of pollen from different vari-
eties upon the same self-sterile variety, it seems probable that
failure to set fruit may be due to several causes, such as dropping
off of blossom buds before they open or poor condition of the vine;
but the most common cause is imperfect pollinati®n due to im-
potent pollen.

Lists are given of varieties, both strongly self-fertile and im-
perfectly self-fertile or self-sterile, which blossom. very early,
medium early, in mid-season, medium late, late and very late.

INTRODUCTION.

In Bulletin 157 the writer presented a complete account, to
that date, of the investigations on the self-fertility of the grape
with which he had been engaged for several years.’ It was therein
shown that many of the cultivated varieties of American grapes
are either self-sterile or very imperfectly self-fertile. Such kinds,
when they are self-pollinated only, either bear no fruit or produce
more or less imperfectly filled clusters. In discussing the practi-
cal bearing of these discoveries upon the selection of varieties
and arranging them in vineyards so as to get the best results in
fruit production, attention was called to the fact that self-sterile
varieties may produce well filled clusters of fruit when the vines
are Jocated near enough to other kinds to make eross-fertilization
possible. For this reason the general recommendation was made
that whenever the self-sterile or the imperfectly self-fertile kinds
are planted it would be well to put near them some other kind
which blooms at the same time.

After Bulletin 157 was issued there came from several sources
requests for more definite information congerning the mingling of
varieties so as to provide for the proper fertilization of those kinds
which cannot produce well filled fruit clusters unless they are

1 Beach, S. A. Self-fertility of the Grape. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 157.
Dec., 1898.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 363

cross-fertilized. This brought up the question whether some
grapes are better than others for fertilizing the self-sterile kinds or
whether any variety other than the one to be fertilized will answer
the purpose if it blooms at the same time. Similar questions, in
one form or another, are apt to arise wherever American grapes
are cultivated.

Scarcely any definite information on this subject could be
found. Being a subject of considerable practical importance to
viticulturists, arrangements were made to begin the investigation
of it in 1899. The results of the first season’s work in this line
are set forth in the following preliminary report of the investiga-

tion.

WORK FOR 1899.
PLAN.

Twelve varieties which were selected because they are nearly
or quite self-sterile, were artificially cross-pollinated in the manner
hereafter described. Twenty-four kinds of grapes were tried as
fertilizers for these varieties. Most of them were self-sterile or
nearly so, others fully self-fertile, and still others intermediate
between these two extremes. The twelve varieties which were ar-
tificially cross-pollinated were not emasculated. For the purpose
of preventing accidental cross-pollination by means of insects or
otherwise, the clusters to be tested were enclosed in paper bags
before the blossoms opened, and were kept thus covered during
the entire blooming season except the few minutes when the bags
were opened to introduce the clusters which furnished the pollen
for the test. The clusters which were selected to furnish the pol-
len were likewise covered before they came into blossom and were
kept covered, even after they were removed from the vine which
bore them, until they were applied to the self-sterile variety upon
which their pollen was to be tried. The bagging of the clusters
was done after the manner illustrated and described in Bulletin
157. By thus protecting all of the blossoms which were used in

364 Report or tue Horricutrurist oF THE

the tests, the chances of accidental cross-pollination were reduced
to a minimum.

After the blossoming season had passed, a record was made to
show which clusters had set fruit and which had failed to set fruit.
When the fruit was ripe each cluster under test was rated on the
scale of 100, according to the percentage of a full cluster which
was found. A perfectly formed cluster was rated 100, a half-
filled cluster was rated 50 and others were rated in a correspond-
ing manner.

LOCATION OF THE VINEYARDS.

The tests were conducted in 1899 in three quite widely sepa-
rated localities: In the Station vineyards at Geneva; in the vine-
yards of E. Smith & Sons at Highlands, on the east bank of
Seneca lake, near Lodi; in the vineyard of Mr. E. C. Gillett,
Penn Yan, N. Y. Our acknowledgments are due the gentlemen
who have consented to allow the experiments to be conducted in
their vineyards, and also to Mr. Horace W. Gillett who assisted in
the work at Penn Yan in a very careful and satisfactory manner. —

The Highlands vineyards are on soil which is derived largely
from broken shale. The other vineyards mentioned above are on
clay loam.

CROSS-POLLINATION.

The cross-pollinating was done at Highlands, June 12. At
Penn Yan it was done June 12, with the exception that Brighton
and Salem were crossed each upon the other June 13. At the
Station the work of cross-pollinating was done at convenient times
during the blooming period from June 10 to 15.

The cross-pollinating which was done at Highlands was under
the direction of C. P. Close. The plan there followed was to un-
cover the cluster which was to receive the pollen. The cluster
selected to supply the pollen was then taken from the bag in
which it had till this time been kept, and fastened to the first men-
tioned cluster. Both clusters were then covered with the bag

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 365

which had held the cluster which furnished the pollen. After the
bag had been closed and labeled, it was shaken so as to agitate the
loose pollen which it might contain and possibly assist in more
thoroughly distributing it among the open flowers of the cluster
which was to be pollinated.

In the Penn Yan tests and in those at the Station, in addition
to the treatment above outlined, the open flowers of the cluster
which were selected to supply the pollen were brushed over the
open flowers which were to be cross-pollinated before fastening the
two clusters together. With most varieties the interlocking of the
branches of the two clusters was sufficient to hold the loose cluster
in place, but in some instances it was necessary to tie the two to-
gether. Judging from their appearance when the bags were
opened after the blooming season had passed, the flowers of the
detached clusters which were not open when the bag was finally
closed and labeled, generally failed to open later. It appears,
therefore, that the pollen which effected the fertilization of the
flowers as shown by the later development of fruit, must have come
almost entirely from blossoms which were open when the hand
pollinating was done. With some of the varieties which were arti-
ficially cross-pollinated after the manner above described, a con-
siderable portion of the flowers were not opened when the hand
pollination was done, and probably did not open for a period of
from 24 to 48 hours thereafter. Had the bags been reopened on
each of the two days following the one upon which the hand pol-
linating was done, and the clusters brushed again with freshly
opened blossoms, the result might have given a more accurate in-
dication of the kind of clusters which such varieties may be ex-
pected to produce when they stand adjacent to each other, and the
process of cross-pollination goes on freely during the entire bloom-
ing season.

On the other hand it should be observed in this connection that,
even with varieties which had not come into full bloom when the
hand pollinating was done, some perfectly filled clusters were
obtained, showing that the percentage of blossoms which became

366 Report or tue Horricutrurist oF THE

cross-pollinated was, under the circumstances, remarkably large.
Take, for example, the results with Brighton fertilized by Ca-
tawba. Both at Highlands and Penn Yan these varieties had a
large percentage of unopened blossoms when the Catawba clusters
were applied to the Brighton. Eight Brighton clusters at High-
land were thus supplied with Catawba pollen and all of them set
fruit. When the fruit was ripe one cluster ranked 95, one 90,
one 85. ‘The two lowest were rated 55 and the average rating was
74.4. At Penn Yan five Brighton clusters were likewise supplied
with Catawba pollen. One cluster so treated ripened but four
fruits, one was almost perfectly filled and the remaining three
were well filled. Omitting the first named cluster, the average
rating was 97.5; including it the average was 80. While, as has
been said before, these averages cannot be taken as indicating
with strict accuracy the efficiency of Catawba as a fertilizer for
the Brighton, they show that, even under the most unfavorable
conditions which obtained in these trials, a surprisingly large pro-
portion of the blossoms became cross-pollinated. In all cases
where the number of clusters under experiment is large enough to
give some indication of the value of the variety as a fertilizer for
self-sterile sorts the results with the different varieties may be
looked upon as comparable, because the treatment was similar in
all the tests with the exception that in the Highlands vineyard
the clusters to be cross-pollinated were not brushed with the clus-
ter selected for furnishing the pollen, but the two kinds of clusters
were simply inclosed in the bag and shaken together.

COVERING THE CLUSTERS.

As has already been stated, all of the clusters which were used
in these experiments were covered before the blossoms opened,
using paper bags for this purpose after the manner described in
Bulletin 157. This work was largely done before the varieties
commenced to bloom. The clusters in the Highlands tests were
bagged June 7 and 8; with few exceptions those at Penn Yan were
bagged June 9; and those at the Station were bagged at various

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 367

times from June 5 to June 10. Ina few cases the variety had be-
gun to bloom before this work was done. Great care was then
taken that no cluster with an open blossom should be bagged.

THE BLOOMING PERIOD.

At Highlands the following observations on the blooming vari-
eties were made in forenoon of May 8:

Aminia — Beginning to bloom.

Brighton — None in bloom; probably will not begin to
bloom before June 12.

Catawba — Ditto.

Niagara — Not many blossoms open.

Worden — Nearly half in bloom.

Wyoming — First blossoms opening. )

On Monday, June 12, when the cross-pollinating was done,
Aminia was in some cases nearly out of bloom. Brighton was
hardly enough advanced in bloom to furnish an abundant supply
of pollen. With these exceptions no difficulty in finding clusters
in good condition for the cross-pollinating was noted.

At Penn Yan the following notes on the condition of bloom

were made when the cross-pollinating was done June 12:

Brighton — Many clusters have no open blossoms, but the
majority of clusters have at least begun to bloom.

Catawba — About the same stage of advancement as

Brighton.
Eldorado — Nearly in full bloom.

Herbert — Past full bloom and going out of bloom.

Lindley — Most clusters are coming into bloom; a few
have not yet begun to bloom.

Merrimack — Nearly in full bloom.

Salem — Past full bloom and going out of bloom.

Niagara — Nearly in full bloom.

Worden — Nearly in full bloom.

368 Report or THe Horricuttrurist oF THE

The period of bloom in 1899 of the varieties which were under
test at the Station is shown in the following table. The first date
shows the opening of the first blossoms, the second date shows
when the variety reached full bloom and the last date shows when
the last blossoms were seen.

TABLE I.— PerIop oF BLoom IN 1899 or EXPERIMENTAL VARIETIES IN THE
STATION VINEYARD.

Location Period of bloom.
aS, Name. ‘ie are aed paae ” i. ae
yard. Row. First bloom. Full bloom Last-bloom.
Si: LSA Aminias sick. sete eee June 9 June 12 June 15
Biss De SALTY 9 cee itaeksroe teh siege aie June 8 June 12 June 15
ad: 6. Black Waites nL). dapysaiere June 13 June 15 June 20
eee 24 Black Wagle tii: 2 acicle June ? June 14 June 20
if tee 20" Black’ Haple” ~-teeiser. June 10 June 13 June 16
a2. i (Briphion« xtc 2a ashen oe June 12 June 14 June 18
1 Vag 19 Brighton ..A%2iss... ee June 9 June It June 15
hss 23+ Catawhare« ) act. ichsicis ore June 7 June 9 June 15
1h be POIMORULWDA cee ot eere June 8 June ll June 15
Se: 4 Columbian Imperial.... June 7 June 10 June 13
thy ee 17 Columbian Imperial.... June 7 June 9 June 11
che ® *Greveling ty vie. hs June 10 June 13 June 15
1 fy] Wee TO Ha tont | o oraccouns eee ee June 9 June ll June 13
BS 7G fabs VT Woy alae eager Sark Mah June 7 June 9 June 13
Bis 8, cWldoratlouwal spsstnis.Veeye oe June 13 June 15 June 19
a th Rs Gre Brite an, scene: eran eesti June 8 June 10 June ?
Bee VS) Hebert Rit Aer cae Le: June 9 June 12 June 14
oe The “Hercules: isis ee oe cake June 9 June 11 June 15
a: 25usemersonm sts: i. kOe ie June 13 June 15 June 17
lick By spiel CLOT BOLY apc cky os seo eeeee June 12 June 15 June ?
1 Ba Bom lonidley ea senite ets etree June 9 June 10 June 15
Bi VOR Metrimackh ys . 6s2eep eee June 10 June 13 June 15
Riz dds ectar ybaers., 41s, tetas ce June 10 June 14 June 20
he OO" “Nectar %..\ee jet eae oe June 10 June 14 June 16
NBR SE PAE Midoare p ASN. a If ie 2 hisieus June 7 June 9 June 13
Twi Be 9G “Mochester “sas. te. seuss June 7 June 9 June 15
in aes PG MSatem) Ae dose oes a ere - June 9 June 10 June ?
1g EME t Station WH. 2. Sacwseane June 10 June 12 June 21
a by ae 8 Station MAG coe ose see June 9 June 12 June 2]
ih Pee 9 Station 156... 3232. June 10 June 12 June 20
1B ae 25 Verpenness cece ate se June 7 June 10 June 14
8.. a? Worden arias. Ve ee. June 9 June 12 June 16
Li. Da a VUGEerl s 2 15 Se ne eae June 7 June 9 June 14
So. lly (ian far oy 3 Wo YA AIS June 10 June 13 June 15

DETAILED STATEMENT OF THE RESULTS.

Notes on the results were made at two different periods. First,
soon after the vines had gone out of bloom a record was made of

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 369

the clusters which failed to set fruit. It is best to make such rec-
ords early in the season because late in the season it may be im-
possible to decide whether the absence of a cluster means that it
failed to set fruit or that the cluster was accidentally broken off.
After the fruit ripened each cluster was rated on the scale of 100
according to the percentage of a full cluster of fruit which was
found, as has already been stated under “ Plan of Work.” The
detailed records are here given for each variety together with the
records which the same variety has made in previous years when
tested as to its self-fertility. Unless otherwise stated the tests here
reported were made in 1899.

The results are summarized and presented graphically on the
pages following the discussion of the separate varieties.

AMINIA.

Amma self-pollinated.— In 1892, 2 clusters of Aminia which
were kept covered during blooming season gave no fruit; in 1898,
9 clusters which were likewise tested gave no fruit. In 1899,
6 clusters of Aminia at Highlands were hand-pollinated* with
Aminia pollen brought from the Station, but no fruit set; 10 clus-
ters which were kept covered during the blooming season were
rated 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 12 respectively. Average rating 1.2.
So far as tested Aminia is practically self-sterile.

Aminia pollinated with Brighton.—Six clusters tested at High-
lands were rated respectively 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 10. Average rating 1.7.

Amina pollinated with Wyoming.— Five clusters tested at
Highlands were rated respectively 0, 0, 0, 0, 20. Average rat-
ing 4.

®Aminia pollinated with Niagara.— One cluster tested at High-
lands rated 80.

2By “hand pollinating,” is here meant brushing the clusters with the open
flowers from another vine of the same kind, and then inclosing the pollinated
cluster together with the cluster which furnished the pollen in a bag accord-
ing to the method followed in the 1899 experiments in cross-pollinating, as de-
scribed on a preceding page.

24

370 Report or tHe Horricunrurist OF THE

Aminia pollinated with Worden.— Two clusters tested at High-
lands were rated respectively 88, 88. Average rating 88.

Aminia pollinated with Catawba.— Four clusters tested at
Highlands were rated respectively 88, 88, 90, 90. Average rat-
ing 89.

Aminia as a fertilizer.— The records of the tests of Aminia
pollen upon Brighton and Wyoming are given under the discussion
of these varieties. (See Index for pages.)

BARRY.

Barry self-pollinated.— In 1892, 2 clusters of Barry which °
were kept covered during the blooming season gave no fruit. Ten
clusters in 1895 and 8 clusters in 1898 which were likewise coy-
ered gave no fruit. So far as tested Barry has proved completely
self-sterile.

Barry pollinated with Black Hagle.— Five clusters tested at
the Station gave no fruit.

Barry pollinated with Hercules.— Five clusters tested at the
Station gave no fruit.

The vine on which these tests with the pollen of Black Eagle
and Hereules were made stands in a mixed vineyard. The un-
covered clusters were well formed and the yield abundant.

BLACK EAGLE.

Black Eagle self-pollinated.— In 1892, 2 clusters of Black
Eagle which avere kept covered during the blooming season gave
no fruit; 10 clusters likewise covered in 1895 gave no fruit. So
far as tested Black Eagle *s completely self-sterile. Standing in a
mixed vineyard it has produced some well-formed clusters, but
often the clusters are imperfeetly filled.

Black Eagle pollinated with Brighton.— Four clusters tested at
the Station gave no fruit. Shi,

Black Eagle pollinated with Worden.— One cluster tested gave

no fruit.

New Yorx AGricutTurRAL ExpertMent Station. 371

Black Eagle as a fertilizer— The records of the test of Black
Eagle pollen upon Barry are given under the latter variety.

BRIGHTON.

Brighton self-pollinated.— In 1892, 9 clusters of Brighton
which were kept covered during the blooming season gave no
fruit; 5 clusters at the Station in 1895, 27 clusters at the Station
in 1897 and 9 clusters at Penn Yan in 1899 likewise covered
gave no fruit. In another vineyard, of 25 clusters covered in 1897
24 clusters were rated 0, 1 cluster’rated 10. Average rating 0.4.
In still another locality 5 clusters likewise tested in 1897 were
rated respectively 0, 0, 10, 10,10. Average rating 6. At High-
lands in 1899, of 28 clusters which were tested, 26 clusters were
rated 0, 1 cluster rated 1 and 2 clusters rated 4. Average rating
0.2. At Penn Yan 5 clusters were hand-pollinated® with Brighton
pollen from another vine. Four of these rated 0 and 1 rated 4.
Average rating 0.8. At Highlands 10 clusters were likewise pol-
linated with Brighton pollen from a Station vineyard. Six of
these were rated 0, 3 rated 2 and 1 rated 15. Average rating 2.1.
From tlicse tests it appears that Brighton clusters when self-pol-
linated rarely set any fruit and the variety may be called prac-
tically self-sterile.

Brighton pollinated with Creveling.— Seven clusters tested at
Highlands gave no fruit.

Brighton pollinated with Salem.— Four clusters tested at
Penn Yan gave no fruit.

Brighton pollinated with Aminia.— Six of the seven clusters
tested at Highlands were rated 0 and 1 rated 2. Average rat-
ing 0.3.

Brighton pollinated with Wyoming.— Six clusters were tested
at Highlands; 5 clusters gave a rating of 0 and 1 gave a rating 2.
Average rating 0.3.

3 See foot note 2, page 340.

372 Report or tHe HorricuLtrurist oF THE

Brighton pollinated with Lindley.— Four of the five clusters
tested at Penn Yan were rated 0 and 1 rated 10. Average rat-
ing 2.

Brighton pollinated with Eldorado.— Four clusters tested at
Penn Yan were rated respectively 0, 0, 6,15. Average rating 5.2.

Brighton pollinated with Station 146* — Four clusters tested at
Penn Yan were rated respectively 0, 0, 25, 60. Average rating
21.3.

Brighton pollinated with Station 156*— Four clusters tested
at Penn Yan were rated respectively 4, 85, 88, 100. Average

rating 69.3.

Brighton pollinated with Merrimack.— Four clusters tested at
Penn Yan were rated respectively 0, 0, 0, 100. Average rating 25.

Since Merrimack is self-sterile, and because in the other tests it
uniformly failed to fertilize self-sterile sorts, and because in these
tests on Brighton it failed to fertilize three of the four clusters
upon which it was tried, while the fourth cluster was rated 100,
it is desirable that these tests be repeated before definite conclu-
sions are drawn. Similar results, however, were obtained by pol-
linating Brighton with Herbert, and Herbert like Merrimack is
self-sterile.

Brighton pollinated with Herbert.— Four clusters tested at
Penn Yan were rated respectively 0, 12, 25, 75. Average rat-
ing 28. Compare this record with results given in the preceding
paragraph.

Brighton pollinated with Nectar.— Five clusters tested at
Penn Yan were rated respectively 0, 20, 50, 50, 75. Average >
rating 40.

Brighton pollinated with Vergennes.— Seven clusters tested at
Highlands were rated respectively 2, 40, 60, 75, 100, 100. Aver-
age rating 53.9. One of the perfect clusters was an unusually

4Station 146 and Station 156 are male hybrids of Vitis labrusca L., by
Vitis bicolor, Le Co te. They wére produced by crossing a wild male bicolor
upon the Winchell.

New York AericuLturaAL Experiment Sration. 373

large, double, perfectly filled cluster. The other perfect cluster
was also a very fine one. )

Brighton pollinated with Jefferson.— Five clusters tested at
Penn Yan were rated respectively 0, 25, 40, 60, 95, 100. Aver-
age rating 64.

Brighton pollinated with Rochester.— Five clusters tested at
Penn Yan were rated respectively 0, 85, 85, 90, 100. Average
rating 72.

Brighton pollinated with Catawba.— Eight clusters tested at
Highlands were rated respectively 55, 55, 60, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95.
Average rating 74.4.

At Penn Yan five clusters of Brighton pollinated with Catawba
were rated 10, 90, 100, 100, 100, respectively. Average rating 80.
As stated on a previous page, many of the blossoms of these two
varieties had not yet opened when the hand pollinating was done.

Brighton pollinated with Worden.— Eight clusters tested at
Highlands were rated respectively 50, 75, 78, 80, 80, 83, 85, 85.
Average rating 77. Four clusters tested at Penn Yan were rated
respectively 4, 100, 100, 100. Average rating 76.

Brighton pollinated with Niagara.— Nine clusters tested at
Highlands were rated respectively 75, 80, 88, 88, 88, 88, 88, 88,
88. Average rating 85.7.

Five clusters tested at Penn Yan were rated respectively 2, 10,
60, 88,100. Average rating 52.5.

Brighton pollinated with Station 125°. Five clusters tested at
Penn Yan were rated respectively 50, 100, 100, 100, 100. Aver-
age rating 90.

Brighton as a fertilizer— Tests of Brighton as a fertilizer
for self-sterile varieties were made with several self-sterile kinds
of grapes. The results are given in detail under Aminia, Black
Eagle, Eldorado, Herbert, Hercules, Lindley, Merrimack, Salem
and Wyoming. (See Index for pages. )

5 Station 125 is a white seedling of Winchell fertilized by Diamond. It is
perfectly self-fertile.

374 Rerort or tHE HorricuLrurist oF THE

CATAWBA.

Catawba self-pollinated—In 1894, 12 clusters of Catawba
which were kept covered during the blooming season, were, with —
one exception, nearly perfectly filled, averaging about 90. At
Penn Yan 16 clusters which were likewise tested in 1897 were
rated 50, 70, 70, 70, 70, 80, 80, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 100,
respectively. Average rating 81.9. At Branchport in 1897, of 22
clusters which were likewise tested, 1 was rated 70, 9 rated 80
and 12 rated 90, respectively, averaging 85. In 1899, of 42
clusters likewise tested at Highlands, 4 rated 80, 1 rated 83, 3
rated 85, 11 rated 88, 11 rated 90, 2 rated 93, 4 rated 95, 1 rated
97, 2 rated 98 and 3 rated 100, respectively, averaging 89.9.
Twenty-four clusters were tested at Penn Yan, of which 5 were
rated 0, 75, 75, 78 and 80, respectively, 5 rated 88, 6 rated 90, 7
rated 95 and 1 rated 98, averaging 85.5. Seventeen clusters which
were tested at the Station were rated 50, 75, 80, 83, 85, 88, 88,
90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 95, 95, 95, respectively, averaging 86.1.

Taking all these tests into consideration it appears that Ca-
tawba is strongly self-fertile and when self-pollinated generally
forms well-filled clusters of fruit.

Catawba as a fertilizer.— Several tests were made with Ca-
tawba as a fertilizer for self-sterile varieties. The results are
given in detail under Aminia, Brighton, Eldorado, Herbert, Lind-
levy, Merrimack, Salem and Wyoming.

COLUMBIAN IMPERIAL.

Columbian Imperial self-pollinated.— In 1897, 8 clusters of
Golumbian Imperial which were kept covered during the bloom-
ing season, were rated 90, 90, 90, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100, re-
spectively, averaging 96.3. It appears to be fully self-fertile.

Columbian Imperial as a fertilizer.— It was used as a fertilizer
for Hercules. See page 378.

CREVELING.

Creveling self-pollinated— In 1894, 5 clusters of Creveling
were kept covered during the blooming season, none of which

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 375

gave any fruit. In 1895, 5 clusters, aud 1897, 5 clusters, which
were likewise tested, gave no fruit. From these tests it appears
that Creveling is absolutely self-sterile.

Creveling as a fertilizer— It was tried as a fertilizer for
Brighton, but no fruit was produced. See page 372.

It is interesting to note in this connection that, although Crevel-
ing failed to fertilize Brighton, the parentage of Mills is given
as a Muscat Hamburg fertilized with Creveling.

EATON.

Eaton self-pollmmated.— In 1894, 10 clusters which were kept
covered during the blooming season gave no fruit. From the
fact that the vine which was used for this test proved to be
neither in a vigorous nor in a productive condition these results
were not looked upon as conclusive. In 1899, 6 clusters on an-
other vine, which were likewise covered, were rated 75, 80, 90, 95,
100, 100, respectively, averaging 90.

Haton as a fertilizer.— It was tried as a fertilizer for Hercules.

See page 378.

ELDORADO.

Eldorado self-pollinated— In 1894, 5 clusters of Eldorado
which were kept covered during the blooming season, gave no >
fruit. In 1895, 10 clusters; in 1897, 23 clusters; and in 1899,
4 clusters likewise tested gave no fruit.

The following tests of Eldorado were made at Penn Yan in
1899:

Eldorado pollinated with Brighton.— Five clusters tested gave
uo fruit.

Eldorado pollinated with Herbert.— Five clusters tested gave
no fruit.

Eldorado pollinated with Lindley.— Five clusters tested gave
no fruit.

Eldorado pollinated with Salem.— Five clusters which were
tested were rated respectively 0, 0, 0, 0, 2. Average rating 0.4.

¢

376 Report or THE HorricuLTuRIst OF THE

Eldorado pollinated with Catawba.— Four clusters which were
tested were rated, respectively, 0, 0, 0, 2. Average rating 0.5.

Catawba is a self-fertile variety. In these tests self-fertile
sorts have generally been good fertilizers for the self-sterile kinds.
No explanation is offered for the exceptional results which fol-
lowed the pollination of Eldorado with Catawba. There seems
to be no good ground for the opinion that the Eldorado pistils
were defective, for the clusters on the tested vines which were open
to cross-pollination were unusually well formed, and some excellent
clusters were also obtained by fertilizing Eldorado with Worden
and Niagara. Catawba fertilized other self-sterile sorts very
successfully in these tests, with the exception of Salem.°

Eldorado pollinated with Worden.— Five clusters which were
tested were rated respectively 20, 60, 75, 75, 95. Average rating
65.

Eldorado pollinated with Niagara.— Five clusters which were
tested were rated respectively 50, 60, 75, 95, 100. Average rat-
ing 76.

Eldorado as a fertilizer — Eldorado was tried as a fertilizer on
two self-sterile sorts, Brighton and Herbert, under which varieties
will be found the details of the tests.

EUMELAN.

Eumelan. self-pollinated.— In 1892, 10 clusters of Eumelan
which were kept covered during the blooming season, gave no
fruit. - In 1895, 9 clusters which were likewise tested gave no
fruit. In 1893, 3 clusters which were likewise tested were rated
respectively 0, 0, 4. Average rating 1.3. In 1899, 1 cluster
which was likewise tested was rated 20. In view of all these
tests it appears that with rare exceptions Eumelan fails to set
any fruit when self-pollinated, and it may be classed as prac-
tically self-sterile.

6 Salem fertilized by Catawba, rated 4, but only a single cluster was tested
so that no conclusions can be drawn till the results are verified by further in-
vestigation.

New York AGRICULTURAL ExpPpERIMENT Station. 377

Eumelan pollinated with Black Hagle-— Two clusters tested at
the Station gave no fruit. The work was done on the fifth day
after Eumelan came into full bloom, and the treated clusters may
have been too far advanced in bloom to give favorable results from
cross-pollination. These tests should be repeated.

HERBERT.

Herbert self-pollinated.— In 1892, 2 clusters of Herbert which
were kept covered during the blooming season gave no fruit.

In 1895, 5 clusters and in 1899, 9 clusters, which were likewise
tested, gave no fruit. So far as tested, Herbert has been found
self-sterile.

The following tests with Herbert in 1899 were made at Penn
Yan:

Herbert pollinated with Brighton.— One cluster which was
tested gave no fruit.

Herbert pollinated with Eldorado.— Four clusters which were
tested gave no fruit.

Herbert pollinated with Lindley.— Five clusters which were
tested gave no fruit.

Herbert pollinated with Merrimack.— Five clusters which were
tested gave no fruit.

Herbert pollinated with Salem.— Four clusters which were
tested gave no fruit.

Herbert pollinated with Worden.— Five clusters which were
tested were rated respectively 95, 95, 95, 100, 100. Average rat-
ing 97.

Herbert pollinated with Niagara.— Four clusters which were
tested were rated respectively 95, 100, 100, 100. Average rating
98.8.

Herbert pollinated with Catawba.— Two clusters which were
tested were rated respectively 100, 100. Average rating 100.

Herbert as a fertilizer— Herbert was tried as a fertilizer on
three self-sterile sorts, Brighton, Eldorado and Salem. See pages
372, 375, 381, respectively.

378 Report or THE HorricuLtTurRIst oF THE

HERCULES.

lercules self-pollinated— In 1893, 4 clusters of Hercules
which were kept covered during the blooming season, bore no
fruit. In 1895, 10 clusters tested in like manner gave no fruit.
In 1899, 1 cluster covered in like manner produced a well-formed
cluster made up entirely of small, seedless fruits.

Hercules pollinated with Brighton.— Two clusters were tested
in a ‘Station vineyard, one of which set no fruit, the other was
filled with seedless fruits like the cluster described in the last
paragraph.

Hercules pollinated with Columbian Imperial.— Five clusters
in a Station vineyard were tested. They were rated 20, 30, 30,
40, 50, respectively, averaging 36.

Hercules pollinated with Eaton.— Five clusters in a Station
vineyard were tested. They were rated 0, 0, 30, 70, 70, respec-
tively, averaging 36.

Hercules as a fertilizer.— Hercules was tried as a fertilizer for
Barry. See page 370.

JEFFERSON.

Jefferson self-pollinated.— In 1893, 3 clusters of Jefferson were
kept covered during the blooming season. They rated on the
average about 95. In 1894, 4 clusters likewise tested were rated
0, 100, 100, 100, respectively, averaging 75. In 1899, 7 clusters
were covered on a vine which afterwards appeared to be not in
a satisfactory condition for testing. These clusters were rated
20, 20, 25, 45, 45, 60, 60, respectively, averaging 39.3. From
these tests it appears that Jefferson is strongly self-fertile when
the vine is in good condition.

Jefferson as a fertilizer.— Pollen from the vine which in 1899
made the record which is given in the preceding paragraph, was
tried on Brighton. See page 373.

LINDLEY.

Lindley self-pollinated.— In 1894, 10 clusters of Lindley, which

were kept covered during the blooming season, set no fruit. In

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 379

1895, 9 clusters and in 1897, 25 clusters, which were lkewise
covered, set no fruit. In another locality, of 25 clusters which
were likewise tested in 1897, 24 were rated 0, and 1 rated 40.
. Average rating 1.6. In view of these tests, Lindley may be called
practically self-sterile.

The following tests with Lindley in 1899 were made at Penn
Yan:

Iindley pollinated with Merrimack.— Three clusters which
were tested produced no fruit.

Inndley pollinated with Salem.— Five clusters which were
tested gave no fruit.

Lindley pollinated with Brighton.— Three clusters which were
tested were rated 0, 0, 12, respectively, average rating 4.

Lindley pollinated with Catawba.— Five clusters which were
tested were rated 40, 40, 55, 85, 95, respectively. Average rat-
ing 63.

Inndley pollinated with Worden.— Five clusters which were
tested were rated 0, 50, 100, 100, 100, respectively. Average rat-
ing 70.

Lindley pollinated with Niagara. Five clusters which were
tested were rated 40, 70, 90, 90, 95, respectively, averaging 77.

Inndley as a fertilizer.— Several tests were made with Lindley
as a fertilizer for self-sterile sorts. The results are given in
detail for Brighton, Eldorado, Herbert, Merrimack and Salem
under the several discussions of these varieties.

MERRIMACK.

Merrimack self-pollinated.— In 1892, 2 clusters which were
tested, gave no fruit. In 1895, 10 clusters; in 1897, 23 clusters,
and in 1899, 3 clusters, which were likewise tested, gave no fruit.
From these tests it appears that Merrimack is completely self-
sterile.

The following tests with Merrimack were made at Penn Yan:

Merrimack pollinated with Salem.— Five clusters which were
tested, were rated 0, 0, 0, 0, 4, respectively. Average rating 0.8.

380 Report or tHe HorvricuLrurist oF THE

Merrimack pollinated with Brighton— Four clusters which
were tested, were rated 0, 0, 0, 35, respectively. Average rating
8.8.

Merrimack pollinated with Lindley.— Four clusters which were .
tested, were rated 0, 15, 15, 98, respectively. Average rating 32.

Merrimack pollinated with Catawba.— Three clusters which
were tested, were rated 90, 90, 95, respectively. Average rating
91.7.

Merrimack pollinated with Niagara.— Four clusters which
were tested, were rated 95, 95, 95, 100, respectively. Average
rating 96.3.

Merrimack pollinated with Worden.— Four clusters which were
tested, were rated 90, 98, 100, 100, respectively. Average rat-
ing 97.

Merrimack as a fertilizer— Several tests were made with
Merrimack as a fertilizer for self-sterile sorts. The results are
given in detail under the discussions of Brighton, Herbert, Lind-
ley and Salem.

NEOTAR.

Nectar self-pollinated.— In 1894, 6 of the 9 clusters which
were kept covered during the blooming season were rated 0, 2
rated 2 and 1 rated 4, averaging 0.9 per cluster. In 1899, 2
clusters which were likewise tested, rated 80, 100, averaging 90.
Further testing is needed to determine whether or not Nectar is
strongly self-fertile.

Nectar as a fertilizer.— It was tried‘as a fertilizer for Brighton.
See page 372.

NIAGARA.

Niagara self-pollinated— In 1892, 10 clusters of Niagara,
which were kept covered during the blooming season, gave perfect
clusters, which rated from 97 to 100. In 1897, of 23 clusters
at Penn Yan, which were likewise tested, 1 was rated 40, 5 rated
60, 3 rated 70, 9 rated 80, 8 rated 90, and 2 rated 100, respec-
tively, averaging 75.7. Twelve clusters tested at Branchport were

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTion. 3881

rated 30, 40, 50, 60, 60, 60, 70, 80, 80, 80, 80, 100, averaging
65.8.

In 1899, 16 Niagara clusters at Highlands were likewise tested.
They were rated 85, 90, 90, 90, 93, 93, 93, 95, 95, 98, 100, 100,
100, 100, 100, 100, respectively, averaging 95.1. At Penn Yan,
20 clusters which were likewise tested, were rated 65, 80, 88, 90,
90, 90, 95, 95, 95, 95, 95, 98, 98, 98, 98, 98, 98, 100, 100, 100,
respectively, averaging 93.3.

Taking all these tests into consideration it appears that gen-
erally Niagara is strongly self-fertile.

Niagara as a fertilizer.— Several tests were made with Niagara
as a fertilizer for self-sterile sorts. The results in detail are given
under Aminia, Brighton, Eldorado, Herbert, Lindley, Merri-
mack and Salem.

ROCHESTER.

Rochester self-pollinated.— In 1894, 10 clusters of Rochester,
which were kept covered during the blooming season, all gave
very compact and perfect clusters of fruit. One cluster, which
was likewise tested in 1899, gave a perfect cluster of fruit, rated
at 100. From these tests it appears that Rochester is perfectly
self-fertile.

Rochester as a fertilizer—It was tried as a fertilizer for
Brighton. See page 373.

SALEM.

Salem self-pollinated.— In 1892, 10 clusters of Salem, which
were kept covered during the blooming season, set no fruit. In
1897, 23 clusters in one locality, and 5 clusters in another, which
were likewise tested, gave no fruit. From these tests it appears
that Salem is completely self-sterile.

The following tests with Salem were made in 1899 at Penn
Yan:

Salem pollinated with Brighton.— Three clusters which were
tested produced no fruit.

Salem pollinated with Herbert.— Five clusters which were
tested gave no fruit.

382 Report or tHe HorricuLrurist OF THE

Salem pollinated with Merrimack.— Four clusters which were

tested gave no fruit.
Salem pollinated with Lindley.— Four clusters which were

tested were rated 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, respectively. Average rating 0.4.

Salem pollinated with Catawba.— One cluster which was tested
was rated 4. The test should be repeated and a large number of
clusters tried before drawing conclusions on the value of Catawba
as a fertilizer for Salem. Catawba gave similar results when used
with Eldorado. See page 376.

Salem pollinated with Worden.— Five clusters which were
tested were rated 60, 90, 95, 100, 100. Average rating 89.

Salem pollinated with Niagara.— Five clusters which were
tested were rated 95, 95, 100, 100, 100. Average rating 98.

Salem as a fertilizer.— Several tests were made with Salem
as a fertilizer for self-sterile sorts. The results are given in de-
tail under Brighton, Eldorado, Herbert, Lindley and Merrimack.

STATION 125.

Station 125 self-pollinated.— In 1899, 10 clusters of Station
125 were kept covered during the blooming season. They all gave
perfect clusters, the average rating being 100. Station 125 is
a white seedling of Winchell, fertilized with Diamond.

Station 125 as a fertilizer— It was tried as a fertilizer for

Brighton. See page 373.
STATION 146.

- Station 146 is a male vine, a seedling of Winchell fertilized
by a wild vine of Vitis bicolor Le Conte. It is, therefore, a
hybrid of V. labrusca by V. bicolor. It was tried as a fertilizer

for Brighton. See page 372.

STATION 156.
Station 156 is also a male vine having the same parentage as:
Station 146 which is given in the preceding paragraph. It was
used as a fertilizer for Brighton. See page 372.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 383

VERGENNES.

Vergennes self-pollinated.— In 1894, 10 clusters which were
kept covered during the blooming season gave clusters of fruit
which on the average were about as well filled and as compact as
ordinary Concords. In 1897, 22 clusters which were tested at
Penn Yan were rated 0, 0, 20, 30, 30, 30, 40, 40, 40, 40, 50, 50,
50, 50, 50, 60, 60, 60, 60, 60, 70, 90, respectively, averaging 44.5.
At Branchport 5 clusters which were likewise tested, were rated
0, 0, 40, 40,40. They averaged 24.

In 1899, 8 clusters were tested in a Station vineyard. They
rated 70, 70, 70, 75, 80, 80, 85, 90, respectively, avéraging 77.5.
On another vine which has stood in uncultivated ground and has
repeatedly been overloaded with fruit, 9 clusters were also tested.
These rated 0, 0, 0, 2, 65, 75, 85, 88, 95, respectively, and
averaged 45.6.

From these tests it appears that Vergennes is not always
strongly self-fertile.

Vergennes as a fertilizer—It was tried as a fertilizer for
Brighton. See page 372.

WORDEN.

Worden self-pollinated.— In 1894, 10 clusters of Worden which
were kept covered during the blooming season gave clusters which
varied from perfect or nearly so to somewhat loose, averaging
somewhat loose. In 1895, 9 clusters which were tested were per-
fectly filled with fruit. In 1897, 23 clusters in a Station vine-
yard were tested ; 2 clusters were rated 80, 4 rated 90 and 17 rated
100, respectively, averaging 96.5. At Penn Yan, of 20 clusters
which were tested, 2 were rated 80, 7 rated 90 and 11 rated 100,
respectively, averaging 94.5. At Branchport 5 clusters which
were tested were rated 80, 80, 80, 90, 90, respectively, averag-
ing 84.

In 1899, 6 clusters in a Station vineyard which were likewise
tested were rated 90, 90, 95, 100, 100, 100, respectively, and
averaged 95.8. At Highlands, of 24 clusters which were tested,

3 were rated 75, 83 and 85, respectively, and 3 were rated 88, 8

384 Report oF THE HorrTICULTURIST OF THE

rated 90, 5 rated 95, 2 rated 98 and 8 rated 100, respectively,
averaging 93.7. At Penn Yan 20 clusters were likewise tested.
Seven of these were rated 75, 90, 90, 95, 95, 95 and 98, re-
spectively, and 13 were rated 100. The average was 96.9.

From these tests it appears that Worden, generally, is strongly
self-fertile.

Worden as a fertilizer.— Several tests were made with Wor-
den as a fertilizer for self-sterile sorts. The results in detail are
given under Aminia, Black Eagle, Brighton, Eldorado, Herbert,
Lindley, Merrimack and Salem.

WYOMING.

Wyoming self-pollinated.— In 1896, 10 clusters of Wyoming
which were kept covered during the blooming season gave no fruit.
In 1899, 4 clusters which were likewise tested at the Station were
rated 0, 0, 0, 4, respectively. Average rating 1. At Highlands
13 clusters were kept covered during the blooming season. Twelve
of them set no fruit. The remaining cluster was well filled. It
was on a shoot which had been bent in tying it to the trellis so
that the fiow of sap was somewhat checked. Before it had been
rated it was taken by other parties. It would probably rank as
high as 90. On the same vines the uncovered clusters which were
exposed during the blooming season to cross-pollination were often
well-filled, but sometimes loose and quite imperfectly filled clusters
were found.

At Highlands 6 clusters were hand-pollinated’ with Wyoming
pollen taken from a vine in a Station vineyard. They rated 0, 0,
5, 10, 25, 90, respectively. Average rating 21.6.

In view of all of these tests, it appears, that although Wyom-
ing may sometimes produce a small amount of fruit when self-
pollinated, for all practical purposes it may be ranked as self-

sterile.
The following tests were made in 1899 with Wyoming at High- -

lands:

7 See foot note page 369.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 385

Wyoming pollinated with Aminia.— Four clusters which were
tested, were rated 0, 0, 0, 8, respectively. Average rating 2.

Wyoming pollinated with Brighton.— Six clusters which were
tested, were rated 0, 0, 0, 0, 22, 50, respectively. Average rat-
ing 12.

Wyoming pollinated with Catawba.— One cluster which was
tested formed a perfect cluster of fruit. It was rated 100.

Wyoming as a fertilizer.— It was tried as a fertilizer on two
self-sterile sorts, Aminia, page 369, and Brighton, page 371.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS.

In the following summary of the results of the investigation
the data which have been given on preceding pages are arranged
in Table II with reference to the ability of each variety to fertilize
the self-sterile sorts upon which it was tried as compared with its
ability to fertilize itself, and in Table III with reference to the
varying degrees of fruitfulness which the self-sterile varieties ex-
hibit when they are supplied with pollen from various varieties,
some of which are more or less self-sterile and others self-fertile.

Explanation of tables— The x between two names indicates
that the variety following the x was used in pollinating the variety
whose name appears before the x. Thus, Brighton x Aminia in-
dicates that the Brighton clusters were pollinated with Aminia
pollen in the manner described on page 364. The rating is on the
scale of 100 points as previously explained, a perfectly formed
and perfectly filled cluster ranking 100. The average rating is
shown graphically and the number of tested clusters upon which
the average is based is also stated. The highest rating which any
single cluster in the test received is also given.

“ Self-pollinated ” indicates that the tested clusters were simply
kept covered in paper bags during the blooming season. Some-
times the self-pollination was performed by hand, pollen from
another vine of the same kind being applied in the manner de-
scribed in the foot-note, page 369. Such tests are marked “ hand

pollinated ” in the table.
25

386 Report or tHe HorvricuLrurist OF THE

TABLE II.— CoMPARATIVE FRUITAGE WITH DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF GRAPES
TRIED AS FERTILIZERS FOR SELF-STERILE Sorts.

éule| 2
VARIETIES TESTED. bai 2 3 Graphic representation of average
orl ee & rating.
3 o 2 oo
EB) @| 5
ae se pee
Aminia as a fertilizer:
Self-pollinated.........- al Or uO,
Self-pollinated.......... She fees Ue LG to
Self-pollinated...... ... 6 OF) 30.
Self-pollinated.......... 10 | 12./ 1.2/-
Brighton x Aminia..... Tl 2s) 028i
Wyoming x Aminia..... 4.8.) Bae
Black Eagle as a fertilizer:
Self-pollinated... ...... SiON THO:
Self-pollinated.........- WO EN W,
Barry x Black Eagle ...| 5 | 0./] 0.
Eumelan x Black Hagle..| 2 0 0.
Brighton as a fertilizer:
Self-pollinated ......... i ae i a 8
Self-pollinated.........- Des OninOx
Self-pollinated.......... Fo DN Oy
Self-pollinated.........- Bit Onl iOe
Self-pollinated.......... 28 | 4.] 0.2)
Self-pollinated......... 25 | 10.| 0.4) 3
Self-pollinated*......... 5] 4.| 0.8.
Self-pollinated*. .. ..../ 10 | 15.) 2.1)—
Self-pollinated... ...... 5 | 10.) 6.0) samme
Black Eagle x Brighton.| 4] 0.| 0.0
Eldorado x Brighton....} 5] 0.| 0.0
Herbert x Brighton..... 1 0.| 0.0
Salem x Brighton....... BalenOal 2030
Aminia x Brighton. ...| 6} 10.; 1.7/-=
Lindley x Brighton...... 3 | 12.) 4.0|/——
Merrimack x Brighton..| 4 | 35./ 8.8) ==
Wyoming x Brighton...| 6 | 50.] 12.0) —__omsoos
Hercules x Brightont...| 2 | ? ?
Catawba as a fertilizer:
Self-pollinated........ pa| he eee ey
Self-pollinated...... eee) 16 [100.| 81, 9) aetna
Self-pollinated.......... 22 | 90.) 85. 0) eens ee
Self-pollinated.......... 87 |100.| 89). 9 | eens
Self-pollinated seer eeeeee 24 | 98.) 85, 5) enue ens on SSS
Self-pollin atedztateuigs: 17 95. | 86. 1 | nesses Sco SS
Eldorado x Catawba... 4/ 2.| 0.5).
Salem x Catawba....... fh | ah ara Oles >
Lindley miCatawbar.e. o. 5 | 95 O00) cacao ca

* Hand-pollinated.

t+ See page 378.

+ The clusters were perfect, or nearly so, but were not rated on the scale of
100 points.

New Yorx AgricutturaL Experiment Station. 387

+
TABLE II — Continued.

VARIETIES TESTED.

Number of clusters
under test

Brighton x Catawba....| 8
Brighton x Catawba... 5

Aminia x Catawba...... 4
Merrimack x Catawba..| 3
Herbert x Catawba..... 2

Wyoming x Catawba...| 1
Columbian Imperial as a

fertilizer :
Self-pollinated.......... 8
Hercules x Colum. Imp.| 5
Creveling as a fertilizer:
Self-pollinated........ 5
Self-pollinated...... : 5
Self-pollinated ... ... 5
Brighton x Creveling...; 7
Eaton as a fertilizer:
Self-pollinated.......... 10
Self-pollinated ......... 6
Hercules x Eaton....... 5
Eldorado as a fertilizer :
Self-pollinated.......... 5
Self-pollinated .......... 10
Self-pollinated ......... 23
Self-pollinated ... .. 4

Herbert x Eldorado....| 4
Brighton x Eldorado ...| 4

Eumelan as a fertilizer:

Self-pollinated ..... ... 10
Self-pollinated.......... 9
Self-pollinated.......... 3
Self-pollinated ee

Herbert as a fertilizer :
Seilf-pollinated.........
Self-pollinated —.....
Self pollinated ... ....
Salem x Herbert.......
Eldorado x H. rbert....
Brighton x Herbert....

Hercules as a fertilizer :
<Self-pollinated.......... 4
Self-pollinated.......... 10
1
5

He OT OTS O19

Self-pollinated . .....
Barry x Hercules. ....

| Highest rating

on
a
3 Graphic representation of average
2 rating.
Be
i]
om
o
>
4
4 4 4 ‘S00 A EE ee
80 = 0 (SUT Pe RK
89. O) ese re re SSS
91 e q ST 2 ee EE eS
100 . CTT eS ES |

oo°oo
oocoe

we
ao°&
— = —)

aocoococeo
woococe

2
oroceo
(Ks

[~]
aoococoo
Soaoaa

* One good cluster well filled, but all fruits seedless,

88

Report or tHe HorricuntTurist OF THE

TABLE II — Continued.

VARIETIES TESTED.

Jefferson as a fertilizer :
Self-pollinated
Self-pollinated..........
Self-pollinated
Brighton x Jefferson...

Lindley as a fertilizer :
Self-pollinated..........
Self-pollinated
Self-pollinated
Self-pollinated
Eldorado x Lindley
Herbert x Lindley
Salem x Lindley
Brighton x Lindley
Merrimack x Lindley ...

Merrimack as a fertilizer :
Self- pollinated
Self-pollinated
Self-pollinated
Self-pollinated
Salem x Merrimack. ...
Lindley x Merrimack ...
Herbert x Merrimack ...
Brighton x Merrimack ..

Nectar as a fertilizer:
Self-poilinated
Self-pollinated
Brighton x Nectar

Niagara as a fertilizer :
Self-pollinated
Self-pollinated
Self-pollinated
Self-pollinated
Self- pollinated
Aminia x Niagara. ....
Brighton x Niagara.....
Brighton x Niagara. ...
Eldorado x Niagara.....
Lindley x Niagara
Merrimack x Niagara...
Salem x Niagara. .....
Herbert x Niagara

Rochester as a fertilizer :
Self-pollinated
Self-pollinated
Brighton x Rochester..

Hare ate ees

es

"es peeeeecoes

er

seer eeraes

eee wees

- ee erase eee

ee

ss eee

eee ereee

ceoeeoseens

Numbe-: of clusters ||
under test.

| Highest rating.

—

Cc —

Average rating.

SOs 3
He CO OT UT

ies)
oo wonocoeorcoeo
o2aoood oS co,

~

elevee

Graphic representation of average
rating.

=~

New York AGricuLttruraL ExprerIMent Station. 389

Tassie Il — Continued.
n
E
w~| 8 2 ic representation of avera
VARIETIES TESTED. 85 E : Graphic rep ceayiett erage
2e| ¢ es
Aa hl Re
Salem as a fertilizer :
S:lf-pollinated .........| 10} 0.) 0.0
Self-pollinated ......... 201 Os" 1050
Self-pollinated......... Bul OB ORO
Lindley x Salem........ Dal Oa 1020
Herbert x Salem........ 4 0.| 0.0
Brighton x Salem....... 4; 0.) 0.0
Eldorado x Salem ...... 5 2.| 0.4\=
Merrimack x Salem..... 5 4 0.8=
Station 125 as a fertilizer :
Self-pollinated..:....... 10 [100 100 0 ——— ee se
Brighton x Station 125...) 5/100.) 90,0 —————_——_—_esee
Station 146 as a fertilizer:
Brighton x Station 146..| 4 | 60.) 21.3)—_——___
Station 156 as a fertilizer :
Brighton x Station 156..| 4 |100.) 69 , 3) o—=nsscassssssssssssseascssse
Vergenues as a fertilizer :
Self-pollinated ......... LOisliiesh lhe tee
Self-pollinated ..... ... Q2 | GOL) 44, Fee
Seif-pollinated.......... 5 | 40.) 24. 0) emerson
Self-pollinated igs ita at aed (a 8 90. Thr 5 TS
Self-pollinated .. ..... 9 | 99.) 45. 6 |e sss
Brighton x Vergennes ..| 7 |100.) 53. 9) --_nescessssse==ssrss
Worden as a fertilizer: 4
Self-pollinated ......... 10
Self pollinated...... .. 9 100 1 0, | ae A
Self-pollinated bee gr 2'st ae yy 93 100, 96.5 ER SE
Self-pollinated.......... QO LOO.) G4, 5 | en SY
Self-pollinated ..... .. 5 | 90 | 94, 0) eee SD
Self pollinated ain otek e inte oho 6 100. 95.8 RE Ss I
Self-poilinated EP SALE 94 100. 93.7 EE
Seif-p llinated — ...... 20 | 100.) 96, 9 | ete SS
Black Kagle x Worden..| 1 On. 2-0
Flidorado x Worden ....| 5 | 95.| 65. 0| cesses
Lindley x Worden...... 5 100. | 70, 0) eaten
Brighton x Worden..... 4 N00 | 76, (| cee
Brighton x Worden.... 8 | NS.) 77. 0) anette
Aminia x Worden ...... 2 | 88.) RS. 0) | eee SSS
Salem 4 Worden 5» Ee es 5 109. 9.0 PO ERA TA I oh a
Merrimack > 4 Worden. We 4 100, 97 0 a
Herbert x W orden aoe eae 5 100. 97 0 LS PE TE TS TST
Wyoming as a fertilizer :
Self-pollinated...... ... 10] 0.) 0.0
Self-pollinated ......... 4 41° 1.0)=
Self-pollinated |... ... 18] Nara
Self-pollinated ..... ...| 6 | 90.| 216°
Brighton x Wyoming...| 6] 2.| 0.3
Aminia x Wyoming... 5 | 20.) 4.0/—

* But one cluster produced fruit, and that was gathered by grape pickers

before it had been rated. Its rating was somewhere between 80 and 100, mak-

ing the average between 6.1 and 7.7.

390 Report oF THE HorTICcULTURIST OF THE

By consulting the above table it is seen that Brighton and
Wyoming when pollinated with the self-sterile variety, Aminia,
were practically sterile and gave no better results than are ob-
tained when they are self-pollinated. Black Eagle succeeded no
better than Aminia as a fertilizer. It was tried on the self-sterile
varieties, Barry and Eumelan. Brighton was not more effective
in fertilizing the self-sterile sorts, Black Eagle, Eldorado, Her-
bert, Salem, Aminia and Lindley than in fertilizing itself.
Slightly better results were obtained when it was tried on Merri-
mack and Wyoming, but nothing that would encourage the use of
Brighton as a fertilizer for self-sterile sorts. Creveling, which is
self-sterile, failed to fertilize Brighton. Eldorado, which is self-
sterile, gave no results which would encourage its use as a fer-
tilizer for self-sterile sorts, and the same is true of the other self-
sterile varieties, Hercules, Herbert, Lindley, Merrimack, Salem
and Wyoming. Occasionally the use of a self-sterile variety as a
pollinizer for otker self-sterile kinds would result in the develop-
ment of a good cluster as happened when Brighton was pollinated
with Merrimack and again with Herbert, but even in such cases
failure was the rule rather than the exception.

On the other hand, the use of self-fertile varieties as fertilizers
for the self-sterile sorts generally was attended with good results,
as may be seen by examining the records of such varieties as
Catawba, Worden and Niagara and Station 125. When certain
varieties which are not strongly self-fertile, were tried as fertilizers
for self-sterile sorts they generally succeeded in about the same
degree as they commonly do in fertilizing themselves. This point
is illustrated in the record of the tests with Eaton, Nectar and
Vergennes.

IS FAILURE IN SETTING FRUIT USUALLY DUE TO IMPERFECT PISTILS
OR TO IMPERFECT OR IMPOTENT POLLEN 4

It is instructive to study the results of these investigations with

reference to their bearing upon the question whether the failure

to set fruit which has been observed among the self-sterile and the

imperfectly self-fertile varieties may generally be attributed to

weakness of the pistils or to imperfect or impotent pollen.. In

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 391

order to facilitate the study of the evidence on this point, which
was obtained in the 1899 investigation, the data are arranged in
Table III so as to show in each case the results which follow the
use of various kinds of pollen upon the pistils of one variety.

TABLE IJI.— CoMPARATIVE FRUITAGE OF GRAPES FROM USING THE POLLEN OF
DIFFBRENT VARIETIES UPON THE SAME SELF-STERILE VARIETIES.

= n
2 s
‘3 © na .
eg Se poltyits
Varieties Tested. 2 = 3 Varieties tested. ae 3
Sek wilini' ee nents
ay wae atte BS doocenalle
he © f° ih S
5 = > . = = >
a 8) < a 8) <j
Aminia,1 pollinated Brighton, __ pollin-
by: ated by:
Brighton *...... + GQ Levine Herbert: |. .2i22 <4 4 75 28.0
Wyoming ae | Dee AMO} ee NeCLaT)” ., drenract 9 75. 40.0
INAS ATA ic.) : - L. | <SOssaeS0=0l) av ervenness-:.- 1 POOH! 559
Worden ... 2... SBE 888.0) Jeltersouy ss. eu OOsten O40
Catawba : 4 90. 89.0; Station 156.... 4 100. 69.3
Barry,2 pollinated Rochester 5) 100: 72.0
by: Catawba 8 95. 74.4
bitte, - Ac scene 2 0. 0.0 Catawba <2)... 5 L00N* 8070
Di a's Jee eee 10 0. 0.0 Worden . 255-2 et LOO MGs
Ebi y Pe poomae 8 0. 0.0 Worden! .; “Seeeuemoe Sh Ser 0
Black Eagle .... 0 0. 0.0| "Niagara .. 02. 5 100. 52.5
Herenles: >... 2 5 0. 0.0 Niagara’! .. Sac oO SS oot
Black Eagle? pol- station® 1257.2. 1) 5--100249'30"0
linated by: Eldorado,6 _ pollin-
Brightont ... 4 0. 0.0) ated by:
Worden4 0. 0.0| Brighton ...... 5 0. 0.0
Brighton,5 _ pollin- : 155 du> 1a oe Be 5 Ogre UO
ated by: Bandley. (251.2): - - 5 0. 0.0
Creveling 7 0. 0.0 Salem ... none | eo 2: 0.4
PURIST re syct oie + 0. 0.0 Catawba ...... 4 2. 0.5
PASTAS TEI ate) 0.1512 31> 7 2, 0.3 Worden oyssc. seis 5 95. 65.0
Wyoming ...... 6 2. OFS.) —Niapara’ ese 2 & -100. “76:0
Landleve cio. «i. 4 « 30, 2.0| Eumelan,7 _ pollin-
Eldorado ....... Sicha 5.2 ated by:
Station 146 .. 4 60. 21.3] Black Eagle .... 2 0. 0.0
Merrimack ..... 4 100. 25.0

—

1 For results from self-pollinated Aminia, see page 386.

2The clusters of Barry which were open to cross-pollination in a mixed
vineyard, were finely formed and well developed. This was true of the vine
on which the tests with Black Eagle and Hercules were made.

3 The summary of results with Black, Eagle self-pollinated are given on page
386.

4On the vine which was used for these tests, the clusters of Black Eagle
which were open to cross-pollination, were often well filled, yet many were
quite imperfectly filled.

5 The records of self-pollinated Brighton are summarized on page 386.

6 The records of self-pollinated Eldorado are summarized on page 387.

7 The records of self-pollinated Eumelan are summarized on page 387.

B 5B
na . . n j . .
ch ee Wee) saa 2
Varieties tested. «8 3 i Varieties Tested. «2 “ % $
© 5, B A On, Ke a)
a) 2 © 2 ‘p' Py
oder Buin i
ais =A o ibe a 3S
5 = > 5 8, Bs
A 3) a A ht 4
Herbert,8 pollin- Merrimack,11 _pol-
ated by: linated by:
IBTIS REO «fess oie 1 0. 0.0 Salemy,. 4 sens 5 4. 0.8
Kidorado ...... + 0. 0.0 Brighton . hf. 4 35. 8.8
Lindley 5 0. 0.0 Hindley; «5 eis. 4 08. 13250
Merrimack 5 0. 0.0} Catawba ...... - 3 96. ie
SEG as Berea ge O27 020 Niagara . 4 1000) Sebre
Worden ..... 5 100. 97.0 Worden) .<.. secre 4 100. 97.0
Wiagara 02... 4 100. 98.8] Salem,12 pollinated
Catawba sie/s) et hoe LOOK LOOZO by:
Hercules,9 _—pollin- BES HCO fo «oie 0. 0.0
ated by: Ilerbenth: 22th. ot 5 0. 0.0
Brichton <5... 2 9.2 * ie Merrimack a 0. 0.0
Columbian Im- Taindileya .) 2218 s,.1014 5 2. 0.4
DODANE raseke | ba D en Oke OOO Catawba ....... 1 4. 4.0
HMatOMH Es /.a0 cise. -O0E4 LO 1 COON NV OLGeHE cl erates 5 . 100); +5890
Lindley,1° _ pollin- Niagara .......2| (6) 20O0te idea
ated by: Wyoming,13 pollin-
Merrimack 3 0. 0.0 ated by:
Sailemuge ys stiactels 5 0. 030)|() PAtminzay ee sera 4 8. 2.0
IBTIGhtOn eae ss sO ee 4.0 Brighton +5... 6. 50;-cgle70
Catawba ...... Sa Ob weeGse0 Catawba ....... 1 100. 100.0
Worden? .. .¢....,. 5; 10045078050
TAA A C21) Ache fons Bio 9b. et 0

TABLE III — Continued.

Report or tHe HorricuLrurist oF THE

An examination of the results which are summarized in Table

III, shows that Aminia gave scarcely any fruit when fertilized
with the imperfectly self-fertile sorts, Brighton and Wyoming,
but fruited freely when fertilized with the self-fertile sorts,
Niagara, Worden and Catawba. Barry gave no fruit when polli-
nated with either Black Eagle or Hercules, but clusters which
were open to cross-pollination in a mixed vineyard, were well-filled

with fruit.

8 The records of self-pollinated Herbert are summarized on page 387.

9 The records of self-pollinated Hercules are summarized on page 387.

10 The records of self-pollinated Lindley are summarized on page 388.

11 The records of self-pollinated Merrimack are summarized on page 388.
12 The records of self-pollinated Salem are summarized on page 389.

18 The records of self-pollinating Wyoming are summarized on page 389.

PLATE XXXIV.—BRIGHTON FERTILIZED BY DIFFERENT VARIETIES.

1. BY SALEM. 2. By CREVELING. 3. BY LINDLEY. 4. BY BRIGHTON. 5. SELF-
POLLINATED. 6. BY NECTAR. 7. BY JEFFERSON. 8. By NIAGARA.
9. By WORDEN. 10. BY VERGENNES. 11. BY ROCHESTER.

PLATE XXXV.—HERBERT FERTILIZED BY DIFFERENT VARIETIES.

1. By NIAGARA. 2. BY WORDEN. 3. BY CATAWBA. 4. BY HERBERT. 5. BY BRIGHTON.
6. By MERRIMACK. 7. BY ELDORADO. 8. BY LINDLEY. 9. By SALEM.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 393

Brighton gave little fruit or none when fertilized with the self-
sterile or imperfectly self-fertile kinds, Creveling, Salem, Aminia,
Wyoming, Lindley, Eldorado, Merrimack and Herbert. The use
of varieties having a higher degree of self-fertility gave corre-
spondingly better results as is shown in the records of Nectar,
Vergennes and Jefferson, while the use of strongly self-fertile
kinds for fertilizers gave more perfect clusters of fruit as is shown
by the records of Rochester, Catawba, Worden, Niagara and Sta-
tion 125.

Results corresponding to those given above were obtained with
the different classes of varieties which were tried as fertilizers on
Eldorado, Eumelan, Herbert, Hercules, Lindley, Merrimack,
Salem and Wyoming. So far as these tests are concerned, they
support the theory that the failure of self-sterile or imperfectly
self-fertile grapes in setting fruit is not generally due to imper-
fect development of the pistils because when they are supplied
with pollen from strongly self-fertile grapes they set fruit abun-
dantly. It has been observed that blossom buds of certain varie-
ties may in some cases drop off before the flowers open. It has
also been observed that when the vines are not in good condition
certain varieties which generally produce well-filled clusters of
perfect fruit may have a large proportion of imperfect clusters.
It appears, therefore, that failure in setting fruit may be due to
various causes, prominent among which is the lack of proper polli-
nation.

GRAPES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR BLOOM-
ING SEASON.

In selecting varieties of grapes to be used as fertilizers for
those kinds which are either self-sterile or imperfectly self-fertile,
it seems desirable to chose not only strongly self-fertile kinds,
but also kinds which come into blossom at the same time with
those which they are expected to fertilize. The following lists
have been arranged to show approximately the comparative sea-
son of blooming of the different varieties of grapes. The arrange-

394 Report or tHe HorricuLrurist oF THE

ment is based upon the records for a series of years of the bloom-
ing season of the varieties in the Station vineyards. A large part
of these records for the varieties named below were published in
Bulletin 157. In making the following lists the records for 1899
are also taken under consideration, and accordingly they do not
exactly correspond with those which were published in the popular
edition of Bulletin 157. The lists are arranged to show in parallel
columns the strongly self-fertile kinds on the one hand, and on
the other the imperfectly self-fertile and the self-sterile kinds.
In all tests which have been made as to their self-fertility, when
the vines were in normal condition, the former have on the average
given marketable clusters, while the latter have given on the
average either imperfectly filled clusters or none.

In grouping the varieties so as to show their relative blooming

season they have been classed as “ very early,” “

“ mid-season,” “ medium late,” “ late’

medium early,”

? and “very late.” These

14

lists do not show the relative season of ripening.“* There is no

marked line of separation between the groups below. Many of
the varieties extend their period of blooming into the period of
the next later group, so that it is not always necessary, in arrang-
ing the varieties for planting, to follow the classification rigidly.

TABLE 1V.— GRAPES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR BLOOMING SEASON.

[This table shows in parallel columns lists of grapes which bloom at ap-
proximately the same time. The names of strongly self-fertile kinds appear
on the left, and those of imperfectly self-fertile and self-sterile kinds, on the
right.]

STRONGLY SELF-FERTILE. SELF-STERILE AND IMPERFECTLY
SELF-FERTILE.
BLOOM VERY EARLY.

Clinton. Clevener.
Janesville. Marion.
Mary Favorite.

14 After Bulletin 157 was issued, several inquiries came to the Station, which
showed that some readers supposed that the lists therein given to show the
season of blooming, also indicated the relative time of ripening, but such is

not the case. Some of the very earliest in blooming, as, for example, the Clin-
ton, are late in ripening.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTion. 395

TABLE IV.— Continued.

SELF-STERILE AND IMPERFECTLY
SELF-FERTILE.

STRONGLY SELF-FERTILE.

BLOOM MEDIUM EARLY.

Bell. Beagle.
Berckmans. Elvibach.
Brown. Faith.
Canada. Helen Keller,
Caywood, No. 50. Noah.
Champion. Pearl.
Cottage. White Jewel.
Early Market. Woodruff.
Elvira,
Etta.
Eumedel.
Kensington.
Lucile.
Lutie.
Perkins.
Presley.
Ulster.

BLOOM MID-SEASON.
Alice. Adirondack.
Ambrosia, Alexander Winter.
Antoinette. Amber.
Arkansaw. Amber Queen.
Bertha. Aminia.
Chandler. Barry.
Chautauqua. Creveling.
Colerain. Daisy.
Columbian Imperial. Dracut Amber.
Concord. Eumelan.
Diana. Grein Golden.
Early Ohio. Herbert.
Early Victor. Hercules.
Esther. Jewel.e
Glenfeld. Juno.
Golden Grain. Lindley.
Hartford. Maxatawney.
Herald. Merrimack.
Highland. Montefiore.
Isabella. Northern Muscadine.
Isabella Seedling. Red Bird,
Jessica. Rogers No. 5.
Lady. Salem.

Lady Washington.

Thompson No. 5.

396 Report oF THE HorTICULTURIST OF THE

TABLE IV.— Continued.
BLOOM MID-SEASON — Continued.
STRONGLY SELF-FERTILE. SELF-STERILE AND IMPERFECTLY

SELF-FERTILE,

Leavenworth.
Lindmar,
Little Blue.
Mabel.
Martha.

Missouri Riessling.

Monroe.

Mills.

Moore Early.
Niagara,
Pocklington.
Prentiss.
Profitable.
Rochester.
Rockwood.
Rogers No. 13.
Rogers No. 24.
Rogers No. 382.

Shelby.
Shull No. 2.
Standard.
Superb.
Telegraph.
Victoria.
Winchell.
Worden.

BLOOM MEDIUM LATE,
Agawam. Aledo.
Brilliant. Black Eagle.
Catawba. Blanco.
Centennial. Brighton,
Delaware. Burnet.
Diamond. Canonicus.
Duchess. Denison.
Edmeston No. 1. Eldorado.
Empire State. Essex.
Hopican. Gertner.
Illinois City. Geneva.
Iona. Gold Dust.
Leader. Hayes.
Livingston. Massasoit.
Marvin Seedling. Norwood.

Mathilde.

Vergennes.
Wilder.
Wyoming.

Oneida.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 39%

TABLE IV — Concluded. 4
BLOOM MEDIUM LATE — Continued.
STRONGLY SELF-FERTILE. SELF-STERILE AND IMPERFECTLY
SELF-FERTILE.
Olita. Red Eagle.
Paradox. Requa.
Paragon. Roenbeck.
Poughkeepsie. Roscoe.
Rommel. Rustler.
Rutland. Thompson No. 7.
Wheaton.
Witt.
BLOOM LATE.
Big B. Con. America.
Collier (Dr.). Hexamer (Dr.).
Croton.
Early Golden.
Jefferson.
Metternich.
Norton.
Opal.
Senasqua.
Triumph.
BLOOM VERY LATE.
Bailey. Big Hope.
Big Extra.
Carman.
Elsinburg.

Fern Munson.
Hopkins.

COMMON DISEASES AND INSECTS
INJUBIOUS . TO. FRU ETRE

S. A. Beacu, V. H. Lows anv F. C. Stewart.

INTRODUCTION.

The purpose of this bulletin is to furnish the fruit-grower with
a concise account of the common diseases and insects most in-
jurious to cultivated fruits in New York State and to present up-
to-date directions for fighting them most efficiently and economi-
cally. The accompanying index makes it easy to find any subject
treated in the bulletin.

The preparation of spray mixtures and the apparatus for ap-
plying them are not treated here because they are discussed at
length in Bulletin 121 and its appendix. Both Bulletin 121 and
this bulletin should be preserved for reference.

The various fruits are taken up in alphabetical order and under
each one the diseases are first considered, then the insects. In the
consideration of each particular disease or insect, it is the general
plan of the bulletin to give first, one or more descriptive para-
graphs setting forth its general appearance, the chief features of
its life-history and its economic importance. Then follows a state-
ment of the remedial or preventive treatment which is recom-
mended or suggested by the authors. Where nothing can be posi-
tively recommended, suggestions are made, pointing out what ap-
pears to be the most promising line of treatment. Recommenda-
tions quoted from other authors are given on their authority.

In some instances it is possible to combat various diseases and
insects with one general line of treatment. In such cases thé

* Reprint of Bulletin No. 170.

New York AGRIcuLTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 3899

general treatment which is advocated is stated after the several

diseases and insects have received individual consideration.

APPLE DISEASES.
APPLE TREE CANKER.
(Sphaeropsis malorum Pk.)

The term canker, as applied to diseases of trees, is used to des-
ignate an injury that destroys the bark and lays bare portions of
wood. It has been discovered that a canker which is doing serious
damage to apple orchards of this State, is caused by the fungus,
Sphaeropsis malorum Pk. This is the same fungus that causes
the black rot of apple, pear and quince fruit. The disease usually
attacks the larger limbs where it may be detected by the swollen
appearance of the limbs, the rough, black bark, and in many in-
stances bare wood, black and decaying. The area of bare wood
is, in many instances, not large, but the extent of rough, swollen
bark may be several feet. The wounds and unhealthy bark inter-
fere with the circulation of the sap and where a majority of the
limbs are attacked the tree is greatly enfeebled and may die from
the effects.

Some varieties, as the Esopus Spitzenburg and Twenty Ounce,
are very susceptible to the attacks of this fungus, and many other
common sorts are by no means exempt.

Treatment.— No experiments in treating this disease have, as
yet, been completed; therefore, no definite line of treatment can
be given. The following suggestions are based on observations
and studies of the disease as it occurs in a large number of or-
chards: (1) Remove all diseased limbs wherever practicable.
(2) When spraying with Bordeaux mixture for apple scab pay
special attention to coating the limbs with the mixture as well as
the leaves and fruit. An earlier treatment given when the leaf-
buds are beginning to open may also be advisable. (3) In some
instances it will probably pay to scrape or cut the diseased bark
from the canker spots and scrape the rough bark from other por-

400 Report or tHE HorricuLrurRist OF THE

tions of the tree. The trunk and larger limbs may then be washed
with thick Bordeaux mixture or with one of the washes that are
recommended for this purpose. The following formula is given as

a type of these washes, as it contains the important ingredients:

WasuH For TREE TRUNKS.

Whale oll. soar ....%... {20 as SOP eee ethan tease ieee ote 1 pint.

SEN Oe Ua bh A pee A Ce ONE DIU ge ote ney 3 pints.

Winter. aeUr So. Be cee ee cinern ee ersieroe ly crerore ake aes, ae 4 gallons.

Wood Qahes: sins «sf saul tain beg oration sas To thicken as desired.

Dissolve the soap in hot water, then stir in the lime. When
the ingredients have been reduced to a smooth state by stirring,
dilute with water to four gallons, then stir in wood ashes till the
wash is of the desired consistency.

FIRE BLIGHT.

The same as the “ Fire Blight of the Pear” discussed on page

443,
FLY SPECK.
(Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sace.)

This disease, although commonly associated with sooty blotch,
on both apples and pears, is probably distinct from it. It appears
as groups of black dots resembling large fly specks. The specks
are not caused by any insect but by a fungus which, like the sooty
blotch fungus, is confined exclusively to the surface of the fruit.

The treatment for fly speck is the same as for sooty blotch.
See page 405.

LEAF-SPOT.
(Phyllosticta spp.)

Description.—This disease is caused by two very closely related
species of fungi. It attacks only the foliage. Very soon after
the buds break, the young leaves show small, reddish-brown spots.
As the leaves grow, the spots enlarge. When the leaves are full
grown the spots are brown, brittle, circular, with sharply defined
outline, and vary in diameter from one-twelfth to one-fourth of

New Yorx AcricutTuRAL EXPERIMENT Station. 401

an inch. In July, several black specks of the size of a small pin
head appear at the center of some of the spots, on the upper side
of the leaf. Many spots, however, never show the black specks.

Affected leaves fall prematurely. In severe attacks the trees
may be almost completely defoliated by July 1. The disease is
most troublesome in wet seasons. It is more prevalent on Long
Island and in the Hudson Valley than in other parts of the State.

Treatment.— Leaf-spot is only partially prevented by the treat-
ment recommended for scab. See page 404. Where the disease
is troublesome we suggest that this treatment be preceded by a
spraying with Bordeaux mixture (1-to-11 formula) just as the
buds show green at the tips.

RUST.
(Gymnosporangium spp. Syn. Roestelia spp.)

Description, etc.— Rust is a disease in which circular, orange-
colored spots about one-fourth of an inch in diameter appear on
the leaves in June. It also produces yellow spots on the fruit at
about the same time.

It may be caused by several species of fungi belonging to the
genus Gymnosporangium. ‘The species of this genus are peculiar
in that in one stage of their life cycle they live upon the apple
and some other closely related plants, while in another stage they
inhabit the red cedar and its relatives. Gymnosporangiwm macro-
pus is the most common cause of apple rust. Its other stage oc-
curs on the red cedar where it produces the so-called cedar apples.

In New England and some parts of the South apple rust is a
destructive disease, but in New York it is of rare occurrence ex-
cept on Long Island. Some varieties are attacked much more
severely than others. Rust should not be confused with russeting.

Treatment.— Rust is difficult to combat. Spraying seems to
check it but little. Since the red cedar harbors one stage of the
fungus which is the chief cause of rust, it is good policy to destroy,
so far as practicable, all red cedars in the vicinity of the orchard.

26

402 Report oF THE HorricuLTuRIST OF THE

RUSSETING AND BELTING OF FRUIT.

Description.— Both apples and pears are subject to a trouble
known as russeting or belting. It is sometimes also called rust,
but this name is objectionable because it leads to confusion with
the true apple rust discussed above which is a very different thing.

Fruits entirely sound and perfect in form may show areas on
which the skin is rough, brown and corky. These areas may be
irregular in outline, in which case the fruit is said to be rus-
seted, or they may form a definite zone around the fruit produc-
ing the condition known as belting.

Cause.— This trouble is not caused by any insect or fungus. It
is due to some irritation of the skin of the fruit, and may be
brought about in three principal ways:

(1) By the occurrence of long continued cloudy, wet weather
immediately after the setting of the fruit;

(2) By spraying with Bordeaux mixture during cloudy, wet
weather ;

(3) By the freezing of dew on the fruit while it is young and
tender. In this case the injured area usually takes the form of a
zone or belt.

No remedy is known.

SCAB.
(Venturia inequalis (Cke.) Aderh.*)

Description.— The worst disease with which the apple growers
apple
scab” or “cracking of the apple.” It is caused by a fungus
which attacks the skin of both foliage and fruit.

On the fruit the spots at first usually circular in outline

of this State have to contend is one commonly known as “

and have a very dark velvety-green surface, but afterwards they
become nearly or quite black. In some eases the diseased tissue
finally scales off leaving a scar with a corky, russet surface. The

1This is the name given to the ascosporic stage of Fusicladium dendriticum
{Wallr.) Fekl.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 408

spots vary in size from small dots to the large irregular patches
which are formed when two or more smaller spots coalesce.
Where the spots are large the fruit may become one sided or oth-
erwise distorted, and often it cracks open. For this reason the
disease is sometimes called “ the cracking of the apple.”

On the leaves the fungus has the appearance of a dark mold.
It is found in spots on both the upper and under surfaces. The
disease may cause the leaves to be much crumpled and finally
show brown, dead tissue which breaks away leaving the foliage
torn and ragged, or the entire leaf may drop off.

Some varieties are especially susceptible to its attacks, and it is
not unusual to see a very large proportion of their fruit badly
cracked by it. On the other hand, there are varieties which are
generally quite resistant, on which the scab spots increase com-
paratively slowly, and the cracking of the fruit is seldom or never
seen.

On the fallen leaves of the previous season, there develop, in
the spring, perithecia within which are perfected spores for the
propagation of the fungus.” The fungus is known to begin its
attacks very early in the season, for occasionally it may develop
sufficiently to be discovered by the naked eye on unopened blos-
som buds. In seasons especially favorable to its early develop-
ment it has been observed to cause great injury early in the sea-
son, destroying the blossoms and the young fruit. In order to
control the disease, therefore, it is important to begin treatment
early. It must be borne in mind that the treatment is effective
by preventing the germination of the spores rather than by kill-
ing the fungus after it has become established either on the foliage
or on the fruit.

Treatment.— The scab may be controlled by proper spraying
with Bordeaux mixture. Fortunately these treatments may be
combined with others which are advocated by the Entomologist

2 Aderhold, Dr. Rud. Die Fusicladien unserer Obstbiiume, I. Theil Landw.
Jahrbiicher, 25: 880-914, 1896.

404 Report or THE HortTicuLTURIST OF THE

against the case-bearers, bud moth, canker worm, codling moth
and other injurious insects. The combined treatment advocated
for scab, leaf-spot, canker disease, codling moth, canker worms,
and various other insects is given on page 417. As there stated,
the scab may generally be controlled by three applications of the
Bordeaux mixture if made at the proper time, and very thor-
oughly. Where but three treatments are given, the first spray-
ing should be made after the buds break but before the blossoms
open; the second, just after the blossoms fall; and the third, from
ten to fourteen days after the second.

Winter treatment for apple scab— Spraying for apple scab
while the buds are dormant has not been found profitable. The
later treatments advocated above must be made in order to control
the disease. When these are made the winter treatment does not
bring sufficient additional benefit to justify the expense of making
it against the scab alone, but it may pay when directed also
against the canker disease and combined with some application
which must be made against insects such as case-bearers or bud
moth.

It is known that the scab fungus lives during winter on the
fallen leaves and in the spring produces spores by means of which
it spreads to the new foliage. Probably it may exist during win-
ter to some extent on the bark of young twigs, also. Granting
that this is the case and that a large part of the fungus on the
tree is killed by winter treatment, which is improbable, it is evi-
dent that when the new foliage appears it must be covered with
some fungicide to protect it from the spores produced on the fallen
leaves. The fruit grower should direct his efforts toward prevent-
ing the germination of the fungus spores on the foliage, rather
than attempt to kill the fungus in winter quarters. The Bordeaux
mixture treatment is a preventive rather than a cure.

SCALD.

Stored fruit of some varieties of apples, notably Rhode Island
Greening, sometimes becomes discolored and presents an appear-

New York AGricuLTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 405

ance which is commonly called “scald.” It is not caused by any
fungus. Jones® has made some investigations concerning the cause
of scald. The following account is based on his reports.

Description.— The scald first appears as a light brownish tinge
of the skin either in fairly well defined spots or more or less dif-
fused. The discolored areas enlarge with more or less rapidity
coalescing until the entire surface of the apple may be involved.
At the same time the color changes from a lighter to a darker
brown shade and usually terminates in a black rot. At the begin-
ning of the trouble the flesh appears sound, the discoloration in-
volving only the outer cells of the fruit. Afterwards, the flesh
also becomes discolored and is finally invaded, in most cases, by
some fungus, but the primary cause of the scald cannot be attrib-
uted to any fungus or other parasite.

It appears certain that the primary cause of the scald is to be
found in climatic and orchard conditions, the conditions of the
storehouse being secondary. The fruit which is grown and
matured under favorable conditions can be carried through the
normal season of keeping for fruit of that variety without the
appearance of the scald. If grown under unfavorable conditions
the fruit requires very careful attention to the temperature and
perhaps other store-room conditions if it is kept for any length of
time without scalding.

SOOTY BLOTCH.
(Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sacc.)

Description, etc.—In wet seasons and especially in damp, shady
situations, apples are subject to the attacks of the fungus which
causes sooty blotches on the fruit. These blotches are sooty-
black, circular, and measure from one-fourth to one-half an inch
in diameter. Frequently the blotches coalesce, giving the fruit
a sooty, dirty appearance.

3 Jones, L. R. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rept. 1896-1897: 55-59 and 1897-
L898: 198. |

406 Report or rue HorricuLrurist OF THE

Sooty blotch is sometimes mistaken for scab. A striking point
of difference between the two diseases is the manner in which
they attack the fruit. Sooty blotch is confined to the surface of
the fruit and may be readily removed by rubbing, while the scab
destroys the cuticle ( outer layer of the skin) thus making a spot
which cannot be removed by rubbing.

Being superficial in its growth, the fungus does the fruit no
harm except to make it unsightly and, consequently, less salable.

Under favorable conditions sooty blotch may appear upon
almost any variety, but it seems to have a preference for some of
the fair skinned varieties such as Bellflower, Fall Pippin and
Rhode Island Greening. Pears, also, are subject to it.

Treatment.— In orchards sprayed for apple scab the fruit will
not, ordinarily, suffer much either from sooty blotch or the fly
speck disease. However, for the best results with both of these
diseases it seems necessary to make one or two sprayings in July
in addition to those made in treating apple scab.

APPLE INSECTS.
BORERS.

Several species of borers attack the apple tree. As a rule they
will be found in the trunk, but occasionally in the larger limbs.
A small species sometimes infests the twigs. The presence of the
grubs is usually indicated by the discolored bark and by their
castings. The following species are most commonly met with in
this State:

THE FLAT-HEADED APPLE-TREE BORER.
(Chrysobothris femorata Fab. )

Description.— The female beetle lays its eggs in the bark late in
June or in July. These hatch in a few days and the grubs at
once gnaw their way into the sap-wood where they live and feed
from one to three years before reaching full size. A short time
before pupation they go deeper into the solid wood. The adults

New Yorx AGricutTturaAL ExpERIMENT Sration. 407
’

are steel-colored beetles, flattened above and with irregular depres-
sions on the wing covers.

Treatment.— The trees should be examined at least once a year
and the borers dug out with a knife or killed by inserting a flexi-
ble wire into the burrows.

THE ROUND-HEADED APPLE-TREE BORER.
(Saperda candida Fab.)

Description.— The life-history of this species is similar to that
of the preceding except that the grub requires but about a year to
reach full growth. In both the grub and adult stages the body
is more nearly cylindrical in outline. The adult is prominently
marked by two broad, nearly parallel, white lines extending the
full length of the body.

Treatment.— The same as for the preceding species.

LEAF-EATING INSECTS.
THE APPLE-TREE TENT CATERPILLAR.
(Clisiocampa americana Harr.)

Description.—This tent caterpillar feeds upon a variety of fruit
. and other trees and is especially injurious to the apple. The eggs
are laid in July in conspicuous brown rings or masses about the
smaller twigs. The caterpillar is developed in the egg in the fall
but does not emerge from the egg shell till early in the following
spring. The caterpillars from each egg mass form a colony and
spin a tent in which they stay when they are not feeding on the
leaves of the tree.

After they are full grown, that is about five or six weeks after
hatching, they spin their cocoons. The adults, which are brown
moths, with two, oblique, parallel white lines on the fore pues
emerge in the latter part of June or early in July.

Treatment.— The egg masses may easily be gathered in winter
and burned. The caterpillars may be destroyed while in their

AOS Report or THE HorricuLturist oF THE

nests or by applying a poisonous spray to the foliage. It is easier
to kill the caterpillars by spraying when they are very small than
it after they have become large. It is important, therefore, to
make the first spraying just before the blossoms open because that
is about the time the caterpillars emerge from the egg. The co-
coons are quite conspicuous and their destruction will aid mate-
rially in lessening the numbers of females to lay eggs.

For further information relative to these insects and their near
relatives, the forest tent-caterpillars, which are sometimes injuri-
ous in orchards, consult Bulletins 152 and 159 of this Station.

BUD MOTH.
(T'metocera ocellana Schif.)

Description and life-history.— The young of the bud moth are
small brown caterpillars about half an inch in length. During the
winter they live in small, oval, silken cases, attached firmly to the
bark of the twig. As the caterpillars are very small when winter
sets in, about one-eighth of an inch in length, their silken cases are
also small and hence easily overlooked. During this period of
their lives the caterpillars are green in color.

About the time that the buds begin to swell in the spring, the
caterpillars come forth and bore into them, thus early protecting
themselves against insecticides. As the young leaves and flowers
unfold the caterpillars form nests for themselves by tying the
leaves together, making their presence quite conspicuous. They
do not leave these nests in feeding. During June they reach full
growth and change to the chrysalis stage in the nest. In about
ten days a small brown moth escapes. This is the adult. The
eggs are laid on the under side of the leaves. These soon hatch
and the young caterpillars feed on the under sides of the leaves,
protecting themselves by a thin, silken web. Before winter ap-
proaches they migrate to the twigs and form the silken cases in
which, as above stated, they live over winter.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 409

Treatment.— The only available time for effective treatment is
just before the buds begin to swell, the object being to cover the
buds with poison so that the young caterpillars will be poisoned
as they gnaw into the bud. To make the work thorough, two ap-
plications will usually be required. Paris green or some other
good arsenical should be used. If it is desired to treat the trees
for apple scab, Bordeaux mixture may be combined with the Paris

green for either of the above treatments. See page 417.

CASE BEARERS.
PISTOL-CASE-BEARER.* CIGAR-CASE-BEARER.
(Coleophora malivorella Riley.) (Coleophora fletcherella Fern.)

During the past three or four years these two insects have be-
come very troublesome in this State. Their principal food plant
is the apple, but they also feed upon the pear and quince and
probably other fruit trees. The life histories of the two species
are very similar. That of the pistol-case-bearer is as follows:

Descriptions and life history.—The young caterpillars live over
winter in little pistol-shaped cases of silk which are attached on
end to the twigs usually near and sometimes upon the buds.
These cases measure about one-eighth of an inch in length and
resemble the bark in color. The winter cases of the cigar-case-
bearer are more flattened laterally and are somewhat crescent
shaped. They are also lighter in color and are more frequently
found in sheltered places in the angles of the twigs.

Early in the spring, a short time before the leaf buds burst,
the hibernating case-bearers become active. They attack the
growing buds gnawing through the outer covering to feed on the
tender tissues beneath. Later in the season they feed on the
young leaves making small round holes through the cuticle and
feeding, in much the same manner as a true leaf miner, on the
softer tissues beneath. In doing this the caterpillars do not usu-
ally leave their cases but reach out as far as necessary. As they

4 This species is discussed in detail by Lowe, in Bulletin 122 of this Station.

410 Report or THE HorricuLtTurist OF THE

become larger and stronger they devour the entire leaf with the
exception of the midrib and large veins. They also attack the
flower buds, flowers and fruit.

About the middle of May the case bearers have become full
grown and are ready to pupate. They have enlarged their houses
as their growing bodies demanded until now the cases measure
about one-fourth of an inch in length. The case-bearers migrate
to the twigs and attach their homes firmly on end to the bark.
Before the transformation to the pupa stage takes place the cater-
pillars turn around in their cases so that their heads are toward
the upper or curved ends. The pupa stage lasts about two weeks.

The principal difference in appearance between these two
species 1s apparent at this time. The case of the cigar-case-
bearer is straight and closely resembles a miniature cigar; while,
as previously stated, that of the pistol-case-bearer slightly re
sembles an old fashioned pistol.

The adults of both species are moths measuring about half an
inch from tip to tip when the wings are spread. The color of
the former is steel gray, the latter is marked with brown. The
moths appear during the latter part of May or early in June.
The eggs of both species are deposited singly on the under sides
of the leaves. They hatch in about ten days or two weeks. The
young caterpillars feed on the tender pulp of the leaf. During
September they migrate to the smaller branches and twigs, to
remain until spring. Thus there is but one annual generation.

Treatment.— For general treatment advocated against these
insects see page 417. The first treatment is of especial impor-
tance, the object being to have the buds coated with poison so that
the first meal of the little caterpillars will be a poisoned one. A
second application may be made just as the leaves unfold and a
third if needed.

CANKER WORMS.

Although there are several species of canker worms quite com-
mon to the apple orchards of the State there are but two species

New YorK AGricuLTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 411

that often occur in sufficient numbers to do serious injury.
These are the spring canker worm (Paleacrita vernata Peck) and
the fall canker worm (Anisopteryx pometaria Harr.) The former
is the more common and injurious of the two. The life histories
of the two species are very similar except that the eggs of the
spring canker worm are laid in the spring and those of the fall
eanker worm in the fall. The eggs of both species hatch in the
spring about the time the leaf buds are unfolding. :

Descriptions.— The eggs of the former species are placed some-
what promiscuously in sheltered places on the twigs. They are
small oval eggs and the shell has a brilliant pearly luster. The
eggs of the latter species are placed on end side by side in quite
regular masses. They are somewhat cylindrical but smaller at the
base and flattened at each end.

When first hatched the caterpillars of both species are very
small and of a light green color. They devour the leaves rapidly.
When disturbed they will drop, suspending themselves by silken
threads. When mature they are about an inch long and vary in
color from light green to darker shades. When ready to pupate
they go into the ground, where the cocoon is spun and the chrysalis
formed. Most of the spring canker worms remain in the ground
until the first warm days of the following spring, but those of the
other species come out of the ground in the fall. The adults of
both species are moths. The females are wingless and the males
winged.

Treatment.— There are two principal methods of combating
these insects. First the females may be trapped while endeavor-
ing to ascend the trunk of the tree. Numerous traps have been -
tested including bands of tin, cloth, waste wool, tarred paper and
certain chemical preparations. Several patent metal devices for
trapping the moths have been put upon the market recently.
The most important point in connection with the use of traps in
general is to put them on early in the season. It is usually advis-
able to put the metal traps in place early in the fall to catch the

412 Report oF THE HorTICcULTURIST OF THE

moths of the fall canker worm. They will then be in place for
the earliest moths of the spring species.

Second, the caterpillars may be successfully combated by spray-
ing the trees with Paris green or some other equally effective
arsenical insecticide. See page 417. Two and occasionally three
applications are usually necessary. Make the first application
just as the young leaves are unfolding, and the second about a
wéek later.

Regular annual spraying with a good arsenical compound is
especially important in this case. Orchards thus treated are not
as likely to become seriously infested with these and other leaf
eating insects as the orchards which are sprayed irregularly or
not at all.

FRUIT INSECTS.
CODLING MOTH.
(Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.)

Descriptions.— This is the insect that causes “ wormy ” apples.
The recent investigations of Washburn, Card and Slingerland
have thrown new light on certain stages of its lifehistory. It is
now known that the eggs, which are whitish, oval dises, may be
laid promiscuously upon the fruit or even upon the twigs and
leaves. It is probable that they are not laid until after the blos-
soms have fallen. The period of incubation is about a week.

According to Slingerland® about 75 per ct. of the caterpillars
enter the fruit at the blossom end. The caterpillars of the second
brood often enter on the side of the fruit. They are full grown in
twenty to thirty days. When once within the fruit they usually
remain until ready to pupate. The cocoons are made in any con-
venient, protected place, as under the loose bark of the trunk or
larger branches of the tree, or in near-by rubbish. Some of the
caterpillars remain in the cocoons over winter, while others soon
transform to the pupa stage forming a more or less complete sec-

5 Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 142: 21.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 413

ond brood. These are sometimes very abundant in late summer
and in autumn. The adult is a small brown moth measuring
about # of an inch from tip to tip when the wings are spread.

Those who wish an exhaustive treatise on this insect should
consult Prof. Slingerland’s bulletin.®

Treatment.—A considerable percentage of the worms can be
killed by spraying within the first week after the blossoms have
fallen. The calyx end of the fruit must be filled with the poison
before the calyx lobes close, hence much pains should be taken

to make at least one thorough application before that occurs.

GREEN FRUIT WORMS.
(Xylina sp.")

Descriptions.— These insects sometimes do serious injury by
eating into the young apples. They also attack pears, plums,
peaches and quinces. The full-grown caterpillars measure from
an inch to nearly an inch and a half in length. They are green
or yellowish green in color with various irregular markings and
stripes, the most prominent of the latter being a narrow, cream-
colored one down the middle of the back and a wider one along
each side.

The caterpillars are most abundant during May, soon after the
fruit has’formed. They continue feeding until about the middle
of June. They feed mostly at night, resting on the under sides of
the leaves during the day. When full grown they go into the
ground, form a rough cocoon and pupate. The adults, which are
dull-colored moths measuring about two inches from tip to tip
with the wings spread, come forth in the fall and remain over
winter in some sheltered place, laying their eggs in the spring.

Treatment.— These insects have proven difficult to control.
Experiments by Lowe with Paris green, one pound to 100 gal-
lons of water, applied to the infested trees when the caterpillars

6 Loc. cit.

7 For a more complete account of these insects, see Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp.
Sta. Bul. No. 123, by M. V. Slingerland.

414 Report oF THE HorTICULTURIST OF THE

were about half grown, gave very unsatisfactory results. It is not
improbable, however, that had the experiments been made earlier
while the caterpillars were small the poison would have had more
effect. Where practical, as in the case of small trees, the cater-

pillars may be jarred off in the same manner as the plum cureulio.

MAGGOT.
(Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh. )

Description.— This insect is popularly known as the “ apple
maggot” or “railroad worm.” It is one of the most important
species that attacks the fruit. Its life-history has been fully
worked out by Dr. F. L. Harvey.* The adult insects are two-
winged flies. They appear in June. The female punctures the
skin of the fruit with her sharp ovipositor and lays her eggs just
beneath. In a few days the eggs hatch into white maggots which
make numerous irregular channels in the pulp of the apple, enlarg- |
ing them as the maggots increase in size. This injury often does
not show on the outside, and hence infested fruit may be harvested
and unintentionally sold as good. Badly infested fruit usually
falls early.

The maggots leave the fallen fruit and enter the ground to
pupate, remaining until the following spring before emerging as
adults. |

The apple maggot appears to be spreading in this State, and as
it is capable of doing great injury it should be carefully watched
for and promptly checked when found.

Treatment.— This insect has proven a difficult one to control.
as the maggots work only within the fruit spraying the trees will
have no effect. Probably the most practical remedy is the imme-
diate destruction of the windfalls in infested orchards. This
may be conveniently done by allowing hogs and sheep to run in
the orchards. Fall plowing will have some effect by destroying
many of the pup in the ground.

8 Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rept., 1889: 190.

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL ExPpERIMENT STATION. 415

PLANT LICE.?

Several species of plant lice attack the apple, but the most
common in this State is the apple-tree aphis, Aphis mali Fab.
This is the little, green louse that attacks the buds and leaves in
the spring. It often occurs in great numbers on the under side of
the leaves, sucking the sap from the tissues. This irritation causes
the leaves to curl, thus affording partial protection to the insects.
The winter is passed in the egg stage. Many generations and
countless individuals, both winged and wingless, are produced
during the summer. They secrete a clear liquid (honey dew)
which sticks to the leaves and twigs and finally turns black, because
of a black fungus which grows in it.

Treatment.— The trees should be carefully watched, and, when
the lice first appear, sprayed thoroughly with a solution of whale
oil soap and water — one pound to seven gallons. The lice may
appear any time after the buds burst. It is important to give the
infested trees at least one or, as is often necessary, two thorough
applications before the leaves have become curled. It will be very
difficult to reach the lice when they are protected by the curled
leaves. The spray should be directed toward the under side of

the leaves.

INSECTS ATTACKING TRUNK AND BRANCHES.
THE WOOLLY LOUSE OF THE APPLE.
(Schizoneura lanigera Hausm.)

This insect is easily detected by the white wool-like substance
which the lice secrete and which clings to their bodies. They
attack both the roots and young branches causing gall-like swell-
ings. They are especially injurious to young trees and sometimes
do serious injury to new grafts.

Treatment.— When occurring upon the roots considerable

relief will usually result from the application of finely ground

9 For a further discussion of plant lice, see Bulletin 139 of this Station, by
V. H. Lowe.

416 Report or tHE HorvTicuLTuRIsT OF THE

tobacco dust about the infested roots. If the branches also are
attacked, they should be trimmed off where practicable and
burned. If considered more desirable, the lice may be killed by
spraying with a solution of whale oil soap, one pound to five
gallons of water, or kerosene emulsion, one part to five parts of
water. When but few lice occur in small colonies on the trunk
or large branches they may be easily and quickly killed by apply-
ing pure kerosene oil to the infested parts.

Some Australian horticulturists hold that injury from the
woolly aphis can be avoided by selecting varieties the roots of
which are proof against these insects. Wickson states’? that “ the
Northern Spy is on the whole the best, but it has been shown
that the roots of seedlings grown from Northern Spy seed vary
somewhat in degree of resistance.”

SCALE INSECTS.”*

The scale insects include some of the most common and de-
structive insect pests of the orchard. Two species common in
the apple orchards of the State are the oyster-shell bark louse,
Mytilaspis pomorum Bouché, and the scurfy bark louse, Chzonas-
pis furfurus Fitch. The San Jose scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus
Comst., also attacks the apple. These insects are especially in-
jurious to young orchard trees. The former two species pass the
winter in the egg stage, the eggs having been deposited under
the scales of the females. The eggs hatch in this climate in the
spring, varying according to the season, from late in April or early
May until June. The young lice soon settle down and insert their
sharp threadlike mouth parts into the tender bark from which they
suck the sap. The females form the oyster-shell-like scales, or,
in the case of the other species, the thinner, more oval, whitish
seales. The scales of the males of both species are more delicate,
nearly white, and larger and more slender. The adult males are
delicate two-winged insects.

10 Univ. of Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Seed Bulletin, 1898-1899: 7.
11 For a further discussion of these insects, see Bulletin 136 of this Station.

New York Agrrcutturat Experiment Srarion. 417

Treatment for oyster-shell bark-louse—Treatment may be made
in the spring by spraying the trees as soon as the eggs hatch,
either with whale oil soap, one pound to seven gallons of water,
or kerosene emulsion, one part to seven parts of water. One or
more applications should be made as required. For treatment of
scurfy bark-louse, see page 450, and for San Jose scale page 449.

GENERAL TREATMENT AGAINST DISEASES AND INSECTS WHICH ATTACK THE
APPLE.

When to spray. What to use and what the treatment is for.

1. Just before leaf buds burst........ Paris greenl2 against bud moth and
case-bearers.

bo

. Just as leaf buds show green at the
tips. About a week later than 1.} Bordeaux mixturel8 against scab,
canker disease and leaf spot.

Paris greenl2 against bud moth, case-
bearers, canker worms, tent cater-
pillar and various other leaf-eating
insects.

3. Just before blossoms open. From

seven to ten days later than 2.| Bordeaux mixturel3 against scab, and
leaf-spot. The most important single
application. Apply thoroughly.

Paris greenl2 against canker worms,
tent caterpillar and various other
leaf-eating insects.

. Just after blossoms fall.......... Bordeaux mixturel3 against scab and
leaf-spot. A very important appli-
cation; make it promptly and thor-
oughly.

Paris greenl2 against codling moth,
canker worms, tent caterpillar and
numerous other leaf-eating insects.
The most important application
against codling moth.

. From ten to fourteen days after 4. | Bordeaux mixturel8 against scab and

leaf-spot. If weather has been cool
and wet, apply with especial thor-
oughness.

Paris greenl2 against codling moth.

nS

or

12 Paris green should be used at the rate of one pound to 150 gallons of
water. If used alone, about two pounds of fresh slaked lime should be added
to make it adhere and to prevent injury when applied to foliage. Green ar-
senite of copper, arsenite of lime, or other poison may be used instead of the
Paris green, as directed in Bulletin 121. Paris green or the other arsenicals
may be used with Bordeaux mixture. In that case, it is not necessary to add
much extra lime.

13 Use Bordeaux mixture 1-to-11 formula. Pure copper sulphate solution,
1 pound to 15 gallons or more, may be used when there is no foliage. It is
cheaper, but does not adhere so well as does Bordeaux mixture. Directions
for making and applying these mixtures are given in Bulletin 121. The Paris
green or other arsenicals may be mixed with the Bordeaux mixture, and both
may be thus combined in one application.

27

418 Report or THe Horricutrurist oF THE

Generally, the scab may be controlled by three treatments if
they are made promptly and very thoroughly. These three, as
numbered above, are 3, 4 and 5. Winter treatment against the
scab is not recommended. See page 404.

For treatment of lice or aphis, scale insects, rust, sooty blotch
and fly speck consult the special discussion of these subjects on
previous pages.

APRICOT DISEASES.

FRUIT ROT.
The ripe rot of apricot fruit is due to the same fungus as that

causing ripe rot of cherries. It is discussed on page 420.

LEAF-SPOT.
(Cylindrosporium padi Karst.)

The fungus which causes apricot leaf-spot also causes a spotting
of the fruit. When the leaves are attacked the diseased part
usually drops out leaving a clean cut hole. In severe attacks the
foliage is riddled with holes. The same fungus also attacks the
foliage of plums and cherries. For the treatment, see plum leaf-
spot, page 454.

GUMMING.

See discussion of the gumming of stone fruits, page 438,

APRICOT INSECTS.
CURCULIO.

This insect does great damage to apricots by causing wormy
fruit. Frequently a large part of the crop becomes infested and
drops unless measures are taken to kill the beetles before they
deposit their eggs in the young fruit. This is best done by jarring
as recommended in the discussion of this insect under the head-
ing “ Plum curculio.” It is very important that the jarring be
gin as soon as the fruit sets, because the curculios do much injury

to the very young apricots.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 419

The other insects mentioned as attacking the peach are also

liable to trouble the apricot.

BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY DISEASES.

ANTHRACNOSE.

Blackberry anthracnose is caused by the fungus which affects
raspberries in a similar way. For description and treatment, see
page 459.

_ LEAF-SPOT.
(Septoria rubt Westd.)

Description.— Blackberries, dewberries and raspberries are sub-
ject to a leaf-spot disease caused by Septoria rubi. The small,
pale spots of dead leaf-tissue finally become dotted with black
specks, the pyenidia of the fungus. In some seasons the foliage
is quite seriously injured by this disease.

Treatment.— Goft™ has tried treatment with Bordeaux mixture
and other fungicides, but the results were not encouraging. No

successful line of treatment is known.

RUST.

Blackberry rust is caused by the same fungus which causes the

rust of raspberries. For description and treatment, see page 460.

BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS.

The principal injurious insects of blackberry and dewberry are
the cane borer and the saw fly. These also attack the raspberry.

They are discussed on pages 461, 462.

CHERRY DISEASES.
BLACK KNOT.
It is claimed that the black knot of the cherry is caused by the

same fungus as that which causes the black knot of the plum, If

it is not the same fungus it certainly is so closely related that the
'

14 Goff, E. S. Journ. Myc., 7: 22.

420 Rerort or THE HorricuLturist OF THE

same description of gross characters and the same lines of treat-
ment will apply to both. For description and treatment, see
*“Plum black knot,” page 452,

FRUIT ROT.
(Monilia fructigena P.)

Description.— The rotting of the ripening fruit on the tree
often causes great injury to the crops of cherries, plums, apricots
and peaches. A fungous parasite attacks the fruit and causes it
to rot. The same fungus under favorable conditions, especially
when the weather is warm and moist, and the growing shoots are
tender and succulent, may attack the ends of the twigs and also
the blossoms. Frequently the rotted fruit remains on the tree
over winter in a mummied form and the following season, under
favorable weather conditions, becomes covered with spores by
means of which the disease is propagated. These mummied fruits,
therefore, should be collected and destroyed before growth starts
in spring, as a preventive of infection.

The fungus sometimes does considerable damage by destroying
the blossoms, but usually it causes most loss by attacking the
fruit. It occurs on unripe fruits, but usually spreads most rapidly
and does most damage when the fruits are nearly or quite ripe,
especially if they hang in clusters or touch each other. Under
weather conditions very favorable to its growth it may practically
ruin the ripening crop within a short time.

Treatment.— The disease may be prevented to some extent by
treatment with fungicides, but it is extremely doubtful whether it
ean be entirely controlled by spraying. Bordeaux mixture applied
soon after the fruit sets persists, to some extent, until the fruit
ripens and will show on the ripe fruit. The other mixtures which
have been tried are of doubtful utility, taking all things into con-

sideration. For both this disease and the leaf-spot it is suggested”

15 Beach, S. A. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 117: 134.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTion. 421

that the trees be sprayed just before blossoming and again imme-
diately after the blossoms fall, but no line of treatment is recom-
mended.

Powell’® recommends picking the fruit before it is fully ripe;

that is, before it softens.

LEAE-SPOT.
(Cylindrosporium padi Karst.)

Description.— The leaf-spot of cherry, plum and apricot, which
is caused by the fungus named above, at first appears as minute
spots on the leaf, a sixteenth of an inch or less in diameter. On
cherry and plum especially, the spots may have a reddish-tinged
margin. Afterwards they increase in size and may enlarge to an
eighth of an inch or more across. The spots soon become dark
brown with a pale center, and in many cases the diseased tissue
loosens and drops out leaving a clean-cut hole in the leaf. For
this reason the disease is sometimes called the “shot-hole dis-

ease."

The disease may cause serious injury for sometimes the
trees are nearly defoliated by it. Should this occur when the
trees are heavily loaded with fruit, as it is especially apt to do
with plums, the trees may be much weakened in vitality’® and con-
sequently more liable to winter injury.

Treatment.— It has been shown conclusively that the leaf blight
may be controlled by proper treatment with Bordeaux mixture
but in cherry orchards the treatments cannot be made at the most
favorable time for controlling the disease because the spray mix-
tures adhere to the fruit and injure its market value.” From our
present knowledge of the subject no line of treatment can be
positively recommended for bearing cherry trees, but it is sug-

16 Powell, G. Harold. Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1897: 193.

17 Duggar has shown that a shot-hole appearance in plum and peach foliage
is not always due to fungous attacks, but may be caused by other injuries,
notably by spraying with improperly prepared mixtures. See Proc. Soc. for
Promotion Agr. Science, 1898, and Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 164: 385.

18 Beach. Annual Rept. this Station, 1896: 385; also Bulletin 98.

19 Beach. Annual Rept. this Station, 1896: 406.

422 Report or tHE [HorricuLrurIstT OF THE

gested that Bordeaux mixture (1-to-11 formula) be applied just
before the blossoms open and again just after they fall as a par-

tial preventive of leaf-spot and fruit rot.

GUMMING.

See discussion of gumming of stone fruits under gumming of
the peach, page 438. To prevent gumming in the forks of cherry
trees Wickson™ advocates training the tree in such a way as to

give wide, open forks where the branches join the trunk.

CHERRY INSECTS.
CURCULIO.

This insect injures cherries by causing the fruit to become
wormy. It is the same insect as the plum curculio and is dis-
cussed more at length under the subject “ Plum curculio,” on
page 454.

Treatment.— The curculio is commonly fought in cherry or-
chards by one or two applications of Paris green or its equiva-
lent at the rate of one pound to three hundred gallons of water.
Two or three pounds, at least, of unslaked lime should be added
for every pound of the poison. Slake the lime and add to the
mixture the same as in making Bordeaux mixture. The poison
may be mixed with the Bordeaux mixture if desired as stated on
page 417. Make the first application immediately after the

blossoms have fallen and a second about ten days later.

FRUIT BARK BEETLE.

This is the same as the fruit bark beetle of peach discussed on
page 442.
MAGGOT.
(Rhagoletis cingulata? Loew.)
This insect resembles the apple maggot in all of its stages. It

attacks sour cherries and probably plums to some extent. It has

20 Wickson, E. J. California Fruits, p. 284.

New York AaricutturaL Experiment Station. 423

recently proven a serious pest in some of the large cherry orchards
of Western New York. A similar if not identical species occurs
in some of the middle and eastern states.

The life history of this insect has not been fully worked out.
It is known, however, that the eggs are laid nearly or quite under
the skin of the ripe fruit, and that the maggots work in the flesh.
In depositing the egg the female makes a small round hole, prob-
ably with her ovipositor, through the skin. Until the fruit has
been sufficiently eaten to cause decay, this small hole is all there
is to indicate that the maggot is inside. For this reason newly
infested fruit is often quite difficult to detect. When full grown
the maggots leave the fruit, as shown by specimens kept under
observation by Lowe, and form the puparium or resting stage
in any convenient place, such as the bottom of fruit baskets. If
the fruit is on the ground the maggots will go into the ground for
a short distance. The adults emerge in the spring early enough
to lay their eggs in the earliest varieties of sour cherries. Egg
laying probably continues throughout the season of the latest varie-
ties. The number of broods is not positively known. The insect
probably winters in the pupa stage.

Treatment.— This species will probably prove, like the apple
maggot, a difficult one to control. Good cultivation and keep-
ing the packing houses free from rubbish will undoubtedly have
some effect. Lowe found in the infested orchards which he ex-
amined that the insect first attacked the fruit on a few trees in
one section and gradually spread to other sections of the orchards.
This indicates that it spreads slowly, and also that destroying
the crop on the few trees that were first attacked, while an heroic
measure, would probably be the means of preventing serious in-
festation of the orchard,

PLANT LICE.
Several species of plant lice attack the cherry. As a rule they
do not occur on sour cherry trees in sufficient numbers to do seri-

ous injury. Sweet cherry trees, however, are quite frequently
attacked by the black cherry aphis, Myzus cerast Fab. The lice

424 Report or tHE HorricuLTuRIst OF THE

are nearly black in color. Like other species of plant lice they
multiply with great rapidity, soon covering the under sides of the
leaves and causing them, to curl and wilt. The lice prefer the
young leaves at the tips of the branches, and will be found there
in greatest numbers.

Treatment.— Where practical cut off and burn the ends of the
twigs bearing the young and worst infested leaves. The trees
should then be sprayed avith whale oil soap solution or kerosene

emulsion as recommended for the apple plant louse, page 415.

SLUG.

This insect also infests pear trees. It is discussed more fully
under the heading “ Pear slug” on page 451. The remedies to
be used are there given.

CURRANT DISEASES.

LEAF SPOT.
(Septoria ribis Desm. and Cercospora angulata Wint.)

These two fungous diseases which cause spotting of currant
leaves have been successfully treated with Bordeaux mixture by

Pammel.”!

The spot diseases are usually seen to some,extent
each season, and in some eases their attacks are so severe as to
nearly defoliate the bushes. Judging from the experiments thus
far tried, the spraying should begin soon after the fruit sets, and
continue at intervals of about two weeks until the fruit begins to
color. One or two applications may be made after the fruit is
harvested if thought necessary. One objection to the treatments
before the fruit ripens is that the mixture is liable to remain on
the fruit and injure its appearance when ripe.

Goff” has recently reported excellent results from a single
thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture made during the first
week in July, after the fruit was harvested. |

21Pammel, L. H. Jowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 13: 45-46; Bul. 17: 419-421;

Bul. 20: 716-718; Bul. 30: 289-291.
22 Goff, E.S. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 72: 30.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 425

CANE BLIGHT.

Description. This disease is characterized by wilting of the
foliage and dying of the canes. Healthy and diseased canes com-
monly occur in the same hill. The disease may appear at any
time during the growing season, but it is most virulent about the
time the fruit is ripening. It appears that there are two forms of
eane blight. The form occurring in the Hudson Valley” is caused
by a sterile fungus which works in the pith and under the bark.
In the western part of the State there occurs a currant cane blight
which, according to Durand,” is caused by the semi-parasitie fun-
gus, Nectria cinnabarina (Tode.) Fr.

Treatment.— Probably the most practical method of fighting
cane blight is to go over the plantation at frequent intervals dur-
ing the summer and cut out and burn the affected canes. In doing
this, care must be taken to cut well below the lowest, point of the
disease. After cutting into diseased wood the pruning knife
should be disinfected before it is used on healthy wood. A 5 per
et. solution of carbolic acid is a good disinfectant for this purpose.

Cuttings should be taken only from plants known to be healthy.

CURRANT INSECTS.
PLANT LICE.

The first indications that the plant lice are at work are the small
bladder-like galls on the upper surfaces of the leaves. The galls
soon turn red, increase in size and may finally include nearly the
entire leaf. The lice. congregate in large numbers in the corres-
ponding pockets on the under sides of the leaves. Several species
work on the currant, but the most common is the currant plant
louse, Myzus ribis Linn.

T'reatment.— The infested bushes should be sprayed with a solu-
tion of whale oil soap, one pound to seven gallons of water. The

23 For an account of current cane blight in the Hudson Valley, see Bul.
107 of this Station, p. 291.

24 Durand, E. J. A Disease of Currant-Canes. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.
Bul. 125.

426 Report or THe HorricuLrurist OF THE

first application is the most important, and should be made as
soon as the lice appear. The spray should be directed so as to
hit the under surfaces of the leaves. A second and third applica-

tion about a week apart may be necessary.

SAW FLIES.
(Nematus ventricosus Klug.) (Pristiphora grossulariae Walsh.)

Description.— The first named species, which is popularly
known as the imported currant worm, is much more troublesome
than the latter, which is a native American species. The larve
are the common “ worms” that attack the leaves of both the eur-
rant and gooseberry, often quickly denuding the bush.

The adults are four-winged flies about the size of a house-fly.
Their bodies are prominently marked with yellow. They appear
during the first warm days of spring and deposit their eggs in
single rows on the under sides of the midribs and larger veins.

The eggs hatch in about ten days. The newly hatched larvz
are light green in color. At first they eat small holes through the
leaves, but as they grow larger, devour the entire leaf with the
exception of the midrib and larger veins. Their color changes
with successive molts until, when about full grown and before
the last molt, they are a moderately dark green color, marked
with numerous black dots. After the last molt they are plain
green. When full grown, which is in about three weeks, they
measure about three-fourths of an inch in length. The cocoons
are formed either just above or a short distance below the sur-
face of the ground, attached to the plant. The adults escape late
in June or early in July. Eggs are soon deposited for a second
brood, which passes to the chrysalis stage before winter sets in.

Treatment.— As soon as the “ worms ” appear spray the bushes
with hellebore, one ounce to two gallons of water. Direct the
spray toward the under sides of the leaves. It is important to
make the first application while the “ worms” are yet very young.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 427
Otherwise it is more difficult to poison them. If a second appli-

cation is necessary use an ounce of hellebore to one gallon of water.

GOOSEBERRY DISEASES.
LEAF-SPOT.

The fungi which cause the leaf-spot diseases of the currant also

attack the gooseberry. They are discussed on page 424.

MILDEW.
(Sphaerotheca mors-uwae (Schw.) B. & C.)

Description.— The mildew usually makes its first appearance
on the young shoots and leaves. Here it will first attract the
observer’s attention as a collection of some bright, frosty sub-
stance. On close examination it will be found to be composed of
a mass of glistening white threads that spread rapidly under favor-
uble conditions. The more mature portions of the fungus take
on a dirty brown color. Later it attacks the fruit in a similar
manner. ‘The threads often spread over the berries until they
are entirely covered with a mass of brown, felt-like mold, which
renders them unsalable.

European varieties, when grown in this country, are particu-
larly susceptible to the attacks of mildew. Many of those varie-
ties produce very large, fine fruit and are so desirable both for
home and market that they would be grown to a much greater ex-
tent than they now are, were it not for the attacks of this disease.

When setting out a plantation, a site should be chosen where
the land is well underdrained and where there is an abundant cir-
culation of air. Branches that droop close to the ground should
be pruned back and the ground underneath kept free from grass
_or weeds, preferably by frequent shallow cultivation, otherwise
by mulching.

Treatment.— Spraying should begin early in spring after the
buds break and before the first leaves unfold, using one ounce of

428 Rerort or THE HorricuLTurIst OF THE

potassium sulphide for two gallons of water. This treatment is
repeated at intervals of from seven to ten days depending on the
amount of rain that comes to wash off the applications. After the
fruit is marketed spraying is no longer resorted to, although the
mildew may continue through the season on the ends of growing
shoots.

SUN SCALD.

The ripening fruit of the gooseberry is liable to sun scald. The
skin at first has a bleached appearance and afterwards the fruit
shrivels and drops. The conditions which bring about this trouble
are not well understood. It sometimes causes serious loss.

Remedy.— The only remedy known at present is to pick the

fruit while it is green, 2. e., unripe.

GOQSEBERRY INSECTS.

The saw flies which attack the gooseberry are of the same species

at those which are found on the currant. See page 426.

GRAPE DISEASES.

The various prominent vineyard diseases of the State, with the
exception of the anthracnose, may be controlled by spraying ac-
cording to directions given for treating the black rot, page 430.

ANTHRACNOSE.
(Sphaceloma ampelinum DeBy.)

Description.— This disease attacks any tender portions of the
growing vine. When the leaves are affected dark spots are first
formed on their surface. As the disease advances these spots en-
large, and irregular cracks are often formed through the dead
tissue. Frequently many of these small cracks run together, form-
ing a long irregular slit throvigh the leaf. Similar marks are
formed on the tender shoots, though they are not so noticeable.
When the fruit is attacked the disease is sometimes called bird’s-
eye rot. Circular spots are formed on the surface of the berry.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StTaTIonN. 429

The spots may be of different colors and usually have a dark
border; as the spots enlarge and eat in, a seed is often exposed
in the center. The berries do not rot, but the tissue becomes hard
and wrinkled. Sometimes the disease girdles the stem of a fruit-
cluster, cutting off the supply of sap from the grapes beyond the
diseased line and causing them to shrivel and die.

Treatment.— Anthracnose does not spread as rapidly as some
other vineyard diseases, neither does it yield as readily to treat-
ment. When a vineyard is badly infested with anthracnose, it:
requires prompt attention and careful treatment to control: the
disease. It is not satisfactorily controlled by the Bordeaux mix-
ture treatment alone, which is recommended below for black rot
and mildew. It is suggested that in addition to such treatment
the plan be followed which is advocated by certain European au-
thorities, of applying a warm saturated solution of copperas (iron
sulphate) in spring when the buds are swelling, but before they
begin to open. One per ct. or more of sulphuric acid may be
added to the solution before it is applied. This solution must
- be handled with care as it is very caustic. It is applied with swabs
or if the acid is not used it may be sprayed.” It is essential that
ihe work be done thoroughly, covering all the surface of the canes.

Mr. T. H. King, Trumansburg, N. Y., reports that he has
been successful in controlling this disease upon the Vergennes,
which is very susceptible to the disease, by pulling the loose bark
from the vines and spraying thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture
in the spring before the buds start and again three or four weeks
later.

BLACK ROT.
(Laestadia bidwelliw (Ell.) V. & R.)

Description.— This disease may usually be found first on the

leaves, where it forms circular, bright reddish brown, or pale
brown spots on which there appear later little black dots or pim-

25 Beach, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 86: 79. 1896. Lodeman, Spraying of
Plants, pp. 45, 152, 294.

430 Rerort or tuk HorricuLtrurist OF THE

ples. Within the black pimples are developed the germs of the
fungus which causes the disease. These germs are given forth and
washed by rain, or blown by wind, to other leaves or fruit where
they grow and form new diseased spots. In the fruit it also forms
circular spots and develops black pimples like those formed on the
leaves. The diseased fruit withers, turns black, and becomes hard
and shriveled, clinging to the stems sometimes till the following
spring. The disease may also attack the green shoots.

Treatment.— All diseased fruit shoud be taken from the vine-
yard, since it is capable of spreading the disease the following
spring. Trimmings from the fruit containing diseased berries
ought not to be returned to the vineyard in the shape of compost
as is sometimes practiced, since the diseased berries are liable to
spread the black rot through the vineyard.

This disease may be successfully controlled by thorough spray-
ing if done at the right time. Bordeaux mixture, 1-to-11 formula,
is used for this purpose. It is prepared as directed in Bulletin
121. The applicaticns are made as follows:

I. Just as the pink tips of the first leaves appear.

II. From ten days to two weeks after the first spraying.

II. Just after the blossoming.

LIV. From ten to fourteen days after the third treatment.

V. If a fifth treatment is necessary let it follow the fourth after
an interval of from ten to fourteen days.

VI. If a later treatment than the fifth is needed, ammoniacal
solution of copper carbonate should be used; as that it less liable
to stain the fruit than the Bordeaux mixture. Directions for pre-
paring it are given below.

The number of the treatments should be governed by the weather
conditions and the severity of the disease. If the vineyard is not
badly diseased, and if there is not an excessive amount of hot, wet
weather, four treatments may be found sufficient for all practical
purposes.

The early treatments are extremely important.

Thorough treatment is essential to success.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 43817

Paris green or other arsenicals which are recommended against
the insects, may be combined with Bordeaux mixture, but not
with the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate.

Ammonical solution of copper carbonate.-—The formula usually
given for making this solution is as follows: Dissolve five ounces
of copper carbonate in three pints of ammonia of 26° strength.
When ready to apply, dilute with water so as to make fifty gal-
lons. The undiluted solution may be preserved for some time in
tightly closed vessels.

Penny finds”’ that the use of the strong undiluted ammonia in
dissolving the copper is wasteful and unsafe. He recommends
the following method of making the solution. ‘To one volume
of 26° Beaumé ammonia (the strong ammonia of commerce) add
from seven to eight volumes of water. Then add copper car-
bonate, best in successive quantities, until a large portion remains
undissolved. The mixture should be vigorously agitated during
the solution and finally allowed to subside, and the clear liquid
poured off from the undissolved salt. A second portion should
then be made by treating the residue of the former lot with more
ammonia diluted as before, then with the addition of fresh cop-
per carbonate, in every case with vigorous stirring or agitation.
The method of making in successive lots will result in a richer
solution of copper, at least unless an unwarranted length of time
be taken.” He finds that much less ammonia is required to dis-
solve a given amount of copper carbonate in this way than ac-
cording to the method formerly followed of adding the strong,
undiluted ammonia directly to the copper carbonate.

CHLOROSIS OR YELLOW LEAF.

The name is applied to a grape disease in which the foliage turns
yellow, later becoming brown. It is common in some parts of the
State.

26 Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 22.

432 Rerorr or tHE HorricuLrurist oF THE

Chlorosis is more likely to appear in wet seasons. Some varie-
ties, as the Diamond, are much more susceptible than others. In
some seasons portions of the leaves may become yellow, but event-
ually regain their normal color so that at the close of the season
the vine appears to be in a healthy condition. In other instances
the yellow color extends over the entire leaf; brown, dead patches
appear; the leaf curls and eventually drops from the vine. If the
vine loses its leaves two or three seasons in succession it is likely
to die. One striking peculiarity of the disease is the fact that a
badly diseased vine may appear by the side of a perfectly healthy
vine of the same variety.

The cause of chlorosis, as given by foreign investigators, is the
presence of a large amount of lime in the soil which prevents the
roots from taking up an amount of iron sufficient for satisfactory
growth. Their experiments show that the difficulty may be over-
come by applying a small amount of sulphate of iron around
‘affected plants. But since there are a number of good American
varieties that are not subject to chlorosis, perhaps the better
method to pursue is to plant only such varieties as are known to
be free from this trouble.

The standard varieties given in the following list are, so far as

we know, practically exempt from chlorosis: ‘
Moore Early, Concord,
Winchell, Catawba,
Delaware, Vergennes,
Worden, Agawam.

Niagara,
DOWNY MILDEW.
(Plasmopara viticola (B. & C.) Berl. & DeT.)
Description.— In some sections of the State the downy mildew
causes considerable loss to the grape grower. It may attack

nearly every portion of the current season’s growth,— leaves,

shoots and fruit. Its first appearance on the leaves, that will be

New Yorx AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 433

noticed by a casual observer, is in dry, brick red spots on the
upper surface. On the under side of the leaf the diseased area
will be covered with the interlaced threads of the fungus. The
red spots increase in size until in many instances the entire leaf
dies and falls to the ground. It frequently causes the berries to
turn dull brown and become soft and shriveled. This appear-
ance of it has been commonly called “brown rot.” The spores
are found on the threads which issue from the under side of the
leaves or from the stems or fruit, the whole giving when fresh a
glistening white downy appearance from which the disease takes
its most common, and preferable name of “ downy mildew.” Later
the parts of the fungus exposed on the surface assume a gray hue
and so the disease has also been known as “ gray rot.” Some
varieties, like Delaware, appear to be quite susceptible to the at- |
tacks of the disease and none of the cultivated varieties are known
to be entirely exempt.
Treatment.— It may be successfully treated in the manner de-

scribed for black rot. See page 430.

POWDERY MILDEW.
(Uncinula spiralis B. & C.)

Description.— Unlike many of our fungous diseases, the pow-
dery mildew flourishes best during the dry weather of mid-sum-
mer. It usually begins its attack in June, though it may appear
earlier. Its name is descriptive of its appearance, as it forms dull
white, powdery patches on the young shoots on the upper surface
of the leaves. When the fungus is abundant it seriously checks
the growth of the vines by absorbing the nourishment that should
have gone to their development. The berries may be attacked at
any stage of growth and they are injured or destroyed in the
same way as are the shoots or leaves.

Treatment.— It may be successfully treated in the manner de-
scribed for black rot. See page 430.

28

434 Report or tHE HorricuLtTurRist OF THE

GRAPE INSECTS.
CANE BORER.
(Amphicerus bicaudatus Say.)
A small cylindrical beetle, which works as a borer in its mature
stage. It injures the grape by burrowing into the stems in spring
near the base of the new growth. It breeds in the dying wood.

The larva sometimes feeds upon the grape vines.

Treatment.

As it breeds in the dying wood, careful cutting

away and destroying of such wood will help to check the insect.

GRAPE-VINE FLEA-BEETLE.
(Ialtica chalybea Ill.)

Description The adult insects are shining steel-blue flea-
beetles measuring about one-fifth of an inch in length. They live
during the winter under the bark of the old vines or in rubbish in
the fields. They emerge from their winter quarters during the
first warm days of spring, and feed upon the opening buds and
young leaves. Egg laying begins late in April or early in May.
The eggs are placed singly near the buds or upon the leaves and
hatch in about ten days. The young larvee are dark brown in
color but soon become prominently marked with black dots and
patches. They are full grown in from three to four weeks at
which time they measure about a quarter of an inch in length.
They feed on the leaves, devouring only the soft parts at first, but
finally eating irregular holes through the leaves. When ready
to pupate they go a short distance into the ground. The adults
emerge from these pupzx during the latter part of June or early in
July. They probably feed during all of the summer, finally seek-
ing shelter for the winter as above indicated.

Treatment.— The vines should be sprayed with Paris green,
one pound to fifty gallons of lime and water, just before the buds
begin to swell. Much pains should be taken to make this appli-

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 435

cation thorough. Later, when the worms appear on the leaves,
Paris green may be applied at the usual strength, one pound to
150 gallons of lime and water, or combined with Bordeaux mix-
ture. Both upper and under surfaces of the leaves should be cov-
ered.
GRAPE FRUIT WORM.
(Hudemis botrana Schiff.)

Description.— The young caterpillars feed within the grapes
finally causing them to turn dark colored and to wither. This
injury is sometimes mistaken for the black rot. After devouring
the soft parts of one grape the caterpillar goes to another, fasten-
ing the two together by a silken thread. This may be continued
until several in a bunch have been destroyed by one caterpillar.
The young caterpillars are very light green in color with a brown
head. When full grown they measure about one-fourth of an
inch in length and are dark olive green in color tinged slightly
with red. The cocoon is formed on a leaf and is partially com-
posed of two small pieces cut out of the leaf. The adults emerge
in about ten days. The fore wings have a bluish tinge and are
marked with brown, while the posterior wings are dull brown.
The moths are small, measuring nearly half an inch from tip te
tip when the wings are spread. The eggs are probably laid late
in June or early in July. There is probably but one brood an-
nually in this State.

Treatment.—As the caterpillars spend most of their lives within
the grape berries, spraying will have little or no effect. There
seems to be no better way than picking and destroying the infested

fruit and the leaves containing the cocoons.

GRAPE LEAF HOPPER.
(Typhlocyba vitifex Fitch.)

There are several species of leaf hoppers which attack the grape,
but this species is probably the most common in this State. These

436 Report or THE HorricuLrurist oF THE

little leaf hoppers are often erroneously called thrips. They jump
quickly when disturbed.

Description.— The adult insects measure about one-eighth of
an inch in length. They vary greatly in color, but the prevailing
color is usually light yellowish green. ‘The back and wings are
ornamented with bright red, yellow and brown. They are found
upon the vines from spring until fall. They feed together, suck-
ing the sap from the leaves, principally from the under surface,
causing them to turn brown in patches. Writers disagree as to
the egg-laying habits of this species. The young resemble the
adults in form, but are not provided with wings and are green or
yellowish green in color. There are several broods during the
season.‘ Some of the adults of the last brood hibernate in any
convenient rubbish about the vineyard.

Treatment.— The vineyards should be kept free from rubbish.
Much good may be done by thoroughly spraying the vines with
kerosene emulsion, one part to from seven to ten parts of water, or
whale oil soap, one pound to seven gallons of water. This is not
entirely satisfactory as many of the leaf hoppers will fly before the
insecticide reaches them, but some benefit is derived from the
emulsion or soap solution that remains on the leaves as it un-
doubtedly makes them offensive to the insects.

A practical method of combating this insect is found in what
is popularly known as the shield method. The shield consists of
a frame with a cloth stretched over it and saturated with kerosene
oil, with tar softened until it is very sticky or with some other
sticky substance. When ready for use it is carried in a horizon-
tal position between the rows. The vines are agitated at the
same time and as the insects fly or jump into the air many of
them will come in contact with the sticky surface where they
soon die or are wet with kerosene which is fatal to them. This
method should be used during the warm part of the day and
should be continued every day until the insects are materially
lessened in numbers.

New York AGRICULTURAL ExpERIMENT Station. 437

GRAPE-VINE SAW FLY.
(Blennocampa pygmaea. )

Description.— The larva of this saw fly is a yellowish green
slug, with numerous rows of black dots across the body. They
feed together principally upon the under sides of the leaves. The
life history of this species is similar to that of the currant saw-fly.
See page 426. There are two annual broods.

Treatment.— The infested vines should be sprayed with helle-
bore, ene ounce to two gallons of water. If the spraying is not
done until the larve are half grown or over, use one pound of hel-
lebore to one gallon of water. Much pains should be taken to wet
the under surfaces of the leaves. Paris green, one pound to 150
gallons of lime and water, may be used before the grapes are
half grown.

PEACH DISEASES.

Caution.— Before discussing the diseases and insect enemies of
the peach, attention should be ealled to the fact that the foliage
of stone fruits and especially of the peach is peculiarly liable to
injury from Paris green, London purple or copper in solution.
For this reason the former should not be used stronger than one
pound to about three hundred gallons of water and at least two
or three times as much freshly slaked lime as poison should be
used. It is doubtful whether more than two sprayings with Paris
green or London purple should be given even if. diluted to the
strength just stated. If Bordeaux mixture is used especial care |

should be taken to have an excess of lime in the mixture.

CROWN GALL OR ROOT KNOT.

Descriplion, etc.— In this disease large knots appear on the
roots. The knots are irregular in form, rough on the surface,
sofe and spongy within and of various sizes, from the size of a
pea to the size of a fist. They may occur on any part of the root
system, but are found most commonly at the point where the

roots branch off from the trunk; hence the name crown gall.

438 Reporr or tue LlorricuLTURIST OF THE

Oceasionally, they occur also on the trunk above ground. In all
cases the knots are detrimental to the trees and when they occur
at the crown the tree is worthless.

The disease is common in some of the nurseries in the State.
The cause of it is wholly unknown. There are indications that
it is infectious but this has not been proven.

Similar knots oceur on the roots of the raspberry, blackberry,
pear, apple, plum, apricot, grape, and a few other woody plants.
Among fruit growers it is the popular opinion that the disease is
the same on all of these different plants, and that any one of
them may communicate the disease to the others. However, this
has not yet been demonstrated by carefully conducted experi-
ments.

Treatment.— No remedy is known. Affected trees should
never be planted. It is not even safe to plant trees from which
the knots have been removed. Avoid planting fruit trees in soil
known to be badly infested by the disease.

FRUIT ROT OR RIPE ROT.
(Monilia fructigena P.)

The ripe rot of the peach is caused by the same fungus as that
which produces the ripe rot of cherry and plum. It is discussed
on age 420. | .

Treatment.— Chester** who has given special attention to this
subject advocates spraying with Bordeaux mixture just before
the blossoms open and again after the fruit sets. Spray with
copper acetate (finely powdered, 8 ounces to the barrel), when the
fruit is ripening. Copper acetate does not discolor the fruit as
Bordeaux mixture does. Observe the caution given above con-

cerning the liability of injuring peach foliage by spraying.

GUMMING.

The formation of gum by the apricot, cherry, peach or plum
may follow any injury by cuts or bruises or by the attacks of

27 Chester, F. D. Ninth Ann. Rept. Del. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1897: 28.

New Yorx AcrictutTurRAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 439

insects or fungi. The young bark of stone fruit trees may be
nearly covered with gum pockets as a result of bruises from hail
stones. Wounds made in pruning are often followed by a flow of
gum. It has been shown by some experiments that where the
peach is pruned during the period of greatest vegetative activity,
i. e., from April to August, there is a greater production of gum
in the wounds than where the pruning is done later”.

When gumming results from adverse conditions of environ-
ment, of from over bearing, excessive pruning or any other cause
which severely checks growth, it may often be remedied by mak-
ing the conditions as favorable for growth as possible, as, for
example, by frequent tillage, by the use of stable manure or other
fertilizers, by draining the soil, by thinning the fruit to prevent
overproduction and by treatment against diseases and injurious
insects.”

LEAF CURL.
(Hxoascus deformans (Berk.) Fckl.)

Description. The name is descriptive of the disease. The
disease is caused by a fungus which not only attacks the leaves
but may be found in the twigs as well. The curled leaves become
distorted, crumpled, enlarged and curled. The disease may often
be detected when the leaves first start from the buds in spring.
The diseased leaves eventually fall so that in early summer the tree
may be almost defoliated. In 1898 the disease caused a loss of
many thousands of dollars to the fruit growers of the State by
injury to the trees and by the premature dropping of the fruit
which followed the loss of the foliage.

Treatment.— It appears to be demonstrated that leaf curl may
be largely prevented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture,” 1-to-11

28 Zeit. f. Pflanzenkrankheiten, 6 (1896): 58, 59.

29 For a more complete discussion of this subject, see Beach, S. A. “ Gum-
ming of Stone Fruits.” Amer. Gard., 19 (1898): 606.

30 Some advise the use of copper sulphate solution, 1-to-15 or 1-to-20 for-
mula, instead of the Bordeaux mixture, but we advocate the latter because it
adheres so well.

440 Reporr or THE HorricuLTurRIst OF THE

formula, in spring before the buds begin to open. Some advise
later sprayings but as the peach foliage is very susceptible to
injury from the use of spraying mixtures including even Bor-
deaux mixture, we are not prepared at present to outline a satis-

factory line of treatment for the foliage.

LITTLE-PEACH DISEASE.

This disease appears to have been first described by Taft®? in
March, 1898. In October of the same year Smith® published a
more extensive account of it. It seems to have been known to
some extent among peach growers for many years.” It is con-
sidered to be as contagious and as fatal as the yellows. Dr.
Smith describes it as a disease in which the peach fruit is from
one-half to one-third the diameter of healthy fruit, and it may
ripen from one to two weeks later than the healthy fruit. The
leaves average, perhaps, one-half normal size and have a sickly
color. The larger roots appear to be all right but the ultimate |
rootlets appear to be diseased. No fungous parasite has as yet
been found to be the cause of the trouble. The remedy now
advocated is the same as for yellows, viz.: Dig out and burn the
diseased trees.

YELLOWS.

The best treatment for peach yellows is to dig out and burn the
diseased trees. It has not been found that a healthy tree planted
where a diseased tree stood is more apt to have the yellows than
if planted elsewhere, other conditions being similar. Among the
characteristics of the disease may be mentioned the appearance
of clusters of willowy shoots, sickly color of the foliage, prema-
ture ripening of the fruit and red colored spots in the flesh of the

fruit.

31 Taft, L. R. Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 155: 303-304.

32 Smith, E. F. Notes on the Michigan disease known as “ Little Peach,”
Fennville (Mich.) Herald. Oct. 15, 1898.

33 Mann, W. T. Proc. W. N. Y. Hort. Soc., 1899: 142.

34 Robinson, F., and Morrill, R. Proc. W. N. Y. Hort. Soc., 1899: 142.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTIon. 441

PEACH INSECTS.
BORER.
(Sannina exitiosa Say.)

Description.—The adult insects are beautiful moths. The male
measures about an inch and the female an inch and a half from
tip to tip of the expanded wings. The general color is deep steel
blue. The female has a broad band of orange across the abdo-
men. ‘They appear during May and early June. The eggs are
usually deposited on the bark at or near the surface of the ground,
although they are sometimes deposited higher up on the trunk
and even upon the larger limbs. The eggs are only a few days
in hatching and the young larve quickly work their way into
ihe sap wood where they feed during the remainder of the season.
They remain dormant during the winter in their burrows, form
a cocoon and finally issue as moths as above indicated. There is
but one brood annually.

Treatment.— As preventive treatment numerous washes have
been suggested. In a series of expriements which included
a large number of ‘trunk washes Slingerland® reports the best
success with gas tar. The tar was warmed slightly to facilitate’
handling and applied to the trunk. It “apparently kept out
four-fifths of all the borers, only a small percentage of the trees
became infested and no injury resulted to the trees.” Professor
Slingerland also states that in his experience “the tar did not
interfere with the growth of the trees in the least.” This treat-
ment should be combined with the digging out method. He also
states that in this State the applications of washes, such as gas
tar, should be made between June 15 and July 1, and “ should
remain in perfect working order until October 1.” It should be
remarked that gas tar is a substance of very variable composition
and ‘instances are known where disastrous results to the trees
followed its use in the manner which is here described.

35 Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 186, pp. 217, 224-225.

$42 Report or tHe HorricuLrurist OF THE

Keeping wood ashes about the base of the trees is considered
by some extensive growers to be an effective treatment. The
surest treatment is to kill the borers every spring and fall with
a flexible wire inserted in their burrows or to remove them with
a knife.

After the borers are dug out in the spring in May, mound six
inches high or more with fine earth, packing it tightly against
the base of the tree. This compels the moths to lay their eggs
on the bark above the top of the mound. About the first of
August carefully examine the trunk by removing a little earth at
the top of the mound where the borers, if any, may be easily
found. Remove them with the knife. A second search should
be made in October and a third one during the following May.
If the earth is left at its usual level without mounding, the eggs
are deposited so near the roots that the borers can easily work
downward to where it will be difficult to find them.

BUD MOTH.
(7'metocera ocellana Schit. )
Sometimes very destructive to the peach. The caterpillars
bore into the buds and even into the wood beneath. Treatment

same as recommended on page 409.

CURCULIO.
The plum curculio is sometimes a serious pest in the peach
orchard. Remedies for this insect are discussed under “ Plum

eurculio” on page 455.

FRUIT-BARK BEETLE.
(Scolytus rugulosus Ratz.)

Description.— The adult insects are black, somewhat cylin-
drical beetles about one-tenth of an inch long and about one-
third as broad. They appear early in the spring and bore small
round holes through the bark to the sap wood. The eggs are
laid beneath the bark and the grubs feed on the sap wood, mak-

New York AGRiIcuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT Station. 443

ing characteristic galleries. Pupation takes place under the bark,
the adults finally gnawing their way out. There are probably
several broods in one season. It attacks a variety of fruit trees.

Treatment.— As a preventive measure trees should be kept in
a healthy, vigorous condition; as such trees are less liable to attack
than weak ones. Trees which become badly infested should be

dug up and burned.

PEAR DISEASES.
FIRE BLIGHT.
(Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) De Toni.)

Description, etc.— This disease shows itself in the dying of en-
tire twigs, large branches or even the tree itself. It is a bacterial
disease that has long been known but whose real nature was first
discovered in 1879 by Dr. Burrill of [llinois. It was afterwards
studied very carefully at this Station by Dr. Arthur®’ and more
recently by Mr. M. B. Waite * of the United States Department of
Agriculture.

The disease usually makes its first appearance soon after the
blooming period. The young fruit clusters and the twigs bear-
ing them turn black. The leaves also blacken and die but do
not fall. If affected twigs are not removed the disease rapidly
works its way down into the larger branches.

According to Waite®® the blight germs do not live over winter
in the soil. Moreover, he finds that in the majority of the affected
branches even, the germs die soon after the close of the growing
season. It is only in a small proportion of the affected branches
that the germs survive the winter. Such “hold over” cases, as
he calls them, become centers of infection during the following
spring. Branches in which the germ is alive do not show »*
definite line of demarcation between the healthy and diseased

36 See Annual Reports of this Station, 1884: 357; 1885: 241; 1886: 275.

387 Waite, M. B. The Cause and Prevention of Pear Blight. Year-Book U.
S. Dept. Agr., 1895: 295-300.

38 Loc. cit.

444 Report or true HorricuLrurist OF THE

wood. The infection is spread chiefly by insects, especially by
bees. ot Se 4

Pear blight attacks several other pomaceous plants — the apple,
erab apple, quince, ete.

Treatment.—Although the cause of the disease is now well
known no thoroughly successful method of treating it has been
found. The only thing that can be done is to cut out and burn
the diseased parts as soon as the blight appears. This should be
done promptly; for the disease spreads rapidly. Waite recom-
mends®™ that all trees subject to the disease be thoroughly in-
spected several times during the growing season. He says that the
two most important periods for such inspection are: (1) About
two weeks after blooming; (2) just before the leaves drop.

The cutting should be done several inches below the lowest
point of discoloration, in order to make sure that all of the disease
is removed. Care should be taken never to cut into healthy
wood with a knife or saw that has come in contact with diseased
wood, until after the tool has been disinfected by wiping it off
with a cloth saturated with kerosene, a five per ct. solution of .

carbolie acid, or some other germicide.

LEAF BLIGHT.
(Entomosporium maculatum Ley.)

Description.—This is caused by a parasitic fungus which makes
its appearance early in the spring. It is first found on the new
leaves where it appears as bright, reddish spots on the upper sur-
face. These spots rapidly increase in size and later the leaves
turn brown and finally fall. It attacks the young twigs in the
same manner and frequently kills back many of them. When the
fruit is attacked the bright colored spots are first formed. These
spots soon become dark colored, and spread out in every direc-

tion; the surface of the pear becomes rough where attacked by

39 Fifty-Seventh Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Agr. Soc., 1897: 787.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 445

the disease and at these places the growth is checked. Some-
times the fruit becomes cracked as it does when attacked by the
scab. This disease appears to be more severe in states south of
New York and in regions near the Atlantic coast than it is in the
interior of the State, where it causes little damage except as a
mursery disease.

Treatment.— The treatment advocated for pear scab is also

recommended for this disease when it appears in the orchard.

LEAF SPOT.
(Septoria piricola Desm. )

Description.— This disease may be readily distinguished from
the one last described if the two are carefully compared. The
leaf spot when fully developed has a somewhat angular outline
and whitish center in which appear small black specks, the bodies
in which ihe spores of the fungus are borne.

Treatment.— The only experiments in treating this disease
which have come to our notice are those by Duggar*® who advo-

cates similar treatment to that recommended against leaf-blight.

SCAB.
(Venturia pirina Aderh.**)

Description.— This disease is caused by a fungus very similar,
both in appearance and in the injury which it does to leaves and
fruit, to the apple scab fungus. It robs the leaves of the nour-
ishment which they are preparing for themselves and for the
growth of the tree and fruit; it spots the fruit and in very severe
attacks causes it to become one sided, distorted or cracked.
While it does not kill the trees or branches as the blight may do,
still it is believed that no disease, year after year, causes so great
loss in pear orchards in New York State as does the scab. Some
varieties appear to be comparatively exempt from its attacks while

40 Duggar, B. M. Cornell Univ., Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 145: 602-604.
41 This is the ascosporic stage of Fusicladium pirinum (Lib.), Fekl.

446 Report or THE HorTICULTURIST OF THE

others suffer quite severely. With varieties which are thus in-
jured by its attacks, it weakens the tree, it lessens the yield, it
makes a large part of the fruit unsalable or of an inferior grade,
and even the No. 1 fruit sells for less in the market than it would
were it free from the blemishes caused by the scab. It is also
conceded that fruit free from scab keeps better and is handled
easier than the fruit of the same variety blemished with scab spots.

Treatment.— This disease may be controlled by treatment with
Bordeaux mixture.*” Paris green or its equivalent may be used
at the same time against the codling moth and leaf eating insects.
The general treatment recommended for the scab and other pear

diseases 1s given on page 452.

PEAR INSECTS.
BARK LICE.

See under ‘* Oyster-shell Bark-louse ” and “* Scurfy Bark-louse.”

BLISTER MITE.
(Phytoptus pyri Scheuten. )

Description.—The first indications of the presence of this insect
in the spring are the small reddish spots on the upper surfaces of
the young leaves. These spots indicate where the adult mites that
have been hibernating on the twigs burrowed into the leaves to
deposit their eggs. These spots finally turn black. The eggs
soon hatch and the young mites burrow into the leaf, feeding upo™
its soft tissues. Toward fall the adults migrate to the twigs to
remain all winter. There are probably several broods annually.

T'reatment.—The infested trees should be sprayed in the spring
a short time before the buds burst, either with kerosene emulsion
diluted with seven parts of water or with a solution of whaleoil
soap, one pound to seven gallons of water. One thorough appli-
cation has been found to be sufficient. Pruning closely in winter

and burning the twigs will also aid in checking the insect.

42 Beach, S. A. Bulletin 84 of this Station.

New York AGricuLTuRAL ExpPpERIMENT STATION. 447

BORER.

See “Sinuate Pear Borer.”

BUD MOTH.

The eyespotted bud moth which attacks pears, is the same as
that which infests apple trees. It is also known as the bud worm.

Treatment for it is given under apples. See page 409.

CASE BEARERS.

PISTOL-CASE-BEARER. CIGAR-CASE-BEARER.
These insects also infest apple trees and have been discussed

under appies. See page 409.

CODLING MOTH.

This insect which causes so much loss to apple growers by caus-
ing wormy apples, also attacks pears. It may be treated as
recommended on page 412.

LEAF BLISTER MITE.

See “ Blister Mite.”

PEAR MIDGE.
(Diplosis pyriwora Riley.)

Description.—The first indication of injury by this insect is the
stunted and dwarfed fruits. If one of these fruits is cut open the
maggots will be found near the core. The adult insect is a small
two-winged fly somewhat resembling a diminutive mosquito.
According to Prof. J. B. Smith* it appears early in the season
before the buds of the pear blossoms open. The eggs are probably
laid in the blossoms and hatch within a few days. The young mag-
gots bore into the embryo fruit, where they remain feeding near
the core until full grown. When ready to pupate they leave the
fruit and go into the ground to a depth of from one-half an inch

to two inches. After remaining unchanged for a time they make

43.N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 99, page 5.

448 Report or THE HorvTicuLTURIST OF THE

“ oval cocoons of silk covered with grains of sand” (Smith.) This
probably takes place any time from early spring to mid-summer,
depending upon the locality, although in this State most of them
go into the ground in June. They remain as pupe in the ground
all winter, emerging as adults in the spring. Lawrence pears are
especially liable to attack.

Treatment.— This insect has proved a very difficult one to con-
trol. Experiments have been made with a view to destroying the
pup in the ground, but it has been found that in order to sue-
cessfully check the insect a dangerous amount of the insecticides
tested must be applied to the soil. Hand picking, where practical,
is probably the most satisfactory method of checking the insect.
It should be done in June.

OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE.

This insect also has been discussed under apples, page 417. It

is sometimes very injurious to young pear trees.

PEAR PSYLLA.
(Psylla pyricola Forst.)

Description.— This insect causes injury in two ways. First, by
sucking the sap; second, by disfiguring trees and fruit. Its pres-
ence is usually betrayed by the honey dew secreted by the young,
wingless forms. The honey dew afterwards becomes covered
with a black mold giving the leaves and twigs a black unsightly
appearance.

The adult is an active four-winged insect measuring about one-
tenth of an inch in length. It has been compared to a miniature
seventeen year locust. A number of broods are produced during
the summer, and the adults which live through the winter are
distinct in form from the summer adults. They appear early in
the spring and deposit their eggs in protected places on the bark.
The eggs hatch within a few days and the little larvee, or nymphs,

at once commence to suck the juices from the young leaves and

New York AcricutturaAL Exprrrment Station. 449

twigs. Where the nymphs are numerous they take so much
nourishment from the trees that the new growth is seriously
checked. The whole tree assumes a stunted, unhealthy appear-
ance. As a natural result the fruit crop is greatly lessened and,
in some instances, trees have been killed. The first brood in the
spring probably does the most direct injury. A favorite place
for the young nymphs is in the axils of the leaves and at the
base of the fruit stems. Within two or three days after hatching
they cover themselves with honey dew which finally becomes so
abundant as to disfigure the leaves and fruits, the amount of in-
jury done in this way varying of course with the number of
nymphs.

Treatment.— The young nymphs are most easily reached.
Close watch for them should be kept when the leaves are unfold-
ing in the spring. As soon as the nymphs are found spray the
trees thoroughly with kerosene emulsion diluted with about ten
parts of water** or with a solution of whale-oil soap, one pound to
from five to seven gallons of water. Two applications about ten
days apart will probably be necessary. It is important to begin
the work before the nymphs have covered themselves with honey

dew as it is then much more difficult to reach them with a spray.

SAN JOSE SCALE.

(Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst. )
Description.”— This insect may be briefly described as a small,
nearly circular, ash-gray scale with a prominent dark nipple at
the center. These are the female scales. They are always
greatly in excess of the males and are chiefly responsible for the
injury which is done. The San Jose scale attacks the bark, leaves

and fruit. In common with certain other scale insects it causes a

44Some growers use a much stronger emulsion than this with apparently
no injury to the trees.

45 This insect is discussed more in detail in Bulletin 136 of this Station,
pages 587-593, by V. H. Lowe.

29 :

450 Report or tur HorricuLturist OF THE

crimson discoloration of the sapwood and fruit. It multiplies
with great rapidity. In examining a tree for this insect the
trunk and larger limbs and the fruit should receive an especially
close scrutiny as the scales are often found here in large num-
bers when only scattering on the smaller limbs.
Treatment.—The treatment of this insect is a matter of so great
importance that it will be made the subject of a separate bulletin.
Where it has once become firmly established it probably cannot
be exterminated. When recently introduced it has in some eases
been exterminated by burning the infested trees, or by thorough
treatment with whale-oil soap at the rate of two pounds to a
gallon of water, or by both. The most effective known method

of treatment is fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. The use

of kerosene and water or crude petroleum is still in the experi-
mental stage and cannot as yet be recommended for general use.

SCURFY BARK-LOUSE.
(Chionapsis furfurus Fitch. )

Description.— This insect sometimes occurs in large numbers
upon young pear trees. The scales are a dirty white color,
broadly wedge shape in outline and vary in length from about
one-sixteenth to nearly one-eighth of an inch.

The life history of this species is very similar to that of the
oyster-shel! bark-louse; with both species the eggs are retained
under the parent scale during the winter. The eggs vary greatly
in number, from ten or twelve upwards, as many as seventy-five
having been found under a single female scale. They hatch from
the first to the middle of May. There is probably but one brood
annually. The male scale is much smaller than the female, is
elongate, with nearly parallel sides and is a clearer white color.
The adult male is a delicate two winged insect.

Treatment.— The treatment for this insect is the same as for
the oyster-shell bark-louse. See page 417.

.

New Yorx AcricuLtturaAL Exprertment Station. 451

SINUATE PEAR BORER.
(Agrilus sinuatus Oliv.)

Description.— This insect was recently introduced into this
country from Europe. It has become seriously injurious in
some parts of the eastern United States. It makes long zig-za;,
galleries between the bark and wood, finally girdling and killing
the tree. It is said to live two years in the larval stage. The
larva is slender, and has the first segment back of the head much
enlarged. The adult is a small, slender beetle. The eggs are laid
on the bark of the tree.

Treatment.—When a tree becomes infested it is very difticult
to get the borers out, and it is usually impractical to attempt to
do so. As preventive measures some good may be done by plac-
ing mechanical obstructions on the trunks, such as tarred paper
wound about the trunk, or wire netting; the object being to pre-
vent the adult from depositing eggs in the bark. Whitewashing
the trunk with ordinary whitewash to which enough Paris green
has been added to tinge it. slightly, or with a strong soap wash,
one pound of whale oil soap to one gallon of water, has been recom-
mended. ‘he trunks should be kept covered with one of these
washes during May and June.

PEAR SLUG.
(Selandria cerasi Peck.)

Description. The adult insect is a small, dark-colored, four-
winged fly. The slugs make their appearance in the latter part
of May or early June. At first light in color they soon become
darker and are covered with an abundance of slime. The slugs
feed on the upper surface, skeletonizing the leaves, and where very
abundant they cause serious injury. Leaves that are badly injured
wither and fall.

Treatment.— If upon examination it is found that the insects
are likely to appear in sufficient numbers to cause much damage,
no time should be lost in spraying the trees with Paris green. If
the trees are being treated for fungous diseases the Paris green

452 Report or THE HorrTicuLTurRist OF THE

should be combined with the Bordeaux mixture. A _ second
brood of this insect usually appears in August. The only thing
to be done is to spray when the indications are that the slugs are
numerous enough to be injurious. On low trees they are some-
times treated with air-slaked lime or road dust, by throwing the
dust or lime over the trees.

GENERAL TREATMENT AGAINST DISEASES AND INSECTS WHICH ATTACK THE

PEAR.
When to spray. What to use and what the treatment is for
1. Just before blossoms open. ...... Bordeaux mixture46 against the scab,
leaf blight, leaf spot and canker dis-
ease.
2. Just after blossoms fall. Bordeaux mixture4¢ against the scab,

leaf blight, leaf spot, ete.

Paris green4? against codling moth
and leaf-eating insects generally.

3. From ten to fourteen days after 2. | Bordeaux mixture46 against the scab,
leat spot, leaf blight, ete.

Paris green47 against codling moth
and leaf-eating insects generally.

For treatment of fire blight, bud moth, case bearers, etc., con-
sult the special notice of these subjects on previous pages.

PLUM DISEASES.

BLACK KNOT.

(Plowrightia morbosa (Schw.) Sace.)

Description.— This disease causes swellings underneath the

bark, finally rupturing it and developing a spongy texture covered

46 Use Bordeaux mixture, 1-to-11 formula. Directions for making and ap-
plying are given in Bulletin 121. The Paris green or other arsenicals may be
mixed with the Bordeaux mixture if desirable to apply both at one time.

47 Use Paris green at the rate of 1 pound to 150 gallons of water, with
about two pounds of fresh slaked lime added to make it adhere, and to pre-
vent injury to foliage. Green arsenite of copper, arsenite of lime, or other
poisons may be used instead of Paris green, as directed in Bulletin 121.
These arsenicals may be mixed with Bordeaux mixture instead of water, at
a = rate as given above. In that case, not much extra lime need be
added,

New York AGRrIcULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTion. 453

with dark olive-green mold. In this stage the summer spores are
produced which spread the infection to other trees.

Late in the season the knot becomes hard with a black surface,
which finally becomes covered with fine black pimples inside of
which are matured the winter spores. The winter spores escape
late in winter or early in spring and serve to spread the disease.
A more extended discussion of this disease is given in Bulletin 40
of this Station, and in the Annual Report for 1893, page 686.

Treatment.— The best known remedy for this trouble is to cut
out and burn the knots. They can be found most readily after
the leaves have dropped in the fall. They should then all be
-removed before mid-winter so as to be sure of destroying them
before the spores mature and escape. Early in the summer the
new knots should be watched for and promptly removed and
destroyed. The infection frequently comes from the knots on
neglected plum or cherry trees along fence rows or in neighbor-
ing orchards. In removing the knots the branch should be cut
off three or four inches or more below where the knot appears, so
as to remove the threads of the fungus that may extend down the
branch to a considerable distance from the knot. The same dis-
ease also affects various wild plums and wild and cultivated
cherries. It is rarely found on sweet cherries but sometimes is
very destructive to the Morello class.

FRUIT ROT.
(Monilia fructigena P.)

The ripe rot or fruit rot of the plum is caused by the same fun-
gus as that which causes the rot of the cherry fruit.

Treatment.— The treatment advocated for the leaf-spot will
hold this disease in check somewhat. The spraying of the ripe
fruit presents the same difficulties as it does with the cherry.
See page 420.

When there is reason to fear that the disease will attack the
blossoms, treatment with Bordeaux mixture should be made just
before the blossoms open. Thinning the fruit is no doubt a par-

=

454 Rrrorr or tHE HorricuLturist OF THE

tial preventive, because when the rot attacks one of a cluster of,
fruits it usually spreads till every fruit in the cluster is diseased.
When the fruits do not touch each other the disease is less
destructive.

LEAF SPOT.

(Cylindrosportum padi Karst.)

This disease is discussed under leaf spot of the cherry. See
page 421. In general it is more liable to produce the shot hole
appearance on plum foliage than on cherry foliage.

Treatment.—As a result of extended experiments it can be
stated that the plum leaf spot may be controlled by thorough
treatment with Bordeaux mixture, 1-to-11 formula. In some
seasons two treatments are most economical, but under conditions
favorable to the disease at least three should be given.® If but
two treatments be made give the first about ten days after the
blossoms fall, but not later than June 1; make the second treat-
ment about three weeks later. The disease may be better con-
trolled by three treatments and usually three treatments will be
most profitable. Make the third from three to four weeks after
the second.

YELLOWS.

The Japanese plums are subject to a disease which has the
appearance of peach yellows. It occurs on trees which have been
worked on plum roots as well as on those which are on peach
roots. No remedy is known.

The treatment recommended is the same as that which is recom-
mended for peach yellows — dig out and burn the diseased trees.

PLUM INSECTS.
PLUM CURCULIO.
(Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.)

Description.— The adult is a small, peculiar, gray beetle. It
passes the winter under the bark of trees, or under rubbish, and

48 Beach, S. A. Sixteenth Ann. Rept. this Station, 1897: 211.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 455

comes forth early in the spring to deposit its eggs in the young
fruits, commencing as soon as they are formed. It does this by
puncturing the tissue and inserting the egg. After the egg is
deposited, the beetle cuts a crescent-shaped groove around one
side of the puncture evidently to prevent the growing tissue from
crushing the egg. The eggs hatch in a few days when the little
worm, or larva, at once commences to feed on the fruit causing
much of the infested fruit to fall while still young and that which
remains on the trees ripen prematurely and soon decay.

The curculio does not confine its attacks to plums, but it usually
infests plum orchards and if left unmolested, often destroys an
entire crop.

Treatment.— It has been found that the beetles’ manner of
protection is to fall to the ground when disturbed. Here they
curl up so as to resemble bits of bark. Advantage is taken of
this habit in fighting the insect by a process known as jarring.
The trees are jarred by three or four strokes with a padded crutch
or mallet and the insects are caught on sheets spread underneath
the tree and destroyed.

The curculio catcher commonly used in the vicinity of Geneva
is one made by Mr. J. B. Johnson, Geneva, N. Y. The frame
over which the sheet is stretched is attached to a two-wheeled
cart. The sheet slopes downwards to the center where an open-
ing allows the bugs to be swept into a tin box underneath the
sheet and between the wheels. A slit at one side allows the cart
to be run directly under the tree and two or three jars bring down
the bugs which are swept into the box above mentioned, by means
of a short handled broom. The cultivated ground is made smooth
by rolling to prepare it so that the cart wheels will pass over it
readily. Jarring should be begun as soon as the fruit sets and be
continued as long as the curculio are found in sufficient numbers to
pay for jarring, which is usually for about three weeks. arly
morning is the best time to do this work. Towards the middle of
the day, especially on bright days, they are more active and apt
to fly. ,

456 Report oF THE HorricuLTURIST OF THE

The beetle feeds on the plum leaves and for this reason spraying
the trees with Paris green or London purple has been advocated.
No doubt the insects may be killed to some extent in this way but
the foliage of stone fruit trees is particularly liable to injury from
Paris green or London purple so that these poisons must be used
sparingly and much diluted. When the insect is abundant the

jaring is undoubtedly the best way of controlling the pest.

GREEN FRUIT-WORMS.

The green fruit worms sometimes are so abundant on the plum
as to cause much damage. The treatment recommended is given
on page 415.

PLANT LICE.

Several species of plant lice attack the plum. They collect in
great numbers on the under sides of the leaves, causing them to
curl and finally drop off. The infested trees should be sprayed
with whale-oil soap, one pound to seven gallons of water, as soon
as the lice appear. The spraying should be directed from the
under side so as to reach all of the lice.

QUINCE DISEASES
CANKER OF TREE. BLACK ROT OF FRUIT.

The canker of the tree and black rot of the fruit of the quince
are caused by the fungus which causes similar trouble with the
apple and pear. For a discussion of the disease and remedial

measures see page 399.

BLIGHT. (FIRE BLIGHT.)

This disease is caused by the same parasite which produces the
fire blight of the pear. It is discussed on page 443.

LEAF BLIGHT AND FRUIT SPOT.

(Entomosporium maculatum Lev.)
Description.— Fruit spot and leaf blight of the quince are
caused by the same fungus that causes pear leaf blight. When a

New Yorx AcricutturaL Exprriment Station. 457

fruit is attacked, numerous small black specks appear on its sur-
face. As the spots increase in size they often grow into each other
and form a large, dark, diseased area. The disease does not extend
so deep into the tissue of the fruit as to make it entirely worthless,
but the market value is greatly lessened. When the fruit is at-
tacked before it has reached its full size, it often occurs that the
quinces, like the diseased pears, are mishapen and undersized.
Greater damage is done to the trees when the leaves are severely at-
tacked. The loss of foliage in midsummer not only leaves the
fruit undeveloped but it is a severe check to the growth and vigor
of the tree.

Treatment.— Favorable results in treating this disease with the
Bordeaux mixture are reported. It is suggested that the treat-
ment recommended for apple scab be used against quince fruit
spot and leaf blight, making the first spraying when the blossom
buds have appeared, the second just as the blossoms are falling,
and a third about two weeks later.

RUST.
(Gymnosporangium spp. )

Description.— The rust is due to a fungus which becomes estab-
lished and develops within the tissues of the quince branches or
fruit. It causes knotty branches and peculiarly distorted fruit on
which there appear tiny fringed pits filed with orange colored
dust giving the diseased parts quite a brilliant appearance.

In a different form this rust fungus attacks the red cedar and
the common juniper, forming galls on their branches. In these
galls are developed spores which, distributed by the winds to
quinces, juneberries, hawthorns and apples, become established
on these trees and cause the rust. Usually the rust is not abun-
dant enough on quinces to cause serious injury. It is usually
recommended that the cedar and juniper trees in the vicinity be
destroyed to prevent the breeding of the fungus on them and that
the rusted fruit or branches also be removed and destroyed. The

458 Report oF THE HortTicuLrTurRIsTt OF THE

former recommendation is not always practical, and whether the

latter course will do any good has not been definitely determined.

QUINCE INSECTS.
BORER.

These are the same as those described under apple insects,
page 406. The trunks of the trees should be examined carefully
in spring and fall and the borers dug out. Various other remedies
have been advocated, but apparently none of them take the place
of systematically removing the grubs.

CODLING MOTH.
(Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.)

This insect is the same as that which causes wormy apples and
pears as described on page 412. It should be treated by spraying
with Paris green or some other arsenical poison as soon as the
fruit sets, followed by one or two later applications at intervals
of ten days, or even less if heavy rains fall in the meantime. The
poison thus used is also recommended for the curculio mentioned
below. It may be combined with Bordeaux mixture when that
is used against fruit spot and leaf blight, using one pound for
one hundred and fifty gallons.

CURCULIO.
(Conotrachelus crataegu Walsh.)

Description.— The adult insect is somewhat larger than the
plum curculio. It is broader just back of the thorax and is a
brownish gray color mottled with white. Its life history as
worked out by Slingerland® is substantially as follows: The
winter is passed in the grub stage in an earthen cell two or three
inches below the surface of the ground. Here the transformation
to the pupa takes place in the spring. The time when the adults

49 Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 148.

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 459

emerge varies with the weather conditions. They may appear
any time from late in May until late in July. The adults feed on
the young quince fruits and possibly on the leaves. The eggs
are laid in “ little pits” made by the female beetles in the fruit.
The eggs hatch in a few days and the grubs feed in the fleshy
part of the fruit until full grown when they go into the ground to
pass the winter. There is but one brood annually.

Treatment.— As-with the plum curculio, jarring is considered
the most satisfactory method of combating this insect. The trees
are jarred in the same manner as plum trees for the plum curculio.

> is mounted on low wheels so that it can

The “ cureulio catcher ’
be used under the quince trees. As the time when the curculios
appear varies, probably with the season, no definite time for be-
ginning the work of jarring can be given. The trees should be
watched after the last week of May. The presence of the cur-
culios will be easily ascertained by a few trials at jarring. If they
are found the jarring should be continued as long as they are
numerous.

RASPBERRY DISEASKS.
ANTHRACNOSE.
(Gloeosporium venetum Speg.)

Description.— This disease ordinarily makes its first appear-
ance on the young canes when they are less than a foot high.
Its presence may be detected by the appearance of small dark or
purple colored spots, which rapidly increase in size and change
from the dark color to the brown or dirty white in the center as
the fungus feeds outward in all directions leaving the dead tissues
behind. The slightly raised outlines of the spots vary in color
from dark brown to bright purple. In severe attacks the spots
are so numerous that they soon coalesce and form continuous
blotches that may nearly or completely girdle the cane. The
effect on the cane is practically the same as if so much bark had
been removed with a knife. While anthracnose is preéminently

460 Report or tHe Horricu,trurist oF THE

a disease of the canes it may occur on any part of the plant above
ground. It is most destructive to black raspberries, but also
attacks purple raspberries and blackberries and perhaps still
other species of Rubus. Red raspberries appear to be exempt.

T'reatment.*°— Since, in most instances, a raspberry plantation
reaches its limit of profitable production when three or four years
old it seems that a rotation of crops, combined with sanitary
measures, is the surest method of preventing loss from this disease.
As the disease lives over winter in the canes, the old canes, to-
gether with the badly diseased new ones, should be removed as
soon as the fruiting season is over.

Experiments have shown that the disease may be checked by
spraying with Bordeaux mixture, beginning when the new canes
are about six inches high and keeping them well protected with
the mixture until the fruit is two-thirds grown. Ordinarily, how-
ever, spraying for anthracnose is not likely to pay.

RUST.
(Puccima peckiana Howe. Syn. Caeoma nitens Schw.)

Description, etc.— This disease is often called the orange rust
on account of the orange color of the spores which are produced
in dense masses on the underside of the rusted leaves. Sometimes
the spore masses occur also on the canes. The fungus attacks
blackberries, dewberries and raspberries. It is quite common on
wild plants and where these are growing in the vicinity of cul-
tivated varieties the diseased plants among them should be de-
stroyed to prevent them from becoming a source of infection.

Treatment.— Clinton™ states that the fungus enters the- very
young underground shoots and growing up through the canes
finally appears in the leaves. Since the fungus grows within the
canes and infection appears to take place at the root, the only

50 Paddock, W. The Anthracnose of Black Raspberry. N. Y. Agr. Exp.

Sta. Bul. 124.
51 Clinton, G. P. Orange Rust of Raspberry and Blackberry. Ill. Agr. Exp.

Sta. Bul. 29.

a a So

New Yorx AgricutturaAL Experiment Station. 461

preventive treatment which can be recommended is digging out
and burning the infested plants immediately upon the first ap-
pearance of the disease. ‘This treatment will materially check
the disease. Affected plants may usually be detected before the
rust breaks out on the leaves. The diseased leaves have a pale
orange tinge and present a sickly appearance which one soon
comes to recognize as characteristic of rust-infested plants. Di-
seased canes are also apt to be much freer from prickles than

are healthy canes.

LEAF-SPOT.
(Septoria rubi Westd.)
A leaf-spot of raspberries is caused by the same Septoria which
attacks blackberries. It is discussed on page 419.
The disease seems to be less troublesome on raspberries than
it is on blackberries.

ROOT KNOT.

The roots of raspberries are often covered with galls which
are similar to those found on peach roots (see page 487) and are
probably due to the same cause. Our knowledge of these root
galls is imperfect. To both raspberry and the peach they are
very injurious. There is some reason for believing that the di-
sease may be communicated from the peach to the raspberry and
vice versa. Hence it is advisable to avoid planting peaches on
soil in which raspberries have knotted badly. Neither should
raspberries be planted where peaches have been affected with the
root knot.

RASPBERRY INSECTS.
CANE MAGGOT.
(Phorbia sp.)

Description.— This insect works only in the new shoots causing
them to wilt and finally die. This wilting of the shoots is first
noticeable in May. The adults first appear in spring toward the

462 Report or THE HorricuLtTurRist OF THE

latter part of April. The eggs are laid near the tips of the new
growth. They hatch within a few days. The little white maggots
which emerge from them burrow into the pith of the shoot. Ac-
cording to Slingerland™ they burrow downward in the pith until
they have reached about half the length of the canes when they
work nearly out to the bark and each makes a tunnel around the
shoot, thus girdling it from the inside. They continue feeding on
the pith at the point where the girdling was done, almost severing
the shoots. After doing this injury the maggots proceed to mur-
row downward in the pith, finally reaching the base of the shoots
where they transform to the pupa stage. This point in their
development is probably reached some time in June. They re
main in this condition until the following April.

Treatment.— As the insects work inside the shoots they cannot
be reached with a spray. Undoubtedly the most practical method
of treatment consists in cutting off the wilted shoots several inches
below the wilted portion.

SAW FLY.
(Monophadnoides rubt Harr.)

Description.— The adult insects are about the size of a house-
fly. They appear in the spring and are most abundant in May.
The eggs are laid from the under side of the leaf within the leaf
tissue. They are usually placed along the midrib and larger veins.
The tissue above the eggs turns a light brown in color, causing
the infested leaves to become spotted. The eggs hatch in about a
week. The young larve are light green in color and are well cov-
ered with spine-bearing tubercles. They feed at first on the softer
tissues, but finally the entire leaf with the exception of the mid-
rib and larger veins is devoured. They also have been known to
feed on the tender bark of the new growth and to do some injury
to the flowers and fruit. Toward the latter part of June they go
into the ground near the bushes upon which they have been feed-

52 Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 126, p. 58.

New York AGricuLtturAL ExpreriMentT Station. 463

ing, to a depth of two or three inches, where the cocoons are spun
in which the transformation to the pupa stage slowly takes place.
The transformation is not completed until the following spring.
There is but one brood annually.

Treatment.— If the leaves become spotted as above indicated,
they should be examined, and if indications of the eggs or larvze
are found they should be sprayed with hellebore, one ounce to the
gallon of water, as soon as the young larvee are numerous. Both
the upper and under surfaces of the leaves should be covered.
Where only a few bushes are infested the insect may be easily
checked by brushing the larve onto the ground about the bushes.
If the ground is soft and loose most of the larve will be unable to
return.

STRAWBERRY DISEASES.
LEAF-SPOT.
(Sphaerella fragariae (Tul.) Sacc.)

This disease is also called strawberry “rust” or “ leaf-blight.”
It frequently causes much damage by injuring the foliage so that
the plants are incapable of perfecting a full crop of fruit, even
though a full crop has set, or as Thaxter states, it also attacks the
fruit stems and hulls, “ cutting off the supply of nourishment from
the berries and disfiguring them by the withering of the calyx.”

When the spots first appear on the leaves they are of a deep
purple color, but later they enlarge and the center becomes gray
or nearly white. Portions of the infested leaves frequently assume
bright red tints, and when badly diseased finally wither and die.

Treatment.— Bordeaux mixture, 1-to-11 formula, used as advo-
cated by Hunn in the Annual Report of this Station for 1892, p.
682, gives beneficial results. When setting a new plantation be
particular to remove the diseased leaves before taking the plants
to the field, or if the plants must be trimmed in the field, the di-
seased leaves should not be left where they can communicate the
disease to the new foliage as it grows out. The following treat-

ment is then suggested :

464 Report oF THE HorTICULTURIST OF THE

Spray the newly set plants soon after growth begins and follow
with three or four treatments during the season, as seems neces-
sary. The following spring, spray just before blossoming and
again in from ten days to two weeks. As soon as the fruit is
gathered it is generally a good plan to mow off the foliage if badly
diseased and burn it if the beds are to be fruited a second season.
Should drought follow, the plants may not recover from this treat-
ment sufficiently to give a satisfactory crop the following year.

Varieties differ greatly in their susceptibility to leaf spot. Con-
sequently, one of the best ways to avoid loss from this disease is
to plant those varieties which are least subject to it.

STRAWBERRY INSECTS.
CROWN BORER.
(Tyloderma fragariae Riley.)

Description.— The adult insect is a dark brown beetle, of the
curculio group, measuring about one-sixteenth of an inch in length.
The beetles appear in June or July. The eggs are laid on the
plant above ground not far from the crown of the root. The eggs
hatch into small, white, legless grubs. These grubs burrow down
into the crown where they feed until full grown. Pupation takes
place within the excavation, the beetles finally escaping about the
middle of August. They are unable to fly. There is but one
brood annually.

Treatment.— The crown borer is most injurious on old beds,
and as each plant that becomes infected is eventually doomed, it
will usually be most practical to dig up and burn the infested
vines. ct i
GRUBS.

The larve or grubs of the common May beetle and other closely
related species, frequently do much injury by feeding on the roots
of strawberry plants.

The beetles lay their eggs in sod ground. The eggs hatch into
white grubs, which feed on the roots of various plants until the

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaTiIon. 465

third year, when they pupate, finally coming from the ground as
beetles.

Since the grubs live in the ground until the third year after the
eggs were laid, it is good practice not to use land for strawberries
before the third or fourth year after it was in sod.

SAW FLY.
(Emphytus maculatus Nort.)

This insect is only occasionally injurious in this State. The
adult insect is a four-winged fly of the general habits of the cur-
rant and raspberry saw flies. The larve feed upon the leaves.
There are probably two broods annually, the second brood pass-
ing the winter in the ground.

The larvee may be killed by spraying the infested plants with
hellebore, one ounce to the gallon of water.

30

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WADUALY . -i.0.«.. eiaieisieid (alse teremieisree ADO OBONE ROCCO OOCOaS 32 18 213 276 539
HEDIUATY (.'s «se laterain\clatdlp njdlerats wie pcla/uls’s e six wiulaYo¥e aiolaieisieiereie 31 13 86 | 300 430
MATCH s 65 <ice0s Peer er SE Ere 31 113 156 | 281 581
PMERETL Bris dchi.cie diale:sti¥e'sinistg Meialuizinfetettiele|a\e,rveleisiahe srenanracc 53 43 158 | 256 510
EBV 5010 Beas Aondanennicoe aeentetcaen alah fo ctacstevetatiateia 95 58 108 263 524
aU TEESE SS ASAT CE EOP ARE WARS =F pisioigiyiieiaiaisiy inipicigtapiaie(s ste 59 27 68 294 448
SIUPL Ys nae bias 2 era's bible oiaieleiateletirersic/slee's/¢ aleiuintelejs)(qivis isiein/ ins ciate 41 is 83; 274 405
EMRE UES e ckte pete oft cielaliesieie oidiaalse/ajeisie,< Sion painteieleteiaiaikeiataratee V7 109 9% 167 451
BBPLEMbeIite.e estecle re tec ce cts "ee as inte ates sone 55 24 185 310 574
WIGRGHOEL: Jace: sss Daaiinetaisininiere steieieie plotvinta evsipie sicie e(aiele iets MS 45 146 175 443
November...... “5A SCO SSOONO Materslelstalels Sa SOMDODRODSNCSE 67 52 64 297 480
PFECOMINOE ES. y 2's, orsivlotovelt-e e'claiatelule ce tovele olale a stoivipe ete cua Taalne 13 45 167 318 543
Total hours of Movement ......01 ‘sss. ceccvcervees 631 504 | 1,532 ~ 3,211 5,928
Per cent of time in each direction ...............- ie ee 9.3. 785 8 a ope F

Mereroro.toaicAL Recorp ror 1899 or THE

474

ais Pr “oo “89 | 9°@S | O39 | Ges | SF | AIS
af: |b Tees PESea 9 arte tee Ne pores Gee
PL c2}9°09] 99|9°s2| 29] 9°82) oF] 99
es TZ | 9°89 94 | Goh | SF9 2h | SLs 09
99 Z| 99| #9] 19] #9/9°69] 89] 989
18 OS) 20!) 891 691 719) = On" | 005] = G9
bL 91| #9] $4] 99] 9°99] S'09| 99] 2g
82 SL 99 SL cL 6S | $39 49 | S°$G
PL 3} 34/9702] 9°22] £9) 69] GO| oF
18 7| sa| 9/929) 9'2F| 09] +91 O6F
GL |}9%4} 89] 9S] 6¢/9'6F| #9] 9] #F
29 9°99] 89] #9| 1I9| 9F| 2c] sc!
1% |S9°88} G2] IS}a4| 2] 9] sea) og
82 62 69 | S°6F 6b Lb 6¢ 99 | STS
64 |9°94| 89] 99] #9) 29] Go! 69] SH
$ |9°e2| 69| 99/9729] 27] ec] 2g] Stas
6S 4g} sc] or] 6F| S| a) 98] 2s
cL IZ} $2/9°s¢]ao°sq| The] 6F| o9| &
6g 4g} a°o,| $9] §&| Sb] ga] 20] 9°90
98 |/9°8] o2| so} at9| as 32] §9 | S°Sp
08 &8 | $ 69 GL 89 &S 9g 1g | 9° pb
GL $4] 9°89 | $89] g*6¢ | 9°8¢ 399 / 9°19 | 28
89 GL} 99|/s°89] o2| 2h] Te] sF| Sos
69 4} 9°49] 19]9°8¢/9°09| 98] se] te
L o’6L BL 29 29 0g 8&8 8& &&
LL $8| 2] #9/ 9°69] 8c] g88| cr! oF
82 | 9°98 4 | 021 9°89) 9°09 | 96] el 6
€8 68 z2| 29| 29|/S°8r| 98] ge| ez
6g $4/ $9|a°99] #9| Ie] 98] 68] 82
99 84} 291 gg] gsc|}soe| gsl ce] ge
Z TZ | $°09 | $°04 | $°08 09 46 9% 9%
82 eis! s9| 2/99] 6| es| gz
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4G ve 68 gs
08 8B | 9°8B 66
16 GG &% SB
&& 98 4B 62
OP | STS 48 &P
&% 8T s2 uP
FG 91 cP LP
46 86 OP 1g
OF 6S OP SP
16 oT | S88 | STP
66 82 8 98
S& ing 6% 66
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96 GG 61 16
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New York AGricuLTuRAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

PGE | S'24G | OOP | 9 BF gue | ovae

8°68 c'6¢ | 9°2p | 2°89 | Peg | g'9g
7 Tel oe {set | Ree leek eee cee it en tana Niree telat,
$ 2 | o| sb| oF! | 19] +o] Sh] oF] og! 68
St ‘| ot | ert Te |. oe] | ap lc ep | | com pelo op | ee
GH 196 | Gt Gehl eR he TPs c10) | GO) | eeOF le GO.le seule Le
6E | O08] St] em! el es|ap| a} es| so] 2c)
pt |. or} @r| 68] sei el e9| eh! 09 | ol al GF
a | ee] er} 98] 98] 8] of] 69] os! o9| ga} a9
re | og] oF| og] ze] ze} ez} 92] 2g | g'99 | o'g9 | gc09
a | op| e| ee| ge] te] o9| 99] 21 zol¢ec| op
zs | op] o6c| oe] wel orl o¢| 2e|coe| 2e| sol as
2 oiat| og| | op| te] 2e| op| #8] ec) 19] @¢
ze | opl|orw] ee} ge} sel eplaupl e| asl sel ee
ss | zg|szp| | 2es| srl e¢| to9leis| e6¢| 99] #9
6s | op| 2¢| #9] 9¢| op] es] ec|a9| g2| ge! 20
gg | se} e¢| gpl cpl] esiaso} ta] e9| e2| o8| #9
w% | wl] ee| se| se] ti] so] eal s9| o2| ea] os
Te | o| e3| op| se) 2e| so! #9! 69! 191 09 | ger
42 | 93] g¢| #8] 98] of] 2] 82] 9°99 | eg] s9¢| oF
cg | cp] 2e]sog}ses] og] 22! @2!| #¢/}G'9¢] $e] Ie
8 | sc} #o] 68] og] seis's9| g9| 29] e9lae,| 29
Is | 6¢| ep| es|s9¢| o8| co! colores! #0) 6c] g'09
op | os] es] tH] 2b] 96] +91 99| Spl 69 1 | 66
se | 92] og] og] ec] ge] s¢| 9c] ea}ge9] 99] 9¢
ee | op| 2ze| ep| es] we) oo] uc| eF| fo} 991 o2
gs | o3| #1] sp] vc] 98] is] ga] gel gz] # | og
os | sion} 90] oF] or] ze] #91 191] o'sb | c'e9 | o'29 | Geo
soz | #3] 03] o6¢| | TH! acl g'e9| cog | ¢oe] o8| 6g
gz | ie] | e| sel gos] e¢| ¢o| #p| eo! ao! 9
se | gs! os|aep| of| ee] or! gel] e¢| os! es] 69
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¢°89 94 cL 69
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29 8 8 99
$9 64 62 99
99 8L 18 08
89 cs 8 04
69 08 64 69
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G°S9 | G’64 92 99
G04 197 FL §9
GL 68} 9°48 | o'94
$4 84 | 9°8L 09
OL 49 29 19
89 GL | 9°Sh #9
g'P9 8h 64 | 9°69
G9 | G°6L | 9°64 $4
9¢ 62 08 99
$9 1g 64 29
g9 OL GL 19
$L 0g 08 89
99 82 &8 9
b9 | G'08 | 9°62 89
19 ropa 19 09
S°89 | ¢°89 £4 99
g9 82 | Gls 29
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476 MerrorotocicaL Recorp ror 1899 or THE

Summary oF Maximmum, Minimum anp Sranparp Arg THERMoM-
E1ERS FOR 1899.

|
|
|
|
|

5 g STANDARD.

3

E 8
| a 7a.m 12m. | 6p m

a a
Ave. Ave. Ave. Ave. Ave.
SOQNUUG, 0:07 <:055/0\0 Winn die da'eleisle.ee's/alateis e aielainerere as 80.5 13.7 19.3 25.3 25.38
February .... BIRD DCONOC OOO CC IDAOrs eure 27.1 13 6 18.2 24.9 23.4
Mare Mics. cece stnasn Cae emlate nainevalee Wrens 87.5 23.2 28.5 33.4 31.7
PATA Co laia's capa cera le Clvinin cate nine a ncuepealenis aioe area via 56.8 36.3 42.3 52.9 52.0
EY Worse aye Cele ale ais PRS SeeArer marten Gupaes 68.7 46.4 52.6 3.6 62.5
JUNC sic. eas Sone e yim etaniene twelmurers aaenea 82.3 56.6 66.4 V7.2 75.8
July SAMOA EICMOOCHNO SO SODTIROnIOSt DO SSUrIacIce 82.9 59.5 67 6 78.7 %7.9
August....... an aihevipic o aruio anise inigialniatesistale sleistaters 83.9 59.2 67.3 80.1 Q7.2
September. ics. ssecss cet Rhee cnidawe ne tee cane Gta | 50 0 53.3 65.4 62.7
OCtODEL rer vance ene rune radu lwini eve hee’ Iniviolajeracetalata 63.8 429 47.6 59.5 57.0
INOVEMBED TG scone cciciee is dnicwcnlois]s ainratbias aiken» 45.4 32 3 87.5 42.6 40.6
December........ mtn PASS eNee ee res eeee enn es v2 88.5 21.5 27.3 32.4 29.5

477

New York AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

S16 $88 S88 |P'SP 6°CP g's9 |0°OS |T°T& |8°6S \6°S8 |S°6S |6°¢8 lo" 93 868 ‘POF 4°89 'g: 98 |8°99 |8°es |G°zg |9°ST [TZ |2'ST [gos |" **esBIEAY
ee lig tN ase-| pesca gage leagpe bateeea eeheal agp | pe pecs ae mie bre nee earn ala
0 8 9§ SP |9 68 9¢ 88 6g 69 | 3 |S°So |G°88 | 2G] G4] eg |S't8 ‘a ie. | SBE
OL \o°t§ 1g &P 8P cg LP 04 49 | @8) 89} 98 ig'i1g | 93] S| 69 * iinet & ‘<a
FI && 46 &P ay cg 154 69 go |S°69 | 8G} 28] 69 |SS3 |} Po) Fe 98 ST or
OL 06 && 68 6P |G°9L |9°68 0g co | 248 |e°s9] 68] 19] 08 | 99] 64] Hh] 69} FB] U8 |S°6a |S" FP OL | PF
9 te && &P 6P 64 8P cL 19 | #8] 89 Ig's8! $9] 88 \S‘0G | 94] TS] G4) G3 Gee) LT [SPs 6I | 66
Si |S°iP && 48 8P S18 09 02 |$°89} &8 |9:99| 8] 29) 88! Lh IS PL) Lh [9°29 @ 19°08 | 9T 4% 8&6 | IP
08 &P && &P cP 89 |G 4h 19°39 19 | TL |9'99 | &8 jg°09 | 86 | Ih] 89 |S'sP| $9 | SB} 9c] OF Tg 13 | TP
86 SP && 0g 08 0G |S°&P 69 89 |G°82 |S°ao [9 G2 |G'09 | G4 | ah] 19] eh STL | OF | FF] IS LP 13 | 88
246 OF 8@ 8h 19°93 cP 8P 29 99 |S°c6 | 09 | I6 |S'GP |S°st | Sh i999 | OF | 89] SL} ee] 9 dP 66 |9°SP
86 cP 86 68 |S°S& 9 8h 6h 9°69 Go| 246] 09] 62 I¢‘s¢ | 98 Gp ISIS |c'6e | 99] SE] Fe 19°98 |g’eg 6E | 8&
06 6h 48 ¥g iP §9 9g PL c9 \o°246 | OS | 04} 4G | &8 [G°Sh | OG |S°6h |S°69 | SE} 8%] O08 SP 8 |¢ &&
08 |S°2P PP 09 6P |S°99 19 |S°*8 09 | && 9} 64] 8S] S38 | PP] 09} HP ISSL) 246) sh] & cp j9°8 |S°AT
2G 8& es 8F |S' PS &L 69 48 8¢/} 16/9°89 | 68 | 2h] 94) LF 99 | 246/999 | FL) e8] G8. IS bP atl 88
at |g°08 4 Gh /9°8S 64 6P 62 |9'e9 | G8} 99 |S'P8 | eo] 99 | @b| go isos SOS] PL] 18] 16 4g cg | oF
ct 96 98 |9°09 &¢ 29 OP |¢°99 -|S°2r | 08 |S'F9 |G'F8 | OS] #8 \G'6e}] 6S] S&] SS} 8s \g'Ib] ST lag GS | OP
16 8& 8% 4g 8g 93 g¢ |S°4G |S'Pb |G°e2 |9°Po | €8] 29 [9°06 |S'ee] 19] 98 [9°04 |G FB) FE] SY 8T cs |o°6P
@ Le SG tS 62 |9°82 |S°OF |S°T9 99 |G 44} Sf] 84} 89] 68] 28] SA] eh] 29] 8% [G9'63) TF OL 96 | 88
cs 9g 46 |G BE TQ O're og j¢°e |S°e9 |] 16 |9°9S | 18) 89! FB) fol & 48} $9} 68! ¢g9 |S°P— |S°9 OL | 0&
GP 09 4% 88 |9°6P OL 6S 89 99 19°68 |$'69 |S°s8 | BF [S'9z |b] 69] e868] 8S] OF| FO] 4 | b—| OF
68 &P && 8P PP GL 6° ch 89 | $3 |9°8S |S°b8 IG Th |G°2 | 9b] PA lG'4x | Sh IS'86 |] Sh) 8—| 0 8—|g'8
&I €& ins 4g |G°tp |o°19 GP 69 co] 64] 69 |S°es |] Gh igs. | 68] 89] 88} 68) Fe Rall ean |e ed] Seep Oe
61 GP ik #S &b 8g |g ag 4 4y| $4 | 69 9°18 | 89] 88 | 9b | 99 19°08 | 88 |S°ST jg°6s |$°S— ja IL iA 98
st 68 ¥§ j9¢°cs cs 09 SG «|S°T8 &¢ 2. | #9 |9°I8 1S°OL [9°06 | SF] G4 |G°8a | 9F | BI} Os |S IT 1% 9 &
Sl 19°26 && oP ge |o°s9 |S°IP OL 1g] 18] 89| SZ] 99 19°16 | :F |S'S&] 68) OS} GB} gs |S°OF [g°ss FL | 8
st 4G |G FE Sp \S°2p |9°S9 8g 8 ag |o'g2 | 89] 88) ¢9] 86) Sh} && | Fa] OF} BE \G°sg |£ OF 46 13 | 28 aga |
6 ag cg LP oP \G'e@h |G up |g 89 99 | 06| 89] €6] $9 I¢°88 | 98] 99] 98) IP] G8} Sh] Gt [g°se ge} 69 ris coe aoe
0& Gf 08 |S 2p 8 6g cg 26 9 | 28 14 |G°25 | GG] o2 Ig9e] 69 |[9°sa | 68) BE] OF | ST Le so | TP
g'ce 8h 19°26 68 9% 4p (9°39 |9°ee $9} 68; 69 | FE} C9] SL | OF Ge 8 | FE 1G28) FE] OF [9°2a 6 PG
26 te) 08 |G°9P |G°ee cP $9 |g'c, |S's9] 28] 249] 88] (9 \S°SR |o"Be |G'z8 | Fa |S FE} O38) Gs IST jgst gt IT
98 Pg 4B |G LP gg og j9°s9 68 9g | 08} O04 Alp AI EG gg [9°08 |9°93 | 8&8] 03 \9°6h | F— | 8t Ci Sol pee contin ee I
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PRBILOHS tO Equipment NECAOd |. <5)... 20+. spp asaciates ksyeieiTah es 26,2 cs eee 8
Administration and library building, changes proposed........... sssee 9
POUMerAuON Of Paris STEON..05 Siri ckoredcsscsels Stee pathos = aye erie 242
PATE LUSISTILUCL GUS TOUS OM :c isha e soeiae ot bse als 0 oa olen tole Sogeaep ete hom Lee a aussie: 451
mennenis, pure Paris green soluble in) so 5.5.5 3.2 oe Leen nes se eee 243
PATI RICET-US OLCUUOAALUS, NOLES ON a, 1. viet scree oiate at tne ee aie eeadioele elot sietoteto oe 434
PH ALYSEROL DLOW Er SiTCSIGUCHs «0.205 f6° Sete le nts terre Peed coe eee eine 48
buckwheat products..... cree ielslehelae coe eee ote mee ee pae ane ee iets 49
commercial TertiliZzers..ic. ces +e see © ce oe hein este e 221, 231
condimental foods........ Need SSR MEGANE 8 Oo Oo earein nh rae eed

Cottonseed: Meal”... xs:< ctesreca scree ee: cay erties epbeeeaenet «fos reise otens 42

distillery ‘residues. .\.... 10s <aiang'ds ue ss > + beep ete. Beomeere © ae 48

feeding StuTlss < cs,ao2h,.0. TAPE See LOE eer 2 eee i!

item LOCUS oss rc ieny 5 003 gehen e sate ee ee 46
elutenvmeal’. S37 sc 4am vita ciel, ssiae ear sein eee eset oe ete se 245

pany LOB N Ts. ecccaarcn ac nwaae 2 PRUNE eset to Nehcce wchcsscter share 54
ATABCCLICUGLES 5c o:syclos lay 1s «nis esa aoe wa. eve ava ev eR OG EAM. |. aves sia, cie 237

Linseed: Was so yg. dueind dh a ok eek e Ae ON PO aw iar uis aa 44
miscellaneous feeding stulisinns:sc<t a. cnet ome e eters ies )cie 63

MUXGd feeds ss wae ste s Soe ae ce see cre ere Meh erie meron 55

Oat feeds sis ccr Aer he acta ee omen Meet nt omreee ete hee ee toy suasenehor ote 56

oats and oat products........... bipteiee gi he Preteen, Oe ey 56

PAIR STOEN 8.12. te epee nce S aitenere wr aan, Nan ata '— Pa caid haha 237
WIHOAUAONAME A + cis.0 fic tce omin eatenatees ct ters rer etePNe cereca ev ateratee 51
wihcatinmiddlinics:: 32 Acs Memes ies nae eoscsrercle ie etre sinners 52

mastal Industry, Department of feporti ies... cnc sce beenensacd siewanne 33
aniramary Of Wokbcr. cess ac) 26 ae csr aes Sane a oh hehe cee 22

TAGE ACT OOTULEY (0 os.) s0,0 orgs Grea mn ere Wa cua een e acetal ee tits 75
AADC ar SENET EAT UL, TOUOS OD. «Seon case taste a ecb iae 2 08 Cem ein oneal's ete 411
PATNTACHORO MLAS WOIT ys (OCCULTONCO smite) iirc icis sos ssid wieia's <a va helsiatovers tale 213

31

482 InvDEx.

PAGE

Aphis mali, noted O1..... cee. seccsviccsscae couserses othmawe ee ae 415

Apple canker, distribution of. ... 2 ...cse-ccesveccevnesss4snesaeae 338

extent Of INJUTY” . « ede «F< desccjabale,e vec css sala) seve sialelpe 341

InVestIGAhiON §. 6. 5 ods ane ces sina aw'olp 26 hae 19, 321

PLEVENELVE MCASUTEB.iw.ccnc-cern'ee (soe sss sae! heen 342

diseases in Hudson valley... ....00005 “cssv0000 seu e ss sen 190
notes on :

belting of the fruit’... 0.0.0 éusccs veces owe 3s sete 402

CANO oo oe ska iene se Sena siginnalell s 5:0 a Suh ate en 399

fire blight. (20i20.6o6 ccnp sed ess 06 5 ms on oe a 400

fly BpOOk 525. 522o5 Ae dated wed Jd frais sin oe ee 400

general treatment against... 0... .... fess ones cae 417

leaf Spot). 2 foe. tee cae sera vx om mere.) 9 0: 400

russeting of the fruit ........... es wiwe.e ajave a)a°e (a /sse[el tare 402

TUBES Soc Soi ndde ed ons cand loan we tees cep en 401

BCabe ss. chs Ses hase ihe wee eines oe oe eae 402

Co) ME Are beers Scr 404

sooty: blotchy ascites tad dv) fall septa tracslehel atte ea . 405
insects, notes on :

apple-tree tent-caterpillar........0.. 1.00. 5 bee hoe eee eet 407

DOFETB. 2. sb so.cdedee sadivaas wag nu clnd’s bee eee he eee 406

bud Moth, .c660 60004 ena cie was od casa as tees cate hee 408

CaNKeE?. WOTIG os ecco sd auecvecsas is boktengeeee ee onan 410

CABC-DOATERS: » aie. ccc cee ie face ses nin oo me o eelels outs ee 409

Cigar Case-bearer 55 osee sss cceseeae ss cele denen 409

codling moths « « .::1 1. = se sieqajete mi dietaeiel-l- ie ees ee 412

fall canker Worm, -... si.266 652 000s ee = de> See ee 410

flat-headed apple-tree borer. ..........0+usse) spgigeeenl 406

general treatment against...........00.0-- esses eeeeees eee 417

green fruit WOPMS 2.06.0... seees a snc 1 e:0 a> sip 413

maggots ...... «bible e:9;") on", ayes Atovorete ejoceyere = breienele alent aaa 414

oyster-shell bark louse... 2.2... 50.6 ents otne senehaeeee ees 416

pistol case-bearer. .. . so,.0.0 m2 enemas’: ie ee 409

plant Hee... ics 56. eles scfega a le tee 9 ee re |

railroad: WOT «o's «6. c\ sls 0a sere eA a sip 414

round-headed apple-tree borer ...... ....++++++++-- coms title 407

San Jose scale «<5 cess letsiechasugjocscerclepis oe <i aepeiteceaeale laste 416

INDEX. 483

Apple insects, notes on — (Continued). PAGE.
BOA PBEACIA. oh Sse each a ok Moone DAbn oi nav es Ce usiee 416
Spring Canker WOLmM! «0.601 css cee os 5 ei deer ayialer sas shaya s(siece. Sanvane 410
woolly MOUSE ere aie mcyayeiace we lolewislelepiesite atenccia see tia ao cas oes 415
PIPICN: COUTTS MOLES ORG copes 5.8 & sees pein seo pesratey amiat's S4atelay Sain'e ote fyveieclen 17
Apricot diseases in the. Hudson valley. -. . .. srs-16) ns vaeiceveges Hoa wala 198
notes on:
PUM HATO .ci.5 5 es oreve sob oa opacities ome ess RAPS te es 418
UMM Ps sc sine wit cds Bays ofaye hese « opel tosste Pern levee Ain olotele te 418
Ieaf-snot.. . cis «cpl [dds eye gay Mele eT Bae Rae 418
insects, notes on:
CUE CUIIG: os nae oe ars punip aia omreseun REE. 0d Oe LER ah oer oele 418
Han Jose scale... sissusapess «he sbi eh os os sce ee 3 416, 418, 449
Arsenate of lead, formula and preparation ...........:..- ese seeeeeee cee 310
Arsenic, white, an adulterant of Paris green ..... alain, skheekomenee keabe 243
Arsenical sprays for forest tent-caterpillars .............cceees eee cee cee 310
Aspidiotus perniciosus, NOLES OM saps eteysiss hepeus. sietegaieyeose FS On Gt Reis Obs 416, 449
ASSINATION, SLUGONE, SCLECHION:... ccs... ccles curs Seis orericig) o-sisjc's deans cine she Meet? | Y/
B:

EXILCTLLUES LIVI LOVOT-US) TROLES) OW 5 re-oicihe «1s oie elais, s\o.g e's: estas ci aelseoeete 400, 4438 456
BACTERIAL TOU OL ONIONS. fierce vyac cc ise iste ene Speers se Eh SSR ENE eierine eekare 169
Bacteriological Department, Teport . 2. 5. nae yesniegie noes sbdbb colt oes wen 126
WOFK Of; SUMMATY:. <<, cc, riasmttelr oooh wae 21
LOSS Of PasbouriZed) mT ees a oceo:e.<y0sspeunysusuniet-asuesseeteks elo e)s1svelaiere 141
Baldwin LEMit-spob, SuUILOY: OLv. ac... scisrs,s.eyeetasisceleieygsirsoieieheis ecto tte) se! lc ere 176
pet. BORAT Weal AeOrCl: OL incon ccesc pice mote assets ole mei sie eee Siete alata 154

Beetle, striped. (See Striped beetle.)
Mibliopmaphy. of forest tent-caterpilan cron ssotsars «orator alata hes oy wows sn 313
Birds feeding upon forest tent-caterpillar ............- cee eee eee eeeceees 307
Black Death eorm position Of; ..:.-.% corks 'e for nis''u’e e'e(ane’n alow st 5s a cellent 244
Black knot, cherry, occurrence...... iccny SRD OP CEI Geo SCLIN TOR) cre 196
ELAVOLMERREPON CEs cept ee on eeinar ase ae witeee yainiaies oes 207
DU WEHDETONCE 3, Lio ory Rieiets sis Ginnie efeliiwiate! wie ey es Geel 211
Black rot, grape, OCCUFTENCE....). 66s Pye set eee eed eeseesces sence 205
Blackberry diseases in the Hudson valley ... .......seee ceeeee cece cee 194

notes on:

AV PILACHONO: <)cio aioe a ole a. crainin dls ele wielatotaaetae ARE 419

484 INDEX.

Blackberry diseases, notes on — (Continued). PAGE.
leaf-spot i.2/ 6.553.205.5500 es cae sn 6 eae en 419
PUSH s Rigas ttt tein hee ware oe se eecee ne
et Cs): i et tee aba grr om 419
Blatchford’s calf meal, commentson :.:.25.050625. cssssnel ss ees ann
Blennocampa pygmaed, NOC ON)... 650s esse esse cc ee seh eesseen eee 427
Blooming season of grape varieties .............eeeeee sere os See 393
Body: blight, pear «2425 450%. 2505.0 00 no a ef tce eleceme 2) soi enous 209
Bone.ash in poultry. feeding, value: of. : 2.22.02. 000800. 2 + os we 123
Bordeaux mixture for gooseberry mildew.............5.00+:00+s:0s0uaeee 324
use against striped beetle ......... 0. se seceesenes 267
Botanical Department, report ........c0s0seecse0e8: PE DUNS eee 151
workof; summary’: .:. 7.12). ..+* nee 20
Brewer's residues, analyses, «i .¢5 S277 PoP ee ae ec on on 48
Buckwheat. products, analyses. . (7715 220. 29.2 ee 49
Bag. Death, composition of... <:0<2.920)s SIV ey een ee ne te 245
RS Gta INO. LEB ie ccsseccscorar tabteratatstost at totale tote toe eee eT ene 251
6) eT eee eee ee he Reiter cr 289
LOI. 6 ciala eure gate n'y nw wiaitre eis aoe ia aieie'a onde, ie Rn ea 221
i) Seen. Ii ries rs 321
AG2.s 25 ctu ei bae os RSS ES SORES Se See Oe ee ee ee . 158
DOB sire cise tole e's Ste 8 Sih Ware fala Talla Sta tate lect ete 531
DBAS orice cretetenls Sisk afta aba we De ate eee eS Saat ame ee 168
LBB soi vances. svete ee OCH EUS AO EN Oe so cats sae ater 237
BBB os: sccrarotesoteratatroreiane’e tee A Seat te Ee tie et ee eae ane 35
| er ee eA RAR eo hl 184
LOB. seve see er <.o-arace salina sata le ‘aie -orntuta OAbute inte veiw eta tere tas eee ae ae 6
(|! I ERT ee 361
VFO. 5 acxssésayace ae, aun m.0 9 wap wo shake eAfelolaheie bod Wo ae ae a 398
DTD. ios ose op sis. ocppinwip cap ahilie olay WORDS ROD GEN dete ed a 75
ih) MMPS rite ira 127
V7B nec nes, detec rea ness oa a nem Oapeeeite inne «ata 231
Bulletins, number distributed...... .... - eleva ae Sage Deca of Poor 11
published, list. ...2..cccceee coco sseetnnnngessscanpeessee ngs 23

Cc.
Caeoma nitens, NObeS OD... =. % <0 eel. chic ieh Ue, Slee wh cleat Mel. ettelsiateet a welelaete 460

(See also Orange rust.)
Cane blight, currant..... win: iplw Sitnvelota/cha Ola, w 61a « eNO CISOMIA GINS ec alars\e clei onete taal 200
raspberry, OCCUITENCE.....0. cece eee e eer eee reece ete eerenene 214

PAGE
Canker of apple tree ......... SE RRs CaO Ee Ie AEA ACCES 231
UTA Ve ea one ed cine en a ead ao win ieinge eisai alee ns 332
GC CUITON CO Nerate nie enc reed bi cpa east eatte open <jernieksiniew Saoirse 192
Gankerod apple linibs, Appearance. Of . 5 onc ee ee ee eeepc se ert = es 339
Carbohydrate relations of feeding stuffs. ..... ........- we. seer eae 62
Ganconydrates of mixed feeds’... 66. inns sin ase npip em: ase mins sine pies 60
Carnations, Fusarvum leaf-spot of ............ -.. AR Sas Eenines ees 181
Carpocapsa pomonella, notes ON. .......6.-02 oe cece coeteeerees 412, 458
OAINMO Wes lentes COLCNTOle cocc ccc as siciee tie ano oleracea lel sterete ae gaige See 164
tPIOUEH Olt... -'.. ssi BAe Ar er errata er abuse Sn i 164
Cercospora angulzta, notes ON .......seeeeesecees Er ae ooice Soe 424
(See also Leaf-spot, currant.)

Chaetomium contortum, on barley seedlings ..............--sseeee ee: 182
Chemical Department, report. .........00..0000 se rer ec een cee e reece ooo 219
WORKUOL (SUMMIMNATV yc ele aialcietnia'e sleleieleclvioh se lettiats = 15
Cherry diseases in the Hudson Valley............c0..-seeccsace 00 soeeee 195

notes on:
2 blackskmotie:c-c<c . aaieeis epee Peed Tree a¢ 419
PUM BOG: ashore aa) «ia ;0s tains eae ast es dete ognetoualereneialala cereus elcle eo sistaherers 420
(ahh at dot sy oepemenentic cP Aeron mises CO OOOO OR ONO ODD Ta008 ODES 422
MGAL-S POU cans ere ilereieiye ike BAI SOC SOR SEO BO He Orb aoe cot 421

insects, notes on :
CULCUNIO 4555 ho cioseelaa clea tele oor oes ae eel eke oes 422
roa OF) l'e"| Ceo CSR AE a Gam eennas © a5 Ot Pex EeGHS DO bodDS oc 422
LEVEE OIRO AOE OD SAITO Oe OOOO SAdGOL OOF sehekate sie,cictateie\ = 422
OLA ON ay VCE atneee Rem an ete hc, Sear aero. Hors ris ee Cope a4 Ioene 432
Sam DQG ACAIS: -b/e7~ treceva, Mera iota tains Coot aee care MCE ce ere oteie . 416, 449
Lib a eee Ames Korte CEeOrn ocr GHes OAT Good orn 424
IGEN C(C70) Kel 00) Seer orcs mach ttearitec er csi Cm oescic log
Chicks, feeding experiments with............... aR cee CE Sonate han .. 79, 106
CIAO AOMALULATI, TLOLOS OT; sieisnioeia sires = oh nies ern scan a hima a 46, 450
Chrysobothris femorata, NOteS OD... sn csq cece ed bee oy pine aw adewsyenes a 400
Bneibninigt Gf Leading Stuils. ier qigiase = peal bia! cusleraala das Ware ate 40
PemeanOd QMETICANM, NOLES Ole i508 oie sein ne so slew weiss wae ve nee pales 407

disstria (See Forest tent-caterpillar).

Coleophora fletcherella, notes ON.......-..+4 ER ee EET eT I ee 409
OE OVOP AAD OCOS! OF 5 sss persice nissecnyusdy PAE .2 eater aR AA ee ‘ete 409

REOLOL OL; PARIS IONGODLE. a sctvcds inisiesinysiol > olesoinret Mais nhl Sala oo ee Teraclors 248

486 InDEX.

Combating striped beetle, experiments...... Sse 9a) ans is 0s ale "970
the striped beetle on cucumbers.........2.e0e.sss-1secereesas 251
Commercial feeding stuffs, inspection ............ cays e aieyelsoiihe cate eee 35
fertilizers, report Of analyses)... )ccm + 1 u siesens eile 221, 231
valuation and selling price of fertilizers.......... ...... 225, 236
Composition, chemical, of Paris green. .......¢.0 2c. «<0 lowly once 238
of complete fertilizersi..c..c oc en: = melee scare onse e eee 223, 234
Of poultry £OOdS :h6..)< eee ec ce iin's.s sc .018 410 ole oh alee ste 79
Concentrated feeding: stutts law... cis cc. «ocx e010 0-rirolwe) fel) es sialereeet en 69
Condimental foods, analyses: sss... aein's oir,e oss ale» 0 oe 010 vi ntolere s.r 65
FOOAS; COMMENTS OM. 3... oc oo avs a « siaie wi cite vies © cialis tree 65
Conotrachelus cratcegi, notes ON......-...+2555 "s Se dle ge-aie ala Joialers se ee 458
. MLCT NOT , MOLES OD. 6 os «2101070. 0i0,0.0)00 014 a'e Vie le1s\ hele) siege 454
Continuous pasteurizer, efficiency Of..........ecsseess censure seusiam Sane eee 127
Copper carbonate for gooseberry mildew ........2..-00:es008 seccacssess 327
sulphate for gooseberry mildew...........- «-.0+5 ss «snes 327
Cottonseed-mieéal, analyses... 0cic Sa0 cise ccsisse oon as obele sinte ai ee 42
Cucumber beetle (See Striped beetle),
Cucumbers, combating striped beetle on. .........0+scccssucensscuweeens 251
dodder ome. 5. 0000020 (evaawes cache he s/sne win bgeetee enn 175
field grown, powdery mildew on. -...-. <-5 c.~ + «els) ieleee 174
Currant diseases in the Hudson Va O Yio. ic.ci.s, 6:0 ore'e sat mange Be ae 195
notes on:
Cane DH OWE fo. bieStiienc5 7 cleo ererenerereie, ohn) Meloni ee 425
Leaf =spot % 2s ss csveisrays tsyavainnie ia sie e: 6a nice .e to fake eee tale taneee tae 424
insects, notes on:
plant Lice: o.3 an'ss coe tie, Wore arte twats a evotiate retete teat mn 425
San Jose scales facia aes cet eemeee eee 416, 449
BAW-HICS so... ec ekes ono eee mene © caine 0/6 nin leiaie cette
worlms..... we ee ee 426
Cylindrosporium padi, notes ON.......6.008 eee icatateiais «osha .... 418, 421, 454
(Also see Leaf-spot cherry).
D.
Danish system of pasteurization . 07.05.00... tee eh adieee asap epteee 1383
Dematophora (See Root-rot).
Department of Animal Industry, report. .....2 ssccecss seertececcve weme 83

Bacteriology, LepoOrtb: sijecc.c.ssevsievee volte © ceslnrese oxeleetae ee ee ee 126

PAGE.
BEMMECDICNt OF WHotanys TEPOlt..c2.2/0 jecve ee Seka kc eck eee ee ree ee tees 151
BLAME VW, LONDED. 2" sitchen cca cele eo teaas cee cea coe ee 249
EtariemlaMro. TOpOlb .. 5 kas oes ceedaerasese Glee tela ees 319
Dewberry diseases in the Hudson valley.............cccccceeceee eee 202, 419
Digestion experiment with oat feed...............00.0 0 eevee ema se ane 60
Diplosis pyrivora, notes on. .............. Bie etaie he rater. felt rey tavoate wares 447
PEREELONSNOUAG PTODOSEE A. ce gaktcasnehee ree eek ee. fas ece ts) Sven tee 9
MOP OULU eyslarcrae ohaioke oS sia ehe taser PP eis ns Faia eee tis aie a nhc ue isi ewie nie weteOtiee 6

Diseases affecting apple, pear, etc. (See Apple diseases, Pear diseases, etc.)
Pai, PEN OIE). C icin6> tala teres MANTR S iG ie Kia? Sik ka ace @ Bela Giemamela eed aioe 168
BOSE Meta PORIOUS : ANALYROR” 0 vinj0i5 5 Se cap e'cs 45.6 hing ue cave Saeclecouner ane 48
PRICE CIS CHEMUADONS oc cicit.2 Oc ns « Wau vs fos oe op. saree wee oa Meas 175
Peer TAMGOW,, PTADE, GCCUITENCE. 7... oo. 650 oisnic:dcn anos. oedia/enemamene 205
Ducklings, feeding experiments with.................ccceeees aieaan tare 92, 107

E.

Eggs, effect of animal and vegetabloviaods sb i2e0s PI ce lGaceeies 103, 120
Emphytus maculatus, notes on . .......eeeeeee RAVE EME Ma oor Stores icles growers 465
Entomosporium maculatum, notes ON.........ecesceeecccccccccocce 444, 456

(See also Fruit-spot, quince.)

mepeprment, additions: needed jos... b ey. Meee ie An. eee. eee. 8
PMMCIATSOOLTANG, HOLESONN di0004- RCO CERO, 10 AS. RE. 435
European canker caused by Nectria cinnabarind........-0.. 0. cece eae 357
PRERAACUS GCSOPMAIS; NOLO :OD. 6. o. dk axiccs 4. CRO RIOS Ae. 439

(See also Leaf-curl, peach.)

mirabilis. (See Leaf-curl, plum.)

ze.

Pecans Gx periment with poultry o.e~-5 6 ccoisdloe eee ee 75

GUMS Ma IV SCH 5 :a'.5 see ein eo es Cee ean btn: te 41
carbohydrate relatiguagray.......<0 sce;es coe stt nec cn ee 62

GQapineaion.:,'.. 5. sameeren ae cede ete eee ne ha ere ets 40

INBRECHION, NOLO Wi. Stems CoS ai ewes Sodeare uta 10, 35

SPRRUIKOD AUAIV ROARS |, 5. osc kod Racker eee eet Ot oe 55

Wertuizer imuredionts, trade values (2027, (oro. OR eS) oe ee oo one, 224, 235

MEDC OT RRROS ON: oe Nema hi on ch Se et ee 10

OE TLS AC oo cee Me pe te) eh Te ik len 225

Fertilizers, commercial, analyses............. epteray ete cars are = ADS BOE 221, 231

commercial valuation and selling price ...............+ 225, 236

complete, average composition.................ccceceees 223, 234

488 InpeEx.

PAGE.
Fertilizers for forcing lettuce, nOtes .. 2... 6eec06 va. ase escnewsdd ba eee 19
Fertilizing self-sterile grapes .. ..... 1 alte e aiayds aun 6 oe aye banal klein 361
Fire-blight, pear, OCCUTTENCE..2. 06.60 ios sss casnnas ies e0merenpe ese tenn 208
quince, occurrence.......... 9 on aE 9 re ld a 212
Food plants of forest tent-caterpillar . 2.2.5 2.020 s00jnn 000200) seen 295
striped: beetles so. vets: sie. Seas wid cunts, ¢ aye a 254
Foods, condimental, analyses........ o's brn 01016070 010 Sl 6 rose Rede ee 65
poultry, ‘COMPOSILION 2... 2 ):<:sis sive weve deleied wean v Seen een 79
WEIRTON 25 boon seals dts a aja: oie;w aie pinlociay eran «0 0 4/2 Vash? eet oe 78
Forest ‘tent- caterpillar 220% x0. treidias are: elww. dietese!he: 24,4 0 © ole Sipnd agree eR 289
bibliography: « 6 scaws vwn v= wd odowtmes'- «pte een 313
classification and name......... e¥ ote, eco 290
description and. life history:. 4... - 1s.) aaa 296
distribution in New York....... .«s:.ssasaeeaeee 293
food plants Of 3... ..0.6 ess 0c bute nnen ewe 295
historical account of .. 4: 25.4. «+ .«/ «acs saeieenenene 291
measures for combating.................. > does 309
natural: checks «....\<.. 9 +s «tsi sieitie shal ose ache ee 297
Formalin for gooseberry mildew | ..../... ii - wis ws «2s fh c)am ala. oe 324
Four lined leaf-bug, work mistaken for disease ..... 1 o.0)h.8 ween tale ae 199
Fruit disease survey of the Hudson valley ............--.26 ssccceserees 184
diseases, letter of inquiry concerning.......... 1... ss-eeesens Peeps
rot, Cherry, OCCULTENCE ji ssid seesid 5 ses ees -n Gd . Read 195
peach, Occurrence .. ...2...55-.. Pee
plum, OCCUTFONCE .4,./idsion).,o5 sie yee lo Sele n s e = e 211
spot of Baldwin apple, study: Of 3). ga)ssce ties! doen. - celeste 176
QUINCE; OCCUITENCE ....6..scac5 <e0ee Fane es ss 50) Sess 212
Bruits, thinnine Smoted ODMiyhis-<¢ «000% «vo, sce ris cake Biepnsepe sey nietoie ig ae 159118
Fungicides used for gooseberry mildew ....... ..... BAC Ss spetettee 324
Fusarium leaf-spot of carnations: ..7- sic). sie selene esi “Sas b avert 181
Fusicladium dendriticium, Notes OM... oso... 20s sole cls =» se 2s nai eee 402
(See also Scab, apple.)
pirinum, NOLES ON ....00. 6c ween 6 2: 6c epee a 445
(See also Scab, pear.)
G.

Gloeosporium ribis. (See Leaf-spot, currant.)

penetuUm, NOLES OW... sch sev.ave, clelelnclesien cick —<ie via(ele senna 459

(See also Anthracnose, raspberry.)

PAGE

PeMiLETY TOGO, GUO LAO occas os: slerae ootiarn shiv trae We.gtn a aa yt POMPEO o's rn omem 46
MEY ES IB eon ON SE OEIC OG COR OO Chi Us OUI SOO RO SHO on cen SEO RN ee eto E 45
Gooseberry diseases in the Hudson valley...............eseeeererneeeeees 2038

notes on :
LEE BS) 010) CS AGIOS GOT ECE UL CL CLC Si Oma OCC ReE AOIICIC 427
TUT S widwierret o terccteritetcer esate matters sttemie\cls Haines mnie 427
SUM SCAG Y Sayee ci rateters cicthatsistecsterticle ceteiclace srele atetsiotatelotelstetete 428

insects. (See Currant insects.)
mildews tUUPIGIOes LOLA. usc eee wore Cen te ccte eae een eraica welt 824
TOSULLS OL TeEALMENG?, sattceinccsien ve fence nears 825, 329
treatment; NOtes’ ON. : Js ters tes sateticlice stele aslo 19, 321, 330
WANT TLEAUMEHEMOL me velcro ricsiimies sicicieiore a vielyeteis 327
Grape diseases in ‘the Hudson valley i /.i2.c.. 2. si lee dene clec ss oe csasscnnn 205
notes on :
ANUNTACNOSG ascot re scar tie <icinicte ciefaie/a/escielersimtevsietael oie 428
RR POEs a 2) assak a See We cies wteie/ Taito vee WP acainte> wae 429
PRR GOV EU POE ora c.0, stalaxsrotouat he avevarehciangyarcvargeOa oe RID MO ato Neieo sakace Slerere 433
CERO ORI 5; sins dws sect in crerctaretatan ae MTCC wee RE Me ters arn oe Blain 6% 431
downy mildew’. «ajc. 2200 BMI ae eaeite's alia ata ae eens
QU BY, LOU sraiacore rs oia) o(siosaievs.sus)0i'z a7. e/ehe/olete « etort hele teeter meres aeternaiet 433
powdery mildew. ..i0:'5.206.. 32. Wie ies SS: A a er 433
VOLO WW Lead au cick eae. rere he oid wns jaca fas steve g? ohsdies enahe ros oleisters eserarnioreis 431
insects, notes on:

cane borer ..... SOCIOL GO OU ORDO OECD RU CEOGoS OCOD Beebo 2 434
Hon ecto. sc eck Meee roe ena h se ces Sz" abi cetera sie 434
POAT WOMEN: Seo 3,115 ore re Stein ois cs ose Otro ana.ci eae tensions sw aera a ee 435
Wdaf happer ess sceee kc. wietteetinin cise crria aie n'ers, wie, am neonates 435
Bawithy eas. han meee sa ean s es eag ba dbo seve mente 437
CHEIDS' s,s! 3°. 3 6 vere eee RENE sip cipiaun eyes iealis wou atee Patch One 436
Grapes, blooming period......... REIN aa yisiaeininia.< sinc acsdiwlic> alah cafe wee 367
CHUSCOL-BRME-GIOEILILY - .y/cics sameeren mice chk ig alm mien mn bvales are She 390
dlassification by blooming BeaBOns Fie. css cx sec scan vei ovswectmeeee 393
COVEFIN OS CLUBEBISs 2 oahu tee Pte ac ci aca © 07s.ors 4-0 8ceco/ouy cals ceerane Giese ,. 866
method of pollination............ ... .... iG Wala ulata cle «ieee eee 364
POLInSuGR experiments s Gramrdenies’s ssn a0 sans ces hevvacacenaete 363

grapes, self-sterile, fertilizing ......,....... rer Tn ivseed) SOU

490 INDEX.

Grapes, varieties in pollination experiments:

Aminia :

PAGE,
As fertilizer for Aminia.......... « Leas ips 369, 386
Brighton gsiaiwski vib aise eee 371, 386
Wyoming. .. . « cncantars «anne 385, 386
fertilized; ..cnsisevsas, , corse cet tiices ae 369, 370, 391
period. of blooms. ec6s aces, <b... eee eS. 367, 868
varieties blooming with...... .. reid apts on tes Pp 395, 396
Barry :
As fertilizer for Barry... . «<3 oo/.iedcng> pened ae 370
fortilized -.. occas «dare fxd Ws atleephe cus c eee 370, 391
period of bloom... ; a se2ec: Atsepehetas «cohen 368
varieties blooming witha a 5:5j.'sh teenie «sak see 395, 396
BlackjEagle :
As fertilizer for, Barty. is. ick... . 20o dee ee 370, 386
Black Eagle......«wsaco ila ey eco 370, 386
Bram Clan... x. :<.0isracc-n 012 See oa ee 877
fertilized ais A0.|ist..J sO ee as cea 20d AP 370, 371, 391
period of blood 72525.4.s.00s« 20020. Sere ee 7a 368
varieties blooming with: ..;.%seblicw.v ewsiia ss eee 396, 397
Brighton :
As fertilizer for “Aminia. .. . bie. eee eee ee 369, 386
Black Hapile’. teat haar 370, 386
Brighton ...... =... sas seu ee 371, 386
Eldorado....°.% >. saan ees eee 375, 386
Herbort’....: 9; \.> aeese eee . 377, 386
Hercules? <.: .. 22. wasn epee 378, 386
Tandley :..... iC Aaesens 2andeeeeee 376. 386
Merrimack; 3: 2.32022 gastos -eee. 380, 386
Salemi, os) «2 s0nt ae oes eee 381, 386
Wyoming «co.cc. <ap.cees ss tee 385, 386
TOFUUIZO ooo ois ciscc bine od aid eee 371, 372, 373, 391
period of bloom. .:.... .. > =< 5s:n50: see ee 367, 368
varieties blooming with \..’..\. i's «permet ersi dare 396, 397
Catawba :
As fertilizer for Aminia 2: 323. - ee ee 370, 387
Brighton ..c7 pe: Hp Ee 373, 387

Catawba ..... ae ee oasis" ce eee _874, 387

Grapes, Catawba — (Continued),

INDEX. 491

PAGE,
AS eRiilIZOETORENGOORAC Ose). s:0.5) ve siacee a tta'g.e sree. sie; oe 376, 386
IGE Gr fee. caer eee See 377, 387
MHL eras win = a ego ee Aa: evened ton ona 379, 386
Moremi ae eae gore chacle siefeiaeps cine pret eistsy- 380, 387
Dee. So. sich calotses a Singi sae Baslese 382, 386
WOE ois Der te oan tobi ow ne re 385, 387
Fortulized a Mae ee etnies oes Bae CU Ge eT cas a eget 874
period Of \bloomigesS22-- sess en eae Jaspeatitate ne aes 367, 368
VAFICICH OLOOMIIN Pb WHIT caer aic es scan 0 cores ene eieiele as 396, 397
Columbian Imperial :
As fertilizer for Columbian Imp.. ................. 374, 387
Hercules 250i ayaisih aire Bre ciara Seles 378, 387
FORO ie gaia Hans per ako ue x slvns Peas eels eae ot eee eee 374
period of bloom....... aye vis eivieshivie’ oa {e lapula' c/a sets ches Gere ote 368
Varieties blooming with... 3. 235.cctssas ensaces toon 395, 396
Creveling :
Ag forguizer for Brie Ben fs. haat a) ose ee nares oe 871, 387
Crevebnge 4 2.2. oe. seme. ee 374, 387
FOUPMIZAG ios TST tor ca ee PEE RAU, od na aeteee 374
POrivd OF DIGOMT”,: (cea alors ue scl SOMA «ence 368
varieties blooming with! i272 HAS OSTA. 3.5 b. 395, 396
Eaton :
As fertilizer for Eaton....... MRletrecceinaie ae Mesh aisle 375, 387
ICL CUICSWS a rics aces oe ae 378, 387
LSU Ze hp, assnspsrake PSOE Reto sis sis. Sac snste civic stays) sieinee eer Nee 375
POSriod Of DOOM, .....c AIIM vince nacr Swen te w ane, 0oR S tehie 368
varieties bloGimINng WIth |. isc c. 5 VE MURa es ass 3 395, 396
Eldorado:
As fertilizer, for, Brighton l-cactatseys + ccs. «6 72, 387
PIGOVaGG 10554 .- 9 sae remenghles os « 875, 387
Herbenties i458 was bits oSiandes cco cen ves 377, 387
POEGTUZOO, yo ocho eT ova areca ero) s aseielakate steehs 375, 376, 391
period of bloom....... ...- for Lica Ha we sean PRE ON TS 367, 368
warietics Dogue yitinds ce 2s eee seecdte anveess 396, 397
Eumelan :
As fertilizer for Eumelan........ .. oe Beare o 376, 387
fertilized’, : 27 aejhereas peewee Va bie eile waters 376, 377, 391
period of. bloom. «< onitep seers <8 A eiBie Ax elap's)-'s slat aiyote'de c 368

varieties blooming with............ce+eee2 sevees . 895,

396

492 INDEX.

Grapes, Herbert: PAGE.
As fertilizer for Brighton’. :......<>..0sssscamenee . 372, 887
FIGOPAGO. «co. sine d+ oer sete 375, 387
HEYDENt =. scp 2 siccs o< tens oe eaters oe 377, 387
Salem....<.. or eeeens sae a ate
fertilized .2-..0-i.icsntevese) celewes 877, 892
period of LOOM: «60.05. s ede eas 00 sans ob ses eee 367, 368
varieties blooming with .......... RT Bek, - 395, 396
Hercules :
As fertilizer for Barry: «oc: 60:0. vis vere « slay sreieeeeneee 370, 387
Hercules oo. ccc < as) cele ones 2 eee 378, 387
PortiliZed. | <)he. sis. sais cinioe ree Sheresside tie», evate @lelearels i een 378, 392
period Of DIOOM.........sccerenrcepecsnesscesenns seuimeim 368
varieties blooming With... 6.0.0.5. sses0esen4 scene 395, 396
Jefferson :
As fertilizer for Brighton -.6 6. ssici-sicietacius lalate 373, 388
JOMETSOND cs: <120m 5, 5c.g ese i jo0\o-spew eteane 378, 388
period of bloom.......... seis mtb pe’ eles Cee aie enn 368
varieties blooming with ............. ... jbo se ak a 897
Lindley :
As fertilizer for Brighton... =-1-+ eels eee 372, 388
Eldorado: <..22:50-25.02 sccteeeeee 375, 388
Herbertitt?s ats owislaqsenee coos 377, 388
Daley td. os 6s sess 0 5 ieee ee 378, 388
Merrimack... ...., ., £&:e2enes see 380, 388
Salem..,..: iat’ an. ieeesaee-o cee 382, 388
fartilized «0. (sein Saws GeidkiaDGlss AUERM Ra «eee 379, 392
period.of bloom ......... 22. <..+-s«20aveNee rae 367, 368
varieties blooming with iv\2..05% .2ti ts Eke wc ee 395, 396
Merrimack :
As fertilizer for Brightony,, «<0. 1)s2 . sie sels ae 272, 388
Horbert .. occ. ame Tee va eae ee 3877, 388
Lindley. . . . is008:2.0y fess ie s.0 ose 0 as Oe
Merrimack.) (eet Seegaae = ce neces 379, 388
Salem ©. is.0cd sac co eee ee 382, 388
fertilized 2222: ces eoeewar seer "SRSTTIRRD, Habs s3-5 coca 380, 392
period of bloom 2 vs i. ss senses s OMIERON Ss cis cy eele 367, 368

varieties blooming with.7. 02200. dieses: oe ws een eae 395," 396

INDEX. 493

Grapes, Nectar: PAGE,
ABTONMIZers LOR DMe nto. ces so eee te ee eee wcities es 372, 388
DeCtar cr sateen eee alee ere, 380, 388
joeratareliredol eared 30 Alene Be eeecsouerdeencadscdrateias. cr 368
Varioties blooming withs'\.).. %). Hise Ri th os «= eis OUOn OO,
Niagara:
As fertilizer for -ATMiMiass J ctece ca eiste te wets ote le: sie tect 0 1c 369, 388
Brighton seo ee A ee iis, a:acninn, BAD) BOO
HIG OFA Oy <6 oceans See ee ons 376, 388
Herbert et See roe Pasa cores rales 377, 388
TMG y Mein tc oo c-ive Dw icleuow o encapeee 379, 388
Merronacks-o 00242 eie amet ates 380, 388
INL AN a a secede one foray ofa) ten stercle tives ater on ... 380, 388
SHOWS Sos hie so Senate sepieaas 382, £88
BCTIGU ORM EMIGEE, ofthc Nel a Sa kan ands) 6 anata coe 367, 368
Varieties DIOOMING WIL: jase a. Cj salsisiseletes.n.s ei sj0- sey 395, 397
Rochester:
As fertilizer for Brighton.... ... ... Sate Danan ee rates 373, 388
Rochester sgi.)ate. cars. ope eee ee store 371, 388
PEVIGR. Of DIGOM stars os oo 7 ee baleen Febsceabeuehs arenes 368
Varieties! DlOOMMNEe WIth cmtcm ics ee ctreenice eee 395, 396
Salem :
As fertilizer for Driving M50) 3. ond. 23> ees cae 371, 389
HiGOrad Oe ies tcres chet RE eainereie electors 375, 389
Hlerberts fad +27 250 00 22 tee endo 377, 389
Landley ss cP32 083 2 SIR se sien nates 379, 389
Merrimack eyes esa « den we eae 379, 389
Salemi ac. caa: 6 SOMOS LO 881, 389
fOrtalizGA Oko iewix cn toe es ARE OBR AIG is oxoinnss 381, 382, 392
WOKIOW Of HIOGIG 6 5: ohne st tnd aisle Wem smnmimaeme-er tales 367, 368
Variotics * bigorminp Wilts «5:00 520 6 cies | vewa men slae 0 335, 396
Station 125:
‘As fertilizer for Brighton...-..... 016 «wo. a i 373, 389
Station No. Qi ctessasicegs7.0- masses 383, 389
period of BlOOMII Ge sits ee, cn ne na AECL GMa, laeS) alia 368
Station 146:
As fertilizer for Brighton. ........cccscecceceus soe 372, 389

period of bloom..........+-..++ Feel eT SAS HOES 368

494 INDEX.

Grapes, Station 156:

PAGE.
As fortilizer for Brighton..;7. .i4,209/ss/csueutes dasa eee 372, 389
period of DlOOM, « 6<..:<jewlads © dias s >.> o's c Beles en 868

Vergennes :
Ag fertilizer for. Brighton 3). cies)! declan sce 372, 389
Vergennes. ....... ie al eae 383, 389
period of DIOOM, . ... oc e:dss A. wo ye eons Ata 3 ialbce a ce 368
varieties, blooming avithsiw.G. oc... ss + scree seminar 395, 396

Worden :

Ags fertilizer:for) Aminig..j5..:... 25s c> > sealer 370, 389
Black: Magle.. . «0. .%++ cif saaee eee 370, 389
Brightonsr. «oc. sis suceee ee 373, 389
PlGOrad Oseisi0025 | eee kas 1 eee 376, 389
OPDOTE oie ad aos oe eden -. 377, 389
Land ley’. ..«/..cjscrb Jae tn wenn eee 379, 389
Merrimack: :.. «<<. « ste;s,40eute eee 380, 386
Salem. < 0. 6ss00s00s 44 eee 882, 389
Worden. cane cease + 5 @cilo lteter 383, 389
period of bloom... 6.6 gyck eau see son en 367, 368
varieties. blooming With 2.7... - 0s... qs <.se) 02s ee 395, 396

Wyoming:
As fertilizer for Aminia. . ... 0.1... > <0's 4/10 sue 369, 381
Brighton oz «09 isejedsagls epee 371, 381
Wyoming........ Me 384, 381
fertilized’. 6. sis s oes tay Pade s ae sites 3a lssate Caleta 384, 392
period of DIOOM ....« sealife Fs <v -ce ice -y aie 367, 368
varieties blooming with .............. = ain oven Sree eee 395, 396
Gymnosporangium, DOES ON... 0. 2 (aulRGasscnsceecueesssenee eee 401, 457

(See also Rust).
151

Habits of striped beetle... . ... <a es-.csece ners 00a one Jolsle ewlatlnene ann 254
Haltica chalybea, Notes On. ......5. Woden selon taseiets bets eek sia CK ak 434
Hens, feeding experiments with, 6) 082) I4id. eee cers ceeds oss he ore 96, 117
Hominy feed, amalys0.....0. :.::c:< sc soja oelrveeatle Milas Wa aineelatd ys os om oe 54
Horticultural Department, report Of. 170; « sinew cielo ai-rw oletetele hele nisiete= 4°, eae 319
work of, ‘SUMMATY fst sls vais 5) 2) 16

Hudson valley, fruit disease survey Of... . 0:6 cws.sjie)s bie Soviets s oss os ee 184

1 PAGE
Pe INCULES, (ANI NOS 1 tiaki an ahs Wid acini laas sk 4 Coo) yg Ae a red hues asia 237
MISCeLMANCOUS IOXAMINAION. . ac «sic 4 caine ee awisioanpee ot Sew hn 243

Insects affecting apple, pear, etc. (See Apple insects, Pear insects, etc.)

predaceous, attacking forest tent-caterpillar ......... ........00: 308

ite EGON Worle moles: Ollintc saves si. crneats Gane So istesiies earlier ce 10

iron sulphate. for gooseberry mildew. « . . . «» <-<mndseekelane'sye ndmin'e peas «ale 827

per TAClCus GH. CHELPYATGOS® o o/s, <5 <oSrtgait: Liv iniske Homie pele asime eg |Site aces iso, 197
L.

PABSIROLHL OLOTECHLTYS HOUCS © O11 Gifs aclu ota ts ele ls Mach See ete ed oe a creiere ate 429

(See also Black-rot, grape.)

iaurelioreen; composition Of. fy nse. 35 ee) see se ees Aopen nialien aie fone ear 244
Maw, concentrated feeding istutis: 2.2524 Petts OO eee Seem bins stacae 69
POE GEAR ARIS Sal tate citadel ectatet cates Wetec thai ed Paaetet eae tee ae oem e 225

to prevent fraud in the sale of Paris green.................0-eeeees 245
Lead, arsenate of, formula and preparation, ............ccceececssccesess 310
Ppa PHPH i. Plain « OCCULTENCE 12.0.6". SR eal ee ee ee ewe 211
UNCC OCEULFENCE ooo na ne tiataecieixt Bk TCE eater e oe 212
SULaNVOPLEY. ,OCCUITONED: «o> cc dua Mle. «Rete ESO ate 216

CUTI PEACH, OCCUETORCG. 5m Giaes cin cae Shia ie Wa ooleaiegietie cee eens Sy sea 208
PIN. MR CULT ONCE Seiad y ies. cae Rb ETS Wie. we bigot Rnee dea ties clkae 212

REGrel Uy Oxcessive jranspirathon 62. lass oh 5 evs. Vo dats ctv gare ae 154

GE CAMMMOWER sisi fois ate he RG een Vee Sen Sein at RE 164

HOREW. o.< wihidiais, is aa «Galera oe tein ape al erat aye ieee aa lin ee 159

BEAT io) «inte ba oivis age elie ae ae edema ree ame a 165

SUP AT DOCS ads i2 sac doves ce SOUR IIN SO ROE Oem 154

Apot, apple, OCCUFTENEEs . :5.5.6 46.4 isiding's aaa 2.9.5 44 5 HE ee re 191
blackberry, occutrence.;+ i cess asaaras shld ss SR 195

GHELTY, OCCUTTONCEs 4 0 sic Daadsjadaes ova ae 5 BE ORS oe 196

CMITANU; OCCUTTONGE, 5/6456 estes Hole cco Sale te TR ee ee 199
Husarvum, Of carnations es .<a40scasc< oe POD IE RL 181
PCBIOLRYTULN: PONE, NOLS OW... oma wa tations ales --s essa spe WN ainie nd OS athe 400
enbuce; tertiuzers for forein’, NOES «5 juries coe one ee a ens ee 19
BMC: DAAOUOR OL oe sce a's, o,< & Sn wepeie RR eras IGCe erat hais Sas ae wie ares So or 12
Lime, air slaked, use against striped beetle. ......... 0.0... cece eee eceeen 268
ROC RCH ATIRLVECS: 5.55.5. c0 sv an! wa a oeaSps ele eo as ps ww aoln suk. bb kee eos 44
London purple, composition of ..... Adee CO ACE SRR OEITE IER ILO Won 244

Lysol for gooseberry’ mildew.............. PEED ST PRET ATT Oy 324

496 Tnpex. 4

M. PAGE.
Mailing list; names Omi /)44i sis SaSapiedu ces ao ep sce vem cnet ooogs a, On
Maples, leaf scorch fs, 65.45 waits v.00 ¢ns0 000s 0's.c/be 0.0. 6:00 sik meen 165
Meteorological TeGord. |e. caus pdowcu esr eccecscess swiws on nie 467
Mildew, gooseberry, notes on treatment ....... 2... cece ceeeseneeees 19, 321
powdery, on field grown cucumbers, ..........ceeees « ceseeee . 174
Milk, pasteurization experiment ....6... 00.05: beece seen tes selene 127
pasteurized, bacteriological tests .....-..0...5. 2 ececccnscces en eine 141
Miscellaneous feeding stuffs, analyses. ..... ....-ssscccncercccve sesueen 63
Mixed feeds, analyses... «0 :.26:5.000sinocine sn 6 os 0s sien. mbes Seams enn 55
carbohydrates of...... . ee Te 60
Monilia fructigena, Notes OM. i... een mea. < = be sie deedeihe aes 420, 488, 453
(See also Fruit rot.)
Monophadnoides rubi, notes OD. sj..ieececce ress coocesss se sue 462
Mytilaspis POMOTUM, NOTES ON. v0 ej000s We oman osd > <0> domme ee 416
Maj2us cérasi, NOtES ON...-. 26. saseeresis os 166 nd po ayelesbys yoyo s beey a ae 423
TIDIS, NOLES OV. . 2. 24. oo viaveisomso o0 50.« teyelpvisinierns 9 et ele en 425
N.
Natural checks of forest tent-caterpillars..... oie s dias viele abies eal aan 297
Nectria as a cause of tree canker......... stade Riprite al waricin SOREN , ans ahaa 331
Cinnabarind, NOtES\ON 3. s eeeaes see s e eee eee ers - . 425
Nematus ventricosus, NOES ON. .-.605<0000'cccs ccs sismaeles senite eenneee 426
New York apple-tree canker... .i.0scccaesscecrs-sin nqounedcanee en 331
O.
Oat feed, digestion experiment... ....< 4000 cosas, ddete® 7 GSlatsw 0's ets ee . 60
feeds, analyses; jet ses, boxe Ossi. sia bere ac fee eee a\éwbGad eee 56
Oats, CANALYSOS ovin.wjs:0qusrelavinelets «5: s0/0 waniaya oo aia @ibeya Eb re roves ST tins rete Pepi
Onions, bacterial rot OF 5:03 505 diese noc oie ss o os bMS LAR le eee eusenar 169
Slippery, CAUSO OF ooo ans cosine sin-ocm ole AUN eat le) Oe talclminn ein 171
Orange rust, OCCUTTONCE ., «0.2.6 6.55 nnac. ie Meee berae ere 2 his's State .. 194
Pr
Pacific coast apple-tree canker, notes ON... 0... 1... sete eee eeeee vanes 357
Paleacrita Vernata, NOES'ON:,.. .. ses sales se eee eee aca sy a eee Mp: i!
Paragrene, composition OF 2... ss0a0sscns eosael a55 Vi ees ns sen 248
Parasites of striped beetle. . (2° sas.s.s-s.« sar" sb oe nisierateiee tale nie ohn are a . 260
Parasitic enemies of forest tent-caterpillar.................eeeeeeee op apale einen

Paris green, adulteration 2/0. /26,.<:+ «seesce vases Cabaweevteeeee «os Cale eee

PAGE
Paris green, analyses .........000sess00% Malecid kam wale MRC ab ae = ricaels += 237
CRRTRIEE POMIDORERIONL «2 ia, a sos 3 on ae o/s'0 sk aie cle dilimags nines a 238
eee LOCER ra rotate asta hws iahn) arsed ste veya ola ate eyetohe™ archaaral etal 245
law to prevent fraud in sale of ........ ........ are tea 245
PER MSE: Gers cont vic Se aaR. Sects nn mene DES, Ente ee 243
pure, soluble in ammonia ....... .....--.--seeeeeeees cee 263
STG ANU AO oa sed: ce cs visa a seve ei nfsharsie eas at tine ates are etmiee 240
Pasteurization at different temperatures, data ........... ... «+ 144, 146, 149
CONMBUGUSise tan tale tie. Cede SE oka ea a eerste esi 133
GISCONINUOUS Hc oe Serer wie wie Cre ad eaten « Brea EPs
Pasteurized milk, bacteriological tests. ......... ©. s-cecsescccsrercees 141
REET AE CRCLIO DION OL 9,3) co y's eis bigs avy se ah Cale Ao'gt a sin 5 pple tn se ela 136
SVTUCGiTSVATGh GUO) Bees Cae SUSE ERO Pee CEC OI. EEE Mechs Seine Acie 127
mone direasod im the Hudson valley... < .. .» «00s 5)fanssasiae sepia seins ees 207
notes on:
COW Sallie, 5 etek o scsk eis ee am ee Jeane eats 'o cis area 437
POTEET 2 er agu alto carysha aban 2, ts Soret cade des tae Bei 2 7 fclaye sich 438
STAN ia-9, 5 cise «(els ayn tes et wiofdc essai a, s:enns TOS ate 438
leafisGurlis.2%< kat o¢ar6) wien oct evens a apePtar = 4.8 PME TSE nate ene ne 439
dittle peaches pss =is/, 1m BR ae OY ESOC, Be ape «
TAMRON: -cpsiancsrerceid ccnp ss ei © 22 ong AES, RECS DATA AE 438
BOOGWETIOG: f 5:s4sretereiotarera¥ els tater fe 2s ¥4alo at te atets dotatohotan ate ete rete jeetee 437
yellows ........ sis bh 5 See hs SARL A erate ee eee cree rere rarer 440
insects, notes on:
ONCE cteters tic areas lone ist ict Stns a ccaroe ctseeay mene nee Pere 441
PUG TONE Sees waive dbgewls See ee cosh ape me ete Mel ete 442
CUTCHLIO: So sons bande wen eee CaE es ici eee Sen Exceeds 442
Mee park DOCUA coon e eas eae sess aa Se BG (o aires cia; roves 442
BaniJoee sale ca sacecce spin taciek «6 sie ce leht meewioneeere oer 416, 449
Rear diseases IP Phey ELMLGSON Vallenyes tere oeaiciniza eu im hess Stages (orevolousysie!rq5saya)oiesyeqole 209
notes on :
PPO OMS TA. in-state oferta eat Totes ad epee S tao ey elena 443
CENSTAl CrOALIMON FAS ANS tien tiste hale Siateres outs k wiehos iecioe eee 452
|¥21753 10) 6 Fed 2) PRR es SESS SR MR See SE BMRA IEEE re tit
NESRER ODO ho o:c)e ase err ne ai ie ior te os hare art ota ace 445
Ll SS 8 Oe ee ere ce cre me. 445

498 InvEx.

Pear insects, notes on :

PAGE.
Dark TACO’ sv 6s ¢ cacao oisielw 'acererw sinialeew elei sin /0lh (ele acts ey are 446
blister Mite ...<eessrerscchsae sacckslnsed dee Behe 446
DOTGT Se x opie crs oe eivic ss mea ninie serene cies . a's svie.ns eweee aetna
bud mothe. ws se cceden sas cepews ss spielen ieee 447
CASS DEATEFS’ 010.5 3 esis vw vole eo Cateye epee . 447
Cigar-case DeATer ..... + <0 vecseeet nv eens onsen ek een 447
COMHNG MOG 5... dns apes 0 cee wes oe mn mee woe 447
general treatment against ...... .. c.cs00 sevccncssoasoueen 452
lea€: blister MiItE. o.2.45.6 iss o010e 400 ow rwtelete aie sie pole 447
oyster-shell bark louse... 6.6600 sev e0+ vs ae 1 oan sia 448
POSE MUG SO ih oie ees wie ws bys 5 5 00S 8 8 < lee map ee a 447
DB YMA cic wis oat cies wat See se Sis eters ee 448
pistol case bearer. .....-. ces ew eect es paces tes ae 447
San Sose scale. .fs.b5 5) Cenc cose se oer as eae 449
serufy bark louse... 2 6s.0200sc0 Soe ten! ost ee 450
Sinuate pear-borer 2.2 2 aso" ts lets! ade she 451
SUVA? oa at tei caer Geo s.ar Yai gnda’ ccarerwtepeteroten Shel ere) orstatel etal eter 3] eee anes nee aan 451
SCAD, OCCULICN CE 0:0: 6, 0: 0vaie coves srexalel ste 9143 3\010:0 corvnano tains Be tee ACN anes ee 209
Periodicals: received, LiStc.< :cysictsvarsss.0\01 sieveis.01>-: ato skese ate oroctelstel> Mie see eee 25
Phoma causing raspberry cane blight.......... ..0.eea dass eee 214
Phyllachora pomigena, notes ON .........0.+se20 seccerencewss- ee sees . 405
Phorbid, nOtes OV. 5, o0 2.0 ss 5,005.0 c reais, oddone. szsabisen are ene 461
Phyllosticta, Doves 0D... .s05s waes ena'ps sees ssce ss) o= ue ea rn 400
(See also Leaf-spot.)
Phatopiits pyrt, Notes ON... «=< sess: = 2-2-9 Piedad feds Sala een 446
Plant diseases, notes on.... Tahini eee ee ppirise », eis eaee cee 168
food elements; trade values .5252.0.2 265 ook oo oon eet _.. 224, 235
Plasmopara viticola, notes ON ......000 cee cece eect eer ete seectscnnes 432
(See also Downy mildew, grape.)
Plowrightia morbosa, Notes ON. ....... cee cence cece eee secceracccsscses 452
(See also Black knot.)
Plum diseases in the Hudson valley. ..........cccescerececeecccesrcccces 211
notes on:
black Knob: o.0:sic- cis sciera avelnjale.e.c/otepeteleste Get eis ciate ts tell 452
fruit Tots. &.. ap ecoseane ee cliee eerie PT ic 0: 453
leaf-spot on 65 oss ~ <5 cassie yenew eres © eres s «=e peer 454

VONMOWS . 6.5. 6:00: wcnieis. suite asialpe owas piel ee = = aan 7 454

Plum insects, notes on: PAGE.
SUECUME Tah eee oe eR ee eee ee eee Dee Reis ieerorernnerers cree ae 454
RRM RET WEIN re oo tas oe cbs Cae ds Oe bee ecient eins wae 456
plant lice....... NN AN A eel Sa pee Ort ns eoaiiar hegre bey ae .- 456

Podosphaera oxyacanthae (See Powdery mildew, cherry).
Poecilocxpsus lineatus (See Four lined leaf-bug).

Pollination experiments with grapes...... sata baite o-Lbah teva Moa aie) wis Si ... 363
OF GTaApes IMCHHOG. aos oo as 5x A EG EO wins os rh whos 364

Polyporus sulphureus on cherry....... ig Sete PENS EP 25S s Scien es 198
Potassium sulphide for gooseberry mildew... .........-.cccceeeeeee 324, 327
MRM LATE TM LOTS nic aisicdendimoe .ciwiore, ssvercnovee Sali Last SERRE SOR BEM 75
TONS; COMMDORLADN «... 5 ..<e,7/5<-6 Stbewee Sep betacee’k Sunes & kes Baath 79

rations containing animal meal..... 80, 82, 84, 86, 88, 93, 98, 100, 108

110-412. 115; 118
vegetable food only. ..81, 83, 85, 87, 89, 94, 99, 101
111, 118, 116, 119

Powdery mildew, cherry, occurrence... ............... pots feteerehi sot Pees yl
gooseberry, occurrence. siieiwhisceth tesshatinan id... 222 203
on. Geld grown cucumbers: ioc c's. x a «RV TRB BRIE soe = 174
PeecipietIOn, Tecord-by Months)... x oo oc'a.a e 6aiSUR POPE SOE DIN ne 469
Predaceous insects attacking forest tent-caterpillar ..... ..... ..... 20. 308
EMMALAIMOTE QTOSSULATIC, NOLS, OD e100 oie vox 0 04 wwe 6c a wdniehhle Metels whee 426
UME UT EOE: TOLER OU) o5 a4 0.5 «a suis 0'oe-d6 p Wh a a aot nh ROMO WES os sets 448
PICONISE PICCIARTA s NOLES Os m2 aed its 2s or a SE MEU RN oan CBee i rd 460
(See also Orange rust).
Pirplications, notes On.: 22:25 .65:53s00<% bt EAGER ot tate Sere eae eee oo. 12
Q.
Quince diseases in the Hudson valley...........0.cccceccecceccscee eeece 212
notes on :

black rot of the fruit: cvs ers ons sod OL. LET 456
DE se 4 5 din id Se eR mee swine SS a eb wie-a plas Sees 456
canker of the tree ........ MER sia Og bwin aioli w ce nS wevin eae 456
ETOMBDOG so. 00 «in nls seer 2c Feros Ol eae ee 456
Rem REM ELE. S .-:,« a> Sent an Re pe ae eR en 456
LAOS ePIC OIE CO Oran fidin SRAM ERIC ar atc AOA facta 457

Quince insects, notes on:
SEA 6 2 n.3iv5:0°s 405 SE OE bore, valle te bsicee Gens a ica 458
ERI TEREITD 5 9 iv ah i aaa Ne ee ee 458

REE ISELINO ore 51's 5:b-o os SAT ae ae. One ere ls: Oke ee ». 458

500 INDEX.

R. PAGE.
Raspberry diseases in the Hudson valley........ ......20e0+ ceceees coe 213
notes on:
@NGCHTACTIOBE. . 0.6 ince: cece sens 1 scnhle eee ene 459
leat-BDO6 '«,..0:5:6; fee 00 vip: in 'efe ens sare bye ys ee 469
re fc) ae ee 461
TUBE as oip:5ps opp oon 6 o.n an > ofeeipla’s wt cb bi0iaie) cette eee 460
insects, notes on :
CANE MAL ZObie is oh sw wi nse.0:0 ieee 8 sibs AEG vinteiatele a 461
Baw Pye. cece. as Vek eth Zi dO 462
Rations for poultry feeding. 5.6 si6.1. 00 occas nae 2 ee 77
Repellants and drivers for striped beetle ................ J as 3 39S Ee 266
Report of Bacteriological Department....... hie hee le oo tee
Botanical Dopartment sai... cic 0 ns: 2100 c:01e wie an oiekes Se ee 151
Chemical ‘Department... 00.0.0 8 GRE 90 09 «re wee el 219
MPIPOCUORS «ss oo 0c vioe x iaboielatats wo 0's! e'0.6 wlave! ete ita: cheratbla ethan ean 6
Entomological Department ....... olga t's... aii eee 249
Horticultural Department ..... .-......... ee .. 819 -
"TLOASULEL 55: sis; 6 «div ost oii 0st a ARNE Miata ShaeveV el ahe Slate vet oD ne 1
Ehagoletis cinqulata, Motes OW... e.cirm caralaisibetestrle isle. ieee eties 422
Rhagoletis pomonella, notes‘on ;) ss) 262 iets ee Bee eee ie bcd ea 414
Roestelia, NOtes OW 3.60. laced sole eel vaie'els)efole 7a “<behhehdlley «eel shea nee 401
(See also Rust.)
Root-galls, raspberry, occurrence ............- ee 218 -
Root-rot, Zooseberry; OCCUITENCS. ... Jae) Ieqset> arp eee . 3 Oe 203
PTAPS, OCCUITCNCE. 51.5256 7eckateassedecotoeemas sited peel 205
Rot, bacterial, of onions... $20 js2. 6c fae. edad odes «oo eo hse > 2 69
Russeting of apple, occurrence ............-... (ostiertieie-b » v0 sia reeee 192
Rust, apple, OCCULTENCE: ...066c05.ccces s+ essa s 6h lpia tele aoe 192
raspberry, occurrence....... 1 eere +. lnslelele aide stele cava kate sie 213
s.
Sannina exitiosa, notes on........ ... 54555 Sb ebn es eeee s rere > 441
Saperda candida, notes ON .......-..eeeee cee eenesceseenes to a we ee 407
Sceab; apple; occurrente.: i ooit! <2 it~. --een eee eee Ey aloe » chee thhateanaaeee 191
PEAT, OCCUITONGE: . 2,6 a:s's.0\x'eo:s o's + 's'<wles aie ine eb tee - a he 209
Schizoneura lanigerd, notes OD 2.2... eee as mersaw ess ses eat eee 415

Schizophyllum commune, relation to apple canker ........ ~3.6.6i¢ alate eater 335

PAGE

ET CUD TUSULIOSUS, TOLER OMe ett ota Melis as entbavcets cae tccebecseasne 442
Selandria cerasi, notes on........... Rese ths sheesh es eR ONS, «ais staetes 451
Selling price and commercial valuation of fertilizers.......... ..... 225, 236
Septoria piricola, notes on....... sa bb ote eee ee SSR BSNS < aos sais: Nor 445
PED IR MOUCR MOM ei eee ta eae rite A LIS es wie LE, ca pesiobens 434

(See, also, Leaf-spot, currant.)
A AUOE STAO UY OMe cesataiarateratarn iatarataleradatgtilninten estat mee UREN esas 419, 461
(See, also, Leaf-spot, blackberry.)

Sexual development of striped beetle. .....5...5. ccc cee ec ee wacceesenees 277
Pam BOle; TRGASO, \OCCUITORCO. 6.4.0 bs sus cee eee hes Pat We oe aes cic e'bwe blocs 211
Slug-shot, composition of .... ........... eR ie te errickoo Mick uicar ai acm tO 244
Smith’s electric vermin exterminator, composition of.................005 244
Soda- Bordeaux mixture for gooseberry mildew ........ ©... ceeceeeeees 327

formula for. «5 .%).45 72a P eee. tae cee eet cee ee 328
PeermMmionenH Of, Apple, OCCUITENCE..ii.2.60% 5 esalawdsadsos oseends coueees 192
PRACEOMA CMPelNUNt, NOLES OD. . ica ceccsancac. ciceeves) eveeces ovens 428
Senelne ET OOOTTOr. NOLS ON... 5). 665.50», 25s» 955 doo depo Paate eles bbs yd IRS 463

(See, also, Leaf-blight, strawberry.)

Nenacropsis, classification of species (i) s\n. With cisco oe ge oe ec 365
moculation, OXperiments..... sc. «ese secs sere Dla! elas 2 ott 348

malorum as cause of apple canker ..............04 secceeees 237

TOES: Ons hires wisiere cists ei kyo 4. OL See On AGus 399

(See also Canker, apple.)

- species, number and occurrence of.................. oRetesr840
BPOLE*MEABUTEMOENUB® oo oi: cries cite oi Sen ese iets eile sic 348
Spraerotheca Mors-wve, NOLES ‘OD. .8 isa: 635592440954 samme slenges Tes Ope 427

(See also Powdery mildew, gooseberry.)

Spore measurements of Sphaeropsis..........-.0.000..005 aij Rey oeered aya eit 348
Sprays, arsenical, for forest tent-caterpillar...............cceecccececeees 310
PLONE SAT AEM ATIFOS TD. ..5 san. py pice cigivte sicily» ¥ceats dre veld DACRE Seas 6
Pepeilty OF Srapes,. CAUSO. . x: +... eanecns cd less wren Aggie voy Seeneet 390
Strawberry diseases in the Hudson Valley....... .........0005 ceveeseee 216

notes on:
ISsh Spots .:.5. Ushi eeenciiat at orare es Sead obec Wits, cach veer 463
insects, notes on:

CLOW ONDOLGL So eet siete oe or snacks ee 464

502 INDEX.

Striped beetle, coverings to prevent injury........ 2. ... ceeeeeeeceeees 262
Geseripwon.. . 5's ¢s2gesaceed 1 eeewea seen - srapie a a eis ee 259
experiments in combating: 2.0.46 js .cerissaweele [se eebup ae 270
habits and life history of....... <0 0 bbid's Oe id = ae Re ae 254
PATASICES OL6. os oss vc ceiscs siv\eb ve ooh ome biiele SIL Ela nen 260
PFEVENLIVE MORSUTES si nis bis sels oeislely VEE be dea ens as VN 262

FAINOMIeS TON, co sink criere eeehaeee x = oft ip) oe BUad = Seen 261 -
repellanta and rivers ei. saa.t pistlein: ee) cos tae ose cee 266
sexual development Of. . . .«sisvic. div wsie sn » bs alelub bia pelaerenee tl
trap crops in combating ,........ sss ri situ» 264
Student assistants, selection of... 2.0.60 +50 <0u0% See ond slocuepete ae 4
Sugar beet, leaf scorch Of. 0.255 sieiviejsjem «in,«: je mos mish ek estan gee 154
Sun-crack of apple trees, OCCUTTENCE) o:o:4.0 6.0 )0 s:0(0.;0;-50 + 2) sinforsisis 8) e)- oe pete 193
scald, strawberry, OCCUTTeENCE. .. ..... jist arb itis} > os inne 213

db
Temperatures, AF. 02 one: chusd usin, cede pa ene ile Oe 474, 475, 476
average monthly for ten years: :....ccescssvccr sense onan 478
maximum and minimum, 22.9034... Jas 0s eee ee 477
Tent-caterpillar, forest... . .asns+s oa Meisels lowe @ ileal aeinelle saan 289
(See Forest tent-caterpillar. )

Thermometers; all, TEAGCINGs «1. 0:5 vic ve .ssie'ss so cht et eee es ete 474, 475, 476
maximum and minimum, reading.................+--05- 477
Thinning apples, notes on... . 22 (Fs Vo SO ee 17
stone fruits, notesiOn =%...20...55.e% 8% oD TRS 2k eee 18
Tip burn of cauliflower... «204625541516 88s. 00, ee ens eee eae 164
Tmetocera ocellana, notes ons). Lee ee hat anes sae ele 408, 442
Trade values of fertilizer ingredients...............+00005- NE i 224, 235
Transpiration, excessive, causing leaf scorch....-......6.....00s00 verses 154
Treasurer's TOpOrs 22.2 iccceneacewsscsotest ts wees kein ues coke e sh 1
Treatment for gooseberry mildew: iii... <n crm oss cle 1s oo eee Tt eoe
Twig blight of apple, occurrence........... .. ON Pe Ata eee 191
Tyloderma fragarie, notes OD... 250.15... “sseee semen om ea ec) e)sie ieee
Typhlocyba vitifesx, NOS ON. ....2.0 5 esses tues SLR CAYEREMEES 435

Uncinula spiralis, notes OW... 22.5 occ c cs ance cs cbansacewciec econo cia ame 433

Inpex. 503

Wis PAGE.
Valuation of food used in poultry feeding........ 2.0... cece cece ee eee 78
TERE TERE, ATUCE CULT ANE TIO LCR OLN 9 5c ie iiae a. g's"s 0) tad evdws yee ns sian a orslee aesldigesies 402

(See also Scab, apple.)
RTRTCR toe TEND DOE yet Satoh SUS ar alas tsla,cid ire am ds se wate ad Sakhete Om 445

(See also Scab, pear.)

W.
BRET ONE CGC ATAPI CR Sop. ohn. scata occasions as © sais Gat weas « kewNepsten. aero wee he . 343
WERE Oral ratinl VEOH) 14. oatutile Saja Mote: MEd decadence da seegeut see 51
poe tAeaR UD PUETECLCMIA PS ATIALUROS oo 5 co. suis 2.0 a sss sicie bie: We wvarstevalun do mieiie wien Searels es 52
IEA RLE AT STAI TROL. (ELAN Y SOA) 's-o:0 235 care siaikia/ae, ad Ode Sad nin Sw oR tel aies 52
SPIN ER sie Soha, rei cinel \ anced) - ae ola Masta a ete cet Dope s en eee ee 50
White arsenic an adulterant of Paris yreen...............ccccee eee eccees 243
Wind record..... ... ate scare wince eee SACI Me BEE, COC eo 470, 471, 472, 473
ane IE TIEPT LG CHOLTEOR oa 6 ois o o-aiatstacke sieeve a abe vided we wd Sele ae 198
PGACH GCOS Fe Fhe ohare alr ce ites Pah, sale waietesetlalonie SON eae 207
PHAPDOERY a Syereyaict om aieiein ~ialsvasc2 sets olere(s-ciu ales WWbire.wistetarheret ce 213
treatment for gooseberry MUldOW, -i..605...6000.c00 eeecodeeraccess 227
Work of Animal Industry Department, summary . ... ... ...... 0... 22
Bacteriological Department, summary ............0eseeeeseeeee 21
Botanical. Department, summary. 6.0. ...6s20essewi ses 2 eens 20
Chemical Department, summary .....0.0..0000. cess aen secs ees 15
Horticultural Department, summary ........ s siayer Veteialeyaiars stesso 16
SNE SNG, UMEVUITICE EY gai cistes «: SETS Staieakw Ge Ue Sr Mae eta arviewe hanes 14
x.
COE IU Oi TCL SS UL ee ae eR EE MO OR oe Morse peVoNsIe ioe ol vase eletne 413
¥:
Mens pnach, OCCULTENCe % 5. aa ee gts ees oe oe oc cached sarees S 208

«
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aan iv | .
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‘b heer iptiom 4 Liege Dey tiOrenpadt ;
: PGA Uf ating dace oxla aaty
Gee, ; ne. Ae EET SS gk ey yee
=o (sas. (leo. onte 9B
sibd-yal eatbannes
Ww
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Be. Asien adam! tee oe . . os eee tahing
a a Wendt :
Oa ada See aeke re ; arte deat, ty fomoilh be mae
Sb. ATP, ATR HA 4 wa tne wae 5
oa) and of, 9
ne”... , wooed omeng.
4 Be Z sdinee . erat
Teg wah Here srapdnaorra WS:
ai epic ci n ” pane atett: cabinet
if hatte hid | : 7 qucnnie Joong i sti

4 oye ans = Sanction, Sie cca Tat

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Jeanne Jonge qat fevedl

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ae mg! my Ale = ar q = rea .
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rt macy | fue ae ae
Tengen? F ¢ cee wrre Baa aryl. res
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Tuicierec: Foyariy) bei cal ~ ae te
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REPORT

OF THE

BUREAU OF

FARMERS’ INSTITUTES.

——————_—

F, E. DAWLEY, Director.

Transmitted to the Commissioner of Agriculture, pursuant to Chapter 338,
Laws of 1893,

_

ALBANY:
JAMES B. LYON, STATE PRINTER,

1900,

Vi3

"<
4

aT HEKTE Soe 1a ean

, -
ee
.
ad
- 7. ”
A dps 24
E io SV bes

List of Farmers’ Institutes for 1899.

PLACE. County. Date.

LG A ae oe ae = Queens=.-.--22 56. < <2 January
PDT ECCI 7 age iets th i ES Ae a Madison 222.2522. 22
PLU eS Saar eeesrieb aye ae Qneidar sce. cote
WOCUNOOL. «cose cvcslsaes sess laser. ae ca Suffolk.. cs. se-- coer
TRO Spl ple peat Seppe a op Sees ee Oneida: (22. 0-5 ee oees
Bann Oelic=-scse.-+tss ees cats esee ss Chemung: -.-2 =<: e---
rig cohaimpion.<..-; --s-2= -aen cons mn an SUOlk cate scc cosas
MMR cette Son me eek meee nee weal Oneida’ s<.22 1 ecco
EVOKUOA wc. ccstcsotee tone ee cee oe eee Suffolk-ss--2>-ce22
INGRICOsr a octectaccce sete oe econ ee eas at OBWOSO 252222 oe See
MINGINNAUUS = s<225> s2esc- soos sose eeesee Cortland .--2=-=te---
Cortland ..... Re ee enon es Seana asa esa Cortland <2 =.2<.2<%
MANWEN ose nee eee eee de sere cee Orange <<<<is tees:
Paney OLCOK .ccss> cateeceaas cob es ace es Oswegoe.-sse-ces-~=
PYGanVillGs s-os-scsces cseses ee ecee oh nic Jefferson . cL LIT es
MoniKCelld /22- 5. essence tse cece boss ween Sullivan] 222222225.
MEMtpNON stasccss secche tees aces cee Cortland 22225 -c=-ce
PIO UUSHCANCEOne as ct eet ee sons snes at Jeflerson <=-5 22.55
PND PeIUIN OG tovetoc sce s sacs Ace ces dence BICONE 26> pees =eemee
IINENG. as,catece cece et eee tee cose ae oni MOLANG Ones =k eee eee
12-5 oh UY eee let pela BE eee Jefferson: ===. =>. -
POOUSuesecsccsmsessctt tees cess secs sean Waynen: isso css e508
0 US eel ae I i a JOHCIBOR <5. 222255255
VEL ce Be SRB BESS EOO ESSE OES Chenango. .--2-22=--
PONtH ONONGAC): caeccscscce ston cs aoce Onondavatess..sseee
IPAININONG. - sc sscenr ett oot coo cee cee cee St. Lawrence........
IWAMININEOMescscecrcses cont eset aoe eee Waynes: :2cassssccs-
WONUC tonesce ce cape sone teneertene canes Broome 2222 ss2s-cce
DEAE ge coe ss iss a eee see ras ale omee St. Lawrence .......
LEPTIN G Ea ae ee ee ermicinecec Chenango <.<--s.0<e:
DMAURICE co soclecc cos sess Spa tonccaects- Monroe): sssc25s cess
LOW) po eaeoneSegaioocooaeenecarenecc Jefferson 235525552555
BAN EMOUING stances’. bas ss =2.scae ee wane Onondaga ...........
PECUPCENDL cs escncsessces = sae con secs Monroe ....... ee
CO POPSIML OWE sacnieeaeite salen os onlone = oom Otsego <<=st<icec cess
BOHONGVIN soccus cena replese tec inose ener se OtseP0 ws<5 ccccecoexs
IBOGHOSLOD .\c0-b6 coors ine weclee seen ae Monr0e)--<-<<s=ceren =
PEMIVEINODY 0. cts senses oes as orescence St. Lawrence........
PMUIGhencsisos = beccss aaemeetn sees nite sees Wyoming”...--<.----
MGMT Dla cwoclsneccsoccsescanwanesanee WG WiSiciwetves occ ewe
PUNO ataassloccune coselesonce ss cocp ae Al Dany sacs ewe cao
@heriwaViailoys..c-.-sove ccccescons saad OLCL a ae
IOMNAT Kc sain eee co once cecete cceetaneas LiGwWisis woven owen eos
Coastableville..............- aacencees LOWi8 ¢ oso s csse ees.) February
Middiobuteeoser cross ceectos coca aneees Schoharie ...........
MiBMCrANCOlasnacecmeecesccores cestentens Schoharie: ss555660
PIGHLON: «to asedsasee eae ee Sanaa OQneidascictrseacewes
? omenad SILCOl sconetacceonesccse setees Schenectady ........

PEW SY. acenelomn =P E SPE sien ae ee ees eae oP HeTKIMNOr<nescce waee

4 Bur@Pau OF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

FARMERS’ INSTITUTES—(Continued).

PLACE. County.

Pattersonyille).j.. 255 cece. ssc 25 sees, Schenectady ....-....
Voorheesville)... o22. ce cen ders teen eee Albanycons soccetiuuee
CBZONOVIDe wa secccmenacine aden ates pee Mudison sosos.ceeeee
Canastota ©... -2tseca0 foc os. eaemeesc eee Mason. stowcce seer
West/Sand Iakeosrsc.sceos shee see eters vensselser .sSsc2 cour
Clarksville. 2..3232 2.0. eee seas eek Albany <\.s0..se ee
Wthaea <o22 05.2 h2cas~ sees seed eee Tompkivis;soseesee-
Stuyvesant Falls... 22. oo. eee pone Columbia «..\2.ces5.
AJnjon Springs: tesccc sss sen cee et eee Cayuca st sce 2 eee
Wiaterloopeeitasa-- eecccs sooo ep eesate cr SON@CB.. cece come ese
South Bethlehem. --... 5.2... seace-n eee Albany: c\asccisters come
ShittoniSprinys cessce ce ees s see ee Ontario. .cssccocsseue
Hast Greenbush... =... n22 22 oe eae Rensselaer cosscceces
Clifton: Park =. 3c.cc, seo coe semeeegee DParatora succes eases
Caledonia. .scese cece ce asoaseeeeeee ser Livingston 7--.sseeee
Gansevoort 25.22 -2565-<5 52-5 see pase Saratovaics-s.6adeee
Pavyetteville .2522. cc c2s co See bees Onondiigs-c--se-cese
IDALAVIA: 2 Jawoe borers pccse see eee ee Genesee’ ...5--- -oeoee
Ketchum’s Corners)... 2.6 2 <= epee: Saratoga ..ncoses =5e-
Manaville css conce- oo ss saeco e Montgomery ........
ATCAGE (5. ced code cacnjcocd eset nep tina > =e) WW VOMInR@ a eens
WWarsaw sce ce eseelpe eee enea see ore Wy OmiInts sococreeee
agama leccs aes eee kere ae eee ee Montgomery ........
Eastern N. Y. Horticultural Society-...| Albany ....-....---.
IWMESAW, (oseslee ca as = sere aon Eee Wy ONIN Dass eaeaee
(GE ISS ean madsscacier co sse5a60¢ WVOMmin?? - se —neereset
JOHNSLOWI- +--+ scenes ss case eee Pulton) sicasesssseee
Ly Se ceases adeadecseeenr-shosnssc W YOming? snc =~ oes
Mamtield i s5~ seo fos seee = aaa. ae eee Pultun scoserieee aceon
CLGUESSE SOR eR EOE OMSerInp chore ane on 44a Montgomery ....---.
Branklinwilles3-3..ceo cscs cncaasueee ce Cattarauous..o.s2--—
IRMERINGIOVGs os secen ase a= Ga ae ee Montgomery .....-..
OHM BEM oe ace aap Spor cateo. -otscs oop Montgomery .....-..
OI ee COS eS moO OSE Ge S20 SSe0 9605 Cattarangus......--.
GANVEINCUL |. c 224. os --Sesaeae eee eee St. Lawrence....--.-
Bellona s.ces-ses see eee eae eae eee WalOsysccoees ese
TPO) ag Ree rigs Soo asses sass e524 ssa: OSWO20"= .. cst eae
Guliaisccstkcekitocecc scooter eee sheer Allerany cc coc aeeece
Mysandeuc:sosser esse Je e's apiece eee QOnuondavacnoss= seen
Le) goesoAaceoce Sescee sS555555- ANCE AN Yee ie nals ae
Leth NUN bererpeocecproonana a ses0oS- Greene ea cee aoe ane
Hannibal. oc 2222 sone ope = seinem sins =e Oswego) sicccses soem ee
JP pa ser Roe pes aero Gonnessdese s2-.5507 Cayupancees=---==s—e
SENIOR) coccos See we eee eee see Allegany csse=. <<’ see
Bpump Valley < pescec poem ae oe Rockland. ....c=s--+ee
Canaseraga....- RiP wiec ene ass eee Allerany (-----eees—=
Pine Bush...--. emnpepe, teimnte ree ee eS Oranges. --co=s meee
Auburn ...... eens asx ecacserseesaeee a Caylee w..sccenccees
Wanist@0) <ocese beeee nto e ene eo epee Steuben ...-.--. Soot
ene ail alls en eee see =e eee S@neCa ---ascces=-— sr
SOVTE. 26 ons cen Spee ss napa eee ta) Seer acces cae
Washinstonville..........-..... See Oraneteesascecs sco oee
Rathbone ees -tr..--- Keenesos ce ecu eece SGI EG) TRS sorinseso-
Ovid Centre. .----. ------ oes eee Senetaiese sess ees sae
Gd eeee= S Bese sees SE50C5= ee sone and Seneca ..-... SoseHieso =
Bic BP atsieses = eee -reaeaia srlewse(je os | CHOMAMN GE 2 lo cees cone
Fishkill . .. 2222.22 200,.--se0jemoe sosne---| Dutchess -..... .---- oA

~

List oF MEETINGS.

FARMERS’ INSTITUTES—(Continued).

PLACE.

Rwelisbure £23 o04 soba decess cecteeaeens
Mpores Mills: cose encces ceocw coat eens.
Watkins

ee ee ee

Manoelone 2 oss oe pornos Sse seh
Lae GTR Ree easobeneneence saps soc
Beta COMerse sc cess oeee e's ose gecbeyh sei;
IIKOUNA Ssaosce Se eeweewa ss vests eases
BPISCOM SPUN CS r5 anions fo aera tel gas -
GRSOOU coat race oeeaisls oe o's eee ee
WMISHEDS 2s so adc cols wees ode case ese.
WEBS t HOnPiGtiascccor ose vce omsaestne.
Syracuse

ee en ee

RaphOster ass Sooo sce od owe ws Sateee eel ado <
PAA UETSONV IO -scscoseieeeces es aousteet®:
IS OCT) 00 hea A a ee ee ae
Beards LOMO Wawseces-seeces seeeerie eo.
Barnerville......... aithe'e(o Weleeioe see SE:
Grovernor’s Corners
eninge CONntiG ceq os ss<s)-k se'ns eee/-45-
MOMMiniG at --tideset oss esc Seps weds:

BBATON: cose accced geeGen cdc nimementonciess-
MS UTORG meget nec coca ccoce eR Easeme le
Breakabeen
PMG MGONMN AN = cscasecees onic teeeeeee ee
Le ee eee ee ea,
OLGA. = 255: Sa eS oe Fe
North Frankli

To OIC rs See ee eeeeeree 2
I RMLLO Geno = china cin. e- cnc. eeeneeis 2

wands Palins oc... oc. eaciewesathece
ERTEBVNILG oes na ocecks coe reniictneee
Plattsburg

MBOLY DiS Pare a oes we aene 1xtpmeereeek
North Harpersfield....-..
GUb0s) .ccce een ae eaddecién<eed Mie c's ae
Hovwville ....- Soe Seal “Oe piace

a
County. Date.

Schuyler. soo ccaceses March 14
Mutelessc22seseees~s 14-15
Schuyler sesncanseees 15
Eisters2 sess seeo see 15-16.
Chemune Sears c aces 15-16
Wutchessisecss's eee eo 16
Schuyler saao- eens. 16-17
Stenbenseawok see ees 17-18
Ditchesseoseeeie cee es 17-18
Schuyleneeescecekiess 18
(OR RANE) Baca macear 19
Vantiesiet oe otal 20-21
Steulben-22s-.s-s—ce. 20-21
Monroege sei. eee 21
Speupenacee see oes 21-22
Onleans sso 22-23
Ondario see oes. 22-23
Mivinieston ss se 23-24
Ontario; si ss2.8 eee eee 23-24
INTE YORU Na Geen Raeror 24-25
Ontanio ms sss2e. cee 24-25
Monnoete2sr sas cee. 25
Qnondaga’. -----. --.. 25
Wiayvnernce cose scoses 27-28
Onleanyh eee 27-28
Qnondaga ss 2--- =-.. 27-28
MWonrobve-c och eee 29-30
Schenectady --..----| April 14
SchonariGrmeeces ace. May 22-23
Schoharie .........--| June ff
Schoharie .csete ees 10
Schoharie: s2tsss)-5 13
Sebuyler nase. saceas 13
Schpoharte® -= 2-2. 55s 22
MME ae ease crercnnos 24

27
PONOHATICN soe ten ee 29
Allegany: .s..20s-<ses July 11
SCHOMIMG sess seen 25
Chenangu .....-.- August 2
HA WISY 2 Gaya ats os oer 4
Onondara..5--.-,. 9
Delaware... ..0..26 9
Daratorar oa een oan 10
St. Lawrence....-.... 16
Rensselaer... .---)---- 17
Westchester... ...... 17
CRYNOR wcamsissans 18
St. Lawrence........ 18
ADEN wa aoa, siai212 5,2 18-19
CTO nie aes. cei so 23
WES AT Se Ree er 23
Ononua tan. nes on 24
Onondgra <n 2 < 26
Delaware: .2.-.-- <5. September 1
SODOMANIO: ojacgccces a 12
MiB WINi posts c con cacaan October 14

6 Burwavu Or Farmprs’ INstiturss.

FARMERS’ INSTITUTES—/(Continued).

PLACE. County. Date.

North, Ridten ss 2. .cccac ecnncwdeueeen Nia Para csscesswnne es October 28
TGDGGH . wczces ssotodeawowsee setae Ret sa|> LOND KINA: saceaccuun November 13
Geneva. o2-0 cccecoeasacelecs sn ceeeeeeee Ontenionccns.ascoewee 14-15
ADIENG. cack ciecadeddoceepcee Seco koe OSWegOrmicd a ccnuceet 1

Waterloo. 22 ---dicsccecaseccnoeeetes. SeneCAicsccosccanewce 16-17
QRWET0. acess cosuensscs cals ameee beens OSWeEE0! sccneccueewus t7
Uaioe Spun esse soccer sscesieeceeeeeses Cayuga: scccassvnacse 17-18
Bulagklie.. cccec ccewissvovecss ween ees OsWeZ0)s sc0ccsucut ee 17-18
Woodville . icc c.cecccactsascs cate. Jelerson, dscasseseree 20-21
Welhi-cosncavacces wceccoiadnackocenwene Delaware<cass20ccccce 20-21
WOIBON won aeiase vtec uoseceus couoterteeae Madison. .cscecnecses 20-21
Wests aton. .cocdscssosnswoee oo oe ees Madisoniscccecucsous 22-23
ROWAN a Sc6s 1c dotes eoccos besee eee JeOMelsolicssccccckse 22-23
JE LOE eas fees Sessa aoeotieeeouse Delaware ...--. sense 23
Me WArveville:.s .csceajetsecsccesee memes JeflersOn\.a<<s0scceae 24
SOCKDIIISO.. ccc caudccocecicmedtnen teas Madisons<ccscscess aes 25
JGUEISON! sacccs wtaweslsc ees. cess Schohari6: <cccasecese 25
Glayton, 325 22. .csses ccceesseleemectees Jefferson ....-<- pees 25
North Hanpersfield..<525.ccsccon seco eee= Delaware ....... cscs 27
BICSSIS caccac «ocacs suslece comcooteeneteee.s Jefferson cicccscwoces 27
Hamilton. -oos~sceecebeocesscsoee oes s Madison c<cccces sacs 28
GilbOd -<- Sces caescceoec eee Soseeoeeee Schohariecusceessece 28
Gouverneur os <iccosse stccee Geeeoeeeeees St. Lawrence........ 29
(rand Gorge. csccss saccsmmsceceees ess Delaware ........--- 29
SHenMDUINC:; .cccccesces-ssccerssesmeceen Chenango 2.<csssceco 29
Hammond). 3. ccsc cscs coccss sserceee ee. St. Lawrence.......- December 1-2
Halcottsville 5. cdecsocevsessan ose eeeee. Delaware «..cecscoce -2
SVLACUSG) .seteciocseds aac cern oeees Qnondagarsassassase 2
Ihexancton? eels. sescencese se lense teen Greene ssccsnsssccces 4
ROCKdale) seen aseas esoseemeiteeeeeeets Chenango. .....- <.<- a
Wisbon Centre, s.<ccsso srssse cle coeee sees St. Lawrence.....--. 4-5
Hensonville .. csacodecsce sac tte eeeeees Greene scssesencce ee 5
MOTUS: cose ccncccjcsoosscntosc one onseee= Otsego sscscccsccsses 5-6
Roch@ster....c2scsccceutcoscon Vlseusee es Monroereiceseaecoess 5-7
Madrid ...cccs.cocoowcowoou nase Pacceeto Pot wlawroncesas sees : 6-7
WurhaM soocces tcccswcss see descents cee Green@cscancccacess 6-7
Violtons cece ssceeeee eels eine 3s ET oN ee «| Delaware ss.cseoeees 6-7
Bainbrid’e fost sc ccsocccccs sae olteee ee Chenangorsscsancece December 8-9
Winthrop... 20. «sowsw sores ssateeee tats St. Lawrence........ 8-9
Breakabeon!s 8. so ass case scscee ere eee Schoharie: ss<sessecee 8-9
Glarence Centre seosses vos scooter Hri@wrweascceeeoeeeer 8-9
South Bethlehem oscccscsecelst ores ees. Albany sosecceseciee== 9
PECON 6 So ow a ce melenvet eye aee setae reas Chenango ....0--s+« 11-12
G@ollins Station :.-22s.1ssscsesc one Canes Erie scesSciosaceceos 11-123
Eranklin, .-ccs ace sco soc ae eee eames Welaware-sessseeeees 11-12
Nicholvill6; ...cc-ciesssonsouse cs ebee eee. St. Lawrence....-.--- 12-13
Wnion:.... - 2 se tac cesses sees Broomeins-ceseeee eee 12-13
Wisle’. ose conc soltooasestoeneeu ane ee Broomexs.ccceerocteme 13
Cottale cosa. one ace ded oe ee Cattaraugus. .....--- 13
Bombay Junction.........--...-- Bogle Franklin. ...s00s----- 13
Corbettsville sect cee re ee Broomerascocsaseos=0 13
Ognklin oo cece. obcnecnin nee eee Broomiesicaceoos soe 13
Chappaqua, ---cc pesuncese pope emee Westchester. ....---- 13
Batavia s cose suc cee rscco ease ee Génesdeicccaeneso cae 13
Willin oto «gc ee cep doe ee es Chautauqua. ........ 14
North Bangor... lepcccousin cee eee Frankinkecccenaocw 14

Canandaigua ‘id. secwew csvorerrade ee ess ONLATIO ss ccecensdeuse 14-15

List oF MEETINGS. 6

FARMERS’ INSTITUTES—(Concluded).

PLACE. County. Date.
WOMAN sc aceecnocts cocasaccceemossess Cortland 22-5 2-2-5. December 14-15
Whateaueay <2 .tsSs csssss ct cece ecsusces Mrankliiveccesacecoce 15
BMPAFAUGUS 52S. cccswesrinassetienaic mes Cattaraugus. -........ 15-16
Bilenbure 2. choss ~ space stone eee cece Clintony.k scsaseeses 16
Rroore’s: HOrkss.s2Jsen aeectee nese peace Clinton; <2 22emes eaeees 16
PY nina a comets came en mcs oe care Onondigascesesesee 16
Mincinnatus, ..c2sfocsecees eccee seoslecs Cortland so sacae eee 16
Pompey. Hill ~.<S.scccs-seeccrenca cess Onondacanecesseeoer 16
SonthicOtselic:)s: ct ecees an ceencone sus Chenanomeeeasasee 18
DBNHOSTOMWM\ close caelan cee aasee wise erect, o Chautauqua......... 18-19
NYOSt) CHAZ > ccc sncioeneesecimeemesmicee = HINTON se See eos 18-19
LOTT 1 ee a en es an Le = ene Oswepo) {osssaetsceees 18-19
DBWiGtVille”...< cccleasencisesunscsccmene Chautauqua ......... 19
Rammlug; (i. s2 ote seoscicucoees ees BENG Gams. oscle tes abe 19
PUCRLOW 320 w5 lo secc soca neee iets Mathison moss sce -/cc' 19
Mekinvyter: <2 Ssh 8a 28k ee caaetenees NiadisGnysacees tes oe 20-21
EAM A a wn tac a-c Saale e Soe ae sls cee OswerOn coer scccsee 20-21
S)PCURTAT RES eS See eee a deem ot Chautauqua ......... 20-21
PUCULSDUT Eo oo oan Sasce = cad wc'e ceases pecs CHINtOM er sceeemscices 20-21
AMUUU Maa woe ee alee sates ote aes eee Canvas cecmecisccinee 21
WAMSDOTO.- 2 Ss2 cecopecets casossceasizecs ESsGxXy hese on eeen ieee 22
MVISGUSDGEL wascce cat ce cess acct eeetcce CAVUGAR ccs cee eee 22-23
WRONG) ooo. atic emes oaaineaseee eas Chautauqua ..c<,-s=0 22-23
HUUUAMI ES ofc? 3 cnn’ Sasfae aa siste oases nee Washington ......... 23
Bock Districtv-< fies ob acec Sleek ao. roel ase ee eee oe eee 26
PORTS oe a il aie mi, ea oe Quondavae .cssecre ae 26-27
WEEHOM To S22 Sho See. soe. Jb aealonee Oneidanepss- as. $5e52 26-27
PUA Me oe o vicina joniees cas oetioee ee eee ANG p Aniyere sec ts cee s 27-28
Reaperiownh 32). 0785055. 25220 haece Otseporssen nos tosecs 27-28
UititOnn 2a. seat eee cee cae seb ae cee Oneidanncces sce becee 28-29
SRMMMMERTOH .. A5 oot ea Aon atin eteae ees Qnondaga’. 2.2. ccc. 28-29
PRC BOO WICKS .o55 ocoscsSencc Mee says ae Oneida sscacsofseseve 30
BBSMOLVINIG). eo one eee see eee ee sect ee case Schoharie) ceseeaeess 30
i ES ee ee ener Onondaga .....- gions 30

ee
TT TTTTTTeeeq@®$qe 0S=<=$~$~$S=S=S0S0S0S0S0N Se

Judging Cattle in the Show-Ring. ©

By Dr. G. M. TwiTcHeLt, Augusta, Me., at meeting of New York State
Breeders’ Association, held in Rochester, N. Y., Dec. 6, 1899.

Success in this world is possible only through our ideals. In
proportion as the picture in the mind is clear before the artist,
manufacturer or builder is it possible for energy and intelligence
to be correctly and satisfactorily applied. Out of great concep-
tions alone come great results. Every step in the world’s prog-
ress has been the outcome of large ideals in the minds of leaders.
Sometimes men have stumbled on great truths, but these have
been retained only as the conception of their worth and magni-
tude has fixed itself in the minds of intelligent leaders.

One of the most difficult things for a man to do is to break
company with an old practice and establish himself in new lines
of work. The tension of years holds firmly and when the thought
of change comes and habits are broken, the danger is of drifting,
and this is likely to carry to the opposite extreme. Men, espe-
cially those who live largely by themselves, get most firmly
grounded in their practices and find it very difficult to see the
merit of what is clear and open to others. Go back to the first
report of this association and note to what a degree the leaders
of that day outlined what we are to-day urging, how from that
time to the present the one thought of progress, along the lines
of present demands, has been the objective point towards which
they have sought to urge the people. Ever the truth has been
the same, though year by year there has come better and still
better appreciation of what that truth was, and how it could
best be applied to the needs of humanity. The old time con-
ception was sufficient unto its day and generation; the newer is
demanded to-day in every field of activity. It is truth just the

. . ‘ ‘
Sareea celine ake an 9GZP ‘ON ‘Q1SISHLINS 40 SS3HONG ‘MOD A3YIHSYAY

1HOd3yH WOH “H3LNIHd 31viS ‘NOAT ‘6 S3aWYv?

Jupagina CATTLE IN THE SHow-RING. 9

same, but it comes in new dress, it centralizes and focuses on
specific points and parts, it divides and subdivides, for the rea-
son that as we probe into closer relation of things, we find that,
in the perfection of our knowledge of parts alone can we, in any
true sense, grasp the perfection of the whole.

Have we ever paused to consider, as we should, how completely
man may comprehend and control the most intricate problem of
commerce, of manufacture, of art and music, and also how the
greater his knowledge, the deeper his researches, the more faith-
ful his investigations, the more profound will be his apprecia-
tion of the mysteries which surround and develop his every step
along the pathway of agriculture. More than this are we fully
alive to the fact that as we grope, using our best knowledge,
we find the way opening for greater and still greater results,
results which are all the whilé bringing increasing blessings to
the world. We stand amazed at the marvelous, which is made
plain to our understanding by the delvers in the realm of nature,
yet they are but putting together the fragments, but coming to
a realization of the great harmony which exists throughout.
They are not changing, but appreciating what is, and seeking
to conform to nature’s requirements, out of this knowledge build-
ing for the good of future generations. It is simply getting at
the harmony of things which alone makes possible improvement.

Anything and everything which will aid in strengthening faith
in the underlying verities, stimulate ambition to grow, arouse
competition along lines which lead to better stock and products,
educate towards an appreciation of what must be taken in its
entirety in order for the man to be a man in the best sense of
the term—all this is demanded in the field of active duties to-
day, and will be in all the days before us. Hands are to be but
willing servants of active brains The power which lifts the
standard of production or rate of. speed brings to the forefront
added lines of beauty, and a higher degree of intelligence must
have keener appreciation and a clearer ideal. Have we ever
thought that it is only in our ideals we are to find safety, and
no where else, whether it be in the field of the moral or me-

10 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

chanical. They are at the foundation of advancement. The era
of muscle has been superseded by the era of brains. All the
conditions of trade conspire and inspire towards a higher stand-
ard. Whatever our fancies, practices and natural inclinations,
there are outward conditions ruling in all departments of com-
merce and manufacture which govern the farmer as well as the
tradesman. The farmer is not merely a producer to-day, what-
ever he may have been in the past. Out of his manifold forms
of improved machinery, by which he is able to increase output,
he becomes a manufacturer, and the laws which govern in the
realm of manufactures govern in that of agriculture.

Not alone profit out of sales, but saving in cost of manufactur-
ing, whether it be milk, butter, wool, fruit, farm products or
poultry, saving in wastes, saving in labor, both of machine and
man—this is what gives success in the shop and mill, and this
alone will suffice on the farm. The necessity for constant study
of details, close watch on all departments, constant weeding out
of the least profitable, seeking for reduction of friction in oper-
ating, is appreciated on the one hand, else there could be no
successful manufacturers; it must be grasped in its fullness if
there is to be satisfaction and permanence on the farm.

It is no new thought I am giving utterance to, but simply the
presentation of a principle, accepted but not governing, else there
would be no call for the discussion of this system of measuring
values at our exhibitions.

We have reached unnatural conditions in the breeding of all
classes of live stock. Functions natural in their origin have been
intensified, divided,subdivided and marvelously increased through
the ideals of men backed by the dominant will of an objective
mind. The exalted position maintained to-day by individuals
and herds is not accidental, neither is it permanent. The higher
levels are secured and maintained only by persistent application
of one’s largest conceptions, the subjective mind yielding surely
to the positive influence of the clearly defined ideal in the mind
of the master. To-day I plead for this ideal, necessary as never
before, in order that the forward steps taken by the seers and

Jupeing CATTLE IN THE SHOW-RING. ‘1

prophets in breeding may become the standing ground of the
great mass of breeders. Altogether too large a per cent. of our
animals, of all breeds, must be stamped purposeless, partly from
lack of skilled breeding, but more for want of skilled breeders.
The standard of every breed is to be measured by the highest
level reached by any individual breeder who seeks to secure and
fix the essential qualities recognized by the fancier, ard those
also demanded in the actual tests which determine merit. The
unmistakable evidence of marked family characteristics only
emphasizes the lesson of the hour.

Animal life, like clay, yields readily to the hand and eye of the
skilled worker, but, as the standard rises, the plastic nature be-
comes more positive in its type, as it grafts on the mental con-
ceptions of the man at the head. Gentlemen, the day has ar-
rived when the true breeder must be reckoned an artist, for un-
der his touch he is painting color of hair, skin and membrane,
shaping form, developing beauty and perfecting symmetry,
while all the time intensifying those organs which alone can in-
sure rapid and heavy production or growth. Alongside the
great painters and singers are ‘to be placed the seers in breeding,
who have founded herds and established families noted not only
for breed and type characteristics, but alike for great individual
worth as producers. They fill the stalls in every breeding estab-
lishment, ‘they are multiplying on every hillside, they are adding
wealth to the farm homes of the world, and, more than all, they
are waiting to be led out into larger fields of service as men come
into clearer appreciation of fundamental principles governing de-
velopment.

Consciously, or unconsciously, we measure an article, indi-
vidual or animal, at the first glance. Why we like or dislike we
may not be able to state, but the impression is there, and future
examinations seldom change the result. This intuitive perception
may be more keen in the minds of some than others, but it is the
safeguard of the world. Out of it have come the results of the
present in every field. Searching for the why and how, men have
been led out into larger conceptions, where ideals have taken

12 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

more definite shape. All do not have intuitive perceptions in the
same direction, but all do have intuitive perceptions in some direc-
tion. In judging, we always measure by our ideal. It is the only
safe standard; it is what we would have if we could transform to
suit our fancy. No matter what the system, whether in public or
private, here is the bar of justice to which the individual animal
or product is to be brought.

Granting these premises, what is their application to the topic
of the hour? Just this, that the method of judging should be
that which will be of greatest service to the individual owner
and exhibitor in the to-morrows before him. Men may come and
go but breeding is to continue, and always along the line of im-
provement, simply because our necessities will force us up and
on in the study of animal economy and the appreciation of animal
machinery. Have we come to the full standard of our ideals; if
so there is no future for us, and we are but cumberers of the earth.
If not, then is there a call for the bringing out in clear and unmis-
takable lines that ideal which we would create and establish, an
ideal of form, courage, intelligence, service, and as we reach after
and seek to grasp its outlines, they will still float in the upper
realm of our consciousness, but the standard we shall attain to
will gradually rise toward the ultimate in quantity and quality.

It is the natural tendency with men working alone to drift
unconsciously into fixedness of habit. The evil attending this is
recognized. Out of this condition comes the low standard of pro-
duction, the large per cent. of unprofitable stock, the quantity of
inferior products, the evidence of a want of appreciation of the
best means and methods of marketing—whieh, to-day, is fully
one-half the story. Out of this condition comes the opposition to
books and newspapers, the feeling that agricultural colleges and
experiment stations are fads and not necessities, expensive luxu-
ries which may benefit the few but cannot be of service to the
many. All this is to my mind perfectly natural, and while we
can see a great advance, as we mark the milestones of the past,
there is needed a getting down to simple problems and a study
of parts in sole relation to the whole, and with the one thought

JupGING CATTLE IN THE SHOW-RING. 13

of purpose. When in our examination we take up the evidences
of temperament, there is opportunity for close observation in
determining fitness for any special service. Between the nervous
and phlegmatic there are many shades, and to classify so that
each shall have credit calls for skill, the result of practice. Yet
it is just this skill which the milk producer or dairyman must
have if the weeding process so necessary is to be intelligently
applied. :

The pathway of human experience is strewn with wrecks where
the cold phlegmatic man has attempted to fill the sphere set apart
for his nervous neighbor. Large production in our dairy cows is
found only in the more highly nervous organisms. If this be
balanced by intelligence, then we have the profitable producer.
So is it with the driving horse, the egg-producing hen, and there
must be some method by which, in our annual fairs, these ele-
ments of success may be made clear to the man who has not yet
entered into an appreciation of the importance of these relations.
The worth of the individual will always settle the question of the
worth of the herd, and to bring out the individual characteristics
of each one is legitimately within the scope of the score card.

We need to fix permanently in mind the fact that form governs
purpose and that there is no place in the economy of the closing
days of this nineteenth century for a man or an animal which is
not built for something specific. So important is it that we must
graft this thought into the warp and woof of our being, if we are
to stand successfully in the competition of the next twenty-five
years. No one opportunity offers such advantages for getting
clear and unmistakable evidence of what is demanded to-day as
the annual exhibition; but to realize the most, a man must be a
competitor and not an indifferent visitor, and the system of
awarding premiums one which will furnish the greatest possible
amount of information, not only of the strong, but especially the
weak points in his animal or product. It is this and this alone
which will educate, which will improve and advance. There are
valuable animals in every herd. Are they the result of well-
directed efforts or are they accidental products? If the latter,

14 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

then by a better knowledge of parts we need come into a more
complete appreciation of how these accidents came, that well-
directed effort may more rapidly increase the individual value of
the herd. So the scale of points and score card fit naturally into
the daily work of every breeder seeking to improve. The man
with the card in hand who is to award the premium may not be
as much an expert as the man who holds the halter, but the re-
sponsibility is on him to put his estimate on every part in accord-
ance with the standard of perfection, and then place his name at
the bottom of the card. Few men will show favoritism in such a
field. More than this, these cards are the safeguards of the
expert, as they furnish the story of his work in detail. In case
of errors, the remedy is easily applied and justice done to every
exhibitor.

Instead of comparing animal with animal and forgetting the
points of difference, as must be the case as soon as the class drops
out of sight, we have here the full record to be retained for the
protection alike of the society and the expert.

As we are to consider the subject with reference to competition,
the object of competition must be clearly recognized. 1 assume
that the mercenary spirit, the winning of a dollar, may properly
be set one side, for if it enters it dwarfs and destroys all possi-
bility for competition to be of service. The man whose sole pur-
pose in exhibiting is to win honors and dollars is not a breeder,
but a camp follower. His herd will retrograde inevitably, for his
conception is purely selfish, and while selfishness plays no part in
the development of a producing herd or animal, it always stands
as a bar to progress. Competition for intelligent comparison is
educative, and education lifts ideals and broadens vision. For
this to be possible the association under which an_ exhibition is
held owes to the exhibitors certain specific things:

ist. Ample room for protection of stock, and examination of
same by the public.

2d. Generous advertising of individual exhibits.

3d. Permanent and ample pens for judging, with seats for inter-
ested spectators.

JUDGING CATTLE IN THE SHow-RIna. 15

4th. A system of awarding prizes which will insure justice to
the individual exhibitor, and at the same time furnish to him and
the public the reasons leading to giving or withholding an award.

5th. An expert to award the prizes who shall be required to
remain one-half day after the work is completed to meet disap-
pointed exhibitors.

6th. A blackboard on which the sectional values shall be placed
as given by the expert, where all who desire can follow the work
in detail, and be led to question the decisions.

Breeders are sharp and shrewd, looking after their own inter-
ests, but they are reasonable men all the while, and if they ques-
tion an item in the score, the expert, if he be worthy the place,
will, by pointing out the defect, satisfy the owner or correct a
mistake. The greater the publicity the less cause for criticism
after awards are made.

If the object be to promote agriculture, stimulate love for
better stock, and strengthen purpose to procure the same, then
the show ring becomes the one great object lesson of the year,
and the system of judging the educating influence. I assume that
we have passed out of the old custom of appointing a committee
of three, and recognize the certainty that a single judge in a
class insures more satisfactory results, providing the full record
of his work is secured for the exhibitors. We are discussing
animals, not owners, and the awards should be so placed that the
cry of favoritism cannot be raised. 3

Two systems of awarding premiums are before us, the compara-
tive and the mathematical. The advantages of the former are
that the work can be more rapidly performed, the ribbons placed
in less time, and expenses reduced. The disadvantages are that
no evidence is furnished as to the reasons for giving or withhold-
ing, that there can be nothing educative under such methods, and
it is impossible to prevent the charge of favoritism.

The advantages of the scale of points and score card are not
that the awards are placed more equitably, but that the full evi-
dence is on record, part by part, a copy to be furnished the exhib-
itor, for each animal scored, that the study of parts thus stimu-

16 3UREAU OF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

lated will surely lead to a more equitable balancing of the whole,
preventing the natural tendency to over or underestimate, and
forcing the conviction that the value of the animal lies in the
sum total of the value of the several parts indicated in physical
and mental make up. The disadvantages of this system are the
difficulty in making equitable mathematical calculations, deter-
mining the per cent. of value in each part, and measuring the
individualism of the individual, something not easily put on
paper, simply because partly intuitive.

A perfect system for awarding prizes has not yet been devised.
Human intelligence has not yet compassed the whole problem,
and certain inequalities must surely be noted; but when the neces-
sity for a sharper insight into the worth of parts of the great
machine is recognized, and the certainty that a study of parts,
and the relation each bears to the others, is sure to stimulate
the breeding of still better animals, the possibilities of the score
card, both as an educator and promoter of good judgment, must,
I believe, be admitted by all.

The criticism made that no two judges place the same value on
parts has little weight, all the exhibitor at any exhibition can
ask being that the expert preserve an equitable ratio of values
in placing the awards. If another expert scores higher or lower,
it is no argument against the system, it simply speaks of indi-
vidual estimates. If on another occasion the figures are changed,
it only confirms what has already been indicated. Criticisms of
this class are captious, failing in that they belittle the educational
feature of the score card while magnifying the arbitrary ruling
of that method which furnishes no reason for judgment. If ex-
hibits at our fairs are to be maintained, and the number of exhib-
itors increased, this question of judging by some system which
will return to the individual owner full evidence of the estimate
of the expert upon his individual exhibit must be perfected.
Under the committee and comparative system the rights of ex-
hibitors are altogether too much ignored, the work of judging
is hurried, and would-be successful breeders become discouraged
and drop out. ;

JupGiIne CATTLE IN THE SHOW-RING. oi

The exhibitors make possible your exhibitions, and they are
entitled to all the evidence in every case where an expert sits in
judgment. The responsibility is upon fair managers to provide
not only reliable experts, but some system by which the awards
may not only be placed in justice, but all the educational benefits
possible secured to every exhibitor.

In the breeding of to-day utility swings to the front as the
chief standard of merit. For this to be secured and perpetuated
the importance of careful, painstaking, systematic breeding must
be everywhere insisted upon. The standards of growth and pro-
duction must be raised next year, and prepotency in transmitting
desirable qualities inhere in all our blooded stock in larger degree
than ever. For this to be recognized and made positive to the
breeder every score card should carry the reasons of the judge for
his cut on any part, and so full a description of each section that
perfection will be placed above the line of present attainments.
The man who can find nothing to change in an animal or product,
and so gives perfection on parts, is not an idealist, has no high
conception of perfection, and while for the time he may please
the vanity of the breeder, his influence is sure to dwarf judgment
and lower the standard of excellence. With the fact before us
that the sharp competition of the future will necessitate larger
output and finer quality in order to secure desired revenue, the
obligation falls clearly and sharply upon the breeder to enter into
closer sympathy and clearer comprehension of the intelligent
machine spending itself for his blessing.

There’s a wonderful degree of satisfaction and assistance to be
obtained from a close study of cow and horse, hog and hen
physiognomy as well as anatomy. Nothing will so rapidly bring
a man into close sympathy and fellowship as when he is seeking
to come into, and unto, an appreciation of the traits and trends,
the thoughts and aspirations, and, more than this, hindrances
which make up the forces at work in the animal constitution.
We talk about being helped or hindered by our environments,
_ but, do we stop to consider the environments of the dairy cow

18 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirutes.

from which we are seeking to reap a harvest of gain, or the horse
which never falters or fails of the best there is in him.

The whole line of production has become so abnormally un-
natural that the man at the helm must be in touch with more of
the forces at work in the bodily structure of his animals, if he
would contro] and increase production, size, rapidity of growth,
style, or speed. The measure of each is simply the measure of the
man. He is to be master of all, and because of this we touch
here, in this study of parts, one of the greatest problems which
can confront the breeder or grower.

Perfection is and always will be before us. In this fact lies the
only incentive for growth and improvement, and it is the weak,
not the strong side of our animals which afford opportunity for
the higher skill of man to be felt in improvement. Therefore
whatever will tend to make a man more critical, more observant,
more enthusiastic, more intelligent, is a help and a necessity.
Each individual animal and product varies in some point or part
peculiar to itself, and it is only in the summing up of the whole
that one can decide what is best. One cow is built along the best
dairy lines save that a heavy, beefy brisket shows itself, and we
wonder why she fails in her milk production at a time when we
expect much. There is her weakness as a dairy animal, and the
force of some beefy ancestor is felt as the period of lactation in-
creases. Another is light in brisket, but while carrying the same
dairy form in general, is stout and heavy in neck, and again an
obstacle presents itself to check production. Put these two cows
before a critical committee, in a field of cows as good as they,
in other respects, but better in the two mentioned, and the owners
of these two will criticise when the ribbons are distributed. Such
weaknesses in confirmation would hardly be carried by members
ef a committee day after day, and to give the reasons for the
award, a week after the gates closed, would be an impossibility.
Give your judge the score card and the record in all future time
will tell the story for itself.

One or two other points call for discussion. The time will —
come when breeders will demand, and societies will grant, more

JUDGING CATTLE IN THE SHOW-RING. 19

time to this work of awarding premiums, when we shall see its
important bearing upon all progress and by the use of more
individual judges be able to take up more effective work. If the
object be to educate, then the exhibitor has the right to demand
that the greatest possible amount of information be furnished by
the men who are to award the ribbons. Money spent in this way
will be productive of greater benefit to the state than for the
usual] round of amusements. Let the expert, as he goes to his
work, take with him a boy and a blackboard, and as he marks up
the scores on the cards, let the boy mark up the board. If the
scores differ, the questions will be forthcoming, and right here
we touch what seems to be ideal work along the line of substan-
tial growth. It will require time and patience, but the man who
contributes the stock has as good a right to faithful service as
any other. Too long these rights have been neglected, because
not demanded. Let the fullest discussion be fostered. There will
be no awarding to owners in such a field, and the only point of
variance will be that of judgment. Here the expert protects him-
self and the society by his record.

Until the time comes when this is possible, the experts should
remain on the grounds at least one-half day after their work is
completed, in order that disappointed exhibitors may seek them
out and satisfy their wishes for information. On such occasions
it is well to bring the animals together and indicate clearly the
points of difference and the reasons for the awards. If the horse
or cow has a large, coarse ear, a Roman nose, a thin or extremely
thick lip, let these be indicated, and their effect upon disposition,
which has so much to do with service, made plain. If you find
the walls of the abdomen thin and drawn, the muscular develop-
ment deficient, let the fact of lack of vitality be made clear to the
grower or breeder. Falling back on the proposition that form
must govern purpose, and that each and every part bears relation
to every other, the force of these homely illustrations must be
admitted.

But, you say, are these things necessary? Have we not seen
good horses with Roman noses or dished faces, straight hocks or

20 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

crooked; cows with heavy briskets or meaty shoulders, coarse
ears and narrow thighs, which were good producers? Yes; surely
we have, but whether they were the exceptions to the rule or not,
the day has come when the currents must be controlled, in all our
animals, to a larger degree than ever before, and to do this there
must be a greater harmony of parts and a more perfect adjust-
ment. Like the more intricate machinery necessary for the skilled
workmen successfully to compete in the markets, that through
reduced friction there may be a greater ratio of speed or, by more
equal bearings, less false spots in the fabric, so in the profitable
production of stock, or any of the farm products, there is de-
manded a better knowledge of the relation each part bears to
every other, in order that the per cent. of waste, either in time,
food or labor, may be reduced to the minimum and the quality of
the output made most favorable for the success of the grower or
manufacturer. From beginning to end the thought of business
must be engrafted on every step. Admitting that there are prob-
lems in the animal economy not yet solved, and surely not to be
controlled, may we not with justice claim that the measure of our
ignorance is largely in proportion to the measure of our want of
appreciation of the underlying principles at the foundation of this
paper. I would, if possible, make imperative the necessity for
this study of farm products by a scale of points and the use of
the score card, for the simple reason that it lies at the root of
successful farm husbandry, and the best system to be used in the
awarding of premiums at any agricultural fair is the best for the
individual to use in the more detailed study of animals and crops
at home. The weaknesses of the system will disappear as one
gets into sympathy and appreciation with the foundation on
which it rests. It makes men more critical, more observant, more
attentive to seemingly trivial things, and less likely to be car-
ried away by some fancy point, made prominent, but having only
a superficial bearing. There is danger that single parts will be
magnified until their relation is lost. Thus one will be swept
away by the switch of the Jersey, the knee action of the horse,

the number of spikes on the comb of the Leghorn, or the beautiful

JUDGING CATTLE IN THE SHOW-RING. Ai.

color of the fruit. All these are of value, but do not determine
worth. They are only fractional parts of a great whole. Another
will ask only of production in the dairy cow, the record made by
the horse, the weight of the hen, or the number of eggs, and the
yield of the tree. These he will declare are essentials and nothing
else can be. Is this true? Are we not called to look below the
surface and learn more of the ground work on which the animal
or tree stands. A friend, one of the large wholesalers, makes it
a rule whenever a boy applies for a position first to study the
boy and then study his mother. In the right blending of the
natural traits and characteristics of the individual with those
inherited from his ancestors, we are likely to find greatest excel-
lence. Sure it is that along this line alone will progress be made
in succeeding generations. Present so-called fancy points must
give way for the substantials, and the standard moved up where
it will bear solely on the question of merit. Color of tongue or
switch, width of stripe, number of spots, or other arbitrary mark-
ings, unless they add to the intrinsic worth, must be set one side,
and how is this to be so easily determined save by giving to each
its true value and allowing the sum total to settle the worth of
the whole. The superiority of the scale and score card wili readily
be admitted, but I make this plea for more systematic work in
awarding premiums and for extended and critical examination
by the state, through organized bodies, for two reasons, either of
which justify the action:

Ist. Because it is necessary in order to establish justice be-
tween exhibitors and place awards in accordance with merit.

2d. Because of the imperative necessity for raising the standard
of quality in all products.

The day has gone, never to return, when we may expect largely
increased prices for farm products. The outsweep of trade is
touching the uttermost corners, and bringing them into close re-
lations with the farms. We do not question to-day whether the
onions grew in Egypt or New York so long as the price is not
increased. For years we have been approaching this lower range
of prices and values. It is one of the conditions of our outreach-

22 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes,

ing civilization, and therefore inevitable. At the same time, in
the wisdom which has ordained that man shall earn his bread by
the sweat of his brow, it is established that there has been, is, and
always will be, two conditions, the only limitations being the skill
and intelligence of the individual—one is that of production and
the other that of cost of production. The farmer faces these two
unknown quantities, and the higher he reaches in output and
quality, and the deeper he digs into the mysteries of food nutri-
ents and food combinations, the surer and the greater will be his
measure of profit, in all the years to come. It will be the putting
together of the fragments here and there which will lead to better
knowledge and therefore better methods, and again we are forced
back upon this business proposition which lies very close at the
root of the whole question. Greater skill comes only as the result
of keener insight and more knowledge. These are not to be
obtained save as one grows into an intimate acquaintance with
the laws and conditions governing, seeks patiently to learn their
relation to each other and the part each bears to the whole, and
out of well-balanced judgment and experience applies this knowl-
edge in the daily walks of life. This is the man who will always
be master of the situation.

The Proper Beef Type.

Delivered before the New York State Breeders’ Association, at Rochester,
N. Y., by Prof. C. F. Curtiss, Ames, Iowa.

I wish to say at the outset that the impression that the success
of mastering the great problems in the field of agriculture does
not require special preparation and fitness as well as careful
study and a high order of ability, is altogether erroneous. The
idea that successful farming does not require a trained mind
and the highest degree of intelligence, judgment and reason never
had any foundation in fact. Robert Bakewell said over a hun-
dred years ago that it was easier to find a dozen men fit for
cabinet positions than one good judge of live-stock, and the con-
ditions haven’t changed very much even to the present day.
Has it ever occurred to you that the ability simply to judge stock
accurately and well is at least of a rarer kind, if not of a higher
order, than that which interprets the laws of a nation. The
men who are employed to pass judgment on the live-stock that
goes to the great markets of this and other countries, men who
are required to know simply one thing and know it thoroughly,
command a higher salary than men who preside at the bar of
justice in the highest courts of the land. This may seem like a
striking statement, but nevertheless its truth is fully attested
by the records and salaries paid for these positions; and if you
were to hunt the country over, I will guarantee that you would
find a hundred per cent. more men competent to serve as judges
in the highest courts than are qualified to pass accurately on
the real value and utility of live-stock. The men who are em-
ployed to do this work at the great market centers are thor-
oughly trained experts. They must be able ‘to determine almost
at a glance just how much and what kind of a product an ani-

24 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUrEs.

mal will cut on the block, and the work will permit of no inac-
curacy. Their judgment and the training of their mental fac-
ulties involve thousands and almost millions of dollars in a
single day. Why should not a breeder and feeder have the same
discriminating judgment? In other words, why is not the work
of breeding, feeding and selecting domestic animals more of an
exact science? Simply because of lack of training. To put it
in other words and more plainly, men fail to breed good animals
primarily because they do not know what they are—because they
have wrong conceptions and wrong ideas of standards of excel-
lence. A celebrated artist when asked to name the first essen-
tial to success in his profession replied “to see right.” So it is
in this field; no one ever succeeds without first seeing right. A
man can no more attain the highest excellence and skill in agri-
culture without a clear mental conception of his object than can
an artist produce a great masterpiece without a right conception
of what constitutes the highest art.

During the closing days of the recent Trans-Mississippi Expo-
sition at Omaha, while the stock show was in progress, a very
successful shepherd, a man who was a real artist and a master
hand at his profession, showed a sheep from his father’s flock
in England that was very much admired by all who saw it; a
sheep that was a marvel of excellence in all qualities that go to
make up a perfect sheep. ‘“ Where was that sheep bred?” in-
quired an interested stockman. “Ah,” replied the young man,
“that sheep was bred in England before I was born,” meaning
by the reply that it had taken fifty years of constant, thought-
ful, painstaking and intelligent work to bring that animal to its
-present state of perfection. |

Good stock does not come by chance nor by haphazard meth-
ods. During the Trans-Mississippi Exposition at Omaha, to
which I have referred, a students’ live-stock judging contest
was held, open to all of the agricultural colleges of the United
States. There were seventeen contestants, representing five col-
leges. Each student was examined thoroughly on two classes
of hogs, two of cattle and two of sheep, and one of the exam-

Tue Prorer Beer Type. 25

iners in that contest, a man who was himself a practical, experi-
enced stockman, and one of the keenest and most intelligent
judges of our country, said that the young men whom he had
examined were capable of going into the best herds and flocks
of the country and selecting the best animals and giving a
sounder and more intelligent reason for sustaining ‘their judg-
ment than nine-tenths of the owners or proprietors of these herds
and flocks. You may ask why this was the case and why those
boys were able to do such creditable work? I reply that it was
simply by reason of thorough study and intelligent methods of
investigation, by a careful and critical faculty of observing live-
stock which comes from analyzing the merits of animals point
by point and considering the reasons and their logical results.
A brief consideration of the qualities of practical excellence in
beef cattle may well engage the attention of the breeder and
feeder. A topic of this character is too often regarded as of
interest only to the professional exhibitor or the lecture-room
instructor and student. But every successful breeder must al-
ways be a student, for the first essential in successful breeding
is a clear conception of what constitutes a good animal and of
all the characteristics that go to make up real excellence in a
herd. It is said that the late renowned Amos Cruickshank, the
founder of the great Scotch tribe of Shorthorns, was often seen
by the side of the leading sale rings of Great Britain intently
studying every animal that came into the ring, and his minute
knowledge of all the animals shown was the marvel of those who
chanced to converse with him about them afterwards. While
the methods of the justly celebrated Robert Bakewell, the first
great improver of live-stock, were largely secret, it is known that
he was not only an exceedingly close student of living forms, but
that his rooms were also full of models and parts of domestic
animals that he had carefully dissected and preserved for future
reference. In his work of selection and improvement he imparted
to the Leicester sheep such a remarkable aptitude to take on
flesh that this quality remains, even to the present day, a charac-

26 Bureau or Farmers’ InstItTures.

teristic of the breed to a greater degree than of any other long-
wooled breeds of England.

This aptitude to take on flesh is of vital importance to the beef
producer as well as the breeder of show-ring and sale stock.
The show-ring type must necessarily keep close to and be largely
governed by the practical demands imposed by the feed yard and
the block, else the lessons of the show yard and sale ring are
without value, if not positively misleading. No one is more con-
cerned in what constitutes the essential qualities of a good beef
animal than the man who breeds and feeds for the block and at-
tempts to meet the conditions imposed by the market; for it must
be kept in mind that this is the ultimate end of all beef stock, and
the best beef animal is the one that carries to the block the high-
est excellence and the most profit. This, in a word, is the key-
note of the whole problem.

The Beef Type.

There is at the outset a well-defined beef type that admits of
less flexibility than is generally supposed. We hear much about
the dairy type—and there is a dairy type, fairly clean cut and
well defined—but there is also a beef type, more clearly defined
and less variable than the dairy type. Common observation and
experience confirm this assertion. There are not a few cows of
quite positive beef tendencies capable of making very creditable
dairy records, and a great many that combine milk and beef to a
profitable degree, but a good carcass of beef from a steer of a
pronounced dairy type or breed is rarely seen. So clearly and
definitely is this beef type established that to depart from it
means to sacrifice beef excellence.

The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 1, 2 and 3) pretty accu-.
rately represent the ideal beef type. The first is a good repro-
duction from a photograph of a prize-winning Angus heifer ex-
hibited by Queen Victoria at one of the late Smithfield fat stock
shows. The next is a portrait of a high-grade Shorthorn steer,
raised as a skim-milk calf at the lowa Experiment Station He
was the best steer in the Chicago yards on a day when there were

thfield (England) Fat Stock Show

Smi

’

1—Champion Angus Heifer

Fig.

4

a
wis
‘
4

”

Fig. 2.—High-grade Shorthorn steer.

THE Prorrer Beer Tyre. 27

26,000 cattle on the market. The third is of a high-grade Here-
ford steer, fed at the Iowa Experiment Station, that was
good enough easily to top the market, and was one of a carload
to dress an average of 67.5 per cent. of net beef. He weighed
1620 pounds when two years old.

These animals, though representing different breeds, present
that compactness of form, thickness and substance, together with
superior finish and quality, coupled with an inherent aptitude to
lay on flesh thickly and evenly, that always characterizes the
beef animal of outstanding merit.

These’ points are more specifically itemized in the following
score card prepared for the use of students at the Iowa Agricul-
tural College:

Scale of Points.

A. General appearance (25): Eves
Weight, estimated, Potyractwal...catiate tac <e mae te
Form and size, smooth, even, parallel lines, deep, broad,
pk 2 i meee Sy ae a uae ee MPI aria ety chou ei 10
Quality, thick covering of firm flesh, mellow touch, soft,
heavy coat, fine bone, velvet-like skin..........0......-. 10
Style, vigorous, strong character, active, but not restless. . 5

*Objections, rough or angular in form, harsh coat, hard
skrmetedall -appearanGe tebe. scx ants Heetacpetaires.<\e a> ae coger

B. Head and neck (10):

Muzzle, broad; mouth large, jaws strong, nostrils large...
Byeecuaren. clear, Placid’) ..72treceus creme eae @ wren ade 6 (ede
Rice, short, .q@iet, CX PressiOin aa a2, csi dinars oc area n iow nike
morehead, read, full s,s sean cies wae cgasta her ocahe «1 8 o-oe
ere medium Aime. fine Lex tures pen sene: seis oo: a ohb-e et lavelm
Peck, tmiek, Short and full; throat Clean’. 2... oe a cess ne o's
Horns, fine texture, medium size or small...............

bh b = b bo

*Objections, long or lean head and neck, dull eyes, coarse,
EPOy SIMI aisle 2 che ae stati ate a a erste Bk Soe wed ek eevee a ee &

28 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

C. Forequarters (10): Possible
Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth..... 7
Brisket, compact and wide...........-..ssess0s" en 3
Dewlap, full, skin not too loose and drooping........... 1
Legs, straight, short, arm full, shank fine, smooth........ 2
*Objections, bare shoulders, narrow en top, contracted

brisket, coarse legs. 2... .0s000.secesds58 ssn 7

D. Body (85):

Chest, full, deep, wide; girth large, crops full........... 8
Ribs, long, arched, well covered with firm fiesh........ ’ 7
Back, broad, straight, smooth and even.............3.. 10
Loin; thick, broad, full s...0.4..% cc2s. 6% as 2s ee 6
Flank, full, even with underline, or nearly so............ 4
*Objections, narrow or sunken chest, hollow crops, sloping

ribs, bare or rough back and loin, high flank..........

E. Hindquarters (20):

Hips, wide, smooth, well covered......... =... ene
Rump, long, even, wide, smooth, not patehy.........50.
' Pin bones, wide apart, smooth, not patchy. .....2..eeee
Thichs, full, deep and wide... ........-s+.=.50san
Twist, full, deep, large, level with flank or nearly so.....
Purse, full, indicating fleshiness..........% .%. «+ «150 see
Legs, straight, short, shank fine, smooth. ........) sme
*Objections, prominent, rough hips, narrow or bare rump,

spare thighs, light twist, small purse, coarse legs......

bo bw dw we OL

Ota. ois bes eer a cies ove ww os op cirepcs cal cout ALEC ee 100

The Use of the Score Card.

The score card is an educator and of great advantage to the
student, but its use is not generally favored in the show-ring by
leading judges. The judge who goes into the show-ring, like the
expert buyer in the great markets, should carry a well-defined

*The score card as used in the classes contained an additional column for marking
the student’s estimate of deficient points.

12 [3a 19

if :
‘
pyrene!

jZ—~\. 20

Fig. 4.—Names of points.

1. Forehead and face, 9. Shoulders. 17. Hooks. 25. Flanks.

2. Muzzle. 10. Chest. 18. Rumps. 26. Legs and bone.
3. Nostrils. 11. Brisket. 19. Hindquarters. 27. Hocks.

4. Eyes. 12. Fore ribs. 20. Thighs. 28. Forearms.

5. Ears. 18. Back ribs. 21. Twist. 29. Neck vein.

6. Poll. 14. Crops. 22. Base of tail. 30. Bush of tail.

7. Jaws. 15. Loins. 23. Cod purse. 31. Heart girth.

8. Throat. 16. Back. 24. Underline, 32. Pin bones.

“? ;

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’ ’ = a

= Se . : J

? ‘ 4 , =

s = hg

G .
7 " .
; ,
(
: A
; Le aete ot
;
fs z
= o - a,
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> ‘a ~ ~~
7 >.
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i ~ =
+ :
tet :
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- , 4 + 4% ~~ id re
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fe rr er

Fig. 5.—Chicago wholesale dealers’ method of cutting beef.

RUMP.
28 lbs.
at 7cts.

Fig. 6.—Chicago retail dealers’ method of cutting beef.

Fig. 7.—English method of cutting beef.

wh

tee

THe Proper Breer Type. 29

mental conception of a good animal and be able to detect at once
the qualities that are objectionable. This applied to the animals
of a ring virtually amounts to the use of a score card without the
objectionable features of that system. In recommending the score
card to the student, the term “student” is used in its broadest
sense, embracing not only the prospective breeder within the
class room, but every member of the great practical school as well
who wishes to keep in the foremost rank of his profession.

It is not necessary here to take up in detail all the points
enumerated in the foregoing score card, but it is proper to discuss
briefly the controlling principles and logical reasons that govern
the formation of a standard of excellence of this nature. The
analytical method of resolving every problem into scientific
formulas and principles, based on the firm foundation of unques-
tionable truth, is the intelligent method of study and investiga-
tion, and this method ought more generally to prevail in agri-
culture. :
Beef Characteristics Briefly Defined.

The first thing that should be looked to is the general beef
form—low, broad, deep, smooth and even, with parallel lines. No
wedge shape or sharp protruding spinal column is wanted for the
block. Next in importance is a thick even covering of the right
kind of meat in the parts that give high-priced cuts. This is a
very important factor in beef cattle that is often overlooked. The
accompanying illustration (Fig. 5), represents the wholesale
method of cutting beef, showing the relative importance and
value of the different parts. In a test made in Chicago on six
representative beef animals—two Shorthorns, two Angus, and
two Herefords—fed and marketed by the lowa Experiment Sta-
tion, the cuts designated as “rib” and “loin” averaged 27.8 per
cent. of the aggregate weight of the carcass and sold for 63.9 per
cent. of the total value. By this method the chuck, or shoulder,
and rib cuts are divided between the fifth and sixth ribs, and in
doing so the knife is run close up to the shoulder blade. The rib
and loin cuts are divided between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs,
and the loin is separated from the “round ” at the point of the

30 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirvures.

hip. In cutting for the retail trade the “rib roast ” is taken from
the cut designated “rib,” and the “ porterhouse” and “ sirloin ”
cuts are taken from the loin cut. Tenderloin steak is taken from
the inside and just beneath the ribs on either side of the spinal
column, and the commercial beef tenderloin always comes from
inferior stock, mainly from “canners.” That class of cattle has no
other meat that is desirable for the block, and the tenderloin
strips may be pulled out and put on the market, while the re-
mainder goes into the boiling vats for canned or pressed beef.
To take tenderloin steak from good carcasses would destroy the
value of the “ porterhouse” cuts. This the dealer never does.
The other retail cuts and their relative values are shown in the
second diagram (Fig 6). The third illustration (Fig. 7) represents
the retail method of English butchers.

The Chicago and New York markets discriminate more sharply
and present a wider variation in the relative price of the prime
and coarser cuts than any other markets in the world. By refer-
ence to the wholesale method of cutting beef used by Swift & Co.,
and the actual wholesale selling prices of the several cuts taken
from a bunch of cattle sold this firm by the Iowa Experiment
Station, it will be seen that the rib and loin cuts command over
four times the average price paid for the remainder of the carcass,
and it is apparent that the practical beef animal must be good
in these parts. Broad, well-covered backs and ribs are absolutely
necessary to a good carcass of beef, and no other excellencies,
however great, will compensate for the lack of this essential. It
is necessary to both breed and feed for thickness in these parts.
And mere thickness and substance here are not all. Animals~
that are soft and patchy, or hard and rolled on the back, are sure
to give defective and objectionable carcasses, even though they
are thick, and they also cut up with correspondingly greater
waste.

A marked and important change has taken place in the profit-
able type of cattle within comparatively recent years. This
change is strikingly illustrated in the development of the Short-
horn. By the courtesy of that veteran feeder and most excellent

THe Proper Breer Type. 31

authority on live-stock, the late William Watson, I am permitted
to furnish a good illustration (Fig. 8) of the popular type of beef
animal about the beginning of the present century. At that time
Culley said, in one of his contributions on live stock, that the
“unimproved ” breeds of Teesdale were a “ disagreeable kind of
cattle, that, though fed ever so long, never produced any fat,
either within or without.” Youatt, another celebrated author,
described them as “ generally of great size, thinskinned, sleek-
haired, bad in handling, coarse in offal, and of delicate constitu-
tion.” With this as a foundation stock, it is not so difficult to
understand how an animal of the Newbus ox stamp might be
classed as belonging to the improved order. This ox was sired
by a grandson of Charles Colling’s celebrated bull “Old Favorite,”
and the dam was supposed to be a Scotch Highland cow. The
early Shorthorns were large and massive. The famous Durham
ox weighed nearly 3800 pounds when 10 years old. The demand
for early maturity and plump, sappy carcasses of medium weight
and minimum offal and waste had not then set in. It was not
until within recent years that the heavy, inordinately fat, or
rough and patchy bullock, became unpopular to such an extent
as practically to drive this class from the market and to banish
the type from the breeding herds. It is well that this was done,
for the modern type, represented by the first three illustrations,
makes beef at decidedly more profit and economy to both the
producer and the butcher and furnishes the consumer a far
superior article.

The parts furnishing the high-priced cuts must be thickly and
evenly covered with firm yet mellow flesh of uniform good quality
and alike free from hard rolls and blubbery patches. Coarse,
harsh and gaudy animals will no longer be tolerated, much less
those that are bony’and bare of flesh on the back and ribs. The
men who buy our cattle and fix their market value are shrewd
enough to know almost at a glance how much and just what kind
of meat a steer or carload of steers will cut out, and if the pro-
ducer overlooks any of the essential points he is compelled to
bear the loss.

32 Bureau or Farmers’ INsTITures.

Then, in addition to securing the general beef form and make-
up, together with good backs, ribs and loins, there is a certain
quality, character, style and finish that constitute an important
factor in determining the value of beef cattle. One of the first
indications of this is to be found in the skin and coat. A good
feeding animal should have a soft, mellow touch and a soft but
thick and heavy coat. A harsh, unyielding skin is an indication
of a sluggish circulation and low digestive powers. The char-
acter and finish exemplified by a clear, prominent yet placid eye,
clean-cut features, fine horn and clean, firm bone, all go to indi-
cate good feeding quality and a capacity to take on a finish of
the highest excellence, and consequently to command top prices.
Coarse-boned, rough animals are almost invariably slow feeders
and hard to finish properly. A certain amount of size is neces-
sary, but it should be obtained without coarseness. The present
demand exacts quality and finish rather than size.

Beside these qualities, and above all, it is necessary to have
vigor and constitution. We find evidence of these in a wide
forehead, a prominent brisket, broad chest, well-sprung ribs, full
heart girth, and general robust appearance; and without these,
other excellence will not have its highest significance.

Excellence for the Block Due to Inherited Quality Rather Than Feed
or Gain.

The misleading practice of rating beef animals mainly by the
gains made in the feed yard is altogether too common. The dis-
tinction between cattle of different types is absolutely essential
to profitable feeding. There is not a very great difference in the
rate of gain, or the number of pounds of increase in weight from
a given amount of feed, that will be made by a representative of
the best beef breeds, or by a genuine scrub, a Jersey or a Holstein
steer. This statement may seem somewhat at variance with pre
vailing opinion concerning the potency and superiority of im-
proved blood. Practical breeders and improvers of live-stock
have been rather reluctant to recognize this doctrine, and a good
many will not concede it yet, but the evideuce is constantly aeen-

—Newbus ox.

Fig. 8

Tuer Proper Beer Type. 33

mulating; the principle has been repeatedly demonstrated, and it
is useless to ignore facts.

After all there is no well-founded reason why a Shorthorn, an
Angus, or a Hereford should make more gain in weight from a
bushel of corn than a native or scrub. This is governed alto-
gether by the digestive and assimilative machinery of the steer.
The Holsteins, for instance, are well known to be hardy and ex-
tremely vigorous eaters. They consume large quantities of feed,
and render good returns for their rations, and the despised scrub
has a ravenous appetite, and is almost as omnivorous as a goat.
It is not reasonable to expect that the improved breeds, notwith-
standing their superiority in other respects, have inherited any
greater constitutional vigor or more perfect working organs of
digestion than those animals belonging to the class designated as
natives, or scrubs, which, from the nature of their surroundings,
and the very law of their existence, have been inured to all kinds
of hardship. Nature’s law of the survival of the fittest was more
rigid and exacting than the selection of the average modern
breeder. Why, for instance, should a Shorthorn or a Hereford
steer be able to utilize a larger proportion of a given ratior than a
Holstein? Has not the latter been as highly improved, as care-
fully and as continuously bred for the express purpose of making
good return for a liberal ration? Scientists have discovered that
civilized man has no greater powers of digestion than the bar-
barian or the Indian. Neither has the improved steer materially
better digestion than the native. The feeder is often deceived
in the belief that he has a good bunch of cattle simply because
they feed well and gain rapidly. Economy of production is an
important factor, but it is by no means all. It is even more
important to have a finished product that the market wants and
will pay for than it is that it should simply be produced cheaply.

The illustration (Fig. 11) represents a high grade Jersey steer,
fed and marketed by the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.
This steer was fattened and finished for market under conditions
quite similar to those of the Shorthorn and Hereford steers pre-
viously spoken of, and the rations were practically the same.

34. Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.
The Types Compared.

In making a comparison, only the Hereford will be used, but
the distinctions are equally applicable to either. While in the
feed lot the Jersey made a gain of 2 pounds a day for nine months
and the Hereford 2.03 pounds a day for fourteen months. There
was practically no difference in the rate and cost of gain. Judged
by the record they made up to the time they went to market, the
Jersey would take rank close to the Hereford in both rate and
economy of gain. But the interesting part of the comparison
came later. The Jersey took on flesh rapidly and was exceedingly
fat and well finished. He was as good as it is possible to make a
Jersey steer. Yet, when he went to market he had to sell $2.123
below the top quotations, while the Hereford was one of a car-
load to sell 10 cents above the top for any other cattle on the
market. It is sometimes claimed that this distinction is partly
due to prejudice, but since I have followed cattle through the feed
lot and to market and onto the block, carefully ascertaining all
the facts for several years, I am convinced that the expert buyers
who fix the price for beef cattle in the great market cenires rate
them strictly on their merits, entirely independent of any breed
or type consideration. The controlling factor is the utility and
inherent value of the animal for the practical test of the butcher.
The slaughter and block test clearly revealed the reasons for this
marked distinction in the selling value of these two steers.

The Jersey belongs to a breed that has been developed for cen-
turies for the specific purpose of making butter; that is, putting
the product of its feed into the milk pail. They are rough, an-
gular and bony, and when fattened they do not put the fat into
the 'tissues of the high-priced cuts of steaks and roasts on their
back, as a representative of the beef breed does, but this steer
had 190 pounds of what is termed loose, or internal, tallow and
55 pounds of suet on a 763-pound carcass; that is 32.1 per cent.
of the steer’s carcass was tallow. Tallow was at that time worth
4 cents a pound, while the best loin cuts were worth 19 cents at
wholesale. And beside that, this steer only dressed 57.5 per
cent. of beef, while the Hereford dressed 67.5 per cent. Then,

Tuer Proprer Beer Type. 35

the Hereford had only 95 pounds of tallow and 38 pounds of suet
on an 888-pound carcass, equivalent to 15 per cent. And beside
this striking difference in the percentage of meat in the high-
priced cuts, the meat of the Jersey was much inferior to that of
the Hereford. The Jersey steer went on accumulating fat around
his paunch and internal organs to the extent of nearly one-third
of his entire body weight, while he did not have meat enough on
his back decently to cover his bones. This explains why a Jersey
or a Holstein, or any other animal not expressly bred for beef,
can never be made plump and smooth, no matter how long it is
fed or how highly it may be fattened. Besides, what scanty
flesh that is there will be found of inferior quality owing to the
absence of that fat deposited throughout the tissues of the meat
that is necessary to a ripe, juicy and highly flavored cut. There
is a fundamental and essential reason why rough cattle do not
sell. These same distinctions are largely true of the native and
all other unimproved cattle when an attempt is made to fatten
them for beef. The men who buy them are well aware of these
distinctions and they fix their market values accordingly.

It is of vital importance, then, that the feeder should have the
right kind of cattle for fattening. The Jersey and the Hereford
steers previously referred to made practically the same gains in
the feed lot and at substantially the same cost per pound for feed
consumed, but the market comparison revealed the fact that the
steer of beef type and inherited beef-making capacity was making
a product worth 49 per cent. more than the other steer, and this
increased value not only applied to the gain made in the feed
yard, but to the entire carcass as well. The feeder cannot afford
to ignore these distinctions. They are of vital concern and deter-
mine profit or loss. If the producer were hauling his corn or
other products to market, instead of feeding it to cattle, he would
not hesitate to select one that would return 49, or 25, or even 10
per cent. more than another. The loss cannot be afforded in
either way.

Growing Potatoes Successfully in New York.

By D668 LeERRy,

Farmers who have nearby markets can grow potatoes almost
any way and get along. Those who raise this crop to ship to mar-
ket, or to sell to shippers, have to manage carefully to make any-
thing in the future. The former sell to the consumers, or to the
retail grocers. They get almost all there is in the business. The
latter have to pay commissions and profits to dealers and freight
to railroads. Potatoes are now grown by the hundred acres on a
single farm in Aroostook county, Maine, in Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, Kansas, etc., etc. Many of these growers have rich
land and great, clean fields, without obstruction. Large shippers
get rebates from the railroads, at any rate they can get their
potatoes, hundreds of car-loads, moved long distances for very
little money comparatively. Machinery is used on these great
fields to produce the crop as cheaply as possible. Growers of
potatoes for shipping, in New York, have to meet this competition.
A few years ago they did not. High freight rates prevented the
moving of potatoes long distances. But all this is changed. It
will require the best methods in the future to make money grow-
ing potatoes, on the average.

Cheap Fertility.

The large growers above named, except in Maine, are not pur-
chasing plant food to any extent. They have enough in their
soils, or at least they get along with what they have. Aroostook
county, Maine, has used large quantities of fertilizers for potatoes;
but the writer was there some years ago, talking to large audi-
ences and telling them they ought to grow clover in regular rota-
tion and reduce the fertilizer bill. Reports from there show they

Growine Potrators SuccressFuLLY In New York. 37

are working in to this way of producing the crop cheaply. The
climate favors these Maine farmers, and many in the other north-
ern States named. It is easy to grow large crops. Fertilizers
may pay New York farmers well, but they cost money. To com-
pete with the northern world they must get fertility for less
money. They must pay more attention to growing clover and
peas in regular rotation with potatoes and other crops. A heavy
crop of clover grown once in four years may get hundreds of
pounds of nitrogen out of the air and make it available for pota-
toes, corn, etc., that follow. You cannot afford to pay $15 or $20
a hundred pounds for this when you can manage to get it for
nothing. The clover will pump up plant food from the subsoil,
also, and leave that available. The big western growers are get-
ting hold of this matter. The writer has talked to many of them
in Minnesota, where they are growing clover and increasing their
crops; so much the worse for you if you do not do the same.

Many of the northern growers have made the serious mistake of
growing potatoes either continuously, or too frequently, on the
same land. Do not do this. You will soon have serious trouble
from scale, blight, rot, etc., which multiply and increase more
rapidly where the crop is continuously grown. And then more
plant food must be purchased under this method of management.
Do not grow potatoes oftener than once in three years on the same
land. The writer has followed for many years a three-year rota-
tion of clover, potatoes and wheat. These were early potatoes, so
we were able to get them off in time to put in fall wheat. With
late potatoes, oats or spring wheat could be substituted. This
rotation is all right for a few years, but a four-year one would be
safer in the long run. We have grown clover pretty often; we
may have trouble from this. Scientific men think we may. But
meanwhile we have made a nice sum of money growing potatoes
that feed on the plant food the clover obtained. We have not
purchased fertilizers. And still few, probably, have done any
better than we have with this crop, and our land was in poor shape
to start with.

If you care to grow corn, I advise this rotation: Clover, corn,
potatoes and small grain to seed with. Manure the clover sod for

38 SUREAU OF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

corn. Keep stock enough to eat the clover, and corn, oats and
some purchased food, and use the straw for bedding. Save all the
manure, liquid and solid; not sort of half way, but actually all of
it. That is the way we do. Have cement floors under all live-
stock, manure shed, etc. These last points are of great import-
ance to you. I'll tell you why. The large western farmer won’t
get to this point for some years to come. You get right at it and
you can increase your crop, in connection with other good meth-
cds, so as to compete with him. You may say you can’t make the
clover grow now. But you must. Where there is a will there is
away. I saw on an old “ worn out” (?) farm in Vermont, last.
summer, as fine clover as ever grew on earth, many acres of it, on
the farm of C. F. Smith. This man’s neighbors said clover would
not grow. Well, Mr. S. made it. You can. With him it came
from the use of lime and potash, and an increase of vegetable
matter in the soil to decay, and persistent sticking to it. The
clover grew better and better each time it came around in the
rotation. In the northern part of the State you may grow good
feed and increase fertility by raising field peas, in connection with
oats, to hold them up. I do not need to tell you that hay made
from peas, oats and clover, nicely cured and early cut, is worth
nearly as much again per ton as timothy for cows, young growing
animals, sheep, etc. You get this in addition to the fertility.

The Best Tillage.

One can hardly expect the western farmer, with his great fields,
to be very thorough in his tillage. The tendency there is to get
an income from the number of acres, rather than from ‘the yield
per acre. Here is a chance for the New York farmer. ‘Till thor-
oughly from beginning to end. Do the best that is known now
along this line. There are probably fifteen or twenty tons of
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in one acre of your potato
land, within one foot of the surface. But it is locked up by nature
and only a very little becomes unlocked and available for crops
each year, with ordinary tillage. More tillage of the right kind
will make more of it available. This will be particularly true
when you supply your soil with plenty of vegetable matter to de

Growine Potrators SuccEessFuLLY In New York. 39

cay in it by growing heavy crops of clover, manuring, plowing
in catch crops, ete. Work the seed bed more. Work it deeply.
Work it roughly, that is, throw it around a good deal and mix it
up. Make it fine, where it is clayey enough to form lumps. Do
all working when it is rather dry. Cultivate the crop many times;
keep stirring the ground, as long as you can get a horse through
it. Go as deeply as you can for a week or ten days after you
can see the rows, and then after that never more than two inches
deep. Before your potatoes (and corn) are six inches high the
roots come together between the rows. If you tear any of them
off, as you will if you go more than two inches deep, the plants
must grow them over again. In a dry time this means serious
loss, in particular. You do not need to stop this kind of culture
at blossoming time; it can do no harm and usually will do much
good. Look on the potato field as a summer fellow that you will
work about all summer, and grow potatoes while you are doing it.
You may make much plant food available in this way, not only
for the potatoes but for other crops following.

In the spring there is usually plenty of water in the soil and
subsoil. If you do not do your part a good proportion of this
may be taken up into the air by sun and wind, and wasted. Two
inches of freshly-stirred, fine soil makes almost as good mulch as
afoot of straw. Keep this earth mulch present from the moment
the ground is dry enough to harrow, in the spring, until the
potato crop is grown, as nearly as is practical. In connection
with the vegetable matter mentioned above in the soil, to hold
water, your tillage may make you a fair crop, almost without re-
gard to rainfall. In stirring the ground to make more plant food
available, do the work also at just the right time to form a mulch
and check evaporation. Never let the surface dry up hard after
arain. You can use a smoothing harrow until the crop gets up;
then a weeder is better, after the tops are too large for the weeder,
and also in connection with weeder use one-horse cultivators,
with many small teeth. We have planted four inches deep and
then did not hill up any, at least not more than an inch or two.
Some earth will be thrown to the rows. Remember that weeds
take a great quantity of water out of the soil. To grow a ton of

40 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrirures.

dried weeds on an acre would mean the loss by evaporation
through the leaves into the air of some 300 to 400 tons of water.
Often the potatoes seriously need the water. Don’t let the weeds
use it up. Keep the surface so constantly stirred with smooth-
ing harrow, weeder and cultivator that no weeds practically can
ever see day light; then they will be killed as they sprout in the
soil.

Do you think the large western grower will give careful atten-
tion to all these points? Well, I am afraid not, usually. Itisa
grand chance for you to get ahead of him. ‘Till thoroughly to
help feed your crop, and to water it. This is no idle tale; no
theory. The writer has made thousands and thousands of dollars
by putting into practice for many years all that is written here.
He has grown large crops without fertilizer, over and over again.
He has grown large crops ($100 to $160 per acre), almost without
rain, right in the midst of failure. In the worst seasons he has
cleared a hundred dollars an acre on potatoes over all cost, and
furnished neighbors with what they wanted to eat, although they
planted in the spring, and on just such land as his. Man can do
almost anything, and he believes in doing it and making success
come.

Other Pointers Briefly Outlined.

Above you have a foundation that is solid and good. One can
not enter into the small details of the business in a brief article
like this. It would require a book. But I will try to give you a
few important pointers. The western man drives about five
horses, that draw a wide disk harrow, and leads three more that
are following with a smoothing harrow, across his long fields.
Change your fields so as to make them as long as you can and get
large tools and drive more than two horses. If you are going to
grow potatoes to sell to shippers, or to ship yourself, grow
enough to amount to something; enough so that you can afford
the best labor-saving tools on the market. The Robins planter is
the best one made. The Hoover digger is almost perfect, under
any reasonable circumstances. I say this after riding on it many
seasons. We use four horses to draw it. Of course being all iron
it is not fit to dig soft, green potatoes. We have found it well

Growine Potators SuccEssFULLY In New York. 41

to use potato boxes for handling the crop, by the hundred. They
are 16x13x13 inches inside, with hand holes in the ends and made
of very light wood. They hold one bushel (60 pounds) even full;
thus one can be placed on another.

Find out what varieties of potatoes do best on your soil and in
your climate and then stick to them as long as they do well, and
select the best for seed each year. Don’t grow more than one or
two kinds. Straight goods sell far better than mixed. Keep
your seed so that no sprouts will start until after the potatoes are
in the ground, for main crop. The first sprout gives the strongest
plant. You can sprout a few in the light for early ones. Do not
apply fresh manure on land for potatoes. Put it on at least the
fall before hand.

In the four-year rotation named (clover, corn, potatoes and
small grain), the manure applied to the clover sod for corn will
be in excellent condition for the potatoes the following year.
Treat all seed to destroy scab germs that may be on it, thus hold-
ing this trouble in check as far as you can. If you grow potatoes
with nearly level culture (always the best way in a dry season,
and as good in a wet one on drained land), plant in drills. If you
plant in hills, you must hill up or they will grow out of ground
and crack ground open and be injured in quality. If you want
potatoes perfect in quality (snowy white inside), never let them
be exposed to any light at all from the time they set until you
eat them, so far as is possible. Keep them where it is absolutely
dark. Those who sell to consumers or to local retail dealers may
well make a note of this point; and also it will pay them to grow
only those varieties that are choice to eat.. Much of our money
was made in this way. I have sold 1,000 bushels of potatoes to
a grocer in the city at one time for 15 cents a bushel above market
price. First, I produced something choice, way above the ordi-
nary, and then I let folks know what I had. After trying them
and finding that they could depend on their being No. 1, always,
they readily paid me my price.

Fertilizing Self-Sterile Grapes.

By. Prof. S. A. BEACH.

Not long ago a letter was received at the Geneva Experiment
Station from a grape grower near Seneca Lake, in which the
writer says:

“T have some Wyomings and they don’t bear well, and I have
been grafting some of ‘them with other varieties. They make
good, strong, healthy stock to graft on. I want to get a few of
some good early varieties. Is the Croton a good bearer? Does
it cluster well? Do you know anything of the Alexander Win-
ter, its color, quality or any other particulars? ”

Such inquiries serve as a very good introduction to the sub-
ject—“ Fertilizing Self-Sterile Grapes.”

Similar questions in one form or another may rise in any com-
munity where American grapes are cultivated. Although they
may vary in detail, sometimes one variety causing disappoint-
ment and sometimes another, they are frequently similar in their
primary significance in that the fundamental cause of their
trouble lies in the inability of the variety properly to fertilize
itself. Such is the case with the Wyoming, which this corres-
pondent is grafting over to other kinds. The Wyoming usually
fails to set any fruit, unless it is fertilized by some other ya-
riety, as does also the Alexander Winter referred to. These are
in this particular, representative of a large class of American
grapes, many of which rank very high in flavor and quality, and
when well-formed clusters can be produced are remarkably at-
tractive in appearance, but unable to fertilize themselves they
are unreliable croppers, unless cross-fertilized with some other
variety. The Croton, to which our correspondent refers, on the
other hand, produces well-filled clusters without the aid of any
other variety. In this respect it is representative of another
large class, including many of the varieties which have proved
most generally successful in commercial vineyards.

FerrTitizInG SELF-STERILE GRAPES. 43

A year ago the State Agricultural Experiment Station at
Geneva, N. Y., published Bulletin No. 157 on the “ Self-fertility
of the Grape,” in which each of the 169 cultivated American
varieties was classified according to its ability to set fruit of
itself. The following pages from this bulletin contain the classi-
fied lists just mentioned:

In this classification the varieties are arranged in four classes, accord-
ing to the average character of the clusters which have developed from
covered blossoms on vines in apparently normal condition. In cases
where there is doubt as to whether the vine was in proper condition for
the test the name is followed by a question mark, to indicate that the
classification is doubtful.

Class 1 includes varieties which when self-fertilized have formed none
but perfect clusters, and those with which the clusters have varied from
perfect to somewhat loose.

Class 2 includes varieties which when self-fertilized have on the average
formed marketable, although not compact, clusters.

Class 8 includes varieties which when self-fertilized have on the average
produced clusters too loose to be marketable. This class has a wide
range. It extends from the varieties in Class 2, with clusters not too
loose to be marketable, to Class 4 which includes the self-sterile sorts.
There are varieties in this class which have on the average produced self-
fertilized clusters nearly compact enough to be marketable, some being
compact but others being loose. At the lower limits of the class are found
varieties which usually fail to produce fruit on covered clusters but, which
have occasionally borne a few scattering fruits when the clusters are
covered. aes

Class 4 includes those varieties which have not produced any fruit on
covered clusters.

Classification According to Self-Fertility.*

Cuass 1.—CLUSTERS PERFECT OR VARYING FROM PERFECT TO
SoMEWHAT LOOSE.

Ambrosia, Hopkins, Niagara,f
Antoinette, Janesville, Opal,
Berckmans, Lady Washington, Poughkeepsie,
Bertha, Leavenworth, Pockington,
Columbian Imperial, Lucile, Profitable,
Cottage, Lutie,f Prentiss,
Croton, Mabel, Rochester,
Delaware,t Marvin Seedling White, Rutland,
Diamond, Mary Favorite, Senasqua,
Diana, Mathilde, Shelby,
Early Golden, Metternich, Telegraph,
Etta, Monroe, Winchell,7
Herald, Moore’s Early, Worden.7;

*This clasification is here modified to include the changes which are necessitated by
the investigations of 1899.
7Previous records confirmed by 1899 tests,

44 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Crass 2.—Ciusters MARKPTABLE; MoODPRATELY COMPACT

Agawam,

Alice,
Arkansaw,
Bailey,

Big B. Con.,
Big Extra,
Brilliant,
Brown,

Burrows No. 42c.,
Carman,
Catawba,§
Caywood No. 650,
Centennial,
Champion (Cortland),
Chandler,
Chautauqua,
Clinton,
Colerain,
Concord,

Dr. Collier,
Duchess,

Early Market,
Early Ohio,

Loose.

Early Victor,
Edmeston No. 1,
Elsinburg,
Elvira,
Empire State,
Esther,

Fern Munson,
Glenfeld,
Golden Grain,
Hartford,
Highland,
Hopican,
Illinois City,
Iona,
Isabella,
Isabella Seedling,
Jefferson,
Jessica,

Lady,

Leader,
Lindmar,
Little Blue,
Livingston,

Marie Louise,
Mills,

Missouri Riesling,
Nectar,}
Norfolk,

Olita,

Paradox,
Paragon,
Perkins,
Rockwood,
Roger’s No. 13,
Roger’s No. 24,
Roger’s No. 32,
Rommel,

Shull No. 2,
Standard,
Triumph,
Ulster,
Victoria,
Wheaton,
Witt.

Cuass 3.—CLuSTERS UNMARKETABLE.* '

Adirondack,
Alexander Winter,
Amber Queen,
Aminia,
Beagle,

Big Hope,
Brighton,
Canada,
Canonicus,
Daisy,
Denison,

Cuiass 4..-SeLr-STERILE; No Fruir DEVELOPS ON COVERED
CLUSTERS.*

Aleda,
Amber, (?)
America,
Barry,
Black Eagle,
Blanco,
Burnet,
Clevener,
Creveling,
Dr. Hexamer,
Eldorado,

Dracut Amber,
Eaton,
Eumelan,
Geneva,

Gold Dust,
Hayes,
Hercules,
Lindley,
Marion,

Noah,

Elvibach,
Essex,

Faith, (?)

Gaertner,
Grein Golden,
Herbert, §
Jewel,

Juno,

Massasoit,
Maxatawney, (7)
Merrimack,§

Northern Muscadine, (?)

Norwood,

Pearl,

Roenbeck,

Ross (Gov.),t
Thompson No. 5,

Thompson No. 7,

Vergennes,
Woodruff,
Wyoming.

Montefiore,
Oneida,

Red Bird,
Red Eagle,
Requa,
Rogers No. 5.
Roscoe,
Rustler,
Salem,

White Jewel.

OR

Nee ee

*In cases where the vines were not in good condition throughout the test the classifi-
cation is marked questionable.
+Further testing may show that Governor Ross belongs to class 2.
tThree self-fertilized clusters in 1899 averaged 90 on scale of 100.

§See pointer above.

he

Plate I—Eumelan self-fertilized.

Plate II—Brighton self-fertilized.

Plate III—Brighton open to cross-fertilization.

Plate [V—Diamond self-fertilized.

CS Oe a ee a ee ae, ee See! ee ee ey a

Plate V—Duchess self-fertilized.

1 ia —

Plate VI—Herbert.

Plate VII—Barry.

Fertitizing SELF-STERILE GRAPES. 45

Varieties Which Should Not Be Planted Alone.

These investigations have a practical bearing both on the selection of
varieties and on their arrangement when planted. The self-sterile kinds
cannot be expected to set fruit when they stand alone. Plate 1 shows
what was left of covered Eumelan clusters at the time the fruit ripened
on the uncovered clusters. It is seen that not a fruit developed when the
Eumelan was compelled to depend on itself for setting fruit. Herbert and
Barry likewise fail to fruit when dependent on their own blossoms for
pollination. Brighton does a little better. The best results which its
covered clusters gave in these investigations are the three clusters shown
in Plate II. But self-sterile varieties may produce well-formed clusters
when located near enough to other kinds of grapes so that cross polli-
nation can occur. The clusters of Herbert and Barry, shown in Plates VI
and VII, and that of Brighton, shown in Plate III, were borne on vines
which were located favorably for cross pollination.

The varieties which are listed in Class 3 have generally developed
clusters imperfectly filled and unmarketable and those named in Class 4
have failed to develop any fruit whenever cross pollination has been pre-
vented. If these varieties are planted at all they should be set close to
other varieties, which bloom at the same time, so as to provide for cross
pollination.

The varieties which are named in Classes 1 and 2 produce well-formed
clusters of themselves. The covered clusters of Duchess and Diamond,
illustrated in Plates IV and V, show what perfect clusters may develop on
varieties in these classes when the blossoms are self-pollinated. The va-
rieties named in Classes 1 and 2 may therefore be planted alone without
reference to cross pollination.

Explanation of Plates.

Plate I. Eumelan self-fertilized.

Plate II. Brighton self-fertilized. z
Plate III. Brighton open to cross pollination (reduced one-third).
Plate IV. Diamond self-fertilized (reduced one-third).

Plate V. Duchess self-fertilized (reduced nearly one-third).

Plate VI. Herbert (reduced nearly one-half).

Plate VII. Barry (reduced nearly one-half).

After Bulletin 157 was issued, inquiries came to the station
from various sources, bringing up the question whether one kind
of grape was any better fertilizer for the self-sterile kinds than
another, or whether all that was necessary to provide for the
proper fertilizing of a self-sterile kind was simply to plant next
to it a variety which came into bloom with it. For the purpose

46 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

of gaining some information on this subject investigations were
begun which, in 1899, included tests in fertilizing 12 nearly or
quite self-sterile kinds with pollen of various varieties, some of
which were self-sterile.

Methods of Making Tests.

All clusters were covered with bags before thé blossoms
opened, to keep away the insects, which might otherwise visit
the flowers and bring with them the pollen of other varieties.
This was done with the clusters which were to receive the pollen
and with those which were to furnish the pollen also. When
the clusters were in bloom the bags were opened and the blos-
soms brushed with clusters taken from the variety which had
been chosen to furnish the pollen for that particular test. The
bag was then immediately closed and properly labeled. It was
left undisturbed till after the vines had gone out of bloom, after
which the results of the tests were recorded. When the fruit
was ripe it was gathered and each cluster rated on the
scale of 100, to show how well filled it was with fruit, 100 repre-
senting a perfectly formed cluster.

Some of the results are summarized briefly in the following
paragraphs:

Aminia is practically self-sterile. When it was used to pol-
linate Brighton the clusters averaged 0.3 on a scale of 100 for a
perfect cluster. When used to pollinate Wyoming the average
rating was 2. This indicates that Aminia is practically worth-
less as a fertilizer for self-sterile sorts. When Brighton and
Wyoming were pollinated with strongly self-fertile kinds like
Catawba and Niagara, good clusters of fruit were produced.
Black Eagle, as far as tested, has proved self-sterile. It was used
to pollinate the self-sterile Barry and the practically self-sterile
Eumelan, but no fruit resulted. Brighton is practically self-
sterile, but occasionally it produces a few fruits when self-pollin-
ated. (See Plate II.) It was used to pollinate the follow-
ing varieties which are self-sterile, or nearly so (the average

Fertinizing Setr-STertLe Grapes. 47
rating in each case follows the name of the variety): Aminia, 1.7;
Black Eagle, 0; Eldorado, 0; Herbert, 0; Lindley, 4; Merrimack,
8.8; Salem, 0; Wyoming, 12. Catawba has proved to be strongly
self-fertile in the tests of its self-fertility which I have made. It
was used to pollinate the following varieties, which are self-sterile
or nearly so (the average rating follows the name of the variety):
Aminia, 89; Brighton, 74.4 and 80; Eldorado, 0.5; Herbert, 100;
Lindley, 63; Merrimack, 91.7; Salem, 4; Wyoming, 100. Herbert
is self-sterile. When it was used to pollinate the self-sterile Eldo-
rado and Salem, no fruit was produced. When used on the nearly
self-sterile Brighton the average rating was 28. Lindley, so far
as tested, has proved self-sterile. It was used to pollinate the
following kinds, which are self-sterile, or nearly so (the average
rating in each case following the name): Brighton, 2; Eldorado,
0; Herbert, 0; Merrimack, 32; Salem, 0.4. Merrimack is self-
sterile. When used to pollinate the self-sterile Lindley, Herbert
and Salem, no fruit resulted. When used on the partly se!f-sterile
Brighton, all clusters but one failed to fruit, and that was well
filled. This test should be verified by further work. Niagara is
strongly self-sterile. It was used to pollinate the following varie-
ties, which are self-sterile, or nearly so (the average rating after
each name): Aminia, 80; Brighton, 85.7 and 52.5; Eldorado, 76;
Herbert, 98.8; Lindley, 77; Merrimack, 96.3; Salem, 98.

Without giving further particulars, it will be sufficient to say
that without other tests which were made the results in general
were similar to those which have been given. The use of self-
sterile, or practically self-sterile, grapes for fertilizers for other
self-sterile, or nearly self-sterile kinds, resulted in failure. When
varieties which are strongly self-sterile, like Catawba, Niagara
and Worden, were used to pollinate these self-sterile sorts, gener-
ally good clusters of grapes resulted.

In conclusion, a word of caution as to the significance of the
average ratings which have been given in the above account of
these investigations. They cannot be taken as showing accurately
the ability of the variety to fertilize the other varieties upon which

45 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

its pollen was tried, because the clusters were not always in full
bloom when pollinating was done. Nevertheless, in a general
way, the results may be taken as signifying that self-sterile sorts
are practically worthless as fertilizers for other self-sterile varie-
ties, and that it is best to select as fertilizers for s.lf-sterile grapes
strongly self-fertile kinds which bloom at the right season. For
a more complete account of these investigations consult Bulletin
169 of the State Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.

Some Practical Points in Bean-Growing.

By J. E. Witson, Linwood, N. Y.

Beans seem more particular in requirements of soil and climate
than most farm crops. The area devoted to cultivation is quite
limited, western New York and Michigan furnishing the greater
part of the domestic crop. Their cultivation has necessarily been
developed in the field by practical experience, and methods here
outlined are employed by our most successful bean-growers.
Beans do best on rather heavy soil if well drained, naturally or
otherwise. They are very sensitive to an excess of water in the
ground. Good corn land will grow good beans, generally. They
will not thrive on light or sandy soils unless well manured. A
clover sod makes the best seed bed. A corn stubble manured the
year previous for corn, or an old sod, fall plowed, will give good
results. They pay well for stable manure, especially if applied
the fall or winter before on sod. Plow the ground in spring as
soon as dry enough to work mellow, usually the early part of
May with us, plowing deep, eight to ten inches, if the soil
will admit of it, and do a thorough job, as careless plow-
ing will materially reduce yield. As soon as plowed, ground
is rolled and thoroughly fitted, and then worked over about once
a week until planting time. It should be cultivated twice or
more, during this time, with a large-toothed cultivator, working
it from four to six inches deep. This deep working by large-
toothed implements, thoroughly stirring the soil and bringing
new particles together, seems to bring about some chemical ac-
tion, which, while it may not be understood, has proved beneficial.
If it is a dry spring, only shallow working should be given for
a few days previous to planting, that the moisture may rise near

50 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

enough the surface to germinate seed. This thorough working
for a month or six weeks will make a mellow and moderately
firm seed bed to the depth of four or five inches, will liberate a
large amount of plant food and destroy most of the weed seed.

The time of planting will depend somewhat on the variety
grown. The Marrow pea, perhaps more largely grown than any
other, is planted anywhere from May 25th to June 20th, usually
about June 10th or 12th. The Marrow, Yellow Eye, Red Kidney
and others of the larger varieties, are planted a week or ten days
earlier. About three pecks of pea beans, and from four to five
pecks of the large varieties, per acre are planted in drills twenty-
eight inches apart. Most growers use common grain drills for
this purpose, stopping the hoes not needed. Care must be taken .
not to get the seed too deep; if the ground is in good condition,
vne inch is plenty deep. If they do not come up quickly they will
not make a full crop. If your soil responds to fertilizers, an ap-
plication of from 100 to 250 pound of a mineral fertilizer will
increase the yield and help ripen the crop evenly and earlier—two —
important points.

A few days after planting, and before beans come up, go over
ground with weeder. This breaks all crust, destroys what weeds
may have sprouted and levels ground, so that crop can be culti-
vated sooner. Just as soon as they are large enough, the culti-
vator and weeder is started, cutting as close to the row as pos-
sible, the first time with the cultivator. The weeder is used in
connection with the cultivator as long as practicable, going over
the beens once a week or every ten days until ripe, or until vines
fill the row. After first time over, cultivation should not be over
an inch or inch and a half deep and ground kept as near level as
possible. With proper points for the cultivator this can be very
easily done.

In raising a crop of beans it must be borne in mind that they
make their entire growth in about three months, and that in the
dryest and hottest part of the year, and in ordinary seasons, a
large part of the moisture which they need will have to be held
in the ground from the spring rain. Hence, the necessity of early

Some Practicat Pornts 1x Bran-Growina. 51

and deep plowing and the thorough preparation of the soil before
planting, as a deep, thoroughly-prepared soil will hold more
moisture than a shallow and cloddy one. Frequent cultivating
breaks any crust and checks evaporation, leaving most of the
moisture for the use of the plant. In plowing deep and culti-
vating shallow you give the largest amount of root room for the
plant, giving them every chance to produce a full crop.

As soon as pods are ripe, and before dry enough to shell,
they are harvested by a machine made especially for this purpose.
Two knives, running about an inch below the surface, pull the
beans by the roots, two rows at a time, the knives set at proper
angle, to bring rows together. They are then thrown into bunches
with forks to cure, two or three of the double rows being thrown
into one, leaving room to drive a wagon to haul to barn. They are
mostly threshed by a machine built for the purpose, somewhat
similar to our grain threshers and requiring the same power to
run it. Where only small lots are raised, they are often tread
out on the barn floor by horses, in frosty weather. Produce deal-
ers take them as they come from the machine and run them
through screens, after which they are picked over by hand, and
stones, earth and damaged beans removed. Dealers buy them by
the bushel (62 pounds) and deduct five cents for each pound
wasted in picking. This is often a serious shrinkage to the
grower. The price paid here (Linwood, N. Y.) for hand-picked
beans is about 35 cents below New York quotations.

Beans grown as above outlined, on soil adapted to them, in a
favorable year ought to make a crop of 18 to 20 bushels per acre,
although this is considerably above average. They pay as well,
perhaps, on an average as other common farm crops. The fodder
makes excellent feed for live-stock; sheep, especially, are very
fond of it and will thrive better on it than on hay.

Twelve Years Experience in Spraying.
By EpwARD VAN ALSTYNE, Kinderhook, N. Y.

The question is often asked, “ What is the use of all this spray-
ing?” Is it necessary? A few years ago we heard nothing of
these various insects and diseases. Is it a notion gotten up by
the people who have something to sell, makers of spraying appara-
tus or dealers in chemicals? Are these new troubles? I answer
by saying that most of these troubles are not new. We have been
increasing our plantings of fruit trees and plants, and have thus -
furnished excellent food, as well as good breeding ground, for vari-
ous pests, something more suited to their needs, as well as more
plentiful than-the wild plants, on which they originally subsisted.
Fruit plantations multiply; so do these troubles. As we increase
traffic with the whole world we continue to bring in new pests and
diseases. Dr. Howard says that of the 75 insects most injurious
to fruits, 37 are of foreign origin. Cold, hard facts, but we may as
well accept them first as last. He who will not adapt himself to
these changed conditions will surely be left in the rear of the pro-
cession of progressive fruit-growers. The man who will control
conditions is the man who will be paid for fruit-growing as never
before.

I do not entertain the foolish idea that spraying is the only
thing necessary to make fruit-growing successful. Spraying will
rot fertilize or cultivate the soil, or prune trees. You have com-
menced at the wrong end if you think spraying is all that is neces-
sary. If I must choose between spraying, fertilizing and cultivat-
ing, I shall abandon spraying, and cultivate and fertilize. If
growers think they can starve trees by lack of fertility and cultiva-
tion, and once in three or four years cut out the summer’s firewood
from the trees, and call it pruning, and then go to work and spray

- Twetve Years’ ExperRieNcE IN SPRAYING. 53

and expect satisfactory results, they will be sadly disappointed,
and, as many have done before, condemn spraying. After we
have fertilized, cultivated and pruned, if we want perfect fruit and
greatest success, we must spray, and spray thoroughly and intelli-
gently. I want to emphasize the foregoing facts. Twelve years
ago I was convinced, after giving my orchard the best care that I
could, that insects and disease were increasing, and when first I
heard spraying talked of, I thought it, as many have since, a great
disaster, and felt that I might as well quit the business first as
last. In the fall of 1886 I sold my winter apples for $2.25 per
barrel, net, for first-class fruit. After careful picking and grad-
ing we had 100 barrels of rejected apples on account of worms and
seab. There were about 25 barrels of windfalls beside, out of 300
barrels shipped to market. If they had been perfect they would
have brought over $250, and they were worth $25 or $30 for cider.
I reasoned that if spraying would do what people said it would, it
was certainly a good thing for me to try. I found that it would
rot only keep fruit free from worms and scab, but would greatly
lessen the number of windfalls. The first year’s spraying is often
disappointing. Many start in to spray with very little knowledge
of what they are spraying for, or how to do the work. They do not
do the work at the right time, nor thoroughly, and they are fight-
ing insects and diseases that are well established; hence failure
to accomplish what was expected. Diseases and insects multiply
year after year, and we certainly cannot expect to destroy them
by one year’s work. Insects do not start out to commit suicide
for our benefit, and will not eat the poisoned leaves if they can get
those that are free from it. Therefore, all the foliage must be
covered and kept so, if we expect good results. The man who gets
best results from spraying is the one who sprays annually, at the
right time and for a definite purpose, covering the whole tree with
the mixture. I would not spray a tree that had no fruit on it as
inany times as one that was bearing, but I would spray it once or
more, for insect and disease germs are there and must be held in
check, less they multiply.

54 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

The man who sprays as indicated need fear no new leaf-eating
insects or disease that Bordeaux will prevent. I asked a friend of
mine in Orleans county if he did not dread the canker-worm get-
ting into his orchard, as it was all through the orchards in that
section. I have heard Prof. Bailey say that he could actually
hear them eat. He replied: “ My trees are annually covered
with poison, and I have no fear of the canker-worm.” That was
several years ago, and his orchard is as free from canker-worms as
it was then. I have seen the time when we took 47 large nests
ef the tent caterpillar from a single tree. For five years I have
not had to remove a nest from my large orchards where we have
sprayed, while a young one not in bearing and never sprayed we
had to go through twice last summer and remove the nests by
hand. Why? Because a thorough system of spraying had held
them in check and destroyed them.

Spraying is working by faith, which is a great deal harder than
working by sight. Here is a little fungus, or insect, so small that
few here have ever seen it. We have to take some one’s word for
what it is, where it is, and what will destroy it. To him who has
never sprayed I say, don’t do it unless you are thoroughly per-
suaded in your own mind that it is the proper thing to do. Then
know what particular object you are going to spray, the life-his-
tory of the insect, or nature of the disease, with what or how can
you prevent or destroy it. I believe that only to the man who
se acts will success in this direction come.

To illustrate, take the scab fungi. One scientific man says that
ihey are so small they cannot be seen with the naked eye, but are
present in our orchards in a latent state, ready to develop under
favorable conditions, such as high temperature and moist atmos-
phere, during which they spread and multiply with enormous
rapidity. Bordeaux mixture applied over the whole tree will pre-
vent their spread, as the fungi cannot live when they come in con-
tact with the mixture. This means the trunk, limbs, twigs, leaves
and fruit. Simply to throw a little combination of water, vitriol,
lime and poison at the tree after the fungus has spread, will do
but little good, while properly made and applied it will not only

TweLvE YEARS’ EXPERIENCE IN SPRAYING. 55

give us clean, bright fruit, but a vigorous growth of healthy foli-
age, which means more fruit, a stronger tree and fruit that will
keep much longer than that from a tree with poor foliage. This I
have found more than once.

After years of experience with the Bordeaux mixture I have
come to regard it almost with veneration, and had I to choose be-
tween it and insecticides I should without hesitation select Bor-
deaux. Its value depends largely on its being properly made.
Dr. Sturgis has given us much valuable information along this
line, and I would advise a study of the bulletin on this subject
issued by the Vermont Experiment Station. I have not time to
go into detail, only to say that by putting six pounds of vitriol
with half of 50 gallons of water, and four pounds of lime with the
other half, and then combining these two weak solutions, will give
a mixture that will stay in suspension and not clog the muzzle
and will spread easily and remain long on the trees. We always
dissolve the vitriol and lime before hand, using as many gallons of
water as we have pounds of material. A gallon then represents a
pound and all figuring is done away with.

The insect that causes the most trouble is probably the wala
moth, and while the egg may hatch anywhere on the fruit, it
usually enters from the blossom end. If we spray just after the
blossoms fall and the fruit stands upright the poison will be col-
lected on the tops at the blossom end, is likely to be retained there
for a long time, and pretty sure to be fatal to the worm before it
enters the apple. This period when the apple is in this position
with the petals open, may be longer or shorter according to the
season, and varies with different varieties. It will be readily seen
that each of us must watch his own orchard and the different
varieties therein to know the proper time to apply the poison to
get the most benefit.

There is a prevailing notion that the tree can be best sprayed
when it is in full blossom. From the above it should be evident
how false this is. Certainly nothing can be gained and much lost
by spraying at this time. In addition, it will poison the bees, so
necessary for proper pollen distribution. No one has any more

56 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITures.

right to destroy his neighbor’s bees than his cattle. Instances
are on record of the bees carrying the poison into the hives.

Do not think that I consider spraying an easy job. There is
nothing connected with fruit-growing I dislike so much. When I
have reached the end of the spraying season and put away the
sprayer, I always feel like singing a Glory Halleluiah. It is not
an easy thing to do, but it pays, and that is what we grow fruit
for. We want profit as well as fun.

“ How many times and when do you spray your apple trees?”
Usually three times. First, just as the foliage starts, using
Bordeaux and Paris green. I find this just as good as to spray
earlier. Then after the blossoms fall, as noted above, and usually
once more, about two weeks later, using Borbeaux and Paris green
twice each. Last year I did not spray but twice. It was a dry
season and the spray was retained on the trees, having little rain
to wash it off. I have Bordeaux on my trees now (February) that
was put on last May. Then, too, we had but little weather to
develop fungi. Some years it may be necessary to spray four or
five times. I use with Bordeaux mixture, half a pound of green
or poison to 50 gallons of water; that is for apples and pears.
With a good agitator I have never had it burn the foliage. It
will take as much as this to kill the bud-moth and will kill tent
caterpillars and other insects quicker, which is an item when a
rain follows shortly after spraying.

I believe green arsenoid just as valuable as Paris green, and
certainly much cheaper. It could be bought last season for 14
cents per pound. For those who are doing much work, white
arsenic will be found cheaper still. This needs to be boiled with
sal-soda, and while not a difficult job, a beginner had better use
the green, as the simpler he can make the operation the better.

I find a good deal of the first spraying can be done best from
the center of the trees. This I learned from spraying large elms -
for the elm-leaf nets. We put a pair of telegraph lineman’s spurs
on a man and sent him into a 50 or 60 foot tree with 40 feet of
hose and 8 foot rod. Ordinarily a good, powerful hand pump,
with a good agitator, will do the most practical and thorough

TwELVE YEARS’ EXPERIENCE IN SPRAYING. 57

work. Half-way spraying leaves plenty of uncovered foliage and
fruit for insects and fungi to feed on. When the work is thor-
oughly done there is no choice for the insect but to eat and die.
From 85 to 90 per cent. of fruit may be made absolutely perfect
if the work is properly done.

To show the advantages brought about by the Bordeaux in
giving vigorous foliage, I will site you an instance that happened
a few years ago. My men ran out of Bordeaux in spraying the
Greening trees, and as they were only short half a barrel, I told
them to finish with green and water. The next spraying I helped
to do myself, and came first to the side of the Greenings that the
men had sprayed last. I at once noticed that the foliage was
yellow and sickly looking, and as I had forgotten about the lack
of Bordeaux I was planning to give them some increased fertility,
but on coming back to the other side found the foliage as healthy
as any in the orchard. Then I remembered that those were the
trees, one side of which had no Bordeaux, showing the value of
the Bordeaux where it is applied, and only there.

Now an illustration for the scab on fruit. I have a block of
Newtown pippin trees standing below a hill, on rather heavy soil
and too close together. These were thoroughly sprayed with
Bordeaux three times and poison to test the value of the Bordeaux
for the scab. I had in the same orchard three trees of the same
variety on high ground in the outside row where they had plenty
of light and air. All conditions most favorable to the develop-
ment of the scab. These I left unsprayed. In spite of their
favorable conditions two-thirds of the apples were so scabby as
to be worthless, while the trees unfavorably located, but sprayed,
looked as fair as oranges, and pronounced by the buyer the best
he had ever seen.

One more illustration to show the effect in ridding fruit of in-
sects. A few years ago I had strawberries in one orchard, and
as the weather was very wet when we should have sprayed,
the work was delayed. Fearing to injure the berries the orchard
was left unsprayed. I sold my fruit that year, guaranteeing it
perfect. That from the sprayed orchard sorted out only one

58 Bureau or Farmers’ InstiruTrss.

barrel out of eleven (and those were good seconds that brought
$1.50 per barrel) that were not absolutely perfect, while the un-
sprayed orchard, only separated from the other by a picket fence,
yielded only two barrels out of three that could go under the
guarantee. Besides, the ground was covered with windfalls, and
in the first orchard hardly any had fallen. :

I therefore conclude that spraying pays if done intelligently at
the right time, and thoroughly, and if not done this way it had
better not be attempted.

Injurious Insects and How to Control Them.

By E. P. Fett, D. Sc., State Entomologist, New York State Museum, Uni-
versity of the State of New York.

Before considering any of the forms which so frequently at-
tract our notice through their depredations, I will mention briefly
some of the beneficial species.

Beneficial insects——There are many parasitic and predaceous
forms which prey on injurious insects and are therefore beneficial.
Examples of these may be found in the numerous ichneumon flies,
some of which are important parasites, or in the predaceous
ground beetles, bugs and others which boldly attack our pests.
A little observation will soon enable the farmer to recognize these
and he will then protect or at least avoid destroying them. Pro-
fessor Kellogg, of California, records an instance where a well
meaning correspondent destroyed a pint of beneficial lady bugs
under the impression that he was killing the depredators on his
rose bushes. Other species feed on noxious plants and thus in-
directly benefit man by preventing these from becoming nuis-
ances. Insects also render valuable aid as scavengers and the
myriad forms inhabiting the soil undoubtedly do much toward
reducing it to a more friable, fertile condition. They are also
used to some extent for food by man and the honey bee supplies
a most important article for the table. Insects are also fed to
poultry, song birds and in nature undoubtedly constitute a valu-
able food for many fish. The silk worm supplies the material for
an important fabric, the cochineal and lac insects, substances of
considerable value in the arts. One of the most important ben-
eficial functions of insects consists in fertilizing the blossoms of
our fruit trees, that is, carrying the pollen from flower to flower.
Without the aid of bees, wasps, certain flies and other insects, it

60 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

would be impossible to obtain a full set of fruit without resorting
to artificial fertilization. The enormous labor involved in this is
easily understood and when we think of the number of trees and
other plants that would have to be gone over and the relatively
short time in which the work must be accomplished, our depend-
ence upon insects is apparent. This emphasizes the wisdom of
not spraying trees while in blossom. The spray wets the flowers,
thus preventing the insects from working for a time, the poison
used is apt to burn the tender parts of the flower, rendering fer-
tilization impossible, and finally the bees themselves may be
poisoned by visiting sprayed blossoms. They may even carry the
poison home, kill the brood and contaminate the honey. There is
also a state law prohibiting spraying trees while in bloom. So
far as controlling insects is concerned, everything necessary can
be accomplished by applications made either before or after
blossoming time.

Losses caused by insects—Many persons fail to realize the
enormous losses caused by insects. The annual loss in the United
States has been estimated at $400,000,000. Dr. C. H. Fernald,
State Entomologist of Massachusetts, considers a loss through
insect ravages of 10 per cent. of the value of a crop a conservative
estimate. On this basis, the loss on cereals, potatoes and hay
grown in New York State in 1898 would amount in round nnm-
bers to $7,000,000. Professor Slingerland, of Cornell University,
estimates that the codling moth causes an annual loss in New
York State of $2,500,000 on the apple crop and $500,000 on the
pear crop, making a total for this insect of $3,000,000. An im-
portant point to remember in this connection is, that of 73 species
regarded as of prime economic importance, that is each causing
annually in the United States losses running into the hundreds
of thousands of dollars, 37 are known to have been introduced,
and the original home of six is still open to question. We may
not be able to exclude insects from the country at large or from
the state, but the individual farmer has it largely in his power to
prevent certain species from obtaining a foothold on his farm. An
orchard is grown not for the fruit it produces the year after it is |

Ingurious Insects anp How to Contrrot THEM. 61

set out, but for the crops ten to twenty-five years later; conse-
quently it should always be some distance from the boundary
lines, so that the owner may never be obliged to suffer throngo
the carelessness or indifference of a neighbor. All trees and
plants brought on a farm should be closely scrutinized and it
would be a wise precaution to fumigate all such with hydrocyanic
acid gas (as recommended on a following page) or else to buy only
stock which has been so treated. If these precautions are taken,
a man may reasonably expect to reap nearly full benefit from his
efforts to keep his orchards free from injurious insects.

Number of injurious insects—The number of injurious insects is
so great that it is impossible to treat of all those worthy of notice.
For example, 378 different species have already been listed as
preying in some manner or other on the apple tree or its fruit, and
while the majority of these can hardly be regarded injurious, as a
rule, yet under unusually favorable circumstances almost any
one of them might cause considerable damage. Before passing to
the consideration of individual species, there are a few funda-
mental facts which should be emphasized.

Biting and sucking insects—In a practical way we must dis-
tinguish between those insects which bite off and devour por-
tions of their food and others which obtain their sustenance by
sucking fluids from the underlying tissues. The work of the
former class may easily be recognized by portions of a plant being
eaten away. Asa general rule such insects can be controlled by
spraying with an arsenical preparation, provided the poison is
placed where the insect must eat it or go hungry, and the suc-
cess of the operation will be proportional to the plant surface
covered. In short, when spraying with arsenical poisons aim to
have the insecticide hit every: portion of the plant liable to attack.
The necessity of this is shown by the following: Last spring
maple leaves were sprayed with several arsenical preparations.
The variously treated leaves (after the spray had dried and the
poison was therefore nearly invisible,) and some untreated ones
were placed in separate jars and forest tent caterpillars placed

62 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrrures.

with each lot. In spite of these precautions, the caterpillars on
the sprayed foliage ate very little for from twelve to thirty-six
hours while those on the untreated leaves fed most readily. The
Same results were repeatedly noticed with the elm leaf beetle.
The more successful fruit-growers make a practice of spraying
every year; first as the buds are opening, second, just after the
petals have fallen and before the green calyx lobes have closed,
and then about seven to ten days later. Such treatment should
be amply sufficient to control all orchard pests which yield to
arsenical poisons. If four ounces of Paris green or other arsenical
preparation is added to fifty gallons of Bordeaux mixture, we
have a very effective fungicide and insecticide combined, which
is of special value for the first treatment. If spraying is under-
taken, it most certainly should be continued year after year, be-
cause experience has demonstrated that it is far from wise to
await the appearance of a pest in force before applying the
remedy.

As the arsenites lie in small particles on the surface of the
plant, it is evident that an insect drawing nourishment through a
slender, thread-like beak or proboscis from the interior of the plant,
would be unaffected by such poisons. We must therefore fight
sucking insects by using substances which will kill when thrown
on the insect. That is, use a contact insecticide like kerosene
emulsion, whale oil soap solution, etc. Suecess with contact in-
secticides is proportional to the number of insects hit. Spray to
cover the pests with the substance. Contact insecticides are to
be used whenever insect injury is accompanied by a wilting or
discoloring of the affected parts and there is no tissue eaten away.
The foregoing are general rules which must frequently be modi-
fied to meet special cases.

Beware of frauds.—A word of warning in this connection may
not be out of place. Beware of remedies for which great claims
of one kind or another are made. . There are now forty-six ento-
mologists in the United States giving a large proportion of their
time to the study of insects and methods of controlling them, and
unless a remedy is advised by a well known authority, it will be

Jas.B.lLron Srate Printer.

»__ Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar

Insurious Insects anp How tro Contrro.t THEM. 63

well to go slow before trying it. One of the oldest fakes is plug-
ging trees with sulphur or some other substance said to be taken
up by the sap, thus rendering the foliage distasteful to insect
pests. Such claims have no foundation and should not be heeded.
Yet in 1896 or thereabout, as stated to me by Mr. E. Van
Alstyne, such an agent appeared in Kinderhook, N. Y., charged
two dollars for plugging a tree, took in about $50 and then de-
parted, leaving an unpaid board bill.

Insect changes.—The farmer should also have some general
knowledge of the transformations of insects in order that he may
recognize both friends and foes in their various stages. All in-
sects develop from eggs of one form or another, though in some
cases the eggs hatch within the body of the parent. The larva is
the active, growing form, and is the stage more frequently de-
structive. It is variously known as the caterpillar, grub, maggot,
“worm,” etc. The pupa is the quiescent, resting stage, during
which the transformation from the comparatively simple cater-
pilar to the highly organized butterfly or moth takes place.
These changes will be more fully emphasized in the following
accounts of certain injurious species:

Apple tree tent caterpillar.—This insect, Clisiocampa americana,
yearly causes much damage in spite of the fact that its habits
are well known and methods of suppressing it are understood. It
passes the winter in the egg. The brownish egg mass encircling
a twig is represented at figure 1 on plate 1. The young cater-
pillars may be found well developed within the egg in the fall
and emerge therefrom in early spring. They remain in clusters
under the familiar tent, feeding on adjacent foliage, and by the
time they are half grown, we have the well-known condition
represented at figure 3, plate 1. The caterpillars become full
grown (plate 1, figure 2) the latter part of May, and at that time
may be seen wandering in all directions, seeking a place for
spinning their cocoons, several of which are represented at figure
6, plate 1, and one still more enlarged at figure 4. The co-
coons are spun in early June and may be found in almost any

64 Bureau or Farmers’ Lystirures.

convenient crevice, affording some shelter from the elements.
The pinkish brown moths, plate 1, figure 5, appear from the latter
part of June into July, pair and deposit the eggs which produce
caterpillars another season.

It is comparatively easy to collect and destroy the egg clusters,
as most of them are on the lower limbs. If the orchard is sys-
tematically sprayed, even this is unnecessary. The creatures
can also be destroyed when collected in their nests, either by
tearing the nests out and crushing, or by burning. The latter is
hardly advisable on account of injury to the tree.

Forest tent caterpillar—A closely related insect and one which
attracted far more attention last summer is shown on the
next plate. It is variously known as the forest tent caterpillar
or maple worm, scientifically as Clisiocampa disstria, and is a
close relative of the preceding form. Like it, the winter is passed
by the well-developed caterpillar within the egg. The smaller,
shorter, lighter colored egg belt is represented at figure 1, plate
2. The eggs are frequently found in large numbers on small
sugar maples, if there be any in the vicinity. On moderate-sized
trees, a large proportion are found on twigs within twenty or
thirty feet of the ground, while on large trees it is not unusual
to find them in considerable numbers at a greater height. The
caterpillars begin to emerge from the eggs with the advent of
warm weather in the spring and continue to appear for about a
month. The first evidence of infestation, if the eggs have not |
been previously noticed, is a thinning of the upper leaves. The
young caterpillars may be found in clusters on the branches, and
as they increase in size the clusters are found lower and lower,
till, when nearly full grown, large patches may be found on the
trunks of the infested trees. It will be seen by comparing fig-
ures 2 on plates 1 and 2, that the forest tent caterpillar is char-
acterized by the possession of a row of somewhat diamond-
shaped silvery spots down the middle of the back, while the
apple tree tent caterpillar has a narrow dorsal line of the same
color. The forest insect does not form a tent in the crotches of
the limbs, a habit so characteristic of the species usually found

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Ingzurious Insects AND How to Controut THEM. 65

on apple trees. The full-grown caterpillars wander in search of
a place to spin cocoons about the first of June, spinning up about
the middle of that month, but some may be found the latter part
of June and even in early July, so irregular is their development.
The cocoons, as frequently spun in a leaf, are represented at
figure 4, plate 2. They may also be found under ledges of houses,
in fence corners and almost any convenient shelter. The moths
may be taken from the latter part of June into August, being
most abundant in early July. Pairing takes place at this time,
and the eggs are deposited for the next year’s generation. As
is well known, this species has a special fondness for sugar ma-
ples, and has caused much injury to the sugar bush of this and
the adjoining State of Vermont. The effect attacks by this in-
sect have is shown by the following: Mr. Tremain Bloodgood, of
Hensonville, Greene county, found that maples defoliated in
1897 and ’98 yielded in 1898 and ’99 one-half the usual amount >
of sap, and that more of it was required to make one pound of
sugar, though the quality of the latter was not affected. Mr.
Jared Tiffany, of East Jewett, found that the largest and best
maples suffered most, and that two or three defoliations kill a
tree or render it practically worthless, as the flow of sap is very
small and the little secured is almost unfit for use. Professor
Perkins, entomologist of the Agricultural Experiment Station of
Vermont, reports that the crop was not one-half or two-thirds
the usual amount in his State, and that the yield was light even
in localities where the tent caterpillar was not abundant. In
most places it is hardly probable that the pest will be abundant
for more than three or four years in succession.

Value of native birds—The cause leading to the outbreak of
this native species is interesting and worthy of some attention.
The pest is undoubtedly controlled to some extent by climatic
conditions, and insect parasites are also valuable aids in keeping
it in subjection. Unfortunately, we can not control climate, and
there is not much that is practicable in the way of encouraging
or protecting parasites. It is believed that the native birds are

3

6G Bureau or Farmers’ INSrirures.

important aids in keeping this insect in control. Mr. E. H. For-
bush, ornithologist to the Massachusetts State Board of Agri-
culture, has kindly supplied me with the following list of native
birds observed feeding on forest tent caterpillars: Oriole, black-
billed cuckoo, yellow-billed cuckoo, crow, blue jay, redstart,
nuthatch, wood thrush, chewink, black and white creeper, red-
eyed vireo, flicker and scarlet tanager. Mr. V. H. Lowe has ob-
served the black-capped chickadee feeding on the eggs and the
robin on the caterpillars, beside others mentioned. Professor
C. M. Weed states that the robin, chipping sparrow, yellow
bird and English sparrow feed on the moths. In view of the fact
that our best authorities have estimated that bird life in New
York State has decreased 48 per cent. in the past fifteen years,
it seems reasonable to attribute this outbreak by forest tent cat-
erpillars in part to the decline in the number of birds. The foi-
lowing accounts illustrate the value of our feathered friends:
In a typical orchard at Medford, Mass., Mr. Forbush took a little
trouble to attract the native birds, the nests of the English or
house sparrow being destroyed. The results were greatly in
favor of protecting our indigenous forms. In the neighboring
orchards it was evident that canker worms and tent caterpillars
were abundant, but in the orchard in question the trees were
seriously injured in only one or two instances, though no at-
tempt was made to control the insects by spraying or other arti-
ficial means. The following note relating to forest tent cater-
pillars is by Miss Caroline G. Soule: “The nuthatches would
stand by a patch of larve lying close together below a tar band
on a tree and eat so voraciously and with such an entire aban-
donment of self-consciousness that I could go close and put my
hand on them before they would fly. This experience was re-
peated several times.”

Our native birds are undoubtedly of great value and will richly
repay any slight effort that may be made for the purpose of at-
tracting them to a neighborhood. Winter birds may be induced
to remain in a locality by hanging in the trees pieces of meat or
partially picked bones, and will spend much time in searching

Car Banks del

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Codling Moth.

Ingurious Insects AnD How to ControL THEM. 67

out and devouring numerous insects and their eggs, relying on
the meat only when conditions are unfavorable for obtaining in-
sect food. Migratory birds may be induced to remain in larger
numbers in a locality by providing them with suitable nesting
places and materials, and by affording them protection from cats
and other enemies, not excepting man. Thickets in the vicinity
will afford shelter for certain species, and if a few mulberry
trees are set out their fruit will serve to protect the cherries, as
the birds are said to eat mulberries by preference. Most of these
suggestions are taken from a very practical paper by Mr. For-
bush.

Remedies for forest tent caterpillar—tThere is little that can be
done to prevent the ravages of this insect in forests and large
sugar bushes, aside from protecting birds, but in orchards, on
shade and other of the more valuable trees it is practicable to
fight this insect in the egg, caterpillar and cocoon stages. During
the winter and early spring the lower twigs bearing egg clusters
should be cut off and burned. Every egg mass thus destroyed
means approximately 200 less caterpillars to fight the coming
spring. As soon as the pests cluster in the trees, they should be
brushed down or dislodged with a torch. The latter method is
hardly advisable on account of the danger of injuring the tree.
Many caterpillars can be jarred from the limbs. In whatever way
they are gotten out of the tree, bands should be employed to pre-
-yent the caterpillars from ascending. A strip of cotton batting
tied tightly around its middle to the trunk and the upper portion
turned back over the string makes a very effective barrier so long
as it remains dry. Bands of tar, grease, equal parts of lard and
sulphur, ete., are very effective in preventing the creatures from
climbing the trees, once they have been gotten out. If these
latter substances are used, it will be safer to first put on a band
of thick paper and apply the grease or tar to it, thus avoiding
danger of ultimate injury to the bark. Wherever the caterpillars
are at all abundant, it will probably be necessary to kill those
collecting below the bands with hot water, kerosene emulsion or
by crushing. These insects yield readily to arsenical poisons,

G8 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrrrures.

particularly if the application is timely, but conditions are not
always such that spraying is practicable. Sometimes when the
caterpillars are present in very large numbers and the poison has
not been applied till late, the trees may be stripped in spite of the
insecticide, but under ordinary conditions there need be little
fear of the poison proving ineffective. Where spraying is not
done, it will probably be wise to supplement the destruction of
eggs and caterpillars by collecting and burning the cocoons. The
village of Glens Falls, and several others, paid school children 10
cents per quart for collecting the cocoons in 1899, and excellent
results were obtained. At Glens Falls 1350 quarts of cocoons
were destroyed. Whenever this is done to any great extent, it
would be well to put the cocoons in boxes covered with a wire
netting, about 3-16 inch mesh, so as to allow the smaller parasites
to escape and yet to confine the moths. When the caterpillars
are present in large numbers nothing but the most vigorous meas-
ures will prevent severe injuries to the infested trees.

Codling moth.—One of the most important orchard insects to-
day is the common codling moth or apple worm, Carpocapsa
pomonella. The wormy apple, well represented at figure 1, on
plate 3, is familiar to most of us. Were we to go into the orchard
in winter and look under partly loosened bark scales, we would
find a condition very much as represented at figure 2, on plate 3.
Under the loose bark there is a silken cocoon and within it a
partly curled, whitish worm or caterpillar, which is represented
much larger at figure 1, plate 4. The winter is passed in this
condition. In the spring the transformation to the pupa occurs
and about the time the apple trees blossom, the moths (plate 3,
figures 3, 4) come forth. About a week later the eggs are laid on
the leaves or sides of the young fruit and in about two weeks from
blossoming the young caterpillar or apple worm emerges from the
egg and usually enters the fruit at the blossom end. This habit
renders the control of the pest by spraying comparatively easy,
provided it is done thoroughly and at the right time. Any time
after the white petals have fallen and before the green calyx lobes
have closed is the proper time to spray for this pest. Figure 3 on

———_______

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bp

pcs eA) fo) ne

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Jas-B.Lvon Stare Printer.

C.5.Banks,del.

M

Codlin

Ingurious Insects anp How to Controt THEM. 69

plate 4 shows the calyx lobes open and in the right condition for
spraying and figure 4 the condition when the calyx lobes have
closed and the impossibility of throwing the poison where it will
be most effective. It may be well to delay spraying a few days
after the blossoms have fallen so as to reduce to a minimum the
danger of having the poison washed out of the blossom cup by
rains, but delay beyond a certain period is dangerous because the
calyx lobes in most varieties of apples close in about two weeks
after the petals fall and then it is too late to do effective work
against this insect. Ample time allowance should be made, as
the spraying may be hindered by bad weather. The spray should
be rather coarse because then it fills the calyx cup more readily.
There is practically no danger in spraying young apples with
arsenical poisons.

Those who do not or can not resort to spraying must depend on
the destruction of the infested fruit shortly after it falls. One
correspondent found comparative immunity from this pest by
allowing hogs to run under his apple trees. Sheep or other do-
mestic animals could be utilized in the same manner to good ad-
vantage in certain cases. As the apple worms leave the fruit
when full grown and spin cocoons under shelters on the trunks,
banding the trees and destroying the cocoons found underneath
aids materially in reducing the numbers of this pest. Scrape the
trunk smooth and apply a band of cheap paper, burlap or similar
material in June. These bands should be examined every ten
days till August and then once in the fall, destroying all found
under the shelter. As many of the pests are liable to be carried
into the fruit cellar, it is always wise to prevent the escape of the
moths in the spring by covering all openings with fine wire net-
ting. “

Sugar maple borer.—The sugar maples in many villages show
most serious injury by the sugar maple borer, Plagionotus
speciosus. This insect is specially dangerous because the large,
white, fleshy grubs thrive in healthy trees and have the pernicious
habit of running their large burrows through the inner bark and
sap wood. As many of these burrows have a transverse, oblique

70 Bureau or Farmers’ InstiruTes.

direction for a part of their course, it is by no means uncommon
to see trees partly girdled through the activity of this borer. I
have seen maples fifteen and eighteen inches in diameter half
girdled by a single burrow. It is ap-
parent to all that only a few such
borers are necessary to cause con-
siderable injury. The beautiful par-
ent beetle, represented at figure 1, is
rarely seen, but evidences of the in-
sect’s work are very apparent. The
large, white, fleshy grub or borer is
not often observed. It is a most in-
sidious worker and probably the best

method of controlling it on shade
beetle (origiual). Tat A eG Ee to search each fall for the dis-

colored, wounded areas, showing the

place where the young larve have entered the bark, and then to
destroy the pests. There is little danger of harming the tree more
by digging the borer out than the creature would if left to itself.
The young borers fre-
quently enter the ‘tree at
favorable points on the
trunk and branches just
as the larger limbs
spring out from the main
stem. Applications of
the soap carbolic acid
Fic. 2. Elm borer: a adult; b half grown larva—hair wash about he aide of
line represents natural size of latter (original). May, and renewal of the

same in June, would

probably aid conan in preventing the deposition of eggs,
though at present it is impossible to state the true value of this
preventive.

Elm borer—American elms are frequently attacked by a borer
working beneath the bark. There is no practical method of fight-

Ingurious Insects anp How to Contrrot THEM. 1

ing it. About the best that can be done is to keep the elms in a
vigorous condition and cut and burn all affected limbs.

Elm leaf beetle—In the Hudson river valley there is another elm
pest of considerable importance, and as it will soon make its way
to other sections of the State, it is worthy of a brief notice in this
connection. I refer to the elm leaf beetle, Galerucella luteola, an
insect which has killed thousands of elms in the state and one that
in all probability will cause much greater loss in the next decade.
It has already been reported as present at Oswego and Rochester,
and may occur at many other places in west-
ern New York. The yellowish, black striped
beetles about one-fourth of an inch long pass
the winter in houses, sheds, crevices in trunks
and similar shelters. In the early spring
they come forth, fly to the trees and begin
feeding on the unfolding leaves. Clusters of
three to over 20 yellowish eggs are deposited

on the under surface of the leaves throughout
May, the young hatching about the first of

Fic. 3 Elm leaf beetle, mpleti i i 2
adult jreqced from eetle, June, and completing their growth in 15 or 20
ard, U. S. dep’t agr., Year-

book 1895). days. There are two broods annually in

Albany and vicinity. The beetles eat irregu-
lar holes in the foliage and the grubs feed exclusively on the under
surface; hence in order to poison both forms, it is imperative that
the leaves be sprayed from the under side. Where spraying with
poison is not done, some relief may be obtained by killing the
golden yellow pup with hot water, kerosene emulsion, etc., after
they have collected in large numbers about the base of the tree.
This latter means can be made more effective by scraping the
rough bark from the tree and then constructing an inclosure a few
inches high around the base of the tree. Killing the insects once
in five days will give the best results with the least labor.

Several very important scale insects are represented at figure 4
and every fruit grower should become familiar with their general
appearance.

72 Bureau or Farmers’ INSrTIirures.

Old fruit enemies.—Apple tree bark louse, Mytilaspis pomorum.
The general form of the brown scale of this insect is nicely shown
at a in figure 4 and were we to examine infested trees in winter
we would find under the old scales large numbers of tiny white
eggs. The scurfy bark louse, Chionaspis furfurus, is represented
at b in figure 4. The common name is descriptive of the white,

of cane; ¢ English oyster scale; Futuam’s ceale (original),
scurfy condition of badly-infested trees. On breaking away the
protecting scale in winter numbers of purplish eggs may be
found occupying the scale cavity. The winter is passed by both
species in the egg stage. About June 1st the young appear and
may be seen crawling in large numbers over the trunk and limbs
of the infested trees. Either of these scale insects can be kept
under control by spraying the young with a contact insecticide
like whale oil soap solution, kerosene emulsion, the formulas for
which are given at the close of this article.

San José scale-—The most important pest represented in figure 4
is this species, Aspidiotus perniciosus. Figure 4¢ represents the
female scale and at d the male scale is shown. Observe the round-
ness of the ash-gray scale, the central nipple and the lighter ring
surrounding it. The adult female scales are frequently consider-
ably larger and of a yellowish white color. The scale covering
these insects is quite variable, and it requires considerable experi-
ence to enable one to distinguish with surety between this species
and certain closely related forms and even then the entomologist
frequently prefers to take the trouble to make a mount for the
microscope and study the insect itself before passing on the iden-
tity of the species. A closely related form is Aspidiotus ancylus

Insunrious Insects anp How to Controt THEM. 13 »
cr Putnam’s scale. It is represented at figure 4f. It can be
separated at once from the San José scale by the eccentricity and
the yellow or reddish color of the nipple. There is another
species, Aspidiotus ostrewformis (figure 4e), which resembles the
San José scale very closely indeed. If trees are infested by scale
insects or even present a suspicious appearance, it is by all means
advisable to cut off a small twig and submit the same to some
entomologist for examination. The San José scale is dangerous
on account of its inconspicuousness and also because of its great
prolificacy. A tree may be nearly covered by this scale and noth-
ing be suspected. I have known such to be the case, even when a
bright and intelligent man and his two boys had endeavored to
keep posted and had been looking for the creature. Careful
studies have shown that in the latitude of Washington, D. C., four
and even five generations could be produced in a year and that the
descendants from one female might in one season reach the enor-
mous estimate of 3,216,080,400 individuals. In New York state
not over three generations annually would probably be the rule,
but even with our climatic conditions the insect is able to keep
up with a rapidly growing apple tree, as is shown by a twig fifteen
inches long of 1898 growth being nearly covered with the scale
at the end of that season.

Very diverse opinions are held regarding this insect and its
destructiveness. It is at least a pest no man cares for and it
is much easier to exclude it from the farm than to maintain a per-
petual warfare to keep it in subjection. There are many sections
in the state where this pest has not become established and thou-
sands of farmers and horticulturists are in a position to prevent
the San José scale from gaining a foothold in their orchards.
To every such person I would say, buy only trees that have been
fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas or else fumigate every tree
and shrub before it is set out. This measure is not only our most
practical method of safeguarding against the introduction of the
San José scale but is equally valuable against many other im-
ported insects. The importance of this latter has already been
emphasized. Nothing but the most heroic measures will stamp
out the pest after it has become established and these will be

TA Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

successful only in places where the infestation is very limited.
If but few trees are infested and there is no danger of its being
in nearby localities, it would be far wiser promptly to destroy
everything bearing the scale and start anew, rather than at-
tempt to save the trees. An infestation of considerable extent
can hardly be fought otherwise than by repeated treatments with
contact insecticides. Whale oil soap has proved about as effec-
tual as any, though the mechanical kerosene emulsion has been
strongly endorsed by some. Perhaps the most promising treat-
ment is found in the use of a 20-per-cent. mechanical emulsion of
crude petroleum applied in early spring before the buds start.
There is no doubt of its killing a large proportion of the scales.
There is less danger to the fruit buds if winter treatment be de-
layed till early spring and if crude petroleum emulsion be used,
the viscid residue remains sometimes on the limbs and trunk and
is very unfavorable to the establishment of young scales. Crude
petroleum cannot be applied to leaves but it is said to injure
only growing wood, even in summer. Its use undiluted cannot
be recommended at present. The summer treatment with other
contact insecticides consists of several sprayings from when the
young begin to appear, sometime in June, till late fall. The fre-
quency of the spraying should depend largely on the abundance
of the young. The summer work is usually supplemental to the
winter operations. The formulas of contact insecticides for
either summer or winter use are given on a subsequent page.

The following catalogue, descriptive of the insects in a small
traveling collection of the more important species, was prepared
by the State Entomologist and published in a convenient pocket
form for distribution at farmers’ institutes:

Fruit Tree Insects.

1 Apple tree tent caterpillar (Clisiocampa americana). Conspicuous web
tents in forks of apple and cherry trees contain hairy caterpillars with a
white stripe along the back. Cocoons spun the last of May, the light
brown moths flying in June. Eggs, in belts encircling the smaller twigs,
remain unhatched till spring.

Treatment: remove and destroy eggs or young in nests. Spray foliage
of infested trees with poison in early spring.

Ingurious Insects anpD How To Contro.t THEM. 75

2 Codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). Familiar as the worm boring
in apples near the core. ‘The winter is passed in small cavities under
sheltering bark or in crevices.

Treatment: band trees and kill worms collecting under them; destroy
Wwormy apples, spray with poison when calyx lobes are open. Prevent
escape of the moths from fruit houses and cellars.

3 Cigar case bearer (Coleophora fletcherella). Small caterpillars in cigar-
shaped cases feeding on buds and foliage of apple.
Treatment: spray infested trees with poison in early spring.

4 Pistol case bearer (Coleophora malivorella). Small caterpillar in pistol
shaped cases feeding on the young leaves and opening flower of the apple.
Treatment: spray infested trees with poison in early spring.

5 Apple leaf Bucculatrix (Bucculatriz pomifoliella). White ribbed cocoons
about 44, inch long may be seen in clusters on smaller limbs of infested
trees. The small larve mine the leaves and later feed externally.

Treatment: spray infested foliage with poison in early June.

6 Rose beetle (Macrodactylus subspinosus). Greenish yellow beetles
about 3% inch long appear in swarms in May and attack the foliage of
various trees and vines.

Treatment: spray beetles with 4% pound whale oil soap to 1 gallon water,
dust vines with ashes, etc.; handpicking.

7 Apple tree borer (Saperda candida). “ Sawdust” or diseased bark and
beneath the latter, legless, white, round headed borers. The brown beetles,
striped with white, about 1 inch long, occur from June to August.

Treatment: protect base of tree with wire netting. Dig out the young
borers in the fall. Cut and burn badly infested trees.

8 Pear midge (Diplosis pyrivora). Dwarfed, deformed, fruit drops early,
and within occur thick-bodied, pale yellow maggots.
Treatment: destroy infested fruit.

9 Peach bark borer (Scolytus rugulosus). Bark of affected trees punc-
tured with many small, circular holes, made by brownish black beetles,
less than ¥% inéh long. Inner portions of bark’ and sap wood filled with
burrows,

Treatment: burn badly infested trees. Apply carbolic soap wash to
trunks and limbs in early spring.

10 Pear blight beetle (Xyleborus dispar). Bark of affected trees punc-
tured with many small, circular holes made by dark brown beetles about
4% inch long. Inner portions of bark and sap wood filled with burrows.

Treatment: burn badly infested trees.

11 17-year Cicada (Cicada septendecim). Slit and broken twigs with wilt-
ing leaves are characteristic work of this insect, but unless the trees are
small not much damage is done.

Treatment: avoid setting out trees in last few years before Cicadas are
due.

Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirvures.

12 Apple tree bark louse (Mytilaspis pomorum). Bark infested with
brownish scales shaped like oyster shells. Occurs on many other trees.
Winter passed as white eggs under old scales, the young appearing about
June 1.

Treatment: spray young with kerosene emulsion or whale oil soap
solution.

18 Scurfy bark louse (Chionaspis furfurus). The whitish, scurfy scales
occur on the bark of fruit trees. The purplish eggs remain under old scales
all winter, the young appearing about June 1. ;

Treatment: spray young with kerosene emulsion or whale oil soap
solution.

14 San José scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus). A small circular scale not
readily seen unless very abundant. Infests many trees and shrubs. The
specimens exhibited showed variations in the appearance of the scales and
how it may be disseminated by budding. Young appear from early June
till cold weather.

Treatment: destroy badly infested trees, specially if young, and spray
others thoroughly in early spring with 20 per cent mechanical emulsion
of crude petroleum, kerosene emulsion or whale oil soap solution. Jumi-
gate with gas.

15 English oyster scale (Aspidiotus ostreeformis). Resembles San José
scale in appearance and like it infests fruit trees. Occurs in several
localities in this State and should be guarded against.

Treatment: spray infested trees with kerosene petroleum or emulsion, or
whale oil soap solution. Fumigate with gas.

16 Putnam’s scale (Aspidiotus ancylus). Resembles the two preceding
gepecies, but is less injurious. Attacks various trees.
Treatment: same as preceding.

Small Fruit and Vine Insects.

17 Currant worm (Pteronus ribesii). Greenish, black dotted saw fly
larvee feeding on currant leaves in May, the common currant worm.
Treatment: spray with hellebore,

18 Currant span worm (Diastictis ribearia). Yellowish, black dotted
span worms feeding on leaves in May and June.
Treatment: spray with poison or handpicking.

19 Currant stem borers (Sesia tipuliformis, Janus integer, Tenthredo rufo-
pectus). The caterpillars boring in the woody stems are sesians. The
maggots working in the tender tips may be either those of Janus or
Tenthredo.

Treatment: burn stems infested with sesians and the wilting tips
infested by the others.

Ingurious Insects AND How to ControLt THEM. Te

20 Raspberry gouty gall beetle (Agrilus ruficollis). Irregular swellings
on canes are produced by larve of this pest.
Treatment: cut and burn infested canes during winter or early spring.

21 Light loving grapevine beetle (Anomala lucicola). Brcwnish or black
beetles about 3 inch long resembling a small June beetle.
Treatment: dust vines with lime. Collect and destroy beetles.

22 Spotted grapevine beetle (Pelidnota punctata). Brown, black spotted
beetles about 1 inch long resembling a June beetle.
Treatment: handpicking,

23 Grapevine flea beetle (Haltica chalybea). Greenish or blue beetles
about 1% inch long feeding on buds, or brownish, black dotted larve
about 14 inch long skeletonizing leaves.

Treatment: spray with poison, using a large amount on buds, less for
young on leaves,

24 Grapevine plume moth (Ozyptilus periscelidactylus), Small, greenish,
hairy caterpillars webbing together terminal leaves.
Treatment: pick and destroy infested tips.

25 Eight spotted forester (Alypia octomaculata). Reddish, black ringed
caterpillars about % inch long feeding on grapevine and Virginia creeper
in spring.

Treatment: handpicking; spray with poison.

26 White flower cricket (Oecanthus niveus). Series of punctures in twigs
of various kinds are made by this insect for the reception of its eggs.
Injury is usually too little to call for remedial measures, specially as the
insects are predaceous and therefore beneficial.

Shade Tree Pests.

27 White marked tussock moth (Notolophus leucostigma). Beautiful eat-
erpillars haying three black plumes, four yellow or white tufts, a coral red
head, and body marked with black and yellow; defoliate horse chestnut,
elm and other shade trees. Winter passed in white, frothy egg masses,
the caterpillars hatching the latter part of May and spinning up about @
month later, the moths appearing in July. Two broods about New York
city, but one farther north.

Treatment: destroy eggs or spray foliage of infested treés with poison.

28 Forest tent caterpillar; maple worm (Clisiocampa disstria). Foliage
of maple and fruit trees eaten in May and June by hairy blue headed
eaterpillars with silyery spots along the back. Cocoons spun in June, the
brown moths flying in July. Eggs, in belts encircling smaller twigs, re-
main unhatched till spring. ;

Treatment: destroy eggs; kill the caterpillars when massed on trunk
and limbs; spray foliage of infested trees with poison; collect and destroy

eis"

cocoons, . \eidwornres

78 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrirutres.

29 Pigeon Tremex (Tremex columba). Adults, frequently known as
“horn tails,’ are usually found in July around diseased and dying tree
trunks. The young borers occur near the surface, but full grown ones
may make their way to the center of even large trees. Not usually veryz
injurious.

Treatment: cut and burn badly infested trees.

30 Lunate long sting (Zhalessa lunator). Brownish, wasp-like insect
with yellow markings and a slender ovipositor or “ tail” 2 to 4 inches long.
Frequents elms and maples infested by the pigeon Tremex and is occa-
sionally found with the ovipositor stuck in the wood. The white, legless
grubs attach themselves to the borers and suck their life out. This insect
should therefore be protected.

31 Cottony maple tree scale insect (Pulvinaria innumerabdilis). Under
side of smaller limbs sometimes festooned with this cottony insect, though
more frequently it occurs in small masses. Young appear in July.

Treatment: spray with kerosene emulsion or whale oil soap solution.
Brush or scrape off and destroy the old scales.

32 Sugar maple borer (Plagionotus speciosus). Diseased or loose bark
and exposed dead wood indicate the work of this pest. The grubs fre-
quently cause serious injury by running transverse burrows just beneath
the bark. The stout, black beetles about 1 inch long with bright yellow
markings, occur from June to August.

Treatment: burn badly infested trees. Dig out the young borers in the
fall. Protect trees with carbolic soap wash from June to August.

33 Maple tree pruner (Zlaphidion villosum). Small limbs of maple, oak
and other trees nearly eaten off by an insect and dropping in September,
usually contain the pupe of this species.

Treatment: collect infested limbs on the ground and burn before spring.

84 Elm leaf beetle (Galerucella luteola). Irregular round holes eaten in
young foliage followed by the grubs gnawing the under portions of the
leaves, which then dry and turn brown. The yellowish, black striped
. beetles, about 1%, inch long, appear in early spring and lay eggs in May.
The grubs feed in June, changing to yellow pup& the latter part of the
month. A second brood occurs in July and extends into September.
Known in this State only on Long Island, in the Hudson River valley
and in scattered localities in central New York.

Treatment: spray foliage of infested trees with poison, which must be —
applied to under surface of the leaf in order to kill the grubs. Kill larvee
and pupz on and near trunks of the trees.

85 Elm bark louse (Gossyparia ulmi). Adult females in June appear like
clusters of small lichens on the under side of the smaller limbs. of
European elms. Young emerge in July.

Treatment: spray with kerosene emulsion or whale oil soap solution.

Inszurious Insects anD How to ControLt THEM. 79

86 Elm borer (Saperda tridentata). Diseased or dead bark and in inner
portions white, flattened legless grubs, which frequently cause considerable
injury. Beetles appear from early May till latter part of June.

Treatment: cut and burn badly infested trees. Protect valuable trees
with carbolic soap wash during May and June.

87 Elm snout beetle (Magdalis barbita). Thick, fleshy, legless grubs
working in inner bark of elm. Follows attack by the elm borer and occa-
sionally is very abundant.

Treatment: burn badly infested trees and keep others vigorous.

88 Fall web worm (Hyphantria cunea). Web tents in July and August
inclosing leaves on the tips of branches, the eaten foliage turning brown.
Attacks many trees.

Treatment: destroy webs and their inhabitants or spray foliage of
affected limbs with poison.

39 Bag worm (Thyridopteryxr ephemereformis). Defoliated evergreens
and other trees are found infested with curious cocoons or bags containing
caterpillars in late summer and fall. Occurs in vicinity of New York city.

Treatment: collect and destroy bag worms or spray with poison.

40 Leopard moth (Zeuzera pyrina). Whitish, black spotted caterpillars
making large burrows in various trees. A bad pest about New York city.

Treatment: dig out young borers. Kill others with carbon bisulfid. De-
stroy badly infested trees.

41 Bronze birch borer (Agrilus anzius). If injured bark is examined, a
slender flat headed grub will be found running burrows in all directions
in the inner portions. White and other birches are attacked. Very inju-
rious at present in Buffalo. Beetles appear in June.

Treatment: cut and burn badly infested trees.

Garden Insects.

42 Colorado potato beetle (Doryphora 10-lineata). Stout yellowish beetles
with black striped wing covers appear in early spring, feed and deposit
yellowish eggs in clusters on under surface of leaves. The reddish, black
marked grubs also devour the foliage.

Treatment: handpicking; spray vines with poison.

43 Squash vine borer (Melittia satyriniformis). Wilting of one or more
runners is caused by a whitish caterpillar boring in the stem near the root.

Treatment: slit the softer, infested portion of the vines, remove the
borers and cover the wounded part with earth. Protect young plants with
netting.

44 Striped cucumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata). Yellow beetles about
¥%, inch long, striped with black, occur in numbers on cucumber and
squash vines.

Treatment: protect young vines with netting. Dust vines with ashes,
plaster of paris, etc. Poison trap crop of squash.

CO

i) Bureau or Farmers’ INSsrTiruTeEs.

45 Cucumber flea beetle (Zpitrix cucumeris). Brownish, gnawed spots
on leaves made by numerous black jumping beetles about 1-16 inch long.
Treatment: Spray vines with Bordeaux mixture.

46 Squash bug (Anasa tristis). Wilting leaves with their under surface
infested by greenish young or the large grayish brown stink bugs about
84 inch long.

Treatment: place chips and similar shelters near the vines and kill
daily the bugs collected underneath. Crush the brownish eggs on under
surface of the leaves.

47 Common asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi). Slate colored grubs
about % inch long or yellowish and bluish green beetles about 4 inch
long eating the more tender portions of the plants. Occurs on Long Island,
in Hudson River valley and in the lake regions of the western part of the
State. | i

Treatment: dust young plants when wet with dew with plaster of paris
and poison,

48 12-spotted asparagus beetle (Crioceris 12-punctata). Slate colored
grubs about % inch long or stout, nearly cylindric red beetles with 12 black
spots, eating the more tender portions of the plant. Known to occur in the
State in a number of widely separated localities.

Treatment: same as above.

49 Flea beetle on sugar beets (Systena frontalis). Ragged holes and
brown spots made by small, Jumping, black, red-headed beetles about 3-16
inch long.

Treatment: spray affected plants with poison or bordeaux mixture.

50 Blister beetles (Epicauta cinerea EH. vittata). Feeding in July and
August on the foliage of potato and other plants, cylindric, soft beetles
about &% inch long and black and gray, or black striped with yellow.

Treatment: as the grubs of these beetles are known to feed on the eggs
of grasshoppers and are therefore beneficial, the adults should be de-
stroyed, by spraying affected plants with poison or by beating the insects
into pans containing water and kerosene, only when necessary.

51 Bumble flower beetle (Zuphoria inda). Brownish, mottled beetles
about 5 inch long, feeding in ears of green corn, attacking peaches.
Treatment: handpicking.

52 Wireworms (Elateride). Cylindric, hard, yellowish brown creatures
attacking various plants, frequently injuring planted seeds.
Treatment: fall plowing. Trapping beetles with poisoned baits.

58 Stalk borer (Hydrecia nitela). Wilting potato vines and within a
brown, white striped, active caterpillar about 1 inch long. Attacks many
thick-stalked, herbaceous plants.

Treatment: burn infested stalks before September.

Insurious Insects AnD How to Controt THEM. 81

54 Variegated cut worm (Peridroma saucia). Stout, brownish cut worms
with obscure markings and about 1% inches long. Injurious to various
garden plants.

Treatment: place poisoned baits near plants to be protected.

55 Zebra caterpillar (Mamestra picta). Brilliantly marked black and
yellow, red-headed caterpillar about 2 inches long frequently found on
cabbage, beets and other garden crops.

Treatment: spray affected plants with poison, hellebore or pyrethrum
water.

56 Cabbage butterfly (Pieris rape). Large irregular holes eaten in cab-
bage by a greenish caterpillar. White butterflies abundant in the field.

Treatment: capture the butterflies with nets. Spray young cabbage
with poison, older ones with hellebore or pyrethrum water. Dust with
lime.

57 Cabbage thrips (Thrips tabaci). Cabbage and lettuce show white
spots as though blasted, caused by minute yellowish or brown insects.

Treatment: spray affected plants with kerosene emulsion or a soap
solution.

58 Tarnished plant bug (Lygus pratensis). Small yellowish and black
bugs about 4% inch long frequenting many plants and injuring most garden
crops and some trees. ;

Treatment: handpicking or dusting with ashes. Burn all rubbish in the
fall.

59 Four lined leaf bug (Peacilocapsus lineatus). Yellowish bugs with
four black stripes, about 5-16 inch long, frequenting various plants and
injuring some considerably.

Treatment: dust affected plants with ashes. Spray young with kero-
sene emulsion. Cut and burn tips of bushes containing eggs.

Grass Insects.

60 Army worm (Leucania unipuncta). Brownish, white striped cater-
pillars about 2 inches long devouring grasses and allied plants. .

Treatment: confine by ditching, kill with poisoned baits. Prevent their
occurrence by clean culture.

61 White grubs (Lachnosterna fusca, Allorhina nitida). Fleshy, white,
brown-headed grubs severing grass roots and those of other plants.
Allorhina occurs in vicinity of New York city.

Treatment: spray badly infested areas liberally with kerosene emulsion
just before a rain. Dig and destroy the grubs,

62 Grasshoppers. A number of species attack various crops.
Treatment: place poisoned baits near crops to be protected.

Bureau or Farmers’ Instirutves.

Household Insects.

63 House fly (Musca domestica). Easily recognized as the common fly
around houses.
Treatment: exclude with screens. As it breeds in manure and garbage,

keeping this material cleaned up or inaccessible to flies will reduce their
numbers.

64 Bed bug (Acanthia lectularia). A flattened, reddish insect about A
inch long frequenting houses, specially those affording numerous cracks
where it can find shelter and where uncleanliness prevails.

Treatment: apply benzine, kerosene or other petroleum oil to crevices
in infested beds. Corrosive sublimate may be used in same manner.
Fumigation with sulphur is valuable wherever possible.

65 Kissing bug: masked bed bug hunter (Opsicwtus personatus). A
brownish or black insect about % inch long. It is attracted by lights,
and its young, which conceals itself by a covering of lint, ete., is said to
have a partiality for bed bugs. Not usually harmful, though it can inflict
& severe bite or “ sting.”

Treatment: screens should exclude it most effectually.

66 Buffalo carpet beetle (Anthrenus scrophularie). Larve easily recog-
nized by their shaggy appearance, being provided with coarse bristles
along the sides and at the posterior extremity of the body. The beetles
are about % inch long, black, marked with white and a red line widening
into three projections, down the middle of the back.

Treatment: use rugs or matting in place of carpets whenever possible.
Infested carpets should be taken up and sprayed with benzine and the

cracks in floors should be filled with plaster of paris before relaying the
carpet.

67 Black carpet beetle (Attagenus piceus). Light brown, cylindric larva
with a long “tail” of slender hairs. The adult is a small, oval, black

beetle about 1 inch long. This species has a decided taste for feathers.
_ Treatment: Same as for the preceding.

68 Little red ant (Monomorium pharaonis). The common yellowish red
ant about 3-16 inch long that frequents houses in such numbers at times.
Treatment: destroy colony with carbon bisulfid when possible. Attract

to sponge filled with sweetened water and kill the collected ants by drop-
ping them in hot water.

69 Bacon beetle (Dermestes lardarius). Dark brownish beetle about 5-16
inch long with yellowish band on wing covers. Larva brown, hairy, about
5% inch long. Both adult and larva attack bacon, meat, ete.

Treatment: cleanliness and excluding insects from the food.

Insurious Insects anp How tro Conrro.t THEM. 83

70 Croton bug (Phyllodromia germanica). The smaller, light brown roach
about %4 inch long found in houses,

Treatment: roach poisons, such as Hooper’s fatal food. Paris green
with sugar has been used successfully, but is a dangerous poison. Wumi-
gate with sulphur where possible. Entice the bugs to enter vessels partly
filled with stale beer, from which no escape is provided.

71 Cockroach (Periplaneta orientalis). The larger, dark brown species,
an inch or more long, found in dwellings.
Treatment: same as for the croton bug.

Insects Affecting Stored Grains and Leguminous Seeds.

72 Grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella). A small caterpillar about 7-16 inch
long working in various grains and producing a whitish moth with a wing
spread of a little over ¥% inch.

Treatment: fumigate infested grain with carbon bisulfid.

73 Saw toothed grain beetle (Silvanus surinamensis). A small, brown
slender, beetle about 4% inch long found infesting cereals and dried food
products.

Treatment: fumigate infested cereals with carbon bisulfid and allow
none of its food to lie long undisturbed.

74 Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella). Whitish caterpillar living
in Indian meal and other cereals and fastening the particles of grain
together with a web. Moth with the outer two thirds of fore wings red-
dish brown, the inner portion and hind wings light gray.

Treatment: fumigate infested food with carbon bisulfid.

75 Confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum). A rather stout, shining,
reddish brown beetle about 3-16 inch long. Very prolific and frequently
causes considerable injury.

Treatment: fumigate with carbon bisulfid and clean infested localities.

76 Bean weevil (Bruchus obtectus). Small, grayish brown beetles about
1% inch long breeding in dry beans and eating out numerous holes.

Treatment: fumigate beans in all infested localities with carbon bisulfid
as soon as threshed.

77 Pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum). Brownish or black beetles with indis-
tinct white markings, about 3-16 inch long, infesting peas.
Treatment: same as for bean weevil. ;

Beneficial Insects.

78 Silkworm (Bombyx mori). Showing eggs, larva, single and double
cocoons, those from which moths have emerged, one from which the silk
has been reeled, male and female moths, raw silk; also several other
species of silk-producing moths.

79 Pollen carriers. A great many insects convey pollen from flower
to flower and in certain cases there are some very interesting adaptations.
Some of the more common pollen carriers are honey bees, bumble or hum-
ble bees, other bees, wasps, flower of Syrpbus flies and many, others.

Bureau or Farmers’ INStTITures.

(9 2)
wee

80 Lady bugs. Certain species are valuable agents in controlling plant
lice, which they and their young feed on. Some forms prey on scale
insects.

81 Soldier beetles (Chauliognathus species). The beetles are among the
pollen carriers and the grubs prey on the larve of the codling moth.

82 Syrphus flies. The adults are usually seen among flowers but the
work of their frequently brightly colored larvz in reducing the number of
plant lice is not so well known. These beneficial maggots are nearly coni-
cal and may be found among colonies of plant life.

83 Spined soldier bug (Podisus spinosus). Represents a number of
species which prey on other insects. This one feeds on various common
pests, such as the potato beetle, elm leaf beetle and asparagus beetle
grubs.

84 Red tailed Tachina fly (Winthemia 4-pustulata). Valuable parasite
of army worm, tent caterpillar and several other pests.

FORMULAS.

Internal poisons like paris green are used only against insects which
devour their food. Place where they must be eaten if the plant is at-
tacked and on nothing soon to be used for food.

Paris green 1 \b., lime 1 lb., water 100-300 gal., or dry 1 lb. to 75 of plas-
ter or flour. London purple and paragrene may be used in the same manner,

Arsenite of lime. Dissolve 1 lb. white arsenic, 4 lb. sal soda (washing
soda, carb. soda) in 1 gallon water by boiling in iron vessel 15 minutes, or
till arsenic dissolves, leaving only a little muddy sediment. Add water
lost in boiling, use 1 pint of this solution to 40 gallons water, to which
have been added 2 Ib. freshly slacked lime, or add 1 pint of the solution to
40 gallons bordeaux mixture.

Arsenate of lead. Dissolve 11 oz. acetate of lead (sugar of lead) in 4
quarts of water and 4 oz. arsenate soda (50 per cent. purity) in 2 quarts.
water, each lot in a wooden pail, then add solutions to 100-150 gallons
water. May be used much stronger without injury to plants. Very good
paste forms are now on the market.

Poisoned baits. Dip fresh clover or other attractive leaves in strongly
poisoned water, placed in infested localities. One lb. paris green, 50 Ib.
bran, sweetened with molasses or cheap, sugar, mixed to a soft mash
with water is good for grasshoppers; 20 lb. dry middlings, 1 lb. paris
green, is good for cutworms.

Poison carrier... Feat 1 pint fish oil or cheap animal oil except tallow,
5 lb. pulv. resin in iron kettle with 1 gallon water till resin softens; then
add lye solution (1 Ib. concentrated lye dissolved as for soap); stir thor-
oughly; add 4 gallons water and boil two hours, or till mixture will
unite with cold water, making a clear, amber colored liquid. Add water
to make 5 gallons. Use 1 gallon of the solution to 16 gallons water and
add 3 gallons milk of lime and % lb. paris green.

1 Recommended hy Mr. Sirtine for holding poison on cabbage.

Ingurious Lysects AND How to Contrrot THEM. 85

Contact insecticides are effectual only when applied directly to soft
bodied insects.

Hellebore (fresh) 1 0oz., water 3 gallons. May also be applied dry.
Pyrethrum or insect powder (fresh), 1 0z., water 3 gallons.

Kerosene emulsion. Hard soap % lb., boiling water 1 gallon, kerosene
2 gallons, dissolve soap in water, add kerosene and emulsify. Or, for
limestone regions, 2 gallons kerosene, 1 gallon sour milk, emulsify. Dilute
4-25 times before using.

Crude petroleum. A 20 per cent. mechanical emulsion has proved of
great value against San José scale when applied just before the buds
opened, and the trees were unharmed.

Whale oil soap. 1% to 2 lb. to1 gallon water for winter use; for summer
use, 1 lb. to at least 4 gallons water. :

Ivory soap. Five-cent cake to 8 gallons water.
Hot water, tobacco in solution or as dust are valuable contact insecticides.

Washes for borers. One pint crude carbolic acid (% pint refined), 1
gallon soft soap, thin with 1 gallon hot water, stir in acid, let it set over
night, then ald 8 gallons soft water. Or to a saturated solution of wash
ing soda add soft soap to make a thick paint; this is improved by 1 pint
crude carbolic acid and % Ib. paris green to 10 gallons of wash. Or in 6
gallons saturated solution of washing soda, dissolve 1 gallon soft soap.
add 1 pint carbolic acid, mix thoroughly, slake enough lime in 4 gallons
water, so that when added, a thick whitewash will result, then add % lb
paris green, mix thoroughly. The latter is probably the best. Valuable
only to prevent egg laying on bark.

Fumigation. Most valuable for young nursery stock and for grains
Cyanide of potassium (98 per cent. pure) 1 oz., best grade commercial sulk
phuric acid, 1 oz. by measure, water 3 oz. by measure, these amounts for 15
cubic feet space, expose trees at least one-half hour. Prepare tight cham
ber, mix acid in water by pouring acid slowly, stirring frequently, into the
water. Use earthen or glass vessels, and drop cyanide into the diluted
acid, closing chamber at once.

Carbon bisulfid 1 lb. to 1,000 cubic feet space, place in shallow dishes
near top of chamber.

These substances are deadly poisons, the acid will corrode or eat many
things, carbon bisulfid is inflammable and explosive in the presence of
any fire. Handle all with extreme care.

Household Insects.
By Dr. E. P. Fett, New York State Entomologist.

Country houses are the pleasantest on the face of the earth.
The person dependent for a living on the profits obtained from
the farm may not have a residence quite equal in some respects
to the country houses of the wealthy, yet there is no reason why
it should not be clean, comfortable and a very enjoyable spot.
Such, I am glad to state, is the condition of many farm houses.
The presence of almost any insect in the home is troublesome
to the housewife and frequently to other members of the family,
and when any one species occurs in large numbers, comfort is
seriously marred. The farm house is usually distant enough
from others so that there is little danger of neighbors supplying
us with household pests, and even the greater portion of the
house flies probably have origin on our own farms. A serious
disadvantdge in city life is the closeness of houses one to another.
Almost all kinds of household pests have no difficulty in passing
from one to another, while a nearby stable may produce enough
flies to supply the entire neighborhood. There is hardly any
excuse for such conditions existing in the country, and yet I have
been in places where one might almost suppose the house was ©
built to accommodate the flies. They certainly took possession
of everything.

Mosquitoes —A large proportion of farm houses are more or
less troubled with these tiny pests. We all know that they can
be excluded by the use of screens at doors and windows. Is it
not practicable sometimes to go behind this and prevent their
production? It is well known that mosquitoes breed in pools
and some may have seen the black or dark colored, boat-shaped
egg masses floating on the water. In about sixteen hours the

House Fly and Carpet Beetles.

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Hovsrnoip INSECTS. 87

eggs hatch and the young wrigglers begin their active life in the
water, and then require only about seven or eight days to com-
plete their growth. Next they change to the curious pupa and
about two days later the perfect insect emerges. It requires but
10 to 15 days for this insect to complete its life cycle, and the short
time necessary for this explains the production of enormous
swarms of these winged pests as the season advances, specially
when it is remembered that each female may produce from 200
to 400 eggs. Mosquitoes breed, as most of us know, in compara-
tively still water, and in many places areas of this kind are some-
’ what limited or else can be reduced materially without much
trouble. In many cases the supply of mosquitoes may come from
a water barrel just outside the door or from near by pools. If
not practicable to do away with these by drainage, it is still pos-
sible to prevent to a large extent the production of the insects.
The experiments conducted by Dr. L. O. Howard, chief of the
Division of Entomology of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, have shown that kerosene applied at the rate of one
ounce to every 15 square feet of surface and renewed monthly
is a most efficient preventive of the breeding of mosquitoes, and
one that is practicable when the area of still water is somewhat
limited, as is the case in many localities. Kerosene can be ap-
plied to tanks or cisterns containing*drinking water without un-
pleasant results, provided the water is drawn through a pipe from
below the surface. This method is at least worthy a trial in many
places. Kerosene applied in like manner to pools frequented by
gad or horse flies has resulted in the destruction of many of these
annoying pests, and a trial of it is recommended.

House Fly.—This is one of our commonest pests (plate 5, figure
1) and its presence in large numbers in the home has too often
been taken as a matter of course and no attempt made to mitigate
the trouble. We all know that the flies can be excluded from a
house to a great extent by the use of screens, but if the creatures
can be prevented largely from multiplying, the evil is stopped
at its source. It has been found that our common house fly
breeds in large numbers in horse manure and also to some extent

88 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

in dooryard filth, but the former substance appears to be preferred
by this pest. One fly can deposit about 120 eggs which hatch in
approximately eight hours. The maggots grow rapidly and in
about ten days transform to adult flies. The short life cycle and
prolificacy of this insect account most fully for its enormous num-
bers in hot weather.

In many places it would appear that comparatively little effort
would prevent the breeding of the flies to a considerable extent.
Either the manure could be spread on the fields daily, as recom-
mended by advanced agriculturists, or a dark shed or cellar could —
be provided for its reception. The first method would result in
such rapid drying of the manure that the flies could not mature.
It is not usually very much trouble to inclose a shed or cellar
so it will be too dark for the flies to enter, and this plan would
therefore result in reducing the numbers of the pests very greatly.
With the manure properly cared for and out of reach of flies, and
a little cleaning up of other places offering favorable conditions
for multiplication of these insects, the fly nuisance would be
abated to a very great extent.

Fleas.—It occasionally happens that a shed or room in a house
becomes infested with these pests. They most likely owe their
introduction to the pet dog or cat. The eggs of this insect are
deposited among the hairs ‘of its host, but not fastened, so they
soon drop to the ground and naturally are most abundant about
the sleeping place of the animal. The young emerge from the
eggs in about one day, and live in dust and refuse occurring on
the floor or in crevices. They require seven to fourteen days to
complete their growth, then spin a slight cocoon, and about five
days later the jumping adults come forth.

The young do not develop successfully in places where they are |
frequently disturbed, and the necessary lack of sweeping when
a house is closed for the summer is probably the cause of the
rather frequent reports of such dwellings being overrun with
these pests when the family returns. On general principles it
may be assumed that the presence of this pest in numbers in-
dicates some favorable, undisturbed breeding place in the im-

Hovsenoip INSECTS. 89

mediate vicinity. Frequent brushing and cleaning, supplemented
in some instances by the use of fresh pyrethrum powder, benzine,
kerosene emulsion or other contact insecticide, will soon stop the
breeding of these pests, but may not kill the adults as they are
quite resistant to such substances. Where practicable, the adult
fleas may be reached by fumigation with sulphur or hydrocyanic
acid gas. The latter is very dangerous and the greatest care
should be exercised when it is employed.

Carpet Beetles and Clothes Moths——There are two species of car-
pet beetles commonly found in houses, the Buffalo carpet beetle,
Anthrenus scrophularie, and the black carpet beetle, Attagenus
piceus. The hairy, shaggy larva (plate 5, figure 2) of the former
species is pretty well known to the housewife. The parent in-
sect is a small oval beetle about one-eighth of an inch long and
prettily marked with red and white on a black background, as
represented at figure 3, plate 5. The larva of the black carpet
beetle is easily recognized by its slender form and tail of long
hairs, plate 5, figure 4. The parent insect is similar in shape to
the preceding species, but is a dark brown or black, plate 5, figure
5. The artist has also represented a two-spotted lady beetle
(plate 5, figure 6), an insect which is frequently taken for a carpet
beetle. This pretty lady beetle and others of its kind are bene-
ficial and should be protected. If they can be recognized in no
other way, remember that the under side of the lady beetle is
nearly flat, while both carpet beetles are very convex and hence
will readily rock when placed right side up on a level object, un-
less their legs are extended.

Before passing to a consideration of remedies, the clothes moths
will be briefly noticed. There are several species attacking
clothes. Their work is familiar to almost everybody and in a
badly infested house it is by no means uncommon to see the deli-
cate moths flying about the rooms. The larve, as is well known,
show a marked preference for woolen and fur goods.

The young of all these insects do not like light, air and dis-
turbance. Hence one of the best protective measures, particu-
larly for garments, is brushing and airing from time to time,

90 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirvures.

specially in the summer months. It is usually more satisfactory
to take up badly infested carpets, beat and air them thoroughly |
and, in cases of a bad infestation, spray them with benzine. The
room should be thoroughly cleaned and if there are cracks in the
floor, it is advisable to fill them with plaster of paris. As a fur-
ther preventive, the carpet may be laid on tarred paper or else
replaced with rugs. Clothes or other articles put away for the
summer can be protected in the following manner: Brush well so
as to be sure no eggs or larvie adhere and then lay away in large
pasteboard boxes, such as may be procured at a dry goods store,
put in some napthaline balls, camphor or similar substance and
then seal the cover with a strip of gummed paper. The boxes
cost little and if the work is thoroughly done there is no danger
of injury by these pests. This method is one recommended by
Dr. Howard. He has also found that these insects are not active
at a temperature lower than 42° F, and hence storage of valuable
furs, etc., at a lower temperature than this may be considered a
safe and practical method of preserving them from insect injury.

House Ants.——Several species annoy the housekeeper very much
at times. The worst of them all, where it occurs, is the little red
ant, Monomorium pharaonis, an insect so small that it can hardly
be excluded from any vessel. It is represented much enlarged at
figure 4, plate 6. As is well known, ants live in nests in soil and
not infrequently they establish themselves in underpinning or
walls of houses. Whenever possible, seek out the nest and de-
stroy the occupants by a liberal use of boiling water, kerosene
emulsion, or strong soapsuds. More effective than these sub-
stances is carbon bisulfid, which may be used in the following
manner: With a broomstick or bar make some holes in the nest
several inches from each other and a few inches deep, pour in
each about a teaspoonful of carbon bisulfid, cover the nest with a
wet blanket and after a few minutes explode the fumes collected
underneath with a match on the end of a short stick. Unfor-
tunately, it is not often possible to get at the insects in their nests
and then we must resort to the laborious trapping with a sponge
moistened with sweetened water and dropping the collected pests

3

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C.S5.B arks,del Jas.B.Lron State Printer

Bede se SO Sen Ola] tae aote. is. Se oe

Hovsrenoip Insects. 91

into boiling water. Lard or fat may be used as a bait and then
burned after it has become well covered with the insects. A
syrup made by dissolving borax and sugar in boiling water is said
to destroy ants in large numbers. This should be preceded when
practicable by the removal of other attracting substances. The
above measures would prove of value in case of infestation by
other species of ants.

Cockroaches.—There are two species commonly found in houses,
particularly in cities, the smaller, light brown croton bug, rep-
resented at figure 6, plate 6, and the larger brown or black cock-
roach. The egg capsule of the former is shown at figure 5 of
plate 6. Both species prefer the vicinity of water pipes, sinks,
etc., and if abundant anywhere in a house are to be found some-
where about the kitchen. They subsist on almost any article of
food, but it is not so much what they devour as their disgusting
odor, etc., that render them objects of abhorrence to the house-
wife. The croton bug is more wary than the other species, which
latter can be enticed to vessels of stale beer and if sticks be ar-
ranged so the creatures can easily get over the perpendicular sides
of the vessel and be obliged to drop a little distance in order to
get at the liquid, many can be trapped in that manner. Sugar
and paris green well mixed and placed about their haunts will
soon diminish their numbers greatly, but paris green is a danger-
ous poison and can not be used with safety where there are chil-
dren. Hooper’s fatal food is said to be nonpoisonous and it has
proved itself thoroughly effective in a number of places. Prof. J.
G. O. Tepper, Adelaide, South Australia, recommends a mixture
of one part of plaster of paris and three parts of flour, with water
near by. The roaches are said to eat the mixture, drink the
water and die in a short time. The insects are said to disappear
in a few weeks. This is not expensive and is certainly worthy
a trial.

Bedbug.—It is almost impossible to prevent one of these creat-
ures from occasionally making its way into the home, particu-
larly is this true where many guests are entertained or members
of the family travel to a considerable extent. Once in a while a

92 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrirures.

family is so unfortunate as to move unwittingly into a house in-
fested with this pest. The insect, represented much enlarged at
figure 1, plate 6, has probably a slight acquaintance with most of
us. The white, oval eggs are laid in batches of from six to fifty
in cracks and crevices, as stated by Dr. Howard. They require
from seven to ten days to hatch and the life cycle is completed in
about eleven weeks.

The use of iron or brass bedsteads is to be recommended be-
cause they afford so little shelter to the pests. Where large
wooden bedsteads are used, the crevices should be liberally
treated with benzine, kerosene or corrosive sublimate solution.
Hot water, where it can be employed without injury, will kill
eges and bugs. This treatment must be supplemented by daily
inspections and the destruction of all specimens found. Fumiga-
tion with sulphur is reported by some as effective, but others state
that it has no value. Treatment with hydrocyanic acid gas would
probably be very effective, but it must be used with great care,
and there is danger of killing mice and rats in the walls or under
the floors and the resulting annoyance. Though red ants are
household pests, they are said to wage warfare on bedbugs. The
cockroach is also credited with the same useful habit, but un-
fortunately neither of these species can be considered desirable
acquisitions from the housekeeper’s standpoint.

Larder Beetle—The larva and the adult are represented on plate
6, figures 2, 8. This insect occurs in museums and attacks
many animal products like hams, bacon, other meats, horn, hoofs,
skins, beeswax, ete About six weeks are required to complete
the life cycle under favorable conditions ‘The contents of infested
rooms should be cleared out and the room fumigated with carbon
bisulfied or hydrocyanic acid gas. Infested portions of meats
should be cut away and the surface of the remainder washed with
a diluted solution of carbolic acid. The parent insect can be ex-
cluded from a store-room by the use of screens.

Cheese Skipper; Ham Skipper.—The insect is well-known to
many in the larval or skipper form though few may be acquainted
with the parent fly. This insect is usually found in the best

>>,

Fic. 5—Lepisma Domestica (After Marlatt: U. S. Dep’t Agriculture
Division Entomology, Bulletin 4).

Hovusrnoip Insects. 93

cheeses and it is considered a good judge of this dairy product.
The parent fly is smaller than the common house fly and like it pre-
fers daylight. As the skippers do not cause putrefactive changes,
only the portions actually infested need be cut out and destroyed.
The flies may be kept away by darkening the room and also by the
use of fine screening, a 24-to-the-inch mesh is said to be fine
enough. Scrupulous cleanliness and daily examinations in cheese
factories will prevent the fly from doing much damage. The in-
sect also attacks hams and has been recorded as breeding in
bacon.

Fruit Flies—The housewife is troubled sometimes by small
maggots in preserves. They are also found in decaying and fer-
menting fruits. Apple pomace produces them in swarms. Cider,
vinegar and allied substances are also agreeable to the insect. The
smal] flies deposit eggs which soon produce maggots. Not infre-
quently the eggs are placed on the side of a preserve jar and the
little creatures work their way through an almost imperceptible
crevice into the jar. Preventive measures are found in more per-
fect sealing of preserves and keeping them and other attractive
substances in the dark, if the flies are at all troublesome. Well
fitting, fine screens will exclude the insects from a house. °

Bristle Tail; Fish Moth.—Another insect in the so-called slide,
silver fish, bristle tail, fish moth, a small form frequently occur-
ring among undisturbed papers, starched goods, etc. This insect,
Thermobia funorwn, is shown much enlarged at figure 5, and an
interesting example of its work is represented at figure 6. Damp-
ness is favorable to its existence. It succumbs readily to fresh
pyrethrum powder and ordinarily does not cause much damage,
unless articles it likes are left undisturbed for years.

(The assistant to the state entomologist, Mr. Charles S. Banks,
attended a number of farmers’ institutes and presented substan-
tially the same matter as that given in the two preceding papers
on insects.)

94 BurREAvU OF Farmprs’ INSTITUTEs.

Explanation of Plates.*
PuLate 1. AppLe TENT CATERPILLAR (Clisiocampa americana).

Fig. 1. Eggs, enlarged.

Fig. 2. Dorsal view of caterpillar, enlarged.

Fig. 3. Nest of partly grown caterpillars, reduced.
Fig. 4. Cocoon, much enlarged.

Fig. 5. Moth, enlarged.

Fig. 6. Cocoons in fence corner.

Puate 2. Foresr Tent CatTerPILuaR (Clisiocampa disstria).

Fig. 1. Eggs, enlarged.
Fig. 2. Dorsal view of caterpillar, enlarged.
Fig. 3. Pupa, enlarged.
Fig.
Fig.

Ho

. Cocoons within maple leaf, reduced.

Ot

. Moth, enlarged.

PLate 3. Copitinc Mors (Carpocapsa pomonella).

Fig. 1. Apple showing work of larva, natural size.

Fig. 2. Hibernating cocoon of larva under a piece of bark, en-
larged.

Fig. 3. Moth at rest, very much enlarged.

Fig. 4. Moth with wings spread, very much enlarged.

PLATE 4. CopLiInc Mor.

Fig. 1. Larva, very much enlarged.

Fig. 2. Pupal case, very much enlarged.

Fig. 3. Apples just right to spray, slightly reduced, note open
calyx lobes.

Fig. 4. Too late to spray, slightly reduced, observe the closed
calyx lobes.

PuiatTe 5. HousE Fiy anp CARPET BEETLES.

Fig. 1. House fly (Musca domestica), very much enlarged.
Fig. 2. Larva of Buffalo carpet beetle (Anthrenus scrophulariae),
Fig. 3. Adult of same, very much enlarged.

* Drawn and colored from nature under the author’s direction by Mr. C. S. Banks.

HousrHoitp INSECTS. 95

Fig. 4. Larva of black carpet beetle (Attagenus piceus), very
much enlarged.

Fig. 5. Adult of same, very much enlarged.

Fig. 6. Two spotted lady bug (Adalia bipunctata), very much
enlarged.

PLaTE 6. HousEHOLD INSECTS.

Fig. 1. Bed bug (Acanthia lectularia), very much enlarged.

Fig. 2. Larva of bacon beetle (Dermestes lardarius), very much
enlarged.

Fig. 3. Adult of same, very much enlarged.

Fig. 4. Little red ant (Monomorium pharaonis), very much en-
larged.

Fig. 5. Egg mass of Croton bug (Phoyllodromia germanica), very
much enlarged.

Fig. 6. Croton bug, very much enlarged.

Tile Drainage.*.

By H. BH. Nicotat of Big Bend, Wis.

To lay down a specific rule of tiling would be an impossibility
for any one, as different lands and conditions would vary the cost
of drainage both as to the number of drains required, the amount
of labor expended in digging, and also the size of the tiles used.

Different Treatment for Different Lands,

I have one piece of border land containing fifteen acres, in
which the drains are from four to five rods apart, and the drain-
age is perfect, while in another piece of only half the size, the
drains were put four rods apart and proved to be insufficient to
drain the land thoroughly. The former piece is a black sand loam,
underlaid with sand and clay, while the latter was a boggy marsh,
full of small springs. The top soil was muck, underlaid with
clay and gravel. The drains had to be doubled wherever the
ground was springy, making them only two rods apart, and the
depth of the tiles is about four feet. The cost of this piece was
about $30 per acre, while the former was only $10 per acre. Both
pieces have been in cultivation ever since they were drained,
about ten years ago, and have produced wonderful crops. The
average cost per acre of tiling a wet marsh is about $20.

The most profit in tile draining is derived in fields that have
small basins in them on the elevated parts of the fields, which
fill with water during the spring and keep the lower levels of
the fields wet and cold until the water evaporates in the basins.
One drain with a few laterals in the basin will usually be enough

*A paper read before a farmers’ institute in Wisconsin and the discus-
sion following.

\

Tite Drarnace. 97

in fields of this kind, and the cost will be very small when com-
pared with the benefits derived from them.

The benefits to be derived from the drainage depend largely on
the location, the value of the land, and what crop the land is used
for. As no two fields present the same condition, except level
marshes, one must rely upon his own judgment, according to the
condition and location of the land.

How to Tile Drain.

’ First ascertain how much fall there is in the land to be tiled,
from the upper end to the outlet. If there is a gradual fall from
source to outlet, no survey is necessary, but if the land is nearly
level, or if there are any depressions or basins, so that it is hard
to determine the amount of fall, obtain the services of a compet-
ent engineer to determine the fall from the upper end of the out-
let. The fall should be divided up by setting stakes every hun-
dred feet and drawing a level line from these stakes. The stakes
should be driven close to one side of where the ditch is to be dug.
The fall can then be divided by measuring from the line to the
bottom of the ditch. From one-fourth to one-half inch of fall to
the rod is enough, and in large tiles less fall will do.

Digging the Ditch.

Commence at the outlet to dig the ditch. If the banks of the
ditch have a tendency to cave, the tiles should be put in as fast
as the ditch is dug; but if the banks stand firm, it is better to com-
mence laying the tiles at the upper end, after the whole ditch is
completed. The lower part of the ditch should be dug with a tile
spade, the bottom cleaned out with a tile scoop, and the tiles laid
with a tile hook.

The tiles should be covered with loose soil to the depth of twelve
inches. This can be done by breaking down the top of the bank
on both sides of the ditch, after which the filling of the ditch can
be done with the horses and plow, care being taken not to let the
horses get into the ditch and disturb the tiles.

4

98 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.
Cost of Tiling.

1 will give you a description of a piece of land which I tiled
eleven years ago, and also the expense of tiling it at that time.
The piece in question consisted of about an acre, covered with
water the greater part of the time. Surrounding this water were
about four acres of land grown to willows and rushes, also under
water during wet seasons. Surrounding this last strip are about
four acres of what is usually known as border land (too wet to
plow and not wet enough to be called marsh), making about nine
acres in all. It was worth, for grazing purposes, at the outside
figures, not more than $40 per acre. The expense for draining
it was as follows:

2,960. 24-inch tiles.at $10 per, M .)).% te. ssc ee $29 60
1,136.3-inch tiles, at.$12.50 per M.)..2: -c.hcines SOE 14 20
432 4-inch tiles, at $16 per: M...0:).4.0o. «1. eee aoe 6 91
512 6-inch tiles; at:$25 per, M.y' «2. 0%66) ae eee 12 80
EDO Ails isis. xs:a chastity sa cela ied nS a gee da $63 51
10:per, cent: discount for, cash«:. ...0.25% totter 6 35
Leaving total amount paid for tiles...........-..008 $57 16
315 rods of ditch, at SOc) pends: scicicccn/: <a 94 54
Hauling. tiles from factory. 2... s.90 =e eee 15 00
For making dike and open ditch... 50.205. =. cose 10 00
Total cost for: 9°ACTES = «3 cca sere 66 cane cite ee $176 66
Cost’ for ome acre: (.5 2. wake 3 en oe ee 19 62

This land, worth $40 per acre, and costing $19.62 per acre for
draining, cost $59.62 per acre. The real value of the land now is
$100 per acre.

This basin was the receptacle of a great deal of surface water
from a neighbor’s farm, and, to prevent it from being flooded dur-
ing the heavy rains, I dug an open ditch on the upper side to a
point beyond the natural outlet of the basin, putting the earth

Tirt DRrarnaGce. 99

from the ditch on the lower side for a dike. It requires a little
repairing every spring, but aside from that it has worked to
perfection.

The crops raised on this piece of land the past few years have
been the admiration of the whole neighborhood. The crop this
last year was a fair yield of early Ohio potatoes, followed by a
heavy crop of fodder corn, which, in turn, was followed by winter
wheat. At the first of the year the wheat was in good condition,
but of course it is now killed, owing to the severe winter.

Another Experiment.

My last experiment was on fifteen acres of border land along
the Fox river. It was too low to admit of any fall to the river
except when the river was very low. I dug an open ditch, six
feet wide at the top, two feet at the bottom and three feet deep,
along the lower side of the piece to be drained, to receive the
water from the tile drains. The earth was all put on the river side
of the ditch for a dike, to prevent the water overflowing the land
in case of high water. I also dug an open ditch from the river to
the dike, connecting it with the first open ditch by means of a
flume, which passes under the dike and can be opened or closed,
as the case may require. When the river is low, I keep the flume
open; when it rises so as to set back into the open ditch, I close
the flume to prevent its filling the ditch, and what water collects
in the ditch can be pumped out over the dike.

In this way any level marsh can be reclaimed, and it need not
cost more than $25 per acre. The larger the piece drained, the
less the expense per acre for diking and pumping. The following
hints will be useful to those inexperienced in tiling.

Practical Suggestions.

First, get the fall of the land, and then lay the drains in a sys-
tematic way. Never lay the tiles less than three feet deep; four
feet is better. If tiling is let by the job see to it that it is done
according to agreement, and always inspect the work before the
tiles are covered.

100 Bureav oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Put a wooden box at the end of each tile drain where it dis-
charges into an open ditch, but have as few open ditches as pos-
sible.

Use 24-inch tiles in all laterals for the first six or eight rods,
and for a longer distance, if there be plenty of fall. Half an inch
of fall to the rod in the laterals, and one-quarter of an inch in the
main ditch, is sufficient, although more fall would be better, as
smaller tiles could be used. The main ditch should be dug a lit-
tle deeper than the laterals, so as to join the laterals near the
upper side of the tiles in the main ditch.

Later Treatment.

If your land should not produce anything the first or second
year, do not get discouraged, but give it a coat of wood ashes or
barnyard manure, and you will be astonished to see what crops
it will produce.

If your drain will discharge its water on a neighbor’s land be-
low you, get his consent first, as you have no right to flow any
more water on his land than there is naturally flowing over the
surface. Remember this fact will save hard feelings, and some-
times a lawsuit.

Discussion.

Question.—How do you pump at that place?

Mr. Nicolai—I have a tread power, but the seasons have been
so dry and there is so little surface water falls on the land that
there are very few seasons that you need to pump; in fact, I have
never had any pumping to do since the first year that I put in the
tile, and I have taken out the pump and used it for other pur-
poses. When you have to do permanent pumping, a good large
wind-mill, or two of them, would be the cheapest.

The Chairman.—I did some tile draining on my farm about
fourteen years ago, I think. When I commenced working at it, a
neighbor was going by, and he says: “ What are you doing?” I
answered: “I am putting some tile drains in the ground.” And
he says: “That costs money. If you have money so plenty that
you can afford to bury it in the ground, you better let me have

Tite DRarnaGce. 101

31 can make good use of it.” But the next year and the next
year after, when he went by there and found magnificent crops
of corn, such as he had never seen on my farm before, he went to
tiling, and he has buried four times as much money as I did.

Mr. Briggs.—In a very heavy clay soil, how close together
would you have to put the tile, and how deep?

Mr. Nicolai—wWhere it is very stiff clay I would put the tile
down two rods apart and four feet deep, if you can get them
down so deep—if they have fall enough.

Mr. Briggs.—Will the water ever soak down to them?

Mr. Nicolai.—Yes, if they are covered with loose soil first.

Q.—Don’t you put something over before you put on the loose
soil?

Mr. Nicolai.—No. If it is quicksand, I put marsh hay or straw
over it, simply to keep the sand from coming in after I have
covered it. Quicksand won’t run unless there is some water. I
have taken up tiles that were laid in quicksand when I put them
in trenches where it was too wet, and in all the tiles I have taken
up I never found a tile filled with sand. If they are laid properly,
so there is a gradual fall, what little sediment runs in at the
joints the water will continually carry out at the outlet.

Q.—Suppose the land is blue clay. Would you put the tile
down four feet?

Mr. Nicolai—No, I don’t think it would be any advantage.

Mr. Arnold.—It would not be worth draining if it were blue
clay, would it?

The Chairman.—Yes, it would. I know of some land that is
blue clay land with a little black soil on top of it.

Mr. Nicolai—I would take that little black soil and shove it
down on top of the tile and fill the trench up with mixed blue
clay and black soil; that will drain it off in good shape. It is
the black soil that furnishes the good drainage above the tile.

The Chairman.—Many people are skeptical about this thing,
just as I was. I had read a great deal about tile draining, about

102 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

how much good it would do to land, and when I commenced dig-
ging a ditch through some blue clay, I said: “ I don’t see how it is
possible for the water to get through that. It is no use; it can’t
draw from each side.” But it did; but not until the ground had
once been frozen, and after it had been frozen twice, it did still
better. I looked at it like this, that the land is not so impervious
but that it gets full of water, and when it freezes it expands. It
commences to thaw out from below, making little channels
through the clay, and the clay being released, it doesn’t pack
down so solid as it did before, so it is much better each year.

Q.—Do you understand that the soil thaws out from under-
neath?

The Chairman.—Yes, sir.

Mr. Nicolai—lIt thaws out from both sides. But I will give
another explanation in regard to loosening the clay soil. You all
know that angleworms will not work in water, but just as soon
as you dry out the water, and give them a chance, they will work
over the soil to the depth of the water, and in that way I think
the clay soil is helped very much.

Mr. Wing.—I am glad to hear you speak of the angleworm,
because we have what we call exhausted soils in Ohio. They have
become tough and hard, and in those soils the angleworm helps
us after we have put on some manure. Of course, we do not
find them in the clay, but after the manure is put on, the humus
gets down, and they work through.

Q.—Do you think there is any truth in the theory that high,
gravelly ground can be benefited by drainage in dry seasons?

Mr. Nicolai—It depends on what your high ground is. In land
where the surface soil is underlaid with sand or gravel, as natural
drainage, you cannot benefit by tiling, but heavy clay soil can be
benefited by drainage. It depends on where your land is located,
what the value of it is, etc., as to whether it is profitable.

Mr. Wing—Would you think it necessary to give a quarter
of an inch fall to the rod, if you don’t have that much?

'Trrm DRAINAGE. 103

Mr. Nicolai—wNo, I stated that less fall may do.

The Chairman.—One inch to the hundred feet will do, if you
have fine work enough.

Mr. Arnold.—In tiling, will the siphon principle work—is it
tight enough?

Mr. Nicolai.—Yes, in clay land, you can get it tight enough to
draw out water, but it won’t do you any good. You let in the
air, and it will spoil your crop before you can get the water out.
I have seen it worked in tiling with clay.

Q.—Didn’t you find it essential to lay the tile so that there will
not be any depression where the water will fill up?

Mr. Nicolai—I never laid any where I had depression in the
tile..

Mr. Wing.—In Ohio, when we trusted to the colored brother
to lay tile, he would have a low place in the ditch and the water
would stand clear up; if you don’t see it in time you will have
to dig it out. It does not hurt so much where there is a strong
current, but where there is just a little shower that will carry
in a little earth, after a while it wil) harden there and fill it up.

The Chairman.—You don’t want any willow, cottonwood or
elm trees growing near your tile. They will get in through the
small openings and obstruct it.

Mr. Nicolai—Hadn’t you better include all trees?

The Chairman.—Maybe, but oak won’t bother.

Mr. Arnold.—Is not underdraining just as good where it is
made out of stone as out of tile?

Mr. Nicolai—Yes, but it is a great deal more expensive. The
first drainage I did was of stone, and it cost me about a dollar
a rod, but it was done in good workmanlike manner, so it is a
good drain to-day, and I think it was put in eighteen years ago;
before we had any tile factories in our section.

Mr. Wing.—Hasn’t that drain got lots of fall?

Mr. Nicolai.—No, it has no more fall than my tile. I don’t
think more than half an inch to the rod, and some places not
that much, but I can tell you how I put it in. It was a low,

104 Bureau or Farmers’ LIystitrures.

boggy marsh; I dug a ditch four feet deep and a little over a foot
wide at the bottom, so that I could get two good-sized stones,
one on each side; then I covered it with large stones on top,
and filled it with gravel, chinking it on the sides for about a
foot, making it tight; then I used boards in the bottom to put
my stones on, so they would not slip in the mud, and after the
water got thawed, it run a nice stream of water. During the dry
season this winter it has run a nice stream of water.

Supt. McKerrow.—Do your tiles run water in cold weather?

Mr. Nicolai.—Yes, sir; most of my tiles are running water now.
Of course, most of my ground is springy. On most land there
is no water to run only in the spring of the year.

The Chairman.—Now we will suppose there is some marsh
land running by the side of the hill (highland), and we know that
along next to the highland the marsh is apt to be the wettest.
Now, how would you run your tile—parallel with one side of the
hill, or run it right down through the marsh to the creek, forty
rods from there?

Mr. Nicolai.—I would run it parallel with the hill.

The Chairman.—That is the way I did, and it dried the land for
twenty rods beyond it; just cut off that spring water.

Mr. Nicolai—Springs are frequently cut off in that way, and it
will save a great deal of tile. It will make dry land out of small
fields which are kept wet by the seepage of these springs over the
land. |

The Chairman.—I want to say, just as Mr. Nicolai did, that if
it is going to cost more to tile the land than the land is worth, of
course it won’t pay to tile it, but even in such cases a man may
have a wee spring running diagonally through a field, and it may
pay him a great profit to tile it. That was some of the first
work I did. I had a field of twenty acres that was cut in two
diagonally by a spring, resulting in all five acres of wet land.
I run a tile through the whole field, so I could plow it. It worked
splendidly, and after one has commenced to tile such places as
that, he will see other places, and he will keep on until he makes
a garden of his whole farm.

Tite DRAINAGE. 105

Mr. NicolaiI have had the same experience as Mr. Good-
rich, in regard to my neighbors accusing me of throwing
away my money; also in regard to the fact that after I commenced
to tile I did not stop until every foot of my land that needed it was
tiled. I have tiled about sixty acres now, and I have noticed that
all the men in our section, after they have once commenced it, can
not find a stopping place until every foot is dry, and that is very
good evidence that it pays.

Mr. Wing.—I have a neighbor who began laying tiles, and his
father thought he was crazy. He came out from town afterwards
and saw the crop of clover and the wheat growing on the land,
and he turned the tables on the boy. He says, “Joe, this ought
to have been done long ago.”

Mr. Nicolai.—There is one very great advantage with tiled land,
and that is its early use in the spring. I notice that my tiled
land is ready to work a great deal sooner than ordinary upland,
because the tile is at work all winter where there is no frost under-
neath, and just as quick ds the frost is out, your land is dry and
you can go right to work on it and put in your crop.

Mr. Arnold.—Have you ever had the water analyzed from these
drains to find out whether it is taking off any fertility or not?

Mr. Nicolai—I never have, but I am convinced that it does, in
certain cases.

Mr. Arnold.—How would you stop that?

Mr. Nicolai—I don’t know that I could stop it, nor could I stop
losing some of the fertility under any circumstances. I am one
of those who believe in manuring in the fall or winter, or any
other time that it is convenient, to get it on the land as quickly as
possible, spread it on brodcast, and in that condition I am going
to lose some of the fertility anyhow.

Mr. Arnold.—Don’t you believe if you have a growing crop on
the land there would be less loss than vithout any.

Mr. Nicolai—There wouldn’t any crop grow just now. ‘There
is a chance as soon as the water gets out of the land. I know of
one place where the basins were all filled up with water two
weeks ago, and it has all sunk away, the land is dry, and if there

106 Bureau or Farmers’ INstrruTes.

was any manure scattered on the top and soaked up in the water,
some of the fertility is gone; but I would rather lose a portion of
it than be compelled to drag out my manure after the frost is out
of the ground.

Mr. Throp.—This tile we are talking about is about four feet
down in the ground. If there is any fertility in the water that
floats on the soil, it is going to be filtered out before it reaches the
tile, and be kept in the soil. I have been watching some people
in my neighborhood who have been putting in quite a number of
thousand feet of tile. Two or three years ago, in fact, one young
man put in 20,000 feet at one time, in one season. He hired a lot
of men and they came and tile-drained diagonally across eighty
acres, which was almost a worthiess piece of ground before he
began. That slough ran down for miles, and the water came
coursing down through there in the spring on each side of the
ditch. It was a boggy marsh. Part of it he could mow and part
of it he couldn’t. He put in 20,000 feet of tile, and the result is
that he plows the whole thing now, and those eighty acres are the
most valuable he has on his farm. I asked him if he thought
he would do any more, and he tells me as soon as he can he is
going to tile all his land that needs it. Another man I know,
lives along Horicon marsh. The marsh extends in the shape of
sloughs around up through his farm. He commenced tiling there,
and I guess he will never get done. He manages to get good crops
where he does tile; so much better crops than he used to get that
he buys his tile by the carload, and his neighbors are following
suit and putting in carloads of tile in the same kind of places.
So it seems to me that there must be something in it, if we are
unfortunate enough to have that kind of land. I am very glad
I haven’t that kind of land, myself.

There is one point that the gentleman did not touch on, and that
is in regard to the water flowing on to the other man’s land. You
had better get his consent. This last man I spoke of putting in
so much tile was troubled with the water in the spring flowing
over from his neighbor’s land and down through his. “He wanted
him to go in with him and put in a 10-inch tile through there

Tite DRAINAGE. 107

for his own benefit. He put a dam across and held the water back
on to his neighbor’s land, so it couldn’t overflow his land, and all
the water had to go down through that 10-inch tile, and if there
was any surface water he held it back.

Mr. Arnold.—The great German chemist, Liebig, demonstrated,
fifty years ago, that if you take liquid manure and run it through
the earth covering tiles, that you will have pure water when it
goes through. I would not be afraid to tile drain land on account
of the loss of fertility, but I think you would lose less if you had
a crop growing than without it, according to these experiments.

Good Roads.

By Dr. H. D. Hunt, Marathon, N. Y.

When I was requested to preSent for your consideration and
discussion at this meeting the subject of “ good roads,” I was
very much pleased; not because I felt that I was master of the
subject; not because I felt I could tell you all about road build-
ing—that is, the material to be used, the manner of using and
the cost thereof—but because I considered it an evidence that
the farmers of this section were aroused to their importance. I
am simply the “ old country doctor,” and as such have plenty of
opportunities to examine the roads, form opinions, and some-
times express them, and I fear they are not always complimen-
tary to the roads, to the road officials, or to the communities
through which the roads pass.

How can our highways be improved?

What system of highway improvement should be adopted?

How can the desired end be accomplished?

What will be the cost?

How much will be added to our already heavy burden of tax-
ation?

Will the supervision be a heavy expense?

Will some official receive good pay and have an easy job while
we toil and sweat to pay the tax from which he draws his salary?

Can any system be adopted that will give us better roads with-
out increasing taxation beyond our resources?—These and hun-
dreds of other questions at once flash through the mind of the
farmer as soon as he contemplates the possibility of having better
roads over which to haul his farm products; and the answers that
come up in his mind in reply are frequently not such as he most
earnestly wishes.

Goop Roaps. 109

Many years ago I think the farmers used the roads fully as
much, in proportion to the population, as they do to-day; I refer
to the time when the farmers had to haul their farm products a
long way to market. I have frequently heard farmers relate
experiences in hauling loads of farm produce from Cortland
county to the city of Albany. In those days the roads were full
of teams at certain seasons of year, and the roadside inns were
taxed to their utmost to accommodate the traveling public.
But circumstances wrought a change. By the opening of the
canals the markets were brought nearer to the farms, and road
travel was much diminished, and circumstances still continued
to work to lessen highway travel, and thereby diminish the im-
portance of good roads. Railroads were built traversing the
country east and west, north and south, until a market place
was established in almost every town. Then at once this (Cort-
land county) became the great dairy section of the State, and
the average farmer could stay at home and work through the
entire season, and in the fall load his entire farm product on
his wagon and draw it to market at a single load. His neces-
sary use of the roads was very limited, and for a period they
were used by him more for pleasure than from necessity. Cir-
cumstances continued to exert their influence until to-day a very
large number of dairymen draw their products to market—not
in one day and at one load, but to the milk station 365 days in
a year, and most of the time twice a day. They are now using
the roads for something beside pleasure. The farmer of this
section has found that he can no longer afford to grow his own
grain feed. Cheap transportation that has come hand in hand
with the development of the great west has made it possible for
him to buy western grain feed cheaper than he can produce it
on his own farm, and he now draws many tons of feed from the
feed store to his farm.

But a few years ago the markets were calling on the grain
producers of New York for a portion of their product, now those
markets are supplied by the great west. The western cream-
eries are now supplying the market that but a few years ago

110 Bureau or Farmers’ IystTITures.

many of the farmers of Cortland county helped to supply, and
most of this has been brought about within the last decade.
If such great changes have been brought about within that time,
changes that have presented to the farmer great obstacles which
he has been obliged to meet and surmount, is it not a rational
thought that he will have equally great ones to meet in the
near future? In view of all these facts, and reasoning from this
standpoint, is it any wonder that the farmers are aroused to the
necessity of more and better road improvement? But how is
this to be accomplished? Certainly the farmers cannot do it
all themselves. They cannot assume so heavy a burden of tax-
ation. Then of whom shall they ask assistance? Have they not
the moral right to call upon those to whom they have been
donating for years? I mean the cities and villages. Who built
the cities? Who maintains them? Who furnishes them their
sustenance to-day? The farmer. What has contributed more
than any other factor to make New York city the second largest
city in the world? There can be but one answer, namely, the
Erie canal. Whose money built it? Seventy-five years ago,
when the canal was being built, New York city did not pay sixty
per cent. of the tax; neither did the canal counties, with their
great cities, including New York, pay nearly eighty per cent. of
the State tax, as they do to-day. The farmers had to pay largely
for the building of the canal, for the enlargement of 1862 and
for the maintenance of the canal for many years. But a few
years ago nearly one-third of the State tax paid by Cortland
county was for canal expenditures, and the advantage that it
has been to the canal terminal counties is beyond all mathe-
matical calculation. But what profit has the farmer received?
Your profit, if any, has come by such a round-about way, and
from so remote a point, that its calculation is scarcely possible
and would be more nearly represented by a cipher than any
figure. Look at the public buildings that have been built
in the cities all over the State at the expense of the taxpayer,
either in State or county tax. Are they not a great benefit to
the municipalities wherein they are located? Most certainly.

Goop Roaps. 5 Oe

Now I would not have you think that I call your attention to
these facts to condemn the canal system of our State, neither
would I have you think that I would advocate the erection of
our public buildings upon the summit of some barren hill top
away from the centers of population, but simply to illustrate the
fact that in soliciting help from cities and villages to rebuild
and improve country roads, we are but asking for the return of
our own. We are not begging, for farmers, above all classes, dis-
like to beg or be accused of begging.

We have a law called the “ Higby-Armstrong Good Roads
Law ” which provides the the State shall pay one-half the cost of
building permanent roads constructed under State supervision.
Also the “Fuller Good Roads Law.” providingthatany town may
draw from the State treasury one-fourth as much money as it will
levy and collect by direct tax for road improvement. These laws
were passed by a Legislature made up, by a very large majority
of representatives from cities and villages, which can receive
no direct benefit from the operation of these laws. That alone is
strong evidence that the cities sympathize with us in our effort to
get good roads, and are willing to extend a helping hand. Asa
further evidence, you are of course, aware that the State En-
gineer and Surveyor during the last sessions of the boards of
supervisors throughout the State, invited each board to send
three delegates to a good-roads convention, held at Albany, Feb-
ruary 8 and 9, 1900. I had the honor and pleasure of being one
of the deiegates from this county, and I was surprised to see that
the delegates in that convention who lived in cities were the most
enthusiastic for improvement of country roads, one gentleman
even going so far as to favor the bonding of the State for the
enormous sum of $12,000,000 for the improvement of country
roads. When a resolution came up petitioning the Legislature
for an appropriation of $1,000,000, for the carrying out of the pro-
visions of the “ Higby-Armstrong ” Law there was not a dissent-
ing voice. All this evidence shows that the cities will aid us if we
but ask and give a guarantee that the money appropriated will be
faithfully and profitably expended. By a guarantee I do not mean

112 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTirures.

an indemnifying bond drawn in accordance with the provisions of
some man-made law, but a guarantee in accordance with that
higher law in which is written: “ By their works ye shall know
them.” Then what work shall we do? What work can we do
that will be better than that which we have been doing? Let

us see.

We can do as they have done in other counties, organize county
good-roads leagues. Through such organizations we can get all
the literature on the subject. Each member would thus become
familiar with the present laws and from time to time be posted
on any proposed new legislation. We would be in touch with
like organizations in other counties, thus putting us in com-
munication with all portions of the state. Comparisons of condi-
tions could then be made, which is very necessary, for a law that
might be of great benefit to one portion of the State might be of
little or no use to another. For instance, the “ Higby-Armstrong
Law ” may be of great advantage in some counties. In a county
which contains large cities that pay a large portion of the county
tax, it seems clear the advantages would be much greater than
they can possibly be to Cortland county. With all counties in
communication through County Good Roads Leagues, the wants
or wishes of one portion of the State would be known to the other
and any proposed legislation might be so framed as to meet the
needs of all.

Next let each town adopt the money system as provided by the
“Fuller Law.” I am happy to say that my own town has done
that by a vote of nearly three to one in its favor; yet I do not
believe that there are very many of the voters of my
town that are fully satisfied with the provisions of the
“Fuller Law”; but they seem to reason that it is the
best within reach, and certainly a great improvement on
the labor system. Under its provisions every man will
pay a road tax in proportion to his assessment, and not pay
it by sitting under a shade tree by the road side, while his neigh-
bor is shoveling gravel in the sunshine; neighborhood quarrels
over highway work will be a thing of the past, and I think all

Goop Roaps. 113

believe that one dollar in money will purchase iabor that will
do the roads double the amount of good that one day’s work
accredited for road work under the labor system has done in the
past, and, besides, we have the 25 per cent. from the State in addi-
tion. In the convention at Albany, to which I referred, about 80
towns were reported as having adopted the money system and
everyone, without exception, found it a great improvement over
the labor system.

I believe under the labor tax system the rule is, as generally
adopted, to assess one days labor for each $500 assessment, which
at commutation rates $2 on a thousand dollars assessment, in
round numbers $20,000 in the county of Cortland, dropping the
assessment of incorporated villages, would give us $5,000
from the State. Would not, think you, $25,000 a year faithfully
and properly expended on the roads of Cortland county
make a vast improvement on our roads in a few years? Let us
bring the figures down to the town of Marathon. You have an
assessment of about $725,000; under the labor system your tax
will be 1,450 days, or $1,450, and your poll tax added, would raise
the amount of tax to $1,600. Then you would draw from the
State $400, thus giving you $2,000, with which to buy highway
labor. Does anyone in the county believe that there has been
even $1,000 worth of work faithfully and properly performed
upon our highways in a year during the last 20 years? If so,
you have the banner town of the county, for if you have faith-
fully and properly expended $20,000 upon your roads in labor
within the last 20 years, you have, I will guarantee the best roads
of any town in the State that is still on the labor tax system.
Further, I assume, that the competent road commissioner would
not, as many pathmasters have done, order the sods, stones and
muck scraped on to the roadbed, making it many times worse
than it was before, in which condition they allow it to remain
antil rain washes the muck back into the ditches and then order
the sods and stones thrown back upon the muck again. In the
fall a stranger could not tell whether there had been any work
done on the road that year or not.

114 Bureau ov Farmers’ IystiturEeEs.

If we would organize County Good Roads Leagues and adopt
the money system of highway tax, would not the cities accept
that as a sufficient guarantee that we were in earnest in the
matter of road improvement? Would they not be satisfied that
we mean to use every dollar that comes to our hands in the best
possible manner?

We can learn something from our sister states engaged in road
building. Massachusetts whose area is about one-sixth that of
this State, has built within the last seven years 300 miles of
macadam roads at a cost of $3,000,000 or $10,000 per mile. New
Jersey in the same time built 440 miles at a cost of $2,200,000 or
$5,000 per mile. Thus in these two states, with an area of less
than one-third that of New York, there has been expended on
roads by State aid $5,200,000, and they have for their outlay 740
miles of permanent roads. What has been done in this State
for road improvement during that same period?

In 1893, Governor Flower in his message to the legislature
said that from correspondence with the town clerks of the State
he had been able to compile statistics showing that there was
being expended annually in this State under our system of high-
way improvement the sum of $3,000,000; that same ratio for the
last seven years amounts to the enormous sum of $21,000,000
which has been expended in this State for the improvement of
our country roads, and what have we got to show for it? Prac-
tically nothing. It is difficult to understand what such a vast
sum represents. Think of it, enough to buy Cortland county and
have money enough left to buy grain seed with which to sow it
this spring and pay your hired help until you could sell your farm
product in the fall; almost as much as that hugh stone pile,
the State capital, cost, which many thought was a needless ex-
penditure, but for which we have the finest capital building in
the United States. But for our $21,000,000 expended for highway
purposes we have not even a pile of stone, unless it be in the
middle of the road, where we have to drive over it. Little wonder
that the farmers are beginning to cry out for some better system
of highway improvement! Our wagon roads are the great high-

Goop Roaps. 115

ways of commerce; over them are carried many more tons of
farm produce than over all other freight carriers combined; over
them all raw products first must move. The Department of Agri-
culture at Washington, basing estimates on the best data obtain-
~ able, fixes the cost of hauling over country roads, in round num-
bers at $1,000,000,000, or more than one-third the market value of
the entire agricultural product of the country, and by careful com-
parison with the cost of hauling loads over the good roads of
European countries, it is found that two-thirds of this enormous
expense is chargeable to the bad condition of roads.

The fact that the national Government has established a depart-
ment of road inquiry at Washington, is an evidence that national
aid is not far distant. The Post Office Department at Washington,
has for some time, been discussing the advisability of establish-
ing postal savings banks, and the investment of deposits that
would accumulate in such institutions has been a troublesome
question in the department. Inasmuch as all safe investments
are eagerly sought by rich corporations and the wealthy men of
our country, they need all and more chances for safe investments
than the present conditions of the financial world present. There-
fore before the proposition for the establishment of postal savings
banks can take form, some new scheme for investments must be
founded and created. The proposition to loan such funds as
would accumulate in such institutions to counties for road pur-
poses at a very low rate of interest, say two per cent., is not a
visionary one of my own, but is being discussed by eminent, care-
ful and thinking men, and may eventually be formulated into
some plan the advantages and benefits of which are clearly beyond
our powers of imagination.

Advancement and improvement in all civilized and enlightened
countries travel on the car of time. Mark the changes in local
travel and transportation. But a few years ago the cities were
content with putting down pavements, thereby giving better facili-
ties for travel and transportation for the benefits of trade. Then
very soon the horse street car was brought into use to facilitate
travel in the busy centers, but soon that became too slow and

116 Bureau oF Farmers’ Institutes.

electricity was harnessed to the car that business facilities might
keep pace with the progress of time; and now New York city is
going to expend $35,000,000 in building an underground rapid
transit railroad, and, strange as it may seem, doing that without
calling upon the taxpayer for a single penny. The Canal Com-
mission appointed by the Governor of the State recently, recom-
mended the improvement of our canals, the cost of which is esti-
mated at $60,000,000.

Where are our country roads during all this period of progress?
Just where our grandfathers left them and practically in the
same condition.

The “ Higby-Armstrong Law,” provides for the construction of
permanent roads under State supervision, that is macadam roads
that will wear a long time with but little expense for repairs.
This law provides that the State shall pay 50 per cent., the county
35 per cent.,and the town or the petitioners 15 per cent., of the cost
of construction. There is now a bill before the Legislature, if it
has not already passed, and if it has not, it, in all probability
will pass, appropriating $1,000,000 for road purposes under this
law; that means that there shall be a like amount raised by direct
tax in the localities where the roads are built, thus creating a
fund of $2,000,000 to be expended in road building.* There has
been built under this law twelve and one-fifth miles of road at
a cost of $6,717 per mile. Cortland county has in round numbers
1,000 miles of road, one-half of which are important roads. There-
fore, if it were possible for us to have the whole of the appro-
priation expended in this county, we would get about half our
important roads macadamized, or if continued, we could have
them completed in about two years, and we will have paid a tax
of about 15 per cent., of our assessed valuation. Then the ques-
tion at once presents itself. Will the value of our prosperity be
thereby advanced sufficiently to warrant such taxation? That
may perhaps be a debatable question. I most earnestly urge each
taxpayer to examine carefully and critically the “ Fuller Law,” if
he has not already done so, and while some defects. may be
found, it seems to me that it certainly has many advantages over

* Only $150,000 was appropriated for this purpose last year (1900).

Goop Roaps. TE

the labor system. If it were generally adopted, it would be an
evidence to the cities, to the Legislature, to the Governor, and
the State in general, that we are in earnest in our efforts for more
and better highway improvement. This would give us more and
better legislation in the future.

There are many other thoughts that present themselves, when
this matter is taken up for discussion. Permit me to call your
attention to the employment of convict labor in road building.
Some counties have already been experimenting in that direction,
with what results I am uninformed. Of course they are coun-
ties that have more convict labor than we have in this county,
yet it costs us about $1,000 a year to board our convicts. A por-
tion of them are kept in our county jail in idleness, another por-
tion in the Onondaga penitentiary, and the penitentiary get the
benefit of their labor while we pay their board. Most of these
convicts are able to earn their board, and many of them much
more than their board. Once the problem is worked out, how to
utilize this waste labor, and make the convicts earn their own
board instead of requiring the taxpayers to do it, it may result
in some benefits to our highways.

Bovine Tuberculosis.
CONDITIONS MISTAKEN FOR THE DISEASE.

By Dr. WILLIAM J. MurruHy, New York City.

The subject of bovine tuberculosis has received a great deal of
attention from physicians and veterinarians alike for many years,
and of the many animal ills it is probably the one most frequently
discussed, yet the least understood. Because of the prevalence
of tuberculosis in meat-producing animals and the possibility of
transmission from animal to man, the disease should be most care-
fully studied and investigated. Proper precautions should be
exercised to prevent its spread, and various sanitary measures
adopted which should aim to free the bovine tribe from the ter-
rible scourge with which it has so long been afflicted.

No doubt the cow and her diseases are closely allied to many
human ills, and facts tend to prove that the disease tuberculosis.
in man and animals is identical. In the human subject the dis-
ease is not at all times readily diagnosed, and frequently other
conditions with apparently similar manifestations are mistaken
for it. The same is true with the disease and its diagnosis
in animals. At times its existence in the live animal is very
questionable, and conclusions hastily drawn often lack veri-
fication upon a subsequent post-mortem examination. I have
seen it generalized in the young steer, where its presence was
never suspected and was seemingly in perfect health. I have
seen it in the blooded bull, where the tubercular matter had per-
meated every tissue and organ of the body, yet by no manifesta-
tion was the disease revealed until the animal was butchered for
food.

Thus it is evident that tuberculosis can exist without its pres-
ence being known. On the other hand, I have seen very many

BovinE TUBERCULOSIS. 119

small, emaciated, worn out cows, weak, decrepid, ill-fed, with a
painful, hacking cough, hardly able to walk, pictures of bovine
misery and distress, seeming typical cases of tuberculosis for all
appearances, prove upon slaughtering to be entirely free from
disease, the lungs sound, the lymphatic langular system normal,
or possibly unlooked-for conditions met which would account for
the animal’s decrepid state. If these had been but occasional
instances, I would have thought that perhaps a greater experience
and a closer observation would disprove views superficially ap-
parent; but such has not been the case.

Tuberculosis in the cow is not a malady readily manifest like
pleuro-pneumonia. It lacks the prominent lesions of actinomy-
cosis. It is void the acute symptomatology of splenic apoplexy
or anthrax. The signs which denote the presence of an acute
disorder are absent. It does not run a rapid course through vari-
ous stages, but is a disease slow in character, with symptoms ir-
regular and often ill-defined. Sometimes the presence of all the
symptoms in prominent forms seems to make the diagnosis
simple, yet a post-mortem examination reveals no trace of the
disease. Tuberculosis is not responsible for the decrepid state of
every cow. Other causes—not always diseases—are often re-
sponsible for the cow’s decline. Naturally appears the question,
what conditions and what diseases are mistaken for those of
tuberculosis? There are a number of them. Some are of fre-
quent occurrence, others are met occasionally. Some present
lesions resembling those of the disease with which they are con-
founded, and some present very little similarity when carefully
considered. Foreign bodies taken in with the food are responsi-
ble for a great deal of bovine distress—far more than one might
imagine—and are a very prominent cause of lesions often mis-
taken for those of tuberculosis while the animal is alive. We
have similar emaciation, a hacking cough, generally unthrifti-
ness. Many of the obscure diseases of the cow, her frequent in-
dispositions, her occasional cough, her loss of appetite and her
different annoying and perplexing actions, arise from the pres-
ence of foreign bodies in the stomach and the distress which their

120 Bureau oF Farmers’ Instirurtes.

presence sometimes occasion. In the stomach of the cow can
almost always be found nails, pieces of barb wire and various ex-
traneous objects. I should say that at least seventy-five per
cent. of the cows used upon the farm or in the dairy are so af-
fected. Some experience no ill effects from their presence, while
others are sickened and emaciated by the inflammatory action
which the irritating substance causes as it becomes lodged in the
coats of the stomach or works its way through that organ into
other tissues.

One time I selected a thin, worn-out cow, presenting all the
external manifestations of tuberculosis as a case illustrative of
the ravages of this disease. Upon a post-mortem examination,
the lungs were sound and perfect, but a large table fork protrud-
ing through the coats of the stomach and surrounded by a large
field of inflammatory exudates, readily accounted for the animal’s
wasted appearance. :

Catarrhal pneumonia in cattle often leaves lesions in the lungs
which have been mistaken for and accepted as evidence of the
existence of tuberculosis, although the two conditions are entirely
different. Where the disease has been of a severe type, we may
find a portion of the lung destroyed and in its place, an abscess
of varying size, encapsulated and presenting a varied degree of
consistency, according to its age. Beyond its mere presence, it
exerts no ill effect upon the animal and remains at all times dif-
ferent from the deposits of the disease with which it is con-
founded. The deposits of actinomycosis in the lungs of cows can
not be distinguished from the deposits of tuberculosis by the
unaided eye.

Throughout the West, a large number of emaciated steers are
bought and shipped to distilleries in Pennsylvania and other
States to be fed, or, more properly speaking, stuffed with the
refuse from these concerns. Within a month they undergo a
wonderful transformation. They rapidly take on flesh and are
then shipped to abattoirs throughout the country. While they
may appear to good advantage, they in no way equal the corn or
grain fed animal, as an article of food. In the short space of one

BovinE TUBERCULOSIS. 191

month, this distillery food has greatly impaired the animal’s
sight and many of them are totally blind. If they remained long
enough, they would all be similarly affected. The lymphatic
glands at the base of the tongue are enlarged from twice to four
times their natural size and are generally the seat of an
abscess, which, from its size alone, must materially interfere with
the animal’s deglutition. No doubt the glandular system
throughout the system has been similarly affected. If these ani-
mals were kept long enough under such conditions and forced to
partake of this food for a sufficient time, say, three or four
months, I have no doubt that the lungs, the liver, the various in-
ternal organs, would become affected in the same way as the
hide, the eyes, and the glands at the base of the tongue; while
a condition due entirely to the nature of the food which the ani-
mal received, would, in all probability, be mistaken for lesions
of tuberculosis.

Evident is it that bovine tuberculosis is a disease that is fre-
quently confounded with ills and conditions, of perhaps ap-
parently similar manifestations, but to suffer the condemnation
of such animals as victims of plagues, with which they do not
suffer, is an injustice to the farmer, a wrong to the stock-raiser,
the propagation of a groundless fear to the mother, an imposition
upon the public, an unfortunate blight upon our herds and an
opportunity for foreign nations, who are jealous of our progress
and our commercial activity, to discriminate unjustly against
American cattle, American dairy interests, our cows, our meats,
and the various food products prepared from our meats.

There is a disease tuberculosis. It frequently exists in cows.
Sometimes it is local, and often it is generalized in form and is a
malady that should be carefully watched to prevent its ravages
extending beyond the limits of an animal plague and exerting its
deteriorating influence upon the health of the human family. It
is an unfortunate fact that nearly all the measures employed to
eradicate tuberculosis, neither aim to exterminate it when it ex-
ists nor prevent its appearance when it does not exist. It is
not surprising that with an ill so deceiving, with a malady so

122 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

frequently the topic of conversation, various devices should be
employed to assist in the determination of its presence in a sus-
pected animal. We live in an age where wonderful “ discover-
ies” from the fertile brains of “scientific explorers” are
thrust upon us in rapid succession only to be accepted for a
time, heralded as marvelous truths, tried, doubted, cast aside and
abandoned. In my short life I have passed through an era of
vaccine, mallein, antitoxin, pleuro-pneumonia, tuberculin, and we
see them all travel the one path from spontaneous adoration
through a varied career to a well deserved obscurity. They are
generally born a proprietary article or the result of a secret pro-
cess of preparation. They bloom for a while and then fade away,
and with them go their victims, their advocates and the con-
demnation of a fickle world.

A FEW WORDS ABOUT TUBERCULIN.

Its use has attracted considerable attention. At first it was
offered as a valuable remedial agent for the cure of tuberculosis,
but being unable to sustain that reputation, it has since posed
as a means of ‘ascertaining the existence of tuberculosis in an
animal when nothing else suggests the possibility of its presence.

Perhaps I am not in a position to criticise the action of tuber-
culin, or to comment upon its efficacy as a diagnostic agent. I
admit that I have had no practical experience with its use. I
never injected it into an animal to verify a suspicion of tuber-
culosis, principally because I reside in a large city and as yet the
opportunity has not presented itself for me so to do. Neither do
I wish to prejudice anyone against its use. Sometime ago the use
of mallein was strongly recé6mmended as a useful aid in the diag-
nosis of glanders in horses. I tried it in a number of instances
and the results were entirely disappointing. In several pronounced
cases of glanders with apparent manifestations, the test gave no
reaction, and so far as I am concerned, its employment is not only
unavailing but useless and dangerous.

Let us return to the subject of tuberculin. From time to time
there have been brought to an abattoir within my jurisdiction, a

Bovine TUBERCULOSIS. 123

number of cows which have been subjected to the tuberculin
test and according to its provings, were affected with tubercu-
losis. In all the number that were slaughtered at different times,
I have seen but few cases of generalized tuberculosis among
them, and I am inclined to think that possibly they were ob-
tained more by accident than by operation of the test. From what
I could learn, the ones most affected gave the slightest reactions
under the test. Many of the cows in which what might have beeu
tuberculosis, but probably was not, was discovered only after
the most diligent search. They were in the form of isolated,
minute pin-head deposits in various glands and in the structure
of the liver and were accepted as responsible for the provings
of the test. One thing is certain: If what is often accepted as eyi-
dence of tuberculosis by the tuberculin operator is really tuber-
culosis, then the entire bovine tribe, both young and old, are
hopelessly afflicted with this disease—hardly a reasonable sup-
position. Among them were cows in which the most diligent and
careful scrutiny failed to discover the least sign of disease, and
I learned that in one of these animals, the rise in temperature
had been most pronounced.

While my observation in regard to tbe efficacy of tuberculin
has been entirely negative. I do not doubt that it has many ad-
vocates and many of them have advised me that I have been un-
fortunate in witnessing the work of careless or incompetent
operators—hardly an acceptable explanation. To me the object
of tuberculin has been a most interesting study, and a study of
those who advise its use, has often been a more interesting
study. One of the most remarkable truths connected with
the subject seems to be the fact that a negative reaction with
the test is not demonstrative of a freedom from tuberculosis.
An animal may be a victim of generalized tuberculosis and yet
the test not reveal its presence, a tuberculin idiosyncrasy. Time
alone wil! decide the fate of tuberculin. It has banished into
obscurity many popular delusions which have from time to time
become associated with the medical creed, and I fear that when
posterity reads the history of medicine, it will find that in a cer-

124 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

tain age, there flourished an idea quaint, queer, but unstable, that
certain diseases of animals could be diagnosed by certain animal
poisons being injected into their delicate composition, but with the
advance of the light of truth, this idea, fantastic and amusing,
fell by the wayside and was lost sight of in the onward march of
the science of medicine.

No one wishes to partake of meat from animals diseased or
sick. The health of the nation is at stake, and in no way can
the disease-breeding material gain an easier entrance into the
system, than with the food. But every cow is not afflicted
with tuberculosis. While it is a frequent bovine ill, it is not a
necessary complement to their composition. Of all the domestic
animals, the cow is probably the least understood. Veterinarians
do not devote to her the attention that her importance demands.
The animal most vitally interested with human existence is left
to the care of those who understand almost nothing of her ways
or wants. She is kept in filth, is fed with filth, and her very sur-
roundings breed the disease we try in vain to cure.

How will we eradicate tuberculosis? It is a subject that in-
terests not only the veterinarian, but the physician, the farmer—
the universe. We will answer the question by saying how the
disease will not be exterminated. It will not disappear as long
as the dirty, filthy cow shed remains. It can be bred into animals
by the manner of their surroundings. The cow requires good air,
light and ventilation, in place of the dark, stuffy pest holes,
where she is usually confined. She must have competent attend-
ants, instead of the brutal, worthless, repulsive degenerates, usu-
ally entrusted with her care. She must receive good, wholesome
food, in place of refuse. She must be cleaned, exercised and
manipulated with the care and delicacy that her complex mechan-
ism demands and should receive. When the cow is properly kept,
tuberculosis will disappear. When we thoroughly understand
her ways and necessities, instead of injecting into her system
products of disease—a notion whimsical, irrational and danger-
ous—we will have learned that this disease is an ill for which
man’s ignorance and mismanagement is largely responsible. By

BovinE TUBERCULOSIS. 125

the proper observation of ordinary sanitary measures, this dis-
ease can be largely overcome, if not entirely eradicated. A sub-
ject fraught with such dangerous possibilities, requires the em-
ployment of measures not only heroic, but persistent and effective,
if we wish to avoid a possible eradication of the bovine tribe and
destroy a potent factor, which might operate disastrously in the
ultimate degeneration of the human race.

Bovine Tuberculosis in Its Relation to Man.*

By EpwArpD Moortr, M. R. C. V. 8., Albany, N. Y.

This subject is a story old—older than many of the hills and
valleys that beautify the landscape to-day, older than some of
the islands of the sea. I speak of its antiquily because in this
country bovine tuberculosis was rarely recognized until 1890.
The disease in cattle has been described in veterinary works,
printed mainly abroad, under such headings as tubercle, con-
sumption, wasting, pining, and scrofula; also called angle berry
and grape disease by butchers, because of the knotty growths
found by them in affected carcasses, and it has been known to
veterinarians abroad for a great many years; yet our stock papers,
agricultural journals, veterinarians, and the American public gen-
erally gave the subject no importance prior to the year above
mentioned. I searched the volumes of the Country Gentleman for
ten years prior to 1890, and, outside of articles by the author of
this paper, the subject was not mentioned until December 19,
1889, when it was stated that “ cattle tuberculosis seems to be
spreading on the continent of Europe, according to the statistics
produced before the Veterinary Congress lately held in Paris.
Of cattle slaughtered in public abattoirs, more than one per cent.
were found affected with the disease.” One might search back
to the landing of the Pilgrims in vain for information on this
subject prior to 1888. At a meeting of the New York Farmers
at the Metropolitan Club, February 18, 1896, Mr. Theodore A.
Havemeyer said: “I have been for a long time a breeder of cat-
tle, as was my father before me. Up to 1888 I think tuberculosis

* Read before the Albany County Medical Society April 18, 1899.
Reprinted from the New York Medical Journal for September 2 and 9, 1899.
Copyrighted, 1899, by D. Appleton & Company.

BovinE Tussrcurosis <n Irs Rerarion to Man. 13e

was not known by my father; up to that time it certainly was
not known by me.” The organization he was speaking to is com-
posed of about eighty of the wealthiest and most representative
men in this country, who own high-class stock farms. Every
member had large sums in pure-bred cattle, and was vitally in-
terested in all such subjects, and, although many of them had
had tuberculosis in their herds for years, they did not know it.
The medical profession up to this time was in no way exercised
over the danger of the communicability of tuberculosis from the
bovine to the human race, nor, indeed, did they lay much stress
on the infectiveness of the disease from person to person. Then
suddenly all America was stirred by articles from veterinarians,
physicians and laymen. Later, laws were enacted, cattle commis-
sions appointed, inspectors were sent out, herds were subjected
to the tuberculin test, and animals that gave satisfactory reac-
tions were killed. Many physicians went to see post-mortems,
were convinced of immeasurable dangers, and fell into line.
Stock owners trembled and the public was in a panic, and saw
more danger in milk than in rum. The tidal wave swept over
the country; State and local boards of health, medical and vet-
erinary medical societies, agricultural societies, farmers, grang-
ers, dairymen, milkmen’s associations, and the nail-keg and soap-
box aristocracy of the country store were all discussing the “new”
disease in cattle and its relations to man. The disease, how-
ever, was not “new,” in fact, is one of the oldest, but it was
new to most of the people and it served as a great scare. It
was treated as if it were a most desperate scourge just imported
into the country, when, as a matter of fact, it was no more
prevalent in proportion to the number of cattle than it had been.

Legislative Appropriations for Stamping Out.—The chief aim of
health boards heretofore has been to destroy tuberculous cattle;
the greater the number condemned and slaughtered, the greater
the glory. No matter that it struck consternation into the ranks
of the proprietors of a great industry. No matter that in many
cases the richest blood of heredity in pure-bred herds was forever
lost—lost though it had cost lifetimes and fortunes to obtain;

128 Burrau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

lost through the wanton, needless, insatiable thirst for a big
killing bee. What did it matter that a great paying institution
employing many hands was wiped out; that the proprietors were
financially ruined; that employees were thrown out of work; that
great farms were deserted? Slaughter was the war cry. Sal-
vation they dreamed not of. If it were proved that our people
contracted the disease from the cattle, I would heartily favor
such slaughter. Or from the cattle owner’s standpoint I would
favor it if assured that the undertaking were practical, and that
its cost would be too exorbitant, and that the infection could then
be kept out of the State. The framers of the laws under which
the inspections have been made and the members of the State
boards of health seem to have given no thought to the immensity
of the task, or the expenditure such a plan entails. If they have,
we have not been told how they propose to succeed. The year-
book of the Department of Agriculture for 1897, states that the
government has made and distributed to State authorities suffi-
cient tuberculin to test 57,000 cattle. The census of 1890 gave
New York State alone 2,131,392 cattle. How much tuberculin
would be needed then to examine the cattle in all the states?
The United States government reports for 1897 placed the number
of milch cows at 18,113,000; other cattle, 32,647,000. Total valua-
tion, $877,169,414. If we could wave over this State a fairy wand
and thus instantly banish all bovine tuberculosis, how long would
the immunity last, while the remainder of this vast country is
full of infection, and the bacilli can retain their vitality for
months in a bale of hay, and the winds can blow them over the
borders? I know of a stock farm where $100,000 was spent for
farms and buildings, and $30,000 for bure-bred cattle, and in
about a year these cattle were disposed of at any price, on ac-
eount of the methods pursued by the State in which the farm is
located. Tuberculosis in man, and such of the lower animals
as are susceptible to it, is generally recognized as a specific in-
fectious disease due to the tubercle bacillus, and this bacillus
in either species is considered as practically the same. We are
interested in this paper with tuberculosis in the human and

Bovine TuBERCULOSIS IN ITs RELATION To Man. 129

bovine species, the two great families in both of which it exists
to an alarming extent. The disease occurs in a limited way in
several of the domestic animals other than the ox, but assumes
very little practical importance so far as they are concerned.
The disease is a slow and insidious one, wholly different in this
respect from such diseases as cholera and small-pox of the human,
or cattle plague of the bovine. Tuberculosis in cattle does not
necessarily kill; on the contrary, many animals maintain ordinary
health and high condition, apparently suffer no inconvenience
from it, and finally die of some other cause. In other instances
there are signs of constitutional disorder with more or less of
the symptoms common to it, and in acute cases followed by death
within a few weeks or months.

Breed.—All breeds are susceptible. It has been erroneously
believed that Jersey cattle were most prone to tuberculosis, but
the royally bred and the common scrub are alike subject to it,
just as the various races of men are.

Sanitation and Spontaneity—The old writers gave as some of
the causes of tuberculosis, bad ventilation, filth and insanitary
conditions generally. No combination of ill conditions can pro-
duce a single case of the disease, nor can the most perfect and
elegant buildings and hygienic surroundings offer immunity from
it. Of course this is easily accounted for now that the means of
infections are understood.

Heredity.—Dobson, quite an authority a few years ago, in his
work on the ox, says: “There seems to be no doubt as to the
hereditary character of this affection, so that in no case should
a bull be chosen from stock which are thus diseased. . . . A
report to the parliament of Victoria, New South Wales, in 1886,
says that heredity certainly plays a most important part in the
propagation of the disease.” This is the opinion of about all
veterinary writers. Since the discovery of the tubercle bacillus
and the application of the tuberculin test, it has been found that
calves from tuberculous dams, if removed immediately after birth

~

9)

130 Bureau oF Farmers’ Institutes.

from all chances of infection, rarely show disease. Heredity has
but small claim to attention now.

Predisposition.—We have been assured by all writers that pre-
disposition and conformation were most important factors. We
know to-day that no matter how narrow-chested and weak con-
stitutionally an animal may be, tuberculosis cannot occur with-
out infection, and it does not seem to select the puny ones
especially.

Contagion.—We have seen that most of the old ideas about
tuberculosis have been dissipated, but its infectiveness is beyond
cavil. That it will spread among healthy cattle when they are
kept with diseased ones is well known.

Tuberculin Test.—This has been stated by many to be an in-
fallible guide in the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis. I may say
that it depends largely on the infallibility of the man who uses
it. If a correct selection of animals is made, leaving out any
that should not be tested, and the proper amounts of tuberculin
are used for the varying ages and conditions, then if the tem-
peratures are taken without errors we shall have tables that if
correctly interpreted, are very valuable in determining the num-
ber of animals that are free from tuberculosis and the number
that are not. But tuberculin is not an automatic machine; it
requires brains, judgment and experience to make a test and then
read the answers correctly. When used with these pre-
requisities, it is a highly efficient diagnostic agent.

Percentage of Diseased Cattle in Herds.—In some herds of cows
of dairy age the percentage may run from twenty to ninety per
cent., and now and then a herd may be found in which every
animal is infected. In herds in which there is a goodly number
of young animals the percentage is smaller. Young animals are
comparatively free from it. Mature cows give the largest per-
centage of victims, those from a year and a half to three years
old the next, and those less than a year old the least. There
‘seems to be diversity of opinion among physicians as to whether
tuberculosis is more common in adults or children. This point

Bovine Tusercutosis 1n Its ReLation To Man. 131

should be settled, and it should be demonstrated how and from
what source infants obtain infection. It has been convenient up
to this time to attribute thousands of cases to the ingestion of
cow’s milk. The Veterinary Journal, London, England, for June,
1889, gives an account of a meeting of the British Medical Asso-
ciation at Glasgow, and Dr. Carpenter stated that eighty per
cent. of the cattle sent to the principal meat market in London
were affected. Professor McCall said that twenty-five per cent.
would be nearer the mark for Glasgow. In Saxony it is said to
be, about one per cent.; in Berlin, 3.2 per cent. New York State
Tuberculosis Committee’s Report for 1895 states that about seven
per cent. is figured as the average for the whole State. The
writer examined a herd in this State in which 27 out of 30
animals were tuberculous, and some were in the last stages
of disease. Three youngsters were free from it. Another herd
examined in Connecticut gave about 50 per cent. of diseased
adults. Nearly half of the healthy ones were under two years
old.

Transmission. We have now arrived at the point upon which
hinge very largely the health and welfare of humanity and the
fate of millions of dollars’ worth of cattle. Is bovine tuberculosis
communicable to the human subject? This is the paramount
question, and it must be intelligently answered. ‘The physician,
the biologist, and the veterinarian are called upon to solve this
problem, and below are given opinions from each, as well as from
the State Board of Health, using these merely as examples of
the universal opinion on the subject. We have noticed that so
far as heredity, breed, sanitation, spontaneity, and predisposition
are concerned, there has been a vast amount of error taught.
We will now consider transmissibility. J. H. Girdner, A. B.,
M. D., in an article published on the disease germs and how
to avoid some of them, states that “the other principal source of
human infection is from drinking the milk and eating the flesh
of tuberculous cattle. Tuberculosis in children usually mani-
fests itself in diseases of the bones and joints, white swelling,
and in enlargement and suppuration of the glands of the neck.

132 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

In nearly all such cases the infection comes from drinking milk
from tuberculous cows.” Bulletin 118, New Jersey Experiment
Station, on the suppression and prevention of tuberculosis of
cattle and its relation to human consumption, by Julius Nelson,
biologist, contains these words: “ But it is principally for man’s
sake that the lower animals should be included in the general
scheme for freeing the country from this evil.” In the Journal
of Comparative Veterinary Medicine, December, 1897, C. C. McLean,
veterinary surgeon, and a milk inspector in Pennsylvania, con-
tributes an article which was read before the State Veterinary
Medical Society. The following is a part: “The houses of the
wealthiest in the world and the homes of the poorest testify that
our meat and milk supply cause thousands of deaths from this
disease every day. Tuberculosis is therefore the most important
disease for the veterinary profession to deal with.” The report
of the New York State Board of Health to the Legislature of
1895 contains the following: “ There is a complete unanimity of
opinion now in the scientific world as to the communicability
from man to man, and from animal to man, and man to animals.
That milk and its products wiil convey it has been proved re-
peatedly. This has now past beyond the experimental stage, and
is no longer open to doubt. It has also been proved that lower
animals fed with tuberculous meat become tuberculous as a re-
sult of such feeding.” Such, then, is the common opinion to-day.
Many of the statements are couched in language calculated to
defy further investigation and to discourage even a doubt as to
their correctness; however, we shall endeavor to show by the
conditions as they exist between man and animals, and animals
and man, that no stress of words, no amount of bigotry, no arbi-
trary proclamation unsupported, can hold the truth in bondage.
If the State Board of Health believed its own teachings and was
sincere, why did it inspect, tuberculin test, condemn, quarantine,
and tag for slaughter various lots of cattle which, according to
the board’s reports, were inimical to the public health and were
prone to spread disease among other cattle, and after holding
them in quarantine a considerable time to pass a resolution and

BovinE TUBERCULOSIS IN ITs RELATION TO Man. 183

send out the following notice to the owners of said diseased
cattle?

“ You are herewith notified that the quarantine imposed upon
your cattle by the inspectors of this Board, in pursuance of orders
from this Board, and in conformity with the power granted by
article 4 of chapter 661, Laws of 1893, is relieved and raised, and
the tags and other devices used to mark said animals may be
removed by you.”

As well might our penitentiaries be thrown open and the
murderers and convicts be told to go free, and that any
striped clothing or other devices used to mark said criminals
might be removed by them. The Syracuse (N. Y.) Board of
Health has determined that hereafter all the herds whence the
milk supply of the city is derived shall be kept under muni-
cipal supervision, and that all dairy animals shall be examined
by a physician at least twice a year. A round aluminum tag
is fastened to the ears of the healthy animals, and an oblong tag
to those of the diseased ones. If physicians in State boards of
health and in other positions are competent to handle animal
diseases, then, to be consistent, we should have a corps of veter-
inary surgeons to guard the public health. Both are doctors.
Could Miles do what Dewey did? Could Dewey win where Miles
has won? Both are fighters. While I have the utmost respect
for and confidence in the ability of the medical profession, I can
but regret that its code of ethics allows its members to imperil
its dignity by seeking positions and assuming réles in which they
are manifestly out of their proper sphere. To the honor of the
profession be it said that its ablest members are not dissemblers,
and that only its pygmies pose as veterinarians. But we have
digressed from the subject of transmission. We have been told
over and over again that “ the slight difference between the bacii-
lus of man and that of cattle is a temporary peculiarity, and is
overcome when the conditions are favorable. . . . That all
over the world tuberculosis in man and cattle coexists in the
same locality; that among fish eaters and in countries having
no cattle tuberculosis is practically unknown. That it prevails
largely among beef eaters and cow-milk drinkers; that among

134 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirrutss.

our Indians, who eat diseased beef raw, 50 per cent. die of tuber-
culosis, while among the northern Indians, who never see beef,
it is relatively unknown, goes to show that the conditions being
favorable the infection passes readily from ox to man.”

Professor Law used this argument in an article published
last month: “I deny that it is shown that the infection
passes readily. Coincidence is the only thing established.
Conditions that favor the spread of this disease from hu-
man to human also contribute to its dissemination from.
bovine to bovine.’ Rivers and railways often run_ side
by side for the reason that nature in such places favors
both, and not because there is any relation between them, or that
one is necessary to the other. Since we know the cause of tuber-
cle, will any one have the temerity to assert that cattle must be
in close proximity in order that infection may pass from man
to man? Or, if there is a healthy herd of cattle on an island not
inhabited by mankind, and we wish to spread tuberculosis among
them, will it be argued that it is necessary to send a number
of consumptive people there, as well as a few tuberculous cattle?
If so, the answer is simple. The tubercle bacillus is not a para-
site requiring an intermediary bearer. In the fish-eating frozen
regions, where cattle are not kept, the bacillus meets obstacles
fatal to it. If eating diseased meat raw is such a potent factor,
why is it a fact that the carnivora rarely develop the disease?
Again, beef is not so highly infecting. In many tuberculous ani-
mals the muscles or meat is not diseased. It is not necessary to
speak of cooking as a safeguard at this time. This paper deals
only with bacilli that are capable of infection, and not with those
that have been destroyed, or are therefore harmless. Why hunt
for a wild tribe who eat beef raw, when we have the better eyi-
dence of millions of our kind who drink milk and eat its products
raw, and we do not find 50 per cent. of them dying annually
from tuberculosis and all other diseases put together? And it
has never been shown that human tuberculosis was the result
of infection obtained from cattle, either by germs taken into the
system by inhalation, or by the ingestion of the products of

Bovine TUBERCULOSIS IN Its RELATION TO Man. 135

diseased animals. The cases reported and quoted by writers are
not supported by evidence of such transmission, and as we pro-
ceed it becomes more apparent that evidence had to be manu-
factured, the natural output being wholly inadequate to the needs
of the advocates of that theory. About 20 years ago I wrote
articles on bovine tuberculosis for newspapers and _live-stock
journals, and called attention to the possibility of its transmis-
sion to the human. That the disease rapidly spread among cattle
by infection was pointed out. The advice given then is equally
applicable now—viz., that cattle owners should have their herds
inspected; that the diseased ones shouid be isolated; those that
are physically bad should be killed. Disinfection was ad-
vised for stables, etc. In 1885, after killing two thousand dol-
lars’ worth of cattle in another state with the owner’s consent,
there being no law to compel slaughter in any state at that time,
I gave the Albany Argus a column article on Animal Diseases
and their Relation to the Public Health, and on the subject of
tuberculosis, said: ‘‘ How much of the prevalence of human tuber-
culosis may be due to milk and beef from tuberculous cattle is
a question yet to be determined, and is a serious one indeed.”
Therefore, the position I now take after having warned the public
many years ago, and frequently since, to use all possible care to
prevent the transmission of tuberculosis from cattle to man, is
' arrived at from a vast experience with the disease in cattle in
England, Canada, and the Eastern and Middle States, and from
a study of the people most exposed to any infection that might
be possible from such animals.

Bacili in Human and Bovine.—Charles Darwin says that man
has given rise to many races, some of which are so different that
they have often been ranked by naturalists as distinct species.
The races differ in constitution, in acclimatization, and in liability
to certain diseases. On these same principles micro-organisms
are very much modified by the conditions surrounding them.
Sternberg, in his Manual of Bacteriology, states that the tubercle
bacillus is a strict parasite, and its biological characters are such
that it could scarcely find natural conditions outside of the bodies

136 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

of living animals favorable for its multiplication. It therefore
does not grow as a saprophyte under ordinary circumstances. But
it has been noted by Nocard and Roux that when it has been culti-
vated for a time in artificial media containing glycerin it may
grow in a plain bouillon of veal or chicken, in which media it fails
to develop when introduced directly from a culture originating
from the body of an infected animal. The human is omnivorous,
the bovine is herbivorous. The normal human pulse is about 72,
that of the ox 40 to 45. The normal temperature of the human is
98.6° F., that of cattle from 100° to 100.5° F. Thus the normal
temperature of the ox is equal to quite a fever in the human. I
am of the opinion that there is something in the human body
antagonistic to the favorable development of the tubercle bacillus
of the bovine, and there is in the body of the bovine a check to
the colonization of these animals by the bacilli from the human
species. Hordes of Hottentots transferred to the polar regions
would rapidly perish, yet the Eskimo thrives there. Sternberg
says: “ A certain species of bacilli may be pathogenic for one
species and not for another. Thus the anthrax bacillus, which is
fatal to cattle, sheep, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and mice, does not kill
white rats. The bacillus of mouse septicaemia kills house mice,
but field mice are fully immune from its pathogenic effects. On
the other hand, the bacillus of glanders is fatal to field mice, but
not to house mice.” Here is a distinction as finely drawn as that
which I have alleged as existing between man and the ox. 1
believe that the tubercle parasite of man has by its long existence
in that host acquired, as it were, individual characteristics which
unfit it for life in the ox, and that the “ micro-organism” of
tubercle, which for centuries has had its habitation in cattle, has
become practically specific to that class of animals. I am there-
fore persuaded that if the environment be changed in either direc-
tion the pathogenic power will be lost. I have read of cases of
accidental inoculation of the human from the bovine, and if they
have occurred they must be very rare, inasmuch as none have
come under the writer’s observation, and probably no one has
had greater experience with tuberculosis in cattle. JI am positive

Bovine TuBEeRcuULosISs In [ts Retation To Man. 137

that many supposed cases have been incorrectly interpreted.
Suppose one member of a family on a farm develops tuberculosis,
and there are one or twenty tuberculous cows on said farm, it
does not prove that the individual obtained the infection from
the bovine. It is quite probable that he has been exposed to in-
fection from human tuberculosis hundreds of times. Many re-
ported cases hang on just such vague evidence as this. If a man
walks into a bank, and while there is found to have twenty dol-
lars in his pockets, is it prima facie evidence that he has become
infected with the germs of wealth of that institution? Or, is it
not possible that he was suffering from monetary engorgement
when he entered that hotbed of filthy lucre? It must be proved
beyond peradventure that he was penniless when he entered the
puilding if we are to blame the bank for the condition of his
pockets. Just as positively must we know that infection passes
to the human adult or child from cow’s milk or its products, or
from beef, or through ingestion in other ways, or by inhalation
of bacilli from the bovine, and that they alone establish the dis-
ease, ere we can truthfully say there is such transmission. How
may we know that a human being is tuberculous when no germs
ean be obtained from the subject, and no marked symptoms are
observed? If an adult or child has tuberculosis, and it is proved
that such patient has partaken of milk for any length of time
from a cow known to be tuberculous, it is by no means certain
that infection came from the cow unless there is proof that it
did not come from the human, and that it did not exist prior to
his ingestion of the milk. Let us take cognizance of the difficulty
of establishing such a fact. Humanity wanders incessantly. The
germs of human tuberculosis are wafted on the winds, are carried
by the waters, may be brought home in food or clothing, may be
inhaled at church, theatre, or hotel, in motor or parlor cars. They
do not stand out in large black masses, like the rocks the mariner
is ever alert to avoid, but without our ken, noiseless, impercep-
tible, and intangible they surround and invade us. They do not
sting when they capture a victim; then how can we know the
time, the place, and the source of infection? Even the milk from

138 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

that tuberculous cow just mentioned may be further contami-
nated by bacilli from a human being before it reaches the con-
sumer, and the bacilli from the human may establish disease,
while the bacilli from the cow prove inert. Consumption in
people is so common that physicians have unlimited facilities to
study, its aetiology. For instance, in New York State the deaths
from this disease for eight years from 1888 to 1895 were 104,804,
an average of 18,100 a year, and it averaged about eleven per cent.
of all deaths. The annual report of our State Board of Health
for 1896 says: “ Tuberculosis in some form or other accounts for
a very large percentage of the deaths in the State, and when it
is known that there is at the present time a large amount of meat
consumed from tuberculous cattle, and that milk from such cattle
enters into the dietary of the people, and that there is danger
when the bacillus is ingested, it is believed to be a most potent
source of infection, especially in children.” Note the expression,
believed to be, and if we read from scores of writers on this sub-
ject, we shall find that when they come to this point they all hide
behind just such terms. Where are their facts, and why do they
not give us some positive statements, with convincing illustra-
tions of the methods by which they proved to themselves that
such was the case? Too long have writers worn the thinking
caps of others, too confidently have they accepted the statements
of supposed authorities. There has been too much heredity in
ideas and quotations. Practically all the people of the State
eat the products of cattle all their lives, and tuberculosis in cattle
is well distributed throughout the State. Now, then, if the dis-
ease passes readily to man, even laymen should be able to note
the fact where large numbers of cattle are infected. But they,
and their physicians, and their veterinarians have merely pre-
sumed, imagined, believed, supposed, and concluded that such
“might be the case.” One thing is well known, viz., that 13,000
human consumptives give off enough infective material annually
to account for all the human tuberculosis in the State without
the aid of a single bovine.

BovinE TusBercutosis in Its Rexation to Man. 139

Transmission from Human to Bovine.—It is of less interest to
physicians whether tuberculosis is transmitted from the human
to the bovine; still, if the disease is intercommunicable, as we are
assured it is, then it is equally important either way. I have not
been able to learn of a case where the disease was established in
a cow or a herd from human sputum. Dr. Cooper Curtice says:
“Tn 1897 I tested two hundred and forty cattle in the vicinity
of Saranac Lake, New York. Every one there supposed that I
would find tuberculosis in herds that fed in the fields where the
consumptive patients that resort to this place take their exercise.
Not one case was found.” Not only this, but the herd of the
sanitarium had been previously tested with like results. If tuber-
culosis could be transferred to cattle from human beings, it
should certainly occur at such a place as Saranac Lake, a sani-
tarium where thousands of consumptives resort. Thus, while feed-
ing experiments may have been interpreted as showing in some
instances that infection from human to bovine were possible, it
seems very well established that the infection from man to cattle
does not obtain when consumptive people and healthy animals
occupy positions toward each other daily, which are calculated
to offer every opportunity for such transmission.

Dr. Theobald Smith is certainly working in the right direction;
his article, A Comparative Study of Bovine Tubercle Bacilli and
of Human Bacilli from Sputum, is based upon scientific investi-
gation of a very high order, and his deductions go a long way
toward the establishment of the principles promulgated in this
paper. He says:

“The absolute identity of tubercle bacilli infecting mam-
malia has been so generally assumed, and the assumption used
as a basis for the enactment of sanitary measures having for their
object the prevention of any transmission of tubercle bacilli from
animal to man, that anyone who would attempt to question this
identity must be prepared to meet considerable skepticism. Tak-
ing a broad biological position, we have every reason to examine
into the assumed identity of the bovine and the human bacillus.”

Exactly, and we shall facilitate this important work in propor-
tion as we cease to be parrots in repeating what we have been

140 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

told, and as we rise above mere assumption and scan closely every
bit of evidence, giving credence to nothing that is not warranted
by scientific investigation, indefatigably pursued to the end, that
truth may be established. Dr. Smith has demonstrated that
human bacilli grow more vigorously from the start than do those
from the bovine; that the length of the human bacillus is about
two to three times that of the bovine, in cultures; also other mor-
phological and biological characters in which they differ. More
convincing are the divergencies in their physiological effects, as
shown by his experiments, in which there was more rapid death
of all guinea pigs inoculated with bovine bacilli than those in-
oculated from human sputum. Experiments on rabbits con-
firmed those of the guinea pigs. His experiments on cattle by
the inoculation of bovine tubercle bacilli and human bacilli in
some ten cases shows “slight local lesions at the point where
the syringe was inserted when human sputum bacilli were used,
the disease not spreading. When the bovine bacilli were intro-
duced there was disseminated tuberculosis of the lungs, tuber-
cular deposits in lungs, ribs, pericardium and diaphragm, exten-
Sive tuberculosis of nearly all the lymph glands of the thorax,
and slight tuberculosis of the spleen, liver and kidneys.” These
differences are so great that comment is unnecessary. Dr. Smith
summarizes them in the following language: “The foregoing ex-
periments, while they show unmistakably the close relationship
existing among the various cultures studied, nevertheless justify
us, if only to guide and stimulate further study in establishing a
distinctively human, or sputum, and a bovine variety of the
tubercle bacillus.’ These modern experiments are infinitely
more reliable than those so often quoted of earlier investigators,
because our knowledge is greater, our facilities are better. I will
presently offer some practical evidence from the everyday lives
of people who are constantly exposed to the infection from bovine
tuberculosis. I know the cattle, know the percentage of diseased
animals in the herds, and have been aware of the existence of
disease in the herds for from several to eighteen years. I have
visited the people, dined with them when there were plenty of

Bovine Tusercutosis In Irs Retation tro Man. 141

bovine bacilli on the table to satisfy any ordinary craving, and
I have noted the health of those families, especially that of the
children, many of them having all their lives used the products
of herds largely infected, and I have not yet discovered a single
case of human consumption therefrom. It is axiomatic that if
transmission is common, or even possible, the farms where large
numbers of infected cattle are kept are the places where the fact
can be best observed; because nowhere else in the world is there
so much infective material, nowhere else are the bacilli so potent,
nowhere else are people so exposed to the danger, if any exists,
and at these places feeding and inhalation experiments so to
speak, are constantly going on; and you will bear in mind that
it is the mature cow that is oftenest affected, and it is from her
that the largest amount of milk, butter, etc., are used. A vast
amount of work has been done by scientists to demonstrate
whether milk from tuberculous cows whose udders were not dis-
eased contained bacilli, and it may be conceded that it does in
some cases; they are also present in milk frequently when such
milk is obtained from tuberculous udders. Sternberg, in his
Manual of Bacteriology, says: “A more common mode of infection,
especially in children, is probably by way of the intestinal glands
from the ingestion of milk from tuberculous cows. That infec-
tion may occur by way of the intestine has been proved by ex-
periments upon rabbits, which developed tuberculosis when fed
upon tuberculous sputum.” This is the sill in the doorway of
investigation over which many a bright man has fallen. It is
assumed that the infant will do exactly that which rabbits and
guniea-pigs have done. All the evidence I have thus far collected
indicates that it does nothing of the kind. Physicians as a rule
are not familiar with the conditions surrounding a tuberculous
herd, hence I have deemed it necessary to show you one in
imagination that you may the better understand the facts.

Tuberculous Herd at Home.—Picture in your mind 200 cattle in
elegant buildings of the immense size necessary to house such a
family—electric light, proper ventilation, pure water, mountain
air, drainage and plumbing up to date, strictest cleanliness, the

142 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

best food stuffs given in balanced rations, pure-bred animals,
everything first class and all under the keen observation of ex-
perts who note details and record them—yet somewhere in the
past a number of tuberculous animals were bought and added to
the herd. Those diseased animals looked all right, else they
would not have been purchased at high prices. And after a few
years we find that 25 to 50 per cent. of the herd is tuberculous.
Remember that cattle stand in rows in many cases. The manger
is a continuous trough. The partitions between animals are low
and the cattle can reach each other on either side. They can
cough up and blow sputum to a considerable distance, where it
may fall on cattle to be licked off, or on food, or in water, or in
feed troughs. The animals are turned out for exercise or pasture,
drink at one trough lick themselves and each other, and drool
upon litter or herbage that others eat. When confined in the
stable during winter, think how the dried sputum is converted
into dust and wafted about by the breath blown from the ani-
mals, by their getting up, lying down, shifting feet, switching
tails, the opening and shutting of doors, the sweeping, the gen-
eral stirring up at the time of foddering, and you will realize
that there is a series of motions night and day always operating
to favor dissemination of the disease by ingestion, inhalation, and
direct contact with mucuous membranes. Suppose that we say
of 200 animals 80 are tuberculous; in this number are some with
disease so located as not to be harmful to others, but many
are diseased in organs which allow free exit to the infectious
material. The attendants breathe this germ-laden atmosphere,
they handle the cattle, and no doubt often convey to their nostrils
and mouths sputum from the cattle. They and their families,
and the proprietors and their families drink the milk, eat the
cream, butter and cheese, if the last is made, and in some cases,
though not often, they eat the flesh of calves or older animals.
Here, then, is the greatest abundance of infective material—in-
halation of germs before breakfast; at breakfast they are spread
over the oatmeal, poured into the coffee, on the fruit, spread on
the bread, taken in the glass of milk. All day the air is rich

Bovine Tupsercutosis 1n Its Revation To Man. 143

with germs and they are served at every meal without extra
charge, all furnished by the sanitary dairy company, unlimited,
from the palace bovine home. Children often go into these barns,
and are likewise exposed. What chances are there in cities for
people to obtain infection from cattle, as compared to those just
pictured in the country? Even the milk is most infective when
freshly drawn from the cow, so far as bovine tuberculosis is con-
cerned; the only way it can be more dangerous to people when
served in cities and towns is through its contamination by bacilli
from human consumptives. Yet your health laws all aim to pro-
tect the citizen; no one has ever suggested a law to protect farm-
ers from infection by bovine tuberculosis. Again, the percentage
of deaths from consumption is much higher in cities than in the
country or in country towns. I recently wrote to some owners of
herds where bovine tuberculosis has been long established and in
which the percentage of diseased animals was high, and I quote
the replies, omitting the addresses in some, but offer in evidence
the original letters, which I trust you will inspect. In none of
these places was milk sterilized, or any precaution taken to avoid

infection. The butter that won the gold medal at the last Paris
, exposition was the product of a herd largely tuberculous. Thus
we are again reminded that “ All is not gold that glitters.” A
part of the scintillation may have been due to bacilli in this case.

The following extract is from a lady who has suffered extensive
loss. Prior to the visit of the inspectors of the State Board of
Health the farm and its herd of cattle were unequaled through-
out the State.

April 4, 1899.
Dr. Epwarp Moors, Albany, N. Y.:

Dear Sir.—Your favor of March 6th received, and beg you will
excuse my neglect in not replying sooner, but pressure of other
matters crowded it out. In my opinion the actions of the State
Board of Health were not only absolutely unnecessary, but ab-
solutely criminal, and had I been in a position where I could, I
fear I should have talked in Albany until some one was tired.
My herd numbered nearly 200 head, young stock and all, and they

144 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

butchered over 100 cows, leaving me with a herd of young stock
on my hands. Some cows, after slaughter, could not be found to
have even a pinhead size of a germ, even upon microscopic ex-
amination, while with the majority, if they could find a germ as
large as a pea that might be called a tuberculous germ, the men
in charge were happy. At the time the State seized the cattle
the creamery was full of butter, which was quarantined and a
sample of each package sent to Albany and tested. After all the
stock was killed we received a clean bill of health upon the but-
ter. There was absolutely no foreign germs or anything detri-
mental in it. But what of that? For the sake of giving a few
cranks a job for a while, $30,000 worth of stock was killed. The
blow killed my farm, and I have never been able to pull together
since. I have never known a case of human tuberculosis to arise
from the use of milk from my herd, either directly or indirectly.
Our cattle had better care than thousands of children, and a regu-
lar veterinarian three times a week, and a consulting veterinarian
twice a month always, and as often as needed at other times. I
will send you under separate cover a souvenir of the farm as it
was. Trusting you may be able to allay such useless slaughter,
I am very truly yours.

The above 100 diseased cattle appear to have utterly failed to
transmit tuberculosis to the people surrounding them or using
their products.

Hore, Bristout, NApues, Iraty, March 24, 1899.
Dr. Epwarp Moors, Albany, N. Y.:

Dear Sir.—In reply to your favor of the 4th inst., I am always
pleased to be of any service to you or any of my old friends.

In my 25 years’ experience with cattle I have never known any-
one who has had the care of cattle to have been infected with
tuberculosis or consumption.

You are at liberty to use my name if you wish.

Very truly yours,
JOHN MAYER.

BovinE TusBErcuLosis In Its Retation To Man. 145

The above letter is from a son-in-law of Mr. Havemeyer, and
these two gentlemen had one of the largest and best pure-bred
herds of cattle in the world, and their herd suffered extensively
from tuberculosis for years. Mr. Mayer has traveled across the
ocean several times for the purpose of examining the best cattle
abroad and purchasing the best animals he could obtain. He
made special investigation as to the freedom of various breeds
from tuberculosis, and imported a lot of Swiss and Simmenthal
cattle because he believed they would resist the disease better
than the animals then composing their herd.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,
VETERINARY DEPARTMENT, AMHERST, Mass., March 7, 1899.
Dr. Epwarp Moore, Albany, N. Y.:

Dear Sir.—Your inquiry to the director of the station regard-
ing tuberculosis has been sent to me to answer.

In so far as I know, no one has ever contracted tuberculosis
from contact with the animals in our old herd, or from the use of
the milk or meat from the same. The records of our students and
graduates only show a very small mortality from consumption.
These records are not to be relied upon to prove that any student
ever contracted the disease from the use of milk from the college
herd, for they have not always had it for use. Some years the
boarding club, which is run by the students and not by the col-
lege management, gets its milk from the farmers in town. I send
you under separate cover a bulletin giving the history of our old

herd.
Very truly yours,

JAMES B. PAIGE, D. V. 8.

The following letter is from a very prominent firm in another
State who have maintained one of the largest herds in this
country for many years. I have known that there was a good
deal of tuberculosis in the cattle for 16 years, and frequently im
that time I have been at their farm and partaken of three meals

146 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

a day for several days at a time. Two years ago the State veter-
inarian said that tuberculosis in cattle was a recent introduction
into that State, yet the writer had killed many tuberculous cattle
in said State before that man had graduated, or knew anything
about the disease:
March 2, 1899.

My Dear Dr. Moore.—I am in receipt of your favor, contents of
which I carefullynote. In replyI am glad to be able to say that our
herd of Jerseys is in fine condition and doing most excellent work.
Never better. We, by which I mean all our several families, have
used the milk always from the herd very freely, and in every ap-
pearance we are, each and all, as hearty and robust as aborigines.
In fact, I think we could discount them. I mean, of course, in gen-
eral health and condition, not in the use of the tomahawk and
scalping knife. We have employees who have been with us for
years and constantly with the stock and about the stables, and
never have we had a case approaching even a semblance to tuber-
culosis among them. Some of our men, one of them constantly em-
ployed in the stables, who have young children, have always used
the milk, and I have never heard of any ill effects therefrom. In
fact, judging from their activity and lung power, I should say
they were remarkably robust and energetic. By the way, I do
not hear so much about cattle commissions in this locality as I
did once upon a time. But I recognize, of course, the necessity
of being watchful in every way; yet I believe there may be great
and unnecessary loss in hasty and ill-advised action. I have used
the term “ milk” in this letter, and I mean by this term to in-
clude the entire dairy product, butter and cream.

Very truly yours.

New Jersey AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT SraTIons,
New Brunswick, N. J., March 2, 1899.
Dr. EpwarD Moors, Albany, N. Y.:

My Dear Sir.—Your letter of the 1st inst. received. I have to
say that we have issued two bulletins on tuberculosis, but regret
to say that the edition of one of them, No. 101, is exhausted. I,

BovinE TuBEercuLosis In Its Rextation to Man. 147

however, send you under separate cover Bulletin No. 118. In
reference to your question as to whether I have any personal
knowledge of a human being contracting tuberculosis from the
bovine, I have to say that I have no personal knowledge of such
a transmission of the disease.
Very truly yours,
EDWARD B. VOORHEES,
Director.

They had a herd largely infected with tubercle, and Professor
Voorhees is one of the ablest writers on agricultural subjects
connected with any of our State experiment stations.

ELLERSLIE Stock Farm, Ruinecuirr, N. Y.
Dr. EpwarD Moore:

Dear Sir.—Replying to your letter to ex-Governor Morton, will
say the fifteen cattle that were killed here in 1893 were from
selections made entirely from herds in this country, and not from
importations. They had been recently purchased and not bred on
the place.

Since the last herd was made up there has been an occasional
response on testing with tuberculin, and these animals have been
invariably killed.

So far as I can find, there has never been any trouble arising
from the use of our milk.

Respectfully,
CHARLES H. ROYCE,
Superintendent.
Dr. EpwarD Moore:

Dear Sir.—Replying to your inquiries in regard to the conta-
giousness of tuberculosis, would say that it must have been in my
herd for six or seven years. Have never seen any bad effects
upon any one who has used the products of the cattle or had the
care of them. Very truly yours.

This gentleman has a family of five young children who have
used the products of this herd all their lives, and ninety per cent.
of the milk-producing animals were infected.

148 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrirures.

CuaTuHaM, N. Y., March 2, 1899.
Dr. EpwarpD Moore:

Dear Sir.—None of the people who ate butter or milk from the
cows that were affected with tuberculosis, which you killed, have
ever been afflicted with consumption. Of course I do not know
who used the butter I sold to the stores, but I do not recollect of
but one case of consumption in Chatham during the time I owned
those cows, or since then, and I do not think that person ate any
of my butter. If I am able to furnish you any further informa-
tion I will gladly do so.

Yours truly,
ALBERT E. TRACY.

About fifty per cent. of the herd were tuberculous.

FLorHAM Farms, H. McK. Twomsty, Proprietor.
Mapison, N. J., April 13, 1899.
Dr. Epwarp Moors, Albany, New York:

Dear Sir.—I cannot give you any evidence either pro or con.
Looking back 20 years, the length of my experience with dairy
cattle, I cannot recall a single person dying from consumption
whose work was connected in any way with cattle or that con-
sumed the milk.

Some four or five years ago, Dr. Austin Peters told me of a
case where he hoped to establish a connection between two tuber-
culous cows and the death of one or two children that had used
the milk. At that time the evidence was not conclusive, and I
never heard whether continued investigation proved any thing.

I have often asked others, being greatly interested, whether
such a connection had been established, but never received an
affirmative reply.

Regretting that I cannot be of greater service to you, I am,

Very truly yours,
J. L. HOPE.

Superintendent.

Mr. Hope has had large experience with fine cattle, and was
formerly superintendent for Hon. Levi P. Morton.

Bovine Tusercuosis 1n Irs Renation To Man. 149

April 14, 1899.
Dr. Epwarp Moorsp, Albany, New York:

Dear Sir.—Replying to your inquiry, I would state that two
years ago my herd was examined by the Connecticut authorities
and 13 killed, this including everything that was suspicious.
Prior to this the milk had been used freely by my farmer and his
family, and one or more working on the place and their families,
also in my own household, which, while in the country, includes
daughter and her three young children. Since that time the same
persons have used the milk, cream and butter, and, to the best
of my belief, every one of them is in good health and looks as well
as Mr. Crane’s family, whom you know. I should say that, in-
cluding Mr Crane’s family, there must have been during the sum-
mer at least 10 adults and 8 or 10 children using the products,
not including household servants. I do not know of a case of con-
‘sumption or any indications of it in any of the persons referred
to.

Very respectfully yours.

The above letter is from one of New York’s prominent finan-
ciers, and his herd is one of the best in Connecticut, and, owing
to the large percentage of diseased animals, and the number of
children as well as adults who have been feeding on their products
for a number of years, this evidence is exceptionally strong.

If we have succeeded in purging the bovine of responsibility
for human tuberculosis we have severed the relation supposed to
exist and which gave origin to the title of this paper. People
everywhere will feel relieved. Cattle owners will vie with the
cow-milk drinkers and the beef eaters in their appreciation of the
fact, that their minds are now freed from the terrible menace that
has heretofore haunted them. The cattle industry will receive
new impetus. Physicians will have to educate consumptives to
appreciate the necessary precautions they should take, nay, they
must take, for the protection of their fellow beings, and healthy
people must be made to understand in what ways tuberculous sub-
jects are dangerous to them. The imperative need is for meas-

150 Bureau or Farmers’ InstiruTeEs.

ures for the protection of human from human. Such education
will cut down the death-rate more rapidly than medical treatment.
The establishment of hospitals and retreats for the treatment and
isolation of consumptives is the best step physicians have yet
taken for the prevention of the spread of this disease. We are
now raising one foot to step up on the firmer ground of the twen-
tieth century, where no erring footsteps have yet been taken. In
the few days left us ere we reach that new trysting place, let us
bend our energies to the great task of leaving forever behind us
old prejudices; theories we were taught to accept, but which have
not proved trusty; deductions arrived at from experiments well
intended, but which are nullified by better evidence now before
us. Let us not look at things as they have been pictured, but
strive to see them exactly as they are. If we have failed to con-
vince you, we have at least pointed the way for future investi-
gation and given the earnest of the verdict that is to follow
whether you render it to-day or to-morrow.

Household Economy.

By Mrs. Mretvit DEweEy, Albany, N. Y.

Records of the Pension Bureau at Washington show that there
are five widows and seven daughters of soldiers of the American
revolution now receiving pensions from the government. So near
are we to the days when spinning, weaving, tailoring, dressmak-
ing, shoemaking, brewing and many other industries were carried
on in each individual family. To-day the great department store of
our large cities may furnish almost every requirement of the
home outside of cooked foods. Notwithstanding all the improve-
ments which machinery and centralization of labor have brought,
the conditions of our modern life grow more complex yearly. The
waste in household methods, the duplication of work in many
homes, the long hours of service, and the incompetence of help
still confront us. The domestic problem touches every home,
from the woman who does her own work to the fashionable so-
ciety leader who entertains in some form almost daily. What
practical steps can be taken to meet the present need? One busy
woman with a large house where the latch string is always out
has found her cares much simplified by dividing the regular work
between two good helpers, and employing a laundress for two
days each week, a seamstress or mender for one or more days as
needed, a man for furnace, care of walks, piazzas, grounds, wash-
ing windows, dressing floors, cleaning brass, beating rugs, etc.,
and house cleaners as needed. The difficulty is of course in find-
ing competent help.

In all our large cities there is a large class of women desiring
employment who are unwilling to go out to service under present
conditions. Could they have special training, live at home, and

152 Bureau or Farmers’ InstiruTes.

be employed by the hour, day or week, there are doubtless many
who would take up housework could it be invested with some-
what of the professional dignity which surrounds the trained
nurse.

We have long recognized that mistresses need special training
almost as frequently as maids. A woman may be a genius in
music, painting, literature or other arts and be quite unable
to organize her own household on regular systematic lines. The
executive faculty is perhaps as rare as other special gifts. If
we had in our cities employment bureaus which represented every
grade of skilled service from the washerwoman to the college
graduate, who could go into a home and as an expert organize the
daily work according to the individual needs of each family, the
value of her special training, instead of being limited to one home,
would be many times multiplied. In the library profession there
is constant demand for just such expert advice, and graduates
of our state library school are constantly called to local libraries
to study the conditions and to advise as to the best forms of cata-
log, charging system, building, number of assistants, ete., re-
quired for that community.

The schools of domestic science have made a beginning towards
providing skilled labor, but as yet the cost of the necessary plant,
as for example in the School of Housekeeping in Boston, is so
great compared to the small number who can receive training,
that the plan would be prohibitive in most cities. It might be
possible to organize such a school with a bureau which could
supply skilled labor of all grades, by the hour, day or week, as
well as for permanent service. Where young women come from
the country or have no permanent homes, the plan often adopted
by trained nurses of taking a flat or floor together, or the “ bache-
lor maid’s” quarters, would be entirely practicable. If half a
dozen ladies wished a good mender one day each week, or a
cleaner, parlor maid, etc., the time of one girl would be regularly
filled. It would be possible to benefit every class of homes, from
the woman who does her own work to the one who entertains
constantly. As the number of skilled workers increased, some-

HovseHoLtp Economy. 153

thing like the New England kitchen or department store for
cooked foods might be developed, when families were sure that
the food thus supplied was prepared under strictly scientific,
hygienic and sanitary conditions. This is already being done on
a small scale in a mountain club, where the most isolated cottage,
occupied by a gentleman under treatment for nervous prostra-
tion, has a housekeeper in charge who takes care of the rooms,
makes tea and coffee, cooks eggs, chops, steak, etc., and all other
foods are sent from the club kitchen ready for the table, or if
necessary are freshly heated. The plan has given complete satis
faction.

The state of New York has this year made a special appro-
priation for establishing a school of forestry, the first in this
country, though the need has long been felt. There are already
two state schools for training librarians. Is it too much to ex-
pect that the coming century will see state schools of household
economics, when our need is fully realized, and women have
determined to bring science into the home, as it is being brought
into all phases of work in order to obtain the best results?

The Bright Side of Farm Life.

By Mrs. G. R. Situ, at Farmers’ Institute, Franklin, N. Y.

Doubtless many think a pastor’s wife does see the bright side
of farm life. She is invited to the farm homes to eat warm sugar,
strawberry-short-cake, Thanksgiving turkey or any other thing
which is specially nice, and knows nothing of the hard work.
All this is certainly a very bright side of my life; but there is no
kind of work which falls to the lot of the farmer’s wife or
daughter that I have not done. From picking up chips—yes, and
picking potato bugs, driving cows from the pasture and working
grafting wax for father while he grafted his apple trees when
[ was a little girl—to caring for an invalid mother and doing the
work for a herd of ten cows, when milk was set in shallow pans.
I’ve been through it all. I know how tiresome the milk work is
on the sultry summer morning when one has enthusiasm for
nothing. But even the great pile of milk pans to be washed had
a touch of brightness for me. They helped me partly forget my
anxiety for my mother, and so they rested me. They have a
bright side for you too. Itis that you donot use them. Present-
day methods of dairying are much easier.

There was a summer vacation later, when Mr. Smith and I ran
a little farm of 20 acres and were as happy as kings and much
more independent, and left it in the fall richer by the winter sup-
ply of fruit and vegetables. So you see I’ve seen all sides of
farm life.

We often lament that we have not as good schools or as long
terms as town people. I’m not going to admit that you have
not as good teachers as we, for I taught a country school myself
for four terms. Afterward I taught in a large town and I found
that it took my village pupils ten months of their school year

Tur Bricut Siwkc or Farm Lire. 155

to do the work that my country pupils of the same age and in-
telligence had accomplished in six. I was wonderfully discour-
aged and sought the reasons that I might remove them; but found
them almost wholly beyond my reach. In too many cases the
town child enters school in the morning tired and listless, because
he was out the evening before, on the street or in the stores or
pool rooms. He cannot put his mind to his work because it is
full of the gossip, profanity and vulgar stories of his evening as-
sociates. The mind that is filled with the rubbish of the cigar
shop can not hold the pearls of knowledge. On the other hand,
the country boy enters the school room as fresh and brisk as
the pure country air he’d been breathing all the morning. He
goes at his work with a will, because his months of school are
so few that he is hungry for his lessons. There is just as much
difference between teaching the child who is hungry for lessons
and teaching one who is kept at them all the time, as there is
between feeding a child who is hungry and feeding one who is
eating all the time. There is just as much difference in the as-
similation, too. The child who takes his lessons with a relish will
appropriate them and use them with vigor; while the one who is
crammed, finds his learning only a burden. I believe this one
great reason why so large 4 majority of our eminently successful
men in all callings are country boys “ grown tall”.

For a family home there is no place like the farm. Surely
this one thing should go far to lighten any clouds which hang
over the life of the farmer and his wife. Our children, the best
gifts God sends us have a better, purer, pleasanter home on the
farm than we could give them anywhere else. I do not mean
that the poorest farm home is better than the best city home.
I mean that if you compare your home with the home of a man
of your own wealth and ability in the city, the farm home is far
ahead every time; and there are some advantages which the
poorest may enjoy in the country that no amount of wealth can
buy in the city. The room of the farm is no small factor in the
problem of a home. When we moved to Franklinville, my littl¢
four-year-old boy preceded me to our house, and when he met

156 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTirures.

me at the door a half hour later with his eyes shining and smiles
all over his face, he exclaimed, “ Mamma, I can go clear ’round
the house.” ‘Clear ’round the house.” How much the one sen-
tence told!

Oh! You mothers whose children may run at will over your
own broad fields and beautiful hills, imagine if you can the prob-
lems of the mother who has for her child’s play-ground only a
bare, sun-baked back yard, shut in by city walls. This is the lot
of the better class of city people, those who pay from $300 to $500
a year for rent. Do you wonder that my children think of grand-
mother’s farm with its orchards and tennis court, its swing and
croquet grounds as an earthly paradise?

I know of no other business in which the bright side overlaps
the dark so much as in farming. Take the first necessity of life-
food. Who ever heard of a farmer with the first particle of push,
starving? He may not be able to live on, blue points and canvas-
back duck, and wear lilies of the valley as a boutonniere the year
round, but some form of good food and necessary fuel he may
be assured of. New York farmers do not know what suffering
is. You are so accustomed to being well fed and cozy that you
forget that it is not so everywhere. Six years ago we were living
in the heart of industrial Pittsburg, during the great iron strike
of 1893-4. I wish I could make you understand what life was
like there. Day after day thousands of men in thinnest clothing,
with the look of famine in their faces, marched miles through the
bitter cold to the ‘Charity Relief Station,” to try for work at
any price, only to be told, “Only half of you can work, there
is not money for all. Those who work to-day must be idle to-
morrow.” One dollar once in two days to provide for a family
where rent must be paid and every scrap of food and fuel bought!
Try it for a week, estimating your rent, food and fuel at prices.
you receive in market, and you will thank God more truly than
ever before for the plenty which surrounds you. Mothers!
What would it mean to you to be obliged to send your children
to school to keep them warm, because there can be no fire at
home; to have to take your baby on the street and beg at the

Tue Bricut Sipe or Farm Lire. 157

doors for milk to keep life in the little shivering body? And
through all the want and misery, the beer wagons were running
and the saloons were bright and warm. No wonder that the
despairing men, worn out with tramping the streets for work,
aching with cold and half-crazed at thought of the loved ones
at home without food or fire, crept into these open doors of hell
for warmth and forgetfulness.

In remembering your blessings this shall not be least—the
saloon is not on every corner of the country road.

Bird Studv.

By Mrs. A. B. JouHnson, Caledonia, N. Y.

No department of natural history surpasses ornithology in
attractiveness, and its resources are almost inexhaustible.’ Birds
may be found everywhere. In the city parks and suburban groves,
careful observation reveal objects for study even in the depth of
winter. The study of bird life is quite as interesting to the older
people as to the younger. Surely, every country boy or girl may
have as good an opportunity as did Longfellow’s “ Hiawatha,”
who—

‘‘ Learned of every bird its language,
Learned their names, and all their secrets,
How they built their nests in summer,
How they hid themselves in winter,
Talked with them wher'’ere he met them.
Called them Hiawatha’s chickens.”
And it is very likely the birds would say as they did to the
proud young Indian lad as he journeyed through the forests

with his bow and arrow—

“ Do not shoot us, Hiawatha,
Se cra a
There are known to be between 7,000 and 8,000 species of liv-
ing birds, many rare and attractive, all interesting for study. Of
North American birds alone, there are more than 1,200 species.
Of this number but a couple of hundred may be called fairly
plentiful in the temperate parts of the United States. Birds may
be classed as migratory and resident; the former are numerous,
spending the winter season in the south and returning north on
the approach of spring. The latter remain with us throughout
the entire year. Of course, only those remain that can subsist
under almost any circumstances, nor do these resident birds have

Birp Sroupy. 159

the entire country to themselves in the winter. There are birds
who immigrate from the extreme north, such as the snow bird and
grosbeaks.

Many birds of no special beauty of plumage seem far more in-
teresting than those of brighter colors and prettier song to recom-
mend them. Many of the plainer birds have indications of a great
deal of intelligence which may be studied with increasing in-
terest. Birds are more musical at certain times of day as well as
at certain seasons of year. Between dawn and sunrise occurs
the grand concert of the feathered folk. There are no concerts
during the day, only individual songs. After sunset there seems
to be an effort to renew the chorus, but it cannot be compared
with that of the morning.

Just what meaning should be attached to a bird’s notes will
very likely never be discovered. They really do seem to express
nearly every feeling of which the human heart is capable.

There can hardly be a greater pleasure than in watching the
nest-building of birds. The intricate work in weaving the beauti-
ful nests of many birds is truly wonderful. Some observers af-
firm that, like the human builder, the bird improves in nest-build-
ing by practice; the best specimens of architecture being the work
of the oldest birds. Senses of sight, smell and hearing are re-
markably acute in birds; this is especially true of sight. Some
have three eyelids, the upper and lower and a membrane that
can be drawn down over the entire eyeball, enabling them to look
directly at the sun. Eagles, hawks and owls are thus provided.
The best method to arouse an interest among the children is to
go with them into the fields and groves and assist and enccurage
them in the study of bird-life as they find it; have them bring in
written descriptions. As a guide, use the following points:
Shape, size, prevailing color, marks on head, wings, throat, or
tail; shape of bill, length of tail, where found, whether on the
ground or in trees. When the nest is found, describe its construc-
tion, where found and if there are eggs, give the color and mark-
ings, number, etc.

160 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

It should not be over-looked by the young observer that if he
would learn to recognize at once any particular bird, he should
make himself acquainted with the song and call notes of every
bird around him.

Many birds bear names given them by their own peculiar ery.
Listen: “ See-see Dick, Dick, cissel cissel. You call me the little
meadow lark, while all the time I am trying to tell you as plainly
as I can what my name is; to tell the truth I don’t belong to the
lark family at all. Simply because I wear a yellow vest and a
black bow at my throat does not make me a lark. You can’t judge
birds any more than you can people by their clothes. No, I be-
long to the finch or bunting family, but I am called the Dick
cissel.”

Who is that little fellow we may see frequenting the wood
land when it is not too wet, his note is about the only one heard
at noonday, during mid-summer. “Teacher, teacher, teacher,
teacher, teacher,” is it some child-voice calling his teacher. No, it
is a species of thrush, commonly called the “ Teacher bird.” It
is also known as the oven bird, the name being derived from its
peculiar nest which is fashioned like an oven.

The preceding may be considered the sentimental part of bird
life; we will endeavor to speak of something of economic value.
Every one knows in a general way that birds render most valuable
service to the farmer, both in the field and in the orchards. In-
vestigations have been made to determine just what such services
are. Results have been striking and can no longer be ignored. In
many places some of our sweetest songsters and most useful in-
sect destroyers have become scarce or have entirely disappeared.
The great value of insectivorous and graniyorous birds cannot
be overestimated. Thus, while the chickadees, woodpeckers and
other winter birds are ridding the trees of insects, eggs and
larvee, the granivorous birds are reaping a crop of weed seeds,
which left to germinate would cause a heavy loss to our agricul-
tural interests. The fact is evident to all who have given
any attention whatever to the subject that if the cruel and use-

Birp Srupy. 161

less slaughter of birds is not soon checked there will be oblitera-
tion from regions where in former years they were abundant.

This is true of the humming-bird, blue-bird, wren, common
quail and ruffled grouse; also the heron, pelican and many smaller
birds of Florida. The causes are many but the greatest is
thoughtlessness on the part of young and old of both sexes.
Tommy wants a gun—he teases persistently until his fond par-
ents finally submit and one is procured—Tommy tries his mark-
manship, result: he shoots all the birds he can in his vicinity.

Collectors of eggs are also responsible. Forest fires are an-
other source of this destruction and many of these fires are known
to be the work of incendiaries. Fashion at present, is the
greatest enemy to bird life; when the ladies need new bonnets
nothing else will do for adornment; though 10,000 sweet songs
be hushed forever. The killing of the white heron, for example,
to procure the much prized aigrettes for millinery purposes. By
far the life of a greater number of these birds are sacrificed dur-
ing the nesting season, when their plumage is brightest. It has
been known that the slaughter of marsh and maritime birds has
been followed by an increase in human mortality among the in-
habitants of the coasts, the birds having formerly assisted in
keeping the beaches free from decaying animal matter.

Not many years ago, New Orleans had a plague of bugs, just as
the yellow fever began, and strange as it may seem the bugs
proved far more troublesome than the disease. People called it
a mystery. Scientists declared it was merely the result of man’s
improvidence in destroying the birds. Nature surely had re-
venged herself on New Orleans.

There is no bird that can compare with the chickadee in des-
troying the cankerworm moth. It has been calculated that one
chickadee in one day destroys over 5,000 eggs. A certain man
attracted chickadees to one of his orchards, feeding them there
in winter, and he says: “that in the following summer while trees
of the neighboring orchards were seriously infested by canker-
worms and caterpillars, the orchard where the chickadees had
been, no serious damage was done by the worms or caterpillars.”

6

162 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

The Baltimore Oriole or golden robin, is remarkably familiar
and fearless of man, hanging its beautiful nests in our garden
trees. He is one of the most interesting features of country
landscape. In the spring the oriole’s food consists almost entirely
of caterpillars, beetles and other insects that injure the trees
and fruit. There are few birds that do more good in this way.
Though sometimes they eat our grapes from the vines and peck
at the fruit on the trees, it is usually because they want a drink
that they do this. One good man placed pans of water in his
orchard, and he soon noticed that not only the orioles, but other
birds came to the pans for a drink instead of disturbing the
fruit.

All woodpeckers, of which there are many varieties, are of
vaule to the farmer. About three-fourths of their food consists
of insects, wood-boring beetles, many caterpillars, mostly those
species that burrow into trees, and many ants that are particu-
larly harmful to timber, these insects not being accessible to other
birds, are sought after by the woodpeckers, whose beaks and
tongues are especially fitted for such work, dig out and devour
them.

If the farmer only thought of it, he would begin to think that
part of every corn crop rightfully belongs to the blackbirds.
When the corn is young he cannot see the grubs, but the birds
can and they take many thousands in a day. These birds have
been much abused on account of the farmer not knowing that
they actually more than compensated him for the mischief seem-
ingly done, by the benefit they confer in the destruction of grub-
worms and other deadly foes whose secret work destroys vege-
tation.

The robin—often called “morning bird,” glad harbinger of
spring, wakes us with his warbling early in the morn. This bird
courts the society of man following closely upon the plow spade
and hoe. To be sure he feeds for a month or so on our strawberries
and cherries, but his general diet is that of insects and worms
picked out of the ground. He destroys the larve of many insects
in the soil and is a positive blessing to mankind.

Brrp Srupy. 163

In regard to larger birds, which are called birds of prey, such
as the owl, hawk and crow, the uninformed farmer considers
them his enemies, but nearly all species render great service in
destroying many field mice and ground squirrels and other small
rodents, harmful to vegetation.

Some writer has said, “if all the birds should die, not a human
being could live on earth, because the insects upon which the
birds subsis* would increase so enormously as to destroy all vege-
tation and that birds save for agricultural purposes alone an-
nually, $100,000,000 in the United States.”

Can one imagine a summer time without the songsters! No
happy morning song to greet the early riser, no sweet melody to
cheer the plowman as he enters upon his daily task, no bright-
tinted object, fluttering through the leafy boughs of bush or tree!

Let us cherish these winged creatures as gifts from an all-wise
Providence, for without them the world would be more barren
than we think. !

Would it not be a good plan to increase the intelligence of the
present and rising generation respecting the value of birds, by
introducing into our schools the study of bird life. Through the
wise co-operation of our school boards suitable text-books may
be procured which will supply the knowledge needed in regard
to the great value of these often-abused creatures, and arouse an
interest in their protection. The Audubon Society of the State of
New York, which was formed February 23, 1897, together with
other societies, have done much to prohibit the useless slaughter
of these feathered tribes. But the universal custom of wearing
birds and their plumage is of too long a standing to be changed
in even a few years; it must come through education, a know-
ledge of their great value to the world. The Audubon Society
found already laws existing, if enforced, adequately to protect our
birds. The Audubon pledge does not prohibit the use of ostrich
plumes or the feathers of the domesticated fowls.

Let us, fellow teachers and fellow citizens, take up this work
of bird study and protection. Let the schools teach it, let the

164 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

press print it, the pulpit preach it till from thousands of happy
throats, shall be proclaimed the glad tidings of good will of man
toward the birds.

“Tis always morning somewhere and above
The awakening continents, from shore to shore,
Somewhere, the birds are singing evermore.”

Nature Study.

By ANNA MCPHERSON, Garbutt, N. Y.

This subject has a wide range and time will not permit any
discussion regarding its early history under Froebel, and its evolu-
tion in America, until to-day the American kindergarten leads
the world in its methods of following nature in the education of
children.

We shall talk of nature study in our common schools, and its
practical value to the farmer. Farmers in general recognize the
fact that agriculture is of vital importance among the industries,
and realize that they must understand the natural elements with
which they have to deal and the best methods of exterminating
or resisting the attacks of injurious insects which are rapidly
increasing, both in number and variety. (Professor Slingerland
says at the rate of 7,000 new kinds per year. The United States
have 33,000 out of a total of 300,000 known varieties.) Had these
subjects been taught in our country schools fifteen or twenty
years ago, the farmer of to-day would be better prepared to meet
the difficulties now confronting him. Farming has indeed be-
come a science, and a successful farmer or fruit-grower of to-day
requires a much broader education than in most lines of occupa-
tion which we might mention. A country child is in nature’s
laboratory with all nature about him, and as the average gstud-
ent’s school life closes at fourteen or sixteen years of age, why
not begin his education in childhood and thus develop a love for
farm life and agriculture. While in our country schools the com-
mon and frequently higher English branches are taught, it is
astonishing that little or no instruction is given that will aid in
a practical manner those wishing to follow this branch of in-

166 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

dustry. Our educational system, excellent as it is in some re-
spects, could be made of greater value by helping the student
to obtain a knowledge of the forms of life about him through
observation and personal research, thus arousing his dormant
capabilities and securing the harmonious development of all his
faculties, often giving an incentive to further study.

It seems to be the fad now to make the child appear “ smart ”
rather than “ substantial”, and through a system of cramming
a superficial knowledge of books is obtained without knowing
how to put it to practical use. They have not learned to do
by doing. It is not enough to learn the principles of mathematics
and science, but we must know how and where to apply those
principles in our avocations. Childhood is naturally active, ob-
servant and inquisitive. Children see many things in the natural
world they do rot understand, and are continually thirsting for
knowledge. Do we recognize this in their education? Do we
realize its significance and encourage them to develop powers of
observation? Wedo not! From his earliest school days books
are placed before the boy, his memory alone igs trained until
nearly over-burdened, while his eyes and ears are left to train
themselves, with the result they are gradually closed to the
wonders and beauties of the natural world, and he steps forth
only partially equipped to take his position in the struggle of life.

Ruksin says: “There is no moment of any day of our lives
when nature is not producing scene after scene, picture after
picture, glory after glory, and working still upon such exquisite
and constant principles of the most perfect beauty that it is
quite certain it is all done for us and intended for our perpetual
pleasure.” Not many of us see these masterpieces nature places
before us, because our eyes have not been trained to habits of
observation. No one can appreciate the works of nature without
knowing nature, and to know her you must get nearer to her and
study how she works. A student, boy or girl, who has learned
to observe and can describe correctly so apparently as simple
a matter as a leaf, insect or bird, has learned the art of accurate

Nature Srupy. 167

and rapid observation, which will be of infinite value in any posi-
tion in life.

For instance, take it on the farm. It is not the big burly boy
or man who can perform prodigious feats of strength, breaks all
the handles in your pitchforks and smashes things generally,
breaking more implements than he’s worth, who is in greatest
demand and receives the highest wages. Rather, who does not
prefer the one who works intelligently with his brain, eyes and
hands in harmony; who does not have to be told twice how to
do a thing, but comprehends immediately and does it; nor stops
five minutes to think before he can see what he is doing; who,
when sent to the garden to hoe the weeds out will not also root
up all the vegetable plantlets, never having noticed the difference
between vegetable plants and weeds in their first stages of
growth? Yes, we’ve all seen just such help. Intelligent help on
the farm is getting scarcer every year, yet what men we are
obliged to hire demand the same wages a skilled laborer is en-
titled to. In nature study we have a remedy.

Not only on the farm, but in any position, be it messenger boy
or bank clerk, the one with a quick observant eye is better
equipped for positions of advancement, and the one not so en-
dowed must cultivate the habit if he wins success in life. The
Indian who roamed through these trackless forests before the
advent of the white men had so trained the eye for generations,
that they were able to tell from an indistinct footprint how many
hours had elapsed since the foot had pressed the ground, and
could follow the trail for miles, which to a white man’s eye
showed not the faintest trace. You have heard of the man travel-
ing in the Orient who lost his camel. In his search for the ani-
mal he met an Arab of whom he made inquiries for the missing
beast, but he said he had not seen the camel. After further con-
versation the Arab asked the traveler if his camel] was lame on
its left hind foot, blind in its right eye, and carried meal in its
pannier. The traveler answered yes, then you have seen my
camel and can tell me where he may be found. The Arab said

168 Bureau or Farmers’ InstiruTes.

no, I have not seen him, neither do I know where he is, but as
I came this way I noticed birds of the air picking something from
the ground which I found to be meal, the footprints showed me
a camel had passed this way, and the impression from the left
hind foot being indistinct I knew he was lame in that foot. I
also saw that the grass on the left side was cropped close, while
that on the right was untouched; from this I knew he was blind in
his right eye. All these signs the Arab had observed and traced,
and though equally plain to the traveler, he had not seen them,
and could hardly be convinced the Arab spoke the truth. We
thus see the value of natural science, which has been defined as
‘consisting of two things, seeing what you look at and drawing
proper conclusions from what you see.” Not only in country,
but in city schools is the need for nature study felt. A recent
paper states:

“At an examination in many of the public schools in Boston,
Syracuse, Kansas City, St. Louis and other of the larger cities,
a surprising ignorance of natural objects was shown; very many
of the children had never seen a bee hive, bee or a hen; did not
know what a snake or a toad looked like; could not describe an
insect, and had no idea what a butterfly was. It was recom-
mended that some of the subjects now taught be dropped and
nature study substituted.”

How many children of the age of twelve or under, can tell a
bass wood tree from an elm, a cherry tree from a maple with the
leaves on or off? What appears first on a fruit tree, the leaves or
blossoms? Why can a fly walk on the ceiling? How does the
grasshopper sing his song? How many teeth has a cow on its
upper jaw? How many teeth has a hen? You laugh at this,
but I doubt if one child out of twenty can answer these ques-
tions correctly, yet they are subjects which are met with every
day. As our prosperity depends in so large a degree upon the
cultivation of the soil and plant life, why should not our boys and
girls be educated to a knowledge of nature by bringing them into
direct contact with her work. Make nature study real and per-
sonal; teach the children to know the plant, its habits, its family,
and its enemies by actual observation, so they may be able to tell

NaturE STupy. 169

a pumpkin plantlet from a burdock or a radish plantlet from a
rag weed. You think you can do so now? Well, perhaps; try
it this spring. A young lady was given some very small verbena
plants in their second leaf which she carefully planted, tenderly
watched over and watered, anticipating great pleasure in her
verbena blossoms, imagine her disgust when she found all her
care had been bestowed upon catnip plants. Now suppose we
study the little plants this summer so we may be able to detect
the difference in the several varieties of seeds and plants and not
raise a crop of something we do not want.

I recently heard of a bicycle party on a country run who were
very much attracted by a beautiful plant they saw growing in a
garden. This plant had tall stalks of dull green over topped
with silvery bloom. Every one halted to admire the beautiful
plant with exclamations of delight. Finally one of the party
asked the “man with the hce” who was at work near by what
those beautiful flowers were. He looked around in surprise, then
asked her what she meant. Why! those lovely plants along the
fence. I never saw anything like them before. He smiled a
pitying smile as he replied: “ Them! Why them’s onions gone to
seed.”

Children are enthusiastic admirers of trees, tell them their
names, habits of growth, what makes them grow, length of life,
when the buds and blossoms appear, when and why the leaves
fall. Tell them of its countless enemies which destroy fruit and
leaf. Teach them how to recognize these insects, their nests,
eggs, etc., so as to destroy them. (Those are the nests the small
boy would more profitable destroy than the helpful birds’ nests.)
The practical results of this method is demonstrated in Cali-
fornia’s rich fruit belt, where entomology is required in the
schools and the children are actively engaged in destroying the
pests. If such a method were adopted in New York the tent
caterpillar nests would not be found in nearly every tree and
orchard along our highways, a blot upon the landscape and a
menace of what we may expect from the same quarter next sea-
son. Our forests also suffer from the depredations of insects.

170 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Entomologists give between 500 and 600 distinct species that at-
tack the oak, 100 the elm, nearly 200 the hickory, over 125 the
willow, nearly 200 the pine and hundreds the other evergreens,
over 100 the maple. During the past year the depredations of in-
sects in many localities have been so destructive that the farmers
are obliged to cut down their beautiful maple groves, being a
loss of many thousands of dollars to them. We have many
faithful allies who will help us in destroying this vast horde of
insect enemies if we will but recognize and protect them. All
insects are not injurious, some are beneficial and we should be
able to discriminate. Then come the birds. Who does not love
the birds and welcome their cheerful inspiring song when they
return in the spring!

In portions of Alaska there are men, women and children who
never heard a bird sing (imagine it if you can) and their delight
was unbounded when they first heard a canary bird warble. The
birds are man’s best friend; without them the earth would be
uninhabitable. Thus we should teach the children they are to be
protected, not alone because of their beautiful song and color,
but by a wise Providence they prevent the undue increase of in-
sects, destroy noxious weeds and in many other ways are helpful
to the agriculturist. They should not be stoned, hunted or de-
stroyed in any way, the victims of small boys and boyish men
who think it manly to take life merely from love of sport. In-
stead of buying a gun take the money and buy a field glass and
study the habits of birds and animals about you, and I’ll venture
to say you will get more real, pure pleasure from that kind of
sport.

Snakes and toads are interesting objects of nature study and
should also be protected as being of value to the farmer. There
are very few poisonous reptiles in our section of the country and
we should discourage the killing of harmless snakes which are
really as valuable as the ungainly and useful toad. Insects form
their article of diet; cut worms being a favorite dish. On the
whole they are beneficent creatures and our prejudice against

Nature Sroupy. 171

them is rather the result of their evil look and reputation, to-
gether with our ignorance in regard to their utility.

Moles and skunks are also friends of the farmers which are
being exterminated through ignorance of their usefulness. A
study of their habits, food, etc., would furnish an interesting field
of observation and result in much benefit to the agriculturist. If
all these allies were protected as they should be, they would not
be obliged to spend so much time and hard-earned money on in-
sect poisons, etc., as they are now doing.

-A clever teacher may take up nature study in our schools, with-
out its being an added recitation. To begin with make it a rest
exercise once or twice a week and give such subjects a wide range
of adaptability from the primary to the highest grades. Do not
stop during the winter months, there are always objects awaiting
our investigation. As soon as a genuine interest in nature study
is awakened in the children and teachers, you will be surprised
at how many interesting objects the pupils find to bring in for
study, and cabinets of plants, insects, and minerals will be
formed, all which will be of benefit not only to the pupils, causing
them to take an interest in farm life such as they never had be-
fore, but interesting also to the parents who never had these
privileges, and to whom the child rehearses the new things he
has learned during the day. The book of nature once open to him,
the printed page will be more interesting and an appetite awak-
ened which will be satisfied only with wholesome food, and the
weak, harmful trash found on the news-stands, will be voluntarily
rejected. Over and above all, in this study of nature the student
will be led to see the marvelous symmetry and minuteness of
finish, in the very humblest of plants and animals and will be
constrained to love nature and reverence nature’s God, thus
morally elevating and uplifting to nobler, higher aime.

Let the farmers urge on and assist in every way possible that
the study of nature in our common schools may become popular.
When anything becomes popular we may look for success. Thus
we may easier obtain intelligent help. The farmer’s boys and
girls will learn to love their home and farm life, the city have

172 Bureau oF Farmers’ Institutes.

less attraction for them, and the farmer’s family will be raised
intellectually to a higher and more prosperous plane, and be able
to keep pace with the progress of civilization, and thus be in a
position to take their proper place among the learned profes-
sions. The terms “ hayseed” and “ clodhopper” will be applied
no more to the American farmer.

“Nature never did betray the heart that loved her,
’Tis her privilege thro’ all the years of this our life
To lead from joy to joy;

For she can so inform the mind that is within s,
So impress with quietness and beauty

And so feed with lofty tho’ts

That neither evil tongues, rash judgments

Nor the sneers of selfish men,

Nor the greetings where no kindness is,

Nor all the dreary intercourse of daily life

Shall ere prevail against us.”’

I understand Cornell University has established summer
schools and prepared papers on nature study for teachers so as
to qualify them to develop the latent powers of observation in
their pupils. The state normals have neglected to include this
among their methods which we trust they will do in the near
future. Would it not be a wise plan for every one who can spend
but ten or fifteen minutes each day in reading, to send for these
papers (they may be had for the asking) and study one of the
most important sciences of the day.

Unseen Opportunities.

By Rey. F. W. Moo7, Johnstown, N. Y.

We are living in a wonderful age. We cross the continent
or the mighty ccean in five days; we talk with a friend a thou-
sand miles away and recognize his voice; within an hour we can
communicate with almost any portion of the civilized world; we
travel, we read, we warm ourselves by that mysterious agent,
electricity; an event occurs in South Africa and within three
hours the newsboys are selling for a cent, printed newspapers con-
taining an account of the affair. When we pause and look back
two, four, five or ten centuries at the conditions and incon-
veniences of our forefathers, and then at all the wonderful
achievements of the nineteenth century, we are tempted to be-
lieve that we are living in another world or, at least, under some
new laws of nature. But we are not. This is the same old earth,
and the laws of nature are the same as when man first saw the
light of the sun. There is but one thing that makes this age so
marvelously superior to any other—the men of this century have
seen what was unseen by their ancestors.

There is but one reason why Christopher Columbus did not
eross the Atlantic ocean in a steamboat instead of his sailboat—
men did not then see the power in steam which had ever been
open to their investigation. It remained an unseen opportunity
until Watts and Stephenson and Fulton put it into practical
use. There is but one reason—the unseen opportunity—why the
Magna Charta, which was signed by King John, of England,
June 15, 1215, was not printed the next morning in a daily news-
paper. The act of writing had been known for ages, but the
opportunity in movable type was unseen until 1438, when Guten-

174 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirutes.

berg presented it to the world. The defeat of the heroic band
of Spartans at the pass of Thermopylie, 480 B. C., might have
telegraphed to Sparta, only that the possibility of sending a
message over an electrified wire was unseen until 1844, when
Prof. 8. F. B. Morse sent the first message which marked a new
era in the histotry of civilization. Our forefathers might have
had the moving machine, the threasher and cleaner, the sulky
plow, the graindrill, and a hundred other convenient farming
utensils. They had wood and iron and knew how to work in
these, but they failed to see how to put these together as men
of later date have discovered.

Not only in invention have men failed to see their opportuni-
ties, but in every vocation and calling of life there have been
golden opportunities which had we seen and improved would
have resulted to our great advantage. Some of these may be
beyond the penetrating power of our vision, but hundreds are
lying all about us which may be seen, and which if improved
will improve the condition of any preacher, lawyer, merchant
or tiller of the soil.

In this age of multi-millionaires, there is a widespread desire
among men to become rich. Wealth honestly gotten and rightly
used is a blessing, and this rule applies to man whether he has
twenty thousands or twenty millions of dollars. It is not money
that is the root of all evil, but “the love of money is the root
of all evil.” The desire for a large competency has found a
resting place in the bosom of many a tiller of the soil, but in the
process of his way of farming and the hardness of the times he
has not realized his fond hope of wealth. Perhaps to-day in his
despondency he has concluded that if he ever is going to be rich,
or does not desire to end his career in the county almshouse, he
must get off the farm, for there is no money in farming. But
before any man leaves his farm to make a larger competency in
the world, it will be wise to sit down and count the cost. Many
a farmer who left the farm to gain wealth in the world has years
afterward discovered that he and his fortune separated when he
moved off the farm. I have known some remarkable instances

UNSEEN OPPORTUNITIES. 175

of this character. Several years ago a man was living on his farm
in Pennsylvania. His brother in Canada sent him word that he
had discovered coal oil and thought he would make a fortune.
The brother in Pennsylvania sold his farm for $853 and went
to Canada to make a fortune by finding coal oil. He did not
find it. But the man who purchased the farm for $833 discovered
coal oil on this very farm which his predecessor had deserted,
and the total value of oil taken from that farm is estimated at
$100,000,000.

A farmer in California learned in 1850 that some one had dis-
covered gold a few miles south of him. He sold his farm and
hastened to the new gold field to make a fortune. The man who
purchased the farm built a mill on the bank of a stream which
flowed through the farm. His little daughter took some of the
sand from the stream and carried it to the house. One day while
she was letting some of this sand run from one hand to the
other her father saw some bright glittering particles in the sand.
He examined it and found it to be gold. That farm has grown
to be one of the richest gold mines in California from which over
$129,000,000 worth of gold has been taken. Your farm may not
have hidden in its bosom coal oil or gold, but it may have treas-
ures which proper tillage may unfold.

Some seem to think that money can be made only in the large
cities. Buta census of 107 millionaires in New York city in 1889,
revealed the fact that only eight out of the 107 had made their
first million in New York. The other ninety-nine had made their
first million in some small town or city. There are farmers who
have been and are making money on the farm, but they are
those who are improving what to many others are “ unseen op-
portunities.”

In your marketable produce study to learn what people want.
Some people seem never able to learn that the public will not
buy what it does not want, but will buy and pay a good price
for what it does want. Some merchants compain because they do
not have what they believe is their share of patronage. If they
deal honestly and get what the public wants, patronage will come.

176 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

A. T. Stewart is said to have begun his career with $1.50. He
invested 88 cents in articles that people would not buy he-
cause they did not want them. In this experience he learned
what they did want, and invested his remaining 62 cents in
these and easily and readily sold them at a profit. All his life
he acted upon this principle and died leaving a fortune valued at
$40,000,000. John Jacob Astor in his early life closed a mortgage
on a millinery store in New York because the parties could not
pay the interest. However, he retained them in the store with
instructions to take apart all their made-up goods which were
unstylish. He then went out into Central Park and when he saw
a beautiful, stylish hat he went directly to the store and had one
made like it and placed in the window. This he did until the
store was full of stylish hats that ladies wanted. The result
has been that the profits from that store have amounted to over
$17,000,000. ;

A farmer in Indiana had a great many fatted hogs which he
could not sell at any price. He went to Boston with his wife, re-
solved if he could find anything to do he would give up his farm
and hogs, which nobody wanted. While in Boston he saw canned
gooseberries selling at 60 cents per pint. He hastened back
to his farm, sat out gooseberry bushes, and began the culture of
berries, canning them within two hours after they were picked,
that they might retain their freshness and tart. His gooseberries
were sold in New York for 75 cents per pint and to-day he is one
of the largest taxpayers in Indiana.

An old man lived on a small farm in Vermont and each year
tapped a maple tree in front of his house, making a little syrup
from the sap. After 40 years of life on this farm he was still
poor. One day while making some maple sugar he made it into
maple crystals. They were so delicious to the taste that he in-
terested some large maple-sugar manufacturers in the scheme
and in eight years was worth $280,000. ‘ Unseen opportunities ”
in learning what the public wants.

A man living in Boston was paying 12 cents per quart for
the milk used by his family. One day he learned of a milk dealer

UNSEEN OPporRTUNITIES. a IETS

that he was selling his milk for six cents per quart. The man
went home and ordered his wife to buy her milk of the six-cent-
per-quart dealer. She did so. The first morning it was poured
into the coffee, the husband drank his, but the wife only tasted
of hers. The next morning the husband drank only part of his,
the wife’s was untouched; but they had saved six cents. The
next morning neither of them used any milk, but the husband
lifted the cream pitcher to his face, and smelled of its contents.
He set it down and said: “ Wife, after this buy your twelve-cent
milk.” He afterward learned that the stables of the six-cent
dealer were filthy and his care of his cows and the milk unclean,
while the other groomed his cows, allowed no manure to remain
in the stable, and in every way exercised the greatest care, that
his milk might be of a superior quality. He made money, know-
ing there is always a class of people who will pay a good price
for a superior article.

Mark you, you never will succeed in selling wormy apples,
small, diseased potatoes or blue milk. The majority desire pure
and excellent quality. ‘“ Old Abe” was right when he said:
“You can fool all the people some of the time, and some of the
people all of the time, but you cannot fool all the people all the
time.”

Know the cost of production. In the commercial world every
man knows the cost of his goods from a locomotive down to a
pin. It is the basis of success; it is the indicator of profit and
loss, of fortune or failure. Strange, is it not, that with this
object lesson before them nine-tenths of our farmers do not
know the real cost of their produce, and when they sell do not
know whether in reality they have made or lost money. It may
be easier for the merchant, who buys his goods by the dozen or
gross, to ascertain the cost of each article, than for the farmer,
but it is no less important that you should know the cost of your
products.

A little common sense and a little system will help you very
much. For instance, in your hog-house build a bin with parti-

178 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

tions for different kinds of grain. Put in a convenient place a
small note book with a pencil tied to it. When you buy six pigs
for $2 each, put it down in the book. When you put ten bushels
of corn, or other grain in the bin write it in the book, with its
market value. You need not keep account of the milk you feed
as it has no market value. In the fall when you sell your pork,
you can tell in a very few minutes whether or not you have made
anything. If you have fed the hog $16 worth of grain, and only
received $12 for it, you better stop raising hogs and sell your
grain. The same plan can be used with the hens, and to a satis-
factory degree in testing the worth of individual cows, weighing
or testing otherwise the milk. You should know what your
potatoes, corn, hay, etc., costs, that you may often chose the
more profitable crop. Rotation of crops is necessary, but some-
times you can chose between two or three different grains in the
rotation.

Study economy in production. The farmer cannot regulate the
market price, but he can to a large degree regulate the cost of
production, which means to him a larger profit. An Ohio farmer
had raised potatoes for several years in the old way of cultiva-
tion. One day he decided to plant his potatoes with a potato
planter, cultivate them with a cultivator, dig them with a potato
digger, and store them in square bushel boxes to save time and
expense in handling. He did so and reduced the cost of produc-
tion one-third. .

In 1897, at the New York State Experiment Station, two plats
of potatoes were planted in the same field. Both were cultivated
exactly alike, except when one was hilled, the other was left level.
The value of the crop from the latter cultivation was $24
per acre more than on the plat where the potatoes were hilled.
It is more economical to keep one $50 cow that gives 40 pounds
of milk per day, than two $25 cows which only give 20 pounds
each per day. Learn the food-value of that which you feed your
live-stock. For one cent you can buy a postal card on which
to write your address and send it to the Department of Agricul-

UNSEEN OPpporTUNITIES. 179

ture at Washington, and they will send you a pamphlet telling
the food-value of the various products of the farms.

Sell when your produce brings a reasonable profit. If you
know its cost you will be able more intelligently to dispose of
your crops. There is some perishable produce which you must
sell for what you can get, but nonperishable produce, such as
hay, grain, etc., can be kept until it brings more than it cost to
produce. But don’t be foolish and want an unreasonable profit.
This has been the mistake of too many. I know of a farmer who
had some pork which had cost him about $5 per hundred-weight.
He was offered $9 per hundred-weight, but would not sell. This
was in the month of March. He kept his pork until the
following October, when it had cost him about $10 per hundred-
weight and then sold it for $7 per hundredweight. I knew of a
farmer who had 16,000 pounds of hops, which had cost him
about $1,600, and for which he was offered $16,000. He refused
to take it. Afterwards sold them for about $2,000. I know of
another farmer who in the last twenty years hag had opportuni-
ties to sell his large hop crops at prices which would have made
him worth to-day, $500,000. But he is not worth a dollar, simply
because he was not willing to sell with reasonable profits.

Give the boys and girls on the farms a chance to have some-
thing of their own and by which each year they can accumulate
a little money. If they expect to spend their life on the farm,
try to give them an opportunity to learn in some agricultural
school the more intelligent methods of farming. Always bring
them to the Farmers’ Institute, even if you have to keep them
out of school for a few days. Go home to put in practice many
of the excellent things that have been said at this institute. The
power that willeth to do is the strongest power in the world. A
sick woman was supposed to be dying. The funeral arrange-
ments had been made, when she overheard someone saying the
funeral would be on Friday at 2 p.m. She lifted her head from
the pillow and said, “ There won’t be any funeral here on Friday.”
There was not. The next week she arose from her bed and lived

180 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

twenty-five years. When Napoleon wished to carry his army
into Italy, his generals said, ‘‘ The impassable Alps.” He replied,
“There will be no Alps.” And there were none to his indomit-
able will; for over the icy glaciers his soldiers dragged their
gannon. Old Commodore Vanderbilt, when asked for the secret
of success, said, “ Secret? There is no secret. Intelligently at-
tend to your business, and go ahead.” Go home to see your op-
portunities and to improve them, and you will succeed.

The Church and the Grange.

By Rev. JoHN KINcAID, Rodman, N. Y.

When asked to prepare a speech or a paper for this Farmers’
Institute, the first and most difficult question to decide was “ What
shall it be about?”—trusts and expansion, Dewey and the Filli-
pinos, the Boers and the Transvaal—these are hackneyed subjects.
They meet us in big headlines in the newspapers every day. The
farmers, I thought, will want a rest from this class of questions.
Of soils and siloes, blooded stock and sugar beets, Bohemian oats,
orchards, meadows, grains and taxes, what is a preacher sup-
posed to know? But there is one subject I have noticed which
is of interest to everyone. Talk about politics and some will
turn away in disgust. Talk of religion and some will yawn.
Expatiate on the beauties of art and the blank look on the faces
of your auditors may betray their lack of appreciation. Speak
of business and the idler is unconcerned; expound science and
many are bored; but talk to people about themselves and they
are all ears. If a man be honest, he must confess that of all
things which the Lord has made in the earth or the waters there
is nothing of such absorbing interest to him as himself. It has
been said that the greatest bore in the world is he who persists
in talking of himself when you wish to talk of yourself. So I
decided to say something about ourselves. Hence my subject,
“The Church and the Grange.” You represent the grange, I
the church.

This is an age of fraternities, guilds and associations. Never
since the Lord formed the first society, by putting the hand of
Eve in the hand of Adam, has there been such a multiplicity of
unions, fellowships and fraternities as at present. I heard a

182 Bureau or Farmers’ InstTIirures.

minister say, a short time since, that he belonged to seven differ-
ent fraternal associations. I have been wondering since how,
amid them all, he found time to kiss his wife or pray to his God.
You, my brother grangers, represent one of the youngest of these
fraternities and I one of the oldest; and together we represent
two of the best. It is well that age and youth meet often. Each
needs the other. In mutual respect and confidence they will find
mutual profit. Every organization that has any excuse for be-
ing at all exists for a purpose. Life is too brief, its fleeting days
are freighted with issues too grave for earnest men and women
to band together merely to pass a pleasant hour in mirth and
feasting. Their social pleasures are best promoted and most en-
joyed when hand and hearts are united to forward some good
cause. The society that endures and retains its place and in-
fluence in the world must stand for something. That its mem-
bers are friendly, its gatherings inspired by mirth and good cheer
will not alone give it an influence that is permanent. Associa-
tions that live only to minister to the present enjoyment of their
members are ephemeral and soon pass away. Those continue
and fasten themselves more deeply in the affections of the people,
as the years go by, which embody in their principles and prac-
tices some one or more of the vital needs of the world.

The glory of the associations we represent is that they each
exist for a definite, well-defined and noble purpose. Each repre-
sents an actual need of society. Each has specific ends to ful-
fill, the accomplishment of which will make the world better
and happier. Looking in the Standard dictionary for the defini-
tion of a grange, I find it is “a lodge or local branch of the order
of.the patrons of husbandry, an order designed to promote the
interests of farmers and to bring the producer and consumer
nearer together.” The interests of farmers and the welfare of
the nation might almost be said to be identical. A nation’s
status among the nations of the earth is indicated by the degree
of intelligence, industry and sterling character of those who till
her soil.

Tue CHURCH AND THE GRANGE. 183

In the welfare of farmers all are concerned. All, then, have
reason to watch with no indifferent eye the work, progress and
efficiency of the grange. To it a great work is committed—to
see that farmers hold their own in the fierce competition of mod-
ern days; to seek an influential voice and vote in shaping legis-
lation affecting farmers’ interests; to stimulate each other to a
broader culture, a wider and more intelligent outlook upon the
great world and its conflicting interests; to make the farmer’s
home a center of refined and wholesome influences; to apply the
evcr-increasing knowledge of nature and her laws to the prac-
tical art of coaxing a world’s sustenance from mother earth—
surely these are reasons enough to justify the existence of a
farmers’ alliance. For purposes no less distinct and no less im-
portant does the Christian church appeal to the world for sym-
pathy and support. To it is committed the mission of keeping
the soul of man in touch with his Maker. History demonstrates
the need of religious truth and religious instruction for the high-
est and best material prosperity. The church, the school-house,
the farm—they are three indispensables to Christian civilization.

Now, for the best development of our respective interests, my
farmer friends, I urge the importance of mutual esteem, sym-
pathy, and so far as is practical and proper, co-operation. You
have your distinct mission (a noble one), to promote the material
and social interests of farmers. The church has its mission to all
mankind (a sacred holy one), to bring the motives of the un-
seen and spiritual world to bear upon the hearts and consciences
of men. Let us distinguish between things which differ. The
church is not designed nor adapted to promote the welfare of
farmers as distinct from other classes in society. Neither is the
Grange designed nor adapted to take the place of the church in
the promulgation of religious truth. Each organization will pros-
per and succeed as it adheres faithfully to its own sphere of
action. One of our humorists, Josh Billings, has a lecture on
milk. He begins by saying that he has read quite extensively on
the subject in books and periodicals, but with all his research,
the best thing he ever found on milk was—cream. The best

184 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

thing we shall ever find as the result of the influence and efforts
of any organization, is the results that it is designed and is by
nature fitted to produce.

Being entertained a few weeks since at the home of a granger
in a neighboring town, the conversation turned on the work of his
grange. Among the questions which had been discussed there
was this—‘ Resolved: That the Grange is doing more for the
moral elevation of society than the Church.” Some reliance had
been placed upon one who himself never attended church, and
was not a religious man, to support the affirmative. To the sur-
prise of many he had very little to say and that little expressed
his aversion to that class of questions. He said there could be
no doubt in his mind, which had done the most for the good of
mankind,—it was the church. More than that, he asserted that
the church was the mother of the grange. If there had never
been a church there would never have been a grange. It would
do for him to say that. Being a minister, I should not wish to
say it (although I might believe it), especially before a gathering
of farmers. But is not such a comparison unnecessary and in-
vidious? It engenders antagonism where there should be mutual
good will and co-operation. There is no natural animosity be-
tween the church and the grange. The success of one in its own
legitimate line of effort, only renders easier and more promising,
the work of the other. If the daughter can outstrip the mother
in any honorable undertaking, well and good. But let her be
careful how, in the self-complacency of youth, she disdains that
mother and seeks to get along without her. The field is wide
enough. Hand in hand we should move forward each in his
place with charity and good will to fulfill our mission. Much
we have in common. Many objects of endeavor enlist alike the
grange and the church. The great problems of our times appeal
to us both as grangers and church members. The saloon, one
of the blackest spots on our civilization, awaits our united action
to banish its legalized temptations from our boys and young men.
The congestion of population in the crowded cities presents prob-
lems which are of vital interest to us both. The growing power

Tue CHuRCH AND THE GRANGE. 185

of consolidated wealth threatens the progress of Christian effort
in our churches, as well as the success of the principles and ob-
jects which the grange seeks to attain. On these and many other
kindred subjects, the grange and the church are in touch and in
sympathy. Let us foster such a spirit of mutual respect and fra-
ternal feeling towards each other, that as one by one these ques-
tions come before us for solution, the influence of our powerful
organizations may be thrown unitedly upon the right side.

In their religious views the members of the order of the Patrons
of Husbandry are probably widely divided. There are, I suppose,
among your members, representatives of most religious sects and
many of no sect and no positive religious belief. But on all
great moral questions, those touching the sanctity of the home,
the purity of the ballot, and freedom of conscience, you are, I
take it, practically agreed. The church looks to you grangers with
desire and expectancy touching these questions. It has a right
to hope that on all issues calling for true moral discernment and
decision, those whose occupation brings them so near to nature’s
heart will be allies of the church in seeking the purity, integrity
and justice enjoined by nature’s God. Manhood is the great need
of the age. A manhood which rises above sect, and party, and
selfish greed. A manhood which scorns the man, the unchari-
table, the petty and the vile; that seeks not a life of ease
through public preferment, but chooses a strenuous life of noble
toil and sacrifice looking to the advancement of truth, justice and
liberty for its richest reward. Where shall we look for the
nurture of such manhood if not among those who, in the inde-
pendent life of the farm, far from the temptations and vain show
of the crowded metropolis, spend the early years of life. The boys
of the farm, to-day, are those whe will determine whether, in the
new era of world-wide influence upon which our nation is enter-
ing, she will be true to the principles of fraternity and freedom
that have made her great. The ranks ef the legislators, judges,
diplomats and millionaires are in every generation recruited from
the farm. It is through the life blood of honesty, simplicity, fru-
gality and industry, which has flowed from the rural districts in

186 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTiruTveEs.

the past, that the national life has been kept vigorous and pure.
Shall it continue to be so in the new and perilous future which is
dawning? With you farmers, more than with any other class,
rests the answer to that question, and the farmers of this great
Empire State have a potential influence in shaping the destiny
of America more decisive than those of any other State in the
Union. The mortgage on the farm, and the incoming foreign ten-
ant, mark the decadence of the class of citizens who have been
the great balance wheel in our social and political life, the inde-
pendent owners of the soil they till.

“There is a tide in the affairs of men which taken at its flood,
leads on to fortune and to fame.” The incoming tide of material
prosperity is rolling in on us as a people. Let the farmers seize
the opportunity it offers. Let the lessons of experience keep them
from being swept away in the popular current of extravagance
and speculation. Let higher intelligence and enterprise lift the
noble calling of husbandry to a level with the learned professions
in popular estimation. Let the farm life be made attractive to
young men by substituting the lyceum and the literary club, for
the nail keg and the three-legged stool in the grocery store. Let
the farmer look beyond, the boundaries of his own paternal
estate and understand that his interests are involved in the
general intelligence and enterprise of the community in which
he lives. Let him understand that good roads are equally a fac-
tor in his success with well-kept stock, or well-ploughed fields.
Intelligence, enterprise, public spirit—let these be the watch
words of the grange and the characteristics of the church. Then
hand in hand and heart to heart they will move forward to shape
a destiny for our country which shall make her the renowned
of earth and the greatest factor in peopling Heaven.

Sullivan County Farming.

By C. W. HEATH.

Every occupation is necessarily subject to certain disadvant-
ages peculiar to its line, varying in proportion to the complete
nature of its surroundings; but taking everything into considera-
tion, none are more exempt from these than the class engaged
in agricultural pursuits. That this is so, is not at all mysterious
when we consider the nature of their calling. Both in winter
as well as summer nature is doing for them a work which it can
do for no other class of men, and which actually costs them noth-
ing, nothing physically or financially; such as the growth of
cereals and other vegetation; while the grass, though withered
and decayed upon the surface, is recuperating strength and vigor
at the root for the coming spring; and the action of the frost
has clarified the soil from impurities and to some extent de-
stroyed innumerable insects detrimental to vegetable growth.

The great difficulty is that farms as a rule are too large, more
so than can be profitably handled. If farming on general princi-
ples cannot be made successful on 50 acres in a state of good
cultivation, it is useless to suppose that any additional number
will prove more remunerative. The crops raised would prove
to be not only equal in quantity, but far superior in quality, and
consequently command a higher market price. As the ruling now
is, fully one-third of the land tax is drawn from what is perfectly
worthless under its present condition to the owner, hence a
burden upon that of a more remunerative nature; thus the
occupation, to that extent at least, is rendered unprofitable.

That those engaged in agricultural pursuits possess an average
degree of prosperity is plainly manifest when compared with
those engaged in mechanical labor of any description. While the

188 Bureau or Farmers’ Lystirures.

latter, to a great extent, is dependent upon others, is in most
cases a tenant at will and is obliged to purchase everything he
needs for himself and family, the farmer employs himself at re-
munerative wages, is in possession of a home for himself and
family and produces at least one-half of the necessaries of life.

In everything we undertake to do, in order to be successful,
a certain amount of intelligence combined with the necessary
capital and labor is always requisite. The merchant in order to
do a profitable business must keep constantly on hand such a
class of goods that pertain to his line as the wants of the public
from iime to time require. If he buys unseasonabie goods
at an unseasonable time they will accumulate on his hands and
eventually so depreciate in value that his business will prove a
matter of loss rather than gain, if not drive him into bankruptcy.
This is equally true of the farmer, He must learn to adapt him-
self to the conditions by which he is surrounded. While physical
exertion is the main factor in successful agricultural pursuits,
nevertheless, unless guided by an intelligent knowledge of his
calling, a great waste of energy will ensue. If we undertake to
fight against nature we will be worsted every time. It is essential]
that the farmer should know the exact elements which are incor-
porated in the soil he undertakes to cultivate, to the end that he
may adapt his crops to it; and should they be of such a nature
that he does not desire to raise them, he must manipulate the
soil to bring it into a condition adapted to raise the ones most
desirable. When the hand and the brain work in unison together
the highest type of successful farm labor is reached, and under
no other conditions.

At a recent farmers’ meeting the question was asked: “ Why
are not farmers more prosperous?” The consensus of opinion
of those present appeared to be that their calling would not
permit of their accumulating wealth as fast as business men do,
nor as fast as their labor entitled them to, that their reward was
not proportionate to their labor. While this is undoubtedly true,
it is an erroneous idea to suppose that true prosperity consists
altogether in the accumulation of wealth when, all things con-

SuLuivan County FarmMIne. 189

sidered, it is only a secondary consideration, but consists chiefly
in contentment and accompanying happiness, the offspring of a
legitimate calling faithfully followed.

The naturally poorest land when in its virgin state is always
good for a while, but must eventually succumb to over-cropping,
unless liberally rewarded by stimulants in return for the tax
imposed upon it. How far this can be done, is a question en-
tirely dependent upon the amount of capital the owner is able
to invest in that direction, and must be left with him to determine.

It seems to be the general opinion of those who have tested
it that small fruit culture may be very profitably engaged: in by
anyone having the requisite quantity of land under a good state
of cultivation. When once properly started, small fruits do not
require any extraordinary amount of labor to keep them in a
proper state of cultivation. Strawberries, although a delicious
fruit and always saleable in season, require too much attention
to make them profitable, unless they can be put in the market
very early in the season, which cannot be successfully done in
our latitude. The most reliable and best payers are raspberries,
currants, blackberries and gooseberries. The last two require
the least attention annually to secure a crop. So far these two
have received but little attention in this section, but as their
nutritive qualities are becoming better understood, they are fast
coming into public favor.

Darwin, in his theory of environment and evolution, tells us
that the fittest always survives. I accept no such view, for I
have in my own limited sphere observed facts which contradict
such an assertion. If he had said the strongest, he would, in
most instances, have come nearer the truth. This is observable
in the animal kingdom, the more powerful and ferocious preying
on the more docile and domestic species.

Turning our eyes to the vegetable kingdom, we are met with
the same condition of things, with but this difference—if we
would preserve the fittest, that is the most essential—we must
assist nature in developing her resources, promote their growth.
Unquestionably all the varied and beautiful flowers which adorn

190 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrrrures.

our gardens, lawns and houses, whether of home-culture or the
product of foreign soil, originally existed in a wild state, as evi-
denced by the fact that many of them are to be found in their
primitive condition, where the foot of man had heretofore never
trod. The fragrant violet, the beautiful daisy, the brilliant rho-
dodendron, and. the pale tinged lily, of whom it is said that Solo-
mon, in all his glory, was not arrayed like unto one of these, which
existed in years long gone by, would blush in the presence of its
offspring of to-day.

It is a highly commendable feature of our day that in the con-
siruction of most of our modern houses, provision is being made
for the culture of native and foreign flowers. They not only
afford a continuous scene of delight to the propagator, but in
many instances, are quite remunerative in their nature, as year
by year they are becoming more popular with our people, an
evidence that we are becoming more refined in our tastes. They
cost but little, and everyone should cultivate them to the extent
of their ability.

While it is true that farm produce is very low, it is equally
true that all other productions are in line with it; so that
while the farmer sells low he buys on the same basis; therefore,
it is evident there is no discrimination in favor of one class more
than another in the world’s market. We may increase the
amount of production, but we cannot increase the demand for
its consumption; that is dependent upon the money market, the
call for labor and the state of trade generally, both at home and
abroad. When prices are good the farmer and the manufacturer
are equally benefited. When prices range high the farmer re-
ceives as much in proportion for his produce as the merchant or
manufacturer is enabled to realize in their respective depart-
ments, and thus things become evenly balanced, or as nearly so
as it is possible to make them. In agriculture and manufactures
there is no normal condition, for they never acquire a normal
state and never will. Fluctuation is the natural outgrowth of
increased and diminished demand and can never be regulated
by any other standard known in commercial circles.

Sutuivan County FarmMine. 191

As regards the price of farm labor, which always pays better
when employed on good than poor land, it certainly is as
reasonable as that of any other employment, and if, as in a
majority of cases, it is too high to prove remunerative to the
employer, it certainly is not the laborer’s fault, for no one can
decently support himself and family on less than the present
ruling prices. If the farm is clear of all indebtedness and in
fair condition, no doubt it will pay to hire help. No rule can be
laid down to govern its advisability in all cases; everyone must
be his own judge.

Through fear of doing too much for posterity we often cheat
ourselves, or, in other words, do not advance our own interests as
we should for fear that others, some time or other, may enter
into our labors. This, to say the least, is taking an extremely
selffish view of the matter, and had our forefathers been actuated
by the same principle we should not to-day be enjoying the ad-
vantages we have derived from their labors. We cannot isolate
ourselves from each other and enjoy the benefits which accrue
from a union of labor. Notably is this the case in the setting out
of fruit and shade trees. We not infrequently allow ourselves
to be reasoned into the belief that we will never live to reap the
benefit of our labor and expense, and that it is unnecessary to do
for posterity what they in after years can do for themselves, and
thus the duty is allowed to go by. The fact is, however, that we
reason falsely. In most cases the subject comes up for consider-
ation in youth or middle age, and if acted upon we may and do
in most instances live to see them come to maturity. Even if ad-
vanced in years we should by that time have learned a lesson
which searches out beyond self. Twelve years, under favorable
conditions, will bring an orchard into good bearing condition,
and twenty years, at the outside, will produce maple trees large
enough annually to tap, and at the same time afford a most luxuri-
ant shade. The state has wisely recognized this fact in the mat-
ter of shade trees, and offers every necessary inducement to
farmers and others to set them out along our highways. They
are at once a thing of beauty and of profit, and the sooner we

192 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

realize this two-fold benefit, the more anxious will we be to do
our share in this commendable work. It is gratifying, however,
to observe that the practice is yearly becoming more adopted,
and ere long will become general throughout the state.

The relative position of capital and labor is one in which those
engaged in agricultural pursuits are deeply interested, for they
are the main factors in the latter, the producers of the former.
Labor is capital, but capital is not labor; it is only the product of
the former and can never take its place. The coffers of a people
might be full to overflowing and yet they starve for the want of
the necessaries of life unless a large percentage of its population
were engaged in their production. No amount of wealth would
ever construct our public works or private residences, if labor was
not brought into requisition. When it ceases, capital loses its
prestige and fails to benefit the world. Without labor the mer-
chant might stand behind his counter until his goods rotted on
the shelf, and he became a fair specimen of an Egyptian mummy,
were it not being utilized to supply the means to purchase the
necessaries of life.

We are in the habit of speaking of material waste, particularly
as it affects the farmer in pursuing his avocation. Whatever has
existed since the dawn of creation exists to-day, though in a meas-
ure in a modified condition. There may be, and undoubtedly is,
under certain conditions, much individual waste to be guarded
against; but there can be no general wastage—what one loses
another gains—it is reactive and beyord control. The so-called
waste, attributed to the negligence of our forefathers, is now
productive of some of our most fertile islands and bottom lands
from which we reap a rich reward; while those who come after
us will experience the same results by what apparently is our
loss. If we are not too liberal in our gifts to nature no harm
will eventuate. When the bed of the ocean, lake or river becomes
super-charged with debris from the land, it possesses the power
of throwing off this surplus of extraneous matter. Thus the
benefits of a munificent Creator are equalized and eventually as-
sume a normal condition. The word annihilation, from which

Sutztivasr County Farmine. 193

has sprung the idea alluded to, should be blotted out from our
vocabulary, for it has no meaning. I do not know how it got
there or why it remains there, unless it is a device of the devil
to lead us astray, as it certainly does. God never created any-
thing that diminishes in bulk or deteriorates in value and ever
serves a wise and beneficent purpose, whether we realize it or
not. He who, metaphorically speaking, holds the waters of the
great deep in the hollow of His hand and has numbered the sands
upon its shore, will never allow one drop of the former to evapor-
ate or one of the latter to decrease in number, and when we shall
cease to march with the tramp of time and one by one fall out of
line, our bodies will be utilized for some good purpose.

Good cheer and mutual sympathy should prevail in the home
of every family, for the inner life devoid of these essentials to
true happiness is no shelter from a tempestuous world of dis-
appointment and trial. The home of the farmer, more than any
other, can be made to partake of these elements, and if
they had been fostered to the extent permissible under
the circumstances, I surmise that families would have
been more united in their efforts to retain the homes
of their fathers. But gradually a distaste for their avocation has
manifested itself among some of their descendants who have
sought the first opportunity to free themselves from it, and thus
deprived of the services of those who are, or should be, interested
in maintaining the home, parents are left alone in their declining
years to fight life’s battle alone; or, if help must be had, to seek
it outside of the family. It is wisdom to retain the farm as long
as practicable and as much as possible the children upon them,
and thus hand them down from generation to generation to the
end that they may be happy and prosperous by being engaged in
the noblest of all occupations—that of tilling the soil.

Better than a marble shaft to perpetuate our memory is a busy
and useful life, where creations link the past with the future, for
he who by untiring industry helps to feed and clothe his fellow-
man is doing more to lay deep and broad the foundation for com-

7

194 Bureau or Farmers’ InstTirures.

ing generations than the king upon his throne or the ruler of a
nation. Although we may not be able to leave an impression
upon the field of science, literature or art, we may upon the
soil, the more lasting of all, for nature is never forgetful of her
patrons.

The influence of farmers’ institutes, now so successfully organ-
ized throughout the State, is manifest in every direction in which
the farmer is interested. New methods of culture have been
very generally adopted by those possessing the means to intro-
duce them; while many improvements of a general nature, sug-
gested by the experience of those who have tested their con-
venience and utility, have taken place in the home and out-build-
ings of not only the agricultural but other classes of citizens.
Farmers should take advantage of these opportunities so gener-
ously afforded them by the State. Those who conduct these
institutes are all men of superior intelligence in their respective
line of thought, and merit the confidence of those who are
privileged to listen to their instructive addresses.

The year 1899 was a more than usually prosperous one for those -
engaged in agriculture. Cereals of all kinds, except buckwheat,
were more than an average crop; potatoes, planted on high
ground, were an unusually good yield, while those raised on low
land rotted to some extent. The apple crop in this section was
large, but not of as fine quality as that of most preceding years.
The crop of small fruits was large and of good quality, and met
with a home market at remunerative prices. Indeed, there is
more profit derived from this source than that of any other, when
the labor expended in their production is properly estimated.
The present season will be productive of a still larger crop, as
many others not heretofore engaged in the business are turning
their attention in that direction. The grass crop was fairly good,
and the open weather experienced late in the fall has left quite a
surplus on hand to add to the coming harvest.

The twenty-fourth annual agricultural fair was held at Monti-
cello, August 29, 30, 31 and September 1, 1899. The number of
exhibitors was 140, and entries as follow: Horses, 77; cattle,

SuLLIvAN County FARMING. 195

212; sheep, 31; swine, 25; poultry, 347; vegetables, 326; potatoes,
403; grain and seeds, 154; dairy and culinary, 139; fruit, 227;
flowers, 188; implements, etc., 11—total, 2,090.

Ladies’ department: Domestic, 103; fancy, 232; art, 61; chil-
dren’s, 18; discretionary, 88—2,079.

At a meeting of the society, held December 21, 1899, the old
officers were re-elected as follow: President, P. R. Polton,
Avon; vice-president, W. J. Kinne, Maplewood; secretary, Roscoe
Decker, Monticello; treasurer, 8S. L. Strong, Monticello. E. L.
Sleath and M. C. Stewart were elected directors for three years,
and George Knoll for two years. P. R. Pelton is corresponding
secretary.

On the 12th of December, 1899, the twenty-fifth anniversary of
the “ Old Farmers’ Club ” was celebrated at the residence of Irwin
Mapes, in Monticello. It originally consisted of forty-four mem-
bers, twenty-one of whom have subsequently died. On this occa-
sion John D. Buchanan of Liberty Falls, gave a brief history of its
organization, growth and ultimate consolidation with the agri-
cultural society as it now exists.

The town of Thompson has a Farm, Garden and Fruit Club,
which meets every two weeks at the home of one of its members.°
Every branch pertaining to farming is here discussed and new
methods brought to notice. But the most interesting and profit-
able feature of these gatherings is derived from the question box.
It brings to notice many things which of themselves are generally
considered of minor importance, but in the aggregate form a con-
stituent part in farm labor. These clubs should be more general
throughout the State than they are, and undoubtedly will become
so when their value is better understood.

The following are the officers-elect: President, Leon Stratton;
vice-president, Mrs. George Conrad; secretary, B. M. Lindsley;
treasurer, Mrs. R. H. Hall.

A club was organized in the town of Liberty in 1872, with B. W.
Gregory as president; F. P. Currier, vice-president, and M. B.
Hall, secretary. In 1891 it was reorganized as now existing, with
B. W. Gregory a3 president; W. H. Nichols, vice-president; J. O

196 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirvures. k

oN

Newkirk, secretary; John Chaffee, treasurer. The by-laws o

club limit the membership to twenty members and th fa
(private families, as a rule, not being able to accommo late m
and meets monthly, except in July and August, at the home
of its members. The discussions include agriculture, hor

and floriculture. Music is rendered and refreshments ser

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The Irrigation Schemes of the West.

By GiLsert M. Tucker, Editor of the Country Gentleman, read before the
New York State Farmers’ Congress at Albany, N. Y.

When a dog is about to lie for a nap, you will notice that he
is very apt first to go through a perfectly useless and seemingly
unmeaning performance hardly in character with his wonderful
sagacity which so closely approximates the intelligence of man.
He turns round and round two or three times in a little circle,
his head about touching his tail. Why does he do it? Simply
because his savage ancestors, thousands of years ago, living in
forests undergrown with brush and weeds, noticed that they
were more comfortable in their hours of repose if they first con-
structed in this manner a rough nest-.or bed. The turning round
was to level the plant growth and smooth it down into a sort of
mattress. _What was at first a perfectly reasonable and com-
mendable procedure, taken under the guidance of something very
closely resembling intelligent thought, came in time to be in-
stinctive—that is to say, it was and is performed under an un-
thinking impulse; ard the instinct became ultimately so fixed in
*he race, so runs in the doggish blood, one may say, that it domi-
nates the actions of the remote descendants of those early canine
creatures to-day. The dog continues to perform, without neces-
sity, sense or purpose, on a soft carpet or a smooth wooden floor,
the operation which his far away ancestors performed, with very
good reason, in the rank undergrowth of their native forests.
The practice goes right on, centuries after changing circum-
stances have utterly destroyed its original value. “

Similar occurrences of the persistence of superannuated prac-
tices are very frequent through the whole domain of animal life;
and man is not exempt. Many ideas and beliefs, once sound, con-

198 Bureau or FarMERs’ INSTITUTES.

tinue to influence human life long after they have entirely lost all
application and fitness to a later environment, and have there-
fore become at least useless, in many cases positively detrimental
to prosperity. Such ideas and beliefs, inherited from past genera-
tions and still cherished, without reflection or consideration of
altered circumstances, dictate to a lamentable extent the policy
that governs in our time the management of the public domain,
still the property of the people.

Time was, say a couple of centuries ago, or even not quite so
far back as that, if you like, when every foot of extension of the
civilized occupation of this country back into the wild interior,
every increase in population not positively vicious, was in many
ways a real and solid gain to the people of the American proy-
inces. Occupying as our forefathers did but a narrow strip of
land along the Atlantic coast, with only inchoate manufactures,
very slow and uncertain communication between different sec-
tions, and agriculture not much more than adequate to provide
for very modest living, the one thing that was wanted before all
others was development ofthe nation. The father of a large
family of stalwart sons and daughters was most distinctly a pub-
lic benefactor. As the children moved westward, bringing into
cultivation acre after acre of new soil, and thus supplying better
and better the needs of a growing population and enlarging the
material resources of the common stock, they were laying broad
and deep the foundations of the future greatness of the nation,
and every pioneer deserved a godspeed from all well wishers for
mankind. If any central authority had at that pericd exercised
effective control over the unoccupied lands that stretched off,
seemingly without limit, to the west, it could not possibly have
done a better thing for all concerned than to facilitate by every
means within its power the taking up of these lands as fast as
possible by anybody who could be induced to occupy and culti-
vate them. Pioneering and homesteading were philanthropic oe-
cupations of the very first order of necessity and merit.

But it must never be forgotten that the circumstances of the
seventeenth century in this country were radically different from

Tuer IRRIGATION SCHEMES OF THE WEST. 199

those that surround us at the dawn of the twentieth; and that
many lines of public policy once eminently laudable have become
obnoxious and dangerous as times change. When a baby weighs
ten pounds, it has just one alternative before it—grow, or die;
when in after years the ten pounds has become two hundred, the
condition of affairs is changed; further increase is suggestive
rather of dropsy than of growth. The behavior most suitable to
the infant nation, just stretching its unformed limbs and not yet
quite certain what sort of creature it will grow to be, becomes in
the highest degree absurd and detrimental when maturity has
been attained, and the former infant has reached the understand- -
ing and the enjoyment of the powers of manhood. Of this ob-
vious fact, in its relation to a rational management of the public
domain, sight has largely and most unfortunately been lost by
the American people. We go on hurrahing for every increase
that successive censuses show in our population, with very little
consideration of the quality of the people that have been added—
in our agricultural area, with very little consideration of its actual
value to the nation—and above all, in our production of crops,
without any consideration at all of the profit of growing them or
the real financial condition of the men who are feeding half the
world. We go on turning round and round like the dog, merely
because our ancestors did so and we take it for granted that that
must be the proper thing. To sum it all up in a nutshell: Time
was when every enlargement of our agricultural area conduced to
the general welfare; such enlargement does not conduce to the
general welfare now—quite the reverse. All the same, we go on
tranquilly permitting if not actively encouraging such enlarge-
ment, and felicitating ourselves on that which is really, though
insidiously, bringing upon us a train of appalling evils.

Before endeavoring to indicate definitely what some of these
evils are, and the ponderousness of the weight that they are
throwing upon our financial prosperity, let me make a plain state-
ment of the speed and energy with which the government is dissi-
pating and worse than dissipating our priceless heritage of culti-

200 BureAvu OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES,

vable lands, the property of the nation at large, and transform-
ing what ought to be a blessing into a veritable curse.

According to the reports of the General Land Office down to July
1, 1899, the latest available, the average rate of alienation of our
public lands for the decade last preceding that date was nearly
11,500,000 acres per annum, which is approximately 1,000,000
acres per month, over 31,000 acres per day, about 1,300 acres per
hour, more than 21 acres per minute, or say one acre every three
seconds, day and night, Sundays and holidays all included. Let
us try to picture to ourselves what these figures mean. They
mean that more than 17,000 square miles, an area considerably
larger than one-third of the State of New York, is given away,
practically given away, every year of our lives; nearly 1,500 square
miles, considerably more than the State of Rhode Island, every
month that passes; more than two square miles every hour.
Imagine yourselves standing at the boundary, if there were such
a boundary, between the land now the property of individuals and
that which still belongs to the nation at large, and seeing that
boundary moving before your eyes into the government posses-
sions at such a rate of speed that ‘the latter were steadily shrink-
ing, hour after hour, day after day, year after year, at the rate
of 21 acres per minute! Such is the rapidity with which we are
energetically squandering our most inestimable possession. Our
property burns our pocket, as they say of a spendthrift’s money,
and it seems that we shall never rest easy until we have dissipated
the whole. o)

Now, of course, you will say at once: “ Well, well, but we are
not giving the land away; the national treasury gets something
for it; and besides, we are developing ‘the country. What in the
name of common sense is land good for, arable land, if not for
civilized man to cultivate? We are giving homes to the home-
less of all the world. There is no grander chapter in the history
of mankind than the filling up of our great western territory with
industrious, intelligent, free and happy people.”

Let us consider these points.

Tur IRRIGATION SCHEMES OF THE WEST. 201

The return that the government receives from the average of
all its agricultural land parted with, year after year, comes to so
little more than enough to pay for the actual expenses of market-
ing it, that this return may be left out of the question. And
then, it must be borne in mind that with ‘the rapid increase of
population in this and other countries and the consequent con-
stant increase in the demand for food, it is perfectly certain that
these wild lands of ours will be worth very much more, will
actually command a much higher value in cash, if held and sold
only on business principles, during the time of each successive
generation than during the time of that which last preceded it.
We are forcing upon a market alweady fearfully oversupplied the
property for which the future is positively certain to bring a
vastly increased demand at vastly higher prices than can now be
secured for it. For all practical purposes, the lands are given
away. | ies

But we are furnishing homes to the homeless, and developing
the country! A great many birds have been caught with that
chaff. A farm is primarily a factory, only incidentally—and acci-
dentally—a home; keep that distinction very clearly and sharply
in mind, I pray you. Of course the owner may live on the prem-
ises; so may the owner of a cotton mill. But in every respect in
which the occupancy of new farms at the far west affects the
interests of the present owners of the property out of which they
are carved, the people of the United States, each new farm is to be
considered entirely as a new factory, entering directly into com-
petition with those now established.

And as to developing the country: The long life of the passion
for accomplishing that very indefinite feat is a straight case of the
dog’s turning round before he lies down because his ancestors
discovered that the practice, under the circumstances then sur-
rounding them, conduced to their well being. A century ago, no
doubt, the country needed development; but, great heavens! what
is the haste to develop it further just now? Are we not numer.
ous enough, strong enough, as a people? Could any nation on
earth dream of invading our territory? What in the world are

202 Bereau or Farmers’ INSTiITuTEs.

we gaining, what can we possibly gain, by this frantic, breath-
less haste to develop, to fill up our whole country with people,
any and every kind of people, foreigners very largely, the off-
scourings of the earth in no small part? Whoever has leaned on
the forward rail of a westbound Atlantic steamer and watched
for a while the immigrants on the steerage deck below, as I have
done many times, must pray earnestly for the day when America
shall most definitely go out of the business of offering an asylum
to the downtrodden of every clime. What does it profit us? For
my own part, I think the development, the filling up, is going on
far too rapidly to be a healthy process; and I am very sure that
the not inconsiderable fraction that comes to us yearly from
abroad is something that we could very, very well manage to dis-
pense with. “

And now for what is after all the one main point of practical
interest. How are we injured—we, the farmers of the Eastern
States, and the classes that depend directly upon the farmers of
the Eastern States for prosperity—in what way, definitely and
exactly, are we injured by the liberality of the government in
giving away its wild lands, our wild lands, as fast as possible, to
anybody and everybody that will take them?

In the first place, of course one thinks naturally of the competi-
tion of the products of the new farms, in the markets of the world.
I am inclined myself to the opinion that the injury in this direction
is rather less than might be supposed, and that it is in fact very
far from being the darkest element of the problem. The growth
of population must of itself take care of the increased production,
in part. The new farmers need an infinity of things that they
cannot possibly produce. That helps manufactures; manufac-
tures require workmen; workmen must eat; and thus the estab-
lished farmers of the older regions will find a certain increase in
the demand for their products, making up, in part, for the new
supply thrown upon the market by their increasing competitors.
And then again, the price of breadstuffs is very largely governed
by the yield of crops abroad and the occurrences of every kind
that take place in foreign countries. Wheat may bring a high
price, though the American crop be immense; it may go begging,
though our fields yield the scantiest return. Still, of course, it is

THE IRRIGATION SCHEMES OF THE WEST. 203

patent that on the whole every new State in an agricultural region
will for a long time export a considerable surplus of foodstuffs of
some sort, and thus act distinctly, to a certain extent, in bearing
down the market price. Most assuredly, after making all allow-
ances, the competition of the new regions in selling just what we
want to sell, is a danger and an injury that must be taken into the
account. But that is only the beginning.

A second channel! of mischief is the absorption by the free lands
of the men and women who ought to supply, and in the normal
condition of things would supply, an abundance of labor, at
moderate wages, for established farmers. The demand for trust-
worthy farm help, at prices that farmers can afford to pay, is left
largely unsatisfied—to the injury of the farming interest, and
perhaps most of all to the overburdening of the wife of the small
farmer with tasks of which hired servants should greatly relieve
her—by the facility with which the persons who ought to supply
it can go west and become farmers on their own account, your
property and mine being freely offered them for that purpose.
Why should anybody work for you, except perhaps at extrava-
gant compensation, when the government is willing and anxious
to make him a landed proprietor himself, without money and
without price?

Nor is it farm labor alone that is drawn away from its natural
homes by the recklessness of Uncle Sam in giving everybody a
farm. A class of people better off financially go west also and
take their money with them, the class among whom the farmer
‘looks for tenants if he wishes to let his property, for purchasers
if he wishes to sell. Why should a man of some means hire your
farm or buy it, if he can get one of his own for nothing, grow up
with the country, and presently land in Congress and go to mak-
ing laws for you and the rest of us?

Now notice, please, how these three wrongs converge to drain
the very lifeblood of the established farmer who has bought his
farm and paid for it, or (still worse) owes something on it. The
value of his crops is reduced by unfair and illegitimate competi-
tion; the supply of labor that he needs is minimized and therefore
its price enhanced; and the class among whom he ought to be able
to find tenants or purchasers is immensely restricted. The same
malign influences act, of course, on all his brother farmers. Their

204 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES,
profits, like his, are immensely diminished, and many of them,
like him, are offering their farms to anybody who will pay a good
rent or buy at.a reasonable value. Thus an unnatural and in-
tensely pernicious competition is set up—set up by our own gov-
ernment, mind you, for which we pay—between farmers of the
older States, for the disposal of their property. So, of course, the
value shrinks; the farmer falls out of the rank in the social scale
that he ought to hold, because his property has so little money
value; for, say what you will, a man’s standing in society is regu-
lated very largely by his supposed financial means. And if he
wants to borrow money on his farm, he finds not only that it will
be valued far below what would be normally a reasonable sum,
but also that lenders are rather loth to advance money on farm
security at all, because the sale of such property is slow and uncer-
tain.
It is maddening to think of. The American farmer ought to be
the most independent being on earth, and one of the most envied.
Of all property in this country, a farm ought to be the most
desired and the quickest in demand. There should be a dozen
would-be purchasers or tenants bidding against each other for
every farm that there is supposed to be.a chance to get. Farm
mortgages should be the most sought for of all investments, and
the interest should be reduced, by competition of lenders, to about
half of what now has to be paid, while the amount that can easily
be borrowed should be about twice what it is now. It is all very
well to blame the farmers of the older States for bad manage-
ment when they fail to make money, and hoot at the idea that
“farming don’t pay.” The marvel is that it pays as well as it
does; the glory of the eastern farmer is that he can make head-
way at all, with this horrible burden on his back. ;
Now consider the equities of the case. This is no sort of a sec-
tional plea, no setting up of one part of the country or one class of
our people as entitled to any kind of special favor from the gov-
ernment or special protection from competition. Not a bit of it;
nothing like it. The simple fact is just this: The public lands
belong to the people at large, and it is distinctly opposed to the
interest of the people at large that any more of them should be >
brought into cultivation, because our great basal industry, the in-
dustry on which all other American industries depend, is agricul-

THE IRRIGATION SCHEMES OF THE WEST. 205

ture, and agriculture is depressed, its profits reduced, by every
increase of our cultivated area.

Finally, what is to be done about it? It is too late now to
hope for repeal of the homestead laws and similar out-of-date
legislation in time to do much good. Ten years ago next October,
when the journal with which I have the honor of being connected
began the first regular attack that has ever been made on our
outgrown and now suicidal national policy of dealing with the
public domain, a very large area of arable land was still the prop-
erty of the nation, and the work of giving it away, to the un-
speakable injury of the owners, might well have been arrested.
But I am sorry to say that it was then, as it very largely still is,
quite impossible to rouse the class most directly interested, the
farmers of the older States, to any sort of energetic action for
the protection of their own well-being. Farmers’ organizations,
as a rule, have devoted themselves to all sorts of rainbow chasing,
or have frittered. away their energies on matters deserving enough,
perhaps, but of very trifling consequence in comparison with the
immense importance of attacking the one great evil. Very few in-
dividual farmers could be induced to call up the matter in granges
or similar bodies, or even to interview their own representatives
in Congress and urge them to action. Considerably more than a
hundred millions of acres—just think of it, a hundred millions of
acres—have been given away since then, with hardly an audible
protest from the class who were daily robbed and impoverished
by the operation, until now it is almost within bounds to say
that there hardly remains a desirakle homestead in any State
washed by the Mississippi or its affluents; and they are scarce
anywhere. Ags the last Year Book of the Department of Agricul-
ture says, “all the best parts of the public domain have been
appropriated, and comparatively very little good agricultural land
remains open to settlement.” One might think we were within
sight of the beginning of the end of the mischief, and might hope
now for a s!ow improvement, the supply of wild land being nearly
exhausted, while our population is increasing by leaps and
bounds.

Lay not that flattering unction to your soul. We are merely
entering upon a second stage in the work of spoliation. Animated
by an intensely selfish and narrow desire for the so-called devel-

206 3UREAU OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES,

opment of their own Siates and Territories at the expense of the
great body of the nation, the people of the far west are raising
in increasing volume, year by year, a demand for the irrigation of
the immense area of arid lands now the property of the United
States, that at least a hundred million acres more may be brought
into the market to compete with your property and postpone to
the indefinite future the time when the possessor of a good farm
shall be, as he ought to be, an object of general envy. The demand
for this outrageous robbery of the people takes two forms. The
plot at first was to induce Congress to irrigate this vast area at
the national expense—at your cost and mine—that it might be
rendered attractive to new competitors in our own industry and
divided among them. This scheme of open robbery, however, was
a little too barefaced to be very dangerous. Nobody could help
seeing that it was just like asking Congress to build factories
and give them to any impecunious but enterprising applicant that
came along—imagine what our manufacturers now in business
would say to that! This plan therefore is not, just at present,
pressed very actively, though still rearing its horrid front, in
some form, during every session.

But another scheme has been devised, to which it is hoped there
w.ll be less objection. It is simply for the national government
to give, give out and out, all our arid lands to the States and
Territories in which they happen to lie, in order that the local
authorities may do the irrigating themselves. Just think of it.
These lands are the property of all the people, just as much the
property of the farmer in the northeast corner of Maine or at the
extremity of the Florida peninsula, as of the people who live
around them; five-sixths of all our population are east of the
Miss:ssippi and Missouri; and yet it is seriously proposed—yes,
vehemently urged—that their ownership in the lands referred to
be taken from them by force and given to the handful of people
in the newer regions, these people themselves being chiefly the
beneficiaries of the previous injustice of the government under
that miserable old homestead law, that the property may be used
directly and actively to the injury of the present owners. It is
difficult to speak with patience of a proposed iniquity like that.
If some of our Montana friends who are doing their best to bring
it about were owners of valuable lots in Boston, which they pre-

Tue IRRIGATION SCHEMES OF THE WEST. 907

)
:

ferred to keep vacant until a growing demand should bring an
increase in their selling value, and the Bostonians living round
these lots should endeavor to seize them, under color of develop-
ing Boston and providing homes for the homeless, one can im-
agine the indignation of the owners and the opinion they would
express of the conscienceless rapacity of the plotters. The shoe
is on the other foot; it is not their ox that is gored; and the
plotting and scheming goes bravely on.

This brings us directly to the answer to the question—no mat-
ter about the past; what is now to be done? Just exactly this.
Let every man of you resolve to exert himself in all proper ways
(and there are many) to kill every bill that comes before this
present session of Congress and every future session for the irri-
gation under any pretense of the arid lands, or for the giving of
them away to the States in which they lie. You can accomplish
infinitely more than you perhaps suppose, if you will use your
power. The editorial pages of the Country Gentleman will keep
you constantly informed of every one of these miserable bills as it
comes up, giving definitely the number on the calendar, the name
of the introducer, and the committee to which it is referred. Let
every man who hears me sit down then, immediately, and write
a personal letter to his Senators or to his Representative, accord-
ing as the bill makes its appearance in the Senate or in the House,
and also to the chairman of the committee having it under con-
sideration, invoking his active opposition. Let him ask all his
neighbors to do the same. Let him see that his grange, or any sort
of agricultural union with which he may be affiliated, adopts ring-
ing resolutions of protest, and that the secretary sends copies to
the Representative and the Senators. God helps those who help
themselves. If the farmers of the East permit the far-western
schemers to pursue their course of determined spoliation, enrich-
ing themselves, indirectly perhaps, but not the less really, at your
expense and mine, the farmers of the East must expect conditions
increasingly unfavorable, year after year, decade after decade, for
themselves and for their children; must expect that increasingly
severe and unintermitted toil will yield increasingly meagre re-
turns; and must expect themselves to descend gradually but
steadily in the social scale till there shall be none so poor to do
them reverence. In time, no doubt, a century or two perhaps,

208 BurwAU OF FarMemRS’ INSTITUTES.

conditions must change again, as our increasing populaticn makee
larger and larger demands for food, while the supply of lana on
which it can be raised becomes proportionally smaller. But there
is no earthly need to postpone the beginning of this recovery to
an indefinite epoch in the uncertain future. Let the farmers of
the East put forth but a mere fraction of the power which they
most properly hold, if they would only use it, over our national
legislation, to stop this tremendous and tremendously cruel and
unjust competition by the beneficiaries of our own government,
and especially to strike at this hydra of an irrigation scheme in
all its phases whenever it appears, and the possible prosperity of
the vague future may be realized within our own time, in a solid
financial return for that form of labor which most deserves the
triple beon of a bright and hopeful youth, a contented mind at
maturity, and a competence with honor in declining years. Not,
of course, that any legislation, or the absence of any legislation,
can of itself make all farmers prosperous, any more than any
legislation, or the absence of any legislation, can of itself make
all men honest and prevent cheating. But although legislation is
often impotent for good, it is always, if unwise or unjust, almost
omnipotent for evil; and at the present time unwise and unjust
legislation creates the one only cloud in the otherwise bright sky
of American husbandry. To prevent the enactment of unwise and
unjust laws, having for their sole purpose the enrichment of a
eomparatively restricted section of the country at the expense of
all the rest-—this is the one paramount duty of the hour,

The Man With the Hoe.

JAMES HILTON, New Scotland, N. Y.

Thirty-five years ago a French painter living in the little vil-
fage of Barbizon, near Paris, painted a small picture of a weary
peasant man, with bent back, heavy, hopeless face and work-worn
hands resting upon his hoe. This canvas, together with “The
Angelus ”—probably the best-known work of this artist in
America—was hawked about Paris and finally sold to a small
tradesman for an insignificant sum. After the death of Jean
Francois Millet, France awakened to the fact that he had been the
truest delineator of peasant life the world had ever known. His
pictures were sold and resold for fabulous sums, and after many
years the “ Man with the Hoe” crossed the ocean to America, the
property of a wealthy Californian—(Mr. Crocker)—who paid
for it $60,000. People who saw the little picture, dimly felt
its pathos, but it remained for an American gentleman—Prof.
Edwin Markham—to interpret the picture in a great poem, which
will live as long as literature endures. He has himself told us
that when he first saw the “ Man with the Hoe” at a loan exhibi-
tion in San Francisco, he stood before it an hour, absorbed and
enthralled by the sight of this sad shape, which to him seemed
not to portray a chance peasant, a mere man of the fields, a figure
Millet had chosen to paint simply because of its artistic possibili-
nes, but to express betrayed humanity—the Toiler, ground down
to the level of the brute through ages of oppression and social
injustice. He saw in it the working man pushed to the wall by
monopoly and greed, until he had become a mere serf, with no
mind in his muscles and no heart in his handiwork. He saw in it
the slow, sure, awful degredation of man, through endless, hope-
less, joyless labor. This pathetic figure seemed to him the very
type of industrial oppression; a being with no outlet to his life,

210 Bureau oF Farmers’ INsTIrTures.

and no uplift. As he gazed, his heart thrilled with pity and
terror over this pitiful example of humanity that had fallen down,
and he resolved then and there to speak a word for the humbled,
the burdened, the silenced of earth. You who are familiar with
the poem know with what power he fulfilled his purpose. It isa
terrible arraignment of the men who are the “ masters, lords and
rulers ” of the world, who have failed to be fair to their brother
of the furrow.

Millet, who stamped his genius on the little canvas, was of peas-
ant parentage, having worked with his father in the fields of
France until he was 18. No one knew better than he the human
ruin which may be wrought by years of overwork and under pay.

Markham, the poet, was a working man also—a “hoe man”
indeed—all through his boyhood and early manhood. He tells us
that “the smack of the soil and whirr of the forge” are in his
blood.

His poem is not a protest against labor, but the degradation of
labor, the terrible oppression of man by man. The author be-
lieves, as every sensible person must, that labor is a humanizing
and regenerating power when wisely directed, and entered upon
with zeal and enthusiasm. But he knows, also, that work may be
so hard and the burdens so heavy as to deform the body and
starve the mind. The constant companionship of poverty and
fear saps the energies and destroys the power which makes us
men.

Probably no poem in the last half century has so deeply stirre
the hearts of thoughtful people as the one under discussicn.
Praise and criticism have been lavished upon it indiscriminately.
Some superficial thinkers among our agricultural brethren have
resented certain passages in the poem, and have rushed into print
te tell the public they were neither “ brother to the ox” or “ slave
of the wheel of labor!” This clearly proves that they have failed
to grasp the deep meaning, the great purpose of this modern ex-
ample of “holy writ.” To me it is a clarion cry for justice! A
mighty plea for the socially submerged, for the unfortunate many
who are ground and bruised and broken on the wheel of life, that
the few may have more than they need of food and shelter and
life and light.

THe Man witH THE Hoe. Pitt

Critics have insisted that we. have no peasant class in our
young, rich, independent America; that the principles of our gov-
ernment and the spirit of our institutions forbid that we ever shall
have. While disposed to accept the optimistic view of this ques-
tion, I must, nevertheless, call attention to the fact that America
has imported plenty of stock from which such a class may breed.
A tour through the West will show that our prairies are already
thoroughly planted with the seed of a European peasantry. Free-
dom and liberal education must be depended upon to leaven this
lump. It would indeed be difficult to believe that our American
farmer or farm laborer could ever degenerate into the poor crea-
ture of the picture and the poem. For myself, I regard life on a
well-conditioned farm a wholesome discipline for mind and body.
I do not believe it is generally felt to be a hardship even from the
view-point of the “hired man.” In New York State he certainly
receives a fair share of the profits of the farm, and has none of the
responsibility of management. The farmer has his troubles and
grievances, but if called upon to name the class most deserving
of pity, I would not look for it in the fields of agriculture, but
turn to our brother of the mines—that underground world where
human lives are worn away in brute ignorance of all that makes
the glory and sweetness of life! Human beings living like the
denizens of an ant-hill, without the ant’s share in the benefits of
his labor!

The French peasantry which the Barbizon painter portrayed so
well, is not a recent growth, but the product of powerful causes
and conditions, whch have been operating in France for more than
two centuries. Demolius, the French sociological writer, tells us
that the chief cause of the demoralization of agriculture in France
is due to the desertion of this profession by large land-owners, and
the abandonment of country for town life. There ‘s no country
in the world where agriculture is so forsaken and discredited as it
is in France. This result may be looked for in any country where
the people become estranged from rural life and regard living on
a farm as the gloomiest exile. No one can doubt that the profes-
sion of agriculture is important and necessary to a successful
social system. It should and must, therefore, demand skill and
intelligence in its followers if we would save it from the demoral-
ization and decay which is apparent in France.

bo

12 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

The so-called commonest professions in our system—agricul-
ture, industry and commerce—represent the most vital and essen-
tial part, because through these are procured the daily bread, upon
which all other work depends. If these professions are made to
suffer, the whole social body must suffer; if they decay, the social
body must decay, as surely as the physical body decays if not
properly nourished. If necessary we could probably live without
lawyers, without journalists, without officials, even without phy-
sicians, but we could not live long without the farmers, who pro-
vide the food, nor without the manufacturers, who furnish the
objects and implements of essential use; nor without the traders,
who distribute indispensable goods to the places where the de-
mand exists. It is good for us to realize sometimes that we are
quite as important to the world as the world is tous. Agriculture
is the most stable of all professions. It is not subject to sudden
changes like industry and commerce. It presents a regular rou-
tine from sunrise to sunset. A farmer who permitted his cows to
go unmilked would court disaster as surely as a manufacturer
who would allow the machinery in his mills to run without atten-
tion or service. The man with the milk pail may not go down to
posterity in a great picture, but he has his uses.

Some farmers have a great fear of competition. The very word
somehow seems to express hard conditions—especially when it hap-
pens to affect us personally. Nevertheless, competition brings
about some good results. It compels people to greater industry.
It keeps things moving. ’ Some one has said that man is as lazy
as he dares to be, and one of the early fathers thought that lazi-
ness must be the “ original sin,” it is socommon. Prof. Hender-
son says: “The tendency of competition is to starve out ‘the
feeble, the slow, the indolent, and to give the world and its soil to
the healthy, the vigorous, the cunning, the inventive.” If this be
true, competition and kindred evils will eventually create a “‘ Man
with the Hoe” class in America. A system which serves to
“starve out ” any of our people should be abandoned. The altru-
istic plan is better; help the feeble, encourage the slow and indo-
lent, rather than trample them in the dust to perish, as the race
moves on to finer achievements.

The endowment of faculties is so unequal that the fortunes of
men must be unequal also. Abraham Lincoln stated this princi-

Tae Man witH THE Hos. PAIR

ple very clearly when he said, “ Property is desirable, is a positive
good in the world. That some should be rich shows that others
may become rich, and hence is just encouragement to industry and
enterprise.” It is the criminal misuse of wealth which irritates
the public mind, yet there never was a time in the history of the
world when the possessors of great wealth were doing so much
for society and for the poor. Men are coming more and more to
comprehend that their fortunes are held in trust; that wealth
has been given them for the divine purpose of helping and mak-
ing better the world in which we all must live. There is danger
and menace in idleness, whether forced or voluntary.

It is natural for healthy men to like work, bodily exertion, stren-
uous struggle. Our college-bred young men must row a boat,
play baseball or kick a football. If our field work could be done
with the same spirit of zest and good cheer, it would go far to
solve the labor problem for the farmer. Once there was a wise
father who induced his young son to cut down a whole field of
mullein and other noxious weeds by telling him they were hostile
Indians to be exterminated. Imagination is a very good thing to
cultivate—in moderation.

Industrial prosperity will not be permanently established until
the wages, profits and perquisites of the agriculturist are large
enough to tempt men voluntarily to adopt that profession; until
the State and government shall reduce to a minimum its own pre-
rogatives, thereby attracting young men to independent callings
which demand individual effort and personal exertion; in brief,
not until we have a social state in which the politician and the
idle man shall receive less consideration than the farmer, the
manufacturer and the trader.

It would be a great help to American agriculture if we could
make rural life fashionable here as it is in England. When the
English tradesman or manufacturer has made his fortune, he
immediately seeks the country and becomes a landed proprietor.
To possess a country place is a sure indication of prosperity and
success. It frequently opens the social door to his family which
otherwise they could never hope to enter. Our American farmer,
and village merchant, take a different view. He and his family
cften spend their best years working and saving, in the hope of
one day being able to reside in that mecca of their ambition—the

214 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

city. If we must adopt English customs, in the name of all that
is sensible and sweet and sane, let us cultivate the English love
of rural life. To do this we must make our rural regions lovable
and attractive. English roads, and walks, and hedgerows, can-
not be made in a season, but not one of us is too poor or too
busy to do something to improve our premises. Plant a tree where
shade is needed; set a shrub in that ugly corner; trim out the
undergrowth, and keep the grass cut. Lend a hand to help your
wife or your mother with her flower-bed, and praise it, too! When
I see a bright patch of flowers growing near a dull little farm-
house, I feel like lifting my hat to the woman within. She may
be poor and plain, but in her soul there lives a love of beauty, and
color, and fragrance, to which I gladly do reverence. Everything
which makes for happiness and contentment adds a note of music
tc the harmony of life.

The importance of keeping the women of our households cheer-
ful and happy and healthy cannot be overestimated. If the
daughter of the house goes away to school and absorbs something
of art, music, literature or science, let her be generous in bestow-
ing the riches of her attainments on the home circle, not in a way
tu irritate and embarrass, by reminding them of their own defects
in education and opportunity, but with a heart-felt desire to give
them happiness, and to apply her accomplishments to improving
and beautifying the home. Many a hard-working, self-sacrificing
mother, doing her homely tasks day by day, is soul-starved for —
sympathy and appreciation which her worldly minded daughter
is too thoughtless to give. Make the mothers happy. If the coun-
terpart of the “Man with the Hoe” exists in America, he is the
outgrowth of industrial and agricultural misfortune. Hard, un-
remunerative labor may always be depended upon to breed discon-
tent and degradation. If we would lessen the number of this
class, we must cure conditions which kill and degrade a man,
whether his sphere be the mine, the mill or the farm. We must
encourage legitimate industries. We must establish agriculture
as a permanent and self-respecting profession in which the wisest
and strongest may engage with pleasure and profit. Agriculture
that is conducted by weaklings will decay and degenerate. The
hoe and the hammer, the pen and the paint-brush have each @
part to play in the world’s work; and it is my hope and belief that

Tne Man witH THE Hoke. Oil

Or

in the enlightened judgment of the future each will be accorded
equal honor if wielded well.

The regeneration of the race must come through the energy and
heroism of the plain people if it come at all. It will not come in
any sudden, miraculous fashion, but must be the slow, sure
growth of civic honesty and brotherly love. Let us all, then,
pledge our best endeavors—

Ch see

To hush and heroize the world
Beneath the flag of Brotherhood unfurled.”

State Agricultural Society.

By W. B. Toouey, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

ITS HISTORY BRIEFLY OUTLINED.

[Other brief sketches of the history of the New York State Agricultural
Society may be found in the first volume of the transactions of the so-
ciety, in the report of the U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture, 1875, and
in volume II of Public Service of the State of New York, edited by Hon.
Paul A. Chadbourne, D. D., LL. D. Also a history of the farmers’ insti-
tute movement may be found in the volume of Transactions for 1895.]

Now, at the beginning of the Twentieth century and at the time
of a great crisis in the history of the New York State Agricul-
tural Society, is a fitting occasion to look back over its previous
history and to note the influence it has exerted in improving the
condition of the American farmer.

The present society has grown from the work of earlier organ-
izations. In 1791, there was organized “ at a meeting of a respect-
able number of citizens at the Senate Chamber in the city of New
York” a “Society instituted in the State of New York for the
promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures,” and Chan-
cellor Livingston was chosen president. The chief object con-
templated by this Society as then organized was the publication |
of practical papers. May 1, 1804, the original charter expired.
In the new charter, which was granted April 2d of that year, the
name was changed to a “Society for the Promotion of Useful
Arts in the State of New York.’ The Society was, however,
practically unchanged, although it was intended that, besides the
original object, namely, that of publishing practical papers, the
organization should establish an experiment station and found
a library. Neither of these objects, however, was effected. The
four volumes of Transactions in which the above mentioned
papers were published appeared in parts and at irregular in-
tervals from 1792 to 1819, etc. The first and second volumes deal

Srare AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. DIT

largelv with Agricultural subjects, the third deals almost en-
tirely with mechanics, while the fourth volume is miscellaneous
in character. Among the contributors may be named Robert R.
Livingston, Ezra L’Hommedieu, Samuel L. Mitchell and Simeon
DeWitt. These men laid the foundation of a great work, but the
society they founded was not destined to carry it further; for in
1824 it “lost its agricultural character and became merged in
the Albany Institute.”

In the meantime the acuta interests of the State were
transferred to another organization. April 7, 1819, the Legisla-
ture appropriated $10,000 per annum for two successive years to
be awarded to farmers in premiums by the county agricultural
societies which should raise an equal amount by voluntary sub-
scription. The act further provided that each county society
should choose one member to a board of agriculture which should
annually publish a volume at the expense of the State “to be
distributed to the good people.” The board organized January
10, 1820; and, the annual appropriation being extended to six
years, continued its work until April, 1825. Three volumes,
similar in character to the Transactions of the former society
were published in 1821, 1823 and 1826.

In February, 1832, eighty-seven “zealous and enlightened
friends of agriculture” met at an “ agricultural convention ” in
the capitol and organized the New York State Agricultural So-
ciety with LeRay deChaumont as president. April 26, 1832, seven
years after the Board of Agriculture went out of existence, this
new society was incorporated by act of the Legislature. The chief
work of the society as then organized was the publication of
agricultural essays, although at the second meeting, February,
1833, a memorial was presented to the Legislature asking that
provision be made for an agricultural school, and a resolution
was adopted that a fair be held in Albany and also in New York
during the following autumn. Accordingly, on the second Thurs-
day of October, 1833, the New York State Agricultural Society
held at Albany its first and only fair until after its reorganiza-
tion in 1841. This fair, it was said, “ although the first, fully met
public expectation.” The agricultural essays referred to above,
together with the proceedings of the society were published in the
“ Cultivator,” a monthly journal founded by the society and circu-

218 Bureau or Farmers’ INsStTirures.

lated among the farmers at a nominal price. The first number
appeared March, 1833, with Jesse Buel, J. P. Beekman, and J. D.
Wasson as committee of publication. The Cultivator soon be
came the individual enterprise of Jesse Buel and shortly after
his death was combined with the Genesee Farmer under the
editorship of Willis Gaylord and Luther Tucker. In the pages of
this journal were printed the foremost agricultural thought of
the time, and many articles, especially those of advice to young
farmers, are of great value even at the present day.

However lasting the influence of the society through the pages
of the Cultivator may have been, for several years little else was
done save the holding of annual meetings in Albany. Gradually
the members became dissatisfied with these petty results, and the
more progressive thinkers began to see that the society must
start its work on anew basis. February 10, 1841, a reorganization
was effected and the following suggestive clause inserted in the
constitution: “ The society shall hold an annual cattle show and
fair.’ This movement owed its success to the indefatigable ex-
ertions of a few men, among whom may be mentioned Ezra P.
Prentice, Luther Tucker, Benjamin P. Johnson, Joel B. Nott,
Alexander Walsh and J. J. Viele. The success of their efforts
was due, first, to an act of the Legislature appropriating the sum
of $8,000 for the term of five years for the promotion of agricul-
ture and household manufactures in the State. This amount was
apportioned as equitably as might be among the county societies,
and $700 was allowed the State Society. Another strong factor
tending toward the success of this new movement was the annual
fair made possible by the above appropriation.

These fairs, beginning at Syracuse, September 29 and 30, 1841,
have been held every year since with almost invariable success.
For almost fifty years it was held at various places throughout
the State. In 1889, however, the society made provision for
permanent grounds at Syracuse, and there the State fair has, be-
ginning with 1890, since been held. These fairs, by enabling the
farmer to hear the thoughts and see the products of the foremost
agriculturists of his day, have had an educational value which
has started many a man on the road to success.

The holding of fairs, however, has not been the only great
work of the State Society. In its published Transactions are

State AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 219

articles on almost every subject connected with agriculture, such
as tillage, grasses, stock husbandry, horticulture, entomology,
household arts and in the earlier days silk culture was given a
prominent place. The first volume of the Transactions ap-
peared in 1841. Thereafter the Transactions were published an-
nually until and including the year 1871. Other volumes fol-
lowed in 1876, 1882 and 1886. During the next three years three
volumes were published in pamphlet form. Beginning with 1890
the proceedings of the society were published under the title of
Annual Reports. Of these nine volumes have appeared. The
later volumes have given quite extensive reports of contemporary
agricultural and kindred societies in New York State, and since
1893 have been largely devoted to farmers’ institute work.

Indeed this farmers’ institute movement was started and for
several years carried on by the State Agricultural Society,
though now under the State Agricultural Department. Through
the efforts of Professor I. P. Roberts of Cornell University and
J. S. Woodward of New York a farmers’ institute was held at
Ithaca in January, 1886. This first attempt was so successful
that the society set aside $1,050 from its funds to be used
the following winter in inaugurating this movement. Ac-
cordingly during the winter of 1887, institutes were held at Lock-
port, Ithaca, Oswego, Batavia and Schenectady. The success of
the movement exceeded the expectation of even the most optim-
istic among its supporters, and later results have given ample
proof of its value to the New York farmer.

Beside the work already enumerated, the society has con-
ducted extensive trials of agricultural implements and machinery.
It appointed commissioners to enquire into the cause and treat-
ment of contagious diseases, among which may be mentioned the
contagious pleuro-pneumonia of 1859, the rinderpest of 1886, the
plague of bovine abortion in 1867, and the epizoétic apatha of
1870. These were promptly taken in hand and valuable work
done for the live stock interests of the country. Another matter
of historic interest is the publication, 1850 to 1873, of a monthly
journal in which appeared the work of the various committees,
current events and other brief matters of agricultural interest.
In mentioning the factors which have contributed to the success
of the New York State Agricultural Society, the annual meeting

«

220 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

in January must not be forgotten. Here the strongest men of
our State have met together for a common purpose, namely, that
of helping the farmer to a better condition in life. This is a
noble work, and it has been nobly done.

At the present time it seems that this grand old organization
is on the wane. The State Agricultural Department has little by
little taken unto itself the work of the society until, to quote
from a leading agricultural journal, “last year there was nothing
left for the State Society but the management of the State fair.”
Difficulties of a financial nature, which need not be mentioned
here, have also presented themselves. It is to be hoped that,
these difficulties passed, new work will be found and the New
York State Agricultural Society may again flourish as in days
of old.

Farming on the Island of Jersey.

By I’. S. PEER, Author of “ Soiling, Ensilage and Stable Construction.”

To say the peasant farmers on the Island of Jersey (many of
whom can neither read nor write) are the best and most scientific
farmers in the world, sounds like a contradictory statement, a
very boastful one to say the least. I make the statement on my
own account, for I have never heard it said of them nor do the
islanders set up any such claim. They are quite unconscious of
the fact themselves, as only a very small proportion have ever
been away from home to the extent of crossing the channel that
separates the island from France or England. I call them the
best farmers in the world for the simple reason that they make
their farms produce more per acre than any other farmers I ever
saw or heard of. To grow large crops on land that has been
under cultivation since long before “the morning stars sang to-
gether” may be called the art agriculture, and if, as Lockhardt
says, the science of farming is to take large crops from the soil
and leave the soil in better condition for the succeeding crop
than it was before the crop was taken, then of all men the
peasant farmers of the channel islands must be considered most
scientific, for the fertility of their farms has steadily increased to
meet the requirements of their increasing numbers and their in-
creasing wants.

The little Island of Jersey is only fourteen miles long and four
to seven miles wide, a good sized western farm. There is, how-
ever, a resident population of 55,000, and that this island is able
to support its own inhabitants and feed 40,000 to 50,000 visitors
annually, is something wonderful. When I tell you that in addi-
tion to this there is exported from the island yearly between
three and four million dollars worth of farm and garden produce,
no one will question that these island farmers deserve the dis-
tinction that I have given them.

399 Bureau oF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES.

Early potatoes and cattle are the principal farm products; the
potato crop alone that was shipped from the island this year
brought £445,872 or $2,175,855. There is on the island, all told,
about 25,000 acres. There is of course a great deal of waste land
along the coast so that there is only about 10,000 acres of land
worked or tilled by farmers. There are 1,200 farmers and the
average sized farm therefore is about eight and a half acres. On
an eight-acre farm there will be, say four and a half to five acres.
of potatoes (followed by a crop of roots same season) an acre or
acre and a half of grass, and on the balance of the farm, oats or
meadow, garden and buildings. The farmers pay from forty to
seventy-five dollars per acre annual. rent, and 300 bushels of
early (partially grown) potatoes is considered a good crop, while
400 bushels and even more is not uncommon. I am afraid to tell
the truth as to the number of tons of mangolds that are produced
per acre, after the potato crop, without additional fertilizers.

How is it possible to grow such crops on such a small piece of
land, support such a large population and export over three mil-
lion dollars worth of produce yearly, at the same time to in-
crease the fertility of the soil so as to produce such crops? I
reply by keeping a large number of live stock for the manu-
facture of barn-yard manure. Incredible as it may seem, on these
10,000 acres there are owned—according to the last census—
11,891 Jerseys, 2,343 horses, or 14,234 head of stock, to say
nothing of pigs and poultry. The farmers buy some com-
mercial fertilizers and draw a great many tons of sea weeds
gathered on the sands when the tide is out which they spread on
their meadows and grass land, but their principal reliance is barn-
yard and liquid manure. I doubt if there is a farm on the island
without a liquid manure cistern, the contents of which is pumped
into a hogshead, on a two-wheeled cart and distributed on the
grass and meadows.

But how can they feed such a great number of cattle from so.
small an acreage of grass land, when potatoes and other crops
occupy about two-thirds or three-quarters of the land, where 14,-
234 head of live stock is nearly an animal and a half per acre
for every acre farmed? By adopting a strict soiling system only
the milch cows are allowed to go to pasture; these are soiled or

SS)

FARMING ON THE ISLAND OF JERSEY. 993

h

tethered out, beginning at one end of a field; each cow mows
her own swath across it. She is moved on once or twice a day
according to the size of the grass and makes a clean sweep of
everything within reach of her leather rope, which is about
twelve feet long. The growth of grass is something wonderful.
The cattle feed across these fields six or eight times during the
season, and even then portions of the field often gets the start
of them and is cut for hay. All the young things are kept in
the stables and fed on roots. Mangolds are also fed night and
morning to the milch cows that are usually housed during the
night. Roots are probably 75 to 80 per cent. of a cow’s feed dur-
ing her lifetime on the island. In the winter she gets in addi-
tion a little hay, possibly two pounds, night and morning.
Not only are these islanders the best and most scientific farmers,
but their system of selecting and breeding is also ahead of that
of any other community. It has brought to that little island
millions of dollars and is likely to continue to do so for genera-
tions to come. Nevertheless they are largely without books or
education. I doubt if there are over a dozen copies of agricultural
papers subscribed for by the farmers on the island. How can
their great skill as farmers, breeders and gardeners be accounted
for? Their methods in some respects are very primitive and have
doubtless been handed down to them from the teachings of pious
monks who were said to be very learned men and particularly
fond of agriculture. They experimented and taught it to the
young men and orphans who were brought under their influence.
The ruins of several Dervish temples of great antiquity still re-
main as evidence of these priestly orders. While their pupils
were kept purposely ignorant of all book learning they profited
by the lessons of their learned teachers. This probably is the
foundation of their agricultural training, but necessity has been
the great teacher. How to feed their ever increasing numbers
has been the problem, and this has been accomplished only by
keeping the greatest number of cattle making the greatest
amount of barnyard and liquid manure, which, as before stated,
is made possible by adopting a strict soiling system.

924. Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Plowing.

I have said the islanders were the most scientific farmers, yet
if I could show you one of their plows, you would laugh.
It is anything but a scientific implement, for instead of the long,
graceful, easy lines of a modern light draft American plow, it is
very large and heavy, with the mould board about as blunt as it
is possible to make it. It takes six horses to draw one of these
plows, but if it is not scientifically built it does most scientific
work. While an American plow turns a furrow that is so easy
and gradual that the ground is barely cracked in the turning, the
islander’s plow, pulverizes the ground thoroughly. The plowing
season is the great event of the year, the farmers changing
work, aS no one man has horses enough to do the job properly.
First they plow a furrow about four inches deep and fourteen
inches wide with four horses; then a heavier plow follows in the
same furrow with six, seven and sometimes eight horses attached.
This plow goes eight to ten inches deeper and the same width as
the lighter plow. The ground is so thoroughly pulverized that
nothing more is done to it except that boys and men walk along
the furrow and knock to pieces any lumps that work to the sur-
face. The whole seed bed from top to bottom of the furrow
(twelve to fourteen inches) is more like an ash heap than a plowed
field; no harrowing is needed, not a foot touches it until the day
for planting; in fact it would be almost impossible for a horse

to travel across it.
Planting Potatoes.

“The spuds,” as they call the seed potatoes, are carefully lifted
from the ground where they are left to ripen. Later they are
sorted and set, with the eye-end up, in trays. These trays are
corded away in some outbuilding adjoining the stables, and by
spring there is one strong sprout an inch and a half or two inches |
long growing out of this eye end. These trays are carted to the
field and the potatoes planted by hand, one at a time. First a
line is stretched across the field and men with shovels throw out
a trench, using the line asa guide. Women follow and dust a lit-
tle commercial fertilizer along the trench; other women and boys
come on with a tray of potatoes and set each one upright in the
row. The trench is about four inches deep, so that the sprout
on the potato is very near the top of the ground when covered.

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FARMING ON THE ISLAND OF JERSEY.

This planted trench is filled by the ground taken from the next
trench. The potatoes are always planted whole, five or six inches
apart in the row, and rows ten to fourteen inches apart. In
four or five days—if the weather is favorable—you can see a leaf
breaking through the ground so that one can distinguish the
rows. The cultivating is done mostly by hand, as the rows are
too narrow to admit using a horse; however, some of the larger
farmers plant so as to cultivate with horses. It is no uncommon
sight to see a man and a woman or three women hitched tandem
to a cultivator and at work in this way day after day.

When an American has spent a few weeks on the Island of
Jersey and sees the enormous crops they take from the soil it
makes him think that as farmers in America we hardly know our
agricultural A, B, C’s, and that with all our Agricultural College
Experiment Stations, patented machinery, books and learning,
we are way behind the times in knowing how to increase and
maintain the fertility of our farms. Is that saying too much?
Let me call your attention to the fact that the average wheat
and corn yield in America has steadily declined until it is only
about thirteen bushels per acre.

What do we know about agriculture in America compared with
these unlettered islanders? Nothing. Any fool can rob his farm
of its fertility and live for a time off of the fatness of a virgin
soil, but it takes a farmer, an agriculturist, to restore it, to in-
crease it and to “ farm it’ so as to win it back to productiveness
with ever increasing power.

I can not close this article without calling the reader’s atten-
tion once more to the prime cause of the islanders’ success, i. e.:
The great number of cattle they keep, which means a great
quantity of manure, which means great crops, all which is
made possible by adopting the soiling system for their cattle.
I may also add that there is no system or farm practice that will
teach a person the art and science of agriculture in this country,
as will the adoption of a strict soiling system for his cattle.
First of all, it enables him to keep four or five head of stock on
land where by pasturing he could support but one. This means
that he is producing four or five times as much fertilizer (barn-
yard manure) in quantity as formerly and at least ten times as

8

226 Bureau oF Farmers’ Institutes.

much when the quality is taken into account. This enables him to
grow larger crops each year. Instead of spending half of his prof-
its for commercial fertilizers, he manufactures his own. He sees,
as he never saw before, the necessity of increasing the fertility
of his farm. He discovers that the first essential to successful
farming is to feed his growing crops liberally; not to see how little
he can do for them, but how much. Instead of trying to get
something from nothing he turns squarely about and the manu-
facture of barnyard and liquid manure absorbs his attention to an
extent he never dreamed of before. There is nothing in the world
like the adoption of a strict soiling system to teach any man, be
he learned or ignorant, the true principles of agriculture, and it
is to this one thing, i. e. “ Soiling ” (forced upon them by neces-
sity) that makes the channel island farmers the best and most
scientific agriculturists in the world.

The Ideal and Real in Life.

By Evita F, FLANDERS, DeWittville, N. Y.

Although this is a very practical world, and the tendencies of
the men and women in it lean mainly toward the practical side;
yet sentiment is not a rare thing, and ideals are as numerous as
reals.

We are all castle builders. All in youth had a fairy ship at
sea freighted with the brightest hopes and possibilities our youth-
ful fancy could picture, but to none of us perhaps has come the
realization of our fond day-dreams. Our castles may have crum-
bled into dust, and our ships, like the fairy phantom ship of old,
may still hang in the horizon, never advancing toward us.

Our realizations have perhaps been very different from our
anticipations, yet for all this, our high ideals have urged us to
a higher plane of thought and action. Every result of import-
ance must exist in the mind before it can exist in reality. The
beautiful statue was an ideal hidden away in uncut marble until
the sculptor’s chisel set it free. The poet’s masterpiece was but
a floating dream until with patient art he brought it forth.
Columbus reared a castle and started in search of it. It was
only an aircastle when Morse pictured to himself the lightning,
carrying news from place to place, but through his effort it be-
came a reality. ‘“ Dreaming comes before labor, but labor alone
makes it worthy.” Youth is the period when we live most in
the world of fancy and idealism. Henry W. Longfellow tells us

“Each man’s chimney is his golden milestone,

Is the central point from which he measures every distance;
Through the gateway of the world around him

In his farthest wanderings still he sees it,

Hears the talking flame, the answering night wind as he heard them
When he sat with those who were but are not;

Happy he whom neither wealth nor fashion,

Nor the march of the encroaching city drives an exile

From the hearth of his ancestral homestead.

We may build more splendid habitations,

Fill our rooms with paintings and with sculptures,

But we cannot buy with gold vg
The old associations.” }

928 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

The wisest and best in all ages, too, unite in telling us that
from our early homes emanate the most potent and far-reaching
influences of life. We may wander far and wide, life may bring
us the best of all she has to give—friends, influence and wealth—
yet nothing interests us so much as the scenes and friends of
childhood. If the child’s mind be like wax, to receive impres-
sions, it is also like adamant to retain them.

It is related concerning the eminent French writer, Victor
Hugo, as he lay dying, and all France bent low to catch the
whisper of his words that he spoke almost invariably in Spanish
and of his happy boyhood days spent in Spain. As the light in
his eyes grew dim, the gifted man dreamed only of his boyhood
when he wandered care-free, and the world thinks of Hugo
to-day, not at the pinacle of his power as one of the best writers
of his time, but as a man loving above everything else, the
memories of a happy childhood.

In the quiet and seclusion of home our children form their
best ideals. How important then that these influences are the
best; how important that the general line be one of the highest
culture and refinement, that the moral and religious character
be considered of the gravest import.

A few years ago I read that wonderful book, “The Greatest
Thing in the World,” by Prof. Henry Drummond. I was so ab-
sorbed in it that I read it not once, but twice. It has found its
way into several foreign languages; and the thoughts on right
living and the great universal law of love to all mankind are
unsurpassed. It is a great thing to be able to live at our best,
particularly in our homes.

In no profession perhaps is the difference between the ideal
and the real more apparent than in that of farming. It is to
many a pleasing ideal to picture themselves on a fine well-tilled
farm, surrounded by fruitful orchards, well-kept gardens and
fertile fields. But it is decidedly practical, in these times of close
competition and scarcity of capable help, to the man whose brain
must devise the best ways of tilling his soil, caring for his fruit,
and rearing his stock so as to give to himself and family a fair
and remunerative return for labor expended.

We sometimes hear the expression, “ Farmers are ignorant.”
Concerning this a recent publication says: “Are they? Indeed!

THE IpEAL AND ReEat in LiFe. 229

In forms and fashions and artificialities they may be lacking,
but in respect to good solid knowledge the successful practical
farmer of to-day becomes a sort of encyclopedia. He is practi-
cally a “‘ physiologist, a veterinarian, a botanist, an entomologist,
even a chemist;” at the same time he is a mechanic, learning the
care and use of machinery. Truly there is no class that needs or
possesses such varied and practical knowledge as agriculturists.
By many they are underestimated, but Longfellow very sagely
says: “I do not pity the misery of a man underplaced, that will
right itself presently; but I pity the man overplaced.”

Farm homes are preéminently places where self-culture may
receive its highest incentives. The primary reason for this is
the fact that there are fewer outside influences to distract the
mind. Many complain of the isolation, and say farm life is lonely
and out of the world. This is certainly true to those who make
no effort to form a “ Home out of a Household,” but to the men .
and women who provide their families with the best newspapers
and books which can now be purchased at comparatively small
expense; to those who provide home entertainment for their chil-
dren, who in short live at their best, the farm home offers ex-
cellent advantages for the early training of good citizens. When
we learn from statistics that nine-tenths of the crimes in the
world are committed between sunset and sunrise, we need be
thankful that our farm children are away from the proximity
of associations which draw them from home.

Some complain that it is too hard, involving too much care and
labor; now this reminds me of a little advice given many years
ago. A young man wrote to Henry Clay, I think it was, asking
his advice in regard to the choice of a profession. ‘I want some-
thing that will be easy,” wrote the young man. The answer
that he received was very much like this: “ My young friend,
don’t choose the law; some of our hardest worked men are law-
yers. Don’t choose medicine; there is a great amount of labor
involved there. Don’t choose the ministry; a successful pastor
isa very busy man. Don’t be an editor or an author; many work
hard for years before they are fairly recognized. Don’t be a
scientist or explorer, there is nothing easy about that. Alas,
my boy, in this busy work-a-day world there is small chance for
the young man who makes his ease first in consideration. History

230 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTitTuTes.

records it as a fact that the successful men and women are the
busy ones.”

I was impressed with this fact when recently reading the biog-
raphies of the new representatives in Congress, who took their
seats for the first time on December 4th. Many of these new
members are emphatically self-made men. The number of coun-
try-born members representing city districts is surprising. It
brings to memory, says the Buffalo Express, the fact that most
of the presidents of the United States—in fact most of the coun-
try’s greatest men were country born. Truly, many, very many,
of the most useful men and women the world has ever known
have passed out from the culture and quiet of farm homes to
mingle with the world—thereby ennobling and enriching all with
whom they came in contact.

In a recent publication I noticed this article: Among the moss-
. grown, stereotyped jokes in the great cities, none is more popular
than that which refers to the farmer as a “ hayseed,” and makes
sundry more or less humorous reflections on his ignorance of
worldly ways. But when you come down to the solid facts, the
city chap is not so torrid after all; and what he does not know
about the most simple and natural things would fill a book.
Even in cultured Boston, the ‘‘ Hub of the Universe,” where wis-
dom abounds and knowledge has its home, this ignorance is
astounding. Some time ago a large number of school children
were examined on various subjects, and some of the results were
startling. Thirty-three per cent. of these children on entering
school had never seen a live chicken, 51 per cent. had never seen
a robin, 75 per cent. had never seen a growing strawberry, 71
per cent. of the Boston children had never seen growing beans,
even in “ bean-eating Boston.” Their school text-books are basea
on country life, and the city child knows nothing in the large
cities of the real life there. In the face of these facts one can
readily understand how it is possible for many of our farm boys
and girls to compete fairly and often outstrip those bred in the
city, when placed side by side with them, which is a conceded
fact by many of our best educators.

The knowledge gained by daily association with the flowers
and plants, the birds and bees, the fields and the animals feed-
ing quietly therein, broaden and enrich the childish minds, and

Tux JpeaLt anp Rear in Lire. 231

make them more receptive to practical knowledge. We live in
a State of whose people and institutions we may well be proud.
She stands first in professional education, and one of the first
in all general education. The farmers are not neglected. There
is a special course on agriculture at Cornell University, there is
a home course of instruction, of recent introduction, where the
student may pursue his studies at home. There is the Experi-
- ment Station at Geneva, from which are sent valuable bulletins
to all farmers desiring them, free of charge. Prof. W. H. Jordan
of this station, has secured a very strong corps of scientific work-
ers. Mr. Harding of Wisconsin, has been secured as dairy bac-
teriologist, he having given especial attention to the study of
bacteria, both in this country and in Europe. Mr. George A.
Smith of varied and wide experience, has been secured as dairy
expert. There are farmers’ institutes at the expense of the State,
where experts are sent to deliver lectures and answer questions.

A successful farmer must keep up with the times. He must
not stay at home and sit by the fire, and wonder what they are
talking about down at that farmers’ institute, and what those
professors will have to say. He must go down with questions,
and paper and pencil in hand and make the best of his advan-
tages. He must not be contented to farm merely as his father
and grandfather did before him. Times have changed, and he
must study the value of fertilizers, and when the suave phos-
phate agent comes along, must know something of the value of
various phosphates, which he can find from the helpful bulletins
sent out, and know that he does not take sand for a good speci-
men, nor should he be so easily overruled as to neglect the valu-
able fertilizing elements of his own farm, and buy instead a com-
mercial fertilizer of doubtful value.

Past National Master Brigham, at the National Grange, held
in Harrisburg two years ago, stated that the development of the
farmers’ bulletins had been most rapid. Special appropriations
were first made for them by Congress, the members of which
are entitled to two-thirds of the number printed for distribution.
Soon, however, members of Congress solicited and obtained
nearly four-fifths of the total number, more than 2,400,000 copies;
an increase of half a million over the year previous were then
printed, and the demand bids fair very soon to exceed the supply.

232 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirutes.

These are encouraging signs of the times, and when we read that
nearly forty per cent. of the voting population are farmers, and
may decide the result of every election, it is of great importance
that their power be wisely exercised.

Farmers’ organizations aid greatly in concentrating force. In
Michigan particularly, there are many prosperous and influential
farmers’ clubs. Probably no other state in the Union has so
many. Several years ago these clubs were brought together into
a State organization, which has proved remarkably successful.
It is safe to say no other organization in the State has a greater
influence upon legislation; and the result has been one of the
cleanest administrations that the State has known for some time.
It is strictly non-partisan in its demands and suggestions. The
power of combined farmers seems almost unlimited if exercised
in the right direction.

We are accustomed to look upon the American railroad sys-
tem as of almost paramount importance in the interests of the
country; but I was much interested some little time ago in read-
ing the report which the Interstate Commerce Commission had
just issued. By comparing the railroad figures with those of the
agricultural products for the same year, it was found that only
the corn crop of one year would be sufficient to pay all the rail-
road wages and salaries for 1896, and leave a surplus of more
than $98,000,000. The railroad business does not begin to com-
pare in magnitude with that of agriculture. In fact, the railroad,
like all other business enterprises, lives on the products of the
soil and its money is made by handling and sorting what farm-
ers have grown and others have handled.

I have recently read several articles on the lack of good read-
ing in our farm homes. Now, from my own knowledge I think
many of these homes are as liberally supplied with good reading
as are many of those who are following other professions. That
there is a general lack in the majority of all homes of a careful
study of current topics, and a general knowledge of the life
around us is a fact to be deplored. Children who are early
taught in the home to become interested in the forms of govern-
ment and those who govern, are forming the basis of good citi-
zenship. Many housewives and mothers complain of their utter

THe Ipeat AND Rear iw LIFE. 233

inability to find time to read much, although papers and books
may abound.

No one with a practical knowledge of the average home-life
denies that the housekeepers of the present day, often with in-
capable help, and many of them with none at all, are decidedly
busy people; but we read women cannot do too much to make
home attractive. Every investment to this end is better than
one in the bank. Just in proportion as we make our homes
happy may we hope to save our children from outside snares and
devices.

Although ‘“ Cleanliness may be next to Godliness,” even this
can be overdone. We all admire well-kept homes; where the
carpets are bright and free from dust; where the polished floors
are always clean; where the china and silver never grow dull and
tarnished, and where the dust never forms on the immaculate up-
holstery; but if this commendable state of affairs be reached
only by the mistress of the home becoming a veritable household
drudge, it is purchased at a great sacrifice. If the wearied mis-
tress of this beautiful home has no time to read, no time to cul-
tivate flowers, no time to visit her neighbors, no time to amuse
and instruct her children, no time to be an agreeable, social com-
panion to her husband, then indeed the neatness which is com-
mendable has deteriorated into the neatness that is detestable.

The majority of our farm homes are happy ones, where the
best lessons of all our lives are learned; but while we as house-
wives and mothers are careful lest the dust gather in our homes,
let us remember the wholesome words of Dora Read Goodale:

“Don’t let the dust gather on your ideals, they are the best
part of your mental furniture. Don’t let the dust gather on your
enthusiasm. Don’t let the dust gather on your vows—your
church vows, your marriage vows. They are as real, as binding,
as when the good pastor laid his hand on your head, as when you
stood at the altar with the man that you loved. Don’t let the
dust gather on your blessing; a diamond covered with dust seems
no better than a stone.”

We are told that history repeats itself; if this be true then the
boys and girls in our farm homes to-day are, many of them, those
to whom the nation looks to bear the grave responsibilities of the

234 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

future. It behooves us then as earnest thinking men and women
to guard well these homes. To put forth our best efforts to make
them places of peace and refuge. Places where life’s best ideals
are formed, fostered in growth by love and care, and sent out
into the world around us there to become blessed realities, help-
ful in this life and in that other life which is eternal.

Does Farming Pay?

By Rev. O. T. FLETCHER, Altamont, N. Y.

Judging from certain conditions as they prevail to-day one
might conclude that farming did not pay. That conclusion is
‘easily arrived at if one considers only the fact of the exodus of
the population from the country to the city, or the heavily mort-
gaged condition of the great majority of the farming property
of the State, or the run-down condition of so many farms, or the
low price of farm produce and the high price of farm labor
and farm machinery; and, along with these facts, hears the
farmers’ cry of “hard times,” “ poor crops,” and “heavy taxes.”
These things would seem to say, “ Farming does not pay.”

But not by these signs alone can the question be correctly
answered. The profitableness of farming depends upon two fac-
tors, viz.: the farm and the farmer. And the former depends for
its worth as a factor upon the ability of the latter. The State
recognizes this fact and is seeking to make farming a more profit-
able business by improving, not the farm, but the farmer. The
State hopes to enhance the value of farming to the farmer, not
by lessening taxes or by giving bounties, but by equipping the
farmer for better work.

There are three kinds of farmers who never make farming pay.
Farming does not pay to the indolent farmer. The man that is
lazy cannot succeed on the farm. Nor can those fellows who
sit around the corner grocery or blacksmith shop and cry “ hard
times ” when they ought to be at work. Away back in the be
ginning, God said to the first man, “ In the sweat of thy face shalt
thou eat bread.” What wonder is it that he doesn’t have it, if he
doesn’t sweat for it.

Ben Franklin, you know, said:

“He that by the plow would thrive,
Himself must either hold or drive.’’

236 Burrau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

My father had no conflict with Dr. Franklin but he taught us
boys that

‘‘He that by the plow would thrive,
Himself must always hold and drive,’’

and that from early till late without soldiering. If a man is no
friend of work he had better not attempt to make farming pay.
He may do well enough under a boss, but the farmer who suc-
ceeds must not need driving to his work or to be watched to be
kept at it. He who succeeds must have ambition enough to work
and work hard. Laziness never succeeds—except in being lazy.
In farming as in every other business it pays to hustle. Farming
will not pay if you don’t try to make it.

Farming does not pay to the indifferent farmer. You can gen-
erally tell a farmer by his farm. It is easy enough to tell if a man
is interested in his work. The farmer that likes to till the soil
puts something of his soul as well as his mind and muscle into
his toil. He cares for things and takes delight in them. It pays
to take good care of the stock. It pays to keep up the fences. It
pays to keep the shingles on the roof and the doors on the hinges.
Every successful farmer knows that. It doesn’t pay to leave the
plow in the furrow from December to May. It doesn’t pay to
Jeave machinery out in the weather from one end of the year to
the other. It pays to keep the trees in bearing condition and the
soil fit for a crop. Indifference in regard to these things pre-
cludes success. The man who doesn’t care, doesn’t make farming
pay. Carelessness costs; pains pay.

Farming does not pay to the ignorant farmer. The advice
one artist gave to a younger one was:

“Mix your brains with your paint.” Mix your brains with the
soil, is no less good counsel to the farmers of to-day. It is more
needed to-day than ever. Farming is developing into a scientific
process. To-day the more a man knows about farming in all of
its branches the better farmer he will be and the better success
he will make. Brains are the best fertilizers. The hope of farm-
ing is the education of the farmer. Thinking and studying along
the line of one’s work pays in every line of business. Mind is
worth more than muscle. Intelligence enhances the worth of a
ditch-digger. Farming is no narrow field for study and experi-
ment. Think of the variety of soils and the things one must know

Dors Farmina Pay? 237

to determine the best crop to raise and the ingredients necessary
in the soil for the best results. Consider the various and great
variety of things a man ought to know about stock. What
shouldn’t he know aboutehorticulture and plant life? He should
know something of seeds and fruits; of markets and the things
which influence them; of methods, means and machinery. He
should be something of a chemist, a botanist, a horticulturist, a
mechanic, a political economist and a veterinarian. He has been
all too long just a digger in earth and a horse jockey. But thanks
to the printing press, the district school, and the awakening gen-
erally to the fact, old as Solomon, that ‘‘The man of knowledge
increaseth strength.” The successful farmer is a man of no mean
ability. He has ambition, enthusiasm and intelligence. To such
men farming pays. It pays, although it may not at first thought
seem to. Pay is not always to be reckoned in terms of dollars
and cents. I am sure farming so pays. I am of the opinion that
the man who cannot make farming pay wouldn’t make anything
pay of which he was the manager. Too many have an idea that
farming requires neither industry nor intelligence. It is a
dangerous fallacy that a man can run a farm when he can do
nothing else. There was a time when almost anyone could do
well on a farm, but that was when the soil was rich in its virgin
fertility, markets good, and competition small. It is not so now.

But money is only one consideration. There are other things
of greater worth than bank accounts for relatives and children
to quarrel over and squander. Perhaps more money can be made
in other pursuits, but there are some advantages which more
than make good the loss. These we must consider in determin-
ing the profitableness of farming; for that must be reckoned both
in terms of money and manhood, of wealth and health, of cur-
rency and character. The loss in one is often compensated by the
other. In one section of the State there may be most money in
raising grain; in another, fruit; in another, hops; in another in
producing milk; but in every section the tiller of the soil has the
advantage over his city friend in location, occupation and associa-
tion.

His location is being rid of its disadvantages by the telephone
and telegraph; by cheaper, but good books and periodicals; by
labor-saving machinery; by steam roads and trolley roads and by

238 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

many modern inventions whereby the benefits of the best things
are placed within his reach. On the score of health the farm
out-classes the factory. The farmer eats pure food, drinks pure
milk, slakes his thirst with water of cyystal purity as it bubbies
out of the hillside clear and cool, breathes the purest air, and
inhales the invigorating fragrance of nature’s richest perfume;
his nerves are saved the strain of the ceaseless hum of factory
noises and the commotion and confusion of commerce; he spends
his days in God’s sweet sunshine and his nights in the radiance
of his own fireside. His brother toiler in the city knows none
of these, except at rare intervals. His food is not always fresh,
nor his surroundings conducive to good health or long life. The
man on the farm comes near to nature and receives the virtue
of the touch. He looks into the blue sky and star-studded
heavens; he sees the rose as it buds and blooms, living things as
they grow; he hears the songs of birds and breathes the perfume
of apple blossoms and the scent of new-mown hay; and in his
home he enjoys the comforts of art and music. His children are
blessed with vigor; his home comes near the ideal. It was Burns
the poet of the farm who gave the world “ The Cotter’s Saturday
Night.” For home life there is no place like the farm. For the
training of children and the developing of noble manhood there
is no place like the farm. By location, occupation and associa-
tion it is the place for laying the foundation of a good intel-
lectual development; the place for building up a strong consti-
tution; the place for establishing the framework of a noble char-
acter. Think of the privileges and opportunities of farm life:
Those long winter evenings for social and intellectual improve-
ment; those hours of solitude and quiet. What times for thought,
and reflection, and study! What moments for meditation on
things divine and eternal! What aspirations, what inspirations
as he communes with mother-earth! What liberty is his! What
freedom! No wonder we are a free people. The sense of freedom
was born in the soul of the farmer. It was a lot of farmers led
by a farmer who repelled the foe at Lexington and Bunker Hill,
at Brandywine and Yorktown.

It is said of Anteaus that no one could throw him in wrestling
except Hercules who succeeded only by first lifting him from
contact with the ground; his strength came from contact with

Dors Farmine Pay? 239

the earth. With the farmers rest the future of this republic.
From the farm have come the men of might who have filled places
of trust. One-third of the present Congress is from the farm.
More than half our presidents were farmers’ sons. To the country
must we look for the strength to replenish the wasted energy and
vitality of the city. After three or four generations the strenuous
activity of city life and public service consumes the strength de-
rived from contact with the soil. It is from the soil that men
have received that impetus, that inspiration, that ambition, that
industry, that manhood, that character, that strength of body,
mind and will that gave them power to outstrip their fellows in
the race for lofty service. Such being the worth of rural life, it
pays to till the soil.

Question Box.

[This interesting feature of our institute meetings is yearly growing in
popularity, and justly so, for in the “ Question Box” is brought out the
practical side of farm life, expounded by active and progressive farmers
whose experiences and practices cannot help benefiting brother farmers.
However, it is impossible to give, in the small space at our disposal, the
‘Question Box” of each institute, where so many are held, for to do this
would require a special work in itself. Again, not all questions asked are
of general interest, the majority being of a local nature, and frequently the
same questions are asked and answered at various institutes; so that we
have endeavored to select from an almost interminable mass of manu-
script questions and answers which, if they do not contain new ideas and
suggestions, will, at least, act as reminders and furnish food for thought
and mental digestion. ]

POTATOES.

How do you fight bugs?

Mr. Litchard—I pulverize 100 pounds of plaster and thor-
oughly mix with it one pound of paris green. As soon as the
plants are well up, sprinkle the mixture on the hills. This will
kill the “ shell backs ” to a large extent and prevent the appear-
ance, in great measure, of the slugs.

What condition of soil do you favor for potatoes?

Mr. Litchard—A good, well-fertilized and fitted clover sod,
plowed seven to ten inches deep and thoroughly fined to a depth
of at least five inches, and the surface as free as possible from
stones and clods.

What variety of clover do you sow?

Answer.—Medium red and alsike, two quarts of the former
and four quarts of the latter.

What do you do to prevent scab?

Answer.—Scab is a fungous growth. It may be in the soil.
Do not plant seed that is scabby, nor plant clean potatoes on

Tur Qurstion Box. 241

land where scabby tubers grew the year before. A preventive
is to soak the seed potatoes in a solution of corrosive sublimate
and water, two ounces of the poison dissolved in fifty gallons
of water. Soak the seed an hour and a half, but never leave a
scabby potato lying on the ground, nor put one into the cellar.
Boiling the scabby tubers will destroy the germs so that they
will not infest the soil if they are thrown on the ground. The
cooked potatoes may then be fed.

What variety of early potatoes do you prefer?

Answer.—Early Puritan, Early Sunrise and some others are
all good with me. It is well to study the habits of different va-
rieties and adopt those which are best suited to your soils, cli-
mate and conditions. Begin in a small way and, if you are suc-
cessful, like to grow the crop and can market it profitably, en-
large your field.

Do you use a digger, or dig by hand power?

Answer.—I use a digger drawn by four horses and put the
tubers into the cellar for one and a half cents per bushel. This
is a great saving in the expense incurred over the old way, and
enables me to sell my crop a little less, if necessary, and still
make a fair profit.

Speaking of prices, he said that an investigation made re-
cently revealed to him the fact that the average price of potatoes
in his county had been forty-five cents and-a fraction for ten
years. He also said that his crop had averaged him 125 bushels
during the last ten years. He also said that the general average
yield of potatoes is but seventy-six and one-half bushels per acre
and that of wheat twenty-two and one-half bushels. He also
gave the average yields of some other crops, and told the per
cent. of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid removed from an
acre by these crops, all which showed that potatoes removed
less fertility than does wheat or beans. He also favored potato
growing for the reason that one has a money crop to dispose of in
winter when we do not get much from the dairy. Therefore he
grows potatoes in preference to wheat or beans.

942 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.
What varieties do you raise?

Answer.—It has come closer to the question of form or shape,
round potatoes being most in demand and at better prices. My
preference is Rural New Yorker No. 2, Carman No. 3 and Sir
Walter Raleigh. They all belong to the same family and are
known as round potatoes.

Do you roll the sod after plowing it?

Answer.—Yes, we use a heavy roller—one weighing 1,750
pounds—and let it lap one-half. This packs the furrows hard.
After this we harrow deeply and make the seed bed fine. We
plow the clover sod sometimes as deep as ten inches; this when
the field has been worked down deeply and well manured. If it
has not, we do not plow so deeply.

Can blight on potatoes be prevented by spraying? What do you use?

Mr. Litchard—It may be prevented, but then there is no
cure. Spraying has been practiced through the State with the
Bordeaux mixture. Some make two applications; some three.
Scab is another disease and is a soil germ. The best way is not
to plant seed that has any scab on it. Don’t put any scabby
potatoes in the cellar nor plant them on land where scabby pota-
toes grew the year before.

Mr. Cook.—Soak the seed potatoes in a solution made by dis-
solving two ounces of corrosive sublimate in fifty gallons of
water. Leave them in the solution two hours.

Which is better, hill up or use level culture with potatoes?

Answer.—It will depend somewhat on the soil. As a rule
nearly level culture is best.

When one has land that is adapted to both wheat and potatoes, which
will be the better money crop?

Answer.—Wheat will take the most fertility from the land.
One hundred bushels will remove $29.50 worth of it; potatoes,

$5.20. The man who knows how to grow potatoes will get the
most money from potatoes.

THE Qusstion Box. 943

What is the best method of growing potatoes near Madrid?

A Farmer.—I do not raise many potatoes, but I plow my land
deeply, turning under as much manure as I can. The rows are
furrowed out three feet apart and the seed dropped eighteen
inches apart. I grow from 300 to 400 bushels per acre, and
have no trouble in growing smooth, handsome potatoes. But
the main point is in having good seed. My land is a limestone
soil, which produces good potatoes.

Mr. Litchard.—We raise a good many potatoes in our county,
and we find a dry, loamy soil the best, both for quantity and
quality. We prefer a clover sod, either for corn or potatoes.
Since we have our silo, we follow potatoes with corn. Our ma-
nure is all drawn out as fast as made and spread on the sod.

Mr. Pickens gave his method, which did not vary much from
Mr. Litchard’s, although he uses a hiller, while Mr. Litchard
does not. .

Mr. Litchard.—There are three essential things necessary to
grow potatoes: First, soil; second, seed; third, sense; but the
best results are obtained when the crop receives constant culti-
vation; so I never would put in a shovel plow, for the reason
that it cuts off the small feeding roots. Give only level shal-
low cultivation.

Will the planting of ill-shaped potatoes produce the same?

Answer.—In the main, yes. Asa rule, one gets about that
which he plants or sows.

At what season would you advise planting potatoes for the local
markets?

Answer.—Be governed by climatic conditions and soils. If
you are in a high altitude, get the seed into the ground as early

as possible. We want to have them ripe before the early fall
frosts.

To Dr, Jordan.—What is the cause and remedy for scab on potatoes?

Answer.—The germ that causes scab on potatoes lives in the
soil. I am nota bacteriologist. We ought to have about twenty
men in a force to answer all the questions that come up. The
soaking of the seed in a solution of corrosive sublimate, one part

944 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITures.

of the poison to 1,000 of water, is said to prevent it. It is caused
by an alkaline condition of the soil. Lime and wood ashes con-
tribute to it.

To Mr. Terry.—Will lime, used on land, cause scab on potatoes?

Mr. Terry.—Dr. Jordan says that an alkaline condition is favor-
able to the appearance of potato scab. Lime contributes to it.
We know that the scab germ will continue in the soil at least
three seasons. If the germ is in the soil no amount of soaking
of the seed will prevent scab on the tubers.

Will Mr. Terry tell us his experience in spraying potatoes, also tell us
what implements he uses to furrow out his potato rows?

Answer.—I began spraying potatoes several years since, using a
horse-power pump. Have used both a planter and a device of
my own. The latter has proved best, which plows the furrows—
two at once, throwing them in an opposite way; the seed is then
dropped in the furrows, then levelled with the harrow. It costs
more than it does to use the Aspinwall planter, probably one dol-
lar per acre, but it pays.

What do you say about plowing under rye for potatoes?

Answer.—I prefer clover, for the reason that it furnishes nitro-
gen from both tops and roots, also humus, which potatoes need.
Rye will produce humus, but no nitrogen for the potatoes. But
there is more danger from plowing under a large crop of rye than |
of clover, because there is more danger of producing acid in the
soil. I would most certainly try clover in preference to rye.

What variety of potato is the best for market?

A Farmer.—Green Mountain, of late, has proved best. We
raised last year, 4,000 bushels. Some fields yielded 240 bushels
per acre. We have also grown Carman No. 3. It is good, but
does not produce as heavily as does Green Mountain or Rural
New Yorker. In fact, the two are so nearly alike that one
is sold for the other by some farmers. On some soils, last year,

Green Mountain was much more scabby than were some other
varieties.

THe Question Box. 945

Mr. Cook.—The difference may have been caused by differences
in the soil, it being a germ which is more prevalent in some soils
and in some seasons than in others.

Mr. Terry.—The conditions last year were more favorable than
this for developing the blight, which as a rule caused the dif-
ference in results. With us, Carman No. 3 and Rural New
Yorker are the two great market varieties. But we never plant
any seed until after it has been treated with corrosive sublimate
to kill any scab germs. We use two ounces of the sublimate dis-
solved in fifteen gallons of water, in which the seed is soaked an
hour and a half. There is another preparation known as “ For-
maline,” in which the seed is soaked. I have never used this,
however. Be careful in using the sublimate, as it is a deadly
poison, and do not allow any live-stock to drink from the vessels
used; also be careful and pour the poison water where it will do
no harm, nor should you put any treated seed in boxes or barrels
which have contained scabby seed. Nor would I plant potatoes
in ground where scabby tubers grew the year before.

To Mr. Van Alstyne.—Will hen manure if used alone when planting
potatoes burn the seed?

Answer.—There is some danger, particularly when the season
is dry. The same is true of commercial fertilizers. I would not
allow either to come in contact with the cut seed.

How should we use phosphates, on top or under potatoes?

Answer.—My practice has been to broadcast the fertilizer,
then, sometimes, to make a second application at the time of the
last cultivation.

Is it safe to use hen manure and wood ashes on potatoes when planting
them?

Answer.—I would not use the ashes; they seem to have a ten-
dency to cause scabby tubers; nor would I mix them with hen
manure because they will liberate the nitrogen in the manure and
allow it to escape in the form of ammonia. I would apply the
two separately, unless I were going to plow them under at once.
South-Carolina rock would be better to use with the manure,

246 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

because we would get a good supply of phosphoric acid, which, as
a rule, is most needed.

To Mr. Chapman.—Which shall we do, plant potatoes deeply or shallow?

Answer.—In a large number of experiments made at the
stations in the United States, results showed that about four
inches gave best results. A depth of eight inches has given good
results; so has a depth of but two inches; but the average was
not as good as from those planted four inches deep.

What is the essential thing to be sought for in growing potatoes?

Answer.—I believe that it is to obtain a strong, vigorous,
healthy growth of leaf. The tuber makes the most of its growth
during the last two weeks, therefore there must be a good supply
of starch in the leaf to send down to the tuber. If the foliage has
been eaten by bugs or has become blighted, this supply will be
cut off. ;

Which variety of potatoes is most valuable, and why?

Answer.—Round potatoes bring more in the market than do
long ones. The Carmans are the favorite now, Rural New Yorker
seems to be running out; but there are some dealers who are sell-
ing any round variety they have for Carmans.

What can I do to prevent wire worms working in potatoes?

Answer.—Plow the ground in the fall, just before it freezes,
and give a short rotation of crops, to destroy the worms.

Mr. Hardy.—My potatoes were worm eaten, but a neighbor
planted corn-cobs in his potato hills. The worms left the pota-
toes and congregated on the cobs. I saw them, myself. The
potatoes were clean, and I shall try the experiment myself this
year.

Mr. Converse.—That might do in the garden, but I would not
care to try it on two or three acres.

What variety of potatoes give the best returns on clay soil, on hillside
land?

Mr. Cook.—How many of you grow potatoes? (Nearly every
hand went up.)

A Farmer.—Carman Nos. 1 and 3 are best.

Tue Question Box. QA4T

Another Farmer.—Rural New Yorker does best with me, but
Uncle Sam is another good one. .There’s a week’s difference in
the season of Carman Nos. 1 and 8.

To Mr. Van Alstyne.—How do you plow potatoes, and how do you grow
them?

Answer.—I plow as deeply as I can, for potatoes. On most of
our soil I plow about nine inches—we want coolness and mois-
ture. We plant in drills, putting the seed in about five inches
then use the smoothing harrow, followed with the weeder, then
the cultivator deeply, at first, then at a shallow depth, thus giv-
ing practically level culture, no hilling is done and the feeding
roots are left undisturbed.

Potato planting—deep or shallow—which? In hills or drills?

Mr. Terry.—On land that is well drained—which should be on
all land for potatoes, I think that four inches is the best depth;
which means four inches below the surface when leveled off, after
planting. We cannot afford to tear off the roots when cultivat-
ing, which results when the seed is put in the ground near the
surface, in check rows, and the hilling process is followed, so we
practice drill-culture. In this way the tubers are kept under, so
they are not sunburned.

How about sulphur to prevent scab on potatoes? How shall we use it?

Mr. Terry.—It has been used for the purpose by dropping it in
the hills. We prefer the corrosive sublimate, however.

Which are best for seed—whole or cut potatoes?

Mr. Converse—As a rule, the largest potato growers cut
their seed, leaving two or three eyes on each piece. But the seed
potatoes should be kept where they will not sprout before plant-
ing time. I would not plant too small potatoes nor too large
ones. Cut seed will be found most profitable.

How can we grow 300 bushels of potatoes per acre?

Mr. Cook.—With us the first fault is an improper preparation
of the soil and the need of humus and fertilizers. Potato soil
should be deeply plowed, well pulverized and fertilized. The
next trouble is poor seed. Seed potatoes ought never to be al-

248 Bureau or Farmers’ [NstTIvTUreEs.

lowed to sprout in the cellar, because it injures their vitality.
The third reason is neglect of the crop when the fungus and bugs
attack the vines. If a good crop of tubers is secured, there must
be a good, strong healthy growth of leaf and stem. To obtain
that, the seed must be good, the cultivation proper and constant
and the vines sprayed with the Bordeaux and the poison, to fore-
stall the blight fungus and the bugs.

How should we dispose of our small potatoes?

Mr. Cook.—Feed them in moderate quantities to the cows, pro-
viding they assist in balancing the ration. They are rich in
starch, so should be fed with protein foods. There is succulence
enough in them. A few oats, some bran or cotton seed meal will
balance them. If you have ensilage, take it out, but I would not
feed more than a peck at first; possibly the amount may be in-
creased a little at a time, till more are fed. It will depend on the
cows’s ability to digest and assimilate them, together with the
other foods eaten with them.

Should ground be rolled before dragging for potatoes?

Mr. Converse.—I would certainly roll a clover sod, to pack
the furrows closely. Then I would finely pulverize it and fine the
surface before planting the potatoes.

What is the value of potatoes as a milk-producing food?

Mr. Litchard.—Fed judiciously—that is, not too many, and
with other proper foods—I think they are worth for such a pur-
pose eleven cents a bushel.

Mr. Cook.—When potatoes are worth twenty-five cents a bushel
the question is not worth considering. I used to think that pota-
toes could not be fed and good butter and cheese made, but I
have changed my mind somewhat. Begin with two quarts and
increase the quantity gradually up to a peck or more, when they
are low enough in price.

What is the best potato digger on the market?

Mr. Litchard.—The Hoover is the best digger I have tried so
far. But there may be a better one, however.

- Toe Question Box. 949

To Mr. Fenner.—Do you plow your potato ground more than once?

Answer.——No, sir; we do not plow it but once. In Erie county
we do not farm for amusement. But we fit the ground well; then
thoroughly cultivate the crop.

HORSES.
When should a horse be watered, and how much should he have?

Dr. Smead.—As a rule, when the horse wants water let him
have it, using good judgment in the amount he takes and the con-
dition he is in. If he is very thirsty and hot, allow him to drink
but a few swallows at a time, but have the intervals short. I
never saw the horse nor the time when I would not give him some
water. Exercise the same judgment you would with yourself.
If a man or woman is wise, they will take a swallow or two, at a
time, at intervals. You may crave a quart, but do not drink it.
The stomach of the horse holds but about three gallons, so it is of
no use to allow him to swallow more; if he does it will not pass
through the stomach.

Should horses have a hay ration before eating their grain?

Dr. Smead.—As a rule, yes, as the coarse food already eaten
will prevent the grain compacting in the stomach. At the same
time it will be more easily digested than if fed before the hay
ration is eaten.

Is rye a good food for horses?

Dr. Smead.—I may run afoul of a snag, but I shall say no. If
I had rye I would sell it and buy something else. It is not at all
suited to the ordinary horse.

Would you grind oats?

Dr. Smead.—Not, if the horse had good grinders. I would pre-
fer to let him do the grinding, instead of taking the oats to the
mill and take my chance of bringing him an indefinite quantity.

Is there anything better than good oats to feed horses, ordinarily, in
connection with timothy hay?

Mr. Litchard.—I would take off a part of the oats and substi-
tute bran in place of them. The horse, like other animals, relishes
a variety, and will thrive better than when fed all the time on one
food.

250 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

What foods are best for a colt during the winter?

Mr. Litchard.—Good clover hay and oats.

Dr. Smead.—Mixed hay, red clover, alsike and timothy, cut
when the red clover is in bloom, is best. Such hay has a nutri-
tive ratio of about 1 to 7. Feed the colt what it will eat in an
hour. No more. If more, his digestion will be impaired. For
the grain, half a pint of oats and a fourth of a pound of bran to
each 100 pounds of colt, will do.

Please give a good ration for a horse?

Mr. Ward.—It would depend somewhat whether the horse was
being worked or not. Such a horse would require a different
ration from one standing idle. There is no better grain food than
oats. If the hay fed is clover and the grain, oats and bran, a
little corn meal should be added, but don’t feed too much timothy
hay, only just what will be eaten up clean in an hour.

If you were going to feed corn and oats to a horse would you feed both
grains whole?

Dr. Smead.—No, I would grind them together, because corn
ought not to be fed whole. But I would not feed corn and oats
mixed, because I find at least one horse in thirty that cannot eat
corn at all; if a horse can stand it, there is no better feed for a
horse doing heavy work than corn and oats mixed about half and
half.

What is the best ration for young colts?

Mr. Van Dreser.—I know of nothing better than wheat bran,
oats and clover hay; skimmed milk is also good. We fed wheat
bran with it and made a growth of over 60 pounds in 30 days.
Not more than a pint of oats, three times a day, was fed.

What is the feeding value of buckwheat straw for horses? Will they
eat it?

Mr. Ward.—Horses will eat good, bright clean buckwheat
straw in preference to hay. It is one of the best foods for horses;
they will eat it readily. But it must be clean, bright and well
housed. I do not recall its nutritive ratio, so that I cannot tell
just how it compares in feeding value with other straws.

Tue Question Box. 251

Should salt and ashes be fed to a horse?

Dr. Smead.—Salt has a good effect on liver and some other
organs, and should be given in small amounts. We find that
some wild animals, such as deer, eat it, and our domestic animals
do the same. So I would give it to them. So far as ashes are
concerned I will say, “don’t feed ashes.” We use the lye from
them, in connection with grease, to make soap. If an animal
swallows ashes, the lye from them when the liquids of the
stomach release it, cannot help but injure the animal.

Is it essential for horses or cattle to be groomed every day and the
stables cleaned every day?

Mr. Cook.—Clean the horse stables every day and put the
manure behind the cows in the gutters; then groom the horses.
Do it every day.

THE PIG STY.

What is the best feed for young pigs?

Mr. Litchard.—Milk first, then mix wheat middlings with it.

Mr. Cook.—When they are a little older throw in a little whole
corn, and I would add a little oil meal to the ration of the young
pigs.

A Farmer.—The best pigs I ever saw were fed barley meal.

Mr. Smith—Skimmed milk and wheat middlings make a good
combination. Don’t feed them wheat bran; a little cracked corn
will make a good mixture; not:much, but some of it, as the pigs
seem to like it very much.

Will it pay to grow rape for hogs?

Mr. Ward.—Yes; decidedly. One of the largest swine breeders
in our county grows a large quantity of it for his hogs, and says
it pays better than grain. But do not feed it to milch cows,
as it taints their milk. Horses will not eat it, but every other
animal on the farm will.

Has the Geneva Station had any experience with the Tamworth breed
of hogs?

Dr. Jordan.—We have a Tamworth male in our pens and are
crossing him on the Jersey Red. It has less hair and we believe
the cross will make a good bacon pig. Some farmers object to

252 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

the long nose of the Tamworth, but I do not care for that. We
cannot afford to grow pork for packing here; its day has gone in
this State. Bacon for home use and export is now in best de-
mand.

To Mr. Cook.—At what age would you slaughter a pig, fattened, for
most profit?

Answer.—It would depend very much on what I had to feed
him, and the price of foods as well as that of dressed pork. Where
one has good, sweet separator skim-milk or sweet whey, with
wheat middlings as a starter, to be followed with some one of
the fattening foods, the cost would be less than where all the
foods were bought. At present price for foods and pork, however,
I think that 150 pounds, dressed weight, would be about the
limit. I do not believe one could afford to grow a pig above that
weight.

If you could keep but one breed of hogs, what would it be?

Abel F. Stevens.—The “ White Victoria.”

What is the value of whey for feeding purposes?

Mr. Cook.—Whey is worth a good deal more than we get out
of it, as a rule. About one-half of the total solids of the milk
when made into cheese pass off in the whey. All the milk sugar—
about five pounds—the albumen, the ash, some fat and a small
per cent. of caseine, making fully six pounds, go into the whey
yat. When this whey is used just as it comes from the cheese
vat, if it be fed to pigs, with wheat middlings, fully seven cents
per hundred pounds may be got out of it. As a rule, however,
we do not get half that. I have experimented and know that
whey is worth more for feeding pigs than for any other purpose. °
If you will, next spring, spend the time you do in figuring down
the making price of cheese a fraction of a cent, and use it in
devising some method of better utilizing the whey product, you
will be better paid. It is almost a perfectly balanced food, that
is, the solids of it. But, as there are but six pounds of these
solids in 100 pounds of whey, the balance being water, it will be
seen there is only a small per cent. of the whole that is valvable.

Titk Question Box. 253

Mr. Van Wagenen.—We are feeding buckwheat middlings and
skim-milk to pigs, in preference to corn meal. It is not right
theoretically, but, when we can buy buckwheat middlings for
$12 per ton as against corn meai at $18, we are satisfied it pays to
let the pigs burn protein instead of carbohydrates in their bodies.
Understand, I am not advising this, except one is situated just as
We are and the same market conditions prevail.

CONCERNING CALVES.

How many pounds of milk will it require to fatten an ordinary veal
ealf?

Mr. Windecker.—I estimate it at 20 pounds a day. At six
weeks it would amount to $6. All above $7 for a calf at ihat age
is profit. The estimate is on the basis of 150 pounds weight for
the calf, with milk at $1 per hundred pounds.

Mr. SmithWhen calves bring but 4 cents a pound, the cost
will be more, will it not?

A Farmer.—It would depend upon the calf. A small one would
not develop up to that price—$7.

Mr. Windecker.—I would not start a small calf. It would not
be worth fattening.

The Farmer.—I have experimented with two calves. The first
week I fed two and one-half quarts of milk per day, the second
week three quarts, the third week four, and the fourth week five
quarts. These figures are for one feed. They should be doubled
for 24 hours. The calves weighed 276 pounds, gaining two and
one-half pounds per day the last week.

Is it profitable to feed whey as it comes from the factory to calves three
to six months old?

Mr. Cook.—It is not profitable to feed some whey to calves; it
depends on its condition. The milk sugar all goes into the whey,.
about four pounds in a hundred; then there is the ash and a small
per cent. of fat, making in all about six pounds of solids. If the
whey vats are kept scalded and the whey barrel clean at home
it will pay to feed whey. If these conditions do not obtain it
does not pay to feed it at all; it is a by-product and should be
saved. The Standard Oil Company is now making the most of its
money out of that which it once threw away

bo

54. Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUures.

What is the best method in which to feed calves linseed meal?

A Farmer.—Put it into the milk and let them drink it.

Mr. Sampson.—I think it is better to cook it.

Mr. Litchard.—I saw it being fed in Henry Stevens’ barn, at
Lacona, to calves. They brought it cooked to the barn and added
the milk to it.

Dr. Smead.—I have seen calves injured by feeding them linseed
meal. I prefer to feed, first the milk and then either feed the
ground flaxseed or the flaxseed oil. We want to add something
to the milk to replace the butter-fat removed from it by skim-
ming. I prefer, at first, a little jelly made of the linseed meal.
It is not necessary to cook it, because it has been cooked in the
process of extracting the oil from the seed. Later, when the calf
has begun to eat something solid, the meal may be fed. It is
dangerous to feed linseed meal to calves a week old.

What is the best feed for calves when one has not enough milk?

Mr. Cook.—Give the young calf, if it is worth raising, its
mother’s milk for the first two or three weeks, then gradually
work off on to skimmed milk with some ground oats, wheat mid-
dlings and a little oil meal mixed with it. A little good sweet
whey, with the foregoing grains mixed with it, makes a good
ration. Our sweet whey paid us fully 7 cents per 100 pounds
when fed in that way. But, if I were going to feed Jersey milk
to young calves, I would take out some of the fat through the
separator to prevent scours, which very rich milk induces. I
believe that if one were going to raise calves, he could do no
better than to go out and buy the thinnest, poorest Holstein
milker he could find, and then feed that cow’s milk unskimmed,
to the calves.

Which is preferable, to raise calves or veal, or sell them?

Mr. Ward.—It will depend. If the calves are ordinary scrubs,
veal and get rid of them just as soon as possible. Don’t keep
such calves on the farm a day longer than is needed to get them
ready for the butcher. But, if they are good full bloods and have
the requisites for making good cows, raise them.

Tue Question Box. 255

Does it pay to veal heifer calves on a small farm?

Mr. Harding.—I buy young calves from milkmen, feed them
milk from my herd till they are four or five weeks old, then sell
them for veals, because I can get good pay for my surplus milk.
Have got more money from my cows, through veals than I could
from butter, unless I got a very fancy price for it. If, however,
I had a good heifer calf from a good mother, I would raise it.

Can young calves be raised on separator milk alone, and how should it
be fed?

Mr. Dawley.—I wish that every calf could have all the sweet
skim-milk with some fine wheat middlings, oat flakes and a little
oil meal it wants, the last named to replace, in part, the butter fat
taken out of the milk. There will be no trouble experienced in
raising a calf on good sweet, separator skimmed milk, with flax-
seed jelly added in small quantities.

THE ORCHARD.

Which is the most profitable commercial pear?

Mr. Wood.—To-day Kieffer is my most profitable pear, with
Bartlett next.

Mr. Hooker.—Duichess has brought, all things considered, the
highest prices so far as I am informed, when it was put in cold
Storage, held till late, then shipped to Europe, if well assorted
and packed. It returned last season to some shippers as much as
$13 a barrel. I believe it the most profitable pear to-day, when
well grown and well packed and shipped.

Mr. Willard favored Kieffer and said there is no variety so good
for canning to-day as a well-grown, matured New-York Kieffer.
The Kieffers grown in the south and southwest are not fully de-
veloped. ‘Their flavor is not developed in the can as is that from
the New-York grown Kieffer.

What is the most valuable Japan plum from a commercial standpoint?

Mr. Smith of Geneva.—Our best Japans for commercial pur-
poses are Wickson and Burbank. In our orchards on Seneca
lake, Wickson is doing well. Although we have been fruiting
it but three years, we have learned that it pays to thin the fruit
very much, as it inclines to overproduce. We sold them for as

256 Bureau or Farmers’ LNSTITUTES.

high as $1.50 per bushel in New York last fall, when Lombards
were selling there for but 50 cents.

Mr. Willard.—Red June and Burbank have proved most profit-
able with me—of the Japan varieties. Red June ripened as early
as July 17th last season. My experience with Wickson has not
been so pleasant as has Mr. Smith’s, but conditions differ,
and it may yet become one of the most valuable varieties of the
Japanese plums. With me, all things consider, Burbank has
been the most profitable of these varieties. .

What about October Purple?

Answer.—I have fruited it several years, but would not recom-
mend the planting of it very largely.

By Mr. Jennings.—Is it a truth that the Japan varieties are more
immune from the ravages of curculio than are the European or our native
varieties?

Answer.—I have never found them so, although I have watched
them very carefully.

What of some of our native sorts?

Answer.—Hudson River Purple is doing quite well in western
New York, but it is more subject to attacks of blackknot than
are some others. I have been top-working some of my trees of
that variety with something else, because of this defect.

Are there any new peaches of value?

Mr. Taber.—I would like to know if any one has had any ex-
perience with Fitzgerald.

Mr. Anderson of Geneva.—I have a few trees, which came from
Canada. They have fruited. It is not very satisfactory. The
last season the fruit was fine, however. The season is a little
later than Early Crawford.

Mr. Willard.—Its quality is good. Mr. Morrell of Benton Har-
bor, Michigan, has made careful tests of the hardiness of fruit
of several varieties, and has found this one ranking best.

What about Crosby?

Mr. Willard.—We have fruited it and found it very satisfac-
tory. We have shipped it to Port Jervis and elsewhere, where it
gave excellent satisfaction.

Tur Qvsstion Box. 257

Mr. King.—It has not proved, so far, satisfactory with us. I
live near Trumansburg, Tompkins county.

What of Phair’s Choice?

Mr. Willard.—It is a fine late peach, and it succeeds excellently
on the shores of Lake Huron.

Mr. Barns.—It is being grown by some of my neighbors, and by
Mr. Quinby of Marlboro. He reports it a good peach.

There were some other of the new varieties named and de-
scribed by Mr. Bogue of Batavia, and other growers present.
Among them Triumph, which Mr. Willard said he regarded as
of not much value, notwithstanding its name.

Mr. Woodward.—There is a seedling of Crawford in Niagara
county which is better than Crawford in every respect. It has
been named Niagara, and I would not plant a Crawford if I could
get this seedling.

Another new variety, known as Willard, is said to be one of
the best of the new sorts, its season being a little later than Craw-
ford.

What of the Windsor cherry, one of the new varieties?

Mr. Willard.—It was introduced by Ellwanger & Barry. Asa
market fruit it stands pre-eminent as a sweet cherry. None has
ever been introduced that approaches it. I have 50 trees. They
are young, but they have already paid for themselves, the ex-
penses of growing and caring for them, and the interest on the
land they stand on. The fruit-is large, hard and good. I can
take three or four bites out of one. It sells well, the market price
having been raised from 10 to 12 cents per pound last season.

George T. Powell—Mr. Willard has left out one valuable qual-
ity, that of health and constitutional vigor. It has the power to
withstand insect and climatic attacks, such as Black Tartarian,
Black Eagle and some other sorts of like character and season, do
not. Therefore I regard Windsor superior to all others in this
respect. Then, too, it begins ripening in July, from the 6th to the
10th with me in the Hudson river valley, and keeps a long time.
So it goes early into market and brings good prices.

9

258 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

What of the new variety of cherry known as Bing?

Mr. Willard.—I have it. The scions came from Oregon. It has
fruited one year. Some of the specimens had a circumference of
3 to 54 inches. It is the most promising of any of the newer
varieties that I have. The man who has that and the Windsor
will be a happy one. Montgomery is the most valuable sour
cherry, with English Morrillo second.

Which variety of currant is best to plant?

Mr. Willard—There are some new varieties not long since in-
troduced that are among the best. Among them is President
Wilder, a red variety, and White Imperial. The latter is not a
commercial variety, but it has no equal as a table currant. I
have grown Wilder a number of years. It produces on my
grounds double the quarts yielded by Cherry or Fay, while the
quality is very much finer than that of either of these old sorts.
The children who pick our currants easily double their wages:
when they begin picking it.

George T. Powell.—I have taken as many as 16 quarts of Fay
from a single bush. If Mr. Willard can beat that, I would like to
know it. !

Mr. Willard.—I take off my hat to that statement from Mr.
Powell, and go to the rear.

W. D. Barns.—I do not feel confident to decide which is the
best commercial variety to plant. Many currants are grown
along the Hudson river. Fay drops its fruit, gets dirty, and is
straggling somewhat in its wood growth, while Cherry is infested
with disease. The old Victoria is a good one, but is not fully
satisfactory for one or two reasons. Prince Albert is the latest
to fruit of any in my grounds, but its color is light and therefore
objectionable to some. President Wilder gives the best satisfac-
tion so far. It is an upright grower, and the fruit hangs on
longer, and is still fit for market, than does that of any other
variety. I have several thousands of bushels of this variety,
and the fruit has averaged two to four cents per quart higher in
the market than any other variety, the color being fine and the
quality fully as high, while the yield is much larger.

George T. Powell—Currants at present are one of the most
valuable of the small fruits which I grow, but there are some

THe Question Box. 259

drawbacks. The currant worm is one, but it may be easily con-
trolled. There are some other insect pests, some of them of re-
cent date, that can not be so easily fought. There is a growing
demand for the fruit, however, so that the grower can afford to
be vigilant.

Will Dr. Van Slyke tell us what is the most hardy plum for this cold
climate (Springville) ?

Dr. Van Slyke.—I don’t know everything. You will have to
write to Prof. Beach, the horticulturist at the Geneva Experiment
Station, for an answer.

Mr. Fenner.—I think that some of the Japan varieties would do
best in this locality.

Mr. Converse.—These Jap plums are quite hardy with us in
southern Jefferson county.

I desire information about grapes. Mine are on low, black soil, but do
not bear fruit. But the vines make a large growth every year. Why do
I not get more fruit?

Mr. Stevens, Mass.—That is a text for a long sermon. Un-
doubtedly the conditions of the soil are not good. Too much
nitrogenous foods in the soil, or it may be the rose bug chafer. I
could tell better if I could see the vines in foliage. A black soil
is not fitted for the grape. Fertilize well with potash and phos-
phoric acid, and avoid too much growth of wood and foliage.

Mr. Van Alstyne.—What is the variety?

The writer of the question.—Rodger’s Hybrid. It is a black
grape.

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Write to the Geneva Experiment Station
for their bulletin describing the various varieties and giving some
directions for caring for them.

Is there any danger from an overproduction of good apples?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—As a rule, there is not an overplus of good
apples. The “overplus,” is of poor fruit. Sometimes a lack of
proper distribution causes an overplus in some one place; but,
during the last three years, we have had good, profitable prices,
and the outlook, to me, for good prices, is still better. The Ger-
man and southern markets is now opening up, and the rates of
transportation are lower. Beside that, there is a constant in-

260 Bureau OF FarMeERS’ INSTITUTES.

crease in the insect pests, which will drive out many fruit-grow-
ers, who will not be thorough in fighting the pests. But the pres-
ence of the pear-tree psylla, San José scale, scab, fungus and
blight, will so demoralize some growers as to cause them to let
their orchards go, and those who persist to the end will reap
good profits for their investment and work. Certainly, I would
if I wanted them, set pear trees now.

What is the best preventive of borers in fruit trees?

A Farmer.—Dig them out with a wire.

Dr. Smead.—A_ bandage of wire gauze put around a tree will
keep them out. It should extend down under the surface of the
soil a trifle.

What is the present outlook for apple-growing?

C. M. Hooker.—It is at present very encouraging. Three years
of remunerative prices, with fairly good crops, make the outlook
much better. Western New-York apples rank best everywhere.
We are learning every year how better to grow apples and how
to fight insects and fungus. Of varieties he said he has found
the old ones still the best, although he, at his age, would not plant
Baldwins; a young man should, however. Ben Davis is also a
good commercial variety.

Mr. Wood.—I now have great confidence in the apple. It is
the king of all our native fruits and has saved my life financially.
Roxbury Russet with me is all right, so is the old black Gilli-
flower.

A gentleman from Oswego said that several buyers of apples
were in his place last fall and paid fifty cents more per barrel for
Gilliflower than for any other variety in the market. It is rapidly
coming to the front as a market apple.

Prof. Van Deman.—Western New York is the great apple-grow-
ing belt of the State and is going to grow millions and millions
of barrels of the fruit in the future, and so the question of the
most profitable varieties ought to be considered. To-day, Ben
Davis is the business apple for our markets. People may talk
about Ben Davis just as they have done and do about the Kieffer
pear, but, so long as these fruits sell at good prices, and the people
demand them, we should grow them. If I were going to plant an

THe Question Box. 261

orchard to-day, I would put in a row or two of Ben Davis, or,
if I were to grow trees on which to top-work other sorts, I would
plant Ben Davis. I would top-work Baldwin and King of Tomp-
kins County on it, also Grimes’ Golden: The latter is to-day the
best apple in America. Its season ranges from November to New
Year, but York Imperial is running an even race from Virginia
to the Pacific coast with Ben Davis, and you will find that, within
the next twenty years, it will have become a great favorite in your
orchards here. Its only fault is its ill-shape, but that does not
influence its quality at all. It ripens with Baldwin or even later.
It keeps better and holds its fine flavor to the end.

If you were to set a commercial orchard, near Altamont, what varieties
would you plant?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—One should be governed by soil, climate and
markets. Some varieties do better on heavy soils than do others.
For myself, I prefer a majority of fall varieties, Duchess, Maiden’s
Blush and Gravenstein are among the best for me. I also grow
Red Astrachan, which is very early, and I have got more money
from it during the last ten years than from any other variety I
grow. Years ago I came very near top-grafting all my Astra-
chans to some other variety. Iam now very gladI didnot. Yel-
low Transparent is a beautiful early apple of fine flavor, and the
tree is an upright grower, hardy in foliage and wood, and an
early bearer, but I think the skin is too tender for a shipper. The
Greening, Ben Davis, Sutton Beauty and Hubbardston are among
the best winter sorts. King of Tompkins County is one of the
very best winter sorts, but its root growth is deficient, so I would
top work it on the Spy. Ben Davis is of poor quality but it isa
fine grower, an early bearer, and is much sought after in our
markets as well as in those over the water. So I grow it for the
money in it, not for sentiment.

In setting an orchard, are not young, straight trees better than those
two or more years old? What about pedigree trees?
Mr. Van Alstyne.—I would want straight trees, and ordinarily
I think that two-year old trees are preferable, although there is
no particular objection against one-year olds. So far as pedigree
is concerned I ama firm believer in that. They should be propa-

262 Bureau or Farmers’ [nstirures.

gated from buds or scions from good, strong, healthy trees, with
a good root system, and which bear fruit of the most perfect type.
We often find a very marked difference in the shape, color and
flavor of the same variety of fruit, made so by propagating the
trees from inferior stock, those which had drifted away from the
original type.

What is the benefit of applying salt to quince bushes? When, how and
in what quantities should it be applied?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—The quince, like the cabbage, likes salt, and
I think the same is true of asparagus. Salt also creates moisture,
but I would use it in moderate quantities about the quince tree.
1 would put a quart, scattered about the trees as far as the roots
extend. On very large quince trees, perhaps more may be used,
but I would not apply it oftener than once in two or three years,
and it will be found best on light soils.

Should we trim our pear trees the same as we do our apple trees?

Mr. Fenner.—No, sir. I have several hundred pear trees, and
prune them but very little. Sometimes I cut out some of the in-
side branches that interlock. Pears ought not to have too much
sunlight. ‘They should be grown in the shade, then picked before
they are thoroughly ripe, and left to ripen in the fruit house or
cellar.

What is the best tool with which to cultivate the orchard? How about
the disc harrow?

Mr. Smallwood.—I cultivate the orchard the same as J do any
other field, with the spring-tooth harrow.

Mr. Cook.—We use a heavy disc harrow in place of the spring-
teoth, so that quack roots will not be dragged all over the field.
The harrow is heavily weighted and four horses hitched to it.
You don’t want a light disc harrow, but a heavy one, that will
chop up all quack or other roots. Remember, quack roots make
just as good humus as do any other plants; but I can kill it dead
as a hammer, every time, in the way I say, first having sown a
crop of oats and peas thickly, followed by one of winter wheat,
seeding with clover the next spring.

Tue Question Box. 263

How many times is it necessary to spray one orchard?

A Farmer.—Spray twice; once before the blossoms open and
once after they fall, using the copperas sulphate and lime. It is
what is known as the Bordeaux. Add paris green with the Bor-

deaux for the last spraying.

Why are Ben Davis apples such good sellers?

Mr. Gould.—Because they are red; I know of no other reason.

Mr. Cook.—They will bear some hammering, and, after all, are
a very good apple. In the spring when all other varieties are ~
gone, it does very well; the evaporator men like it because it
makes a white product that is attractive in the market.

Would rape be a good crop to sow in an orchard?

Dr. Jordan.—Yes, sir. Rape would be a good crop for that pur-
pose. Dwarf Essex is the best variety I know of. But if you
sow it, fertilize both the trees and the rape, else the rape will steal
fertility as well as moisture from the trees. Rape, like cabbage,
requires considerable nitrogen to perfect a good crop. Do not
allow it to take it from the soil at the expense of the trees.

How far apart would it be best to setspeach trees here at Weedsport?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know. No one of us are peach-growers.
A Farmer.—lI think it best to set them from sixteen to twenty
feet apart each way.

What strawberry is-best to fertilize the Bubach?

Mr. Rice.—I don’t think I could answer that question for you,
because strawberries are fickle. With us, however, Brandywine
is best for the purpose, because both varieties blossom and ripen
about the same time, are about the same size and variety, and
both are good sellers. We can’t get too much pollen by way of
fertilization for Bubach.

A Farmer.—Brandywine, Bubach and Gandy are the best sorts
here.

What new varieties are best?

Mr. Rice—William Belt, Glen Mary, Atlantic and Marshall are
all on trial with us. Marshall is one of the most beautiful straw-

264. Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

berries I ever saw, and one of the best in growth, but there is so
much difference in soils and climates that one cannot advise. We
find that many things that do well with us do not elsewhere, only
a few miles away.

Is it best to mulch strawberries till after freezing, before cultivation?
Is horse manure suitable for mulching?

Mr. Talman.—I would say by all means mulch them, using
wheat straw, and leave most of it on the plant, taking off just
enough so that the plants will come up through it. I would not
use horse manure at all.

Mr. Converse.—I have tried mulching to be left on, but I now
greatly prefer cultivation to keep down the weeds and conserve
moisture. I also find that it is more profitable to take off but one
crop of berries from a bed, then plow it under. If a second crop
is taken off, the berries are much smaller and the yield less. We
- mulch the new bed, or, rather, cover it in the fall with marsh
hay or straw, to be raked off in the spring.

What kind of fertilizer is best for fruit trees?

Mr. Converse.—I am not an orchardist, but I have noticed in
Western New York that the best orchards were those that are
cultivated. Oft times that is ‘all an orchard needs. If the trees
are thrifty and are making a good growth they do not need nitro-
gen, and in most soils there is potash enough. If any fertilizer
is required, it is phosphoric acid.

What is the average production of strawberries on well-cared-for land,
per acre?

Mr. Converse.—One hundred bushels, or, say, 3,000 quarts, is a
good, fair yield.

Can you give any remedy for the strawberry root louse?

Mr. Chapman.—The only remedy is to plow up the bed. I have
not had it on my grounds, but have seen it in the State of Dela-
ware. That is the remedy down there.

What is the difference in effect on the apple tree in trimming in April
and October, when it is quite severe in both cases?

Mr. Converse.—I suppose that if we are to trim severely, the
nearer we can do it to a full flow of sap, the better. But I have

THe Question Box. 265

heard Mr. Willard say that it is better to trim when the tree is at
rest. It were well, however, to trim a little each year, so as not
to have to cut off large limbs, and all trimming should be done
closely. Do not leave the “stubs” sticking out far enough to
hang hogs on when butchering day comes. When they are cut
closely, if the wounds are painted over, they will soon heal.

Last year our orchard in this vicinity was treated as follows: Buck-
wheat was sown early and plowed under, then sown again and the crop
taken off. It is proposed to plant to corn. Is it right?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I question if it is 'the best plan for the or-
chard. It may be best for the other purposes mentioned, but we
want to get the most out of the orchard we can. So we ought not
te grow any crops that will take away fertility or moisture from
the tree. lf we are to do that, we must feed both the trees and
the crop sufficiently, and I know of no better crop to grow in the
orchard than corn, because we can give both the crop and the
trees cultivation.

FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING.

Why does land plaster fail to benefit our meadows, as it formerly did?

Mr. Woodward.—As I understand it, land plaster is only a
stimulant, and, after the soil has been stimulated to a certain ex-
tent, such stimulants fail to act.

Mr. Cook.—I would not draw land plaster from my depot, if it
were given to me. I would buy South Carolina rock, instead. It
costs but $11 per ton, and there are in it 240 pounds of phosphoric
acid, worth five cents a pound, in a ton of it, thus giving us the
plaster, or sulphate of lime, practically free. There will be about
1,200 pounds of plaster.

Is it economy to top-dress new meadows with barn or stable manure?

A Farmer.—I top-dress my meadows. Have meadows from
which I get a ton and a half of hay from an acre, and they have
been mown continuously twelve years.

Which is the best way to use nitrate of soda in a garden? How much
will it require for the plants if placed around the roots?

Mr. Cook.—I would not care to say how much will be required
to injure the roots, but I know that it will injure the foliage of

266 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

some plants. So I would not use but little at a time, say fifty to
seventy-five pounds to the acre; but I would not use it when the
foliage is wet. Wait till it is dry, then apply it close to the plants.

Mr. Dawley.—Mix your nitrate with plaster or earth, befcre

applying.

What fertilizer is best for spinach, lettuce and celery, when one does
not have stable manure?

Mr. Cook.—I do not grow these vegetables, except for family
use, but I have learned that we must fertilize a crop according to
its needs. Lettuce is a plant that requires much nitrogen. If
enough is given, it will be tender; but there may be enough nitro-
gen in the soil now; that is, as much as the plant can assimilate.
Therefore, it would be money thrown away to add more of this
element. As a rule, there is potash enough in the soil for most
crops. Phosphoric acid is usually most needed. You will get it
best from South-Carolina rock. If you need more nitrogen for the
crops you mention, I think that the best source will be nitrate of
soda. It gives the plant an early, quick start. But, no matter
what crops or plants we grow, best results are obtained from fer-
tilizers when there is a good per cent. of humus—vegetable mold—
in the soil. To know just what fertilizer is best, we must study
the habits of the crop to know what it needs, then strive to pro-
vide it.

Hen manure 4 parts, fine stable manure 2 parts, wood ashes 1 part,
mixed thoroughly and rotted—on what crop and how would you apply it?

Mr. Cook.—I would not make such a mixture. Leave out the
ashes, as they would unlock and release all the nitrogen in the
manure. Put in some South-Carolina rock and potash, then apply
it at once. I believe that the ideal way to apply manure is in the
fall, if one can save it all until that time; but we draw ours all out
and apply it as fast as made, usually putting it on sod where we
are to plant corn.

Mr. Terry.—I believe that Mr. Cook is right. We store all of
our manure under a shed, and keep it wet so that there will be no
loss of nitrogen by fire-fang; then draw it out and put it on our
sod, in the fall. We drew out 350 loads last fall.

A Farmer.—Why not put it on the wheat?

THE Question Box. 267

Mr. Terry.—It would not do at all. There would be so much
nitrogen in it that the wheat would all fall down; but, when it is
put on the clover and the clover is cut early, it does no harm, and
we get its full benefit in our potato crop next year.

Does it pay to buy manure to bring up the land?

Mr. Terry.—It would depend on the quality, what it cost and
how far one would have to draw it. If I had to pay fifty cents a
load for ordinary manure and draw it half a mile, I would not
touch it. Too much of it, from livery stables, becomes fire-fanged,
thus leaving nothing but potash and phosphoric acid in it, worth
four cents a pound. If manure is made on a cement floor and
all—urine included—saved, and it is directly applied to the land, it
will pay to buy it and haul it a short distance, at a reasonable
price. A load of such manure weighing 3,000 pounds, drawn two
miles, will pay at $1.

Are wood ashes good for a clay soil? Are Canada ashes pure?

Prof. Cavanaugh.—I guess that it will be found that wood
ashes are good anywhere. On clay, ashes are valuable, because
they contain from 30 to 50 per cent. of lime. Good ashes will
analyze four or more per cent. potash, with one per cent. phos-
phoric acid. But I would not buy them except on a guaranteed
analysis. I think they would be most valuable on a heavy clay
soil. They are worth what the potash shows up. The phosphoric
acid in wood ashes runs from one to one-and-a-half per cent., but
it is not all at once available for the use of the plant.

Mr. Litchard.—I buy all the wood ashes I can find; they are
the best fertilizer I can obtain for my potato ground.

What per cent. of potash is there in average hardwood ashes?

Mr. Cook.—They will not average more than about four per
cent. when dry and unleached. Sometimes we find a higher per
cent., then a lower one, but there is a little phosphoric acid in
them, possibly one and one-half per cent. The remainder consists
of about forty per cent. of lime and foreign matter, so that, on
sour soils, ashes have an additional value in this direction. On
soils that are not sour their only value is in their potash and the
small per cent. of phosphoric acid, which is slowly available.

268 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

How do hardwood ashes compare with fertilizers for oats and buck-
wheat, when unleached?

Dr. Van Slyke.—We cannot compare them. Ashes contain but
one element—potash. Buckwheat requires a fertilizer containing
other elements. Ashes at $6 per ton, containing four per cent. of
potash, would not be too dear. At $10 per ton, unless one wanted
lime, the cost would be too high. It were better to buy muriate
or sulphate of potash for the crops named.

What harm in putting wood ashes in the drops behind the cows in the
stables?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—The potash in the ashes liberates the nitro-
gen in the manure and allows it to escape in the form of ammo-
nia, which is just the thing we want'to save. Lime has the same
teffect when mixed with manure. If ashes are to be used with
manure, the mixture should be applied to the soil and plowed
under at once. It were better to use South-Carolina rock in the
gutters, to absorb the liquids, as there will also be added a good
per cent. of phosphoric acid, an element that barn manure usually
lacks.

A Farmer.—Good wood ashes have proved the best fertili-
zer I ever bought. They have been worth at least $1 per bushel to
me, but they only cost me ten cents.

Which is the cheaper to buy, manure at three or four shillings a load,
or commercial fertilizers?

Mr. Converse.—There is a difference in ‘the value of manure,
and there is in that of fertilizers, but, at such prices for manure,
compared with those for average commercial fertilizers, I would
buy the manure.

What is the best fertilizer for clay soils?

Mr. Cook.—As a rule, clay soil has potash enough. What is
most needed is the liberation of the plant food now in it, rather
than to add any more. It will be a waste of money to add plant
food, unless the soil has humus. There are thousands of acres of
sandy soils in this country that are full of plant food, but which is
not available, for the reason that there is no humus in them. To
tell what elements of plant food are needed on such clay soils one

Tue Question Box. 269

would have to watch the crops, note results and then feed the
plants just what they should have.

Does it pay to let manure stay out all winter in the barn yard, when the
land needs it?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—No, but we see it every day on some farms;
at the same time the owners are going out and buying commercial
fertilizers. This class of farmers are those who are all the time
howling about their taxes, but they never stop to think that they
are losing six times as much every year through the loss of their
manure and the injury done ‘to their farming tools left out of doors
the year round.

With cow manure at $1 per ton, what per cent. of liquids should be
eredited? How can it be saved?

Mr. Converse.—I would make the floors and gutters of cement,
then use absorbents in the gutters to hold the liquids. They con-
tain sixty per cent. of the value of the voidings of the animals.
Straw, horse manure, land plaster and other absorbents should be
used for this purpose.

Where is the best place to buy Carolina rock? What are the prices?

Mr. Cook.—I buy it for $11 per ton, from first hands.

Mr. Fenner.—It is $14 with us. Prices seemed to vary accord-
ing to localities and markets. Some is more available and has
more acid in it than has others. There are several features
about South-Carolina rock, and, all things considered, I believe
it best to use the dissolved rock in the cow stables, behind
the cows. There are from 240 to 280 pounds of phosphoric acid
in a ton of the rock, with about 1,100 pounds of gypsum.

A Farmer.—We buy pure plaster here for $3.50 per ton.

What form of potash shall I buy, kainit, muriate or sulphate, for
tobacco?

Mr. Cook.—Sulphate is, as a rule, worth from $8 to $10 per
ton more than is the muriate. I cannot now give prices. The
difference in price is in the less amount of salt in the sulphate.
There is no salt in that while there is in the muriate. I don’t
know about kainit.

270 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

To Mr. Cook.—What per cent. of actual potash is there in muriate?

Answer.—If you buy genuine muriate of potash, in sacks just
as it comes from Germany, without being opened. you will get
1,000 pounds of potash in a ton. It is the same with sulphate,
but the latter costs $10 a ton more, because it has been treated
with acid and the chlorine and lime removed. But I do not be-
lieve you can afford to go into the market and buy a commercial
fertilizer. We can’t do it in Lewis county. The first part of the
question I cannot answer.

How much phosphoric acid will we get in a ton of treated South-Caro-
lina rock?

Mr. Cook.—You will get 250 pounds of acid and 1,200 pounds
of pure plaster in a ton, thus giving you the latter practically
free. Save your manure. Do not buy nitrogen. If you do, buy
it in nitrate of soda, dried blood or cotton seed meal.

Does it pay to plow under corn, for manure?

Mr. Terry.—There would be no fertility added; all the benefit
would be in the humus, and I would much prefer rye to corn
for that purpose, although that would add no nitrogen, as would
clover, but it would be preferable, while clover is much better
than is the rye.

Will the use of muck give humus to the soil, and can it furnish any
fertilizing element?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Muck is largely composed of decayed vege-
table matter and will give us humus. There is some fertilizing
value in some muck; in others not any. But it is a very good
absorbent in the stables, especially in the hog pens.

In taking manure from the stable, is it best to spread it, or leave it in
piles?

Mr. Converse.—Experiments go to show that in no way can
there be as much value got out of manure as to draw it out as
fast as it is made and spread it where it is to be used. There
will be none or but little loss in disposing of it in this way.

Mr. Smith.—There is no time when there is so much fertility in
manure as when it is first made and no time when it can be
handled so cheaply. There can be no loss of mineral matter ex-

Tue Question Box. 271

cept it is washed off, nor can there be any loss of nitrogen unless
the temperature is raised to at least seventy degrees.
A Farmer.—I draw my manure out every day.

‘Mr. Cook.—I do not believe, all things considered, that there
is any better time to draw out manure than the day it is made.
Possibly, if it were kept till it rotted and no loss of nitrogen
were allowed, it would be worth more, but the cost of caring
for it would more than overbalance that item. There will be no
loss of the mineral element in manure drawn out and so spread,
nor none of nitrogen unless fermentation sets in, which can not
take place unless the temperature gets pretty high. When you
see the smoke rising from a manure heap you may know that it
is nitrogen—worth fourteen cents per pound.

Mr. Hardy.—Draw it out every day it is made, and spread it.
It will never be as valuable again. The loss is absolutely less
when it is so disposed of than in any other way.

Would you advise putting manure on the snow on winter wheat?

A Farmer.—Draw it out and spread it on every day. Nothing
will be lost from such disposal.

Which is better, to store manure in a pit or cellar until fall or draw it
out and spread on the land while fresh?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I think it much better to draw it out as
fast as made, liquids and all, and spread it where it will be
wanted. I would not spread it on steep hill sides, especially if
they were icy, as it would wash off. Manure cellars are too ex-
pensive. Beside that, the manure, when placed in them, has to
be handled twice; another expense.

Mr. Ward.—Manure drawn out as fast as made and spread
on the ground will not get away, even when the ground is frozen,
except it were on an icy hillside.

Dr. Van Slyke.—As a rule, nitrogen in such manure does not
get away. There must be a temperature of about seventy de-
grees to affect nitrogen so as to change it into a soluble form.
But there can be but little, if any, loss from phosphoric acid or
potash, they being minerals. But in some instances there may
be a slight loss from these sources. There is a little coloring
matter in manure which we sometimes see running away, and

272 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

which appeals to the eye, but there is no value in it, so far as
known. As a rule, manure that has been properly saved and
partially rotted has a little more value than green manure.

Mr. Fenner.—I heard Prof. Roberts say that they had analyzed
the coloring matter that is sometimes seen running away. It is
of no value, it being tannin. There was no effect from it seen
three feet from the piles of manure where they were left in the
field.

Mr. Ward.—There may be a slight loss from manure when
drawn out and spread in winter, at times, but the saving or ex-
pense in handling the manure as fast as made will offset any
loss from leakage or otherwise.

Which would you buy for phosphoric acid, South-Carolina rock or bone?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—There is no difference in the value of the
acid, but there is some nitrogen—about one and one-half per
cent.—but the difference in price between rock and bone is too
much to balance the item. I do not think I got any, or but very
little benefit from bone.

Upon what crop should we use our manure on our hard-pan land?

Mr. Converse.—I would, if I kept cows, put it on to a good sod,
then plow it and put in corn for the silo. But I would save all
the manure, by which I mean liquids as well as solids. Sixty per
cent. of the value of the manure is in the liquids. So I would
use absorbents in the stables, then draw the manure out as rap-
idly as made and apply it to the land on which I wanted to grow
corn.

Should we, as a rule, use a fertilizer to compare with the crop we are
growing, if we do not know the analysis of the soil?

Dr. Jordan.—At the prices which rule in the market, I will
say no. No farmer can afford to do it. Find out something
about your soil yourself by experiment. No chemist can tell
what the soil needs» He may tell how much fertility there is
in the soil, but he cannot tell what is or is not available. Cor-
nell is sending out samples of different formulated fertilizer and
asking the farmers to try them and report. The farmer must
study the thing himself. No scientist or farmer, however well

THe Question Box. 2738

read or posted, can make rules for his neighbor. Asa rule, how-
ever, I will recommend an application of phosphoric acid. We
have acid enough. You cannot afford to buy potash now, be-
cause, 100 years hence the land may be short of it. Heavy soils
have more potash than light ones, but the farmer must find out
for himself. I wish that the chemist could take a sample of
every soil, analyze it and tell just what the owner needed, but
he does not yet know how to do it. Possibly in the far-off future
he may be able to tell, but I doubt it.

A farmer present said he had harvested a larger crop of bar-
ley on land fertilized heavily with phosphoric acid, while another
said he got no results from such on oats.

Dr. Jordan.—You are just adding testimony to what I have
said. It all depends on the soil’s need. Both of you gentlemen
are on the road to righteousness. Keep right along with your
experiments. I can’t help you.

What is a complete fertilizer?

Dr. Jordan.—A complete fertilizer is known as one containing
a greater or lesser per cent. of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash. An incomplete fertilizer does not contain all three, but
one may use such a fertilizer on his soil that would act as a com-
plete one, because the soil already contained the deficient element.

What is the best and at the same time the cheapest fertilizer for the
farms of this section (Schenevus) ?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—The best fertilizer is good barn manure, that
is, that which contains the liquids as well as solids. Next comes
clover with some of the green crops plowed under. When we
have exhausted all our farm sources, we may buy commercial
fertilizers. But I would buy the ingredients, take them home and
mix them myself. Don’t buy them mixed, nor be governed by the
smell. Know what the analysis is of each element‘, and see to
it that it is guaranteed. If you want nitrogen get it in the form
of nitrate of soda, dried blood or cotton seed meal; if potash is
required, buy the muriate; if phosphoric acid, buy dissolved
South-Carolina rock. These sources will give you the needed
percentages and in an available form.

974 Bureau oF FarMeERS’ INSTITUTES.

How best improve a worn-out sandy soil?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—The question refers to a light soil devoid of
humus. That must be present to hold moisture to get a crop.
Cultivation will do it in part, but I incline to the belief that a
crop of cow peas sown in June and plowed under the nexi spring
would be a good crop. “ Whipporwill ” or “Clay” are the best
of perhaps 20 varieties. If I did not sow the cow pea, I would
try winter rye to plow under. So far as fertilizers are concerned
I do not think I would buy nitrogen. If I did it would be in the
form of dried blood. If I wanted potash I would buy the muriate;
if phosphoric acid, I would buy dissolved South-Carolina rock;
if I found the soil acid I would apply 20 bushels of slaked lime,
broadcasted, per acre, to correct the acidity.

Mr. Cook.—I think that the best way would be to put on a herd
-of dairy cows.

What is the relation, that is, manurial value, of oats, corn, wheat bran,
or wheat middlings, if either of them be fed to live-stock?

Mr. Cook.—If the voidings are all saved, there will be found
most manurial value in the bran, next in the oats. There is more
value in the manure made from nitrogenous than from carbona-
ceous foods. Corn is of the latter class, and its manurial element
is quite low compared with bran. The same is true of timothy
hay when compared with clover. Corn, timothy hay, the straws,
cornstalks and corn ensilage are all starchy foods, and so contain
but very little manurial value, while clover, wheat bran, wheat
and buckwheat middlings, gluten meal, oil meal and cotton-seed
meal are all nitrogenous and have nearly as much manurial as
feeding value in them. Peas belong to the same class. Next,
perhaps, come the oats.

What crops do you recommend as best to plow under to furnish nitrogen
and humus, and what element of plant food would you apply if you did
not have mauure enough? Would you buy plaster?

Mr. Cook.—I would plow under clover or cow peas. Both are
nitrogen-catchers from the atmosphere, which they give up to
the soil, and both furnish humus, but put in the peas as soon as
all danger of late spring frosts is past, and plow them under
before the early autumn frosts come. You will have to watch out

Tue Question Box. 275

for these, as the cow pea, which is a bean, not a pea, is very
tender, and the first autumn frost breath cuts it down. As a
rule, on most soils, for most crops, phosphoric acid is most needed.
There is potash enough, as well as nitrogen, for most crops, so |
would buy South-Carolina dissolved rock to get that element of
plant food. I would not draw common plaster from our depot if
it were given to me. The dissolved rock may be boughi for just
about the value of the phosphoric acid in it. There will be about
250 pounds of the acid and 1,200 pounds of plaster in a ton of it.
Don’t buy land plaster. It is no longer of any value on most soils.
Buy the dissolved rock instead.

What is the best fertilizer for the strawberry?

Mr. Gould.—A good lot of stable manure applied in the fall;
have it well rotted, then follow it with a good application of
South-Carolina rock. The strawberry requires phosphoric acid,
in excess of some other fruits.

What about Canada hardwood ashes?

Mr. Cook.—If you buy them, do it on a guaranteed analysis.
There is a whole lot of such ashes sold that never saw Canada,
and many of them are not worth half what they cost. Asa rule,
they do not contain more than 4 per cent. potash, so that $6
per ton is enough for them. There is about 40 per cent. lime
in them, which, if your’soil is sour, will sweeten it.

What is the best fertilizer for gardens?

Mr. Smith.—Good barn manure, with, perhaps, South-Carolina
rock and nitrate of potash, would be best.

How should hen manure be treated and how used to get the most from
it?

Mr. Cook.—Mix South-Carolina rock or land plaster. I prefer
the former, because it contains phosphoric acid. The gypsum or
land plaster in it will absorb and hold the nitrogen in the drop-
pings. Road dust, if one cannot get anything better, does very
well to dry the droppings, but I do not think it as good as the
gypsum. Do not mix wood ashes with the droppings as the
potash in them will drive out the ritrogen in the droppings.
Broadcast and harrow them in.

276 Bureau oF Farmers’ INsTirures.

Is salt beneficial to land, if so, in what quantities?

Prof. Cavanaugh.—Salt may be a benefit to a soil, although it
contains no plant food. Its benefit consists in liberating plant
food locked in the soil. The same is true of lime, plaster and
perhaps some other substances. When we apply lime, plaster or
salt, the potash may be liberated and thus made available for the
use of the plant., When I was a student in college, we sometimes,
when the oil got low in a lamp, poured in water. It raised the
oil so that it came in contact with the wick and helped us out.
But, after we use such substances a while, they seem to lose their
effect. So far as the quantity of salt to be used is concerned, I
could not advise. ‘I do not think I would apply more than 400 or
500 pounds per acre, however.

Is muck of any value as a fertilizer, when in its original state?

Prof. Cavanaugh.—There is a difference in the value of muck.
As arule, its value consists mostly in its humus. Usually a muck
soil is sour, and produces best results when lime or wood ashes
have been applied to sweeten it.

To Mr Cook.—What is the best fertilizer for all crops?

Answer.—Good barn manure first, for any crop, but save it all.
Use absorbents in the gutters behind the cows, to hoid all the
urine. Dissolved South-Carolina rock is the best, because it fur-
nishes the gypsum, or what we know as land plaster, and fur-
nishes phosphoric acid, beside.

Do you advise the using of any form of commercial fertilizer for corn,
if you have barn manure enough?

Answer.—I think it pays to use a little nitrate of soda, say 50
pounds, mixed with 150 or 200 pounds of South-Carolina rock,
about 200 pounds per acre, and apply it in the hill to give the
plants a quick start. If one were using 400 or 500 pounds, it
should be broadcasted, else the plants would be burned by the
nitrate of soda. Use a small quantity, just to start the plants
rapidly, putting the mixture in the corn hills.

What is plant food? How shall we cause our exhausted fields to
become fertile?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—There are several elements of plant food,
but there are but three that are of vital importance—nitrogen,

THE Question Box. O77

phosphoric acid and potash. A soil may be deficient in one
or all of these elements, but one may tell which is most lack-
ing. If the plant is feeble in growth and the foliage pale, nitrogen
is needed; if the foliage is strong and the straw weak and falls
down, there is too much nitrogen. If the plant fails to mature
it lacks potash. If it does mature and does not mature seed or
fruit, phosphoric acid is required. But a plant may mature satis-
factorily in one field and farm and fail on another. And there
may be latent plant food enough in the soil which humus and
cultivation would set free. All plants take their food in liquid
form, which to get, there must be moisture in the soil. Asa rule,
here, our soils are deficient in humus, or what is better known as
vegetable mold. Barn manure and the plowing under of clover,
rye, the Canada pea and the southern cow pea will furnish this
humus most readily.

Would it pay to sow ammoniated fertilizers to increase the per cent. of
spirit food in the soil?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know whether it would or not; as a rule, to
buy commercial fertilizer in the market as they are sold, for the
crops you and I grow, it will not pay. If, however, there is a
deficiency of nitrogen in the soil, I would recommend som: nitrate
of soda, or dried blood or cotton-seed meal. There is not much
difference between the price of the last two, which is not far
from $20 per ton, while the nitrate will cost about $40. If phos-
phoric acid in the soil is required, I would recommend South-
Carolina rock, instead of ground bone. The rock will contain
from 12 to 14 per cent. of available phosphoric acid. As a rule,
we have an abundance of potash in our soils, especially in our
clay soils.

So, if I were going to buy plant food, I would buy the rock.
If I wanted potash, except I were growing tobacco, I would buy
muriate. Muriate contains some salt, sulphate does not. The
muriate costs about $40 per ton, sulphate $10 more. Years ago
our farmers used to buy land plaster, and they may now, but I
would not draw it from the station if it were given me, because I
can buy dissolved rock, get the phosphoric acid at market prices,
and have the plaster free.

no
=I
fos)

Bureau or Farmers’ INsTItTvUres.

How can we get most value from manure?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know. It would depend on how the manure
was kept, as a rule. According to the Cornell analysis, newly-
made manures, urine included, is worth from $2 to $2.60 per ten.
We have not been able, so far, to compost manure without loss;
so we draw ours out every day it is made, and spread it where it
will be wanted. There will be no loss, except it is washed off the
ground. The potash and phosphoric acid cannot be evaporated,
and, unless the manure heats up, there will be no loss of nitrogen.
If one can save his manure so as not to have it heat, it may be
most profitable to store it, but it will be found hard to do it.

What is the best method of keeping up and increasing fertility, and
what crops do you recommend as best for the purpose, on farms run for
all purposes?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—The first and best method of keeping up
fertility will be found in keeping farm animals. Grow crops to
feed the animals, then save and apply the manure from them.
The best crop to raise is the manure crop; but it should all be
saved. This means the liquids as well as the solids. Sixty per
cent. of the value of the voidings is in the urine, and that is the
portion that, as a rule, is usually lost. To-day, with the same
number of cows I kept twenty years ago, I am making at least
twice as much manure as I did then, while its value is fully
doubled.

Years ago the cows were milked in the yard and allowed to
run out, while the stable floors were leaky. To-day the floors are
tight, with water-tight gutters behind the cows. Into these gut-
ters we put horse manure, road dust, or land plaster, to absorb the
urine. As a result, I manured well eight acres of land last fall
from the manure removed from the gutters during the summer,
which, under the old way, would have been dropped in the barn-
yard and not drawn out till the next year, when the urine would
have all been lost and much of the nitrogen in the solids.

Would it be advisable to use hen manure as a fertilizer on land intended
for strawberries?

Mr. Converse.—A1ll the hen manure made on our farm goes on
to the strawberries. There is no better manure. If, however, I
wanted to make a “ quick start” of the plants, I would apply a

Tue Question Box. 279

little nitrate of soda, being careful not to allow any of it to come
in contact with the leaves, else it will burn them.

Mr. Chapman.—One should be careful in applying nitrate of
soda to strawberries. Do not apply too much, else it will so
stimulate the plants that it will set too many blossoms which will
develop a crop of small berries. Nitrate of soda, if it comes in
contact with the leaves, however, will not injure them unless they
are wet.

What is the mercantile value of a fertilizer containing 14 per cent, of
acid phosphate soluble in water?

Mr. Cook.—That is no more or less than dissolved South-Caro-
lina rock, which, I understand, is now worth about $14 per ton.
I have several tons which I bought awhile ago for $11, but since
then all fertilizer chemicals have gone up in price. The usual
phosphoric acid has a tendency to set free potash in a certain
degree in the soil, now unavailable.

How are we to get the manure on to our steep hillsides?

Mr. Cook.—If your buildings are below the hill I know of no
way to get the manure on to the hills, except by drawing it there.

Would not the continued use of phosphoric acid tend to decrease that
of nitrogen and potash in the soil?

Answer.—Possibly, but I would continue using it as long as
benefits were derived.

Is it best to top-dress the meadows with manure from the stable or
use it on cultivated ground?

Mr. Ward.—Put it out on the corn ground. What that crop
does not take up, will be left for the oats or other grain crops that
are to follow, or for the meadow later on.

Would you use plaster in your stables for an absorbent?

Mr. Cook.—No; I would not draw it home if it were given to me.
It will absorb, but I prefer dissolved South-Carolina rock. There
are about 280 pounds of phosphoric acid in a ton of it, and one-
half of the remainder is pure plaster; so we get the plaster, prac-
tically free.

280 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

Mr. Dawley.—If you don’t feel like using the “ rock,” use plas-
ter or some absorbent by all means, the loss of liquid manure is
one of the greatest leaks on our farms.

What is the value of a fertilizer, 14 per cent. acid, but only 12 per cent.
soluble?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know. I told you what it costs, whether you
can get your money out of it, is a question. But, no doubt, the
ideal way to use it is in the stable as an absorbent. The phos-
phorie acid is an element in which, as a rule, barn manure is lack-
ing. Twelve per cent. is worth a little less than the 14 per cent.
fertilizer.

Where can South-Carolina rock be procured? What is the price? In
what shape does it come, in bulk or in sacks?

Mr. Cook.—I have been told that the fertilizer men, or most of
them, have formed a trust and refuse to sell chemicals to outside
parties. Prof. Jordan of the Geneva Experiment Station, is look-
ing up the names of these commercial fertilizer men who refuse
to sell chemicals to farmers, and will publish their names in a
bulletin. The price of South-Carolina rock has advanced some-
what recently. I think it is not far from $14 per ton.

Is there any difference in the phosphoric acid in ground bone, boneblack
or South-Carolina rock?

Mr. Cook.—No; phosphoric acid is the same wherever found,
but it may not be just as available in some forms as in others.
The men who sell bone phosphate ask higher prices for it than
do the dealers in the rock, because there is a little nitrogen in it,
but the difference in the price of the two is too much. So, then,
buy the rock.

Are not the fertilizer men refusing to sell chemicals to farmers for home
mixing? If so, where is one going to obtain them?

Prof. Van Deman.—The German Kali Works do not sell fer-
tilizers but potash salts and will sell to any one who wants pot-
ash, whether he be farmer or fertilizer manufacturer.

The professor mentioned other dealers who sell only chemicals
or ingredients to any one ordering them.

Tue Question Box. 281

What is the reason that land plaster does not produce as good effect
on our land as it did forty or fifty years ago?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Land plaster does not contain any plant
food direct. It is largely sulphate of lime—its office being to
develop moisture. The probabilities are that the soil being defic-
ient in humus, it cannot develop moisture so that the soil can
hold it. Years ago, when we saw an effect on soil, there was
plenty of vegetable matter in it. Now, there is but little, hence
it does not have the effect it did then.

How would you raise a selling crop from a field well supplied with
plant food year after year without manure or fertilizer?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—If the field is well supplied with fertility
there will be no need of adding any more. I know of no better
way than to supply humus. There must be a deficiency of that,
else there would be moisture enough without cultivation to grow
a crop, provided the fertility in the soil were of the right distri-
bution. If we have such fertility we must use the clovers or
other green crops to supply vegetable matter. There is no such
thing as an exhausted soil. Those which have been so catalogued
have been found to contain an abundance of fertility. All that
was needed was proper treatment. By adding a little potash and
South-Carolina rock, and, perhaps, some nitrate of soda, to give
the plant a start, with the humus and cultivation, such a soil
may be brought up and good crops grown yearly.

What becomes of funds received from tax?

Prof. Jordan.—The revenue from these license fees is to be used
in paying the expenses of inspection, including the salaries of
chemists, the salary and traveling expenses of our traveling
agents, the cost of gas and chemicals and the expense of print-
ing the necessary bulletins.

What reason is there for taxing commercial fertilizers?

Prof. Jordan.—We adopt the license fee system in this State
because it seems to be the only practicable way of adjusting the
amounts of money available to the extent of inspection work to
be done. We have simply put ourselves in line with all other
States, with possibly one exception. Experience seems to indi-
cate that this is the most satisfactory way of accomplishing the
results. It is a large question and I will not argue it fully.

282 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

What is the tax on commercial fertilizers in New York? Does It
increase cost to consumer?

Prof. Jordan.—The tax on commercial fertilizers in the State
of New York will probably amount to about $10,000 for the year
1900. The rate is $20 per brand. As probably not less than
1,500,000 tons are sold in the State annually, the tax per ton is
about two-thirds of one cent. I know from conversation with
fertilizer men that they are utterly indifferent to the amount of
this tax.

SILOES AND ENSILAGE.
What form of silo do you recommend?

Mr. Cook.—The round one. We have several square ones, but
will build two round ones the coming summer.

Why do you prefer round to square ones?

Mr. Cook.—The round silo is more cheaply built, is as fully
frost-proof, and there is not much loss of ensilage for the reason
that there are no corners in which the ensilage can spoil by mold-

ing.

How will your siloes be constructed, and what will be the material?

Mr. Cook.—They will be round. The material will be pine.
The staves will be six inches wide and three inches thick. They
will be planed on both sides, brought to a uniform thickness,
grooved and tongued on a bevel to fit the circle of the silo, put
together with white lead and oil and hooped with five-eighth
inch round iron. Such a form of silo is preferable to the square
one, because, as I said, there are no corners in it where the en-
silage can spoil, nor is the lateral pressure so great; but, if you are
going to build a round silo, do not put a square roof on it. Have
the roof round. It will not cost any more than does a square
one, while its appearance will be much better.

Why not use the Page wire fence for hoops for a silo?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know. It is said that the fence makes good
hoops, and some of our silo men are recommending it, but I am
in doubt about it, so I shall use the round iron hoops.

Tue Question Box. 283

Which is the better way to plant ensilage corn, in drills one way or in
check rows in hills?

Mr. Cook.—We have practiced both ways. There is not much
difference in results. When the ground is grassy, check rows are
best. If not, I would plant in drills one way.

Mr. Converse.—I have never seen but one silo that was hooped
with the Page fence. That was at Cornell, but it was not, in my
opinion, keeping the ensilage just right.

Can a silo 24-feet deep be successfully filled with a two-horse tread-
power?

Mr. Rogers.—I will say that, in my opinion, one would be los-
ing money and time in trying to cut ensilage and elevate it twenty-
four feet with a two-horse tread power. Use an engine instead.

What makes my ensilage spoil around the inside walls of the silo?

Mr. Cook.—Possibly the silo is not airtight and air gets in at
the sides of it. Or it may be caused by improperly filling the
silo. The ensilage should be kept highest on the outside, next the
walls, and be well trodden. If it is kept highest in the center,
when it settles there, it will draw away from the walls, thus
allowing the air to get in. Keep the surface of the ensilage in
concave shape, about like that of the inside of a saucer.

What about the stone silo?

Mr. Cook.—There is nothing about it, except that you don’t
want one. The first silo I ever saw was a stone one, and the
next spring after it was filled the first time, one-half the ensilage
in it was drawn out and thrown away. It was rotten and worth-
less. If you are going to build a silo make it of wood. It will
not cost a fourth as much as will a stone one and the ensilage will
not mold if it is in the proper stage when put in and is properly
packed.

Is sorghum a good and profitable crop to raise for green feed and for
ensilage? Where can the seed be obtained?

Mr. Cook.—The seed may be obtained of any of the large seed
dealers or of the western growers, but I would not plant it. It
was experimented with considerably some years since, in various
parts of the State, but it was abandoned, it having been found
that corn was much better for a soiling or ensilage crop.

bo
(oA)
He

Bureau oF Farmers’ Insrirutes.

Will it improve the value o? ensilage to allow the corn to wilt, a day ;
or two, before cutting it into the silo?

Prof. Cavanaugh.—Are there any farmers here who have tried
the plan?

A Farmer.—I have. I allow it to lie and wilt a little, then cut
it into the silo. It was a success.

Mr. Litchard.—Such a plan is all right unless a rain falls, and
if there are no yellow leaves in the corn; but, if a rain falls while
the corn is lying in bundles, it will surely injure it. What is
wanted in corn ensilage is succulence. So, if we allow the corn
to wilt or dry, we lose much of that element.

Would you advise the treading of ensilage, solid or not, in a silo?

Mr. Cook.—Ensilage needs only a reasonable amount of pressure,
and it should be evenly distributed. As a rule, the heavier por-
tion falls directly under the carrier, so that it should be carefully
spread over the entire surface. If the silo is tight, when the en-
silage is well spread, but little treading is needed. But one may
tread it too much.

Does ensilage injure the flavor of milk? Will it impart bad flavor to it?

Mr. Cook.—If the ensilage is not well grown and preserved, I
will say yes. Or, if the silo. is not tight, thus allowing the en-
silage to mold, the same result will ensue. But when the condi-
tions are all right the only flavor which ensilage will impart is a
good one. :

Have you ever heard of an authentic case like the following clipping:
“J. B. Bristol of Westfield, has just lost two valuable horses. The cause
of their death is supposed to be due to eating ensilage. Mr. Bristol has a
silo which he fills each year with green cornstalks, which are cut and
made into ensilage. He fed some to his horses with fatal results. One
was sick only a few hours; the other was sick four days. He valued the
team at $300.”

Mr. Cook.—I remember back, eight or ten years ago, in the early
days of ensilage feeding, when it was reported that several
horses near Rhinebeck had died from eating ensilage. I have
never heard of a case of this kind since, until I read this.

Mr. Moore.—One of my neighbors lost a horse from eating en-
silage, but he fed him so much that it caused colic.

Or

THe Question Box. 28

Is it of advantage to feed beets with ensilage?

Mr. Chapman.—TI have fed both beets and ensilage, two winters.
Have concluded it does not pay to grow beets when I have en-
silage.

Counting the expense of silo construction and filling, which is the
cheaper and of most feeding value—ensilage or corn-stalks?

Mr. Ward.—The most expensive way to save a corn crop is to
cut, shock and husk it. We once made the experiment and found
that it costs $2.08 per acre more to harvest it that way than when
put into the silo. Then, when it came to comparing the two, the
old way did not compare at all with the ensilage. I think the feed-
ing loss will be about thirty to forty per cent. in the old way,
while not more than two to five per cent. will occur in ensilage.’

What is the cause of ensilage molding about 18 inches deep from the
outside, and the inside being good?

Mr. Converse.—I never have seen such a condition except when
the stalks were too dry when put into the silo. Such corn ought
to be wet down somewhat when cut, to hasten fermentation.

Why does ensilage mold in spots in the silo?

Mr. Ward.—It is on account of uneven treading. There would

be no moldy ensilage if the treading were evenly and thoroughly
done. | |

Why make ensilage, if the corn stalks have a food value of 1.013 and
ensilage only .349, according to the chart?

Mr. Converse.—An acre of corn stalks wil] not weigh to exceed
five tons, while an acre of ensilage will weigh from ten to twenty
tons. It is not the question of per centages, but of weight that
must be considered, also that of succulence.

How much corn ensilage should we feed a cow?

Mr. Cook.—From thirty to fifty pounds. We have even fed
more than that, but I have come to believe it not best to feed too
much of it, and I find by experiment that a little loose coarse
fodder or dry hay is better when fed in ensilage. We also geta
better flow of milk when the cows are on pasture if they are fed
a little hay daily.

286 Bureau oF Farmers’ Insrirures.

Will the feeding of ensilage cause tuberculosis?

Mr. Cook.—Now, if that man had put in: “ will it injure the
teeth and kill the cow,” we would have a little longer text. No;
ensilage made from good corn and put up properly will never
injure a cow, but a whole lot of them are injured because of a
want of it. We had a cow sixteen years old which we fed all the
ensilage she would eat, but she thrived wonderfully on it. We
have been feeding it fourteen years, and are more fully impressed
of its value every year; and we find upon inquiry, that our ex-
perience is the general verdict of almost all farmers when asked
to give their opinions.

Will calves fat well for veal when the cows are fed ensilage? If not,
why not?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know why ensilage milk should not be just
as good for calves as for any other use. Of course, they should:
not be fed ensilage alone. There should be some protein grains
with it.

At what stage of ripeness should corn be cut for ensilage, and how long
a time may one be in filling a silo?

Mr. Ward.—Cut the corn just as it enters the glazing stage.
It is then at its best. You may, if you can, cut the corn and put
it all in directly from the field, in one day, or you may be several
days about it. It will not injure the corn if it is allowed to wilt
and dry a little, so you may have intervals of a day or two; but
at that season the corn will be ripening rapidly and the stalks
losing in feeding value; so I would hurry the corn into the silo
as rapidly as possible.

What variety is best for ensilage?

Mr. Ward.—The one that will mature the earliest and produce
the most on an acre on your farm. With us the large dent
varieties are preferred to the flint sorts. As arule, we grow for
ensilage, “ Pride of the North” or “ Leaming.” There are some
other dent sorts that are also good for the purpose.

Mr. Cook.—“ Pride of the North” is a good variety for ensilage
when you get it pure. But the trouble is there are numbers of

Ture Question Box. 287

bogus varieties sold for it. I bought some at one time which was
not “ Pride of the North,” at all. Some dealers sell any variety
that has a dent in it for “ Pride of the North.”

With us, in Lewis county, we find “ Leaming” the best for
ensilage. We want the variety that will produce the largest crop
and mature it in our latitude.

Mr. Chapman.—“ Huron’s Dent,” a variety that originated in
Ohio, is being planted largely in Tompkins county, ripening in
about ninety-five days there; but it does not produce as many
tons on an acre as do some of the larger dent sorts.

Has the feeding of ensilage anything to do with tuberculosis in cows?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Not any more than has the feeding of any
other food, except, that if a man fed it to cows, then turned them
out of doors all day long in winter and exposed them to cold
weather, they might catch a cold, which, possibly, might develop
into tuberculosis. There were more chances for catching cold
here, last evening, and thus causing tuberculosis among some of
us, than for a cow to get the disease from eating ensilage.
Tuberculosis is nothing more or less than what we know as con-
sumption, and has been growing less during the last twenty-five
years, there being more than 10 per cent. less in our cattle and 20
per cent. less in the human family in that time.

Has Mr. Cook had any experience with octagon siloes?

Answer.—No, sir; but there is a gentleman present who has.

The Gentleman.—It costs a little more to build an octagon silo
than it does a round one; but once built, one does not have to
watch it or repair hoops. No'tarred paper is used. I have three
of them, made of two by six stuff. They have been in use three
years; would not build any other form for myself.

Is it best to cut down the ensilage or feed from the whole surface?

Mr. Litchard.—It would depend on how large the silo was, or
how much ensilage is being fed. As a rule, it is better to feed
from the whole surface, enough each day to prevent the ensilage
from spoiling.

288 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Do you partly cure the corn before putting it into the silo, or cut it
directly into it?

Mr. Terry.—It would depend on circumstances and conditions.
We have had as fine ensilage from corn partly cured as from that
cut into the silo directly from the field. As a rule, the greater
portion of the evaporation comes from the leaves of the corn which
contain but little feeding value.

In what manner does ensilage injure milk? Dr. Jordan, please answer?

Dr. Jordan.—It would depend. I am convinced, however, that
good ensilage will not injure any milk. We have made cheese
from milk from ensilage-fed cows that, within a year, scored 100
points. But there may be poor ensilage, which would injure milk,
butter or cheese.

Mr. Dawley.—The four highest scores of butter at the Dairy-
men’s convention at Cortland, last week, were made from milk
from cows fed ensilage.

Mr. Cook.—We are now shipping milk to New York made from
cows fed on ensilage, and we never had better milk. But there
are many farmers who have, and are now, putting in unripened
ensilage and in improperly constructed siloes, which cause
trouble. The condenseries refuse their milk because of their
neglect. When this objection has been overcome, there will be
no further objection, and milk from ensilage will not be refused.

Is it cheaper to build one large silo or two small ones?

Mr. Ward.—It would depend. If one has not stock to eat the
ensilage rapidly enough, it is better to have two small ones. In
that case not so much surface will be exposed to the air.

Which is the best, to shred ensilage or cut it off square?

Mr. Ward.—All things considered, I think that ensilage cut
square and short is preferable to that which is shredded.
A Farmer.—I prefer the shredded, two to one.

Would a silo built of the same material as water tanks—iron or steel—
be as good as wood?

Mr. Cook.—The trouble with steel, iron or stone is, they are
conductors of heat and frost. We want one built of something

THE Question Box. 289

that isa non-conductor. Siloes have been built of steel, but I have
never seen them, and there have been but few built. I think that
wood is the only material to use.

Does sweet corn make better ensilage than other varieties of corn?

Mr. Litchard.—I do not think it makes as good. Would rather
have the common yellow corn than any variety of sweet corn for
ensilage. It looks nice and tastes sweet on the table, but the cow
says she prefers some other variety.

What causes white mold in ensilage?

Mr. Litchard.—There are three or four causes. As a rule, it is
caused by the corn being too ripe when put in the silo. Such
corn, unless it is well wet down, will mold. It may also be
caused by too much moisture; then, again, by not feeding it
rapidly enough, too much of it being exposed to the air.

What is the feeding value of ensilage as compared with $10 hay?

Mr. Litchard.—There is a difference in ensilage, just as there is
in hay. As arule, good ensilage as compared with good timothy
hay, two and one-half tons of the ensilage is worth one ton of
hay.

Is there a better way to use corn than in the silo?

Mr. Litchard.—I know of no better way. We have been, during
the last four or five years, husking our surplus corn, and we find
one ton put in the silo worth at least three tons cured and fed in
the old way. t

A Farmer.—Do you mean to say that you would feed this ensi-
lage in the summer?

Mr. Litchard.—Certainly; there is no time in the year when
ensilage is worth so much as in the summer, when the pastures are
short. Next summer I am going to have a silo holding 75 to 100
tons, filled especially for summer feeding. I have learned that I
cannot go through these summer drouths without it. The value
of the silo is just as much of an established fact as is the river
St. Lawrence and no one knowing anything about it will dispute
the statement.

10

290 Bureau oF Farmers’ Insrirures.

Why should corn in a silo spoil on two sides next to the boards?

Dr. Smead.—Doubtless the silo was not tight on those two sides,
and so allowed the air to get in; or else the ensilage was not,
tramped enough.

Mr. Litchard.—Possibly the silo is not deep enough or the corn
was too green or too ripe. We cannot take out anything from a
silo we do not put in, any more than one of these ladies can take
out something from a fruit can she did not put in. If she puts in
unripe, over-ripe or wormy, half-grown fruit, she will take it out
when she opens that can.

Would it be advisable to use Page fence as hoops for siloes?

Mr. Gould.—I would not use anything else. It costs less, and
less for bolts than for wire hoops, and pulls the staves together so.
that you can’t see between them in August any better than in
December, while it costs but $6, against $20 for round hoops for
a silo.

Mr. Woodward: The Page fence people advise me that they
are making a special fence for siloes, that costs less than ordinary
fence.

Does it pay to cut or shred corn stalks?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Yes; more good can be got out of shredded
or cut stalks than whole ones; but neither of these can take the
place of good ensilage.

Do you advise building a silo in the barn?

Mr. Cook.—If one has a barn large enough, so that the room
for a silo can be spared, he may build a silo in it. There will be
some saving in cost, because at least one side of it will have al-
ready been built. Then, too, no roof will have to be put on.
But one may build one outside, and we have found that no loss.
from freezing the ensilage, if it is allowed to thaw without being
exposed to the air, will ensue. If the frozen ensilage is raked’
into the center of the silo and the hot ensilage there mixed with
it, no loss will be experienced.

Why do some first-class condenseries reject milk from ensilage-fed
cows?

Mr. Cook.—The Borden people first interdicted ensilage years.
ago, because there was much sour ensilage put up. But I have

THe Question Bex. 291

found good authority for saying that fully as good milk can be
made from good ensilage as from any other food, and it is being
made from such ensilage all over the country. The St. Johnsville
Condensery receives ensilage milk and says it is their standard
for good milk. There are also creameries in the west which ac-
cept such milk and want more of it.

A Farmer.—I have a silo, but have no trouble in making good
milk from my ensilage.

Is the round silo preferable to the square one?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Yes and no. The round silo has no corners,
which is a benefit if outside the barn; if, on the inside, build it
square, because it can be built more cheaply there. It is a ques-
tion of economy and the place it will occupy. My siloes are
all square, but if I were going to build another outside it would
be a round one.

Can we avoid a bad odor in ensilage?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Certainly. When the corn is put into the
silo, when in the glazing stage and is well tramped, there will
be no odor from it. Last year a gentleman visiting me asked
where my silo was. I said: “Step back about six feet and you
will be in it.” It is the immature corn that causes odors from
ensilage.

What particular form of silo has given the best satisfaction—round,
square, octagon or parallelogram?

Mr. Ward.—If one does not care so much about the cost I
would recommend an octagon silo. But, barring that item, I
would build a round one.

At what stage of ripeness should corn be cut into the silo?

Mr. Converse.—I would cut it at its greatest feeding value,
which is at the time it enters the glazing stage. Fifty-five per
cent. of the value of the plant is in the stalk, and sixty per cent.
of that value is below where the ear grew.

Is ensilage in any way injurious to live-stock?

Mr. Converse.—No, sir, provided it is good ensilage and is
properly fed. But it should be balanced with nitrogenous grains.

292 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrvures.

Mr. Ward.—There are 100 of them within five miles of me—
all very much alike, and I have never heard a word of complaint
about ensilage injuring animals,

How large would a silo have to be to hold 75 or 100 tons of ensilage?

Mr. Cook.—The weight of ensilage will depend on two condi-
tions—the depth of the silo and the fineness of the cut ensilage. A
silo sixteen feet in diameter and twenty-five feet deep, if filled to
the depth of twenty feet of settled ensilage, will contain about
eighty tons.

Mr. Ward.—How many of you here have siloes?

Just four hands were raised.

Mr. Ward.—Only four farmers in this audience who have siloes,
and this the best part of Livingston county! I guess I will stop
talking about the silo and talk about a cock or dog fight.

A Farmer.—Don’t do that; keep right along. We did not have
any Siloes here four years ago.

Mr. Cook.—That is a very good record; one silo a year.

Mr. Ward.—We have more than 100 round silos within five
miles of Batavia, one-half of them having been built within the
last five years, and the number is constantly increasing. In fact,
I do not know of but one man who has abandoned his silo in all
that number.

Will sweet corn that has had the ears snapped off make good ensilage?

Mr. Ward.—No. I would not use sweet corn for ensilage. Some
of our farmers who patronize a canning factory put the stalka
into their siloes, but, as a rule, they are too tough and are not
nearly so valuable as some of the dent sorts for ensilage.

What is the cost of a silo such as was described this morning?

Mr. Ward.—Not counting the work of setting up, which was
done by myself and hired help, our silo, holding 75 to 80 tons
cost $48.60. It would cost more now on account of the higher
price of lumber and hoop iron. Ours is of hemlock, and after
having been filled seven or eight years, is as sound as it was when
it was first built. But ours is inside the barn. There is danger,
however, that a round silo outside the barn will blow over. If I
were to build one outside I would put a cover around and over it.

Tue Question Box. 2938

Is ensilage a good food for horses?

Mr. Ward.—We have fed ensilage to horses in limited quanti-
ties. Would not feed it alone. We feed it once a day.

Would you borrow money with which to pay for building a silo?
Would it pay?

Mr. Ward.—If I had live-stock, I would build a silo. If I did
not have the money, I would borrow it. If it burned up the next
year, I would have had my money back.

Would you hill ensilage corn or drill it in?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t think it would make much difference
whether the corn is planted in hills—that is, check-rows— or in
drills. The ground may be better cultivated when in check-rows.
If the land is full of quack, check-rows are the best, because the
ground can be more eyenly reached with the weeder and culti-
vator. But, if the ground is free from foul stuff, probably best
results will come from planting in drills, one kernel about every
eight inches, and the rows about three feet, two inches apart. If
every seed should grow, about ten quarts to the acre would be
enough; but it will not; therefore, we plant a bushel of seed
on every two acres.

Can good butter or cheese be made from milk from cows fed on en-
Silage?

Mr. Smith.—Yes. I made butter from milk from cows fed
ensilage, which scored 100 points at the State fair. Of course we
did not compete for a premium. The cows had no pasture at all,
but were fed entirely on alfalfa and ensilage, with daily grain ra-
tions.

Dr. Smead.—Speaking of ensilage, I will say that at the Clifton
Springs Sanitarium farm, 180 cows are kept on 180 acres of land,
and ensilage is fed every day in the year. There are 480 patients
in the institution, and all eat the butter made from the cows and
drink their milk. If there was anything wrong about the milk,
ensilage would soon be rejected. The superintendent told me
that he was going to try to keep 200 cows on those 180 acres next
year.

294 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirores.

At what length would you cut ensilage? Is it best to shred it?

Mr. Converse.—We have tried various lengths, from half an
inch to two inches. Half an inch we think best. It spreads more
evenly and compactly than does that cut longer. Shredded en-
silage has no particular advantage over that which is cut off
short, while the cost is more because of an increased price of
motive power.

If you were feeding ensilage once a day and timothy hay twice a day,
what grains would you feed to balance the ration?

Mr. Smith.—Both foods are carbonaceous. We should always
consider cost. I would try protein foods—wheat, bran, gluten,
dried brewers’ grains or malt sprouts. These are protein foods,
which should be added to the others, to make a balanced ration.
Send to Geneva, and get the bulletins which treat on these feed-
ing questions.

What effect would bean meal have on ensilage?

Mr. Gould.—While in Maine I was told that bean meal, up to
two or three pounds per day, make a good ration for milch cows.

Mr. Eastman.—In feeding bean meal alone with ensilage, the
cows are liable to scour; we want some bran with it.

Some factorymen claim that if every dairyman fed ensilage, a good
article of butter and cheese could not be made. Is the statemént true?

Mr. Cook.—Not with us; I can make as good butter or cheese,
if not better, from ensilage properly balanced than from any
other foods; and that is the verdict of all our best creameries or
cheese factories in the State.

J. F. Converse.—If ensilage is what it should be, it is just as
wholesome and as healthful as any clover ever cut; but, there is
now and then a farmer who feeds moldy ensilage which effects the
milk, and there are some men who have abandoned their siloes be-
cause they were not properly constructed or the corn was not
properly grown or ensiloed; but the masses who grow and feed
ensilage are not abandoning their siloes or ensilage; on the con-
trary, the number of siloes hereabout is increasing each year.
The prejudice is more against those who feed ensilage than
against the ensilage.

Tue Question Box. 295

Can a poor man, with a mortgage on his farm, afford to build a silo?

Mr. Rogers of Binghamton.—It is the poor man who cannot
afford to do without it. He can keep his cows more cheaply than
on any other starchy foods, while the quality of the milk from the
cows, when the ensilage is properly made and put up, properly bal-
anced and fed, is the very best. No! The poor man should be the
first to build the silo. The rich farmer can get along without it,
but the poor man, if he reaps any profits from the cows, must
have it, if he wishes to lift that mortgage.

To Mr. Cook.—Do you recommend the Page fence as hoops for round
siloes?

Mr. Cook.—Has anyone here had any experience with it?

No answer.

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know. I have seen siloes hooped with Page
fence. Will build two round siloes next season. Will not use the
fence. Amin doubt. Have been reported as saying that I would
use it. I have never said any such thing, because I know nothing
about the practicability of the fence, for the purpose.

Mr. Smallwood.—No Page wire fence for my silo. I patron-
ize home men. We have one right here in Warsaw who makes
round iron hoops and fits them, ready for the silo. ‘hey are
good enough for me.

Is it possible to produce as good milk from ensilage as from roots and
grain?

Mr. Olin.—I prefer the ensilage, although I have fed both. I
have found, also, that the roots and the ensilage work very well
together. I fed both, all last winter, and obtained satisfactory
results.

Mr. Cook.—The fault that once came from ensilage was caused
by putting up the corn when not properly matured. But we hear
but little of that now. It is one of the best cattle foods; but
there should be some grain fed with it.

What is the manurial value of ensilage?

Mr. Cook.—It is very low, only about 82 cents per ton.

Would ensilage be a good food for sheep in summer, in place of pasture?

Mr. Cook.—Have any of the farmers here had any experience
in feeding ensilage to sheep in summer?

296 Bureau or Farmers’ INstirures.

No answer.

Mr. Cook.—I do not know anything about it, having never fed
ensilage to sheep.

Mr. Talman.—lI have not fed ensilage to sheep in summer, but
I do not see why it could not be done. He also said that he had
seen a flock of sheep that had been fed on ensilage alone during
the winter and that they came out fat, only a tenth of corn meal
was required to “ finish them off ” for market.

No one answered the question, but three or four farmers said
they had fed ensilage to sheep in winter with highly satisfactory
results.

What is ensilage feed valued at and its cost?

Mr. Cooper.—It would depend on the quality of the ensilage. It
is worth from $2 to $3 per ton when the corn is fully matured.

Mr. Conyerse.—_It may be raised for $1.50 per ton, depending,
however, on circumstances—such as yield. I would use the
largest variety of corn that will mature. My experience is that
we can ripen any of the largest varieties of dent corn in 100 days.
If we give proper cultivation, we may advance the ripening period
of at least 10 days. Some farmers advise the raising of the
larger flint varieties because they ripen earlier than do the dents.
But as a rule, when the crop is put in early enough, and the
proper cultivation given, we find no difficulty in maturing any of
the dents such as “ Pride of the North” or “ Leaming.”

Is it better to feed sowed corn in the dry stalk or feed in the form
of ensilage, for making winter milk?

Mr. Ward.—I suppose that means sowed corn. I would never
put sweet corn in that way. It were better to plant it in rows,
three feet and a half apart. We use Stowell’s Evergreen for that
purpose, and plant about 14 quarts of seed per acre. If I had such
sowed corn I would allow it to dry a little, then put it into the
silo.

Could a man afford to borrow $100 to expend in building a silo?

Mr. Cook.—Yes; if he has a dairy that will consume the con-
tents of sucha silo. The interest on that sum would not be much,
while the silo would enable him to keep two or three more cows.
I believe it will pay one to borrow the money to build one.

Tue Question Box. 297

When a man has a silo he Will be surprised to see how much a
cow will eat, and will begin feeding better. For one, I much
prefer to have one cow well fed, than two half starved.

Will corn put into the silo whole keep in good condition?

Mr. Ward.—We had a neighbor who filled two siloes with uncut
ensilage. The next year he took it all out and threw it away. I
never have known of whole ensilage keeping well.

What can I best raise to put in my silo to feed during the drouth in
summer?

Mr. Terry.—Corn. It is the best crop; but one must supple-
ment it with some protein crop, such as wheat bran. One should
have two siloes, one for summer the other for winter feeding.

Mr. Cook.—Have two siloes—and do not make the mistake of
making them too large, because we ought to feed off enough from
the surface to prevent the molding of the ensilage. Next summer
we will build two additional siloes, one to be filled with corn for
summer feeding, as I am satisfied the cows suffer more for the
want of proper food in summer than in winter, and summer en-
silage will supply the want, in great part.

How do peas and oats compare with corn as a soiling crop?

Mr. Cook.—We prefer the peas and oats, for the reason that
they contain more protein than does the corn. But one should
have both; one to balance the other. Still, when corn is well
grown and preserved in the form of ensilage, it seems to knock
out, somewhat, the objection that it is not a milk-producing food.

Which do you recommend for a summer soiling crop, newly mown
alfaifa or good corn ensilage?

Mr. Converse.—We have had considerable experience in feeding
alfalfa and ensilage as soiling crops. We prefer the latter for the
reason of the expense attending the going into the field every
day and cutting alfalfa. At our cheese factory, and another one a
mile away, last summer, only eleven patrons out of seventy-one
had anything to tide their cows over the drouth. It is one of the
gravest and most costly mistakes the average farmer makes—this
neglect to provide some soiling crop for the cows when the annual
drouth comes on. Beside that, when we have ensilage, we can

298 Bureau oF Farmers’ INstTitTures.

keep the cows indoors during the severe hot weather in fly time
and let them out during the night.

Mr. Smith.—At the State farm, Geneva, we resort to alfalfa and
ensilage. The very best results come from both. Last year we
fed ensilage during the summer and got fully as good results from
it as from alfalfa. If you are going to count the cost of the two
crops, together with the expense and convenience, as between the
two, we prefer the ensilage for summer feeding. By this I mean
green alfalfa. We cut it in the morning, when the dew is on,
then allow it to dry and wilt. It is then drawn to the barn and
fed. No cases of bloat have ever occurred. About a basketful of
alfalfa is fed twice a day to each cow.

THE CLOVERS—THEIR VARIETIES AND USES.

To Mr. Terry.—At what stage of growth should clover be plowed
under?

Answer.—It is not safe to plow under any green crop if too
heavy, because there is a tendency to create acid in the soil, and
I should not plow under a green crop of clover. Cut the firsit crop
for hay, and leave the second crop on the ground to be plowed
under in the spring, for potatoes or corn. During the last three
years, we have made two to three cuttings of clover each season,
and fed it to our cows. If I were going to plow under a green
crop it would be “cow peas.” They are nitrogen catchers, and
will, besides, furnish humus for the soil. The variety known as
“ Whipporwill,” is the best of the cow pea variety.

Mr. Cook.—With the dairy farmer, two things must be consid-
ered when contemplating a crop—first, its feeding value; second,
its fertilizing. When we come to this, if we grow it, clover for
the protein ration, is the best. Its nitrogenous value is the great-
est of any of our grasses while its fertilizing value is fully as
great.

Is not timothy a better fodder crop than clover?

Mr. Converse.—No, sir; it is not. I would rather have one ton
of clover than two of timothy for any animal except horses kept
for speed. But, clover should be cut as early as June 25th, then
the second crop may be cut early, and saved in the form of
“rouen.” In this way we get the feed value of both crops.

THE Question Box. 299

A Farmer.—All the improvement in Allegany county which
has come to it within the last 30 years has come, in my opinion,
from timothy. Why do men buy timothy instead of clover?
Years ago, there was a tavern every mile on our public roads in
this county, and about all the products were leeks and whiskey,
and the buildings were poor. Now they are all good, and the
difference is due to timothy.

If a crop of timothy is cut early and not pastured, is it more exhausting
than is clover?

Mr. Converse.—Yes, sir. We all know that the legumes take
nitrogen from the air and restore, or give it to the soil. The
clovers are of this class of plants. Timothy does not absorb nitro-
gen from the air, but, on the other hand, takes it from the soil.
For this reason we do not grow timothy at all. We do not mow
clover but once, but plow under the second crop.

How can we get a good crop of clover on hard pan soil?

Mr. Converse.—Our soil is a clay loam. We have changed from
seeding with clover on a spring crop or with winter wheat. We
now sow oats and peas on the land we want to seed. When the
crop is off we harrow the ground and fit it thoroughly; then sow
the clover seed about the first of August. As a rule, the next
year’s crop of clover will be as heavy as will that sown in the
spring, even when we get a good catch. |

Mr. Moulton.—The trouble with hard-pan land is, it is not
plowed deeply enough, so that the water comes up and stands in
the soil too closely to the surface. Plow the land deeply and fit
it finely so that it will not “ heave” in the spring. By following
this plan on a stiff, hard-pan soil, I do not believe there will be
any trouble in obtaining a catch of clover, even when sown with
spring crops. ‘

What is your opinion about sowing red clever and cutting it one year,
then plowing under for humus?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—If I wanted to grow a spring crop, I would
plow under the second crop in the spring. If I wanted to grow
a winter crop, I would plow it under in the fall, but would cut and
save for hay, the first crop.

300 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

What is the difference between mammoth and pea vine clover?

Mr. Converse.—I suppose what is meant by the queston is the
medium or mammoth variety. If so, I will say that I prefer the
medium to the mammoth, as it does not fall down so easily.
Besides, finer in stalk and is eaten more closely by the cattle
than is the larger variety.

Mr. Cook.—We sow both mammoth and medium on our land.
I prefer the former. We sow at least three bushels of it to one
of the medium.

Has anyone here had any experience in pasturing with alfalfa?

Mr. Cook.—Alfalfa is being sown with success in many places.
It should be sown thickly so as to have a thick growth. The soil
should be deep, dry, well fitted, and the plant given the entire
use of the ground. The next season, from two to four cuttings
may be made. As to pasturing it, I will say that it may be done,
but there is danger of the animals’ eating the plants so closely as
to injure the crowns. It is much better to mow and cure it for
hay; but it should be cut early, else it will become woody. It
should be cut the first time as early as June 6th to the 20th, and
again in July. When the seed is allowed to mature, the plant
is about worthless for hay. As many as four cuttings were made
at the Geneva Experiment Station, the soil being a deep clay loam,
well underdrained. There were more than 16 tons of green hay
in the four cuttings. If you will go to Geneva next summer you
will see the field and will be able to obtain full information con-
cerning it. I also think there has been a bulletin issued at the
station giving some results with it, but that was three or four
years ago.

Who grows it here?

A Farmer.—I have, but it has been a failure with me. Practi-
cally it was all gone in two years. It is not as good as the clover
here.

Mr. Cook.—Have well prepared land and have it dry; then sow
30 pounds of seed per acre and give it the whole use of the land.
The critical period is its first winter. If it survives that, there
will not be any further trouble. I would try a small piece of it
to begin with. If you succeed with it, sow more.

Tue Qurstion Box. 301

Mr. Litchard.—Years ago I tried it. Won’t say anything about
it now.

A Farmer.—Over on the river flats, a man has three or four
acres. He reports satisfactory results.

Mr. Hardy.—I have a small piece of it. It is satisfactory, but
we found when plowing the ground roots five feet long, and the
plow might as well have run against a stump.

Mr. Dawley.—That came from not sowing the seed thickly
enough. When 30 pounds of seed are sown, the spears are much
finer, but the cutting should be done before the seed is formed,
else the plant will become hard, woody and entirely worthless.
Sow it at the time the spring grains are put in, and when the
plants and weeds are a foot high, run the mower over, and cut
everything down to within four to six inches of the ground, and
leave it for a mulch, unless there is too much of it. In that case
rake it up and draw it off. The next season, if it withstands the
first winter, there may be two or three more cuttings made. We
have cut ours three times, but as a rule we make but two. We
have a field of it that has been growing 10 years, and the stand
seems to be as good as ever.

If you are to grow it, either have the soil well underdrained,
or else put it in good soil, naturally dry. Alfalfa will not grow
on wet land, although it requires moisture. It is a very deep
rooter. The roots go down, if they have the opportunity, several
feet. Last summer, about al] the green thing on our farm was
the alfalfa. Professor Voorhees, of New Jersey, says he grew on
the station farm there an equivalent of $125 per acre of protein
in an alfalfa crop. It has about the same power, possibiy a little
more, of taking nitrogen from the atmosphere and giving it up to
the soil as have the red clovers.

Would you advise seeding to grass or clover with the corn?

Mr. Litchard.—I have never tried the experiment, but I know
of its being done in Chautauqua county and it is said, quite satis-
factorily. We have, sometimes, sown clover with our corn. 1
have ten acres that have never had a load of barn manure or a
spoonful of phosphates on them, that are now producing good
crops. They have been kept fertile by the use of clover and culti-
vation. We take off, first, a crop of clover, and follow that with

802 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

either potatoes first and then corn, or corn and then potatoes. We
always plow under the second crop of clover. As a rule, I use
winter wheat for a seeding crop.

Which food is the richer in protein, clover or bran?

Mr. Cook.—Bran is the richer in protein of the two. It has a
ratio of 1 to 4; clover has 1 to 5 or 6.

To Mr. Smith.—What kind of soil does alfalfa require?

Answer.—Alfalfa needs a deep, rich soil, free from water. You
could not go down on to this flat and grow alfalfa. Have the
ground rich and made fine by cultivation, and the subsoil broken
up so that the roots can go down. And it is a good plan to nour-
ish the young plants with a top-dressing of good, fine manure.
Sow 30 pounds of seed per acre.

Do you favor the seeding with clover in August, after oats?

Mr. Cook.—We sow the clover seed on winter wheat in the
spring. Seeding after oats in August is recommended and is
practiced by some farmers. I prefer spring seeding, however, on
our farms in Lewis county.

What grains are best for a seeding crop with clover?

Mr. Eastman.—Spring wheat first, winter wheat second, barley

Mr. Cook.—After all, is it not a question of moisture? So I
would not seed with oats; they take out nearly all the moisture
from the soil, thus robbing the clover; consequently it dies.

How is rape as a fertilizer plowed under?

Mr. Gould.—Analyses show rape to be half as rich in nitrogen
as is clover.

How can we get our clover seed to catch in a dry season?

Mr. Eastman.—By putting the clover seed in in the best
manner possible. The ground should be properly fitted and fined,
the grain drilled in, then fallowed with the smoothing harrow,
then with seeder, which puts the seed in at shallow depth. The
trouble is, the clover seed, as a rule, is put in too deeply. Where

THE Question Box. 303

is the lady who does not fine her flower seed bed with a rake
before sowing the seed? Surely, there is no more vitality in
clover than flower seeds.

What variety of alfalfa is best? How much seed should be sown per
acre, and how should it be sown?

Mr. Smith.—I know of but one variety of alfalfa. It has a
small, purple blossom. We have eight acres of it at the station
farm at Geneva, and feed 25 cattle from it.

Will the feeding of alfalfa cause “ bloat” ?

Mr. Smith.—Yes. So will the feeding of too much clover. Al-
falfa, in fact, is one of the clovers.

When do you cut it?

Mr. Smith.—Just before the blossom forms. If left till a later
date it will become hard and woody.

Do you grow crimson clover on the State farm?

Mr. Smith.—Yes. We grow it in the orchards. Last year it
was a beautiful sight when in blossom, about the middle of May.
We sow the crimson clover and winter vetch about the first of
August, as a cover crop, on our plowed land.

What about the vetches? How many varieties are there?

Mr. Smith.—I do not know. The vetch belongs to the pea
family—is therefore a legume—and has the power of gathering
nitrogen from the atmosphere. Crimson clover has the same
power, and an additional value because it grows at a very low
temperature, therefore, very late in the fall. We grow it as a
cover crop—to plow under in the spring—not for hay, nor for
pasture.

How shall we grow clover on some farms where we cannot get a catch?

Mr. Smith.—There are two causes: An acid oil, or want of
humus. Test the soil with blue litmus paper. If there is acid
in the soil the color of the paper will change to red. An applice-
tion of lime will sweeten it. If the cause is a lack of humus, the
plowing under of rye or barn manure will furnish it. There
must be humus present to hold moisture, to unlock plant food

304 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

which is unavailable. Wood ashes may be applied in place of the
lime. They contain about 60 per cent. of lime, four to five per
cent. of potash, and one and a half per cent. of phosphorie acid;
but the latter is very slowly available. Good, unleached hard-
wood ashes ought to be worth from $6 to $7 per ton, depending
upon locality and the cost of lime.

How early is it advisable to sow clover seed on winter grains?

A Farmer.—I sow it in March.

Mr. Cook.—We sow it on the sugar snow, say the first to the
middle of April, sometimes a little later in the season.

Should alfalfa be sown in an orchard? Would it injure the trees?

Mr. Armstrong.—I have an uncle in the West where they grow
a great deal of alfalfa, who sowed some in his orchard, but a
number of his trees died, before he could plow up the alfalfa. He
thought it rooted so deeply that it took all the moisture away
from the roots of the trees.

A Farmer.—Will alfalfa grow on steep hillsides?

Another Farmer.—Not on yours. It would all slide off.

Mr. Smith.—It will grow if the soil is suitable.

Will Mr. Terry tell us how to raise the first crop of clover on poor land?

Mr. Terry.—I cannot answer that, but there may be circum-
stances where the farmer may help himself. Sometimes a soil is
acid. If it is, clover will not grow. An application of 20 or 25
bushels of lime per acre, or of potash, will sweeten the soil. At
other times a lack of humus prevents the soil from holding
moisture, so the young clover plants, when the drouth comes,
die out. Between the two—lime and potash—with the humus in
the soil, as a rule, clover may be made to grow. I would not sow
timothy except, possibly, in small quantities, say four quarts of
seed per acre.

What would you do with the clover when grown?

Mr. Terry.—That would depend. Formerly, we plowed under
the second growth of clover. We then kept no cows. Now we are
keeping some, and so cut some of the second growth clover for
them. We have built up a herd which gave 7,341 pounds of milk
last year. One two-year-old heifer gave 6,000 pounds. We now

Tue Question Box. 305

get $1.40 for 40 quarts, minus 15 cents per can, freight, delivered
in Cleveland. We have ten cows.

Is alfalfa as good a crop as the common red clover varieties?

Mr. Terry.—I heard Prof. Voorhees say that they cut 20 tons
of green alfalfa from one measured acre, containing 1,560 pounds
of digestible protein, which is fully four times as much as can
be obtained from an acre of the red clover varieties.

A Farmer.—Here about, alfalfa grows well enough on low
ground, but it does not succeed on high land. In California,
where irrigation is practical, it grows well; if we could do that
here, no doubt it would grow. It roots very deeply—sometimes
40 to 50 feet.

Mr. Cook.—We have grown alfalfa a number of years, but it
required much time to learn how to do it. An old Frenchman
who worked for us, brought a package of seed from France, and
showed us how to sow it; we now succeed, but we first put the
ground in the best possible tilth—just like a garden—then we
sow nearly a bushel to the acre, early in May. Once well estab-
lished it withstands a drouth the best of any plant I know.
Last year, about all the green thing in sight on our farms, in
August, was the alfalfa. But I incline to the belief that upland
is better than low land; and I should advise every farmer present
to try a small piece of alfalfa by way of experiment; but do not
pasture it, and do not sow the seed except in early spring.

What is the matter with the soil when clover has wintered, then does
not grow when spring comes?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I don’t kmow as I can answer that question
positively but my opinion is that the soil is acid. Clover must
have nodules on its roots, to hold nitrogen, and these nodules
will not live in an acid soil. The remedy for such a soil is an
application of lime to correct the acidity by sweetening it. Apply
20 bushels per acre. I have just such a field. It grows any crop
but clover, so I shall treat it with lime next season.

Mr. Cook.—My observation has been that, on lime-rock soil,
clover grows well. In our county the soil is a lime rock and
clover grows on it abundantly.

306 Bureau or Farmers’ InstTitrures.

How is alfalfa clover as a substitute for corn for ensilage?

Mr. Cook.—It would not be any substitute, because it is a
wholly different crop. Corn is a carbonaceous crop; alfalfa a
nitrogenous one. But I should never put it into a silo. Corn is
much better. If you can grow alfalfa, cut it early, cure it as
hay, and feed it in connection with the corn ensilage. Sow it
early, about the time the corn is planted.

To Mr. Van Alstyne.—Would crimson clover thrive in this locality
(Schenevus) ?

Answer.—Crimson clover is now being grown in the valley of
the St. Lawrence river, but, if it is to succeed, one must get the
seed grown as far north as possible. Southern-grown seed does
not germinate well, or else produces a feeble, weak growth. Ob-
tain seed from acclimated clover and sow it in the corn or potatoes
to cover the ground, and to be plowed under the next spring; and
be sure to put it in deeply, else it will sprout too quickly. If
sown in the corn, run a narrow plank drag or stone boat over
the ground to pack it tightly over the seed. Thus grown, one
gets two crops on the same ground, and I am satisfied that, if
the crimson clover now on my ground does not survive the March
and April weather, it will be worth to me all it has cost.

A Farmer.—We do not always get a clover catch here (Spring-
ville). It failed two years ago. What are you going to do about
that?

Mr. Converse.—I believe that on ordinary dry soil, if clover
is not grown, it will be the fault of the man. Of course, there
are some wet, mucky soils which are sour, that will not allow
clover to grow on them. An application of lime or ashes will
sweeten such soils, so that clover will thrive; on fairly good,
sweet soils, if humus is present, so that moisture is retained, the
clover seed will germinate and the plants grow. You may test
the soil by inserting a small piece of blue litmus paper in it for
a few minutes. If in that time the color changes to a dull red,
you may know that acid is present. If so, apply a good dressing
of lime or ashes.

What time of year is best for sowing clover or timothy seed?

Mr. Cook.—We sow our clover and timothy seed on our winter
wheat, as a rule, from the first to the middle of April.

THe Question Box. 307

Is there any difficulty met here in getting a clover catch?

Mr. Harmon.—yYears ago I had no difficulty in getting good
catches of clover, but I have not had one in ten years. I believe
it is because I have grown so many beans. My loss from failing
to grow clover has been thousands of dollars, and I have been
forced to resort to commercial fertilizers to replace it as far as I
could.

Do we cover our clover seed deeply enough?

Mr. Cox.—I believe that we do not cover deeply enough. I
think that is the main reason for our not getting better catches
some times.

Does not potash always help the growth of clover?

Mr. Cook.—If there is potash enough in the soil, and it is avail-
able, an application of more would be of no avail. If that in
the soil were not available, an application of potash would benefit
the clover.

At what stage of growth should clover be cut?

Mr. Litchard.—When it is nicely in blossom. After that time
it begins to deteriorate. The same is true of other grasses which
we use for hay.

How much clover seed is best to sow on an acre?

A Farmer.—Eight quarts.

Another Farmer.—Sow six quarts of clover and two of timo.
thy.

Mr. Cook.—We sow eight to ten quarts of clover and two to
four of timothy.

Will clover or corn grown on thin land contain as much feeding value
as will that grown on rich land?

A Farmer.—That is my question. I have heard it said that
a ton of clover from poor land was not as good as one grown on
good land, for feeding purposes.

Mr. Converse.—Dr. Jordan said at Geneva the other day, that
they were experimenting along that line, with the view of find-
ing if a plant will take out more from the soil than it needs,
but that results will not be successfully reached until after a
number of years.

8308 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

OATS AND PEAS.
What variety of peas do you sow with oats, and how many per acre?

Mr. Converse.—The small white Canada pea. We aim to sow
oats enough to hold up the peas, so that they will not fall down

and mold. We sow one part of peas and two of oats.

Mr. Cook.—We have no fixed rule; but we aim to sow oats
enough to hold up the peas; from three pecks to a bushel and a
peck. The first sowing is wholly oats and peas; the later one has
a little barley, sometimes half a bushel, mixed with it per acre.

At what stage of ripeness do you cut them, and for what purpose do
you grow them?

Mr. Converse.—We cut them just as soon as they show a
“yellow tinge,’ and do it with a mowing machine. They are then
too green to be cut with a binder or one of the old “ poke off ”
reapers. At that stage the grain has the most value, while the
straw is fully as valuable for feeders as is timothy hay. We
allow them to remain on the ground and cure like hay. We feed
them for hay, or thresh and grind them. We also use them as
a soiling crop, beginning the cutting of them when the first dry
weather comes, which is usually about the first of July.

Is there any better grain to sow with peas than oats, to hold them up?
What about sorghum?

Mr. Cook—TI do not know of any better grain than oats.
Wheat might help out, as the straw is stiffer than that of oats.
Sorghum would not do, it is too much like corn.

Mr. Dawley.—Oats and peas are the best crop we grow, except
alfalfa, when fed as a soiling crop for hay or to thresh and feed
as grain, especially when fed with ensilage. We use the small,
white Canadian pea, the mixture with oats differing according to
the richness of the land. But we manage to sow oats enough to
hold up the peas. We must not allow them to mold. The ideal
way is to plow under the peas about four inches, then a week
later, sow the oats; but we have had most excellent results by
sowing them together. It will depend on the season and condi-
tion.

Mr. Rice.—We had most excellent results by putting the peas
in with a drill, setting the drill four inches deep, then cross

THe Qvuesstion Box. 309

drilling in the oats the same day, at the ordinary depths. Both
crops came up at the same time.

Mr. Cook.—We sow from a bushel and a peck to a bushel and
a half of peas, and pretty nearly two bushels of oats, per acre,
and it will be best to mix in a little barley in the last sowing.
We make three sowings of oats and peas each season, at intervals
of a week or ten days. The barley is mixed with the last one.

Give comparative feeding value of oats and peas.

Dr. Smead.—Oats have a nutritive ratio of one to seven, bran,
one to three five-tenths. Their value would depend on the coarse
food one had to feed. If he had a Jarge quantity of straw or
timothy hay, more protein should be fed. The best single food
for a horse is oats; but if a horse is being worked hard and twelve
quarts of oats and two of wheat bran are fed,—I don’t care what
the coarse foods are.

Are oats and peas as good as clover, and are they good to seed after?

Dr. Smead.—Clover fills a plaée in American agriculture that
no other plant can. I hope therefore that what I am saying
concerning oats and peas will not cause them to sow
less clover; but as a succulent food to have to feed all
animals during periods of summer drouth, oats and peas fill a
place that clover cannot; also in seasons like that of 1899, when
it becomes a matter of necessity for the New York State farmer
to raise something for dry fodder, to carry his live stock through
the winter, the oats and peas fill the bill in my experience better
than anything else. They can be sown as soon as the frost is
out of the ground in the spring, and as late in my section of the
State as June 20th, and with even as dry a season as 1899 a fair
crop of oats and pea hay can be made, providing the ground is
made fairly rich and well tilled. I have cut as many as four tons
of cured hay per acre, and never less than one, and that was last
year when the extreme drouth made the yield short. As a grain
crop for feeding, when sown one-fourth peas (always the small
white Canada variety) and three-fourths oats, a feeding grain is
produced which when ground is almost ideal for milk production,
both in cows and ewes suckling lambs. For horses the peas in

310 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

the oats are far superior to corn of equal quantity; the nutritive
ratio being, when sown in that mixture, a little over one to five,
and when the coarse food is timothy hay, it makes a ration for
work or driving horses as near perfect as can be. Occasionally a
horse of a loose bowel temperament will be a little too much re-
laxed for road work, but ten horses are constipated where one
is too loose. The peas can therefore be added with advantage
in nine cases out of ten. The straw also from an oat and pea
grain crop I consider equal to average timothy hay, if cut when
the oat is in the dough state and the straw green. In cutting hay
always cut before the oat gets to the dough state, just coming
into the milk; harvest just as hay is cut, namely, with a mowing
machine and rake up the same as hay, then all will be eaten
without mussing over to get the heads of the oat when cut and
cured in that way. The nutritive ratio is about one to eight when
sown one-third peas and two-thirds oats, and all animals relish the
hay and thrive upon it with but little grain of any kind. While
I do not claim that oat and pea hay will equal fine early cut
mixed grass hay, in my experience it comes the nearest to it of
anything that can be raised on our farms. In a case of emergency
or where there is likely to be a shortage in fodder, I have suc-
ceeded better in sowing clover or mixed grass seeds with early
sown oats and peas than with oats alone, or with other spring
crops. In conclusion I will say, sow oats and peas for a grain
crop; Sow oats and peas for hay when needed; sow oats and peas
to cut green during drouth if you have no summer silo, and if it
is sheep you are feeding in the barn, oats and peas are preferable
to ensilage; then sow lots of clover to feed with your oats and pea
straw that you raise for grain. ‘The clover will enrich the soil
so that more oats and peas can be raised, to raise more live-stock;
produce more milk; more fat lambs; more wool; more good colts;
that the farmers may have more money, have better homes and a
whole lot of better things.

BEANS.
Have you ever dragged your beans?

Mr. Watson.—I have never harrowed them, but have used the
weeder.

Tue Question Box. 311

Is it proper to rake up beans with a horse rake?

Mr. Harmon.—I tried the experiment last year for the first time.
It reduced the labor from one-third to one-half, but the hired help
must be instructed thoroughly to shake the earth off them.

Ought beans to be cultivated when the vines are wet?

Mr. Wilson.—No.

A Farmer.—I would not cultivate beans when the dew was on,
even. I would rather the hired man would sit on the fence and
whittle a stick.

Shall we plow shallow or deeply for beans?

Mr. Wilson.—I prefer to plow deeply, then pulverize thoroughly.

A Farmer.—I think it better to plow more shallow. Our soil
is gravelly, and if it is plowed deeply the moisture will go down
below the reach of the roots.

Mr. Cook.—When plowing a clover sod I think it better to
turn the furrows at an angle instead of bottom side up. If such
furrows are rolled down, then well pulverized, they will hold
moisture much better than will those turned over and left in a
flat condition. Beans, if they “ fill” well, must have moisture
when the seeds are forming, and as we do not get enough from
the usual rainfall it must be obtained by conserving it through
cultivation.

ks bean straw a good food for horses or milch cows?

A Farmer.—Bean straw is all right for cows. Feed them only
just what they will eat up cleanly. It is next to clover for cow
feed.

Mr. Smallwood.—lIt is all right for horses. I have fed it to
Percherons, but they will eat anything.

The Reporter.—The town of Ellisburgh, Jefferson county, pro-
duces more beans than does any other one town in the State.
There are five wholesale dealers in beans and peas in the town
who furnish hand-picked seed to the farmers of that and adjoin-
ing towns. The crops are grown on contracts. Two of these
seedsmen put out last year 55 varieties of beans and 45 of peas
each. There are 6,000 cows in the town, owned by 365 dairymen,
nearly every one of whom feed “‘ bean fodder ” to their cows, and

312 Bureau or Farmers’ INstrirures.

all agree in saying that such fodder when properly secured is very
good, an acre of it being worth fully as much as an acre of aver-
age corn stover. But to contain such feeding value the beans
must be hand-pulled, cured and housed before the leaves have
dried up and fallen off, else nothing but the stalks and stems will
remain, thus reducing the value considerably. There is much
value also in the pods when properly secured and fed in connec-
tion with other foods to dairy cows.

What is the best cover crop to follow beans?

A Farmer.—Winter rye.

Mr. Smallwood.—Many of us sow winter wheat after taking
off the beans.

Another Farmer.—I usually sow winter wheat after beans;
have taken off as high as 40 bushels per acre of wheat, which was
sown on land from which a crop of beans were harvested the
summer before.

Will land plaster help beans?

Several farmers said they had used land plaster on beans and
were satisfied that good results had been obtained therefrom.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS.
When milk two days old is taken to the creamery, what is necessary
to get a correct sample from it?

-Mr. Cook.—As correct a sample may be obtained from milk
two days old as from milk one day old. But I have seen milk
that an accurate sample could not be obtained from, whether it
was one or two days old. It was caused by some of the cream
rising and hardening on the side of the can, so that the per cent.
in the milk was lessened. Unless such milk is carefully cared
for, correct sample cannot be obtained. Milk should be aérated
as soon as drawn from the cow, but if new milk is to be mixed
with milk of the day before, it should be cooled to that tempera-
ture before mixing both messes.

Should milk be stirred with a dipper?

Answer.—Yes; but the trouble is that it is not always attended
to. It is better to use a cooler, than an occasional stirring

THE Querstion Box. 313

will answer. As arule, when milk is poured into the weigh-can,
it becomes very thoroughly mixed, so that a correct sample can
be taken from it at any time it is running into the vat.

What is sterilized milk and what are its advantages?

Dr. Van Slyke——The general principle is to put the milk in a
vessel through which runs a steam pipe, which heats the milk up
to 140 to 150 degrees. The milk is then immediately cooled
down. This is pasteurizing. Sterilized milk is that which has
been heated to a point which kills all germ life in it, but it some-
times gives the milk a “ cooked ” flavor.

Will milk containing 6 per cent. fat make twice as much cheese as will
8 per cent. milk?

Mr. Cook.—No. Above about 44 per cent. milk the fat falls
behind the casein, and so will not make as much cheese in propor-
tion as will milk below that figure, for the reason there is not
casein enough to hold the fat.

Is butter made from separator cream softer than that made from milk
creamed in pans?

Mr. Cook.—No, when the butter is properly made. But cream
when it comes from the separator should be at once chilled down
to 50 degrees and held till the fat globules have hardened. If
it is then warmed up to 60 degrees, ripened and churned, the but-
ter will be as hard as that made from cream raised in pans. Milk
goes through the separator at 80 degrees or higher, so that if the
cream is not immediately cooled down, but is allowed to settle
slowly to 60 degrees and there held and ripened, the fat globules
will be soft. This fault was quite prevalent when the separator
was first introduced, and people complained that the butter was
soft, without grain and would not stand up as did that made
from shallow pan or deep-setting cream. When, however, the
cause was located and a remedy found there was no further
trouble encountered.

A question as to whether the Babcock test was fair for deter-
mining the value and price of milk for making cheese, or whether
it was fair to all the patrons of a cheese factory to declare divi-
dends on the basis of the fat content of the milk, brought out
considerable discussion, Mr. Cook saying that “ the old pool sys-

314 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

tem at the factory was simply offering a premium on poor milk.
If we are going to pay for all grades of milk alike, why should
one strive to have better cows? Why not go out and buy a herd
of cows that will give 50 or 60 pounds of milk each that only
passes the State test? There is no incentive for a man to im-
prove his herd, except to raise the milk flow, and the thinner the
milk the better, provided it will stand the test. Just why so
many factories in Allegany county should discard the Babcock
test, and why there should be so much opposition to it, I do not
understand.”

Which is best, to sell our milk or to patronize the creamery?

Mr. Rogers.—It will depend on what you get back. The ques-
tion is an indefinite one. If a man can utilize the skim-milk at
a good profit, the creamery may be the best place. If not, the
cheese factory or the shipping station may prove more desirable.

A Farmer.—I patronize the creamery, raising the cream at
home. It is called for by a gatherer, Some of the patrons use
the separator, others the Cooley system, but the cream is paid for
on the Babcock test basis.

Mr. Cook.—We have shipping stations, creameries and cheese
factories in our county, and I have noticed that the price of
milk at the shipping stations is always based on the value of
milk for butter and cheese. When the prices for these products go
up, up goes the station’s price for milk. When it drops, then down
goes the station’s price. But there is not enough milk consumed
at home. Some farmers do not consume much, if any. Does
any one know why? Stop and consider. There is more ‘digest-
ible feeding value in a quart of milk than in a quart of oysters.
The milk costs, perhaps, four cents, the oysters from 30 to 60
cents per quart.

To Mr. Cook.—I have been informed that you have stated that the
Gravity Cream Separator is a fraud. Now, I and a number of farmers
near here have been using it for the past three summers as well as
winters, and have failed to discover any fraud or that we could not make
as good butter as by any other process. Will you please tell us wherein
the fraud lies?

Answer.—That’s a good introduction, but I’m not going to take
back any thing. But what is a fraud? That which represents
itself to be something else. The so-called gravity separator is

Tut Question Box. 315

one, because it is no separator at all. The farmer has been made
to believe that it was fully as good as the centrifugal separator;
but if you will write to Professor Wing of Cornell University and
get their bulletin, you will find that the figures recorded there
in a large majority of results, were as high as _ six-tenths
of one per cent. of fat in skim-milk. At our factory we found
from four-tenths to one per cent. of fat in the skim-milk. Any
deep testing can will skim just as closely. If you want to add
water to milk to help to raise cream, go to the tin shop, get a
can made, take it home and do it. Don’t buy one that costs so
much. I can take a can costing 25 cents and do just as good
work as can be done with this aquatic can. Of course, just as
good butter can come from such cream as from any other gravity
process, but the skim-milk, being watered, is not fit for calves or
pigs. At least, I would not feed it to mine. Another thing: the
system is not new, but old, and is no more or less than any of the
old gravity creamers, which never would skim closely. I have put
away milk with one per cent. of fat in it, and failed to get any
out of it by the gravity process. Your best course is to test your
skim-milk with the Babcock. That will decide the question.
Remember that the skim-milk is watered one-half.

Which system will get the most cream from milk, the separator or the
creamery cans?

Mr. Smith.—The separator. There is no other way possible by
which so much butter can be got from milk as by use of the
separator, nor one that will produce as good butter, for the reason
that the separator removes all the foreign matter. We have tested
our skim-milk many times at the station during the past season,
and, as a rule, did not find more than three-hundredths of one per
cent. of fat remaining. The so-called aquatic separators are a
fraud and humbug. Either employ the centrifugal separator or
one of the deep-setting creamers. The submerged creamers
are the best, such as the Cooley or Stoddard. They are operated
on the same principle.

Please name the variety of grain that will produce most butter fat in
milk?

Mr. Converse.—We cannot increase the per cent. of butter fat
in a cow’s milk if she has been kept up to her normal working

316 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

condition. In Denmark, experiments were made with 150 cows,
for the purpose of ascertaining whether butter fat could be fed
into the milk of cows kept up to their normal working condition;
the result showed that it could not.

Which make of cream separator will leave the highest per cent. of fat
in cream; that is, which will leave it the thickest, and what ought the per
cent. of fat to be in centrifugal separator cream?

Mr. Cook.—There are two or three good kinds. The De Laval,
United States, Sharpless and others. A separator should skim
very close, at the same time it should leave a cream having about
35 per cent. of butter fat.

Do you advise the use of a commercial starter for the ripening of cream?

Mr. Van Wagenen.—I suppose the most of you know what a
commercial starter is. The theory of the starter is that we may
always have the bacteria necessary to ripen the cream. When the
milk is frozen, commercial starters are as a rule the best, because
they are free from gas and are clean. There are two or three of
them on the market, but I do not know that they are any better
than a home-made starter made from pure, clean milk slightly
soured.

Mr. Cook.—I would no more think of getting along without a
commercial starter than I would without rennet for making
cheese. A home-made starter is just as good when made of the
milk from one cow, which has been heated up to 170 or 180
degrees to kill all the germs in it, held there for half an -hour
or more, then cooled down to 70 degrees and allowed to stand
until it is slightly acid.

Mr. Van Wagenen.—The starter is almost universally in use in
Denmark.

Why does it take so much more churning at some times, to get the
butter from the cream from the same cows, than at others?

Mr. Cook.—As a rule, the trouble all lies in the failure prop-
erly to ripen the cream. It will not churn unless it has been
properly ripened and mixed. No matter how it was raised. The
best way is to take a quart of milk from your best cow; have it
pure and clean; set it away and allow it to become slightly sour;

| .
A
4

Tue Question Box. 517

then add a small per cent. of it to the cream, which should be set
in a jar and placed in another holding twice or three times as much
water as the cream; warm that water up to 70 degrees and place
the cream jar in it, and allow the cream to come up to that degree,
then set it away at a temperature of 60 and hold it till it has a
smooth, glossy appearance. It will then be ready to churn, but
the temperature at which it should be churned will depend on
how it was raised. Centrifugal cream will have to be churned at
a lower temperature than that raised by the gravity process.
About 60 degrees will be about right. Experiment and find out
which degree is best.

If ajl farmers crowded their cows to their full capacity, what effect
would it have on prices?

Mr. Cook.—I suppose that if every cow doubled her capacity
this year there would be a depression in prices. In that case I
would suggest selling off one-half the cows, thus saving the ex-
pense of keeping one-half of them. But that problem does not
trouble me at all. We have doubled the product of our dairy
within the last 10 years, and yet butter is bringing fully as high
or higher prices than it did then. We are feeding our cows $15
to $18 worth of grain each year, but make a profit. Another
point. The men who have cows that give 300 pounds of butter
each year invariably obtain the highest prices for their product.

Is it wise for farmers to sell milk to a New York city contractor, thus
closing cheese factories along the railroads?

Several Farmers.—No.

Mr. Cook.—I have watched the New York markets several years
and find that the price paid for milk there is just about the same
as it is worth for butter and cheese, with sometimes a slight
increase for the by-product. But we have several times paid more
for milk than the stations did. The only real value that the
stations have been, is the stimulating of winter dairying, but the
requirements of the station now are very rigid. Milk must be
absolutely clean and be aérated. If a can comes to the station
that is not just right it is sent back. I wish we factorymen had
the same power those men have and could enforce it as they do.

318 3uREAU OF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Can we change the per cent. of fat in a cow’s milk?

Mr. Cook.—Not if the cow is giving a normal flow and is fed
up to her capacity. At times it will increase, then it will de-
crease, then drop back below her normal level. I have been
trying during the last six or seven years to increase the fat in @
herd of grade Holsteins, but have been unable to do it, so far.

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Recently I looked over our book where the
Babcock tests are recorded, and found that the tests made every
two weeks had not varied more than one-half of one per cent.
The herd is made up of Guernseys and high grades.

How shall we prevent the butter granules from running off in the butter
milk?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Oftimes that is a great difficulty, but, if the
granules are large enough so that they will stand on the surface
of the butter milk, there will be no difficulty. Give the churn
one or two more turns, then wait till the butter comes to the
surface.

Will dry feed produce as much milk as will wet feed? Would you cut
the coarse fodder?

Mr. Cook.—I suppose that means wet or dry grain foods. I
have made some experiments in that line and came to that con-
clusion, having fed five cows on cut and wet feed; but I did not
get any more milk from them. I found, also that every time I
made any change there was a decrease in the milk flow; aiso that
I got most milk when I fed the long uncut hay. It is better to
let the cow wet the food with the saliva of her mouth; besides,
she will eat the food more slowly.

What rate per gallon should the milk producer receive for city milk,
with hay at $10, gluten feed $18 per ton, corn meal $15, bran $17? At these
prices, which would be most remunerative—milk at 10 cents per gallon,
cheese at 10 cents and butter at 22 cents per pound net to the farmer?

Mr. Pingrey.—I am not prepared to say, but I think we ought
to get at least 12 cents per gallon. It is selling now for 104 cents
per gallon.

Mr. Ward.—I think the milk shippers are offering 10 cents for
the season.

Sg

Tue Question Box. 319

What are the farmers of eastern New York receiving per gallon for
their milk, shipped to New York?

Mr. Moore.—Last month, at Mount Upton, Chenango county,
we got $1.50 per hundred for our milk, sold on the pool system.
It went to factories, some into butter and cheese, while some was
shipped.

Mr. Fenner.—There are 12 gallons of milk in 100 pounds. You
can easily figure the price per gallon.

I have a cow giving 30 pounds of milk per day which tests 3.25 per
cent. of fat. If I change foods and make that cow give 10 pounds more
miik, will it increase the butter-fat?

Mr. Smith—No; provided the cow is in a normal condition.
As arule, such a per cent. of increase in milk from a cow testing
so low in butter-fat, would result in a slight decrease instead of
an increase in fat.

How low in butter-fat can milk be profitably produced?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know. It would depend on the quantity the
cow gave. The law says that milk below three per cent. of butter-
fat shall not be sold, and I do not believe that a cow giving milk
below that per cent. ought to be kept. My opinion is that the
cow that gives milk containing four to four and one-half per cent.
of fat, with a good flow is the most profitable to keep. We are
keeping cows that give about 3.6 per cent. fat, and getting nearly
7,000 pounds of milk per cow; but I am going to put in a herd
of Jerseys for the purpose of ascertaining, if possible, which herd
(cur present one is Holstein-Friesian and its grades) will make a
pound of butter-fat at the smallest cost. We have found that it
requires about 250 pounds of butter per cow, each year, to cover
all the expenses for labor, feed and interest.

Can milk be kept two weeks and give as good a test as milk kept but
one week?

Mr. Cook.—There is no trouble in keeping it two weeks. We
keep all of ours 15 days and make tests twice a month. We use
bottles or cans having glass stoppers, because foreign substances
will adhere to corks. There are several substances that are used
to preserve the samples. Corrosive sublimate is as good a one as
any to preserve the same till we want to test it.

320 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

Which is the more profitable, winter or summer dairying?

Mr. Garlock.—Winter dairying is the more profitable, provided
we can get a factory that runs through the winter, but it will not
pay if but one or two of us go into it.

Mr. Converse.—There are 10 cheese and butter factories in the
town of Ellisburgh, Jefferson county, six of which have not closed
their doors or banked their fires during the past four years. Our
best dairymen discovered some time ago that they could not af-
ford to feed dry cow boarders four months in winter, with nothing
to show for it when spring came but experience and scrub cow
society. So they began winter dairying. With good clean quar-
ters, good care, good cows, good corn ensilage, some clover hay,
wheat bran and oats and peas, we find ithat we can make as fine
butter in winter as in summer, provided the milk is properly cared
for and the butter is well made. We have also found that a good
dairy cow which drops her calf, say November 1st, will give 1,000
pounds more milk during the year than she will when she freshens
March Ist. Besides, the price of milk is from 20 to 50 cents
a hundred pounds higher in winter than in Summer. Another
point, if cows are to go dry during a certain season of the year,
it will be much more profitable for them to do so when the hot
weather, short pasture and flies are here.

Mr. Cook.—Another point, in winter there is not any other
farm work crowding, so that one can give more care and atten- |
tion to the cows than in summer. But if best results from winter _
dairying are reached, we must have cows come fresh in the fall,
and they should be good ones, by which I mean cows that will
give not less than 5,000 pounds of milk—they should give 6,000
or 7,000 pounds—during the year, and we should be provided
with milk-producing foods, such as Mr. Converse has named,
while all the environment of the stable should be of the best.
With such cows and such conditions obtaining, if one is so situ-
ated that he can draw his milk to a first-class creamery or cheese
factory where butter is made in winter, there is no disputing

the fact that winter dairying pays better than does that of sum-
mer.

Tue Question Box. 321

What causes “ flat’’ butter?

Mr. Van Alstyne—I suppose that means butter lacking in
flavor.

A Farmer.—Feed the cows some onions.

Mr. Van Alstyne.—They would add flavor, but not just the
right kind. As a rule, foods have much to do with the flavor.
Such foods as corn-meal, wheat bran and oats give best flavor.
Ensilage also gives a good flavor; but at this time of year the
milk from “ stripper ” cows is the cause of lack of flavor. When
the milk of fresh cows is added to stripper milk a good flavor is
maintained. That is one reason why Elgin butter has its reputa-
tion. In most dairies there, fresh cows are constantly being
added, which with the foods they are fed keep up the uniform
flavor of Elgin butter, which gives it its reputation.

Can 5.5 per cent. milk be successfully made into cheese?

Mr. Cook.—I have never handled any 5.5 per cent. milk, but
cheese from richer milk, 6 per cent., has been made with a loss
of only thirty-five hundredths of one per cent. of fat. I saw such
a cheese recently; but such milk must be carefully handled. It
is a mistaken and false notion that such milk cannot be made
into cheese. It is also a false notion that milk at this time of
year cannot be made profitably into cheese; but it is almost im-
possible to make a fancy cheese, one day with another, from every
other day milk. It will be impossible with such milk to emulsify
the fat so as to get out the moisture and get the caseine to hold
the fat. In that case quite a per cent. of fat gets away in the
whey. But a cheese made from very rich milk must be cured at
a lower temperature than one made from poorer milk, for the
reason that the high temperature starts the fat more quickly; one
may not discern it with the naked eye, but a small magnifying
glass will show it. For myself I can say I never worked milk
during fifteen days that tested below 3.35 or above 4.2 per cent.
In those instances there was no difference in loss of fat, showing
that the caseine followed the fai in like ratio. Much higher,
however, we know the caseine will drop a little behind the fat.
The market shows that caseine is worth only two cents a pound,

11

322 Bureau or Farmers’ INsTITUrEs.

so that the loss through the difference in caseine in such milk
is seen to be below consideration.

Can a pound of cheese be made from 8% pounds of milk?

Mr. Cook.—Yes, if there are solids enough in it. But I have
never worked any milk as rich as that. But it is safe to assume
that in such milk a pound of butter fat will make about two and
a half of cheese.

Why does it take from 11 to 12 pounds of milk at our factory for a
pound of cheese, if it can be made elsewhere from 10 pounds?

Mr. Cook.—Possibly it cannot be made from 10 pounds else-
where. During the hot weather many factories will take from
11 to 12 pounds. When milk is inclined to be gassy it requires
more. It is because, when the milk is in a certain condition
more fat is liberated and gets away in the whey. I simply took
10 pounds as a basis in my talk to-day. The average with us
during the year is a fraction over 10 pounds; late in the fall less
than 10 pounds.

Neutchatel cheese.—Is there a demand for it, and is there profit in its
manufacture? Tell us something of it,

The Reporter.—It is a small, soft, fancy cheese, put up in small
rolls about three inches in length and one inch in diameter; then
covered with tin foil. I do not know what its present price is,
nor whether there is more profit in it than in our Cheddar cheese.
There is a large factory at Antwerp, Jefferson county, where this
cheese and several other fancy varieties are made; it is also made
at Adams, Lowville, Fayetteville and at a factory near Middle-
town, Orange county.

What salt is best for dairying?

Mr. Cook.—There are several brands of salt made in this coun-
try which are good. We have used nearly all of them, buying in
car lots. All of our best American salts <re better than those
imported, because they do not have the opportunity to become
contaminated on shipboard.

What causes white curds that are found in butter?

Mr. Cook.—They are either bits of caseine or else flakes of dried
cream. If the milk is creamed in the shallow pans we often find

THE Question Box. 323

these specks. <A good way is to cover the pans with pasteboard
covers, or hang wet sheets in the room. These specks are mighty
hard to get out of the cream and the best way is to cream the
milk in the deep setting cans or by the separator.

What is process butter and where is it made?

Mr. Cook.—It is butter, the refuse from the stores in the west
and elsewhere, melted up, purified with chemicals, re-churned,
mixed with other butter, worked and packed, then put upon the
market. The fraud is of selling it for creamery butter. In Utica
there is much of it now being sold. It is difficult to detect the
package owing to the color of the letters on the stamp. In this
way the law is evaded.

What causes spots—mottled like—in butter?

Mr. Cook.—Nine times out of ten they are caused by an uneven
distribution of the salt. Begin when the butter is in the gran-
ular form; sift on fine salt, distributing it evenly; use a wooden
fork to turn it over; allow it to stand 15 er 20 minutes. Then
work it. In this way the mottles or spots will be avoided.

Does it pay to aérate milk to be taken to a cheese factory in summer?

Mr. Cook.—Most assuredly. The town of Ellisburg, in Jef-
ferson county, has 360 farmers who milk nearly or. quite
6,000 cows, the milk going to the 10 or more cheese factories in
the town. Had each one of those 360 dairymen used an aérator
last year it would have increased the value of their milk enough to
have paid for an aérator and left a balance of $600 for the town.
In other words, the value of the milk product in the town would
have been increased last year $2,000. And yet such care of milk is
no more than is enforced by the milk shippers and condenseries.

PA Farmer.—Suppose every farmer made butter only in the winter, how
long before the price would be down?

Dr. Smead.—Possibly there would be a drop, but everybody is
not going to do that. Then, too, with a good silo and ensilage
butter can be made more cheaply in winter than in summer. —
Another point, a cow coming fresh in the fall will give 1,000
pounds more milk during the year than she will if she drops her
calf in the spring.

324 Bureau or Farmers’ INSstTITurss.,

Who is benefited by taking good care of milk that goes to a creamery?
Mr. Cook.—Every one of the patrons, the butter-maker, and
lastly the consumers of the butter.

Of what benefit are the milk stations going to be to the farmers?

A Farmer.—We have one at Lafargeville, none nearer. I think
it a benefit. It keeps up the price of butter and promotes com-
petition.

Dr. Smead.—From my own observation I am satisfied that the
station near me has benefited the farmers. The price of milk is
higher, the cow is better fed and cared for, and the burden of the
housewife has been lessened thereby. Besides, it has made
another outlet, and anything that adds a string to the bow of the
farmer is a benefit to him.

Mr. Cook showed a chart on which were stenciled figures show-
ing the value of milk, taking 20 cents a pound for butter as a
basis, for both cheese and butter, and said that all depended on
the value of the milk in butter fats. If the milk is rich in fat,
at present prices for milk, more money will be got out of it for
butter, provided that milk is sold by the quart. If it is alI pooled,
such milk should be made into butter.

How should milk be cared for that it may keep in perfect condition
for delivery to the creamery or cheese factory?

Mr. Dawley.—I like that question. Now I hope you will like
my answer, Do not think I am “fussy.” The questioner wants
to know how the milk can be delivered in perfect condition and I
will lay down the following rules:

The care of milk should begin before milking, by seeing that the
cow or cows are clean, the stables and surroundings clean, as well
as the utensils, and last but not least that the milker is clean.

Before commencing to milk, the cow’s udder and flank should
be wiped with a damp cloth or brush. By doing this, loose hairs
and fine particles of dust and filth will be prevented from drop-
ping into the milk pail, and much cleaner milk will be secured.
' The milking should be done with dry hands, and, to get the best
results, should be done gently, yet quickly. Immediately after
milking, the milk should be removed to a place where the sur-
rounding atmosphere is pure, and then strained at once; for no

Tue Question Box. 325

matter how carefully it may have been drawn, there will be some
dirt in it which should be strained out at once.

Air the milk frequently by dipping or pouring, or by the use
of an aérator. With regard to aérators, if they are used properly
and kept perfectly clean they are a good thing, but, if kept only
half clean, they are a curse to the business, for a dirty aérator
will spoil all the milk that goes through it.

In the very hot weather it will be necessary to cool the milk by
the use of ice or water, but be sure that the milk is thoroughly
aired before doing so, and do not cool the milk below 68 or 70 de-
grees, as it will keep quite sweet over night at this temperature
and will arrive at the factory in much better condition for cheese-
making than if it had been cooled to 55 or 60 degrees.

Always remember that milk requires airing just as much in cold
weather as it does in hot or warm weather, for gases and animal
odors are present at all seasons, and should be allowed to escape
by airing immediately after milking.

Keep the milk in small quantities over night, and do not mix
the hot and the cold milk. Send the night’s and morning’s milk
to the factory in separate cans if possible.

When the whey is returned in the milk cans, empty them at
once, wash with warm water, then scald and place them where
they will get plenty of sunlight and pure air. See that the place
where the milk is left over night is clean and away from anything
that will produce a bad odor.

Occasionally, and the oftener the better, during the evening, the
milk should be aired by dipping or pouring, thus preventing the
cream from forming a leathery scum, which hinders the escape of
taints. If the cream is allowed to rise and become exposed to
the air it will become tough and leathery and will not mix with
the milk, consequently a greater quantity of the fat is lost in the
whey. The maker may get the blame when in reality it is the
careless patron who is to be blamed. Do not leave the milk cans
flat on the ground or against the side of a building over night,
but raise them on scantlings or something similar, in an open
space, so that the air will circulate freely under as well as around
the can.

A very good plan is to rinse the cans with a pail of cold water
before putting the milk in them. See that your cows have plenty

326 Bureau or Farmers’ LnstTITUTESs.

of good succulent fodder when the pastures are getting short,
with free access to salt every day, and an abundant supply of
pure water. As there is 87 per cent. of water in milk it is very
essential that the water should be pure.

Causes of Tainted Milk—Some of the causes of tainted milk are:
poor, decayed fodder; dirty water, whether used for drinking
water or for the washing of utensils; foul air in the cow-stable or
cows lying in their manure; lack of cleanliness in milking; neg-
lecting to air the milk rapidly directly after milking; lack of
cleanliness in care of the milk, from which cause the greater num-
ber of milk taints arise; mixing fresh and old milk in the same
cans, and dirty or rusty tin pails and cans.

It should always be remenibered that pure milk can only be ob-
tained from healthy cows, pure feed, pure water, pure air and
clean handling. Every patron’s cash receipts are affected by
the way his brother patrons produce and handle their milk.
Hence the necessity of each adhering to sound rules based on
sound dairy sense. In not a single first-class factory in the land
are good prices obtained for the product except where all the
patrons practice thorough cleanliness in the care of milk. Itisa
matter of profit for each to do this.

SUGAR BEETS.

From what information you can get and have received, are the farmers
generally satisfied with the results obtained from sugar beet cultivation?

Dr. Smead gave some results as reached in his county near
Seneca lake. Last year most of the farmers were satisfied with
results. This year the drouth has shortened the crop, but he has
learned that the percentage of sugar is greater this year than
last, but that as the price will be no higher than it was last year,
the growers object. All in all, he thought the farmers would
continue raising them. ‘There were about 40 acres grown in his
locality this season (1899), the crop going to Binghamton.

Mr. Cook.—The sugar beet is a new money crop and no doubt
will prove a good thing in some localities, if properly grown. But
I do not believe any of you will get rich all at once by growing it.
I would not rush into it too far at first; but, don’t think I want to
throw cold water on the enterprise. It is well to try it; then note
results.

Tue Question Box. 327

What success have our beet sugar factories had in increasing their out-
put and numbers?

Mr. Cook.—Mr. Rogers of the Binghamton beet-sugar factory,
said they were greatly encouraged. Their crop last year was
30,000 tons, against 20,000 tons the year before, while next year’s
tonnage will be still larger. Doubtless there will be one more
factory built in the State this year, which will be at Lyons, mak-
ing three factories in the State. The growing of sugar beets adds
another money crop for the farmer, and I think it will grow and
erystallize in a short time so that we will know what we are
doing.

Mr. Harmon.—We grow cabbage here, which is a better crop
than sugar beets ever will be with us.

Is the Unadilla Valley suitable for growing sugar beets?

Mr. Moore.—They will grow here and give a good per cent. of
sugar, if the season is favorable. I sowed some seed last spring
but it did not grow; the drouth was the cause of failure.

Which is the best money crop, sugar beets or potatoes?

A Farmer.—Sugar beets; but it is more work to grow them
unless one has a weeder. We got $50 last season off an acre and
a half.

Two or three farmers said that, all things considered, there was
more money in potatoes at 25 cents a bushel than in beets.

Another farmer said he got $50 last season off an acre. The
yield was 10 tons; but there was a majority of two to one in favor
of the potatoes at South New Berlin.

Mr. Cook.—I think, as a rule, we have not been educated up to
the point of successful sugar-beet growing; I also believe that
we are to grow more of them, but that the work will be largely
done by foreigners; and I hope the Legislature will keep up the
bounty appropriation just as long as its conscience will permit.
Let us raise all we can and save as much of the money as we can
which we are yearly sending abroad to purchase this crystalized
sunlight.

What is the expense per acre of growing sugar beets?

Mr. Cook.—Have any of you here grown them?

O. E. Wolcott of Corning.—I grew 20 tons of beets per
acre at a cost of $30 per acre. I used fourteen pounds of seed.

328 Bureav or Farmers’ INsTirures.

One-half the cost will be saved if the ground is plowed
early and harrowed several times to kill the weeds. Sugar
beets pay better than any other crop grown on my farm. One ad-
vantage is that the crop is sold before it is grown, while the soil
is left in fine condition for succeeding crops. One firm in Syra-
cuse grew 132 acres last year and this year will put in 300.
Around Hornellsville, some are offering to take 50 acres. Mr.
Rogers at Binghamton had 37 acres. The total cost was $655,52;
the yield was 144 tons. After paying for fertilizers and every
item of cost, the expense was $25.77 per acre. All work except
the thinning can be done with a horse. The hardest thing is to
get a good stand and plenty of seed should be used; and do not
put it over an inch deep. Cultivate with a small toothed culti-
vator. The secret of success is never to let the weeds get a half
inch high. A good fertilizer is one containing 4 per cent. nitro-
gen, 8 per cent. phosphoric acid and 10 per cent. potash.

Will Mr. Rogers, who is present, give us some data as to results reached
from the sugar beet crop, at the. Binghamton beet sugar factory since it
was opened?

Mr. Rogers’s answer is condensed. He is president of the Bing-
hamton beet-sugar factory and has had much experience with
sugar-beet growing and the manufacture of beet sugar. He has
used every means for the purpose of ascertaining if the growing of
the beet by the farmer, and the manufacture of sugar from them
could be made profitable. The results so far have proved highly
satisfactory, and his company has been enabled to increase its
contracts for next season’s crop nearly 100 per cent. over those of
last year. He said that the number of beet-sugar factories and
the manufacture of beet sugar has nearly doubled in the United
States during the last two years. The average production per
acre in the Binghamton factory’s bailiwick last year, although
it was one of the driest seasons he has ever known, was fully
two tons per acre more than it was the year before, which shows
that the farmers had become better educated in the knowledge
of how to grow the sugar beet. There is no crop that will pay
better, if one has a fairly good soil, than will sugar beets. It
is possible to grow beets, and get yood pay for our labor, the
fertilizers used, and the interest on the value of the land, and
give a good profit. All the work done was done with a good

THE Question Box. 329

profit. All the work was done with a horse, the rows of beets
being twenty inches apart and the plants thinned to eight inches
in the row. Two years ago Mr. Rogers grew twenty acres at a
total cost of $27.02 per acre. Last year he grew thirty-seven
acres at a cost of $17.27 for labor and interest, to which should
be added $5 for fertilizer and $1.75 for seed per acre.

“ But,” said Mr. Rogers, “ we want good land, well fertilized,
and the beet must receive good care. It will not pay to expend
money and fertilizers on poor land. It does not cost any more
to grow a crop of 14 tons or more per acre than it does to grow
10 tons. Therefore, have the ground rich, plowed deeply and well
pulverized, so that the seed-bed will be fine. This enables the
seed to germinate. If the ground is inclined to bake before the
seed germinates, go over it with a wire-tooth horse-rake. It is
better than is the weeder, because the teeth draw more flatly over
the ground.”

What formula of commercial fertilizer do you recommend?

Answer.—One haying 4 per cent. of nitrogen derived from
nitrate of soda or dried blood, 8 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and
12 per cent. of potash, using either the muriate or the sulphate.
When the land is good, well fertilized and the crop well cared for,
there can be a profit of $15 to $25 per acre realized.

Mr. Rogers, to show how the growing of the beet has increased,
said that Smith and Powell of Syracuse, grew, two years ago,
15 acres, and last year 130 acres, and they have contracted to
grow 300 acres this year. They have grown cabbage and nearly
all other truck crops, but they had told him that they had never
grown a crop so profitable as sugar beets.

THE SHEEP-FOLD.

What about sheep as moneymakers on a farm. Best breeds and man-
agement?

Dr. Smead.—There are a great many things about sheep which
the best breeders do not yet know. To breed sheep successfully
one must know the sheep and its habits and how to breed and
feed it. Then, too, one must select the breed he likes best. Hav-
ing selected it, feed and care for it as it is cared for and fed in its
native home. Nearly all our sheep breeds come from England.

330 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

There they are fed succulent foods such as roots. Here we give
dry feed and grain. The shepherds of England feed but 16 bushels
of grain to their flocks, while we feed an average of 47 bushels.
If profit is to come, we must aim at a certain production, which
should be mutton, or, rather, lamb. So select the breed that will
produce the most and best, first selecting the one you like best.
When all the knowledge of the sheep needed has been obtained,
there will be money in them. But one must constantly make
selections of the breeding ewes, keeping those that are the best,
so as to get the most lambs, which should be dropped as early in
the season as possible.

What breed of sheep is best for all purposes?

Dr. Smead.—The one that the man under his individual condi-
tions can make the most money out of. But the soils and climate
of this State are favorable to the keeping of any and all breeds,
so I am going to say that, if one will study the individuality of
either one of them, and feed and care for it as he should, money
can be made from it. It will depend, not on the breed, but upon
the man who handles it. But be sure to have the breed or else
keep scrubs, and scrub it through life.

What is the best variety of rape for sheep?

Mr. Ward.—Dwarf Essex is the best variety. I have been re-
ported as saying that Dwarf Victoria was best; I have never
said anything of the kind. If anybody asks you to feed it, do not
do it, but get the Dwarf Essex seed which you may obtain of
William Pennie, Toronto, Canada.

How many sheep can I keep on the food one cow ought to have, keep-
ing both in good condition?

Dr. Smead.—It would depend on the sheep, its breed; the cow,
and her breed. In my boyhood days the rule was ten sheep for
one cow, both being grades. In those days we saw many dead
sheep lying around the barn yard, and later, when the March
storms came, many dead lambs. In those days it was possible for
ten sheep, weighing 100 lb. each to go through the winter for
about the same cost as a cow weighing 1,000 pounds. To-day it
cannot be done. It requires food to support ewes that are to

Tue Question Box. 331

produce lambs. Such ewes as I keep weigh about 140 pounds,
so that both being well fed, five sheep in the place of one cow
would be about the ratio I would name.

What do you consider the best or most proper grain for sheep?

Mr. Ward.—I feed ensilage once a day; the other ration is one
made of wheat bran and ground oats with perhaps a little oil meal
added. I should never feed corn when I had ensilage. Unless
one wants to fatten sheep, do not feed them corn. I have experi-
mented as much as has any man in the State, in feeding corn to
breeding ewes, and I am going to say that I never fed it except
at a loss. I do not believe that any man can feed corn to breed-
ing ewes without endangering the loss or injury of their udders.
I have tried it, and, as a result, had to take them out to the woods
and never bring them back again.

Would you advise breeding ewes the first year of their lives?

Mr. Ward.—I would never breed ewes before they were a year
old. There is always a greater or less loss of lambs from such
ewes.

How old should a ram be when used in the flock?

Mr. Ward.—One year; but five years is better.

What breed of sheep are best for winter lambs?

Mr. Ward.—I suppose by the question that lambs fit for
markets not later than February are meant. For such I would
have a large per cent. of Dorset blood. But there is fully as
much in the feeding as in the breed. Such lambs must be fed and
pushed constantly. Feed oat flakes, wheat bran and oil meal and
there should be some sugar fed. I know of a man near Roches-
ter who keeps 100 breeding ewes and sells his lambs in New York
for $10 each.

Which breed of sheep is most profitable for both mutton and wool?

Mr. Ward.—There is no good sheep for both mutton and wool.
Either make one or the other a specialty: For mutton I would
not keep the Dorsets but some one of the dark-faced breeds.

332 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

Which is the best way to make an ewe own her lamb?

Dr. Smead.—As a rule, one way is to take the ewe entirely away
from the remainder of the flock. In a day or so she will own'the
lamb. If her lamb dies and you wish to substitute another, take
the skin off the dead lamb and put it on the back of the adopted
one. As a rule, she will own it, and, within 24 hours, the skin
of the dead lamb my be removed, while the ewe will continue
to own the lamb as her own.

Is cabbage a good food for sheep?

Dr. Smead.—I shall grow some next year to feed sheep unless
the price gets too high. To-day the price is $10 per ton, but they
weigh like lead, the head averaging five pounds, the bulk going
to the sauerkraut factories. Cabbage at $10 per ton, however,
costs too much for sheep food, but is an ideal food for the lamb, _
and, after the heads have been removed, if the lambs be turned
on to the ground they will do very nicely. The Danish variety is
the best for shipping. It does not pay to fight the worms when
cabbage are raised in a commercial way, for the reason that there
are no more butterflies around a ten-acre field than around a small
patch in the garden. Persian insect powder blown on to the plant
with a bellows will kill the worms.

How long is it since lambs have been as high in price as they are now?
What is the prospect for higher prices?

Mr. Cook.—The outlook for such lambs is now very good, fully
as good as before the war.

Which would be most profitable, 10 sheep or one cow, including price
of labor?

Mr. Van Dreser.—Just now, I would put on the sheep, but
would raise some one of the mutton breeds, and make lamb-rais-
ing—not wool or old mutton—the object. Still, I should keep a
few cows, if I could, because I do not think it good policy to
have all our eggs in one basket.

What is the best grain for ewes which are suckling lambs?

Mr. Ward.—We are now feeding our sheep ensilage and bean
pods. Wheat bran, ground oats and a little oilcake are good
grains to feed sheep when grain is substituted.

Tue Question Box. 333

Which is the most profitable at present, sheep or cows?

Mr. Barlett.—It will depend on the man. We are all differently
constituted. Some of us prefer one breed of cows or stock,
another man another. Ifa man prefers Guernseys, he should in-
sist on that breed; the same is true of Shorthorns, Jerseys or
Ayrshires. It is so with sheep; but one should get the breed he
most prefers, and I believe there is as much money in a flock of
good sheep as in a herd of dairy cows; by which I mean a herd of
good cows. But one must be acquainted with the sheep, its
habits and diseases. They are very sensitive animals and are sub-
ject to many diseases, and when disease gets into a flock it is very
hard to eradicate it and bring the sheep back to normal condi-
tions. We may doctor a sick cow and bring her back, but it is
hard to do so with a sheep. Sheep will pay with one man and be
a loss to another.

POULTRY POINTERS.

To Mr. Van Dreser.—Is animal meal what it is “ cracked up to be” to
feed laying hens?

Answer.—Animal meal is very good. The hen craves meat. If
she does not get protein meat she will pick feathers off from
another, or another’s combs. Dried blood or meat scraps make
good rations.

How much green ground bone ought to be fed to 20 hens, and how
often?

Answer.—We feed about half an ounce twice a week, in the
morning ration, mixing it with the grain food. It costs but little
and may be bought in Schenectady.

What breed of hens do you keep?

Answer.—The White Leghorns, single comb, which we keep
as long as they respond in eggs, at a profit. We have some that
are six years old.

Will Mr. Van Dreser give us his net profit per chicken?

Answer.—We made a whole lot of mistakes at first, because
we did not keep laying hens and had not studied their makeup.
When we had become educated, we cleared $1 per hen. Last year,
they paid us more than that, but it did not all come from eggs;

834 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

some pullets went to San Francisco, at $3 each, and we have sold
roosters for $25 each. Then too, we get pretty good prices for
eggs, having received 47 cents per dozen for them, this winter.

Will Mr. Van Dreser tell us how his hen houses are ventilated? Also,
how many hens he keeps in one flock?

Answer.—We have six-inch pipes that come to within six inches
of the floor and which terminate in a cowl in the roof. There is
a damper near the lower end, which is kept closed during the
night and opened in the morning. These tubes are made of gal-
vanized iron. They are 30 feet apart. This system keeps the
rooms drv and the air pure. No frost accumulates. We keep 50
hens in a flock.

How much hen manure do you get, and how do you save and utilize it?

Answer.—The hens are making about fifty bushels of manure
per week. Land plaster is plentifully spread on the platforms
under the perches, to absorb moisture and prevent the loss of
nitrogen, and the platforms are carefully cleaned twice a week.
The manure is kept in barrels in a dry place and run through a
threshing machine cylinder in the spring. When the winter
wheat has been sown, the finely prepared hen manure and plaster
is broadcasted over the fields.

What pattern of incubator do you use?

Answer.—‘ Prairie State.” We have enough of them to in-
eubate 1,400 eggs at a time, about 80 per cent. of which hatch.

Why are eggs less fertile in winter than in summer?

Answer.—Because the hens are kept indoors more than in sum-
mer, and therefore do not get proper exercise.

At what time of day is it the best to feed warm mash to poultry?

Answer.—We feed it in the morning. Prefer that time to the
noon hour.

What amount of land is required to raise sufficient sunflower seed for
100 hens? How much animal meal in the morning ration for 100 hens?

Mr. Van Dreser.—We put in a half acre of sunflower seed in
drills, one seed in a place, 18 inches apart, rows three feet apart.

Tue Question Box. 335

We had 65 bushels of nice, clean seed; sufficient for our 2,500 or
2,600 hens, but it must not be fed too heavily, as it is very laxa-
tive. Three pounds of animal meal to 100 pounds of mixed meal
will do for 100 hens.

Do you think that chickens ought to be in places where hogs or other
animals are kept?

Answer.—I wouldn’t do that. No respectable hen ought to
be compelled to associate with hogs, nor would I allow a hen
to roost on a carriage top. Give them a place by themselves.

Will hens lay in a room where water freezes at night, if they have the
proper foods?

Answer.—I think so, if the hen house is not cold, so as to
cause the hen to freeze her comb.

What is the best feed for laying hens in winter?

Mr. Converse.—It is a physical impossibility to make a fat hen
lay eggs. They must have protein foods. Our plan is to feed a
warm mash in the morning, made of a mixture of 200 pounds of
coarse wheat bran, 200 pounds of ground oats and peas, 200
pounds of yellow corn meal and 100 pounds of animal meal. It
is all mixed thoroughly and wet with skim-milk if we have it;
if not, warm water is used. The whole grain ration is composed
of one part of corn, one of wheat. This is scattered in the straw
on the floors, and the hens allowed to work for it. They should
also have some vegetables such as beets and cabbage; also some-
thing to make shell, such as ground oyster shells; also dust baths;
and there should always be provided an abundance of pure, clean
water.

Dr. Smead.—Mr. James Rice of Yorktown, well known to many
of you as an institute speaker, is a breeder of poultry on quite
a large scale, having at this time about 600 white, single-comb
Leghorns. His winter ration is whole wheat, three quarts to 50
hens, sprinkled broadcast in whole straw on the poultry house
floor. The straw is about a foot thick and the hens are forced
to work for the wheat, which gives them plenty of exercise. This
for the noon meal. Corn is fed at night for the hens to “go to
bed on,” and for the purpose of keeping up the grinding process
in the crops.

336 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

For the morning meal a mash made from the following formula
is fed: 100 pounds of ground oats, 200 pounds wheat bran, 100
pounds corn meal and 50 pounds of Bowker’s animal meal and
50 pounds old process oil meal. This is thoroughly mixed and a
warm mash made of it, either by the use of warm water or skim
milk, and only enough fed to be eaten cleanly. Care is also taken
to have the feeding troughs perfectly clean and sweet, and all the
pure clean water kept in a handy place but where the heng can-
not get earth or straw in it. Ground oyster shells are also used
for shell material and dust baths are placed in every room.
Early mown clover—aftermath, is best—cut finely and steamed,
is also fed. It is an excellent nitrogenous food for the hen, as
the egg is largely made up of albumen.

Mr. Litchard.—The last thing I did before leaving home was to
mix the hen ration, which was cracked corn and wheat. In the
morning we give a bushel of ensilage to 100 hens; beets are also
good for laying hens; so are cut bone and cracked oyster shells;
also meat scraps; if you live near a market buy refuse meat,
grind and feed it.

What is Mr. Van Dreser’s ration, aside from unground grain, millet,
wheat and sunflower seed, for his laying hens?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Mr. Van Dreser has gone, but, by reference
to a memorandum, I find it to be 100 pounds of oats and peas,
ground, 100 pounds of wheat bran, 100 pounds wheat middlings
with 50 pounds of Bowker’s animal meal. This is all mixed and
enough wet with hot water and sprinkled in the V-shaped
troughs to last about ten minutes. It is all eaten up, and the
troughs kept clean. This is the morning ration. The grain
ration is fed at noon, and corn for the supper meal.

What is the best food for young chickens?

Dr. Smead.—I don’t know. Some of you chicken-raisers tell
us. Don’t sit here, “keep mum,” then go out and discuss the
question.

Mr. Watson.—Hard boiled eggs to begin with for a few days,
then Johnny-cake, followed with cracked wheat.

Mr. Converse.—They should have some mineral matter. The
young chicks will pick at something white, so I give them
pounded egg shells.

EE

THE Question Box. BE

A Farmer.—Old earthen ware, made fine, makes a good grind-
ing food for young chicks.

Give some ideas for making a home-made chicken brooder?

No one present knew how to make a brooder. Mr. Van Alstyne
said that he believed it would not pay to attempt to make a home-

made affair.
Which makes the best hen house, stone or wood?
Mr. Ward.—Woo0d, every time, for cows, horses, sheep, hens or

anything else.

Should hens be shut up when the weather is cold, or be allowed to run
about?

Mr. Ward.—If one has a shed not open to the weather, perhaps
it would be better than a very warm hen house. Give them ex-
ercise, but in no exposed place.

” How is it best to give water to hens?

Mr. Everett.—We water our hens in a galvanized iron pan two
inches deep. The object is to have the pan so shaped that the
hens won’t get into it.

wnat will make hens lay eggs?

A Lady.—Plenty of good food.

Dr. Smead.—As a rule, the ladies are the most successful
poultry-raisers, and I wish the lady would tell us.

The Lady.—I can’t talk.

Dr. Smead.—Then I will give my method. First have the hen
house warm, light and dry, and free from vermin. Then feed
wheat, skim-milk, meat scraps and vegetables, scatter the grain
ration in the litter on the henhouse floor and make the hens
scratch and work for it.

How can you distinguish a hen that is laying eggs, from one which is
not?

Mr. Converse.—By the color of her comb, and the way the hen
appears when you go into the pen. Sometimes a hen gets too
fat; in that case she presents a sluggish appearance.

338 Bureau or Farmers’ INsrirures.

Is poultry, as it is usually kept on the farm, profitable? If not, how
shall it be made so?

Mr, Stevens.—I do not know any branch of stock farming
more profitable than poultry, nor of any better markets than
those along this river—the Hudson. We are sending money to
Europe for most kinds of stock, which ought to be kept at
home. Select the best breeds for eggs, care for them well, feed
them properly and you will reap profit from poultry. There are
several good breeds. The white and brown Leghorns and the
white and barred Plymouth Rocks are among them.

Which is the best pattern of incubator?

Mr. Converse.—There is but little difference between the values
of three or four varieties. The “Prairie State” is a good one,
but there are others just as good. They are very much like the
mowing machines; as a rule, all are good. But there are some
cheap incubators being advertised. . Don’t buy one of them unless
some one whom you know has experimented with it. Go slow.
Buy the best.

Which is most profitable to use in hatehing chickens, the hen or incu-
bator? Which is best?

Dr. Smead.—When we kept Brahmas we had no difficulty in
finding a sitting hen. The Leghorns will not stick to the nests.
If one is going to make a business of raising chickens on quite
a large scale, I would buy an incubator. Sometimes, I think I
will buy one for the neighborhood and let everybody use it. An
incubator, however, will not run itself, so it must be looked after
by someone who will follow the directions of the maker, and it
costs no more to run one having a capacity of 200 eggs than one
of a less number, and I believe that the incubator is the coming
“hatcher,” whether for a large or small number of eggs. There
are several patterns, all which are good, the “ Prairie State”
being as good as any.

Mr. Rice.—All will depend. If one is engaged quite largely in
poultry-raising, and will give proper attention and care, use the
incubator and brooder. If only in a small way, say 50 or 100
chicks which are to be given the usual farm care, get a few good
old fashioned Barred Plymouth Rocks, and give them the job of

THE Question Box. 339

hatching the chicks. This breed of hen will stick to the nest till the
last chick comes out of the shell, while no better or more devoted
hen mother ever clucked or cackled. Then, too, when she has done
laying eggs and rearing chicken families, she will be found one of
the best of fowl for the table. But do not attempt to hatch
chicks by using a white Leghorn. She will start in with a great
deal of hurrah and preparation, but in a few days will leave the
nest and begin laying eggs again. In that respect, she is quite
like some men who are never contented to stick to one sort of
work more than a week at a time. But the Barred Plymouth
Rock is not built on that plan nor along that line. When it
comes to going on the nest and hatching chickens she will always
be found a “ stayer.”

What breed of poultry pays best on a small farm?

The Reporter.—The one that pays best on a large farm. Why
not?

Mr. Ward.—Mrs. Hollister recommended, yesterday, the Buff
Leghorns and gave statements of very extraordinary yields. Of
20 breeds she has found this one the best.

Are oats a good food for hens? If not, what are the best foods for
laying hens?

Mr. Wall.—Oats are best when ground with corn and fed in a
mash, to which may be added equal parts of bran and middlings,
vegetables, cut clover or clover meal, and some animal food. Grit
in some form and pure water are essential. Wheat is the best
whole grain for all seasons. Corn in moderation is a good ration
for the evening feeding in cold weather. It pays to warm whole
grain and feed in a litter.

What is the comparative cost of a pound of chicken with other meats
on the farm?

A Farmer.—lI have found that, one year with another, a pound
of chicken can be purchased as cheaply as a pound of any other
meat on the farm, and I am satisfied that a pound of it pays twice
as well as does a pound of pork. I began a few years
since with fifty hens, and have increased the flock to
500, and find I can make $1 net per hen. It does not

340 Bureau or Farmers’: [NstiruTeEs.

cost me any more to keep eighty hens than it does to keep one cow.
If I can get $1 per hen, you see I am getting nearly three times as
much from the hens as from the cow. I have 150 White Leghorns,
the others are mixed, but the record for the entire flock is neariy
200 eggs each per year.

What is the best yield of eggs from 50 hens?

Mr. Cook.—For one I will say I do not know, but I believe that
Mr. Wyckoff of Tompkins county, holds the record from 100 or
more. No one present could give a report from a flock of fifty.

A Farmer.—I know a minister whose Plymouth Rocks pro-
duced 215 eggs each last year, and they are not ranked as special-
purpose fowls, either.

Mr. Ward.—I mistrust there is something the matter with that
minister’s bookkeeping. The best record I have ever heard of,
was 198 eggs per hen. I guess that some other hens must have
got in and laid in those nests.

What is the cause of hens pulling feathers, and is there a cure for it?

Mr. Chapman.—It is a habit with some hens. When one has it,
cut off her head. As a rule, however, it is caused by a want of
albuminoids in the food. Give them some oil meal, meat scraps
or other like foods; cut clover in winter is also a good food.

What are the best methods of preserving eggs, and how long will they
keep?

Mr. Ward.—We don’t want to preserve eggs, but eat or sell
them as fast as they are laid. We have heard enough about cold-
storage eggs. One can hardly go into a hotel and get fresh eggs.
Keep and feed the hens so that they will lay right along.

Mr. Chapman.—If it were not for cold storage, eggs could not
be given away in summer. But eggs may be preserved in lime
water, although the system is too expensive.

A Farmer.—I have limed eggs, and they came out in such fine
condition as to defy inspection. I had no difficulty in selling them
for 22 cents per dozen.

Mr. Ward.—Possibly, but I would rather have newly laid eggs,
and I believe that most customers prefer them to salted, limed or
cold-storage eggs. As to the keeping qualities of preserved or cold-

THE Question Box. 341

storage eggs, I know nothing, but I think that such eggs would
have to be eaten very soon after being exposed to normal con-
ditions.

A Farmer.—Is it essential to feed oyster shells in the summer?

Mr. Gould.—Yes; they will eat as many in summer as in winter.

Mr. Laird.—I find that our hens do not eat nearly as many
shells in the summer as in winter; another thing, unless a hen
is laying eggs she will not eat many shells.

Mr. Cook.—It will depend on the soil and conditions; if the
hens have a large run and the soil is not too clayey the hens will
not eat many oyster shells in summer.

What is the best general purpose fowl?

Mr. Ward.—We do not want any “general purpose” fowl.
Get a special purpose fowl. We can’t ride two horses in opposite
directions at once. Either have an egg-producing or meat-pro-
ducing hen.

Mr. Converse.—Nor do I. I have no use for general purpose
hens, cows, horses, hogs, or dogs. Special purpose animals or
fowl is my motto every time.

What effect has venetian red on eggs?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know what the writer means by the ques-
tion. Perhaps he thinks that to paint the hens red he can get
Easter eggs that way; but I will not paint my White Leghorns.

Which breed of turkey is the most profitable?
Mr. Chapman.—The bronze; they may be made to weigh 20
pounds each.

Which breed of hens are best for egg production?

Mr. Chapman.—In our town, one may go its whole length and
find nothing but White Leghorns. The Plymouth Rocks are a
hardier bird, but not so valuable for egg production.

How best to manage turkeys the most profitably?

A Farmer.—Feed them.

Mr. Cook.—I am told there are a thousand turkeys near here—
Rodman—that are to be slaughtered for Thanksgiving. Will
Some one tell us how to feed turkeys?

342 Bureau or Farmers’ IwstTitTurTes.

A Farmer.—We begin with bread and milk, which is continued
about four weeks. Then we feed grain, beginning with wheat.
Later on other grains are fed.

A Farmer.—If you wait till to-night I will bring my wife down,
who will tell you all about it. She is at home to-day, picking
turkeys. It is a trick to raise them, and do it well, but she
knows how to do it.

What is the best food for young turkeys?

Dr. Smead.—My wife raises turkeys. She has fed bread, but
occasionally a turkey would go wrong, then die. Now she feedsa
custard with the sugar out, the first month; this is followed with
oatmeal later. When the large feathers begin to grow, the birds
are troubled with what we term “ droops” and die. It is a critical
time and I am convinced that it is caused by a want of protein
food, so we feed ground fresh meat scraps fined in a sausage cut-

ter. It seems to meet the requirements of the case very well
indeed.

What is the best way to feed sour milk to hens?

Mr. Cook.—Sour milk, if the curd is in it, is a valuable protein
food, for the hen, but it ought not to be allowed to become too
sour. Place it where the hen can eat it, but do not feed too much,
and be sure to keep the feeding dishes clean.

What shall we do to cause hens to molt?

Mr. Ward.—Sunflower seed is the food used by Mr. Van Dres-
ser, to hasten the molting season.

How large should a hen house be for 100 hens?

Mr. Converse.—We allow about four square feet per hen, when
the hens are kept continually in the building. We keep 50 in a
flock.

What causes “ gapes” in chickens and what will prevent them?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Gapes in chickens come from a worm in the
soil, and it is said the gape worm comes from the angle worm, and
it is most prevalent when the chickens run on old angle worm
infested ground. When the coops are placed on sod ground or on

THE Question Box. 343

board floors, gapes are seldom seen. Air-slaked lime sprinkled
lightly on the chicks will cause them to sneeze out the worms, at
times, and they are sometimes removed by the use of a feather.

Is it not better to feed soft food te hens at night than in the morning?

Mr. Stevens.—I ‘have experimented on both lines, with both
the American and Asiatic breeds, and have concluded to feed the
warm mash in the morning. At noon, grain, made of a mixture
of two-thirds oats and one-third corn. I do not know that I would
make any difference between white and yellow corn, except for
exhibition purposes. For those I would feed white flint corn. It
is known as “ white sanford.”

Are beets better for hens than flat turnips? Will hens eat turnips as
well as beets?

Mr. Rice.—I think a ton of beets is worth more to feed hens
than an equal weight of flat turnips. They are sweeter and
juicier. The actual difference in food nutrients, however, is very
slight. Figuring from analysis, we find that in a ton of mangels
there are 2.2 per cent. protein, 10.8 per cent. carbohydrates, 2 per
cent. fat; flat turnips, 2 per cent. protein, 14.4 per cent. carbohy-
drates, 4 per cent. fat. The nutritive ratio for the mangels is
1 of protein to 5.1 carbohydrates, and for flat turnips 1 of protein
to 7.6 carbohydrates. The real difference is more on account of
the tenderness and fine flavor of the beets. Notwithstanding all
this, we always raise plenty of turnips for the hens, because it
is so much cheaper to produce them. In fact,. we have nearly
ceased raising beets. They require the whole season to grow.
They must have exceptionally rich ground to make a good crop,
and of necessity need considerable care and some hand weeding.
They are expensive. The turnips we sow broadcast after early
potatoes or in the corn or young orchards at the last cultivation.
They hustle for themselves. All we have to do is to pull and top
them. They are therefore cheap; while hens usually prefer raw
beets to raw turnips; they like both. Cooking greatly improves
the turnip; when it is boiled and mixed in with the ground feed
it makes a very savory mash. The fowl] like it. If you don’t
believe it, try it.

344 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTirures.

THE DAIRY COW—CARE AND FEEDS.

Do you recommend the keeping of cows in the stable constantly in
winter?

Mr. Terry.—Not if they are milch cows. The modern cow is
purely an artificial one, and she should have abundance of fresh
air, and exercise. We used to hear it said that we must keep
cows constantly in the stables in winter, in order to secure more
butter fat, but there is something else to be considered beside
butter fat, and that is the cow’s health and that of her progeny.

Are raw potatoes good to feed milch cows? If not, why not?

Mr. Terry.—Yes; in small quantities; not more than four quarts
per day at first. Possibly, later the quantity may be slightly in-
creased. But they are a starchy food and should be properly
balanced with some protein foods.

What shall I feed, if I have timothy, in place of clover?

Mr. Cook.—You all know the difference between timothy and
clover. The latter contains about twice as much protein as does
the former. The cow must have the protein. It is not in timothy
hay. If you feed that, you will have to feed more wheat bran,
gluten, linseed or some other protein grain, than if you fed clover.
I could not answer the gentleman’s question except I saw his hay.

What grain ration would you feed with corn stalks and oat straw now,
to cows coming fresh in the spring?

Mr. Litchard.—Wheat bran, linseed meal and some ground oats.
Cornstalks have a nutritive ratio of 1 to 17, so something must
be fed to narrow the ration. ‘These foods will do it.

About what per cent. of loss is there when feeding ripe whole grain
to cows?

Mr. Converse.—I don’t know just what the question means, 1n-
Jess it be unthreshed grains. As a rule, more feeding value may
be gotten from ground grains; but I should mix it with the
coarser fodder, as both are more easily and fully digested.

A Farmer.—I believe there is a loss of fully 50 per cent. in
feeding such unthreshed grain, over that ground. If you had en-
Silage, sprinkle ground grain on it. We have fed it to horses
during the last ten years, with good results. When I say ensilage,

Tue Question Box. 345

I mean that made from matured corn and stored in a frost-proof,
air-tight silo; not ensilage that is sour or moldy.

How large ration do you recommend for a good butter cow?

Mr. Baker of Schenevus.—Once we have a good cow, she should
be fed all she will eat, assimilate and digest of good milk-pro-
ducing foods, no more; if she is, the extra food will be thrown
away. We should begin with the calf by feeding it properly,
and the foods should be those that will stimulate the milk pro-
ducing organs and thus develop them, else they will remain dor-
mant, the milk-producing functions destroyed in part at least,
and the calf be forced to lay on fat. When this course is pursued
with the calf, the habit cannot be changed when cowhood has
been reached.

Mr. Van Alstyne agreed with Mr. Baker, and said he had been
breeding up his herd, with the view of producing butter fat and
had got the herd up to 5 per cent. fat. That point having been
reached, he did not want to go higher. He did not believe it pos-
sible to maintain a higher per cent. of fat and keep up the milk
flow. Asarule, the Jersey breeders are looking after more milk
and a little less fat; while the Holstein breeders are after less
milk and more fat. If however, he can secure 7 per cent. cows
together with a proportionate quantity of milk, when compared
with good 5 per cent. cows, he was ready to invest in them.

Mr. Cass said he disagreed with Mr. Van Alstyne. He had
cows that are giving a good flow of 7 per cent. milk; if he could
get moze than that, he wanted it.

Mr. Van Alstyne——How many pounds of milk do your 7 per
cent. cows give per day?

Mr. Cass.—I don’t know; I don’t weigh milk, I weigh butter;
but they give enough milk to make 8 pounds of butter per day.

Can we afford to feed the cow on hay and grass alone?

Mr. Cook.—I would not want to feed the cow alone on either
one, but I should want to see the hay. If there were a reasonable
amount of clover in it, I think one could feed a full ration of hay.
If you have no ensilage, about 20 pounds a day would be a proper
feed. The question is a very indefinite one.

346 Bureau or Farmers’ InstTitTureEs.

Hay is $11 per ton, mill feed $18; which had we better feed for butter?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—It would depend on conditions. If the cow
is fresh in milk and is worth anything, and we want to make milk
in winter, she certainly ought to be fed grain. Whether it would
pay to feed grain in summer would depend on the pasture. [If it
was very short, and the cow a good one, it will pay in the long
run to feed her some grain.

Should cows be watered directly after being fed?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I don’t think that will make much differ-
ence. If the cow wants water, she will drink it; if not, she won’t.
Nor do I think it makes much difference whether she has it twice
or three times a day.

Mr. Cook.—Water a cow twice a day, and I believe that, if we
can have the water pure and clean, the place to water the cow is
in the barn; and, theoretically, the water ought to be at a tempera-
ture of 98 degrees, but the cow seems to prefer it at a tempera-
ture of 50 to 60 degrees. She ought not to be forced to drink ice-
water, as she must eat an extra quantity of food to warm it up to
the temperature of her body.

What ails the cows? In November the test was lower than in October;
then higher in December. The rations were the same and the same per-
son had charge of them.

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know. Have seen the same thing in our
herds and among the herds of our patrons. I can’t answer the
question.

What is the best early summer feed to grow for milch cows?

Mr. Converse.—I incline to the belief that ensilage is the
cheaper. Very many farmers are building siloes for summer
feeding. If you do not have it, grow alfalfa or oats and peas.
Alfalfa is, perhaps, best, for, when you get a good stand, it will
last a number of years, while from two to four cuttings may be
made in a season.

Can apples be fed to milch cows, successfully?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Yes; but I would begin with not more than
four quarts of mature apples per day; then increase the quantity
to a peck. The quality of the apples will depend somewhat on

THe Question Box. 347

the amount. They are of the most benefit when fed with coarse
fodder, hay, cornstalks, straw or ensilage.

What is the best food for a milch cow in winter, and how much shall
she be fed?

Mr. Cook.—It will all depend: First, what is the roughage, and
what is the capacity of the cow. We should aim to feed that
which will produce most at cheapest cost, and then, if we have a
cow that will profitably respond, we should feed her all she will
fligest and assimilate. One cow will require more, another, less,
and one cow will respond better to one ration than will another.
The question implies an experiment together with the cost of the
foods.

Wanted: A balanced ration for milk that will test 3.5 per cent. fat,
asing corn stalks, corn meal and oats?

Mr. Cook.—That might do, but, I think I would leave out the
corn meal. Of course, it would depend very much on the quality
of the corn stalks.

How about selling oats and buying wheat bran?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t believe I would do it. We have had this
thing somewhat overdone. I mean this advice of selling oats and
buying bran. But it would all depend on the price of the oats
and the quality of the bran.

Should a heifer persistent in milk be dried off before her second calf,
having milked only 10 months?

A Farmer.—No; keep right on milking her.

Mr. Converse.—I do not believe a man ought to feed a cow with
the intention of drying her off, nor should the grain ration be
taken off for that purpose. But I would feed less grain and less
roughage.

In dairying with four or five cows, which breed is the best to keep for
butter and to raise stock for beef to be ready for market at two years
of age? Would you keep Thoroughbreds or crosses, and what breed or
what cross?

Mr. Converse.—I would not combine the two, nor would I cross
two breeds. If I wanted milk, not butter, I would select the
Holstein. If butter, I would invest in the Jersey or Guernsey,

348 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTirures.

both give milk rich in butter fat. But, do not invest in a general
purpose cow; either go after beef or butter. If the latter, select
a dairy breed.

For a family cow in a village, what breed or grade do you prefer?

A lady.—A Jersey cow is the one to invest in.

Mr. Cook.—I incline to the belief that the lady is right. If one
wants a reasonable quantity of good, rich milk, the Jersey, I
think, will fill the bill.

A voice.—How about the Ayrshire?

Mr. Cook.—As a rule, the Ayrshire gives a good flow of milk, in
quality between the Holstein and Jersey. The average butter fat
per cent. in such milk is not far from 3.5 to 4. But there are Jer-
seys and Jerseys. Some of them are very poor sticks, while there
are some Ayrshires that are fine individuals and rich milkers.

Would a cow that was poor in flesh give poor milk?

Mr. Cook.—I am not going to say she would or would not; but
if a cow is in her normal condition she will give normal milk. I
have seen cows giving a large quantity of milk that was very rich
in fat, yet they were poor in flesh. I saw one at the Geneva sta-
tion that was giving 32 pounds of milk per day, rich in fat, but
you would not want her in your herd.

At what age should heifers come in milk?

Mr. Eastman.—From 18 to 24 months, but there may be a
difference in breeds; if, however, I could have it as I wanted I
would have the time from 20 to 22 months; at that age she will
do well and nearly fully develop by the time she is three years old.
We want to develop the cow from the start, beginning early.
We have one heifer that we milked 106 days before she was two
years old, and she gave 204 pounds the last day.

What would you sow for pasture grass where you plow up your pasture
to kill out weeds, to have something fresh for your cows the same season,
if you sowed it in the spring?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t hardly know. Orchard grass is good when
kept closely fed. Meadow fescues and the white clovers are also
good. Orchard grass, if allowed to grow too large, becomes hard
and woody. We have it eight years in ong pasture, but it is kept

Tue Question Box. 349

eaten down close. If I were to plow up my pasture to kill out
weeds I would sow rye to feed early.

I would ask Mr. Converse if some breeds of cows will not hold out in
their milk better than will other breeds?

Mr. Converse.—No, sir; it is not a case of breed, but of indi-
viduality. Some cows of a breed will hold out longer than will
others, whether they be Guernseys, Ayrshires, Jerseys or Hol-
steins.

How does the cow secrete her milk, or give up or withhold butter fat?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know. The darkest place in the world, said
Governor Hoard, is the inside of a cow. The nervous cow gives
most butter fat and will withhold it more than will any other
type.

Taking a good healthy herd of cows, feeding them good corn ensilage,
80 to 35 pounds each, daily, with two full feeds of clover and timothy,
with a good grain ration of bran, oats and corn, say seven pounds of the
mixture and three pounds of cottonseed meal, ought such a ration produce
a good quantity of milk? What changes would you suggest, if any, to
better the quality and quantity of milk?

Mr. Cook.—I should think that would be a very good ration
indeed, but one ought to watch the cows and feed accordingly.
The weak point in that formula is its cottonseed meal, the per
cent. being pretty high.

Will it be profitable to feed ensilage in summer?

Mr. Ward.—Most assuredly. The time is close at hand when
every man who keeps live-stock will have a summer silo. It is
coming and will come to stay. I have seen ensilage three years
old that was perfectly sweet and as good as new.

Does a mixture of peas, oats and barley make a balanced ration for
cows giving milk in summer?

Mr. Converse.—I would leave out the barley.

Mr. Cook.—That would make a good ration, and I am of the
opinion that it is not a good plan to begin balancing a ration in
summer for the old cow till she has all she wants to eat.

A Farmer.—Would you feed a cow grain in summer

Mr. Cook.—It would depend on the value of the milk; but our
practice at home is to feed some grain every day. We buy
cheaply as we can, and get all we can for what we sell.

350 Bureau or Farmers’ INstrirures.

Which is the best time to feed grain to milch cows, before or after
feeding fodder?

Mr. Gould.—It does not make much difference, but I prefer to
feed it before; do not feed it while she is eating roughage; if you
have not fed it before, wait till after you are through milking.

Does 60 or 70 pounds of ensilage, one of pea meal, three of bean meal
and four of mixed feed, make a good ration?

Mr. Gould.—To guess, I would say there was enough protein in
such a formula to balance the ration.

Does it pay to weigh and test milk?

Mr. Ward.—I believe that a man ought to weigh and test each
cow’s milk, so as to be able to weed out all the poor ones.

Mr. Jerry Clarke.—I had 11 cows which made me $100 worth of
butter each, in a year. I also sold a pair of oxen for $300. They
were Holsteins, too. One man here says that there is no such
thing as a general purpose cow, but I know better. Mine not
only brought me good results in butter, but calves also.

What effect will buckwheat bran have on a cow in calf?

Mr. Cook.—I would feed buckwheat middlings in place of the
bran, but I would not feed them exclusively. It is better to
add some wheat bran or gluten. Then too, the nature of the
course fodder must be considered; the best of which, for such a
cow, is corn ensilage if we are to feed these grains. We want to
balance the ration, and, a cow in calf, must be fed so as to perfect
the calf as well as to keep the mother in good condition; so, then,
there must be protein to furnish blood and growth for the un-
born calf, as well as for the mother.

What is the proper ration to be fed with timothy hay for butter?

Mr. Cook.—Timothy hay is a carbonaceous food and will not
produce much milk, if fed alone. To get best results from it, one
should feed the protein foods such has have been recommended@
here, viz., wheat bran, buckwheat middlings, gluten, linseed meal.
and oats and peas, always taking into consideration the indi-
viduality of the cow, then feeding accordingly.

Tue Question Box. S51

What variety of grain is best to feed for milk and butter, for best
results?

Mr. Litchard—It would depend on the quality of the hay.
Clover hay is much more valuable for feeding a cow than is mixed
hay or timothy. Corn stalks left out till this season, have a ratio
of 1 to 17. Bran and linseed meal would be the most profitable
to feed with ensilage or hay. Eight to ten pounds of bran, three
of linseed meal and 30 to 40 pounds of ensilage will make as good
ration for an ordinary cow, as we can formulate. With clover,
less bran and linseed may be fed.

Is rape a good food for milch cows?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—There is no question about the value of rape.
It is, however, a sheep food; but it may be fed in a limited quan-
tity to cows. If you want it-for spring feed, sow it early in the
spring. If for fall feeding, sow it in August, but it may be sown
in the corn during the last cultivation for fall feeding. Dwarf
Essex is a good variety.

What would be the result if rape were sown later than the last of April
or first of May? Would such seeding last until fall?

Mr. Ward.—No; I would not sow it then for fall feeding.
Forty-five days are time enough. From the 10th to the 20th day
of June is early enough. It will then be ready to cut in August,
while the little red louse, that attacks early-sown rape, will not
appear. Sow the Dwarf Essex variety.

Is this a good ration for milch cows, viz.: 10 pounds of ensilage, 10
pounds of timothy hay, seven pounds of gluten meal, one pound of peas
and oats?

Mr. Van Wagenen.—That is almost an ideal ration. It is a
little wider than the German standard but is very nearly like the
one the professor put on the blackboard, having a ratio of 1 to 5.9

When the farmer is depending on the factory, that runs but eight
months of a year, and he only wants his cows to go dry two months, which
two months are best for his cows to go dry?

Mr. Ward.—I would turn that question around and run the
factory twelve months, if I could get a man to do it.

Mr. Converse.—The man will do it, if he can get the milk. We
ought to produce more milk in winter than in summer; while

352 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirvures.

the same cow will give 1,000 pounds more milk during the year
when she drops her calf in the fall, than in the spring, if she
is well cared for and properly fed.

To Mr. Van Dreser.—How would you test the individuality of a cow?

Answer.—First, have her well, then feed her well. Feed a
cow all she will eat, digest and assimilate, first finding if the cow
will pay a profit on what she eats and the care she receives. You
will ascertain her worth by the use of the scales and the Bab-
cock test.

What is the matter with this ration: 15 pounds of timothy hay, five
pounds of clover hay, four pounds of gluten feed, 15 pounds of roots
and four pounds of bran?

Mr. Cook.—I see nothing the matter with it; it is, in fact, al-
most an ideal one, having a ratio of 1 to 5.4.

Shall we grind grain for cows finely or have it coarse?

Dr. Smead.—As a rule, fine, but, in oats, it is not necessary to
grind the oat hull finely. If it is only crushed it will do, but the
finer the inside or kernel is ground, the better. If you are going
to feed ground oats to pigs, sift out the hulls, and the finer corn
is ground, the better. Some animals, as a rule, do not masticate
grains properly.

What is the best grain ration, with corn ensilage and hay, for the
production of milk?

Mr. Cook.—Wheat bran or wheat middlings are as good if not
better, all things considered, than any other foods. Gluten is a
good food, but it does not contain enough mineral element. We
are too apt to look for protein only; but the cow must have min-
eral matter. Gluten does not furnish it and I should not want
to feed a cow enough cotton seed meal to give her the requisite
quantity of mineral matter. If I remember correctly, there is four
times the quantity of mineral matter in wheat bran as in gluten.
But a mixture of wheat bran and gluten, half and half, with good
corn ensilage, would make an excellent ration.

How about barley sprouts?

Mr. Cook.—Malt sprouts and wheat bran, according to the
tables, contain the same per cent. of protein, making the figures

Ture Question Box. 353

100 each, while H. O. dairy feed is figured at 103, gluten feeds
120, gluten meals 152, old process linseed meal 135, cotton seed
meal 152, Buffalo gluten 125. These figures are on the basis of
wheat bran at 85 cents per hundred pounds for the protein value.
The starch foods on a basis of corn meal at say $1 per hundred
are valued as follows: Corn meal $1, “Quaker Oat” feed 85
cents, oat hulls 75 cents, “ H. O.” horse feed 95 cents. I think
we lose sight of one great point, that is, we are feeding the cow
for the special purpose of getting milk and overlooking the most
important ones of her health and that of her posterity.

Will Mr. Gould tell us what breed of dairy cows would be the best for
a general-purpose cow, in his opinion?

Answer.—Why not ask what machine will do all the work on
the farm. We cannot have a cow that will give a lot of milk
one day, a heifer calf one year and a bull the next, and, lastly,
beef, and have her a success. The farmer must use the best he
has; then breed up. One man wants a Jersey, another a Guern-
sey and soon. Take the best you have got. Breed up and stick
tothem.

Will young cows do‘as well when standing beside old cows through
the winter as they would if in separate stables?

Mr. Cook.—I do not know why they will not. We have both
old and young cows standing side by side, and have had every
year, but I never have detected any difference between them and
those which were standing alone.

How long should a cow go dry?

Dr. Smead.—Just as long as she wants to. Don’t strive to-
dry her off. Nature made her as she is. If she wants to give
milk till she drops her calf, let her do it. I have a cow that has
been milked every day during seventeen years, and her oldest
daughter is owned by my hired man. That old cow has never
been milked without eating a grain ration. The daughter is as
persistent a milker as is her mother. The old cow gave 6,800
pounds of milk last year, testing from 4.8 to 5.2 per cent. of fat;
and there has been no falling off in her milk flow during the last
ten years. The old cow is a cross between the Jersey and Ayr-
shire.

12

354 Bureau oF Farmers’ Iwstrirvures.

Do you think it advisable to milk a cow right along like that?

Answer.—No. If I could have my way about it I would have
her go dry about one month; but if you ask me why, I shall say
“IT don’t know.” But one thing is sure, the cow that milks right
along and drops her calf every year, will not have milk fever.
It is the big milker that goes dry awhile and is fed large rations
of concentrated foods, which make a surplus of blood, or the
one that runs in rich June pasture when she freshens, that has
milk fever.

Two weeks before the calf is dropped, give the cow three-
quarters of a pound of Epsom salts and a teaspoonful of pow-
dered gentian. Repeat the dose every five days till after the
calf is born. This medicine thins the blood and stimulates the
liver so that it will not become torpid. This treatment is fol-
lowed by my neighbors and have heard of but one case of milk
fever in the neighborhood in eight years.

Mr. Converse.—I should never feed a cow to dry her up. Ifa
cow has been bred to give milk the year round, it will be hard to
dry her off. If, however, she has been bred and fed to go dry
four months it will be hard to prevent it. But I should not fuss
with a cow that wants to go dry four months; let some other
fellow fuss with her; milk her right along, if she persists in
giving milk.

Is it any particular sign that the digestive apparatus of a cow cannot
find any particular element in a food because a chemist cannot do it?

Mr. Cook—I don’t know. But a cow will find in some
foods that which the chemist does not. As a rule, however,
the cow and the chemist agree. But the two differ in succulent
foods. The chemist finds water; and the cow finds it, but
gets a benefit from it that she could not from separated
water. This difference the chemist cannot find. But, when
the chemist and the cow are consulted as to the analyses
of dry foods, such as gluten, bran or corn meal, they fully
agree. June grass has a feeding value, which, if the grass
were cut and dried into hay it would not have. The differ-
ence is caused by the water or juice in the grass being partly
dried out. When this moisture has been dried out, the grass
loses in feeding value, nor can it be restored by wetting it with

Tue Question Box. 355

water. We all know that a cow will give a larger flow of milk
on June grass than on any other food.

What would the offspring be, if a cow milked steadily?

Mr. Converse.—If I could control conditions I should milk a
cow eleven months, but I cannot always do it, so if a cow is so
persistent as to milk right along I let her do it. It is dangerous
to dry off such a cow. The tendency would be that a calf from
such a cow would be a persistent milker.

Mr. Cook.—I would not dry off such a cow; but I will say that
our best cows are those which milk about ten months.

Does it pay to wet meal to be fed to cattle with water?

Mr. Cook.—I have made many experiments in feeding wet and
dried grains, and am convinced that it does not pay to wet them.

A Farmer.—I wet the grain ration for my cows and am satis-
fied that it pays, for the reason that the caw does not waste so
much by scattering it while eating.

Mr. Cook.—The cow will not eat a dry ration so ravenously
as she will a wet one, besides, she will wet it sufficiently with
saliva.

Which is the most profitable way a farmer can use his oat straw on a
dairy farm?

Mr. Ward.—As Mr. Converse has said, oats cut at the stage
when they have half turned to a yellow color, then cured and
threshed, will contain a large feeding value when fed to stock;
but, if left till they are fully ripe, the best use that can be applied
to the straw is to use it for bedding in the stable.

Will it injure a cow to milk her all the year around?

Mr. Pingrey.—I prefer to have a cow go dry at least six weeks;
except, perhaps, a heifer. I should milk a heifer as long as I
could get a tea-cupful of milk from her. I have cows, however,
that I can milk the year round, but I do not care to do it.

Mr. Ward.—What would you do in this case—I have a cow
due to come fresh in less than three weeks that is giving two
large milk-pans full of milk every day.

Mr. Pingrey.—Milk her.

356 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrrvures.

Mr. Ward.—That is just what we are doing and shall keep
doing.

Mr. Pingrey.—Some cows at such a stage of gestation give
gargety milk. Should they be milked?

Mr. Converse.—Yes; if you stop, the cow will lose a portion
or the whole of the udder.

A Farmer.—Would you stop milking a cow when she begins
to “spring bag?”

Mr. Converse.

It would depend upon the quantity of milk she
was giving. If the mess was large, I would not.

What is the comparative value of hominy meal and gluten feed for
milch cows?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I have not the tables with me, but I
think that hominy is worth about $2 less per ton than is corn
meal, while gluten is wholly a different food. One is carbonace-
ous, the other nitrogenous, so do not compare at all. -

How much cotton seed meal would you feed, if any?

Mr. Cook.—Not to exceed two pounds; and I would feed it dry
with the dry coarse fodders.

Do cows need a grain ration when in pastures? If so, what is best to
feed?

Mr. Smith—If there was all the pasture the cows required,
probably they would not need any grain ration; but, as a rule, in
the average pasture in dry weather the cows do not get enough
to eat unless they wander about all day. When a cow does this
she is not making milk, and must necessarily shrink her milk
flow. The most successful dairymen I know to-day in this State
feed grain every day in the year.

What grains would you feed?

Answer.---W heat bran and cotton-seed meal; but 1 would not
begin with more than half a pound of cotton-seed meal and would
not feed more than a pound of it per day. It is a concentrated
food and must be fed judiciously.

Dr. Smead.—Oats and peas would come in very well for such
feeding. Buckwheat middlings are a good food, but they make ~
a poor quality of butter. Besides, their manurial value is not

Tae Question Box. 350

very great; much less than in some of the other protein foods.
The manurial value in buckwheat middlings is mostly in the
nitrogen, the whole being $5.16 per ton.

Are roots equal to grain for producing milk and butter?

Mr. Litchard.—That is a hard question to answer. Both are
necessary. The value of roots is found in their succulence, and if
one does not have ensilage, he should provide roots for the cows.
Their value is more in the aid they give to digesting other foods
than in the food itself.

How often would you advise the salting of cows?

Mr. Cook.—Keep salt where the cow can have free access to it.
She will not eat it except when she craves it, nor take any more
at a time than she wants.

~ How much grain should a heifer one year old be fed with hay and
ensilage?

Mr. Cook.—It would depend on the heifer. As well ask how
many buckwheat cakes a man ought to eat in the morning. Pos-
sibly a pound of bran and oats, or some buckwheat middlings
might be added.

How can the best ration be made at this time of year for milch cows
(February 1st)?

Mr. Converse.—Special relation should be made with the coarse
foods. Feed ensilage at night and morning—about 20 pounds
each; feed at noon some clover hay. The grain may be bran, oats
and peas or gluten meal, to furnish protein. If you do not have
any ensilage or clover, but timothy or mixed hay instead, a little
corn meal may be added to furnish starch and sugar.

What is the difference between a gluten feed and gluten meal?

Dr. Van Slyke.—I think the per cent. of protein in gluten meal
is between 35 and 40. That in the feed, somewhat less. A bulle-
tin issued by the station will give the figures. You may get the
bulletin by asking for it. If you do not get it, it will not be our
fault.

Mr. Dawley.—Cornell has also issued a bulletin—No. 154—giv-
ing all the analyses of these foods, as well as others.

358 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

How often should cows be fed during the day?

Mr. Cook.—Well, I am inclined to think that twice a day for
both ground and coarse food is enough. Such a practice has
given just as good results with us as has feeding three times, but
we must feed uniformly; not twice to-day, three times to-morrow,
and four times the next day.

Does it pay to grind the corn-cob to feed?

Dr. Smead.—No; but it will pay to grind the corn and cob
together, the cob being ground finely. Best results will come
from mixing it with wheat bran, there being a little fibre in the
bran, which the animal seems to require. I use an iron sweep
power mill, and grind my corn and cob together, doing it finely.

At what age should a heifer begin to breed?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know; but if I should tell you that 50 of
our best cows now in milk, dropped their first calf at three years,
you might consider me as heterodox. Yet such is the case; but
the cows are magnificent Holsteins. One will have to study the
animal and breed. If the cow comes from a breed or family that
were bred to drop their first calf early, I would allow her to do it.
As a rule, however, I prefer to have the young heifer become
matured before she becomes a mother.

Does it pay to feed cows grain this time of year (November 25th)? If
so, how much?

Mr. Henry Stevens.—It would depend somewhat on the condi-
tion of the cow, whether she gave a little or a good mess of milk.
I think, however, at the present prices of butter and cheese that
it will pay. f

Mr. Farrington.—My father always said, “ Feed the cows grain
in the fall of the year.”

Mr. Cook.—I don’t like this idea of talking about feeding a cow,
now. We want to feed a little grain all the time. If we do not
feed till now, the chances are the cow will put it all on her back.
I have known instances where a ton of bran was fed and not a
cent of it was gotten back. We feed some grain all the time.

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Tue Question Box. 359

What is the value of the proprietary cattle foods compared with gluten?

Mr. Cook.—‘‘ Sixteen to one.” Gluten is sixteen; the other not
more than one. The basis of all these prepared foods is linseed
meal, costing about $30 per ton. There is a little tonic and salt,
which cost but little, while the preparations are sold for about
$300 per ton to the man who is fool enough to buy them.

Dr. Smead.—Mr. Cook’s remarks apply fully as well to the con-
dition powders sold. They have a basis of linseed meal with
powdered gentian, saltpetre, ginger, charcoal and anise seed. The
cost of 100 pounds of the above mixture will be about $2.85, but
the man who comes along to “bless you,” sells it for about 15
cents a pound, or $10 profit on 100 pounds of oil meal.

Are we taught that a cow giving six quarts of five per cent. milk would
make no more butter if she gave 12 quarts of milk?

Mr. Smith.—You are not taught anything of the kind; but that
a cow in normal condition giving 5 per cent. fat cannot be made
to increase it; but as a cow increases in lactation she shrinks her
milk flow, so there would seem to be more fat in the milk. In
fact, there will be, but the water has been decreased, so that there
is not such a volume of it.

Will bran produce as good quality of milk as will corn meal? Will
good strong heavy foods produce better milk than light ones? .

Mr. Cook.—Doubtless, the question refers to feeding butter fat
into milk. How many of you think it can be done?

Four men voted.

How many think it cannot be doné?

Twenty hands went up.

Mr. Cook.—Some of you voted twice, but the majority are right.
It cannot be done permanently. I have, however, changed the
per cent. of fat in milk by changing a ration, when the cow had
not been kept up to her normal condition. Perhaps a change of
rations might decrease the per cent. of fat. As a rule, the longer
a cow is in lactation, the richer will be her milk, but the flow will
be proportionately less. It is a decrease of water, not an increase
of fat. If corn meal is fed to excess, the chances are that there

360 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTiTures.

will be a decrease of fat in the milk and an increase of animal
fat, for the reason that corn meal contains but very little of the
milk-making element. It is highly carbonaceous, and does not
contain protein enough. We must feed the cow that which will
make blood. Corn meal will not do it. When you kill a hog that
has been fattened on corn only, how much blood do you get when
he is bled?

A Farmer.—Not much.

Mr. Cook.—The same is true when a cow is fed wholly on timo-
thy, corn, corn meal, cornstalks or straw. If the latter-named
coarse foods are fed, take out all the corn meal and substitute
bran.

Will skim-milk, fed back to a cow, produce good milk? Do you recom-
mend such a course?

Mr. Cook.—How many of you feed the skim-milk back to your
cows?

A Farmer.—I used to feed it to pigs, but have been feeding it
back to the cows a year or more, and am convinced it was better
to give the pigs away and feed the milk back to the cows.

Mr. Litchard.—Mr. Menzo Wilcox of Otsego county, one of
the best dairymen in central New York, feeds all his skim-milk
back to his cows, and reports it worth 20 cents per hundred
pounds for that purpose.

How shall we best keep uniformity in a herd’s milk through the year?

Mr. Cook.—We must first have a herd of persistent milkers and
there must be some cows coming fresh every month. With such
a herd, properly cared for and fed, there ought not to be a varia-
tion of more than two-tenths of one per cent. of fat; I know of
no other way to do it.

Which is most profitable, at the same price, to buy, bran from winter
or spring wheat?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I do not think there is so much difference
between winter wheat and spring wheat bran, as there is in sam-
ples of each. Some bran is poor stuff, and very much of the mid-

Tue Question Box. 361

dlings which we get is nothing more than bran reground. Asa
rule, however, the brans are not very badly adulterated. The
new feed law does not include them. But don’t buy any of the
oat foods, cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, pea meal, starch feeds,
malt sprouts and many others of similar natures, unless a guar-
anteed analysis is furnished by the miller or dealer. If you ask
for them he must put the tags on the sacks, on which is printed
such guaranteed analysis.

What is the best tie stanchion or stall for the cows?

Mr. Cook.—There are a good many best stanchions. Much has
been said against the old rigid stanchion, and yet it has its ad-
vantages. We have come down to a swing stanchion, which we
make ourselves, and will put into our new barn.

A drawing of it was shown and explained. Mr. Cook said the
stanchion would be made of elm, and, as made at home, would
cost, all told, about 60 cents each, in bunches of 25 or 30 sets.
This does not include the work of putting it in place.

Mr. Smallwood.—We buy such stanchions here, in piace, for
about $1 each. I have discarded the Bidwell stall, having made
up my mind that I could better afford to lose a teat or two from
a cow by the one standing next to her, than to keep a man about
to keep the stalls in repair.

Which is the best way to bring cows from the pasture at night, a dog
or with a handful of meal?

Mr. Converse.—I would not bring the cows to the stable with
corn meal, but wheat bran instead.

How much grain should be fed a cow fresh in milk, for profit? How
much corn and shorts, at $20 per ton, will it be profitable to feed a cow
that has of hay all she will eat, with butter at 20 cents per pound and
how much of each?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I will answer these two questions in one,
But I will first say that the two foods—hay and meal—will not
make milk, while the shorts will. It would depend first on the
cow; next, on the coarse fodder. I should first want to see the
cow. She may be one that it wouldn’t pay to feed a pound of

362 Bureau or Farmers’ INsTrrures.

grain to, because she would not respond in the pail. When you
have a cow that will, feed her all she will eat, digest and assimi-
late. If you are feeding timothy hay, cornstalks, ensilage, straw
or other fat-forming foods, she will not require so much corn meal.
If the hay is clover and you do not have well-eared ensilage, she
will require more meal. As a rule, from six to twelve pounds of
mixed grains will be enough for any ordinary-sized cow, say,
weighing 1,000 pounds. There is another point to be considered,
which is the price of grains, also the price of the cow’s product.
We should keep an account of the prices of foods and products,
and aim so to feed as to obtain the desired production, at the same
time derive a profit at the market price of butter, cheese or milk.
With my dairy, if they give me 300 pounds of butter per cow, at
present prices for cow foods, I can clear a profit from butter at
18 cents per pound.

Which has the most feeding value, oat or buckwheat straw?

Mr. Cook.—I think the oat straw is a little more valuable, but
there is a great deal of feeding value in buckwheat straw when
it has been well cared for. As a rule, buckwheat is put up in too
small shocks. It were better to set two or three of them together
and then put the straw under cover.

What is the nutritive ratio of bran, compared with oats?
Mr. Litchard.—Bran has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 4. Oats 1 to
7 or 8.

Rations for cows in milk, two feeds of hay per day—How many pounds
of cotton seed should be fed to balance the ration?

Mr. Cook.—I would not feed the cotton seed. Would much
prefer gluten. It has a large per cent. of protein in it and is not
so concentrated as is cotton seed. Wheat bran and buckwheat
middlings should be mixed with the gluten, to furnish mineral
matter which the gluten does not contain. But gluten meal, in
ecumparison with other protein foods, cost a little too much. When
When buying these foods, always take into consideration the pro-

cme

THE QuEstTion Box. 363

tein value. I would not feed cotton seed no matter how cheaply
I could buy it. I would much prefer linseed meal to it.

Dr. Smead.—Put in a word for oats and peas.

A Farmer.—How much shall we feed of them?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know. It will depend on the cow. No two
would require the same quantity. Experiment with the individual
cow, and feed so as to have her respond. Palatability of the food
should also be considered.

Which is the best grain ration for a cow that is a good milker, equal
parts of oats and wheat bran (by measure) or corn, oats and bran, with
mixed hay, corn stalks and bean pods for roughage?

Mr. Cook.—Wheat bran and oats. Wheat middlings are a good
food, but I prefer the bran. The cow needs mineral matter, which
the bran will furnish. There is a little less digestible protein in the
bran than in the middlings; still, all things considered, I prefer
the bran. There would not be much difference in the analysis of
the two rations, however.

To Mr. Convyerse.—What do you think of the Ayrshire cattle for this
country?

Answer.—I do not care to say much about the Ayrshire, be
cause I am interested in them. But I will say that, if one wants
a hustler and has rough, hilly pastures, where a cow must work
to get her living, there is none better. They give a good flow of
good milk, being about midway between the Holstein and Jersey.
They are also strong, healthy and hardy.

What do you think of the old milking strain of Shorthorns?

Answer.—It was a great mistake when they were allowed to go
out. It was a most excellent dairy breed. When the breeders
abandoned milk for beef in the Shorthorns they practically ruined
the breed for dairy purposes.

Are the Devon cattle a profitable breed for the average farmer?

Answer.—I found at several fairs last fall that some breeders
were trying to make a dairy cow out of the Devon, but it is more

864 Bureau or Farmers’ INsriruTtes.

essentially a beef breed. I take but very little stock in the Devon
as a dairy cow.

What do you know about the Brown Swiss cattle?

Answer.—There is a herd of Brown Swiss near me. I have
been watching them a number of years, and do not like them.
They are too beefy, and are not fashioned after the dairy form in
cows. They have short, thick necks, large legs and feet, and are
devoid of some of the most prominent features always seen in a
purely bred dairy cow.

Are there two separate breeds of Shorthorn cattle?

Mr. Van Dreser.—The first importations of Shorthorns were of
the milking strain. Another was made of the beef type, and the
breeders sought beef more than they did milk, so that the dairy
Shorthorn has been about driven out.

Mr. W. 8S. Moore.—There is also a type of polled Shorthorns,
but they are beefy.

Mr. Van Dreser.—I would not select any type of Shorthorns
now for a dairy herd; but they will be found one of the best beef
breeds.

What is the best breed of cow to be got, and where can it be obtained?

Mr. Cook.—That would depend. If I were going to furnish milk
to this milk station down here when they get it built, and they
paid alike for all grades of milk, I would get a cow that would
give a washtub full if I could find her. If, however, I wanted it
for butter I would select the Jersey or Guernsey, and I believe the
modern American Jersey the best; I mean the large, strong Jer-
sey, one that weighs 1,000 to 1,200 pounds; especially for butter-
making, is the best. We have a large herd of Holsteins, which
give good flows of milk, ranging from 8.2 to 3.6 per cent fat, and
I have also been investing in some Jerseys, with the view of ascer-
taining, if I can, which breed will make a pound of butter fat the
most cheaply. If your creamery here takes milk by the Babcock
test, and your milk tests much above 4 per cent., stick to it. If
below 4 per cent., say 3.6, sell it to the station. As a rule, how-

Tue Querstion Box. 365

ever, the price of milk at the station is just on a par with that at
the creameries and cheese factories. The stations never put up
the price for milk till the price of cheese and butter goes up, and
they always drop the price as soon as those of butter and cheese
drop.

Will it pay to sow rape in corn for fall feed for cows?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Yes, sir; but I would not sow it for fall feed
for cows that give milk, because the milk would be condemned.
But for cows not in milk, or for sheep, it is a good food. Sow it
in August or in September. It will remain green a long time
after the frost comes. Sow it in corn, not with oats.

Are vetches valuable as a green food for cows?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—It makes a clover crop sown late in the fall,
but the seed costs so much it makes it expensive. Sand vetch is
said to be the best.

I have 10 fresh cows in milk, giving 300 pounds per day. Grain
rations of gluten bran or buckwheat middlings, costing 12 cents per cow,
all they can be made to eat. Can the ration be improved?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know whether it could or not, with the
present food at hand; but with some succulents—ensilage or
roots—I think it could. It would also depend on the time the
cows had been in milk and their condition and the freshness of
the hay. I think, however, that the ration as given would be
pretty narrow.

The Questioner.—The ration costs about twelve cents per day.

Mr. Cook.—The cow will have to keep herself warm by burning
up some of the protein in her food. I would feed a little more
starch. It is just as expensive to feed a too narrow ration as one
too wide; would add corn meal, which would not add to the cost;
it should be cheaper.

What proportion ought corn meal and bran to be fed to milch cows to
give best results?

Mr. Cook.—It would depend on the cows and the coarse fodder.
As a rule, however, with clover hay, half-and-half by weight will
be about right; yet some cows would require more of the bran or

366 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrirures.

meal than others. With clover hay more corn meal may be fed
than if the hay were timothy or mixed.

What should be the proportion of corn meal, bran and cotton seed meal,
with hay, for a cow weighing 1,000 pounds?

Mr. Cook.—I would not feed more than two pounds of cotton
seed meal to a cow per day. It is too constipating in its nature.
I should feed oil meal in its stead.

At what season should a cow freshen to give the most milk during a
year?

Mr. Eastman.—In September or October.

Mr. Gould.—My experience is that the same cow, coming fresh
in milk in the fall, is good for 1,000 to 1,500 pounds more milk than
when she freshens in the spring.

Mr. Eastman.—There would be a slight loss at first when
the change was made, so I would have the heifer freshen the first
time in the fall.

To Mr. Van Dreser.—What is the record of Pauline Paul’s heifers?

Answer.—I cannot answer the question fully. I think, how-
ever, that Mr. Reed of Binghamton, has one of her daughters
which has made 30 pounds of butter in seven days. There are
others, which I have heard, are good producers. So far as I have
heard, Pauline Paul’s sons are more prominent than are her
daughters.

What kind of stall or fastening is best adapted for the case and com-
fort of the cow?

Mr. Van Wagenen.—We use the swing stanchion. There are
several others and there may be among them some thai are better.
I would not use the old, rigid stanchion, and I believe that any
one of the ties is better than the swing stanchion, hecause they
permit a cow to turn and lick herself, something she cannot do
either in the old rigid or the swing stanchion. Mr. Dawley uses
a chain and long staple. It is the best I ever saw.

THe Question Box. 367

When shall we feed turnips or cabbage to milch cows, before, after or
during the milking process?

Mr. Cook.—After milking, and do not feed too much at first.
Begin with a small mess, which may be increased gradually. I
once saw butter in Cortland that was made from milk from cows
which had eaten large rations of cabbage every day. But such
foods should be fed after milking time, should be balanced with
nitrogenous focds, and one should always thoroughly cool and
aérate the milk as soon as it is drawn from the cow. If they are
fed during the process of milking a taint will surely get into the
milk, so strong as to affect the flavor of the butter.

A Farmer.—What if a man has but little hay, but plenty of oat
straw? What, then, should he feed?

Mr. Cook.—I should feed wheat bran and a little cotton seed
meal. It makes a good ration. Good oat straw is about as valu-
able for feeding as is the average timothy hay. We are going to
feed it this winter, but our oats were not left until thoroughly
ripe before cutting them. Pea straw is also good; so is buck-
wheat straw for feeding, when fed with proper grains. Good
timothy hay averages a nutritive ratio of 1 to 15; oat straw, 1 to
25; but I take the ground that early-cut oat straw is fully as good
as late-cut timothy. But we are apt ¢o classify all meadow hay,
except clover, as timothy, when, perhaps, a large part of it is
mixed grasses. I found, while in Delaware county, that the
farmers were invariably feeding their cows some corn meal, al-
though their meadows were classed as timothy. But I found
that they were mixed grasses, which were cut early; therefore
they did not contain enough carbohydrates, which was the cause
for feeding the corn meal. Such meadow grass will have a ratio
not wider than 1 to 12 or 1 to 14.

Are the Guernseys as large milkers as are the Ayrshires?

Mr. Converse.—No; they give, as a rule, milk containing more
fat than do the Ayrshires, but not so much of it during a year.
The Holstein and Ayrshire breeders have been and are now look-
ing for a less flow of milk with more fat in it; while the Jersey and

368 Bureau oF Farmers’ Instirures.

Guernsey breeders are looking for more milk. Asa rule, the cow
that gives very rich milk gives a small flow, although she may
remain in milk a long time; while the cow giving a large flow puts
less fat into it. It is the tendency of these two extremes to come

closer together.

Can a Holstein cow that gives 9,000 pounds of milk per year be made
to give five per cent. milk?

Mr. Smith.—I don’t know. I guess it would be pretty hard
work. But there are some very valuable Holstein cows, those
which give 4 per cent. milk. The average Jersey cows do not
give more than 4.5 to 4.8 per cent., although there are many which
give a much higher per cent. As a rule, the cow which gives a
large flow of milk does not put in so large a per cent. of fat.

How does Pasteur’s stock food compare with other stock foods?

Mr. Smith.—I don’t know anything about that particular
variety, but I suppose it belongs to the general line of these foods.
They are composed of linseed oil, meal and salt, with something
to make them smell well, and a little tonic. They cost from $25
to $30 per ton, and are sold to the farmer in small lots at $300—a
good business for the manufacturers, but a poor one for the
farmer who buys them.

What is the value of sugar-beet pulp to feed cows?

Mr. Cook.—They are experimenting with sugar-beet pulp in
feeding a bunch of steers at Cornell, but no results have been
published as yet. Prof. Wing says that they are quite well satis-
fied so far, as compared with ensilage, but it is not yet safe to
quote a price for it.

What does gluten feed cost at the experiment stations?
Mr. Cook.—I do not know just now what gluten feed is quoted

at in the market in car lots.
Mr. Van Wagenen.—At Cobleskill, last week it was $18.50

per ton.

Tue Question Box. 369

Mr. Cook.—The new cattle food law which Mr. Witter got
through the legislature last winter will go into effect the 1st of
January, when all prepared cattle foods will be sold on a guaran-
teed analysis. So, then, if you buy gluten, mixed, or other pre-
pared cattle foods after that date, insist on a guarantee. If the
dealer refuses to give you one, and sells his goods, he may be
prosecuted and fined.

Which has the most feeding value, barley straw or oat straw?

Mr. Cook.—There would not be much difference, provided both
were cut at the same stage of ripeness. Asa rule, our grains are
left till too ripe before cutting them; then we lose more or less of
the feeding value in the straw.

Will the feeding of such food as turnips or cabbage during milking
time, taint the milk?

Mr. Litchard.—I guess there is no doubt that such foods as
turnips and cabbage, if fed during the process of milking, will
taint the milk.

Mr. Cook.—The trouble, as a rule, lies in feeding too much.
Instead of feeding a few quarts at first, a half bushel or more is
fed. If, however, one begins with a small quantity and increases
it slowly, a much larger quantity may safely be fed. Prof. Wing
determined this fact, through a number of experiments. But I
would not feed impure foods of any kind, such as rotten potatoes,
turnips, cabbage or apples, to any cow.

Do you consider it at all advisable to allow a Jersey or any other breed,
to come in before she is two years old?

Mr. Van Dreser.—It would all depend on constitutional vigor.
As a rule, I would not prefer to have a heifer drop her calf before
she was two years old. But there might be one of some breed
that was strong enough to withstand the strain on her system.

Is it a fact that an average Jersey cow will give more for the food con-
sumed than will any other breed?

Mr. Van Dreser.—According to the Chicago test it required less
feed for the Jerseys than of either of the other two breeds there,

370 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

the Guernseys and Shorthorns. There is no one dairy breed above
another, in every respect, and the man who is such a breed parti-
san as to ‘think his breed better than all others, makes a serious
mistake.

What breed of dairy cows would you recommend for the farmers of
Centerville and vicinity? Our cheese factories all close in November and
do not open till April, generally.

Mr. Converse.—What breed of cows do you have here?

A Farmer.

Every breed and grade.

Mr. Converse.—The first step in the line of improvement should
be by the selection of a full blooded sire. Select one from a dairy
breed and select the breed that, with your feed, care and condi-
tions, will produce a pound of butter fat for the least money; and,
if it is a breed that came from Europe, give it as nearly as possible
the care and food it had in its native home. If you select Jerseys,
give them Island of Jersey care; if the Holstein, such care and
foods as it receives in its Holland home. Never use a cross-bred
or native sire; but, in selecting a sire, do not be governed by pedi-
gree alone. There are thousands of them that do not amount to
a snap. Don’t bank on pedigree, but make performance the test.
Pedigree is all right in a certain way, but it must be backed up by
performance of ancestry at the pail. When you have such a sire,
test with scales and Babcock each one in the herd. Select the best
ones and begin breeding for a special purpose, which should be
milk and butter. Do not undertake to run a dairy with dual-
purpose cows. Beef and butter do not have a home in the same
carcass. Either one or the other should be sought.

What is the best root to grow for milk production?

Mr. Hartley.—All in all, I find mangold’s the best root to grow
for that purpose.

Mr. Van Wagenen.—I think that Indian corn is the best “root”
to grow.

Mr. Cook.—I do not grow roots, my back not being calculated
for that business, but I believe it pays to grow and feed them,
even if one has ensilage.

THe Question Box. 301

Will it pay the farmer to cut his hay and straw for feeding to his
horses and cattle?

Mr. Van Wagenen.—Our system is to cut all the straw with the
hay, feeding three times a day with the ensilage and grain all
mixed. In so doing we are able to get rid of something that is
not worth much to feed alone and is too good to waste for bedding
our animals. We use steam power and a 16-inch cutter.

To Mr. Converse.—What is the difference between the Jersey, Holstein
and Ayrshire breeds?

Answer.—The Jersey came from one of the channel islands
and gives milk richer, as a rule, in butter fat, than does any other
breed. The Holstein comes from Holland and gives milk con-
taining the smallest per cent. of butter fat, of any one of the
dairy breeds. The Ayrshire comes from Scotland and is a
medium between the other two breeds.

Will it pay to feed the average cow $18 bran?

Mr. Powell.—I guess it would be an even race. The average
cow brings an income of about thirty dollars per year. I find the
average in several counties to be about that figure. Such a cow
will not pay for much bran at eighteen dollars a ton.

With bran at $18 per ton, corn meal at $19 and hay at $11, which is
the cheapest cow feed, and in what proportion should each be fed?

Mr. Cook.—I know of no way by which to compare corn meal
and wheat bran. They are entirely different. If you have corn
ensilage or timothy hay, it would be the height of folly to buy
corn meal. If you have neither the ensilage nor timothy, but
clover, then put in some corn meal. But I prefer good wheat
middlings to the bran. It is not right, theoretically, but I have
noticed that when I substituted them for the bran, the cows in-
variably gained in their milk flow. |

How is milk secreted? Is it secreted in the udder. If not, where?

Dr. James Law.—Milk is secreted in the udder, the process
being, as in other glands, a selection and transformation of the
appropriate constituents of the blood by the microscopic cells

372 Bureau or Farmers’ INstirures.

which line the ultimate recesses or follicles in which the milk
ducts originate. Each of the smallest milk ducts terminates in a
cluster of slight dilatations or closed sacks lined by round cells
which accomplish the work of selection from the blood and traps-
formation of the materials which go to form the milk. Beneath
this surface pavement of cells, is a delicate membrane, and be-
neath that the network of capillary vessels in which the blood
circulates. In health, therefore, none of the blood can get into
the milk ducts, except such as has been passed upon by the secret-
ing cells and modified as may be necessary, to form the liquid
known as milk. The constituents of milk are in the main, water,
salts, albumen, casein, fat and sugar, and of these the water,
salts and albumen are the only ones that exist ready formed in
the blood. The elements that give to the milk its commercial
value—the casein, the butter fat, and the sugar—are made up in
the udder, by the functional activity of the gland cells.

Is the color of milk changed from red to white before it reaches the
udder?

Dr. Law.—No; the milk as such does not exist before it
reaches the udder. Healthy milk is never red, and it only becomes
so by reason of some unnatural condition such as:

a. The escape of red blood globules or of blood coloring matter
through the walls of the gland follicles or milk ducts. This may
occur from wounds, bruises, conjection or inflammation of these
parts, or from diseased conditions of the blood in which the color-
ing matter is set free.

b. The feeding upon red coloring matter such as madder, which
escapes with the milk into the udder follicles and milk ducts.

c. The presence in the udder and milk ducts of a pigment-form-
ing microbe, like the micrococcus prodigiosa, which produce a red
color in its growths.

Is there a visible connection between the milk veins and the udder?

Dr. Law.—The term milk veins, usually applied to the super-
ficial abdominal veins, has misled a good many people and led
them ts suppose that those vessels convey milk to the udder, and

e

le Ra

THe Question Box. 373

that therefore the larger the veins the greater will be the yield of
milk. As we have already seen, the milk is not ready formed in
the blood; it cannot be said, therefore, that these veins convey
milk. These veins have, it is true, a visible connection with the
two anterior quarters of the udder, from which they return blood
toward the heart. But like the other veins of the udder (the ex-
ternal pudic, and obturator) these only carry blood back from the
udder to the heart, they don’t bring any blood to the udder.
Their connection with the udder is that of vessels which carry
back into the general circulation, the blood which has already, in
the udder, given up various of its constituents to form milk, not
that of vessels which carry to the udder the materials out of
which milk has to be formed. Their size in heavy milkers in-
dicates that a very large quantity of blood circulates through the
udder, so that even its unused surplus requires such capacious
vessels to carry it back into the general circulation. The great
size of these veins further indicates that the whole circulatory
system is constructed on a large and generous scale, and that
there is a great store of blood, and behind that a great power of
digestion and assimilation, conditions that are absolutely essen-
tial to a liberal yield of milk. In this way the size and even the
duplication of the milk veins become valuable indications of the
probable milking qualities, though they convey neither milk nor
blood to the mammary gland.

What is the Schmidt treatment for milk fever? Is it a sure cure?

Mr. Dawley.—The Schmidt treatment has not been in use long
enough to say that it is a swre cure. I have tried it in one case,
with a home-made apparatus and saved the cow. The reports in
relation to the results from the treatment are most encouraging,
it is based on an entirely novel idea as to the primary seat of the
disease. Heretofore the veterinarian’s attention has been directed
to the uterus (womb), as being the medium through which the
poison was admitted to the circulation and carried to its secondary
seat of operation (great nerve centres) where its death-dealing de-
pression was exhibited, and although very vigorous efforts were

374 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTItTures.

pursued to combat its further introduction into the system, and
counteract the evil effects produced, the results attained were at
best most unsatisfactory and discouraging.

Without attempting to enter upon lengthy details regarding the
malady, we may state that the result of the new Schmidt treat-
ment coupled with close observation along experimental lines has
demonstrated beyond all doubt that in the udder is the original
seat of the disease. Decomposition of the secreting cells in that
organ when the milk secretion begins, immediately after calving.
A loucomaine (depressent poision), being formed from the choles-
terin bodies and rapidly absorbed into the circulation is the direct
cause of the disease. Why Prof. Von Kolding turned his atten-
tion to the udder we are not told, but since attention has been thus
directed, various interesting and highly instructive experiments
have been tried and it has been clearly demonstrated that decom-
posing milk injected into the udder at any time, produces within
from twelve to thirty-six hours conditions identical with those of
milk fever in the usual way, and post-mortem examinations point
out almost identical abnormalities with that of milk fever, es-
pecially when the duration of sickness has been brief, proving con-
clusively that milk fever can be induced.

Treatment and Mode of Application—As the symptoms of a well-
marked case of milk fever are already well known to experienced
dairymen, we deem it unnecessary to repeat them fully. Whena
good milking cow in high flesh just before or soon after calving
becomes restless, paddles with her hind feet, lies down and rises
with difficulty, the udder becomes soft and flabby, it is time to be-
come suspicious that all is not right and immediate action should
be taken. The herdsman, already provided with three sixty-grain
_ doses of potassium iodide, carbolic acid and udder syringe of
proper design, procures a liberal supply of freshly boiled water.
The udder and teats should first be well bathed with warm water
to which has been added a tablespoonful of carbolic acid to each
quart. All milk should be drawn from the udder and one drachm
(sixty grains) of potassium iodide should be dissolved. in one quart
of hot water (freshly boiled), with one dram carbolie acid, and in-

‘FEVER:
‘SPECIFIC:

t DIRECTIONS:

Parturient Apoplexy.

Fic. A. Instrument for administering Schmidt
Milk Fever Treatment,

MEY YET TH,
hii Wy ys |

/
Minh PLL Ye
Wy

Fic. B.—Instrument as it appears in the hands of operator.

4,
, .
«
l
a

THe Question Box. 305

jected into the udder through the teats—an equal quantity into
each teat. The patient should be kept dry, warm and free from
excitement or noise, and in no consideration should drenching be
done so long as any acute symptoms are present. The patient
should be turned from side to side every four hours, taking care
to avoid injuring the udder, and the udder injection given again
in six hours, if signs of return to consciousness are not present.

In the hands of European veterinarians reports come to the
effect that 90 per cent. of 412 cases so treated made complete re-
covery. Various doses were experimented with, varying from
one-half to two drachms of the drug, and although the smaller
dose was repeated at shorter intervals the one drachm doses gave
best results, while a double quantity producing alarming symp-
toms and did not appear to exert any more favorable influence
over one-half the quantity, which appears perfectly safe.

How Does Potassium Exert Its Influence in Such Cases ?—Long
before potassium iodine was associated in this way in the treat-
ment of milk fever, it was a well established fact that it exerted
a stimulating influence upon the base of the brain and great nerve
trunks when administered in large doses, and it is in this action
that it counteracts the depression present in that malady. It also,
no doubt arrests the decomposition in the udder when brought
into the direct contact with the udder content. Having a power-
fully stimulating effect upon the lympathic glands, it also has-
tens the elimination from the system of the offending poison.

Form of Instrument Most Suitable for Its Application.—V arious
instruments have been recommended for the application of the
udder injection, but the instrument portrayed in the accompanying
cuts seems to fill the greatest number of requisites with fewer
objectionble features than any other we have seen. (See cut A.)
The large glass bottle, No. 1, holds the required quantity (half pint)
for one quarter (one teat). This bottle can easily be cleansed. It
can be brought to the proper temperature by immersing in hot
water for a few minutes previous to its use. The rubber tube (2)
is connected over the end of a glass tube which runs to the bottom
of a glass bottle (No. 1), thus minimizing the danger of air being

376 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTitrures.

pumped into the udder with the solution. The remaining portion
of the instrument consists of a bulb syringe (Fig. 3) to which is
attached a milking tube (4) which can readily be detached for the
purpose of cleaning, previous to inserting the silver tube into the
teat. The bottle (No. 1), should be filled with the prepared solu-
tion at 102 degrees F., and the syringe pumped full, which
also forces out the air, and as soon as the contents of the
bottle (No. 1) is emptied, the operation of the bulb should
cease, so as to avoid the introduction of air into the udder,
as air hastens decomposition and thus delays recovery. Great
caution is also necessary to avoid the introduction of foreign
substances, hay-seeds, etc., which may drop into the vessel con-
taining the medicine, as such will produce damaging results upon
the udder. Everything must be kept scrupulously clean to secure
the best results. Cut B shows the instrument in actual use with
the tube inserted into the teat and shown in the correct position in
the hands of the operator.

Can the cow be given any treatment previous to parturition that will
prevent retention of placenta?

Dr. Smead.—Before answering this question direct, it may be
well to call attention briefly to the generative organs of acow. On
the lining membrane of the uterus may be found from 50 to 100
protuberances, or lumps, in farmers’ parlance; after the cow be-
comes pregnant and a membrane or skin is formed about the em-
bryo calf, a similar lump or protuberance is formed on this mem-
brane adhering to the one on the membrane of the uterus. These,
in both cases, are called cotyledons. It is through their adhesion
that the calf is furnished nourishment in its foetal life from the
blood of the mother; when there are perfect normal conditions.
Soon after the calf leaves the uterus, nature, true to herself, breaks
loose these adhesions, and the placenta or after birth—another
name for what farmers call the cleanings—is expelled from the
uterus as it then has accomplished its office work in the develop-
ment of the foetus. We thus see that the retention of it beyond
from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, is due to some abnormal

' Tue Question Box. 377
condition. It is, therefore, our study to determine what those con-
ditions are, and what will overcome them. First, the cow may
have a protracted labor and there is exhaustion of the uterus and
total lack of after or secondary labor pain, and the placenta re-
mains in the uterus simply because the uterus has not the power
to expel it. The veterinarian would in that case give a dose of
ergot; but a farmer had better use a more safe and just as ef-
fectual a stimulent, that is a gill of whiskey and a tablespoonful
of good ginger mixed in a pint of warm water (being sure to give
the whiskey to the cow as well as the ginger). This can be re-
peated in from four to six hours. If labor pains are produced
and the placenta is not expelled, there are good reasons for
believing that the adhesions have not separated and no uterine
stimulant will cause expulsion. In cases of that kind I have ob-
served that there is always present a dry and fevered condition
of the uterine membranes. It is largely through aluminous
mucus that these adhesions are broken loose, and when there is
a lack of this mucus (due to a fevered condition), the remedy
should be to supply it as far as possible, and that can best be done
by giving the cow laxative drinks and mashes, like flaxseed tea;
an ounce of gum arabic can be dissolved in two quarts of warm
water and injected into the uterus with a proper syringe. But the
question calls for a preventive; yes, that can be furnished by
keeping the cow in a normal condition during the year, or rather
year in and year out. One abnormality cails for and produces
another. When the cow is allowed to become abnormally weak
or abnormally fat, she becomes abnormal in her uterus and a
fevered condition locally, if not in general, takes place in her
uterus, and there is no mucus to separate the adhesions after the
calf is born. The question involves an answer for something to
give in order to prevent. The answer is, give the cow good care
which means also feeding a balanced ration when dry as well as
when in milk, and during the last month of pregnancy a quart of
oat chop and a tablespoonful of ground flaxseed (I don’t mean
linseed-oil meal), but the whole flaxseed ground. This can be
given two or even three times daily, and will in most cases pre-
vent the retention of the placenta. If the cow is on pasture the

378 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirvures.

flaxseed may generally be dispensed with; but the oat chop I
consider an essential. The oat meal diet so often prescribed for
a pregnant woman, is just as beneficial for a cow in more ways
than one, and this is one of them. Medicinal agents have been
recommended by various authors for a century, but I never have
found one of them of any benefit whatever as long as the ad-
hesions remain. The better way is to feed the cow in a manner
that will prevent this abnormal condition, and oat chop and flax-
seed properly used will do more to accomplish this than pounds

of drugs.
THE GRASSES.

What will make the best combination of grasses for an upland pasture?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Orchard grass, 4 pounds per acre; the same
proportion of white clover, red-top, and the same money value of
Italian rye grass and meadow fescue.

How shall we seed to ‘“ blue grass’’? What soil is best, and how much
seed per acre?

A. Farmer.—I sowed seven bushels of seed on 20 acres a few
years ago. I sowed it for both meadow and pasture. It did well.
I suppose I sowed what is known as Kentucky Blue Grass, which
Iam informed differs from our State blue grass.

What varieties of grasses would you put on a steep hillside for a per-
manent pasture?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know. It would depend on the soil some-
what. Possibly a mixture of blue-grass, timothy, some clover and
the fescues would be best. It is a question that is too indefinite
to answer fully.

Will Kentucky blue grass do well on New York soil? If not, why not?

Mr. Cook.—What is known as June grass in many localities is
nothing more or less than Kentucky blue grass. ‘It is hardy in
nearly all parts of the State and makes the best of June pasture.

How can quack grass be killed?
A Farmer.—lI have killed quack grass on a field by growing
tobacco one year.

THe Question Box. 379

Mr. Cook.—I incline to the belief that quack is a good grass to
have. It is one of nature’s ways of restoring humus to the soil,
as it has a wondrous root growth. Then, too, it makes good
pasture. But we kill a piece every year, no matter what the
weather is, and it stays killed. We grow foods for dairy cows—
oats and peas, three or four sowings, the last one, about the latter
part of June. We take a piece of land full of quack, plow it
deeply, early in the spring, then use a heavy disc harrow, weighted
so that it requires four horses to draw it. We never use a spring-
tooth, because it drags the roots all over the field, and, in a few
days, if you do, the whole will be covered witha green coat. But
the dise harrow will chop up the roots finely. Then we sow a
crop of oats and peas—three bushels to the acre—this will
smother the quack crop, in great part. When the crop is off,
we plow the land, fit it well and sow to winter wheat and seed
with clover. The next year there is never seen a spear of quack.
The only way to kill a crop like quack is to stop its growing.
Clutivation and the growing of such crops as I have named, will
do it. Use the disc harrow every time, and use it often, till you
are ready to sow the oats and peas. It will chup up the roots
very finely, which leaves them when dead, in good condition for
humus in the soil.

How can we best secure permanent pasture?

Mr. Terry.—I do not know what grasses would do best here
(Weedsport), With us, “ blue grass” is the best.

Mr. Van Dreser.—We use a mixture of red top, blue grass and
alsike on low land. On upland, some timothy and clover are
sown. |

At what season do you recommend the cutting of timothy hay for best
feeding results?

Dr. Smead.—I would not feed timothy hay to any animal; but,
as it is being fed, and no doubt always will be, we must consider
its food value. To get the most and best of that, timothy hay
should be cut just as it goes out of the blossom.

380 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

If you were seeding a poor piece of land for pasture, what kind of
seed would you sow?

Mr. Cook.—I would use orchard grass for one-half. The re-
mainder I would have of meadow fescue, alsike, and perhaps, some
other grass. But, if the land was natural pasture, I would top
dress it liberally. I believe that better results will be thus ob-
tained than to plow the pastures and reseed them.

Has anyone had any experience with brome grass? '

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know it. Does any one here? Director
Dawley is experimenting with it at Fayetteville this year.

Is there as much moisture in timothy hay as in corn at the same stage
of growth?

Mr. Cook.—I do not know. There is about 12 per cent. of mois-
ture in dry timothy. I don’t know how green timothy compares
with green corn-stalks.

Mr. Moulton.—The stem of timothy is hollow; that of corn-
stalks solid; so I do not think there is as much moisture in the
timothy as in the corn-stalks.

What is the feeding value of timothy hay, and how does it compare
with clover and corn ensilage? Will Mr. Gould please answer?

Answer.—There are but 750 pounds of digestible matter in a
ton of timothy hay; the balance is sawdust. In clover there is
14 per cent., nearly twice as much digestible material, while oats
are very nearly evenly balanced. To get the best results from
clover and corn, cut the clever early and properly cure and house
it; properly cultivate the corn crop and when in the proper stage,
put it in the silo. A cow requires 14 pounds of digestible
starch each day. To get it from these stalks, she would have
to eat 45 pounds, which she could not do. In ensilage the ratio
is still wider, being 1 to 17. But remember, the ensilage is suc-
culent, not dry, and there is more of it that is digestible. Clover
and timothy do not compare, any more than do corn and wheat
bran. We grow the two crops to obtain entirely different results,
our aim being to secure starch and protein. We, therefore, grow
the timothy—if we do grow it—to obtain starch; clover to obtain

Tue Question Box. 381

protein. Both are essential; but, I would not grow timothy ex-
cept I could afford to grow and sell it, because I can secure so
much larger per cent. of starch on a given area, from corn. I am
satisfied that the farmer can easily raise 6,000 pounds of starch
on one acre, while he will have to have a good season and well
conditioned meadows to raise 1,500 pounds of starch in timothy
hay. So it is easily seen that it is much more profitable to grow
starch in the form of corn ensilage than it is to grow it in timothy.
But, while a ton of hay will lay in a mow three or four years and
not lose much of its feeding value, a stack of stalks, if left till
next spring, will lose at least 60 per cent. of theirs. In short, the
farmer must first learn what crops are best, then grow and feed
them in the best form for the purpose for which they are required.

ffiow shall we best reclaim old hillside pastures?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know just what I would do. It’s a problem.
We have lots of that hillside land in this State. Perhaps it would
be as well as any way to put sheep on it.

VETERINARIAN.

What will kill pin worms in horses?

Dr. Youngs.—A mixture as follows will kill them: Oil meal
fairn, 4 ounce; oil of turpentine, 2 ounces; linseed oil, 1 pint. Mix
thoroughly and give a tablespoonful morning and night in the
grain food, during ten days. Stop ten days, then give it again;
repeat three times. It will require a period of about thirty days
to perfect a cure.

What will prevent abortion in cows?

Dr. C. E. Hatch of Gainesville—‘* Phreynol ” is highly recom-
mended. It costs $1.25 per gallon. It is used as a drench or wash
and is quite reliable, fully as much so as are the patent anti-

abortion preventives.
What will cure gapes in chickens?

Mr. Chapman.—There is no cure for gapes. The best way is to
prevent them. To do this, keep the chicks on hard floors and

382 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrrures.

have them dry and clean. Gapes are caused by a worm which
gets into the chicken’s throat. If they are kept on board floors
they will not get hold of the worms.

What is a good remedy to stop the flow of blood when an animal has
been cut on barbed wire?

Dr. Smead.—That depends where the cut is and the magnitude
of the blood vessel—a vein or artery. But the owner or doctor
should not get excited, but keep cool. If the wound is on a limb.
and an artery has been cut, take a rope and cord the limb above
it. If the cut is very large and there is a liability of the horse
bleeding to death, the artery will have to be taken up. But every
man cannot do that. To check the flow while waiting for the
doctor, apply some muriate of iron. Every farmhouse should
contain it. If the cut is mangled, cut out the broken or threaded.
pieces of flesh, then use a little carbolic acid—a teaspoonful to a
pint of water—wet some cotton with it and bind it on the wound.

What will cure intestinal worms in sheep?

Mr. Van Dreser.—I know of nothing better than some of the
sheep worm powders. There are a half-dozen of them. I don’t
remember the names—could not recommend either one. We feed
them two or three times a week. Sometimes the worms come

from old pasture grass.

What will kill lice in hens?
A Farmer.—That’s what I want to know; there is a million om

my hens.

Dr. Smead.—There are two species of lice that get on to hens.
One is the little red mite that gets onto the hen in the night, but
goes off and crawls into some crevice in the walls during the day.
They do not stay on the hen during the day. Spraying with kero-
sene emulsion and whitewashing the walls and perches will kill
the mites. The large gray louse lives on the hen all the time.
To kill them blow Persian insect powder into the feathers a few
times.

A Farmer.—A ball of camphor placed in the nests will kill
the large lice.

THe Question Box. 383
Mr. Van Dreser.—Prepare a dust bath in a box, by putting in
some sand, in which sulphur has been mixed, and allow the hens

to wallow in it. Tansy in the nests will also kill the lice.

What will remove the diseased scales from the legs of poultry?

Mr. Ward.—They are caused by a parasite. Some one of the
sheep dips, or diluted carbolic acid, will remove the scales. Wash
the legs with it.

What will cure thrush in a horse’s foot?
Dr. Smead.—Use either blue vitrol or calomel, after thoroughly
cleaning the foot and cutting away all of the diseased frog.

What shall I do for a horse which has a “ strain,’ and what is a good
remedy for scratches on horses?

Mr. Converse.—Give some condition powders; then rub some
carbolized oil on the scratches. I do not know what to do for a
“strain.” Possibly some of the liniments would be best. Consult
a veterinarian.

What is sure death to lice on cattle and hens?

A Farmer.—A quart of good cider vinegar mixed with two
quarts of water will kill every louse on cattle or hens.

Mr. Ward.—If you are so unfortunate as to have lice on your
cattle, you will find nothing better than some one of the carbolic
sheep dips, using one part of the dip to 50 of water. The mixture
is good for many other troubles on sheep, cattle or poultry. In
Scotland these dips are used to wash the legs of Clydesdale
horses to promote the growth of hair.

Mr. Litchard.—Equal parts of lard and kerosene oil, rubbed
thoroughly into the hair, will kill them. Not more than two or
three applications will be necessary.

Mr. Cook.—If an animal is very lousy, diluted carbolic acid will
kill them. Blanket the cow, then when the nits hatch give her
another washing.

Mr. Ward.—Kerosene, lard and tobacco juice will kill cattle
lice, but they are nasty and sticky remedies, while the carbolic
dips are clean and just as available as are the other prescriptions.

384 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirurses.

What is good for scab on sheep?

Mr. Cook.—I suppose that means “ What will remove scab on
sheep?” What do you say, farmers?

A Farmer.—Use some one of the carbolic sheep dips. There is
nothing better to cure sheep scab.

Dr. Smead.—Turn the sheep on its back, then pour a pint or
more of some one of the sheep dips, from an old teapot, into the
wool on the sheep’s belly. It will go directly to the skin, covering
it all over, without wetting the wool.

Why do cows chew pieces of boards and the siding on the barn, and
what do they want when they have salt before them all the time?

Mr. Converse.—It is caused by a lack of mineral matter in the
food. A little ground bone mixed with the grain ration will cor-
rect the habit.

Mr. Powell.—No doubt there is a deficiency of mineral matter
in the food. Straw, cornstalks, timothy hay and other such foods
are short of this mineral element. I would add some wheat bran,
jinseed meal, gluten or cotton-seed meal to the ration. We seldom
see cattle chewing bones or boards when running in pasture in
summer, nor when their rations are properly balanced in winter.

What is the best remedy for small white worms in horses?

Dr. Smead.—I suppose that refers to pin worms. There is
nothing better than the skins of potatoes. Peel off the skins,
having them thin, and give every morning about two quarts; do
not feed them anything else, until after an hour.

What shall we use to kill nits on a horse?

Dr. Smead.—There are many things, but one does not always
want to use the same thing on a horse that he would on another
animal. Steep a handful of tobacco leaves in two quarts of water,
then wash the horse. One application is enough.

What should be done with a cow that is to freshen in hot weather, to
prevent loss from sickness or death?

Mr. Cook.—Keep her in the barn and feed her a little hay, some
grain and a little grass. Do not turn her out into a good pasture

THe Question Box. 425

When putting on a steel roof, should the old shingles be removed?

Mr. Cook.—I would most certainly remove all the old shingles
and the nails, and relay the roof boards, placing them edge to
edge.

Would it be advisable to use either cow or horse manure on land for
Hubbard squash?

Mr. Ward.—Make a deep, large hill, putting a good supply of
well-rotted cow manure in the bottom; round up the hill slightly
and plant.

Mr. Converse.—I do not believe we can get as good results from
hilling any crop. We can cultivate more easily, conserve more
moisture, get better growth and a better yield, by giving level
eulture than by hilling. So I would give squash level culture.

Would it injure corn if one turnip is allowed to grow in a hill?

Mr. Smith.—I do not think it would make much difference with
the corn; but I would not plant the turnip seed in the corn hill.
I would wait till the last cultivation of the corn, say the 1st of
July, then sow the turnip seed between the rows and cultivate
it in.

How can we best improve the condition of our country roads?

Mr. Cook.—In our town we raised $1,500 for the purpose of
benefiting our roads, and bought a stone crusher. But the man
who runs the crusher must be a careful one whom the people will
trust. It took us three months to work up a sentiment sufficient
to get the appropriation, but we succeeded, and now hope to have
better roads.

What sum can a non-resident farmer afford to pay a manager to look
after his farm?

Mr. Cook.—Who knows? I don’t. There are too many condi-
tions involved in the question.
Mr. Rice.—I don’t know how we can get at it. It wouid depend

on the man, the size of his farm and the capacity of his pocket
book.

126 Bureau or Farwers’ Lystirures.

Mr. Van Dreser.—You can't pay a manager too much if you
have business enough to keep him at work.

A Farmer.—We don’t need a manager. It is all we ean do to
manage the farms ourselves.

Mr. Cook.—There are a whole lot of fellows up in our county
who need managers, but they don’t know it. As a rule, however,

a good wife is the best manager on a farm.

Is it best for one to follow mixed farming or should one devote his
efforts to more than one branch?

Mr. Terry.—As a rule, however, when a man attempts to do
a little of everything he does but little, and realizes but little.
But, if I were making dairying a specialty, I would follow it. We
are working out of potato-growing, and turned our attention
more to dairying, for the reason that potatoes do not prove as
profitable as they did a few years since.

What is the best way to have maple sugar, white?

Mr. Cook.—Keep everything clean. I have seen just as white
sugar made in the old kettles as by the best recent methods.

Mr. Litchard.—That will do it. Keep out all foreign matter
and be careful in finishing the product not to scorch it.

What are the greatest leaks in farming?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I don’t know. There are a good many of
them. Probably the waste of manure is the greatest loss, the
next is the loss in farm machinery and tools left out of doors to
rust out and rot.

Dr. Smead.—There is another great loss which is in the im-
proper feeding of our farm animals. Hundreds of thousands of
dollars are lost each year in feeding unbalanced rations, often
resulting in disease and death.

I do not hesitate to say that fully 60 per eent. of the cases
I have been called upon to treat, in my profession as veterinary
surgeon, during the last 30 years, has been caused wholly from
the feeding of unbalanced rations. They over-stimulate the ani-
mal’s stomach one way and starve it another. Result: Indiges-

Tur Question Box. 427

tion, followed by some one of the diseases the animal is heir to;
still the farmers keep right along, year after year, feeding only
that which they have or can purchase most cheaply, despite all
the warning and advice they are receiving from the institutes,
agricultural stations and the press.

Is a cement floor for cows desirable in a stable?

Mr. Terry.—Yes, but I would not give much, if any, slope to
such a floor, and I would have the cement of best quality as well
as the sand; and have it well mixed; then the surface made just
a little rough to prevent the cows from slipping while standing
on it.

How does Mr. Gould fertilize his land when he follows corn with corn?

Answer.—I saw a man plowing under a crop of volunteer oats,
self-sown, to-day; the crop covered the ground; if those were mine
I would leave them where they are for a cover crop. If I follow
corn with corn I always follow corn with a catch crop to cover
the ground in winter, which is plowed under in the spring. When
I came from home, peas I sowed in September were in blossom,
but I don’t expect any green peas from them.

Is there any preventive of smut on sweet corn, if so, what is it?

Dr. Jordan.—I know of none.

Would it be profitable to grow tobacco on a hilly farm?

A Farmer.—I am growing tobacco in a limited way on a hili-
side farm, and I should like to have the experience of others on
like farms. Of course it requires a good deal of manure; about
all I make, so that the remainder of the farm does not get much,
but I can take $100 per acre from the crop.

Two or three other farmers said they grew tobacco and could
buy manure for $1 per load, and that 25 loads would manure an
acre well and leave a good profit. Another farmer said he pre-
ferred to use his manure on his corn crop. It is king with him.

Mr. Cook.—If you can get $100 per acre from tobacco why not
buy commercial fertilizers? Buy sulphate of potash, nitrate of

428 Bureau or Farmers’ Ixsrirvres.

soda and South-Carolina rock. I should think it would pay.
Would not buy the muriate, as it is said to injure the burning
quality of the tobacco.

Would it be advisable to plow wheat straw under for a cover crop?

Mr. Converse.—I should use the straw in the stables for bed-
ding, drawing it out every day and spreading it on land I wanted
to plow in the spring. What I meant by a “ cover crop,” is some
green one, sowed in the fall, such as clover or rye, to be plowed
under the next spring.

Does the sun blast buckwheat? How much seed shall we sow per
acre?

Mr. Cook.—As a rule, buckwheat does not “ fill” in a hot, dry
season, I suppose, because the pollination is not perfect. We
usually sow about half a bushel of seed per acre. One great
trouble in getting a crop of buckwheat is too much seed is sown.

Do you advocate the use of the smoothing harrow and weeder?

Mr. Converse.—Yes; we use both. The smoothing harrow has
teeth standing backward at an angle of 45 degrees. We use it on
corn and potatoes before the plants appear. Later we use the
weeder. The object is to-kill the weeds before they are born, and
to conserve moisture. We also use it on oats and peas until
they are quite high.

What is the best way to grow tomatoes?

Dr. Smead.—I wish I knew, but I don’t.

Mr. Cook.—I used to train them on a trellis, but it is too much
work. So I set the plants in rows, mulch them with straw, prune
off the lower side branches, and let them go.

Is there an age limit in the use of a sire?

Mr. Van Dreser.—Mr. Hilton of New Scotland, had a Devon
bull that was 22 years old, which was constitutionally strong and
a good “ getter.” And I have awarded a prize at a fair to a Thor-
oughbred Guernsey cow that had dropped twin calves at the
age of 23 years.

THE Question Box. 429

At what season should mangel-wurzel seed be sown?

Mr. Cook.—About the 10th of May, I think, is the best season
in which to sow mangels. As a rule, all the beet family should
be sown early in the spring. They thus get the benefit of the
early spring rains while they are not injured by late spring frosts.

What is the best cover crop for St. Lawrence county?

Mr. Cook.—Perhaps the best cover crop here would be winter
rye; but I do not believe any such crop is needed here, as, in nine
years out of ten, the ground is covered with snow during the

winter.

Would you plow corn stubble for an oat crop?

Mr. Ward.—Yes. We are going to plow corn stubble this
spring for cats. I think it is the best place to grow them.

Mr. Hamilton.—I don’t agree with you. I would not grow oats
at all. They don’t pay me.

What is the effect when leaving our plowed ground naked from Septem-
ber to May?

A Farmer.—We never have had a chance to try it in St. Law-
rence county. Asarule the ground is covered with snow during
that time.

Mr. Converse.—I would not plow in the fall, except as a matter
of economy when I had a piece of ground that I could not get
on to early in the spring. It is better to have some cover crop on
the ground than to have it naked in winter.

How can a poor chestnut soil be quickly and economically made pro-
ductive?

Mr. Terry.—I think I would begin by plowing under cow peas
or clover to furnish vegetable matter. Humus, as a rule, is de-
ficient in poor soils, and I think that cow peas are best. Mr.
Gould says he sows five pecks per acre, and sows them as soon as
all danger of frost is past in the spring.

430 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirvres.

What variety of carrots are best for the city market? Should they be
jarge, small or medium varieties?

Mr. Cook.—Small or medium varieties sell best. We grow
some of the yellow carrots in our garden. I think they are Ox
Heart. Long and Short Orange are the best varieties. We do
not grow them for feeding to stock; only for family use. We
cook them so that they are fully equal to parsnips.

Is beardless barley as good as the bearded variety?

A Farmer.—Fully equal to it. I have grown it three seasons,
shall keep on growing it.

Another Farmer.—I have sown it several seasons. Last year I
harvested thirty-two bushels per acre.

What is the best method of improving worn out land?

Prof. Cavanaugh.—That is a hard question to answer. Prob-
ably the ideal method of restoring fertility to a worn out soil is
by plowing under clover. The clover plant has the power of stor-
ing nitrogen from the air through nodules or warts on its roots.
Follow with barn manure. If you do not have enough, use com-
mercial fertilizers, first ascertaining what elements of plant food
the soil most requires for the crops you intend growing.

Will timothy seed that has been hulled, grow as well as that which has
not?

Mr. Cook.—I prefer to have it with the hull on; but if the con-
ditions are all right, the hulled seed will grow just as well. By
“ good condition ” is meant a fine, well prepared soil.

What will prevent rust or smut on wheat or oats?

Mr. Converse.—I have heard Prof. Beach say that it can be
prevented by soaking the seed grain in water heated to 120 de-
grees. I believe two hours.

Are artichokes as valuable for swine and cattle as the seedmen recom-
mend them?

Mr. Smith.—I do not believe I would try artichokes. They are
no more yaluable than potatoes for a swine or cattle food; at the

Tne Question Box. 431

same time, when they once get into the soil it will be found very
hard work to get rid of them. You don’t want to believe all the
stories the seedmen tell.

Would it be advisable to try cow peas as a soil renovator? If so, what
variety is the best?

Mr. Smith.—The cow peas are a soil renovator; that is, they are
a nitrogen gatherer. There are several varieties; one known as
“Whippoorwill,” another as “Little Black” are best. It might be
well enough to try a few by way of experiment.

Are we now receiving benefits under the pure cattle food act; and upon
whom deyolves the responsibility of enforcing the law?

Mr. Ward.—I have a copy of the law and will bring it to the
next session. The farmers are protected by it, provided they will
help enforce it. They must demand an analysis of the prepared
ground stuffs they buy. The law makes it obligatory on the part
of the dealers to furnish such analysis, and the matter of analysis
and enforcement of the law is left to the State experiment station.
If the law is enforced and the farmer will find out what feeding
values are, they will save hundreds of thousand of dollars every
year. There isa firm in Kentucky that is grinding pure corn cob
so finely that it cannot be detected except by analysis. This stuff
is perfectly worthless as a food, but it is mixed and sold in wheat
brans, and there are other mixtures fully as fraudulent.

Explain the difference between in-breeding and line-breeding?

Mr. Cook.—In-breeding is the breeding of sire to daughter; line
breeding is the keeping of families of certain breeds together,
without in-breeding.

How may I treat a clay soil that heaves very badly, to make permanent
pasture or meadow, without underdraining it. Cannot afford to buy tiles?

Mr. Cook.—That is a problem. I don’t know as I can answer
fully. Possibly surface drains may be opened, so that the water
will run off. But if water stands in the subsoil I do not believe
that anything can be done with it till that water is out.

A Farmer.—I would suggest putting one blind ditch throngh
that land as an experiment. Possibly such ditches will help it.

432 Bureau or Farmers’ Iwnsrirures.

Does model farming pay in Allegany county?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know why “model farming” will not pay just
as well in Allegany county as elsewhere. It certainly does pay
in other counties, and judging from appearances in some locali-
ties, it does in Allegany county.

Does it pay the farmers to keep up good line fences?

Mr. Cook.—Line fences are necessary, so are other fences in
some instances, but the old rail fences, whether on a line or
somewhere else, are nuisances. It were better to take them down,
dig out the bushes, plow the land, crop it a year or two, then
build a wire fence. The old rail fence is a back number.

I have plenty of stone, and wish to underdrain a piece of wet land.
Shall I use the stone or tile?

Mr. Ward I should put the stone into a wall and use tiles. It
costs just as much to much the ditch for one as for the other, and
just as much to cover it. Tile will last many years, while a stone
drain will fail in a few years. I do not believe that any man can
lay any quality or variety of stone in a ditch that will last very
long. They soon clog up, and often rats get into them and make
mischief. I know tile drains that I helped to lay when I was a
boy, that are just as good as when laid. Ordinary drain tile may
be bought cheaply and will last, when well laid, four generations;
but do not make the mistake of getting too small tiles. Have
them large enough. The depth to lay them will depend on the
grade and the soil. We have laid them only twelve inches below
the surface; but, as a rule, the tiles ought to be laid below the
frost line. The distance apart will also depend on the condition
of the land. The more water there is present, the closer should
the ditches be; and, if very wet, it will be best to lay the tiles on
boards.

Would you seed after winter wheat or some spring crop?
Mr. Ward.—Ninety-nine one-hundredths of our seeding is done
on winter wheat in the spring.

Tue Question Box. 433

How can hill lands be made remunerative to the farmer?

Mr. Cook.—What is the matter with allowing them to grow up
with timber? Sheep and cows might be pastured on them.

A Farmer.—Some of them would not keep a woodchuck alive.

Mr. Cook.—Then allow the timber to grow if the land is as
_ barren asthat. But there are a great many acres of land in this
State that are reported as barren, which analysis show to be full
of fertility. The only trouble is, the fertility in them is not avail-
able. Cultivation and humus, when the land can be cultivated,
will make this plant food available. When the lands cannot be
: plowed, the keeping of live-stock, with perhaps the addition of
some potash, to give the grasses a start, will render the land pro-
ductive.

Will clover and timothy “do well” if the seed bed is well prepared and
the seed sown after harvesting wheat?

Mr. Cook.—Such a practice is being followed in some localities,
and I have heard it recommended, but, to succeed, the ground
must be well fitted and the seed sown as early as the first of
August. If so done, it will have all the benefit of the land, as
well as of the late summer and fall rains to give it a good start,
and will establish it to withstand the winter and the spring varia-
tion of temperature.

Which will pay best, to cut hemlock into lumber or shingles?

Mr. Moulton.—Cut it into lumber. Hemlock makes a poor
shingle; besides, they do not bring a big enough price as com-
pared with hemlock lumber. It is much more economical to buy
cedar shingles at the prices they are sold for now.

Will it pay the average farmer to take and read the experiment station
bulletins?

Mr. Cook.—There are 350,000 farmers in the State of New York,
but there are less than 40,000 of them who take the bulletins from
Cornell and Geneva. One would think that the Grangers would
take and read these bulletins, but it seems that they do not. There

434 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

are 60,000 Grangers in the State, so that if all who do take them
are Grangers— but they are not — only two-thirds take them.
Those who do, we always meet at the institute; and there are
some others who attend; but, as a rule, the farmers who ought
to attend, and who are in need of help and instruction, stay at
home, or go elsewhere. The institutes are held for the benefit .
of these men, as well as for those who are here. Much informa-
tion may be derived from the bulletins and the reading course sent
out from Cornell University, neither of which cost anything. A
postal card, on one side of which is written your name and address,
if addressed to Prof. I. P. Roberts, Ithaca, or the Geneva Experi-
ment Station, will bring you the bulletins from both experiment
stations, as well as the reading course from Cornell—and all are
free. But it is difficult to reach a man who has lived and* worked
just as his father and grandfather did. It is the same with the
16-year-old boy who is climbing “ fool hill.” He thinks he knows
it all and there is nothing to be learned. You cannot teach either
of them. The boy, by and by, will see the error of his ways, but
the old, hide-bound farmer, never, except, perhaps, after watching
his progressive neighbor, he adopts some of his methods.

A Farmer.—Only about one-half the Grangers and heads of
families.

Will you please explain what is known as the “Cornell Reading Course,”

how is it carried on, how is it paid for, how one is to avail himself of its
privileges, and what the cost, if any, is?

Mr. Smith.—The reading course at Cornell is carried on under
the provisions of what is known as the “ Nixon bill.” By corres-
ponding with the department of agriculture at Cornell one may
get all needful information.

Mr. Rice.—In this reading course one may get all the agricul-
tural fundamentals necessary. Besides, all high-grade terms are
eliminated, and those which almost anyone will understand are
substituted.

A Farmer.—I have been taking this course a year and have
never found anything more instructive.

Tue Question Box. 435

Mr. Smith—How many of you have taken or are taking the
course?

A half dozen hands went up.

Mr. Converse.—I think, Mr. Smith, that there are about 16,000
farmers now in this State who are taking the course.

Mr. Smith.—We shall be pleased to see the hands of those who
wish to take the course. Mr. Windecker will take and forward
the names.

Will Dr. Van Slyke please tell us how oleomargarine is made; also the
difference between that and butterine?

Answer.—In the manufacture of oleomargarine, as commonly
practiced, the fat is removed from the cattle in the process of
slaughter, and, after thorough washing, is placed in a bath of
clean, cold water surrounded with ice; where it is allowed to
remain until all animal heat has been removed. It is then cut into
small pieces by machinery, then cooked at a temperature of about
150 degrees F., until the fat separates in liquid form from the
tissue. It is then allowed to settle until it becomes perfectly
clear, after which it is drawn into the draining vats, where it is
allowed to stand about twenty-four hours, when it is ready for
putting in the presses. The process of pressing separates the
stearin in solid condition from the remaining product, which is
a liquid oil, commonly known as oleo oil. This oleo oil is then
churned with cream or milk, or with both, and is salted and
treated the same as is finished butter. The product is known
as oleomargarine. In making butterine, neutral lard, made from
selected leaf lard, is commonly used; but, in this case, no stearin
is removed. This neutral lard is kept in salt brine during two or
three days, at freezing temperature. It is then mixed with some
oleo oil and butter, and churned with cream or milk.

4.22 183 Woe
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INDEX.

Be

Page
Beach, Prof. 8. A., Fertilizing Self-sterile Grapes (illustrated) ........ 42
Bean-Growing, Some Practical Points in, by J. E. Wilson........... 49
CANS COUESULOTISE A DOU bit rafate es vicselalis’s siclarsucveeteletaaite tore ovare oltcein’s ee e's 310-312
Beef Type, The Proper, by Prof. C. F. Curtiss (illustrated)......... 23
BCCIS. SUCAL,. QUCSHONS AWOUE TS. o.lacw sclwccls os cs screen e sou sess ‘OLO-aoo
BGG Suey Diya WinseeA. ass JOUNSOM «a,c shee ercca olereis 4 esi alee s0'es oie wines 158
BOvinen MuUperculosis., Dy. DT sa Wer dis MEUEP Ys cevetecey evra, c,0 0,6 vein seers sic.v.s, oe 118

Bovine Tuberculosis in Its Relation to Man, by Dr. Edward Moore... 126

C.
cee em CPUIESTIONS = a0 OU La. ora aia atalovereierertotoes aPateleray spon ctelep aera ctal/epera eat 253-255
Cattle, Judging in the Show-ring, by Dr. Geo. M. Twitchell (ilius-
ISMUE Ci napcee ets ee ralevele w avei cuts leca’ acolo aerere cotta: Sleunte eG arene ove a elapse Bide Erneta 8
Church and the Grange, by Rev. John Kincaid ................2008. 181
WIOVEDS: - O TESHONS AOU s.. ole siete: ataralelate'alavel stove shaatere cootetaie mae ne oa 298-307
SOW. Way, QUESTIONS ADOUE ites on ie ore eels cet oh atthe eet aaty tte 344-378
Curtiss, Prof. C. F., The Proper Beef Type (illustrated) ............. 23
D.

PeMiVeCows OUCSTIONS- ADOULE \.-..c'oe.anisicrl cere sie ciate Ot cere a eie ete eae 344-378
Dewey vrs Melvil, Household Heonomy %\.2..-.ses0 sca eee aca ene 151
E.

Economy, Household, by Mrs. Melvil Dewey .........:ccccsccsveecns 151
SIAC CIESELONS] AWOL: c.c-c:0 00s «cree rote cls tis accte cleseie ance cine arwceteins 282-298
FR.
harming -Docsait bays Dy Rev. O7Ps Wletcher cies e's ocre eet eee 234
iP Sullivan County. Dy Ges COW. cEVGQEh! sifeaiels.cce ofa otetelais ete es ote te 187
On sland. of. J.ersey, Wrank S: Peer .c:he «be «3 histo hte wtes ajeteraate 221

Bari, tuce,oy, ping. G: UR. Brith 3... 6. oss eatin al aac de oo ete ee 154

438 INDEX.

Page

Farmers’ Institutes; List Of 6.0 cs eis © vio ssi ete» eo aim oye ieleie ieee 3
Felt, Dr. E. P., Injurious Insects and How to Control Them.......... 59
Household: TNS€Cts «. cee ae © aecess oe so wld 5 ole ave 6, Wana 0e) nate S86
Fertilizing Self-sterile Grapes, by Prof. S. A. Beach (illustrated)...... 42
Manders, Ella F., The Ideal in Life .......:........« «se le seen 227
Fletcher, Rey. O. T., Does Farming Pay?......... <2.» «so seinen
Fungicides, Questions About ...5..2..0500+ 00 0ues oy o 0 ellen ener rn

G.

Good Roads, by Dr. HR. Dy FRU G sere s,& <5, sin ss 1s ters esos 5) esol cece ae 108
Grange, The Church and, by Rev. Jolin Kincaid ....,...-..) sie 181

Grapes, Fertilizing Self-sterile, by Prof. S. A. Beach (illustrated).... 42

Grasses, ‘Questions: about. 2.2... sc 1.0). 0/s:s 1 esels ainiew ies ie ae 378-381

IH.

Heath, ©. W., Sullivan County Farming ........... oss 187

Hilton, James, The Man With the Hoe... ........-. 0.2. pee 209

Horses, Questions ADOUE <6. cies so ayse. cele elem els wei iatetetaraeie inn 249-251

Household Heonomy, Mrs. Melvil Dewey ...:... =... .+.smoh ene 151

Insects, Dr. EB. P. Felt (illustrated) 2.....:... «++ «ceisler 86

Hunt, Dr: H. D., Good Roads) sissies oe © euerere ts aye «are eee ihieds (ifs:
I;

Insecticides, Questions about .... <1... ... 0s o's + c)eGieee ee iene 389-400

Insects, Injurious, and How to Control Them, by Dr. E. P. Felt (illus-

AVATOA)| 25. o.oo 505, a5s 6 <ilevsys wieiene td bs ‘sysyene ee ole ietelS alee syaielal io Tere tet ea 59
Household, Dr. E. P. Felt Gllustrated)) 2... 2c. 2 crete cee Pees:
LNStILMLES Marmers! Suist Ol (see cetaesies aie ciete PUG ne 103
Irrigation Schemes of the West, by G. M. Tucker ..........0..eepeees 197
Ale
Jolinson,. Mrs. A. B., Bird Study ...5...%..%% 5 5.000 sek okie 158
Judging Cattle in the Show-ring, by Dr. G. M. Twitchell (illus-
EU AEEG) Se) Se steve ayela,1s'c tary wiereie,a Bo, Stators, 6 vgs ohare pfavetale rel aan > auldve iota Cees
I.
Kineaid, Rev. John, The Chureh and the ‘Grange .......... eee 181
L. /
Life, Farm; by Mis. G. R., Suoith ..5.2-4.. 2. 2eike 5 ed. eee 154
Ideal in) Hilla Be Plandersi s,s. son. eee ee odd wale’ oatthe gota 227

Page
Pee KSON, AMMA ANCE N SUUGIE iejcusnedsnaretske sais s.q.s1c seetsia cuswevereici chee aipliars 165
ME AVIED EMOVELOe: Wye Dames VAIULOMA 6% < cw os cca esis ete ste cieWeisbeuelemiers 209
Rarkeand JTS Eroduets, Questions about a... 206.6 c.es esc tw sc nsmes 312-326
MG ATLOOMS ¢ OUCSTIONSG to, yeiecsvedaleiievevels tele sels ucieue svecciis-s chais 0 blstotee 400-435
Moore, Dr. Edward, Bovine Tuberculosis in Its Relation to Man ..... 126
Miscowney.. Ln VWVc,, OUSECH. OPPOLFUMWeS oc on cine sme octet evolve salto! =) ehals 1738
marpby, Dro Wim). Bovine Tuberculosis). 2. . one. ek vy. vee Siew 118

N.

Rea tidy Alimas NCP IMErSON\.cfsrscersecchatedthe's cievsuede coe lols. «de, ae ltieveld onete 165
BEC eni etd AEE a CLE DP TPEL TINE SON 155.5) chectaes avout fevsile anatestes el Sue vars ile oynsvoaieveuceusve /sseasyens 9G
O.
rem OHIESL IONS WOU Macros naire stata nccciart eke al tala ance’ osteo aia eee shes 308-310
Opporwuniaes, Unseen, ‘by Reva Hy Ws. Moottcseacs fe ae cite sienna oe 173
Meter OMESTIOMS “ADOUE «i aete! chai cotatereisionelehanebe above re sma, etic c erent eo tomer a 259-260
12g
WETS mCOUESULONS ra DOUE Sik 5 site sae euler Gioia tes sree ers Sane teoteneteuerane 308-310
Heer hranie Sek arming, On LSsland Of WenSGy aenmics tac se ale ners cleus crete 221
HIPS MOMESTUONMS ADOT) ste: ete seve isle. ei 4 dey OTe Rew ete alee 6 oa.6 ve eae Ole eps
Potatoes, Growing Successfully in New York, bw T. B. Terry........ 36

APGESHONSE ADOUL. Rerece netonsiets «fiat sronetehats crete ta eek meters creme a eres 240-249
POUL OUCSTIONS SAD OMLE pict icalae stone coe eke Sole te deme ciodieeees 333-343
Q.

Question Box—
EGAN ese, tS chaio are nals, Se eta BSE bi stle Rett Aton: of eeet ene ie oat ay eetan aiMiacab tate cake 310-312
(CEG ER erat ae CORI aM AAO HEEPErhOrr Gu Chr SIN ocd A Rie an Ae Bin he hae 253-255
MEW ONES Wetre ts Sant siete ok of chats Yaike:/a)racty a ves-ss eNaicecenteTs verses sliver avs Paste aakene, erethes hers etme 298-307
Maeve Cowi=— OAre and: MEGA"... sce coc eee cise + stoic meen 344-378
HMErglIZerstand AMerElizing ie. hated tsa tak eek ceeret ie nee ora tiene 265-282
GASSES Pe seek ces = oe eisai ewe we bee ae SHE a ie o Garett 378-381
UES Dehra Pen ect ele xe /ieieie che’ duis xe k'e hraie, wag nictetehele Shee sremnst eer 249-251
Insecticides shuneicides andi Spraying) tacit. «clots, sel oleveteve s/o 389-400
Milkeand vlts cP roduets' sass. sh esis < Ghereteas stp este see toa ee ctehe 312-326
MaSCOlL AIG OMS tes y ticle sha «ace ele e/aie Sous at lakeresie Cispatvews < aeveuone Sishs 400-435
A) UE ensa TT CER ASS eects Ulver ULL iavelsallinentaagdessae Gel caaherale. eaasee eet oie 308-310
MO CTV AN eteter te a Vetaoray an aic: sirars ol ssSron oc cisats. s a¥e cele ve ton tyeaavellcnere attetars elsvanedetegeeuate 255-265

*

440 INDEX.

Question Box — (Continued):

Page.
PIGS so 0-00 vic-01p ein 0010 tis 6 UMM eee Oe 4 a OR ONO ere ae Wma 251-253
POtatOeS oc bac die ao: 0 vet prude wwlete dM bles intitelala Sips td kts ma 240-249
POULEDY. 2.5 secede: eves cu vece ov die Sbiils ONEIRICIS On te atu hel tana nn 333-343
12) 0) (0) (6 OMAP rr rinscs cl. 329-333
Silo HWinsilage .- 2:2 <s ..jacid sole» vicinal w wise bib ed ib sine pts 282-298
Sugar BEGGS: oy. oc. bo.cccss, ove: Mel ela sis eh pre ERD ole ee een s 326-329
Veterinary Inquiries... . «dis viwivil SCG ie. mee ee 381-389
R.
Roads, Good, by Dr. H. D. Hunt........%.. bisa ves sells viol sive en 108
Ss.
Sheepfold, Questions ‘About. occ. .0-s vee oe cer ee wien eo vials een 329-333
Silo, -Questions. ADOUE: 2 ....% a). 2c, low ne ete eee wis seo 0lateene een 282-298
Smith, Mrs. G. BR., Farm Lie «.. ccc 00:0). soi» wie isid « u vic) 6 o'cieipey ei ol anne ennannnnn 154
Spraying, Questions ADOUT << jc.c0c «ois «oe 2 once beietale Bie) cee 389-400
Spraying, Twelve Years’ Experience in, by Edward Van Alstyne..... 52
State Agricultural Society, by W. B.'Dooley «0... 53.5 5 ln + ieee 216
Sugar Beets, Questions about ....... 0... «++ +s)- otoksieeneeriennee 326-329
Sullivan County Farming, by C. W. Heath: ic .5.. aici ce nemeie an eneeeenen 187
oe AM
Terry, T. B., Growing-Potatoes Successfully in New York........... 36
hile Drainace. by. Bic INICOlaI a. cnr stereo Sao ines ane 96
Tooley, W. B., State Agricultural Society .... .. 2.0 ccs cphetslteeee 214
Tuberculosis, Bovine; by Dr. Wm. J. Murphy <..-.....c 05 «tstenmneenees 118
in Its Relation to Man, by Dr. Edward Moore ............:-.0s6 126
Twitchell, Dr. G. M., Judging Cattle in the Show-ring (illustrated)... 8
Tucker, Gilbert M., Irrigation Schemes of the West ...........ssseure 197
Vi
Van Alstyne, Edward, Twelve Years’ Experience in Spraying........ 52
Veterinary Inquiries, 6. << .is c's cise » 2ie'e is pigtails ol pinips (ore olatte ie ee 381-389
W.
West, Irrigation Schemes of, by Gilbert M. Tucker .............. Beppe t 1
Wilson, J. E., Some Practical Points in Bean-growing .............. 49

THe Question Box. 385

and allow her to fill herself with grass, because it stimulates the
milk-producing functions too much, which tends to produce milk
fever.

Why do pigs become lame and stiff? They are fed ground oats, corn
and bran and have exercise.

A Farmer.—They need more exercise.

Another Farmer.—They have worms.

Mr. Converse.—Possibly it may be caused by rheumatism, or it
may come from feeding too much corn meal.

Mr. Chapman.—Ofttimes the trouble comes from intestinal
worms; a mixture of charcoal, salt and ashes put into the food,
will very often effect a cure.

To Dr. Smead.—What do you think of the barbarous practice so many
have, of feeding ashes and salt, mixed, to horses?

Answer.—The man who believes in that practice ought to take
a dose of the mixture every day for a week. At the end of that
time, if he is alive and likes the stuff, let him come around and tell
meso. I shall then have nothing more to say.

What would you give a cow that has “run down” since she dropped
her first calf and has partly lost her appetite?

Mr. Weaver.—There is a preparation—a tonic—-that seems to
benefit such a cow. I have not the prescription, but it contains
some ginger, gentian, saltpeter, Peruvian bark, etc.

Mr. Cook.—A warm bran mash, if the cow will eat it, will be
found about as good as the medicine. Don’t spend a whole lot
of money for these prepared, patent right foods and tonics. Some
of them are good in their way, but they cost ten times as much
as they are worth. Asa rule, they contain 90 per cent. of linseed
meal. They are just about as much of a fraud as is oleomar-
garine. Don’t buy them. Ifa cow is ailing, call a good physician
or veterinarian; or, as we always have some farmer among us
who has had experience in doctoring sick cows, seek his advise.
As a rule, he will know what the matter is and what to prescribe.

886 Bureau oF Farmers’ Instirures.

Are cattle benefited by being dishorned?

Dr. Smead.—lI think it a benefit to dishorn the whole herd; but
where one has but one cow I do not know that she will be bene-
fited by it. As arule, those who have had their herds dishorned
are more than satisfied with the results. Indeed, I do not know
of a dairyman who has had his herd dishorned who regrets his
action.

At what season is it best to dishorn cows? Is it too late now?
Mr. Converse.—At any time when the flies are not plentiful.
Cut them off now, but don’t allow them to go out in the cold.

What is the most humane method of dishorning cattle?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I think the clippers are best. We want to
be quick about it, just as we would if we were to have a tooth
pulled—we want to have it jerked out as soon as possible. I do
not use the saw any more or take the cows out of the stanchions.
There is no excitement of the cow, and but little blood to flow.
But I know of a cow that bled to death; but it was the fault of
the owner. We cut the horn close to the frontal bone, put on
carbolized lard, then applied flour. If that does not stop the
flow we apply spider’s web.

If a herd of cattle has a cough, is it a sign of tuberculosis?

Mr. Converse.—That is a symptom, but the animals may not
have the diseases. If one of my cows had such a cough I would
call a veterinarian. But we have had cows which had such a
cough, that did not have tuberculosis at all.

Is there any visible degree by which we may judge whether a cow has
or has not, tuberculosis?

Dr. Smead.—Yes, when the disease is in an advanced stage;
there are signs, but none when the disease is in the incipient form.
I would require some external evidence before I would use tuber-
culin. It would be an unwise thing to use it, until one had very
strong evidence. It has caused the destruction of many animals
that have been tested and killed. Upon examination it was found
that the tubercles in them were encysted and had become en-

Tur Question Box. 387

tirely harmless. Some of the signs of tuberculosis in an ad-
vanced stage, are dull, watery eyes, languid appearance, degen-
erated appetite, a cough and a dry, hot feeling of the hair, ete.

What is the cause of tuberculosis; and is it catching?

Mr. Van Dreser.—I believe it is caused by a lack of constitu-
tional vigor. I know of whole families who have died of con-
sumption, but I do not believe it is catching; that is, I do not
believe that a person perfectly healthy will catch tuberculosis—
consumption from one sick with it.

Mr. Cook.—If you or I have a cow sick with tuberculosis, I think
it is our duty to kill and bury her, and not wait for some man
with a syringe to come around and puncture her, and then we ask
the State to pay for her.

To Dr. Smead.—What are the first symptoms of the disease called
tuberculosis? Is a cow troubled for some time before coughing begins?

Answer.—There are two questions involved. The first symp-
toms of tuberculosis in cattle or in any other animal, are very
similar to those in the human. Aga rule, at first is a general un-
thrifty appearance, which is followed by a cough. But the animal
may cough and not have it. The cough caused by the disease is
usually continuous and increases when the animal is hurried.
The next symptom is a craving appetite. These are the first prin-
cipal symptoms. The second part of the question—difficulty of
breathing—may not be a symptom. It may be caused by some
trouble in the nostril. One will have to investigate for the pur-
pose of ascertaining whether such diffculty is caused by lungs or
nostril disease. But, don’t go away thinking that tuberculosis is
a new disease. It is more than 2,000 years old. If you have a
cow showing these symptoms don’t imagine the whole herd is
diseased. One animal may have it only. If you find such a one,
quarantine it and give it the best of care and attention, and await
results. Call some capable veterinarian and abide by his advice.
If in time, the disease develops to such an extent that you are
satisfied it has become chronic, slaughter and bury the animaL

888 Bureau or Farmers’ INstirures.

Is abortion in cows a disease? If so, what is the remedy?

Dr. Jordan.—This question cannot be fully answered. Dr.
Law of Cornell says he “ gives it up.” Good sanitary conditions,
proper care, and a close watch upon the herd is advised.

A farmer present said that his herd, particularly the heifers,
were most badly afflicted with the epidemic.

Mr. Cook.—I have no remedy; I wish I had. Several years ago
thirty-six cows out of fifty in our herd, aborted. The second. year
the trouble came again, but in less number. Since then but four
cases have occurred. When we have a case in our herd of 100
cows, we immediately quarantine the cow. Sympathetic cases
have occurred in our herd, so that it is of the utmost importance
that such cows should be isolated at once.

Captain Murphy.—I once had a heifer kick me on the knee; I
gave her several cuts with the whip because I was angry; a few
hours later, the heifer aborted. I was the cause of it. At an-
other time one of my men was driving some cows to a fair; a rail-
road train came along and frightened them so that they ran down
the railroad bank. A few hours later some of them aborted. I
believe the disease is a nervous one, as it always occurs in our
best cows.

Is there any cure for roup in hens, if so, what is it?

Mr. Van Dreser.—The cure is prevention. We have a large
flock of hens, but when I was at home there was not a case of roup
among them. If the houses are kept dry and no drafts of cold
air pass through, it will not appear. Dampness causes it and
dampness means death. If you find a hen sick with roup, the best
way 1s to take her head off and bury her. Ground floors are
damp; while rats will gnaw through board floors, so we use
cement, but they are kept covered with straw; and straw should
be kept on a board floor, so that the grain ration may be sprinkled
in it for the hens to scratch, to give them exercise.

Dr. Smead.—Roup is caused by dampness, but there are three
classes of it among hens. One is an influenza, one diphtheria, the
other what is known as roup. To avoid these diseases, we should

THe Question Box. 389

have plenty of sunlight to destroy the germ that is destroying the
hen. Then ventilate the house and remove the droppings often.
If you have a valuable hen, quarantine her by removing her from
the flock, then mix one part of carbolic acid with ten parts of lin-
seed oil and sponge the head and face of the hen. We call it
“ carbolized oil.”

Will sour milk cause indigestion when fed to calves?

Mr. Cook.—Not if fed carefully. Asa rule, indigestion is caused
by over-feed or by feeding too rich milk to young calves. But I
would not feed very sour milk. There is a tendency on the part
of most of us to over-feed the calf. I believe that mildly soured
milk will not injure the calf, but I should prefer not to give the
calf milk until it is two or three weeks old, milk containing more
than two to three per cent. butter fat; later, I would feed skim-
milk, sweet.

Is it well to give a horse linseed oil in his feed as oil meal? If so, how
much would you give?

Dr. Smead.—Oh, no; linseed meal is a food very rich in protein,
which makes blood, bone and muscle. Linseed oil is a medicine
which is used sometimes-in veterinary practice.

INJURIOUS INSECTS, INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES AND SPRAY-
ING.

Is there a preventive of the “ Buffalo fly?”

Prof. Felt.—I know of no remedy. Lime sprinkled on the drop-
pings is doubtless the best preventive. We may keep the stable
dark during the day, or spray with kerosene oil, but most of these
remedies are only temporary.

Is there any remedy or preventive of the railroad worm in apples?

Prof. Felt.—The only remedy is to destroy the fruit, pick up
the apples and feed them to hogs. Spraying will not affect the
apple maggot. It will the codlin moth, however. We know that
the moth does not fly far, so that if one takes care of his orchard,
even if his neighbor neglects his, the insect may be quite largely
obliterated in any one orchard.

390 Bureau or Farmers’ Iystirures.

Is the kissing bug dangerous?

Prof. Felt—It is a myth. I have the pictures of at least sixty
different bugs, all looking unlike, of the so-called “ kissing bugs,”
in a scrap book, and all collected from different papers.

What will kill the pumpkin bug?

Prof. Felt—1I don’t know what is meant by the term pumpkin
bug, but I suppose the striped cucumber beetle is the bug. It
may be driven off by spraying with some emulsion.

A Farmer.—I soak a piece of cloth in kerosene, tie it around a
stick, and thrust the stick into the hill. Unless it rains it will
keep the bugs away two or three days at a time. The scent of
the oil keeps the bug away.

Prof. Felt.—I do not wish to discredit what the gentleman
says, but I would not want to recommend anything as a positiwe
cure until it had been universally used and proved to be effectual.

What is the so-called kissing bug?

Prof. Felt—It is a smooth, shiny brown creature and has a
wicked look in its eye. It resembles a squash bug somewhat,
but if not disturbed does not bite.

Does the bite of a mosquito ever cause malaria or fever?

Prof. Felt.—Investigation made with certain species of mos-
quitoes in Southern Africa, where malaria is quite prevalent,
shows that this is true somewhat, but they are confined to certain
pools. Kerosene placed on the water where the mosquitoes
breed, is said to exterminate them.

What is the best remedy for killing humbugs?

Prof. Felt.—I believe that the best receipt for killing humbugs
is education. I know of none better.

What shall we use to prevent the lumpy, bumpy, humpy conditions of
some of our apples?

Prof. Felt.—I have been recommending arsenate of lead for
spraying purposes when a second brood comes on, because it ad-
heres to the leaves so firmly; but paris green or london purple are

=

Tue Question Box. 391

good. However, it does not pay to save five cents’ worth of
poison. Almost any of the poisons are good and I do not care to
distinguish between them.

What is the name of the insect that causes the humps on apples?

Prof. Felt—1I am free to say that I do not know what the in-
sect is. The only way is to watch the apple. A gentleman told
me to-night that he had watched the apple all through a season
and had been unable to locate the cause. I shall investigate and
study it, however, as soon as I have a chance.

What is the remedy for the insect that attacks cherry trees? It attacks
the leaves at the time of blossoming, curls their ends and blights the blos-
soms. The inside of the leaf along the main veining is covered with
black insects that presently become flies. These black insects seem to
attack the new leaves. I have tried soft soap, kerosene and paris green
without success.

Prof. Felt.—I have but little doubt that it is the work of some
plant louse. I would use some insecticide that will kill the lice
when it touches them. Whale oil soap or kerosene emulsion will
kill them; but one must begin early and be thorough. Poisons
will not destroy them for the reason that they do not eat, but
suck the juices out of the leaf, instead.

What shail I do to kill the lice or slugs on my roses?

Prof. Felt.—These slugs on the roses are of a family of aphis.
Make an emulsion of soap kerosene and spray the roses with it,
making it strong.

When is the proper time to scrape trees to kill the codlin moth?
Prof. Felt.—At any time in early winter or late fall will answer
the purpose.

How often should orchards be sprayed to kill insects or worms?

Prof. Felt—We spray orchards to kill insects and prevent
scab, but there are two classes of insects, one sucks, the other
eats, the latter may be killed by spraying with poisons, the other
must be fought with emulsions. They breathe through holes in
their bodies; kerosene emulsion, sprayed on them will stop up

392 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirurses.

these holes, and this will kill the insects. If we are to spray, we
should know when and how to do it, and do it after the blossoms
fall; spray two or three times.

What will destroy the oyster shell scale?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—The oyster shell bark louse or scale is easily
removed by washing the tree with strong lye. As a rule, this
scale only gets on to feeble, unhealthy trees. I don’t know as I
ever saw it on strong, well-fed, healthy trees.

Will Mr. Fenner please tell us with what he sprayed his pear trees?

Answer.—Paris green, 1 pound, with 100 gallons of water.
Sprayed the pears three times, when the fruit was about the size
of robins’ eggs. We also spray with the Bordeaux mixture, just
as the buds are starting; again later.

Mr. Cook.—How many of the farmers here have sprayed their
orchards? Hands up!

A number voted, and one or two said they got excellent results
—better than ever before—last year. One farmer said he got
as good results from not spraying as did those who sprayed near
him.

Mr. Cook.—You are like the man over at Mexico who said he
got better results from the aquatic creamer than from the centrif-
ugal separator.

What shall we do to save our plum trees from black knot?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—The black knot comes from a fungus. There
is no way to hold it in check, or cure it by spraying. The only
sure way I know is to cut out and burn all affected limbs; then
I should apply some turpentine. It is said it will prevent the
disease from spreading. If the tree is badly affected it is best
to cut it down and burn it.

Is there any way to ward off the so-called apple maggot?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I know no way of fighting this maggot. It
seems to take more kindly to Talman sweet and other like colored
apples, like Greenings and Fall Pippins, because they are thin

THe Question Box. 393

skinned. I know of no way but to stop planting these varieties
and allow the hogs and sheep to run in the orchard to eat the
wormy apples as fast as they fall.

Mr. Houck.—This maggot also works on Baldwins and Spitzen-
burgs.

Will Mr. Van Alstyne give us his experience for or against spraying his
orchards?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—I do not believe I do a day’s work in the
year that pays me so well as that spent in spraying my orchards.
It is a nasty job and I hate it because, sometimes, my wife hardly
knows me when I go into the house. But I am not advocating
it here because I want to say something at an institute, but
because I know that we cannot be sure of fruit at all seasons
unless we do spray, but it must be done thoroughly and intelli-
gently. We spray for two purposes: To kill insects and to pre-
vent scab on fruit, and leaf blight, using the Bordeaux mixture
for the latter and poison for the former. After the blossoms have
fallen and the fruit has set, we mix the poison with the Bordeaux,
so that two purposes are served at the same time. Spray with
the Bordeaux first—just as the foliage is coming out, and do it
so as to cover the whole tree; later, add the poison to kill the
insects—codling moth, tent caterpillar, canker worm and other
insects that work on the fruit. And I would spray my orchard
with the poison and Bordeaux if there were not an apple in it;
not so many times, but I would spray to prevent leaf blight and
to kill insects that work on the foliage, as, unless we grow a good
crop of foliage this year, there will be no fruit buds next year,
and, therefore, no fruit.

What will kill lice on currant bushes?

Prof. Stewart.—I have heard our entomologist say that there
is not much hope for the currant leaf, if we wait till after the
leaves are well out. But he intends to begin experiments by
spraying the buds before they are very far out, with the kerosene
emulsion and hopes to succeed. When the leaves are out the
aphides cannot be very easily reached, for the reason that they

394 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

work from the under side of the leaf, where they suck the juices
from between its walls.

What are the eggs on these maple twigs? Please notice them. Some
twigs are covered with these eggs. What will kill them?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Those are the eggs of the forest-tree cater-
pillar that works on the maples. The only way is to destroy the
eggs. If they are allowed to hatch, very many will escape.
Where they are on the ends of the twigs they may be clipped off.
They are easily distinguished from the tent worm of the apple
tree, and one ought to examine the trees and destroy the eggs.
Green arsenite and arsenite of lead are also used in the spring
and summer, the latter being much cheaper than the paris green;
but it must be cut with potash, and, unless care is taken, the
foliage will be burned. If the difference in price, as between the
paris green and green arsenite was not much, I should use the
former. If the difference was more than three cents I should use
the green arsenite. It is more soluble and remains in suspension
longer than does the green, and, therefore, does not need so much
agitating while being sprayed on the trees.

What is the cause of bugs in beans and peas, and what is the best way
to dispose of them?

Mr. Converse.—The worm is caused by a fly which punctures
the pod and lays an egg, which produces a worm. The worm
turns into the bug which we see. Bisulphide of carbon is the
remedy. Saturate a sponge with it and place in the bin or barrel
holding the beans or peas, then cover it tightly with a blanket.
The gas is heavier than the atmosphere; therefore settles. It
is not only deadly, but highly explosive; therefore, do not go near
it with any fire, and be careful not to inhale it.

Does the planting of potatoes deeply, then hilling them up, prevent rot?
Prof. Stewart.—It might in some cases. The spores in the
blight fall on the ground and are washed into the soil by the
rains, where they fall on to the tubers and cause rot. So that,
under certain conditions, if the potatoes are planted deeply the

Tue Question Box. 395

spores cannot be washed down and lodge on the tubers, while
those lying near the surface will be inoculated. When the pota-
toes are hilled up, if the season is wet, the spores are washed
off and into the spaces between the rows. That is a part of the
explanation of the remedy. Spraying with the Bordeaux mixture
will be found a much better and surer preventive than the
hilling-up system. I had much experience on Long-Island during
one season, where we sprayed eight acres. We got no blight
on either the sprayed or unsprayed vines. It cost $4 per acre
to spray those potatoes, and, although we got no results in one
direction, because the rot did not appear, we got 63 bushels more
per acre on a piece of “ White Elephant ” than we did on the
Same area of the same variety that was not sprayed. But we
used paris green mixed with the Bordeaux, which killed the
potato flea beetle and other insects which feed on the vines. But
it is the soft, stringy rot which the Bordeaux prevents. The
dry, hard rot is a disease which works below the surface and
will not be prevented by spraying. No disease working under
ground that is not caused by something attacking the plant or
vines above ground, will be prevented or cured by spraying. The
hard, corky rot is not caused by leaf blight, but by a soil germ.
So that spraying the vines will not reach the tubers.

Is there any spray that will destroy the moth spots on apples?

Mr. Tyler.—It is not the regular scab that is meant. To pre-
vent the regular scab fungus, the Bordeaux is used asa spray. I
spray before the buds open; then twice after the blossoms fall.

Would you spray for potato blight? If so, what ingredient would you
use?

Mr. Litchard— We have had but very little blight in our lo-
eality. I use vitriol, 4 pounds, and stone lime, 6 pounds. It
is, practically, Bordeaux mixture.

Does the forest tree worm kill the timber?

Mr. Cook.—It would depend how severely he worked on the
leaf. I don’t know what can be done economically to kill them.

396 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

Of course they may be destroyed by spraying or by hunting out
and crushing their cocoons, but that is out of the question in the
forests. We can kill the apple tree worm, easily, but that is
another worm. The apple tree caterpillar has a tent, the forest
tree does not.

Is the maple tree catterpillar likely to kill our trees? Which is the best
way to get rid of them?

Mr. Cook.—That question comes up at every meeting, but I
don’t know what to say. We can kill the apple tree worm, but
the forest tree worm is another fellow. If we can reach them,
paris green will do it, and I think the best way will be for the vil-
lage board to take hold of it, and employ men to spray the trees
in the village. When it comes to spraying the forest trees, how-
ever, it cannot be done. But some of the cocoons may be hunted
out and mashed. We ought, I think, to give more protection to
our song birds, which are our best friends. The women ought to
make a stampede against wearing any more dead birds on their
hats, and, instead of encouraging their slaughter, to protect them.
We make too much fuss because the birds take a few berries.

A Farmer.—I have known men here to shoot a half dozen
robins because they took a quart or two of cherries.

What is the best way to prevent or destroy the San José scale?

Mr. Cook.—Spraying with kerosene emulsion is said to hold the
scale in check somewhat; but, to be sure of eradicating it, fumiga-
tion with hydrocyanic gas is the only cure so far known. But it
cannot be applied to large trees.

Mr. Van Alstyne.—The scale is here in great numbers in some
places. Long Island is filled with it, and it is in the Hudson
river valley. A neighbor of mine has been fighting it in his
orchards during the last ten years, and doing it intelligently, but
he told me that it made greater headway last year than ever be-
fore. I have it on my currants, plums and peaches, and it may
be on my pears, but I do not think there is any in my apple
orchards; but it is in others in my vicinity, (Kinderhook), and I
have come to believe that it is here to stay, and it is our duty

Tue Question Box. 397

closely to examine all our trees and shrubs and to spray them,
and, if we find it very prevalent, cut down the tree and burn it.
It will not do to pass the matter lightly and thus neglect the
trees, else all our orchards, shrubs and, it may be, our forest trees
will soon be destroyed. Nor should we buy nursery stock of any
one that has not been thoroughly inspected or fumigated. All
the nursery stock sent out of the nurseries in Maryland is fumi-
gated with hydrocyanic acid gas, which kills alf insect life on it,
and the result is that more orders are being received for stock
there than the nurserymen can fill.

What is the best spray to kill the rose-leaf hopper? I have tried insect
powders, whale oil soap, tobacco, etc., but they failed to have any effect
on the boppers.

Mr. Chapman.—Prepare a mixture made of 20 pounds of whale
oil soap, 20 pounds of caustic potash, and 1 gallon tar. Put this
in 100 gallons of Bordeaux and green arsenic. Spray the bushes
with the mixture.

What is the remedy for blight on strawberries?

Mr. Converse.—Spray them before the blight appears, with the
Bordeaux mixture. Do not wait for the blight to appear. Spray-
ing will not cure, but prevent blight on strawberries.

What will prevent curl-leaf on the peach?

Mr. Mann.—I have sprayed with Bordeaux to prevent it, begin-
ning just before the buds opened. Results so far are very satis-
factory. I expected that Cornell would issue a bulletin giving
full information ere this time.

Mr. Willard.—The foliage of the peach is very sensitive, so
spraying must be done with great care.

At the meeting of the Western New York Horticultural Society, Mr.
Powell of Syracuse, said that the San José scale could be communicated
from apple peelings and orange peel, to trees, and thus spread. Was he
correct ?

Prof. Slingerland.—The San José scale does not work on the
orange. Thatis another chap. There is a chance for a live scale

to be communicated from an apple peeling to a tree, but only one

398 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

in ten thousand. It may be carried from one tree to another on
the feet of birds or by insects, or through the action of the wind in
blowing leaves about. Fumigation is the best preventive, but it
may be carried to such an extent as to injure the nursery stock,
the gas being too strong. Care must be exercised in this fumi-
gating process to prevent that. There are other insects that in-
fest the trees which nurserymen are sending out that deserve
much attention, such as the bud-moth, canker-worm, codlin-moth
and others. Fumigation with the gas will dispose of those at the
same time it does with the San José and other scales. Therefore
he favored the process, when properly and carefully done. An-
other point: It is asserted that the nurseries of this state are
free of the San José scale, and no doubt the statement is true, but
there is not a nurseryman of any note in the state to-day who does
not sell stock he does not grow. While his own stock may be
free from the scale, that which he buys and sells again may be in-
fested with it. So, then, to be sure there are no injurious insects
of any species on this stock, he would have it fumigated with the
gas.

Mr. 8. D. Willard.—New York auction rooms are filled in the
spring and fall with nursery stock from other states with in-
spectors’ cards attached, which are placed there during transit or
after the trees arrive, and yet upon examination by experts the
trees are found infested with the scale. This must be stopped.
We have scale enough now. It is on Long Island and in the
Hudson river valley, but I do not believe it is in any of the nurser-
ies of the state. It is the stock from nurseries from other states
that must be looked after. New York, under the present law, is
the dumping ground of all other states which send out nursery
stock, and it is this which must be attended to.

What causes blight on bean leaves? i he Sees

Mr. Wilson.—I have been troubled with bean blight. I sup-
pose it is a germ disease.

Mr. Harmon.—1 think the trouble lies in overdoing the bean in-
dustry. We are growing crop after crop and putting but very
little fertilizer back in the land. If we would abandon bean cul-

Tue Question Box. 399

ture two or three years, I do not believe we would be troubled
with blight. For myself I would say I have never been troubled
with it much.

Mr. Cook.—Bean blight is a specific germ disease and appears
on rich land just as often as on poor land. Such is the case on
Long Island, where commercial fertilizers are used very largely.

A Farmer.—My experience is that blight has done the most
mischief on my richest land, therefore I do not believe that the
disease is due to poor soil.

Mr. Cook.—Possibly spraying with the Bordeaux will prevent
the appearance of the disease, but it must be applied to prevent
its appearance, not to cure it. It will never do that, any more
than it will prevent potato rot if the vines are sprayed after they
have been attacked with the rot blight. Wespray potatoes to pre-
vent, not to cure, rot.

Will Mr. Van Alstyne say a word in relation to the elm tree beetle?

Answer.—We have sprayed our elms with paris green—half
pound in 30 gallons of water. We have 175 elms which we
sprayed, two men doing it in three days. They climbed the trees
and used a hose among the branches. If you have elm trees, the
village board ought to look after them. Purchase a pump then
employ a competent man to do the work. The English elms in
some sections have been nearly destroyed by the worm, but the
natives, being stronger and having better foliage, seem to resist
its attacks. If one will carefully watch them, many may be de-
stroyed before they hatch, because the fly lays its eggs at the roots
of the tree, and when they have hatched, the worms crawl up the
tree and begin their work of devastation by eating the young
foliage.

How shall we rid a field that we want planted with potatoes, of wire
worms?

Mr. Litchard.—Begin long before you want to crop the field
with potatoes to frequently plow, and a rotation of crops will in
time rid the land of them.

400 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirvrrs.

Mr. Cook.—Salt has been recommended for the purpose of kill-
ing wire worms. It was tried at Cornell, but the result was, the
worms not only lived through the test but actually became fat on
the salt.

Is there any remedy or preventive of the cabbage grub?

Prof. Hall. If the cut worm is meant, cultivation is best: If
the green cabbage worm, dry poisons—paris green—sprinkled
on is the best preventive I know. If thegrub worms are
located near the roots, it will pay to dig about them and kill the
worms. Pinch their heads off.

How can smut best be prevented in oats?

Dr. Jordan.—At Geneva we have found “formalin” a good
remedy. We will send a bulletin from Geneva giving full in-
structions how to use it. Smut is a parasitic disease and is
spread by spores that live in various ways, blown about by the
winds. Black knot on plums and cherries is spread in the same
way.

MISCELLANEOUS.

To what extent does the sale of oleomargarine and butterine affect the
price of butter, and is our law effective in New York State?

Mr. Flanders.—The first part of the first question is a “ poser.”
I am inclined to think that the man does not live who can state
just the extent of the injury done to the butter business of New
York by the oleomargarine traffic. I think, however it is reason-
ably fair to say that every pound of oleomargarine displaces a
pound of butter. There were 79,685,724 lb. of oleomargarine sold
in the United States during the last fiscal year. The quantity
sold in New York during that year was 222,788 lb. The quantity
of oleomargarine sold in the different states in the Union during
the last fiscal year is as follows:

No. dealers.
PRISER ERSTE Say tefore tee sieve ovate cto lelet ae totos etotntetots wisi? a's'e steiets’s 21
APSUITOUETE Sr ce cen cic e cates ois we Bie iels'sls sje vee e's slates a
(CORT NOs Ses GROCER Ane AVA AE CRRA 95
We SaRTP MOONE Ea ona ortho sajoin: aise Sts otoieter ous elas atetal'sfelelenlatdiatsy a 5
CLD EUV Se ee ae Sic cach Sci cai icy IOI ICR CARO 48
“AIS I i aesiges dpe Badider adcecuridicn coccaaceccer 61
CUNT ee SAAC Ro a ICC CRIES CROC IE 2,020
Cee oe TE Racy CHARI R OAC OIE TOR SCO 3
URSA MACKAY eee ens aie ios oto tice Nolsi'e sole a's levels “elel'ate, wietn'a o's lolui'e's\s 217
EELS | Se re) et es, Ans Atal ACICE NCTE OCI CECI CTC 17
NPSBESUIOUTL LY Soicte ARO cers cio lafota oiig.s totaal ‘ols lam aotela baw whet tags 58
DUET IIS LES Me teeiics a, «1s Path “eisi"e!e70'eis os olole's, stnsele eis eee sot 108
EES E ST Ce Deu cet als ofalsta'etataieic icicle: sfole/s 0.4 shellovs wie'e 30
IERSRNIU Tere So ater ee aiatenn ter tis.ai a lot in aiate syatwiete. chee eis 231
ISPS EWES 0 Weeas are ay oie sume tokay cla \els~aiers cuctohaiola loa chale me aetamrera 73
Rene ER ALTIUS IUELC oy, aio wlele clos ole eo vevekercueiolaieleloreetsiaiaisl aisles 19
PERU ICESEVierets fetter \apare csis overs \slcleFaye eis ls, evsgaavesis LAGE 296
ENVIR Kamara oats siatete et severe Wal cle cic ocvete se sities cisele 14
CR MD REKOUAL PA octle ce iocae slo foe elcle cicielereleetere’s 2's Sideee 18
CONS SRS Bip Danae PDE SERS CoC Cea Or Fe OnE Oe Reo 1,005
OTE OT tate cto cpa ae hace Toys joie ai oganel ops apeete es Sia aimee ares 3
ESETaTASSUV LED Smee crore ote tetecey<tene cieveieie feicbe\ ears sukeicie's, siapeter cas Caley
SO EMO ALO ES ar. Std. oe ahd whe Hdelele's eRe ee stor siele ele 24
SIE AIOE, Bh tbls ccbetae lies cieteteeern craves ole tle ale +
THERMO SNOB) csc) done, «d0c) cost ste cot bey Pate S Ie od Ce tee le 83
Near eects ea aoc) ats es 'n, cvs, 6 osar-dhogska arch che tajoues ain vapsaen at, sieme ae
RGESINIOINL cen c\e sted. oro eccie c) holereters, Side la oiese cretsiowielsieia chores 1
AV GTEETETBI SIO Sie ala Sieh sSid obs ecto Ne nets ee ue erdolevere sloredsteae one 121
WO TAIET COU, ats a4s kiarehs cuocoys wasiers afd axed ata acthactsieee 2 5
WiestiVarwinia L600. S00 Aas tie Be eA 172
PACOMSIM crovs cis sas cohs 1iitel eshnshisb ste SPALL 23
AUTEN AG Ae ty Aes bap eeon ts i pA aes Pete EBs one BAS Ee Sed ie oe 5,492

Oleomargarine Sold in States Where Legal to Color.

No. dealers.
PRR Bi dnsthethe idiots 5) <5 Vis Bc data es Seltge Gales dea. eee 5
PETCRTIMAGS 5 io ave 5 ope 5\e fon seserebontnie-siele. «ir PR OS ee 35
PICO Aa taicless a's: 0s <deiee scab os ssid anise ete ee 5
TOE IE TUTTI 0 5 wc oo’ vue ou mde oS pialnig a pine eet 61
staan BIG. We AGS OR Jb. Fok DRY, BIA 82
SAG oats Ra vetastiy <p> tines heed Ben ladle Pa mae 3

THe Question Box.

Yellow Oleomargarine Sold Contrary to Law in 1899.

401

No. pounds.
226,053
74,923

1, 123,537
134, 255
40,475
495, 004
18, 638, 921
79,922
1,490,577
102.274
1,791, 950
2,083, 889
1,348, 865
3,183,313
1, 024, 985
445,583
5,875,975
222,788
7,710

8, 830, 969
41, 250
11,433,341
258, 159
55,482
714,640
8,450
2,990
1,159, 400
63,345

1, 206, 865
714, 742

62,825,582

No. pounds.
18,080
380,389
78, 767
816,848
590, 225
58, 224

402 Bureau oF Farmers’ LNstIvTures.

No. dealers. No. pounds,

Indiana si. cs < « gan 'chue wink oe eieen ional Rey xia Ot ere ee 3806 3,923,228
INGA AVELritOl Vas o.0 sec cicis oe eens wis oes se eee eee 21 152,278
Banga’ 2205. fos vscos ates ees Peele ele? sles sinc eet 186 1, 658,544
TQS AVSe <;. 0:5 ie Riaieaeiels outcasts oe news ealnenietaen 140 1,048,502
MAG@RI@ON ssn epesiwasearere sos aree-taeis ee sca eben 109 2,092,521
Migsissippl: ccc..Ga-<his 5c oe ees cis oe ys pleina eo ae imemate n EY 104,622
Montang-". oss’. bie Glee nies hicttets ac crates Genes pete" 446,022
NOSE ag hae: 515 ftatate le « fociciceen lb sks ncapern taeo eitinetaie etal vivipt 625
New PoMexiICO ced cada essed sue ware baeoies ween eee 12 115, 850
Northiiiarolina’ s 26. cccis ce to vec e We clea cte eta Renee 9 110, 224
Oklahoniasé...inp) . Te Pes hte cee 10 117,398
Rhode sSlanG...papirc sxeiew, 0) <. pd ora ho Riko see ve aeh eae 333 3,594, 984
"ORAS io cis Siars owe Pie es soe lave Gus tots aun ee ouey bree teleteio eee sr Nees 162 1,518, 264
WOE Se os ss -spaprivsiwin ie vss vvcloiccusls ote Ramee om piste eects 5 39,547
ME OUM eye-cesis cihie eanaheiois teeieceonis se eke Tenens ei 1,501 16,860,142

This shows that the quantity sold in New York was a little
more than one-fourth of one per cent. of the quantity sold in the
United States. I hardly care to comment on just what is being
done in some of the other states to enforce their anti-color oleo-
margarine laws, but in New York it is enforced. Nota pound is
made within this State and very little sold. What is sold is done
under inducements offered by peripatetic agents. We are, how-
ever, catching them and punishing them.

What legislation is needed to stop the sale of oleomargarine entirely?

Mr. Flanders.—The first national legislation that is wanted is
a law that will provide against the falsely branding or marking of
dairy or food products as to the State or territory in which they
are made. This will stop such marking as to interstate commerce
goods and then the State itself can take care of internal matters.
There should also be an act passed providing that when any
dairy or food products are transported from one State into
another they shall immediately upon entry become subject to the
laws of the State, irrespective of the form or package in which
they are done up. This would fix it so that there would be no
question about enforcing such laws against the original importers’
packages, and then after this legislation, if Congress would raise

THe Question Box. 403

the tax on colored oleomargarine sufficiently high, so it could
not be manufactured and sold for a less price than butter, it
would do away with the temptation for people to put it on the
market and sell it as butter in States where State laws and State
machinery are not sufficient to cope with the evil.

Would it be detrimental to educational interests of our schools to have
an hour's agricultural talk each day?

Mr. John W. Spencer.—I would say, most emphatically, it would
not be detrimental in the hands of any teacher competent enough
to pass examination for a teacher’s certificate. Of course, many
teachers, by favorable temperament, could bring better results
than others. The longer I am in this work, the more impressed
I am that agriculture is valuable information to give city chil-
dren. There are tens of thousands in the tenement district who
do not know a dandelion. Teachers write me that when taking
them to the park they throw themselves upon the turf and actually
kiss it. In some parts of the sweat-shop district of New York not
50 per cent. of the children have been to any of the parks. This
I believe to be credible information, having received it from prin:
cipals who have worked in those districts for a dozen years. De-
tails of rural life, you and I knew at such an early date that we
cannot recall when we did not know them, are as interesting and
wonderful to city children as though Stanley was relating some-
thing that he had seen in darkest Africa.

Resolved, That keeping more sheep, doing more ditching, using less phos-
phate and selling less raw material, is the only salvation on American
farms. What do you say to that?

Mr. Cook.—Amen to that. I am fully convinced that it would
be much better for the owners of these rough, hilly farms if they
would keep fewer cows and put on some sheep, and I would
allow some of the hills to grow another covering of forest trees.
As to phosphates, I do not want to say that a man shall not
buy them. If I want them I shall buy them; but I do not believe
that any man can go into the market and buy mixed fertilizers and
get his money back. But I know that I have made a profit from

404 Bureau or Farmers’ INsrirvres.

buying the chemicals, taking them home and mixing them myself-
I have several] tons of South-Carolina rock at home, bought at $11
per ton, and it is worth more now. But first save all the barn
manure before buying phosphates; then, if you require more fer-
tility, buy the chemicals, first ascertaining what elements your
soils need to grow certain crops. As to draining, I will say
that there are but few farms that do not have wet places that yield
nothing. If those places can be tile-drained, they may be made
the most productive places on the farm, at least for some crops.

In answering the latter part of the question, I will say that I
am not in favor of drawing a crop off the farm if I can feed it to
farm animals. We aim to feed all we grow, unless, at times, we
can sell a crop and buy another equally good for feeding at a less
price.

Do you advocate fall plowing?

Mr. Smith.—At the station but little or no fall plowing is done.
Conditions will rule, or should. Where land can be plowed early
in the spring, I would not fall plow. At the station farm, crimson
clover and the vetches are used as a cover crop on most of the
cultivated ground.

Shall we apply lime or wood ashes to sour soils?

Mr. Converse.—I don’t think it would make much difference.
Would use the ashes if I could get them. If not, I would apply
the lime at the rate of 30 bushels (slacked) per acre.

What causes dry, gravelly or sandy soils to become sour?

Mr. Converse.—I have heard chemists say that the cause is from
removing the humus, so that the plant food in the soil is not made
available, and that the decomposing plant food becomes acid.

Does the presence of sorrel in our soils indicate acid?

Mr. Converse.—Not necessarily. Sorrel grows on all soils. Its
presence is due, as a rule, to the absence of other plants, and to
sterility of the soil. When a soil is well fertilized, cultivated and
seeded, sorrel will not crowd out the crop.

Tue Question Box. 405

Can cow peas be grown here successfully, if sown in the corn at the last
¢ultivation?

Mr. Cook.—I have never sown cow peas, but I would say, no.
It would not be safe to sow cow peas so late in the season as that.
The frost would come along and cut them down before much
growth was made. They should be sown early if a good crop is
secured.

Is it advisable to grow one “special” crop on one farm?

Mr. Dawley.—It depends very much on conditions and the
man’s aptitude to the work. Much also depends on hired help.
We can hire men to care for stock, but, when it comes to poultry,
we find we cannot do it. It will depend on the aptitude of the
individual, and the conditions that surround him, whether he can
afford to make a specialty of one crop or not.

Mr. Cook.—I believe that, when a man can make money from
one crop, he may safely try another. I have met dairymen who,
notwithstanding they violated every dairy law, persisted in mak-
ing money every year.

What shall I add to a good milk-producing food to fatten a dry cow?

A Farmer.—I would add corn meal.

Mr. Cook.—I know of nothing better, after much experience. If
the cow is a dry one, I would add a little wheat bran and feed
some ensilage, also.

Dr. Smead.—I think, if the ensilage was rich in corn, if much
corn meal were fed bad results would follow.

Mr. Cook.—I would feed more of such foods to a dry cow being
fattened than to one giving milk; but I would not feed too much
ensilage. We do not want to feed too much concentrated foods,
either to a dry cow being fattened or to a cow being milked.’ Nor
would I feed all animals alike.

Prof. Stone—It would depend upon the condition of the dry
cow. If she were thin, I would feed more liberally of carbona-
ceous foods than I would if she were in fair condition. I do not
think it safe to feed 100 liberally at first of carbonaceous foods.

406 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Mr. Cook.—I think we often make a mistake in feeding our dry
cows too liberally of refuse stuffs. The average farmer, if he has
a good supply of straw, cornstalks or timothy hay, is inclined to
feed too much of such foods. They do not furnish the requisite
supply of blood to perfect the offspring, yet unborn. We must,
therefore, feed such a cow more protein than we would to one
being fattened. It is pretty hard work to formulate a ration for
such a purpose because animals differ. But I have never found a
ration better for such purpose than corn meal and wheat bran,
half and half.

Would it pay to grow corn on good potato ground, where potatoes grew
last year?

Mr. Harmon.—Yes. I have never been able to get along with-
out a cornfield, and I think, as a rule, every farmer ought to have
a cornfield. There are a good many dollars paid out for western
corn every year, which is evidence enough that the farmers are
not only feeding it, but that they are not growing it. I think
that we ought to grow more of it, also more potatoes and less
beans.

Why do not our state institutions buy home-made beef?

Mr. Ward.—I believe that one of the most serious mistakes the
farmers of this State made was the giving up of the raising of beef.
Last year the county of Genesee paid more than $400,000 for west-
ern beef. The State, outside of New York city, paid $30,000,000 for
western beef. Now why not raise beef? Iam justas willing that
my money go to Germany or Cuba for sugar as to Nebraska for
beef. If the farmers of this State are to grow beef successfully,
they must have beef breeds, with full-blood beef sires. I do not
believe there are a half-dozen pure-bred beef sires in Livingston
county. We don’t want general purpose animals, nor milk
breeds, but the pure beef breeds. As prices are to-day, with such
beef animals, the raising of beef in this State can be made profit-
able.

ed» > a

Tue Quszstion Box. 407

Is a canning factory a benefit to the farmer?

Mr. Cook.—I do not live near one; but, from what I have ob-
served, where they are well managed they have been a blessing
te the farmers. By this I mean a factory that is co-operative, not
one built by a “canning factory promoter.” If your system is
that of the “ promoter ” I would let the thing everlastingly alone;
otherwise I would go ahead and establish one, provided the farm-
ers will agree to support it right along, so as to make it perma-
nent.

Why are there so few farmers in the Legislature, each year?

Mr. Hale.—I put that question in the box. We have a farmer
present who is also a member of the Legislature—Mr. Litchard.
I would like to hear from him on the subject.

Mr. Litchard.—Last year we had but 16 members that were
farmers, out of a total number of 150, in the Assembly. Although
agriculture is of more importance than is any other industry in the
State, it is represented but by few. The fault is with the farm-
ers themselves. They are almost wholly indifferent to their needs.
If they had been well posted in legislative and economic matiers,
they would never have voted for that $9,000,000 canal enlarge-
ment, which has never benefited the State to the value of a cent.
We had 69 lawyers in ‘the Legislature, many of them representing
farmers. It ought not to have been, and would not be, if we
would stand together and not underrate ourselves; and there will
never be any change for the better until we reform our methods,
learn to stand together and work for our own interest, and we
must do it at once if we are to accomplish anything. Within the
next five years more than one-half of the population of the State
will live in the cities, and the representatives from those cities will
be professional men, who will control legislation. So we must
first agree on a policy and then stand together and enforce our
_ rights.

Mr. Hale.—I agree with Mr. Litchard fully. It is the indiffer-
ence among the farmers that is the main trouble. We ought to be

40s Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

better represented in the Legislature, but I would tremble if we
had a Legislature with a majority of farmers in it.

What position should the farmer assume toward the Erie canal? Shall
the work of enlargement be continued?

Mr. Cook.—When we stop and think what the Canadians are
doing by way of waterways, a canal across the State is of much
importance. Now, how many here are in favor of continuing the
canal appropriations? Hands up!

(Not a vote.) How many are in favor of abandoning it? (Half
a dozen hands were raised.) How many would turn it over to the
general government? (Fifty or more hands were raised.)

What must we do after planting corn, when the crows are so thick that
they fairly swarm?

Mr. Squires.—I would put on corn enough for the crows, pro-
tect them, and shoot the boys that shot the crows.

Dr. Smead.—That’s right; I believe the crow is to-day the
farmer's best friend. Wherever we have been where crows are
plentiful, the reports are that the forest tree caterpillar is but
little known. I believe the crow is worthy of our protection; and
there is another little inoffensive animal which gives off an of-
fensive odor, which ig being trapped for something for the ladies
to wear—which is the skunk. It is claimed that he steals
chickens and breaks up hen’s nests, but he is another of the
farmer’s friends. We often hear the inquiry: “ What shall we do
to kill the white grubs in our soil?” This little animal is the best
destroyer of them we have.

What can be done to decrease taxes?

Mr. Cook.—I am tired of this talk of being taxed to death. The
town I live in receives from $5,000 to $10,000 more than it pays
out every year in State taxes, from the cities and corporations.
It is all bosh, this talk about our excessive taxes. There is a
much greater taxation levied on wasted manure and rusted out

THE Question Box. 409

farm implements every year than we are asked to pay in State
taxes.

What will be the cost per square foot for cement floors? Would you
have the cows stand on the cement floor or on plank?

Mr. Cook.—This cement floor question is an important one,
both from a sanitary and financial standpoint; but, owing to
prejudice and a want of knowledge, there have been but very
few cement floors put in until of late. Further cause was the
high price of imported cement; now, however, we can get home-
made cement fully as good, if not better than that imported, for
one dollar less per barrel, so that, with this decrease in cement
price and the increase in the price of lumber, the cement floors
will not cost any more than the plank. There are several Ameri-
can brands of cement which are all good. If the foundation is
good and water does not get into it, there will be no need of mak-
ing a grout foundation. All there is of it, is to get a foundation
that will not settle. We have cement floors that were laid di-
rectly on the earth, which have never settled.

Mr. Cook exhibited a chart on which was a crayon drawing
which showed a cement floor and gutter in ‘his stable or rather
in the one which he will build this summer and which he fully
described, thus making the explanation much better understood.
He said he did not believe there would be any trouble with the
standing on a cement floor, if, when it is finished, it is floated off
with a board instead of being troweled down, as the snr face will
then be a trifle rough, so that the bedding under the cews will
not slip off. If, however, one does not want his cuws to stau.! on
the cement, scantling may be imbeded in the cement, across the
stalls and when the cement is hard, plank may be put down, but
the gutters and the distance between the cows’ hind feet and the
gutter should be troweled down and be made smooth.

Would you use sawdust in a stable as an absorbent?

Mr. Converse.—Yes, if you can’t get anything else; but straw
is of much more value, if you can get it. Sawdust, on heavy land,
might have a benefit in lightening the soil, however.

410 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirvures.

How will injurious affects of drouth in a corn and potato crop be best
avoided?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—We cannot control the rain fall, but we may
conserve the moisture already in the soil by frequent shallow
cultivation which breaks up the surface cells in the soil and
leaves a dust blanket through which the moisture cannot escape.
Such cultivation pumps the moisture from below so that the
roots of plants can use it. Keep the cultivator going, but at a
Shallow depth, not more than two inches at most. This for hoed
crops. Of course, it could not be followed on sown crops or
grass land. I am acquainted with a man who, by keeping his
cultivator going, grew over $400 worth of red raspberries on a
small plat last year. Had he not done that his crop would have
been a failure.

A Farmer.—Thorough cultivation not only brings fertility from
the lower depth of the soil, but has an action on the atmosphere
which causes it to return fertility to the soil.

Mr. Van Alstyne.—There has been found a very small per cent.
of nitrogen from the air, brought down by the dews and rains,
but it is but slight. There can be no mineral matter obtained in
this way, since there is none in the air. Potash and phosphoric
acid come from other sources. But we may gather nitrogen from
the air and return it to the soil through the growing of certain
legume crops, such as the clovers, cow peas, field peas and beans.
These plants have small modules on their roots, in which the
nitrogen is stored, thence transmitted to the soil, but we cannot
utilize this nitrogen, the mineral elements in the soil or that which
we apply, unless we have moisture to set them free, so that the
plants can take them in liquid form. So then, if we do not get
the moisture through the rain fall we must get it by surface cul-
tivation, as I before stated.

Which is best, fall or spring plowing for the corn crop?
Mr. Litchard.—Conditions will govern. On my land, I prefer
spring to fall plowing.

Tue Question Box. 411

What crop is the best crop to sow in the fall, to be plowed under the
next spring?

Mr. Converse.—I would sow some crop that would add nitrogen
and humus, and not at the same time remove fertility. I would
not sow buckwheat, or rye, but the clover instead. Crimson
clover may be sown as a catch crop in the corn or potatoes and
left on the ground as a cover crop to be plowed under in the
spring. I should never plow a furrow in the fall unless the soil
was a very heavy one so that I could not work it early in the
spring.

Should a farmer own a mill of some kind and grind his cattle food at
home?

Mr. Cook.—We have a mill run by wind power. It will grind
from eight to fifteen bushels per hour, depending on the amount of
wind; we are satisfied with it.

Dr. Smead.—A year ago I bought a No. 1 sweep, one-horse
power mill. It is ball-bearing and runs easily and will grind from
eight to twelve bushels per hour. If I were going to buy another
one, however, I would get a No. 2, which will grind from twelve
to fifteen bushels per hour. It grinds very finely and costs no
more for hired man and horse power to run it than it does to draw
grain to and from a mill, while I save the toll. My mill cost me
$20.25 delivered at my station; a No. 2 costs just $2 more.

Mr. Cook.—When we had our grain ground at a custom grist
mill it cost us $50 per year for toll; that sum we now save.

Will Mr. (T. B.) Terry tell us what kind of soil his is?

Answer.—Ours varies from heavy clay toa loam. But some of
it had to be underdrained with tile two rods apart to get out the
water, to allow the clover to grow.

How much had a man with a farm income of $1,000 per year, ought to
pay a hired man?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—It will all depend on the hired man. Some
of them are not worth having about at any price. The best man
I ever had I paid $22 a month and his board. Another one re-

4192 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

ceived the same price and boarded himself, but was not worth,
all times and things considered, much more than half as much.

How is it that plants can live in soil that is dust dry?

Mr. Cook.—They can’t do it. But they will live in a soil that
has only adust mulch. The capillaries in the soil are thus broken
up and the moisture pumped up from below, which the dust mulch :
prevents from getting away.

How can we secure free rural mail delivery?

Answer.—You will have to tackle your congressman. He seems
willing to do all he can for Oswego county. So far, free mail
delivery in the rural districts has given much satisfaction. It is
not a new, but an old thing. But some of the fourth-class post-
masters are opposing it because it is closing up some of their
offices. But there is one great drawback—which is the bad roads.
If we are to get rural free mail delivery, our roads will have to be
made better than they are now.

Dr. Smead.—Wherever it has been demanded, as a rule, it has
been granted. The chief opposition comes from the rural dis-
tricts. The merchants and other tradesmen in the villages seem
to have an idea that free-mail delivery will injure their business.
Then there are some farmers who want to go to town, sit on nail
kegs and talk politics.

Mr. Litchard.—I think that free rural delivery of the mails is in
the near future, and sure to come. Changes are all the time tak-
ing place, but they come slowly. Our country school districts are
in many places, being abolished, and the children all gathered into
one schoolhouse in some central point; and I incline to the belief
that the time is not far distant when the entire system in the rural
districts will be changed.

Will the horseless carriage injure the market for horses or the bicycle?

Mr. Ward.—I ride a wheel, but I go round by a back street to
avoid the rabble who ride wheels on the main streets, and I be-
lieve the day of the wheel has gone. Nor do I believe that the
automobile will ever cut much of a figure, much less displace the

Tue Question Box. 413
horse. They are a fad; besides, they cost tec much and can
be afforded only by the wealthy. No, the horseless carriage and
the wheel are not in it with the horse, on the street or road, nor
ever will be.

Is black muck good material for humus?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—There is some humus in muck, which will
hold moisture. It is most beneficial on sandy soils. There is not
much plant food, however, in muck.

Please give a sure but cheap remedy to get rid of orange hawk weed.
People do not realize the danger from this beautiful weed.

Mr. Van Alstyne.—That weed is known in some localities as
“Devil’s Paint Brush,” and, when allowed to grow undisturbed,
will drive out nearly all other plants as well as the grasses. Where
ground can be plowed and cropped, it may be eradicated by culti-
vation. A succession of crops will do it. But, where it has a
foothold in pasture or land that cannot be plowed, I do not know
of any remedy unless one resorts to the work of pulling it out.
Mowing it does not seem to be effectual.

[See last year’s annual report for article on orange hawk weed.
“_pirector.]

How shall we get rid of wild mustard?

Mr. Cook.—There is no patent right way to get rid of any of
these noxious weeds, cultivation is the best way I know of. The de-
partment of agriculture at Washington sent out a bulletin giving
directions how to get rid of these weeds, but, if anyone knows how
fully to do it, I should be glad to know of it. Except it is done by
a rotation of crops and good cultivation, mustard seed will grow
after years of imprisonment in the soil even on an old pasture,
when it is plowed. The great trouble has come from sowing grain
impregnated with the seed. We ought to free all our grain from
these foul seeds. If we will only be careful in that direction, we
may easily prevent much of this trouble. But, with wild mus-
tard I do not think that a rotation of crops will help much.

414 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrirures.

How can we get rid of kale?

A Farmer.—Pulling it out is the best way I know of.

Mr. Cook.—Thorough cultivation will do it, but the trouble is
with the seed which will lay dormant in the soil during many
years; but when given a chance will grow. The best remedy
to prevent it from going to seed is to pull it out. It is an annuak
and does not make another crop, except from seed.

How can one prevent live-forever from growing?

Mr. Cook.—I don’t know, except cultivation and rotation is fol-
lowed. In Delaware county it was reported two or three years
since that a parasite had appeared there which had attacked the
live-forever and was killing it. I don’t know anything about

the truth of the statement.

How are we to get rid of plantain both on new and old seeding?

Mr. Litchard.—If the land is kept seeded all the time, I do not
know what you would do with it.

Mr. Converse.—I see no other way except to give a rotation of
crops. <A three years’ rotation and good cultivation will drive it
out. I would not mow a meadow more than once. Plantain,
wild carrot, rag weed and others may thus be eradicated by a.
rotation of crops and good cultivation.

Mr. Cook.—That is good advice; but there is a whole lot of land
we cannot cultivate. On such land we can do little else but

pasture.

How can we get rid of burdocks in our village streets?

Mr. Cook.—Call the trustees together and lay the matter before-
them. It ought to be their affair.

W. S. Moore.—Keep picking off the leaves and feed them to-
horses. They are very valuable for that purpose and are greatly
relished by the horse.

Will the feeding off the green wheat in the fall produce chess as is-
claimed by some people?

A Farmer.—I think it will. I once knew a field of several acres-
of winter wheat which was fed down by a lot of calves at harvest-
time, one-half of the field was chess.

Tue Question Box. 415

Mr. Ward.—Whatsoever a man soeth, that shall he also reap.
There is a standing offer of $500 to any man who will bring a stalk
and root on which wheat and chess are both growing. That is an_
old exploded notion.

Would you advise the using of a horse-rake after a harvester?

A Farmer.—What does that mean? If there is anything to
rake, rake it. Ordinary rake teeth will not injure the ground or
the seeding.

What would you plant on a field that has not had any manure, but has
been growing wheat 50 years?

Mr. Hammond.—I would plow it, sow rye, plow it under, sow
another crop, and plow that under. What is wanted is vegetable
mold in such a soil; then we can fertilize.

A Farmer.—We need humus just as we need water.

Mr. Cook.—I am glad that I have struck one place where they
ask for water.

Why does sorrel grow on some lands and not on others?

Mr. Hamilton.—Because the soil is barren, and other plants
have been crowded out. Enrich and cultivate the soil, and sorrel
won’t grow onit. ‘Its presence simply shows the absence of other
plants.

How should bees be handled?

Mr. Faulkner.—Some men would put on gloves, and some would
wear a veil. The time is not long enough here to go into a full
description as to how to handle bees; but I will say that there are
thousands and, thousands of tons of honey going to waste every
year for the want of bees to gather it. The bee not only furnishes
one of the best of sweets, but it fertilizes blossoms that are bar-
ren, thus making them fruitful.

What will it cost to have samples of our soil analyzed?

Mr. Dawley.—Twenty-five dollars. But when you get it done,
you will know no more about it than you did before. The chem-
ists can tell how much potash or other plant food’there is in a

416 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITures.

sample of soil, but as yet, they know of no way to tell whether
or not it is available for the use of the plant. So why should
we ask the chemist to analyze any of our soils.

To Mr. Terry.—Would you advise every one to pursue the same rotation
of crops you do?

Answer.—Certainly not. Circumstances differ. Then, if every-
body grew clover and wheat, we would soon have a surplus. But
you might grow clove”, corn, wheat and potatoes. I know of men
who practice such a four-year rotation.

Would corn take the place of potatoes in a clover rotation?

Mr. Terry.—Yes, nicely. I have friends who grow clover, corn,
potatoes and wheat. Perhaps it is safer to make a four than a
three-year rotation. We cannot afford to grow oats alone, but we
grow oats and peas to feed, as a hay crop, cut just as the peas are
filling. We do not grow oats alone, for the reason that it takes
so much water to grow them, which is about 700 pounds for one
pound of oats. It is this great drain of moisture that causes a
small crop of oats in a dry season; not poor land.

Is Mr. T. B. Terry’s rotation wrong? By substituting beans for pota-
toes, would it pay a farmer better than the one recommended by Mr.
Converse?

Mr. Converse.—It will depend on the man and his conditions.
Every inan must answer for himself. With us the rotation I gave
this morning is best. That was clover, corn or potatoes, oats and
peas.

What does it cost to drain, with best tile, per acre?

Mr. Terry.—That will depend on the cost of making the drains,
and that of the tile. It ought not to cost more than $25 per acre.
On fiat land one should have large tile, say four to five inches,
which cost more than do the smaller tiles. We have some drains
made by hand that cost $30 per acre; but where the drains can
be made by horse-power and smaller tiles are used, the expense
ought not to be more than $25 per acre.

THe Question Box. 417

How does Mr. Terry prepare his ground for wheat, after potatoes?

Answer.—We plow deeply, then use the cutaway harrow to fine
the ground. It cuts up and quite thoroughly fines the vines from
an early crop; for later varieties we rake up the vines draw off and
spread them on our clover sod to be plowed under the next spring.

To Mr. Terry.—What soil is best adapted to phosphates?

Answer.—Phosphoric acid—which, I suppose is what is meant
by the question—has best effect on a heavy,clay soil. On sandy
soils it does not seem to prove of much value.

Which is cheaper for drains, tiles or stones, if one has the stones and
wants to dispose of them?

Mr. Ward.—I have had some experience with stone drains, and
I am of opinion that, all things considered, the tiles are the
cheaper in the end. I-know of tile drains laid when I was a boy,
that are now in good condition,while some stone drains laid later,
are all stopped up and worthless.

Which is best for underdraining, tile or timber, and if timber is used,
how should it be constructed to obtain the best results?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—If there is plenty of water, hemlock may be
used, as it will lasta long time, but will dry-rot quickly if in dry
soil. Tiles, however, are always good, and, as a rule, all things
considered, will last longer than will a timber or board drain.
Round tiles are best.

Would seeding in July do as well as in May?

Mr. Van Dreser.—It would depend on the season. As a rule,
oats take out too much moisture, especially from clover. July
seeding in the corn has given quite good results, so has that sown!
in August.

What soil is best adapted for growing cabbage?

Mr. Van Wagenen.—A strong, easily worked loam.

How best to drive away the house rat?
Dr. Smead.—At one time my premises suddenly became over
run with rats. Upon inquiry I learned that a neighbor who had
14

418 Bureau or Farmers’ Lnstrirures.

rats procured the services of a ferret which drove the rats over
to my house. I secured the services of a ferret, which drove the
rats all away. I don’t know where they went. My opinion is,
that a ferret, well trained, is about as serviceable as any remedy
to dispose of rats.

Are the humming birds of benefit to the farmer or horticulturist in any
way?

Prof. Stewart.—I don’t know. Have never observed or made
inquiry; but I have heard it said that the humming birds were —
very serviceable for the reason that they conveyed pollen from
one blossom to another, thus fertilizing the barren ones.

I desire to raise celery, but have had no experience. I want to grow the
plants and to know what kind of soil is best suited.

Mr. Chapman.—I grow a little celery every year. It requires
rich ground; that which is a little moist is best. We sow the seed
in boxes early, to give the plants a “ good start.” This is about
the season to sow the seed. I make a trench with a plow and set
the plants about six inches below the surface and four inches
apart.

Mr. Converse.—Celery does best on a black, rich moist soil.
Muck is the best.

After winter wheat, should the land be plowed for crimson clover, or
will it do to harrow it, and, if plowed, should the ground be rolled? How
much seed per acre?

Mr. Converse.—Yes, sir. Fit the ground finely. Sow six to
eight pounds per acre, roll down the land hard, then stir the sur-
face with a Breed weeder. If the clover is to follow oats, use the
harrow instead of the plow.

I should like to know about the cultivation of asparagus. Would it be
expensive to start a bed for profit? How far apart should the rows be
made?

Mr. Abel Stevens.—Everyone who owns a bit of land should
have an asparagus bed. Prepare the land by working it deeply
and sow your seed next spring. The spring following, having

THe Question Box. 419

thinned the plants and top-dressed them with good manure dur-
ing the first year, transplant them. Set the plants two feet apart
and the rows four feet. Have the soil at least two feet deep, well
fined, with ten inches of good barn manure in the bottom. Cover
the roots with at least four inches of well-fertilized earth. As
soon as the berries show cut out the plants bearing them. Culti-
vate often, and cut but few times the first year, and fertilize well
with potash. Wood ashes or muriate will furnish the potash. If
one wants but 100 plants he may buy them and thus save one
year’s time. But do not buy roots more than one year old.

What will prevent “ club-foot”’ in cabbage?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—The best thing I know is not to set cabbage
on ground where club-foot grew? I know of no cure for it where
once it appears in the crop. It is said that it were better to plant
the seed where the cabbages are to grow and not to apply hog
manure. The turnip, cauliflower and other members of the cab-
bage family, when conditions are favorable, are attacked by the
disease.

Dr. Smead.—Avoid heavy feeding with barn manure for either
of those crops.

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Heavy feeding with commercial fertilizers
will not have a tendency to cause the disease, because there is
nothing in them to contain the disease germ.

How deeply would you plow a clover sod in the spring, for corn?

Mr. Litchard.—That would depend on the character of the soil.
I would not plow a heavy soil as deeply as I would a dry, light
one. Mine is a light, chestnut and oak soil, and we plow it about
seven inches deep for corn, the same depth for potatoes.

What is the best all-round farm fence?

Mr. Eastman.—Not any; I don’t believe in fences, except on
particular occasions. Sometimes we find it necessary to fence,
in a new field, then I use wire.

Mr. Litchard—The best fence I know of is barbed wire; the
last work I did at home last summer, was to build 66 rods of

420 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirvures.

barbed wire fence. Its use is increasing every year, although we
hear of some severe accidents to cattle and horses from it, but it is
the best material for all that. The old rails in our county are
going, while lumber costs too much to be used for fencing.

A Farmer.—Barb-wire fencing should be prohibited by law.

Mr. Cook.—I can count now fully a half dozen horses that were
injured last summer by barbed wire; as a rule, it was done by the
eolt fighting flies when standing near the fence; in striking with
his foot it was thrust between the wires that were close together,
which cut the foot about the fetlock; one of the colts was per-
manently injured; I prefer the Page woven wire fence to any I
know of.

Should the Grange elect farmers only for its officers?

Mr. Cook.—I think so, for the reason that the membership is
mostly made up of farmers. We have a Grange in our town of
200 members, and avother of 100 or more, and we have found
that we prospered best when we elected farmers to office. If you
have a barber, merchant or a man of some other profession in the
Grange, keep him out of the master’s chair. I know of two or
three Granges which have stranded and gone to pieces because
they violated certain fixed and essenial rules. If you have a man
in your chair who will not live up to these rules, ask him to get
out; if he does not do it, turn him out.

How about cow peas as a soil renovator when plowed under?

Mr. Terry.—Cow peas will, in part, do the work of clover, but
I should not advise substituting them for it, especially in this
climate, although they will grow on poor land better than will
clover. I have seen five times as much growth from them on the
same land and they will furnish a great amount of humus; but
I prefer clover.

What class of reading is best for the average farmer?

Mr. Converse.—The Cornell reading course furnishes good
literature. I have taken that course. It pays. Any one, what-
ever department of farming he may be engaged in, should read

Tue Question Box. 491

farm literature suited to his business. I heard Prof. Bailey, of
Cornell, say recently that there are now about 16,000 farmers in
the State taking the reading course. Take it and also the bulle-
tins from Geneva and Cornell. You will find them of great value.

Should not agriculture be blended with education?

Mr. John McManus.—I don’t know that I am fully competent to
answer that question. As arule the boy who attends the district
school gets some agricultural schooling at home before and after
he goes to school. But I do not think it necessary to make agri-
culture a special study except in a casual way, in the district
schools. The regular agricultural colleges and schools will fur-
nish the farmer boys with the requisite schooling in that direc-
tion. Besides, I fear the district schools would put the study
before the student so as to make it distasteful to him.

Dr. Smead.—I am convinced that the demand for agricultural
study in the districts is growing, and that the time is not far
distant when it will be introduced therein.

Why not seed on the sod and not plow so much?

Mr. Van Wagenen.—I do not know just what is meant by the
question.

The Writer.—Why not seed with the first crop?

Mr. Van Wagenen.—As a rule, with us, when sod has been
broken, it is not thoroughly enough broken up to seed it at the
first plowing.

In fall plowing on clay soils, does it pay to plow more deeply, land which
has been previously ploughed?

Mr. Van Wagenen.—That question cannot be answered cate-
gorically for the reason that soils differ; one may be plowed quite
deeply while another may not.

Will Mr. Cook describe his dise harrow?

Answer.—A disc harrow is one with round disc-shaped wheels
with sharp edges; wheels 14 to 16 inches in diameter. Have it
heavy enough to be drawn by three or four horses, then weight it
with 300 pounds of stone and a driver.

429 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrvres.

How shall we keep the boys on the farm; and why do girls dislike to
marry farmers? I had po dithculty in finding a wife.

Mr. Van Dreser.—I know of one who seemed glad to get me,
and they are marrying farmers every day.

If the boy on the farm will put intelligence and dignity into his
work, and make his home such as it should be, there will be no
trouble in coaxing a girl to marry him. Years ago when I went
into Cobleskill I was jeered at and called a pumpkin-head, clod-
hopper, hay-seed and other names of like character; and some
boys are greeted that way now, but not many of them. Yester-
day I had the privilege of talking with a number of members of
the legislature who are farmers, and the number is increasing
there every year. But, if a boy has not a taste for farming he
ought not to be forced to stay on the farm. Such a boy will find
some other occupation more to his liking. Allow him to follow
it. There are many boys who are driven from the farm because
all their surroundings are made distasteful, and because they are
improperly educated. Give the boy who is to stay on the farm,
an education to fit him for his calling: then make the home sur-
roundings so pleasant that he will not want to go away. I know
of no better way to keep the boy, fitted to be a farmer, on the
farm.

Do you advise farmers to plant or sow cow peas? If yes, why? Have
you succeeded in growing them in this State?

Mr. Cook.—Cow peas do not succeed where I live (Lewis
county). It is not a pea, but a bean, and is a tender plant. I
have not seen a man in this State who has succeeded in growing
them. In New Jersey they are sown and mature perfectly.

At what season of the year should fence posts be cut?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—Cut them when the growth ceases; and I
would set the large end down. But do not cut the posts when the
sap is passing either up or down.

What price ought a patron to pay for making his butter at a creamery?
Mr. Van Alstyne.—I make some butter for my neighbors, tak-
ing three cents per pound for doing it. It is the usual price for

Tue Qvesrion Box. 493

making butter, but the owner must market it; three and one-half
cents seems to be the usual price when the creamery both makes
and sells. It costs me just as much for making their butter as if
I sold it somewhere else. Deduct that price per pound for the
price it is sold for.

Do you know anything of the value of ‘“ Speltz”’ as a forage crop,
highly recommended by a seed dealer?

Mr. Smith.—I know nothing of it, except that, as a rule, all
these new-fangled things are no good. Go slow; don’t invest your
money in them. It would be much better to fit a piece of land
well and then sow alfalfa. It is one of the best forage crops one
can raise.

What will keep cider all winter, from working?

Mr. Litchard.—It is said that a good prohibitionist can keep
it by putting in a little “sassafras;” I don’t know how much,
however.

Mr. Cook.—Heat it up to 180 or 140 degrees, strain ii, add a
few raisins, then put it into clean bottles and stop them tightly;
in that way I am told it keeps very nicely.

What is practical farming?

Mr. William Eastman.—A farming that will pay in dollars and
cents; nothing short.

Mr. Cook.—What might bring success to one farmer might not
to another, and I think we ought to consider something else be-
side dollars and cents. But it has been my observation that the
man who looks after little things and economizes, does best. It
is a question of individuality and moral honesty more than any
other.

On what crops is a weeder adapted? Can they be used on sugar beets
and strawberries?

A Farmer.—On any common crop.
Mr. Chapman.—I have used the weeder on strawberries and
raspberries, and I know of a man who used it on three acres of

424 Bureau or Farmers’ Iystrrures.

sugar beets last year that produced twelve tons to the acre, but
he ran it across the rows.

Mr. Converse.—It is one of the best tools on the farm. We
use it on peas and oats for the purpose of conserving moisture,
It may be used successfully on quite stony ground.

Do you prefer cement mangers for cow stables?

Mr. Cook.—I have not had any experience yet with cement
mangers. We will build a barn next year which I will describe.
It will have cement floors and gutters, at least, and possibly we
may put in cement mangers.

Does it pay the farmer to keep his buildings insured?

Mr. Cook.—I think it does. I keep mine insured. All good
business men keep their property and lives insured. Then why
should not the farmer keep his property insured? Surely he is a
business man, or ought to be.

How should seed corn be selected and cared for?

Mr. Litchard.—I think the best way is to go into the field and
select the best ears when glazed, then care for properly and have
it well cured out. In that way good seed may be secured.

Mr. Chapman.—It has been decided in Michigan that seed corn
ought not to be allowed to freeze, as it destroys the vitality of the
kernel.

A farm has 60 acres of meadow, 35 of pasture and 5 acres of wood:
Which will pay best, to set more forest trees or cultivate the land?

Mr. Van Alstyne.—My opinion is that it would be better to
allow such a field to grow up to timber. There is going to be a
scarcity of timber, very soon. In the near future it will be
very valuable, and, if one has such a farm as is named in the ques-
tion, I believe that the best use to put some of it to, would be to
allow nature to cover it with a new forest. 3

Would Mr, Hardy advise a college education for a farmer’s boy?
Answer.—I do not think the farmers’ or any other boys can
have too much education.

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